Materials and Manufacture in Ancient Mesopotamia: The evidence of Archaeology and Art. Metals and metalwork, glazed materials and glass 9780860543060, 9781407339498

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Materials and Manufacture in Ancient Mesopotamia: The evidence of Archaeology and Art Metals and n1etalwork, glazed ITlaterials .and glass

by

.r. R. S. Moorey

BAR International Series 23 7

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR- S237, 1985: 'Materials and Manufacture in Ancient Mesopotamia: The ev'idence of Archaeology and Art'

©

P. R. S. Moorey, 1985

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543060 paperback ISBN 9781407339498 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543060 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

" Pour s avoir

b ien

s avoir l es c hoses,

l e d etail;

e t,

i l

e n

f aut

c omme i l e st p resque

i nfini, n os c onnaissances s ont t oujours s uperficielles e t i mparfaites". L a R ochefoucauld, M aximes, 1 06.

C ontents P age A cknowledgements

v ii

L ist o f M aps a nd T ables

v iii

I ntroduction N otes

i x

f or t he R eader ( 1) ( ii) ( iii)

C hronological T erminology. W eight S ystems. P roblems o f h istorical g eography: A : B :

W ithin I ran ( primarily t hird m illennium B .C.) T he G ulf a nd

t he r oute t o t he I ndus

x v x v x vi x vi x vii

V alley. C :

( iv) ( v) ( vi) 1 .

W ithin S yria, e astern T urkey a nd I ran ( primarily f irst m illennium B .C.). P revious l iterature o n t he s ubject. S elect T echnical G lossary f or M etalworking. S elect C hemical A bbreviations.

M etals a nd M etalwork I I I II

C :

D : E :

G :

M odern m ining a reas. S cientific i nvestigations.

1 4 5 9 9 1 1 1 2

M echanical p roperties a nd v arieties: ( a) N ative c opper. ( b) A rsenical c opper.

1 5 1 5 1 5

( c) B ronze. ( d) B rass. T he r epertory o f o bjects.

1 7 2 0 2 1

A n h istorical s urvey: ( a) T he P rehistoric P eriod. ( b) T he E arly H istoric P eriod,

2 2 2 2 2 6

( c)

F :

x xii x xiv x xvi 1

A ntimony A rsenic C opper a nd i ts a lloys A : S upport t echnology. B : S ources: ( i) T extual e vidence. ( ii) ( iii)

x xii

c .3000-2300 B .C. T he A kkadian P eriod,

2 9

( d)

c .2300-2100 B .C. U r I II t o t he N eo-Assyrian P eriod, c .2100-1000 B .C.

3 0

( e)

N eo-Assyrian a nd N eo-Babylonian

3 3

P eriods, c .1000-550 B .C. W orkshops a nd M anufacturing E quipment.

3 6

T echniques: ( a) A nnealing. ( b) C asting: 1 . T ools a nd W eapons

3 9 3 9 4 0 4 0

2 .

E laborate o r d ecorative f ittings: l ost-wax c asting.

4 1

( c)

H : I : I V V

4 6

1 .

V essels a nd m iscellaneous

2 .

O verlays: ( I) S tatuary. ( ii) F urniture.

f ittings

( iii) A rchitectural. T he u se o f m etal t ools.

5 0 5 1

C opper a nd i ts a lloys: p ublished a nalyses.

5 1

N otes o n

6 9

G old ( a) ( b)

T he m etal R ecovery

6 9 6 9 6 9

( c) ( d)

C olour v ariation R efining a nd a ssaying

7 0 7 1

( f)

S ources: ( I) A ncient t extual r eferences. ( ii) M odern s ource r egions. ( iii) S cientific s ource d etection.

7 5 7 6

( ii)

7 7

( iv) ( v) ( vi) ( vii) ( g)

7 3 7 3 7 4 7 4

T he r epertory o f o bjects a nd u ses: ( I) P ersonal o rnaments a nd a mulets. ( iii)

W eapons a nd

t ools.

C ylinder s eals.

7 7

V essels. F oundation d eposits.

7 7 7 8

S tatuary. M onumental d ecoration a nd f urnishings.

7 8 8 0

T echniques: ( i) H ammered s heet g old a nd g ilding. ( ii) ( iii) ( iv) ( v)

C ast g old o bjects. F iligree a nd c loisonné. J oining m ethods. G ranulation.

8 1 8 1 8 5 8 5 8 7 8 9

( h)

G old a nalyses.

9 0

( a) ( b)

T ypes a nd o res P roduction

9 1 9 1 9 3

( c) ( d)

S ources T he D evelopment o f

I ron

9 7 9 8

i ron-working i n

M esopotamia: ( I) S tage I ( c.5000-1250 B .C.). ( ii) S tage I i ( c.1250-850 B .C.). ( iii) S tage I II ( c.850-350 B .C.). ( e)

1 00 1 01 1 02

T he r epertory o f i ron o bjects:

1 04

( i) ( ii)

" Ingots". T ools a nd I mplements.

1 04 1 05

( iii)

W eapons a nd a rmour.

1 05

( iv) ( v)

H orse-harness. O rnamental w ork i n,

( vi)

V essels.

o r o n,

i ron.

S ilver ( a) ( b)

1 06 1 06 1 06

V II N ickel V III

4 6 4 8 4 8 5 0

E lectrum

( e)

V I

S heetmetal w orking:

1 07 S ilver a nd

l ead

S ources: ( I) T he e vidence o f a ncient ( ii) ( iii)

1 07 1 07 t exts.

M ining a reas. S cientific d eterminations

1 10 1 10 1 11

o f

s ource.

1 12

I X

X

( c)

H istory a nd r epertory o f o bjects

14

( d) ( e)

M anufacture S ilver a nalyses

1 18 19 1 21

( a) ( b)

M anufacture S ources

1 21 1 21

( c) ( d)

H istorical s urvey o f u ses S elect l ead a nalyses

1 22 1 26 1 27

( a) ( b)

T he m etal a nd i ts u ses P roduction

1 27 1 28

( c)

T he p attern o f

L ead

T in

o f

( i) ( ii) X I 2 .

t rade a nd t he i dentification 1 28

s ources: A ncient t extual r eferences. E vidence o f m odern g eology.

1 . 28 1 30 1 32

Z inc

G lazed a nd R elated M aterials T erminology a nd t he P roblem o f O rigins ( a) F aience. ( b) ( c) ( d) I I

G laze ( and g lass). F rit. G lazed s tones.

S teatite: ( 1) " Glazed" ( ii) ( iii)

( 2) ( 3) ( 4) F aience ( A)

1 38 1 38

" Burnt' " Etched"

1 38 1 38 1 40 1 41

S ummary.

1 41

( glazed s intered q uartz) A n h istorical s urvey: ( i) T he P rehistoric p eriod

E arly D ynastic t o U r I II p eriods

1 44

( iii)

( c.3000-2000 B .C.) U r I II t o O ld B abylonian p eriods

1 46

( c.2000-1550 B .C.) K assite, M itannian a nd M iddle

1 50

( c.1550-1150 B .C.)

( v) T he F irst M illennium B .C. M ethods o f m anufacture ( a) C ores a nd m anufacture ( b)

1 55 1 58 1 59

M ethods o f g lazing ( i) A pplication o f a g laze. ( ii) S elf-glazing b y e fflorescence. ( iii)

( C)

( to 3 000 B .C.)

1 42 1 42 1 42

( ii)

A ssyrian p eriods ( B)

1 36 1 38

Q uartz C arnelian a nd o ther s tones

( iv)

I V

1 34 1 34 1 35

( e) T he e mergence o f g lazed m aterials. G lazed s tones ( 1)

I II

1 33 1 33 1 33

S elf-glazing b y c ementation.

( c)

P roduction a nd n ature o f

( d)

c olours i n g lazes P olychromy.

i ndividual

3 00 B .C.)

i v

1 62

1 64

G lazed T erracotta A . P ottery ( i) M iddle A ssyrian ( c.1550-1150 B .C.) N eo-Assyrian t o A chaemenid

1 61

1 63

A rchitectural u ses.

( ii)

1 61 1 61 1 61

( c.850-

1 65 1 67 1 67 1 68

B .

A rchitectural u ses ( 1)

( ii)

1 71

B ricks ( a) M iddle a nd N eo-Assyrian ( c.1550-600 B .C.) ( b) N eo-Babylonian t o S eleucid ( c.600-300 B .C.) B aked c lay w all " nails"

( sikkati)

1 71 1 75 1 77

a nd p laques ( iii) C . D .

G lazed F ists

( a) ( b)

( 2) ( ii)

3 .

o f

I shtar").

1 80 1 80 1 82

B odies a nd g lazes. M anufacture: d esign a nd ( 1)

V

( "Hands

T erracotta S tatuary. T echniques: ( i) B ricks l ayou t

N eo-Assyrian p eriod ( c.1000-600 B .C.) N eo-Babylonian a nd P ersian p eriods ( c.600-330

P ottery.

1 82 1 84 1 84 1 85 1 87

E gyptian B lue ( a) T he m aterial

1 88

( b) ( c)

H istorical s urvey o f u se T extual r eferences

1 90 1 93

( d)

N ote o n t he p roblem o r o rigins

1 93 1 94

G lass A . B .

T he m aterial M esopotamian g lass a nd

C .

H istorical S urvey: ( 1) T he p rehistory o f g lass p roduction i n t he N ear E ast ( to a bout 1 500 B .C.) ( Ii) T he M itannian, K assite a nd M iddle ( iii)

i ts

1 94 1 94

s tudy

1 94 2 01

A ssyrian t raditions ( c.1500-1150 B .C.) T he N eo-Assyrian p eriod ( ninth t o 2 06 s eventh c enturies B .C.):

( iv)

( a)

R evival o f c ore-formed g lass p roduction

2 06

( b) ( c)

T he e mergence o f C oloured g lass.

2 08 2 09

g lass.

T he N eo-Babylonian a nd A chaemenid p eriods

D .

" clear"

2 10

( c.600-300 B .C.)

( v) S ummary. T echnology a nd C omposition ( i) G lass w orkshops a nd f urnaces.

2 11 2 12 2 12

( ii) ( iii)

M ixing a nd m elting. F orming p rocesses:

2 14 2 14

( a) ( b)

F ree-modelling. C ore-formed.

2 14 2 14

( c)

R od-formed.

2 15

( d)

M osaic.

2 15

( e) ( f)

M oulding a nd c asting. C old-cutting.

2 16 2 16

( iv)

C omposition ( a) M odern a nalyses: ( 1)

G eneral

V

2 17 2 17

( 2)

T he M itannian a nd M iddle A ssyrian p eriods ( c.1 5 50 1 150 B .C.)

2 18

( 3)

T he N eo-Assyrian p eriod ( c.1000-600 B .C.) T he A chaemenid p eriod

2 23

( 4)

2 23

( c.550-330 B .C.)

4 .

F .

P rovenance S tudies

2 24

G . H .

T he a ncient R ed g lass:

2 2 ' 2 2

I .

a nalyses. T he P roblem o f E namel.

t extual t radition t he a ncient t exts a nd m odern

B ibliography A bbreviations

u sed

i n t he B ibliography

B ibliography 5 .

2 29

2 32 2 35

I ndex

2 90

v i

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

b ook

A s o f

t he i ntroduction m akes c lear, a nyone w ho s eeks t o w ti t his k ind i s c onstantly t respassing i nto t erritory w eil

o utside h is f ield o f c ompetence. I o we a s pecial d ebt o f g ratitude t o c olleagues i n t he B ritish M useum w ho r ead t he r ough d rafts o f t he t ext a nd c ommented o n t hem :

D r.

J ohn C urtis a nd D r.

J ulian R eade o f

t he D epartment o f W estern A siatic A ntiquities; M iss M avis B imson, D r. P aul C raddock a nd D r. M ichael T ite o f t he R esearch L aboratory. T hey s hould n ot

b e h eld r esponsible

f or w hat

s urvives,

a s Id id n ot

a lways

t ake t heir a dvice; b ut w ithout t heir g uidance t here w ould b e e ven m ore s cientific s olecisms a nd m ore e rrors o f c ommission a nd o mission t han t here a re. O ne o f t he m any p rivileges o f w orking i n O xford i s t he o pportunity i t o ffers f or c onstant c ontact w ith t he R esearch L aboratory f or A rchaeology a nd t he H istory o f A rt. t wenty y ears I h ave b enefitted c onsiderably f rom

O ver a p eriod o f t he a dvice a nd

e xpertise o f D r. M artin A itken, D r. R obert H edges, D r. E .T. H all, a nd D r. M ark P ollard, a nd f rom c o-operation w ith t wo v isiting m embers o f t he

L aboratory,

D r.

F rancis

S chweizer

o f

G eneva

a nd

P rofessor

A lexander K aczmarczyk o f T ufts U niversity, B oston, U .S.A., w ho a lso k indly c ommented o n d rafts o f t he g lazed m aterials s ection. M rs. P am V andiver f aience,

o f M .I.T., t hrough h er w ork o n t he A shmolean T h E gyptian d id m uch t o s timulate m y i nterest i n f aience a t a c rucial

m oment. A

h andbook

l ike

t his d epends u ltimately o n f irst c lass

l ibrary

r esources a nd t he s upport o f l ibrary s taff. T his I h ave r ichly e njoyed i n t he A shmolean L ibrary. M y c olleagues i n t he A shmolean M useum , m y r esearch s tudents, a nd a l ong s uccession o f v isiting s cholars, h ave a ll c ontributed m ore t han t hey k now b y t he s timulus o f q uestion a nd a rgument o ver m any y ears. T he e xistence o f t his b ook i s i n n o s mall p art t he r esult o f m y i nability t o f ind e ven b asic a nswers t o s pecific i nquiries w ithout r esearch i n o bscure l iterature. O ften, w hen t his h ad b een d one, i t o nly a llowed m e t o o ffer a h ighly c onditional o r n egative a nswer. A lthough I a m v ery c onscious o f t he a bsence o f t he p hilological a spects o f m y s ubject, t heir v irtual e xclusion i s d eliberate a nd f ully e xplained i n t he i ntroduction. T here a re p laces, h owever, w here i t h as b een i mpossible t o o mit t his a spect o f t he p roblem a nd t hen I h ave b een m ost g rateful t o D r. J eremy B lack, D r. S tephanie D alley a nd t o P rofessor O .R. G urney f or g uidance; I

f or w hat s urvived t heir s crutiny I a lone a m r esponsible.

a m g rateful

t o D r.

T amara S tech,

a nd

h er

c olleagues,

f or

i nformation o n t he c urrent " Sumerian M etals P roject" i n t he U nivers ity o f P ennsylvania a t P hiladelphia; t o D r. P aul C raddock o f t he B ritish

M useum

L aboratory f or i nformation o n u npublished

a nalyses;

a nd t o D r. D an B arag a nd M r. T erence M itchell f or p ermission t o t he m anuscript o f D r. B arag s f orthcoming c atalogue o f g lass i n W estern A siatic D epartment o f M rs.

R uth

t he B ritish M useum.

F lanagan s kilfully t yped,

d raft m anuscripts a nd M rs.

r ead t he

a nd r etyped,

P at J acobs d id t he a rtwork.

V ii

a s eries

o f

L IST O F M APS A ND T ABLES

M ap 1 :

M esopotamia:

M ap 2 :

M esopotamia a nd

M ap 3 :

I ran :

T able

I : I I:

m ain s ites m entioned i n t he t ext i ts n orthern p eriphery

m ain s ites m entioned i n t he t ext

T he A ncient T erminology f or M etals i n M esopotamia D iagram o f

t he C hronological D istribution o f G lazed

M aterials a nd G lass

v iii

x x

2 2 31

I NTRODUCTION

" A

s ystematic a nd c ritical

i nventory o f

t he

t echnological a chievements o f M esopotamian c ivilization i s n eeded t o e stablish t he d egree t o w hich M esopotamian m an s ucceeded i n m astering n ature, a n e ssential a spect o f t he m an-nature r elationship i n a ny c ivilization. T his i nventory w ill r emain w oefully i na dequate,

h owever,

f or

t wo

r easons:

t he

p aucity o f t he e vidence a vailable a nd t he l ack o f s cholarly i nterest i n m aterial c ulture". O ppenheim, 1 978, 6 46.

T he

f ollowing

s tudies

a re

t he a rchaeological b asis f or a h istory

o f c raft a nd t echnology i n a ncient M esopotamia n ot i n a ny w ay a n a ttempt t o w rite t hat h istory. I h ave e ndeavoured t o p rovide O ppenh eim s " systematic a nd c ritical I nventory o f t he t echnological a chievements o f M esopotamian c ivilization" i n m etal, g lazed m aterials a nd g lass, a s a p reliminary t o b roader s urveys. g ration w ith t he r elevant d ocumentary e vidence

T heir e ventual i ntef or t he w ider s ocio-

e conomic e nvironment i n w hich t hey w ere d eveloped a nd f lourished

( the

o nly p roper f ramework f or a h istory o f t echnology) i s a p roject o f q uite a nother o rder. S ave I n v ery r are a nd s pecific c ases, t he d ata o n m aterial c ulture a nd t he d ocumentary e vidence f rom M esopotamia r emain p artially p ublished a nd s cattered, a nd a re o ften a vailable o nly i n a f orm i ntelligible t o s pecialists. E ven i n C lassical S tudies, w here t he w hole r ange o f d ocumentation i s s o m uch r icher a nd h as b een m uch mor e c losely s tudied i n m odern t imes, t he h istory o f t echnology h as h ad u ntil q uite r ecently a r elatively l ow a cademic s tatus, p erhaps b ecause t here h as l ong b een a t endency t o t reat t he s ubject i n i solation a nd w ithout d ue r egard t o s ocial c ontext a nd e conomic p rocesses ( cf. W hite, 1 984, 6 ff). T he p roblem I s g reater a nd e ven m ore c omplex f or t he p re-classic al c ivilizations o f t he O ld W orld, w here a t p resent t he w riting o f a ny k ind o f e conomic h istory i s, w ith g ood r eason, r arely a ttempted a nd w hen i t i s a ttempted t urns a s o ften o n q uestions o f p hilology a s o n t hose o f e conomy. I t i s n ot s o m uch a m atter o f a bsent e vidence, t hough t hat i s a p roblem n ever t o b e u nderestimated, a s o f s cattered a nd i ncoherent s ource m aterial w hich h as n ever b een e xamined e ven a t t he m ost p rimitive l evel o f a nalysis a nd s ynthesis. S ome o f t he g roundwork f or a h istory o f t echnology h as b een d one f or a ncient E gypt b y s cholars s uch a s L ucas a nd H arris ( 1962); b ut e ven t here b roader s urveys o f c raft a nd t echnology i n a s ocio-economic c ontext a re s till a waited. I n W estern A sia, a s O ppenheim ( 1978) m ade c lear, t here

i s

n othing

c omparable

t o L ucas

a nd

i x

H arris

( 1962),

t hough

p ioneer

w orks o f

s ynthesis

l ike

M eissner

( 1920/1925)

a nd P artington

( 1935) s till h ave m uch t o o ffer t he d iscriminating r eader a ble t o c heck t heir s ources i n m odern e ditions. S inger s m onumental H istory o f T echnology I ( Oxford, 1 954) b arely m entioned g lass a nd g lazed m aterials,

a nd w as

r estricted

i n i ts

t reatment o f m etals

a nd

m etal-

w orking, w hilst i n e very c ase l ittle a ttention w as p aid t o p roblems o f t echnological i nnovation a nd d evelopment u nder p articular s ocioe conomic c onditions. F orbes, S tudies i n A ncient T echnology f ailed t o m ake u se o f t he s teadily g rowing b ody o f i nformation p rovided b y a rchaeology

i n

W estern A sia a nd h ave o ther s erious

d rawbacks

( see

a lso p .xxiii h ere). T he

s urviving m aterial

c ulture o f a ncient M esopotamia,

i n

c on-

t rast t o E gypt, i s c onspicuously p oorer, t hough t he t extual e vidence i s p otentially g reater. I n t he s oil o f M esopotamia, a nd a djacent r egions, o rganic m aterials f or t he m ost p art p erished r apidly ; e col ogical

f actors

e ncouraged

s tability o f

l ocation w ith

t he

r egular

r econstruction o f b uildings d estroying r ather t han p reserving w hat h ad g one b efore. A s e ssential r aw m aterials w ere s carce, t hey w ere r egularly r ecycled i f a t a ll f easible. R ichly f urnished t ombs a re e xceptional i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a s a re u nplundered s ettlem ents p reserved b y f ire o r n atural d isaster f or t he a rchaeologist s s pade.

E ven w hat

l ittle h as

s urvived h as r arely b een t he

s ubject

o f

p roper s cientific i nvestigation. N o o ne h as e ver b een i n a p osition c omparable t o t hat o f L ucas i n E gypt ( as c hemist t o t he A ntiquities S ervice, 1 923-32; h onorary c onsultant 1 932-45) a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat o ne m an w ith h is

r ange

o f

e xpertise e ver w ill b e.

T he f ollowing e ssays, f or a t t his s tage t hey c ould n ot h ope t o b e a nything m ore, s eek o nly t o p rovide t he f oundations f or a s tudy o f t he

t echnological a chievements

p hilologist a nd o f a rt.

o f a ncient M esopotamia.

A s I a m n ot a

t hey a re b ased p rimarily o n t he e vidence o f a rchaeology T he a dvantages o f c ombining p hilological s kills w ith a

w ell-informed k nowledge o f a ncient a rt a nd a rchaeology a re e vident f rom t he r evision o f L ucas b y H arris ( 1962). N or a m Ia s cientist. T his, m ore s erious d rawback f or m y p urposes h ere, h as t o s ome e xtent b een r emedied b y t he c ounsel o f m any s cientific f riends, n ow i nvolved w ith a rchaeometry, a nd b y d iligent a nd ( I t rust) p rofitable r eading i n t he e ver i ncreasing l iterature o f t his s ubject. I n t his g enerat ion o f p roliferating i nformation n o s ingle s cholar c an h ope t o c ombine t he f ormidable r ange o f l earning i deally r equired f or a t ask o f t his k ind. S till, a s O ppenheim a ppreciated, i t i s m uch n eeded a nd, a t a p reliminary s tage, t here a re d istinct a dvantages i n o ne s cholar, r ather t han a t eam, u ndertaking i t. I h ave p roceeded o n t he c lear a ssumption p rovisional b asis t ions,

t o

m odify

t hat w hat f ollows w ill d o n o m ore t han o ffer a f or o thers, w ith s pecific s pecialist q ualificaa nd e xtend i n

t he

l ight o f

f resh ,

m ore

a ccurate

d ata. I t h as, o f c ourse, b een i mpossible t o a void r eference, f rom t ime t o t ime, t o a ncient t extual s ources. W henever t his w as n ecessary I h ave c ited t he s tandard d ictionaries a nd t he m ost r espected, i f n ot a lways n ecessarily t he m ost r ecent, t reatment o f a p articular p robl em. I a m a ware o f t he h azards o f e ven s o c autious a n a pproach, s ince t echnical v ocabulary i n a ll a ges a nd p laces, a bove a ll i n d ead l anguages, i s n otoriously d ifficult. I n a ncient M esopotamia t he t extual

e vidence

f or m aterials a nd i ndustries

x

i s

p otentially

v ery

r ich, b ut, w ith r are e xceptions, i t h as n ot b een a p opular b ranch o f i nquiry i n r ecent y ears. T here a re s igns t hat t his i s c hanging. I h ope t hat b y a ssembling h ere a r epresentative s ample o f t he a rchaeol ogical a nd m odern s cientific e vidence, o ften s carce e ven f or t he m ost d urable o f m aterials, I w ill h ave c ontributed i n t wo w ays. F irst, b y w eighing u p t he m aterial e vidence, Im ay h ave a ssisted i n c larifying t he i ssues l ar w ord o r p hrase.

i nvolved i n s ettling A nnaku ( p.124) i s,

t he m eaning o f a p articup erhaps, t he b est k nown

i nstance o f t he p roblem. S econd, i n a ssembling w hat i s k nown i n a c ritical s pirit, I m ay h ave c leared a c ertain a mount o f d ead w ood a nd i ndicated m ore

c learly,

f ull w eight

r esearch m ight n ow b est b e d irected.

o f

b y h ighlighting w hat

i s n ot k nown,

I n r eferring t o a ncient t erms I h ave a lways b een r elatively f ew a ncient n ames o f m aterials, o r p rocesses, f or c ertain a nd w hen t hey e xist, c urrent

w here

t he

a ware t hat a re k nown

t hat r eaders m ust b e d irected t o t hose p ublications, w here t hey m ay f ollow u p t he p remises u pon w hich a

t ranslation i s b ased.

W hen u sing a ncient w ritten s ources a s

e vidence f or t he o rigin o f r aw m aterials, p otentially o ne o f t heir m ost o bvious c ontributions t o a s tudy o f t his k ind, s pecial p roblems a rise. T he s tated s ource i s b y n o m eans n ecessarily t he p lace o f o rigin. A ncient t erminology, a s w ith t he E nglish w ord " turkey" f or a d omestic f owl o f A merican o rigin, m ay w ell b e m isleading. A lthough s ome s tated s ources a re c learly c ollection p oints t o w hich t raders f rom a v ariety o f m ore d istant p laces b rought g oods f or o nward t ransm ission ( as w ith a ncient D ilmun), t his i s n ot a lways s o o bvious. T ransit z ones g ave t heir n ames t o c ommodities o r r aw m aterials b rought f rom m uch f urther a way. A bove a ll a ncient t erminology, o ften r eflecting a s i t d oes a s cribe s v ery i nadequate k nowledge o f d istant p laces

a nd s trange g oods,

m ay n ot

b e

r elied u pon f or

t he d egree

o f

p recision a ssumed i n m ore m odern r ecords o f c ommerce a nd i ndustry. T exts r elating t o g ift e xchanges b etween r ulers a lso h ave t heir o wn p itfalls, s ince t hey s ometimes i nvolved p restige e xchanges o f i dentic al p roducts, c onfusing t he i ssue i f t his i s n ot f ully a ppreciated. I n t he " Amarna L etters", f or i nstance, i vory f rom C yprus, w here i t w as n ot p roduced, t ravels i vory r esources o f A frica

t o E gypt, w hich h ad e asy a ccess t o t he v ast ( Llverani, 1 972). L ists o f b ooty, c leverly

e xploited b y J ankowska ( 1969) i n h er s tudy o f t he e conomy o f t he N eoA ssyrian Empire, h ave e vidence t o o ffer i n t he q uest f or s ources; b ut a gain

i t

i s o ften o blique

a nd h as

t o b e a ssessed i n t he

l ight

o f

a ll

g eneral,

t he

t he d ata a vailable. M y

a pproach

t hroughout h as b een p ragmatic.

I n

i nformation a vailable t o m e i s n ot n early s o f ull a s t hat L ucas c ommanded f or E gypt, e ven f or t hose m aterials a nd i ndustries a rchaeol ogically e vident i n M esopotamia. T here a re, o f c ourse, w hole a spects o f m aterial c ulture, p rimarily i nvolving o rganic m aterials, w hich i n E gypt a re a rchaeologically d ocumented, b ut i n M esopotamia a re e xclusively t he t erritory o f t he p hilologist. T he m aterial e vidence f or t Iem p erished l ong a go. I h ave, o f n ecessity, l argely o mitted t hese f rom m y p roposed s urvey, o f w hich t his i s t he f irst p art. I n f uture s tudies I p lan t o t reat m aterials l ike c lay, s tones a nd p igments, b one, t o t reat m etals,

i vory a nd s hell, n ot i ncluded h ere. T he d ecision g lazed m aterials a nd g lass t ogether f irst w as

d eliberate. T hese c rafts a re a mong t he b est d ocumented a nd s tudied, t heir t echnologies a re i nteractive, a nd t hey r aise a t t he o utset m any o f

t he

g eneral

p roblems

c onfronting

X i

s tudents

o f

m aterials

a nd

m anufacture

i n M esopotamia.

E xpectations

o f

s uch a w ork a s

t his h ave c hanged

c onsiderably

s ince L ucas p roduced h is b ook. N ew t heoretical a pproaches t o a rcha eological r esearch, a g rowing s ophistication i n t he a pplication o f t he n atural s ciences t o a rchaeology, r eplication o f a ncient c raft m ethods,

a nd a g reater i nterest i n t he d emand a b roader p erspective.

I n a n a ttempt t o c ompensate f or a l ess v aried r ange o f e vidence, o r f or l ess d etailed s centific s tudy o f c ertain a spects o f i t, I h ave p aid m ore a ttention t o n ot

s ome s econdary p roblems w ith w hich L ucas c hose

t o c oncern h imself. T his h as m eant

t here i s a vailable

t hat

t here i s n o s tandard f orm o f

e ntry,

t hough

a g eneral c onsistency. T he e ntries t end t o v ary a s t he i nformation, o r t he n ature o f t he m aterial, d ictates.

Q uestions a ppropriate t o g old, f or i nstance, m ay n ot b e r elevant t o i ron, a nd v ice v ersa. I t m ay b e p ossible t o s ay m uch m ore o f g lazed q uartz b odies ( faience) t han o f g lazed b aked c lay, n ot f or a ny a cademic p reference, b ut s imply b ecause o ne i s g enerally b etter k nown a nd m ore w idely r ecognized t han t he o ther. I n a ll c ases t hese v ariat ions

h ave c onditioned

t he f orm o f

t he r elevant e ssay.

I f t he p resentation v aries, t he t hree f undamental p roblems i nv estigated g enerally d o n ot. F irst, t here i s t he q uestion o f s ources a nd s upport t echnology : w hence c ame t he r aw m aterials, i f i mported, a nd h ow w ere t hey p rocessed? S econd, w hat w ere t he f orms, a nd i f r elevant, t he d ecoration, i mposed o n t hem b y a ncient c raftsmen? T hird, w hat w ere t he p rimary p rocesses o f m anufacture? S ince t here h as n ever b een a s ystematic h istorical s urvey o f t he c rafts o f a ncient M esopotamia, c onsiderable a ttention h as t o b e p aid t o t he d evelopment o f c rafts a nd i n m any c ases t he i nformation i s p resented w ithin a n h istorical E ach

o f

f ramework.

t hese p rimary q uestions

p resents i ts o wn

S ource s tudies a re a t p resent v ery u ndeveloped. i ng i n v iew o f

d ifficulties.

T his i s n ot

s urpris-

t he g reat c omplexity o f d evising s ufficiently r eliable

m ethods f or t he s cientific " finger-printing" o f m etals a nd m inerals. E ven w hen t hey e xist, t here i s u sually a n a bsence o f g eological s amples f rom a ll t he p otential s ources o r d oubts a bout t he s ecure s eparation o f m aterials f rom d istinct s ource z ones. S uch i nformation i s

v ital i n t he

M esopotamia,

l ong r un f or a f ull u nderstanding o f

d ependent a s

l ife i n a ncient

i t w as o n i mported r aw m aterials.

I n t he

a bsence o f r eliable i nformation f rom s cientific i nvestigations, t ypol ogical a nd s tylistic a nalyses a re r egularly i nvoked t o r econstruct c ultural o r c ommercial c ontacts b etween M esopotamia a nd t hose o f n eighbours h ave c ome.

h er

w hence o ther I ndicators s uggest t he r aw m aterials m ight I h ave t ried w henever p ossible t o t ake a ccount o f t his

r esearch. T here

h as b een a t endency a mong a rchaeologists

i n r ecent

y ears

t o p ass b eyond t ypological a nd s ource a nalysis i n q uest o f h ard i nformation o n s ocio-economic q uestions i n p eriods, o r r egions, w here n o

t extual e vidence o f a n a ppropriate k ind i s a vailable.

s ingularly I nteresting, c ulture s tudies w hich p roposed m aterials

T his

i s a

b ut h ighly p roblematic, a spect o f m aterial c annot b e i gnored i n a ny w ork o f t he k ind

h ere. I n a n umber o f p ioneering p apers o n s pecific r aw r elevant t o M esopotamia, n otably o bsidian ( Renfrew e t a l.,

xii

1 976),

s teatite/chlorite

( Kohl,

1 979) a nd I ranian c opper

( Heskel a nd

L amberg-Karlovsky, 1 980), e xplanatory m odels h ave b een p roposed t o e lucidate t rading m echanisms, c ultural t ransmission a nd c onsequent s ocio-economic t ransformations. I n e very c ase a lternative e xplanat ions, s ome m ore, s ome l ess d efensible, h ave b een a rgued. A s o ne w ho t akes a ll m odels, h ypotheses a nd i nterpretations t o b e l ittle m ore t han s tructured q uestions, n ot p otential a nswers, t here w ill b e t hose w ho f ind m y r eferences t o t his a spect o f t he m atter i nadequate. B ut, a s m odels a re b y t heir v ery n ature o ver-simplifications, t hey t end t o s acrifice d etails i n t he i nterests o f s tructure a nd t he v ery b usiness o f a h andbook, n ot f or t he

s uch a s

t his a ttempts

t o b e,

i s w ith d etails,

t hough

n ecessarily u nstructured. I h ave s triven, a s f ar a s p ossible, t he e ssentials b y d igesting r ather t han r ejecting t he d etails; u neven n ature o f t he t ext w ill m ake c lear h ow d ifficult t his

o ften p roved I n e very

t o

b e.

t his k ind o f r esearch i t i s m ost i mportant t o r emember s tage t hat i n s tudying a ncient p roduction p rocesses m uch

a t o f

w hat i s s aid h ere, a s i n a ll m odern t extbooks, i s f ramed w ith t he b enefit o f s cientific h indsight. T he k nowledge a cquired b y a ncient c raftsmen w as p urely e mpirical, w ith e ndless p ossibilities f or v ariat ion, n ot o nly i n t he c omposition o f f ired o bjects, b ut a lso i n t he m anipulation o f m aterials: t here w as n ot, t o t ake a e xample, a s ingle " lost" a rt o f g ranulation ( pp.89-90). s olutions

w ell-known S uccessful

t o c hemical a nd p hysical p roblems w ere e ventually

a t b y t rial a nd e rror o ver l ong p eriods o f

t ime,

a rrived

b y c areful s election

f rom a mongst t he r aw m aterials a vailable i n o ne t ime o r p lace, a nd b y t he n ative i ngenuity o f g enerations o f c raftsmen p assed o n f rom m aster c raftsman t o a pprentice.

E ven w hen t echnical t reatises f irst

a ppear, a nd t hey a re a m edieval p henomenon ( much m ore r ecent i f t hose w ritten f or t he i nstruction o f l iterate c raftsmen a re i ncluded), i t i s

n ot

e asy f or m odern e xperts

i nvolved.

T he

s ame

t o

f ollow

t he

t echnical

w ord m ay b e u sed f or d ifferent

p rocesses

p rocesses

a nd

v ice v ersa. I t

i s

a lso

a s w ell t o r emember

t hat

c urrent

e valuations

o f

a ncient c raft p ractices a re a s m uch a t t he m ercy o f p revailing r esearch f ashions a nd a cademic p re-occupations a s t hey a re o f t he n ature o f t he s urviving m aterial e vidence. I t i s n ot o nly i ncrease i n t he i nformation a vailable t hat m ay c hange i deas a bout p ast c raft p ractices. T he s potlight o f s cientific r esearch p asses t o a nd f ro. L ong s tanding i nterests i n c omposition m ay s uddenly g ive w ay t o a n e xclusive c oncern f or a spects o f p roduction, s o t hat m uch m ore m ay b ecome k nown o f t he o ne t han t he o ther i n a p articular c ase. T his v ariation h as b een p articularly e vident i n r esearch o n f aience ( pp.142ff.). C omparative e thnographical s tudy ( Watson, 1 979; K ramer, 1 982), n ever s o m uch n eglected i n t he h istory o f t echnology a s i t w as f or a l ong p eriod i n t he s tudy o f a rchaeology, p resents i ts o wn p roblems. T he b est i nformation i s p rovided b y s tudies f rom t he s ame g eneral a rea a s i s u nder s tudy i n a ntiquity. F or t he N ear E ast t wo w orks a re p articularly r elevant a nd v aluable, D alman T h m onumental A rbeit u nd S itte i n P alästina ( 1928-42), a nd W ulff s T he T raditional C rafts o f P ersia

( 1966).

T hey o ffer s timulus

t o r esearch b y p rovid-

i ng d ata f or h ypotheses a bout p ossible a ncient c raft t echniques t o b e c arefully t ested b y m odern e xperiment, a s n otably i n t he c ase o f f aience

p roduction ( pp.158ff.).

C ertain

p ractical c onsiderations h ave p articularly

m y a pproach i n w riting. w hilst a ttempting t o m ake i n t he

i nterests

c onditioned

I h ave s triven t o b e c oncise a nd c lear, t he f rame o f r eference a s w ide a s p ossible

o f a v ariety o f

r eaders.

I h ope

t hat

t he

t ext w ill

b e u seful b oth t o s pecialists i n o ther a spects o f a ncient N ear E astern c ulture a nd t o t he i ncreasing n umber o f p eople c oncerned w ith s tudies

o f

a ncient m aterials a nd i ndustries i n o ther p arts

w orld w ho w ill n ot b e

o f

t he

s o f amiliar w ith t he h istory o f t his p articular

r egion i n a ntiquity. T he g eographical l imits o f t his i nvestigation h ave b een l oosely d efined. A lthough t he f ocus o f t hese s tudies i s b roadly t he a rea n ow e mbraced b y I raq, n ortheast S yria, a nd s outhwest I ran ( Khuzistan), I h ave n ot b een r estricted t o t his r egion i n c ase o f i ndividual p ieces o f i nformation u seful t o t he d evelopment o f t hese e ssays. T he c hronological r ange i s f rom t he N eolithic p eriod, t he n inth m illennium B .C., t o t he c onquests o f A lexander t he G reat i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury B .C. A q uarter o f a c entury a go H arris f ound i n r evising L ucas t hat e xpense p rohibited t he k ind o f i llustration m ost a ppropriate t o s tudies o f t his k ind; i t i s e ven m ore s o t oday. o f L ucas ( 1962) w ritten

s o

a ppropriate T he p reface t he

a s

T heir a bsence h as n ot s eriously i mpaired t he u tility a nd I t rust t he s ame m ay b e t rue h ere. T he t ext i s t o d irect

s ource o f

l ast t o h is

w ord

r eaders a s e asily a s p ossible

i s

b est

l eft w ith S amuel J ohnson

f amous E nglish d ictionary ( 1755),

m ost r ecurrent

t o

t he

m ost

i llustrations.

f ears

w ho,

i n

t he

i nimitably e xpressed

o f a ny w riter e ngaged u pon a b ook

o f

t his

k ind: t hat

w hat

i s

o bvious

i s

n ot

k nown, a nd w hat i s k nown i s n ot a lways t hat s udden f its o f i nadvertency w ill

a lways p resent; s urprize

v igilance, s light a vocations w ill s educe a ttent ion, a nd c asual e clipses o f t he m ind w ill d arken l earning; a nd t hat t he w riter s hall o ften i n v ain t race h is m emory a t t he m oment o f n eed, f or t hat w hich y esterday h e k new w ith i ntuitive r eadiness, a nd w hich w ill c ome u ncalled i nto h is t houghts t omorrow".

A shmolean M useum,

O xford

O ctober,

x iv

1 984

N OTES F OR T HE R FADER ( 1)

C hronological T erminology:

A bsolute

dtes

o ther p eriods,

b efore a bout 3 000 B .C. u ntil

a re v ery

t he f all o f N ineveh ,

i nsecurely

c .612 B .C.,

b ased;

a re a pproxima-

t ions. P eriod

D ate

U mm D abaghiyah/Ceramic J armo ) H assuna/Samarra/Halaf p eriods)Early U baid p eriod ) Prehistoric

C . 6 000 B .C. c .5500-4500 B .C. c .4500-3800 B .C.

) U ruk I V U ruk I II

c .3800-3300 B .C.

( Proto-literate a -b ) ( Proto-literate c -d/)Late J amdat N asr) ) Prehistoric

c .3300-3000 B .C.

)

E arly D ynastic I II A kkadian ( or S argonic)

c .3000-2750 c .2750-2600 c .2600-2350 c .2350-2100

U r I II I sin-Larsa/Old B abylonian/Old A ssyrian K assite/Mitannian/Middle B abylonian/Middle A ssyrian N eo-Assyrian N eo-Babylonian

c .1000-612 c . 6 12-539

B .C. B .C.

A chaemenid P ersian S eleucid

c . c .

B .C. B .C.

E arly D ynastic I E arly D ynastic I I

T he g iven

b y

c hronology f or J .A.

i ndividual k ings

B rinkman i n A .

L eo

c .2100-2000 B .C. c .2000-1600 B .C. c .1600-1000 B .C.

c ited

5 39-330 3 30-150

i n t his

O ppenheim,

( revised e dition, C hicago, 1 977), 3 35ff. v enience s ake, o n t he " Middle C hronology"

b ook i s

t hat

A ncient M esopotamia

T his i s b ased, f or c onf or t he F irst D ynasty o f

B abylon ( c.1894-1595 B .C.). T he " High C hronology" r emains p robable; s upport f or t he " Low C hronology" h as

B .C. B .C. B .C. B .C.

( c.1950-1651 B .C.) ( c.1830-1531 B .C.)

r ather d iminished i n r ecent y ears. T he

a rchaeological

t erminology f or M esopotamia,

a s

t hat

f or

d ynastic E gypt, i s s trongly m arked b y t he l ocal h istorical t radition; v ery b roadly s peaking t he t erminology u sed i n S yro-Palestine a nd T urkey m ay b e c ompared t hrough t he f ollowing t ime h orizons: N eol ithic ( c.7000-4500 B .C.); C halcolithic ( c.4500-3300 B .C.); E arly B ronze A ge ( c.3300-2000 B .C.); M iddle B ronze A ge ( c.2000-1550 B .C.); L ate B ronze A ge ( ii)

( c.1550-1150 B .C.);

I ron A ge

( c.1150-550 B .C.).

W eight s ystems: R eference

i s o ccasionally m ade

i n t he

t ext

t o w eights b y

t heir

a ncient t erminology. T he B abylonian s ystem w as s exagesimal: 6 0 m inas e qualled 1 t alent a nd 1 m ina w as d ivided i nto 6 0 s hekels. 1 m ina w eighed a pproximately 5 00 g rams ( Powell, 1 973). T here w as a s ignificant

d ifference

i n t he B ahrein ( Dilmun)

x v

-

I ndus

s ystem,

i n

w hich o f

m inas w ere

s ixty.

c ombined

i nto h undreds a nd t housands n ot

m ultiples

T he D ilmun m ina w eighed a pproximately 1 ,350 g rams

( Roaf,

1 982). ( iii)

P roblems o f h istorical g eography:

T his i s c learly n ot a n a ppropriate p lace f or l engthy d iscussions o f h istorical g eography, b ut, t o a void c luttering t he s ource s tudies w ith r ecurrent a nnotations, a f ew r egions c onstantly c ited b y t heir a ncient n ames a re b riefly c onsidered h ere: A :

W ithin I ran

( a) r enowned p lace U ruk ,

( primarily

t hird m illennium B .C.):

A ratta, w hose e xact l ocation i s s till c ontroversial, w as i n t he S umerian l iterary t radition a s a f abulously w ealthy

t o t he e ast o f S umer, w hich h ad a n i ntimate r elationship w ith r elated i n t he " Enmerkar c ycle" o f e pics ( cf. W ilcke, 1 969;

C ohen, 1 973). T hese c onnections w ere t raditionally d ated t o t he r eign o f E nmerkar, s econd r uler o f t he f irst d ynasty o f U ruk ; a rcha eologically s peaking i n D iyala E arly D ynastic I I. B ut t he S umerian l iterary t radition a ssociated t he c ontest b etween E nmerkar a nd t he r uler o f A ratta w ith t he i nvention o f w riting ( Cohen, 1 973, 1 36-7, l ines 5 02-6), s uggesting a t radition o lder b y c enturies. A t l east o ne a rchaic t ext o f t he l ater f ourth m illennium B .C. f rom U ruk m ay c ontain a r eference t o A ratta ( Green, 1 980, 1 6-17). I n t he e pic t radition A ratta w as r enowned f or i ts p recious m aterials a nd i ts s kills

i n m anufacturing

t hem ( cf.

W ilcke,

1 969,

1 27-8;

P ettinato,

1 972). 1 .

" Gold,

s ilver,

l azuli,

[ and

w ere n ot ( sources)" 2 .

" 0 m y s ister,

A ccording

t o

t his

t in,

l umps o f

s tones]

-

l apis

a ll

t hese

b rought d own f rom t heir m ountain ( Cohen, 1 973, 1 12, l ines 1 8-19).

a rtfully g old t hem c ut] l umps"

c opper, m ountain

f or U ruk m ay ( and)

t he

A ratta,

f ashion

s ilver o n m y b ehalf,

[ Let

p ure l apis l azuli f rom t he ( Ibid., 1 13, l ines 3 8-40).

t radition A ratta w as n ear a

n avigable

r iver

( Cohen, 1 973, 5 6) a nd w as i n a h ighland z one, e ast o f A nshan , k nown t o h ave b een a t m odern T epe M alyan i n I ranian F ars ( Reiner, 1 973). T he r eferences t o c rossing " five, s ix, s even m ountains" i n m oving e ast

f rom

A nshan t o A ratta m ay b e m erely f ormulaic a nd o f

n o

r ele-

v ance t o t he q uest f or A ratta s l ocation ; n or i s i t c lear w hether c rossing m a ( n) d um t erritory r efers t o " flat l and" o r t o a s pecific g eographical n ame ( Cohen, 1 973, 5 3-4, 5 7; c f. W ilcke, 1 969, 2 9ff.). M ajidzadeh ( 1976) h as a rgued f or a l ocation o f A ratta i n t he v icinity o f m odern K erman, w here t he a rchaeological s ite o f S handad h as d uced r ichly e quipped t hird m illennium g raves; H ansman ( 1978)

p rop ro-

p osed a m ore e asterly f ocal p oint, r ound t he a rchaeological s ite o f S hahr-i S okhta i n S eistan. F or b oth s cholars t he r eference t o l apis l azuli

a nd i ts m anufacture w as

i mportant;

b ut

i t i s n ot c lear

f rom

t he e pics w hether A ratta w as a s ource z one o r a t rans it z one f or t his m ineral. E ven i f i t w ere a s ource z one, i t d oes n ot h ave t o b e n ear B adakhshan s ource

i n A fghanistan.

i n t he K erman m ountains

M edieval

t exts r efer t o a l apis

( Majidzadeh,

x vi

1 976,

1 09)

l azuli

a nd a v ein o f

l ow q uality l apis p ers.

c omm.).

l azuli

i s k nown n ear Q uetta i n

P akistan

( Jarrige,

A ratta a s a p lace i s n ot y et k nown i n t hird m illennium

n on-literary t exts; r are l ate r eferences i n e conomic t exts a re p roba bly t o a c ity o f t his n ame i n B abylonia ( Cohen, 1 973, 6 1, n .90). T he n ame b ecame a n e pithet f or " abundance" a nd " glory" ( Ibid., 5 5, n .67). V

( b)

s ometimes

Marhasi,

A kkadian),

h as

V

B AR I JASI

( Sumerian)

1

( Parahsum

f or l ong b een c onventionally p laced i n t he

i n

m ountains

n orthwest o r n orth o f E lam a nd e ast o f t he D lyala r iver. S teinkeller ( 1982) h as r ecently a dvanced a c ase f or r egarding i t a s a n i mportant p art o f c entral s outhern I ran, t o t he e ast o f A nshan ( Tepe M alyan) i n F ars. V

( c)

S imaski:

a n

i nscription o f

S hu-Sin

( c.2037-2029

i ndicates t hat g ima sk i w as a r egion, c omprised o f Z absali c onspicuous a mongst t hem ( Edzard, 1 959-60,

B .C.)

s ix n amed l ands, 9 ). I t h as c om-

m only b een l ocated t o t he n orth o f K huzistan a nd/or F ars ( Stolper, 1 982); V allat s ( 1980) s uggestion t hat i t m ight h ave b een i n K erman o r e astern F ars i s n ot s ustained b y t he a vailable e vidence. ( d)

T ukrish:

t here

i s n o d irect e vidence i n

t he

a vailable

t extual s ources f or t he l ocation o f T ukrish, b eyond i ndications t hat i t l ay e ast o f t he T igris i n t he Z agros r egion. A n i dentification w ith L uristan ( Groneberg, 1 980, 2 39), f ollowing a s uggestion o f B ottero T h ( 1957, 3 12), d oes n ot c arry c onviction i n v iew o f t he r ecorded c ommodities c oming f rom T ukrish i n t he s econd B .C. a nd c urrent a rchaeological k nowledge o f L uristan a t A r egion

s omewhere n orth o f L uristan,

A zerbaijan, B :

s eems m ore

m illennium t hat t ime.

i n m odern K urdistan o r w estern

p robable.

T he G ulf a nd t he r oute t o t he I ndus V alley:

( a) B ahrein

D ilmun b y

( Tilmun) w as f irst

S ir H enry R awlinson

i dentified w ith t he

( 1880).

i sland

T his c onclusion h as

o f

n ever

b een s eriously c hallenged, t hough s cholars c ontinuously a ttempt t o r efine t he e quation : . we m ust a gree t hat R awlinson T h i dentifica"

.

.

t ion o f D ilmun w ith B ahrain i s

t he g uess

t hat

f its

t he

f acts,

t hough

w e m ust k eep i n m ind t hat D ilmun w as m ore t han j ust B ahrein ; i t w as a lso a s till u nidentified a rea o f t he A rabian c oast" ( Bibby, 1 972, 6 2). H oward-Carter

( 1981,

2 10)

w as q uite e xplicit:

" It

m ust

b e

e mphasized s trongly t hat t he l egendary D ilmun o f t he S umerians, a lthough c ertainly a p hysical r eality, w as n ot l ocated i n t he s ame p lace

a s

e conomy

t he o f

D ilmun w hich p layed s uch a n

l ater p eriods".

U sing t he

i mportant

r ole

l atest g eological

i n

t he

i nformation

o n t he e arly h istory o f t he G ulf, s he a rgues f or a n i nitial l ocation i n t he r egion o f Q urneh i n I raq. S ince n o o bjects c ertainly o f M esopotamian o rigin h ave b een i dentified e ither o n B ahrein o r F ailaka i n c ontexts d ated b efore 2 200 B .C., i t i s o nly a fter t hat H oward-Carter a rgues, t hat t hey b ecame i dentified a s D ilmun.

t ion,

P otts ( 1983), a rgued f or

h istoric p eriod. p ossibly i n t he

t ime,

w ho i s n ot s o c oncerned w ith t he l egendary t radia r ather d ifferent s eries o f c hanges w ithin t he D ilmun i s a ttested i n t he t exts f rom J amdat N asr, e ven e arlier U ruk I V t exts, a nd t hen w ith s ome

x vii

TU RKEY

2

‚ T e l) 1 a JaF I

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AChc igar B azar

v-

/ .

-

a v ia AA

S YR IA

) L ke /rr n/

.

1

iandar

Tepe Ga wrc

T e l l R i mah

MOS 7QCh 1 Q h " -y ' t N irnrud T el Hassuna V ib

A ssurA

j

Khors 'ábad

A

Yc f K l RkU K

J arrno

A

Nuz i

N ,

-

Man

AM ARRf t T e l l e s -S a w wan

I

IRA N \ O

amr in�Choqc t Ma m i e l l As ar BAGHDAD Khafoah DurkuH9 zuA T e l l Agr c *b A l s c ha i S ippa r T e l l H ar ma l 'ts

IR A Q

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No 5 r, --

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K N .UT

-

B irs N ir nr dA

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Fi r ) 1 i ç

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L a rsc A l'UbQ idA

' & A? r 1h __

Ar

. 4

A Is rnaya

a raA Um ma

c

C A i hHt ha ) Ur

'

-

-

-

'

E r idu

BASRA

SAUD I ARAB IA

KUWA IT Gulf

M ap

I

M esopotamia

:m ain s ites m entioned

i n t he

t ext

0-

U ,

: 3

xi x

M e s o p t a m i a n d i t s n o r t h e r n

p e r i p h e r )

A T o p r c 4 k K a t e

z f •

CD LL •

. • •

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L

t4 cl :

/

4 -L . '

E

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—

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a >

a

Z

> 0 0

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2

C o

W

z

K H O R A 5 t '

a

z

-

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4

•=

C

I

a

0

° If l

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c

1 3 -

U ) .I

L

0

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( $ ) 4

I

i

F l

LL I

•

L

1 —

4

C . 4 :

H Q )

: 2

0

u )u - C

I

o C o

f

OJ c s O

—

C v

r : c :

‚ ;

9/

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c

•

C o

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Q ) 0 H

Z Z F — a I

x x

r egularity

i n E arly D ynastic I II ( Potts,

o n a rchaeological g rounds,

t hat

i n t he

1 983,

l ater

1 5).

P otts b elieves,

f ourth a nd e arlier t hird

m illennium B .C. t he M esopotamian r eferences t o D ilmun a pply t o e astern A rabia r ather t han t o B ahrein, w hich o nly b ecame t he c entre o f D ilmun i n t he l ater t hird a nd e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. I n t he l ast c enturies o f t he t hird m illennium F ailaka w as c olonized f rom D ilmun, p robably f rom B ahrein i tself, a nd t hen b ecame p art o f t he c ommunity k nown i n M esopotamia a s D ilmun. I n t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod t he

f ocus o f D ilmun w as a gain i n B ahrein.

t he

T exts o f t he l ater t hird a nd e arly s econd m illennium B .C. l ist f ollowing i tems a s r eaching U r f rom D ilmun: l apis l azuli, c arne -

l ian, a nd v arious o ther u nidentified s emi-precious s tones; i vory a nd i vory o bjects; c opper; s ilver; " fish-eyes" ( pearls o r p erhaps a gate); r ed g old; w hite c orals; v arious w oods; d ates. S ave f or t he d ates a nd t he " fish-eyes', i f t hey a re i ndeed p earls, a ll t he o ther c ommodities c ame t o D ilmun f rom e lsewhere f or o nward s hipment ( cf. E dzard e t a l., 1 977,

1 57-8;

E dzard a nd F arber,

1 974,

1 93;

G roneberg,

1 980,

2 37 a s

T ilmun i n a ll c ases). A ny

s ummary

o f

t he e vidence f or

t he l ocations

o f

M agan

a nd

M eluhha m ust b egin w ith a s tatement a pplying t o t hem b oth. M ost s tudents o f t he s ubject a re a greed t hat i n t exts o f t he f irst m illenn ium B .C. M agan a nd M eluhh a c orrespond a pproximately t o E gypt a nd N ubia/Ethiopia r espectively ( Potts, 1 982). I n t exts o f t he t hird a nd e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. t hese i dentifications a re g enerally t hought t o b e u nlikely. I t h as b een w idely a rgued t hat t here w as a s hift i n t oponymy b etween t his e arly p eriod a nd N eo-Assyrian t imes a nd t hat o riginally t he t wo n ames c orresponded t o r egions m ore d irectly a ccessible t o S umér d own t he G ulf a nd t o t he e ast, n ot t o t he w est. T wo d istinguished S umerologists ( Jacobsen, 1 960, 1 84, n .18; K ramer, 1 963, 2 76), d o n ot a ccept t his s hift, b elieving t hat t he

t wo n ames a lways ( b)

M agan,

b elieved

t o h ave

r eferred

w hen

t o

r egions

i n A frica.

r eferred t o i n e arly t exts,

b een a r egion a t

t he m outh o f

t he

i s n ow G ulf,

u sually e mbracing

m uch o f m odern O man a nd t he o pposite c oastal r egions o f I ran, p oss ibly i ncluding M akran, t hough s ome w ould i nclude t his a rea i n M eluhha ( cf. L eemans, 1 960 ; G elb, 1 970; R atnagar, 1 981). S o l ong a s t here i s n o a rchaeological e vidence t hat t he U mm a n-Nar c ulture e xtended t o t he I ranian s ide o f t he G ulf, t he M akran = M agan e quation r emains u nresolved. M agan s b oats r eached S umer a nd t he A kkadian k ings c laimed t o h ave c ampaigned t here a nd c luded s tone v essels b earing i nscriptions 1 963,

1 8).

T imber a nd w ooden o bjects,

t aken b ooty, w hich i nt o t his e ffect ( Hirsch,

a t ype o f o nion

( ? )‚ c opper

( Weisgerber, 1 984), i vory, g old d ust, c arnelian a nd o ther s emip recious s tones, d iorite, r ed o chre, a s w ell a s g oats, w ere a ll s aid t o c ome f rom M agan, b ut n ever l apis l azuli. S ome o f t hese g oods, n otably s ome, t exts

c arnelian a nd i vory,

w ere

l ike c opper a nd d iorite, o f ( c)

l ocal.

e ast,

O ccasional r eferences

i n

t he U r I II p eriod m ention m en f rom M agan i n S umer. M eluhha i s n ow u sually l ocated

w hen m entioned i n e arly t exts, c overing t he s hores o f w hat I ndian O cean. i n

w ere

b eing s hipped f rom f urther

I t w as a l and o f

M esopotamian

s ources.

i n t he I ndus v alley

r egion

t hough i t m ight b e o f w ider r eference i n m odern t imes h as b een c alled t he s ea-farers,

I ts e xports

x xi

w hose b oats a re m entioned

i ncluded t imber

a nd

w ooden

f urniture,

c opper,

g old

d ust,

l apis

l azuli,

c arnelian,

b irds,

i ncluding t he p eacock , a nd s uch m anufactured o bjects a s m ulticoloured i vory b irds, a c arnelian m onkey a nd a " red d og '. P eople f rom M eluhha w ere a lso s ettled i n M esopotamia ( cf. D uring-Caspars, 1 978; C elt, 1 970;

S oilberger,

1 970;

H ansman,

1 973;

P arpola,

1 977;

R atnagar,

1 981). C :

W ithin S yria,

e astern T urkey a nd I ran ( primarily

f irst

m illennium B .C.): T here

a re a s eries

o f

r egional n ames,

l argely i n

N eo-Assyrian

t exts, w hich r equire e lucidation t o u nderstand r eferences t o t he s ources a ssembled b y J ankowska ( 1969) c ited i n t he f ollowing p ages u nder h er n ame

( cf.

e specially f or t he h istorical g eography,

H awkins,

1 982). B it-Halupe:

t he

r egion

b etween t he E uphrates a nd

n orth o f T ell

A shara,

t he

l ower

B it-Zamani:

t he r egion n orth a nd n ortheast o f D iyabakir

H amath:

t he

H attina

H abur,

i n S yria. i n T urkey.

r egion o f m odern H ama i n S yria.

( correctly

P attin):

t he A muq r egion

o f

S yria,

o therwise

k nown i n a ntiquity a s U nqi. K (Q)ummuh:

t he

r egion

r ates, L aqe:

r egion o f

M usasir:

n orth o f

t o

t o

t he w est o f

a

E uph-

r eligious

i n S yria. c entre o f a ncient U rartu,

L ake U rmia n ear R owanduz i n I raq ( cf. N airi:

t he

t he s outhwest o f B it-Halupe o n t he o ther s ide

t he E uphrates

t he

S amsat,

i n T urkey.

r egion,

s outhwest

B oehmer,

b etween t he U pper E uphrates a nd L ake V an

e astern T urkey, s ources, w hen

o f

1 973). i n

s o-named i n s econd m illennium a nd l ater t his a rea i s b etter k nown a s t he k ingdom

o f U rartu. Q ue

( Hume):

S hubria:

i n m odern C ilicia, r egion

T urkey;

t he r egion o f m odern A dana.

s outh o f m odern M us,

i n T urkey,

n orthwards

t o

L ake V an. T abal: Z amua:

s outh-east c orner o f n ear

t he T urkish p lateau.

t he h eadquarters o f

t he D iyala r iver

i n t he

Z agros

m ountains.

( iv)

P revious l iterature o n t he s ubject:

S ome e xplanation i s r equired a t t he o utset a bout c ertain b ooks w hich t he r eader m ight e xpect t o f ind c ited h ere m ore o ften t han t hey a re.

R .

C ampbell

T hompson T h

A D ictionary o f A ssyrian C hemistry a nd

G eology ( 1936) w as a g reat p ioneering w ork , b ut i t i s n ow l argely s uperseded b y t he r elevant s ections o f t he s tandard E nglish a nd G erman l anguage d ictionaries o f A kkadian a nd, i n a s pecific c ase, b y 0 ppenhe1m s ( 1970) s tudy o f t he s o-called g lass t exts ( see p p.224ff h ere).

T o

t he s ame

p eriod b elongs

D evelopment o f A pplied C hemistry

J .R.

( 1935),

P artington s

O rigins a nd

i n i tself m uch i ndebted

t he w ork o f B erthelot. T his i s a r emarkable c ompendium o f t ion i n w hich E gypt a nd t he N ear E ast a re w ell r epresented.

t o

i nformaI t h as

b een f or m e a n i nvaluable s ource o f r eference f or s tudies m ade b efore t he e arly 1 930s. I nevitably m any o f i ts c onclusions a nd d etailed d iscussions h ave b een r eplaced b y f resh p hilological r esearch o r b y n ew

d iscoveries

i n a rchaeology a nd s cience.

P artington w as a s m uch

i ndebted a s Ia m t o a n e xcellent w ork w hich i n m any w ays i s s till n ot s uperseded, t hough t he a bsence o f a n E nglish o r F rench t ranslation h as a lways A ssyrien, R .J.

r estricted i ts c urrency, I -lI

( 1920,

F orbes,

B runo M eissner s

B abylonien u nd

1 925).

B ibliographia a ntiqua:

P hilosophia n aturalis

( 1940-

5 0; s upplement 1 952) i s a v aluable a nd e nduring c ompilation o f r efere nces; b ut h is S tudies i n A ncient T echnology ( 1955-1972), a re q uite a nother m atter. T hese w orks a re w idely a vailable h andbooks, d esigned f or s cholar a nd g eneral r eader a like, a nd a re c ommonly c ited. T hough f ull o f u seful i nformation d ifficult t o f ind e lsewhere, t hey s uffer f rom a n umber o f s erious d efficiencies. T he u se o f p hilological e vidence i s n otoriously u nreliable; a rchaeological i nformation i s u ncritically h andled,

i f c ited a t a ll;

t here i s o ften a n i mbalance

i n

t he h istorical e vidence c hosen f or i nclusion; a nd m any r eferences a re e ither m isleading o r s o i mprecise a s t o b e m erely i rritating. T he " revised"

e ditions a re u nfortunately n o b etter,

( 1965, 2 91, n .27) r emarked o f o ne o f d ate, b ut h is r esults a re s o c onfused T he r emarkable l ife

a nd

m aterial

s eries o f c ulture

f or a s

L andsberger

t hem " (it) i s i n a s ense, u p t o t hat t hey d efy c riticism".

b ooks o n a spects o f M esopotamian p ublished b y A rmas

S alonen

i n

d aily G erman

b etween 1 939 a nd 1 976 a re d ifficult f or n on-philologists t o u se. A t t he s ame t ime t hey a dopt a n a pproach t o t he p hilological e vidence t hat m ay b e s eriously m isleading, i f t he r eader i s n ot a ware o f i t. I n 0 ppenhe1m 5 ( 1978, 6 60, n .151) c autionary w ords: " Salonen s b ooks i n m any r espects c onstitute p ioneering w ork t hat o f n ecessity i s w ord-orientated. T hey d o n ot t ake i nto a ccount t he s pecific e videntiary v alue o f t he t ext t ypes i n w hich t hese w ords o ccur a nd t he

c omplexities

o f t he s ocio-economic s tructures

t hat

c reated

t he

d ocumentation". I n

1 978

D ayton d evoted s ubstantial p arts o f a l arge

a nd

w ell

i llustrated b ook t o t he n ature a nd h istory o f E gyptian B lue, a nd i ts c losest r elatives, i n t he a ncient N ear E ast a nd E gypt, u nder t he t itle M inerals, M etals, G lazing a nd M an. D ayton, b y a rbitrarily l owering t he d ates o f m uch N ear E astern a nd E gyptian a rchaeological m aterial f rom t he t hird t o t he s econd m illennium B .C., a nd b y v irtua lly i gnoring t he p rehistory o f a pplied c hemistry i n t he r egion, a ttempted t o s ustain t he h ypothesis t hat i n t he N ear E ast m etallurgy a nd t he c raft o f g lazing d epended o n E urope b oth f or r aw m aterials a nd f or t echnology. T he a uthor s i ndiscriminate m ixture o f g ood a nd b ad i nformation, t o s ustain a n i ndefensible a nd s elf-evidently c onfused c ase, v itiated a b ook w hose b ibliography i s o ften u seful a nd

w hose

( v)

i llustrations a re f or

t he m oment a u nique p oint-of-reference.

S elect T echnical G lossary f or M etalworking:

T he f ollowing s ections i nevitably i ntroduce t he a rchaeologist a nd a rt-historian t o a n ew v ocabulary. T he f ollowing c oncise g lossary i ncludes

o nly

t he m ost

r ecurrent

t erms

i n t he g eneral l iterature

o f

t he s ubject. A :

w ith p articular r eference t o p recious m etals, a lloys

A nnealing:

( cf. t he

p articularly C oghian, p rocess o f h eating

c aused b y h ammering B razing

t o

1 975;

r ed h eat

( see p p.39ff.

( Hard-Soldering) a nd S oft-Soldering:

c opper a nd c opper

M aryon, t o

1 949):

r emedy b rittleness

h ere). a re

j oining

t echniques

i nvolving a n a gent ( filler m etal). C onventionally s old ering r efers t o p rocesses b elow 4 50 ° C ; b razing t o p roc esses a bove 4 50 0 C .

( see p p.87ff.

h ere).

C asting:

s ee p p.40ff.

i n t he m ain t ext.

C asting-on :

a m ethod e mployed n ot o nly i n r epairing b roken o r d amaged o bjects, b ut a lso i n m anufacture, t o f orm j oins b etween e lements i n c opper/copper a lloys, o r b etween e lements i n c opper/copper a lloys a nd i ron ( see p p.40ff. i n m ain t ext).

C hasing:

h ammering r elief

E ngraving:

t he m etal d own f rom t he f ront t o p roduce a l ow-

d esign w ith l inear m argins.

l inear

d esigns

m ade

o n t he s urface w ith a

s harp

t ool

w hich r emoves t he m etal f rom t he g roove i t c uts. I t i s n ot c ertain h ow m uch t his w as d one b efore s teel c ame w idely 1 971). F orging:

t he

i nto u se

p rocess

f or w orking t ools

b y w hich a p iece o f m etal i s

h ammering e ither a t o r w hen h eated. P unching:

s hape d ie)

( cf.

L owery

e t a l.,

s haped

t hrough

i ts n ormal t emperature

( cold w orking)

o r d ecoration a chieved w ith a p atterned h ammered i nto

t ool

t he s urface o f a p iece o f m etal

( or ( cf.

a lso S tamping). R aising:

p roduction o utside. ( stake)

o f a s heetmetal v essel b y h ammering f rom

t he

A d isk o f m etal i s w orked o ver a s pecial a nvil w ith u nusually l ong a rms w hich c an e nter t he

v essel b eing m ade. R epoussé:

h ammering

t he

d esign

u p

f rom t he b ack o f

a

p iece

o f

s heetmetal s o t hat i t a ppears i n r elief i n t he f ront; n ormally d one w ith a b lunt t ool a gainst a y ielding s urf ace.

xxiv

S inking:

m aking a s heetmetal v essel b y h ammering t he m etal d own i nto a s uitably s haped d epression c ut i nto w ood o r a s imilar m aterial.

S oldering: S tamping:

T racing:

s ee

B razing a bove.

p roducing

a

f rom t he P unching).

b ack

l inear d esigns

d esign b y u sing a p atterned o f

a

p iece

o f

t ool

s heetmetal

( or

d ie)

( cf.

a lso

o n t he s urface m ade w ith a s lightly

b lunt

t ool w hich d isplaces a nd c ompresses, b ut d oes n ot r emove t he m etal f rom t he g roove i t m akes ( contrast E ngraving).

B :

w ith p articular r eference t o i ron t echnology

( cf.

p articularly

S tech W heeler e t a l.,

1 983,

1 77ff.).

A ustenite:

a

1 976,

1 08ff.;

W aldbaum,

s olid p hase o f c arbon i n i ron,

a t

t emperatures

o ver 7 10 0 C . B loomery i ron:

i n a ntiquity

t he f irst p roduct

o f

s melting i ron o re

i n c harcoal. I t i s a r elatively p ure i ron s mall a mounts o f s lag.

w ith

C arburization :

t he p rocess o f h eating b loomery i ron i n d irect c ontact w ith c harcoal. C arbon i s a bsorbed i nto t he i ron c onverting t he a reas i n w hich t hey c ombine i nto s teel.

D ecarburization:

t he p rocess f or d epleting s urface l ayers o f c arbon. C arburized i ron i s h eated i n a n o xidizing a tmosp here s o t hat t he c arbon I n t he s urface l ayers c ombines w ith o xygen a nd

E utectoid s teel: M artensite:

a n a lloy o f t he

i s g iven o ff a s

I ron w ith 0 .8% c arbon.

p roduct

a rising

w hen

a ustenite

c ooled, a s b y p lunging a n o bject I t i s h ard a nd b rittle. P earlite:

t he

g as.

p roduct

s lowly. T he a ppearance o f

i s

s harply

i nto c old w ater.

a rising w hen a ustenite i s c ooled n ame d erives t he a ustenite:

f rom t he a lternate

m ore

d ecomposed l amellae o f

f errite ( pure i ron) a nd c ementite ( a c ompound o f i ron a nd c arbon) w ith a " pearly" a ppearance u nder t he o ptical m icroscope. Q uenching:

p lunging c ooling

a

h ot

m edium ;

m etal

s ome

o ther

m ost c ommonly u sed f or h ot

i nto w ater

o r

s teel

( austenite). T empering:

t he

p rocess

f or

r elieving

t he

b rittleness

m artensite, a ccomplished b y h eating t o a t ure i n e xcess o f 1 50 0 C .

xxv

o f

t empera-

W elding:

h eating t wo p ieces o f m etal t o b e

j oined,

a lmost t o

m elting-point, a nd t hen h ammering t hem t ogether. I n a ntiquity i t c ould n ot h ave b een u sed t o j oin c opper o r c opper a lloys, W idmanstätten s tructure:

a

o nly i ron.

m icrostructure c haracterized b y a t end-

e ncy o f f errite ( pure i ron) t o f orm p lates, d uring c ooling f rom a bove 7 10 0 C , a long c ertain c rystallog raphic p lanes o f t he p arent a ustenite.

( vi)

S elect C hemical A bbreviations:

A g A l

S ilver A luminium

N a N i

S odium N ickel

A s A u

A rsenic G old

P P b

P hosphorus L ead

B B a

B oron B arium

R b

R ubidium

B i

B ismuth

S S b

S ulphur A ntimony

C a

C alcium

S i

S ilicon

C l C o

C hlorine C obalt

S n S r

T in S trontium

C r

C hromium

C u

C opper

T i

T itanium

F e

I ron

V

V anadium

K

P otassium Z n

Z inc

L

L ithium

Z r

Z irconium

M g

M agnesium

M n

M anganese

M o

M olybdenum

x xvi

C hapter 1 .

i ron,

M ETALS A ND M ETALWORK

T he m ain m etals u sed i n M esopotamia i n a ntiquity w ere c opper, l ead, g old, a nd s ilver; t in w as a lloyed, m ore r arely u sed

a lone.

O ccasional

i nstances o f m etal a ntimony h ave b een

r eported,

b ut t heir i dentity i s e quivocal. B ronze ( copper a nd t in) w as i mportant a lloy; b efore t he m id o r l ater s econd m illennium B .C.

a n i t

m ay n ot h ave b een a s c ommon a s h as b een a ssumed. A rsenic a s a m etal w as a pparently n ot k nown. A rsenical c oppers, h owever, w ere a s ignif icant f eature o f t he c opper i ndustry f or c enturies; b ut w hether s trictly a lloys o r n ot h as y et t o b e d etermined. B rass, a n a lloy o f c opper a nd z inc, a ppeared i n A natolia i n t he e ight c entury B .C., b ut n o c ertain e xample o f

i t,

m anufactured i n M esopotamia,

h as y et

b een

i dentified. E lectrum, b oth n atural a nd a rtificial, w as e mployed a nd m ay w ell h ave b een f ar m ore c ommon t han p resent i dentifications o f " gold"

a nd

" silver" m ight

s uggest.

N ickel a nd z inc a s m etals

w ere

n ot k nown. I :

A NTIMONY:

A n umber o f A kkadian w ords, n otably g u j jlu ( CAD.s.v.; A Hw.s.v.) , h ave b een t aken t o m ean a ntimony. S hamshi-Adad V ( c.823-811 B .C.) m entions t hat o n c ampaign t o t he e ast h e c rossed " the m ountain o f g uhlu-mineral"

( Meissner,

1 914).

G ublu i s a lso r ecorded a s

t ribute,

i n N eo-Assyrian r ecord, f rom t he K ing o f J udah, f rom A rabia a nd f rom D ilmun. V arious o ther A kkadian w ords, u sed t o d enote c osmetics o r i ngredients i n g lass-making r ecipes, m ay a lso m ean a ntimony ( cf. O ppenheim , 1 970, 1 9ff.). L imet ( 1960, 5 5ff.; O ppenheim, 1 970, 2 1) a rgued t hat i n m etal t exts o f t he U r I II p eriod S umerian S U.GAN ( or S U.GAN s mall

m ight h ave b een a ntimony ( or a rsenic). q uantities o f s ome m aterial

( "dross")

T his w ord

d escribes

l eft u naccounted

f or

i n

b ronze m aking a nd, a s H allo ( 1963, 1 40) f irst a rgued, i t i s m ost u nlikely t o m ean a ntimony ( or a rsenic) ( cf. R öllig a nd M uhly, 1 983, 3 50). F ew c hemical a nalyses o f M esopotamian e ye c osmetics h ave y et b een p ublished. W hen t hey a re a vailable, t hey b ear o ut t he v iew e xpressed b y L ucas ( 1962, 8 0-3, 1 96) f or a ncient E gypt, t hat a ntimony c ompound w as v ery r arely u sed a s a e ye-paint ( Oppenheim, 1 970, n .13; B imson, 1 980), s o t he a ncient v ocabulary f or " antimony" h ave b een m ore r estricted t han i s a t p resent b elieved.

1 17, m ay

I n v iew o f w hat a re t aken t o b e t extually a ttested u ses o f a ntimony c ompounds i n M esopotamia, i t i s p articularly i mportant t o b e c lear a bout t he s ulphide

t his m etal's c haracter. I t o ccurs i n n ature c hiefly a s ( Stibnite) a nd, t o a m uch l esser e xtent, i n c ombination

w ith o ther m etallic s ulphides. I t i s u nlikely t hat t he p reparation o f m etallic a ntimony f rom s tibnite w as a p rocess p ractised i n a ntiq uity.

I t w as k nown i n E urope o nly

f rom t he

l ater M iddle A ges.

I t

i s m ore l ikely t hat t he m etallic a ntimony o f a ntiquity w as t he r are n ative m etal, w hich i s o ccasionally f ound a s g ranular m asses w ith a 1

T ABLE

I

T he A ncient T erminology f or M etals i n M esopotamia

S umerian

C OPPER

Akkadian

URUDU

( w)er

V

G OLD

K U.GI/GUSKIN

I RON

h ur su

K U.AN/AN.NA ( 3rd m ill.)

p arzillu

A N B AR .

a b ru

A -BAR

L EAD

k a sP u

K U-BABBAR

S ILVER

T IN

AN.NA

a nnaku

B RONZE

Z ABAR

s iparru

( see p articularly L imet, H yslop,

1 972).

1 960,

p assim;

f or i ron,

G urney

i n M axwell-

t in-white c olour a nd a m etallic l ustre i n l imestone o r m arble v eins. A ntimony o ccurs i n s mall q uantities i n t hree I ranian m ines, t wo n ear A narak, t he 1 968, 5 12). K urdistan 1 975).

o ther a bout 1 00 m iles n orth-west o f B irjand ( Harrison, I t h as a lso b een r eported f rom t he m ountains o f

( Partington,

A ntimony, b ronze o bjects

1 935,

2 56) a nd T ranscaucasia

( Selimkhanov,

a s a t race e lement, h as b een r ecognized i n c opper a nd f rom M esopotamia a nd a djacent r egions ( Moorey, 1 971,

2 98; B erthoud a nd F rancaix, 1 980, f ig.4; B erthoud e t a l., 1 981). W here a ntimony w as a vailable i n a ssociation w ith c opper o res i t w as e xploited i n p rehistoric c opper p roduction i n E urope ( Davies, 1 935) a nd i n C aucasia ( Kuftin, 1 941). h ardening e ffect o n c opper, b ut i s

q uite

s uitable

f or c asting a nd a g ood t emper m ay

c utting-tools b y h ot-forging. p roduce a b rittle a lloy a nd ( Charles,

1 980,

A ntimony, l ike a rsenic, h as a i n p ercentages u p t o a bout s even i t b e

g iven

t o

H owever, h igh p ercentages o f a ntimony i t i s n o c ompetitor f or t in-bronze

1 71-2).

I nstances

o f

t he u se o f m etallic a ntimony f or o bjects

i n

M eso-

p otamia a re v ery r are. T wo e xamples h ave l ong b een e stablished i n A ssyriological l iterature, o riginally t hrough a l ecture b y H erbert G ladstone

( 1892, " M.

2 27):

O ppert

i ndeed

f ound a t K horsabad a t ablet o f

m etallic a ntimony, a nd M . S arzec f ound a t T ello p art o f a v ase o f p ure a ntimony". A r emark m ade o n t he s ame o ccasion,

i n d iscussion ,

b y A usten r emains

h ighly r elevant: " ...we o nly k now a ntimony a t

t he p resent d ay a s a h ighly b rittle

a nd c rystalline m etal, w hich c ould h ardly b e f ashioned i nto a u seful v ase, a nd t herefore t his r emarkable f ind m ust r epresent t he l ost a rt

o f

r endering

a ntimony m alleable,.."

P artington

( 1935,

2 56,

c iting B erthelot) s aid t he m etal c onsisted o f " antimony f ree f rom c opper, l ead, b ismuth a nd z inc, b ut w ith a t race o f c opper". S elimkhanov ( 1975), w ith t he a ssistance o f t he L ouvre l aboratory, r einvestigated

t he

T elloh

f ragment

a nd

p ublished

t he

f ollowing

a nalysis:

C u

S n

A g

B i

M ajor

S b

0 .072%

0 .002%

0 .05%

0 .003%

0 .02%

0 .017%

0 .003%

N i 0 .002%

C o 0 .002%

F e 0 .01%

M o 0 .001%

L i 0 .0005%

P b 0 .001%

S r 0 .004%

M g 0 .009%

N a 0 .045%

K 0 .019%

C a 0 .2%

A l 0 .01%

M n 0 .002%

T i 0 .0005%

V 0 .01%

B 0 .0005%

H e

a ttempted t o

r elate

P b

t he m etal

Z n

A s

t o T ranscaucasian n atural

a ntimony

a nd t o l ocal m anufactured a ntimony; b ut t he r esults w ere i ndecisive. I t i s n ot c ertain t hat t he o bject i n q uestion w as a v ase. T he a ntimony o bjects f rom T ransaucasia a re a ll s mall p ersonal o rnaments. 3

T he s upposed f oundation t ablet

f rom K horsabad i nvolves a

s imple

m atter o f m istranslation; t here n ever w as a m etallurgical i dentificat ion. N o s uch o bject w as f ound a t K horsabad; t he t ablet i n q uestion w as o f

s tone,

p robably m agnesite

( Ellis,

1 968,

1 94,

n o.

7 8).

B eads o f a ntimony h ave b een r eported f rom a n I ron A ge H asanlu i n n orth-west I ran ( Dyson, 1 964). w ith m any o ther m etals t o f orm a lloys; a n m akes a w hite m etal o f b luish t int a n

a rchaeological c ontext

t hat

c ontext a t

A ntimony c ombines r eadily a lloy o f t in a nd a ntimony

i s m alleable a nd d uctile.

t he e ye m ight w ell c onfuse

I n

i t w ith s ilver.

D ayton ( 1978, 4 50) f ound t hat f our b eads f rom a n I ron A ge g rave a t T ell e l-Farah ( South) i n I srael w ere m ade o f 6 6% t in a nd 3 3% a ntim ony, s o t his a lloy m ay h ave b een m ore p revalent i n t he N ear E ast t han I s y et a pparent. F or t he p resent t here i s n o c lear e vidence f or t he i ntentional a lloying o f a ntimony w ith b ase m etals i n M esopotamia.

I I:

A RSENIC T here

I s

n o a nalytical e vidence

f or t he a ncient u se o f

a rsenic

a s a m etal i n M esopotamia, n or h as a ny w ord f or i t b een r eliably I dentified i n S umerian o r A kkadian. S o f ar a s p resent e vidence g oes i t s eems n either t o h ave b een i solated a s a n i ndependent e lement n or r ecognized a s a n ative m etal I n a ncient M esopotamia. A s a n a lloying e lement I n c opper, f or w hich t here i s I ncreasing e vidence t hroughout t he a ncient N ear E ast ( see p p.15ff.), I t m ay h ave o ccurred w ith c opper o res. W ith s melting a nd r educing c onditions, I t f ormed n atural a lloys w hose v alue w as e arly r ecognized b y o bservation a nd e xperience I n c opper c asting. A t a s ubsequent s tage a rsenical-copper a lloys m ay h ave b een a rtificially a chieved b y r educing s uitable a rsenic o res i n c ontact w ith m olten c opper i n a c rucible. T he

u se

o f

t he b rightly c oloured

a rsenic

s ulphides,

r ealgar

( red) a nd o rpiment ( yellow) I s a d istinct m atter r elevant t o t he h istory o f p igments a nd a lso o f w ax f or w riting b oards, s ince t he t wo w ere m ixed 1 955).

I II:

f or

t his p urpose I n N eo-Assyrian

t imes

( cf.

W iseman,

C OPPER A ND I TS A LLOYS C opper w as

i t w as b ecame

t he m ost w idely u sed o f m etals

i n M esopotamia,

c opper I s

r epresented i n e vidence

f rom M esopotamia,

w here I t i nvari-

a bly a rrived a s a p rocessed o r s emi-processed i mport, r eview o f t he p reliminaries i s n ecessary f or a p roper o f t his m etal s M uhly, 1 983). C opper

c rucial

o ccurs

r ole

n aturally i n s mall q uantities

m ost a ccessible i n m ost w ould

r egions a nd t he s implest

h ave m ade

s ome g eneral u nderstanding

i n l owland m etallurgy ( cf.

1 U11ig

a nd

i n v arious p arts o f

t he w orld, t he N ear E ast a mong t hem ( Coghlan, 1 975, o res t he o xides, a ppearing i n t he w eathered s urface c olours

w here

t he c heapest o f a ll u ntil t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod, w hen i ron c heaper. A lthough, f or t he m ost p art, o nly t he m anufacture o f

1 8ff). O f c opper ( gossan), a re t he

t o w ork .

t hem p articularly e ye-catching

T heir r ich t o

p ioneer

•p rospectors. T his g roup I ncludes c uprite a nd m elaconite, t he c arbona tes m alachite ( green b asic c arbonate; t he r ichest I n c opper o f a ll

t he o res) a nd a zurite ( blue b asic c arbonate) a nd t he s ilicate c hrysoc olla ( blue o r b luish-green). M ore d ifficult t o w ork a re t he s econda ry s ulphides, f rom t he p arent o re, w hich i s u nweathered, a nd f rom a z one o f s econdary e nrichment b etween t he p rimary s ulphides a nd t he g ossan.

T his g roup e mbraces c halcocite

( copper g lance)

a nd c ovellite

f rom t he z one o f s econdary e nrichment, a nd t he i ron s ulphide m inerals c halcopyrite ( copper p yrites) a nd b ornite ( peacock o re). I t h as b ecome i ncreasingly c lear t o s tudents o f n ear E astern m etallurgy t hat c ertain c opper-bearing o res o f m ore r estricted o ccurrence a lso p layed a n I mportant r ole, a s i t i s p robably t hrough t heir u se t hat t he m etals a rsenic a nd a ntimony e ntered e arly c opper o bjects. T hese o res I nclude a s ulphide t etrahedrite ( fahlerz), c ontaining i ron a nd a ntim ony; b ournonite, c ontaining l ead a nd a ntimony; t ennantite, c ontaini ng i ron a nd a rsenic; a nd e nargite, c ontaining a rsenic a nd c opper. R ecent r esearch i n I ran h as a lso p laced e mphasis o n c ertain n ative a rsenides

o f c opper,

s urface a nd i ncluded K arlovsky, 1 980). N o

l ess

a lgodonite a nd d omeykite, i n c opper-bearing g ossans

i mportant

c opper i n a lloys. o r i nadvertently

f or

f ound c lose ( Heskel a nd

t o

t he

L amberg-

t he h istory o f m etallurgy i s t he r ole

o f

A n a lloy i s t he r esult o f c ombining i ntentionally t wo o r m ore m etals i n t he p resence o f h eat. A

d eliberate a lloy I s u sually m ade e ither t hrough c o-smelting v arious o res; t hrough t he c ombination o f o res a nd m etals; o r t hrough c ombini ng m etals a lready p rocessed s eparately ( by s melting t o t he m etallic s tate) a s i s m ost u sual i n a n i ndustry. A s t in i s o f l imited o ccurr ence i n n ature, p articularly i n t he N ear E ast, i t i s c onventionally a ssumed t hat t in-copper a lloys ( bronzes) a re d eliberate m an-made c ombinations. S uch a lso i s t he c ase w ith c ombinations o f z inc a nd c opper t o m ake b rass, w hich d oes n ot a ppear i n t he N ear E ast u ntil t he m ature I ron A ge. C ontrivances m ay n ot b e s o c onfidently i dentif ied i n t he c ase o f a rsenical c oppers, w hich o ccur i n n ature m ore c ommonly.

O n

t he b asis o f g eological e vidence a lone i t

i s n ot p os-

s ible t o s ay w hether a n a rsenical c opper i s a n atural o r a n a rtific ial a lloy, s o t he t erm a rsenical b ronze, w hich i mplies t he l atter, ain t he n ecessary e lement o f a mbiget t o r w e s t l e v e l o f s e l e c t i o n o f o r e s , t here l o u ity. H owever, e ven a t t he ice s o t he t erm a lloy i s p ermissible. ho w as a d eliberate e xercise o f c ower l imits f or a n i ntentional a lloy B oth w ith t in a nd a rsenic t he l t a bout 2 o r 3 % f or t in ( though m uch a re a rbitrarily s et, u sually a i s

a voided h ere i n o rder

l ower f igures m ay r easonably b e a rgued, s ee p .18) a nd a t a bout 0 .9% f or a rsenic, s ince m ost v alues i n t his c ase a re e ither a bove t his f igure o r m erely p arts p er A .

t housand

( see p .17).

S upport T echnology A lthough i t

m ents v aries e arliest m etal

i s

i ncreasingly e vident

f rom r egion t o

c oppers w ere

( Patterson,

r egion,

t he p urest

1 971)

i t

t hat

t he p attern o f d evelop-

r emains b roadly t rue t hat

c oppers,

a s

t he

t hey w ere e ither n ative

o r c opper s melted f rom i ts o xide o r c arbonate

o res. B y h and p icking s pecially p ure p ieces o f t he o re r easonably p ure s amples o f c opper ( though l ess p ure t han t he b est o f n ative c oppers) c an b e p roduced. B ut, a s t he m ajor c opper d eposits i n A natolia, I ran a nd C yprus a re o f s ulphide o re, t heir u se m ay h ave b een p recipitated r elatively e arly. B y t he e arlier t hird m illennium B .C., a t t he l atest, s ulphide o res w ere b eing s melted s uccessfully i n A natolia

( Zwicker,

1 980)

a nd O man ( Weisgerber, 5

1 983).

A ll t he p reliminary s tages i n m etal p reparation ( Coghian, 1 975, 2 6ff.), a fter m ining, a re l ikely t o h ave t aken p lace i n t he s ource z ones w here t he c onsiderable q uantities o f f uel n eeded w ould h ave b een m ost r eadily a vailable. H om e ( 1982) h as e xamined t he r ole o f c harcoal, a nd i ts p roduction, i n a ncient N ear E astern m etalworking. T aking 5 k g. o f c opper, e nough f or a bout 2 0 s haft-hole a xeheads, a s t he p otential p roduct o f a s ingle s melt, s he c alculates a c onsumption o f a t

l east 1 00 k g.

o f

o f l abour t o p roduce 7 00 k g. o f w ood. T he p rocesses

c harcoal.

( at 3 0 k g.

T his w ould h ave

t aken 3 .3 m an d ays

p er m an d aily) a nd w ould h ave

u sed

o f m ining a nd b asic s melting w ould g enerally

h ave

b een r emote f rom t he k nowledge a nd e xperience o f M esopotamian s miths. G udea s r eference t o t he m ining o f c opper i s e xceptional ( Falkens tein, 1 966; S tatue B :VI:21-3; C ylinder A :XVI.15ff; c f. C .A.D.s.v. u rru); i f o re t ravelled a t a ll, i t i s l ikely t o h ave b een a s c aref ully s elected p ieces. I n h er s tudy o f t he m aterials l isted i n N eoA ssyrian a nnals J ankowska ( 1969, 2 65) c ommented: " Highly s ignificant i s t he p redominance o f i ngots i n t he r eserves o f a ll t he c ountries, w hether i t b e p recious m etals, b ronze, c opper, t in o r i ron. A pparently i t w as u sual o nly t o s melt t he o re i n t he m ining r egions. . . a ll f urther p rocessing b eing d one b y t he c onsumers, w ho h ad a vailable c raftsm en•. A lthough t his m ay h ave b een t he g eneral r ule, t here a re i solated c ases w here i t i s p ossible t o s tudy i n s itu n ot o nly t he c omposition o f t he u nrefined m etal s traight f rom t he s melting f urnace, b ut a lso a rtefacts m ade f rom s uch m etal i n p roduction c entres a djacent t o t he m ines. T imna i n I srael, a m ining r egion f or c opper w here L ate B ronze A ge v otives h as p roved R othenberg,

( of r aw a nd m anufactured m etal) w ere p laced i n a t emple, i deal f or s uch s tudies ( Rothenberg, 1 972; C onrad a nd 1 980; C raddock, 1 980a). T he i nformation f rom T imna

a llows t he c omposition o f a rtefacts t o b e r elated d irectly t o t he p arent o res a nd t he s melting p rocesses a s r evealed b y e xcavations. T he T imna a nalyses a lso s how t he p urity a nd d egree o f c onsistency i n a rtefact c omposition t o b e e xpected f or c opper f rom o ne a ncient p roduction c entre. T his i nformation h as b een m ade m ore u seful b y m odern s melting e xperiments u sing r econstructions o f t he a ncient T imna f urnaces ( Tylecote, 1 977). S uch w ork i s c rucial a s a c ontrol o n r esearch c onfined t o a rtefacts a lone, f or a fter s melted m etal h as b een r emoved t o a m anufacturing c entre, i t m ay b e p urified o r p erhaps m ixed

w ith m etal

r elationship m asked. O f w ith c opper,

f rom o ther

s ources a nd w ith s crap.

O man i s

t he o nly o ne w here

s tudies

t he

o f c omparable

s ity a re a t p resent p roceeding ( Weisgerber, 1 981). r egions i ndicate t hat s crap m ay h ave b een w idely e arlier i n t he c ommonly a ssumed. F urnace

T hus

t rue

t o t he p arent o re a nd t he s melting p rocess i s c ompletely t he r egions l ikely t o h ave b een s upplying M esopotamia

e stablishment o f

d evelopment

c opper i ndustries

i s a s ubject

i nten-

S tudies i n o ther u sed f rom m uch t han

h as

b een

f or w hich t here i s v ery l ittle

h ard e vidence f rom t he a ncient N ear E ast. D espite m any r eferences t o t he c ontrary i t i s u nlikely t hat c opper w as s melted i n c rucibles i n a ntiquity.

T ylecote

( 1974)

h as

a rgued

t hat

p ure o xidized c opper c an b e

s o

c onverted b ut l ow g rade o xide o r s ulphide m inerals c annot a nd t hey w ere t hen b y f ar t he c ommonest a vailable. T he o riginal S umerian p ictograph f or t he s ign f or a s mith ( SIMUC), i n t he m iddle o f t he f ourth m illennium B .C., a ppears t o s how t he p lan o f a s melting f urnace w ith a ttached b lowpipes o r t uyères ( Falkenstein, 3 25). A n umber o f w ords i n t he r elevant a ncient l anguages

1 936, n o. a t p resent

v ariously t ranslated a s f urnace", " kiln o r " brazier" h ave y et t o b e e lucidated t echnically ( Salonen, 1 964). I t i s a ssumed a t t he p resent t hat k i'kattt i ( C.A.D. s .v.) i s t he A kkadian w ord m ost d enoted a m etallurgical f urnace.

l ikely

t o h ave

I t n eeds t o b e s tressed t hat m etallurgical f urnaces d iffer f rom t hose o f o ther f ired m aterials i n r equiring t hat t he m etallic o res b e p laced i n d irect c ontact w ith t he f uel ( charcoal o r c oal) i f t hey a re t o b e

r educed

f rom t heir o xide,

c arbonate o r s ulphide s tates a nd

b e s eparated f rom s iliceous g angues ( Tylecote, 1 980). e xceptions, a nd e ven t hen t here m ay b e a cute p roblems d atings f or i ndustrial i nstallations ( Rothenberg e t a l.,

t o

W ith r are w ith c lose 1 978; T yle-

c ote, 1 980), t he e arly t echnology o f s melting h as b een r econstructed b y a nalogy a nd i nference. M odern p rimitive m ethods ( though t hey d isplay a b ewildering v ariety o f p ossibilities) a nd c ommon s ense a pplication o f m etallurgical c hemistry ( despite o ften p oor u nders tanding o f m any e arly p rocesses) a re t he k ey r esources i n s uch d iscussions. W hen t heir d ate m ay b e r eliably e stablished, a nd t hat i s a ll t oo r arely, t he p otential o f s lags f or r econstructing s melting m ethods h as

b een

i ncreasingly e xploited

i nevitably

s low .

( cf.

T ylecote,

I ron o res w ere o ne o f

1 980);

b ut

p rogress

t he p rime f luxing a gents

i s f or

r emoving s ilica g angue i n c opper a nd l ead s melting a nd l eft a f ayaute o r i ron-silica s lag ( Cooke a nd A schenbrenner, 1 975). N orsun T epe i n s outh-east A natolia, p robably u sing o re f rom t he E rgani M aden m ine, i s ( Zwicker,

o ne o f t he f ew s ites f rom w hich s lag a nalyses a re a vailable 1 980). I n a ll t he e xamples e xamined, o f t he m id-fourth

m illennium B .C., c hloride f luxes h ad b een u sed t o s melt c opper o res. T here w as a lso e vidence o f t rials w ith a m ore c omplex o re c ontaining a rsenic a nd a ntimony. B y a bout 2 800 B .C., a s a lready n oted, s ulphide o res w ere

o f

b eing

s melted

o n t his

s ite

( see p .5).

I t m ight b e a nticipated t hat o ne o f t he m ost o bvious a c ommerce i n m etals i nto M esopotamia w ould b e i rgots;

i ndicators b ut v ery

f ew a re y et k nown f rom c ontrolled e xcavations. T he e arliest s melting f urnaces a re l ikely t o h ave p roduced l ittle m ore t han s craps o f m etal i n t he s lage. T his w ould h ave b een b roken u p t o r elease t he m etal f or m elting i n c rucibles a nd c asting i nto i ngots ( Tylecote, 1 980, 1 93-6). E vidence o utside M esopotamia s uggests t hat p iano-convex o r b un-shaped i ngots w ere c ommonly u sed i n t he B ronze A ge. T wo e xamples w ere f ound i n a c ontext d ated t o t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. a t T ell C huera ( Moortgat/Moortgat-Correns, 2 9a-b) a nd e xamples a re r eported f rom O man

1 978, 6 6ff., ( Weisgerber,

f igs. 1 981,

f ig.40). B ar i ngots s eem t o h ave b een u sed i n t he s econd m illennium B .C. f or g eneral w orkshop p urposes; t hey w ere b eing c ast i n t he T ell e dh-Dhiba i w orkshop ( p.37) a nd t wo w ere f ound i n t he G iparu a t U r ( Woolley, 1 976, 5 6: U .6622, 6 685; s ee a lso W oolley, 1 962, 1 05: U .109, m ade

1 15:

U .9048).

f rom l arger i ngots,

T hey m ay r epresent a s econdary s tage, o r

f rom s crap,

7

t o a id

p erhaps

i n t he p roduction o f

p articular o bjects. B ut t exts m ake c lear t hat t his w as a lso a s a c onvenient s hape f or p ackaging i n o verland t rade. R ing-ingots

( Limet,

1 960,

s .v.

r egarded

U RUDU H AR) w ould h ave b een e asy

t o t hread a nd t ransport, t hough t hey m ay m ore c ommonly h ave b een p roduced f or p urposes o f e xchange t han t hose o f m anufacture. I t i s p robable t hat a n umber o f t he o bjects f rom M esopotamian e xcavations c atalogued a s " heavy b racelets/anklets" w ere, i n f act, r ing-ingots. I n t he

a w idely r anging s tudy D ayton

g reat v ariety o f

( 1974) h as

c opper a nd b ronze

c alled a ttention t o

r ings e ncountered o n

e xcava-

t ions i n M esopotamia, a nd e lsewhere i n t he a ncient N ear E ast. H e a ttempted t o r elate t heir w eights t o a s ystem b ased o n e quivalents i n b arley

a nd

w heat.

T he u se o f

" ring m oney"

i n t he r egion

i s

w ell

d ocumented; b ut i ts r ole a s a m edium o f e xchange, p assing b y w eight, h as y et t o b e p roperly d emonstrated i n t erms o f t he m aterial e vid ence.

T he c lear

i dentity o f

r ing m oney,

a s d istinct

f rom p ersonal

o rnaments o r t he l ike, i s n ot a lways r eadily a pparent. E ven w hen i dentity i s s ecurely e stablished, w eighing i ndividual o bjects i n s earch o f a n e stablished s tandard m ay b e t o m isconceive a n e ssentia lly r andom s ystem i n w hich t he t otal w eight o f p ieces u sed a s c urr ency o n a s pecific o ccasion w as w hat m attered, r ather t han t he w eight o f

i ndividual

" rings".

O xhide-shaped i ngots w ere c haracteristic o f t he E ast M editerr anean L ate B ronze A ge t rade i n c opper. T here i s a n i solated e xample i n M esopotamia, f rom l evel I , o f t he t welfth c entury B .C., a t A qar Q uf ( Baghdad: I M 5 1170: D K 4 -124, R .76; 4 5x33x6cm .). S uch i ngots w ere p robably c ast i n t his d istinctive s hape t o f acilitate h andling a nd p acking i n t ransit ( cf. T ylecote, 1 980, 1 94-5); a m ould f or s uch a n i ngot h as b een e xcavated a t R as I bn H ani i n S yria ( Lagarce, 1 983, f igs.

1 3,

1 5).

B oth S umerian a nd Akkadian h ave a v aried t erminology f or d isting uishing q ualities o f c opper ( Limet, 1 960, 3 3ff.; C .A.D. s .v. n one o f w hich m ay y et b e i dentified w ith a ny p recision a mong a rchaeol ogical m aterial ( Röllig a nd M uhly, 1 983, 3 45-6). E ven m inerals

i f a re

f urnacess

f or

u nlikely

t o b e

t he e xtraction o f m etals f ound i n e xcavations

f rom i n

s uitable

I raq,

t hose

s uitable f or t he r emelting o r r eforging o f m etal f or m aking o bjects a re c ertainly t o b e e xpected. T hey m ay n ot b e e asy t o t race: " For t he p urpose o f m elting s craps o f m etal i n c rucibles, a r ing o f s tone, a p ile o f h ot c harcoal, a nd a c lay t uyêre c onnected t o b ellows a re a ll t hat w ould h ave b een r equired. N othing w ould h ave r emained o f t his a rrangement e xcept, p erhaps, t he c lay t uyêre. I t i s p ossible t o o btain s ufficiently h igh

t emperatures

f or m elting b ronze

( 950 0 C ) w ith

a c ylindrical f urnace w ith a g rate l ike a b razier. T he a ir w ould h ave e ntered u nderneath t he f urnace a ssisted b y t he c himney e ffect o f t he

c ylindrical p ortion.

U sually

t here w ould h ave b een a s ide h ole

t hrough w hich t he c rucible c ould h ave b een p laced i n t he h ottest p art o f t he f ire a s hort d istance a bove t he g rate. T he g rate w ould o f c ourse b e o f 1 980,

1 97).

c lay, I n

p ierced w ith h oles

l ike a p ottery k iln"

t he a ctual m anufacture o f t ools,

e tc.,

( Tylecote, i n S umerian

t owns m inute q uantities o f w ood a nd b undles o f r eeds w ere u sed. A t ext f rom O r o f t he I lird D ynasty ( Legrain, 1 947, n o.152) c ites, o ver a nd o ver a gain, 2 m inas o f w ood a nd 3 b undles o f r eeds ( for 8

w orkshops,

B .

s ee p p.36ff.

h ere).

S ources ( i)

T extual e vidence:

M uhly ( 1973, a ncient

2 20ff.,

1 976,

d ocumentary s ources

f or

1 04ff.) h as

t horoughly r eviewed

t he u se o f c opper a nd i ts

t rade

t he i n

M esopotamia, w ith e xtensive c ommentary o n t heir r elation t o k nown d eposits i n t he a rea. I n t he t hird m illennium S umerian t exts l ist c opper a mong t he r aw m aterials r eaching U ruk f rom A ratta ( Pettinato, 1 977, 8 2-3, 1 28) a nd a ll t hree o f t he r egions M agan, M eluhha a nd D ilmun a re a ssociated w ith c opper, b ut t he l atter o nly a s a n e mporium ( Limet, 1 960, 8 5ff.). M agan w as c ertainly a l and p roducing t he m etal, s ince i t i s o ccasionally r eferred t o a s t he " mountain o f c opper". ( Limet,

l ost

I t m ay a lso h ave b een t he s ource o f 1 972,

f inished b ronze o bjects

1 4-17).

I n t he e arly s econd m illennium B .C. M esopotamia a ppears t o h ave d irect c ontact w ith M agan, a nd w ith M eluhha, a lso e arlier m en-

t ioned i n r elation t o c opper. C opper n ow c ame t hrough D ilmun a nd i ts t raders. G udea r efers t o m ining c opper i n t he m ountain o f K ima S q ( Falkenstein, 1 966, I , p p.50ff.: S tatue B .VI: 2 1-3). T his r egion i s a ssumed t o h ave b een s omewhere b etween t he J ebel H amrin a nd t he L esser Z ab ( Edzard a nd F arber, 1 974, 1 00-1); a n o ld i dentification w ith E rgani M aden i n A natolia i s n o l onger r egarded a s t enable. I f t his

l ocation

i s

c orrect,

i t m ay h ave b een j ust a n

e ntrepôt

f or

c opper f rom m ines d eep i n I ran, o r i t m ight b e a d irect r eference t o t he c opper m ines v isited b y L ayard i n t he T iyari m ountains, n orth o f A madiyeh

( Layard,

S ince s ites, i ng, h as

a ll

t he

1 849,

I ,

2 23).

t hese d ocumentary s ources a re

a bsence o f

r eferences

f rom s outhern

t o A natolian m ines

S umerian

i s n ot s urpris-

b ut i t i s a s ignificant g ap i n t he e vidence. M uhly ( 1973, 2 08) t aken t he a vailable e vidence t o s uggest A natolia w as n ot a n

e xporter o f c opper i n t he t hird a nd e arly s econd m illennium B .C.; b ut p robability, i f n othing e lse, r equires t hat t he c ase b e l eft o pen i n v iew o f t he m eagre e vidence. W hat i nformation t here i s i n t he O ld A ssyrian

t exts

c ertainly b ut g ives

i ndicates a c opper

t rade

w ithin

A natolia,

a lmost

f acilitated b y t he A ssyrian m ercantile o rganization t here, n o g rounds f or p ostulating s hipments o f c opper b ack t o

A ssur i tself ( Muhly, 1 973, 2 06-8). L eemans ( 1960, 1 21ff.) s howed t hat i n t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. t he p rice o f c opper i n t he n orth

w as

m uch

h igher

t han i n t he s outh a nd

n orth w ould n ot h ave b een a ble

t o c ompete,

t hat c opper

i n B abylonia,

f rom

t he

w ith c opper

f rom t he G ulf. A s

a lready n oticed,

M esopotamia d own t he G ulf

a fter

t he U r I II p eriod d irect

t o M agan a ppears

t rade

f rom

t o s top a nd D ilmun b ecomes

t he p rimary e ntrepôt f or a ll G ulf T rade, i ncluding m etals, i n t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. C opper c ame t his w ay u ntil a t l east t he e ighteenth c entury B .C., w hen t here i s a b reak i n t he r ecords a lmost e xactly a t t he s ame t ime a s t he e arliest s urviving t extual i ndications

o f

c opper

f rom A lashiya

( Cyprus)

r eaching M ari a nd B aby-

l onia ( C.A.D. s .v. a la'Q; S chaeffer, 1 971, 5 47ff.; M illard, 1 973). T he M arl t exts a lso r efer t o a t ype o f c opper q ualified b y t he t erm 9

t e-ma-yu,

f or w hich D ossin ( 1970a,

3 9,

n .1)

s uggested a n a ssociation

w ith T eima i n S audi A rabia, s erving a s a n e ntrepôt f or c opper f rom t he W adi A rabah m ines. M uhly ( 1976, 1 09) w as s ceptical; b ut i t i s n ot a n i mpossible r outing. I t h as b een a rgued t hat i t w as t he c ollapse o f t he I ndus v alley c ivilization i n t he s econd q uarter o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. t hat b rought t o a n e nd t he f lourishing I ndus-Mesopotamian t rade u p t he G ulf; b ut t his h as y et t o b e s atisfactorily c onfirmed. S tray i ndicat ors s uggest c ontinuing, i f i ntermittent, a ctivity. I n t he m iddle o f t he f ourteenth c entury B .C. a B abylonian o fficial w as s tationed o n D ilmun, w hence h e r eported b ack o n l ocal t hreats t o t he d ate c rop. T hen T ukulti-Ninurta I o f A ssyria, c .1244-1208 B .C., a fter h is s ack o f B abylon, a ssumed t he t itle " King o f D ilmun a nd M eluhh ", e mphasizi ng c ontemporary B abylonian i nterest i n t hese r egions, e ven i f t he f ull i mplications o f t he a ncient n ames n o l onger a pplied ( Brinkman, 1 972, 2 75-6; 1 976, 3 14). D anish e xcavators r evealed c onsiderable e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f B ahrein a nd F ailaka i n p eriod ( Bibby, 1 972, 3 58ff.). O therwise d ocuments e xplicit

r eferences

i n t he l ater s econd m illennium t o

t he K assite c ontain n o

t he s ources o f

c opper. O ne

o f

t he m ost

i mportant

s ources

i n N eo-Assyrian t imes

f or t he

n orth w as e astern A natolia ( copper p robably f rom E rgani M aden), w hen t he N airi-lands c onstantly y ielded m assive a mounts o f m etal, i ncludi ng c opper, t o t he N eo-Assyrian k ings ( Muhly, 1 973, 2 90ff.). S argon I I m akes d irect r eference t o t he m ining o f c opper i n t he m ountain o f B a al S apuna, G ebel el _ aqra C , n orth o f R as S hamra i n m odern S yria ( C.A.D. S .V. u tensils w ere t han a ny o ther E uphrates w ere

b uslu, 3 51b). I n t he N eo-Assyrian r oyal a nnals c opper m entioned a s b ooty m ore f requently a nd i n m ore r egions g oods; t he M editerranean c oastal r egion a nd t he U pper p articularly r ich i n t hem. J ankowska ( 1969, 2 62-3)

s pecifically c ommented: " The

l ocal m anufacture o f b ronze o bjects o f

a rt

i n M us gq i _ r i s

r ecorded b y t he a nnals s pecifically

( Luckenbill,

1 927,

1 73);

h ere c opper w as m ined.

B ut o ther c entres t oo c an i ndirectly b e i dentif ied. P articularly m ultifarious w as c opperware i n t he t ribute o f ? amu , o f B It-Zam ni, a nd o f C archemish ( Luckenbill, 1 926, 4 54, 4 66, 4 76, 5 01). W hile t he h andicrafts i n C archemish, a m ajor t ransit c entre, c ould h ave f lourished o n t he b ase o f i mported r aw m aterials, r ies i n t his c ity h aving c onstantly

t he t reasuc onsiderable

s tocks a t t heir d isposal, B it-Zaman i , a nd Z amua w ere m ore l ikely t o d epend o n l ocal c opper m ining". T he

r ole o f G ulf

s ources

i n r elation t o B abylonia i n t he

m illennium B .C. r emains t o b e e lucidated. ( c.704-681 B .C.) D ilmunite c raftsmen,

f irst

I n t he t ime o f S ennacherib t ogether w ith t heir b ronze

p roducts, w ent t o A ssyria; b ut w hether a s m igrant e xperts . t ributeries i s n ot c lear ( Luckenbill, 1 927, s ection 4 38).

o r

a s

T wo m id s ixth c entury t exts f rom U ruk , p ublished b y O ppenheim ( 1967, 2 36ff.), m ention c opper f rom Y amana ( as a lso i ron), w hich 1 0

r efers

t o C yprus

o r

s ome

l ocality i n s outh-eastern A natolia c olonized

b y G reeks. A lthough

a ttention

i s

c ommonly c oncentrated

o n

t he

m etals '

t rade, t he v alue o f b ooty t o M esopotamia T h m etal i ndustries a t a ll t imes, a nd t he c raftsmen o ften t aken w ith i t, s hould n ever b e u ndere stimated, e ven t hough, b y t he n ature o f t he s urviving e vidence, i ts c ontribution i s n ow i ncalculable. I solated i ndicators, o ne f rom t he b eginning, o ne f rom t he e nd, o f t he p eriod t reated h ere, w ill s uffice t o e stablish t he p oint. A fter h is t riumphs o ver E lam a nd M arha i, R imush ( c.2278-70 B .C.) m inas o f c opper ( Hirsch, A ssyrian

k ings

h is m ining m etals ( Lie, m etal " they

g ave t he t emple o f E nlil a t N ippur 3 ,6000 1 963, R imush b 7 x xiv 4 9-62). O f t he N eo-

o nly S argon I I ( c.721-705 B .C.)

e xplicitly r efers

t o

a ctivities i n t he T aurus m ountains a nd t he i mports o f 1 929, 2 33-4). H e c laimed t hat h e h ad i mported s o m uch

f rom A natolia a nd n orthern S yria a s t ribute a nd b ooty t hat f ixed t he r ate o f s ilver i n A ssyria e qual t o t hat o f c opper".

E ven i f t his i s a g ross s uch c onfiscations. ( ii)

e xaggeration,

i t p oints

t o

t he m agnitude

o f

M odern m ining a reas:

C opper o ccurs w idely i n A natolia,

t hough o nly a f ew d eposits a re

r ated a s w orth l arge-scale e xploitation ( de J esus, 1 980, 2 1ff.; m ap 7 ). T oday t he m ost p revalent c opper m ineral i s c halcopyrite; n odules o f n ative c opper m ay s till b e p icked u p i n a n umber o f c opper p roduci ng a reas. T he o nly c onfirmed p rehistoric m ine i s t hat a t K ozlu, a bout 1 5 k ms. s outh o f t he w ell k nown a rchaeological s ite o f H orozt epe,

i n

c entral,

n orthern T urkey ( Giles a nd

J esus, 1 981). T his w as o pen a t o f t he t hird m illennium B .C.,

K uijpers,

1 974;

c opper s ulphide d eposit. T he E rgani m ine i s t he m ost f amous A natolia a nd h as c ertainly b een o pen f or a l ong t ime, t hough i t n ot

y et

k nown h ow l ong

d e

l east a s e arly a s t he f irst c enturies w hen t he m iners w ere e xploiting a

( de J esus,

1 980,

2 2).

H ere

t he o re i s

i n i s a lso

f ound a s a s ulphide ( Birgi, 1 951); i n a ntiquity, a s r ecently, c opper m ay h ave b een e xported f rom t he m ine a rea a s " black c opper ' ( copper w ith s ome i ron, s ulphur a nd a rsenic) f or r efining a nd m anufacture i n n earby t owns. H ittite i nventory t exts o f t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. l ist c opper f rom A nkuwa, i n t he v icinity o f A lishar, a nd K izzuwatna ( Cilicia)

( Ko ' ak,

1 983,

1 95).

A ll m odern s urveys o f I ran h ave a lso s hown e xtensive c opper r esources, w idely d istributed a cross t he c ountry ( Ladame 1 945; B azin a nd

H ubner,

1 969).

T he m ost

s atisfactory d escription o f a n a ncient

m ine h as b een p rovided b y r esearch i n t he V eshnoveh a rea, b etween Q om a nd K ashan, i n w est-central I ran ( Holzer a nd M omenzadeh, 1 971). H ere a s eries o f l ow, n arrow t unnels w ere t raced f ollowing t he n atural c onfigurations

o f

t he o re v eins,

w ith i ndications o f m ining b y f ire-

s etting a nd s ubsequent h ammering w ith s tone m auls. T he c opper o ccurs i n t he f orm o f m alachite, w ith s ome a zurite a nd c halcocite, a nd s pecks o f n ative c opper. T he e arliest p ottery f ound t here w as a n i solated v essel o f S ialk I V t ype ( c.4000-3500 B .C.). C opper a lso o ccurs e xtensively i n A fghanistan ( Berthoud e t a l., 1 977) a nd I ndian s ub-continent ( Muhly, 1 973, 2 34ff.; R atnagar, 1 981, 9 6-7). S ince t he e xcavations a t

p ioneering s tudies o f t he K ish a nd U r i n t he 1 920s

1 1

t he

m etalwork d iscovered i n i t h as b een a rgued t hat

S umerian c opper c ame M agan

( Peake,

f rom O man,

1 928).

c onsequently i dentified w ith a ncient

I nitially t his

c ase r ested o n t he h igh n ickel

p ercentages

b oth

A lthough i t a lone n ot b e

i s n ow r ecognized t hat n ickel a s a t race e lement m ay s ufficient t o s ustain s uch a c ase, B erthoud ( 1979, 1 14)

r egards

t he

i n S umerian a rtefacts a nd i n t he c opper

p ercentages

o f n ickel a s o ne

o f

t he

o f

r elevant

O man.

t race

e lements. I n r ecent y ears a rchaeological f ieldwork i n O man h as g reatly i ntensified, w ith s ignificant r esults ( Berthoud a nd C leuziou, 1 983). R esearch h as s hown ( Weisgerber, 1 981, 1 983) t hat s ulphide o res s uch a s c halcopyrite, b ornite, t ogether w ith p yrite a nd p erhaps a rsenic m inerals,

w ere m ined a nd s melted i n O man.

T he s ulphide o re

d eposits a re c omparable t o t hose o f C yprus. A fter s melting i n l east f our s tages t o m atte, t he c opper w as f inally r efined c rucibles a nd t raded f ig-3). E vidence o f

a t i n

a s p lano-convex i ngots ( Weisgerber, 1 983, p roduction i s e xtensive e nough t o s uggest a n

e xport t rade, p robably f rom t he f ourth m illennium B .C. l ocal a rtefacts c orrelate i n t erms o f n ickel c ontent,

B oth o res a nd i n a rtefacts

f rom U r, t o s upport t he o ld v iew t hat O man w as i ndeed a v ital s ource o f S umerian c opper. A t h r ( Sumerian M etals P roject, P hiladelphia) 4 1% o f t he o bjects a nalysed c ontained o ver 0 .9% n ickel, w ith a n a verage o f 1 .9%, a nd a mounts u p t o 3 .5%; b y c ontrast o nly 0 .03% o f c ontemporary a rtefacts a t G awra c ontained o ver 0 .9% n ickel. G awra s eems t hus o r I ran.

t o h ave

d rawn o n a nother o re s ource,

p erhaps

i n A natolia

T o t he w est o f M esopotamia, t hough C yprus i s r enowned f or i ts c opper m ines, p roblems s till s urround t he c hronology o f t heir e arly e xploitation a nd t he m ethods e mployed. I t i s n ow i ncreasingly a rgued t hat c halcopyrite w as a nd i s t he o nly c opper o re a vailable i n m ore t han n egligible q uantities i n C yprus ( Koucky a nd S teinberg, 1 982; M addin e t a l., 1 983, 1 32). D espite a ssertions t o t he c ontrary , i t s eems m odern S yria h as n o g eologically a ttested c opper s ources ( Muhly, 1 973, 2 14). P alestine h as i mportant c opper m ines i n t he W adi A rabah; t hose o f T imna, i n I srael, h ave r eceived m uch t he m ost i ntens ive s tudy ( Rothenberg, 1 972, 1 978; C onrad a nd R othenberg, 1 980). C opper o res o ccur i n E gypt, i n S inai a nd i n t he e astern d esert; b ut i t i s u nlikely 1 962, 2 01ff.).

t hat

T aken t ogether

t hey e ver d irectly s erved

M esopotamia

t he a ncient d ocumentary s ources a nd

( Lucas,

t he d istribu-

t ion o f p otential c opper s ources i ndicate a c oherent p attern. m ajor s ource a reas o f t he r egion w ere t hose i n A natolia, C yprus,

T he I ran

a nd t he G ulf. T he m ines o f C yprus s poradically e xported c opper t o M esopotamia, p robably t hrough t he m ajor S yrian c ities; I ran a nd t he G ulf l argely s upplied t he c opper u sed i n S umer a nd B abylonia. T he c opper m ines o f P alestine a nd E gypt, A fghanistan a nd I ndia, w ere p rimarily o f l ocal s ignificance. I n c ountries l ike I ran a nd T urkey I solating s ources w ill a lways b e d ifficult, s ince t here m ay h ave b een m any s mall c opper m ines e xploited s o l ong a s f uel w as l ocally a vaila ble, t hen a bandoned u ntil t he w ood c over w as r ejuvenated ( cf. A llan, 1 979,

3 5).

( iii)

S cientific i nvestigations:

S cientific s tudy o f m etal o bjects f ound i n M esopotamia w as e ncouraged f rom t he o utset o f m odern r esearch i n t he r egion, n otably b y L ayard ( Percy i n L ayard, 1 853, 6 70ff.). T he e arliest s tudents o f

1 2

a ncient m etalwork w ere

i nterested b oth i n t he m ethods o f w orking

a nd

i n t he c omposition o f a lloys. L ayard ( 1849, 1 , 2 20ff.) h imself e xplored s ome o f t he m ining r egions i mmediately w ithin t he r ange o f t he

m ajor A ssyrian c ities;

b ut

i t w as n ot u ntil

t he

r esearches

o f

D esch ( 1928-38; 1 934) a nd h is c olleagues, i n t he 1 920s a nd 1 930s, o n S umerian c opper a nd b ronze o bjects, t hat t he i dentification o f t he s ources o f S umerian c opper b ecame a s ubject o f p rimary i nterest. T his r esearch r ested o n t he a ssumption t hat, s ince a nalyses o f S umerian a rtefacts h ad s hown t hem t o c ontain h igh p ercentages o f n ickel, t hen t he s ource o f t he p arent o re w ould b e i dentified i n t he r egion y ielding o re w ith a h igh n ickel i mpurity. T his i n i tself r ests o n t he g eneral p roposition, c rudely p ut, t hat t he s ource o f t he c opper u sed i n a ny p articular g roup o f a rtefacts c an b e i dentified b y c omparison o f t heir t race e lements w ith t hose o f t he p arent o re a s i t c ame b ut

f rom t he m ine. F ifty y ears l ater n ot o nly t his s pecial c ase, t he e ntire b asis o f s uch p rocedures, h as m et w ith i ncreasingly

r igorous c riticism ( cf. T hompson, 1 958; M uhly, 1 973, 3 39ff.; 1 976, 1 15; C oghian, 1 975, 8 7ff.), d espite e ver m ore s ophisticated m ethods o f p hysical, c hemical a nd s tatistical a nalysis, b oth o f a rtefacts a nd o res, a nd a s teadily a ccumulating b ody o f h ighly d iverse d ata. T he m ost t hat w ould b e a greed a t p resent i s t hat i t m ay b e p ossible t o s ay t hat a c ertain o bject c annot h ave b een m ade w ith m etal f rom s ucha nd-such a n o re d eposit. C oghlan ( 1975, 8 8) h as j udiciously s ummed u p

t he

q uestion : " One m ust

r emember

t hat

t he

i mpurities p attern i s

b ased u pon a c ombination o f e lements, b ut o wing t o c ertain o scillations o r o ther v ariations w hich c an a rise i n t he o re-body, t he p resence o r a bsence o f a s ingle e lement s hould n ot b e r eg arded a s d ecisive u nless i t i s r epeated o ver a n umber o f s pecimens. A gain, o wing t o v ariations i n r un-of-mine o re, a nd i n t he s melting p roc ess, t he i mpurities p attern o f a m etal m ust n ot b e t oo c losely r elated t o q uantative f igures. I n t he c ase o f t race-element i mpurities o nly m arked o scillations

i n q uantity s hould b e c onsidered a s

o f t rue s ignificance. C orrelation b y i mpurities p atterns o nly t ruly a pplies t o e arly c opper a nd b ronze a rtefacts b efore t here m ay h ave b een m elti ng d own o f s crap m etal, a s m ay h ave b een t he c ase d uring a nd a fter t he M iddle B ronze A ge. I t i s o bvious t hat w hen s crap m etals f rom v arious s ources a re m elted t ogether t he i mpurities p att ern o btained f rom t he a rtefact w ould b e h ighly m isleading". R ecent a

r eaction

d irect

d evelopments t o

t his

r elationship

i n a rchaeometallurgy i n g eneral h ave m arked

t raditional p reoccupation b etween t he m etal u sed

w ith

e stablishing

f or a n a rtefact a nd

a t he

o re s ource f rom w hich i t d erived. T his c hange o wes m uch t o a f resh r ange o f e xamination m ethods, b eyond c hemically-based a nalysis, f or c opper

a nd c opper a lloyed o bjects.

P otential i nformation i s

m axi-

m ised b y c ombining a nalysis, m easurement o f s egregation, p hase i dentification, g rain-size m easurement a nd m etallography. T hey a llow f or

f uller

f acture

r econstruction o f

i n a ny

t ime o r p lace.

t he r esources a nd t echniques o f

m anu-

C ommon i mpurity a nd a lloying p atterns 1 3

m ay b e e stablished,

i ndicating c ommon t echnical

t raditions.

A nalysis

o f e lements, l ike o xygen a nd s ulphur, m ay f urther i dentify f ossils o f t he m anufacturing p rocess. L ead i sotope a nalysis m ay h elp w ith t he i dentification o f o res s ources ( see p p.112ff.). I n t his w ay c hanges i n m etal r efining t echniques, i n a lloying, i n t he n umber a nd r ange o f m etal s ources, a nd i n m etalworking p ractices t hrough t ime, m ay b e m ore r eliably e lucidated

( given a s ufficiently b roadly b ased

g ation). S uch p rogrammes a re o nly a ncient N ear E astern m etallurgy. R ecent O man

h as

j ust e merging i n t he

r esearch i n k ey m ining r egions

i nvestis tudy

o f

l ike T imna i n I srael

e mphasized h ow c onclusions a bout a ncient

b ase

a nd

m etal

i n-

d ustries w ill n ever b e f irmly b ased u nless t hey t ake a s m uch a ccount o f t he p rimary, a s o f t he s econdary, p roduction p rocesses. I f n ot c ontrolled b y a s f ull a k nowledge a s p ossible o f t he o riginal o re s ource ( and t he i nitial e xtractive p rocesses e mployed t here), c onc lusions a bout p rimary p rocesses d erived f rom a rtefactual s tudies a lone r un t he d anger o f b eing s eriously m isleading. A p rogramme

o f

r esearch u ndertaken b y B erthoud a nd o thers

( 1979;

w ith F rancaix 1 980), f ully a ware o f t he b asic p roblems o f i nterpretat ion, s et o ut t o i nvestigate t he s ource z ones f or t he c opper-based i ndustries o f L ower M esopotamia a nd I ran i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B .C., w hen n ative c opper a nd c opper s melted f rom s imple o xide a nd c arbonate o res a re a ssumed t o h ave b een p rimarily i n u se ( but c f. e lements

O man, p .5). B erthoud c oncluded t hat a dditions o f s uch a s a rsenic w ere m ade a t a l ate s tage i n t he p roduction

p rocesses a nd t herefore h ave n o p rovenancing v alue, w hereas m angan ese, c hromium a nd n ickel, t ogether w ith t he w ell-known i ndicators s elenium,

t ellurium

d istinguished

a nd

s ilver h ave.

I ranian a nd O mani o res

b y t he h igher q uantities o f s uch e lements

a s

w ere

n ickel,

c obalt, v anadium a nd c hromium i n t he l atter. T his r esearch p rogramme h ad t wo m ain a spects. F irst, c areful i nvestigation o f p otential a ncient m ines a nd s ystematic p hysio-chemical c haracterization o f t heir o res; s econdly, a nalysis, b y t he s ame m ethods a s f or t he m inerals, o f a rtefacts f rom c ontrolled e xcavations o n k ey s ites, u sing m ore

t han t hirty t race-elements.

c al c hanges t ion, t his

I n v iew o f t he c rucial c hemi-

i mplicit i n t he p rocesses o f m etal a nd a rtefact p roduci nformation m ay o nly b e m arried u p t hrough s pecific

t hermodynamic a nd s tatistical m odels, u pon w hich c ritical a ssessment o f t he w ork w ill i nevitably t urn. A s a r esult o f h is r esearch B erthoud s ummarized h is c onclusions a s f ollows ( in B erthoud a nd C leuziou,

1 983,

2 43): S ite

M ining R egion

S usa A ( Early U ruk P eriod), S usa B ( Late U ruk; P eriod),

I ran.

J amdat N asr

T epe Y ahya

( Bardsir

I ran.

( Kashan

S usa D ( Early D ynastic), I ran U mm a n-Nar, A bu D habi. U r,

A narak ( Central I ran).

I raq. ( IV B .C.),

I ran.

) ) )

( Iran) ( Iran

)

N o c lear c orrespondence

O man

S heikh

1 4

A h

( mine c lose

t o s ite).

C .

M echanical P roperties a nd v arieties:

C opper, a s c ast, i s s oft a nd u nless h ardened i s n ot s uitable f or t he c utting e dges o f w eapons a nd t ools, t hough f or t he p roduction o f v essels f rom s heetmetal t his s oft c ondition i s c rucial. P ure c opper i s h ardened e ither b y t he i ntroduction o f i mpurities w hich a lter i ts p hysical c haracteristics, a s i n t in-bronze p roduction, o r w ork h ardened t hrough h ammering a lters h arder i t b ecomes, c rack.

t he a ction o f c old-hammering ( forging). C oldt he e lastic p roperties o f t he m etal s o t hat t he t he l ess m alleable i t i s, u ntil i t w ill e ventually

T his m ay b e r eversed b y a nnealing :

h eating t he m etal i n

a

f ire f or a s hort t ime t o a m oderate t emperature ( 400 0 500 0 C ) a nd t hen c ooling i t. T his r eturns t he m etal t o a s oft a nd w orkable c ondition. T he p rehistoric s mith i s l ikely t o h ave d iscovered t his b efore e ither m elting ( which f ollows n aturally f rom i t) o r s melting. ( a)

N ative C opper:

A lthough

t he

l inear e volutionary d evelopment o f a ncient

m etal-

l urgy i n w hich n ative c opper p layed a k ey, i nitial r ole, i s n o l onger r egarded a s a xiomatic ( cf. B erthoud, 1 979; M addin e t a l., 1 980), t he p articular i nterest.

p roblems p resented b y t his m etal a re o f c onsiderable N ative c opper w as a vailable t o p ioneer m etal w orkers i n

I ran, n otably A natolia, a nd

i n t he T almessi-Anarak r egion ( Berthoud, 1 979), p erhaps a lso i n C yprus; i t h as n ot b een r eported

i n a t

T imna ( cf. P atterson, 1 971). T o w hat e xtent i t w as u sed f or t he e arliest r eported a rtefacts f rom t he N ear E ast i s d ebatable. N ative c opper

m ay

b e c old h ammered i nto a rtefacts,

t hough t here

i s

s ome

d isagreement o ver h ow e ffective t his i s ( Coghlan, 1 975, 7 6ff; S mith, 1 967); s haped b y p eriodic a nnealing; o r m elted a nd c ast. T he b asic p roblem

f or a rchaeometallurgists

i s

t he c onfident

i solation o f

s uch

a rtefacts. A t p resent n o a dequate c riteria e xist f or d istinguishing a rtefacts o f n ative c opper f rom t hose o f w orked o r r ecrystallized s melted c opper o f h igh p urity, e ven w hen m etallographic s tudies h ave b een m ade ( Maddin e t a l., 1 980). I t i s g enerally a ssumed t hat a ll t he e arliest m etal a rtefacts i n t he N ear E ast w ere o f w orked n ative c opper; b ut t his i s n ot c ertain. N ative c opper m ay c ontain s ignific ant q uantities o f a rsenic, a s a t T almessi i n I ran ( Berthoud e t a l., 1 982),

s o

" arsenical

c opper" o bjects c ould h ave b een

m anufactured

f rom m elted n ative c opper. ( b)

A rsenical C opper:

G eneral b een t hat

u nderstanding o f e arly m etallurgy i n t he N ear E ast

h as

s lowly m odified i n t he l ast t hirty y ears b y t he d emonstration a rsenical c opper w as t he d ominant c opper a lloy, e ither n atural

o r a rtificial, f rom a t l east t he f ourth t o w ell i nto t he m illennium B .C. ( particularly C harles, 1 967; c f. S elimkhanov, N atural a rsenical c oppers a re k nown i n v arious p arts o f t he

s econd 1 977). r egion

i ncluding A natolia ( de J esus, 1 980, 9 1), I ran ( Heskel a nd L ambergK arlovksy, 1 980, 2 33) a nd C yprus ( Panayiotu, 1 979). C oghlan ( 1975, 7 9) h as

s uccinctly c haracterized

t hese a rsenical c oppers:

" The a lloy m ay o ccur n aturally t hrough t he s melti ng o f a rsenic-bearing o res, o r t he a lloy m ay b e i ntentionally m ade b y s imultaneous s melting o f c opper a nd a rsenic m inerals. T here i s a lso t he 1 5

p ossibility t hat t he h igh a rsenical c oppers, i n w hich t he a rsenic c ontent m ay r each 1 0 p er c ent o r m ore, c ould h ave b een p roduced b y a c rucible p rocess i n w hich a n a rsenical m ineral ( orpiment o r r ealgar), w as a dded t o m olten c opper u nder r educing c onditions w ith t he c rucible c overed w ith c harcoal.. . this p rocess, i f w as p robably a l ate M aréchal w ere n ot

( 1958;

i nferior

c f.

t o

w eil u sed,

d evelopment."

B öhne,

t in b ronzes

1 965)

s howed

t hat a rsenical c oppers

f or h ardness o r m alleability i n

a nnealed s tate, a nd w ere w ell-suited f or t he h ot a nd c old m ethods u sed i n a ntiquity. T heir m echanical p roperties a pproach,

i f

t hey d o n ot a ctually m atch,

t he

f orging c losely

t hose o f n ormal e arly t in

b ronzes. T here s eems l ittle d oubt t hat t hey w ere a dequate t o m eet t he m echanical s trength r equirements f or t he t ools a nd w eapons g enera lly u sed. A s a rsenic, l ike t in, a lso a cts a s a d eoxidizing e lement i n a n a lloy, i t w ould f acilitate a c asting o peration. A nalyses i ncreasingly s how t hat m uch S umerian a nd l ater m etal s tatuary w as m ade, q uite s uccessfully, o f c opper o r a rsenical c opper n ot o f t in b ronze, a s h ad p reviously b een s upposed. A lthough t he t oxic g ases m ay b e c ontrolled b y s melting i n a c losed r educing a tmosphere ( McKerrell a nd T ylecote, 1 972, 2 09ff.), a ncient s miths m ay h ave b een i nhibited i n t heir u se o f a rsenical c oppers b y t he l ethal e ffects o f t he i ndustrial p rocesses I n t he a bsence

i nvolved

o f a ny d irect

( cf.

C harles,

1 967).

i nformation a s

t o h ow t hese a rseni-

c al c oppers w ere m ade, m ost a uthorities a re a t p resent s ceptical o f a lloying i n a d irect s ense; b ut, i n c ertain a reas, t he u se o f n ative a rsenic m ay n ot b e r uled o ut. E xperiments ( Eaton a nd M cKerrell, 1 976; C harles, 1 980, 1 68ff.) h ave d emonstrated h ow p artially r oasted c opper a nd a rsenic s ulphide o res m ight h ave b een s melted t ogether. S o l ong a s t he a tmosphere i s k ept p artially r educing, c o-smelting o f a ny a rsenic m ineral ( oxidized o r s ulphidic), w ith p roperly r oasted c opper o res, r esults i n a n a lmost c omplete r ecovery o f a rsenic. R oasting

i s

a n

e ssential p rerequisite

t o a void

a ny

r elated

i ron

c ontent p roducing a b rittle, u seless m etal. A h igh a rsenic c opper h as a nother a dvantage, f or i t h as a s ilvery c olour, w hich t arnishes l ess r eadily t han s ilver i tself. O n c asting, a rsenic c opper e xhibits i nverse s egregation :

e ven a r elatively l ow a s mall q uantity o f

a rsenical c opper ( c.15 t o 2 0% A s) i s f orced t o t he s urface f orming a c omplete o uter s kin o f s ilvery m etal. A lthough t his w as e xploited i n t he m anufacture o f m irrors i n E gypt a nd s tatuary i n A natolia b y t he t hird m illennium B .C.

( cf.

S mith,

1 973),

i t h as n ot y et

b een c er-

t ainly r eported o n a S umerian o bject. T he a rgument ( Eaton a nd M cKerrell, 1 976) t hat a nnaku w as a n a rsenic-rich m aster a lloy o f c opper t o b e u sed i n t he p roduction o f a rsenical c opper, n ot " tin" a s i t i s u sually t ranslated ( but s ee p .124

h ere),

i s

n ot

s ustained b y t he p ublished a nalyses

s aid

t o

d emonstrate t he c ase f or t his m odification i n t ranslation. C urrently a vailable a nalyses, v arying g reatly i n a rsenic p ercentages, g ive l ittle i ndication t hat m etalsmiths c ould c ontrol a rsenic c ontent t he a rtefacts t hey w ere m anufacturing. W hat t hey d o s how i s t hat t ransition

f rom

c opper a rsenic

" alloys"

E ast w as a f ar l engthier, m ore i rregular, t han h ad p reviously b een s upposed. I n 1 6

t o

t in b ronzes

i n t he

a nd m ore c omplex c ertain r egions,

i n t he N ear

p rocess n otably

A natolia,

f rom

a bout 3 000 t o 1 700 B .C.,

b oth a rsenical c oppers

a nd

t in b ronzes w ere b eing u sed i n w hat a ppear, o n p resent e vidence, t o b e s eparate b ut c ontemporary w orkshop t raditions ( cf. a nalyses i n E sin, 1 969; d e J esus, 1 980, 9 4-5). A t U r, i n E arly D ynastic I II, a lthough t in a nd a rsenic, i n s ignificant q uantities, a re f ound i n t he s ame o bject, t he h igh a rsenic c ontents a re n ot f ound i n t in b ronzes, s uggesting c ontrolled a lloying j ect,

( Craddock,

1 984;

S umerian M etals P ro-

P hiladelphia). A nalyses

o f

l ater

f ourth a nd

f rom M esopotamia a nd K huzistan

t hird m illennium b ase m etal o bjects

( Moorey a nd S chweizer,

1 972;

C raddock,

1 984; B erthoud e t a l., 1 982) i ndicate t he c urrency o f a rsenical c oppers t here, w ith o ver 1 % a rsenic a nd o nly t races o f t in. A s a rsenic d oes n ot a ppear i n s ignificant q uantities i n t he t in b ronzes m ade f rom s ometime i n t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium , i t i s l ikely t hat b y t hen, a t l east, t he a rsenic w as a d eliberate a ddition t o t he c opper. I n p ublishing t heir a nalyses o f o bjects f rom S usiana B erthoud e t a l. ( 1980) a rgue t hat i ntentional a rsenical c opper a lloys a ppear i n S usa C , l ater f ourth m illennium , ( the e arlier S usa B i s i nterpreted a s a t ransitional p eriod) a nd b egin t o d ecline b y a bout 2 000 B .C. C raddock ( 1984) h as s uggested t hat s uitable a rsenic o res m ay h ave b een r educed i n c ontact w ith m olten c opper i n c rucibles. S ignificantly, i n w orking w ith m aterial f rom I ran, B erthoud e t a l., ( 1980) h ave f ound t hat a rsenic o nly a ppears i n s lags f rom u rban m etalworking s ites, w here a lloying i s l ikely, n ot i n s lags f ound a t s melting s ites i n m ining r egions. O nly w ith m ore a nalyses w ill i t b e p ossible t o d escribe t he e clipse o f a rsenical c opper a s t he b ronze A ge p assed i nto t he I ron A ge. T hey m ay h ave e ndured s poradically a s l ong a s ( c)

B ronze:

T he

t erm

a lloys o f

t he u se o f u nalloyed c opper

b ronze

i s

( see p .20).

t aken h ere

c onsisting o f c opper a nd t in,

o ther

i ngredients

t o e mbrace a

r ange

o f

t hough c ommonly w ith a

i n s mall p roportions.

I t

i s n ot u sed

b inary v ariety t o

d e-

s cribe a lloys o f a rsenic a nd c opper, w hether n atural o r c ontrived ( see a bove). I t i s a ssumed t hat i n t he m anufacture o f M esopotamian b ronzes t he p rimary c onstituents w ere c opper a nd t in ( see p p.127ff. h ere), a nd t hat t races o f o ther i ngredients d etected b y m odern a nalysis j ust h appened t o b e p resent i n t he r aw m aterials i nvolved. O nly l ead i s l ikely t o h ave b een i ntroduced i ntentionally a s a n a dditive. A s tandard m odern b ronze h as a bout o ne p art t in t o n ine p arts c opper; b ut i n a ntiquity t he p roportions, s ince l ess e asily c ontrolled, v aried m ore. t hird m illennium B .C. f rom U r g ive w ould

y ield

F or i nstance, p roportions o f

t exts o f t he l ate t in a nd c opper t hat

a lloys w ith b etween 9 % a nd a s m uch a s 1 7%

t in

( Limet,

1 960, 5 8ff.). L ower p ercentages o f t in a re m ore p roblematic, s ince t hey i nvolve t he d istinction b etween a n atural a nd a n a rtificial a lloy. T his l imit h as b een m uch d ebated a nd i s, a nyway, d ifficult t o d efine

w ith

a ny

c onfidence i n i solation f rom

s pecific

g roups

o f

m etalwork. S ome c opper m ann, 1 982, 2 6; h as s hown t hat,

s lags

c ontain t in i n a mounts

f rom 0 .1 t o 0 .5%

( Bach-

c f. c omments o f C raddock, 1 980a). M ar chal ( 1962) w hen c opper o res w ith n oticeable t in c ontents a re

s melted, r eduction o f t in i s t o i ntermetallic a ffinity.

p romoted i n t he p resence o f c opper d ue T hus l ow t in b ronzes m ight h ave b een 1 7

m anufactured

e arlier

t han t he r eduction o f

C leuziou a nd B erthoud I ranian m etalwork o f p eriods, s trongly c luded

t in o res

t o

t in

m etal.

( 1982, 1 5), w ho h ave r ecently s tudied m uch t he l ater p rehistoric a nd e arly h istoric

a rgue t hat " the d efinition o f a m inimum t in c ontent i s d ependant o n l ocal c onditions... W e h ave t herefore c on-

t hat

t in v alues a bove 0 .5% i ndicate d eliberate c ombination

c opper a nd t in a t s ome p oint d uring t he p rocess o res i nto m etallic b ronze, t hough t his i s n ot

o f

w hich t ransformed t o i mply t hat t he

o peration w as t otally c ontrolled a nd t hat t he r esults w ere s tandard". S uch s mall p ercentages m ight w ell b e d eliberate a dditions i n p eriods w hen c ontemporary b ronzes h ave u p t o 1 0% t in; d ebatable a nd i s p robably m ore o ften a ccidental. " tentatively" t in e xceeds

b ut e arlier i t i s C oghlan ( 1975, 3 5)

s uggested a d eliberate c opper-tin a lloy a s o ne i n w hich 2 % t o 3 %. T he a ddition o f t in t o c opper h ardens t he

m etal s o l ong a s i t i s n ot e xcessive; i t l owers t he m elting p oint f rom 1 ,083 0 C t o 1 ,050 0 C ( 5% S n), t o 1 ,005 0 c ( 10% S n) t o 9 60 C ( 15% S n)

( Lucas,

1 962,

2 17);

a nd m uch

i ncreases

t he l iquidity

o f

t he

m etal. T he

r ecognition

o f

t he r ole o f a rsenical c oppers

i n t he

e arly

h istory o f m etallurgy h as m odified v iews a bout t he f irst e mergence o f c opper-tin a lloy i n t he N ear E ast, a s e lsewhere. T he d istinction b etween c opper a nd b ronze i s f irst m ade i n t he " archaic" t exts f rom U r ( Early D ynastic I ) ( Burrows, 1 935, n o.373) a nd l ater i n t exts f rom T ell F ara ( Early D ynastic l ilA), a t t he t ime o f t he e arliest a rchaeol ogically a ttested t in b ronze o bjects i n M esopotamia ( Elam, 1 932; L evey a nd B urke, 1 959; L imet, 1 960, 6 6). W ertime ( 1980) a nd C harles ( 1978; 1 980) h ave b oth a ssociated t he e xploitation o f a rsenical o res o f

c opper

a nd t he

s ubsequent

i ntroduction o f

t in

o res

b y

c alling

a ttention t o t he p olymetallic c haracter o f m any o re-bodies ( Wertime) a nd t o t he c ommunity o f c olour b etween s ome t in o res a nd a rsenical c opper o res ( Charles). T he t in o re s tannite, f or e xample, r esembles i n a ppearance t he c opper-arsenical m ineral e nargite, s o a nyone u sed t o e nriching c opper w ith e nargite w ould b e h appy t o u se s tannite f or t he s ame p urpose. B oth s cholars h ave s uggested t hat a nother c ontext i n w hich m iners m ight i nadvertently h ave c ome i nto c ontact w ith t in i s o ffered b y t he s tannic f errous g ossans t hat m ay c ap s ulphide o re b odies, e specially i f s uch g ossans w ere u sed a s f luxes i n c oppers melting. T here i s l ittle c ertain i nformation o n e arly m ethods f acturing b ronze. T he k ey q uestion i s h ow t he a lloy w as D id

t he

s mith

w ork w ith m etallic

c opper a nd m etallic

f or m anup roduced.

t in

o r

w as

c assiterite ( SN02) a dded t o t he c opper i n s melting o r m elting? C harles ( 1978) a nd W ertime ( 1978) h ave s een t he a ddition o f

B oth c as-

s iterite t o m olten c opper a s t he m ost c ommon m eans o f b ronze p roduct ion i n e arly t imes; b ut t his m ay o nly h ave p roduced a l ow-quality b ronze ( Maddin e t a l., 1 977, 4 1) a nd m ay a nyway n ot h ave b een a m ethod m uch f avoured a t a d istance f rom t he s ource o f t he c ass iterite. T he o ldest k nown S umerian t ext r elevant t o t he q uestion i s f rom

T elloh,

d ating

t o E arly D ynastic I II ( Limet,

i mportant e mendation i n H allo, 1 963, 1 39a). T his f irst t o o ffer t he s tandard f ormula f or p roportions,

1 960,

6 7;

w ith

d ocument i s t he i n t his c ase 1 3½

s hekels o f t in, w hich i s e xactly o ne-sixth o f t he 8 0 s hekels o f c opper w hich p recedes i t i n t he t ext. S argonic a nd N eo-Sumerian t exts u se

t he

p hrase

s ix p arts

c opper

" seven p arts b ronze" i .e.

t o o ne p art

t in.

i n t he p roportion

o f

A s a ppropriate w eights a re g iven, 1 8

t hese,

a nd

l ater

r ecipes

( Dossin,

1 970,

2 1;

C .A.D.

s .v.

b alalu

i c),

I ndicate t hat m etallic t in w as u sed f or b ronze m aking f rom a t l east t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. I n M esopotamia, t hough, a s b oth t exts a nd a nalyses s how, p roportions v aried. S ince b ronze i s n ot k nown m uch b efore t his t ime, i t i s p robable t hat t in a lways r eached M esopotamia r eady p rocessed a s i ngots. I n a c ountry t o w hich m etals w ere b rought f rom c onsiderable d istances, p resumably m uch m ore o ften t han n ot i n a p rocessed o r s emi-processed f orm , t his i s n ot s urprising. B ronze a s a r aw m aterial s eems r arely t o h ave b een t he o bject o f c ommercial t ransactions i n M esopotamia, a s i t w as c ustoma rily p repared o n t he s pot f rom c opper a nd t in b y t he m anufacturer o f b ronze o bjects. I n a S umerian h ymn t o t he g od N inurta a b ronze p rod ucing c ountry i s m entioned, b ut i ts n ame i s l ost i n s urviving c opies ( Cohen,

1 973,

T he

2 8,

l ines

1 46-7).

i ntroduction o f

t in b ronze a s a c ommodity i nto

M esopotamia

s ometime i n t he f irst h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., a nd i ts s low a doption i n t he f ollowing c enturies, r emains t o b e c harted s ystematic ally t hrough a w ide r ange o f a nalyses. I f, a s n ow s eems w as r eaching M esopotamia f rom a s f ar a way a s A fghanistan, a t 8 8;

l ikely , t in a pparently

f irst b y-passing w orkshops i n m any p arts o f I ran ( Moorey, 1 982a, B erthoud e t a l., 1 982), i ts a dvantages m ust h ave b een k nown a fter

l ong e xperiment c loser t o t he s ource z one. C leuziou a nd B erthoud ( 1982) h ave a rgued t hat t in, b efore i t w as w idely u sed f or a lloying, w as a dded i n c asting t o f acilitate t he p rocessing o f c opper b y l oweri ng t he m elting p oint a nd i ncreasing f luidity. I f t his w ere s o, i t i s s urprising i t w as n ot u sed m ore c onsistently i n t his r espect o n a rrival i n M esopotamia, f or i nstance, i n t he p roduction o f m etal s tatuary. P resent a nalyses o f e arly t in-bronzes i n M esopotamia s how n o

c orrellation b etween t in l evels a nd t ypes o f o bject;

v essels m ay

c ontain a s m uch a s w eapons. I ts u se f or d ecoration a nd f or s olderi ng, h owever, s eem t o h ave b een r ecognized t here a s e arly a s I ts a dvantages a xeheads I f

i n t he p roduction o f

f ine c ast w eapons,

l ike d aggers

a nd

( see p .127). t he t in w as

t ravelling a s

i ngots,

a t a h igh p rice,

a s

s eems

v ery p robable, a nd i f t in b ronze h as n o v ery o bvious a dvantage o ver a w ell-made a rsenical c opper w eapon ( see p .16), i ts a doption i s n ot e asily e xplained i n p urely e conomic t erms. C harles ( 1967) h as s een t he

t oxic e ffects

o f a rsenical c opper a s a d isincentive

t o

i ts

u se;

b ut, i n v iew o f t his a lloy 's p revalence i n t ime a nd s pace, i t d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a c rucial f actor. F or t hose w ho c ould a fford i t, t he k ey w as p robably t echnological a s t he c utting-edges o f a rsenical c opper a xes

" the h ardness i mparted t o i s q uite a ppreciably b elow

t hat o f t in-bronzes" ( Coghlan, 1 975, 8 3). I n g eneral t he e ffect o f t in u pon c opper i n t he c ast o r a nnealed s tate w as m ore m arked t han i n a rsenical c oppers a nd s killed s miths n o d oubt I f f actors

s tatus m ay

v alue w as a lso

i nvolved,

h ave h ad a s m uch i nfluence a s

s oon r ecognized

a ppearance

o r

e fficiency.

t his.

d ecorative T in-copper

a lloys a re d istinctive i n c olour. B y t he f ourth c entury B .C. i n G reece, i f n ot e arlier e lsewhere, q uality c ontrols w ere e xercised o ver c opper-tin a lloys t hrough d istinctions o f s urface c olour, u sing a s et o f w ell-polished ( Varoufakis, 1 974, 9 5). " golden"

c olour

o f

c opper-tin a lloys o f k nown c omposition S o i t i s p ossible t hat i nitially t he

s ome c opper-tin a lloys

v alue. 1 9

i ncreased

t heir

s tatus

T he

c ontinuing

P ennsylvania h as o bjects f rom U r a cknowledged;

" Sumerian M etals P roject"

a nalysed ( Stech:

c f.

W oolley,

i n t he

U niversity

o f

3 2 E arly D ynastic I II a nd 2 7 A kkadian p ersonal c ommunication 1 983 g ratefully 1 934,

2 90;

M oorey a nd S chweizer,

1 972;

C raddock 1 984). T here i s n o m arked c ontrast b etween t he t wo p eriods. M ore o r l ess " pure" c opper i s r elatively r are; a rsenical c opper i s t he m ost c ommon m etal, w ith a rsenic p ercentages r anging u p t o 4 .05%; b ronzes, a bout a t hird o f t he t otal, h ave t in f rom 0 .012 t o 1 5.9%. A r ather d ifferent p attern h as b een r evealed f or T epe G awra b y t he P hiladelphia P roject. 4 7 a rtefacts, r anging i n d ate t hrough l evels X I

( Late P rehistoric)

d ian a lly.

t o I V ( Old A ssyrian),

b ut m ostly

f rom V I ( Akka-

a nd p ost-Akkadian), w ere a nalysed a nd s tudied t n etallographicN o b ronze w as d etected b efore l evel V I. " Pure" c opper a nd

c opper

w ith a rsenic

l evels u sually l ower

t han 1 % w ere c ommon.

E ven

i n l evels V I a nd V b ronze i s r are. T hese r esults i solate e ven m ore t he o ld a nalysis o f a p in f rom l evel V III s aid t o c ontain 5 .62% t in ( Speiser, a nalysis. m etal i n

1 935, 1 02). I t m ay n o l onger b e i dentified t o c heck t his A lthough, a t b oth G awra a nd U r, a rsenical c opper w as t he g reatest u se, U r y ielded r elatively g reater n umbers o f

a rsenical c oppers t han G awra i n b oth p eriods a nd r eveal a g reater r ange o f a rsenic p ercentages.

t he o bjects

f rom

U r

I t i s a lready c lear t hat w ell i nto t he s econd m illennium B .C. t here w as a n e xtensive u se o f u nalloyed a nd a rsenical c opper ( McK errell, 1 977; 1 978). I t i s p ossible t hat i t w as n ot u ntil t he m ove t o

s ulphide

c opper o res

i n a ll t he s ource z ones

a nother a dditive w as s ufficiently s timulated b ronze i ndustry t hroughout M esopotamia. I n N eo-Assyrian t exts o f l ogograms f or " copper" a nd " bronze" ( Zaccagnini, 1 971,

t hat

t he d emand

t o c reate

t he e arlier f irst m illennium

a

f or

r egular

B .C.

t he

f or " bronze" w ere b oth u sed t o d escribe 1 23ff; P ostgate, 1 973a, 2 5, n .48). A s

t he t wo m etals c annot b e d istinguished b y e ye t his i s a p erennial s ource o f c onfusion a nd p robably a pplies e qually, i f n ot s o o bvio usly, t o t he t extual r ecord i n o ther p eriods. T he r ole o f b ronze i n t he m etal

i ndustries

o f

t he I ron A ge h as h ardly b een e xplored t hrough

a nalysis. ( Moorey,

I n w estern I ran i t a ppears t o h ave b een r eadily a vailable 1 971, 2 96), a s a lso i n U rartu ( Hughes e t a l., 1 981); a naly-

s es o f b ronzes o f E astern o rigin f ound i n t he G reek w orld ( Filippakis e t a l., 1 983) h ave b een s hown t o c ontain s ignificantly g reater q uant ities o f t in ( 8 t o 1 2%) t han d oes l ocal w ork b efore a bout 7 50 B .C., w hilst e ven t hereafter, w hen G reek s miths i ntroduced m ore t in i nto t heir a lloys ( perhaps u nder d irect O riental i nstruction), i t i s u p t o, r ather t han a bove, t he 7 t o 8 % r ange. T his h as b een t aken t o I ndicate t hat a t in s ource i n t he N ear E ast, r ather t han i n E urope o r t he W est M editerranean ,

t he

w as s erving G reece a t

( d)

B rass:

T he

e arly h istory o f b rass h as

n ame

i n s o

t his

t ime.

l ong b een c onfused b y t he u se o f

f undamental a s ource a s

t he K ing J ames B ible o f

1 611

t o d escribe a ll c opper a lloys i rrespective o f c omposition; i ndeed J ohnson d efined t he n ew w ord " bronze" i n h is D ictionary ( 1755-73) a s " brass . I n s trict m odern u sage b rass i s a y ellow-coloured a lloy o f c opper a nd z inc, u sually c ontaining a bout a t hird o f i ts w eight o f z inc. Z inc I s f ound i n n ature a s t he s ulphide b lende o r s phalarite; t he c arbonate c alamine o r s mithsonite, 2 0

a nd h emimorphite,

o nce

a lso

c alled

c alamine.

o res. d uring

S ulphide c opper o res c ontain s ome z inc, b ut t his i s l ost t he s melting o f t he c opper a nd o nly i n e xceptional c ases w ould

T hese o res a re

f ound

t ogether w ith c opper a nd l ead

a ny b e r etained i n t he c opper t o a ppear a s s mall t races i n a rtefacts. T he e arliest a lloys i n w hich z inc r eplaces o ther m etals a s t he m ain c onstituent w ith c opper a ppear i n A natolia i n t he 8 th t o 7 th c entur ies

B .C.;

1 980).

s uggested

e arlier a ppearances a re

F ibulae a nd m etal v essels

s purious

( Craddock,

f rom t he P hrygian c apital o f

d ion ( Craddock, 1 978, 3 ; S teinberg, s ites s uch a s A ltintepe a nd T oprak K ale

G or-

1 981, 2 87-9) a nd a t U rartian ( Hughes e t a l., 1 981; M eyer,

1 968) a re t he f irst p roperly d ocumented " brasses". A n U rartian b ull 's h ead e xamined b y G ettens ( in H anfmann a nd H ansen, 1 956) i s m ade o f t in-bronze w ith a t l east o ne h orn o f b rass, o riginally p rov iding b rasses,

t his i n

a

d istinctive

c olour c ontrast.

T hese

a re

a ll

l ow

T o w hat e xtent s uch a lloys w ere p roduced i n M esopotamia t ime i s o bscured b y t he a bsence o f a nalyses. T wo b ronze t he

z inc

w ith z inc b elow t en p er c ent.

B ritish M useum f rom L ayard s

f inds a t N imrud

a bout b owls

c ontain

6 .39%

( N.94) a nd 5 .51% ( N.617) z inc r espectively, b ut t hey m ay n ot b e l ocal p roducts ( Hughes e t a l., 1 981, 1 44). S ignificantly, w hen G reek a uthors

r efer

t o o reichalkos

i t

i s a s a r are,

e xotic a nd

e xpensive

m aterial, m anufactured i n A natolia. H ow i t w as m ade i s s till a n o pen q uestion. C raddock ( 1978, 9 ) s uggested t he c ementation p rocess: " fragments o f c opper w ere p acked i n a s ealed c rucible w ith c harcoal a nd z inc o xide a nd h eated t o a t emperature o f b etween 9 00 0 a nd 1 000 0 C ; t hat i s, h ot e nough f or t he z inc t o h ave b een v aporized b ut n ot

s o

h ot

t hat

t he c opper m elted a nd r an t o t he

b ottom

o f

t he

v essel. T he z inc v apour i n t he s ealed v essel r eadily d issolved i n t he w idely d ispersed c opper a nd b rass w as f ormed. A t t he e nd o f t he p rocess t he t emperature w as r aised a nd t he t hen m olten b rass w as s tirred

t o

f orm a u niform a lloy"

( cf.

a lso W erner,

1 970).

ing o pen a t i ts e nds" f rom t he v ery T he r eference t o a " brass r s a n e rror o f s ome k ind, p resumably e arly l evel X I a t Y arim T epe I i 977, 8 2). i n t ranslation ( Merpert e t a l., 1 D :

T he R epertory o f o bjects:

T he e normous r ange o f o bjects f or w hich c opper a nd i ts a lloys w ere u sed i n a ncient M esopotamia i s n eatly e pitomized b y t he d espair o f a n e ighth c entury c lerk l isting s poils f or t he r enowned a ccount o f S argon T h e ighth c ampaign. I n r eference t o 1 20 o bjects o f b ronze h e r emarked " the s etting d own o f w hose n ames f or t he p urpose o f w riting i s

n ot e asy"

( Thureau-Dangin,

p hilological p roblem,

u nlikely

1 912, t o

5 67:

l ine 3 64).

T his

i s

a

b e m uch e ased b y t he a rchaeological

d ata ( cf. t he l ist i n L imet, 1 960, 1 95ff.). A rchaeology h as r et rieved o nly a t iny f raction o f t he m etal r epertory f or a ny p eriod, u sually t he p ersonal o rnaments a nd w eapons, w ith a s catter o f t ools a nd o ther i solated i mplements a nd v essels. T he m ain s ource o f s uch e vidence i s g raves; i f a p eriod i s n ot w ell r epresented i n t he a rcha eological r ecord b y g raves, i ts m etalwork i s l ikely t o b e c orr espondingly l ittle k nown. O nly i n e xceptional c ases a re s ettlement s ites r ich i n m etal f inds. T his i s t o b e e xplained b y t he s ystematic r ecycling o f m etal o bjects, s ince t he p ractice o f m elting d own a nd r e-using b ase m etal t ools a nd w eapons w as a c ommonplace o f d aily l ife i n M esopotamia ( Moorey, 1 971a). N o l ess d evastating w as t he r igorous 2 1

p lundering

b y v ictors,

a s

" The A raunna-people h ave i s c ustomary" T wo

i s e xplicitly r ecorded i n a H ittite t ext:

l ooted t he b ronze i mplements o f

( Kempinski a nd K o ak,

v olumes

1 977,

t he

t own

a s

8 7).

i n t he s eries P r historische B ronzefunde,

u nder t he

s upervision o f M tller-Karpe, h ave b egun t he l ong p rocess o f c reating a c orpus o f m etalwork f rom M esopotamia ( Braun-Holzinger, 1 984; R ashid, E :

1 983).

A n H istorical S urvey: ( a)

T he P rehistoric P eriod:

T he

h istory

o f

c opper m etallurgy i n M esopotamia

p ushed b ack t o t he o val p endant f rom t he S hanidar d ating t o t he n inth m illennium B .C. ( Solecki, 1 969,

i s

n ormally

C ave, p robably 3 11ff.). A s i t

i s n ow c ompletely m ineralized, i t c annot b e a ccurately d escribed a nd m ay d o n o m ore t han i llustrate t he u se o f m alachite f or o rnamental p urposes, a s i s e vident e lsewhere i n t he p rehistoric p eriod. F or s ome y ears t he r olled b ead o f w orked n ative c opper f rom a n a ceramic c ontext a t T ell R amad o n t he E uphrates, a nd c omparable o bjects f rom C äyont i T epesi i n A natolia a nd A ll K osh i n s outhwest I ran, p rovided t he o nly i ndicators o f t he e arliest c opper r epertory ( Cambel a nd B raidwood, 1 983, 1 57; S mith, 1 969; F rance-Lanord a nd d e C ontenson, 1 973, 1 09ff.). R ecently R ussian e xcavations o n a s eries o f s ites i n t he S injar P lain o f n orthern I raq, e xtending i n t ime f rom t he p reH assuna t o t he

f ully m ature H assuna p eriod,

h ave r evealed s ignificant

e vidence f or a p ioneer c opper m etallurgy i n s ome o f t he f irst v illage s ettlements o f t he r egion ( Merpert e t a l., 1 976, 4 1; 1 977, 8 2; 1 978, 3 6). P ieces o f c opper o re, a s w ell a s s imple c opper t rinkets a nd t ools, h ave b een r eported d own t o t he b ottom l evels o f Y arim T epe I . F rom o ne o f t he l owest l evels i s r eported a s mall c opper r ing o f " flattened t ight p lait" ( Ibid., 1 978, 3 6); e arlier s till w as a l ead b racelet ( see p .122). L ow i n T ell S otto, o f t he p re-Hussuna p eriod, c opper b eads w ere a ssociated w ith a n i nhumation b urial i n a p ot; c ontemporary

p ieces o f

c opper h ave

b een r eported f rom K ültepe a nd a t

T ell M agzalia " a h ammered c opper a wl h as b een f ound o n t he f loor o f o ne o f t he h ouses ' ( Bader e t a l., 1 981, 6 2). S ome l evel o f c opper w orking w as a lso e vident a t T ellul e th-Thalathat I I, n ortheast o f t he s ites e xcavated b y t he R ussians ( Fukai e t a l., 1 981, 6 5); b ut n one w as r ecognized a t H assuna i tself. D own t he l ine o f t he T igris a t T ell e s-Sawwan t he e xcavator

r eported

" three b eads o f

c opper

—on t he

f loor o f b uilding N o-3 l evel I I, a nd a v ery s mall k nife w ith a b oring a t o ne e nd.. . in l evel I i nside a g rave..." ( Al-A dami, 1 968, 5 9). A nalyses

o f t he e arly c opper w ork f rom Y arim T epe I a nd S awwan

r evealed

c opper w ith h igh

l evels o f

i ron ( 1-10%),

h ave

f or w hich a n i ron

f lux m ay h ave b een r esponsible, i ndicating t hat a lready c opper, l ike l ead, w as b eing s melted i n t he s ource a rea, p resumably i n A natolia ( Merpert e t a l.,

1 977a).

A n e quivocal p osition i s h eld b y t he c opper s patula,

p in a nd

t wo

s imple s heetmetal b owls f rom S amarra ( Herzfeld, 1 930, p p.4, 5 , f igs. c , e ), f rom t he l ayer c ontaining p rehistoric g raves. I nitially H erzfeld ( 1933,

a ccepted t he m etal a s c ontemporary, 2 9)

h e

r ejected

i t a s

i ntrusive

b ut

t hree y ears

f rom I slamic

l evels

l ater

a nd s aid

t here w as n o m etal c ontemporary w ith t he g raves. W ith i nformed h indsight t his m ight b e a n u nnecessary r evision s ince, t ypologically, 2 2

a S amarra/Halaf T he

d ate

i s

n ot

i mpossible

( cf.

i ron f ragments,

p .100).

i mportant c ultural c omplex n amed a fter T ell H alaf i n

i s s till

s ingularly d evoid o f m etal

f inds

i n M esopotamia.

S yria

Y arim T epe

1 1, t he H alaf p eriod s ettlement, w as f ar l ess p roductive i n t his r espect t han I ( Merpert e t a l., 1 977, 9 5). V arious c opper i mplements a nd

f ragments

a t

A rpachiyah w ere

t entatively

a ttributed

t o

t his

p eriod ( Mallowan, 1 935, 1 04). A f ragment f rom T ell S hemshara p roved o n a nalysis t o b e a w eathered p iece o f c opper p yrite, w ith n o t race o f h uman w orking ( Smith, 1 970, 1 23-4). A b ead f rom C hagar B azar 1 2 w as a nalysed b y D esch : " No t race w hatever c ould b e f ound o f a rsenic, n ickel, t in, z inc o r s ulphur. T his i s t he p urest s pecimen o f a ncient c opper t hat w e h ave h ad", ( Mallowan, 1 936, 2 6-7). B y a pproximately t his

p eriod i n A natolia,

t o

j udge

b y t he a lmost p ure c opper m acehead

f rom C an H asan, s haft-hole c astings w ere a lready c urrent ( de J esus, 1 980, 4 1). I t s hould p erhaps s till b e e mphazised i n p assing t hat a c opper o r b ronze a xehead, a s pearhead, a d agger a nd a n a rrowhead f rom T ell H alaf i tself h ave n othing t o d o w ith t his o f m etallurgy ( Schmidt, H , 1 943, p l.CXIV). N or

i s

t he e vidence

f or

s tage

i n t he

h istory

t he s ubsequent U baid p eriod i n

M esopo-

t amia m uch m ore r evealing. G awra X VII, o f t he l ater U baid, y ielded a c opper r ing a nd a r ectangular-sectioned a wl; l evel X III a c opper a wl; l evel

X II a h emispherical c opper b utton a nd a f lat c opper b lade w ith

a s played c utting e dge ( Tobler, 1 950, 2 13, p l.XCVIIIa, 5 -6). A nalys is o f t he l atter i ndicated a r elatively p ure c opper w ith o nly 0 .05% a rsenic. A f lat c opper a dze o r a xe b lade f rom A rpachiyah f alls l ate i n t he U baid p eriod ( Mallowan, 1 935, 1 04, p l.XI; C urtis, 1 982, f ig.22 ( BM 1 27757)). A nalysis h as s hown i t t o b e 9 9% c opper, 0 .1% a rsenic; n o t in w as d etected ( down t o 0 .002%) ( de J esus, 1 980, I I, 2 07). I t m ay b e t he p roduct o f a s imple s melting t echnique ( Craddock, p ers. c omm.). A t N ineveh a c opper p in w as a ttributed t o " Nineveh 3 " ( Campb ell T hompson a nd M allowan,

1 933,

1 45,

p .LXVIII,

5 ).

I n t he s outh,

a t U r, i n a g rave p laced b y W oolley i n t he U baid I II h orizon ( but p ossibly o f t he l ater P rotoliterate p eriod) w as a s olid, t anged s pearhead o f v ery p ure c opper ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 91; 1 956, I t i s t he m uch m ore c ommon b ase m etalwork f rom S usa i n

2 1, p l.30). I ran w hich

i ndicates h ow i nadequate i s t his b ody o f e vidence f rom M esopotamia f or a ssessing t he s tate o f t he M esopotamian m etal i ndustry b y t he e nd o f t he U baid p eriod ( cf. B erthoud a nd F rancaix, 1 980; A miet, 1 979). I t

i s

n ot c ertain h ow m any o f

h ow m any o f s melted;

b ut

t hese o bjects w ere o f

c asting i s

m elted

c opper,

s till o nly i n s imple o pen m oulds

a nd w orking m ethods a re u nadventurous. The s tatus o f c opper

t echnology i n s outhern M esopotamia a t

t his

t ime i s c ommonly a ssessed i n t he l ight o f t he a rgument t hat t he b aked c lay s haft-holes a xeheads a nd h ammer a xes c haracteristic o f t he p eriod o n m any s ites, t hough p ersisting l ater, a re f aithful c opies o f m etal f orms ( Childe, 1 952, 1 16). N o m etal e xemplar h as y et b een f ound

a nd

t he h ypothesis m ay b e r edundant.

T he m uch

m ore

c ommon

b aked c lay s ickles o f t his a nd s ubsequent p eriods i n t he s ame a rea w ere d efinitely w orking t ools. T heir s izes, c ontexts a nd t he c ondit ion o f 2 05ff.;

t heir w orking e dges, m ake t his c lear ( Adams a nd N issen, 1 972, A nderson-GerfaUd, 1 983). W ith e xactly t he s ame c riteria i t

m ay

s hown

a xes

b e

t hat

a nd h ammers

X XIXa),

t hough

s uch w as a lso i n b aked c lay,

w hat

t hey

w ere

t he c ase w ith ( Lloyd a nd u sed

f or 2 3

i s

f ull-sized S afar,

1 943,

s till a n o pen

s hafthole p l.XVIb, q uestion.

T here

c ertainly w ere

s uch m odel

g uished b y s ize a nd c ondition.

t ools;

b ut

t hey a re c learly d istin-

F or i nstance,

i n g rave 2 1 a t T ell a l-

U baid a c lay m odel o f a f lint h oe w as f ound b eside a r eal o ne, ( Hall a nd W oolley, 1 927, p l.XLVI T .O. 4 0). T he f lared b lades o f b aked c lay s haft-hole a xeheads m ay b e e xplained b y r eference t o s tone t ools, f or t here a re p ierced s tone a xeheads o f t his p eriod w ith f inely g round a nd

f lared c utting e dges

n ot b e c asting

( Tobler,

1 950,

p l.XCIVd,

e ).

I t m ay

t hen

a ssumed f rom t he s haft-hole b aked c lay t ools t hat b ivalve o f p utative c opper c ounterparts w as p ractised a t t his t ime.

I t m ay h ave b een; b ut m ore c onvincing e vidence, o f t he k ind n ow a vailable f rom I ran, i s s till n eeded i n M esopotamia. I t m ay b e, a s D eshayes ( 1960, 4 08-9) a rgued, t hat i n t his p eriod S umerian m etalw orking

w as

a s

m uch i ndebted

t o I ran f or t echnical s timuli a s

i t w as

f or r aw m aterials.

i n

B y t he e arly f ourth m illennium B .C., t he c oppersmith's r epertory M esopotamia a ppears t o e xtend l ittle b eyond s imple p ersonal o rna-

m ents, s uch a s p ins, r ings a nd b eads, f lat t ools l ike a wls, a dzes o r c hisels, a nd m etal s tamp s eals; b y t he e nd t he r ange o f t echniques a nd a rtefacts i s c onsiderable. M any c opper a rtefacts w ere p robably b y n ow o f s melted c opper, i mported r eady p rocessed, f or c asting i n o pen a nd b ivalve m oulds, t hen h ot o r c old w orked a fter c asting. S heet-metal w orking h ad b een m astered i n a ll i ts s implest f orms. S mall-scale l ost-wax c astings a ppear e arly e nough i n t his p eriod t o i ndicate s ome k ind o f p revious d evelopment i n U baid c ontexts, e ither i n M esopotamia o r c loser t o a s upply z one. O ne m ajor a rchaeological d iscovery o utside M esopotamia i s v ery r elevant t o t his q uestion, s ince i t s hows a r emarkable m astery o f t he a rt o f l ost-wax c asting, b oth f or r elatively p lain, i f i ntricate o bjects a nd f or f ree-standi ng, t hree-dimensional o rnaments, l ong b efore a ny s uch t hing i s e vident i n M esopotamia. T he e normous h oard o f c opper a nd a rsenical c opper t ools, w eapons a nd " ritual" o bjects, f rom a c ave i n N ahal M ishmar o n t he w estern s hores o f t he D ead S ea i n I srael i s d ated w ithin t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth m illennium ( c.3750-3500 B .C.) ( Bar-Adon, 1 980). I t i s a p roduct o f t he C halcolithic B eersheba C ulture o f s outhern P alestine a nd, e ven o n r elatively c onservative d ating, w ould b e e arlier t han U ruk I V i n M esopotamia. N othing t o c ompare w ith i t

h as y et

b een f ound e lsewhere.

A f ree-standing l ion ( 4.7x3.4x1.lcm) a mulet f rom U ruk i s o f c opper w ith 9 % l ead ( Heinrich, 1 936, 2 5, 4 7, p l.13a). T his h igh l ead c ontent s uggests t hat t he c raftsman w as a lready a ware t hat i ts p resence f acilitated c asting ( cf. B raun-Holzinger, 1 984, 3 ff.). H owe ver, i t i s n ot c lear h ow m uch c ontrol w as e xercised a t t his t ime o ver c opper a lloys. B erthoud a nd h is c olleagues ( 1982, 4 5-6) h ave s hown h ow, i n t he p eriod o n e ither s ide o f 3 000 B .C., t here w as a d egree o f l ead-copper a lloying n ot e ncountered l ater. R elatively h igh l evels o f l ead c haracterize o bjects f rom S usa a t t his t ime. A nalyses h ave n ow a lso r evealed t hat a g roup o f m etal c ylinder s eals o f

l ate

P rehistoric

w ith

r elatively

1 981,

X III; A mong

h igh

G orelick ,

t ype h ave c opper a s t he m ain l ead p ercentages

2 0%)

c onstituent, ( cf.

b ut

B uchanan,

p ers.comm.).

t he m any s mall

w estern c orner o f

( up t o

f inds

f rom t he

t he E anna s anctuary,

" Riemchengeb ude",

b uilt

i n

t he

s oon a fter t he d estruc-

t ion o f t he " Stone-cone T emple" i n U ruk I VA, w ere v arious c opper v essels a nd s pearheads, a s w ell a s a nimal h orns ( Lenzen, 1 958, 2 4-5; 2 4

1 959,

1 0,

p 1.17,

3 9b).

T he U ruk e xcavation r eports r arely d etail

m ore m undane c opper f inds. B etween l evels " C" a nd " D" o f t he A nu z iggurat w ere a n " astonishing" n umber o f c ompletely o xidized l umps o f c opper, s ome a s l arge a s a m an s f ist ( N81deke, 1 938, c opper w as a lso n oted i n l evels o f E anna X I, ( Jordan, O bjects o f c opper a re n oted i n l evels o f " D" a nd " E" z iggurat,

( Nöldeke,

1 937,

2 5). W orked 1 932, 3 0). o f t he A nu

5 3).

N o d etails a re g iven o f a s pear p oint

a nalysed a s C u: 9 9.13%; F e: t race ( Heinrich 1 936, 4 7).

0 .27%; N i: 0 .14%; A s: 0 .17%; Z n: S urvey i n t he U ruk r egion o ffered s ome

e vidence f or s heet m etal v essels i n t he U ruk p eriod; b ut t he v arious c opper t ools a nd w eapons r ecovered m ight h ave b een m ade a t a ny t ime d own t o E arly D ynastic E xcavations n ium

B .C.

I ( Adams a nd N issen,

i n l evels

o f

1 972,

2 05-6).

t he s econd h alf o f

t he f ourth

m illen-

a t T epe G awra i n t he n orth d o n ot s ubstantially a lter t he

p icture o ffered b y U ruk. I t i s o nly w ith S tratum V III, a t t he o utset o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., t hat a n a ppreciable r ise w as o bserved I n t he n umber o f c opper o bjects r etrieved. m arkedly w ith 2 2 c opper s pecimens i n V III,

T hereafter t hey i ncreased 4 2 i n V II a nd 3 34 i n V I,

t owards t he e nd o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. ( Speiser, A n a dze b lade f rom X I w as p rimarily c opper w ith 1 .63%

1 935, 1 03). a rsenic a nd

3 .34% n ickel, a n a rsenical c opper t ypical o f t his p hase o ver m uch o f t he N ear E ast ( see p .15 h ere). B y t his t ime s miths c learly h ad c onsiderable

k nowledge o f

t he r esults

p roduced b y a m anipulation

o f

v arious o res, s elected b y c olour a nd s ometimes b y f orm , t o i mprove t he h ardness o f t he t ools a nd w eapons. S o f ar t here i s n o c lear e vidence I n M esopotamia, a s t here i s s lightly l ater f rom E gypt, A natolia a nd I ran,

f or

t he u se o f a rsenic c ompounds

t o g ive o bjects a

s urface c olour l ike s ilver. A t G awra t he r epertory i n b ase m etals w as s tandard a nd s imple, s ave f or a c ast c opper o bject w hich, t o j udge f rom b one p arallels, m ay b e a k ohl t ube. I t l ooks l ike t he " mouthpiece o f a m usical i nstrument" w ith r ibbed s ides a nd w as i n a n U ruk p eriod a rchaeological c ontext. A p in ( no l onger i dentifiable) f rom l evel V III, u sually d ated t o t he e arly t hird m illennium B .C., c ontained 5 .62% t in; i f c orrect, t his w ould b e t he e arliest t in b ronze y et r eported f rom M esopotamia ( Speiser, 1 935, 1 02). A rsenical c oppers h ave b een r eported f rom H abuba K abira o n t he U pper E uphrates, a s ettlement o f t he U ruk I V p eriod c losely l inked t o S umer ( Riederer, 1 976), w hilst r ecent w ork i n P hiladelphia o n o bjects f rom G awra i ndicates a p redominance t here o f c opper a nd a rsenical c opper u ntil t he e nd o f F or l iterate

t he t hird m illennium B .C. s ome a nd

g uide

t o

( see p p.54-5).

t he r outine p roduction o f

t he

E arly D ynastic I p eriods r ecourse m ust

l ater b e m ade

P rotot o

U r.

T here t he e vidence c omes f rom a n umber o f g raves a nd l evels o f o ccup ational d ebris i n P its W a nd X . W oolley d ivided t he g raves i nto t hree g roups, e arly ( A), m iddle ( B), a nd l ate ( C) ( for r ecent c omplex a nd

u nresolved c hronological d iscussions

K olbus,

1 982;

K orbel,

1 984).

s ee

G ockel,

1 982,

O f t he 5 4 g raves a ssigned

t o

1 983; " A",

1 5

c ontained m etalwork : o f l ead, 1 1 t umblers a nd I d ish; o f c opper, 5 b owls, 1 v essel a nd 1 l adle. O f t he 1 30 g raves a ttributed t o " B", 2 6 c ontained m etal o bjects: o f 5 p ins, 1r azor, 1 f ishhook,

l ead, 1 3 t umblers; o f c opper, 1 4 b owls, 1h arpoon. O f 1 48 g raves c lassified i n

2 2 c ontained m etal a rtefacts:

o f

l ead,

1 2 t umblers a nd 1 b owl;

o f c opper, 3 p ins, 1c hisel ( 7), 5 b owls a nd 1 t umbler, 1 n eedle, I l adle a nd 1 m irror; o f s ilver, 2 p airs o f e arrings ( Woolley, 1 956, 1 04ff.). T he c opper v essels, a llowing f or h eavy c orrosion, h ad 2 5

p ercentages

o f a rsenic v arying f rom 0 .3 t o

1 .3.

T here w as n o

t race

o f t in, a nd n ickel r eadings w ere l ow ; a c opper r od g ave t he s ame r esult ( Desch i n W oolley, 1 934, 1 65). P redictably, i t i s t ools w hich p redominate i n t he o ccupational d ebris: f ishhooks, p rojectile p oints a nd s patulae; n o v essels w ere r eported t here ( Woolley, 1 956, p assim). S uch a p attern i s e vident e lsewhere i n t his a nd t he s ubsequent p eriod.

T echniques

r emain s imple;

a rsenical c oppers a re c urrent,

b ut

s till, s urprisingly, t here i s n o p ublished a rtefactual e vidence f or b ivalve c asting. V essels w ere h ammered, u sually i n o ne p iece. M etalwork f rom J amdat N asr w as m eagre, o f U r

( Mackay, T he

1 931;

M oorey a nd S chweizer,

e xcavations

m etalwork o f

a dding n othing t o

o f

1 972,

t he e vidence

1 80).

d e G enouillac a t T elloh y ielded

t he P rotoliterate p eriod,

t hough i ts

a

l ittle

i dentification

i s

n ot w ithout p roblems. T he o riginal p ublication i s v ery c onfused a nd c hronological a ttributions a re n ot a lways c ertain. B uchanan p rovided a c ritical r eview o f t his m aterial, G enouillac, 1 934, 4 4ff; B uchanan,

w hich s ifts i t i nto g roups ( de 1 967, 5 35ff.). A part f rom a f ew

g old b eads, t he f inds a re p redominantly c opper p ins, m irrors a nd s heet m etal v essels, s ome s pouted; b ut a p in t opped b y a p air o f n ude f emale " dancers" i s a n i mportant e arly e xample o f l ost-wax c asting ( de G enouillac, 7 ff.). M etal t amia

1 934,

t emple

s o

t he

4 6,

f ittings

5 0,

p 1.10.2-5;

r arely s urvive

c f.

B raun-Holzinger,

f rom a ny p eriod i n M esopo-

f ragments o f c opper p anelling f ound i n t he

L ate

h istoric T emple a t T ell B rak a re a ll t he m ore r emarkable. p ieces w ere f luted, s ome d ecorated w ith a l inear e ye d esign. w ere o riginally f ixed t o a w ooden b acking w ith s mall c opper ( Mallowan, ( b)

1 947,

3 2,

p l.VIII.2,

n .l.,

T he E arly H istoric P eriod,

1 984,

P reS ome T hey n ails,

p l.XXX.8). c .3000-2300 B .C.:

I n t he " archaic" t exts o f E arly D ynastic I f rom U r, t here i s t he e arliest c ertain m ention o f Z ABAR ( bronze) d istinguished f rom U RUDU ( copper), a lthough a nalytical e vidence o f t in c opper a lloys i n S umer I s n ot a vailable u ntil E arly D ynastic I II.

A lthough a rsenical

c op-

p ers w ere t hen s lowly s uperseded, c opper w as l ong t o r emain t he s taple m etal i n M esopotamia. S upplies o f t in w ere a lways u npredicta ble a nd i ts u se i n t ools a nd w eapons b y n o m eans c onstant. T he e xtent t o w hich M esopotamia u sed t in a t t his t ime i s a c omplex q uest ion f or w hich f ar m ore a nalyses a re n eeded b efore s ound c onclusions m ay b e

r eached.

I n t he

s outh,

i n t he c emetery a t

U baid,

a f ew o f

t he g raves a re

l ate p rehistoric b ut t he m ajority a re o f e arly D ynastic I lIll, ( Martin, 1 982; H all a nd W oolley, 1 927). T he m etal t ally c ontrasts w ith t he " Jamdat N asr g raves" a t U r. T here a re n o l ead v essels; o nly 8 g raves h ad c opper v essels, ( Hall a nd W oolley, 4 6, 6 3, 7 6-7, 9 2), 2 , c opper d aggers o r k nives, c opper

p ins

o r k ohl

s ticks,

( Ibid.

c .3

1 927, ( Ibid.

( E.D.I.),

2 7,

c .11, c .28, 6 5,

2 7, 3 7, 9 1), 4 ,

7 3),

1 ,

a

c opper h arpoon h ead, ( Ibid. c .77, ( E.D.I.)), a nd 4 , t wisted c opper w ire e arrings, ( Ibid. c .4 ( E.D.I.), 4 , 5 9, 7 3). A c opper f lat a xe, a n a dze b lade a nd a f ishhook l oose i n t he s oil d o o verall s ample, ( Ibid. p l.XLVI.2). I n C entral I raq

t he e arliest

p hases 2 6

o f

l ittle

t o a lter t he

t he E arly D ynastic

p eriod

a re

c overed b y

t he i ll-excavated,

p oorly r ecorded g raves o f

s ounding o n T ell I ngharra a t K ish, T hey a re, f or t hese r easons, b est

t he

" Y"

( Moorey, 1 978, F iches E 09-G03). s een i n c omparison w ith t he g rave

s equence a t K hafajah i n t he D iyala r egion. H ere, o f 5 3 g raves a ttrib uted t o t he e nd o f t he P rotoliterate p eriod, o nly 5 y ielded m etal: s imple s heet c opper v essels a nd p ins a s w ell a s 2 l ead v essels a nd a l ead o rnament ( Delougaz, 1 967, 5 9ff.; g raves 1 , 4 , 5 , 8 , 1 8). O f a bout 3 0 g raves a ttributed t o E arly D ynastic I o nly 3 y ielded m etal: 2 c opper m irrors a nd a p in, ( Ibid. g raves 6 6-7, 8 3). S lightly o ver 3 0 g raves w ere a llocated t o E arly D ynastic I I, 1 3 p roduced m etalwork, w ith s heet c opper v essels p redominating. I solated m irrors, p ins a nd a r azor a ppear; b ut t he o nly c lues t o a m ore s ophisticated r ange o f m etallurgical s kills a re 2 v essel-stands, c ast a nd w elded ( Ibid. g raves 8 6-7, 8 9, 9 1-2, 9 4, 9 7, 1 08-110, 1 14-4, 1 19A). I t i s o nly w ith E arly D ynastic I II t hat q uantity m arkedly i ncreases a nd t he r epertory i n g raves e xtends t o i nclude t ools a nd w eapons. B ut h ere t he a rbitrary w itness o f t he a rchaeological r ecord i s a ll t o c lear w hen a ttention i s s witched, a s i n a m oment i t w ill b e, f rom p rivate g raves

t o

t emple

f urnishings.

A t K ish E arly D ynastic I -II

p rivate

g raves a re f urnished e xactly a s a t K hafajah, t hough 2 c ast c opper v essel-stands, 1 s et o n a f rog, t he o ther w ith e laborate i nterlaced o penwork ( Watelin,

s ides,are m ore e laborate t han t hose i n g raves a t K hafajah, 1 934, p l.XX. 1 -2). I t i s t he f urnishings o f c art b urials

a t K ish t hat i ndicate t he w ider r ange o f m etalwork n ow a vailable t o t hose o f w ealth a nd s ocial s tanding: t ools ( saws, g oads a nd a wls), w eapons

( fine

a rsenical a nalysed;

d aggers a nd s haft-hole a xeheads),

c opper, c f.

M etal

a nd

f inely c ast

B raun-Holzinger,

t emple

u nknown; o nly i n E arly D ynastic I I,

1 984,

z oomorphic

s till o f c opper r ein-rings

( not

o r y et

3 3ff.).

f urnishings c ertainly o f E arly D ynastic I a re s till t he D iyala V alley a re s uch o bjects a vailable f or w ith o ne p ossible e xception. I n p it W a t U r, a t

t he l ower e nd o f t he S .I.S. 4 -5 w ere f ound 4 h ooves o f o xen, ( Woolley, 1 956, 3 8, p l.29.77), m ade o f t hin s heet c opper h ammered o ver a w ooden c ore, o riginally f ixed t o a s tand. W oolley b elieved t hem t o b e m uch e arlier t han t he c omparable T ell a l-Ubaid t emple m etal s culptures.

T he c ontext,

a n E arly D ynastic I -II d ating;

i f u ndisturbed,

b ut F rankfort

c ertainly i ndicates

( 1932,

1 6,

n ote)

d id n ot

a ccept i t. T hree v essel-stands c ast a s b earded m ale f igures, n ude s ave f or a g irdle, o f a lmost p ure c opper, w ith m inor c asting f aults f illed i n w ith l ead, w ere f ound i n a c ontext a ttributed t o E arly D ynastic I II i n t he T emple O val a t K hafajah; b ut F rankfort s uggested t hey m ight h ave b een m ade e arlier ( Frankfort, 1 939, 3 8ff. p 1.98-103). I n t he S hara T emple a t T ell A grab, i n a n e arly D ynastic I I c ontext, w as a b adly c orroded a nthropomorphic s tand, j ust l ike t hose f rom K hafajah, ( Ibid. 1 1, p 1.55). s tatuettes, 2m ale, 1 f emale, t echnically

m ore

H ere a lso w ere 3 s olid c ast c opper o f w orshippers, ( Ibid. 1 1-12, p 1.56);

o utstanding i s

t he t hree-dimensional

c ast

c opper

m odel o f a o ne-man c hariot, d rawn b y f our e quids ( Ibid. 1 2-13, p 1.58). T hese o bjects, a nd t he v essel-support m odelled a s t wo w restl ers w earing o nly g irdles, f rom N intu T emple V a t K hafajah, i llus trate t he g reat s kill o f t he S umerians i n m aking e laborate c ast c opper s tatuettes b y t he l ost-wax m ethod b y a t l east D iyala E arly D ynastic I I ( Ibid. 1 2, p l.54). I n t he h ighest s urviving l evels o f t he S hara T emple a t T ell A grab, i n E arly D ynastic I II, w ere f ound t he f ragments o f a n a nthopomorphic s tand, c onsiderably l arger t han t hose f rom K hafajah, a nd t he t oes o f a h uman f oot t hree-quarters l ife s ize. 2 7

O ther

b ody

f ragments a re h ollow c ast w ith c lay c ores a nd

d ebris f rom a f aulty c asting o n a c omparable s cale, 1 1, p 1.61, 3 11-12; i n g eneral, c f. B raun-Holzinger, A lthough s ize w ere c raftsmen,

t hese

f ragments

s uggest

l ook

l ike

( Frankfort, 1 943, 1 984, 1 0ff.).

t hat c omplex c astings o f

n ot b eyond t he s kill a nd i ngenuity o f E arly a n e laborate p rogramme o f t emple d ecoration

s ome

D ynastic i n c ast

s tatuary o f a ny s ize w ould h ave b een c ostly i n t erms o f m etal c raftsmanship. T his p robably e xplains w hy, a t s ites l ike T ell

a nd a l-

U baid, l arge f ree-standing a nimals a nd r elief p anels w ere m ade m ainly o f h ammered s heet c opper f itted o ver r oughly s haped b itumen o r b itumen-coated w ooden c ores a nd s ecured w ith r ivets, ( see p .49), w ith s eparately f itted c ast b ronze h eads ( Hall a nd W oolley, 1 927; B raunH olzinger 1 984, 2 6h; J .C. C urtis, p ers.comm.). A n umber o f c ast c opper ( or b ronze) a nimal h eads h ave s urvived f rom E arly D ynastic I II, t hough o nly a t T ell a l-Ubaid i s t heir o riginal d estination k nown, ( cf. M oortgat, 1 969, p 1.53; d e S arzec a nd H euzey, 1 884-1912, p l.5 t er.; P arrot, 1 960, 1 86; G lob, 1 955, 1 78, f ig.I; H ilprecht, 1 904, 5 39, f ig. o n p .5 1+ 0; F rankfort, 1 943, p l.29B ; B raun-Holzinger, 1 984, 3 1ff.). A t U r f ive c opper b ulls h eads w ere f ound t ogether i n a h ole b elow a p lano-convex b rick w all a longside t he N eo-Sumerian g rave 1 850 ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 12, 5 94, p 1.143). T he b ase m etal e quivalents o f t he w ell-known E arly D ynastic i I 1 11 v otive s tone h uman s tatuettes (Cf. B raun-Holzinger, 1 984, 1 0ff.) h ave

a lso s till t o b e s tudied p rimarily t hrough a f ew e xamples

f rom

u nknown s ources. T hree a re p articularly i mportant e xamples o f t his a spect o f t he s culptor s a rt I n m etal; a ll a re l ost-wax c astings. T he L ouvre h as a " bronze" b earded m ale f igure i n a k ilt s tanding o n a s mall b ase p late; i n t he M etropolitan M useum , N ew Y ork , i s a c opper s tatuette o f a m an w earing o nly a g irdle,

w ho c arries o n h is h ead

a

b ox o r p ile o f b ricks; a nd t he S chimmel c ollection c ontains a c opper m ale w orshipper, b est p aralleled b y a s tone s tatue f rom M an , s et o n a n o pen-work b ase, i nscribed b y a s cribe w ith a d edication t o t he g oddess N inegal, ( Contenau, 1 940, 3 7ff., p l.IV; C rawford, 1 960, 2 64ff., f igures

f ig.6; M uscarella, 1 974, n o.106). C losely r elated t o t hese i s a w hole g roup o f c ast c opper f oundation f igurines, p lain,

a nthropomorphic ( Ellis,

1 968,

a nd 4 6ff;

z oomorphic, R ashid,

m any

1 983).

O ne

o f k nown t ext o f

s ource

a nd

t o t hee, h istory o f m etal s tatuary s peaks o f a s ilver s tatue o f d eity S ag zag m ade i n t he s econd y ear o f U rukagina o f L agash a nd c raftsmen i nvolved i n i ts p roduction : m en, a w orker i n s tone a nd j ewellers,

d ate,

t his p eriod r elevant t he t he

t he m aster-sculptor, f oundry( Spycket, 1 968, 3 4-5). T his

a ssembly s uggests t hat t he s ulptor c reated t he o riginal w ax m odel f or c asting, t hat I ts e yes a t l east w ere i nlaid w ith s tone, a nd t hat i ts s urface w as f urther o rnamented b y i s n ot g iven.

j ewellers.

T he s ize o f t he s tatue

T he " Royal C emetery" a t U r c ontinues t o d ominate d iscussions o f m etalworking i n t hird m illennium M esopotamia a nd b eyond. I n b ase m etals i t p rovides a c omprehensive r epertory o f w eapons, t ools, v essels, p ersonal o rnaments a nd m iscellaneous f ittings a cross t he w hole p eriod f rom E arly D ynastic l ilA t o U r I II, ( Woolley, 1 934; N issen, 1 966, p assim). H ere f or t he f irst t ime i n M esopotamia t inb ronzes a re e vident, ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 90; C raddock, 1 984; f or c hronol ogical c omments s ee p .26), a s t hey a re i n E arly D ynastic l ilA/B a t K ish

a nd e lsewhere

( Moorey a nd S chweizer, 2 8

1 972).

A

c omprehensive

a nalytical

p rogramme

o f

t he c opper a nd b ronze

o bjects

f rom

c emetery w ould g ive a v ital i ndication o f t he r elative b ronze a t t his t ime. T he S umerians p rimarily u sed g old,

p lace o f f or i ts

b eauty, a nd c opper, f or i ts u tility, a nd b ronze i s l ikely t o r emained a " luxury" p roduct u ntil t he s econd m illennium B .C. p p.127ff. o n t in). ( c)

T he A kkadian P eriod,

t his

h ave ( see

c .2300-2100 B .C.:

L imet h as p rovided a u seful s tudy o f t he m etals a nd m etalworking i n t he A kkadian p eriod,

t extual e vidence f or ( Limet, 1 972), e mpha-

s izing i ts l imitations. G enerally s peaking t he a rchaeological r ecord f or t he r outine r epertory o f m etalsmiths i s e qually m eagre o utside t he U r g raves, s ince t here i s s till s o l ittle p ublished e xcavated m aterial f rom o ccupation l evels s ecurely d ated t o t his p eriod. T here i s n othing t o s uggest a r adical b reak i n t he e volution o f m etallurgy, i ndeed t he c ontrary, n or a ny c ertain i ndication o f a w idespread b reak i n t he l ines o f m etal s upply, a s h ad b een s uggested o n t he b asis o f r estricted e vidence f rom U r. T in c ontinues t o b e u sed a t U r a nd i ts u se a ppears

t o b e c arefully r egulated

( cf.

C raddock,

1 984).

T here i s

o ne r emarkable a spect o f m etalworking I n t his p eriod, o nly o bliquely i ndicated i n E arly D ynastic I II b y t he f ragments o f l arge —scale b ronze c astings f rom t he D iyala s ites. T his i s t he u nequivocal e vidence f or l arge s cale c opper c astings o f t he v ery h ighest q uality ( Braun-Holzinger, T he

f irst o f

1 984,

n o.49,

t hese,

5 4,

6 1).

t he w ell-known m etal m ale h ead f rom N ineveh,

( Campbell T hompson a nd M allowan, 1 932, c opper n ot b ronze ( Nylander, 1 980), h as

7 2), n ow k nown t o b e o f c ast l ong b een k nown, t hough n ever

p ublished i n f ull m etallurgical d etail. T he c asting c ore h as l argely g one, t hough c haplets s urvive, l eaving t he h ead a t l east p artially h ollow, t hough i t i s s ealed a cross t he b ase o f t he n eck. A t iny h ole h ere, w hich m ay n ot b e a ncient, l eads i nto t he c avity a nd t here i s t he " ghost" o f a s quare p eg o n t he b ase p late, e ither p roduced b y t he o riginal c asting p rocess o r e lse t he r emains o f t he f ixture w hich s ecured t he h ead t o t he b ody, p robably i n o ther m aterials. T he d etail o f t he h ead i s r emarkably f ine a nd, a lthough s ome o f i t m ay h ave b een i mproved a fter c asting w ith c hasing t ools, i t l ooks a s i f i t w as p redominantly c ut o n t he o riginal h ard w ax m odel. T he h ead h ad b een i ntentionally d amaged a t s ome p oint i n i ts h istory, p erhaps w hen N ineveh w as

t he

s acked i n 6 12 B .C.

( Nylander,

1 980).

D iakonov ( 1947) a rgued, f rom I ts h air a nd b eard s tyling, t hat l ife-size c ast h ead o f a b earded m an, a lso o f c opper, n ow i n t he

M etropolitan

M useum ,

N ew Y ork,

o nce i n t he B rummer C ollection

a nd

s aid t o b e f rom w estern I ran, s hould a lso b e d ated t o t he A kkadian p eriod, t hough s ubsequent c ommentators p refer a d ating i n t he e arly s econd m illennium B .C.

n .34;

S chlossman,

1 981/2, 1 56, f igs.22-4). I t w as c ast s olid w ith a c avity t o t ake a r ectangular d owel f or f itting t o a b ody ; t he

( Porada,

1 965,

6 2,

f ig.38,

i n t he n eck e yes w ere

o riginally i nlaid a s o n t he N ineveh h ead. T he r eported c ompanion p iece t o t he N ew Y ork h ead, n ow i n C incinnati, h as n ot y et b een a nalysed ( Pope, 1 939, I V, p l.107). I t i s s maller, h as e yes m odelled i n o ne w ith t he f ace, a s hort b eard, a nd t he c asting e xtends d own o nto t he s houlders i n a w ay n either o f t he o ther h eads d o. I ts d ate i s a h eads

m uch m ore o pen q uestion a nd t he o riginal a ssociation o f t he o n t he a rt m arket m ay m ean n o m ore t han a c ommon g eographical 2 9

s ource

i n m odern t imes.

T he a chievement o f t he A kkadian c raftsmen i n c asting l arge-scale h uman s tatuary w as c onfirmed i n 1 975 w hen, a t B assetki n ear D ohak i n n orth-east I raq, a b ulldozer t urned u p t he l ower p art o f a c opper c rouching n ude m an, c lasping t he b ase o f a s tandard o r

c ast f lag

p ole, s et o n a c ircular p odium b earing a n i nscription o f N aram-Sin. I t m ay o riginally h ave b een o ne o f a p air o f " guardians o f t he g ate" i n a t emple, ( Al-Fouadi, 1 976, 6 3ff.; O ates, J , 1 979, p 1.17). I t I s a m assive, h ollow c opper c asting w hich s till r etains s ome o f i ts c lay c ore w ith t he c haplets s till i n p lace. T he w hole f igure, i n s o f ar a s i t s urvives, i s m odelled w ith s triking r ealism a nd s ensitivity, e xactly p laced w ithin t he c ircle

p rovided b y t he c ircumference o f t he

b ase. T he r ight l eg, a t a r ight a ngle, f rames t he f lag-pole s ocket, t he l eft i s d rawn b ack m ore s harply t o p rovide r oom f or t he p anel o f i nscription. A t asselled g irdle p rovides t he o nly o rnament. L ike t he N ineveh h ead i t w ould b e r egarded a s a m asterpiece o f t he s culpt ors a rt i n m etal i n a ny a ge o r p lace, e pitomizing t he l evel o f s kill a vailable t o t he A kkadian k ings t owards t he e nd o f t he d ynasty. C opper i s p articularly d ifficult t o h andle i n l arge c astings o f t his k ind, p robably d one w ith m ultiple p iece-moulds. T he t echnology h as n ot y et b een e xpertly s tudied; i t m ight b e d irect c asting i n d ivis ible r efractory p iece-moulds. T he r elative r oles o f m etals a nd s tone i n t he l ater t hird m ill ennium m ay b e g auged, a t l east f or w eapons, b y t he p ersisting u se o f f lint a rrowheads. A t B rak t hey w ere f ound i n c onsiderable n umbers, t hough n one o f m etal w as r ecovered b y t he e xcavator ( Mallowan, 1 947, 1 80, p l.XXXVII.). F or a gricultural t ools w ood, s tone a nd b aked c lay c ontinued t o p lay a c rucial r ole a nd w ere o nly s lowly s uperseded b y m etal

( Moorey, ( d)

o n

1 982,

3 2).

U r I II t o t he N eo-Assyrian P eriod:

c .2100-1000 B .C.

T he U r I II p eriod m arks t he p oint f rom w hich t extual i nformation c opper a nd b ronze-working i n M esopotamia s teadily s upersedes t he

e vidence o f a rchaeology. I n h is f undamental t extual s tudy o f t he U r I II m etal i ndustry L lmet ( 1960, 1 98ff.), p rovided a u seful l ist o f t he o bjects m ade o f m etal b y t he S umerians. M any m ay n ot b e i dentif ied

w ith c ertainty,

b ut

t he

l ist d emonstrates h ow

r estricted

t he

r ange o f s urviving m aterial e vidence i s. T his p oint i s a gain w ell m ade t hree c enturies l ater w ithin t he c ontext o f a n o perating m etal i ndustry, b y R ouault s ( 1977) s tudy o f t he a ctivities o f M ukannI'um, o ne o f t he h igh o fficials o f t he M ari p alace a dministration a t t he t ime o f Z imri-Lim.

F ortunately,

t he s urviving d ocuments

f or h is r ole

a s c ontroller o f m etals a nd m etalworkers a re t he m ost i mportant a nd m ost d etailed i n h is a rchive, ( Rouault, 1 977, 1 62ff.). H e w as t he m iddleman,

t he s enior o fficial w ho r eceived a nd s tored

o f m etal, b ursement,

w ho e xecuted r oyal o rders f or t heir m anufacture o r d isa nd w ho o rdered a nd s tored t he a rtefacts, d epending u pon

c onsignments

e xpert a dvice o n t echnical m atters. T his v aluable d ocumentation i s c omplemented b y m ore s cattered i nformation o n m etals a nd t he r epert ory o f o bjects I n t he M ari a rchives

( Bottero,

1 957,

2 93ff.;

B irot,

1 960, 3 10ff.; D urand, 1 983). A gainst t his b ackground i t i s e asy t o a ppreciate w hy, I n a r egion w here t he a rchaeological e vidence f or m etalworking i s p redominantly m ortuary, a s harp d ecline i n t he a mount o f m etalwork p laced i n g raves i ncreasingly r educes t he d ata-base f or 3 0

s tudy. g raves

W hen, a t t he s ame t ime, t he n umber a nd r ange o f e xcavated i s a lso m ore r estricted t han b efore t he p roblem i s s till m ore

a cute. A t I II p eriod;

p resent, e vidence i s v irtually c onfined t o U r i n t he U r i s s parse a nd s cattered f or t he I sin-Larsa a nd O ld B aby-

l onian p eriods; p eriods

a nd i s n egligible

f or t he K assite a nd M iddle A ssyrian

i n p ublications.

T he

n ature

o f

t he c ontrast

i n m ortuary

e vidence

b etween

t he

t hird a nd s econd m illennia B .C. i s b est i llustrated a t U r w here t he g raves o f t he I sin-Larsa p eriod m ay b e c ompared t o t hose o f t he e arlier ( 1976, o r

" Royal C emetery". 1 68 g raves a re l isted i n d etail b y W oolley 1 95ff.). A part f rom p ersonal o rnaments, t he f ollowing c opper

b ronze i tems w ere r ecorded:

2 1 g raves p roduced

m etal

v essels,

( 24, 1 79,

2 7, 3 3, 4 1, 4 4, 4 5, 5 9, 1 06, 1 31, 1 42, 1 45, 1 48, 1 52, 1 57, 1 64, 1 82, 1 84, 1 86, 1 89, 1 96); t hree h ad p ins o r k ohl s ticks ( 5, 3 3,

6 1);

4 h eld

r azors,

( 27,

1 42,

1 75,

1 87);

o ne h ad w hat m ay b e a n

a rrowhead ( 43); o ne c ontained a " chisel" b lade, ( double-ended, 4 5); t hree, s ignificantly, w ere e quipped w ith s ets o f m iniature t ools, ( 27, 3 8, 4 4), a nd 3 h ad s ets o f s cale-pans, ( 23, 3 8, 1 70). T his s ample o f t he g raves o f a n u rban c ommunity, l argely s mall m erchants a nd c raftsmen, w ithout a ny c onspicuous s igns o f w ealth o r s tatus, ( only 1 2 g raves c ontained p ieces o f g old o r s ilver j ewellery) i s, w here i t c an b e c hecked o n o ther s ites, t ypical o f t he p eriod. T he s ituation d oes n ot s ubstantially c hange t hereafter. T he r ange o f p ersonal o rnaments, w eapons a nd v essels f rom g raves o f t he U r I II p eriod a t A ssur c omplements t he U r e vidence, ( Haller, 1 954, 6 ff.). J ewellery i s t he o nly a spect o f m etalwork , f or w hich t inuous, i f a t t imes t hin, t hread o f m aterial e vidence t hrough

t he s econd m illennium B .C.

( Maxwell-Hyslop,

a c one xtends

1 971, 6 4-93,

1 63-

1 79); b ut, w hen p ersonal o rnaments a re i n b ase m etal, t hey d o l ittle m ore t han c opy, a s f ar a s p ossible, t he f orms a nd t echniques o f g old a nd

s ilver

j ewellery.

T he d evelopment o f w eapons

a t

t his

t ime

i n

M esopotamia i s i ll-documented f rom c ontrolled e xcavations. I t h as b een l argely r econstructed f rom s cattered a rtefacts ( spearheads, d aggers a nd a xeheads) a ssembled t ypologically. I n g eneral t he s hafth ole a xeheads s how i ncreasing v ariety o f f orm ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 946, 1 949; D eshayes, 1 960; C urtis, 1 983), t hough M esopotamian c raftsmen d o n ot

s eem

t heir

t o h ave

c olleagues

f avoured t o

r elief

t he e ast.

o r

i ncised d ecoration a s

D aggers,

o r s hort

s words

m uch ( the

a s t rue

s word i s n ot e vident), d eveloped f langed h ilts t o r eplace t he t angs o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., p erhaps u nder w estern i nfluence, a nd b y t he e nd w eapons,

o f t he m illennium h ad e volved i nto v ery e fficient b ronze n otably s ome w ith r oyal i nscriptions ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 946;

C almeyer, 1 969, 5 9ff.; M oorey, 1 971, 7 1ff.; 1 983). T he e vidence f or s pearheads ( Maigret,

B oehmer, 1 976),

1 983; C urtis, n ow g enerally

s ocketed, a nd a rrowheads ( Medvedskaya, 1 982), f lat a nd t anged, i s e ven m ore i nadequate i n M esopotamia; b ut w hat t here i s, d oes n ot d emonstrate a ny m arked d ivergence f rom t he m ainstream M esopotamian t radition n or a ny s ignificant m odification a cross t he m illennium . M etal m aceheads a re k nown, b ut h ave n ot y et b een s ystematically s tudied. N or, f or t his l ong p eriod, d o p ictorial i llustrations, s ave v ery

r arely, I t

i s

( cf.

M axwell-Hyslop,

1 970a),

o ffer a ny n ew i nformation.

s urprising t hat e xcavations o n t own s ites

l ennium M esopotamia t ools o f t he p eriod.

i n s econd

m il-

h ave n ot y et r evealed m ore i nformation o n t he S cattered e xamples a re p ublished i n e xcavation

3 1

r eports, a t a gricultural

l east t ools;

s howing t hat m etal w as n ow r egularly u sed f or b ut i t i s o nly b y a ssociation a nd c ontext t hat

I dentification o f s pecialist c raft t ools i s p ossible. t unate t hat n either o f t he t wo s ets o f m iniature t ools

I t i s u nforf rom h r m ay b e

c onfidently a ttributed. T he f irst ( Woolley, 1 976, p 1.99: 8 )) i s o f 5m iniature s pearheads, Im iniature a xehead h andle,

w hat m ight

b e a m iniature

i ngot,

U .16699(1w ith b one

a nd a n e nigmatic p iece

f olded c opper. T he s econd ( Woolley, 1 976, p 1.99: a ppears t o c onsist m ore c ertainly o f m odel s pecialist

o f

U .16773(1-5)) t ools, " spatu-

l ae", a nd " knives". D eshayes ( 1960) a ssembled a nd t ypologically c lassified t he b ase-metal t ools o f M esopotamia, b ut o nly i n o ne c ase, t hat o f t he O ld B abylonian h oard f rom T ell S ifr ( Moorey, 1 971a), i s i t p ossible t o i dentify w hat h as e very a ppearance o f b eing a n a ssembly o f a gricultural t ools, p redominantly o f c opper, f rom w hich o nly p lough-shares a nd h oes a re a bsent; a xeheads, m attock-heads, a dze-blades, h ammers, s pade-blades, d ouble-edged a nd s ingle-edged k nives, t anged r ing f ittings, r ings

s ickle-blades, " bill-hook" b lades, c hains, v arious p erhaps c lamps f or a ssembling a w ooden p lough, n ose

f or a nimals,

a nd v essels,

a re a ll t here.

C opper o r b ronze s tatuary I s o nly k nown f rom s mall-scale p ieces, w ith t he e xception o f s ome b ulls' h ooves o f c opper h ammered o ver w ood f rom t he S hulgi " Mausoleum" a t U r ( Woolley, 1 974, 1 4). M etal p eg f igurines o f L arsa m etal

i n f oundation d eposits a re k nown u ntil t he t ime o f R im-Sin ( c.1822-1763 B .C.); t hereafter o nly i nscribed s tone a nd

t ablets

a re

r eported f rom s uch c ontexts

( Ellis,

1 968;

R ashid,

1 983). S pycket ( 1981, 2 27ff.; B raun-Holzinger 1 984, 4 3ff.) h ave a ssembled t he v otive s tatuary i n m etal f or t his p eriod, n one o f w hich s hows a ny m arked t echnical i mprovement o ver e arlier w ork , t hough s ome e xamples a re r ather m ore e laborate t han t he s mall s tatuary k nown f rom t he t hird m illennium . S heet g old c ontinued t o b e u sed t o p late a t l east t he f aces o f h uman f igures a nd a nimals ( see p .79). N either f rom t he O ld B abylonian, n or f rom t he K assite, p eriod i n M esopotamia i s t here a ny p iece o f c ast c opper o r b ronze t o c ompare w ith t he m etal t emple f urnishings o f t he M iddle E lamite p eriod r ecovered f rom S usa ( Amiet, 1 966, f igs.280, 2 91, 2 97, 3 05). S ome e laborate c ast o bjects o f u ncertain a ttribution, b ut p robably O ld B abylonian, a re d iscussed h ere o n p .43. I n s ome i nstances, n ew a spects o f t he b ase m etal r epertory m ay b e i dentified. A lthough t here a re i solated e xamples o f w hat m ay b e s heet m etal p laques f or b ody a rmour b efore t his p eriod ( cf. B oehmer, 1 972,

1 02ff.

f or

a r eview),

i t w as n ot u ntil

t he

e arlier

s econd

m illennium B .C. i n M esopotamia, i n t exts a nd i solated f inds, t hat i t s eems t o h ave b ecome a r egular p art o f a rmoury f or m en a nd h orses ( C.A.D. s .v. g urpisu; S tarr, 1 939, 4 75ff. p 1.126, A .L.; M ahmoud, 1 970,

p 1.24).

I t

i s n ot u ntil t he s econd h alf o f

t he m illennium t hat

t here i s m aterial e vidence f or m etal h orse-bits w ith s naffle a ction; p reviously o rganic m aterials o r n ose-rings h ad b een u sed ( Littauer a nd C rouwel, 1 979). f rom A ssur ( Potratz, a rchaeological

E xamples o f t hese e arly b ronze b its a re r eported 1 966, 1 05, p l.105-6); b ut t here i s, a s y et, n o

e vidence

f rom M esopotamia f or

t he m etal c hariot

t ings t hat w ould a lso h ave b een a m ajor i nnovation i n m illennium ( Kendall, 1 975, 2 30ff.).

h ave

t he

f its econd

I n m ajor b uildings o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. m etal f ittings r arely s urvived. T he e ighteenth c entury p alace o f M arl p rovided

3 2

a s et

o f m etal

f ittings

f or a d oor

( Parrot,

1 959,

8 7,

f ig.66,

P l.

X XXIII). A t N uzi f our c enturies l ater t here w ere m etal d oor p ivots ( Starr, 1 939, 4 71, p l.124B), s heet c opper w all " knobs' ( Ibid., p l.127E), a nd d oor s tuds o f b ronze, t heir h eads c overed w ith s heet s ilver ( Ibid., 1 42, 4 73, p l.1231). S ome d ome-shaped b ronze n ails w ere g iven g ilded h eads ( Ibid., 4 73). F ifteenth c entury N uzi a lso y ielded o ther u ncommon b ase m etal o bjects. O ne o f t he r ooms a djacent t o t he p alace c hapel c ontained a c ylindrical c ast b ronze s tand w ith e xcised s ides a nd w ith l ions c ouchant o n t he u pper e dge ( Starr, 1 939, 4 39ff.). A c ache o f b ronze o bjects c oncealed i n a p ot c onsisted o f: " two

s un

d isks

( pl.127B),

t wo c rescents

( pl.127C),

n ine

s ickles

( pl.123J, 1 24C,D), s ix p ins ( pl.125R-T), a b ell ( pl.126Y), a c oncave p late p ierced a t t he e dge a nd t wo b racelets ( pl.126N)." A b itumen m ask o f a b ull w as t hough t o b e t he c ore f or a s tatuette o f p recious m etal ( Starr, 1 939, 1 36, p l.I03G). A mong a c onventional r epertory o f t ools a nd w eapons, t wo s poons w ere u nusual: " too s mall f or f ood, t oo l arge

f or a n e ar s poon", A nalyses

o f

( Ibid.,

s econd

4 85,

p l.126U).

m illennium b ase-metal

o bjects

a re

s till

e xtremely r are. W hat i nformation i s a vailable i ndicates t he c ontinui ng u se o f u nalloyed c opper f or a l arge p roportion o f t he m etal r epertory. T hirty o bjects f rom e xcavations o n B ahrein, s aid t o d ate c .2300-1800 B .C., w ere r eported t o b e o f u nalloyed c opper w ithout a t race o f t in ( McKerrell, 1 977, 1 67). S urface a nalyses, a gain b y M cKerrell, o f a s election o f o bjects i n t he T ell S ifr O ld B abylonian h oard a re i nstructive ( Moorey, 1 971a; c f. I raq, X XXIV ( 1972), 2 ). A xeheads, m attock-heads a nd a dze-blades ( Moorey, 1 971a, n os. 1 , 2 , 5 a nd 8 ) a lone p roved t o b e g ood t in-bronzes. O ne m attock-head ( no.4), o ne

s pade-blade

( no.13),

o ne k nife-blade

( no.28),

o ne

f lat

r ing

( no.81) h ad s ome t in i n t hem; b ut a ll t he o ther o bjects t ested, n otably a ll t he s ickle-blades, w ere m ade o f u nalloyed c opper. F ourt een o bjects f rom e xcavations a t T ell R imah a nd f our T ukulti-Ninurta, a ll o f t he M iddle A ssyrian p eriod w ere, e xception, a lso 1 3; 1 978, 2 1, M esopotamia o r l eaded b ronzes, m etallurgy

o f u nalloyed t able 1 0). i n w estern w hich a re a

f rom K arw ith o ne

c opper ( McKerrell, 1 977, 1 67ff., t able T here i s n o e vidence a s y et, e ither i n I ran ( Moorey, 1 971, 2 97ff.), f or s ignificant f eature o f L ate B ronze A ge

i n c ertain p arts o f E urope.

A s

t hey a re a ssociated w ith

i ndustries w here t in m ay, a t t he t ime, h ave b een i n s hort s upply a nd a d egree o f " built-in o bsolescence" w as c ustomary, t his i s n ot s urp rising. ( e)

N eo-Assyrian a nd N eo-Babylonian P eriods,

c .1000-550 B .C.

I t w as n ot u ntil t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod i n t he e arlier s ixth c entury B .C. t hat i ron b ecame c heaper t han c opper/bronze, t hough l ong b efore t hat i t h ad b een a dopted a s t he p rimary m etal, t he w orking p arts o f t ools a nd w eapons ( see p p.102ff. s ources

o f

s urprisingly

a rchaeological e vidence r estricted.

f ined t o a f ew s ites,

f or m etalwork a t

T he r ange o f e vidence

s uch a s A ssur,

B abylon,

a t l east h ere).

t his

t ime

f rom g raves

f or T he a re

i s c on-

K ish a nd N ippur,

a nd

e ven t hen o nly p ersonal o rnaments a nd v essels a re c ommonly r epresent ed. T he s ituation i s s omewhat i mproved b y t he v ivid p resentation o f N eo-Assyrian 1 965;

m etalwork

M adhlum ,

1 970),

o n s culptured p alace a nd

r eliefs

( cf.

b y s ignificant q uantities o f

H rouda, m etalwork

e xcavated f rom s torerooms i n t he p alaces t hemselves. B ut a lthough t he s equence o f r eliefs b egins a bout t he m iddle o f t he n inth c entury 3 3

B .C.,

t he m ajority o f

s urviving m etalwork b elongs

t o

t he l ast c entury

o r s o o f t he A ssyrian E mpire. T his m eans t hat i t i s n ot y et p ossible t o w rite a h istory o f N eo-Assyrian c opper o r b ronze w orking i n a ny m eaningful w ay, s ince d evelopments t hrough t ime a re o bscured b y t he n ature o f t he s urviving i nformation. T he

p aucity o f

s urviving c opper a nd b ronzework o f

t his

p eriod

h as l ed t o a p ersistent u nderestimation o f t he N eo-Assyrian m etal i ndustries, p articularly b y c ontrast w ith t hose o f U rartu f or w hich e vidence i s m ore e xtensive a nd v aried ( cf. V an L oon, 1 966; A zarpay, 1 968; V anden B erghe a nd d e M eyer, 1 982). O n t he e vidence o f t he t exts a nd s culptured r eliefs, A ssyrian m etalworkers w ere n o l ess a ctive t han t heir c olleagues e lsewhere a t t he t ime. T he r equirements o f

t heir a rmy a lone,

n ot

t o m ention t he d emands o f

t he

k ings

c on-

s tantly b uilding a nd r ebuilding, d ecorating a nd r edecorating, p alaces a nd t emples, w ere a r ecurrent s timulus t o p roduction. M uch o f t he d rive b ehind A ssyrian i mperialism c ame f rom t he q uest

f or

g uaranteed

l ines o f s upply f or v ital r aw m aterials, m etals c onspicuous a mongst t hem ( Jankowska, 1 969). B ut, w ith s o m uch b ooty a nd t ribute e ntering r oyal p alaces, a nd t he w ell-documented p resence o f f oreign a rtisans i n m ajor A ssyrian w orkshops, c aution i s n eeded i n t he i dentification o f A ssyrian, a s d istinct f rom f oreign, m etalwork , w hen s o m uch o f t he k nown m ents m etal,

r epertory i s f rom p alace s torerooms. U nless c ompelling a rgut o t he c ontrary c an b e s ustained, a rchitectural f ittings i n p articularly w hen t hey f ollow l ong e stablished M esopotamian

t raditions, m etal e lements f rom f urniture o f t ypes r egularly s hown o n A ssyrian r eliefs, a nd s tandard i tems o f m ilitary e quipment f or m en a nd

h orses m ay s afely b e

t aken a s

l ocal p roducts.

W here d ecoration

i s p resent s uch d istinctions a re c learer, a s a mong t he i mported b owls f rom N imrud, e specially w hen r e-inforced b y i nscriptions, ( Barnett, 1 967). C urtis

( 1979)

h as

s urveyed

t he w hole

r ange

o f

N eo-Assyrian

m etalworking, w ith p articular r eference t o f inds a t N imrud. T o j udge f rom d evelopments e lsewhere i n t he N ear E ast a m ajor i ron i ndustry i n A ssyro-Babylonia i s u nlikely t o h ave b een e stablished b efore t he f irst c enturies o f t he f irst m illennium B .C.; d uring t hat t ime a f ull r epertory o f i ron t ools a nd w eapons e merged ( see p p.102ff. h ere). S ince i ron c ould n ot b e c ast, t hough i t m ight b e d ecorated b y s waging a nd r epoussé w ork, c opper a nd b ronze l ong r emained p re-eminent f or a ll f orms o f d ecorative c asting a nd f or a ll o bjects o r a pplications r equiring s heet-metal. T he A merican e xcavators a t K horsabad ( Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 1 5-16) r eported t hat b ronze w as f ound m uch m ore o ften t han a ny o ther m etal. i mplements; a rchitecturally

I t w as e xtensively u sed f or t ools a nd f or d oor p ivots a nd n ails, s ome w ith

h eads c overed i n s heet s ilver. W ooden c olumns w ere e ncased i n s heet b ronze, s caled t o r esemble a p alm t ree ( Place, 1 867-70, I , 1 20-2; I II, p 1.73; L oud, 1 936, 9 7ff.) a nd e mbossed p laques d ecorated d oors. S heet m etal o verlays f or d oors, m ore f ully d escribed h ere o n p p.50ff., a re o ne o f t he b etter k nown a spects o f N eo-Assyrian m etalw orking,

n otably

t he T emple o f S halmaneser I II

a s

e xemplified b y t he s ets o f d ecorated d oors

M amu a t B alawat s et u p ( King, 1 915; B arnett,

f rom

b y A ssur-nasir-pal I I a nd 1 973). W all p laques ( cf. B M

2 2488 f rom N imrud), o verlays f or " Hands o f I shtar" ( see p .180 h ere), a nd b rick-stamps ( cf. B M 1 24598; 1 35465-7) f urther i llustrate t he u se o f b ronze i n a rchitectural c ontexts. 3 4

E lements o f c ast a nd h ammered b ronze f ormed a n i mportant p art o f f urniture c onstruction a nd d ecoration ( cf. S alonen, 1 963, 2 47-8). T he e vidence o f p alace s culptures i s p articularly v aluable i n t his i nstance i n o ffering t he b asis f or t he r econstruction o f f urniture f rom w hich o nly d isplaced m etal f ittings h ave s urvived ( cf. H rouda, 1 965, p 1.13-16; D entzer, 1 982, 4 8ff.; B orn, 1 984). L ayard ( 1853, 1 98ff.

w ith

f igures)

d escribed h is d iscovery o f a r oyal

t hrone

a t

N imrud: " With t he e xception o f t he l egs, w hich a ppear t o h ave b een p artly o f i vory, i t w as o f w ood, c ased o r o verlaid w ith b ronze... T he m etal w as m ost e laborately e ngraved a nd e mbossed w ith s ymbolical f igures a nd o rnaments.. • A s t he w oodwork o ver w hich t he b ronze w as f astened b y m eans o f s mall n ails o f t he s ame m aterial, h ad r otted a way, t he t hrone f ell t o p ieces, b ut t he m etal c asing w as p artly p reserved. N umerous f ragments o f i t a re n ow i n t he B ritish M useum, i ncluding

t he

j oints

f rom t he a rms,

a nd l egs;

t he r ams

o r

b ulls '

h eads, w hich a dorned t he e nds o f t he a rms ( some s till r etaining t he c lay a nd b itumen w ith t he i mpression o f t he c arving, s howing t he s ubstance u pon w hich t he e mbossing h ad b een h ammered o ut), a nd t he o rnamental

s croll-work o f

t he c ross b ars,

i n t he

f orm o f t he

I onic

v olute. T he l egs w ere a dorned w ith l ion 's p aws r esting o n a p ines haped o rnament, l ike t he t hrones o f t he l ater A ssyrian s culptures, a nd s tood o n a b ronze b ase...

w ith

I n f ront o f t he t hrone w as t he f oot-stool, a lso o f w ood o verlaid e mbossed m etal, a nd a dorned w ith t he h eads o f r am a nd b ulls.

T he

f eet

e nded

i n l ion's

p aws a nd p ine c ones,

l ike

t hose

o f

t he

t hrone.. S heet b ronze w as a lso u sed w ide r ange o f H rouda, 1 965, s hields,

v essels, p 1.18-19;

f or h elmets,

f or c auldrons,

c auldron-stands a nd a

s ome o f w hich m ay a lso h ave b een c ast ( cf. L uschey, 1 939; L ayard, 1 853, 1 76ff.); f or

a nd f or b ody a rmour

( cf.

H rouda,

1 965,

p l.23).

C ast b ronze w as u sed f or t he d ecorative p arts o f w eapons ( cf. H rouda, 1 965, p l.21-2) a nd i n t he h arness-trappings o f h orses ( cf. H rouda, 1 965, m etal

p l.26-30). H orses o n t he r eliefs a lso h ave e laborate s heet t rappings b ut f ew s uch o bjects h ave b een r eported f rom A ssyria

i tself, t hough t hey a re w ell r epresented i n s ome n eighbouring c ount ries ( cf. W inter, 1 980). S ome f ine c ast b ells f ound b y L ayard a t N imrud ( 1853, 1 77, f igure) a re p robably f rom h orse-harnessing. o f t he f inest s urviving r epresentatives o f t he N eo-Assyrian

S ome c ast

m etal t radition a re l ion-shaped w eights ( Layard, 1 849, I , 1 28; B M 9 1220-35); b ut t hey d o l ittle m ore t han b ear w itness t o m uch n ow l ost, j udging f rom t he e vidence o f t exts (f. B raun-Holzinger, 1 984, 1 11ff.). O f l arge-scale s tatuary v irtually n one h as s urvived ( see p .45

h ere)

a nd

t he s urviving c orpus

s tatuary i s m eagre; c ommonest ( Spycket,

o f

s mall-scale

N eo-Assyrian

h eads a nd s tatuettes o f t he d emon P azuzu a re t he 1 981, 3 72ff.; B raun-Holzinger, 1 984, 7 4ff.).

A t p resent t he p ublished r epertory o f N eo-Babylonian b ronzework i s t oo m eagre t o o ffer a ny c ontrast t o t hat r ecorded f rom A ssyria. T here i s n o r eason, h owever, t o s uppose t he t wo t raditions w ould h ave d iverged m uch, s ave p erhaps i n s tyles o f d ecoration. O ne r are g limpse r e-inforces a t N ineveh, 6 20 B .C.),

t his v iew.

O n a r elief

f rom S ennacheri Vs P alace

p robably c arved v ery l ate i n N eo-Assyrian t imes ( c.630s cribes a re s hown r ecording b ooty f rom a C haldaean 3 5

s ettlement

( BM 1 24955-6:

R eade,

1 983,

p l. 61

( colour)).

I n t his

s cene m etal b owls a nd c auldrons a re e vident, t wo o n c onical s tands, a s a re w eapons a nd f urniture, w hich a ppears t o h ave s tructural e lements o f m etal a s d id N eo-Assyrian f urniture. M ost i ndividual i s a s tand s upporting a m odel f ortress w hich, o n U rartian a nalogies, w ould h ave b een o f m etal. S ubstantial p ieces o f N eo-Babylonian b ronze-work

a re a lmost u nknown a rchaeologically,

e vident i n t exts. s tep" f rom B irs

t hough

c onstantly

A n i solated e xample i s p rovided b y a b ronze " doorN imrud, i nscribed f or N ebuchadnezzar. I t i s a

m assive c asting ( 164x53x95cm.) d ecorated w ith m oulded f loral ( British M useum G uide, 1 922, p l.XXIX).

d esigns

C opper a nd i ts a lloys c ontinued t o b e u sed i n M esopotamia t hrough t he A chaemenid P eriod w ith n o e vidence f or s ignificant i nnov ations F .

i n t he

r epertory o f

f orms o r

t echniques.

W orkshops a nd M anufacturing E quipment: T he

c onfident

i dentification o f m etal w orkshops

o n

e xcavated

s ites i n M esopotamia I s b y n o m eans a s e asy a s m ight b e s upposed a nd t he l iterature a lready c ontains a n umber o f d ebatable o r d emonstrably e rroneous a ttributions. T he b est k nown i s t he c ase o f t he p alace a t M an , w here a rchaeological e vidence o f s econdary m etalworking, a t l east,

i s

t o b e e xpected

( Muhly,

1 973,

2 12;

R ouault,

1 977,

1 62ff.).

H ere a c onfusion o ver t he t ranslation o f s uripum ( "ice" n ot " coppero re") l ed D ossin a nd F orbes t o u nwarranted c onclusions a bout s melti ng, a nd o ther m etalworking, i n s pecific p arts o f t he M arl p alace, ( cf. A Hw.s.v. s uripum ; M uhly, 1 973, 2 11; c f. M argueron, 1 979, 1 4ff.). N or m ay a c ase b e s ustained f or a c opper w orkshop i n t he A H s ite, o f t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C., a t U r, c ited b y L eemans ( 1960, 5 5), a nd M uhly ( 1973, 2 11), o n t he b asis o f a p reliminary r eport b y W oolley. I n h is f inal e xcavation r eport o f t his p art o f t he s ite W oolley ( 1976, 3 3) w rote: " In n o.1 B aker s S quare t he e ntire h ouse h ad b een r emodelled a nd t urned i nto a w orkshop a nd o ne o ld r oom s erved a s a s toke-hole a nd i n a nother r oom a nd i n t he c ourtyard w ere f urnaces ( p 1 .50 ) ; judging from a miniature s et o f m odel t ools I n t he o wner's g rave h e w as a w orking c opper-smith". T his i s a r eference t o g rave 1 976,

L G144, f ound i n t he " chapel" o f l B B aker s S quare 1 58, 1 99), w hich c ontained t his s et o f m odels

( Woolley, ( U.16773:

W oolley, 1 976, 2 44, p 1.98). B ut a s t heir a ppearance ( and W oolley s o wn c atalogue e ntry) i ndicates t hey l ook m ore l ike a l eatherworker T h t ools t han a c oppersmith's, a nd t here i s n o r eported t race o f m etalw orking d ebris f rom t he b uilding i tself. I ndeed t he " furnaces" a re m ore l ike o vens, p erhaps f or b aking b read ( cf. B arrelet, 1 974, 2 70ff., f ig.15: M arl). T he s ame o bjections ( the a bsence o f d iagnost ic i ndustrial d ebris, o f w orking t ools, a nd o f c haracteristic i ns tallations) a pply t o t he p roposed i dentification o f m etal w orkshops i n l ater p rehistoric l evels a t U ruk ( Lenzen, 1 960, 1 0, p l.39, 3 b, 4 ad ; N issen, 1 970, 1 10ff., p l.VI) a nd i n E arly D ynastic K hafajah ( Delougaz, 1 929,

1 940,

3 3;

1 967,

1 76) a nd i n P alace

" A" a t K ish ( Mackay,

8 7). D elougaz

i dentified a " smithy"

i n t he A kkadian t o U r 1 1 .1

h ouse

l evels a t T ell A smar. T his c onclusion w as b ased o n t he f act t hat " identical f ireplaces a re u sed b y m etalworkers t oday i n t he b azaars o f s mall I raqi t owns", t hough e ven h ere, t he a ssociated s mall f inds d o n ot m ake

t he c omparison a bsolutely c ompelling

3 6

( J.18.1;

D elougaz,

1 967,

2 28);

n o

m ore c onvincing a re w orkshop i dentifications

" Northern P alace" a t T ell A smar

( Delougaz,

1 967,

1 98;

c f.

i n t he

M argueron,

1 979). B y

f ar

t he

b est

i dentification o f a " workshop

i s

i n a t own

o f

t he I sin-Larsa p eriod a t T ell e dh-Dhiba i ( al-Gailani, 1 965), w hich y ielded a w hole s eries o f s mall f inds i ndisputably d emonstrating i ts p urpose. p revented

S adly, p roper

t hese w ere r ecording.

r ecovered u nder w eather c onditions t hat W inton, o n t he b asis o f p hotographs

o nly, ( al-Gailani, 1 965, 3 7-8, p 1.6), p resented a p reliminary i dentif ication o f t he f inds. M ore r ecently D avey ( 1983) h as o ffered a v aluable f irst-hand s tudy o f t hem w ith g ood i llustrations. T hey i nclude

t he

1 .

f ollowing i tems:

T wo h andmade b aked-clay p ot-bellows

( Davey,

1 983,

f ig.2,

P l.

I a), a bout 0 .4m . i n d iameter a nd 0 .16m . h igh; p robably o perated, b y t he f eet, a s a p air, o n a nalogy w ith i llustrations i n t he N ew K ingdom t omb o f R ekhmire a t T hebes

( cf.

D avey,

1 979).

2 . F ive c rucibles a nd a f ragment o f a nother ( Davey, 1 983, f igs. p l.Ib , c ), m ade o f a c oarse f abric c ontaining s ilica a nd t races

2 ,

3 ,

o f

s traw.

p er,

i n E gypt

t in,

X -ray f luorescence o f d ebris a rsenic,

i n c rucible 4 r evealed

w ith t races o f n ickel a nd i ron,

c op-

i ndicating t hat

b ronze h ad b een m elted i n i t. T hese c rucibles a re t he o nly e xamples o f t heir t ype s o f ar r eported f rom t he N ear E ast; t heir c apacity h as n ot b een a ssistance

r eported. D avey ( 1983) r econstructed t heir u se w ith o f r eliefs s howing m etalworkers i n E gyptian t ombs o f

t he t he

f ifth D ynasty: " the r eliefs r eveal t hat m elting i s p erformed i n t wo c rucibles p laced b ack t o b ack a nd w ith s ix m en u sing b low-pipes a imed a t t he c harcoal p laced i n f ront o f e ach c rucible. A fter t he m etal w as m elted t he c rucible w as t aken t o t he m ould, h eld w ith t he a ssista nce o f t wo s tones o r l umps o f c lay a nd t hen a b lockage i n t he m outh o f

t he c rucible w as

m ould" c opper:

r emoved t o a llow t he m etal t o d ischarge i nto

t he

( Davey, 1 984, 1 74) ( cf. a lso t he E gyptian h ieroglyphs G ardiner, 1 957, 4 90, 5 29: t his s hape i s n ot a n " ingot"

f or b ut

a " crucible"). 3 . A n umber o f f ragmentary b aked c lay o pen m oulds ( Davey, 1 983, f igs.3 a nd 4 , p l.Id) w ere r ecovered. T wo, D avey n os.9 a nd 1 4, w ere p robably f or c asting b ar i ngots, p erhaps t hen b ent r ound t o f orm r ings

f or e ase o f h andling.

M ould 1 0 i s

s imilar,

b ut

i s

l arger a nd

m ight b e a b lank t o b e h ammered i nto a k nife o r d agger b lade. M ould 1 1 p roduced r ectangular p laques o f m etal, p erhaps f or h ammering i nto s heet. M ould 1 8, w ith t hin s ides, f or a r ectangular b ar, m ight b e f or a m etal o f l ower m elting p oint t han c opper a nd i ts a lloys. T he u se o f i ngot-moulds i s r eferred t o i n t exts, b oth p ractical a nd l iterary, w here i t i s a m atter o f r ecycling m etal b y m elting i t d own f or r e-use: " like s tatues p oured i nto a n i ngot-mould w e k illed" ( Cooper a nd H eimpel, 1 983, 8 1-2). 4 . t he

O ne b aked c lay m ould c over

f ragments

s urface

o f

o f a nother;

t he c asting a nd,

f urnace,

r etarded

f low m ore

f reely

5 .

( Davey,

s uch c overs

1 983,

f ig.4,

w ill

b e

p l.11a) a nd

i nhibited o xidization o f

t he

b y a llowing t he m ould t o b e h eated i n t he

t he s olidification o f

t he m etal,

a llowing i t

t o

i nto t he m ould.

O ne m ould f or c asting a p in

b y t he l ost-wax 3 7

m ethod

( Davey,

1 983, o f

f ig.5,

p l.11b);

f ine y ellow c lay,

m ade

o f

t wo d ifferent

t ypes o f

t he o uter s hell o f c oarser

c lay,

t he i nner

b uff c oloured c lay.

6 . A b roken c lay m odel a xehead ( Davey, 1 983, f ig.5, p l.I1c, d ), p robably u sed a s a p attern i n m ould m aking, a nd t he c ore f or c reating a s haft-hole i n a n a xehead. D avey ( 1983 1 78-9) s uggested t hat w as e vidence f or " sand c asting". T his i s a n o pen q uestion, a s m odel s

p urpose

7 . s ibly

i s n ot

s elf-evident.

A b aked c lay l adle

( Winton i n a l-Cailani,

t he c lay n ozzle o f a b low p ipe l east o ne

9 .

A

n umber o f s mall f lat r ound d ishes,

I t

o f a t uyêre

( cf.

i mportant

1 977),

t he

t o n otice u se o f

3 8),

o r p os-

n o.13).

T ylecote, s ome

i ndicating t hey h ad b een s ubjected

i s

1 965,

1 983,

A t

D avey,

f ragment

( Davey,

8 .

b rown s lag

t his t he

1 981).

w ith

g reen

a nd

t o c onsiderable h eat.

t he a bsence o f s tone m oulds h ere

b aked c lay

( cf.

i nstead a nd p ossibly e arth

o r

s and, a nd t he p resence o f c losed c rucibles a s i n E gypt, r ather t han t he o pen o nes o f A natolia, t he L evant a nd I ran ( cf. D avey, 1 983, 1 83; T ylecote,

1 976,

T here

i s

2 0). n o

k nown i llustration f rom

M esopotamia

o f

c opper-

w orking. L imet T h v iew ( 1960, 1 21) t hat a s cene o n a n a rchaic s ealing f rom S usa s hows m etalworking i s m istaken. I t i s j ust o ne i n a w hole s eries

o f

c ontemporary s calings w hich s how p ots a nd p otting

( Baudot,

1 979). S cattered e vidence f or m etalworking i s n o m ore c ommon i n M esopot amian e xcavations; n or h ave a ny s ets o f m etal w orker s t ools b een i dentified. a nnealing,

B efore b ellows, b razing a nd o ther

s miths p robably u sed b low p ipes f or l ow t emperature o perations. S uf-

f iciently h igh t emperatures ( 1063 0 C . t o m elt g old) c an b e o btained l ocally w ith a b razier-type h earth a nd a b low p ipe b lown b y h uman l ungs.

" A

p air o f h uman l ungs

c an p roduce a n i ntermittent

f low

o f

4 01/min. b ut o nly 1 0-201/min. o n a c ontinuous b asis. T his i s m ore t han e nough t o s uperheat a h earth t o 1 000 0 C o ver a s mall a rea, a lr eady b rought 1 981,

1 08).

t o a h igh t emperature b y a n atural d raught" S uch p ipes,

p erhaps

r eeds

t ipped w ith c lay,

( Tylecote, a re u nlikely

t o l eave r ecognizable a rchaeological t races. P ot b ellows a re n ot e vident i n M esopotamia b efore t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C., w hen e xamples a re k nown f rom T ell e dh-Dhiba a nd T ell A smar ( Davey, 1 979, 1 06-7). I raq a t s ites T epe G awra

T he e arliest s tone m oulds, s ignificantly l ike C hagar B azar ( Mallowan, 1 937, 1 60,

( Speiser,

1 935,

1 04,

p 1.47),

f rom n orthern p l.18B) a nd

a ppear i n t he l ater t hird

m illennium ; a M iddle A ssyrian g roup, s ome f or s haft-hole a xeheads, h ave r ecently b een f ound a t T ell M ohammed A rab, i n t he E ski M osul r egion

( M.Roaf,

m oulds a re a lways

p ers.comm.).

I n

l ikely t o h ave

b een e xceptional,

c entral a nd s outhern I raq

s tone

f or b aked c lay a nd

p ossibly s and w ould h ave b een t he s tandard m edium t here, a s i n t he T ell e dh-Dhiba i w orkshop. F orbes c ites, w ithout r eference, t uyères " found

n ear a f urnace a t T elloh

h ave n ot I n G awra

t raced

t his

L evel I V, t here

w as

( Ur I II p eriod,

i n t he p ublished o f

c .2300

t he e arlier s econd m illennium

a n o bject

B .C.)".

I

r eports.

r eported a s 3 8

" a h andmade

B .C., l amp o f

a t

T epe

g reenish

g rey w are w ith 1 935,

5 9,

t wo

l egs o n o ne

p l.LXXIV,

2 01).

s ide b alancing w ith t he b ase"

( Speiser,

I t w as a ssociated w ith a n umber o f

s torage

j ars. I n " ambiente 5 " o f p eriod I VD a t A rslantepe i n e astern A natolia e xactly c omparable o bjects u sed a s c rucibles w ere f ound I n d irect a ssociation w ith s tone m oulds f or c asting c opper o r b ronze a rtefacts ( Palmieri, 1 973, 1 09-110, p h.45, 1 -3, 4 6, 1 -3,5) d ated t o E arly B ronze I lIB,

l ate

i n t he

t hird m illennium B .C.

( Palmieri,

1 981,

1 02).

T his i s o ne o f t he b est p ublished e xamples o f a m etal w orkshop i n t he N ear E ast ( Palmieri, 1 981, f igs.34, 3 7; c f. " 0zgic, 1 955). T he r oom a lso c ontained p estles a nd m ortars a nd h ad b enches r unning r ound t he s ides. T here m ay b e n o d oubt o f t he f unction o f t hese c rucibles, f or t here w as m etal d ebris I n a t l east o ne. A c rucible f rom A muq " G" S yria h ad b een u sed f or b ronze ( Braidwood e t a h., 1 951); a nother, t he l ater

t hird m illennium B .C.,

i n o f

f rom T ell S weyhat o n t he E uphrates,

a ttested t o l ocal m etalworking ( Hedges, 1 976a, 6 6-7). A n i solated c rucible w as r eported f rom t he e arly s econd m illennium B .C. l evels a t N uzi ( Starr, 1 939, p 1.57); b ut t here i s n o c lear i ndication t hat I t w as

f or m etal. T he

e vidence

b oth o f

t exts,

a s w ith t he g ate a nd

t he

q uarter

n amed a fter m etalworkers a t A ssur ( Andrae, 1 913, 1 8ff.), a nd a rchaeol ogical s urface s urveys ( cf. M ariani, 1 984), i s t hat s pecific c raft a ctivities

w ere

c oncentrated w ithin s ettlements,

n ot

s cattered

a t

r andom i n t hem . C .

T echniques: " The

t echnical

n obler

m etals

p rovide a f ruitful s ource o f

m ethods o f m anufacture.

T his,

e vidence

u nfortunately,

I s

f or o ften

d enied t o u s i n t he c ase o f c opper a nd i ts a lloys, w hich a re r avaged b y c orrosion t o s uch a n e xtent a s t o h ide a ll t races o f t ool m arks u nless i n e xceptional c ases" ( Plenderlelth i n W oolley, 1 934, 2 95). ( a)

( see

A nnealing :

T here i s s ome u ncertainty a bout t he e arliest u se p .22). T o t hose w ho a rgue t hat n ative c opper

o f I s

a nnealing e xtremely

d ifficult t o c old h ammer s uccessfully ( Coghlan, 1 975, 2 6ff; 7 6ff.), i t i s b elieved t o h ave b een a n e arly I nnovation i n t he a ppearance o f n ative ( 1967,

c opper a rtefacts i n t he N ear E ast. B ut S mith d emonstrated 2 8) t hat " native c opper c an b e w orked a lmost I nfinitely w ith-

o ut c racking" a nd t hat t he e arliest k nown c opper a rtefacts f rom C ayönü i n A natolia, a nd f rom A ll K osh a nd S ialk I i n I ran, " are u nm istakably h ammered c opper m ade w ithout a nnealing" ( cf. h is m ore c autious

s tatements I n S mith,

1 969,

4 27).

B y S ialk I I a nnealing i s

e vident ( Smith, 1 967, 2 8). T his i s t he l ater U baid p eriod i n M esopot amia; b ut n o r elevant m etallographic i nformation i s a vailable t here t o i ndicate t he t ransition f rom u nannealed t o a nnealed n ative c opper. T hereafter i t i s a c rucial t echnique, f or i t a lone a llows f or t he c ontinuous w orkability o f c opper. F or p lanlshing, a l ight h ammering t o t oughen a nd p olish t he m etal, p olishing s tones m ay h ave b een u sed. R ecent w ork b y t he " Sumerian M etals P roject" i n P hiladelphia h as s hown s ome

t hat I n b oth E arly D ynastic I II a nd t he A kkadian P eriod a t t ools w ere

l eft a s c ast,

o thers w ere a nnealed,

a s

w ere

U r c on-

t emporary p ins; b ut n ot t o a c onsistent e xtent. B y c ontrast, G awra i n t he t hird m illennium s howed a m uch m ore s tandard, i f l ess e nterp rising,

t radition o f m anufacturing.

3 9

( b)

C asting: I .

T ools a nd w eapons:

C asting i nvolves, a t i ts s implest, p ouring l iquid m etal i nto a s uitably s haped m ould o f b aked c lay, s tone, m etal o r s and. T he e arliest m oulds t o s urvive I n a rchaeological c ontexts a re o ne-piece, o f c lay o r s tone. T hey r emained u sual f or t he m anufacture o f s imple t ools, f lat w eapons s uch a s t anged a rrowheads, b ar i ngots ( cf. L evey, 1 959, 2 07, f ig.46), a nd j ewellery. S imple j ewellery m oulds o f s tone a re m ore c ommon i n e xcavations t han t heir m ore c omplex r elatives u sed f or t ools a nd w eapons. W artke ( 1980) h as c atalogued a nd d iscussed t he s tone B erlin; ( Opitz,

j ewellery m oulds

f rom A ssur,

S injirli a nd U ruk,

n ow i n E ast

i solated e xamples h ave b een p ublished f rom o ther s ites 1 933, 2 08ff.; s ee p .123 h ere). E ven a o ne-piece m ould w ould

h ave b een c overed w ith a f lat s tone T wo-piece ( bivalve) m oulds f ourth m illennium , i f n ot b efore,

t o p revent o xidization. w ere i ntroduced s ometime i n t he w ith c ore p ieces f or s ockets w hen

r equired, a s o n a xe, a dze a nd h ammer h eads. A f ew t ools a nd w eapons, o f t he l ater t hird m illennium B .C. f rom T epes G awra a nd B illa, h ave b een t he s ubject o f m etallurgical s tudy ( Levey, 1 959, 2 01ff.). T hree t in

b ronze a xeheads

( Sn:6%;

1 5.7%;

5 %) w ere

t he o nly o bjects a mong

t he t en l isted s pecimens t hat h ad a pparently n ot b een w orked a fter c asting. O f t he s pecimens t ested, t he f lat " axes" a nd c hisels, a ll o f u nalloyed c opper, " show m icrostructures i ndicative o f c old w orking a nd a nnealing o r o f h ot-working s ubsequent t o c asting" ( Levey, 1 959, 2 04). I t w as p robably c ommon p ractice t o c ast t he s imple t ools i n o pen m oulds a nd s ubsequently h ammer t hem t o t he d esired s hape. T wo s haft-hole a dze-heads, n either w ith a ppreciable a mounts o f t in, h ad b een " worked t o s ome e xtent s ubsequent t o c asting a lthough t he a mount o f w orking i s s light". T here a ppeared t o b e " no i ndication t hat s pecimens w ere h eavily c old w orked n ear t he e dge t o h arden t hem. W hile t he s miths m ust h ave b een a ware o f t he h ardening e ffect o f w orking t he u tilize t his,

m etal w hile c old, t hey a pparently m ade n o a ttempt i n g iving a c utting e dge t hat c ould l ast l onger".

T he o nly e laborate m oulds m ade o f m etal s o f ar M esopotamia a re f or c asting s ocketed a rrowheads o f " Scythian t ype" b e f rom M osul, o ther

i s

t o

r eported f rom t he s o-called

I n t he s eventh t o s ixth c enturies B .C.; o ne, s aid t o i s f or p roducing t hree a t a t ime ( Coghlan, 1 952); t he

f rom W oolley s e xcavations a t

C archemish

( Woolley,

1 921,

p 1.23) a nd c asts s ingly. T he t riple m ould c onsisting o f s ix s eparate p ieces, p robably o f t he s eventh c entury B .C., i s a b eautiful a nd m asterly c onstruction a nd a n i solated

i ndicator o f

t he s ophistication

o f c asting t echnology b y t his t ime. C oghian ( 1952) a rgued t hat i t w as f or t he p roduction o f a ctual a rrowheads; U nderwood ( 1958) w as o f t he o pinion t hat i t w as f or p roducing w ax a rrowheads, t hen r eproduced i n m etal b y l ost-wax c asting. I t h as y et t o b e d emonstrated t hat b ronze m oulds c an b e r epeatedly u sed. B ritish P rehistoric m etal m oulds

h ave

l ead o n t heir

i nside s urface i ndicating u se i n a p rocess

o f " lost-lead" c asting, s o U nderwood s s uggestion m ay b e m ore l ikely f or t he " Mosul" m ould. B y t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod p arts o f m etal v essels, i f n ot e ntire v essels, w ere b eing c ast; b ut n o m etallog raphic w ork h as y et b een d one o n t his p roblem. I t i s i mpossible t o t ell b y e ye w hich o f t he r ichly e mbossed p hiale ( Luschey, 1 939) a re c ast, w hich h ammered. O nly c ast h andles m ay b e s o i dentified ( cf. 4 0

W oolley, o nwards 1 980).

1 962,

p 1.24,

F inger-rings

1 78-9)

f rom

s tone a nd m etal

r ecently s uggested

m odel a xehead a nd a s haft-hole c ore,

d ebris

f rom t he A chaemenid p eriod

w ere c ast i n m oulds o f b aked c lay,

D avey ( 1983, c lay

t op).

T ell e dh-Dhiba 'i

( see p .38),

( Wartke,

t hat a f ragmentary b aked i ncluded

a mong

w orkshop

m ight h ave b een u sed

f or

s and-casting. T his t echnique i s r arely m entioned i n t he c urrent l iterature o n a ncient m etalworking, s ince i t s eems g enerally t o b e r egarded a s a n a spect o f m odern r ather t han o f a ncient m etallurgy. T his m ay b e a m atter o f d efinition r ather t han a r eflection o f a ctual s ituation. C ontemporary p ractice a mong B edouin, c ited

t he b y

D avey ( 1983, 8 0), i ndicates t hat t he u se o f l oose e arth f or c asting i n a ntiquity i s p robable. A lthough C oghian ( 1975, 5 0-1; c f. W ulff, 1 966, 1 8-19), i n h is c omprehensive d iscussion o f c asting t echniques, i ncluded a f ull d escription o f s and-casting: " the m ost s imple m ethod b y w hich n on-ferrous c astings a re s ometimes s till m ade t oday.. h e .

"

,

d id n ot e xpand t he d iscussion, a s h e b elieved t he t echnique t o h ave b een l argely u nknown i n a ntiquity. T extual r eferences d o n ot n ecess arily e lucidate s uch m atters,

b ut a k ey p hrase i n t he f amous p assage

i n I K ings 7 :46, w here t he m anufacture o f b ronze o bjects f or S olomon's T emple i s d escribed, i s r endered i n t he J erusalem B ible, f ollowing t he G reek, a s " sand-casting". E ven t he m ore c onservative r enderings s peak o f " in t he c ompactness o f t he s oil" o r " in t he c lay g round". T he a rchaeological p roblem i s o bvious. Am oulding b ox f illed w ith s and o r l oam , o r j ust a n egative m ade i n t he g round, i s n ot g oing t o s urvive f or r ecognition i n a n e xcavation. I t i s o nly a n a ccumulation o f s tray i ndicators P atterns a nd c ores a re o ne a spect d own m ay b e a nother. t hird m illennium B .C. f or e xample, 2 .

t hat w ill r eveal s uch a p rocedure. o f t he m atter; o bjects n ot c leaned

S ome o f t he d istinctive b ar i ngots o f t he l ater i n P alestine ( cf. T ufnell, 1 958, p 1.21, 1 1-15),

l ook a s i f

t hey m ight p ossibly b e s and-castings.

E laborate o r d ecorative f ittings: L ost-wax c asting:

I nvestment

c asting,

t he c ire p erdue o r l ost-wax m ethod,

w as u sed

f or s mall s cale w ork b y t he f ourth m illennium B .C. i n M esopotamia. F irst a m odel o f t he o bject t o b e c ast w as m ade i n b eeswax, t hen c overed w ith c lay o r a c lay m ixture ( the i nvestment m aterial t o f orm a m ould, s ee C .A.D. u nder " i kuru" ( wax), u sage " b"). T his w ould t hen b e s upported i n s ome w ay a nd h eated. T he w ax w as t hus m elted a nd e ither b urnt a way o r r an o ut t hrough h oles p rovided i n t he m ould. W hen t he m ould w as s ufficiently b aked, m etal w as p oured h oles w hence t he w ax h ad e scaped. l t w as a llowed t o c ool,

i nto t he t he m ould

b roken a way a nd t he c asting c leaned a nd s urface t reated a s r equired ( cf. C oghlan, 1 975, 1 43ff., p l.XI f f. f or i llustration o f t he m ethod).

S mith

a ble t echnique: " wax" w as u sed.

( 1981,

1 34) h as c ommented g enerally o n t his r emark-

" There i s, o f c ourse, n o e vidence w hatever o f w hat A ny e asily s hapable m aterial t hat w as f usible o r

v olatile, o r t hat l eft a l ight r emovable a sh o n c ombustion, w ould s erve f or e xample, a h ard a nimal f at, b eeswax, r esin, s ome o f t he h arder f orms o f b itumen, a nd, o n o ccasion, t he b odies o f i nsects o r a l ight l ow-ash w ood. W ith t his t echnique t he a rtist i s f ree f rom a ny -

r estraint d oes n ot

a rising i n t he n egative n ature o f h ave t o b e w ithdrawn a nd t he 4 1

t he m old, f or t he p attern m old s urfaces, h owever

c ontorted, a ccessible

r eflect a ll t he d etails o f t he w ax a nd d o n ot h ave t o f urther t ooling. T he s culptor c ould, i ndeed,

t o b e m odel

t hings a s f reely a s h e h ad d one i n c lay f or m illennia. A t f irst t hese c astings w ere s olid, b ut l ater t he a rt o f m olding t he w ax o ver a s andy c lay c ore w as i ntroduced".

t iny,

T he e arliest c astings o f t his t ype k nown f rom M esopotamia a re s olid-cast a nimal a mulets, p arts o f c omposite s tatuettes o f

a nimals,

a nd

z oomorphic h andles

f ound i n t he l atest p art o f E anna, p l.13a, 1 4a, 1 7a-b). A lthough

f or s eals,

f rom

t he

" Sammelfund"

l evel 3 , a t U ruk ( Heinrich, 1 936, b uried a t t he v ery e nd o f t he p re-

h istoric p eriod, t his h oard i s b elieved t o c ontain o bjects m anufact ured e arlier i n t he U ruk I V p eriod, ( Goff, 1 963, 2 65ff.). I n t he c ase o f o ne a mulet, a c opper l ion, a nalysis r evealed 9 % l ead, i ndic ating t hat t he m aker a lready r ealised t he v alue o f t his a dditive i n c asting. B y a t l east E arly D ynastic I -II m ore e laborate, l arger a nthropomorphic a nd z oomorphic c opper a rtefacts w ere c ast, n otably a s eries o f ( Frankfort,

s tands f or v essels 1 939, 3 9ff.; 1 943,

i ng a t K ish ( Watelin,

1 934,

f ound i n t emples i n t he D iyala V alley 1 1ff.) a nd i n g raves o f t he " Y" s oundp l.XXI.1-2;

f or d ating

M oorey,

1 978,

p p.112-11), w here t hey a lso d ecorated r ein-rings ( Watelin, p l.XXV). T his w ork a lready s hows r emarkable m astery o f t he

1 934, t ech-

n ique, p articularly w hen i t s eems t he m edium w as c opper o r a rsenical c opper r ather t han l eaded t in b ronze. T he u se o f d ivisible

p iece-moulds

f or s uch w ork i s b est s hown b y

l ost-wax c astings i n p recious m etals ( p.85). T he m ost r emarkable s ingle w ork i n t his c ategory, i n b ase m etal, r emains t he c opper q uadriga f rom t he S hara T emple a t T ell A grab ( Frankfort, 1 943, 1 2-13, p l.58ff.). n ation i s M useum,

N ew

T he o nly o bject o f t his t ype t o r eceive a d etailed e xamia n u nprovenanced, w ild-goat s tand i n t he M etropolitan Y ork ( Moorey,

1 982,

p l.lb),

p robably d ating t o E arly

D ynastic I II. I ts s tructure e lucidates m any p oints w hich m ay o nly b e s urmised a bout t he e xcavated p ieces y et t o b e s tudied. T his s tand i s m ade o f t hree s eparate u nits: a f oot . c omparable t o t hose o n t he K ish a nd D iyala s tands, a c entral s tanding w ild g oat, a nd a n u pper b racket s et o n i ts b ack. T he a nimal i s a rsenical c opper ( Cu: 9 4.0%; A s: 2 .6%; Z n: 0 .9%; S n: 0 .2%; P b: 0 .3%) c ast r ound a c lay c ore, h eld i n p lace b y c haplets t hrough t he s houlders a nd h aunches. T he h ollow c entral, c ircular s trut p asses t hrough t he a nimal - s b ody a nd m ust h ave b een c ast a round t he c ore. T he s olid a nimal h ead w as c ast s eparately a nd f itted b y a " tongue i n g roove" d evice t o t he n eck, w hich i s t apered a nd r eached i nto t he b ase o f t he h ead, w here t he j unction i s s ecured b y a p in. R adiographs i ndicate t hat t he b ase w as a s ingle c asting. T angs b elow t he a nimal -s f eet f it i nto c avities i n t he b ase a nd a re s ecured b y " collars" o f e xtra m etal, p erhaps c ast o n b y p uddling, i .e. b y p ouring m olten m etal i nto a f ired c lay d am a t t he j unctions, p robably w ith t he s tand i nverted. T he f our-ring u pper b racket i s a s ingle c asting, p ossibly m ade i n a n o pen m ould. T he t hree v ertical s truts w ere c ast o n s eparately a nd t he w hole j oined t o t he a nimal ( Lynda A ussenberg a nd P ieters M eyers p ermission).

r eport;

c ited

w ith

T hat l ost-wax c asting w as e arly e xploited f or r elatively r outine o bjects i s e vident f rom a c ast o pen-work h andle f or a c opper d agger f rom a K ish g rave o f E arly D ynastic I ( Watelin, 1 934, I t w as t o b e u sed t hroughout f or s mall-scale s tatuary, 4 2

p l.XVIII.1). p redominantly

s olid-cast, e xamples o f w hich s urvive o nly s poradically 1 981, p assim , p 1.23, 4 0, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 1 52, 1 53, 1 56-9, 1 71, 5 ,

2 52;

B raun-Holzinger,

1 984),

( Spycket, 1 91, 2 42-

a nd f oundation f igurines

( Ellis,

1 968; R ashid, 1 983). D ecorative c ast f ittings o f o ne s ort o r a nother a re e qually e lusive i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T o t he e arlier s econd

m illennium

f rames ( Moorey, ( Calmeyer, 1 969, I n

c ontrast

B .C.

1 977; 5 0ff.)

b elong a n e nigmatic s eries o f

r ollers

a nd

C almeyer, 1 969, 1 77ff.) a nd s ome s tandards t hat m ay b e B abylonian r ather t han " Elamite".

t o I ran a nd A natolia,

M esopotamia s eems n ever

t o

h ave

d eveloped a t aste f or w eapons w ith c ast d ecoration. W hether

o r n ot c ast m etal

f urniture f ittings h ad b een u sed

f or

f urniture b efore t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod i s n ot c lear, b ut b y t hen b oth r eliefs a nd i solated f inds b ear a mple w itness t o t heir c urrency ( Kyrieleis, 1 969, 6 ff; D entzer, 1 982). A t N imrud L ayard ( 1853, 1 98ff.)

f ound

t he b ronze m etal

f ittings

f rom a n A ssyrian r oyal

t hrone

a nd f oot s tool, s ome o f w hich a re c ast ( see p .35). I t m ay b e c omp ared w ith t he e ven m ore e laborate a nd v arious c ast f ittings t o h ave s urvived f rom t he t hrone a nd f ootstool o f t he g od i n t he U rartlan t emple a t T oprak K ale, n ear V an ( Barnett, 1 950). A f ine h ollow-cast b ronze " dragon's" h ead i n t he L ouvre w as, p erhaps, o nce t he h ead o f a s ceptre s acred t o M arduk ( Encyl. P hoto, I I, 1 936, p 1.39). F ine z oomorphic c astings o n a s mall s cale a re i llustrated i n t he s ame p eriod b y t he b ronze l ion w eights f ound i n A ssyrian p alaces a t N imrud a nd K horsabad F or o nes,

( Spycket,

s ubstantially

i t

w as

c astings s uitable

1 981,

4 33-4,

p 1.284).

l arger c astings,

i mportant

a nd e ven f or

t o s ave m etal a nd f or t his

s ome

s maller

c ored

l ost-wax

w ere d evised. F or t his a c ore o f c lay o r c lay m ixture f or r ough m oulding w as s haped t o t he d esired f orm a nd

c overed w ith w ax t o

a n a ppropriate t hickness a nd c onsistency,

a ll o rnament a nd d etail m ight b e c ut i nto L t. c lay was t hen a pplied a nd t he s ame p rocess o f i ng u sed a s w ith s maller w ork .

M ost

s o

t hat

A n o uter c oating o f b aking a nd m etal p our-

s uch c astings w ould h ave n eeded

p rojecting s pikes o f c opper, b ronze o r i ron ( "chaplets") t o s ecure t he c ore i n p osition. B y t his m ethod, p articularly w hen s kilfully e xecuted, t here c an b e g reat e conomy i n t he u se o f m etal. I t i s a lso e xtremely v ersatile. F ine d etail c an b e w orked o n t he w ax m odel a nd e xactly r eproduced i n t he c asting. u nlike m oulds ( even p iece m oulds) e xtracted

f rom t he m ould b efore

T here

i s

a lready

A ny s hape m ay b e p roduced s ince, t he p attern d oes n ot h ave t o b e

c asting.

s ome e vidence i n t he

l ater

E arly

D ynastic

p eriod f or c ast m etal s tatuary o f c onsiderable s ize ( Frankfort, 1 1, p 1.61) i n w hich t he s urviving l imbs a nd f eet a re h ollow

1 943, c ast:

" It m ay b e, o f c ourse, t hat t he s tatue w as o f s ome o ther m aterial w ith o nly t he f ace, h ands, a nd t he f eet c ast o f c opper" ( Frankfort, 1 954, 2 6). B oth t he A kkadian c opper h ead o f a k ing f rom N ineveh ( Nylander, 1 980) a nd t he f ragmentary c opper s tatue i nscribed f or N aram-Sin f rom n ear D ohak i n n orthern M esopotamia ( Al-Fouadi, 1 976) a re h ollow c ast. s tatue. o f t his T he

C haplets a nd m uch o f

t he c ore s urvive i n t he D ohak

T he l atter i s i nteresting a s t he e arliest s urviving s tatue s ize c ertainly m ade c ompletely o f m etal, a s w as i ts b ase.

N ineveh h ead w ell

a ppreciated

t he

i llustrates

p otential o f

t he e xtent

t o w hich c raftsmen

c utting t he f ine d etails o f

b eard i n t he w ax f or r eproduction i n c asting, t hough t he h eavier t han i t n eed b e, s uggesting r ather l ess c ontrol. 4 3

h air

h ad a nd

h ead i s Y et b oth

s culptures w ould b e r egarded a s m asterly a chievements i n a ny t ime o r p lace, s o f ar u nmatched b y a nything e lse t o h ave s urvived f rom M esop otamia. F or t ors

t he s econd m illennium B .C.

h ave

f ound

i t

i s o nly a t

l arge-scale c astings o f

t he

t ype

S usa t hat

t hat

e xcava-

t exts

i ndicate

w ould a lso h ave b een c urrent i n o ther m ajor M esopotamian c ities. T he f amous b ronze b arrières i nscribed f or K ing S hilhak-in-shushinak

½ "

( c.1130-1100 B .C.) a re 2 0 l ong, 8 " i n d iameter a nd a bout p erhaps c ast b y p ouring s imultaneously f rom n umerous

t hick ; c rucibles

t hrough m any f unnels ( Maryon a nd P lenderleith, 1 954, 6 32). T he n ow h eadless b ronze s tatue o f N apir-asu, w ife o f l J ntash-Gal ( c.1250 B .C.) i s a lmost b ell-shaped; i t c onsists o f a n o uter s hell o f m etal u sually a bout a n i nch t hick, t hough m ore a t t he h ands. T he c ore i s a s olid m ass o f l ess c ompact m etal, p robably f rom s uccessive p ourings f rom s mall c rucibles ( Amiet, 1 966, n o.280, p 1.372; 1 .29m . h igh ; 1 750 k g. w eight). M aryon a nd P lenderleith ( 1954, 6 32) c ommented t hat: " perh aps t he a dditional m etal w as a dded t o s trengthen a c rack t hat f ormed i n t he c asting w hen i t c ooled. I t i s t o a void t his m ischance t hat m odern b ell f ounders r ake o ut t he c ore o f a l arge b ell a s s oon a s t he m etal h as T he c asting

s et,

a nd b efore

m ost f orms

f amous p art o f

i t h as

t ext

t ime

t o

c ontract

s trongly."

f rom M esopotamia r elating t o

l arge-scale

d escription o f a " Palace

w ithout

R ival" a nd h as o ften b een c ommented o n. T he k ey p ortions, d ered b y L uckenbill ( 1927, 1 62ff.), a re a s f ollows:

a s r en-

" Eight

S ennacherib s

l ions,

o pen a t

t he k nee

( i.e.

f ree-stand-

i ng), i n t he p osture o f a dvance, w hich w ere c ast o f 1 1,400 t alents o f b right c opper... W ith t wo c olossal p illars w hose c opperwork c ame t o 6 ,000 t alents... F our m ountain s heep, a s p rotecting d eities,

o f s ilver a nd c opper...

F ollowing

t he

a dvice o f m y h ead ( will) a nd t he p rompting o f m y h eart, I f ashioned a w ork o f b ronze a nd c unningly w rought i t. O ver g reat p osts a nd c ross b ars o f w ood, 1 2 f ierce l ion-colossi t ogether w ith 1 2 m ightly b ull-colossi, c omplete i n f orm , 2 2 c owc olossi c lothed w ith e xuberant s trength a nd w ith a bundance a nd s plendour h eaped u pon t hem, a t t he c ommand o f t he g od, I b uilt a f orm o f c lay a nd p oured p ieces, T he

k ey

b ronze i nto i t, a s i n m aking h alf-shekel a nd f inished t heir c onstruction".

f inal s entence m ight

b e

r endered:

" I m ade

t heir

f igures

p erfectly, a s ( easily a s i f t hey h ad b een) o bjects w eighing h alf s hekel e ach" ( S. D alley: p ers.comm.). S ome

c ommentators

r eference t o s hekels

( e.g.

U nderwood,

1 958) h ave

a

b een m isled b y t he

i nto p roposing m ethods b ased o n d ies a nd o n c oin

s triking, w hen t he r eference i s t o t hree-dimensional s olid b ronze w eights o n t he s hekel s tandard m ade b y l ong-established, i f s malls cale, t echniques o f c asting i n m oulds. M aryon a nd P lenderleith ( 1954,

6 32-3)

o ffered

a p lausible r econstruction o f

S ennacherib s

p rocedures: " From t his d escription i t

i s c lear t hat 4 4

t he

l egs

o f

t hese

f igures w ere i n t he

f iciently

s trong

r ound,

i n t hemselves

t o

a nd

s uf-

s upport

t he

b ody. S ennacherib s m oulds w ere o f c lay; t hey w ould b e p iece-moulds, b uilt u p i ndividually a gainst t he o riginal m odels. W hen r emoved f rom t he m odel t hey w ould b e f itted w ith a c ore, a nd t he n ecessary j ets a nd v ents f or c asting w ould b e p rovided. N ext, t he c ore a nd m ould w ould b e s et u p n ear t he f urnace a nd f ired t o e nable t hem t o w ithstand t he p ressure o f t he m olten m etal. T hen b rick w alls w ould b e b uilt r ound t hem, s trengt hened w ood .

b y

t he

g reat p osts

a nd

c rossbars

T hese c ould n ot h ave b een p laced

o f

w ithin

t he m oulds t hemselves, f or t he h eat o f t he m olten m etal m ight h ave s et t hem a light, w ith d isastrous r esults; n or c ould t he m ould h ave b een b aked i f t hey w ere w ithin." I t m ay b e c ustomary

t hat

t hese w ere n ot h ollow l ost-wax c astings,

b efore

S ennarcheri Vs

t ime,

b ut

e normous

a s h ad

b een

f ree-standing

s olid m etal f igures. M ost s urviving A ssyrian w eights w hether z oom orphic, n otably a f ine s eries i n b ronze ( see p .35) o r s mall, p lain o nes i n g eometric s hapes, w ere s olid c ast i n m ultiple c lay m oulds. P erhaps i t w as t his t ype o f c asting t hat S ennacherib, a t l east f or t he f irst t ime i n l iving m emory, e xploited o n a m onumental s cale. I t i s p ossible t hat a r elief, f rom A shurbanipal s p alace a t N ineveh, c arved a bout 6 45 B .C., s hows t he f acade o f S ennacherib s p alace, w ith i ts c olumns s tanding o n c ast b ronze b ases s et o n t he b acks o f l ions p assant, j ust a s S ennacherib T h i nscription d escribes t hem ( Reade, 1 983,

p 1.56). V ery l ittle N eo-Assyrian m etal s culpture h as s urvived, a rchive o f p hotographs l eft b y P lace i ncludes o ne

t he

" debris f lg.l). t id

a lthough c aptioned

dune s tatue d e b ronze d e K alah-Chergat" ( Börker-Klahn, 1 973, T his a ppears t o b e a m etal v ersion o f a t ype o f m ale c arya-

s tone s tatue,

o f a d eity c arrying a v ase w ith f lowing

s treams,

k nown f rom K horsabad ( Strommenger, 1 970, 2 3ff.). S uch a c olumns haped c asting w ould n ot h ave p resented t he s ame p roblems a s S ennac heri Vs f ree-standing c olossi. I t i s i n t he t radition o f t he Q ueen N apir-asu s tatue. A s triding c ast b ronze b ull-man, i n a n " atlas" p ose,

w as

f ound b y c hance n ear K irkuk s ome y ears a go.

I t s eems

t o b e

a s olid c asting m ade i n t wo-piece o r m ultiple m oulds. I t s tands a bout 3 5cm. h igh a nd m ay h ave b een a n e lement i n a s ubstantial p iece o f

A ssyrian f urniture u pon w hich s imilar

r epresented o n p alace r eliefs p l.lS:l). m etal, o n

( J.

" supporters" a re s hown w hen

C urtis;

p ers.comm.;

H rouda,

1 965,

A ssyrian s oldiers a re s hown b reaking u p a s tatue, f or i ts S argon s d epiction o f h is s ack o f i n t he l ater

e ighth c entury B .C., o n t he r eliefs a t K horsabad 1 849-50, p ls.140-2; M ayer, 1 979).

( Botta a nd F landin,

T he L ouvre i n P aris h as a d amaged, h eadless i nscribed b ronze s tatue o f K ing A ssur-dan I I ( c.934-12 B .C.), n ow 3 0cm . h igh, w eighing 2 kg.; i t i s o f s imple, c ylindrical f orm ( Spycket, 1 981, 3 72). E qually

r are

a re

s urviving f ragments

o f

c ast-bronze

r elief

s culpture c omparable t o t he f amiliar s tone p alace r eliefs o f t he N eoA ssyrian p eriod ( Braun-Holzinger, 1 984, 1 05ff.). T he L ouvre 4 5

p ossesses P arrot,

a v ery s mall p iece o f

1 956a,

B aghdad p erhaps

0 .33m .

( Basmachi, a s a p art

h igh;

i nscribed b ronze r elief

0 .31m .

w ide;

1 3kg.

( AO

2 0.185;

9 00 i n w eight) a s d oes

1 962). T hey s how r oyal f igures i n l ow r elief, o f a s eventh c entury B .C. a ltar o r c omparable

f urnishing. S uch w ork i s k nown e arlier a t S usa ( Amiet, 1 966, n o.305, b ut n ot i n M esopotamia, s ave i n o ne h ighly d ubious i nstance. W ithout a t horough m etallurgical e xamination i t i s h ard t o a ssess a

p . 40 4 ) ,

l arge c opper o r b ronze c asting, p erhaps a p iece o f t emple f urniture, w ith a f rieze i n r elief, n ow i n t he M useum o f C anakkale/Dardanelles i n T urkey ( B rker-Klahn, 1 974). T he r elief i s v ery d amaged, b ut B örker-Klahn

h as

i dentified i t a s S umerian,

s tylistically o f

E arly

D ynastic I II. I f t his i s c orrect, a nd t hat r emains o pen t o q uestion, i t w ould b e a r emarkable a ddition t o t he c ast m etal r epertory f or t he m iddle o f ( c)

t he

t hird m illennium B .C.

S heetmetal w orking: 1 .

V essels a nd m iscellaneous f ittings:

M aryon a nd P lenderleith ( 1954, 6 35) r esolved t he q uestion o f w hether h ot o r c old f orging w as u sed a t U r i n a ntiquity o n t he b asis o f t he e xistence, o r a bsence, o f e fficient t ools f or h olding t he w ork f or h ammering. F or h ot-working t he h ands m ust b e a bout 8 " o r m ore f rom t he m etal. N o h inged t ongs a re k nown f rom t he a ncient N ear E ast b efore t he m ature I ron A ge a nd i t i s a ssumed, f rom E gyptian p ractices s hown o n r eliefs ( Newberry, 1 900, p l.XVIII), t hat c rossed s trips o f y oung o r d amp w ood w ere u sed, i nsulated a s n ecessary w ith c lay. T he g rip w ould n ot h ave b een v ery s ecure. " This b eaten w ork , s uch a s t hat

f rom U r,

m ust h ave

b een d one m ostly b y c old-forging,

a p rocess

s till e mployed w herever h and-working i s p ractised. T o t he c raftsman, i t h as t he i mmense a dvantage t hat b y h olding t he w ork i n h is h and h e h ad c omplete c ontrol o ver i t" ( Maryon a nd P lenderleith, 1 954, 6 36). I t i s l ikely t hat t he m etal v essels w ere r aised, b y m eans o f b lows o n t he

o utside,

r ather

t han b y s inking i nto a s uitably c ut h ollow i n a

w ood o r s tone b lock. M aryon ( 1949, 9 5ff. f ig.10) d escribes t he p rocedure i n d etail, w ith p articular a ttention t o a r ange o f s tandard v essel

s hapes

f rom t he

" Royal C emetery" i n w hich h e

i solated

" the

s hapes w hich t he v ase w ould b e l ikely t o h ave t aken w hile p assing, u nder t he h ammer o f t he c raftsman, f rom t he o riginal f lat d isc o f m etal t o i ts c ompleted f orm . T hese t echniques h ad b een d eveloped b y t he f ourth m illennium a nd w ere t o u ndergo n o a ppreciable c hange ( cf. W oolley, 1 976, 1 85, p 1.100; 1 962, 1 04, p 1.24, 3 2). T hey i ncluded t ricks f or i ncluding h andles a nd s pouts: 1 f d esired, t he m aterial t o p roduce a l ip o r s pout, o r a h andle, m ay b e l eft o n t he d isc f rom w hich a j ug o r s aucepan i s t o b e r aised. S uch m aterial d oes n ot g et i n t he w ay v ery m uch d uring t he r aising o f t he b ody o f t he w ork. W hen t hat i s c ompleted t he s haping o f t he h andle o r s pout m ay b e t aken i n h and"

( Maryon,

1 949,

9 9).

M aryon b elieved, g reat t hough t he c ompetence o f S umerian s heetm etal w orkers w as, t hat t hey l acked t he " snarling i ron" o r i ts b ronze e quivalent. s haped r od,

H odges ( 1964, 7 8) d escribes t his t ool a s f ollows: o ne e nd o f w hich i s h eld i n a c lamp a nd t he o ther,

e nd o f w hich

i s

r ounded.

v essel a nd h eld a gainst

" a Z f ree

T his e nd i s p assed t hrough t he m outh o f t he a rea t o b e r aised.

t he

T he m iddle s ection o f

t he r od i s t hen s truck w ith a h ammer, a nd a s t he w hole f ree e nd o f t he r od r ebounds f rom t he b low s o t he r ounded e nd i n c ontact w ith t he 4 6

m etal

f orces

i t o ut".

I n t he B ritish M useum c ollection f rom U r,

s aid

t o b e f rom t he s uburb o f D iqdiqqeh i s a b roken b ronze t ool, o rigina lly i dentified a s a " steelyard" ( Woolley, 1 976, 8 6, 2 33), t hat m ight h ave s erved a c omparable p urpose ( cf. B .M.: M aryon, 1 949, f ig.12, f or i llustration o f u se). b ut

t he m ajority o f

t he o bjects

1 22186 = U . 1 2683; I ts d ate i s u nknown,

f rom t his a rea a re d ated

t o t he f irst

h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. T here i s n o e vidence b efore t he A chaemenid p eriod, a nd t hen i t i s e quivocal, f or t he u se o f a l athe t o

t urn o r

s pin m etal v essels

M ost

o f

t he

( Cooney,

1 965).

s heetmetal c opper o r b ronze v essels

a t

U r

w ere

b eaten u p f rom o ne p iece o f s heet m etal, t hough r ivetting w as u sed f or l arger p ieces, n otably t ype 7 7 ( Woolley, 1 934, 3 02, p 1.237), " which w as m ade i n t hree p ieces, t he e dge o f t he b ase b eing b ent s o a s t o f it r ound t he b ottom o f t he s ides". I n m aking r aised b ases " the g eneral m ethod h as b een t o b end t he b ottom e dge o f t he w alls i nwards

a nd u pwards a nd t hen t o s play i t o ut s o a s

t o m ake

a

r ing-

l edge t o w hich t he b ase, a d isk c ut s eparately, i s f ixed b y s olderi ng: i n s ome c ases, e .g. T ype 9 a d isk h as b een s oldered o r s weated d irectly o n t o t he h ammered b ase s o a s t o s trengthen l t w here t he m etal

w as

t hinnest."

W ith o ne e xception

( Type

1 7;

W oolley,

1 934,

p 1.233), h andles w ere s eparately f ixed o n, a s o ccasionally w ere l egs ( Type 2 4; W oolley, 1 934, p 1.233). C ollon ( 1982) h as e xamined t he d istinctive a nd u nusual d ouble-tubes o f m etal, f ixed t o t he v essels b y r ivets, M ore t he

t hrough w hich w ire l oop-handles w ere p assed. s ophisticated

m iddle

o f

j oining m ethods h ad a lready b een d eveloped b y

t he t hird m illennium B .C.

I f c opper o r a ny

o f

i ts

a lloys i s h eated a f ilm o f c opper o xides f orms o n t he s urface s o t hat n either a f lux n or h ammering w ill u nite t wo s urfaces. U nlike i ron, c opper

c annot

b e w elded

t ogether b y h eating o r h ammering;

a s older i s

r equired ( see p p.87ff. f or d istinction o f " soft" a nd " hard" s older). T he s tag s a ntlers o n t he U baid c opper r elief a re s quare c opper b ars a nd t he j oints b etween t he m ain s tem a nd t he t ines w ere m ade w ith s oft-solder, t hough o f w hat t ype I s n ot s pecified ( Maryon, 1 949, 1 14).

T in

w as u sed a s a s older a t U r o n a c opper b owl w ith

l ugs f rom t he d ock , 1 984).

s ilver

" Royal C emetery" ( Craddock i n C ollon, 1 982, 1 01; C radH ard s oldering ( brazing) w ith a l ow m elting-point

s ilver-copper-tin-alloy h as b een r ecognized o n a n E arly D ynastic " bronze" a xehead f rom U r ( EM 1 21574: R oberts, 1 974, f igs.12-13). N one

o f

t he b ase m etal v essels

f rom t he

" Royal C emetery" a t

I II

U r

w as, a pparently, d ecorated t hough s ome w ere i nscribed. T he m ain c opper o bject t o e xhibit a d eveloped m astery o f r epoussé d ecoration i s a f ragmentary p laque f rom R T 7 89, w hich W oolley b elieved m ight h ave d ecorated a s hield ( Woolley, 1 934, 6 9, p l.169b.: U . 1 0475). T his i s a r ectangular s trip, d ecorated w ith a n a ddorsed p air o f l ions p assant a bove r ecumbent m en, p robably c orpses, i n s ome w ay a ssociated w ith a r osette. I t I s g enerally a rgued t hat a t rue c utting t ool ( a g raver o r s corper) o f b ronze c ould n ot b e u sed o n b ronze ( Maryon, 1 949, 1 17ff; L owery e t a l., 1 971) s o a ll l inear w ork b efore a n a dv anced d ate i s l ikely t o h ave b een c hased r ather t han e ngraved. C aution, h owever, r emains i n o rder. " We h ave f ound a b ronze t racer v ery

m uch

l ess

c onvenient

t o u se o n

b ronze

t han

a

s teel

o ne,

f requently n eeding r e-shaping o f t he e dge, t hough h ammers a nd s tyles o f u se d ifferent f rom t hose c ustomary w ith s teel t racers r educe t he d ifferences.. . we

a re n ot y et c ertain h ow f ar" 4 7

( Lowery e t a l.,

1 971,

1 70). F rom

s ubsequent

p eriods e mbossed w ork i n c opper o r b ronze

v ery r arely s urvived. w ork o n a l arger s cale

h as

I n t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod, a part f rom t he c onsidered b elow, h igh r epoussé i s k nown f rom

a n i solated p iece, i n t he B oston M useum o f F ine A rts, w hich m ay a gain h ave b een f rom a s hield ( Porada, 1 950), a nd o n f ragments f rom w hat m ay b e o verlays f or b oxes, s ome f rom N imrud ( Organ, 1 963, 1 29, f ig.2). S ome f ragments w ithout k nown s ource, n ow i n t he L ouvre ( Parrot, 1 958) w ere p ublished a s N eo-Assyrian, b ut m ay b e f rom f urt her a field; a ll a re d ecorated w ith a nimals o r w ith s cenes o f a nimal c ombat a nd h unting. t his m ade

T he m ost

r emarkable e xamples o f t he t echnique a t

t ime, s heet-metal v essels i n t he s hape o f a nimal h eads, w ere i n M esopotamia a nd i n n eighbouring c ountries ( Calmeyer, 1 979),

f ollowing a t radition t hat w ent b ack a t l east a m illennium. I t i s p ossible t hat a s eries o f d rinking g oblets, d ecorated w ith r epoussé a nd c hased s cenes, d ated m ainly t o t he t enth c entury B .C., i llustrate a n a spect o f " Middle B abylonian" m etalwork . T hey a re r eported p red ominantly f rom c landestine e xcavations i n W estern I ran; b ut a f ew i nscribed ( Calmeyer,

e xamples 1 973). 2 .

b ear w itness

B abylonian

c onnection

O verlays: ( 1)

S tatuary:

A s e laborate p rogrammes o f a ny s ize r esources,

t o a s trong

t emple d ecoration i n c ast s tatuary o f

w ould h ave p laced a h eavy b urden o n M esopotamian m etal i t i s h ardly s urprising t hat t he S umerians d eveloped

m ethods o f p roducing s ubstitutes. I t m ay n ot h ave b een u ntil t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod, w hen c opper c ame s o r eadily a s t ribute o r b ooty, t hat r ulers w ere a ble t o c ontemplate a nd e xecute s chemes l ike t hat u ndertaken i n c ast m etal b y S ennacherib ( cf. p p.44). S tatues o f h ammered s heet c opper o r b ronze f ixed t o r oughly s haped b itumen o r b itumen-coated w ooden c ores o f t he s hapes d esired w ere c urrent b y t he e arlier t hird m illennium B .C. C omposite s tatuary, c ombining p arts o f s tone, w ood, a nd m etal, t hough e vident f rom t extual s ources, ( Spycket, 1 968, p assim), i s n ot s o r eadily i llustrated f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord, w here t he o riginal d estination o f f ragments i s n ot c ertain. T hat t he S umerians h ad a t aste f or s uch c reations i s c lear f rom t he o utset o f t he s culptural r ecord, n otably w here a nimals a re c oncerned ( Spycket, 1 981, p 1.31). T he t wo r ampant h e-goat s upp orts f rom R T 1 237 a t U r r emain t he b est e xamples o f t he g enre ( Woolley, 1 934, p 1.87), t hough i n t hem p recious m aterials a re t he v isible

c omponents,

a nd

t he s cale

i s s mall.

T he o utstanding a rchaeological i nstance o f w rought s tatuary f rom M esopotamia i s t hat f rom t he E arly D ynastic I II t emple a t T ell a lU baid, e xcavated i n t urn b y H all a nd W oolley ( 1927). T his t emple h ad

b een d ismantled,

p ossibly i n t he U r I II p eriod,

f or

e xtensive

r estoration. T he f ittings h ad b een r emoved, a nd a ssembled a t t he b ase o f o ne o f t he a ccess r amps, f or b urial i n t he n ew t errace o r p latform. T his h ad p reserved t hem r emarkably w ell, t hough w ith l ittle

i ndication o f

t he t emple b uilding. t echnical

t heir o riginal d isposition,

p resumably

w ithin

T his m etal-work h as n ever r eceived t he d etailed

s tudy i t d eserves,

a s y ear b y y ear, 4 8

t he u nique

c haracter o f

t he f ind

i s m ore c learly e vident.*

W oolley,

1 927,

3 6ff.)

V arious e arly a nalyses

s howed t hat t he s heetmetal o f

c opper, w ith n o c lear e vidence o f a lloying: p ure c opper", a s w as s aid a t t he t ime ( Ibid.,

( Hall

a nd

t he b odies w as

a ll b eing w onderfully 3 8). M aryon ( Maryon

a nd P lenderleith, 1 954, 6 39-40) h as g iven t he m ost c oncise d escript ion o f t he t echnique u sed t o m ake o ne o f t he s tanding b ulls a t U baid: " Their c onstruction i s w orthy o f c onsideration. A p iece o f w ood, m easuring a bout 1 8x6x3", w as r oughly s haped w ith a n a xe t o t he g eneral f orm o f t he b ull 's b ody. T o i t w ere f itted, b y m ortise a nd t enon j oints, f urther p ieces f or t he h ead a nd l egs. T he w hole w ooden c ore w as t hen c overed w ith s heets o f t hin c opper: h ead a nd l egs f irst, t hen b ody, h orns e tc. e ach p iece b eing f ixed i n p lace b y l arge-headed n ails. E ach l eg w as c ons tructed f rom o ne p iece o f m etal. N ow, t hough a p iece

o f c opper c ould b e b ent r ound

f orm

a

k ind o f

l eg,

t he c ore

m uch w ork w ould b e

t o

n eeded

b efore i t a ssumed i ts f inal s hape. T hus t he f ormation o f t he c oncave a nterior b order o f a h ind l eg w ould e ntail m uch h ammering n ear t he b ack e dges o f t he f olded s heet t o s tretch t he m etal o ver t he h ock, a nd t his d emanded f requent a nnealings. T hen t he s mith, a fter a f inal a nn ealing, t acked t he l ong e dge o nto a b itumenc overed c ore. H e w ould w arm t he m etal s o t hat t he b itumen w ould f low c losely a gainst i t t o f orm a s upport d uring t he c hasing o f t he s urface m odelling. T he l ast t ask w ould b e t o f old o ver t he f ree e dge s o t hat i t o verlapped t hat a lready n ailed t o t he c ore a nd t o d rive i n a r ow l arge-headed n ails, w hich h eld a ll t ogether." D etail

w as w orked o n t he s urface o f

o f

t he m etal w ith t racers a nd

o f t he d esign i s i n r epoussé. M aryon m ay n ot b e c orrect i n a ll d eductions. T he h eads o f t he l ions a nd l eopards a ppear t o b e o f t in

b ronze,

n ot

o f h ammered s heet c opper,

w ith b itumen p oured

s ome h is c ast i n

a fter c asting t o r e-inforce t hem a nd s upport t he e ye i nlays a nd t he s tone t ongue-tips, w hich p roject f rom t he o pen m ouths. T he f ew c ast h eads

t hat h ave

b een p roperly e xamined a re s aid

t o s how t races o f

m ultiple p iece-moulds i n w hich t hey w ere c ast a fter a n o riginal m odel; " On s ome o f t hem, b etween t he h orns, d own t he f ront o f h ead,

a nd

( Maryon,

u nder

1 949,

f itted o n ;

t he l ower

9 9).

t he

s tag s h ead w ere

s oft

L ater e xamples o f t emple o r t he

j aw t here r emain t races o f c asting w ebs."

I n s ome c ases

j oints

t he w ax t he

t he h orns w ere m ade

s eparately a nd

b etween t he m ain a ntlers a nd t he t ines o n s oldered

( Maryon,

1 949,

t he s ame t echnique w ere

t he

1 14). f ound i n c learing

t he

o f D agan a t M an , w here t he t errace h ad b een g uarded b y l ions, f oreparts o f l ions, m ade o f c opper o r b ronze p laques h ammered

A d etailed

i nvestigation i s n ow i n p rogress

C urtis. 4 9

i nitiated b y D r.

J ohn

o ver w ooden c ores,

p robably

i n t he r eign o f

Z imri-Lim ( c.1800 B .C.).

L ittle s ave i nlaid e yes r emained o f t he e xternal o nes, i nside h ad s urvived i ntact ( Spycket, 1 981, 2 90-1). ( ii) S ome

b ut

t wo

f rom

F urniture:

t ypes o f

r eligious

f urniture w ere m ade o f

s heet m etal o ver

w ood. A " ringed g ate-post", 3 .27m. h igh, f rom o ne o f t he E arly D ynastic I II t emples a t T elloh ( Girsu) w as o f h ammered c opper o ver a w ooden c ore, w ith a b itumen t erminal o n t he t op, p erhaps a lso o rigina lly p lated ( de S arzec a nd H euzey, 1 884-1912, p l.57:1; P arrot, 1 948, 1 06 f ig.26c). T hat t his t radition e ndured i s e vident a t A ssur, w here i n o ne o f

t he r ooms o f a s ubstantial N eo-Assyrian h ouse w as

c opper o r b ronze c ladding f or a s tandard o f s ome k ind, r adiate r osette s et o n a s haft ( Preusser, 1 954, 4 1,

f ound t he

i n t his c ase a 4 4ff., p l.19).

H ammered m etal f ittings, a nd s ilhouettes c ut o ut o f b ronze s heet w ere i mportant c omponents o f e laborate p ieces o f c eremonial N eo-Assyrian f urniture,

a s o n t he

s ee p .35 h ere) A t p eriod, g oats

t hrone

f ound a t N imrud b y L ayard

a nd e arlier e vident

i n t exts

U r a p air o f b ronze c offins,

( Salonen,

m ade i n t he

( 1853,

1 98ff.;

1 963).

l ate

N eo-Assyrian

a re e quipped w ith p anels o n t he o utside w ith a d esign o f w ild

s tanding o n r osettes ( iii)

( Woolley,

1 962,

p l.18;

C urtis,

A rchitectural:

B y f ar t he b est k nown i nstance o f s heetmetal m onumental s cale i s p rovided b y t he A ssyrian e xamples b ronze o verlays A dad-Nirari I

1 983a).

d ecoration o n o f d ecorated

f or p alace a nd t emple d oors, f irst r eferred t o u nder ( 1305-1274 B .C.), s poradically m entioned d own t o

A shurnasirpal I I, a nd t hereafter m ore r egularly. L ayard f ound f ragm ents i n c hamber I o f t he N orth-West p alace a t N imrud; P lace f ound p ieces i n t he A dad T emple a t K horsabad; L oud r ecovered s ome f rom t he N abu T emple t here, a nd f urther p ieces w ere f ound i n t he t hrone r oom. A t A ssur t he d oor o f t he A nu-Adad T emple a nd t he T abira G ate o ffered s ome e xamples, a s d id t he t emple o f N érgal a t T ell H adad ( Sirara), i n t he H amrin, b uilt o r r estored b y A shurbanipal ( see C urtis, 1 982, 1 18). B ut t he b est k nown a nd m ost e laborate a re t he g ate c overings s et u p b y S halmaneser I II, d iscovered b y R assam a nd M allowan a t B alawat. T hey a re o f s heet-bronze, w ith a bout 1 0% t in. M aryon a nd P lenderleith ( 1954, 6 46) r eport t hat " the b ands ( i.e. o f d ecoration) w ere i n r epoussé, w orked m ainly f rom t he f ront, w here t he t ilting d ownwards o f t he b ackground t oward t he o utlines o f t he f igures, a nd t he

m arks

o f

c hasing t ools a nd

t racers,

a re c learly v isible i n

t he

o riginal". T he e laborate s cenes, m iniature r enderings o f t he a ctivit ies m ore f amiliar f rom m onumental N eo-Assyrian p alace s tone s culpt ures, w ere f irst t raced i n o utline o n t he s urface w ith a g raver. N ot s ufficient w ork h as b een d one t o d efine t he e arliest a ppearance o f e ngraving i n t his p eriod, b ut M aryon a nd P lenderleith ( 1949, 6 49), b elieved e arliest

t hat t he i nscriptions o n t he B alawat G ates e xamples o f t rue e ngraving o n m etal, t he

t ing i nscriptions o n s tone w ith s teel t o a n ew m aterial W hat w all 1 960,

a ppear

-

" are p robably t he t echnique o f c ut-

t ools h aving b een

t ransplanted

b ronze". t o b e b ronze

f acings

f or

N eo-Assyrian

p laques w ere f ound a t T ell D eim i n n orthern 1 07, f ig.9 ( in A rabic s ection). 5 0

I raq

t erracotta ( al-Tikrit,

H :

T he u se o f m etal t ools:

g ists

I n r ecent y ears i ncreasing a ttention h as b een p aid b y a rchaeolot o t he m anner i n w hich a ncient t ools w ere u sed. T wo d istinct

a pproaches t ools

h ave

e merged,

( Semenov,

1 964),

t he o ne b ased o n t he t he o ther o n t he i dea

s tudy o f w ear o n s tone t hat

i t

i s p ossible t o

t ell t he t ool f rom s urviving t ool m arks o n s tone a rtefacts. S ince c orrosion d estroys t he s urface o f m etal w ork , t he s econd a pproach i s t he o ne m ost l ikely t o y ield i nformation o n h ow a nd w hen t ools o f c opper a nd i ts

a lloys s uperseded t hose o f

t urn i ron t ools ( cf. N ylander, 1 970, S uch r esearch o n M esopotamian a rtefacts

s tone,

a nd h ow a nd w hen i n

5 0ff.) w ere w idely p referred. i s i n i ts i nfancy . G winnett

a nd G orelick ( 1979) h ave m ade a s tart w ith c ylinder s eals, s eeking t o e stablish t he r elative u se o f w ood, s tone a nd m etal t ools i n t heir m anufacture, o n t he a ssumptions t hat " standards" f or a ncient t ool m arks m ay b e d eveloped a nd t he m arks t hemselves f aithfully d uplicated b y e xperiment. T heir w ork h as d one m uch t o c onfirm t he e xistence o f r otating c utting-disks b y 3 000 B .C.

T hey a re a lso a ble

t o r ecognize

t he e mergence o f m etal t ool m arks, a s d istinct f rom t hose o f w ood o r s tone, i n t he s eal c utter s r epertory i n t he t hird m illennium B .C.; i ndeed f or h ard s tones d rills o f t he p revious m illennium B .C. I .

C opper a nd i ts A lloys:

c opper m ay a lready h ave b een u sed i n

N otes o n P ublished A nalyses

A w idely s cattered a nd h eterogeneous s eries o f a nalyses o f c opper a nd a lloyed c opper o bjects i s n ow a vailable i n t he l iterature o f M esopotamian a rchaeology o ver t he p ast c entury a nd a h alf. D isp arities o f a nalytical m ethods, o ften i nadequate o r u nreliable d ocum entation, a nd t he a bsence o f a ny g eneral s ystem f or t he p resentation o f

r esults,

d rawn

r enders

t abulation i mpossible.

W hat

i nformation m ay b e

d irectly f rom t hese a nalyses h as b een a bsorbed i nto

t he

m ain

t ext h ere. T he f ollowing b ibliographical s urvey, b y s ite, d oes n ot a ttempt a c ritical r eview o f t he k ind s o s uccessfully u ndertaken b y C aley

( 1962)

f or

p ioneer a nalyses o f g lass.

I t

s eeks

m erely

t o

i ndicate t he r ange a nd n ature o f t he d ata p resently a vailable, a nd t o f acilitate r apid r eference t o i t. H ere, a s i n t he m ain t ext, M esopot amia i s b roadly d efined. S usa i s n ot g iven a s pecific r eference, s ince i t i s t he o nly a rchaeological s ite f or w hich a c omprehensive m odern a nalytical p rogramme h as b een u ndertaken ( Berthoud, 1 979; s ee a lso p ioneer a nalyses 1 .

2 .

i n B erthelot,

A RPACHIYAH : L ate U baid " chisel" M allowan, 1 935, 1 94, p l.X; a nalysis b y C raddock i n J esus, 1 980, 2 07 C u: 9 0%; S n: u ndetected ( down t o 0 .002%); A s: 0 .1%.

d e

A SHERAH : U ncontexted f lat a xe o r a dze b lade. T h.Dangin e t a l., C u: 9 1.159%; S n: N i: 0 .532% ; A s: o xygen:

3 .

1 906, 8 3ff.).

1 924, 2 92 6 .941%; P b: 0 .071%; S b :

0 .132%; F e: 0 .159%; 0 .020% ( sulphur: 0 .019%;

0 .967%).

T ELL A SMAR: O penwork h ilt o f a d agger

( As 3 2:1080),

5 1

l ate E arly D ynastic

I ll/Akkadian, 1 934,

5 8-9;

w ith t races o f a n i ron b lade.

D elougaz e t a l.,

1 967,

S chweizer,

1 972,

1 85

S n: 7 .6% F rankfort,

1 934,

a lso r efers

t he p rivate h ouses,

h owever,

1 0%;

t race:

A g:

1 %;

A s:

F rankfort,

1 84-5;

t o a " knife b lade f rom o ne o f

O riental I nstitute C hicago,

1 %;

P b:

0 .5%;

N i:

0 .4%;

c obalt.

" Rim-Sin" t ype a xehead S n: 1 0%, A g: 1 %; P b:

( A.9446) D ayton, 1 978, 1 59 0 .5%; A s: 0 .3%; t race: c obalt.

" Miniature a xehead o f t he U r t ype" D ayton, 1 978, S n: 1 0%; P b: 0 .3%; A s: 0 .5%; t races: s ilver, 4 .

M oorey a nd

c ontained 2 .8% t in".

H emispherical b owl ( A.11294; 3 2.1082) D ayton, 1 978, 1 59 S n:

p 1.74,

1 59 c obalt.

B ALAWAT: A nalysis o f t he m etal o verlays i n t he N eo-Assyrian g ates ( King, 1 915). R eported b y S ebelien ( 1924, 1 3-14) a s t inb ronze.

5 .

B ASSETKI: C opper s tatue f ragment w ith i nscription o f N aram-Sin A l-Fouadi, 1 976, C u: 9 8.2%; N i:

6 6 0 .32%;

A s:

0 .80%;

F e:

0 .41%;

C o:

0 .04%

( Analysis b y L aboratory f or A rchaeology a nd t he H istory o f A rt, 6 .

O xford U niversity).

T ELL B ILLAH : 1 . S haft-hole a dze-head:

P hiladelphia:

l ate 3 rd m illennium . S n: 0 .3%; P b: 0 .1%; 2 .

F e: 0 .1%. A nalyses o f o bjects p hia

7 .

3 1-51-468:

l evel 5 ;

L evey, 1 959, 2 09, f ig.39 A s: 0 .01-0.1%; N i: 0 .01-0.1%; f rom B illah i s

( "Sumerian M etals

p roceeding i n P hiladel-

r oject" 1 983-4;

M uhly,

p ers.comm.).

B RAK: A : M allowan, 1 947, 2 58 ( analyses b y D esch a nd B arr; n ot f ully q uantified; a ll o bjects L ate P rehistoric): l a. F ragment o f c opper p anel f rom " Eye-Temple" S ancl b. 2 . 3 . ( 4. 5 .

t uary. P in f rom " Eye-Temple". F ragment, a s 1 . N ail f rom " Eye-Temple" S anctuary. S ilver o bject) C opper p in f rom m udbrick w all b ehind

" Eye-Temple"

p odium . O n t hese D esch c ommented " There a re n o b ronzes a mong t he s pecimens, t in b eing c ompletely a bsent.. . Of t he c oppers, n os.la a nd 5 a re o f h igh p urity, w hilst n os.lb, 2a nd 3 c ontain b oth a rsenic ( below 0 .5%) a nd n ickel.. . Silver i s u sually p resent

i n s mall q uantities". 5 2

B :

M oorey

a nd

S chweizer,

A shmolean M useum 1 939.295:

1 939.294:

1 939.281:

1 972,

1 86:

A kkad t o U r 1 11

s ickle-blade ( F.434), M allowan, 1 947, p l.XXXI.1 A s: 0 .6%; S n: n .d. k nife-blade ( F.435), M allowan, 1 947, p l.XXXI.2 A s: 2 .8%; S n: n .d. s mall w edge ( or c hisel), c ontext u ncertain,

p erhaps

l ater t han U r I II ( cf. S peiser, 1 935, p l.XLVIII.6) A s:

0 .4%;

S n:

9 .3%;

S b:

0 .6%.

1 939.276:

f ragment o f r ough b ar c asting ( f.437) A s: 2 .0%; S n: 9 .4%. 1 939.275: f olded a rrowhead ( F.402) ( "Rimush T reasure V ase": M allowan, 1 947, p l.XXXIV, p .177) A s: 0 .7%; S n: n .d. 1 939.296: f olded p iece o f s heet-metal ( F.402); a s 1 939.275. A s: 1 .2%; S n: 0 .5%. 1 939.277:

A wl ( F.500?) M allowan, p 1. X XXI. 7

A s: 1 939.280: A wl,

0 .4%; S n: M allowan,

n .d. 1 947,

1 947,

p l.XXXI.8.

A s: 1 .2%; S n: n .d. 1 939.279: U nworked c asting f or a p in -

1 939.285:

s haft o r a wl ( F.438) A s: 1 .1%; S n: 0 .9%. P in ( F.405): M allowan, p l.XXXI.5. A s: 1 .2%;

1 939.287:

1 939.243:

S n:

2 .2%.

P in w ith c oiled h ead ( F.444), M allowan, 1 947, p l.XXXI.6: A s: 4 .5%; S n: n .d. P in w ith c oiled h ead J NP-Ziggarat. A s: 1 .4%; S n:

1 939.286:

1 947,

( F.450),

n .d.

P in w ith d omed h ead ( F.429), M allowan, 1 947, p l.XXXI.3: A s: 0 .2%; S n: 1 .4%.

F irst h alf o f s econd m illennium B .C. 1 938.51:

P in w ith m oulded s hank ( B.537), c f. A s:

1 938.47:

1 938.52:

1 937, p l.XVIb: 1 .4%.

N eedle o r b odkin ( B.535), J NP: A s:

1 938.46:

M allowan, 1 .1%; S n: t op. 0 .2%;

S n:

n .d.

N eedle o r b odkin ( B.528): A s: 2 .0%; S n: n .d. P in w ith c oiled h ead ( B.538), c f. A s: 5 3

1 939.287 a bove. 1 .3%; S n: n .d.

1 938.50:

P in w ith f lat h ead J NP: A s:

8 .

1 .6%;

S n:

( B.515),

n .d.

C HAGAR-BAZAR : A :

B :

L evel

1 2

( Halaf):

M allowan, s pecimen

1 936, 2 7: b ead: o f a ncient c opper

h ave h ad '

( Desch).

S econd M illennium B .C.:

A shmolean M useum 1 937.231:

" purest t hat w e

M oorey a nd S chweizer, 1 87: k nife-blade, M allowan, f lg.13.7, c .1700 B .C.:

1 972, 1 937,

A s: 0 .6%; S n : 1 .4%. B elt o r p ulley f itting:

1 938.39:

n ear

s urface: A s: 1 .4%; S n: 1 3.7%. s ocketed a wl ( A.528), c f. M allowan, 1 947, p l.XLI.2: A s: 0 .4%; S n : n .d.

1 937.221:

1 936.103:

p in w ith f lat h ead ( Me 6 16; g rave 6 6M , l evel 3 , c .2000 B .C.) A s: 1 .4%; S n: n .d. p in w ith p ierced s hank a nd l arge f lat n ail-like h ead: A s: 0 .6%; S n : n .d.; S b : 0 .8%

1 938.42:

9 .

E RIDU ( Abu S hahrein): O bjects u ndated:

C ampbell T hompson,

1 920,

1 44;

W oolley a nd H all, 1 927, 3 9: " It m ay b e a dded t hat t he a nalyses m ade b y D r. h is a ssistant M r. E .C. d agger(?) f rom S hahrain,

S cott

m etal o f t he s ame p urity a s t hat f rom a l- Ubaid, a ny t race o f t in, a ntimony o r a rsenic." 9 A .

1 0.

F ARA :

o bjects

T EPE G AWRA : A : P in

i n P hiladelphia

( level V III)

0 .05%;

C hisel

F e:

0 .04%;

B :

F lat a dze

F e:

0 .49%;

A s: A l:

( Philadelphia:

1 950,

P b: S b :

0 .24%; 0 .09%.

1 950,

1 .59%; 0 .06%;

P b: S b :

3 5-10-246:

0 .04%; 0 .04%.

l evel X II)

2 12:

C u: 9 5.36%; A s: 0 .05%; F lat a dze ( Philadelphia: T obler,

0 .67%; 0 .02%;

( level V I)

0 .10%;

T obler,

A s: A l:

S peiser, 1 935, 1 02: C u: 9 7.01%; S n: 0 .37%; Z n:

w ithout

( "Sumer M etals P roject", P hilad elphia; a nalyses, 1 983-4; M uhly, p ers.comm.).

S peiser, 1 935, 1 02: C u: 9 3.22%; S n: 5 .62%; Z n:

a nd

P adgham o f c opper n ails a nd a f ound b y M r. R .C. T hompson, s how

F e: 0 .19%. 3 5-10-101a:

2 12: 5 4

l evel X I)

C u: C :

9 1.80%;

A s:

1 .63%;

N i:

L evey, 1 959, 2 09: F lat a xe/adze ( 38-13-38: F lat a xe-adze ( 31-52-231:

3 .49%;

F e:

0 .02%.

l evel X II):

S n:

l evel

V I):

S n

C hisel S haft-hole a xe S haft-hole a xe

( 31-52-233: ( 31-52-249: ( 31-52-251:

l evel

V I):

S n

l evel l evel

V I): V I):

S n: S n:

< 0.3% 6 % 1 5.7%

f ig.39

S haft-hole a xe

( 32-21-93:

l evel

V I):

S n: A s: N i: F e:

5 .7% 0 .1% 0 .1% 0 .1%

f ig.39

S haft-hole a dze

( 32-21-94:

l evel

V I):

S n: P b:

0 .3% 0 .1%

A s: N i:

0 .01-0.1% 0 .01-0.1%

F e: S n : A s: Z n:

0 .1% 1 .7% 0 .1% 0 .1%

N i: F e:

0 .1% 0 .1%

S n:

0 .3%

F lat a xe/adze

C hisel D :

( 31-52-6:

l evel

( 32-21-20:

l evel

I V):

I V):

A s eries o f a nalyses h ave b een u ndertaken b y t he ria n M etals P roject", U niversity M useum, ( Stech; p ers.comm., 1 983).

1 1.

0 .3% < 0.3%

J ANDAT N ASR: A shmolean M useum 1 926.449:

" Sume -

P hiladelphia

f lat a dze-blade; l ate P rehistoric; M ackay, 1 931, p l.LXXI.32.LXXV a nalysis: A s: 0 .2%; S n: 0 .5% M ooney a nd S chweizer,

1 972,

1 80. 1 926.455:

f ish h ook; l ate P reh istoric; M ackay, 1 931, p l.LXXV.2481; a nalysis: A s: 3 .3%;

S n:

n .d.

M oorey a nd S chweizer,

1 972,

1 80. 1 2.

K AR-TUKULTI-NINURTA: B ritish M useum :

" Holdfasts"; 1 922.8.12.142:

M iddle A ssyrian. S n:

0 .5;

A s:

;

P b: A g:

1 41:

S n:

0 .5;

A s: P b:

; ;

1 43:

S n:

0 .5;

1 40:

S n:

0 .5;

A s: P b: A s: P b:

0 .5; ; A g: 0 .5; ; A g:

; -

A g:

M cKerrell, 1 977, 1 67, t able 1 3 ( not A ssur a s p ublished).

5 5

1 3.

K HAFAJAH: C opper S tatuette: E arly D ynastic I II ( sample f rom K h.I 3 51c, a nalysed b y D esch ; T emple O val I II) C u: 9 9%; S n: 0 .63% ( Analysis A ). F rankfort, 1 932, 7 8; W oolley, 1 934, 2 91; 1 939, n o.183, p l.102D-F; D elougaz, 1 940, P in ( Kh.III 6 88): P in ( Kh.IlI 7 29): P in ( Kh.III 8 50):

S n: S n: S n:

0 .32%; A s: 3 .33%; A s: 1 0.64%; A s:

E arly D ynastic l ilA ; D elougaz, S chweizer, 1 972, 1 85.

1 940,

P in

A s:

( Kh.III 2 15):

S n:

3 .44%;

D agger-blade ( Kh.III 4 4): A rrowhead ( Kh.II 7 5): S n:

B lade ( Kh.III 9 04): E arly D ynastic I II; S chweizer, 1 4.

1 972,

0 .83% -

0 .68% 1 52;

M oorey a nd

1 .06%

S n: 2 .98%; n .d. A s:

E arly D ynastic I lIB; D elougaz, S chweizer, 1 972, 1 85.

F rankfort, 1 51.

1 940,

A s: 0 .94% 0 .47%

1 52;

M oorey a nd

S n: 9 .82%; A s: 0 .23% D elougaz, 1 940, 1 52, M oorey a nd

1 85.

K HORSABAD: F oundation t ablets o f g old, s ilver, b ronze a nd l ead ( cf. E llis, 1 968, 1 94). M . B erthelot, I ntroduction al a C himie d es a nciens ( 1906), 2 19-228.

1 5.

K ISH: A :

P eake, 1 928, 4 53-4: e ight u ndated s pecimens ( six f rom 1 928 s eason); a ll s ave o ne ( from m ound " A") w ere t in b ronzes; p ublished i n a s lightly v ariant w ay i n W oolley, 1 934, 2 91 ( table I I).

B :

M oorey a nd S chweizer, ( 1)

1 972,

F rom g raves i n t he

A shmolean M useum 1 929.376:

" Y"

1 82-4: S ounding:

F ragment o f a c onical s tand ( gr.479) c f. W atelin, 1 934, p l.XXI.l; M oorey, 1 978, F iche 2 : A s < 0.1%;

1 929.331:

1 931.174:

F rom " Y"

S ounding,

A shmolean M useum 1 928.482:

1 928.483:

1 931,189:

F 05: S n:

d isk m irror

c .1%?

( gr.524)

c f.

W atelin, 1 934, p l.XIX.1-3; M oorey, 1 978, F iche 2 ; F 05: A s: 0 .6%; S n: n .d. h emispherical b owl ( gr.687), c f. W atelin, 1 934, p l.XX, 2 -3; M oorey, 1 978, f iche 2 :F09: A s:

( 2)

E .D.I.

4 .8%;

S n.

c .l%.

w ithout e xact c ontext:

E .D.I.

A dze-blade, M oorey, 1 978, f iche 2 :D05; A s: 0 .6%; S n: n .d. " Harpoon h ead", M oorey, 1 978, f iche 2 :D05: A s: n .d.; S n : " Harpoon h ead", 5 6

n .d. M oorey,

1 978,

f iche 2 :D05: A s: 3 .1%; S n : 1 929.229:

1 931.478:

1 931.479:

C emetery A :

M oorey,

S pout: A s: 4 .3%; S n : c .1%? B ody: A s: 2 .6%; S n: n .d. D isk m irror, M oorey, 1 978,

E .D.IIIb

c .l%?

E arly A kkadian

-

O bjects f rom g raves: A shmolean M useum 1 924.292: B owl ( gr.16), c f. 1 978, f iche 1 : D 14; 1 926.525:

A s: 2 .5%; S n: n .d. D agger-blade ( gr.20), 1 925,

1 926.526:

1 925.174:

1 925.173:

M oorey,

M ackay,

p l.XVII.11;

A s: 2 .3%; S n: n .d. D agger-blade ( gr.23), 1 925, p l.XVII.14; A s: 2 .8%; S n: n .d. D agger-blade ( gr.47),

M ackay,

M ackay,

1 929, p l.LXII; A s: 4 .3%; S n : 3 .0%. P in ( gr.47), M ackay, 1 929, p l.LVIII.19;

1 925.176:

A s: P in

1 925.177:

p l.LVIII.6; A s: 1 .5%; K nife-blade

1 925.178:

1 929, p l.LXI.22; A s: 0 .5%; S n: n .d. A xe-head ( gr.80), M ackay,

1 925.186:

p .159; A s: 0 .3%; S n: n .d. P in ( gr.104), M ackay,

1 925.160:

1 925.183:

1 925.250:

1 925.245:

1 925.246:

1 978,

A s: 0 .9%; S n: n .d. S pouted v ase w ith c ast s pout, M oorey, 1 978, f iche 2 : D OS:

f iche 2 :D05; A s: 3 .1%; S n : ( 3)

1 %

N eedle o r b odkin, f iche 2 :D05:

6 .5%; S n: n .d. ( gr.63), M ackay,

1 929,

S n: n .d. ( gr.67), M ackay,

1 925,

1 929,

P l .X L. 4 (1 ); A s: 3 .1%; S n: n .d. A xe-head ( gr.104), M ackay, 1 929, p l.XXXIX.7, l ower; A s: < 0.2%; S n: 0 .5%. F lat t riangular b lade ( gr.105), M ackay, 1 929, p l.LXI.20; A s: 0 .3%; S n : n .d. A xe-head ( gr.135), M ackay, 1 929, p l.XLIII.11; A s: 1 .9%; S n: 1 5.5%. H andled b owl ( gr.135), M oorey, 1 978, f iche 1 : F 10; A s: 1 .2%; S n : 1 1.6%. C osmetic d ish ( gr.135), 1 978, f iche 1 : F lO; A s: 0 .2%; S n: 2 .2%. 5 7

M oorey,

1 925.193:

B owl

( gr.139),

M ackay,

1 929,

p l.LVII.10; 1 925. 1 97:

A s: 0 .6%; S n: n .d. B owl ( gr.144), M ackay, p l.LVI I [.2; A s: 3 .3%; S n: c .1 %?

1 929,

O bjects w ithout g rave c ontext: E .D.III t o A kkadian : 1 925.528: P inhead, M oorey, 1 978, f iche 1 : A 09: A s: 1 925.182:

5 .6%;

A s: ( 4)

1 .4%;

O bjects f rom T ell I ngharra:

1 929,

1 926.451:

S mall w edge, f iche 1 :C09:

1 58,

n .d.

E .D.III

P in, A s:

t o A kkadian

M oorey, 1 978, f iche 1 :C09: 1 .0%; S n: 3 .5%. M oorey,

1 978,

A s < 0.2%; S n: 6 %. P in w ith r am m odelled o n t op, M oorey,

1 928.481:

n .d.

S n:

1 926.452:

1 926.454:

1 978,

f iche 1 :CO8-9:

A s: 0 .3%; S n : n .d. B owl, Z a a t 3 m.; M oorey, f iche 2 :C1l. A s:

( 5)

S n:

A xehead, M ackay, p l.LXII.3:

0 .2%;

" Sumerian M etals P roject",

S n:

1 978,

n .d.

U niversity M useum,

P hiladelphia: a nalyses o f o bjects f rom K ish i n t he F ield M useum , C hicago ( 1983-4; M uhly , p ers. c omm.). 1 6.

N IMRUD: A :

B ritish M useum: I .

V essel,

2 .

H ook-shaped o bject,

3 .

B ronze b ull's C u: 8 8.37%;

4 .

B ell

N eo-Assyrian ;

1 853,

6 70ff.:

L ayard,

N eo-Assyrian;

C u:

N eo-Assyrian ;

f oot f rom t ripod; S n: 1 1.33%. C u:

" Notes

C :

B ritish M useum:

" Nimrud B owls"

8 4.79%;

S n:

1 0.63%.

C u: S n:

8 9.85%; 9 .78%.

N eo-Assyrian; S n :

1 4.10%.

o f t he s pecimens

( i.e. N imrud), k indly f avoured o f t he S chool o f M ines". B :

8 9.51%;

f rom N ineveh

t o t he a uthor b y D r.

w all-peg; N eo-Assyrian: S n: 6 .4%; P b: 1 3.4%. H ughes e t a l., 1 981, 1 43, ( British M useum):

H ughes

P ercy,

n .5.

e t a l.,

1 981, 1 44, n .7, r eports e xistence o f u npublished a nalyses: " More t han 2 00 a nalyses h ave b een i ncluded i n a s tudy b y C urtis ( 1979; u npublished) a nd t he r ange o f t in p ercentages f or A ssyrian m etalwork b roadly m atches t hat f or

t he

p resent U rartian o bjects, 5 8

a s d oes

a lso

t he

t ypical s catter o f v alues c ontaining

u nder

f or l ead,

2 % l ead,

w ith m any

a nd a f ew

o bjects

( mostly

b ells)

h igher v alues o f 1 0-20%". 1 7.

N INEVEH : A :

1 .

T hick g rey r od; ? Neo-Assyrian: C u: 8 8.03%; S n: 0 .11%; P b: 3 .26%; S b: 3 .92%; A s: 0 .60%.

F e:

4 .06%;

2 .

B ent r od; ? Neo-Assyrian : C u: 8 6.84%; S n: 1 2.70%;

0 .28%;

N i:

0 .18%.

3 .

F urniture d ecoration; ? Neo-Assyrian: c u: 8 6.99%; S n: 1 2.33%; P b: 0 .38%;

F e:

t r;

n i: 0 .30%. R im o f a d ish; ? Neo-Assyrian: C u: 8 0.84%; S n: 1 8.37%; P b:

F e:

0 .16%;

4 .

N i: O bjects

P b:

0 .43%;

0 .20%.

f rom L ayard T h e xcavations o n K uyunjik a nalysed

b y

L .R . v on F ellenberg g iven b y E . v on B ibra, D ie B ronzen u nd K upferlegirungen d er a lten u nd ä ltesten V ölker ( Erlangen, 1 869), 9 4ff., 1 54; c ited b y P artington, 1 935, 2 50. B :

R oyal s tatue h ead;

A kkadian p eriod;

a nd M allowan,

7 2,

" Not

y et

h ead):

a s

g ood a s

b ronze

t he s pearhead f ound w ith i t i s M r.

t o t est

N ylander,

C ampbell-Tho r i ipsor i

n .2:

t ested w hether c opper o r b ut

c opper,

1 933,

1 980,

P adgham o f

( i.e.

t he

c ertainly

t he B ritish M useum w as

s o

f or u s". 3 29,

n .1,

r efers

t o a n

u npublished

t echnical a nd m etallurgical a nalysis u ndertaken i n B erl in. H e d escribes t he h ead a s " copper" n ot " bronze". C :

1 8.

W all peg

( Kuyunjiq:

C u: S b:

8 7.8%; 0 .19%;

A g:

0 .06%.

S n: B i:

B M 8 3-1-18,

6 .7%; P b: 0 .01%; F e:

6 69):

1 .4%; A s: 0 .36%; 0 .19%; N i: 0 .09%;

N IPPUR: 1 . P artington ( 1935, 2 47) c ites H elm s ( 1901) a nalyses o f f our o bjects f rom H ilprecht s e xcavations: " fragment o f a s word; s tylus; c opper n ail; d ish"; o nly t he s tylus c ont ained a ny t in ( Sn: 5 .45%). T here i s n o w ay n ow o f d ating t hese o bjects. " Large p in o f U r I II p eriod" C u: 8 6.9%; A s: 5 2%; P b: 3 .2%; S n: B i: 0 .028%; A g: 0 .54%; F e: 0 .39%. 2 .

1 9.

8 .3%; N i: 0 .13%; D ayton, 1 978, 1 58.

O bjects i n P hiladelphia a nd C hicago ( "Sumerian M etals P roj ect", P hiladelphia; a nalyses, 1 983-4; M uhly, p ers.comm.).

T ELL R IMAH : A ll M iddle A ssyrian p eriod: S n. K nife

( TR 4 502)

S ickle

( TR 4 5a)

A s.

P b.

A g. -

5 9

-

A s.

S n. S ickle S ickle D isc S tatuette

( TR ( TR ( TR ( TR

C ymbal B owl

( TR 5 306) ( TR 5 379)

A wl S trainer

P b.

A g.

0 .5

4 505) 4 551) 4 541) 3 512)

-

-

0 .5

5 .10 1 .5

0 .5

0 .5 1 .5 0 .5

( TR 4 512) ( TR 5 386)

A rrowhead ( TR 5 341) A rrowhead ( TR 5 359) 0 .5

A rrowhead ( TR 5 342) A rrowhead ( TR 5 389)

N on-dispersive X RF s urface a nalyses: t able 1 3.

M cKerrell,

1 977,

1 67,

2 0.

T ELL E S-SAWWAN:

( see u nder Y arim T epe)

2 1.

T ELL S IFR : M cKerrell r an a s eries o f n on-dispersive X RF s urface a nalys es o n t he O ld B abylonian a gricultural t ools i n t he S ifr H oard" i n t he B ritish M useum ( Moorey, 1 971a). h ave o nly b een b riefly r eferred t o i n a p ublication

" Tell T hese ( Iraq

3 4 ( 1972) 2 ). T he a xeheads, m attock-heads a nd a dze-blades ( Moorey, 1 971a, n os.1, 2 , 5a nd 8 ( 7 n ot t ested)), a lone p roved t o b e g ood t in b ronzes; n os.4 ( mattock-head), 1 3 ( spade), i n t hem ; a rsenical

2 8

( knife),

6 6

( ring),

a nd 8 1

( ring) h ad s ome t in

b ut a ll t he o ther o bjects w ere o f c opper o r c opper, n ot t in b ronze. N or w ere t he a lloys

n ecessarily c onsistent f or a ny o ne t ype o f a rtefact, a s n o-3, e xactly c omparable t o n os.1 a nd 2 i n f orm a nd f unct ion, 2 2.

d id n ot

c ontain t in.

T ELLOH : 1 . I nscribed s pearhead 1 884-1912;

( Early D ynastic I II);

B erthelot,

1 906,

7 6;

d e

n early p ure

S arzec-Heuzey, c opper w ith a

t race o f a ntimony o nly. 2 .

S haft-hole a xehead B erthelot,

3 .

1 906,

( ?

v ery p ure c opper;

7 7.

F lat a xe o r a dze-blade w ith t races o f a rsenic:

4 .

E arly D ynastic);

( ?

E arly D ynastic):

B erthelot,

1 906,

R im-Sin f oundation f igurine ( Louvre: n o.176): C u: 9 2.9%; B erthelot, 1 906,

p ure

c opper

7 8.

R ashid, 1 983, 7 8-80; h e c ompared a

f igure o f A mar-Sin i n t he L ouvre ( Rashid, 1 983, n o-170): C u: 7 7.4%; P b: 1 7.0%; s imilar s tatuettes o f U rBau a nd G udea ( cf. R ashid, 1 981, 1 7ff.) w ere a lso s aid t o b e o f c opper. C ompare:

( 1)

E ntemena f oundation f igurine ( BM 1 16685; R ashid, 1 983, n o.67) M cKerrell s urface a nalysis: c opp er w ith t race o f a rsenic.

( 2)

G udea f oundation f igurines

6 0

( BM 9 1056-8;

R ashid,

1 983,

n os.99-101)

M cKerrell s urface

a nalysis:

c opper w ith t races o f a rsenic a nd l ead. ( 3)

U r-Nammu f oundation f igurine

( Pierpont

M organ

L ibrary, N ew Y ork): E . P orada ( ed.), A ncient M esopotamian A rt a nd S elected T exts ( 1976),9ff., p 1.5-6: C u: 9 3.5%; S n: 0 .06%; P b: < 0.2%; Z n: 0 :05%; T hese

f igurines,

A s:

0 .4%;

F e:

0 .05%.

a cquired o n t he A rt M arket,

a re a ttributed

t o T elloh. 2 3.

T ELL a l-UBAID: V arious a nalyses a re g iven o f m ents f rom t he b ulls a nd I II t emple c ache; b ut

r elatively p ure c opper

f rag-

l ions f ound i n t he E arly D ynastic o ne f ragment c ontained 2 .81% t in.

R ecent e xamination o f t he f igures, b y e ye, s uggests t hat t hough t he b ody p anels w ere o f h ammered c opper, s ome o f t he h eads a t l east w ere c ast c omm.) ( Hall a nd W oolley,

t in b ronze ( J.E. C urtis, 1 927, 3 6-8; a lso P eake,

4 54;

t able I I).

W oolley,

S cott

1 934,

2 91:

r eported i n H all a nd W oolley,

a ntlers c opper.

1 927,

3 7,

p ers. 1 928,

t hat

t he

o f o ne o f t he s tag s h eads w ere o f v ery p ure T he " nails" w ere a lso c opper ( with, i n o ne c ase,

" a n otable q uantity o f s ilver w ith o nly a t race o f l ead"). A s mall " ingot" i s r eported a s C u: 9 5.0%; P b: 4 .4%. 2 4.

U R : A :

T hree u ndated c opper o bjects f rom t rial t renches. b ell T hompson, 1 920, 1 44.

B :

T hree

u ndated

h igh-tin b ronze o bjects

C amp-

( 11.78/12.00/

1 4.52% S n) s aid t o b e f rom " the e arliest g raves a t U r, d ating f rom b efore t he f irst d ynasty o f t hat c ity" ( see b elow , W oolley, 1 934). P eake, 1 928, 4 53-4. C :

S pearhead W oolley,

( U.14992: U baid p eriod): C u: 9 9.69%. 1 934, 2 91; 1 956, 1 64, P FG/G.pl.30. " several

v essels.. . all m ay b e d escribed a s a rsenical c opper" ( "Jamdat N asr" l evel) i .e. L ate P rehistoric t o E arly D ynastic I ( Woolley, 1 934, 1 65). " a c opper r od... m arked P G, P it W , J NC" w as a lso r egarded a s a n a rsenic al c opper. W oolley, W oolley,

1 956,

1 934,

2 90:

1 65. T able I I: m ust b e r e-assembled c hronologically; t he i dentity a nd d ate o f g er

t he u nnumbered o bjects m ay n o l onb e i ndependently e stablished.

E ven w hen n umbered, r arely

g iven

t he o bject

t ype i s

" Ist g rave" h as n ot

b een

i dentified; i t m ay w ell h ave b een N eoS umerian r ather t han E arly D ynastic l ilA h igh

a s g iven ( all t hree a nalyses a re t in-bronzes ( see a bove, P eake, 6 1

1 928). U .11887

E .D.IIIA:

S n :

( PG 1 054 D :

U .12239 ( PG 1 305) S n: 0 .56%. " Shubad B owl" S n: E .D.IIIB: L ate A kkadian/ N eo-Sumerian: D ate u ncertain:

" Royal G rave");

n .d. C u:

9 7.2%;

8 .3%.

U .12229 ( PG 1 301) S n: U .12672 ( PG 1 382) S n: U .11436 ( PG 9 70; a xe) U .11475 ( PG 1 035) S n:

1 .45%. 8 .8%. S n : n .d. 1 .64%.

U .12483

( PG 1 422)

S n:

5 .8%.

U .12098

( PG/s)

S n:

1 1.65%.

D : M oorey a nd S chweizer, 1 972, 1 84; E arly D ynastic I II A shmolean M useum 1 935.870: s haft-hole a xe-head; c f.

W oolley,

T ype A .3a A s: < 0.2%;

1 934, S n:

p l.

,

2 23

1 -1.2%.

1 933.248:

s haft-hole a xe-head;

1 935.869:

c f. W oolley, 1 934, p 1.223, T ype A .3a A s: 1 .2%; S n: n .d. s haft-hole a dze-head; c f.

W oolley,

1 934,

A dzes, T ype 1 A s: 1 .6%; S n: 1 933.247:

p 1.229,

5 .5%.

s pear-point ( U.14062); c f. W oolley, 1 934, p l. 227 S pears, T ype 1

,

A s: 1 .7%; S n: n .d. d agger-blade; c f. W oolley,

1 933.245:

1 934, p 1.228, T ype 9 a; A s: 1 .1%; S n : n .d. E :

U niversity M useum, 1 .

P in

( type 7 :

R T 7 77:

l ilA. C u: s trong; t races; 2 .

O bject

P hiladelphia:

P b:

U .9962):

1 .0%;

( no.

" Chisel" S umerian. C u: 9 9%;

4 .

5 .

P in P b:

A s:

1 978,

1 58-9:

E arly D ynastic

1 .5%;

C o,

S b,

S h,

n o A g. a nd

t ype n ot g iven)

E arly d ynastic I lIB. N o S n o r P b; S b: 0 .2%; 3 .

D ayton,

( PG 7 44: A s:

A s:

U .9865):

0 .3%;

C o:

( PG 1 625: U .14061): 3 .0%; A s: 5 .0%; S b,

M iniature A xehead

( U.

1 1932)

6 2

( PG

2 .5%;

1 589): C o:

0 .1%.

L ate A kkadian t o N eo-

0 .1%. E arly D ynastic l ilA. A g, t races; S n, C o:

n umber u ncertain?

n .d.

8 559 o r

S n:

9 .0%;

N i:

0 .1%;

F e:

0 .1%;

A g,

P b,

A s,

Z n,

C o

t races. 6 .

P in ( type 5 a: i T 1 1%; N i, A g,

7 .

E arly D ynastic I lIB. A s, P b, C o: t races; n o

S b.

D agger A s:

8 .

U .14018): F e: w eak ;

( PG 1 589:

2 .5%;

D agger

S b :

U .14021): 0 .2%;

( RT 7 89:

C o:

U .10825):

D ynastic l ilA . A s: 1 .0%; t races o f A g, F :

( see

E arly D ynastic I lIB. 0 .1%;

N o S n o r P b.

f rom b ody 4 6;

P b;

E arly

n o S n o r S b.

t able 2 o verleaf) p p.66-68. P . C raddock M ASCA J ournal 3 ( 1) ( 1984), 7 ff. I n t he a ccompanying t able t he a nalyses h ave b een o rdered c hronologically a nd g iven t heir U r e xcavat ion n umbers ( for w hich I a m g rateful t o D r. J .C. C urtis)

G :

2 5.

" Sumer M etals P roject", P hiladelphia; a nalyses o f j ects i n t he U niversity M useum ( in p rogress).

U RUK: ( A) L ion p endant U ruk 1 V/1 1; ( B)

1 936,

4 7,

Y ARIM T EPE I a nd I I: T he f ollowing i nformation i s

H einrich, 1 936, A s: 0 .17%;

1 60:

4 7;

t abulated

B .C.): " Essentially c opper, n ickel,

a luminium, p l.IX:

i n M erpert e t

a l.,

t able o n p p.64-5.

Z ERGHUL ( Siraran): Z oomorphic f oundation f igurine i nscribed

a nd

p l.13a);

t race.

1 977a, 2 7.

h einrich,

C u w ith 9 % P b.

S pearhead ( W 1 5068D): U ruk 1 V/u i; C u: 9 9.3%; F e: 0 .27%; N i: 0 .14%; Z n:

2 6.

( W 1 4766d;

o b-

f or G udea

w ith s mall a mounts o f

a nd t races o f

s ilver,

m agnesium a nd c alcium"

B M 1 35994).

6 3

( c.2150

s ilicon,

a rsenic,

( Sollberger,

t in, 1 975,

i ron l ead, 1 78,

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Co c ' J r . Q ,4 . 4 1

U ) a ) N-

N‚ 4 I D 4 C14 • i

0 ) C )

a ) 0\ -4

A r t i f a c t f o r m a n d s a m p l i n g l o c a t i o n :

4

4 1

0 )

'

I '-' -4

O N

. •

'

a )

a ) 1 4 9 ) . ( 0

l i m i t s f o r

T a b l e 2 ( c o n t i n u e d )

O\ ON

0

4 . 1

0

' .0 Co

• ‚ I

0

« 4 4 . 1

‚ .

0 N.

' 4 4

C ) > 4 W Cl i

4 1 ( 0

0 ) C)

U-,

' C i

0_a )

U )

0 )

-

C I

a ) -1 4

1 4

C . )

C l i

0

C ) c o

4

•

o

c o ( 1 )

' 4 4

4J

C l )

i n c l u d e h e r a r e

C ' J

0 )

' 4 a )

•

a ) C ,,

r

0 )

o

a )

4 . 4

0 1 4 (0

Q )

0

4 J ( 1 )

c l )

4 . 1 ‚ 4

( 0 H

a n a l y s e s t a b u l a t e d d i f e r e n t l y t o i n c l u d e U r e x c a v a t i o n

o

V

. ' 4 4 . 1

s o m e s l i g h t d i f e r e n c e s i n

0

4 i

0

Lf l -

b r o k e n e n d

0

o o

Lf l 0 0

S

c l i

r .

( L )

.H

‚ 4

0 0

C ' ) 0' . . 4

c) . 4

t i

-

I C

U ) 1 I

Z c i

I V:

E LECTRUM : E lectrum,

d escribes

w hich d erives

a m ixture o f

i ts n ame

f rom t he G reek w ord f or a mber,

g old a nd s ilver,

p ale y ellow i n c olour.

I n

m ineralogy i t i s a pplied t o n ative a rgentiferous g old c ontaining 2 0% t o 5 0% o f s ilver; i ts d efinition w hen a rtificial i s a rbitrary. P liny u sed t he t erm t o d escribe a lloys o f g old a nd s ilver w ith o ne p art o f s ilver e nough

t o f our o f g old. L aboratory r esearch h as n ot p roceeded f ar w ith a ncient o bjects o f p recious m etal f rom M esopotamia t o

m ake s eparate t reatment o f t his m etal p ossible, s ince t he d istinction b etween n atural a nd a rtificial e lectrum m ay n ot b e c onfidently d rawn. M any o f t he r are a nalyses o f M esopotamian " gold" s how t hat i t i s i n f act e lectrum, b ut w hether a n atural o r a d eliberate a lloy i s n ot i nvariably c lear. A s i ts h istory i nvolves b oth t hat o f g old a nd s ilver, e lectrum i s, f or t he m oment, b est t reated w ith t hem a s a nd w hen t he q uestion a rises. A n a lloy o f g old w ith s ilver i s h arder t han p ure g old a nd w ill c onsequently s tand w ear b etter. S ilver m ay o nly b e s eparated f rom g old b y a c omplicated p rocess ( see p .108); b ut b ase m etals m ay b e s lagged o ff b y r epeated m eltings o f n ative g old i n a n o xidising a tmosphere, r outine i n m any g oldsmithing t echniques. V :

G OLD: ( a)

T he m etal:

G old, v eins

o f

w hose d istribution i s a lmost u niversal, q uartz r ock ( reef g old)

o r i n a lluvial

o ccurs s ands

e ither

a nd

i n

g ravel

( placer g old); a d istinc ti on f ound i n t he t extual s ources ( bur um s wa a bnisu; h ur um s a m a su). A s i t c ombines c hemically w ith n either o xygen n or s ulphur,

i t

i s p resent p redominantly i n t he m etallic

s tate

( Patterson, 1 971). I n i ts n ative s tate g old i s a lways a lloyed w ith s ilver i n p roportions t hat v ary g reatly; s ometimes a lso w ith c opper a nd

t races o f i ron a nd o ther m etals.

s ilver,

o r n o s ilver a t a ll,

( b) A s

A g old w ith o nly a

t race

o f

h as b een , d eliberately r efined.

R ecovery: t here a re n o g old d eposits

i n M esopotamia,

t he p rocesses o f

r ecovery w ould h ave b een r emote f rom t he e xperience o f h er c raftsmen. T hey r eceived t he m etal e ither i n n uggets, o r p repared o r p artially p repared a s p owder, o r a s i ngots, t aking t hat t erm t o e mbrace b oth b lock a nd r ing s hapes ( Limet, 1 960, p assim ; L eemans, 1 967-71, 5 05). M ethods o f r ecovery a re r apidly r eviewed h ere a s a b rief p reliminary t o

un derstanding

R eef

t he m anipulation o f

g old o ccurs a s

t his m etal.

i rregular m asses

i n q uartz v eins o r

l odes.

T he m ining p rocess c onsists f irst o f f reeing t he g old p articles b y c rushing a nd s ifting t he o re, t hen o f s eparating t he g old b y m aking u se o f t he m etal's h igher d ensity. T he c lassic d escription o f g old m ining i n a ntiquity i s t hat b y A gatharcide, p reserved b y D iodorus S iculus ( iii, 1 2-14) who, i n t he s econd c entury B .C., v isited a nd g raphically d escribed t he r igours 1 962,

o f

g old m ining i n E gypt

( cf.

L ucas,

2 24ff.). P lacer

g old

i s p roduced

t hrough t he a ction o f

w eathering,

o r

o ther a gents, b y w hich g old d eposits a re b roken d own a nd c arried i nto r iver b eds a s s econdary, a lluvial g old. A s g old h as a h igh s pecific 6 9

g ravity

( 19.3),

i t

d oes

n ot m ove

s o e asily w ith

t he

c urrent

a s

l ighter m atter, a nd s o c ollects i n p ockets, c ommonly f ound c onc entrated i n t he m iddle o f a r iver. T o r ecover l t t he s and a nd g ravel

o f

t he r iver b ed a re a gitated w ith w ater I n p ans,

t roughs o r

c radles, s o t hat t he r ocky m atter f loats o ff a nd t he g old p articles c ollect i n t he b ottom a s g old d ust o r n uggets. M axwell-Hyslop ( 1970) s ought t o i dentify a t ype o f m etal p an f ound a t T roy a nd i n a g rave a t A ssur a s a n i nstrument f or p anning a lluvial g old. F urther s tudy o f t hese v essels h as i ndicated t hat a d omestic r ole i s m ore s uch a p an w as f ound a t S ippar ( Calmeyer, 1 977). ( c)

C olour v ariation:

A ncient 1 960, c ated,

l ikely;

t erminology f or g old

4 3-4; f or E gypt, p robably a rising

( Leemans,

1 957-71,

5 04ff.;

L imet,

H arris, 1 961, 3 2ff.) i s n otoriously c omplif rom t he d ifferent s ets o f c ircumstances I n

w hich l t w as e mployed ( Ungnad, 1 935; c f. a lso E llers, 1 954-9). T here w as f irst t he t echnical t erminology c onveying, f or t he s pecialist a dministrator a nd c raftsman, I mportant I nformation o n s ource, a ppearance a nd d egrees o f p urity; t hen a p oetic o r s ymbolic v ocabul ary; a nd f inally w hat m ay b est b e t ermed t he c raftsman's s lang o r d emotic p hraseology. A t p resent l t i s I mpossible t o r elate t hese t erms d irectly t o t he m aterial e vidence i n a ny m eaningful o r u seful w ay. T he q uality o f t he g old f rom t he " Royal C emetery a t U r, f or I nstance, c ould n ot b e a ssessed b y e ye f rom t he c olour a lone, a s s ome s pecimens o f d ifferent c olour h ad p ractically t he s ame c omposition, w hilst o ne e xample, w ith 1 0% c opper, h ad t he r ich y ellow c olour o f a p urer m etal ( Plenderleith i n W oolley, 1 934, 2 92-3). S ignificant c olour c hanges i n n ative g old r equire a f airly s ubstantial m odificat ion i n t he a lloy a nd I nsufficient l aboratory w ork h as b een d one t o a llow f or d etailed c omments o n t his p henomenom i n M esopotamia, w here m uch o f t he l ittle " gold" s o f ar s ampled i s, I n f act, " electrum" ( Plenderleith I n W oolley, 1 934, 2 94; P artington, 1 935, 2 32). S ubs tantial a dditions o f c opper w ould t end t o t urn t he g old r ed, p erhaps i llustrated b y a t ext f rom U r i n w hich c opper i s a lloyed w ith g old I n m aking o f e arrings ( Li t net, 1 960, 4 3-5: U ET I II, n o.452). S ubstant ial a dditions o f s ilver w ould m ake i t g reen o r g rey i n t one. I t i s n ot o nly t he c omposition o f t he a lloy w hich m odifies t he c olour; s ince s urface c olour m ay a lso b e c hanged. I f t he s urface t reatment o f t he m etal w ere v aried, t he s urface w ould r eflect l ight d ifferently a nd g ive t he i mpression o f d ifferent c olours,

e ven i n t he s ame a lloy.

S urface c olour m ay a s e asily b e m odified a ccidentally, f or i nstance w hen o rganic m atter s tains i t, o r w hen a f ilm o f I ron o xide, n atural o r c ontrived, t urns I t r ose-pink i n c olour ( cf. L ucas, 1 962, 2 33-4), o r w hen t here I s s elective e nrichment o f t he s urface b y c ontact w ith a s alty c onglomerate o f I rregular a ctivity ( Maryon, 1 949, 1 06, n .14). I n

t he

g raves o f

t he

" Royal C emetery" a t U r

c olour

c ontrasts

w ere d irectly c ontrived i n m ore o bvious w ays, a lthough P lenderleith ( in W oolley, 1 934, 2 94) n oted h ow r arely g old a nd s ilver w ere d irectly

j uxtaposed.

S triking e xceptions a re

t he r ampant

h e-goats

f rom R T 1 237 w ith t heir g old-covered l egs a nd g enitals a nd t heir s ilver b ellies ( Woolley, 1 934, 5 82, p l.77, 8 7-90). A m ost u nusual p atterning t echnique i s i llustrated b y a s ilver b owl ( U.10891) R T 8 00 ( Woolley, 1 934, p 1.173): " the b owl i tself i s o f s ilver, a re v ery s light v ertical g rooves e lectrum

i n i ts s ides,

a nd I n t hem s trips o f

h ave b een f ixed e ither b y s weating o r b y l apping 7 0

f rom t here

t he s ilver

o ver t he e dge o f t he i nlaid m aterial" ( Plenderleith i n W oolley, 2 97). T he f amous r ein-ring f rom P u-abi T h l and-sledge ( Woolley, p 1.166) v essels

h as a n e lectrum a nimal o n a s ilver r ing a nd a s U .11821 f rom P G 1 133 h ave t ubular h andles

( Woolley, W oolley,

1 934, 1 934,

1 934, 1 934,

s uch s ilver o f e lectrum

p l.173b, r ight). A b rooch f rom P G 5 5 p l.219, l owest r ight) h as a b ackground o f

( U.8007: f iligree

s ilver w ire c ontrasting w ith i ts e lectrum b oss. A r oundel o f g old f rom t he U r I II " Royal M ausolea" w as d ecorated w ith a w horl p attern w hose o utlines w ere i nlaid w ith s ilver ( Woolley, 1 974, 3 2, 1 02: U .17429). T he d ecorative p otential o f v ariously c oloured g old c omb ined w ith s iver w as e xploited t hroughout d own i nto t he A chaemenid p eriod

( cf.

E ven

C .A.D.

s .v .

s ariru).

w ith t he h andful o f a nalyses a t p resent a vailable

f or

t he

" Royal C emetery" c aution i s n ecessary, s ince a lloying o f p recious m etals i s a lready e vident. A s pear-head ( U.9122) h as 3 0.30% g old, 5 9.37% s ilver a nd 1 0.35% c opper ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 94: t able I II). T he f amous r ein-ring f rom R T 8 00 ( Pu-abi) h as a n e quid o f e lectrum ( whether n atural o r a rtificial i s a n o pen q uestion), c omprising 6 5.60% g old, 3 1.45% s ilver a nd 2 .65% c opper, w hilst t he r ing o n w hich i t s tands i s v irtually s terling s ilver ( 93.5% s ilver, 6 .10% c opper a nd 0 .08% g old). B owls f rom P G 7 55 a re a lso g old-silver-copper a lloys

( Woolley,

( d)

f rom

2 94).

R efining a nd a ssaying:

T he d ate o f E gypt,

1 934,

i s

t he i ntroduction o f r efining i n t he N ear E ast,

s till a n o pen q uestion.

s ilver o r g old,

b ut

C upellation w ill r emove

b y i tself w ill n ot

r emove

s ilver,

a s

i n

m etals a dding

s alt ( see b elow) e nables s ilver t o b e r emoved f rom g old ( cementat ion). d e J esus ( 1980, 8 9) i s c autious w ith r eference t o A natolia, a rguing

t hat

s ilver s eparation w as n ot k nown a nd o nly n ative g old w as

u sed. F or E gypt o pinions v ary f rom d ates a s e arly a s t he O ld K ingdom ( Notton, 1 974) t o t he c onservative p osition o f L ucas ( 1962, 2 29), w ho s aw n o c lear e vidence f or i t b efore t he A chaemenid p eriod. T his i s c ertainly t he p eriod t o w hich t he b est a rchaeological e vidence n ow b elongs, f or a t S ardis t he A merican e xcavators f ound c onvincing i ndications o f b oth p rocesses o perative i n t he s ame i ndustrial a rea i n t he s ixth c entury B .C. ( Hanfmann a nd W aldbaum,1970, 3 10ff.; R amage, 1 970; G oldstein, 1 970; W aldbaum, 1 983). T o t his c entury a lso b elong t he t exts o f N abonidus c ited b y F ossey ( 1935) a s t he c learest d ocumentary e vidence f or r efining i n M esopotamia ( see b elow). F or

c upellation t he g old

i s a lloyed w ith l ead i n a s pecial

c lay

v essel, k nown a s a c upel, a nd t he p roduct o xidized b y a s trong c urr ent o f a ir b lown i nto t he s urface o f t he m olten m etal. T he b ase m etals a re c onsumed, o r d rossed, a s t he o xides f ormed a re a bsorbed b y t he p orous w alls o f t he c upel, w hilst g old a nd s ilver s urvive. P rec isely w hat

f orm c ementation t ook b efore t he C lassical a uthors

d escriptions o f c ides); S trabo

o ffer

i t ( Diodorus S iculus i ii, 1 4, 1 ff. ( after A gathari ii, 2 , 8 ) i s a m atter f or c ontinuing d ebate. N otton

( 1974) e xperimented w ith t he m ethod d escribed b y D iodorus S iculus a nd i t p roved v ery s uccessful. A s eries o f t ests w ere c onducted o n a n ine-carat a lloy ( in t he a bsence o f a s uitable g old o re). f irst s alt a nd t he g old a lloy w ere s melted u nder v arious s tances.

A fter f ive d ays

h eating a t 8 00 0 C ,

7 1

I n t he c ircum-

g old r ecovery w as h igh.

I t w as l ess s o w hen s alt, b rick d ust a nd t he a lloy w ere u sed a nd a lso w hen t in a nd l ead w ere a dded i n t wo d ifferent w ays. T he p resence o f t in t o a g reater e xtent, r ate. O n

l ead

t he e vidence o f

t o a l esser,

i nhibited

t he

r ecovery

t hese e xperiments e arlier s uggestions

a bout

a ncient m ethods o f c ementation g ain e xtra c redence. T he S ardis e xcavators a rgued t hat " the g old i s h ammered i nto t hin s heets, w hich a re t hen s tacked i n a v essel w ith l ayers o f d ry " pickling m ixture" l ike c ommon s alt o r a lum, a nd h eated f or a l ong S ilver e specially c ombines w ith s alts a nd t he g old ( Ramage, 1 970, 2 2-3). T extual

r eferences

t o

" refined g old"

t ime, c .700 0 C . i s l eft p ure"

( Limet,

1 960,

4 3;

c f.

C .A.D. s .v. s irpu) i n t exts o f t he N eo-Sumerian p eriod i ndicate t he p ractice o f r efining b y a t l east t he e nd o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. A fter a r eview o f t he e vidence f or g old p rices Y oung ( 1979) c oncluded t hat i n t he U r I II p eriod i t w as t he p urity o f t he g old w hich d eterm ined i ts p rice, a nd n ot t he a vailability o f e ither g old o r s ilver. A f ew S argonic t exts p ermit a d etermination o f g old p rices, c alcul ated o n t he b asis o f t he s ilver e quivalence; b ut b efore t hen t here i s n othing t o i ndicate g old p urity o r p rice. U ntil a m uch g reater c orpus o f a nalyses i s a vailable, i t m ay o nly b e s urmised t hat t he n ative a lloy a lone w as u sed a t t his t ime a nd t hat r efinement o f g old w as a d evelopment o f t he m id. t o l ater t hird m illennium B .C. E ven t hen t here i s n o e vidence a s t o h ow t he v arious p urities w ere e stabl ished. A c ommon c ited p oint-of-reference i s p rovided b y t wo l etters ( Fossey,

f rom t he f ourteenth c entury B .C. 1 935; L evey, 1 959, 1 93); b ut

T ell e l-Amarna a rchives t hey a re n ot p articularly

i lluminating. I n t hese l etters t he B abylonian k ing c omplains t o A menophis I II o f E gypt a bout t he q uality o f t he g old s ent t o h im b y t he P haraoh ( Knudtzon, 1 915, 7 0-71, 9 2-3). I n o ne c ase o nly 2 5% o f t he m etal w as g old. F rom b oth l etters i t i s c lear t hat t he B abyl onians

h ad

s imply t o C .A.D. s .v.

a m eans o f p utting i t s âdu).

r efining

t he m etal;

i nto a f urnace,

T he r ole o f a ssaying,

b ut

w ithout

t he

r eference

f urther c omment

i n w hich a s ample i s r emoved

i s ( cf.

f or a nalysis,

i s n o c learer. A ssay b y f ire, u sed i n a q ualitative n ot a q uantative w ay, i s d escribed i n t he L eyden P apyrus ( X, n o.3; O ddy, 1 983): " If t he g old i s p ure, l ike c oinage a fter h eating. i f r ougher a nd h arder, i t c ontains l ead".

i t

c ontains c opper a nd t in;

T he u se o f a t ouchstone t he

i t k eeps t he s ame c olour a nd r emains p ure I f i t a ppears w hiter i t c ontains s ilver;

( lapis L ydius i .e.

i f b lack a nd s oft,

b lack c hert)

q uality o f g old i s a ttested b y C lassical a uthors

f rom

t o

a t

t est l east

t he s ixth c entury B .C. ( Theognis, 4 17; P indar, P ythian, X , 6 7). T heophrastus ( de L apidus, 4 5) a ttributes t hem t o t he r iver T molus. I n t his

c ase

i t

i s

s iliceous s chist

( flinty s late),

b lack i n c olour,

u sually f or t his p urpose d eep b lack, a nd f ine g rained; b ut o ther b lack s tones m ay b e u sed. T he s urface h as t o b e g round p erfectly f lat a nd l eft m att f or e fficient a ssaying b y s treak. t aken f rom a lloys o f k nown c omposition f or c omparison t aken

f rom

c orrect,

t he

m etal

t o b e a ssayed.

I f t he

i dentifications

t ouchstones w ere u sed i n M esopotamia b y a t 7 2

S treaks a re w ith s treaks

l east

t he

a re l ater

t hird

m illennium

B .C.

A t omb o f

t he U r I II p eriod a t

T elloh

h as

y ielded a s cale a nd w eights, w ith a p iece o f h aematite, t aken b y A rnaud e t a l. ( 1979, 2 3) t o b e a t ouchstone b y a nalogy w ith a nother s uch

p iece

a t L arsa

t exts

f ound i n a j eweller s h oard o f

( Arnaud e t a l.,

1 979,

2 0-1,

t he O ld B abylonian

p eriod

f ig.8).

G old, l ike s ilver, w as r egularly r ecycled i n M esopotamia m ake c lear t he c are t aken b y a dministrators t o e nsure

h onest u se ( e)

( cl.

D urand,

a nd i ts

1 983).

S ources: ( i)

T he

A ncient t extual r eferences:

e vidence

c urrently a vailable

f or t he s ources o f

t he

g old

u sed i n M esopotamia i s u neven a nd f ar f rom p recise ( Leemans, 1 957-71, 5 05:2). T here i s a lso a n eed, i n u sing t he d ocumentary s ources, t o b eware ( if n o r eference i s m ade t o m ines) o f c onfusing t ransit z ones o r p orts-of-trade w ith s ource a reas. S umerian l iterary t exts r efer t o g old

f rom A ratta

( Pettinato,

1 972,

7 9).

G udea r ecords

r eceiving

g old f rom t he m ountain o f H ah(h)um ( Statue B , c ol.VI.33 - 5 ; F alkens tein, 1 966), g enerally t aken t o l ie i n t hat p art o f m odern T urkey n ortheast o f M alatya, o n t he r oute f rom D iyarbakir, v ia E lazig, t o K ültepe ( Karum K anesh) ( Groneberg, 1 980, 8 5-6; Y akar a nd G ürsanS alzmann, 1 979, 3 7-8) a nd f rom M elluh ) ja. I n f ar l ess e xplicit t erms t he n ames o f v arious m ountains r eputed t o h ave g old s ources a re a lso r ecorded ( Limet, 1 960, 9 4). V arious t exts r efer t o t he a lmost m ythical l and o f g old k nown a s ( H)arallu, p erhaps s omewhere i n t he I ranian h interland ( Komoróczy, 1 972; G roneberg, 1 980, 2 0). S hu-Sin ( c.2037 29 B .C.) r efers t o g old f rom " Su-land", p robably i n w estern I ran, f rom

t hough i ts ( Mar)daman,

l ocation i s s till o pen ( Edzard, 1 959-60, 1 6-18) a nd p ossibly i dentical w ith M ardin i n s outheast T urkey

( ibid., 7 ; E dzard a nd F arber, 1 974, 1 18). D ocuments r elevant t o t he D ilmun t rade i n t he l ater t hird a nd e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. i ndicate t hat s ome g old w as s till r eaching U r u p t he G ulf a t t his t ime, b ut w hence i t c ame, p erhaps M eluhha, i s n ot s tated ( Oppenheim, 1 954, 7 ; L eemans, 1 960, 1 20-1, i s m ore c autious). T he r enowned r esources o f E gypt a nd N ubia ( cf. L ucas, 1 962, 2 24-8) c ontributed m ost c ertainly i n t he g old h oldings ( Edzard,

f ourteenth c entury B .C. 1 960; W ilhelm, 1 974).

t o M esopotamian r oyal T hen f or t he f irst a nd

o nly t ime i n i ts h istory B abylonia a dopted t he g old s tandard l arge a mounts o f g old c ame f rom E gypt t o a ssist K urigalzu I i n

a nd h is

m ajor b uilding p rojects ( Brinkman, 1 972, 2 74-5; M üller, 1 982). H ittite i nventory t exts o f t he t h ir teenth c entury B .C. r ecord g old f rom B abylon a nd L ukka

( Lycia)

( Kosak,

1 982,

1 95).

J ankowska 5 s tudy

( 1969, 2 54-5) o f t he b ooty r ecorded i n N eo-Assyrian t exts c ontributes l ittle t o i solating t he o rigin o f g old, s ince w hat i s r ecorded i s e ither t he l ocal t reasuries o r c entres o f m anufacture. T he m ost i L s malle r c ons i der able a mounts o f g old w ere h eld b y T yre a nd ULi q uantities b y C archemish, D amascus a nd J erusalem, a nd t he t owns o f T abal, s till l ess b y B it-Zamani a nd Z amua. T he t ribes o f H ama w ere r icher i n g old t han t hose o f H arran. A n I ranian s ource, r eminiscent o f e arlier r eferences, i s r ecorded b y T iglath-Pileser I II ( c.744-27 B .C.):

" ...the

l and o f

R c i(a),

a s

f ar a s

t he a lkali

d esert,

t he l ands

o f U shkakkäna, S hikraki ( the l and) o f g old, p rovinces o f t he m ighty M edes..." ( Luckenbill, 1 926, 2 85:795). A ccording t o t he " Foundation C harter"

o f

D arius I ,

t he g old u sed a t S usa i n h is t ime 7 3

w as

f rom

S ardis a nd B actria ( ii) S o

f ar

( Vallat,

1 971).

M odern s ource r egions: a s

i s k nown t here w ere n o s ources o f g old e xploited

i n

a ntiquity i n M esopotamia, S yria o r P alestine; b ut t he m etal i s w idely r eported o n t he p eriphery o f t his r egion ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 977): i n T urkey, w here t here i s a p reponderance o f s ources i n t he w est a nd s outh-west

( de J esus,

1 980,

8 2ff.);

i n E gypt a nd N ubia

( Lucas,

1 962,

2 24-8); g old e xisted i n c onsiderable q uantities i n w estern a nd s outhe rn A rabia, n ot l east i n O phir ( I C hron.29:4; I K ings 1 0; J ob 2 2:24; c f. M aisler, 1 951), b eing w ell k nown b oth t o B iblical a nd C lassical a uthors ( Diodorus S iculus i ii, 4 5, 6 ff.; S trabo X VI, 4 , 1 8, 2 2; P eriplus c ountry

3 6

e tc.);

a nd

i n g reater I ran,

e astwards

n otably i n t he n orth

i nto T ransoxiana a nd t he

r egion

o f

o f

t he

m odern

A fghanistan, w here t here a re s ubstantial v ein a nd p lacer d eposits ( Dunlop, 1 957; A llan, 1 979, 3 ff.,1 11-114; C hmyriov e t a l., 1 973). D iodorus

S iculus

( ii,

3 6,

2 ) a nd P liny ( NH x xiii.66)

r efer t o

r ich

s ources i n I ndia, t hough t races a re n o l onger e asy t o d etect(Allchin, 1 962; R atnagar, 1 981, 1 06ff.). W ith s o w ide a r ange o f p otential s ources w ithin h er o rbit, m any o f t hem i n r egions w hence s he i s k nown t o h ave r eceived o ther m etals, M esopotamia i s l ikely t o h ave h ad a v ariety o f c hoices i f a nd w hen s upplies w ere f or s ome r eason b locked i n a ny p articular l ocality. I t w ill b e i mmediately c lear t hat t he a ncient t exts a lready c onsidered i ndicate i mport a t f rom a ll t he p otential s ource z ones l isted h ere. ( iii)

q uest

v arious

t imes

S cientific s ource d etection:

T he w ide d istribution o f p otential s ources d oes n ot e ase t he f or a s cientific m ethod t hrough w hich M esopotamian g old s ources

m ight b e " finger-printed". I t i s k nown t hat p latinum-group e lements ( hereafter P GE), s uch a s r uthenium, r hodium, p alladium , o smium, i ridium a nd p latinum , o ccur i n g old o bjects f rom t he a ncient N ear E ast b oth i n s olid s olution a nd a s i nclusions. A s s uch a n a ssociat ion i s r are i n p rimary g old d eposits, t his h as b een t aken t o i ndic ate t he u se o f s econdary, o r p lacer, d eposits, i n w hich g old a nd P GE b ecame a ssociated b y f luvial t ransport. O n t he e vidence o f i nclusions o f t he p latiniridium a lloy i n a n umber o f S umerian

t he a nd

o ther a ncient g old o bjects, n otably L ydian g old c oins s upposedly o f g old f rom t he P actolus v alley I n w estern T urkey, Y oung ( 1972; c f. W hitmore a nd Y oung, t ant

s ource o f

1 973) a rgued t hat

S umerian g old.

t his r egion h ad b een a n i mpor-

W ithin a f ew y ears O gden

( 1977),

a fter

a c omprehensive r eview, c oncluded t hat d irect c orrelation o f a g old o bject a nd i ts m etal s ource, t hrough t he P GE i nclusions, w as n ot f easible. M axwell-Hyslop ( 1977) a lso q uestioned t he W hitmore a nd Y oung h ypothesis, p ointing t o o ther m ore l ikely a nd c loser s ources f or S umerian g old, b oth i n e astern T urkey a nd i n I ran. M eeks a nd T ite i n

( 1980)

i nvestigated

t he B ritish M useum.

t he problem t hrough a w ide T hey f ound P GE i nclusions

r ange o f i n m ore

o bjects t han h alf

t he E arly D ynastic I II t o L arsa P eriod j ewellery t hey t ested f rom U r a nd i n t he m ajority o f t he S argonid j ewellery f rom B rak. T hey a lso i dentified t hem i n t wo-thirds o f t he A chaemenid j ewellery i n t he " Oxus T reasure". I n c ontrast, t hey w ere r arely f ound i n s econd m illennium j ewellery f rom T ell A jjul i n I srael, T ell T urkey, E nkomi i n C yprus, I alysus i n G reece, a nd C rete. t he

e vidence

f rom S ardis n ow r eveals a s ituation m ore

7 4

A tshana i n R esearch o n c omplex

t han

Young supposed (cf. Waldbaum, 1983, 3ff). Although absence of inclusions may be indicative of source, other possible explanations at present preclude categorical state­ ments. Certainly, since the rare alloy type platiniridium may not generally be used to characterize or identify the placer deposits used in antiquity, the Whitmore and Young hypothesis is not tenable. Nor do the iridium-osmium-ruthenium alloy inclusions necessarily provide a basis for characterizing sources; but there was enough consistency, in some cases, for Meeks and Tite (1980, 273) to con­ clude: "It is therefore possible that, following considerably more work on PGE inclusions in gold from placer deposits of known location, some limited source characterization of the gold used in antiquity might, in favourable circumstances, be possible on the basis of the compositions of the inclusions". (f)

The repertory of objects and uses:

The surviving material evidence for the uses of gold and elect­ rum in ancient Mesopotamia, except for small pieces of jewellery and miscellaneous fragments of sheetmetal, is to all intents and purposes concentrated into the few Early Dynastic III "royal" graves at Ur. Had comparable graves for other periods been discovered, no doubt the picture would be different; but for the present it is extremely restricted in range. The varied repertory of the goldsmith evident from texts has left virtually no trace in the archaeological record, apart from this single outstanding instance. The reason is obvious, and applies almost equally to silver. The precious metals were constantly recycled; they were always carefully plundered from any accessible place when cities were sacked; and they were always sparingly placed in graves, where they were also subject to plunder­ ers. All the literary and document�ry sources (Leemans, 1957-71, 505ff.) indicate that gold was pre-eminently for ceremonial and prestige purposes. It was amassed in temple and royal treasuries, where it was largely reserved for the decoration of their buildings and furniture, for the adornment of high ranking people, or for gifts and offerings in both religious and secular contexts. The archaeo­ logical evidence (save through intensive analysis of what little has survived to resolve questions of purity) does not offer answers to such key questions as the relative roles of gold for bullion or for manufaure; or as currency in "private hands"; nor whether the recorded range of gold prices indicates the action of the laws of supply and demand or the metal's relative purity (Leemans, 1957-71, 512ff.; Young, 1979). It is significant that gold was generally treated like other commodities and its value was reckoned against a silver standard, save briefly in the Kassite period (Muller, 1982). The only gold objects for which some kind of systematic survey may be offered have been assembled and fully discussed by Maxwell­ Hyslop (1971; cf. Spycket, 1973) in her study of jewellery. Con­ sequently no historical survey is offered here, as has been attempted for the base metals. Instead attention has been focussed on catego­ ries of artefacts, so assembling under a single head whatever signi­ ficant material evidence has survived. 75

( i) A s

P ersonal o rnaments a nd a mulets:

t his

s ection d oes n ot r epeat i nformation

i llustrated, G old i n

i n M axwell-Hyslop

j ewellery o f

t he

( 1971),

i t

i s

g iven,

a nd

i nevitably b rief.

l ater p rehistoric p eriod w as n ot

M axwell-Hyslop s b ook.

w ell

i ncluded

T he e vidence c oncentrates a t p resent

i n

t wo p laces: i n t he t emple d eposits o f U ruk i n t he s outh, a nd i n o ne o r t wo t ombs a t T epe G awra i n t he n orth. T he t wo e arliest o ccurrenc es o f g old a re a p iece o f g old w ire i n w hat w as s aid t o b e a l ate U baid p eriod c ontext a t U r ( Woolley, 1 956, 1 85: U .16981) a nd a f ew f luted b eads i n l evel X II a t T epe G awra o f a pproximately c omparable d ate ( Tobler, 1 950, 1 93), s ometime i n t he l ate f ifth o r e arly f ourth m illennium B .C. T hey i ndicate t hat m anipulation o f t he m etal w as a lready v aried. G old m etallurgy i s e vident e arlier t han t his i n B ulgaria, w here i n g raves n ear t he L ake o f V arna, c lose t o t he B lack S ea c oast, d ated b y c alibrated r adiocarbon t o t he t hird q uarter o f t he f ifth m illennium B .C., h ammered g old o rnaments w ere r emarkably n umerous. I t h as b een a rgued, o n t he b asis o f t heir p latinum c ontent ( Hartmann, 1 978), t hat t hey w ere m ade o f m etal f rom a n A natolian s ource. I n A natolia i tself t he e arliest e vidence f or g oldwork m ay o nly b e t raced b ack t o t he m uch l ater T roy I ( de J esus, w hilst i n I ran n o g oidwork h as y et b een r eported b efore f ourth m illennium ( Moorey, I n t he p eriod,

t ombs

t he

c ombining

o f

g old

s haped a nd C VII:47-8).

l evels X I-X a t G awra, l apis

l azuli

( ibid., p l.CIV:20; C V:29, 3 1). f rom g old f oil, s ome w ith p endant p l.LVIII;

C VII:53-7).

e nduringly ( Oppenheim,

o f

( Tobler,

t he l ater p endants

1 950,

s patulate p endants, a nd g old s pirals G old b ands d ecorated h air-pins a nd

s ecured w ith b itumen,

8 8), l ater

1 982a).

j ewellery i ncluded b eads,

g old a nd

1 980, t he

p rehistoric o f

i nsects,

p l.CVI:46),

R osettes, f rom l evels X -VIII, c ut r ibbons, s ome w ith i nsets o f s tone

m ay h ave b een m ade t o s ew o nto c lothes I f

s o,

h oof-

( ibid., p l.LVIb, s patulate o bjects

t his

i s t he e arliest

( ibid.,

i nstance o f a n

p opular m eans o f d ecorating f ine g arments i n M esopotamia 1 949). A t G awra s tuds o f g old s ometimes h ad i nlays o f

s emi-precious s tones ( ibid., p l.LIX:1-5; ( Late P rehistoric t o E arly D ynastic I ),

C VIII:59-63). B y l evel V III g old o rnaments a nd p endants

h ave a b itumen c ore. A s heet g old t ube f rom t omb 1 09 m ay h ave b een a c ap o r f errule f or s ome k ind o f w ooden h andle ( Tobler, 1 950, p l.LIXa; C VIII:64). U ndoubtedly t he m ost s ignificant o bject, f or t he e xtent t o w hich i t r eveals t echnical m astery, i s a n e lectrum w olf 's h ead t erminal f rom t omb 1 14 a ttributed t o l evel X ( ibid., p l.LIXb; C VIII:65). I t i s 3 0mm. l ong a nd 2 5mm. h igh; d escribed a s f ollows:

o f

" The e ntire h ead i s a s ingle p iece o f m etal w ith t he e xception t he e ars, t he l ower j aw, a nd t he t eeth. T he e ars w ere a ttached b y

m eans o f c opper p ins, l ong s ince d ecomposed i nto c opper-oxide. l ower j aw w as c arefully j ointed i nto t he r est o f t he h ead, a nd i n

p osition

b y a n e lectrum p in l eading f rom t he r oof

o f

t he

T he h eld m outh,

w hich p assed t hrough t he l ower j aw, w here i t w as b ent b ack. T he e ye s ockets c ontain b itumen, w hich p resumably h eld e yeballs o f s ome k ind o f s tone... t he m outh i s o pen, s howing t he t eeth w hich w ere m ade o f e lectrum w ire f inely d rawn a nd s harp. T he i nside o f t he h ead w as f illed w ith b itumen, w hich s erved t ogether w ith t he s ocketed n eck, a nd

t he

( Tobler,

t wo p ins 1 950,

t hrough t he n eck ,

t o h old

9 2).

7 6

t he o bjects

i n p osition"

L ater p rehistoric U ruk y ielded a s heet g old a mulet o f a g oat w ith a b itumen c ore

( Nöldeke,

T o M axwell-lyslop T h c omprehensive l ittle m ay u sefully b e a dded. p endant

o f

" Gilgamesh"

1 936,

1 4,

s urvey o f

i n t he

s hape

p 1.231). t he h istoric

p eriod

A lthough i ts o rigin i s u nknown ,

f lanked b y r ampant b ulls,

p robably

a g old o f

t he

A kkadian p eriod, i llustrates a u se o f t he m etal, n ot o therwise w ell a ttested, f or e laborate o rnaments ( Margueron, 1 965, p 1.3: r ear v iew i n c olour; C ontenau , I I, 1 931, 6 95-6, f ig.486-7). A r ecent d iscovery i n t he t emple a rea a t L arsa ( Arnaud e t a l., 1 979) i s o f m uch g reater i mportance. H ere b eads a nd w eights,

a h oard o f g old j ewellery, f ragments o f s ilver, a nd t ools f rom a j eweller s w orkshop, w ere f ound

p acked i nto a j ar. T hey c ould b e a ttributed, t hrough a ssociated e pigraphic e vidence, t o t he r eign o f S amsuiluna ( c.1749 12 B .C.). T his h as a dded c onsiderably t o k nowledge o f j ewellery i n a n i mportant p eriod M useum ,

f or w hich t he g old " Dilbat" n ecklace, i n t he M etropolitan N ew Y ork, h ad p reviously b een t he p rimary w itness ( Maxwell

H yslop,

1 971,

F or l ery

8 8ff.,

p l.61-4).

t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod t he s mall c ollection o f g old

f rom

N imrud i s a n i mportant c omplement

t o t he

j ewel-

u nusually

r ich

d ocumentation o f p ersonal o rnaments p rovided i n t his p eriod b y r elief s culpture ( Curtis a nd M axwell-Hyslop, 1 971; c f. H rouda, 1 965, p is. 8 9 ). ( ii) T he

u se

W eapons a nd t ools: o f g old

f or t he w orking p arts o f w eapons a nd t ools

i s

o nly a rchaeologically e vident i n t he " royal" t ombs o f E arly D ynastic l ilA a t U r. R T 7 89 c ontained s ets o f s pearheads, t heir s hafts d ecor ated w ith s heet g old ( Woolley, 1 934, 4 38, p 1.153); P G 7 55 w as f urn ished w ith g old a xeheads a nd a g old d agger ( ibid., 4 36, p 1.152); R T 5 80 ( ibid., 4 33-5, p l.151) h ad a g old s pearhead a nd a d agger, a s d id R Ts 1 054 ( ibid., 4 50, p l.15b) a nd 1 618 ( ibid., 4 76). e ven h ere, w ere l ess c ommon. R T 8 00, P u-abi T h t omb, a nd f lat a dzes ( "chisels"; i bid., 4 43-4, p l.158B), ( ibid., I t i s

4 32-3, p l.165) y ielded a n a dze, a n a wl a nd a c hisel o f g old. p ossible t hat R T 5 80 w as a lso a w oman's g rave. M allowan

o riginally h orse-bit b ronze

T ools o f g old, h ad a g old s aw w hilst R T 5 80

r eported a h crse-shaped c heekpiece f rom a N eo-Assyrian f ound a t N imrud a s " electrum", b ut l ater p ublished i t a s

( Mallowan, ( iii)

1 966,

1 27,

p l.70).

I t h as n ot b een a nalyzed.

C ylinder S eals:

I n M esopotamia s heet g old c ylinder s eals a re o nly k nown f rom t he " royal" t ombs a t U r. R T 1 054 ( U.11904) c ontained o ne m ade o f t hin s heet g old, d ecorated w ith a b anquet s cene, o ver a c ore; i t h ad s heet c aps,

o ne n ow l ost

( Woolley,

1 934,

1 27,

p l.193:21,

f ig.23).

T hat

i n

R T 1 236 ( U.12457) w as s imilarly m ade, b ut d ecorated w ith a s cene ( ibid., p l.197, 2 17). A r elated f ind w as m ade i n

c ontest R T 8 00

( U.10444) whence c ame

3 f rag-

m ents t o

o f

t ake

v ery

" gold

t hin g old

t he e ngraving" ( iv)

i mpressions

f rom c ylinder s eals;

f oil w hich h as b een p ressed i nto s eals ( ibid., 8 1,

s o

a s

p 1,192:10-11).

V essels:

G old v essels a re o nly k nown f rom t he

7 7

" Royal C emetery" a t U r:

a

s trainer; a g oblet ( Woolley, 1 934, 1 59, p l.160); f luted b owls 1 59, p l.160, 1 62); s pouted v essels ( ibid., p ls.41, 1 61,

( ibid., 1 64); a

f luted t umbler ( ibid., p ls.157, 1 62); a c up a nd c ockle s hell i mitat ion ( ibid., P l. 1 65); a n o strich s hell r eplica ( ibid., p l.170). G old f oil o verlays o n s ilver v essels a re k nown f rom t he N eo-Assyrian l evels a t N imrud ( Mallowan, 1 966, f igs.356-7, 4 27-30).

o f

A u nique o bject, w hose m anufacture i n s ome w ays p arallels t hat h ammered s heet g old b owls, i s t he i mitation m an s h air s tyle i n

g old f rom P G 7 55 i n t he " Royal C emetery" a t U r. C ommonly k nown a s " Meskalamdug T h h elmet ", t his r emarkable o bject, o f E arly D ynastic l ilA, i s m ade i n r epoussé w ith c hased d etails ( Woolley, 1 934, p ls.21, 1 50). ( v) E llis i nscribed

F oundation d eposits

( 1968, 9 7ff.; 1 31ff.) d escribes b oth t he u se o f g old f or f oundation t ablets f rom t he M iddle A ssyrian p eriod o nwards

a nd t he a ppearance o f g old a mong t he m ore v aried d eposits o f v aluable m aterials b uried, i n t he p rocesses o f b uilding for m agical o r v otive p urposes. G old f oundation t ablets m ay h ave a m uch o lder h istory. N abonidus

( 555-539 B .C.)

c laims

t o h ave f ound e xamples

N aram-Sin ( c.2254-18 B .C.) ( Kupper, 1 971, 9 3, n .9): i nscribed w ith t his k ing s n ame w as r eported f rom 1 912, 1 45; c f. S oliberger a nd K upper, 1 971, 1 12:

d eposited

b y

a s trip o f g old B ismaya ( Banks, I l A 5 a, a lso o n

g old). ( vi)

S tatuary:

B iblical

a nd

C lassical

r eferences

( Daniel

i ii.1;

H erodotus

1 :183) a nd l ocal t exts h ave s ometimes b een r ead s o a s t o g ive e xagg erated i deas a bout t he c urrency o f g old s tatuary i n a ncient M esopot amia. U ndoubtedly g old w as l avishly u sed i n t he o rnamentation o f t emple b uildings a nd a ll t emple f urnishings, i ncluding s tatuary; b ut t he s ay.

e xtent t o w hich c ast g old s tatues e xisted i t i s i mpossible t o A lthough s tatuettes, l ess t han a m etre h igh, m ight h ave b een

h ollow o r e ven s olid c ast o f g old, i t i s u nlikely t hat i t w as u sed i n t his w ay, s ave q uite e xceptionally, f or l arger p ieces o f s culpture. R eferences t o g old s tatuary o f a ny s ize a re l ikely t o h ave m eant i ngenious c ombinations o f h ollow c ast p arts, p erhaps s ometimes e ven o f g ilded b ase m etal, a nd e xtensive u se o f s heet g old o n a s tone o r w ooden b ase, a s w ell a s s emi-precious s tones. T his i s i mplied b y t he d escription

i n D iodorus S iculus

( 11.9.5-10)

o f

t he d eity s tatues s et

u p b y S emiramis, w ith t heir g old p lates h ammered i nto s hape. A r andom s election o f q uotations f rom t he C .A.D. ( s.v. s almu) i ndicate s imilar m ethods o f m anufacture: " I c leverly b uilt a l ikeness o f h is g reat g odhead o ut o f t he c hoicest q uarried s tone a nd s craps o f g old" " I h ad a s tatue o f m e a s k ing m ade o ut o f

s ilver,

g old a nd s hining c opper" a lso C .A.D.

s ariru

" (I

( a p oetic

d ecorated t he

t erm f or f ine q uality g old): d ivine i mages) w ith f ifty

7 8

( or

t hirty) t he

t alents o f

n ether w orld,

d own ( from s craps)

r eddish g old,

t he p roduct

( from) m ined o re, f or

o f

n ot m elted

t his w ork"

A r evealing s idelight o n t his g eneral q uestion i s o ffered b y p assage i n o ne o f t he " Amarna L etters" ( EA 2 7:23-33) f rom w hich i t

a i s

c lear t hat A menophis I V ( Akhenaten) h ad r eplaced s olid g old s tatues ( size n ot g iven) o rdered b y h is f ather f or T ushratta o f M itanni, w ith w ooden r eplicas o nly o verlaid w ith g old: " And n ow m y b rother, y ou h ave n ot s ent t he g old ( ? ) s tatues, w hich y our f ather i ntended t o s end ,

b ut w ooden o nes,

t hat a re o verlaid,

y ou h ave s ent".

N o g old s tatuette h as y et b een r eported f rom M esopotamia, o ne

i s k nown,

o f

t he M iddle E lamite P eriod,

f rom S usa

( 0.75m .

t hough h igh ;

A miet, 1 966, 4 20-1, p l.319, o n a b ronze b ase). O nly v ery r are, t iny d eity a mulets o f g old h ave s urvived ( cf. W iseman, 1 960, p l.XXIIIe-h). A n E arly D ynastic I II s tatuette i n t ranslucent g reen g ypsum f rom N ippur h as a S pycket, 1 981,

s heet g old f ace 1 08-9, p l.71),

( Amiet, 1 977, p l.3b ( in c olour); p erhaps o nce s et o n a w ooden h ead.

G old f oil o verlays w ere u sed o n b ronze s tatuary i n t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. ( Amiet, 1 977, p ls.433-4; S pycket, 1 981, 2 32ff. 2 88, p l.159, 1 91) a nd a d etached s heet-gold f ace o verlay, o f t he N eoA ssyrian p eriod,

w as

f ound a t A ssur

( Andrae,

1 935,

1 07,

p l.48h).

S heet g old p endants o r s ilhouettes w ere c urrent t hroughout f rom t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod. A n e arly e xample f rom U ruk s hows a p rofile f ace a nd

t orso

( Nöldeke,

1 936,

2 0,

p l.25a),

w hilst a N eo-Assyrian

e xample, i ncised w ith a f emale w orshipper, o ccurred a t A ssur ( Andrae, 1 935, p l.48L). M allowan ( 1966, 1 21, f ig.63) f ound t iny g old s ilh ouettes a t N imrud. A lready a t U ruk, u sed

t o m ake t he

( Nöldeke, 1 936, f or a nimal h orns

i n t he l ater p rehistoric

l egs o f c omposite s tatuary,

p eriod,

c ast g old w as

i n t his c ase o f a nimals

1 4, p l.23q-s) a nd s heet g old, o ver a c ore, w as u sed ( Heinrich, 1 936, 4 0, p l.30d), a s a lso l ater i n t he

E arly D ynastic I II t emple a t T ell a l-Ubaid ( Hall a nd W oolley, 1 927, p 1.5). T he f amous c omposite a nimal s tatuettes f rom U r a lready c ited ( p.49) i ndicate a n a spect o f S umerian p roduction, w hose f ragility m eant t hey a re o nly l ikely t o b e e vident e lsewhere i n s tray f ragments o f s tone o r m etal. S tone s tatuary w as a lso a t t imes d ecorated w ith g old. T here i s a g old p laque, c ut t o t he s hape o f a " beard" a nd p repared f or i nlay i nto a s tatue f rom D jokha ( Umma), i nscribed w ith t he n ame o f G ishakidu, a c ontemporary o f E nanatum o f L agash i n E arly D ynastic I lIB ( Thureau-Danglf l , 1 937). A s tatue f ragment, o f t he l ater t hird m illennium B .C., f rom T elloh , i s d escribed a s h aving " les p oignets .. . e ncore e ntourés p ar d eux m inces b racelets e n c uivre p laque dor ' ( de S arzec a nd H euzey, 1 884-1912, 3 45). A nother f rom t he s ame s ite a nd p eriod h as " un c ollier d ont l es g rains, d e t n atières e t d e c ouleurs d ifferentes, c ornaline, t urquoise e t c uivre d oré, s ont e nchEsses

d ans

1 900,

f ig.1).

1 0,

W oolley

l a p ierre b lanche"

( 1976,

1 85)

( ibid.,

3 45-6;

i llustrated H euzey,

c ommented o f h is e xcavations a t U r i n

t he

e arlier s econd m illennium B .C.: " So

l ittle

t he w ork o f t here w as

g old w as

f ound

t hat w e h ave n o c riterion f or

j udging

t he p eriod, b ut i ts m ere a bsence i s p erhaps a s ign t hat r elatively l ittle i n u s f or o rnamental p urposes... t hough

7 9

s ome

o f

t he

s tone o bjects

f ound i n t he G iparku r uins

h ad

e vidently

b een e nriched w ith g old".

f rom

A s heet g old e ar f rom t he S hamash T emple a t M ari w as p robably a s tatue ( Parrot, 1 935, 6 ). M ajor d eity s tatues i n t emples

w ould h ave h ad a ttributes; b ut v ery f ew i ndeed h ave b een r ecognized i n e xcavations. T he m ost c ertain i s a l ightning f ork , p resumably o f A dad,

o f

t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod,

f rom h is t emple a t A ssur,

m ade

g old h ammered o ver a w ooden c ore ( Andrae, 1 909, p l.XXXIV). r eported t o w eigh 2 90 g rains, 2 50 o f w hich r epresent t he g old. ( vii)

o f

I t w as

M onumental d ecoration a nd f urnishings:

E ven a llowing f or a d egree o f e xaggeration, S umerian a nd A kkadian t exts m ake c lear t he s ignificant r ole p layed b y g oldsmiths i n p roviding t emples a nd p alaces w ith i nnumerable f urnishings, c ont ainers a nd d ecorative o bjects o f g old, a s w ell a s w ooden f urniture, o f a ll k inds, i nlaid o r o verlaid w ith t he m etal 2 48-50). T emple f oundation d ocuments s how t hat o nly

l avishly

a dorned w ith g old,

b ut

t hat

( cf. S alonen, 1 963, t he t emples w ere n ot

i t w as a lso

e xtensively

u sed f or t he c ult e quipment, i ncluding t he d ecoration o f c hariots f or d eities. O ne d ocument i llustrates t his p articularly w ell, f or i t r ecounts t he r eturn t o B abylon o f t he s tatues o f M arduk a nd S arpanit ur n f rom e xile a nd t he r estoration o f t hem a nd t heir s hrines ( Unger, 1 931, 2 76ff.). A lthough w ritten i n t he n ame o f t he e arly K assite k ing A gum I I ( or A gum-kakrime), i t m ay h ave b een c omposed i n t he f irst m illennium B .C.

( Brinkman,

1 976,

9 7).

I n a ll

t his w ork g old

w as l avishly e mployed. O f t his n othing h as s urvived t hat g ives a ny r ealistic i dea o f p recisely w hat w as i nvolved, t hough i t i s k nown t o h ave b een a p ractice a lready c urrent i n t he p rehistoric p eriod a nd i s r egularly a pparent O ne o f

i n t exts

t he e arliest,

( cf.,

f or e xample,

a nd b est p reserved,

D urand,

1 983).

e xamples o f

s heet g old f or t emple o rnament i s p rovided b y t he " altar" P rehistoric " Eye-Temple" a t B rak ( Mallowan, 1 947, 9 3-4, X LVIII.4): e mpanelled g rey

" The t hree s ides o f t he p odium w ere d ecorated w ith a n f rieze c omposed o f f retted b ands o f w hite l imestone a nd

s hale

e ncased

M allowan ( ibid., " The a ngles o f t he f oil i s

t o

t he u se o f i n t he L ate p l.III-IV,

g old

9 3)

b y

a s urround

o f

g old

s trip"

( ibid.,

3 2).

c ommented i n s ome d etalal o n t his g oldwork :

f oil e ncasing t he s tone s trips

t he s ame d epth a s

i t

i s w ide,

2 0mm.,

i s

b ent o ver a t

g iving t he

r ight

t otal d epth

f reize a s i t w as o rginally w hen b acked o nto w ood. T he s olid a nd h eavy, a nd w as h ammered d own o nto t he w ooden

g old b ack

b y 2 0 n ails o n t he t op a nd 2 2 n ails o n t he b ottom s trip. I t i s c urious t hat a lthough n o e xpense w as s pared o n t he n ails t he s tems a re o f s ilver a nd t he h eads o f g old f oil c f. p l.IV.2 t hey w ere -

-

v ery c arelessly h ammered i n, a dded a s a n a fterthought T here U ruk t o

m ay h ave

j udge

-

i rregular i ntervals,

t o g ive a dditional g rip

b een s omewhat

f rom f ragments

A rchaeologically

a t

s imilar a ltars

( Heinrich,

s peaking

1 936,

4 7,

t o

a nd w ere p erhaps t he

g old".

i n t his p l.34b,

s uch d ecoration m ay o nly

p eriod

a t

f , • h,

3 5a).

b e

t raced

t hrough t he h istorical p eriod b y a v ery t hin l ine o f s cattered g old f ragments f ound i n m onumental b uildings, s uch a s t he A rchaic " Ziggurat" T errace a t U r

( Woolley,

1 956, 8 0

1 88:

U .18225-6,

1 8236);

t he

" Mausolea" 1 6257-8);

o f t he U r I II k ings a t U r ( Woolley, 1 974, 1 00: U .16216, t he K assite p alace a t A qar Q uf ( Baqir, 1 945, 1 4); a nd t he

A ssyrian p alaces,

w here,

f or e xample,

t he g ilded-bronze c olumn o ver-

l ays f rom K horsabad a re a mongst t he m ost s pectacular A ltman, 1 938, 1 6). B erthelot ( 1906, 8 1) r eported t hat " gold" l eaf f ound b y P lace w as m ore p roperly d escribed a s L ayard

( 1849,

I I, 4 17)

( Loud a nd s ome o f t he " electrum".

r ecorded v ery t hin g old l eaf o n b aked b ricks;

a nd o n t he z iggurat s ite a t E ridu T aylor ( 1855) f ound f ragments g old, o f g old l eaf, a nd g old-headed n ails o f u ncertain d ate. ( g) A s

o f

T echniques: t he k nown g oidwork f rom M esopotamia i s

f ew " royal"

g raves o f E arly D ynastic I II a t U r,

s o i t

c oncentrated i n t he i s

i nevitable t hat

w hat r esearch h as b een d one o n t he t echnology o f M esopotamian g oldw ork h as b een a lmost e xclusively c oncentrated o n t hem. T his i s n ot s o r estricting a s i t m ight s ound, f or, a s i s w ell k nown, t here a re v ery f ew t echniques o f m etalworking k nown t o t he a ncient w orld t hat w ere n ot r epresented i n t his c emetery. S umerian m etal c rafts w ere s o d eveloped t hat t he U r g raves m ay b e t aken t o r epresent t he w hole t radition.

O nly e namelling,

n iello,

w ire-drawing a nd s pinning

( in

t he m anufacture o f v essels) a re t echniques a bsent f rom t he " royal" g raves a nd, s o f ar a s p resent e vidence g oes, a lso f rom s ubsequent c ontexts i n M esopotami b efore t he A chaemenid p eriod, t hough t hey m ay i n s ome c ases h ave b een p racticed e arlier e lsewhere i n t he N ear E ast. N o g oldsmith's w orkshop, n or c ertainly i dentified t ool k it, h as y et b een r eported f rom M esopotamia. N or h as t here b een a ny s ystemat ic s tudy o f t he t exts r elevant t o t he g oldsmith's p ractice o f h is c raft. T hough i nformation i s s cattered, i t a ppears t o b e r ather m ore i nstructive i n t his c ase t han f or w orkers i n b ase m etals ( cf. L imet, 1 960, 1 40ff.; W eisberg, 1 967, 6 0ff.). A t U ruk t he " Stone-cone T emple" w as b elieved t o h ave b een b uilt i n U ruk I V o ver a n a rea t hat h ad p reviously b een u sed f or v arious w orkshops, a mong t hem a " metal f oundry" ( Lenzen, 1 960, p 1.3, 4 , 3 9). N one o f t he i nstallations c learly i ndicate t his. T he s quat v essels w ith n arrow h ole-mouths f ound t here h ave n o o bvious m etallurgical r ole. A f ragmentary g old i ngot, o nly i n t he v icinity o f t he " foundry", p rovides l ittle m ore t han a p ossible i ndication o f s econdary w orking h ereabouts.

m er,

G oldwork g enerally r equires f ew t ools: a nd s ome k ind o f a nvil, w ith c hisels

p unches,

g ouges

a nd b urnishers.

a nd e xtremely d uctile, m etal i s w orked c old,

a w ooden b lock, a h amt o c ut, a wls t o p ierce,

A ll n ative g old i s v ery

m alleable

e asily s tretched, b eaten o r d rawn t hin. T he b ut r equires a nnealing, a s i t q uickly b ecomes

b rittle. I t m ay b e h ammered i nto s heets o f l ess t han 0 .0025m . t hickn ess w ithout a nnealing. T he a ddition o f c opper t o g old m akes t he a lloy m ore d urable a nd l ess s ubject t o a brasion, b ut a t t he s ame t ime l ess d uctile a nd m alleable. P ure g old m elts a t 1 036 0 C ; g old w ith 1 0% s ilver 9 25 0 C ; w ell

m elts a t a bout 1 048 0 C ; g old w ith a bout 1 0% c opper a t a bout g old w ith 2 0% c opper a t a bout 8 80 0 C . O gden ( 1982) p rovides a i llustrated g eneral r eview o f g oldsmithing t echniques

q uity,

t hough l ittle o f ( i)

B efore

t he e vidence u sed

i s

i n

a nti-

f rom M esopotamia.

H ammered s heet g old a nd g ilding: p roceeding t o a ny d iscussion o f g ilding i t

8 1

i s

n ecessary

t o

d raw a ttention t o a b asic d istinction c ommonly m ade b etween

• ' true

g ilding" a nd " depletion g ilding" ( or g old c olouring) ( cf. L echtman, 1 971, 2 ff.; a lso, i n g eneral, A lexander, 1 979). I n t rue g ilding g old i s a pplied t o t he s urface o f a nother m etal; i n c ertain c ircumstances t he t wo m etals m ay u ndergo i nteralloying, w ith t he r esult t hat t here i s c omplete m etallic b onding. I n t he s econd c ase t he g old i s a lready a lloyed w ith a nother m etal a nd i t i s a q uestion o f i nternal c hanges. D epletion g ilding

i s b ased u pon c hemical r eactions

t hat o ccur o nly a t

t he s urface o f a lloys: t he o bject i s t o r emove s ufficient o f t he a lloyed m etals f or t he s urface t o b e e nriched i n g old a nd e ventually a ppear t ions,

g olden. T he t wo p rocesses i nvolve m ajor t echnical d istincw ith t rue g ilding b eing t he c ommonest i n a ncient M esopotamia

f rom i ts a ppearance i n t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod. W ith t rue g ilding t he g old m ay b e a pplied i n i ts s olid s tate a s s heet o r l eaf o r a s a n a malgam . L echtman ( 1971, 2 ) " arbitrarily" d efined g old s heet o r f oil a s g reater t han a bout o ne m icron i n t hickness, w hilst l eaf c onstitutes t hickness s maller t han t his. S ince n o s ystematic m easurements h ave b een t aken o f M esopotamian h ammered g old, t here i s n o a ccurate w ay o f a pplying t his f ine y ardstick, h ere w ithout a ny a ssumptions a bout t hickness.

s o

t erms a re

u sed

G old w as b eaten i nto v ery t hin s heets i n M esopotamia f rom i ts e arliest a ppearance t here i n t he f ourth m illennium B .C., p robably o n f lat

h ard

s tones w ith s tone h ammers;

a r ounded t ool

b eing

b etter

s uited f or t his p urpose t han a f lat-faced o ne. O gden i dentified s uch a t ool f rom U r: " ...like a t iny p estle, s lightly b ulbous a t o ne e nd a nd m easuring o nly 1 9mm . i n l ength. T he m aterial i s h aematite". ( Plenderleith, 1 934, 2 95; O gden, 1 982, p l.4:3, 3 5); b ut i t s eems h ardly l arge e nough f or t he p urpose. T here i s n o d efinite i ndication o f t he u se o f t he " goldbeater s s kin", a lthough P lenderleith ( 1934, 2 95) a rgued t hat u se o f g ut f or h arp a nd l yre s trings a t U r, i n t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., i ndicated a m astery o f t his m aterial

w hich m ight w ell h ave b een t urned t o u se i n m aking

s uch

a

" skin". T he e arliest t ype o f g ilding d epended, n ot o n a p hysical o r c hemical b ond b etween t he g old f oil a nd t he b ase m etal, b ut o nly o n a m echanical j ects. T he

f olding o f t he f oil o ver t he e dgs o f t he u nderlying o bj oint m ight b e i mproved b y a n a dhesive o r t he o verlapping

e dges j oined b y b urnishing t hem t ogether. A s eries o f s ilver n ails f rom t he L ate P rehistoric " Eye T emple" a t B rak ( see p .120), e xamined b y O ddy e t a l. ( 1981), h ad h eads g ilded b y w rapping g old s heet o ver t he s ilver.

O f

" gold"

b eads

f rom t he

" Royal C emetery"

a t U r P lender-

l eith ( 1934, 2 95) w rote " beads o f b ituminous s hale, w ood, e tc., h ave b een f ound c overed w ith g old w hich i s s o t hin t hat w hen r emoved a nd h eld b y o ne e nd i t h angs d own, p ossessing i nsufficient r igidity t o r emain h orizontal." T his t echnique w as l ong a nd w idely u sed, a nd n ot o nly f or b eads. E arly D ynastic I II g old b racelets w ere s ometimes m ade b y h ammering g old o ver a c ore w hich w as t hen w ithdrawn ( MaxwellH yslop, 1 971, 6 6). A g old b racelet i n t he U r I II g rave P G 1 847 a t U r I s m ade o f

t hin s heet g old o ver a c opper c ore

( Maxwell-Hyslop,

1 971,

6 9). T wo m illennia l ater a t U r a s heet g old p in, w ith a h ead m odell ed a s a d raped h uman f igure, w as m ade o ver a w ooden c ore ( Woolley, 1 962, 1 06, p 1.21, U .456). T he s heet g old o verlays w ere t hemselves s ometimes o rnamented. T he s pear s hafts f rom P G 7 55 a t U r, f or e xample, 1 934,

p l.154

S heet

h ave

g old

o verlays w orked

t o r epresent

b amboo

( Woolley,

U .10023). g old,

t oo

t hin t o

s upport 8 2

I ts on

w eight,

r equires

a

m ethod o f

a ttachment.

T his m ay b e e ither a dhesive

( perhaps o ne b ased

o n e gg w hite) o r t he l eaf m ay b e a ttached t o f airly p ure s ilver o r c opper b y b urnishing, p rovided t he m etal s urface i s s crupulously c lean w hen t he g old b y a pplication o f w ith t he u nderlying a l., 1 981). S uch

i s a pplied. T he a dhesion o f t he g old i s e nhanced l ow-temperature h eat t o p romote i nter-diffusion m etal ( "diffusion - b onding" o r " cladding" 0 ddy e t w as t he p rime m eans o f g ilding u ntil a t l east t he

A chaemenid p eriod. W hen

f ire-gilding

f irst a ppeared i n t he N ear E ast

i s

n ot

y et

c lear, t hough i t w as u sed i n G reece b y t he f ourth c entury B .C. ( Cradd ock, 1 977, 1 09-110; H ealy, 1 978, 1 90ff.). l t h as b een s uggested t hat i t w as a n i nnovation o f t he A chaemenid p eriod ( Cooney, 1 964, 7 5); b ut h ard e vidence f or t his I s n ot y et a vailable. A s t echnique w as q uicker a nd m ore e ffective f or l arger a nd m ore

t he n ew i rregu-

l arly s haped o bjects, i t s uperseded e arlier m ethods. I n f ire-gilding a n amalgam o f m ercury a nd p owdered g old i s s pread o ver t he s urface o f t he s ilver, w hich i s t hen h eated t o v apourize t he m ercury, l eaving t he g old b ehind i n c ontact w ith t he s ilver. T he e arliest a nalytica lly p roven e xample o f t his t echnique i s f rom L ate B ronze A ge I reland ( Craddock; p ers.comm.). W oolley ( 1983, 2 4) f ound m etallic m ercury a t A l M ina I n l evel I II ( c.430 - 3 75 B .C.) a nd b elieved i t t o b e a t raded c ommodity a t

t his

t ime.

I t w as a lso

f ound i n o ne o f

t he

A chaemenid

p alaces a t S usa ( Labrousse a nd B oucharlat, 1 972, 8 6-7). C innabar, n ative m ercury s ulphide, w as a vailable n ear K irkuk a ccording t o C ampbell-Thompson ( 1936, 2 9 3 0), t hough h is t ranslation o f t he A kkadian k algukku a s " mercury" h as b een s uperseded b y t he r endering " red o chre o r s imilar m ineral" ( Oppenheim, 1 970, n .58). I t w as a lso a vailable a t v arious p laces A llan,

1 979,

i n I ran

1 -2) a nd i n A natolia

D epletion g ilding

m ay

o nly

( Labrousse a nd B oucharlat,

( Ryan, b e

1 969,

1 972;

6 9-72).

i dentified

t hrough

l aboratory

e xamination a nd t here h as b een l ittle o f t hat. I t a lso h as t o b e b orne i n m ind t hat a pparent d epletion , g ilding m ay b e n o m ore t han t he r esult o f s elective c orrosion w hilst b uried i n t he e arth. P lenderl eith ( 1934, 2 92) r eported o n t he s pearhead, U .9122, f rom R T 5 80 a t U r ( Woolley, 1 934, p 1.227), a s f ollows: " This s pecimen h ad b een b roken i n t wo b y a n u nfortunate a ccident...; t he f ractured s urfaces w ere w hite, o bject w as h igh c arat.

g ranular a nd c rystalline, w hilst t he s urface o f t he s uch a r ich y ellow a s t o s uggest t hat i t w as g old o f a T he m etal p roved o n a nalysis t o c ontain o nly 3 0 p er c ent

o f g old w ith a bout t wice a s m uch s ilver t he S mith ( 1974, 1 60) h as t aken t his t o b e

r emainder b eing c opper . t he e arliest d ocumented

e xample o f a n a ttempt t o I mprove t he c olour o f t he e lectrum b y t he r emoval o f n atural a lloying c onstituents, p rimarily s ilver, t o y ield a s urface o f p ure g old. T he s ilver, h e p oints o ut, m ight h ave b een r emoved b y c ementation ( hot) w ith c hlorides o r b y a ( cold) p arting r eaction. C ementation, d one h ot, " intrinsically d epends u pon s olid s tate d iffusion o f t he b ase m etal t o t he s urface o f t he a lloy w here i t c an c hemically r eact a nd b e r emoved. I n m ost c ementation m ixtures t he b ase m etal d iffuses t o t he s urface n early a s r apidly a s i t c an c ross

i t

s o

t hat a r ich g old s urface c an o nly b e a chieved b y

t ion t o a c onsiderable d epth". s elective c orrosion p rocess,

d eple-

I t i s u sually a rgued, t hat p arting, a c ould n ot h ave b een d one b efore t he

d iscovery o f m ineral a cids i n t he M iddle A ges. A lthough t here a re a lternatives ( e.g. f ern e s ulphate), t here I s n o e vidence f or t heir u se i n t he a ncient N ear E ast. S mith b elieves t here w as a p robable 8 3

c onnection e lectrum,

b etween a s

s uch

e vident

e arly a ttempts t o

i mprove

i n t his t hird m illennium

t he

c olour

s pearhead,

o f

a nd

t he

o f p rocesses t hat l ater b ecame t he b asis o f i ndustrial d iscovery r efining. C ertainly, o n p resent e vidence, i t p recedes i n d ate e vid ence f or t he r efining i n b ulk o f n aturally o ccuring g old t o r emove t he s ilver c ontent ( see p .71 h ere). T he s haping o f s heet g old v essels d iffers i n n o s ignificant w ay t he m ethods e mployed f or b ase m etal ( see p .46). S mith ( 1972,

f rom

1 24) h as g iven a g raphic d escription o f h ow o ne o f t he f ine t hird m illennium g old b eakers f rom U r m ight h ave b een w orked: " This

p robably

b egan a s a t hick c ake o f g old,

m id.

w hich w as h ammered

t o a r ound f lat s heet, f rom w hich t he m ain c up s hape w as m ade b y r aising, t hat i s, b y a s equence o f l ocal h ammer b lows f rom a s lightly c onvex h ammer a gainst t he s heet m etal h eld a t a s light i nclination a gainst t he r ounded e dge o f a n a nvil, s o p roducing i nnumerable l ittle b ends i n i ntegrate

c oncentric c ircles o r i n a c lose s piral w hich e ventually i nto t he f ormation o f a p rogressively d eepening c up.

B ecause m etal i s h ardened b y c old w ork, i t w ould h ave b een n ecessary t o s often i t r epeatedly b y a nnealing t o a llow t he w ork t o p roceed. T he f luting o riginated b y l ocal p unching i .e. a c ombination o f r epoussé a nd c hasing d one, n ot a gainst a h ard a nvil, b ut a gainst a n i nternal f illing o f p itch o r s ome o ther m aterial o f s train-rated ependent p roperties w hich p rovides m oderately s trong d istributed s upport f or t he m etal u nder a l ocal b low , f ollowed b y s low r elaxation t o

c onform

t o

t he n ew s hape

i n p reparation f or t he n ext

s tage

o f

d eformation". T he

u se

o f

s heet g old f or a nimal-head

f ittings,

a s

o n

m usical i nstruments f rom t he " royal" g raves a t U r, a nd a s p arts c omposite s tatuettes, a s f or t he p air o f r ampant h e-goats f rom

t he o f R T

1 237 a t U r, p resents s pecial p roblems. T hese w ere m ade f rom t hin s heets, i n t he c ase o f t he h eads p robably h ammered f irst i nto a b owl f orm ,

a nd t hen s haped t o

f inal f orm w ith a h ammer a nd c hasing t ools.

M aryon ( 1949, 9 9-100) h as d escribed a p ossible m ethod, c riticizing P lenderleit Vs ( 1934, 2 97) o riginal p roposals: " To

d o t his

i t

i s

q uite p ossible

t hat

t he g old w as

i mplicitly

l aid u pon

a

b oss o f w ood c overed w ith b ituminous c ompound, w hich w ould s upport t he g old m ask w hile i t w as b eing c hased t o s hape. !d o n ot f eel t hat t he c raftsman w ould h ave s pent h is t ime i n c arving t he i n w ood a s a p reparation a nd b acking f or h is g oldwork.

c omplete m ask T hat w ould

n ot b e t he w ay o f a m etal w orker. H e w ould p refer c omplete f reedom f or r epoussé w ork r ather t han t he r estricted c ertainty o f t he c arved m odel... I n a n umber o f s urviving h eads t he b itumen b acking s till r emains w ithin t he t hin g old. Id o n ot k now o f a ny e xample w here a w ooden f orm o r c ore c omes i mmediately n ext t he g old". E ars a nd h orns w ere o ften f itted s eparately. T his a ssumes t hat t he b itumen f ormed p art o f t he f orming p rocess a nd w as n ot j ust p oured i n a fterwards t o s upport

t he

m etal a s

s eems

a nimal h eads a t T ell a l-Ubaid

t o h ave b een t he c ase w ith

b ronze

( see p .49).

P lenderleith ( 1934, 2 96ff.) f ound m uch o f t he f iner d ecoration o n t he U r t ombs g oldwork t o h ave b een d one b y c hasing r ather t han b y e ngraving. o utlines o f

O n t he d iadem ( U.8173: W oolley, 1 934, p l.139) " all t he t he f igures a re i mpressed b y h ammering t he f lat e dge o f

8 4

t he c hasing

t ool o r d ie o n t he g old".

R eal e ngraving w as n oticed o n

a g old b owl f rom P G 7 55 ( Woolley, 1 934, p l.160: U .10003) " where t he f luting h as b een t ouched u p b y t he e ngraver w hereas t he p attern r ound r im a nd f oot i s c hased". I nlaying i s a lso f irst o bserved i n E arly D ynastic I II a t U r, l ines o n s pearheads. A ssyrian,

w hen s trips o f g old w ere h ammered i nto e ngraved T his t echnique w as u sed t wo m illennia l ater b y

o r p ossibly L evantine,

c uboid b ronze w eights ( ii)

( Layard,

c raftsmen t o

1 853,

1 96,

i nlay g old s carabs o n

f igure).

C ast g old o bjects:

I n v iew o f t he g reater q uantities o f m etal r equired, t he r ole o f g old i n M esopotamia i s l ikely t o h ave b een l argely c onfined t o

c ast

o bjects

i n t he

r oyal o r t emple s ervice o r

t o

s mall p ieces o f

j ewel-

l ery l ike t he c opper o r b ronze p in f rom P G 7 55 w ith a c ast g old m onkey a s i ts h ead ( Woolley, 1 934, 3 00, p l.11S: U .10010). H ere a gain, a s w ith s heet-metal w orking, m ethods f or t he m ost p art w ould h ave

b een

( 1954, t he

t hose u sed a lso

6 26) h as

" royal"

f or b ase m etals

( see p p.40ff.).

M aryon

d escribed t he c asting o f s ome w ell k nown o bjects f rom

t ombs a t U r:

" Three- o r f our-pieced m oulds w ere

i n r egular u se.

E xamination

o f a l ittle g old m onkey s urmounting a b ronze p in ( PG 7 55), o f t he e lectrum o nager o n Q ueen S hubad T h ( RT 8 00: P u-abi) r ein-ring, a nd o f t he

s ilver b ull o n t he k ing's r ein-ring

( RT 7 89)

s uggests

t hat

t hey

w ere p robably f irst m odelled i n w ax, b ut t hen, l ike t he a xes, c ast i n p iece-moulds. T he m onkey a nd t he o nager, a s t heir s urfaces i ndicate, w ere t horoughly " chased" ( i.e. c leaned d own) a fter c asting, t o r emove a ll t he c asting w ebs a nd r ough s urfaces. T he s ilver b ull, h owever, w as n ot s moothed, a nd t he o riginal c ast s urface c an b e s een. S urvivi ng p arts o f t he w ebs o utline a p iece o f t he m ould w hich c overed m ost o f t he r ight s ide o f t he b ull s b ody. T here w ould b e o ther p ieces a lso. w hich

R ough e vidence i s a vailable t o s how t hat t he w ax o r c lay i n t he b ull w as m odelled c ould h ave b een r emoved p iecemeal w hen

t he s ide p iece w as ( iii) F iligree,

t he m ould".

F iligree a nd c loisonné: t he

t racery,

i s

s hown

a h igher

a t

l ifted a way f rom t he r est o f

o rnamental

u sed o n t he

u se

o f

f ine w ire

f amous g old d agger

l evel o f

t o

m ake

f rom R T 5 80 a t

t echnical a chievement o n a

b ead f rom t he s ame t omb ( U.9779), a gain c ombined ( Woolley, 1 934, p l.138). A lone, o r c ombined,

d elicate U r;

b ut

d ouble-conoid

w ith g ranulation f iligree r egularly

a ppears

t hereafter o n t he s urviving g old

n otably H yslop,

o n t he f ine U r I II A bbabashti n ecklace f rom U ruk ( Maxwell1 971, p 1.45; N öldeke, 1 937, 2 2ff., p 1.39); i n t he " Larsa

H oard" ( Arnaud e t a l., ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 971,

j ewellery f rom M esopotamia,

1 979); o n aK assite b racelet f rom A qar Q uf p l.127); i n t he r emarkable c ollection o f

M iddle A ssyrian j ewellery f rom g rave 4 5 a t A ssur ( Haller, 1 954, 1 40ff.; M axwell-Hyslop, 1 971, 1 69ff.); a nd o n t he s o-called " Nimrud j ewel" ( Curtis a nd M axwell-Hyslop, 1 971, 1 02ff., f ig., p l.XXXII). F rom

t he e arliest p eriod g old w ire h ad b een u sed i n s impler w ays

f or

b eads a nd p endants, a s i s w ell i llustrated b y e xamples i n t he " Royal C emetery" a t U r ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 971, 1 0-11, p l.B ( colour), 9 -11). T he

m anufacture o f g old w ire t hroughout

w as w ithout u se o f

t he d rawplate,

n ot y et 8 5

t he t ime o f

t his

s urvey

c ertainly k nown b efore

t he

E uropean

D ark A ges

a rgued f or a n eat " Egyptian s miths, f rom a s traight

( Oddy,

1 977;

1 984).

C arroll

( 1972,

3 23)

h as

d ichotomy i n t he e arly m ethods o f w ire m anufacture: a nd p ossibly o ther N ear E astern s miths, d rew w ire

s trip.

G reek a nd E truscan s miths

t wisted t he s trips

b efore d rawing t hem." O ddy ( 1977 w ith i mportant i llustrations; a lso 1 979; 1 984) c hallenged t his s imple d istinction a nd o ffered c lear d escriptions o f t he v arious w ays g old w ire m ight h ave b een m ade b efore t he d raw p late w as i nvented. T he c oncomitant, d etailed e xamination

o f a ctual e xamples

f rom M esopotamia r emains

t o b e

d one.

O ddy 's c ategories w ere: 1 .

H ammering: i n t his, t he s implest a nd m ost b asic ( though n ot n ecessarily t he e asiest) m ethod, a n i ngot i s h ammered o ut u ntil a w ire w ith m ore o r l ess r ound a nd e ven s ection i s p roduced.

2 .

T he w ire,

i f n ot p olished,

h as a f acetted s urface.

B lock-twisting: t his i s d one b y h ammering o ut a n i ngot t o g ive a r od o f t he r equired t hickness f or t he w ire, t wisted a s t ightly w ood

3 .

a s

( cf.

p ossible a nd r olled b etween t wo f lat

P lenderleith,

S trip-drawing:

t his

a nd d rawing i t t er s o t ube.

1 934,

p ieces

o f

2 96).

i nvolves

t aking a s trip o f m etal

f oil

t hrough a s eries o f h oles o f d ecreasing d iame-

t hat t he s trip c urls i n u pon i tself A s teel d raw-plate i s n ot n eeded;

t o f orm a h ollow t he h oles c ould b e

p ierced i n a h ard w ood o r b one. 4 .

S trip-twisting:

a

s trip

o f m etal f oil i s c ut

r ound a n e xisting w ire w hich i s t hen r emoved. t hen t ightened a nd g ently e xtended b y h and. w ire m ight a lso h ave b een d rawn t hrough d ies

a nd

w rapped

T his h elix i s T his t ype o f t o f inish i t

o ff. A

p articular a pplication o f

m illennium g old c hains. t he

g old w ire I s

P lenderleith ( 1934,

i llustrated 2 96,

b y

p 1.134)

t hird

e xamined

b rim ( male) h eaddress U .8693 f rom P G 4 29 a t U r a nd c ommented:

b eads

o f

c onsisting o f t wo l engths o f g old c hain a nd t hree l arge g old a nd l apis d ivided b y c arnelian r ings; b ut w hereas t he

c hains s eem t o h ave i nterlocking l inks g iving a s quare s ection o f t raditional f orm ( loop-in-loop) t hey a re n ot r eally c hains a t a ll, n ot e ven f lexible, b ut l engths o f c ut w ire t wisted o n t hemselves a nd s oldered t ogether i nto a n i mitation w hich w ithout c areful e xamination w ould p ass m uster a s A

p iece

o f

t he g enuine t hing '.

f ine g old c hain w as

" A" a t K ish, D ynastic I II

r ecovered f rom t he a rea o f

c emetery

b ut w ithout p recise c ontext, t hough p robably E arly o r e arly A kkadian i n d ate. M ackay d escribed i t a s

f ollows: " It l inks w ire a nd t he w ith

o f

i s 1 8.70cm.

l ong a nd 5 mm.

s uch a f orm a s

o f w hich

t he

t o m ake

l inks a re m ade

t hick,

a nd i s

t he c hain s quare i s

b uilt u p o f w ire

i n

s ection.

s lightly o ver 1 mm.

i n

T he

d iameter

u niform i n t hickness. O n e xamination u nder a m agnifying g lass w ire s howed t he c haracteristic l ongitudinal g rooving a ssociated d rawn w ire..."

s uggested

d rawing

( Mackay,

1 929,

" through

a

1 82,

c arnelian 8 6

p l.XLIII.3, b ead".

5 ). A s

O ddy

M ackay h as

d emonstrated,

s uch l ines n eed n ot b e e vidence o f

" drawn" w ire i n t he

s trict m odern s ense o f t he t erm a nd t he K ish e xample f its w ell i nto h is s cheme f or a ncient w ire m aking. A p iece o f g old c hain, o f w hat a ppears t o b e c omparable t ype, i f s lightly l ater i n d ate, w as r eporte d f rom o ld F rench e xcavations a t A sherah ( Terqa) i n 1 923 ( Dhorme a nd T hureau-Dangin, 1 924, 2 88, p l.LX.8-9). A r ecent a ttempt t o e lucidate t he t echnology o f t hird m illennium l oop-in-loop c hains t hrough a n a rt m arket

e xample,

s olves

( Athanassopoulos

A lready

p urchased a s A natolian,

i n

e t a l.,

t he U r

r aises m ore q uestions t han i t

1 983).

" royal"

t ombs

c loisons w ere

s oldered

t o

a

b ase-plate t o f orm c ells f or i nlay o n f inger r ings ( Woolley, 1 934, p 1.138: U .9778) a nd t here i s a p articularly w ell-preserved e xample o f

t his

t echnique o f t he s ame m id.

t hird m illennium B .C.

d ate

f rom

T elloh. T his f inger-ring i s i nlaid w ith l apis l azuli a nd c arnelian ( de S arzec a nd H euzey, 1 884-1912, 3 91, p l.44 t er., f ig.3a, b ; M argueron,

1 965,

p l.43

( in c olour)).

S ilver h air o rnaments

f rom R T

1 237 a t U r, t erminating i n i nlaid f lowers, a re m ore o rnate i llustrat ions o f t he s ame t echnique i n E arly D ynastic I II ( Woolley, 1 934, p 1.136). I t b ecame a t echnique r ecurrent t hrough t he h istory M esopotamian g old w orking d own t o m agnificent e xamples p roduced t he A chaemenid p eriod.

T hen,

o f i n

a nd p erhaps e arlier i n t he K assite a nd

M iddle A ssyrian p eriods ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 971, 1 67), i t i s p ossible t hat s poradically c loser c ontacts w ith E gypt, w here t his t echnique w as t ypical, s timulated t he u se o f c loisonné w ork i n M esopotamia a nd I ran. ( iv)

J oining m ethods

A rchaeological l iterature c ontains m any c onfusions o ver t he t erms s oldering, b razing a nd w elding t hat h ave n ot b een e ased b y t echnical e xperts i ntroducing s uch w ords a s s weating, f using a nd a utogenous s oldering. A n i mportant f undamental d istinction h as f irst t o b e d rawn b etween s oldering ( whether " hard" o r " soft") w hich i nv olves a n a gent ( the s older), a nd w elding, w hich d oes n ot. A s s oft s oldering i s n ot r elevant t o g old w orking, i t w ill b e d iscussed e lsewhere

( see

p .127);

b ut

i t m ay b e u sefully d efined h ere a s

t he

e mployment o f l ead, o r o ccasionally t in, r arely t in-lead b efore l ate R oman t imes, w ith a m elting p oint w hich i s b elow 4 27 ° C ( 800 0 F ), t hat i s b elow t he t emperature a t w hich t he w ork i s d one, a nd a lso b elow t he m elting p oint o f t he m etals t o b e j oined. " Soldering a nd b razing a re j oining t echniques e mploying f iller m etal a t t emperatures b elow s olidus o f t he m etals b eing j oined. C onventionally, s oldering r efers t o p rocesses b elow 4 50 0 C ; b razing t o p rocesses a bove 4 50 ° c ( Fell, 1 982). T o q uired.

p romote P liny

f low w as

o f t he

t he b raze o r s older a l iquid f lux f irst

t o d escribe s pecific

i s

f luxing

r e-

a gents

( oils a nd f ats, w ax a nd h oney, a nd a rtifically p repared p roducts f rom d ung a nd u rine, e tc.); b ut t hey a re e xtremely d ifficult t o d etect, w ith t he p ossible e xception o f b orax, i n c orroded a ncient j oints. F ell

( 1982) h as

t ested a w hole s eries o f p otential f luxes

l isted

i n

C lassical a nd M edieval l iterature f or l ow-temperature a nd f or h ight emperature w ork; b ut h is r esults c annot a t p resent b e d irectly c orrelated w ith M esopotamian e vidence. B razing

( or

h ard s oldering)

i s

" the p roduction o f a 8 7

j oint

b y

m eans

o f a n a lloy o f

s omewhat ( Roberts,

l ower 1 973,

r easonably h igh s trength h aving a m elting p oint

t han 1 13).

t hat o f t he m etals o r a lloys t o b e j oined" B razers f orm m olecular b onds w ith t he s urface

t hey u nite a nd a re t herefore s tronger t han s oft s oldered W hereas s oft s olders a re g enerally g reyish w hite i n c olour, m ay b e m ade t o m atch c losely t he c olours o f t he m etals t o b e P lenderleith ( 1934, 2 96) a nd M aryon ( 1949, g oldsmiths a t U r u sed a n ative g old a lloy: " The h ighly d ecorated b eads a re

g enerally

s weated,

l ike U .9779

( Woolley,

f iligree

p 1.138), a re t he t wo

t hicknesses

t he

t ogether s o a s

t o

a nd

1 934,

g ranulations

j oined

t he

s uggested t hat t he

a ttached t o t he b ackground b y c arefully c ontrolled h eat w ithout e xtraneous m edium o f s older; b ut t he f lat d isk b eads m ade f rom o f m etal

i .e.

1 08)

j oints. b razers j oined.

l eave a h ole

f or

t hread t hrough t he c entre w ere a pparently s oldered ( Type 1 6, W oolley, 1 934, f ig.70). A pparently t he g old b eads o f t ubular f orm, e ither b arrel-shaped o r

i n t he

f orm o f

t wo c ones,

b ase t o b ase,

a ll h ave a

l ongitudinal s oldered s eam ; t he s older u sed w ould b e e ither a t hin s trip o f t he s ame g old ( autogenous s oldering) o r a n a lloy r icher i n s ilver a nd c onsequently o f a l ower m elting-point t han g old" l eith,

1 934,

T he g old

s election

j oints

( Plender-

2 96). o f

s uch a b razing a lloy f or t he

m anufacture

w ould h ave b een a m atter o f s ome c omplexity.

T he

o f e x-

t remely h igh m elting p oint o f n ative g olds m ake t hem d ifficult t o u se a s b razers, w hilst n ative g old a lloys c ontaining e nough s ilver t o b e o f u se f or b razing a re d istinctly l ighter i n c olour. B ut t he s triki ng f eature o f s ome U r o bjects i s t he v ery u niformity o f c olour i n t he a rea o f j oins. T his m ay s ometimes, i f n ot w holly, b e e xplained b y t he d isappearance o f m etals o ther t han g old f rom t he s urface o f t he b razing a lloy t hrough t he a ction o f c hemicals i n t he e arth a mong w hich i t w as b uried ( "surface e nrichment"), a s M aryon a rgued ( 1949, 1 14). H e a lso c ited t he v iew o f L ittledale t hat " when a j oint i s o verfired t he s older p enetrates f urther a nd f urther i nto t he s urr ounding m etal, a lloying i tself w ith i t, a nd b ecoming m ore l ike i t i n q uality, t ill t he c olour o f t he s older i s i ndistinguishable f rom t hat o f t he w ork". S mith ( 1930, 2 2) a nd P lenderleith ( 1934, 2 96) e xp lained t his l ack o f c olour d ifference b y t he u se o f a p iece o f m etal o f t he s ame a lloy a s t he p ieces t hey j oined. E ven w hen t he a ncient c raftsmen

h ad

t hey s till h ad

s olved

t he p roblems b oth o f c olour a nd m elting

t o c ontrol

t he f low o f

t owards t he h ottest a rea o f t he p arts c oal f ire a nd b low-pipe o r b ellows,

t he b razer,

w hich t ends

p oint, t o

b eing f astened. W ith a t he a mount a nd d irection

f low c harw ould

h ave b een v ery h ard t o c ontrol s uccessfully. R oberts

( 1973,

g esting n atron

1 15) h as d escribed e arly b razing t echnique,

( sodium c arbonate) a s

s mall

p ieces

o r c hips o f

t he m ost

s ug-

l ikely f lux:

t he c hosen b razing a lloy

w ould

t hen h ave b een l aid i n p osition, o r h eld i n p osition b y s mall p ieces o f w ire, a round t he j oint t o b e m ade, a f lux o f s ome k ind w ould h ave b een a pplied t o t he s urfaces t o b e j oined, a nd t he w ork p ut i nto a c harcoal f ire o r h eld b y t ongs i n t he f ire u ntil t he b razing a lloy b ecame m olten. T he f lame w as t hen c oncentrated o n t he j oint, -

-

w ith t he r eed b lowpipe, a nd t he b razing a lloy w ould f low b y c apillary a ttraction i nto t he s pace b etween t he s urfaces t o b e j oined. L ater t he m etalworker w ould c lean o ff r esidual t races o f f lux f rom t he

8 8

w ork ,

p robably b y s craping." R oberts

1 21345): g reen

e xamined

W oolley,

e ye-paint.

u pper p art, t al f oot.

( cf.

1 934,

p l.161

I t o f

I t

d etail

a

p l.160a)

p edestal

b owl

( U.10452

f rom R T 8 00 a t U r,

( BM

w hich h ad h eld

i s e lectrum ( 25% s ilver) w ith a

d ouble-walled

a nd a b razed j oint r ound t he j unction o f b owl a nd p edesT here i s a m echanical j oint a t t he r im. O n a b owl f rom

t he s ame t omb, j oint b etween c lear

i n

1 934,

w ith a t wisted w ire h andle, t he f illet o f t he b razed t he t ubular l ugs a nd t he b ody o f t he v essel i s s till

L ang a nd H ughes,

1 977,

1 69:

U .10851

( BM 1 21344),

W oolley,

b ).

i s n ecessary t o

p ressure w elding,

s ay

t hat

" cold w elding",

i n t he m odern s ense

i s n ot p ractical u nder o rdinary c onditions a nd

i s m ost u nlikely t o a ccount f or a ny a ncient s olderless j oints. O nly t he g old b eater, w ho m akes g old l eaf f or g ilding, m ay b e a ccounted a n e xception, g old o ver

f or h e r epairs a d efective l eaf b y l aying a f resh p iece o f t he g ap a nd w elds i t i nto p osition b y h ammer p ressure

a lone. ( v)

G ranulation:

G ranulation

i s

t he m ost

s tudied

( Wolters,

1 983),

q uently o ne o f t he m ost c ontroversial, a spects o f a ncient f or i t m ay n ot b e a ssumed t hat o nly o ne m ethod w as u sed

a nd

c onse-

j ewellery, t hroughout

a ntiquity n or t hat v ariations a re p redictable, a s h as s ometimes b een d one i n t he p ast i n t he l arge l iterature o n t he q uestion ( cf. C arr oll, 1 974). I n g ranulation t he c raftsman a rranges s mall g rains o f m etal i n a n o rnamental o r f igurative p attern o n a m etal s urface, w ith t he g ranules h eld i n p lace b y j oining t hem t o t he b ase ( Wolters, 1 981). M any e xamples o f g ranulation s howing r emnants o f s older w ere o bviously p roduced w ith s older a lloys a nd f luxes, p robably i n n o w ay d ifferent f rom t hose u sed f or o ther c ontemporary g oidwork d escribed a bove ( metal a lloy g ranulation). M odern e xperiments t o r eplicate s uch w ork h ave u sed a g old,

s ilver a nd c opper s older f or g old,

a nd a

m ixture o f s ilver a nd c opper f or s ilver ( Carroll, 1 974, 3 5). B ut g ranulation w ithout e vident t races o f s older m ust h ave b een p roduced i n s ome o ther w ay. T he e xtent t o w hich s intered g ranulation w as u sed i n a ncient M esopotamia r emains a m atter f or d etailed i nvestigation. I n t his m ethod a j oin w as m ade b y h eating t he m etal s urfaces t o b e j oined t o m elting p oint ( without r eaching t he p oint a t w hich t he b ulk o f t he m etal w ould b ecome l iquid), s o t hat b oth s urfaces a re e nriched i n c opper a nd s ilver r elative t o t he i nsides. C arroll ( 1974, 3 6) h as d emonstrated t hat s uch a m ethod i s f easible w ith s imple s ince t emperatures c an b e e stimated b y o bservation o f

e quipment, t he v isual

c hanges a t t he s urface ( but c f. W olters, 1 981, 1 25-6). A g rain r ingb ead f rom t he " Royal C emetery" a t U r m ay b e t he e arliest r ecognized e xample o f s intered g ranulation ( Plenderleith, 1 934, 2 97; c f. S eeley i n M axwell-Hyslop, •

M uch

e arly

1 977,

8 6);

i ts d ate,

h owever,

i s n ot c ertain.

r esearch i nto m ethods o f g ranulation r ested o n

t he

f alse a ssumption t hat o nly o ne t echnique h ad b een u sed i n a ntiquity. T his, i t w as a rgued, h ad b een " lost" a nd t hen " found" a gain b y m odern r esearch,

n otably

t hrough t he e xperimental w ork o f H .A.P.

p atented i n 1 933 ( cf. t o t his m ethod w as g ranulation);

a

M aryon a nd P lenderleith, t he u se o f c opper-salt a s

m ethod,

o f g reater a daptability

8 9

L ittledale,

1 954, 6 57). T he k ey s older ( copper-salt t han

s intering,

w hich

m ight b e u sed b oth f or g ranulation a nd f iligree,

b onding

t hrough s urface a lloying.

F inely p owdered

a nd a chieved

c opper-salt

i s

l aid o n t he s urfaces t o b e j oined, w ith c arbon a s t he r educing a gent. U nder h eat, t he c opper-salt i s r educed t o m etallic c opper. A t s uffic iently h igh

t emperature

l owers

m elting p oint.

i ts

i t a lloys w ith g old i n t he s urface z ones a nd " The c arbon m onoxide

f rom t he

c harcoal

f ire, a nd a lso f rom t he r eduction o f t he c opper o xide, w ill n ot o nly s erve a s a r educing a gent t o r emove a ny o xide f ilms o n t he w ork b ut a lso p revent a ccess o f o xygen t o t he p arts b eing h eated. T hus t he p arent m etal s urface i s f ree f rom o xides a nd t he p rime r equirements f or

t he

p roduction o f a b razed

j oint h ave b een s atisfied"

( Roberts,

1 973, 1 17). W olters ( 1981, 1 27) h as a rgued t hat, a part f rom t he v ery o bvious u se o f m etallic s olders, b onding w ith n on-metallic s olders i n t his w ay, i s t he o nly f easible m ethod w ith a ncient h eating r esources a nd p roduces a ll t he t echnical c haracteristics o f a ncient g ranulat ion. A s s mall m etal p articles t end t o a ssume a s pherical s hape i n m elting, t heir f ormation w ould n ot h ave p resented a p roblem. T hey w ould h ave b een p ositioned w ith t he u se o f a n o rganic a dhesive b efore p roceeding w ith t he A s

C arroll

g ranulation. t he n ot

j oining p rocess.

( 1974,

3 8)

p ointed o ut,

c are i s n eeded

A mong t he g old o bjects i n t he

" royal"

i n i dentifying

t ombs a t U r,

a re

d agger h ilts w hich a ppear t o b e d ecorated i n t his w ay, b ut a re ( Woolley, 1 934, p ls.151, 1 55, 1 57, 1 90). T he " grains" i n t hese

c ases

a re

t he h eads o f

t iny n ails,

p ossibly m ade b y h eating t he t ip

o f a w ire u ntil i t b ecame m olten a nd f ormed a b all.

( h) 1 .

G old A nalyses

T epe G awra:

g old b ead ( Tobler,

2 .

U r:

A :

f rom t omb 1 950,

C u:

0 .56%

A g: A u:

6 1.39% 3 8.05%

8 8,

1 09;

L ate P rehistoric p eriod

n .30).

a ll E arly D ynastic I II " Royal C emetery", f rom t able i n W oolley, 1 934 ( Table I II); a nalyses b y P lenderleith, J ohnson, M atthey a nd C o.; a nd E .C. P adgham.

1 .

S pear h ead

( U.9122)

G old

S ilver

C opper

A pprox. c arat

3 0.30%

5 9.37%

1 0.35%

2 . A ss o n r ein-ring ( U.10439) 3 . M es-kalam-dug " helmet" ( U.10000)

6 5.60%

3 1.45%

2 .65%

4 .

P lain b eaker

7 5.62%

2 3.34%

1 .04%

1 8

5 . 6 .

F luted b eaker ( U.10453) R ound b owl ( U.10002)

7 3.48% 5 8.16%

2 4.73% 4 0.04%

1 .79% 1 .80%

1 8 1 4

7 . 8 .

O val b owl ( U.10001) F luted b owl ( U.10003)

6 0.63% 7 2.56%

3 7.07% 2 5.44%

2 .30% 2 .00%

1 5 1 7

9 " Lamp" ( 1 3.10004) 1 0.Dagger ( U.10020)

6 0.00% 9 1.11%

3 8.60% 7 .69%

1 .40% 1 .20%

1 4 2 2

1 1.Headdress:leaf

6 7.17%

3 2.38%

0 .45%

1 6

( U.10452)

( U.number a bsent)

-

9 0

-

-

-

-

-

7 1 6 1 5

7 7.84%

2 1.74%

0 .42%

1 9

1 3.Hair 1 4.

1 2.Ribbon

r ibbon ( U.number a bsent) i bid. ( U.number a bsent)

( U.12388)

7 5.11% 7 7.77%

2 4.5% 2 1.16%

0 .32% 1 .07%

1 8 1 9

1 5. 1 6.

i bid. i bid.

( U.number a bsent) ( U.number a bsent)

7 7.44% 7 7.77%

2 2.06% 2 1.16%

0 .50% 1 .07%

1 8 1 9

1 7.

i bid.

( U.number a bsent)

7 0.91%

2 7.52%

1 .57%

1 7

1 8. 1 9. 2 0.

i bid. i bid. i bid.

( U.number a bsent) ( U.number a bsent) ( U.number a bsent)

7 7.44% 7 1.36% 8 3.95%

2 2.06% 2 7.86% 1 3.95%

0 .50% 0 .81% 2 .10%

1 8 1 7 2 0

2 1.

i bid.

( U.number a bsent)

7 6.98%

2 0.72%

2 .30%

1 8

B :

1 /6-granule g old r ing,

s aid

t o

b e

f rom R T 8 00

( Pu-

a bi): ( Seeley i n M axwell-Hyslop, 1 977, 8 6); t his p rovenance a nd t he e arly d ate a re n ot a bsolutely c ertain. G ranule 1 :

1 00% A u. 8 0-90% 9 -20% 0 .5-1%

G ranules 2 -5:

i l/Fragment a lso s aid

V I:

A u. A g. C u.

o f g old s trip w ith a ttached g ranules,

t o b e R T 8 00

( Pu-abi):

G ranules:

7 7% 1 8% 5 %

A u. A g. C u.

B ase:

8 8%

A u.

1 0%

A g.

2 %

C u.

I RON ( a) T ypes a nd o res I ron,

F e)

n ever

s trictly s peaking,

i s

t he p ure m etal

e ncountered i n a ntiquity ;

s teel i s

( the c hemical e lement " iron t hat

h as

b een

c ombined w ith c arbon a toms t hrough a c ontrolled t reatment o f h eating a nd c ooling" ( Congdon, 1 971, 1 8). I ron i s t he o nly c ommon m etal i n w hich c arbon c an d issolve; b ut, s ince c harcoal v ital t o p rovide t he h eat n eeded f or i ronworking, c arbon w ent

i nto

t he m etal w as n ot

( i.e. c arbon) t he f act t hat

r ealised u ntil A .D.

1 786

w as s ome

( Smith,

1 981, 3 3ff.). U ntil t hen c raftsmen b elieved t hat s teel w as m erely a r efined f orm o f i ron ( Wertime, 1 980, 5 ). C arbon a toms f ind s paces b etween t he l ayers o f a toms i n t he i ron c rystals s o t hey m ove t hrough t he h ot m etal e ven w hen i t i s s olid, f ar b elow t he m elting p oint. T hus c arbon m ay b e a dded o r r emoved a t t he s urface o f t he m etal, w hilst

l onger h eating w ill m ake t he m etal m ore h omogeneous.

A s p ure

i ron h as a m elting p oint o f 1 540 0 C , a nd p rimitive s melters c ould n ot r each m uch a bove 1 200 0 C , i t w as n ot p ossible t o m elt t his m etal i n t he p eriod c onsidered h ere. H owever, w hen i ron i s a lloyed w ith 4 % c arbon, i t c an b e m ade t o m elt a t 1 150 0 C , t hough t he r esolidified m etal i s v ery b rittle. I nevitably, p erhaps o ften, c ast i ron w ould h ave b een m ade b y a ccident i n s melting h earths t hat w ere p roducing w rought i ron. Y et i t d oes n ot a ppear i n t he N ear E ast a s a m aterial v alued

f or

i ts

o wn s ake u ntil r elatively m odern t imes. 9 1

W rought i ron,

s teel,

a nd

c ast i ron a re

i n a lmost e very

s ense

t hree d istinct m aterials, e ach n eeding a d ifferent t reatment, e ach b est a dapted t o d ifferent p urposes. B ut t hey a re a ll o ver 9 5% m etall ic i ron ; i ndeed w rought i ron a nd s teel c ontain o ver 9 9%. T he d ifference b etween t hem i s d ue m ainly t o v arying a mounts o f c arbon. W ought i ron o r l ow c arbon s teel ( less t han 0 .5% c arbon), i s a s oft, d uctile p roduct w ith s mall a mounts o f s lag; a bout 0 .8% c arbon ; a h igh c arbon s teel r uns

m ild s teel b egins t o a bout 1 .5% c arbon.

a t

u nless t he s peaker i s a bsolutely c ertain t hat a n o bject h e i s t alking o f ( particularly i f i t i s e arly o r p re-Roman) i s t rue s teel, h e s hould a void t he u se o f t he t erm 'steel ', f or t he s ake o f a ccuracy I t i s f ar m ore a ccurate t o t erm t he p roducts d ating f rom

a bout 1 000-200 B .C.

c ertain o f h is

g round,

a s b eing c arburized

a s b eing c ase-hardened,

i ron,

o r,

i f o ne

o r s emi-steel.

A s

i s f or

i ron p roducts b efore 1 000 B .C. o r b etter s till, 1 400 B .C., u nless t he s ample h as b een a nalyzed, i t i s s afest t o r efer t o i t a s i ron o r w rought i ron" ( Congdon, o ver b ronze a nd w rought

1 971, 2 7). T he m arked a dvantages o f s teel i ron a re i ts m echanical s trength a nd a bility

t o h old a n e dge. N ative i ron i s r are, m eteorites a re m ade

f ound c hiefly i n m eteorites;

b ut n ot a ll

c ontain i ron i n r eadily a vailable f orm. O nly s iderites a lmost w holly o f i ron; a erolites a re l argely s tone a nd

s iderolites r aisins i n

a re a m ixture o f i ron a nd s tone, a c ake. B y h ammering w ith s tone

w ith t he m etal t ools o r p rying

l ike w ith

c opper c hisels s mall f lakes o f i ron m ay b e d etached f or u se ( Bjorkman 1 973). M eteoric i ron a lmost i nvariably c ontains t he m etal n ickel i n p roportions v arying f rom a bout 5 t o 2 6%, b ut u sually i n t he r ange 7 t o 8 %. N ickel a ppears o nly i n v ery s mall q uantities, i f a t a ll, i n t errestrial i ron a nd i ts o res, s o i t h as c ommonly b een u sed t o d ist inguish

c elestial

( Piaskowski, I t

1 982,

s hould

f rom

t errestrial

c hallenges

b e n oted

t hat

i ron

i n

a ncient

a rtefacts

t his v iew). t here a re s ome a ncient

i ron

o bjects,

n otably a n a xe-blade o f t he L ate B ronze A ge f rom R as S hamra i n S yria ( Schaeffer, 1 939, 1 07ff.; R ichardson, 1 943; W aldbaum, 1 980, 7 6, n n.7,22) t hat h ave a s ignificant n ickel c ontent c laimed t o b e t oo l ow t o b e m eteoric i n o rigin; i n t he R as S hamra a xe-blade t here i s 2 .5% n ickel. I t i s n ot y et k nown e ither h ow t his w as m ade o r f rom w hat. I t

m ight

p ossibly b e a m ixture o f

H owever, o ld a nalyses n ickel c ontent, w hich i nvestigation i s

a ble

t errestrial

a nd

m eteoric

i ron.

o f m eteoric i ron t ended t o y ield t oo l ow a m ight a lso b e a ffected b y w eathering. N ew

r equired.

I n m any a reas t han c opper;

t errestrial i ron o res a re f ar m ore r eadily a vaili ndeed t hey a re a mong t he m ost c ommon o n e arth.

M any l ie s o c lose t o t he s urface t hat t hey a re e asily r ecoverable. N or i s a m ore o r l ess p ure m ineral r equired f or w orkable i ron, s ince m any r ocks o f h igh i ron c ontent c an b e s melted. R ed o xide ( haematite) a nd t he h ydrated f orm ( limonite) b oth c ontain a h igh p roportion o f i ron a nd, a s t hey a re r elatively f ree f rom s ulphur a nd p hospherous, a re e asily w orked t o g ive g ood i ron. T he m agnetic o xide ( magnetite/l odestone) a lso

e asily

a nd t he c arbonate w orked.

T he

( siderite/chalybite o r s pathic o re) a re

s ulphide o res

( pyrites o r

m arcasite

a nd

p yrrhotite) a re m ore p roblematic, s ince a ny s ulphur l eft i n t he m etal a ffects i ts w orking p roperties a nd u se. M ost i ronstones c ontain o ne 9 2

o f

t he

o xides o f

i ron,

b ut w ith s iliceous,

a rgillaceous

o r

e ven

p artly c alcareous m atter, s o t he y ield o f m etal i s v ery l ow b y c ompar ison w ith t he p urer m inerals. I ron o res u sually c ontain 3 0-40% o f u nwanted m aterials. ( b)

P roduction:

M any

o f

m illennia

t o

t he t echniques

d eveloped i n t he p revious

t hree o r

a pply t o p rimitive

i ron. I ron c ould n ot b e s melted t o a l iquid m etal i n f urnaces; i ron h as t o b e r ed h ot b efore i t i s m alleable;

p roduce a nd m anufacture c opper a nd i ts a lloys

d o

f our n ot

i ron s i mpurities h ave t o b e s queezed o ut b y h ammering a t r ed h eat; a nd i t may o nly b e w orked e ffectively w ith t ongs t o h old t he i ncandes cent m etal I n

( above 8 00 0 C ).

a ncient M esopotamia,

w as n ot s ubject c hing, t racing,

s o f ar a s p resent e vidence g oes,

i ron

t o c old w orking, t o r aising a nd r epoussé, t o p unc hasing a nd s imilar t echniques, s een t o b est a dvan-

t age i n g old a nd s ilver. B ut, a s s uch t echniques h ave n ow b een r ecognized i n l evel I V ( c.I000-800 B .C.) a t H asanlu i n n orthwest I ran, t his m ay j ust b e a f ortuitous g ap i n t he e vidence f or A ssyria ( Pigott,

1 980).

I t i s s till s omething o f a m ystery h ow s miths c ame t o s melt i ron o res s ystematically, f or t hey r equire a m uch m ore p recise f iring p rocess t han c opper. T he o re h ad t o b e c ompletely s urrounded w ith c harcoal a nd t he f ire f ed w ith a b last o f a ir; b ut t he i ron, i f s ubject t o a ir, m ight r e-oxidize; i f e xposed t o t oo m uch c arbon, i t w ould b ecome h ard a nd b rittle. N or i s u nderstanding o f t he m atter e ased

b y t he a bsence o f a rchaeological i nformation o n

i ron-smelting

f urnaces i n t he N ear E ast b efore t he C lassical p eriods ( cf. T ylecote, 1 980, 2 10ff.; W aldbaum, 1 980, 8 8ff). P etrie T h " iron s melting f urn aces" a t T ell J emmeh i n I srael a re a n e nigma; t hey m ight b e i ron f orges ( Stech-Wheeler e t a l., 1 981, 2 60) a s t here i s r elated e vidence f or b lacksmiths w orkshops, p robably m ilitary o nes, a t T ell e shS haria a nd M esad H ashavyahu i n I srael i n t he s eventh a nd e arlier s ixth c enturies B .C. E arly i ron w orking m ethods i n t he N ear E ast h ave t hen s till t o b e r econstructed f rom a b lend o f a nalogy ( with p rimitive f urnaces b oth a ncient a nd m odern) a nd t he i ndications p rovided b y m etallographic e xamination o f e arly i ron a rtefacts f rom C yprus ( Tholander, 1 971; 1 982) )Syro-Palestine ( Ste-h-Wheeler e t a l., 1 981) and I ran ( Pigott, 1 980). A ctual s melting o perations m ust h ave t aken p lace w here a mple s upplies o f f uel w ere r eadily a vailable, a s i t t akes t his i s

a bout 8 t ons o f c harcoal t o s melt 1 t on o f i ron o re; c onsiderably l ess t han t he 2 0:1 r atio f or c opper

t hough ( Hom e,

1 982). W hen,

a s

i n t his c ase,

a rchaeological e vidence i s n ot a vailable,

v aluable e vidence o n p rimitive m ethods t ions

o f

w here

t echnology h ad c hanged

y ears.

n ineteenth

i s

c entury t ravellers

S uch a n a ccount e xists

t o b e

f ound i n t he p ublica-

t o p arts o f

l ittle i n t he p revious

b efore t hat

t hey

c ould b e m ade

f rom w hence t he t here w ere

t o u nderstand

b ut

t hat

t he o re w as

9 3

a nd i t w as

t hat I w ished

i ron-ore w as e xtracted.

n o m ines,

N ear

t hree

E ast

t housand

f or i ron s melting i n T urkey:

I h ad b rought n o i nterpreter w ith m e, m ines

t he

T o

t his

t o

s ome

t ime

s ee

t he

t hey r eplied

f ound e verywhere a bout

t he h ills

n ear

t he

s urface.

T his

n ear t heir h ut w ith a m attock ,

t hey p roved b y s craping u p t he

a nd c ollecting s mall n odular

s oil

m asses,

w hich I u nderstood w as t he f orm i n w hich i t i s u niversally f ound i n t his d istrict T he o re i s p oor, a nd t he m iners m ust l ead a h ard a nd l aborious f or t heir o wn u se; t ive

s pot,

a s

w ood i n t heir

l ife; t hey a re a t t he s ame t ime c harcoal-burners, r emoving t heir h uts a nd f orges t o a m ore p roduc-

s oon a s

t hey h ave e xhausted

t he o re a nd

c onsumed

t he

i mmediate v icinity.

T he m ode o f e xtracting t he i ron i s h owever v ery s low a nd l abor ious; t he o re i s s melted i n a c ommon b lacksmith's f orge, i n w hich 1 80 o kes* o f t he r ude m aterial p roduce t hree b atmans o r p igs o f m etal, w eighing s ix o kes o r t hirteen p ounds a nd a h alf e ach ; c onseq uently t he o re o nly y ields t en p er c ent o f m etal, a nd t o p rocure t his s mall q uantity 3 00 o kes o f c harcoal a re r equisite. T he b last o f t he f urnace i s k ept u p f or 2 4 h ours, d uring w hich t ime t he m ass m ust b e c onstantly s tirred, a nd t he s cum a nd s coria r aked o ff, a fter w hich t he

m elted

i ron i s

f ound a t

t he b ottom,

w hich,

f rom t he s pecimen I

s aw, a ppeared o f a v ery g ood q uality w e p assed t he r emains o f s everal f orges i n p laces w here t he o re h ad b een c ompletely w orked o ut, a nd w here t he g round w as s tiewn w ith a shes...." ( Hamilton, 1 842,

I , T o

2 75ff.). p roduce

s ponge

i ron f rom t he o re c harcoal w as

l ayered

w ith

c hunks o f i ron o re, c ommonly h aematite o r m agnetite) i n a f urnace, a t f irst p robably n o m ore t han a h ole i n t he g round, o r i n r ock ( bowl f urnace) ( Tylecote, 1 980, 2 09ff.). A ir b last f rom a b ellows w as u sed t o r aise t he t emperature. U nder f iring c onditions t he c harcoal o xidized, f orming c arbon m onoxide, w hich r ose t hrough t he o re a nd r educed i t. A s r eduction t ook p lace a t a bout 1 200 0 C , w ell b elow t he m elting p oint o f i ron, t he m elt d id n ot l iquify, a s d oes c opper, b ut e merged

a s

a s pongy m ass

i n w hich u nreduced o re a nd

f uel

f ragments

w ere c aught u p ( bloom i ron). T he n on-metallic s ubstances a rise f rom t he c ombination o f f errous o xide a nd -s ilica g angue i n t he r eduction p rocess; t he c ommonest i ron f rom t he f urnace,

i s f ayalite. T he s mith t ook a m ass o f s pongy r eheated i t a t a f orge a nd s queezed o ut t he

f ayalite b y h ammering i t. T he s mith t hen h ad a t ough, m alleable b ar o f w rought i ron. F rom t his r aw m aterial o bjects w ere m ade b y f urther h eating a nd h ammering. I n

t his

s tate t he m etal

t ute f or w ell w orked a nd

( bloomery i ron)

t in-bronze,

w ill o nly c orrode

s lowly.

i s s oft a nd n o

s ubsti-

w hich c an b e c ast a nd w ork-hardened, I ron r usts r apidly,

o ften s uffering

c onsiderable d amage a s i t d oes s o. T he k ey p rocess i n t ransforming i ron f rom a n u nacceptable t o a n a cceptable s ubstitute f or b ronze i s t he m ethod o f h ardening k nown a s c arburization ( see d iagram i n C ongdon 1 971): t he a bsorption o f c arbon i nto t he m etal, t hereby c onverting i ron i nto s teel. T o c arburize, o r s teel, a n i ron o bject i t w as h eated i n c lose c ontact w ith c harcoal i n t emperatures i n e xcess o f 9 00 ° C . d ed b oth o n t he m etal

*

i tself w as

T he o ke

T he a mount o f c arbon a bsorbed i nto t he i ron d epent emperature o f t he f ire a nd t he l ength o f t ime t he l eft

( or o kra)

i n i t.

T he a ncient

s mith c ould n ot h ave k nown

i s a T urkish m easure o f w eight

a bout 2 l bs. 9 4

e quivalent

t o

e xactly w hen t he a ppropriate p roportion o f c arbon h ad b een a bsorbed; b ut e xperience h ad t aught h im t o a ssess t he h eat o f t he f ire, f rom i ts c olour, a nd t he l ength o f t ime a p iece o f i ron n eeded t o r emain i n i t

t o

p rovide

F ast

t he

c ooling

r equired f inished p roduct.

( quenching)

i s a f urther p rocess

f or s trengthening

i ron b y p lunging i t i nto c old w ater; a p rocess o f n o s ignificance i n c opper o r b ronze m anufacture, o r f or i ron w ithout c arbon i n i t. Q uenching

d ecomposes t he a ustenite

( a s olid p hase o f c arbon i n s teel

e xisting o ver 7 10 0 C ) i nto h ard, b rittle m artensite; i f c ooled m ore s lowly i t p roduces p earlite, a s t he a ustenite d ecomposes i nto a ltern ate l amellae o f f errite a nd c ementite, w ith a " pearly" a ppearance u nder a n o ptical m icroscope. Q uenching m ay b e f ollowed b y t empering. A t o ne t ime t his t erm r eferred t o t he h ardening o f s teel, b ut i t n ow d escribes t he r elaxing o f t he h ardness o f p reviously q uench-hardened m aterial

( martensite)

b y h eating

o f 1 50 0 C t o p roduce a s oft,

b ut

W ith p rimitive m ethods

o f

r izing w ould h ave b een s light,

t he s teel

t o

t emperatures

i n e xcess

t ougher m etal. i ron w orking t he p enetration o f s ufficient

f or t hin,

c arbu-

s lender o bjects

l ike k nife-blades, b ut n ot f or h eavier o bjects l ike a xeheads. F or s uch o bjects t he l aminated, p iled o r c ompacted s tructure w as d evised. I n t his p rocess p lates o f i ron o f v arying c arbon c ontent w ere b onded t ogether, c ommonly w ith a h igh c arbon l ayer o n t he s urface. T his t akes a dvantage o f t he f act, u nusual a mong m etals, t hat p ieces o f i ron

w ill w eld p erfectly t o e ach o ther

w hen

h ot.

T he

i f s imply

h ammered

t ogether

i ron s heets w ere e ach c arburized s eparately

b efore

b eing p iled a nd f orge-welded t ogether s o t hat t here w ould b e a r eason able d iffusion o f c arbon t hrough i ts m ass ( see p .107 h ere). T he h istory

o f

l aminated i ron i n t he N ear E ast,

f rom e xamples d ating t o

t he f irst p hase o f t he I ron A ge i n C yprus a nd A natolia ( Sardis) t o t hose o f t he A chaemenid p eriod a nd l ater, h as r ecently b een r eviewed b y M addin a nd h is T he

c olleagues

i ncidence o f

( Maddin e t a l.,

1 983a).

c arburization a nd t empering i n a ncient

i ron i s

n ot y et w ell u nderstood, s ince t he r ecognition o f i ntentional, a s d istinct f rom a ccidental, c arburization i n a ncient i ronwork i s a c ontroversial

i ssue i n m odern m etallographic

r esearch.

E ven

i nto

r elatively m odern t imes s miths w ere n ot s ure w hat t hey w ere d oing a nd, a lthough s ome a ncient s miths m ight h ave h ad a n e mpirical k nowledge o f h ow t o i mprove t he w orking o f i ron, i t i s l ikely m ost d id n ot. A ccidental c arburization m ight w ell h ave a risen f rom c arbon ( charcoal) t rapped i n t he p ores o f t he b loom i ron a nd t hen f orged i nto a f inished o bject. L amination i s a g ood d emonstration o f d eliberate c arburization a nd i ts e arliest a ppearance i n M esopotamia i s s ignificant. l t a ppears o n t ripods ( Coghlan, 1 956, 1 37, 1 80, 2 02, p l.I, f ig.2) f ound a t N imrud i n p alace s tores s acked a bout 6 14 B .C.; b ut m uch o f t he a ssociated m aterial i s e arlier b ooty o r t ribute f rom S yro-Palestine, w estern

D eliberate c ertain.

s o

t he

i ron s miths a t

A bout

t ripods m ay o nly b e e vidence t his

q uenching

i s e ven m ore d ifficult

t he o nly i ndependent c lue

i n H omer's O dyssey

( IX:

f or

t he

s kills o f

t o

i dentify

t ime.

3 89-94),

t o

i ts e arly d evelopment

i ndicating k nowledge o f

i t

f or i s

i n t he

E ast M editerranean, b y t he e ighth c entury B .C. W ater q uenching m ight h ave b een d one s imply t o c ool a f orged o bject q uickly. T he k ey l ayer o f a n o bject

f or r esolving w hether o r n ot 9 5

i t h as b een q uenched i s

t he

m artensite o uter

s urface,

t hat m ost

s ubject

t o r usting a nd t o d amage.

A lthough t here m ay b e s ome i ndication o f t he d eliberate q uenching o f i ron o bjects f rom N imrud ( Curtis e t a l., 1 979, 3 81), t he e arliest c ertain e vidence f or i t i s o n a n i ron c hisel f rom A l M ina o f t he f ourth c entury q uenching c racks

B .C. I ts t ip h ad b een c oated w ith c lay t o p revent ( Maddin e t a l., 1 977, 1 30ff.; W heeler e t a l., 1 976,

1 10-I). D irect

e vidence

f or

t he a ctivities o f t he A ssyrian b lacksmith i s

n egligible. P leiner a nd B jorkman ( 1974, 3 03ff.) h ave a ssembled t he f ew d ocumentary r eferences t here a re. T he s ame w orkshops w ere a ctive b oth i n t he p roduction o f c opper a nd i ts a lloys, a nd o f i ron, f or a t t imes t he t wo m etals h ad t o b e c ombined i n t he s ame o bject w hen t he c asting p roperties o f b ronze r endered i t i ndispensable ( see p .105). A ssyrian t exts,

t exts

d istinguish b etween c oppersmiths a nd i ronsmiths,

a s w ell a s o bjects,

a ttest

b ut

t he o verlapping o f t heir f unctions.

T he c ombination o f i ron a nd b ronze ( bimetallism) i s a s ignific ant a spect o f m etalworking f or m uch o f t he s o-called I ron A ge i n t he N ear E ast a nd a ttracted t he a ttention o f L ayard a nd h is c olleagues ( Layard, 1 853, 6 70). I t i s p articularly w ell i llustrated b y f inds f rom l evel I V a t H asanlu i n n orth-west I ran, d estroyed a bout 8 00 B .C. ( Pigott, 1 981, t able 1 0), w here c onsiderable n umbers o f b imetallic s words, s pearheads a nd m aceheads w ere r ecovered i n a ddition t o t hose e ntirely o f i ron. T he e vidence f rom A ssyria i s m ore s cattered a nd, i n t he c ase o f m aceheads a nd t ripods, r ather e quivocal, s ince a n umber

o f

t he

p ublished e xamples h ave

W est

S emitic

i nscriptions

c learly i ndicating a n o rigin o utside A ssyria ( Barnett, 1 967). B ut t here a re o thers w hich s uggest t hat, w hatever t he o rigin o f t he t echnology, i t h ad e stablished i tself i n A ssyrian w orkshops b y a t l east t he n inth c entury. N o t echnological s tudy o f t his t echnique i n t he N ear E ast i s a vailable, t hough o ne e xists f or t he E uropean I ron A ge ( Drescher, 1 958) a nd i t i s r elevant p articularly t o w eapons i n A ssyria M useum, t ype,

( cf. H odges, 1 962, 1 32). O ne d agger f rom N imrud ( Ashmolean 1 951.60) h as a b ronze h ilt, d irectly i mitating a b one p roto-

c ast o nto a n i ron b lade.

f eatures w ere r equired,

c ast

T his

i llustrates h ow,

w hen o rnamental

b ronze a llowed f or a f reedom i mpossible

w ith p rimitive i ron t echnology. S uch a lso w as t he c ase w ith t he m aceheads, w hich c ommonly h ave b ronze h eads c ast-on t o i ron s hafts. T he e arliest e xample o f a m acehead o f t his s tandard t ype, d ated b y a n i nscription o f S halmaneser I II ( c. 8 58-824 B .C.) h as a f acetted s tone h ead m ounted o n a n i ron s haft c apped w ith b ronze ( Curtis a nd G rayson, 1 982). B y p lacing a b aked c lay p iece-mould, p ossibly t aken d irect f rom a c arved s tone m acehead, o ver a n i ron s haft, s miths w ere a ble t o c ast-on a c opper o r b ronze h ead d ecorated i n a m anner u nattainable a t t he t ime i n i ron. T ripods i llustrate a nother t echnical r ole f or b ronze i n t his s tage o f i ron p roduction. T here t he b ronze w as c ast r ound t he j unctions o f i ron s truts t o s ecure t he j oint i n a r igid " sleeve", p resumably m ade b y p ouring t he l iquid m etal i nto a n a ppropr iate c lay m ould e ncasing t he i ron p arts. B imetallism c ontinued i nto a t

l east

t he A chaemenid p eriod.

T wo

l inch-pins h ave

u pper

p arts

m odelled a s h uman b odies, i n b ronze c ast-on t o i ron p ins ( Schmidt, 1 978, 1 9-22, p 1.40-2). C omparable l inch-pins a re s hown i n p lace o n c hariots d epicted o n t he P ersepolis r eliefs ( ibid., p l.22b). A n a ctual e xample, h owever, f rom N eo-Assyrian l evels a t N imrud, i s e ntirely o f b ronze ( Mallowan, 1 966, p l.142; c f. i n g eneral, C almeyer, 1 980). 9 6

( c)

S ources:

L ayard ( 1849, 2 25) e xplored i ron m ines i n K urdistan, i n t he B erwari V alley n orth-east o f A madiya, a nd a lso i n t he T iyari m ount ains. U nfortunately t here i s s o f ar n either d ocumentary n or a rcha eological t hough o n l ikely.

e vidence t o i ndicate t hat t he A ssyrians e xploited t hem, t he a rgument o f p roximity a nd a ccessibility i t w ould s eem

I n v iew o f

t he

p revalence o f

i ron o res a cross

t he N ear E ast,

s ource l ocation i s n ot s o c rucial a p roblem i n t he s tudy o f i ron w orking i n M esopotamia a s l t i s w ith c ertain o ther m etals.

e arly I ron

o res a re t o b e f ound i n A natolia, a s w ell a s i n C aucasia a nd T ransc aucasia ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 974, m ap o n p l.XX), i n I ran ( Harrison, 1 968, 4 96ff., f ig.113) a nd i n S yro-Palestine ( Stech-Wheeler e t a t., 1 981, 2 59), w hich i s r eferred t o I n D euteronomy ( 8:9) a s " a l and w hose s tones a re i ron-ore". T ylecote ( 1981a) h as i nvestigated t he p ossibility t hat t he i ron s ands o f t he B lack S ea r egion i n T urkey m ight h ave b een a u seful s ource o f i ron f rom t he o utset o f t he l ocal I ron A ge

( cf.

I n

B ryer,

1 982).

a s urvey o f A ssyrian i ron s ources M axwell-Hyslop

( 1974)

c om-

p ared t he a ncient d ocumentary e vidence w ith m odern I nformation o n s ources, u nder t wo s eparate c hronological h eads: " Middle A ssyrian" a nd " Neo-Assyrian". I n t he e arlier p eriod, T iglath-Pileser I ( c.1114-1076 B .C.) o btained i ron o re ( unspecified) a nd h aematite f rom N airi, w est a nd s outh o f L ake V an. T he f amous " Kizzuwatna L etter" o f t he H ittite k ing H attusilis I II ( c.1289-1265 K empinski a nd K osak , 1 977) t o a n A ssyrian

B .C.) k ing,

( Goetze, i ndicates

1 949; t hat

K izzuwatna, w hich l ay a bout t he a xis o f T aurus-Comana, w as a lready a n i mportant c entre f or i ron p roduction, s torage a nd d istribution i n t he t hirteenth c entury,

u nder d irect

c ontrol o f

t he H ittite k ing.

H ow-

e ver c areful r eading o f t his l etter, a nd o f l ater B iblical r eports o f t he P hilistines, d oes n ot s upport p opular t heories a bout " metal m onopolies" b loom i ron f rom

a t t his t ime. T he m etal p resumably t ravelled a s o re o r f rom t he m ining a reas t o t he r oyal I ronworking c entre,

w hich t he f inished o bjects w ere d istributed.

A s

t here

i s

n o

d ocumentary e vidence f or M itannian a ccess t o i ron, w hether t hey, o r t heir s uccessors i n H anigalbat

i t i s n ot k nown ( geographically

a cross

a ffected

A ssyrian r outes

t o

i ron s ources

i n A natolia)

M iddle

A ssyrian i ron s upplies. D ata

f rom t he

t enth t o

t he s eventh c enturies B .C.

i s m ore a mple

a nd i nstructive, a s i ron t hen f eatured c onspicuously i n N eo-Assyrian l ists o f b ooty a nd t ribute. D espite c ertain k nown e xaggerations, a nd u neven r ecords, n amed a s

t his i nformation i s i nstructive.

a r aw m aterial,

I ron w as

u sually

s ometimes w ith a q uantity g iven i n t alents,

b ut r arely a s a rtefacts. J ankovska ( 1969, 2 63) s ummarized t he e vid ence a s f ollows ( references a re t o L uckenbill, 1 926-7): " Though

i ron w as t he m Qst

m entioned m uch l ess

i mportant

s trategic m aterial,

f requently t han o ther m etals.

I t

i s

l t

i s

r ecorded i n

t he j oint t ribute o f s everal a reas o f A sia M inor, S yria a nd t he M editerranean c oast ( I, 7 22, 8 01), i n D amascus ( I, 7 40: 1 50 t ons), H attina ( I, 5 85: I , 4 77: 3 t ons), C archemish ( I, 6 01: 3 t ons; I , 4 76:

7 .5 t ons),

4 05;

I ,

a rea

( 1,

Q ue

4 06 a nd 1, 6 25),

g reat e xtent

( I, 5 01:

5 88),

B it- alupe

9 t ons),

S hubri

a nd I n t he L aqe o f H ammath

t his

l ack o f

( I,

( I, 4 43), ( I, 4 12:

5 02),

B it-Zamani

( I,

t he C haldaean

3 0kg.).

B ut

t o a

d ata o n I ron c an b e e xplained b y t he n ature

9 7

o f

o ur

s ources,

P leiner

r eferring

a nd

f or

B jorkman

t he m ost p art t o

( 1974,

t reasuries".

2 91ff.) a ttempted

t o

p lot

t his

i nformation a s a d iachronic d istribution g raph, b ut t he p eculiar n ature o f t he a vailable t extual i nformation a nd i ts u neven s pread, r estricts i ts v alidity. I n t he m ajority o f c ases i ron c ame f rom t he w est t he

a nd n orth-west: m odern A natolia a nd S yria; s ome a lso c ame f rom n orth ( ancient U rartu); b ut r egions i n I ran d o n ot f eature i n

t he t ribute l ists a s y ielding i ron. M axwell-Hyslop ( 1974) h as t reated i n s ome d etail t he f ollowing p otential N eo-Assyrian s ources o f i ron : t he M iddle E uphrates a nd t he K habur r egion ( Laqe); C archem ish, M arash a nd t he A manus; t he E lazig r egion ( Iruwa); t he G urun a nd M alatya a reas; t he D ivrigi d eposits, b etween S ivas a nd E rzincan, t he l argest a nd m ost i mportant i ron p roducing a rea i n m odern A nat olia; D amascus, p erhaps o nly a d istribution c entre f or m anufactured i ron; a nd T abal ( anti-Taurus r egion) a nd Q ue ( Cilicia), b oth i n m odern A natolia. s tantial,

n ot

I n a ll c ases w hat e vidence t here i s

r emains c ircum-

d irect.

O ppenheim ( 1967, 2 40ff.) p ublished t wo t ablets f rom U ruk, o f t he m id. s ixth c entury B .C., r eferring t o I ron " from Y amana" a nd f rom " Lebanon"; t he f irst p robably i ndicating s ome r egion o n t he I slands, o r t he w estern o r s outhern c oast o f A natolia, w hilst t he l atter m ay r efer t o n ative S yrian i ron, s ince t he r egion h ad p reviously s ent e normous q uantities o f t he m etal t o A ssyria. O ther N eo-Babylonian d ocuments f rom S ippar a nd U ruk ( Oppenheim, 1 967, 2 41) r efer t o i ron f rom F l ume, a v ariant w riting o f Q ue ( Cilicia). I ron a lso c ame f rom a n u nlocated a rea k nown a s S imir, w hich p roduced w ine a nd m ay h ave b een I n e astern A natolia. N o

s cientific m ethod h as

d ual s ources ( d)

o f

I dentifying i ndivi-

i ron i n t he N ear E ast.

T he D evelopment o f I ron-working i n M esopotamia:

S nodgrass s tages

y et b een a pplied t o

I n

( 1980,

3 36-7) h as m ost u sefully d efined t hree

t he e mergence o f

i ron t echnology,

e ach o f w hich

b road m ay

b e

o bserved i n M esopotamia. " In s tage 1 , i ron m ay b e e mployed w ith s ome f requency, b ut I t i s n ot t rue w orking I ron I n t he m ain, i ts e mployment i s f or o rnam ent, a s I s a ppropriate f or t he e xpensive c ommodity w hich w e k now i t t o h ave b een i n m any c ases. B ut t his o rnamental u se m ust b e e xtended t o c over o bjects t hat h ave t he o utward f orm o f r eal w eapons a nd t ools, r ole. o f t he

y et w hose c ircumstances r eveal t hat t hey p layed n o p ractical I ron-bladed d aggers a re w orth m entioning s pecifically b ecause t ime-honoured u se o f t he d agger a s a p restige o bject, a c ompo-

n ent o f 'dress-uniform ', a nd t he c onsequent t endency t o c hoose m aterials f or t heir c ostliness r ather t han t heir e ffectiveness. I n s tage 2 , f or i mplements o f I n

a lthough

s tage 3 ,

i t

w orking i ron i s

p resent b ut

i s u sed

l ess

t han b ronze

p ractical u se. i ron p redominates o ver b ronze a s aw orking

n eed n ot,

a nd u sually d oes

b ronze e ven i n t his r ole." 9 8

n ot,

c ompletely

m etal, d isplace

O ne a ny

f urther

h istorical

w orking f actors,

p oint m ade

b y S nodgrass

s urvey:

( 1980,

3 68)

i s

" To u nderstand t he s pread o f

i mportant e arly

i n

i ron-

o ne m ust d istinguish b etween t he e ssentially t echnological s uch a s c hose t hat b rought t he i nitiation o f s tage 1 a nd t he

t ransition t o s tage 2 , a nd t he e ssentially e conomic f actors t hat m ust l ie b ehind t he c hange f rom s tage 2 t o s tage 3 ". T his i s a s ignific ant

c onsideration i n M esopotamia,

e ven t hough t he

t ransitions

a re

n ot e asy t o i solate a t p resent. E ven i n t he N ear E ast t here a re w ide v ariations i n t he d uration o f s tage 2 , c onsiderably s horter i n C yprus a nd S yro-Palestine, t han l t I s i n E gypt, A ssyria ( perhaps a lso U rartu),

a nd I ran.

E ven t hough i t i s k nown t hat c raftsmen h ad e ncountered s melted i ron i n t he B ronze A ge ( see b elow), w idespread a cceptance o f t he n ew m etal a s a u tilitarian c ommodity h as s till b e b e e xplained. D espite t he a nd

r eady a vailability o f i ron o res i n c ontrast t o t hose o f c opper, t he m uch r arer t in, t wo k ey t echnological f actors i nhibited t he

r apid a doption o f i ron : t he a ppreciable a mount o f t ime i nvolved i n f orging e very s ingle i ron a rtefact a nd t he d ifficulty o f a chieving c onsistent f orging

r esults.

F or m ost o f

n eeded

t o p roduce a

w as

t he I ron A ge a l ot w orkable

m etal,

o f h eating s ince

a nd

c raftsmen

o perated s melting f acilities t hat l ed t o a s pongy I ron, l ow i n c arbon a nd m ixed w ith s lag. A lthough a s ingle s melting o peration, w ith r elatively l ittle s ubsequent w orking, w ould p roduce a r ange o f c opper o r b ronze o bjects, i t w as n ot s o w ith i ron. T o b e a ble t o p roduce a n i ron w eapon o r t ool w ith a c utting e dge o f a q uality e qual, o r s uperior, t o t hat o f a f ully w ork-hardened m edium t in-bronze, t he i ron s mith h ad t o m aster a v ariety o f h azards. h is c rude i ron h ad t o b e i mproved; h e h ad t o t hin-sectioned b lade;

T he h omogeneity o f f orge a b lank t o a

h e h ad t o h arden t he b lade t o a n e venly

d is-

t ributed a nd a ppropriate h ardness; a nd, i n f inishing, a ny e dge h ad t o b e g round t o a m aximum c utting p otential. S uch t asks d emanded m any m an-hours, much s kill, S till

i n

a nd w ide e xperience o f

t he s eventh c entury

a pparently,

s mithing. A ssyrian

i ron

w as

w rought i ron w ith a h eterogeneous c arbon d istribution. I t i s d iffic ult t o s ustain t he a rgument t hat i t w as t he s uperior q uality o f t he m etal t hat i nfluenced i ts a doption i n A ssyria ( cf. P igott, 1 982). N or, y et, i s t here a ny e vidence o f a t in " famine", o r o f s evere d isruptions i n t he l ines o f s upply f or c opper, s uch a s h ave b een h eld t o e xplain i ron s w idespread a cceptance i n t he E astern M editerranean i n t he f inal c enturies o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. ( Muhly, 1 980; S nodgrass, 1 980). T here s eems t o b e l ittle d oubt t hat a n I ron i ndust ry w as e stablished i n S yro-Palestine s ome t ime b efore a c omparable i ndustry e xisted i n A ssyria ( Waldbaum , 1 980; S tech-Wheeler e t a l., 1 981). I t i s l ikely t hat a c ombination o f f actors, p robably i n t he n inth c entury B .C. ( see b elow), s timulated t he i ndustry 's g rowth t here. A ssyrian c ampaigns i nto S yria w ould h ave t act w ith t he m etal a nd i ts p roduction, w hilst, o ffering

t he o pportunity

t o

c apture

i ncreased h er c ona t t he s ame t ime,

t rained s miths a nd r aw m aterial.

I t i s p ossible t hat t he g rowing c ommitment o f t he A ssyrian a rmy b y t hen r equired a n i nvestment i n w eapons a nd t ools o n a s cale n ot c ontemplated b efore a nd s trained t he a lways u ncertain s upplies o f t in.

T he

A ssyrian

s tate a lso n ow h ad

t he c apacity

t o

s et

u p

t he

n ecessary i ndustrial i nfra-structure f or t he e xtensive e xploitation o f i ron, w hich, e ven u nder t he m ost p rimitive c onditions, r equires r elatively c omplex o rganization

( cf.

P igott, 9 9

1 981,

2 17ff.);

t he m ore

s o,

i f

e fficient ( 1)

a nd e conomic

p roduction o n a ny s cale w as

r equired.

S tage 1 ( c.5000-1250 B .C.):

T he s earch f or p igments m ay f irst h ave f amiliarized m an w ith t he m ain i ron o res. H aematite, f or e xample, i s r ed o chre ( SchmandtB esserat, 1 980, 1 44). R ecent r esearch h as d emonstrated h ow B ronze A ge s miths a re l ikely t o h ave a cquired s ome k nowledge o f t he p ropert ies o f o f

o f

i ron

f rom t he a ccidental

p roduction o f

i ron t hrough t he u se

i ts o res a s f luxing a gents i n c opper s melting o r t hrough t he u se i ron-rich c opper o res ( see p p.7ff.). C opper o res w ere r egularly

s melted w ith i ron f luxes a nd i n t he p rocess t here w as a d istinct p ossibility o f i ron b eing r educed i n t he b ottom o f t he f urnace ( Tylec ote, 1 976, 2 -3, 4 0; C ooke a nd A schenbrenner, 1 975). T he p roblem f or t he a ncient m etalworker w as h ow t o p roduce u seful m etallic i ron f rom t he b its o f s pongy b loom r esulting f rom s uch a ccidental s melti ng.

T his

m ight

b e

t he o rigin o f

t he

f our-sided

i nstrument

o f

s melted i ron f rom g rave A a t S amarra, c ommonly d ated t o t he H alaf p eriod ( Herzfeld, 1 930, 5 :1, 5 , f ig.f, p 1.47; c f. P erkins, 1 949, 7 , n .69). I n a s ubsequent p ublication, h owever, H erzfeld ( 1933, 2 9) a rgued t hat a ll t he m etal h e h ad o riginally p ublished w ith t he p reh istoric p ainted p ottery f rom S amarra w as i ntrusive f rom t he I slamic l evels

i n

i mmediately a bove.

V aiman ( 1982) h as f ully d ocumented t he t extual e vidence f or i ron S umerian t exts b etween t he l ater f ourth a nd e arly s econd m illen-

n ium

B .C.

H is

e vidence c orrelates w ith

w hat

l ittle

a rtefactual

e vidence i s a vailable ( cf. W aldbaum , 1 980). M ost s ignificantly, i n a n i nventory t ext f rom U ruk I II, a t t he e nd o f t he p rehistoric p eriod,

i ron

e lectrum,

o bjects a re

s ilver

H einrich,1935, t he

E uphrates 1 979,

( Vaiman,

1 982,

g old,

3 3;

c f.

A c ontemporary l exical f ragment a lso l ists

A f ragment i n S yria,

o f

i ron i s

r eported

f rom J ebel A ruda

a s ettlement o f U ruk I V t ype

( Van D riel

o n e t

1 9).

P ieces o f

s melted i ron,

m illennium B .C. B azar ( Mallowan, p erhaps

l isted a mong w eapons a nd v essels o f

j ust p ossibly b ronze

p l.32c).

i ron a rtefacts. a l.,

a nd

o r t races o f i t,

a re r eported f rom t hird

c ontexts a t T ell A smar ( Frankfort, 1 950), a nd C hagar 1 936, 1 1, 2 6-7, 5 8, g rave 6 7 i n l evel 5 ), b oth

f rom d agger b lades.

U nanalysed p ieces a re a lso r ecorded

f rom

C hagar B azar ( Mallowan, 1 937, 1 51-2), T ell A smar ( Delougaz, 1 967, 1 98, 2 44), K hafajah ( cited i n W aldbaum, 1 980, 7 0) a nd K ish ( Mackay, 1 929, 9 7, 1 23-4, p 1.36:2). S ome i ron f ragments f rom M ari a re p robabl y

l ater

1 956,

t han w as c laimed w hen

t hey w ere f irst

e xcavated

( Parrot,

1 80-1).

M eteoric i ron w as a lso i n u se a t t his t ime i n M esopotamia. I t o ffers m uch t he s ame p roblems t o t he m etalworker a s n ative c opper. I f c old h ammered, i t t ends t o c rack a long w ell-defined c rystal p lanes; b ut w ith c are a nd a nnealing, o r h ot f orging, i t i s s uitable f or

t he m anufacture o f

s mall o bjects

( Tylecote,

1 976,

2 -3).

T wo

o ccurrences o f i ron i n e arly c ontexts h ave b een s aid, f rom t heir h igh n ickel c ontent, t o b e m eteoric: a f ragment f ound b etween l evels D a nd E o f

t he A nu Z iggurat a t U ruk ( Protoliterate)

( cf.

V aiman,

1 982),

a nd r usted f ragments o f u ncertain p urpose f rom R T 5 80 a t U r ( Heinrich i n N t ldeke e t a l., 1 937, 5 3; W oolley, 1 934, 4 9, 5 42). T here i s c onfusion

o ver a s upposed

p iece o f m eteoric 1 00

i ron f rom T ell

a l-Ubaid

( Woolley,

1 934,

a nd W oolley, I ron f irst m ore

2 93;

f ragments

h alf

b ut,

p erhaps

s ignificantly,

n ot

l isted

i n H all

1 927).

o f

t he

a pparent

a re

r arely r eported

f rom t he N ear E ast

s econd m illennium B .C.,

i n t exts,

n otably

t hose o f

i n

t he

t hough t he m etal w as

t hen

t he

" Cappadocian

( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 972; M uhly, 1 980, 3 4ff.; W aldbaum, t he O ld B abylonian p eriod i n M esopotamia ( Muhly, 1 980, " iron p eg",

i n a s hapeless m ass o f c opper,

1 980, 3 9).

t rade" 1 75) a nd A t U r a n

w as r eported f rom E nunmah

w ith t ablets o f R im-Sin ( Woolley, 1 974, 5 1). F rom N uzi, i n t he f ifteenth c entury B .C., c ame a s mall, s pherical b ead o f i ron a nd a b ronze d agger, I ts f langed h ilt i nlaid w ith i ron p laques r ivetted i nto p lace w ith i ron r ivets ( Starr, 1 939, A s n either p iece o f i ron h as b een a nalysed, t his i s c elestial o r t errestrial m etal. b e i nlaid w ith i ron ( Baqir, 1 945, 1 3). a re a n

9 4, 4 70, 4 75, p 1.125 1 (K). i t i s n ot k nown w hether

A m acehead f rom A qar Q uf m ay I t i s n ot k nown w hether t hese

l ocal o r i mported a rtefacts, a s t hey m ight w ell h ave b een, f rom a rea e ither o f H ittite o r M itannian p roduction ( Stech-Wheeler e t

a l., 1 981, 2 64-5). A n i ron r ing w as r ecorded i n a M iddle A ssyrian g rave a t A ssur ( Haller, 1 954, 6 3, g rave 7 46) a nd t here a re i ron f inger r ings 1 87,

i n t he

" Middle A ssyrian"

c emetery a t M an

( Beyer,

1 982,

n .l.). B y

t his

t ime

t exts

i ndicate t hat

i ron w as a c ommodity,

w ith

a

p lace i n l uxury t rade a nd e xchange m ore v aluable t han g old, e agerly s ought a nd n ot r eadily a vailable; b ut n owhere i n t he N ear E ast i s t here y et c lear a rchaeological e vidence f or r egular i ron s melting, e ven i n A natolia

( Waldbaum,

1 980,

7 6ff.),

t he m etal c .1250 B .C. i s w ell L etter", a lready c ited ( see p .97).

T he s tatus a nd s upply o f

i llustrated b y t he " Kizzuwatna I n i t t he H ittite k ing, w riting

t o h is A ssyrian c ounterpart, a ttempts t o d efer a d emand f or a c ons ignment o f i ron w ith t he g ift o f a n i ron d agger b lade ( Goetze, 1 949, 3 0ff.). T his l etter u sefully i ndicates t hat p roduction w as s easonal, s low a nd u nreliable, a nd t hat t he i ndividual g ift o f a n i ron d agger w as o f q uite e xceptional v alue a nd s tatus ( referring a lmost c ertainly j ust

t o

t he b lade,

T hus,

a s w ith t hat

a lthough i t

i s

c lear

i n T utankhamun T h t omb). t hat

i ron w as

c urrent

i n M esopotamia

f or m uch o f t he B ronze A ge, i t w as g enerally a r arity, v alued a s a c uriosity a nd p rimarily u sed f or s mall p ieces o f j ewellery, f or o rnamentation a nd f or t he b lades o f p resentation w eapons. A t extual r eference a t N uzi i n t he f ifteenth c entury B .C. t o i ts u se a s a rmour s cales i s e xceptional ( C.A.D. S .V. b inâtu). I t w as n ot u ntil i ron c ould b e c arburized t hat l t w as a c hallenge t o t he u tility o f c opper a nd i ts a lloys. " Figures f or t he r elative h ardness o f s oft w rought i ron, a nd b ronze o f a round 1 0 p er c ent t in c ontent, c learly s how t hat a

g ood b ronze w hen f ully w ork-hardened i s c onsiderably

h ardness

t o

t he

( ii)

p rimitive

i ron"

( Coghlan,

1 956,

s uperior

i n

6 9).

S tage 2 ( c.1250 - 850 B .C.):

A s a rchaeological e vidence f or i ron w orking i n B abylonia i s i nsignificant, a ny s tudy o f t he e arly I ron A ge i n M esopotamia m ust c oncern i tself e xclusively a t

p resent w ith t he e vidence

t hough e ven t hat i s b y n o m eans w ithout f orging i nstallations a re k nown a nd n o d eficiency,

f or

n one

o f

t he

f rom A ssyria,

I ts p roblems. N o s melting o r t extual e vidence r epairs t he

d ocuments

1 01

d escribe

s uch

t echnical

p rocesses

a s

t he e xtracting a nd w orking o f

i ron.

T here a re n o

i ron

o bjects o f a ny n ote f rom A ssyrian s ites t hat m ay b e d ated b efore t he m iddle o r e nd o f t he e ighth c entury B .C., t hough t extual r eferences m ake c lear t hat i ron w as a vailable t o A ssyrian k ings f rom a t l east t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. I n t he a bsence o f f inds f rom t his c ritic al p eriod i t i s n ot p ossible t o s ay c onfidently w hen i ron p roduction w as m ay

f irst e xtented t o c over t he m ajority o f t ools a nd w eapons, n or i t b e e stablished w hen s uch f undamental t echniques a s c arburiza-

t ion a nd q uenching f irst c ame i nto g eneral u se i n A ssyria. E ven f or t he l ater e ighth a nd s eventh c enturies B .C. t he g eographical d istrib ution o f t he b est e vidence i s l imited t o t he N eo-Assyrian r oyal p alaces a t K horsabad, N ineveh a nd N imrud, a nd t here t he p ublished m aterial i s o ften o nly a s mall p art o f w hat w as r ecovered. I n

a

c ursory

w ay

t he d ocumentary e vidence a lone

c arries

t he

h istory o f i ron i n A ssyria t hrough s tage 2 d own t o t he t ime w hen m aterial e vidence i s a vailable. S halmaneser I ( c.1274-1245 B .C.) l ists i ron a mong t he m aterials p laced a s f oundation d eposits a t A ssur ( Grayson, 1 972, 8 4) a nd a c ontemporary a dministrative t ext l ists o ne d agger o f i ron a nd a s pearhead o f h abalginnu, p erhaps a c ertain k ind o f i ron ( Postgate, 1 973a, 1 3-14). K ing N inurta-Tukulti-Assur ( mid. t welfth c entury B .C.) h ad a b lacksmith a t h is c ourt, a nd n ature o f h is d uties a re n ot s pecified ( Weidner,

b ut t he 1 935-6,

r ange 1 9).

T iglath-Pileser I ( c.1115-1077 B .C.) u sed i ron a rrowheads t o h unt w ild b ulls ( Grayson, 1 976, 1 6). B y t he e arlier n inth c entury i ron w as b ecoming m ore c ommon, f or T ukulti-Ninurta I I ( c.890-884 B .C.) r ecorded t hat h is a rmy u sed i ron a xes ( ?) t o c lear a p ath. H e a lso r eceived o ne h undred i ron d aggers f rom L aqe a s t ribute a nd i ron f rom t he N airi-lands ( Grayson, 1 976, 1 00, 1 03-4). I t i s n otable, i n v iew o f t he h uge q uantities l isted b y l ater r ulers, t hat 3 0-60kg. o f i ron w as s till r egarded i n t he e arly n inth c entury a s w orthy m ention i n r oyal a nnals. ( iii)

S tage 3 ( c.850-350 B .C.):

I t w as i n t he c ourse o f t he n inth c entury t hat i ron b ecame c ommon e nough i n A ssyria t o b e u sed f or t hose t ools a nd w eapons, o r p arts o f t hem , f or w hich i t w as p articularly a ppropriate. U nder A ssurnasirpal I I ( c.883-859 B .C.) a nd S halmaneser I II ( c.858-824 B .C.) i ron a s b ooty a nd t ribute c ame p redominantly f rom r egions a djacent t o t he U pper E uphrates. U nder S halmaneser I II, f or t he f irst t ime, t hereafter,

i ron w as a mong t he m etals o btained " without n umber" a nd u ntil a vailable r ecords c ease i n t he e arlier s eventh

c entury B .C., v ery c onsiderable q uantities o f i ron c ame i nto A ssyrian r oyal s torehouses. W hat i ron c ame i nto A ssyria b y o ther m eans, o r w as e xploited l ocally i n m ines s uch a s t hose e xplored b y K urdistan ( see p .97) i s n ot r ecorded i n p ublished t exts, w ell h ave p assed t hrough p rivate o r p ublic h ands o utside I t

h as a lready b een n oted

t hat

L ayard i n a s i t m ay t he c ourt.

t he s urviving m aterial

e vidence

i s p redominantly o f s eventh c entury d ate, o r s lightly e arlier. T his m eans t hat t he u se o f s imple p roportion t o s eparate s tages 2 a nd 3 i n M esopotamia i s n ot p ossible, s ince t he a vailable m aterial e vidence a ll f alls i n s o b rief a p eriod a nd t hat, t o j udge f rom t he t exts, c ame a fter t he t ransition. A t N ineveh s tratigraphic c onfusions g reatly r educe t he r elevance o f t he i ronwork e xcavated t here; r elat ively l ittle i ronwork ,

a nd t hat n ot a lways e asy t o d ate c losely, 1 02

w as

f ound

i n g raves

a t A ssur;

m asses o f i ronwork, s eventh c entury B .C.

w hilst a t N imrud,

t hough t he s ite

y ielded

n one o f i t i s l ikely t o b e m uch e arlier t han t he ( Curtis e t a l., 1 979, 3 70). A t K horsabad t he

s torehouse ( room 8 4) e xcavated b y P lace, d escribed a s a h uge i ron w all, h eld 1 60 t ons ( c.5,600 t alents) o f t he m etal a nd t hat w as o nly p art

o f

2 93).

t he

i ron

S everal

f ound a t

h undred

p ick-axes a nd h ammers, S cattered

f inds

o f

t his s ite

( Pleiner

" ingots" w ere p acked

a nd

i nto

g rappling i rons a nd c hains, i ron o bjects

B jorkman,

1 974,

t he s toreroom,

w ith

a nd p lough-shares.

f rom o ther s ites

i n

A ssyria

a nd

B abylonia d own t hrough i nto t he A chaemenid p eriod d o n ot c onspicuousl y a dd t o t he r epertory o f i ron w ork. U nfortunately, t he c orrect d ate o f a n i mportant g roup o f i ron t ools f rom T hebes i n E gypt, e xcav ated b y P etrie a nd d ated b y h im " to t he A ssyrian i nvasion", i s a n o pen q uestion. T hey m ight b e c onsiderably l ater ( Williams a nd M axw ell-Hyslop, 1 976). I t

i s

e asier

t o a ssess

t he p oint a t w hich A ssyria e ntered

S tage

3 , i f t he q uestion i s s et i n a w ider N ear E astern c ontext. I t i s n ow a rgued t hat t he e astern M editerranean r egion i n t he t welfth c entury B .C. A ge

" holds t he k ey t o u nderstanding t he t ransition f rom t he B ronze t o t he I ron A ge a nd t he f irst r eal u se o f i ron a s a u tilitarian

m etal..... . (Muhly, 1 980, 4 7). I n t his a rea i t i s a rgued t he c hange w as t riggered o ff b y a s hortage o f c opper a nd t in. I ron t echnology d eveloped i n t he L evant, i n p articular i n t he r egion o f C ilicia a nd n orth-west

S yria,

a nd p robably p assed

t hence

t o

C yprus.

A lthough

m aterial e vidence f or t he p eriod c .1600-1200 B .C. r emains e xceedingly r are, d ocumentary i ndications a re v aried a nd w idely d istributed ( Muhiy, 1 980, 5 1; W aldbaum , 1 980, 7 6ff.). I n t he c enturies f rom a bout

1 200-900

a bsent, t hrough

B .C.,

w hen

m aterial e vidence

f rom

M esopotamia

i s

m ost N ear E astern c ountries, a t d ifferent r ates, p assed s tage 2 t o 3 , w ith S yro-Palestine t o t he f ore, f ollowed b y

e astern A natolia a nd A ssyria. C omparative u se o f m etals,

s tudy

i ndicates

t hat

t he c hange

f rom a

p redominant

b ronze t o a p redominant u se o f i ron, i n t he c ase o f w orking w as f airly a brupt. W hat e vidence t here i s, a lbeit m ostly

i ndirect,

c onverges

t he m id. c ampaigns

t o l ate n inth c entury B .C., a s S halmaneser 1 11 T h w estern p ierced d eeper i nto r egions w here i ron w as a bundant, a nd

t herefore d emands

t o i ndicate t hat

r eadily a vailable a s o f

t his

c hange i n A ssyria f ell i n

t ribute o r p lunder.

t he A ssyrian m ilitary m achine

T he e ver g rowing

f or t ools a nd

w eapons

h ad

i ncreasingly t o b e m et i n m anufactured i ron. S halmaneser I II w as t he k ing w ho c ommanded " Sharpen t he i ron s words t hat s ubjugate ( the f oe)" ( Lambert, 1 961, 1 50-1). C urtis

( in C urtis e t a l.,

1 979,

3 82ff.) h as p rovided a s imple

s tatistical s urvey o f s ome o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f or i ron a rtefacts. A ll k nown p lough-shares, s ickle-blades, h oes a nd k nives a re o f i ron i n t he l ater e ighth a nd s eventh c enturies B .C. S aws w ere a lso t hen m ade o f i ron ( Layard, 1 853, 1 95; C urtis e t a l., 1 979, f ig.31a-c). A dzes, a xe-adzes a nd a xes w ere c ommonly, i f n ot e xclusiv ely, o f i ron. W eapons o ffer e qually s triking c onfirmation t hat A ssyria w as n ow i nto s tage 3 . O f t he s pearheads a nd s words l isted b y C urtis b ronze b lade. t he

a ll a nd

a re o f i ron; o f 1 7 d aggers, o nly o ne i s a nother h as a n e laborate c ast b ronze h ilt

e ntirely o f o n a n i ron

S urviving l eaf-shaped a rrowheads a re o verwhelmingly o f

f langed,

s ocketed b ronze a rrowheads o f

1 03

i ron;

t he s eventh c entury B .C.

w ere

a n

i nnovation

f ederates. W rought t o b e h and-forged,

i ntroduced i ron, i s n ot

b y

t he

S cythians

a nd

t heir

c on-

f rom w hich e ach l eaf-shaped a rrowhead h ad a daptable t o m ethods o f m ass p roduction,

f or w hich t he n ew t ype o f b ronze a rrowhead w as p articularly w ell s uited ( see p . 40 ) . I ts c urrency i s a t echnological p henomenon a nd I n n o

w ay

i ndicates

n ecessary q uate a s

a f ailure i n i ron s upplies.

C aution

i n a ssessing t he a rchaeological r ecord, i t i s, p articularly w hen s ome t exts

b alance b etween f errous a nd n on-ferrous w eapons, B abylonian p eriod ( Pleiner a nd B jorkman, 1 974,

i s

a lways

n otoriously i nadei ndicate a b etter e ven I nto t he N eo2 28). I ron w as n ot

c heaper t han b ronze/copper u ntil t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod. S imilar c are I s n eeded i n g auging t he r ole o f i ron i n t he m anufacture o f b ody a rmour. H elmets b oth o f b ronze a nd o f i ron s urvive; t he f ormer w ould h ave b een l ighter, t he l atter m ore p rotective. i ron h elmet w eighed a bout 3 ,049g a gainst 8 62g a nd 7 00g,

A n A ssyrian r espectively,

f or t wo I ranian b ronze h elmets ( Curtis e t a l., 1 979, 3 85). T he w eight, t he r usting, a nd t he h eat o f i ron a rmour s cales i n t he i ntense s un, w ould b e a m ajor c onsideration , t hough I ron s cales a re b etter p rotection a gainst a rrowheads a nd a re m ore e asily r epaired b y a rmy b lacksmiths. C onsequently, t here w as a p arallel p roduction o f t he

t wo. ( e)

T he r epertory o f i ron o bjects: ( i)

T here

" Ingots":

i s

a c ategory o f

( Pleiner a nd B jorkman,

1 974,

i ron o bject 2 95;

f rom Khorsabad

C urtis e t a l.,

a nd

1 979,

N imrud 3 71ff.),

r ather f ish-like i n s hape w hen s een i n p rofile, a nd g enerally p ierced w ith a s mall h ole t owards t he e nd. T hey a re a lmost r ectangular i n s ection a t t he m iddle a nd h ave t apering e nds h ammered i nto b road, f lat t erminals a t 9 00 t o o ne a nother. P lace r eported f inding c ons iderable n umbers o f t hem I n r oom 8 4 o f S argon s p alace a t K horsabad ( 1867-70, 8 4-7; I I, 2 64; I II, p 1, f r. 5 -7; c f. L oud, 1 938, 2 13-7. p 1.62). b etween

T hey v ary i n l ength b etween 3 9.5 a nd 3 .7 a nd 8 .7kg. ( Pleiner a nd B jorkman,

5 1.5cm. 1 974,

a nd 2 95,

w eigh n .17;

P lace g ives a s h igh a s 1 2kg.). A nalysis a nd m etallographic s tudy ( Pleiner, 1 979; C urtis e t a l., 1 979, 3 71ff.) h ave s hown t hem t o b e o f " essentially p ure i ron w ith o nly m inor a mounts o f i mpurities". C arburization w as n ot c onsistent i n t he t ested s amples, a ppearing s ometimes o n t he w orking e dge, s ometimes o n t he s haft-hole. T hese s emi-forged i ron o bjects a re s till a n e nigma. I n s ome c ases c ontains t races o f w ood, i n o thers i t i s n ot e ven c ut r ight

t he h ole t hrough.

I t h as b een a rgued t hat a f ew a ppropriately s haped e xamples m ight h ave b een m iners p ickaxes, w ith s hafts o f a sh o r l arch, w hose s pring w ould i ncrease t he i mpact, e t a l., 1 979, 3 89ff.).

a s i n m ore r ecent t ools ( Maddin i n C urtis B ut m any o f t he e xtant e xamples c ould n ot

h ave b een m ounted t o s erve i n t his w ay a nd, f or t he m oment, t hey a re b est r egarded a s i ron I ngots o r b ars w ith t he h ole t o f acilitate h andling ( Pleiner, 1 979, 9 0). T he c ontext a t K horsabad a ppropriate t o t he s torage o f i ngots t han m ining t ools. t hey

a re a ssumed t o b e

m ight w ell p roper.

a ll

b e

" Assyrian",

i mports

i f

t hey r eally a re

f rom a m ining

1 04

r egion

I s m ore A lthough

i ngots

o utside

t hey

A ssyrian

( ii)

T ools a nd I mplements:

P leiner t he

a nd B jork r nan

( 1974,

2 96ff.) h ave

t extual a nd a rchaeological e vidence

s uccinctly

a ssembled

f or i ron t ools.

I ron a xes,

a dzes a nd p ick-axes w ere s tandard e quipment b y a t l east t he n inth c entury. H oes, s ickles, p lough-shares a nd p robably i ron s pade b lades w ere c urrent i n t he f armer s t ool-kit; i ron c hisels a nd s aws i n t hat o f t he c arpenter. K nives o f i ron w ere w idely u sed. I f t he g roup o f t ools f rom E qyptian T hebes m ay i ndeed b e a ttributed A ssyrian m ilitary c raftsmen o f t he s eventh c entury B .C., a nd t hat v ery d oubtful, t hen i t e mbraces a p unch, a c arpenter s c hisel, f ile,

a r asp,

c rank p ieces

a n a dze,

a t wist-edged s coop,

( Williams a nd M axwell-f lyslop,

V arious

s eventh c entury i ron t ools

a c utter, 1 976,

t o i s a

c entre b its a nd

f ig.3).

f rom N imrud h ave b een m etal-

l ographically s tudied: a s ickle-blade, a k nife, a h oe, a nd t wo c hisels, w hich m ight b e p ost-Assyrian i n d ate ( Curtis e t a l., 1 979, 3 77ff.). C arburization w as p robably d eliberate, b ut n ot e xtensive; h ot h ammering o r

f orging w as a lso e vident.

" The i mplication o f t hese

o bservations i s t hat N eo-Assyrian s miths d id n ot k now h ow t o m anipul ate i n t he m ost e ffective w ays t he o perations i n w hich i ron a ttains t he g reatest s trength" s imilarly s tudied, b ut o rigin 1 976,

m ay n ot

b e

( Ibid., 3 81). T he T heban g roup i n v iew o f i ts u ncertain d ate a nd

c ited a s

" Assyrian"

B jorkman

( 1974,

( Williams a nd

h as b een p lace o f

M axwell-Hyslop,

3 03). P leiner

a nd

2 98ff.)

r eviewed t he t extual

a nd

a rchaeological e vidence f or i ron f oot-fetters, p okers a nd t ongs, f or c hains a nd h ooks, f or b ell c lappers, f or n ails, f or s ome p ersonal o rnaments, I ron w as

a nd

u sed

f or v arious f or

s tructural e lements

t he s truts

o f

t ripod-stands

a nd s hod w ith c ast b ronze ( Layard, 1 853, P ercy). C oghlan ( 1956, 4 , 1 37, 1 80, 2 02) s uch t hat

s uch a s d oor f ittings. f or c auldrons,

j ointed

1 78, 1 91; 6 71: r eport b y e xamined a f ragment o f o ne

t ripod s trut a nd f ound " a p iled s tructure w hich w ould i ndicate t he t ripod i ron w as m ade f rom p iled w rought m aterial". B ut

m any, i f n ot a ll o f t hese t ripods m ay b e i mports, a s s ome b ear W est S emitic i nscriptions ( Barnett, 1 967). F rom t he N abu T emple a t K horsabad w ere r ecovered t hree i ron w heels ( c. 2 2cm i n d iameter) f rom a c eremonial w agon. I n t hem i ron s pokes w ere i nserted i nto n aves o f c ast b ronze a nd t wo i ron r ims a nd t yres w ere p ossibly r iveted t og ether ( Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 6 2, p l.24e). N o c ertainly i dentif iable f ragments o f f ull-scale w heels, o r o ther i ron p arts n umerous c hariots u sed i n A ssyria h ave y et b een r eported; l inch-pins a re a ttested

( Ellis,

p ins

( p.96 h ere).

o f

i ron a nd b ronze ( iii)

a nd

1 966,

p l.VIII,

l a-b),

o f t he b ronze

a s a re

l inch-

W eapons a nd a rmour:

T he w hole r ange o f p ersonal a rms, d aggers, s words, s pearheads a rrowheads, w as r egularly p roduced i n i ron t o p atterns c losely

f ollowing

t hose

o f

t heir b ronze p recursors.

m etallographic e xamination ( Curtis e t a l., 1 979, t ip h ad b een c arburized a nd a n a rrowhead w as m ade

S ome

h ave

r eceived

3 77ff.); a d agger o f h ammered, m ildly

c arburized i ron s M aceheads p resent a r ather m ore v aried t echnology, a lready c onsidered ( see p .96), a s h as t he u se o f i ron f or a rmour a nd h elmets ( p.104). L ayard v ividly d escribed a f ind o f i ron s cale a rmour a t N imrud

( 1849,

I ,

3 41;

c f.

S tronach,

1 05

1 958);

b ut

o nly t wo

a rmour

s cales

f rom M allowan T h N imrud e xcavations h ave b een m etallur-

g ically e xamined

( Curtis e t a l.,

1 979,

3 78-9).

T hey w ere o f m ildly

c arburized i ron, h ammered a t a bout 6 00 0 C i nto a s tone m ould t o g ive a c entral r ib. S uch a m ethod w ould h ave s aved t ime a nd i nsured u niform ity f or a n o bject n eeded i n s ome q uantity. S hields, w hen m ade o f s heet b ronze, h ad i ron h andles r ivetted o nto t he i nside ( Layard, 1 853, 1 94). A mongst t he i ron i mplements h e f ound, L ayard n oted " a l arge b lunt s pearhead, s uch a s w e f ind f rom t he S culptures w ere u sed d uring s ieges t o f orce s tones f rom t he w alls o f b esieged c ities ' ( Layard,

1 853,

1 95;

c f.

1 853(a),

( iv)

H orse-harness:

p 1.66)

T o w hat e xtent i ron w as u sed t o m anufacture h orse-bits i t i s h ard t o s ay, a s v ery f ew A ssyrian h orse-bits h ave b een r ecognized i n e xcavations

( cf.

S tronach,

1 958,

1 75,

p l.XXXV.1).

T o

j udge

f rom t he

v ery m uch r icher c ontemporary e vidence i n w estern I ran c ast b ronze w as s till p referred ( Potratz, 1 966, 1 17); i ron b its w ould h ave b een i n a m inority. c ast b ronze ( see ( v)

O ther h arness p .35).

t rappings o f m etal w ere i n

O rnamental w ork i n,

o r o n,

s heet

o r

i ron:

E vidence f or t he o rnamental u se o f i ron i n M esopotamia i s s till a waited. T here i s n o e vidence f or s waged a nd e ngraved d ecoration, a s o n b racelets a nd s words o f i ron f rom L uristan ( Moorey, 1 971, 3 15ff.), n or

f or

r epousse

d ecoration a s o n i ron

( c.1000-800 B .C.) i n n orthwest i ron h elmet f rom N ineveh i n p l.XXXI-II) r evealed t hat i t b ronze a ll r ound t he e dge a nd f ront. b earer,

T his w ith

p laques

f rom

H asanlu

I V

I ran ( Pigott, 1 980, 4 30). X -ray o f a n t he B ritish M useum ( Barnett, 1 953, h ad b oth a b order p attern i nlaid w ith a lso a s imilarly i nlaid p anel a t t he

s howed a n A ssyrian k ing r eceiving a c up f rom h is c upa t hird f igure b ehind, a ll w ithin a f rame o f l inked

b uds. L ayard i n r eporting a n umber o f i ron h elmets, w hich d isinteg rated d uring e xcavation, r emarked t hat " the r ings w hich o rnament t he l ower

p art,

c opper"

a nd

( Layard, ( vi)

e nd i n a s emicircle i n 1 849,

I I,

3 39;

c f.

1 ,

f ront,

w ere

i nlaid

w ith

3 41).

V essels:

A lthough i ron v essels w ere p roduced i n U rartian w orkshops, t hey d o n ot y et s eem t o h ave b een r ecognized i n N eo-Assyrian c ontexts ( cf. B öhme,

1 979).

I n

t he b road s pectrum o f e vidence f or i ron-working

b efore

t he

G raeco-Roman p eriod n ow a vailable, t he s miths o f A ssyria, u nlike t hose o f t he E ast M editerranean a nd t he G reek W orld, d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een a ble t o c ontrol t he q uality o f t he m etal u sed. T here i s n o c lear e vildence f or t he s election o f c arbon-poor o r c arbon-rich p ieces f or d eliberate c onstruction o f w orking e dges. N or i s t here a ny c ertain i ndication o f t he r egular q uenching o r t empering o f b lades. N o m etallurgical w ork h as b een d one o n t he i ronwork o f N eo-Babylonian s ites t he

p eriod,

t hough i t

l ike B abylon a nd U r. A chaemenid

m ilitary

i s r epresented a mongst

O nly o ne r epertory,

t ype o f h as 1 06

i ron w eapon, b een

s ubject

t he b rief

f inds

f rom

t ypical o f t o

s uch

e xamination.

S mith ( 1971,

4 3,

n o.101,

f ig.2.2d,

2 :18)

s howed

t hat a n

u nprovenanced i ron a kinakes o r s hort s word, w as f orged f rom a s ingle p iece o f s teel s ave f or t he p ommel, w hich w as a s eparate p iece p ierced a t t he c entre t o f it a s mall t enon o n t op o f t he g rip. C oghlan ( 1956, 1 37-9, f ig.44) p ublished a t echnical r eport o n a n i ron s pearhead

o f

t he A chaemenid p eriod

n ear C archemish ( Moorey, " The m aterial o f

1 980,

t his

f rom a c emetery a t

n o.170,

s pear i s

D eve

H üyük,

6 4):

f orged c arburized s teel m ade f rom

r educed s ponge i ron. A verage c arbon c ontent i s 0 .18 p er c ent, b ut i n p laces a s h igh a s 0 .6 p er c ent. T he h igh n ickel c ontent o f 0 .32 p er c ent i s u nusual. T he s pear h as b een f orged f rom a bout f ifty p lates o r l ayers o f s ponge i ron p iled i nto a b lock t he m ajority o f t he p lates h ave b een s urface-carburized d uring h eating f or f orging, t he c ompacted s tructure r esulting i n a h ighly d eveloped w ater-marked p attern s omewhat s imilar t o d amascene s teel b lades p roduced f rom c ast s teel. A n oteworthy f eature i s t hat t he t ubular t aper s ocket, w hich w as f orged f rom a " tagged" e nd, h as b een b razed a nd f orged t ogether w ith i mpure c opper. H ardness r anged f rom 1 08 V ickers i n t he l ow c arbon z ones t o 1 52 V ickers i n t he h igher c arbon b ands. T here i s n o i ndication o f h ardening a nd t empering". V II:

N ICKEL A s

w ith

z inc

( p.132),

n ickel w as u nknown a s a m etal i n

a nti-

q uity. I t w as f irst d iscovered a nd s eparated i n E urope i n t he m iddle o f t he e ighteenth c entury A .D. ( Aitchison, 1 960, I I, 4 82-4). N ickel o ccurs a s a t race e lement i n o bjects m anufactured i n M esopotamia; w hat l ittle e vidence t here i s a t p resent i ndicates h igher l evels i n a ttefacts

f rom t he s outh t han f rom t he n orth.

A s

i t w as

l y d etected i n t he 1 920s a nd 1 930s i n t he t hird a rtefacts a nalysed b y t he S umer C opper C ommittee,

s o

f requent-

m illennium B .C. t hey a ssumed a

c opper o re c ontaining n ickel a s t he s ource o f t he r aw m aterial a nd d evoted c onsiderable r esearch t o i dentifying i t. T hey a ccumulated a w ide r ange o f u seful d ata a nd e ventually s uggested t hat t he J ebel M a T hden d eposit, i nland f rom S ohar, i n t he W adi A hin, O man, h ad b een t he p rimary s ource o f S umerian c opper i n t he t hird m illennium ( Peake, 1 928). B roadly s peaking r enewed r esearch i nto t his p roblem i n t he l ast t en y ears h as e ndorsed t his v iew ( see p .14). A s a ddition o f 1 % n ickel t o c opper I mproves t he a lloy 's b asic s trength b y a f actor o f t wo a nd i ncreases t he w ork-hardening r ate o f t he a lloy, i t i s p oss ible a ncient c raftsmen h ad a ppreciated e mpirically t he v alue o f o res w ith

s ignificant n ickel

V III:

S ILVER ( a)

S ilver a nd l ead:

S ILVER

i s

I t a lso o ccurs v ery

i nclusions.

r are

c opper) l arger,

f ound b oth a s a m etal a nd i n i ts n on-metallic i n p ractically a ll g old

( 20% a s a bundant a s g old;

( see p .69). 0 .2% a s

s tate.

N ative s ilver i s

a bundant

a s

n ative

a nd i s u sually f ound i n q uantities n ot w orth m elting t o m ake w orkable l umps ( Patterson, 1 971). I t g enerally a ppears d eep

u nderground

a s,

i f a ppearing a t

t he s urface,

i t

i s

l iable

t o

h ave

b een c onverted i nto c hloride b y t races o f c hlorine i nvariably p resent i n r ain w ater. I t i s p ractically p ure. T he p rincipal o res o f s ilver a re t he s ulphides ( silver g lance) a nd t he c hlorides ( horn s ilver),

1 07

w hich

y ield

s ource

o f

u p

t heir m etal

b y s imple

s melting.

s ilver i n a ntiquity w as n ot

H owever,

t he s ilver o res.

t he

m ain

M ost s ilver

w as t hen e xtracted f rom a rgentiferous l ead o res i n a t wo-step p rocess t hat i ncluded s melting o f t he l ead o res t o p roduce l ead m etal f oll owed b y e xtraction o f t he s ilver f rom t he l ead b y c upellation ( see b elow). a ble"

C upellation m ade s ilver

( Patterson,

1 971,

A s t he h istory o f s ilver b ound u p w ith t hat o f l ead, t he

o f

" about a t housand t imes m ore a vail-

3 12). i n t he a ncient N ear E ast i s c losely t wo m etals a re t aken t ogether h ere.

N ative L EAD i s e ven r arer t han n ative s ilver. T he p rincipal o re l ead i s g alena ( lead s ulphide), w hich, w hen i t o ccurs i n h ydro-

t hermal

v eins,

i s

f requently a ssociated w ith s ilver o re

m inerals.

C erussite ( lead c arbonate) i s a n i mportant, w idely d istributed s econd ary o re m ineral o f l ead f ormed b y t he a ction o f c arbonated w aters o n g alena. T wo r easons p robably a ccount f or t he e arly u se o f l ead o res ( see b elow). T hey a re v ery s hiny, m etallic l ooking, a nd s o a ttract a ttention, w hilst t he m etal i s v ery e asily o btained f rom t he T ylecote h as s hown t hat l ead c an b e s melted f rom g alena i n a b urning c harcoal o r d ry w ood a t G ale a nd S tos-Gale, 1 981b, 1 81). T o

o re. f ire

t emperatures b elow 8 00 ° C ( cited

o btain s ilver f rom a rgentiferous l ead

i t

i s n ecessary

i n

f irst

t o s melt t he o re t o o btain m etallic l ead a nd t hen, i n a s eparate o peration, t o o xidize t he l ead t o l itharge ( lead m onozide), l eaving b ehind t he s ilver, i n a p rocess k nown a s c upellation. F or t his t he l ead i s h eated u nder s trongly o xidizing c onditions i n a c upel. T he l ead o xide s o f ormed i s a bsorbed i n t he p orous m aterial o f b one o r g round-up p otsherds i n t he c upel, l eaving s ilver m etal b ehind. T his p rocess m ay b e r epeated s everal t imes t o p urify t he s ilver; i t i s v ery e fficient i n f reeing s ilver f rom s uch c ommon i mpurities a s c opper, a ntimony, a rsenic, i n t he a rgentiferous l ead. w ill b e

t in, i ron, z inc, ( less w ell f rom b ismuth) S ilver d erived f rom a rgentiferous g alena

c haracterized b y g old c ontents

c ontents b etween S tos-Gale, 1 981a,

f rom z ero

t o a bout 0 .5%,

l ead

0 .01 a nd 1 %, o r r arely a l ittle h igher ( Gale a nd 1 07). S ilver d erived f rom t he n ative m etal, w ith

o r w ithout a dmixture o f c erargyrite ( a " dry" s ilver o re v ery e asily r educed t o s ilver m etal), w ill g enerally c ontain l ess t han 0 .01% g old a nd s ignificant q uantities o f m ercury ( ibid.). A ny

c onjectures

a bout

t he o rigins o f s ilver m etallurgy i n

t he

N ear E ast h ave t o t ake i nto a ccount t he l ong i nterval b etween t he f irst a ppearance o f l ead, s ometime i n t he s eventh m illennium B .C. i n T urkey ( de J esus,

1 980,

7 6),

s ome t hree m illennia l ater, a w ide a rea ( Prag, 1 978). b y s melting,

a nd t he e arliest m anufactured s ilver,

w hen i t a ppears r elatively s uddenly o ver L ead, w hich c ould o nly h ave b een o btained

h ad l ong b een e xperimented w ith b efore t he a ppearance o f

s ilver. T he v iew, a rgued o ver a l ong p eriod b y a n umber o f s cholars ( cf. G owland, 1 920, 1 32; H oover, 1 950, 3 90; W ertime, 1 973, 8 83), t hat

s ilver w as

t ion

o f

l ead,

d iscovered i n t he c ourse o f

t he a ccidental

c upella-

r emains a s trong p ossibility i n t he N ear E ast.

B ut,

e ven a fter t he i nitial d iscovery, t he r ecovery o f w orthwhile q uantit ies o f s ilver r equired s olution o f a n umber o f t echnical d ifficult ies, f or a t on o f s melted l ead w ill o nly c ontain a f ew o unces o f s ilver.

1 08

T he w ere

v iew ( Smith,

m ade

c annot b e r uled o ut; y et t o b e p rovided. t o T urkey, m iners o f r ather M eyers

3 5)

t hat

t he e arliest

c erargyrite

s ilver a rtefacts

( silver

c hloride)

b ut h ard e vidence f or i t i n t he N ear E ast h as W ertime ( 1973, 8 83), f ollowing h is e xpeditions

a rgued t hat i n t he A natolian-Iranian h ighlands t he l ead t he e arly p eriods c oncentrated o n t he r are c erussites

t han m ining

s melting

1 967,

o f n ative c rystals o r o f

w as

f or g alena.

f ar

( in W aldbaum ,

l ess

l t w as b elow t he w ater t able a nd

r ewarding t han t he

1 983,

1 88)

i s o f

w orking

o f

i ts

c erussites.

t he s ame o pinion:

" Based o n c omparisons o f e lemental c ompositions o f s ilver c oins, s ilver o bjects a nd o re s amples a nd u sing i nformation f rom g eological a nd a rchaeological s urveys a nd f rom l iterary e vidence, i t a ppears t hat m ost s ilver p roduced i n A natolia, i ncluding t hat e xcavated a t S ardis, w as e xtracted f rom t he o re c erussite ( lead c arbonate), t he m ajor

c omponent

i n t he o xidized p ortions o f

l ead d eposits".

R esearch o n S asanian s ilver f rom I ran h as

s hown t hat i t w as a lso

e xtracted f rom c erussite, n ot g alena. A t l east o ne m ining s ite, w ith a ssociated s melting o perations, h as a lready b een r ecorded. A t t his t ime, c .250-650 A .D., i t w as c ustomary i n I ran t o a dd a bout 4 -10% c opper

t o i mprove t he s ilver 's m echanical p roperties.

p robably

p roduced

m ining a nd s melting I t i s c ementation i nto g old. r ange

( Meyers,

1 981,

T he c opper w as s ite

o f

s ilver

2 43).

p ossible t hat s ilver w as r ecovered s ometimes f rom t he p rocess ( see p .71) t hrough w hich e lectrum w as p urified B ut t here i s, a s y et, n o h ard e vidence f or t his e ither

f rom l iterary, t ime

f rom c opper o res a t o r n ear t he

a rchaeological o r a nalytical

s ources,

i n t he a rea a nd

c onsidered h ere.

T he r ole o f s ilver f rom a n e arly d ate i s i llustrated b y a S umer ian l iterary t ext r ecounting a d ispute b etween c opper a nd s ilver ( Kramer, 1 963, 2 65). H ere s ilver i s j udged b y c opper t o b e a w orthl ess m etal, o nly g ood f or h oarding a way, w hereas c opper i s a u seful m etal, a s i t f orms t he t ools w hich m an u ses i n h is d aily t asks. T he u se o f s ilver a s a m eans o f e xchange i s f irst e vident i n t he " Fara T exts" o f E arly D ynastic l ilA, i n t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., b ut i t i s n ot u ntil t he A kkadian p eriod t hat i ts p rimacy i n t his r ole i s c lear ( Limet, 1 960, 4 6-7; 1 972, 3 0). F rom t exts o f E arly D ynastic I II o nwards d egrees o f p urity i n s ilver a re r egularly a pparent ( Limet, 1 960, 4 6-7); e arliest a mong s uch r eferences i s t he i nscription o n t he s ilver v ase m ade f or K ing E ntemena o f L agash ( c.2450 B .C.), w hose m etal i s e xplicitly s aid t o b e o f " purified" o r " fine" s ilver ( Soliberger a nd K upper, 1 971, 6 9: I C7e). T he p oint i s m ade c learly i n a n O ld A ssyrian t ext o f t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. a pparently r eferring t o c upellation ( C.A.D. s .v. k aspu): " I r efined t he s ilver a nd f rom f ive m inas ( only) 3 m inas c ame o ut ( of t he k iln". A kkadian h as a v ariety o f t erms t o d escribe s ilver a lloys ( Eilers,

1 954-9),

n one y et m atched u p w ith t he a nalyses o f

s urviving

o bjects. O ppenheim ( 1966) h as p ublished a nd c ommented o n a t ext f rom t he l ibrary o f A shurbanipal ( 668-27 B .C.), f or m aking a s ilver-like a lloy f rom b ase-metal i ngredients. H ow m uch o lder s uch d eceptions w ere h as y et t o b e e stablished. T he l ater e conomic t exts f rom M esopotamia a re m uch c oncerned w ith t he q uality o f s ilver a nd c arefully s tress t he 1 09

p ercentage o f p ermitted a dditions; b ut f ar t oo f ew a nalyses h ave b een d one t o o ffer a ny i nformation o n t he w ays i n w hich , f or s pecific p urposes, s ilver m ight b e d ebased. N or, o wing t o t he w ay i n w hich b uried

s ilver

c orrodes,

i s

i t

l ikely

t hat a rchaeology

w ill

e ver

p rovide a ny c heck o n t extual i ndications t hat s ilver s urfaces w ere v ariously t reated w ith h eat ( Limet, 1 960, 4 9-50). M oreover, u nder f ield

c onditions

c orroded

s ilver m ay e asily b e c onfused w ith

o r b ronze, s o t he n umber o f p resent b e u nderrated. ( b)

s ilver o bjects

c opper

f rom e xcavations m ay

a t

S ources: ( i)

T he e vidence o f a ncient t exts:

A s L imet h as p ointed o ut ( 1960, 9 4), t extual i ndications f or t he u ltimate s ources o f t he s ilver u sed i n M esopotamia a re s ingularly r are a nd m eagre. P ettinato ( 1972, 8 0-1), i n h is r eview o f t he S umer ian l iterary e vidence, l isted s uch r elatively w ell k nown r egions i n I ran, t he G ulf a nd t he I ndus r egion, a s A ratta, D ilmun, E lam a nd M arha i a nd M eluhha. " The S ilver M ountains" l imited t he c ampaigns o f S argon o f A kkad t o t he n orthwest ( Hirsch, 1 963, 3 8, l ines 2 2-8) a nd a re u sually i dentified w ith s ilver m ines a t K eban o n t he U pper E uphrates, j ust s outh o f i ts j unction w ith t he M urat r iver. M anisht ushu r ecorded a c ampaign i n w hich h is a rmy w as d ivided i nto t wo, o ne p art i nvaded " Anshan a nd S herikhum" i n I ran, w hilst t he o ther w aged w ar " up t o t he s ilver m ines" ( Hirsch, c onsiders t he g eographical p roblems).

1 963, 6 9; G add, 1 971, G udea w rote j ust o f

4 38ff. s ilver

f rom i ts " mountain", t aken b y L imet ( 1960, 9 4-5) t o b e r eference t o a s ource e ast o f t he T igris i n I ran. I n h is s ummary t able o f t he evi dence

p rovided b y t he 1 ip ur

l itanies a nd the H AR-ra

s eries

2 2,

S nell ( 1982, Kr -si; b ut

2 12) l ists a s s ources Z ar-tu, H asbar, l a-an-na-ki-ta a nd o f t hese p laces o nly o ne m ay b e t entatively i dentified:

K ü-si:? K ush

( Nubia).

I t i s t o t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. t hat s ome o f t he b est e vidence f or t he u se o f A natolian s ilver b elongs. L arsen ( 1967, 4 ) h as s uccinctly d escribed t he f amous t rade b etween A ssur a nd e astern A natolia a t

a nd

t his

t ime:

" The p attern o f t he t rade a s r evealed b y t he t exts i s c lear; t extiles w ere i mported i nto A natolia a nd i n r eturn s ilver

t in a nd

g old w ere s ent b ack t o A ssyria. T he t rade i n c opper w as v igorous b ut s eems t o h ave b een m ainly a n i nternal A natolian a ffair." T he s ilver w as e ither i n i ngots p assing b y w eight, i n

r ings o r p ackages

c ontaining b ars o f m etal.

s ilver a re d istinguished, p robably b y q uality; v arious v icinity o f K i iltepe ( Karum K anesh) a re l isted a s t he s ilver,

b ut

t hey

a re

p robably

j ust

d istribution ( Garelli, 1 963, 2 65ff.). r ed n ot t o s peculate o n t he o rigin o f

o r s ometimes

D ifferent

t ypes

o f

t owns i n t he s ources o f

t he p rincipal c entres

f or

i ts

L eemans ( 1960, 1 30ff.) p refert he s ilver c urrent i n B abylonia

d uring t he O ld B abylonian p eriod, a s i t w as t hen w idely u sed a s c urrency. B ut t here i s s ome i ndication o f s ilver c oming u p t he G ulf ( Oppenheim, 1 954). H ittite i nventory t exts o f t he t hriteenth c entury B .C. a ttribute s ilver r egion o f T urkey ( Kosak,

t o S aqqamaha a nd A rpa i n 1 982, 1 95). 1 10

t he

n orth-central

F or l ists

t he

N eo-Assyrian p eriod,

a nalysed

b y

J ankowska

o n t he e vidence o f

( 1969,

2 61),

t he

t ribute

i n t he r anking

o f

t he

r egions w ith t he mos t s ilver, C archemish ( Khatti) a nd D amascus c ome f irst, w ith t he c entres o f T abal ( east A natolian p lateau), K ardunias ( Babylon) a nd J udah n ext, i s sii r anked t hird. A m ention o f " silver ( capital) o f t he H abur r iver" r efers o nly t o t he d irection o f t rade ( Oppenheim, 1 970, 1 0, n .22). H owever, S halmaneser I II w rote o f g oing t o

" Mount T unni

( Taurus),

t he s ilver m ountain,

( and) M ount M uli,

m arble m ountain" ( Meissner, 1 912; L uckenbill, A ccording t o t he " Foundation C harter" o f D arius I , h is

t ime a t

S usa w as

f rom E gypt

( Vallat,

t he

1 926-7, I , 2 46). t he s ilver u sed i n

1 971).

T hree c ircular s ilver i ngots ( "cake-ingots") b earing t he n ame o f B ar-Rakib w ere f ound i n a n e ighth c entury c ontext a t S injirli i n s outheast A natolia ( Andrae, 1 943, 1 19-21, p 1.58); t he o nly c omplete e xample w eighs 4 97.37 g rammes. T hey w ere a ccompanied b y a n umber o f s mall

c ast

s ilver b locks o f

i rregular w eight.

S ilver

o therwise r arely f ound i n N ear E astern e xcavations ( cf. C urtis, 1 984 ( Nushi-i J an, I ran); K arageorghis e t a l.,

i ngots

a re

B ivar, 1 971; 1 983 ( Cyprus

a nd E gypt)). ( ii) I n

a ny

a ntiquity

i t

M ining A reas: r eview o f p otential s ources f or M esopotamian s ilver i s s till o nly p ossible t o

f ollow F orbes

( 1971,

2 09)

i n i n

m apping s ources o f a rgentiferous l ead, f or t hat r educes a s f ar a s p ossible t he n umerous h azards i n s uch a n i nquiry; e ven o ne c onducted a t t he v ery s uperficial l evel f ollowed h ere. T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t hese w ere t he o nly s ources o f s ilver; f or T urkey d e J esus 6 4ff., m ap 1 3) c oncluded t hat " the l ead-silver d eposits a re s pread i n T urkey, l ike t hose o f d eposits, t o

b ut

( 1980, w ide-

t hey d o n ot s eem t o h ave a d ense c oncentration

c opper o r i ron. l imit t hemselves

H owever, t here i s a t endency f or t he t o t he n orthern A natolian f old a nd t he

s outhern A natolian f old". A ccording . t o M arco P olo ( 1.4) A rmenia w as r ich i n s ilver. T he r ichest s ilver d eposit I n T urkey , t hat o f B ulgar M aden, h as p roduced a s ample c ontaining 1 .8% s ilver. A lthough t his i s c ommonly t aken t o b e o ne o f t he m ajor A natolian s ources o f s ilver i n

a ntiquity

( Meissner,

1 912),

t he c ase,

a s s o

o ften,

m ust

b e

d eclared a s y et u nproven ( de J esus, 1 980, 6 4). I n I ran a rgentiferous l ead o res a re a gain w idely d istributed. L adame ( 1945, 2 76-89) l isted o ccurrences i n A zerbaijan, i n t he M iyana-Zanjan a nd t he S ava-QazvinT eheran r egions, i n K hurasan, i n t he I sphahan-Kashan a nd A narak-Yazd a reas,

a nd i n K erman.

I n M edieval t imes

t wo I ranian p rovinces p ar-

t icularly, T ransoxiana a nd K hurasan, w ere r enowned f or s ilver ( Allan, 1 979, 1 3). A fghanistan a lso h as s uch o res a nd a gain M arco P olo ( 1.24) d ocuments p roductive m ines i n B adakhshan ( cf. C hmyriov e t a l., 1 973). I ndia i s a lso a p ossible s ource ( Strabo, 1 5.1.30, c ap.700; K tesias, I ndika, c ap.11), t hough R atnagar ( 1981, 1 40ff.) a rgues t hat s ilver 's f irst a ppearance t here, i n t he H arappan p eriod, c ame t hrough t rade w ith M esopotamia. T he A rabian p eninsula i s p oor i n s ilver a nd l ead o res, s ave f or N abataeans ( Strabo, ( Tosi, a l ong

t hose e ast o f t he G ulf o f A kaba e xploited b y t he 1 6.4.26, c ap.784), a nd r eports o f l ead i n O man

1 975, 2 02). T he o rigin o f t he s ilver u sed i n a ncient E gypt i s s tanding p roblem ( Lucas, 1 962, 2 54ff.). N either n ative s il-

v er, n or t he " dry" s ilver o res, n or j arositic, n or o ther g ossana ssociated s ilver o res, h ave b een r eported i n E gypt. A nalyses a lso i ndicate

( Gale a nd S tos-Gale,

1 981)

t hat 1 11

t he s ilver c ontent o f l ocal

g alena i s

i s

t oo

l ow

i ncreasingly

f or

i t

t hought,

t o h ave

b een e xploited i n a ncient

a s a r esult o f m ore a nalyses

t imes.

I t

( Gale a nd S tos-

G ale, 1 981, 1 09ff.), t hat t he p rimary l ocal s ource o f s ilver w as a urian s ilver ( with m ore t han 1 0% g old) e xtracted f rom g old m ines, p erhaps i n t he e astern d esert; b ut h ow e arly t his w as t he c ase i s s till a n o pen q uestion, s ince t he s ilver m ay h ave b een i mported ( Prag, 1 978). ( iii) O rdinary

f ound i n P redynastic

E gypt

S cientific d eterminations o f s ource: c hemical

a nalyses

o f o bjects m ade

f rom

c opper,

o r

a lloyed c opper, m ay r eveal s omething a bout h ow t he m etal w as e xtract ed f rom i ts o re ( see p p.13ff.). B ut w ith l ead a nd s ilver s uch a nalyses a re o f r estricted u se f or d emonstrating t he k ind o f o re u sed, o r t he l ocation o f t he m ines, a s t he p rocesses o f s melting a nd c upellation c onsiderably d isrupt t he p attern o f m ajor, m inor a nd t race e lements c haracteristic o f t he p arent o re. A n a lternative i s o ffered i n t he c ase o f l ead ( and t hus b y e xtension i n c ertain c ases t o o bjects i n w hich i t o ccurs) b y i sotope a nalysis. T he i sotopic c ompositions o f l ead s amples r emain e ssentially c onstant n o m atter w hat i s d one, s hort o f m ixing t ogether l eads f rom d ifferent s ources. B y d etermining t he i sotopic c omposition o f l ead e xtracted f rom a ncient o bjects i t b ecomes p ossible i n s ome i nstances t o m atch t hese c ompositions w ith t hose o f o res f rom k nown m ining r egions. B ut, a s r atios m ay n ot b e u nique t o a d eposit, c onclusions a re p redominantly o f a n egative k ind, a nd e ven t hen m ust b e u sed w ith c aution. L ead i sotope p rovenancing o f s ilver s ources o nly w orks f or d eposits o f a rgentiferous g alena. F or o ther n on-lead s ources o f s ilver t hey a re n ot r elevant o r p otentially m isleading, a s t he l ead h ad t o b e b rought f rom

e lsewhere t o r ecover t he

c annot p resent

s ilver.

E ven w hen d irect c onnections

b e m ade w ith s pecific r egions ( as i s v ery m uch t he c ase a t f or t he N ear E ast), s uch d ata m ay s erve t o g roup a ncient

a rtefacts w hich c ontain t he s ame k inds o f m ight h ave h ad a c ommon o rigin. T he b asis

o f

t he

s taple i sotopes: r espectively, 2 04, o f

t he

t echnique j , s

P b 20 2 06,

g reat m ajority o f

l ead a nd w hich,

rlative1y s imple.

'20 '20 ' 20° 2 07 a nd 2 08,

t herefore,

L ead h as f our

w hich r epresent a toms w eighing, a tomic m ass u nits. I n t he c ase

c hemical e lements

t he r elative

p roportions

o f t heir i sotopes a re t he s ame r egardless o f w here t he e lements a re f ound. B ut l ead i s u nusual i n t hat t he r elative p roportions o f i ts i sotopes v ary s omewhat a mong o res o ccurring i n d ifferent g eological r egions. t he o re

T he v ariations a rise f rom t he d ifferen d eposits a nd s tem f rom t he f act t hat P b

f ound a s e nd-products o f

t he r adioactive d ecay s eries

i

a nu

e s o f a re

2 o f u ranium

a nd

t horium. T he p ioneering w ork i n t his f ield w as d one b y B rill a nd W ampler ( 1967), b eginning w ith g alena o res a nd s amples f rom l ead a rtefacts, a nd

p roceeding

1 978,

t o

l eads

i n l ead-containing a ncient

w ith b ibliography o n 3 0,

n .17).

M esopotamian l ead a rtefacts w ere s ampled

T he

g lasses

f or B rill a nd W ampler

7 5-6): S ample

5 3:

f ragment o f f rom N ippur; 0 .04% A g;

h eavily c orroded l ead P rotoliterate p eriod;

G roup

" X". 1 12

( Brill,

f ollowing p re-Achaemenid ( 1967,

S ample

1 21:

( illustrated B rill a nd W ampler,

1 967,

p l.S): a f olded s heet l ead p ot c over f rom U r ( I J.20073); l ate P rehistoric t o E arly D ynastic I ;

S ample

1 82:

b and o f

l ead

0 .05% A g;

f rom N imrud;

G roup

N eo-Assyr-

i an ; 0 .03% A g; m atches o nly s ample 9 0 ( Nimrud: r ed g lass). S ample

1 83:

S ample 2 03:

f olded l ead s inker f rom N imrud; A ssyrian 0 .005% A g; ? Group " Li. s mall p iece o f T ell a l-Rimah; A g;

s mall

G roup

N eo-

p yramidal-shaped l ead; s ite A ( ?date); 0 .02%

" L".

T he r esults o n t his o ccasion w ere t oo g eneral a nd t he s ample t oo t o b e o f a ny s ignificance. A n umber o f l ead d eposits w ere

c learly i nvolved. S ubsequent w ork o n m etallic l ead ( three p ieces f rom N imrud) a nd l ead-containing g lasses d id i solate a d istinctive t ype

o f

l ead u sed o ver a l ong p eriod o f

o f s ites

t ime a t a w ell-defined g roup

f or a p articular p urpose:

" Leads o f e xactly t he s ame i sotopic c omposition ( i.e. a s a t N imrud) h ave b een f ound i n s ome o f t he o ther a ncient g lasses w e h ave s tudied n amely t he r emains o f y ellow-opaque g lass t hreads i n c ored v essels f rom T ell a l-Ri r nah a nd N uzi ( c.1500 a nd 1 450-1375 B .C.) a lso a y ellow o paque g lass b ead a nd a y ellow-glazed f aience b ead Hsanlu ( both d ating f rom 1 000-800 B .C.)." M ore b ronze I raq.

( Brill,

1 978,

a nd f rom

3 3).

r ecently J apanese s cholars h ave b egun t o w ork o n l eads

i n

o bjects f rom T ell G ubba ( level V ila) i n t he H amrin R egion P reliminary r eports i ndicate t hat t he l ead i sotope r atios

o f a t

U r a nd G ubba a re c losely c omparable ( Curtis; p ers. c omm.). W ork o n A natolian l ead s ources, w hich w ill b e o f c onsiderable i mportance f or t he

s tudy o f

e t a l.,

l eads

i n M esopotamia,

h as o nly

j ust b egun

( Karageorghis

1 983).

A nother a pproach i s S asanian s ilver f rom I ran.

t o

b e s een i n M eyers w ork T his d emonstrated t hat " the

( 1981) o n e lemental

c ompositions o f t he s ilver a lloys, e specially t he c oncentrations o f g old a nd i ridium a nd t o a l esser e xtent t hose o f a rsenic, a ntimony, z inc,

t in a nd s elenium

-

a llow a n umber o f c onclusions o n t he u se o f

o re s ources a nd t he d istribution o f s ilver t o m ints a nd w orkshops." A gain, a lthough i t m ay n ot b e p ossible t o d emonstrate t he l ocation o f o re s ources, i t i s p ossible t o d efine c ompositionally h omogeneous g roups o f a rtefacts p robably m ade w ith m etal f rom a s ingle o re s ource a nd, w hen c ontrol, t o

p ean

o ffers

a

c hronological

D ayton 's ( 1981, 3 6; 1 982) c ategorical s tatements a bout t he E uros ources o f t he s ilver ( and l ead) u sed i n M esopotamia i n t he

t hird a nd l ead

t he e vidence o f s ilver c oinage c hart s uch c hanges a cross t ime.

s econd m illennia B .C.,

i sotope a nalyses,

d o n ot

b ased o n h is

i nterpretation o f a f ew

c orrespond w ith a ny o ther e vidence a t

p resent a vailable.

1 13

( c)

h istory a nd r epertory o f o bjects:

I n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth m illennium B .C. t here w as a " surprisingly w idespread u se ( and p reservation) o f s ilver o bjects, w hich h ave b een f ound i n r elatively l arge n umbers, r elatively t hat i s i n m etallurgical t erms, i n E gypt, L evant a nd i n A natolia" ( Prag, 1 978, 3 6). A lthough t he i ndications r emain m eagre, t his s ilver w as, a t l east i n p art, c upelled s ilver ( Prag, 1 978, 4 0; G ale a nd S tosG ale, 1 981). T his m arked i ncrease i n t he p resence o f s ilver o bjects c o-incides b roadly i n M esopotamia w ith a n u nusual o ccurrence o f l ead v essels, n ot s o w ell d ocumented b efore o r a fter i n t he a rchaeological r ecord ( see p .122 h ere). T he s ilver o bjects o f t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod f rom M esopotamia a re n ot n umerous: v essels ( Heinrich, 1 936, 4 5, p .35); p arts o f a nimal s tatuettes ( Nöldeke, 1 936, p l.23q-s); a s tamen i n a n a rtificial f lower ( Heinrich, 1 936, 4 1, p l.30c); r ecumbent a nimal h andles o n l arge c ylinder s eals ( Heinrich, p l.17a,b; a s ilver

c ast 1 936,

c f. H amilton, 1 967); a r ecumbent s tone b ull " support" w ith s pike p rojecting u pwards f rom i ts b ack ( Heinrich, 1 936,

p 1.6); a nd a s ilver h arpoon h ead ( Lenzen, 1 959, 1 0, p l.18b). T here a re i solated e arrings f rom t he s o-called " Jamdat N asr" g raves a t U r ( Woolley, 1 956, 1 16, g r.219; 1 18, g r.239). A c hild 's n ecklace f rom S usa, d ated t o t he C a(?) p hase, i n t he m iddle o f t he f ourth m illenn ium B .C., h as s even s ilver p endants w ith c loisons, i nlaid w ith b lack r utile ( an o re o f t itanium), p artially g ilded ( Amiet, 1 966, p l.46). A s P rag a nd

( 1978) a rgued,

i n E gypt

t owards

t he p attern o f s ilver f inds

t he e nd o f

i n t he L evant

t he f ourth m illennium w ould b e

c on-

s onant w ith a n A natolian s ource f or t he m etal ( de J esus, 1 980, 7 5ff.; t he B eycesultan s ilver r ing s hould b e d ated c .3000 n ot 4 000 B .C., c f. P rag, n ails

1 978, i n t he

4 4, n .60). I n n orthern M esopotamia, a part f rom s ilver " Eye-Temple" a t B rak ( Mallowan, 1 947, 9 3), t he i solated

e arly s ilver f inds a re n ot c losely d ated. T hey a re p robably o f t he t hird r ather t han t he l ater f ourth m illennium B .C.; a s ilver p in a nd f inger r ing f rom a t omb i n s tratum 6 a t T ell B illa ( Speiser, 1 931, 1 2); a nother p in a ttributed t o l evel 5 i n M allowan s d eep s ounding a t N ineveh ( Campbell T hompson a nd M allowan, 1 933, 1 45, a d isk f rom B rak ( Mallowan, 1 947, 1 71, p l.XXXII.7).

t hird

B y

t he t ime o f t he m illennium B .C.,

b elts

( Woolley,

1 934,

( ibid., p 1.33, 4 2, b owl ( ibid., p 1.172); p l. 75 6 , ( ibid., c ockle

" royal t ombs" a t U r, t he s ilver r epertory p 1.12-13);

a " comb"

a nd

i n t he m iddle o f t he w as m ore e xtensive: ( ibid.,

p 1.20);

b owls

1 67, 1 71-2); a n e wer ( ibid.,, p 1.172); a f luted t umblers ( ibid., p 1.172); l yre f ittings ( ibid.,

1 11-2); a c ow's h ead ( ibid., p 1.127-130); h air o rnaments s hells

p l.LXVIII:7);

f or c osmetics

( ibid.,

f or s pear s hafts ( ibid., p l.149); m odel ( ibid., p 1.169); a l amp ( ?)

p 1.120); ( ibid., p 1.137);

t he h ead o f a l ioness p 1.136-7); i mitation s heet s ilver b indings

p ins ( ibid., p 1.159, 1 89); a b oat ( ibid., p l.1 1 70); a l ibation v essel

( ibid., p 1.171); v essels w ith e lectrum h andles a nd e lectrum r ibbons " sweated o n" ( ibid., p l.173); a t ub w ith h oles a t r egular i ntervals; d ouble p ipe ( ibid., p .258); a nd a r ein-ring ( ibid., 7 8, w ere

f ound i n R T 7 89

a xeheads U .12478:

i n P Gs 2 50 W oolley,

s pindles o f 5 3:

( U.19472:

n ose r ings f or o xen ( ibid., 6 4, p 1.35); 3 01, p 1.166-7). F our s ilver s pearheads W oolley,

1 934,

p 1.153)

a nd

s ilver

( U.8428), 5 60 ( U.9247) a nd 1 422 ( Neo-Sumerian: 1 934, p 1.223). R T 5 80 c ontained " two l ong

s ilver w ith l apis

l azuli

s pindle w horls"

U .9777). 1 14

( Woolley,

1 934,

M illichamp o f

a nalyses

o f

a nd L evey ( cited b y O rgan, s ilver

f ound i n s ome o f

1 967)

p ublished a s eries

t he m ore m assive

p ieces

o f

j ewellery f rom U r, n ow i n t he U niversity M useum , P hiladelphia. T he r ange o f c oncentration f or a ll o bjects r egistered s ilver a s t he m ajor c onstituent, b ut w ith c opper i n a r ange o f 1 t o 5 %. T he p resence o f t his

c opper m ight h ave b een a n i nevitable i mpurity i n

m elting,

o r a n e conomy,

o r a n a ttempt

r epeated

r e-

t o h arden t he s ilver.

A way f rom U r t here i s a w ide s catter o f e vidence. C oiled s ilver w ire w as f ound a t T ell a l- Ubaid ( Hall a nd W oolley, 1 927, 1 03, f ig.) i n a n E arly D ynastic I lIB c ontext. S ome p articularly f ine f iligree w ork i s e ncountered o n s ilver m edallions d uring E arly D ynastic I II ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 971, 1 5, p l.14 ( Uruk)). A g rave o f a c hild a t A bu S alabikh c ontained a r emarkable c ollection o f s ilver o bjects: a r oundel; a n " eye-patch"; a p air o f s andals a nd a l ong b ead ( Postgate, 1 980, 9 4, p l.X). T he s o-called E arly D ynastic I II " Treasure o f U r" f rom M ari c ontained s ilver, g old a nd l apis l azuli p endants, s ilver b racelets a nd p ins, s ilver " rosettes" a nd, o n a n ecklace, " wheel" a nd b ead s eparator ( Parrot, 1 968, p ls.XI, X III, X V, T he

o utstanding s ilver o bject

t o h ave s urvived

a s ilver X VII).

f rom E arly D ynas-

t ic M esopotamia i s t he d isplay v ase o f K ing E ntemena o f L agash f ound a t T elloh a nd n ow i n t he L ouvre ( Maryon a nd P lenderleith, 1 954, 6 53). I t w as h ammered u p f rom a s ingle s heet o f s ilver e xcept f or t he i nside o f t he n eck, w hich i s l ined w ith a p lain d eep s ilver c ollar, s ilver-soldered i nto p osition. T he v ase i s s et o n a c opper f oot, n ow m uch c orroded. I t i s e ngraved ( ? ) with a n i nscription o n t he t all n eck,

t hen w ith a f rieze o f

c alves c ouchant o n t he s houlder.

O n t he

b ody o f t he v essel, f ramed b y h erringbone b ands, a re f our r epeats o f t he l ion-headed e agle ( Imdugud). F irst h e g rasps a p air o f l ions i n h is t alons, t hen t wo g oats, a gain a c ouple o f l ions, t hen a p air o f o xen ( de S arzec a nd H euzey, 1 884-1912, 2 61-4, p l.43, 4 3b1s; P arrot, 1 948, 1 08-9, p l.VIIIa). A f ragmentary s ilver b owl f rom P G 1 130 a t U r ( Woolley, 1 934, p 1.167, 2 17: U .11794) i s d ecorated r ound t he s ide w ith a f rieze o f m ountain g oats m oving t hrough h illy c ountry. I t i s a ll i n r epoussé, S o b ought m only

f ar

u nique i s a b ronze b ull s tatuette,

h ave

t hird m illennium B .C., C almeyer, 1 964, 7 4,

t hough f ig.16).

b een

i s c omt o t he

i t m ight b e l ater T he a nimal i s " pie-

i nlaid a cross t he b ody w ith v ariously s haped p atches o f s ilT he b ase-plate o n w hich t he b east s tands w as a nalysed b y

B erthelot n o l ead, t he

s aid t o

i n M osul, i nlaid w ith s ilver, n ow i n t he L ouvre. I t i dentified a s t he o rnament o f a r ein-ring a nd d ated

m iddle o f t he ( Heuzey, 1 900; b ald"; v er.

f inished b y c hasing.

( 1906, 8 1), w ho r eported C u : 8 2.4%; S n : 1 1.9%; F e: 4 .1%; a ntimony, z inc n or a rsenic w as t raced; s o f ar a s I a m a ware

" silver" A fter

i dentification i s

t he m iddle o f

t he

o nly b y e ye.

t hird m illennium B .C.,

r ange o f e vidence f or s ilverwork i s o nly s ustained t hrough p ersonal o rnaments ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 971,

a s w ith g old,

t he

a rchaeologically p assim). L imet

( 1960) c oncluded t hat t he S umerian m etalworkers p rimarily u sed g old a nd c opper a nd i t i s n ot, a pparently, u ntil t he A kkadian p eriod t hat s ilver c omes m ore c ommonly i nto u se f or j ewellery ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 971, 1 9, 5 9, 7 7-9). T here a re i solated s urviving s ilver v essels o f t he O ld B abylonian p eriod ( cf. U ruk , o f t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod ( Nimrud,

L enzen, 1 962, p l.27f, 2 9a-e) a nd M allowan, 1 966, p l.356-7). E ven 1 15

i n

t he

A chaemenid

p eriod

M esopotamian e xcavations p erhaps s uggesting t hat

t hey a re n ot

s o c ommonly

e ncountered

i n

a s i n o ther p arts o f t he w estern E mpire, t hey w ere l ess c ommonly p laced i n g raves

t here ( cf. N ippur, M cCown, 1 967, p 1.108: 8 -9; U r, W oolley, 1 962, 1 94, p l.21; f ragments: R obinson, 1 950). T hough w ell d ocumented i n t exts, a nd k nown i n i solated c ases i n n eighbouring c ountries, e xamples o f s ilver s tatuary h ave y et t o b e r ecovered f rom M esopotamia ( cf. S pycket, 1 981), t hough t hey h ave b een f ound a t S usa, a s h ave s ilver p l.318,

i nlay 3 55,

f or s tatuettes m ade i n o ther m aterials ( Amiet, 1 966, 4 04). S alonen ( 1963, 2 50-1) h as l isted s ome o f t he

t extual e vidence O ne o f

f or

t he u se o f

t he m ore i mportant

s ilver

t o d ecorate f urniture.

f unctional d istinctions

b etween s ilver

a nd g old i n M esopotamia ( for i n m uch e lse t hey w ere i nterchangeable) w as t he g eneral r ole o f s ilver, p assing b y w eight, a s a p rimary m eans o f e xchange a nd p ayment. A s i n F rench s o i n A kkadian t he w ord f or s ilver c ame t o m ean " money". T he e arliest c oins o f l ocal o rigin f rom B abylonia,

a re s ilver s taters

i ssued

i n t he g overnorship o f M azaeus,

3 31-28 B .C. T hey h ave v ery e rratic w eights ( Newell, 1 978) s uggesting t hat t hey w ere s till p assing b y w eight r ather t han b y a s tandard f ace v alue. P owell ( 1978, 2 17) n otes p ayments g iven b y w eight b ut t o b e p aid i n s taters

( cf.

C .A.D.:

i statirru)

i n t he S eleucid p eriod.

I t

h as s urprised m any s cholars t hat c oinage, d evised i n A sia M inor a s a c onvenient w ay o f s toring a nd d ispensing w ealth i n t he e arlier s eventh

c entury B .C.,

h ad n ot a ppeared e ven e arlier i n M esopotamia,

w here m any t extual r eferences w ere a ssumed t o i mply i ts e xistence. P assages i n c uneiform t exts f ormerly t ranslated a s " Heads o f I shtar", o r o f o ther d eities, w ere t aken t o i ndicate t he e xistence o f s tandard c urrency u nits

s tamped w ith s uch r epresentations

( Smith,

5 ,

1 922;

c f.

L ipinski, 1 979). I n t he c ontinuing a bsence o f m aterial e vidence t o t his e ffect, a nd i n v iew o f m ore r ecent r enderings o f t hese p hrases a s r eferences t o p articular s tores o f w ealth, o r t reasuries i n t emples o f b e

t he d eities r eferred

t o,

s uch a n h ypothesis m ay b e s een t o

r edundant. H owever,

i f

t rue c oinage w as a bsent

i ntroduction t here s ixth c entury B .C.),

f rom M esopotamia u ntil t he

o f A chaemenid P ersian c oinage ( from t he l ater t his d oes n ot m ean t hat t here w ere n ot s tandard

m edia o f e xchange i n s ilver i n a ddition t o m iscellaneous c ollections o f s crap m etal p assing b y w eight. S ilver w as c ertainly c ast a s s tandard i ngots, o r c ut f rom i ngots i n p ieces s ufficiently r egular, i n t erms o f a n e stablished s ystem o f w eights, t o p ass a s c urrency ( "Hacksilber") ( cf. H erodotus I II. 9 6). S uch m oney t ook d istinctive f orms f rom a n e arly d ate, m ost c ommonly r ings ( hullu; e weru) ( Powell, 1 978; M ichalowski, 1 978) o r m iniature a xeheads ( hassinu) ( cf. B ottero, 1 958, 3 32). T his r ange o f s ilver i s p articu1ar1 w ell i llustrated i n a h oard o f t he s eventh c entury B .C. f rom T epe J an i n w estern I ran ( Bivar, 1 971; C urtis, 1 984, 1 ff.). S ilver c lose

u sed

c ontrols.

f or p ayment w as o ften o f p oor q uality E ven

t hough

i t

i s n ot u ntil

t he

a nd

N ush-i

n eeded

N eo-Babylonian

p eriod t hat c ommon t erms f or a ssaying a nd r efining r egularly a ppear i n t exts, i t i s c lear t hat c hecks a nd b alances h ad l ong e xisted i n t he s ystem t o c ounteract f raud. E ven s mall q uantities o f s ilver a re m entioned a s b eing m arked " normal" ( GIN) a nd t here m ay w ell h ave b een s heets o f s ilver s tamped a ll o ver w ith s uch a m ark , t hen c ut u p a nd w eighed o ut a s p ayment ( Oppenheim, 1 978, 6 65, n .223). W hen p ayments 1 16

w ere

r eceived

w ires, b ox, W hen

i n t emple o r p alace

c ut p ieces,

o bjects

i n u ncoined

f ragments e tc.)

s ilver c urrency ( rings,

t hey w ere d ropped i nto

a

t he c ontents o f w hich w ere t hen s melted i n t he o fficial f oundry. r efired, t he m etal w as c ast a s i ngots o f s tandard s ize a nd

f ineness X II.

a nd d eposited i n t he

9 -10 T here

m etal

t reasury ( Oppenheim ,

f or t emple c ollections

o f

t his

1 947;

c f.

I I K ings

t ype).

h as n ot y et b een a s ystematic c hronological s tudy o f

m edia o f

e xchange i n M esopotamia a s e vident

i n t exts.

t he

C opper

p redominates b efore t he A kkadian p eriod, w hen s ilver f irst e merges c learly i n t his r ole ( Lambert, 1 963; L imet, 1 972). B y t he e arlier s econd m illennium,

a s a t M an ,

s ilver b oth i n s crap a nd i n m anufac-

t ured f orm a s b owls, a xeheads a nd i ngots i s c ommonest f or p ayments; i t p asses b y w eights o n a g iven s tandard. C opper, l ead a nd t in d o n ot t hen a ppear t o h ave b een u sed f or c urrency; g old o nly o ccasiona lly ( Bottero, 1 957). I n t he O ld A ssyrian c olony a t Kültepe ( Karum K anesh) i n A natolia l arge p ayments w ere m ade i n s ilver; b ut s maller o nes i n " tokens" o f t in ( or l ead). I n K assite t exts, a nd a t N uzi, s ilver w as t he p rimary m edium , t hough f or i nternational p urposes a t t his

t ime

t here w as a g old s tandard

( see p .75).

I n M iddle

A ssyrian

t exts s ilver d id n ot o ccur s o r egularly f or p ayments, w hich w ere m ore o ften o f l ead w hen p aid i nternally, o f b ronze a nd t in w hen p aid e xternally ( Freydank , 1 982). I n t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod, t he s ituat ion i s n ot s o c lear; b efore t he e ighth c entury p ayments, a t l east i nternally, w ere i n c opper/bronze; t hereafter s ilver r eturned a s t he p rimary c urrency t hrough i nto t he N eo-Babylonian a nd A chaemenid p eriods

( cf.

S ome " bank

C urtis,

s urviving

d eposits"

1 984,

1 7).

h oards o f

( bullion),

s crap s ilver m ay h ave

b uried a t t imes o f

p eril,

b een o r

p ersonal j ewellers

s tock-in-trade f or r ecycling; b ut t hey a ll i llustrate t he r ole o f s ilver a s b ullion a nd a re n ot p aralleled i n g old o r b ase m etals, t hough p ieces o f g old m ay s ometimes a ppear m ixed i n w ith t he s ilver. R elevant h oards a re k nown f rom t he l ater E arly D ynastic a nd A kkadian p eriods a t T ells A grab a nd A smar, a nd f rom K hafajah ( Delougaz, 1 967, 4 5;

P owell,

1 978,

p l.IIIA,B) a nd i n t he n orth a t T ells B rak ,

a nd T aya ( Mallowan, 1 947, 1 960, 7 ff., f igs.11-12;

1 66, R eade,

C huera

1 76-9, p ls.XXXIII-XXXVI; M oortgat, 1 968, 2 48; 1 973, 1 65). F or t he O ld

B abylonian p eriod t here a re h oards f rom L arsa ( Parrot, 1 933; A rnaud e t a l., 1 979). A h oard f rom t he N eo-Assyrian l evel V i n a rea T A a t N ippur w as " in a s mall p ot, w hich c ontained n umerous c hunks o f s ilver a s w ell a s b eads" ( McCown, 1 967, 9 8, p l.147:1); a nd a nother o f c ut s ilver, i ngots a nd r ings f ound a t A ssur i n a j ar u nder a p rivate h ouse f loor ( Andrae 1 908, 2 2; P reusser 1 954, 3 5). A s ixth o r f ifth c entury h oard o f s ilver f ragments ( bracelets, c omplete r ings a nd e arrings) c oncealed i n a p ot w as f ound i n t he r uins o f a K assite p eriod b uilding a t Q alat a l-Bahrein ( Bibby, 1 964, 1 02-3, f ig.1; K rauss e t a l., 1 983). S crap c oined m oney a ppears f or t he f irst t ime i n o f

M esopotamia w ith s ilver v essel t he A chaemenid p eriod.

r eported A nalysis

O ne,

f ragments a nd

j ewellery

i n

h oards

n ow p artly i n t he B ritish M useum ,

i s

t o b e f rom R assam 5 e xcavations a t B abylon ( Robinson, 1 950). o f s ome i tems: a v essel h andle a nd a s heet f ragment,

r evealed b etween 9 8.1 a nd 9 9% s ilver,

w ith u p t o 1 .1% c opper

( Curtis,

1 984, 1 8-19, A ppendix I ). A nother b y c hance o n t he l ine o f t he T igris,

f ourth c entury h oard, d iscovered e arly i n t he n ineteenth c entury,

i ncluded

( Jenkins,

i ngots

o f

s ilver w ith c oins

1 17

1 964).

A

h oard

o f

j ewellery,

b oth g old a nd s ilver,

f rom

u nder

t he

P ersian p eriod l evel a nd a bove t he N ebuchadnezzar p avement i n r oom 5 o f t he E -nun-mah a t U r, m ight b e c onsidered a v otive d eposit, r ather t han a c apital o r c urrency h oard, w ere i t n ot f or t he p resence o f a p air o f s ilver b alance p ans, w hich s eem u nlikely i n a v otive d eposit ( U.456-500:

W oolley,

1 962,

1 06-8,

p 1.21-3).

( d)

M anufacture:

T he

p rincipal u ses o f

s ilver

i n M esopotamia w ere f or b owls

o ther v essels, o ther m etals, m ade " rings"

f or p ersonal o rnaments,

f or p lating w ood,

a nd

b ricks a nd

f or s mall s tatuary a nd f or c urrency, e ither s pecially o r s crap-metal p assing b y w eight. S ilver i s n ot s o

m alleable a s g old a nd r equires m ore a nnealing i n m anufacture. t o

f inest s ilver

l eaf. B erthelot ( 1906) r eported a p iece o f E gyptian a s v arying i n t hickness f rom a s l ittle a s 0 .001 t o

g old s heet

f orm s heets o f

f oil,

b ut n ot

t o

I t m ay

b e b eaten o ut

s uch t hinness a s t he

0 .0025. P ure s ilver i s g enerally t oo s oft f or u se i n i tself. A s t he f ew a nalyses o f o bjects f rom t he " Royal C emetery" a t U r ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 94) m ake c lear, i t w as a lloyed w ith c opper ( comparable t o m odern s terling s ilver) f or p urposes o f m anufacture f rom a t l east t he m iddle o f

t he

t hird m illennium B .C.

T he m ethods f or w orking g old d escribed a bove ( see p p.81ff.) a lso a pply t o s ilver, w hether i t b e h ammered o r c ast, d ecorated w ith g ranulation o r f iligree; b ut l ess l aboratory r esearch h as b een d irect ed t o s ilver j ewellery. I t h as n ot, f or i nstance, y et b een s hown w hether d iffusion b onding t o p roduce s ilver p late w as a t echnique u sed B .C.

i n M esopotamia, a s i t w as t o t he w est i n t he s econd m illennium ( cf. C harles, 1 968; K halil, 1 980, 5 0, p ls.58-9, n o.34); n or h as

n iello y et b een i dentified o n a n o bject m anufactured i n M esopotamia. H ammering w as t he m ain t echnique f or v essel p roduction. R elief d ecoration w as i n r epoussé; t he h igh r elief m ay m ost o ften h ave b een a chieved w ith i nsets: s eparately m anufactured p ieces p laced i n h ollowed-out s lots a nd s ecured b y h ammering t he l ip o f t he s lot o ver t he

i nset

t o

c rimp i t.

S uch m ethods m ay h ave b een u sed

i n t he

f ine

N eo-Assyrian s ilver b owl w ith l ion-head p rotomes a ll r ound t he s ide f ound a t N imrud ( Mallowan, 1 966, 4 30, p 1.357). F urther d ecoration w as

b y c hasing o r e ngraving. T he

s ilversmith's

t ool-kit

i s u nlikely t o h ave d iffered i n

a ny

s ignificant w ay f rom t hat o f t he g oldsmith. O ne o f t he l ater t hird m illennium h oards o f s ilver f rom T ell T aya w as a ssociated w ith a " chisel ' a nd t hree o ther t ools ( Reade, 1 968, 2 48), p erhaps c onstitut i ng t he s tock-in-trade a nd e quipment o f a s ilversmith. G raham , T ombs"

a t U r,

c ommented s tructure

w ho r estored

s ome o f

a llocated t o

t he s ilver o bjects

t he U niversity M useum

i n

f rom t he

" Royal

P hiladelphia,

b riefly o n t he m etallurgy o f t he s ilver v essels. " The i s t hat o f a nnealed m etal w ith n umerous c ases o f t winning

i ndicating p revious w orking.

O ne m ay c onclude,

t herefore,

t hat t he

s ilver a lloy w as f irst c ast a nd t hen a lternately a nnealed a nd h amm ered u ntil t he d esired o bject w as o btained" ( Graham , 1 929, f ig.on p .257). I n f orming a b owl " at l east t hree t o f ive a nnealing o perat ions w ould b e r equired d epending o n t he s kill o f t he w orkman, i n o rder t o k eep t he m etal s oft e nough t o w ork i nto s hape" ( Graham, 1 929, 2 53). O ddy ( 1984) h as r eported o n t he s ilver w ire j ewellery

1 18

f rom T epe N ush-i J an i n w estern I ran, f ound i n a h oard d eposited i n t he s eventh c entury B .C., t hough t he c ontents m ay b e o lder ( Curtis, 1 984).

T he w ire w as h ammered a nd

T o

j udge b y

t hen s moothed,

t he e vidence o f a t ext

p erhaps w ith s and.

f rom l evel V II,

s eventeenth

c entury B .C., a t A laiakh ( Atchana) i n S yria, e ven d ivine s tatues ( once t hey h ad b ecome o bsolete) w ere r ecycled t o p rovide s ilver f or m undane o bjects. I n t his c ase t he s tatue p rovided 6 85 s hekels ( about 5 .5kg.) o f s ilver f or t he m anufacture o f v essels a nd f or p lating v arious w ooden a nd o f

p recious m etals,

( cf.

D urand, ( e)

( 1)

i vory o bjects

( Na aman,

i ncluding s ilver,

1 981).

S imilar r ecycling

i s e vident i n t he M arl

t exts

1 983).

S ilver A nalyses

U nprovenanced:

P roto-Elamite s ilver f igurine o f a k neeling b ull h olding a s pouted v essel: M etropolitan M useum, N ew Y ork, N o.66.173 ( Hansen, 1 970). A nalyses b y S ayre a nd M eyers

( Hansen,

1 970,

2 3:

T hermal

N eutron A ctivation A nalysis):

A .

B .

C .

S ilver

C opper

9 5.3 8 6.7

4 .6 1 3.3

F igurine: S B1 : l eft h oof

9 9.4

0 .6

0 .008

S B2 U .2

: :

9 8.3 9 9.1

1 .7 0 .9

0 .01 0 .006

U .b

:

l eft h aunch

9 9.3

0 .7

0 .03

U .8

:

a cross e dge o f

9 8.6

1 .4

0 .04

9 6.8

3 .2

0 .01

S olders: U .l : s older U .2 : s older

V essel: U .9 :

( neck o verlap) ( near b ase)

l eft h aunch b ack o f h ead s ternum

v essel h eld b y f igurine

G old

0 .1 0 .004

M eyers a lso u ndertook s pectographic a nalysis i n c ertain s ilver s ample c ontained t he f ollowing e lements:

a reas;

t he

A g(XO.0),

M n,

S b,

C a,

V ,

a nd

P b(X.0-X), M n, S b, A s,

S n B i,

C r a nd M g

C u(X.0),

P b(.X),

( trace a mounts);

S n(.OX),

a nd A u ,

n ot d etected:

N i,

Z n,

F e,

A s,

A l,

C o,

B i,

T i,

B a. A nalysis o f a s older s ample: A g(XO.0), ( .X-.OX), M g(grater t han t race), a nd A u, C a, ( 2)

C r, U r:

V ,

B a(trace a mounts); s ilver r ein-ring l ilA :

n ot

S ilver C opper G old Z inc

d etected:

( Woolley,

A nalysis b y J .R.

C u(10-20%), N i, F e, A l,

1 934,

O gden

Z n,

0 .08% 0 .15%

1 19

T i.

p i.166) E arly

( Woolley,

9 3.5% 6 .10%

C o,

1 934,

2 93):

D ynastic

A lthough

n o

m ented U r." ( 3)

f urther a nalyses a re p ublished h ere,

t hat

U r:

P lenderleith

" Traces o f g old a re c ommonly f ound i n t he

s ilver p in w ith l apis h ead

s ilver

( Metropolitan M useum,

c omf rom

N ew Y ork:

3 3.35.44) E arly D ynstic I II: A nalysis b y P ieter M eyers ( Thermal n eutron a ctivation a nalysis) ( Hanson, 1 970, 2 3). S ilver

9 5.5%

C opper

4 .4%

G old

0 .07%

A s eries o f a nalyses o f s ilver f ound i n s ome o f t he m ore m assive p ieces o f j ewellery f rom U r, n ow i n t he U niversity M useum, P hiladelphia, h ave b een p ublished b y M illichamp a nd L evey ( 1963).

T hey m ay b e s ummarized a s

f ollows:

R ange o f c oncentration ( %) A g

M ajor

C u

1to 5

P b A u

0 .01 0 .02

S n Z n

0 .1 1

A s

N D t o 0 .2

-

-

0 .5 0 .1

)

) Present

B is

0 .02 t o 0 .2

F e

0 .01 t o 0 .05

A nalyses d one b y D ayton p ublished. ( 4)

f or a ll o bjects:

T elloh: a re n ot

A nalysis d ated,

r ognures c haldéens

( 1978,

8 5,

c ame

o nly

4 48ff.) h ave n ot b een f ully

p ublished b y B erthelot

b ut

i n o ne o bject

( 1906,

7 8);

f rom H euzey T h e xcavations:

t he o bjects " Lingot e t

( anciennes) d un m etal b lanc, t rouvés a vec d es o bjets d ans u n v ase d e g rosse p oterie.

L a l imaille d u l ingot r enfermait, A rgent 9 6.3 C uivre 3 .5

p our 1 00 p arties:

9 9.8 p as

d e p lomb."

( 5)

K ish ( as c ited i n A itchison, 1 960, I , p .180): " Sumerian" f inger r ing: A g: 9 4.86%; A u: 0 .29%; C u: 4 .85%. " Later" f ragments: A g: 9 2.98%; A u: 1 .57%; C u: 4 .23%; P b : 1 .22%.

( 6)

B rak :

A kkadian p eriod ; C u p resent

( 7)

K horsabad:

i n

M allowan,

1 947,

2 58,

" analytical q uantity";

N eo-Assyrian p eriod

( Berthelot,

n o.4:

p in

( F.447):

t races o f P b a nd B i. 1 906,

8 1):

p iece o f

s heet o verlay f rom S argon s p alace ( Place): " Cet o r n e r eferme n i c uivre, n i p lomb , n i f er e n p roportion s ensible. d ' argent..."

I l i .e.

c ontlent u ne " electrum".

1 20

d ose

c onsiderable

(

8

' Babylon':

)

z oomorphic

h andle

A chaemenid 8 );

s ee

( cf. H ughes

a nd

f ragments o f

R obinson,

1 950,

s heet

p l.XXIII,

i n C urtis,

1 984,

A g.

C u.

Z n.

5 9;

s ilver; X XIV,

2 7-

a ll i n

t he

B ritish M useum :

1 .

B M 1 20405:

2 . 3 .

A u .

P b. %

S n.

h andle

( AA) ( XRF)

9 8.3 9 8.1

1 .1 1 .1

0 .02 t race

n .a. 0 .3

0 .49 0 .6

0 .1 n .a.

B M 8 2-12-20,

2 7:

S heet

( XRF)

9 9.0

0 .7

0 .1

0 .3

0 .05

n .a.

B M 8 2-12-20,

2 8:

S heet

( XRF)

9 5.9

3 .4

0 .1

0 .4

0 .3

n .a.

AA

I X :

=

A tomic a bsorption ;

X RF

=

X -ray f luorescence.

L EAD ( a)

M anufacture:

L ead r emove r emove

i s

e asily r ecovered t hrough r oasting g alena

( see p .108)

t o

t he s ulphides o r t hrough h eating c erussite w ith c harcoal t o t he o xygen s o t hat i t p asses o ff a s g as. I t i s a lso e asy t o

w ork a nd, b ecause o f i ts w eight, u seful f or s tabilizing o bjects, f or m aking w eights a nd a nchors. I t w as g enerally u sed i n t he c ondition i t c ame f rom t he f urnace. A rchaeological a nd d ocumentary e vidence ( C.A.D s .v. a b ru) r eveal t hat i t w as e mployed i n M esopotamia f or v essels, f or p ipes, l arge a nd s mall ( in m edical c ontexts), a nd a s c overing i n s heets, b oth f or a rtefacts a nd p arts o f b uildings. C ast l ead f ormed t he c ores o f s tatues, p articularly o f t heir b ases, a nd o f m etal

w eights.

I t

s tabilized

d oor s ockets a nd w as u sed

t o

p lug

c asting f aults i n c opper o r b ronze s tatuary. R ivets a nd c lamps o f l ead p rovided r e-inforcement i n b uildings a nd i n r epairing s tone v essels. C ast i n s tone m oulds l t w as m ade i nto t rinkets a nd s tatuett es. e ase

I t w as a dded t o c opper a lloys f or t hree p ossible r easons: t he f illing o f c omplex m oulds; t o l ower t he t emperature

t o t o

a ssist w ith c asting i n l engthy o r s lender m oulds, o r t o a ssist t he c asting o f s everal o bjects f rom o ne m elt; a nd t o i ncrease t he w eight o f m etal a vailable. L ead w as a lso u sed i n t he p roduction o f g lass a nd g lazes, t hough n ot s o c ommonly a s i s o ften a ssumed ( see p .166), i n c osmetics,

a nd I n p igments.

I t m ay b e a lloyed w ith t in a s p ewter;

b ut t his I s n ot y et e vident f rom a ny a nalytical d ata a t p resent a vailable f or M esopotamia a nd I s r are e lsewhere b efore l ate R oman t imes. F or a c omment o n l eaded b ronzes s ee p .33 h ere a nd t he p oss ible

a mbiguity ( b)

i n t ranslating a nnaku ( tin o r

l ead)

s ee p .124 h ere.

S ources:

A fter

t he

c onsideration

g iven t o a rgentiferous

l ead

o res

o n

p p.11lff. h ere, t here i s l ittle m ore t hat m ay u sefully b e s aid a bout l ead s ources a nd t heir d istribution i n t he N ear E ast. d e J esus ( 1980, m aps 1 2-13) c omprehensively s ummarized t he e vidence f or A natolia a nd t here m ay b e l ittle d oubt, f or a ncient t exts f rom t ime t o t ime c onfirm i t, t hat t his w as t he p rimary s ource o f t he l ead u sed i n M esopotamia. A fter E gyptian c onquests i n W estern A sia i n t he L ate B ronze A ge E gyptian h istorical t exts r eveal t hat l ead w as i mported f rom D jahl, R etenu a nd I sy; r egions i n S yria a djacent t o A natolian s ource z ones

( Lucas,

1 962,

2 44).

L ead w as 1 21

c ommonly c ollected f rom

p eoples o f s outhern A natolia b y t he A ssyrian k ings f rom T ukultiN inurta I ( c.1244-1208 B .C.) o nwards ( Jankowska, 1 969). E mphasis h as c ommonly

b een p ut

o n s ources a ccessible

f rom D iyarbakir a nd w hat

i s

s aid t o b e a c onsiderable o utcrop i n t he T iyari m ountains, n orth o f N ineveh ( Layard, 1 849, 2 23). L ead o res a lso o ccur w idely i n I ran a nd A fghanistan ( Harrison, 1 968, 5 05ff.; 1 979, 2 8ff.), a nd i n O man ( Tosi, 1 975). ( c)

C hmyriov e t a l.,

1 973;

t o b e e xploited

b y

A llan,

H istorical s urvey o f u ses:

L ead

w as

o ne o f

t he

f irst m etals

m an

a nd

m ight w ell h ave b een t he f irst m etal o btained b y s melting a n o re, s ince i t i s s o e asily r ecovered b y t he s imple h eating o f g alena ( see p .121). L ead o res w ere b eing s melted s poradically f rom t he s eventh m illennium B .C., w hen i t a ppears i n l evel I X a t C atal H üy ( ik i n A natolia ( Mellaart, 1 967, 2 17-8, p l.104 r t.). T he e vidence o f a s ingle l ead

" bead",

o f

t he s eventh m illennium B .C.,

a t J armo r emains

e qui-

v ocal, a s t here w as s ome d oubt a bout i ts c ontext ( Braidwood a nd B raidwood, 1 983, 5 42, f ig.136:19). I t o ccurs i n m anufactured f orm i n M esopotamia a s a b racelet i n Y arim T epe I , i n t he s ixth m illennium B .C., ( Merpert, 1 977, 8 4, p l.XII.2). I n T T6 a t A rpachiyah, o f t he H alaf p eriod, a s mall c onical p iece o f l ead w as f ound i n t he " burnt h ouse" ( Mallowan, 1 935, 1 04). T hat l ead f acilitated c opper c asting w as a pparently r ecognized b y t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod t o j udge f rom a f ree-standing c opper l ion a mulet ( 4.7x3.4x1.lcm.) f rom U ruk c ontaining 9 % l ead ( Heinrich, 1 936, 2 5, 4 7, p l.13a). L ead w as u sed f or

v essels

( "bowls,

t umblers,

t rays")

i n t he l ater p hases o f

t he

p rehistoric p eriod a t U r a nd i nto E arly D ynastic I ( Woolley, 1 956, 1 04ff.), a nd i n t he D iyala a rea ( Delougaz, 1 967, 5 8ff.), t o a n e xtent u nparalleled

i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f a ny o ther

p eriod.

I n

t he s o-called " Jamdat N asr" c emetery a t U r, e xtending i n t ime w ell i nto t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, o ut o f a t otal o f 8 4 m etal o bjects c atalogued f our w ere o f s ilver, ( two p airs o f e arrings), 4 2 o f c opper a nd 3 8 o f l ead, a r emarkably h igh p ercentage o f t he t otal ( Woolley, 1 956,

a t

1 04ff.).

T here i s s ome s cattered e vidence f rom a nalyses t o s uggest a t ime w hen l ead w as u nusually c ommon f or v essels i t w as

t hat a lso

b eing e xperimented w ith i n b inary c opper a lloys ( Berthoud e t a l., 1 982, 4 5ff.). I n t he U ruk a mulet, c ited a bove ( cf. p .24), i ts p urpose s eems c lear, b ut i ts p resence, u p t o 1 5% i n a p in f rom S usa o r 2 0% i n c ylinder s eals, i s d ifficult t o e xplain s ave a s a n a berrat ion

a t

p .24). l ater,

a t ime o f

g eneral e xperimentation w ith c opper

a lloys

( cf.

W hat l ittle a nalytical e vidence i s a t p resent a vailable f or t he t hird m illennium, d oes n ot i ndicate r ecognition o f t he

s pecial p roperties o f l ead-copper a lloys; i ndeed l ead a bsent f rom t he f ew s tatues s o f ar a nalysed. N or r eferences i n U r I II t exts i ndicate t hat i t w as t hen

i s m arkedly d o i solated d eliberately

a lloyed w ith c opper ( Limet, 1 960, 5 4-5). M etalworkers i n I ran w orked w ith c opper a nd l ead i n t he s ame w orkshops o n v arious s ites; b ut, i t w ould s eem, A

f or d istinct

f ragment

a t N ineveh

i s o f

o f

s heet

p urposes

( Berthoud e t a l.,

l ead f rom l evel 5 ( ?)

t he e arlier

o f

t hird m illennium B .C.

1 982,

4 5).

t he d eep

s ounding

( Campbell T hompson

a nd M allowan, 1 933, 1 46). A t U r i t w as u sed a s a c over f or p ottery v essels ( Woolley, 1 956, 2 20: U .20073; B rill a nd W ampler, 1 967a, p 1.5).

I n E arly D ynastic I i t w as

a lso u sed, 1 22

v ery

s kilfully,

a t K ish

t o r epair s tone v essels ( Moorey, l ater, i n H ouse D a t K hafajah,

1 966, p l.Va,b) a s a lso, s omewhat r oom X VI ( room I i n f inal r eport)

( Frankfort, 1 932, 1 00), a nd, n o d oubt, e lsewhere. A t t his p eriod i t a lso a ppears c oncealing c asting f aults i n b ase m etal s tatuary. T he c opper s upport i n t he s hape o f a n ude m ale f igure f rom t he O val a t K hafajah i s a lmost p ure c opper ( Cu: 9 9%; S n : 0 0.63%;

T emple P b a nd

F e: r ight

t races; N i: n il) w ith " faults s uch a s s how i n t he b ack o f t he c alf o f n o-181 ( pl.IOIA) w ere f illed o ut w ith l ead" ( Frankfort,

1 939,

4 2). B y

E arly

D ynastic

I II m ortuary e vidence

i ndicates

a

m arked

d ecline i n t he p opularity o f l ead f or v essels; t hey d o n ot a ppear a t K hafajah, U baid o r U r i n g raves o f t his p eriod a nd o nly t wo e xample w ere r eported f rom c emetery " A" a t K ish ( Mackay, 1 925, p l.XX.2 g raves 9 a nd 1 2), t hough M ackay d id r eport t hat " melted f ragments ( of l ead) w ere f ound i n s everal p arts o f K ish i n b uildings o f t ype o f r ecorded

p iano-convex b rick" ( ibid. 1 7). i n t he " Royal C emetery" a t U r:

t he e arlier

O nly o ne o ccurrence i s P G 5 5 y ielded " some s heet

l ead... s hapeless a nd p ierced w ith h oles d ue t o d ecay" ( Woolley, 1 934, 1 48). I n t he m etal s tatuary o f E arly D ynastic I lIB a t T ell a lU baid w rought

" the a nd

a ntlers ( of r emarkab le size a nd n umber o f h ammered, a nd s oldered i nto t heir s ockets

T his l ead h ad s o Woolley, 1 927, 2 9).

t ines) w ith

w ere l ead.

e xpanded a s t o b urst t he h eads.. . " ( Hall a nd T he u se o f l ead i n c asting i s n ot a s a pparent a s

m ight b e e xpected; i t i s n ot, f or e xample, u sed i n t he c ast c opper s tatue i nscribed f or N aram-Sin f rom B assetki ( Al-Fouadl, 1 976, 6 5-6); but B erthelot ( 1906, 7 9) r eported t hat a c opper f oundation f igurine o f A mar-Sin ( c.2046 - 3 8 B .C.) c ontained b etween 1 7 1 8% l ead. I n t he l ater t hird m illennium l evels a t N uzi l ead w as o nly o ccasionally r çported, O ne

a s n eedles a nd p ins o f

( Starr,

1 939,

t he d istinctive a spects o f

3 84).

t he m aterial c ulture o f

A natolian s ites o f A lishar a nd K 1ltepe i n t he f irst

q uarter o f

t he s econd m illennium B .C.,

f igurines a nd t rinkets o f

" Colony P eriod", w as

t he

i n t he

t he p roduction

l ead i n s pecial s tone m oulds,

a n umber

o f o f

w hich h ave s urvived ( Opitz, 1 933; C anby, 1 965; E mre, 1 971). T hey w ere a lso u sed a t t his t ime a cross n orth S yria a nd M esopotamia, p erhaps a s a n a spect o f t he c ommercial c ontact a t t hat t ime b etween A ssur a nd e astern A natolia ( Canby, 2 73, f ig.73 r t.; C hagar B azar:

1 965; c f. A tshana: M allowan, 1 937,

W oolley, p l.XVII;

1 956, B rak:

M axwell-H yslop, 1 971, ( lead t rinket); A ssur: 2 89). O ne s uch m ould,

p 1.28; c f. M allowan, 1 947, 1 70, p l.XXXII.l A ndrae, 1 922, p l.29p; R imah: O ates, 1 967, n ow i n t he B ritish M useum , i s s aid t o b e f rom

a s

( Abu H abba)

f ar s outh a s

S ippar

( Opitz,

1 933,

1 89,

p l.VII:7).

T exts r efer t o s uch l ead t rinkets a nd s tatuettes a s a n "open h and o f l ead" a nd " figurine o f t he d ead ( made) o f l ead" ( C.A.D s .v. a b ru). S mall l ead f igurines o ccurred i n g raves o f t he U r I II t o O ld A ssyrian p eriods a t A ssur ( Haller, 1 954, 9 ff.). A l ump o f l ead f ormed p art o f a l arge h oard o f O ld B abylonian c opper a nd b ronze a gricultural i mplem ents a t T ell S ifr ( Loftus, 1 857, 2 68-9; M oorey, 1 971a, 6 2). S mall l ead p laques a ppeared i n t wo g raves o f t he I sin-Larsa p eriod a t U r ( Woolley, 1 976, g raves 1 25, 1 34). L ead w ire w as u sed i n . t he c ons truction

o f

s heet s ilver b racelets

p eriod a t T ell e d-Der

( Lerberghe,

f rom t ombs o f

t he O ld B abylonian

f orthcoming).

N o s ite s o f ar e xcavated i n M esopotamia h as i llustrated t he v aried u ses o f l ead s o w ell a s A ssur, w here l arge c ircular p lates o f 1 23

it

l » ' )rmed

t he b ases o t

i ng 9 0 g: f oundation

s tone p ivots

( Andrae,

1 913,

2 6,

f ig.17,

w eigh-

S halmaneser I II); l arge i nscribed p laques w ere p laced i n d eposits b y T ukulti-Ninurta I ( c.1243 1 207 B .C.) i n t he -

I shtar T emple ( Andrae, 1 935, 4 2ff., p 1.21-22), a nd n umerous s mall L ead o bjects w ere a lso e ncountered, p rimarily i n t he I shtar T emple, i n t he s o-called " New P alace" o f T ukulti-Ninurta I , a nd a t a p oint o n t he n orthwest f ortifications ( Andrae, 1 923a). I n r ecent y ears a p easant f ound a h oard o f l ead o bjects, m odel t ools a nd " tokens" s tamped w ith r osettes, a t K ar-Tukulti-Ninurta ( now i n A ssur M useum ; M . R oaf, p ers.comm.). T he I shtar T emple r oundels h ave b een p ublished i n d etail ( Andrae, 1 935, 1 02ff.). W hether t hey w ere j ust p ersonal o rnaments, t okens o r ( Smith, 1 922; A ndrae,

s ome f orm o f " money" w as o nce m uch d iscussed 1 923a). I n a ddition t o t he r oundels, S mith

a lso c alled p articular a ttention t o m any " lumps o f l ead, b earing s tamped i mpressions, n ow i nvisible", v arying c onsiderably i n s ize, a nd t o s mall p ieces o f f olded l ead t hat c ould h ave b een t hreaded ( Smith, w eights

1 922, f igure, n os.1-2). T he l atter n eed b e n o m ore t han f or f ishing n ets. T he k nown u se o f A N.NA ( annaku) a s m oney

I n M iddle A ssyrian t exts, r ather t han " tin" i n 1 923,

a nd i ts u nanimous t ranslation a s i nspired t he v iew t hat h ere w ere

" lead" a ctual

e xamples o f t he m anner i n w hich l ead w as c ast f or u se a s " coinage". T his i s n ow w idely d iscounted ( on t his s ee p .116, u nder s ilver). D espite

L andsberger T h m agisterial d iscussion

( 1965),

a mbiguity

s till s urrounds t he t erminology f or " lead" a nd " tin" i n A kkadian, n otably i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. ( see a lso p .130 h ere). I n a M iddle A ssyrian t ext ( VAT 1 8062: F reydank, 1 982; M üller, 1 982, 2 72) a d istinction i s m ade b etween A N.NA B ABBAR ( pesß) a nd A N.NA a b ru. T he f irst i s f ifteen t imes m ore v aluable t han t he l atter. A N.NA w ithout q ualification i s a lso u sed a nd h as a l ow v alue c omparable t o A N.NA a b ru. I n t his c ontext t he e xpensive m etal i s t aken t o b e t in, t he c heap o ne l ead. T his a lso s eems t o b e t he c ase i n M iddle A ssyrian l egal t exts, w here f ines a re g iven i n t erms o f A N.NA ( annaku), a nd i ts s ilver v alue r atio r uns a s l ow a s f rom 1 80:1 t o 2 40:1, w hen I n t he O ld A ssyrian p eriod i t h ad r un a s h igh a s b etween 1 0:1 a nd 1 4:1 M üller, 1 982, 2 72). b ronze

i s

( Muhly, T here

1 980, 3 8ff.; F reydank , 1 982, 7 4, a re a lso M iddle A ssyrian c ases

t wice a s e xpensive a s a nnaku.

A ssyrian p eriod,

a s b efore a nd a fter,

Y et s till,

i n t he

n .27; w here M iddle

i n t exts d escribing t he m anu-

f acture o f b ronze A N.NA ( annaku) i s m ost u nlikely t o b e " lead" r ather t han " tin" ( Müller, 1 982, 2 77, n .40). T hen a gain, w hen q uantities o f a nnaku a re a s l arge a s t hey a re i n s ome M iddle A ssyran t exts f rom T ell R imah, 6 ),

i t

l arge r ural

a s m uch a s 5 0 m ana o n s ome o ccasions

( Wiseman,

1 968,

i s n ot e asy t o u nderstand w hy a m erchant s hould d eal

i n

1 75s uch

q uantities o f " lead" ( rather t han " tin") i n a r elatively s mall t own. A N.NA. B ABBAR h as b een t ranslated b y s ome s cholars a s

" good q uality" t in ( Landsberger, 1 965, 2 95; M uhly, 1 980, 3 2-4). A s " white t in" l t h as b een s uggested i t m ight b e m etallic t in; b ut t hen a nnaku w ould a lways r epresent t he o xide ( cassiterite), w hich s eems u nlikely ( cf. A t

N uzi

M uhly,

1 980).

i n t he f ifteenth c entury B .C.

" lead i s r elatively r are

i n c omparison w ith b ronze a nd c opper, a nd i s f ound o nly i n n eedles a nd l ong h eadless p ins" ( Starr, 1 939, 4 70). A T -shaped i ngot o r c lamp o f l ead w as f ound i n a l evel o f t he t emple c ourtyard a t T ell R imah d ated t o W hat

t he e arlier t hirteenth c entury B .C.

I s m eant a t A ssur b y t extual r eferences 1 24

( Oates,

t o t he

1 965,

7 5).

" lead c ourtyard"

I n

t he

t emple

o f

t he g od A ssur i s

n ot

c lear,

t hough

e xcavation

r evealed n othing t o I ndicate t hat i t w as p aved w ith t he m etal s .v.

a bäru; I n

L andsberger,

1 965,

2 87,

t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod

( C.A.D

n .12).

l ead i s

o nly s poradically r eported i n

e xcavations. A t N imrud L ayard ( 1853, 3 57) f ound " a m ass o f l ead m elted b y t he f ire, f or e mbedded i n i t w as t he i ron h ead o f a h atchet". A t Khorsabad t he A merican e xcavators r efer o nly t o " plain f ragments o f l ead, i mpossible o f i dentification" ( Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 1 6); b ut o ne o f t he i nscribed f oundation p laques f ound b y P lace w as l ead ( Ellis, 1 968, 1 94). T he B ritish M useum h as a b ronze g ates ocket

s et

i n s olid l ead,

f rom B irs N imrud,

p robably o f

t he

N eo-

B abylonian p eriod ( BM 1 04419: G uide, 1 922, 7 3). L ead w as s ometimes u sed i n a djusting t he w eight o f b ronze l ion-shaped w eights, b earing t he n ames o f A ssyrian k ings. O ne e xample ( BM 9 1223) h as a r ectangul ar

c avity

i n t he b ase

f illed w ith l ead,

w hilst o thers

d o n ot

( BM

9 1222, 9 1224). A N eo-Assyrian d edication, e ither b y o r f or a k ing, n ow i n t he B ritish M useum, i s c ut o n f our f aces o f a b roken s trip o f l ead

( 18mm h igh;

t he u sual

4 .5mm ;

3 6mm l ong a s e xtant)

f oundation p laques

( Lambert,

d iffering i n s hape f rom

1 968-9).

T he r ole o f l ead i n b uildings w here b aked b rick w as t he p rimary m edium, a nd i n a r egion w here b itumen w as r eadily a vailable, w as n aturally r estricted. E ven i n A ssyria, w here a dvanced s tone c ons truction w as n ot u ncommon, a rchitectural u ses o f l ead a re n ot y et a s e vident a s m ight b e e xpected, t hough i t w as u sed i n f ixing s culptured s labs t ogether ( Reade, 1 983). N ylander ( 1970, 6 3ff.) h as e xamined t he h istory o f c lamps i n M esopotamian s tonework . T he s imple d ovet ail c lamp, w orking h orizontally, w as m ostly n ot o f m olten l ead, b ut r ather o f w ood o r e lse p refabricated l ead,

b ronze o r s tone

i nserted

i nto a c utting, a s a t B abylon ( Buddensieg, 1 912, f ig-3: c f. a lso N ylander, 1 970, 6 4, n .160 w ith r eferences t o N imrud, A ssur a nd K hors abad). A c lamp c ombining v ertical w ith h orizontal e ffect i s o nly e vident i n a d eveloped f orm , o f m olten l ead, a t K horsabad, w here i t m ay h ave b een o ne o f t he a rchitectural f eatures i ntroduced i nto M esopotamia ( Nylander, d ouble

f rom S yro-Anatolia i n t he n inth t o e ighth c enturies B .C. 1 970, 6 5 n .162; P lace, 1 867-70, p l.70). A n ew t ype, t he

c lamp,

r eached

t he N ear E ast

f rom w estern A natolia

i n

t he

s ixth c entury B .C. a nd b ecame p art o f A chaemenid c lamping t echniques. N ylander ( 1970, 6 6, n .165) h as c ommented c ritically o n c ertain, r egularly q uoted, " Herodotus c lamps,

c lassical r eferences: ( 1:186)

e mbedded

l atter h alf o f

a nd

i n l ead,

t he

t rue

o r w hether

5 ).

( R .

u se

o f

i n B abylon o f

t he

K oldewey,

t he

D as W iederer-

t he G reek w riters m ade a nachronistic r eferences

p ractice c ommon i n t heir o wn d ay ( see T hucydides

i n B abylon

( MDOG 4 8

A m ost u nusual u se o f i llustrated

m ention

N othing h as b een f ound o f t he s tone I t i s t hus h ard t o k now w hether t his w as

N ebuchadnezzar u sed c lamps,

t he K asr

( 11:8)

s eventh c entury B .C.

s tehende B abylon, 1 93ff.). m aterials o f t his b ridge. c onstruction

D iodorus

i n t he E uphrates b ridge

t hough w ooden,

( 1912),

l ead,

1 0ff.,

t o a 1 :93,

i n t he n orth w all o f

f ig.3)."

t o c reate a c omposite s tatuette,

b y f inds a t T oprak K ale n ear V an i n

U rartu.

F or

i s

t his

l ead w as c ast i n s heet w ith a n etwork o f t iny s quare c avities t o t ake i nlays o f g lass o r f aience a nd i vory t o s erve a s t he g arments, w hilst o ther

p ieces

a re p artitioned i nto w avy s trands a nd 1 25

c ircular

c urls

( Barnett,

1 950,

1 6,

p l.XIII:3;

M itchell,

1 983).

L ead a s a m edium f or w riting t ablets w as u sed i n t he N eo-Hittite s tates o f S yria ( Bossert, 1 951); w hether t his w as a lso t he c ase M esopotamia i s a m ore o pen q uestion ( cf. L ambert, 1 968-9, 6 4). ( d)

i n

S elect L ead A nalyses

T he e xtent t o w hich a ncient m etallurgists w ere a ble t o e xtract s ilver f rom l ead i s s till u ncertain. B y t he H ellenistic a nd R oman P eriods a t l east t hey w ere c apable o f e xtracting s ilver d own t o a l evel o f a bout 0 .01 p er c ent r esidual s ilver.

f rom l ead A s t here

w ere g alena d eposits w orked i n a ntiquity t hat h ad n atural s ilver c ontents o f l ess t han 0 .01 p er c ent, i t i s n ot v alid t o a rgue t hat a ll a ncient l ead o bjects c ontaining l ittle s ilver ( of t he o rder o f 0 .00x p er c ent) m ust n ecessarily h ave b een d esilvered ( Brill, 1 967, 7 3, n .22). A itchison ( 1960, I , 1 85) c ites t he f ollowing a pproximate s tandards P eriod: ( 1)

f or d esilvering:

R oman P eriod:

0 .008%; m odern p ractice:

0 .01%;

l ater

M edieval

0 .002%.

U r: L ate P rehistoric/Early D ynastic I : P adgham ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 95) u ndertook " two a ssays o f a l eaden t umbler f rom a g rave o f J amdat N asr d ate, w hich e ach g ave a q uantity o f s ilver a mounting t o 0 .07 p er c ent". R eported i n W oolley, 1 956, 1 65, a s " 100 g rams l ead g ave 0 .0255 g rams s ilver, a pproximately 9 oz.

( 2)

s ilver

t o

t he t on".

U r: E arly D ynastic I II: s ome s heet l ead. . . shapeless d ecay" ( Woolley, 1 934, D esch a nalysed i t a s:

1 48). P b:

a nd p ierced w ith 9 8.29%;

C u:

n il;

h oles S n:

d ue

t o

1 .30%;

F e:

0 .41%; A g: t race; A u: n il; ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 93). P adgham ( Woolley, 1 934, 2 95) r eported t hat a " 50-gramme s ample o f l ead o f

t he C emetery P eriod,

a mount o f ( 3)

f rom P G 5 5,

c ontained a n

u nweighable

s ilver".

T ell a l- Ubaid: T emple: E arly D ynastic I II: L ead f rom s tag s h ead: S cott r eported ( Hall a nd W oolley, 1 927, 3 8): " the l ead .. f rom t he s etting o f t he b ase o f t he a ntlers w as p ure l ead, a nalysis i ndicating a t l east 9 9.8%... N o s ilver o r c opper c ould b e d etected";

b ut F riend a nd T horneycroft

( 1929)

r eported i t a s c ontaining 0 .0131% o f s ilver. ( 4)

A ssur:

f oundation p laque

( c.1244 08 B .C.) 4 5):

9 9.60%;

( Ass.22804)

o f

T ukulti-Ninurta

f rom t he I shtar T emple a t A ssur

C u:

0 .14%;

S n:

0 .15%;

( Andrae,

0 .06% i ron;

I

1 935,

t races o f

a rsenic a nd a ntimony. ( 5)

F riend a nd T horneycroft,

1 929,

1 05:

a s h aving 0 .11% s ilver.

1 26

r eported N eo-Assyrian l ead

X :

T iN ( a)

b ut

T he m etal a nd i ts u ses:

T in ( Charles, 1 975) d oes n ot o ccur i n n ature i n m etallic f orm, i n t he c ombined s tate a s a m ineral, e ither t he o xide ( cassiterite

o r t in s tone) o r t he m uch l ess c ommon s ulphide, c ombined w ith s ulp hides o f c opper a nd i ron ( stannite o r t in p yrites). T in m inerals a re o nly f ormed i n s itu w here t he m ineralization i s g enetically r elated

t o g ranite o r t o t he g ranite f amily o f r ocks,

t hough n ot a ll

s uch d eposits c ontain t in. T he o xide o ccurs b oth i n v eins a nd l odes, o ccasionally i n a ssociation w ith c opper, a nd a lluvially a s d ebris f rom d isintegrated r ocks b earing v ein o re. S tream t in w as a lways a p articularly r ich s ource o f t he o re w hen v eins o f t in r unning t hrough g ranite m ay w ell h ave b een i naccessible t o m iners a nd p rospectors. I n h is r eview o f t he a ncient N ear E astern t erminology f or t in M uhly ( 1973, 1 78) n oted " that t in h as n o c onnection w ith m ines, m ining, o r w ith a ny v erb t hat r efers t o a m ining o peration". A lluvial t in n ormally O nly

a ppears

i ts

a s c lean g rains o r p ebbles

w eight,

n ot i ts

f orm o r c olour,

f ree

f rom

s uggests

a ny

t hat

g angue. i t

i s

a

m etallic c ompound. I t m ay h ave b een i nitially d iscovered a s p art o f g old p anning o perations ( Lucas, 1 962, 2 55), t hough, i n M esopotamia a t l east, g old h ad b een u sed f or c enturies b efore t here i s a ny e vidence f or t he l ocal u se o f t in. E ven i f a s tream o nce b earing t in h as b een e xhausted o f t he m ineral, t he p egmatites o f t he s ource s hould s till b e t here f or m odern g eological i dentification. T hey a re t he m ain k ey i n m odern s earches f or p otential a ncient r egions a s T urkey, I ran a nd A fghanistan.

t in s ources i n s uch

l ikely

T he c omplex p roblem o f t he m eaning o f t he A kkadian w ord a nnaku c onsidered i n a p aper o f f undamental i mportance b y L andsberger

w as

( 1965)

a nd

m ore

r ecently,

i n r esponse

t o m isleading

m etallurgical

a rguments, b y M uhly a nd W ertime ( 1973). A lthough " tin" p rimary m eaning, t he p ossibility t hat i t w as f rom t ime

w as t o

i ts t ime

a pplied t o " lead", i s f urther c onsidered h ere o n p .124. I n s o f ar a s t his s ection i s c oncerned a ny r eference t o t extual e vidence f or t in i s

t o t he w ord a nnaku ( C.A.D s .v.). I n M esopotamia,

a s e lsewhere i n a ntiquity,

t in w as u sed p rimar-

i ly f or a lloying w ith c opper t o m ake b ronze ( see p .17 h ere). A t t imes i t w as u sed a lone o r, p assing b y w eight, a s c urrency, w hilst t exts r efer t o t in " utensils", t in f oundation t ablets, t in b eads a nd b racelets. A s a p ure m etal t in h as d rawbacks, s ince o bjects c ast w ith i t h ave a t endency t o b reak a nd i t h as t o b e w orked s lowly t o a void c racking. f orm

o f

T in s e arliest r egularly r ecorded a ppearance i n t he

t he a lloy b ronze f alls

i n M esopotamia s ometime i n t he

f irst

h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. a t t he t ime o f t he " royal" g raves a t U r ( E.D.IIIA) ( see B ronze, p .17). B y t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium c opper b owls, f ound a t T ell A smar, w ere b eing d ipped i n t in, p resumably f or d ecorative e ffect ( Muhly, e t a l., 1 980a, 2 54) a nd t in w as b eing u sed a s a s older f or s ilver l ugs o n a c opper b owl a t U r ( Collor i, 1 982; C raddock, 1 984). I t i s q uite a g ood s older f or s ilv er,

c opper

a nd i ts a lloys;

b een i ts e arliest u se,

C raddock h as s uggested t his m ight h ave

b efore a lloying w ith c opper.

1 27

( b)

P roduction:

N othing

i s k nown o f

t in p roduction m ethods i n t he a ncient

N ear

E ast, s ince n o c ertain w orkings h ave y et b een i dentified a nd n o i ngots a re k nown f rom w orkshops, o nly f rom s hipwrecks i n t he e ast M editerranean ( Muhly, 1 978, c f. A rtzy, 1 983). T he m ineral c assiteri te ( see p .127) i s e asily s melted i n t he s ame w ay a s t he o xide o res o f c opper ( see p p.5ff.). O nce t hat t echnique h ad b een m astered, c assiterite c ould h ave b een s melted e ither i n t he s ame f urnace c harge a s t he c opper o res, o r s eparately. I t i s n ot k nown w hether c assiteri te i tself w as t ransported a nd t raded m uch o utside t he s ource z one. M esopotamian t extual r eferences t o " bricks", " sheets", o r " sticks" o f t in i ndicate t hat t he m etal m ost o ften t ravelled a lready p rocessed i n t he f orm o f i ngots ( C.A.D. s .v. a nnaku, i ttc l a nd z akü ; V eenhof, 1 972, 3 2ff.; W iseman, 1 967), a s f inds f rom t he s ea o ff I srael i llustrate. T wo f ragments o f t in d iscovered i n a L ate B ronze A ge c ontext a t T imna, a c opper m ining a rea i n I srael, a lso a dded i n m etallic f orm t o t he c opper ( Craddock,

i ndicate t hat i t w as 1 980, 1 71). A nalysis

o f m etal f rom t he T imna s ite i ndicated t hat v ery s mall p ercentages o f t in, c ommonly a ttributed t o c opper o res, c an b e d eliberate a dditions, t hough w hy, ( c)

u nless a s a d eoxidant,

i s u ncertain.

T he p attern o f t rade a nd t he i dentification o f s ources: ( I)

A ncient t extual r eferences:

F ew q uestions

i n t he e conomic h istory o f

s o m uch d ebated a s t he u ltimate o rigin o f a ntiquity. I t r emains a n otorious e nigma. t horoughly r eviewed

t he N ear E ast h ave b een t he t in u sed M uhly ( 1973;

t he p rimary t extual e vidence.

A s

t he

t here i n 1 976) h as " archaic"

t exts, o f E arly D ynastic I f rom U r, d istinguish c opper f rom b ronze ( Sumerian U RUDU a nd Z ABAR ( Akkadian e ra a nd s iparru), i ts p resence h as b een a ssumed a f ew c enturies b efore i ts e arliest m aterial o ccurr ence i n t he " royal" g raves a t U r i n E arly D ynastic l ilA ( see p .26). G udea i dentified M elubba a s t he s ource o f h is t in ( Falkenstein, 1 966, 1 , 4 8, C ylinder B X IV); b ut t he m ention o f t in i n " Enki a nd t he W orld O rder", c ited b y M uhly ( 1973, 3 09) d oes n ot i n f act r efer t o M e1u a a s

a t in s ource.

A S umerian h ymn t o t he g od N inurta r efers

t o

t he

c opper a nd t in o f M agan ( Cohen, 1 975, 2 8, l ine 1 44). W hether a p oetic d escription o f A ratta, i n t he S umerian L ugalbanda E pic, s tating t hat " its s oil i s t 1n-stone" ( imanna)" m ay b e t aken t o i dentify a nother s ource f or a lluvial t in o r c assiterite, f alters o n u ncertainties o f t ranslation. A t ext o f S hu-Sin ( c.2037-29 , B .C.) r efers t o t in c aptured a s b ooty i n a c ampaign a gainst Z absali, a n eighbour o f E lam s omewhere d eep i n I ran ( Sollberger a nd K upper, 1 971, 1 52:IIIA4e). R eferences t o " tin-mountains" i n S umerian l iterat ure, g enerally t o t he e ast o f M esopotamia, a re t oo v ague t o o ffer a ny r eliable

i nformation o n s ources

t aken w ith s econd m illennium B .C.

( Muhly,

1 973,

2 88ff.).

Y et,

e vidence f rom t he M arl t exts,

i f

t hey

d o n ot e ntirely l ack c redence. I t i s r ecorded t hat t in w as s ent t o M arl f rom " Sheplarpak", u sually t aken t o r efer t o S iwe-palar- uppak, k ing o f A nshan, i n I ranian F ars ( Dossin, 1 970, 9 7). T his r e-inforces t he v iew t hat s ome a t l east o f t he t in r eaching S umer c ame f rom a c onsiderable d istance t o t he e ast, e ither b y l and t hrough s outhern I ran o r b y s ea u p t he G ulf. I n v iew o f r ecurrent h ostilities b etween E lam a nd S umer i n t he t hird m illennium B .C. t he l and r oute m ay w ell n ot h ave b een u sed r egularly.

T his

t in l argely b y-passed t he 1 28

l ocal

I ranian

m etal

i ndustries o f

t he t hird m illennium

b ronze i s r are; o nly a t S usa i s i ts t ime ( Berthoud a nd F rancaix, 1 980). i ndustries

h as

y et

( Berthoud e t a l.,

t o

b e

B .C.,

w here

t in

p resence b etter a ttested a t t his I ts o ccurrence i n t he G ulf m etal

f ully e lucidated t hough

i t

i s

p resent

1 982).

T he s ituation i n n orthern M esopotamia i n t he t hird m illennium B .C. r emains o bscure, n ot l east o n a ccount o f u nresolved q uestions a bout t he p ossibility o f t in s ources i n A natolia, w here, o n p resent c hronologies, t he e arliest t in-bronze a rtefacts a ppear. " In s pite o f t he f act t hat t he m eagre g eological e vidence w e h ave d oes n ot p oint t o a n A natolian t in s ource, a rchaeological l ogic s till m aintains t hat A natolia s hould h ave p roduced i f o nly l ocally i n t he E arly B ronze A ge ( de J esus, 1 978, 1 01; -

s ome o f 1 980,

-

I ts o wn t in 5 1ff.; s ee

p .l3O). T he p attern o f t he t in t rade w est o f t he Z agros, i n t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C., i s r easonably c lear f rom d ocumentary s ources. T in,

r eaching

A ssur

f rom s omewhere t o t he e ast,

w as

t raded

i nto

A natolia i n t he O ld A ssyrian p eriod: " What a vailable

w e

c an s ay w ith c ertainty i s

( i.e.

f rom K iltepe)

r efer

t he f ollowing:

t o e xports

t he

f rom A ssur t o

t exts K anesh

o f c a. 1 7,500 p ieces o f t extile a nd a bout 1 3.5 t ons o f t in. T his d ocumentation a ccordingly c overs p art o f t he t otal e xports o ver a p eriod o f s ome 4 0-50 y ears. A v ery c onservative e stimate o f t he t otal w ould b e a t l east 1 00,000 t extiles a nd 1 00 t ons o f t in" ( Larsen,

1 982,

4 0).

I n t he O ld B abylonian p eriod S ippar w as r e-exporting t in ( price r atio: 1 6(tin):1(silver)), r eceived f rom S usa, e ither b y w ay o f D er o r E shnunna

( Tell A smar),

o r L arsa,

t o M an ,

w hence i t t ravelled t o

t he c ities o f S yro-Palestine ( Muhly, 1 973, 2 92ff.). T in , i a lso k nown t o h ave b een p assing t hrough T ell S hemshara ( ancient S usarra), w hich c ontrolled t he S ungasur g orge n orthwest I ran ( Laess e,

1 959).

l eading i nto t he R ania P lain f rom T hence i t

i s

l ikely t o h ave p assed

t hrough E rbil a nd K irkuk i nto t he D iyala B asin. T he p rice o f 1 1-12 t imes h igher t han t hat a sked f or c opper a t M arl a nd

t in w as i n t he

A ssur t rade, a nd m ore o r l ess 1 1-12 t imes c heaper t han s ilver ( Helzer, 1 978, 1 09; a ssuming t hat w eights a t K ültepe, M an , E shnunna, S ippar,

e tc.,

F or v arious

w ere u niform a nd t hat

I s n ot c ertain).

t he M iddle A ssyrian p eriod t here i s s ites

i n t he n orth

( Assur,

t extual

T ell B illa,

e vidence

f rom

T ell R imah) a nd t he

e ast ( Nuzi), a ll i ndicating a r elative a bundance o f tin at this t ime ( Muhly, 1 973, 2 90, n .357ff.; S aggs, 1 968). T his i s c onfirmed b y t he p revailing p rices ( but c f. c omments h ere u nder l ead o n p .I24). I n U garit t in w as a l ittle c heaper t han t he a verage p rice f or c opper a nd a t N uzi, w here c opper r elative t o s ilver w as l ower i n p rice U garit, t he a verage p rice o f t in w as 2 0% l ower t han t hat o f ( Helzer,

1 978,

l owest.

B ut h ere a gain t he e quivocal i dentity o f

l ead) m ust

1 09).

b e k ept

i ndication o f W iseman, 1 968,

I ndeed,

i n m ind.

t he 1 83).

a t N uzi

t he p rice o f

O nly t he t exts

t han a t c opper

t in w as a t

i ts

t he m etal (tin

o r

f rom T ell R i inah g ive a ny

t in s s ource " ...brought f rom N airi ( TR 3 019: T his n ame e mbraces t he r egion b etween t he U pper

E uphrates a nd L ake V an ( perhaps e xtending f urther e ast t owards L ake U rmia) k nown i n t he f irst m illennium a s U rartu. H ittite i nventory 1 29

t exts

o f

t he

( Cilicia), O f

t hirteenth c entury B .C.

r ecord

p resumably o nly a t ransit z one

t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod J ankowska

o f b ooty a nd t ribute

l ists,

t in

f rom

K izzuwatna

( Ko' ak,

1 982,

1 95).

( 1969,

2 65),

i n h er r eview

c oncluded:

" Although a ny d efinite c onclusions m ay b e h azardous o wing t o

t he

s carcity o f s pecific f igures i n t he a nnals, w e m ay s till m ark o ut B it-Zamani a s h aving t he g reatest m entioned r eserves o f t in ( annaku), a ll

o ther

d istricts

b eing

i ncomparably p oorer

i n

t his

r espect...

N ext t o B it-Zamani, t he L aqe o f H ammath a re m entioned a s b eing t he m ost c onsiderable r eserves o f t in .. t he l ocality r anking t hird a mong t hose r ichest i n t in, n amely B it-jalupe, l ay m idway b etween L aqe a nd B it-Zamani". p art o f

B it-Zamani s ignificantly o ccupied m uch o f

t he

w estern

t he e arlier N airi-lands.

I n s ummary,

t he S umerian a nd A kkadian s ources a ll s eem t o f ocus

o n I ran, o r l ands t o t he e ast o f i t, w hilst f rom t he m iddle o f s econd m illennium B .C. t he r egion b etween t he U pper E uphrates

t he a nd

n orthwest I ran c omes t o t he f ore. I n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B .C., i f a nnaku i nvariably r efers t o t in ( see p .124), t he m etal i s u nusually p lentiful a nd c orrespondingly c heap. A r eview o f t his k ind m ay d o n o m ore t han l eave a w hole r ange o f q uestions o pen, s ince t he a vailable e vidence i s a ll t oo i nconclusive. B efore

m oving o n t o

t he g eological p ossibilities,

t hree o utstanding

q uestions m ust b e s pelt o ut: 1 .

W as

t here a l ocal

t in s ource(s) i n A natolia

e xploited

i n

t he e arly t hird m illennium B .C. ( if n ot s ubsequently) t hat w ould e xplain t he a pparently p recocious a ppearances o f b ronze i n t hat 2 .

W as

r egion?

a s ource(s)

i n A fghanistan ( or e astern

I ran)

s erving

M esopotamia p redominantly b y s ea u p t he G ulf, r ather t han o verland t hrough s outhern I ran, i n t he m iddle a nd l ater t hird m illennium B .C.? T he r eported a bsence o f t in i n a s eries o f o bjects f rom D anish E xcavations i n B ahrein ( levels o f C ity 1 1), c .2500-1900 B .C., i s n ot a n a bsolute o bjection d etails),

t o t his v iew ( cf. M cKerrell, 1 977, s ince i t I s n ow r eported i n a rtefacts

( Berthoud a nd C leuziou, 3 .

W as v ery

a f resh s ource(s)

1 67: n o f rom O man

1 983). t o t he n orth

c onsiderable y ields o f

t in ,

o f

M esopotamia,

o pened u p i n t he

w ith s econd

h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. a nd t hen e xploited t hrough i nto t he f irst m illennium B .C.? T his m ight a ccount f or t he f act t hat t he p rice o f t in ( annaku) d eclined m ore m arkedly e ven t han t hat o f c opper b etween t he e arlier a nd l ater s econd m illennium B .C.

( Ii) I n y ears t ested

t he

( cf.

H elzer,

1 978,

1 09).

E vidence o f m odern g eology c lose

s tudy g iven t o p otential t in s ources

t he o ld l iterature h as b een v ery t horoughly a gainst t he m ost r eliable m odern g eological 1 30

i n

r ecent

s crutinized a nd e vidence. T his

e xamination c ase,

a s

h as

l eft m uch l ess r oom f or m anoeuvre

t he p ossible s ources

t han w as o nce

t he

f or a ncient N ear E astern t in h ave b een

v ery c onsiderably n arrowed d own

( Franklin e t a l.,

1 978).

T in h as n ow b een d etected i n E gypt ( Muhly e t a l., 1 980). A t s everal l ocations i n t he e astern d esert t he p resence o f a lluvial t in h as b een c onfirmed; b ut t here i s n o c lear e vidence f or t heir e xploit ation I n a ntiquity. B ronze w as n ot r egularly m anufactured I n E gypt u ntil t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. E vidence f or p otential t in s ources i n A natolia i s s till e quivocal t hough i deas o f i ts e xistence h ave b een e ncouraged b y t he g ranites o f t he B lack S ea m ountains ( de J esus, 1 978, 1 01; 1 980, 5 1ff.). i ngs h as n ow b een r eported n ear s tanding

a dvocacy

s urvived

m odern s crutiny ( Muhly,

A t in m ine w ith s igns o f o ld w orkB ursa ( Yakar; p ers.comm.). L ong

o f t in s ources

i n t he L ebanon o r S yria 1 973,

2 58).

h ave

n ot

T he q uestion o f

t in

s ources i n T ranscaucasia a nd C aucasia, w here a gain t here s eems t o b e n o f irm g eological e vidence f or i ts p resence ( Dayton, 1 972, 5 1-2; 1 978,

6 6;

a ncient l arge,

S elimkhanov,

1 978,

5 7),

i s

i n S oviet A rmenia ( Mkrtiachan, 1 967). t ion b y a n a rchaeometallurgist o f t his s ite

c omplicated b y r eports

o f

m etallurgical o perations a t M etsamor. T his i s a s ite o n a l ow o utcrop o f r ock i n t he A raxes P lain u pstream f rom E revan L ack o f a ny p rimary p ublicap otentially v ery s ignificant

p recludes c onclusions a bout i ts r eal p urpose

( cf.

B urney

a nd

L ang, 1 971, 6 8; P igott, 1 981, 7 4ff.). T he o riginal r eport s uggested t hat t he c assiterite f ound a t M etsamor m ight h ave b een r ecovered f rom a lluvial d eposits n ear P aleoaraks, a t t he f oot o f M ount A ragats ( A1ag$z),

t o t he n orth ,

w here a r ecent g eological r eport w as

s aid

t o

h ave c onfirmed t he p resence o f t in, g old a nd s ilver. I f t his r eally w as a s ource o f t in I n a ntiquity, l ocal a rtefactual e vidence, i ncludi ng a ctual o bjects o f t in ( Selimkhanov, 1 978), a s w ell a s b ronze, d o n ot s upport e xploitation b efore s ometime i n t he l ocal M iddle B ronze A ge a t t he e arliest ( cf. M ellaart, 1 968, 2 00ff.). T his w ould, h owe ver,

c orrelate

w ell

w ith t he

t rend i n t in

p rices

j ust

r eviewed

( p.124). A lthough

g eological

c ircumstances

i n i solated p arts o f

I ran a re s uitable

f or t he o ccurrence o f

a lluvial

t hey m ay h ave y ielded a lluvial g old

t in

a s

t in,

p ossibly o nce

m odern y ielding

( Muhly,

1 973,

2 60-1; M uhly a nd W ertlme, 1 973, 1 19), h ard e vidence f or t in t here i s s till e lusive. T in i s n ot m ined i n I ran t oday a nd t here i s n o M edieval e vidence f or i ts e xploitation l ocally ( Allan, 1 979, 2 7ff.). M uhly ( 1976, B lrjand, i n I ran.

I t

9 8) n otes a t in s ource i n t he a rea t o t he s outh t he D asht-e L ut, r eported b y t he G eological S urvey

i s h ardly s urprising t hen t hat a ttention h as

o f o f

i ncreasingly

c oncentrated o n p ossible a ncient t in s ources e ast o f I ran. W orked t in d eposits c ertainly e xist i n t he r egion s outhwest o f S amarkand a nd a long t he K ok-Su r iver i n T urkmenia ( U.S.S.R.), w ith a ssociated a rtefacts s uggesting e xploitation b y t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies A .D., I f n ot e arlier ( Ryzanov, 1 979; C rawford, 1 974). H owever, a nalytical e vidence ( Terekhova, 1 981, 3 19) i ndicates t hat t in-bronze w as

n ot

u sed i n t his a rea u ntil t he

l ate

t hird

o r

e arlier

s econd

m illennium B .C. S trabo ( XV.2.10) r eferred s pecifically t o D rangiana, t he m odern r egion o f S eistan i n s outhwest I ran, i nto A fghanistan, a s a s ource o f t in a nd M uhly ( 1973, 2 60) a ssociated t his d irectly w ith G udea s r eport

o f

r eceiving

t in

f rom

M eluhha. 1 31

I t

I s

n ow

k nown

t hat

A fghanistan h as t wo z ones o f t in m ineralization. O ne e mbraces m uch o f e astern A fghanistan f rom s outh o f K andahar t o B adakhshaf l i n t he n ortheast c orner o f t he c ountry ( Shareq e t a l., 1 977); t he o ther l ies t o t he w est a nd e xtends f rom S eistan n orth t owards H erat ( Cleuziou a nd B erthoud, a re g ranitic.

1 982), t he v alley o f t he S arkar r iver, w here t he h ills H ere t in a ppears c ommonly a s c assiterite, f requently

a ssociated w ith c opper,

g old a nd l ead,

a nd i n q uantities s ufficient

t o a ttract a ttention i n a ntiquity. B ronzes a t M u r idigak , a nd t he c ontroversial S nake C ave a rtefacts, i ndicate l ocal u se o f b ronze b y a t l east t he t hird m illennium B .C. ( Shaffer, 1 978, 8 9, 1 15, 1 44). T here i s, a s y et, n o e vidence o f s ources i n I ndia o r P akistan, s uch a s

t he e arly e xploitation o f t in t hose i n B ihar, w hilst e vidence

f or t in i n R ajasthan i s u ncertain ( Hegde, 1 978; C hakrabarti, 1 979; c hallenged b y C raddock , p ers.com tf l .). B ut t here i s e very l ikelihood t hat t in w as r eaching M esopotamia, a long w ith s emi-precious s tones l ike l apis-lazuli a nd c arnelian, f rom t he r egion o f m odern A fghanist an ( Ratnagar, 1 981, 3 9ff., 7 0ff.; c f. A grawal, 1 982). s ubstantially t o t he e ast, i n T hailand, n ow s eem m uch l ess

S ources l ikely,

p articularly i f t he l ocal B ronze A ge e ventually p roves s tarted l ater t han t he e arliest u se o f t in f urther w est; b ut

t o h ave t in f rom

E truria i n I taly, f rom S pain, e ven f rom C ornwall, t hrough P hoenician e nterprise, i n t he f irst m illennium B .C., m ay n ot b e r uled o ut. O pinions

d iffer

r adically

a bout

t he p ossibility

o f

B ohemian

t in

e ntering t he N ear E ast. P lacer t in d eposits i n B ohemia a ppear t o a ccount f or t he p recocious a ppearance o f h igh t in b ronzes t here i n t he E arly B ronze A ge, s o M ellaart ( 1968) m ay b e c orrect i n a dvocating i t a s a n e arly s ource f or T urkey, t hough M uhly ( 1973; 1 976) i s o pposed t o t he i dea, l argely, i t a ppears, f rom m isconceptions a bout t he n ature o f ( iii)

B ohemian t in d eposits

T he o nly o bjects o f t he

T aylor,

1 983).

O bjects:

s mall g roup o f b racelets o f

( cf.

t in s o f ar i dentified f rom M esopotamia a re a f rom c hildren 's g raves

O ld B abylonian p eriod,

a t T ell

e d-Der

( nos.148,

1 58,

( Lerberghe,

2 27), f orth-

c oming).

X I.

Z INC T here

i s n o e vidence,

a rtefactual o r

t extual,

t hat

m etal w as k nown i n M esopotamia b efore S eleucid t imes. a lloyed w ith c opper, i s t reated h ere u nder B RASS ( p.20).

z inc a s

a

I ts r ole, T his m etal

w as n ot s eparated i n E urope u ntil t he e ighteenth c entury A .D. ( Aitchison, 1 960, I I, 4 80-2). I ts r ole, a s a t race e lement, i n t he c opper u sed i n M esopotamia, i s d iscussed e lsewhere ( see p .12; c f. B erthoud e t a l., 1 982, 5 0-51). T here i s a p ossible r eference i n S trabo ( 13.1.56) t o t he p roduction o f b y a k ind o f d istillation p rocess ( cf.

z inc i n a ntiquity i n A natolia W aldbaum, 1 983, 2 6-7).

1 32

C hapter 2 .

G LAZED A ND R ELATED M ATERIALS

W hereas t here i s a lready a c onsiderable l iterature o n t he d eve l opment o f m etalworking i n M esopotamia, a nd o ther p arts o f t he a nc ient N ear E ast, t here a re v ery f ew c omplementary s tudies o f t he f aience a nd g lass i ndustries. I t i s a s ubject e ven m ore f raught w ith p roblems t han m etallurgy, s ince s o m any o f i ts p roducts w ere t iny a nd f ragile, p articularly s ubject t o d ecay a nd d iscolouration i n t he s oils o f t he r egion. M oreover, a s S tone a nd T homas ( 1956, 3 8) o bserv ed, " far t oo f requently e xcavation r eports, e specially t hose d ealing w ith t he M iddle E ast, l ack p recision, a nd a ccurate d escriptions o f t he s ubstances f ound a re m ainly w anting o r m ay b e w holly m isleading". T his p otential h azard i s n ot e ased b y c lassifications t hat a lso d iffer a ccording t o t he n ative l anguage o f t he e xcavator. A ny r emedy f or t hese d eficiencies w ill o nly b e m ade g radually, a s m ore a nd m ore o bjects r eceive p roper s cientific s tudy. I n t he m eanwhile i t i s p ossible t o p rovide n o m ore t han a b road p icture o f t he m ain t rends, i n w hich t he d etails r emain v ery m uch o pen t o c orrection. A p relimin ary s tep h as t o b e t aken w ith t erminology e ven i f ( as i s a ll t oo o ften i nevitably t he c ase) g ood i ntentions a re t hwarted b y t he v ariet y o f t he o lder l iterature a nd a n ecessary p opular t erminology. T

T erminology a nd t he P roblem o f O rigins: ( a)

F aience

T he

a ncient

r elationship

t o

o bjects o f e arthenware d ecorated w ith g laze a nd e namels, s uch a s f aience o f F aenza i n I taly f rom w hich t he t erm w as o riginally

m aterial k nown a s

f aience h as n o

t he d e-

r ived. I t i s a l ong-standing m isnomer f or a c omposite m aterial c ons isting o f a s intered q uartz b ody a nd a g laze. H owever i nappropriate t he

t erm m ay n ow b e,

i t

i s

t oo d eeply e ntrenched i n t he

l iterature t o

b e d iscarded. S ynonyms u sed b y v arious a uthors a re: s intered q uartz, g lazed f rit, c omposition, " Egyptian f aience", p aste, e tc. T he b ody o f a ncient f aience i s o f " finely p owdered q uartz g rains c emented t ogether b y f usion w ith s mall a mounts o f a lkali o r l ime o r b oth, a nd i s u sually c olourless t hough i mpurities h ave o ccasionally t inted i t b rown o r g rey" ( Stone a nd T homas, 1 956, 3 8) ( see p .159). A lthough g lass i s t reated s eparately h ere ( pp.194ff.), t here i s a n i mportant d istinction w hich h as t o b e e mphasized i n a ny f ull d efinition o f a ncient f aience. I n a t rue g lass t he v arious i ngredients m ust b ecome c ompletely f used t ogether i n a l iquid m elt, w hich i s t hen c ooled a nd a cts o nly

a s g lass. T he s ynthetic a ncient m aterial k nown a s f aience h as b een s intered: " the i ngredients w ere h eated s ufficiently s o

t hat

s ome o f

t hem

m elted o r r eacted t o

f orm a v ery s mall p roportion

o f l iquid, w hich u pon c ooling s erved t o c ement t ogether t he u nfused g rains" ( Brill, 1 970, 1 15). T his s tate i s o ften, i f r ather c onfus i ngly, t ermed " glassy"; b ut i t n eeds t o b e s harply d istinguished f rom

g lass,

p articularly

w hen

t he

r elevant

1 33

a ncient

d ocumentary

s ources,

n ot

i n t hemselves e xplicit,

F aience

a re u nder c onsideration.

c an b e m odelled b y h and o r p ressed i nto a m ould.

d ried a nd f ired i t

b ecomes h arder,

W hen

t hough t he h ardness v aries.

m aterial r anges f rom s oft a nd c rumbly, t hrough v ery c ompact, v ery c lose a pproximation b oth i n h ardness a nd i n a ppearance t o

T he t o a g lass

(glassy f aience"). I n

p ractical

t erms

i n M esopotamia,

c ommonly i n a f riable c ondition a nd

w here

t he s urviving b ody i s

t he g laze o ften o nly e vident f rom

t iny s urviving s pecks, f aience o bjects a re j ust " sintered q uartz", e xplaining w hy s uch m isnomers a s " white f rit" o r " white p aste" a re r egularly e ncountered i n t he l iterature t o d escribe t hem. I n t he n ineteenth c entury a ccounts t hey s ometimes a ppear a s " porcelain" ( Layard, 1 853). P aste, l ike f rit ( see b elow), i s a p articularly u nfortunate d escribe a

d esignation, a s " in m odern u sage i t i s l oosely u sed t o m aterial f ormed b y f using p owdered q uartz a nd a lkaline

s alts, a nd c oloured w ith m etallic o xides, f or m aking i mitation g ems. I t h as n o s cientific m eaning" ( Stone a nd T homas, 1 956, 3 9). ( b)

G laze

( and g lass):

G laze i s a d iscrete ( faience)

o r c eramic

G lass w ay

t hat

i s

l ayer o f g lass o n t he s urface o f c rystalline

( baked c lay) b odies.

a m aterial m ade

b y c ooling a s ilicate m elt

i t d oes n ot c rystallize a nd r etains s ome o f

i n s uch

a

t he c haracteris-

t ics o f a l iquid. A ncient g lass w as m ade b y m elting t ogether s ilica a nd i mpure s oda. H owever, a ncient g lazes o n b eads, w hich d ate f rom a m uch e arlier p eriod t han g lass, w ere m uch m ore p robably f ormed b y t he h igh-temperature r eaction o f a n a lkali o n s ilica. I t w ill b e s een t hat t he r aw m aterials o f f aience a nd g lass a re t he s ame b ut e mployed i n v ery d ifferent p roportions a nd w ith a d ifferent t echnology. G lazes a re n ot f ound o n b aked c lay ( terracotta) u ntil t he c entury B .C. i n t he N ear E ast. T he g lazes w ere c oloured

s ixteenth ( most c om-

m only b lue o r g reen) w ith m etallic c ompounds. T rue v itreous g lazes m ust b e c learly d istinguished f rom s lipped, p ainted o r b urnished t erracotta s urfaces. A g laze d iffers f rom a p aint i n t hat i t h as t o aint i s o rganic b e f used a t h igh t emperatures w hereas t he m edium o f p rit, s ilica a nd a nd w ill b urn o n h eating. B ut, s ince m ixtures o f f a nd t hen f ired t o l ime, m ay b e " painted" o nto a b aked c lay s urface, s a v erb i n t he f orm a g laze, t he t erm " paint" i nevitably a ppears a f ollowing p ages. ( c) T his

F rit: i s

t he m ost p roblematic o f

t he t erms

r elevant

t o

t he

s ub-

j ect, s ince i t i s o ften u sed a s i f i t w ere s ynonymous w ith f aience ( cf. P erkins, 1 949), f rom w hich i t s hould i n f act b e c learly d isting uished. F aience h as a g lazed s urface a nd o nly w hen t his i s t otally w orn o ff m ight a n o bject

b e m istaken b y e ye f or

s intered p olycrystalline b ody a nd n o g laze

( cf.

f rit.

A f rit h as

K uschke,

1 970).

a

F rit

h as a v ery s pecific m eaning i n g lass t echnology: " a c alcined m ixture o f s and a nd f luxes r eady t o b e m elted i n a c rucible t o f orm g lass" ( Oxford t he

r aw

E nglish D ictionary). m aterials

b efore r egrinding a nd

a re

I t

i s

t he f irst s tage

" fritted" a t a

s ubsequent m elting. 1 34

r elatively

i n

p roduction;

l ow

t emperature

I n t he p resent c ontext

t he

t erm

" frit

i s u sed t o d escribe a ll s intered p olycrystalline

w hich w ere n ot g lazed. ( Fritting i s u sually w hich t he s oluble s alts a re m ade i nsoluble c arbonates e tc. a nd f orming a c omplex m ass I t h as b een s uggested t hat " unglazed f aience" s ynonym t o a void c onfusion w ith g lass I n t he c ase o f a c oloured f rit

b odies

c onsidered a p rocess i n b y b reaking d own t he o f s intered s ilicates). m ight b e a n a ppropriate

t echnology.

t he c olour r uns

t hroughout;

t here

i s n o d istinction, a s t here i s i n f aience, b etween a n i nner b ody o f o ne c olour, u sually w hite, a nd a d istinct s urface c olour. S uch c akes o f d ifferently c oloured f rits, a nd t he p ans f or p roducing t hem , w ere f ound a t T ell e l-Amarna i n E gypt, d ating t o t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourteenth c entury B .C. T his i s t he o ldest g lass f actory y et e xcav ated i n t he N ear E ast o r E gypt

( Petrie,

1 894,

2 5ff.;

L ucas,

1 962,

1 9ff.). O nce p roduced, c akes o f f rit m ay b e g round i nto a f ine p owder f or u se a s a p igment, o r f or f urther c ombination a nd t reatment t o p roduce o bjects o f m oulded f rit o r g lass. I n t he p eriod c overed b y t his s urvey, b lue w as b y f ar t he m ost p opular c olour f or a ll f rit a rtefacts; o ther c olours o ccur r elatively r arely, b eads o r s imilar s mall i tems o f p ersonal o rnament.

u sually o nly

f or

T he b lue o bjects a re u sually s intered m ixtures o f q uartz a nd t he m ineral " Egyptian B lue", w hich i s a s ilicate o f c opper a nd c alcium ( CuO. C aO. 4 S10 2 ) i dentical t o t he n atural m ineral c uprorivarite ( see p .188).

T he t erm " Egyptian B lue"

t he f rit

i tself a s w ell a s

i s

f requently u sed t o d escribe b oth

i ts m ineral c onstituent.

I ndeed,

i t

i s

n ot y et e stablished i f t here w ere b lue f rits i n t he a ncient N ear E ast f rom w hich t he m ineral " Egyptian B lue" w as a bsent. T he t erm " glass p aste" f rLt

( pate d e v erre)

i s o ften a pplied r ather

i ndiscriminately

( blue o r a ny o ther c olour) o r a ny o paque g lass,

c antly,

i n t his c ontext,

m ost

t o

s ignifi-

b y W oolley i n h is r eports o n t he e xcavations

a t O r. T he h ere

i s

p roblem o f a ncient c onsidered o n

( d)

t erminology f or

t he m aterials

d iscussed

p p.224ff.

G lazed s tones:

B oth i n E gypt a nd M esopotamia t he s tones m ost c ommonly g lazed p rehistoric s erpentine,

t imes w ere e ither m agnesium s ilicates, o r s ilicates, s uch a s q uartz o r f lint,

i n

l ike s teatite o r w hich f requently

c ontain i ron a s a n im pu r ity.* I f o ne

t hing e merges

c learly f rom t his p reliminary s urvey,

i t i s

t he p revailing c onfusion i n t he p opular t erminology f or a ncient g lazed a nd r elated m aterials. B ut, a s t his i s p rogressively r efined b y p roper

s cientific i nvestigation,

i t w ill b e n o e asier t o a pply t he

e merging t erminology a cceptable t o t he s cientists, s ince m uch o f i t i nevitably t urns o n f eatures n ot e vident t o t he n aked e ye, e ven a t rained o ne. I n s uch c ircumstances t here i s m uch s till t o b e s aid f or u nambiguous, n on-committal p hraseology f or c ommon u se, s uch a s: g lazed g laze,

*

s tone; " glazed c omposition ' f or f aience ( giving c olour a nd o f b ody i f p ossible); " unglazed c omposition" f or

I p ropose t o d iscuss

s tones I n a f uture v olume I n t his s eries.

1 35

o f t he

f rits

( giving

t he

c olour o f

t he b ody a nd e vidence t hat

t races

o f

g laze h ave b een s ought i n v ain); a nd g lass, w hich m ay u sually b e r ecognized b y e ye a nd i s f amiliar t o e veryone. E ven t he c urrent s uggestion t hat " sintered q uartz" o r " soda-lime-silicate" " composition" p rejudges t he v ital q uestions. A lthough i n M esopotamia i t i s b roadly p ossible " glazed s tones" f rom " faience" a nd " glazed t erracotta"

b e u sed f or

t o f or

s eparate c oherent

t reatment, t his i s n ot y et t he c ase w ith " frits". I n t he p resent s tate o f k nowledge, a nd t hen o nly w ith r eservations, f or i t i s n ot y et k nown w hether t here w ere a ny o ther b lue f rits, m ay " Egyptian B lue" b e t reated i ndependently. " Frits" o f o ther c olours, t hough k nown a t s ites l ike N uzi, h ave n ot y et b een s ystematically i dentified e lsewhere, s o a ny s eparate t reatment o f t hem p resent. T his i s a nomalous, b ut u navoidable. ( e)

T he e mergence o f g lazed m aterials:

T he

o rganization

o f

t he f ollowing

i s

s ections,

i mpossible

f or

a t

c onvenience

r ather m ore t han f rom a ny c onviction, r eflects a p revalent v iew a bout t he w ay i n w hich f aience w as f irst d eveloped i n W estern A sia. I t i s u sually a rgued t hat t he i nitial i mpulse c ame f rom a d esire t o r eprod uce r are s tones o f b luish-green c olour b y g lazing c ommoner d ark o r d ull c oloured s tones a b lue-green c olour. I t i s a ssumed t hat t his o riginally h appened i n a s ituation w here s iliceous s tones, s uch a s s teatite, t he a shes o f a lkaline-rich s alt w ater p lants, a nd s ome c opper, w ere i n f ortuitous c ombination u nder h eat, p resumably i n a f ire-pit o r h earth. T he u se o f m alachite a s a c osmetic f rom a n e arly d ate, a nd t he p alettes o n w hich i t w as g round f or t his p urpose, n qtably t hose o f s andstone, w ould h ave b een a p ossible c ombination f or a ccidental g lazing ( cf. L ucas, 1 962, 1 72; P eltenburg, 1 971): L ucas, i n f act, s uccessfully e xperimented w ith a t wo-stage m ethod f or r eproducing f aience i n w hich h e f irst g lazed s olid q uartz p ebbles u sing a m ixture o f n atron a nd m alachite. T his g laze w as t hen c hipped o ff, g round t o a f ine p owder a nd a pplied t o t he s urface o f a g roundq uartz b ody, H ow

w hich w as s ubsequently f ired.

t he g lazing o f s tones,

r elated t o t he d evelopment o f h as y et

t o b e c larified;

o r a rtificial

b odies,

c ontemporary c opper w orking,

m ight

h ave

i f a t a ll,

n or i s i t c lear w hether t he m arked a bsence,

i n b oth E gypt a nd M esopotamia, o f a ttempts t o g laze b aked c lay a t t his i nitial s tage i s i ndicative o f a p articular c ontext f or t he d evelopment o f f aience. A ttention h as b een c alled i n t his c onnection t o P errot s o bservation t hat t he c lay w alls o f f urnaces a t t he C halc olithic s ite o f A bu M atar, n ear B eersheva, i n I srael " had b ecome g lazed b y t he p roducts o f t he c ombination o f m etal, s ilica a nd b ases" ( Perrot,

1 955,

g lazing o f I t

7 9);

b ut

i t

i s n ot a n o bvious a nalogy f or t he e arly

s oda-lime-silicates.

i s,

a t p resent,

i mpossible

t o

s ay w ith a ny r eal

c onfidence

w hether t he p roduction o f f aience a ppeared i n W estern A sia b efore i t d id i n E gypt; c omparative c hronologies a re s till t oo i mprecise f or t he q uestion t o b e r esolved. I n E gypt b eads o f g reen o r g reenish b lue g lazed s teatite ( perhaps a lso o f o ther s tones) a ppear f irst i n t he B adarian P eriod ( Early P redynastic), c urrently d ated t o t he l ast q uarter o f t he f ifth m illennium B .C. o r s oon a fter. G lazed s tones, p redominantly

s teatite,

c ontinued a s o ne o f 1 36

t he c ommoner

m aterials

f or

b eads

f irst

i n

i n P redynastic E gypt.

t he A mratlan P eriod

G reen-glazed f aience b eads

( Naqada I ;

M iddle P redynastic),

a ppear c .4000-

3 500 B .C., t hough n ot a s c ommonly a s w as o nce a ssumed ( cf. V andiver, 1 983a, A -64ff.). C aution i s a lso r equired w ith l arger o bjects, l ike t he h awk p endant f rom t omb 1 774 a t N aqada, s ince i t m ay b e m ade o f g lazed q uartzite o r g lazed s andstone r ather t han o f f aience ( Vandiver, 1 983a, A -71ff., p l.29c). T he c alibrated C arbon-14 c hronol ogy o n w hich t he a bsolute d ates g iven h ere a re b ased i s s till o pen t o m odification, a s t here a re i solated i ndications t hat t he E gyptian P redynastic c ultures m ay h ave b egun e arlier a nd c hanged m ore s lowly t han c urrent h ypotheses a ssume. W ith t he e xception o f a n i solated f ind i n I ran ( see p .142) n o f aience h as b een r eported f rom a nywhere i n W estern A sia t hat m ay b e c ertainly d ated b efore t he U baid P eriod.* W ithin

t hat

l ong p eriod,

c urrently d ated o n a c alibrated

C arbon-14

c hronology f rom a bout 4 500-3800 B .C., i t i s h ard t o p lace s urviving f aience b eads w ith a ny p recision ( see p .142) t hough t hey a re c ert ainly i n p roduction b efore i ts f inal p hase ( Ubaid I II). T his b eing s o, i f t he a bsolute c hronologies f or t he r espective r egions g iven h ere a re c orrect, t he p resent w eight o f e vidence w ould b e i n f avour o f f irst p roduction o f f aience s omewhere i n W estern A sia, p robably i n I ran o r N orthern M esopotamia, w ith d iffusion i nto E gypt t o t he w est, t he I ndus

r egion t o t he e ast

( cf.

S tone a nd T homas,

1 956).

W hatever t he f orce o f t raditional s peculations a bout o rigins, i t i s l ikely t hat t he h eat t reatment o f s tones, f rom t he U pper P alaeol ithic p eriod, t o f acilitate f laking h ad f amiliarized m en f rom a n e arly d ate w ith t he v irtues o f a pplying h eat t o s tone. I n a reas w here e arly f aience i ndustries m ay a t p resent b e n oted, i n E gypt, i n n orthern M esopotamia a nd i n t he I ndus V alley, t here i s i nvariably a p revious t radition o f h eat t reating s teatite, i n s ome c ases a ctually o f g lazing i t ( in t he p recise s ense o f t he w ord). T his c raft c ontinu ed t o f lourish f or s ome t ime s ide-by-side w ith p roduction o f f aience a nd f rit. A " burnt" s teatite b ead ( see p .138), p ainted w ith p owdered m alachite, a c ommon p rehistoric p igment, w hen f ired w ould p roduce a g reenish-blue g laze. T he s teatite w ould p rovide s ilica, t he w hiteni ng p rocess a lkali a nd t he m alachite

t he c olourant.

F rom t his

i t

i s

a s mall s tep t o f aience. I n t hose r egions w here

i nnovatory f aience p roduction i s

e vident

b y t he l ater f ourth a nd t hird m illennium B .C. c ontemporary p otting a nd m etalwork e xhibits a c onsiderable m astery o f p yrotechnology a nd a w illingness t o e xperiment b oth w ith o res a nd p igments. C raftsmen w ere a lso s killed i n w orking o n a s mall s cale w ith s uch m aterials a s s tone, b one, s hell g eneral r estriction

a nd i vory. I t i s d ifficult o n t he s upply o f t he r eal

t o g auge w hether a s tones s timulated

i mitation o r w hether i t w as i n p laces w here t he s emi-precious s tones t hemselves w ere r eadily a vailable t o t he r ich a nd p rivileged t hat c raftsmen w ere m oved t o p roduce i mitations f or t hose a mong t he l ess a ffluent w ishing t o e mulate the p rivileged. T he h istory o f f aience i n t he t aken

l ater s econd m illennium B .C. ( cf. F oster, 1 978, 1 73) m ight b e t o s uggest t hat i nnovatory f aience a nd g lass m anufacture w as

m ore

l ikely

w here

t he

n aturally

c oloured

s tones

w ere

r eadily

a vailable a nd w idely u sed; w idening s ocial d emand, r ather d eprivation i n t he r icher s ections o f s ociety, w as t he s timulus.

*

T he e vidence f rom A rpachiyah i s e quivocal 1 37

( see p p.142,

1 93).

t han

1 1

G l az ed s tones: ( 1) A s

S teatite: s teatite

i s

s oft,

i t m ay b e c ut e asily a nd i ts

f ine-grained

s tructure m akes i t a v ery s uitable m edium f or s mall o bjects l ike b eads a nd a mulets. I t i s p articularly w ell s uited t o g lazing, a s i t c an b e h eated w ithout d istortion. T he h eating d ehydrates i t a nd d ramatically s cale. T his s mall

i ncreases i ts h ardness f rom 1 t o 6 o r 7 o n s eems t o h ave b een a ppreciated v ery e arly ;

o bjects

w ere

f irst c arved i n t he s oft s tone

t he M oh s p resumably

t hen

h eated

t o

h arden t hem . B eck ( 1934a), d efined

w hose s tudy o f g lazed s tones

t hree d ifferent w ays

i s s till

t hrough w hich t he s urface

w as c hemically a ltered i n E gypt a nd

t he N ear E ast

f undamental, o f

s teatite

i n a ntiquity:

( i) " Glazed" t his i nvolves e ither t he a pplication t o t he s urface o f t he s tone o f a v itreous g laze, w hich i s t hen f ired o n, o r u se o f t he c ementation p rocess a s i n f aience m anufacture ( see p .161). E ven w hen t he g laze h as f laked a way, a v ery h ard s urface r emains o n t he s teatite. B eck ( 1934a, 6 9; c f. L ucas, 1 962, 1 55-6) r egarded t his p rocedure a s " almost e ntirely E gyptian", a n o bservation w hich s till s tands. E ven f rom E gypt o bjects o f c onsiderable s ize i n g lazed s teatite a re r are, m ostly d ating b etween t he X llth a nd X VIIIth D ynast ies, c .2000-1200 B .C. ( Bannister a nd P lenderleith, 1 936), a nd n one h as b een p ublished f rom M esopotamia. N oble ( 1969, 4 38) h as d escribed t he E gyptian m ethod o f g lazing s teatite a nd p ointed O ut e ffect

o n t he m ineral.

V andiver

( 1983a,

i ts h ardening

A -64ff.) h as

p ublished

a

c areful e xamination o f E gyptian g lazed s teatite b eads a nd s eals.

4 )

( Ii)

" Burnt":

e xplained

t his a s

f ired,

B eck ( 1934a,

6 9;

c f.

a lso

i n V ats,

t he a pplication o f a n a lkali

o r o f a g laze w hich w as o f

s uch a n ature

1 940,

3 93-

w as

t hen

w hich

t hat i t a lmost a lways

f laked e ntirely a way a nd l eft a v ery s oft s urface o n t he s teatite. T his i s t he c ategory t o w hich t he c ommonly t ermed " glazed s teatite" o f M esopotamia b elongs, t hough i t i s b est k nown f rom I ndus V alley s eals a nd b eads o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. ( Hegde, 1 983). ( iii)

" Etched":

f or

t his

t he s urface o f

t he s teatite

w hitened, p robably o nly w ith a n a lkali, a nd h eated, w as d ecorated w ith a p attern i n f erruginous c lay o r i ron.

T his

r eported T he

i s

a n

I ndus V alley t echnique

n ot

y et

w as

a fter w hich i t s ome s alt o f i ndependently

f rom M esopotamia. h istory o f

b urnt s teatite i n M esopotamia i s o bscured b y t he

a bsence o f a ny s ystematic s tudy o f b eads f rom t he r egion. I n o ne c ase i s i t c ertainly k nown f or a ny o ther r ange o f o bjects t he a rea: a w ell-defined g roup o f c ylinder s eals c urrent i n

o nly f rom L ate

P rotoliterate t o E arly D ynastic I t imes. " Burnt S teatite" b eads a re l isted i n t he U baid p eriod g raves a t A rpachiyah ( Mallowan, 1 935, 3 8), w hen i t w as u sed f or " minute g lazed s teatite r ing b eads". I n r eporti ng o n t he b eads

f rom t he d eep s ounding a t N ineveh B eck ( in

C ampbell

T hompson a nd M allowan, 1 933, 1 79) n oted " a t hird b ead f rom t he l ayer N in.2 a t a d epth o f 63 i s m ade o f c hemically t reated s teatite. T his b ead i s e xactly s imilar t o t he w hite s teatite b eads.. . from N in.3 a nd

N in.4,

a nd

i t

i s o f

i nterest

t o k now t hat 1 38

t his p rocess

i s

s o

e arly".

N in.2

w ould

f all

s omewhere i n t he

e arly

U baid

h orizon

( ?Arpachiyah T T 8 -6); 3 a nd 4 c over t he U ruk I V I II h orizons i n t he s outh. S ome o f t he t reated s teatite b eads o f N in.3 w ere i dentical i n s hape a nd m aterial t o N in.2, o thers w ere l ong c ylinders o r b arrels ( ibid., p l.LXXIX, f ig.20-23). I n a c hild's g rave, a s a t A rpachiyah, -

t reated w hite s teatite b eads w ere c ombined w ith u ntreated b lack ; t wo f aience b eads w ere a ssociated. I n N in.4 t here w as m ore v ariety, b ut t he g reat m ajority w ere t iny w hite s teatite b eads ( cf. B eck , 1 934a, 7 6-7). A

c ylinder

m illennium M allowan, " The

s eal a ttributed

B .C. 1 933,

t o

" Nineveh 4 "

i s o f c onsiderable i nterest 1 40,

p l.LXV,

s tone a ppears

1 6).

i n t he

l ater

f ourth

( Campbell T hompson

B eck ( ibid.,

1 81-2)

a nd

c ommented:

t o h ave b een t reated b y t he a pplication o f a n

a lkali c ombined w ith g reat h eat, b ut n o s ilica h as b een a pplied; i n t his w ay t he t reatment d iffers f rom t hat o f t he E gyptian s pecimens". F rankfort ( 1939a, 3 4) i solated t he g roup o f s eals t o w hich t his e xample b elongs, n oting t hat s hape, m aterial a nd d esigns w ere a t t his t ime, i n t he l ate P rotoliterate t o E arly D ynastic I p eriods, w ithout p recedent. S eals o f t he s ame g eneral t ype w ere a lso m ade i n f aience. T he g roup i s r epresented a mong s ealings a t N ineveh ( Campbell T hompson a nd H amilton, 1 932, p l.LXIII.II,14; C ampbell T hompson a nd M allowan, 1 933, 1 966,

p l.LXV.21-35, L XVI. 3 ,4,7,18-26), a nd a t J amdat N asr ( Buchanan, n o.72), a nd b y a ctual s eals i n t he D iyala ( Frankfort, 1 955,

1 7ff.), a t K ish ( Buchanan, 1 966, 1 6ff.), a t F ara ( Heinrich a nd A ndrae, 1 931, p ls.691, m ; 7 2 c , d , e ) a t T elloh ( Frankfort, 1 939a, 3 4, n 2), a nd i n c onsiderable n umbers a t S usa ( Amiet, 1 972, 1 43ff.). T he p redominance o f t hese s eals i n n orthern a nd e astern M esopotamia h as b een c ommented o n. L e B reton ( 1957, 1 08) c hallenged F rankfort 's v iew t hat t here w as n o r eason t o c onsider t hem o ther t han o f l ocal M esopotamian m anufacture, s uggesting t hat " their c hief c entres o f f abrication a nd d ispersion s hould b e s ought s omewhere a long t he E astern p iedmont" ( Buchanan s " Piedmont J amdat N asr" s tyle). E ven i f t hey m ay n ot b e c onsidered s pecifically " Suslan", A miet ( 1972, 1 43) h as e mphasized t heir c lose a ffinity w ith " Proto-Elamite" g lyptic. I n t he S usa s equence t hey f irst a ppear I n l evel 1 7 ( Amiet, 1 971, 2 22); s ignificantly

s ome

t ake a d ifferent

b eing a pproximately c ontemporary s eries

f orm,

t he h eight a nd

d iameter

e qual, a nd h ave a v ery c lose a ffinity w ith a o f s uch s eals i n f aience ( cf. A miet, 1 972,

1 11ff.). T he p roduction o f b urnt s teatite o bjects i n M esopotamia a fter t he b eginning o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod I s n ot w ell d ocumented a nd m ay h ave c eased. B eck ( 1934a, 7 6; i n V ats, c ites m inute b urnt s teatite b eads f rom P G

1 940, 3 93, p l.CXXXV.4) 5 5, p erhaps a r obbed

" royal" g rave o f E arly D ynastic l ilA a t U r; b ut t hey a re n ot s pecifically m entioned i n W oo1ley s f inal r eport a nd s eem t o b e t hose l isted t here a s " shell", p resumably o n t he b asis o f f ield r ecords ( Woolley, 1 934, 4 14, 5 27). T hey w ere s aid t o h ave f ormed p art o f a g irdle w ith l apis a nd c arnelian b eads. " The g reat n umber o f t hese s mall b eads ( i.e. o f S teatite) i n t his g rave i s v ery e xtraordinary, s ince t amia

t he u se o f b urnt o r t reated s teatite i s v ery r are I n M esopoa t t his t ime" ( Beck i n V ats, 1 940, 4 10). W hat i s m eant b y

B eck s

r emark t hat

" a n umber o f

b eads o f a v ery m uch r ougher

a lso f ound a t U r, a re d ated t o t he P ersian p eriod" i s e qually u ncertain, s ince W oolley d oes n ot l ist 1 39

n ature,

( Beck , 1 934a, 7 6) t hem s pecifically

i n t he a ppropriate e xcavation r eport

( Woolley,

1 962).

B ut,

a s e tched

c arnelian b eads r e-appeared a t U r i n t he A chaemenid p eriod, f ollowing t he r evival o f c ontacts w ith t he I ndus r egion a fter a l apse o f m ore t han a m illennium, c omparable t reatment m ight w ell h ave b een g iven o nce a gain a t t hat t ime t o o ther s tones ( cf. R eade, 1 979). ( 2)

Q uartz:

B eck

( 1935)

i s

s o

f ar a lone i n e xamining

t he

e vidence

f rom

M esopotamia f or t he s urface m odification o f q uartz b eads, p endants a nd i nlay f ragments. I n e ach c ase t he s urface h ad b een c oated w ith a s ubstance a nd t hen h eated u ntil

i t m elted.

S ome o f

t he

s pecimens h e

t ested f rom M esopotamia ( and t he m ajority f rom E gypt) " appear t o h ave h ad a n a lready m ade g laze o r e lse t he i ngredients t o m ake a g laze p owdered u p a nd a pplied t o t he s urface, a nd t hen t o h ave b een f used". A nother

m ethod

h ad a lso b een c urrent

i n M esopotamia,

a nd i n

I ran:

" to t hese a n a lkali o nly w as a pplied i nstead o f a g laze; t hey w ere t hen h eated u ntil t he a lkali f luxed t he s urface b y c ombining w ith t he s ilica o f t he b ead a nd f lowed o ver t he s urface. T hese b eads h ave a n e xtremely h igh p olish w hich w as a t f irst a ttributed t o s and p olish, b ut a c areful e xamination s oon p roved t hat t his w as n ot t he c ase" ( Beck, s urface

1 935, 2 1). S ome o f t he M esopotamian s pecimens h ave t he c ompletely c overed w ith s mall c onchoidal f ractures a nd g ener-

a lly o nly s light 2 5)

s igns o f h aving b een g lazed ( frosted).

B eck ( 1935,

e xplained t he d ifference b etween h igh p olish a nd f rosted a s b eing

" only

t hat,

a pplied

t o

w hereas

t hem,

t he

l atter h ad a c ompleted g laze p owdered

t he f ormer h ad a n a lkali o nly a dded w hich f ormed

a nd t he

g laze b y c ombining w ith t he q uartz o f t he b ead. T he o bject o f f rosti ng t he s urface s eems t o h ave b een t o g ive a g reater s urface f or t he a l ali o r g laze t o w ork o n. I n t he c ase w here a n a lkali o nly h ad b een a dded, t his s eems t o h ave a ttached i tself s o f irmly t hat i t n ever f lakes o ff, w hereas i n t he c ases w here a g laze h ad b een a dded, i t s eems t o h ave f lowed a t a t emperature t oo l ow t o a ttach p roperly a nd h ad g enerally a lmost e ntirely d isappeared".

3 500

i tself

T he s pecimens t ested f rom U r w ere " supposed t o d ate f rom b efore B .C., w hilst o thers w hich a re p ractically i dentical a re d ated

9 00 B .C." d ated t he

T his i s p resumably i nformation s upplied b y W oolley. A s h e " royal g raves" a t U r, i n 1 934, t o b etween 3 500-3200 B .C.,

i t m ay o nly b e a ssumed t hat t he b eads i n q uestion d ate b efore E .D.IIlA ; b ut t heir s ignificance i s i mpossible t o e stablish i n r etrospect. A n i llustrated b ead ( Beck, 1 935, p l.II:9) w ould b e a cceptable a s o f L ate P rehistoric o r E arly D ynastic d ate; a s mall r ougher p endant ( "shield") i s d ated t o t he l ater t hird m illennium ( Ibid., p 1.11.6). f rom N ineveh, b ut

D isc b eads o f g lazed m ilky q uartz w ere r eported w ithout e xact c ontext ( Campbell T hompson a nd

M allowan,

p l.LXXIX:

T he

1 933, l ater

1 82,

t hird m illennium

3 0-2). " bead l ayer",

e xcavated a t N ineveh i n

1 929-30, y ielded e vidence f or a d istinctive c ombination o f g lazed q uartz a nd f aience t ooth-pendants: " These a re m ade b y i nserting a l arge p iece o f q uartz i n a p iece o f f aience s omewhat r esembling a f ang, i n w hich t he p erforation f or s uspension i s m ade. T he q uartz p ortion w as c overed w ith s oda a nd t hen t he w hole w as h eated t o a g reat

t emperature s o a s

t o h arden t he f aience a nd p roduce a s ort

o f

f ire p olish o n t he q uartz" ( Beck , 1 931, 4 28; c f. 1 935, 2 8). I n a v ariant o f t his c ombination o f m aterials, s pherical i n s hape, a 1 40

c onsiderable f aience a nd

n umber

o f

t iny p ieces o f q uartz

t hen g lazed o verall

M allowan

( 1947,

c rystals b eads

1 60,

( Beck,

p l.XXVIII)

1 935,

w ere

i nserted

i nto

2 8).

r eported

t hat s ome o f

t he r ock

i n L ate P rehistoric o r E arly D ynastic c ontexts a t B rak

w ere g lazed. ( 3)

C arnelian a nd o ther s tones:

A lthough n ot p riately f ound i n c arnelian. f elspar.

i n a s trict

s ense "glazed",

t his s ection m ay a ppro-

e nd w ith t he b est k nown o f a ll s urface d ecoration o n s tones a ncient M esopotamia: t he " etching" o r " bleaching" o f T his m ethod m ay a lso b e a pplied t o a gate, c halcedony a nd B eck ( 1933)

d istinguished b etween d ecoration i n w hite l ines

o n t he b ackground o f t he n atural c olour o f t he s tone a nd a d esign i n b lack o n t he a rtificially w hitened s urface o f t he s tone. T he l atter t echnique i s r elatively r are. T here a re n o g rounds f or b elieving t he s tones w ere, s trictly s peaking, e tched, w ith w hite m aterial i nlaid i n a g roove. A p attern w as d rawn o n t he s tone w ith a s olution o f a lkali ( generally s oda) a nd t he s tone w as t hen h eated t hrough a 3 00 0 t o 4 00 0 c t emperature u ntil t he a lkali e ntered i nto i t, m aking a p erman ent w hite d esign. M ackay ( 1933) d escribed t he a ctual m ethod a s h e s aw i t d one b y a n o ld m an i n 1 930 a t S ehwan s oda t reatment h as a v ery d ifferent e ffect o n d ifferent l evels o f t he s ame s tone, t his t o h eighten c olour c ontrasts i n b eads ( cf. T he l ayers m ost r esembling c rystalline

i n m iddle S ind. A s t he o n d ifferent s tones, a nd m ethod w as s ometimes u sed B eck, 1 935, 3 4, p l.V:l). q uartz a re t hose l east

a ffected. R eade h pr 1s p oint

( 1979)

h as a ssembled a nd d iscussed

t he e tched

c arnelian

r eported f rom M esopotamia. T hey f irst a ppear t here a t s ome i n E arly D ynastic l ilA, i n t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium

B .C., a nd a re c ommonest b etween t hen a nd t he A kkadian p eriod. T herea fter t hey d ecrease a nd b y a bout 1 900 B .C. h ave v irtually d isappeared u ntil t hey r e-appear d uring t he A chaemenid p eriod. d ecoration w as i ntrusive, f rom t he I ndus V alley

T he t echnique o f ( Tosi, 1 976-80),

w here s upplies o f c arnelian w ere l ocally a vailable, t hemselves f ound i n M esopotamia a re p redominantly o f p robably I ndus,

m anufacture.

a nd t he f oreign,

b eads a gain

V ariants a re o ccasionally i dentified,

u sually b y a nomalous p atterns o r s hapes; b ut w hether t hese w ere m anufactured i n M esopotamia o r s omewhere a long t he w ay f rom t he I ndus i s a n o pen q uestion. ( 4)

S ummary:

t hat

I f c omparisons w ith p redynastic E gypt a re m ade, i t i s l ikely f aience a ll b ut r eplaced " glazed" s tones i n M esopotamian w ork-

s hops t he

a fter t he e arly t hird m illennium B .C.

I n t he f irst

b ead-makers h ad b een c oncerned w ith r eproducing r are

i nstance b lue-green

s tones, n otably t urquoise, b y g lazing c ommon d ark s tones. O nce t hey r ealised t hat t he s ame e ffect m ight b e a chieved m ore e asily a nd f lexibly w ith f aience t hey a bandoned t he g lazing o f d ull-coloured s tones.

1 41

V alence

[ II:

( A)

( glazed s intered q uartz):

A n h istorical s urvey: ( 1) T he

f irst

T he P rehistoric p eriod a ppe a r ance* o f

( to 3 000 B .C.):

f aience o bjects i n M esopotamia

i s

a

m atter o f s ome u ncertainty, s ince M allowan s c laim f or " frit" b eads a nd v essels i n l evels o f t he H alaf P eriod a t A rpachiyah r emains i solated a nd, i n i tself, u nsatisfactory. A s S tone a nd T homas ( 1956, 4 1)

c ommented

" Mallowan r ecorded a f rit

( faience)

s eal

o r

d iscoid

p endant, u nfortunately w ithout s tating i ts p rovenance, b ut b y i mplic ation f rom H alaf l evels" ( cl. M allowan, 1 935, 9 1, 9 8). B oth A miet ( 1961, 1 5) a nd B uchanan ( 1967, 2 66) a ccepted t he e arly d ating, t hough B uchanan s p hrase " found a t s uch a d epth i n H alaf l evels", i s n ot s ubstantiated b y M allowan s p ublication. S tone a nd T homas ( ibid.) t ook t his s eal t o b e a s tray f rom U baid l evels a t A rpachiyah. A s t here i s a c omparable s eal o f f aience, c lose i n s hape a nd d esign, f rom G awra X II ( Tobler, 1 950, p l.CLIX.27), o f t he e arly U ruk p eriod, t he

c ase

f or

M allowan T h A rpachiyah,

c aution i s

r e-inforced.

E ven

m ore

p roblematic

i s

i dentification o f t wo " frit" v essels f rom H alaf l evels a t s ince t hese w ould b e a n e ven m ore s trikingly p recocious

i nnovation. I n t he m ost i mportant i nstance M allowan c ites t he f ind s pot, i n H alaf l evels ( TT 6 -7), a nd i llustrates t he v essel ( Mallowan, 1 935, 1 75, p l.XIX.9), H alaf c eramic r epertory.

w hich i s c ertainly o f a s hape k nown i n I t i s s aid t o b e " now b leached w hite".

t he S o

l ong a s t his e arly d ate i s u nsubstantiated b y f inds e lsewhere, t here i s a lways t he p ossibility t hat b oth t hese v essels w ere o f w eathered g ypsum,

o r a r elated s tone,

n ot o f

f aience

( cf.

F ukai e t a l.,

1 974,

5 8). H owever, g rounds a lone, I ran. T here

s uch

a n

e arly

d ate m ay n ot b e

r uled

o ut

o n

t hese

i f o nly o n a ccount o f o ne p resently i solated f ind i n i s a s ingle, w ell-preserved, b lue f aience b ead f rom

l evel 2 o f t he J apanese e xcavations a t T all i M uskhi i n F ars. T his i s p art o f a H assuna-related c hronological h orizon ( c.5500-5000 B .C.) ( Fukai e t a l., 1 973, 6 5; c olour p late; p l.XL.l.l). E ven a llowing f or i ntrusion, a nd s tratigraphically t his w as n ot e vident ( Fukai, 1 973, 6 5), t his i s a " one p eriod" s ite, w ith a h omogeneous m aterial c ulture i n t he m ain o ccupation l evels.

T here w ere i solated

i ntrusive

g raves. I t i s

f rom s ometime

i n t he U baid p eriod,

i n t he f ifth m illennium

B .C., t hat b eads o f a rtificial m aterials a re f irst c learly e vident o n a f ew s ites b oth i n n orthern a nd s outhern M esopotamia a nd m ay a lready h ave b een w idely t raded. T he t erminology u sed i n r eports i s t oo v arious i n t he a bsence o f s cientific e xaminations t o a llow f or r igoro us c omparisons. F aience r ing-beads w ere r eported f rom g raves o f t he U baid p eriod a t A rpachiyah i n t he n orth ( Mallowan, 1 935, 3 8, 9 2, 9 7). A t T epe G awra T obler ( 1950, 1 92) r eported t hat " white p aste" w as c omm only u sed f or b eads i n s trata X IX-XVI ( later U baid) a nd m ore s o i n t he s trata s ucceeding X III, t hat i s i nto t he U ruk p eriod. I t w as u sed f or a r ing p endant i n s tratum X II ( Tobler, 1 950, 1 95, p 1. C LXXIII:41); f rom s trata X III-XI c ame a s eries o f f aience s tamp-

*

S ee n ote o n p .193. 1 42

s eals

( Tobier,

1 950,

1 78).

I n t he s outh i n t he

" Ubaid C emetery" a t

U r o nly o ne g rave ( PFC/L ; W oolley, 1 956, 8 8), o f t he 4 5 p ublished, c oat ined " small p aste r ing b eads". I n t hese g raves h owever b eads o f a ny k ind w ere r are; o ne g rave h eld s teatite b eads, t hree h ad s hell b eads. A t E ridu t he e arliest r eported " frit" b ead i s i n t emple X I ( Ubaid t rit"

3 ); l ater s tamp s eal

( Safar,

1 981,

f ig.

( J baid p eriod c ontexts i n t emple V II y ielded a a nd i n t emple V I t hree b eads " in b luish f rit" 1 17:28,

3 2-3).

A t E ridu a l ate U baid

p eriod

c emetery o f 1 93 g raves w as c leared, s ome w ith m ore t han o ne s keleton; o f t he 1 75 g raves r eported 6 c ontained b eads o f " frit", s ometimes l ong s trings o f t hem, f or w omen a nd c hildren ( Safar, 1 981, 1 10, 1 14, 1 58, 1 74, 1 86). A t Q abr S heykheyn i n K huzistan,

g raves 9 0, a S usa " A"

s ettlement, o f t he l ater f ifth m illennium B .C., W eiss ( 1972, 1 72) e xcavated a c hild 's g rave " with b racelets o f m inute p aste b eads o n i ts a nkles a nd w rists ; o ld e xcavations a t S usa i tself i ndicate t he a ppearance o f f aience p ersonal o rnaments i n g raves o f t he l ater U baid p eriod

( Stone a nd T homas,

I t

4 3).

i s n ot u ntil t he f ourth m illennium B .C.

p roduction T he

1 956,

o f

f aience o bjects

" bead s tratum" a t N ineveh,

i s e vident,

t hat a m ore

p rimarily i n

t he

c ited b y S tone a nd T homas

v aried n orth.

( 1956,

4 2;

a lso F oster, 1 979, 2 3) i n t his c onnection, i s i n f act a m illennium l ater i n d ate ( see p .145), s o c annot b e d rawn u pon. B ut G awra a nd B rak o ffer s ufficient i nformation t o e stablish t he g eneral s tatus o f t he i ndustry a t t his t ime. F aience b eads w ere c ommon i n b urials a t G awra o f t he f ourth m illennium ( Tobler, 1 950, 8 7-8). T he " EyeT emple" a t B rak w as s et o n a p latform i ncorporating a s uccession o f e arlier s tructures. T hese h ad b een p lundered i n a ntiquity t hrough a w hole s eries o f t unnels a nd p its: " we e ntered t hese p lunderers tw inels w hich l ed t o a s tratum o f g rey m ud-bricks f rom w hich w e r emoved m any t housands o f o bjects h undreds o f t housands" ( Mallowan, b een s cattered l iberally i n t he

b eads o f w hich t here w ere m any 1 947, 3 3). T he b eads h ad n ot o nly f oundations o f t he " grey-brick"

t emple ( Stratum C ), b ut a ctually m oulded i nto t he b ricks. T hey w ere p redominantly o f f aience a nd o f g lazed s teatite ( ibid., 2 54-6, p l.LXXXIV). b eads: a

M allowan p ublished S tone's r eports o n t hree f aience s egmented o ne o f " soft f aience c ore w ith t races o f l ight

g reenish o r b luish g laze r emaining i t e xhibits c haracters w hich a re n ormally a ssociated w ith b eads o f a v ery m uch l ater d ate, i n p articular t he h ighly d eveloped t echnique o f m anufacture"; a m ulb erry-shaped b ead " of w hite f aience, a nd t races o f b lue g laze r emain i n t he c revices"; a nd a f luted, b iconical b ead " of w hite f aience w hich w as o riginally c oated w ith a b lack g laze". I n a ddition t o t he f aience b eads, t his g eneral c ontext y ielded a r emarkable s eries o f f aience

a mulets o r s eals,

k idney o r r osette-shaped,

o r w ith

b acks

m oulded a s b ears, d ucks, h edgehogs, h ares a nd m onkeys ( Mallowan, 1 947, 1 02, p l.X:9; 1 08-9, p l.XIV:9-13; 1 17-8, p l.XVI:l: 1 19, p l.XVII:5-8; B uchanan a nd M oorey, 1 984, n os. 1 46-151, 1 78-181). T here d id

i s

n o r eason t o a ssume

( 1949, A

a mulet" f aience

t hey a re o f

s outhern o rigin a s

P erkins

1 88).

l ate

p rehistoric h ouse a t K hafajah y ielded

( Delougaz, " does n ot

1 967, 2 7: H ouse 1 1). s eem t o h ave b een i n v ery

a

" paste

m ouse

A t J amdat N asr i tself c ommon u se" ( Mackay,

1 931, 2 73); i n t wo c ases i t w as u sed t o i mitate f orms o therwise m ade i n s hell o r m other-of-pearl ( ibid., 2 73-4, p l.LXXII.6, 2 7 9). I n v iew

o f

t his

s cattered e vidence a ny c ategorical 1 43

s tatements

a bout

c omparative d egrees o f

u se a nd p roduction a re

i mpossible;

b ut,

a t

t he m oment, i t d oes n ot s eem t hat f aience w as m uch u sed i n t he s outh f or b eads a nd a mulets. F aience b eads a re o nly v ery r arely m entioned b y W oolley i n h is r eport o f t he p rehistoric l evels a t U r ( cf. W oolley, 1 956, 6 6, 1 78:U.14469; 6 7, 1 79:U.14943). F aience i s n ot l isted a s o ne o f t he m aterials u sed f or b eads i n t he " Kleinfunde" f ound a t U ruk ( Heinrich, 1 936; u nless i t i s m eant b y " kalksandstein", 2 6, 4 1, p l.13h), n or d oes i t s eem t o h ave b een e mployed f or t he m any a nimal a mulets a nd s eals f avoured i n t he s outh a t t his t ime. I n B ehm-Blancke s ( 1979, 6 6-9, n o.129) c atalogue o f t he e xcavated p reh istoric a nimal a mulets o nly 1 o ut o f 1 38 i s q ueried a s b eing o f f aience,

a nd

A t u se o f

i t

s ome

i s f rom K hafajah .

t ime

f aience w as

v essels

a nd

f or

t owards

t he e nd o f

t he f ourth m illennium B .C.

s ignificantly e xtended t o t he p roduction o f

t his t here i s e vidence f rom s outhern

s ites,

t he s mall

t hough

t here i s e very r eason t o b elieve, a s l ater e vidence c onfirms, t hat t hey w ere l uxury i tems a vailable o nly i n s mall n umbers. A f aience j ar, o riginally b lue-glazed, w ith i mpressed c hevron o rnament o n t he s houlder, w as f ound a t U r i n s tratum H o f P it F : " so f ar a s t he d ecayed s tate o f t he f rit a llows o f j udgement, t he v ase w as m oulded r ound a c ore w hich w as s ubsequently r emoved" ( Woolley, 1 956, 3 0, 6 3, 1 77:U.14422, f ig.9d). S lightly l ower i n t he s ame s ounding w ere " fragments o f a s mall v ase [ in f act a s mall o pen b owl] o f w hite f rit c overed w ith p ale t urquoise g laze" ( ibid., p l.26g:U.14908). C ontemp orary v essels w ere f ound a t Khafajah ( Delougaz, 1 942, 1 37, 1 42). S cattered i nformation f rom T elloh, w here t he s hapes a re t hose u sed i n c ontemporary p ottery a nd t he g lazes w hen p reserved a re s imple b lues a nd g reens, e xtends t he e vidence f or v essel p roduction a t t his t ime ( de G enouillac, f aience v essel,

1 934, 3 6-7, 6 1). T he o ccurrence o f a " rectangular a bout 9 cm . h igh" i n o ne o f t he r ooms a t J ebel A ruda

o n t he E uphrates

i n S yria,

c ulture, o f

a s ite c haracterized b y U ruk I V

i s o f e quivocal s ignificance.

n orthern o r

I t

s outhern o rigin ( van D riel,

a s

w ell a s b ear-shaped a mulets,

i s

1 983, 7 ).

A lthough P roto-Elamite S usa y ielded e vidence o f f aience,

m aterial

i s n ot c lear w hether i t

i nlay p laques i n

t here d oes n ot

s eem t o b e

a ny e vidence o f v essels ( de M organ a nd d e M ecquenem , 1 912, f igs.22-3; L e B run, 1 971, f ig.70:23). C omplementary t o t he " burnt s teatite" c ylinder s eals o f t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod i n S usiana a nd i nner I ran w as a s eries i n f aience ( Frankfort, 1 939, 3 5; 1 955, n o.51, 5 3, 5 5,

6 3,

1 29,

1 43,

1 62;

B uchanan,

1 966,

1 5-16),

p roduced s omewhere o n

M esopotamia's e astern p eriphery. ( ii)

E arly D ynastic t o U r I II P eriods ( c.3000-2000 B .C.):

T he p roduction o f o f

f aience

s imple f aience b eads a nd a mulets,

f or g lobular p inheads a nd

" handles"

( cf.

a nd t he u se

M ackay,

p l.XLIII.2), c ontinued t hro ugh t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, e vidence f or E arly D ynastic I -II i s s parse ( cf. K hafajah: 1 967, 2 7-9: g raves 1 4, 2 5; U r: " Jamdat N asr" 1 04ff., n os.16, 8 2, 1 03, 1 49, 1 59b, 1 61,

1 929,

t hough t he D elougaz,

g raves: W oolley, 1 956, 2 39, 2 95, 3 25, U.19249,

1 9316; K ish: Y g raves: M oorey, 1 978, F iches E 09 t o G 03). B y e arly D ynastic I II t hey w ere m ore c ommon i n g raves o n c ertain s ites. I n v irtually e very g rave

i n c emetery A a t K ish,

r ecorded,

f aience ( Mackay,

F ishes

s ome a re o f

C 08 t o G 01),

w hereas

1 925,

f rom w hich b eads 1 929;

M oorey,

i n t he E arly D ynastic I II g raves o f 1 44

w ere 1 978, t he

" Royal C emetery" a t U r i t

i s n ot

s o c ommon a s m ight b e e xpected.

O f

t he b 50 o r s o p rivate g raves a t U r a ttributed t o E arly D ynastic I II, l ess t han t en a re r eported a s c ontaining f aience b eads o r f aience p inheads; t here w as f aience i n t wo " Royal T ombs" ( Woolley, 1 934, 5 24ff.; N issen s d ating a nd t abulation, 1 966, s eals w ere o ccasionally s till m ade o f f aience;

8 2, p 1.22). C ylinder b ut a s M ackay ( 1929,

1 93)

t hey a re c ommonly i n

r emarked o f

t hose f rom C emetery A a t K ish,

v ery p oor c ondition. F aience v essels a re s till e xtremely r are f rom e xcavations o f t his p eriod. N one w as r eported f rom t he " Royal C emet ery" a t U r; b ut t here w as a m iniature b owl f rom a n E arly D ynastic I II l evel i n H ouses 6 a t K hafajah ( Delougaz, 1 967, 2 8) a nd o thers a re r eported f rom T ell A grab ( Delougaz, 1 942, 2 68, 2 81). A m acehead o f g reen g lazed f aience f rom l evel 4 o f t he K l.Anten-Tempel a t T ell C huera h as b een d ated t o t he s econd q uarter o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. ( Moortgat, 1 967, 3 2-5, f ig.23). I t m ay h ave b een a m acehead c arried b y a d eity s tatue; s uch m aceheads I n g lass a re k nown l ater ( p.223). A f ine g reen-glazed s pouted b owl, d ecorated w ith a b earded b ull c ouchant i n l ow r elief, w as f ound i n g rave 3 17 o n T ell I ngharra a t K ish; t his d ates l ate I n t he E arly D ynastic o r e arly i n t he A kkadian p eriod ( Watelin, 1 978, 7 4). A " glazed t ile K hafajah a nd m ight 1 942,

1 934, p l.XXXI.7; M oorey, 1 970, 1 27-8; f ragment" w as r eported f rom t he s urface a t

b elong t o t he m id.third m illennium B .C.

( Delougaz,

1 63).

S uch r epertory

m eagre e vidence d oes n o m ore t han i ndicate t hat t he o f f aience m akers b y t he t hird q uarter o f t he t hird m il-

l ennium B .C. e ncompassed n ot o nly s eals, a mulets a nd b eads, b ut a lso m oulded v essels, v otive w eapons a nd o ther s mall o bjects. T he u se o f m oulds r ecognized t he p otential o f f aience f or l arge-scale, s tandard ized p roduction a nd b egan t o e mancipate t he m aterial f rom a l ithicb ased t echnology. T he s uspicion p ersists, t hough i t m ay n ot b e p ut m ore

s trongly,

t hat t his i ndustry w as m ore a ctive i n A kkad a nd

t he

n or t h t han i n h eartland S umer. H owever, I n t he f irst h alf o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. f aience b eads w ere a lready d istributed f ar d own t he G ulf

t o O man

( de C ardi,

1 979,

8 0ff.) a nd a n u nusually

v igorous

a nd v aried f aience p roduction w as e stablished i n t he " Indus V alley" c ivilization ( Allchin a nd A lichin, 1 982, 1 92) b y t he t hird q uarter o f t he m illennium. I n

t he N orth c hronologically s ound a rchaeological e vidence

f or

t he s tudy o f f aience i n t he A kkadian p eriod i s p rovided b y f inds i n l evels V III-IX a t T ell T aya ( cf. a lso C hagar B azar: M allowan, 1 936, 5 6-7; W ilayah : M adhlum, 1 960, 9 1-2). T hese l evels y ielded b eads, " buttons" a nd p endants, m ents o f a n i nlaid b eard

s imple ( Reade,

1 973,

L XVIIIb,

1 65,

p l.LXXVd,

V essels

s imilar

( Parrot,

1 956,

P arallels f aience

b eads

t o

1 21,

b owls, s ome w ith l ids a nd t he f rag1 968, 2 44-5, 2 49; 1 971, 9 8, p l.XXVd; 1 67,

p l.LXVIIb;

t hose f rom T ell T aya

a re

B imson,

r eported

1 973).

f rom

M an

p l.LII.1047).

f rom

T ell T aya a lso

i n t he s o-called

m ajority

o f

" bead-layer" e xcavated a t N ineveh

i ndicate t hat

t he

i n

1 929-30 a re l ikely t o b e o f t he A kkadian p eriod r ather t han a m illennium e arlier ( Campbell T hompson a nd H utchinson, 1 931, 8 2; B eck, 1 931; 1 934a; 1 935). T his w ashed-out l evel i ncluded " a n umber o f p ieces

o f s lag '.

w ider r ange o f c olours

F or t he f irst

t ime t here i s c lear e vidence o f a

t han t he t raditional b lues a nd g reens,

b lack ( manganese) h ad a lready a ppeared o n " handles" 1 45

t hough

i n E arly D ynastic

I II

( at K ish:

M oorey,

1 978,

F iche F 04).

B eck ( 1931,

4 27)

r eported

o f b eads t hat " the c ore w as u sually b lack b ut i n s ome c ases i t i s a r ather d irty w hite. I n o ne c ase t he c ore n earest t o t he g laze i s w hite, w hilst t hat n earest t he p erforation i s b lack. T he g laze w hich i s v ery o paque, w as o riginally w hite, g reen, b lue, r ed a nd b lack. T he w hite g laze w as s ometimes o n a w hite c ore a nd s ometimes o n a b lack o ne". T wo u nusual t ypes o f b ead a re t he b icolour i nverted d rop p endants a nd t he " crumb b eads'. T he f ormer " have t he u pper a nd l ower p arts o f d ifferent c olours n ot m erely g lazed w ith a d ifferent c olour b ut t he c ores o f t he t wo p arts a re m ade o f q uite d ifferent m aterials T he u pper p art, w hich i s p erforated, i s a lmost a lways b lack , w hilst t he l ower p art h as a w hite o r c olourless c ore. T his p art w as g lazed i n c olours w hilst s ome w ere r ed o thers w ere y ellow a nd b lue". C rumb-beads, o blate o r s pherical a nd w ith " crumbs" o f f aience o ver t he s urface, m ostly h ad a d ark c ore, a nd w ere o rigin ally g lazed b lue o r r ed. S ome w hite f aience b eads h ad b lack s tripes a nd v ice v ersa. B eetle a nd v ase-shaped a mulets a ppear, a s w ell a s t iny f aience d ucks, k nown o n o ther s ites i n t he n orth a nd a t U r ( cf. F oster, 1 979, 2 7-8). O nly 1 9 o f t he t housand o r m ore p rivate g raves a t U r d ated t o t he Akkadian o r N eo-Sumerian p eriods a re r eported a s c ontaining f aience b eads; 1 0 h eld " glass p aste" b eads ( Nissen, 1 966, 8 2, p 1.22). S mall m oulded s tatuettes o f a nimals c ouchant i n f aience r eported f rom A ssur ( Andrae, 1 922, p l.49a 6 0, l ower; H aller, 1 954, 6 ff., P l. 7 f), K ish ( Watelin, 1 934, p l.XXXI.4-5) a nd S usa ( see b elow) a re l ess e asy

t o a ttribute p recisely t o

t he A kkadian p eriod.

T hey

p robably

a ppeared t hen, b ut m ay s till h ave b een i n p roduction t owards t he e nd o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., t he p eriod t o w hich t he A ssur g raves p robably b elong. T he m ost i nteresting s ingle t omb-group f or t he h iàtory b oth a

o f f aience a t t his p eriod i s o ne a t S usa, j ar a nd a s mall b owl o f f aience w ith o ne

s ince i t I ncluded o f t hese a nimal

s tatuettes ( A iniet, 1 966, 2 34-5, f ig.172). T his g rave a lso c ontained a c opper o r b ronze m acehead o f a g roup w hich i ncludes a n e xample I nscribed f or K ing N aram-Sin ( c.2254-18 B .C.) ( Calmeyer, 1 969, g roup 1 0, 2 6-7). A nother a spect o f t he f aience r epertory i n t he A kkadian p eriod

I s

i llustrated i n H ouse K ( room 2 91)

o f

l evel X I a t

N ippur,

w here t he A merican e xcavators f ound " part o f a m osaic w ith c omposit ion t esserae a dhering t o o r s et i nto b acking p reserved a s w hite f ilm i n

t he

g round".

A n

o chre r ed b order a nd t iny

s quares

f ormed

a

p attern w ith p ale b lue s quares a nd c rescents. I t w as t oo d amaged t o b e l ifted ( McCown, 1 967, p l.153:26). M any o f t he s o-called " Guti S eals" w ere m ade o f

f aience

( Boehmer,

1 957,

7 1)

i n t he p eriod c .2250-

2 100 B .C. ( iii) U r I II t o O ld B abylonian p eriods(c.2100-1550 B .C.): F or B .C., t ion

t he

f irst

t ime,

a t

t he v ery e nd o f

d ocumentary e vidence m ay b egin t o o f f aience a nd r elated m aterIals.

( Legrain,

1 937,

n o.1498)

o f

s et o f c raftsmen f or o ne y ear,

t he

t hird

m illennium

t hrow l ight u pon t he p roducA w ell-known t ext f rom U r

t his d ate d escribes

t he a ctivities o f a

l isting r aw m aterials,

f inished p ro-

d ucts a nd s crap i tems f or r eprocessing. I n t he s ection o n l apidaries ( Loding, 1 981, 1 1ff) t he f irst s tone m entioned i s t he u nidentified d ugU l s tone ( ?agate). I t w as u sed p redominantly i n j ewellery, a mong o ther t hings t o r epresent s un-disks; b ut o f p articular i nterest i n t his

c ontext,

a re

l ater r eferences

t o t he m anufacture o f a rtificial 1 46

d u G,

o f

g lazes w ith t he c olour o f

t his c olour

( cf.

C .A.D.

s .v.du

).

t his s tone,

a nd o f

I n t he U r t ext

l eather

i t i s

d yed

f ollowed b y

c arnelian a nd l apis l azuli, a nd t hen b y a s ection i ndicating t hat t he s tone c utters m ay h ave b een i nvolved i n t he m anufacture o f o bjects f rom a rtificial m aterials. F irst l isted i s b u-uz-hi-li ( stone) i n t wo b locks; t his t erm i s v ery r are i n U r I II t exts. T he f irst e lement i n t he n ame ( bu-uz) h as b een r elated t o t he m aterial l ater k nown

a s

b a u,

a

" primary g lass"

( see p p.224ff.)

i n

O ppenheim s

t erminology ( 1970) o r " faience" i n F oster T h ( 1979, 1 7), w hilst h i-li ( "abundant") i s j ust a d escriptive t erm. U r I II t exts a lso r efer v ery

o ccasionally

t o a nza hu,

a t

l east o nce a s

t he

m aterial

f rom

w hich a b owl w as m ade. I t i s g rouped i n a n i nventory l ist, n ot a mong t he s tone v essels, b ut w ith t he m ore p recious i tems. I n 0 ppenheim s v iew ( 1970, 1 9ff.) t his m aterial w as a lso a " primary" g lass ( see p .226 h ere); b ut F oster ( 1979, 1 7) b elieves i t w as a n atural s tone ( ?quartzite).

T he

a rtificial

m aterials

i n t he e arly

t exts

w ere

p redominantly u sed f or b ead m anufacture. W hat e xactly t hey w ere i s s till a n o pen q uestion w hen t he t extual e vidence i s a mbiguous a nd t he m aterial r emains

i s

s o m eagre.

A rchaeological e vidence f or t he r elatively s hort U r I II p eriod i nevitably r estricted. T he g raves a t A ssur i ncluded m ore a nimal

f igures o f f aience a nd a t l east o ne s mall b owl ( Haller, 1 954, 8 -9, g raves 5 -6, 8 , 1 1, 1 7). O f t he a nimals A ndrae ( 1925, 6 1) n oted t hat " glaze ( was) n ow m ostly w hite, b ut o ccasionally t races o f l ight b lue a nd y ellow c an b e f ound". A t N ippur t here i s n o p ublication o f g lazed v essels i n t he r elevant l evels ( McCown, 1 967, 7 8); b ut t here w as a c oncentration o f f rit" b eads i n r oom 1 97 o f H ouse I ( ibid., 9 7: t able I II). A t U r s tratigraphical p roblems c onfound a ttempts a t a epurate d ating, a s i n t he c ase o f t he f aience b eads " found a gainst t he o uter S W w all o f D ungi 's ( Shulgi T h) m ausoleum" ( Woolley, 1 974, 1 02:U.17891). O nly o ne i nstance i s r eported w here f aience i nlays, " presumably

f rom w all d ecoration" m ay c ertainly b e

a ssociated

w ith

s tructures o f t he U r I II p eriod: i n r oom 1 o f S hulgi T h " Mausoleum" ( ibid., 9 :U.16298); c omparable p ieces f rom E nunn iah m ay b e s lightly l ater ( Woolley, 1 974, 4 7, 5 0:U.225). A lthough i t i s d ifficult t o d ate t hem c losely, i t i s l ikely t hat a d istinctive s eries o f f aience f rog a mulets f irst a ppeared a t t his

t ime.

T his a nimal h ad l ong b een

a f avourite w ith S umerian j ewellers ( van B uren, 1 939, 1 01-2); d e G enoulliac r eported a y ellow-glazed e xample f rom T elloh ( 1936, 1 07, f ig.46; c f. W oolley, 1 976, p l.93j:U.1274) p robably o f U r I II d ate. I t h as b een a rgued t hat n orth S yria,

n ot E gypt,

w as

t he s ource

o f i nspiration f or t he d evelopment o f f aience p roduction i n C rete s ometime i n t he l ater t hird m illennium B .C., w hen M inoan m etalworking w as a lso

i nfluenced f rom t his

r egion ( Foster,

1 979,

5 6ff.).

F oster s

v iew, h owever, t hat . north S yria a nd n orth M esopotamia w ere d ynamic a nd i nnovative c enters o f f aience p roduction, a ctively i n"

.

.

.

v olved i n t he s pread o f t he a rt t hroughout t he N ear E ast a t t he e nd o f t he t hird m illennium" ( ibid., 5 9) m ight b e t rue; b ut t he m aterial e vidence

f or i t

i s,

a t p resent,

v ery r estricted.

I n e arlier

s outh M esopotamia U r i s a k ey a rchaeological s ite f or t he s econd m illennium B .C., t hough o nce a gain c aution i s n eces-

s ary i n s tudying t he a rtefacts, s ince t heir s tratigraphical c ontexts a re o ften e quivocal. F aience b eads a nd a mulets w ere v ery r are; o ut o f a lmost

t wo h undred p ublished g raves,

o nly o ne w as r eported

1 47

t o h ave

c ontained f aience b eads l ets i n f aience, u p i n a n a rea,

( Woolley,

1 976,

L G/27:U.16319).

A nimal a mu-

p robably o f t his p eriod, w ere m ore c ommonly p icked t o t he e ast a nd n orth-east o f t he c ity, k nown a s

D iqdiqqah, w here W oolley b elieved m any o f t hem h ad b een m ade ( ibid., 2 17:U.1269-86; 2 18:U.1580, 1 715; 2 26:U.6863; 2 36:U.16128; 2 43:U. 1 6735-6; 2 48:I J.17002) " the f rog i s t he m ost c ommon s ubject, t he d uck a nd t he s quatting m onkey a re c ommon, t he f ish a nd t he t ortoise o ccur, b ut r arely ; t he f lower-petalled r osette... . model h air-combs" ( Wooll ey, 1 974, 8 6). " Hu i nbaba" m asks w ere a lso m ade i n f aience. C omparat ive

e vidence

s uggests

t hat

a

m inature

f aience

b ucket

f rom

a

d isturbed g rave a t U r s hould n ot b e d ated b efore t he f ourteenth o r t hirteenth c enturies B .C. ( Woolley, 1 974, 2 27 U .7057, p l.96d; s ee p . 1 52 b elow). A f luted b lue-green f aience b ottle ( Woolley, 1 974, 5 8, 2 53, p l.96A) w as r eported f rom t he G iparu, r oom C .25; b ut t here i s n o c ertain e vidence t hat t he c ontext i s e arlier t han t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. T he s ame a pplies t o s mall f ragments o f b lue g lazed f aience v essels, r eported t o b e l ike p ottery t ype 6 3, f ound i n r oom A 9 o f t he s ame b uilding, b ut i n t he u pper p art o f a d rain s haft ( Woolley, 1 974, 4 6, 1 83, p l.105:U.6871). A " very d elic ate" f aience b owl f rom a g rave i n r oom B .12 o f t he G iparu ( Woolley, 1 974, 5 1, p l.96:U.6829) w as a ssociated w ith a f aience f ace-pendant o f a t ype k nown t o d ate t o t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. U .6820, c f. a lso U .3254; f or d ate, P eltenburg, 1 977, A c hild 's g rave o f

( Woolley, 1 77ff.).

t he e arly s econd m illennium B .C.

t ained a f aience d oll 's h ead ( 0.027 m . w ith c avities f or i nlay ( Amiet, 1 966,

1 974,

a t S usa c on-

h igh), s et o n a s ilver s hank , f ig.215). I n t he p alace a t

M ari i solated f inds i ndicated t he u se o f f aience f or m osaic i nlays, p robably i n p ieces o f w ooden f urniture, a s i n r oom 4 9 ( Parrot, 1 958a, 3 7). T he b est r ecorded w as a n e xample i n c ourt 7 0 ( Parrot, 1 958a, 2 34-5; 1 959, 1 05-7, f ig.76, p l.XXXIV), w here f aience m osaic s eemed t o b e r eproducing t he p atterns o f a c arpet. I n t he n orth, i n t he O ld B abylonian p eriod a t C hagar B azar, a mulets, a nimal f igurines, a nd f ace p endants o f f aience c ontinued i n p roduction a s b efore l owan,

1 947,

T he

b eads ( Mal-

1 74).

s parse

M esopotamian

e vidence

i ndicated

n o

f undamental

c hanges i n t he f aience r epertory f rom t he L ate P rotoliterate t o t he e nd o f t he O ld B abylonian p eriod, w ith a c oncentration t hroughout o n p ersonal o rnaments, a n i ntermittent u se f or i nlays, a nd a r estricted p roduction o f v essels. I n v iew o f c hanges t o b e s een i n t he s econd h alf

o f

t he s econd m illennium B .C.

a w ider p erspective

o n

v essel

p roduction i s i nstructive. F aience v essel m anufacture w as i ntroduced i nto P alestine f rom E gypt s ometime i n t he f irst q uarter o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. A lthough i t d eveloped s ome c haracteristics o f i ts o wn, i t ( Sagona,

r emained v ery m uch a n o ffspring o f t he E gyptian t radition 1 980) a s d id t he f aience i ndustry o f B yblos ( Dunand, 1 958,

p p.741-80) a nd p erhaps a lso T he r ized.

c ontemporary F oster

( 1979,

t hat o f S yria.

s ituation i n A natolia i s 4 6)

d enies

f aience m anufacture t here. I n v iew o f i s b etter t o l eave t he q uestion o pen, A cemhöyük

a nd

K ültepe

h ave

l ess

t he e xistence a t

t his

s ummat ime

o f

t he e xiguous p ublished d ata i t p articularly w hen s ites l ike

p rovided s ome i ndication

v aried l uxury g oods, i ncluding f aience, t his t ime i n A natolia.

e asily

o f

t he

v ery

a vailable i n c ourt c ircles a t

1 48

S ome

o f

t he c urrently m ost r elevant f inds

f rom

A natolia

w ere

e xcavated f rom l evel I I a t A lishar. I t h as l ong b een k nown t hat t he e xcavator s d esignation o f t his l evel a t A lishar a s " the p eriod o f t he H ittite E mpire" w as i ncorrect; b ut i ts p recise t ime s pan i s s till d ebated. T his s tratum w as b etween t hree a nd f our m etres t hick, e mbracing t wo m ajor b uilding p hases, w ith s ubdivisions w ithin e ach o f t hem. T he o ldest p hase w as l lT ( terrace), t he m ost r ecent l OT ( von d er O sten, 1 937, 3 ). M ost o f t he c uneiform t ablets w ere f ound " in t he r efuse o f l evel l OT"; " three t ablet h oards w ere o n a ctual f loor l evels, a ll b elonging t o l evel 1 0" ( von d er O sten, 1 937, 1 08). A ll t he d atable t ablets f rom A lishar b elong t o t he p eriod o f K arum K anesh I b, c ontemporary w ith S hamshi-Adad I o f A ssyria ( c.1813-1781 B .C.), w hose r eign p rovides t he t erminus p ost q uem f or t he a bandonment o f l evel 1 0. T hat l t s urvived v ery c onsiderably l onger, i f o nly i n r estricted u se, i s i ndicated b y v arious s eals a nd s eal i mpressions; a n i mpression f rom l OT b ears a h ieroglyphic H ittite i nscription ( von d er O sten, 1 937, 2 27, f ig.254:c.1456, p l.XXV; B oehmer, 1 967, 6 1, n . 1 1) o f t he " Old H ittite P eriod"; a n a gate c ylinder s eal ( "found i n Q 28

o n t he f loor l evel o f

t he

l arge m ansion o f L evel l OT")

i s i n t he

K assite s tyle ( von d er O sten, 1 937, 2 05, f ig.246(d.2235)) a nd t wo " Mitannian" c ylinder s eals ( ibid., f ig.246:c.200, d .2365) w ere f ound i n A lishar S tratum I I. A f aience c up f ound i n t he s ame l evel ( Schmidt, S chaeffer

1 932, ( 1948,

l ii, 3 22)

S hamra i n n iveau I I,

c olour p 1.111, p l.X:b 1 868) w as c ompared b y t o s imilar u npublished v essels f ound a t R as

e ither o f U garit M oyen 2 ( c.1900 1750 B .C.)

e arly 3 ( c.1750-1600 B .C.).

V on d er O sten

( 1937,

o r

2 86) a lso r eported

t hat " in 1 929 a nd 1 931-2 o ne f ragmentary f rit c up a nd s everal s herds o f f rit v essels w ere f ound. T hey s how o n t he o utside a g reenish t o g reenish b lue g laze, w hereas t he i nside i s s ometimes d ark b rown, a lp iost b lack. T he r im p iece ( ibid., p 1.1:4) w as f ound i n M 3 3-4 i n c lose a ssociation w ith c uneiform t ablet d .2200". O f t he e xcavations i n

n ear c ontemporary l evels a t A laca H üyük A n k

( 1937,

4 0)

w rote:

" L abondance d es m orceaux d e f aience d e c ouleur j aunätre, b lanche o u b leu c laire, a ux p arois t rès m inces, s upposes a voir 6t6 i mportes d e l Egypte o u d e l a M esopotamie e t d ont s emblables o nt 6 te e n q uantité aAlisar; l es d ebris o rnés d es d essins e n f orme

d e

g rappe d e r aisins

( A1.633),

r ecueillis r elief e n

e galement a bondants

a

A lisar;

l es r ecipients af onds p ointus, m unis, d e p assoire e t o rnés d e p etits r eliefs e n f orme d e m amelons, c onfirmait n otre a ttribution". A lishar I I a lso y ielded f aience f igurines o f n ude f emales ( von d er O sten, 1 937, 1 93, f ig.230:d.2966, 2 971) a nd t he f eet o f a nimal f igurines ( ibid., 2 05, f ig,243: d .2210, e .1631); D ayton ( 1978, p ublished s ketches o f c omparable o bjects f rom K i litepe. A t B ronze

f ig.94) h as

T ell M ardikh ( Ebla) i n S yria a r ich g rave d ating t o M iddle hA ( about 1 900-1800 B .C.) c ontained a f aience v essel, n ow

w ithout i ts o riginal p air o f r im h andles, i n s hape a nd d ecoration v ery l ike a r ock c rystal v essel f rom A cemh yük i n A natolia ( Matthiae, 1 980, 1 3-4, f ig.14). F aience v essels, i n a v ariety o f s hapes, w ere f ound i n t he s lightly l ater " Palace o f Y arim-Lim" ( level A lalakh ( Woolley, 1 955, 2 97). T hus i n S yria, i f n ot A natolia, f igurines,

t here

w as

a n

i ndustry

p roducing

f aience

v essels

a s w ell a s t he m ore c ommon b eads a nd a mulets,

M iddle B ronze A ge

( c.2100-1550 B .C.).

a t i n a nd

t hrough t he

T here i s n o c ertain e vidence,

b y c ontrast, t hat t his w as a lso t he c ase i n M esopotamia. w ith t he f aience o bvious a t T ell T aya i n t he l ater t hird B .C.

V II) a lso

C ompared m illennium

a nd i ts p opularity a t n eighbouring T ell R imah a fter a bout 1 49

1 400

B .C.,

i ts p resent

a bsence

t hereabouts

i n t he i ntervening

p eriod

i s

s triking. ( iv)

K assite,

M itannian,

a nd M iddle A ssyrian P eriods

( c.1550-1150 B .C.): I n t he h istory o f

f aience

( and

f rit),

a s

i n t hat o f g lass

( see

p .201) a nd g lazed t erracotta ( see p .167), t here i s a p rofound c hange i n t he r ange a nd i ntensity o f p roduction i n t he N ear E ast i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. T he e arliest p hase f or w hich t here i s g ood a rchaeological e vidence o f t his r evived a nd e xpanded i ndustry i n M esopotamia i s r epresented b y f inds f rom S tratum I I a t N uzi, w hich m ay n ot h ave b een d estroyed m uch b efore a bout 1 350 B .C. ( Wilhelm 1 976), t hough i ts c ontents a re c ommonly d ated t o t he f ift eenth c entury ( cf. a lso p . 20 2 ) . H ere f rit a nd f aience w ere m ost c ommonly e ncountered i n t he f orm o f b eads. I n h er t echnical s tudy V andiver

( 1982a,

7 4)

h as n oted t hat

" in t he H arvard S emitic M useum

c ollection a s w ell a s i n t he f ield a ccession r ecords, t he r elative n umbers o f b eads o ccur i n t he f ollowing d escending o rder: g lass, f rit, s tone, s hell, g lazed q uartz b ody , a nd n o g lazed c lay b eads. A n e stimate

o f

t he

r atio

o f g lass

t o

f rit b eads

i s

t hat

t he

g lass

e xceeded b y a f actor o f t en t he n umber o f f rit b eads". S tarr ( 1939, 9 4, c f. 4 46) f ound e normous q uantities i n T emples C -A a t N uzi, n ota bly i n T emple A . T he f rit b eads, p redominantly b lue, " seldom o ccurred

i n

f lies

i nvariably s mall". F rit

b lack

m ore e laborate

f orm t han r epresentations o f

w as p roduced i n f ive c olours:

a nd y ellow,

b lue,

b rick

f rogs

r ed,

e ach w ith a d ifferent c omposition a nd

a nd

w hite,

s tructure.

B i j ie i s t he c ommonest; S tarr ( 1939, 4 47) n oted t he r ed a s v ery r are. B lue f rits w ere s intered m ixtures o f t he m inerals q uartz, c alcite a nd " Egyptian B lue . T he r atio o f F e:Si w as h igher f or t he r ed t han f or t he b lue; t he r atio o f C a:Si f or t he b lue. T he b lack f rit w as h igh i n a v olume f raction o f d ark b lue g lass. Y ellow f rit w as c onsidered t o b e i ron-stained w hite f rit. L ime i s p resent i n t he b lue a nd w hite f rits, b ut n ot i n t he r ed a nd b lack, w here z inc o xide i s g reater. C opper

o nly

o ccurs

i n t he b lue a nd r ed

b eads.

" Unground

j oining

s eams a long t he h ole a xis o f c ylinder b eads a re e vidence t hat t he m aterial w as p lastically f ormed a round a p olycrystalline b rown c ore. T he e xterior i s h arder t han t he i nterior i ndicating t hat p rior t o f iring,

t he

e ntially

d ried s urface o f

f rit s pheres a round a c ore" V andiver

t he

f rit b eads o ften w as g round d iffer-

s everal r ed b eads w ere

( 1982a)

f ound

f ormed b y s tacking s everal

( Vandiver, t hat

1 982a,

s mall

8 2ff.).

" beads m ade o f a g laze c oating o n a

w hite, f riable p olycrystalline b ody r ich i n q uartz ( often k nown a s E gyptian f aience...) a re r elatively f requent i n t he N uzi c ollection". T he t ubular b eads f all I n t his c ategory. T he w ere, h owever, " more s imilar t o t he f rit b eads f riable b rown c ore a nd t he s urface i s g round)

m elon-shaped b eads ( in t hat t here i s a t han t o t he a bove

c ategory '. T he g laze d id n ot a dhere a s w ell t o t he m elon b eads. T he m elon b ead g laze w as h igher i n M g, m ore n early a pproximating t o t he g laze c omposition a nd m aybe

t he

l ocal p roduct,

w hilst

t he

c ylinders

c ould b e i mports.

a nd

I n h is f inal r eport S tarr c arefully d istinguished b etween " frit" " faience". I n T emple A h e f ound a s imple b lue " frit" c up o f 1 50

d elicate ( Starr,

p roportions 1 939,

9 1,

a nd

t he f ragments o f

c f.pl.56,

I ,

Q.

a nother

" frit"

v essel

O nly t wo f ragmentary v essels o f

" faience" w ere p ublished ( Starr, 1 939, 4 61, p l.119 I , J ). f ound i n t he p alace r ather t han i n t he m ain t emple c omplex,

B oth w ere w here s o

m any o f t he f aience/frit o bjects w ere c oncentrated; S tarr c onsidered t hem t o b e I mports. B eck a nd J ackson r eported o n t hem a s " faience", b ut B arag ( 1970, 1 37, c orpus. S tarr ( 1939, e xamination a s A m ost

1 39-40) i ncluded t hem a s m osaic g lass i n h is 4 61) q uoted B eck a nd J ackson's s pectroscopic

f ollows: s pectroscopic e xamination s hows

t hat

t he N uzi

e xamples

c ertainly h ave a l ime f lux.

O n e xamination, I t I s e vident t hat t his b owl c ontains r ed, y ellow , a nd w hite p atches I n i t, a nd p ossibly b lack , a lthough t he l ast m ay b e a ccidental. T he c olouring m atter o f t he r ed i s i ron i n t he f orm o f f erric o xide i n g reat n umbers o f c omparatively l arge p articles w hich a re t otally o paque t o t ransmitted l ight. T he y ellow c olouring m atter i s t he s ame a s t hat u sed I n t he y ellow b eads o f M esopotamia a nd E gypt. e xact w ay i n w hich i t T he y ellow, t hat o f

s econd

I t

I s p robably d ue t o

f erric o xide,

b ut

t he

i s i ntroduced i s n ot y et k nown.

v essel w as s imilarly o f

" kneaded"

w hite,

r ed

a nd

b ut w ith t he a ddition o f " occasional s pots o f d eep b lue l ike t he w ell p reserved Nuzi g lass".

S ubsequent

r esearch h as

s hown t he y ellow c olourant t o

b e

l ead

p resently

p ub-

a ntlmonate i n E gypt a nd i n M esopotamia. T he

o nly

o ther m ajor g roup o f

f aience o bjects

l ished f rom M esopotamia, l ikely t o b e a s e arly a s t hose f rom N uzi I I, w as f ound i n t he t emple a t T ell R imah ( phase I I, r oom 5 ). T he d estruction l evel f rom w hich t hey w ere r ecovered i s n ot i ndependently d ated. T he e xcavator, o n t he s trength o f c lose p arallels w ith t he m aterial c ulture o f N uzi I I, h as d ated i t t o " about 1 450 B .C. ( Oates, 1 982, 9 7). t erminus o f N uzi I I, m ore. w ays

I n v iew o f t he p revious c omments a bout t he I t m ight w ell b e l ater b y h alf a c entury o r

T he r epertory a t T ell R imah, i n f aience a nd f rit, i s I n s ome m ore v aried t han a t N uzi, e mbracing c ylinder s eals o f t he

" Mitannlan C ommon S tyle" ( a w idely d istributed c ategory); t iny c ylindrical c osmetic c ontainers w ith l ids, t heir s ides d ecorated i n s unk r elief w ith f acsimiles o f t he s eal d esigns, a nd f aces; a b ird-shaped v essel d ecorated o n t he o utside g laze, o n t he i nterior w ith y ellow ( Dayton, 1 978, o f b eads a nd z oomorphic a mulets ( Carter, 1 965; a lways d istinguish f inds A

s mall g roup o f

w ith w ith

h uman b rown

p l.11); a nd a r ange t his p aper d oes n ot

f rom p hase I I c learly f rom p hase I ).

c omparable f rit a nd f aience o bjects w as

a t T ell C huera ( Moortgat a nd M oortgat-Correns, 1 5); a s a t C hagar B azar ( Mallowan, 1 937, 1 22,

1 976, 3 8ff., 1 37, p l.14A).

f ound

f igs.14-

T he f irst p hase o f e xpanded f aience p roduction ( cf. g lass, p p.201ff.) i n M esopotamia a nd S yria h as s ometimes b een t ermed " Mitann lan" ( c.1550-1350 B .C.), n ot m erely i n c hronological t erms, b ut b ecause i t h as b een a ssumed t hat t heir e mpire s timulated a nd t ated t he p roduction a nd d iffusion o f s uch l uxury o bjects.

f aciliA t t his

s tage

o bjects

t he m anufacture o f v essels

a nd o f o ther m ore e laborate 1 51

w as

l argely,

i f n ot

e xclusively,

a " prestige" t echnology,

s ituated i n

t he w orkshops o f t he " Great O rganizations" ( temples a nd p alaces) . , a s a t s ites l ike N uzi a nd T ell R imah. T heir o utput f ound i ts w ay l argely i nto s hrines a nd p alace a partments, o r i nto t he g raves o f w ealthy s ervants o f p alace o r t emple. A t t his t ime l ocal p roduction s eems l argely t o h ave s erved l ocal p urposes. I n t he f ollowing o r " Middle A ssyrian" p hase ( c.1350-1200 B .C.) t his s ituation p ersisted a nd e xpanded t o m ore p restige p roduction c entres. H owever, c irculation o f a s tandard r epertory o f c ertain v essels a nd o rnaments,

n ow

f ound m ore c ommonly i n g raves,

b roadly b ased h ierarchy " Great O rganizations".

t he w ide p ersonal

m ay i ndicate a

o f p roduction c entres,

s ome

m ore

o utside

A ssur a nd i ts n eighbourhood h as p rovided o ne o f t he m ost t ant g roups o f f aience f or t his l ater p hase. A part f rom f inds

t he

i mpori n t he

A ssur T emple a t K ar-Tukulti-Ninurta, h ardly u sed a fter t he r eign o f i ts f ounder T ukulti-Ninurta I ( c.1243-1207 B .C.), t hese o bjects a re c oncentrated i n t he I shtar T emple a t A ssur, i tself f ounded b y t he s ame k ing, b ut u sed u ntil t he r eign o f A ssur-resh-ishi I ( c.1132-1115 B .C.). T he v ariety o f t he r epertory i s r emarkable a nd l ikely t o r epresent a l ocal i ndustry, t hough s ome i ndividual o bjects m ay b e i mports. T here p ieces ( Andrae,

i s a r ange o f b eads, a mulets, r osettes a nd g aming 1 935, 9 6-100, p ls.39-40); v arious " nail-heads" o r

p ommels ( ibid., p 1.41); f ragments f rom f urniture ( ibid., p 1.38); h uman s tatuettes a nd m odel f ootware ( ibid., p ls.34-5); h uman e yes a nd g enitals ( male a nd f emale) ( ibid., p 1.36); a nimal s tatuettes a nd p rotomes ( Ibid., p 1.37), a nd a s mall r epertory o f v essels ( Ibid., p 1.42). T ell a l-Fakhar ( Al-Khalesi, 1 970, p 1.27) i llustrates t he a vailability o f f aience a t t his t ime i n a l ess i mportant n orthern c ity. P hase I a t T ell R imah, d ated t extually t o t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. ( tablets o f t he r eign o f T ukulti-Ninurta I ), p roduced a nother c ollection o f f aience/frlt o bjects, n otably f ace-pendants ( cf. P eltenburg, 1 977) a nd s mall " rosettes" s aid t o b e " characteristic o f p hase I " ( Oates, 1 965, 7 4; C arter, 1 965, 5 3, f ig.7). S uch " rosettes" h ave a w ide d istribution, a ppearing f or i nstance, i n c ontemporary l evels a t N imrud ( Mallowan, 1 950, 1 74) a nd a t A ssur 9 7) p 1.40) i n I raq a nd a t T ell F akhariyah ( Kantor,

( Andrae, 1 935, 1 957, 4 3-4) i n

S yria. A s t hey c ommonly h ave b utton-backs, i t h as b een s uggested t hat t hey w ere o rnaments s ewn o nto t he r obes m ade f or d eity s tatues ( Andrae, 1 935, 9 7); t hey h ave n ow b een f ound i n o rdinary g raves a t T ell M ohammed A rab

( M .

R oaf;

p ers.comm.).

I t I s t he v essels a t t his p eriod w hich p articularly w ell i llust rate a c ommerce i n s tandard s hapes. A ny a ttempt t o e stablish w hence i ndividual

t ypes,

o r s pecific e xamples o f

t hem,

o riginally c ame

i s

h azardous. L ong a go H all ( 1928) i solated a nd d iscussed t he s triking s imilarity b etween t he f aience v essels f ound a s f ar a part a s E nkomi I n C yprus a nd A ssur, t hough h is c oncept o f M ycenaean-Minoan p roduct ion c entres

f or

t hem h as n ot

s urvived.

P eltenburg

( 1972;

1 974) h as

m ore r ecently c onsidered t he p roblem i n d etail. I n a s ummary o f h is e xamination o f f aience v essels f rom C yprus h e c lassified t hem I nto t wo m ajor g roups: s ub-divided i nto

E gyptian o r E gyptianizing N orth L evantine S tyle a nd

a nd W estern A siatic, I nternational W estern

A siatic S tyle: " there a re o ther v ases f rom C yprus w hich M ycenaen i nfluence a nd w hich, b ecause t hey a re a lso 1 52

s how m ade

n o i n

M esopotamia,

a nd

b ecause

t here i s n o g ood e vidence a s

t o w here

t hey

f irst o ccur, a re b est c onsidered a s b elonging t o a n i nternational W estern A siatic S tyle" ( Peltenburg, 1 972, 1 36). H e c ited i n p articul ar t he " blossom b owls ", w ith o blong p entagons a rranged l ike p etals a round t he e xterior ( cf. F oster, 1 979, 5 1), a nd a t ype o f s mall b ucket f ound i n M esopotamia a t B abylon ( Reuther, 1 926, 1 5, f ig.10A , C , p ls.47:12b, 4 8:17.4), K ish ( de G enouillac, 1 924, p l.50:143, 6 5:143, V III.4), U r ( Woolley, 1 962, p 1.58:233) a nd M an ( Parrot, 1 937, p l.XV.1). B y w ay o f c ontrast a d istinctive g roup o f f ace g oblets, r epresented a t A ssur ( Andrae, 1 935, p 1.33), b elong " almost w holly t o t he n orth L evant w here t hey w ere a lso m ade o f w ood" ( Pel — t enburg, 1 972, 1 34, p l.XXIV; c f. C ulican, 1 971); t hough e ven t hey s how m arked s tylistic d ifferences. A c haracteristic o f P eltenburg T h " Western A siatic" g roup i s t he u se o f y ellow g laze e ither t o p ick o ut d etails o r

t o

l ine

t he i nside o f a v essel.

H all a ppreciated, ( Haller, 1 954, 4 2,

a re 6 4,

a nother p l.16e,h;

C hannel s pouted b owls,

a s

c ategory o f v essel f ound a t A ssur c f. a lso L ayard, 1 853a, p 1.85), a nd

a t T ell F akhariyah i n S yria ( Moortgat, 1 959, 3 6, f ig.4), a s w ell a s i n C yprus ( Foster, 1 979, 5 1). E ven s imple h emispherical b owls o f s tandard t ypes a re w idely d ispersed i n S yro-Mesopotamia ( cf. K uschke, 1 970). B y n ow t here

i s a lso e vidence

f ar t o

t he s outh i n M esopotamia t o

s how t he w ide d istribution o f f aience v essels i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. I n v iew o f t he e ase o f t ransport a long t he l ine o f t he E uphrates s uch p enetration f rom w orkshops i n S yria i s n ot s o s urprising a nd c ontemporary v essels a lso a ppear a t M eskene ( Emar)

( Caubet

P arrot

1 982,

( 1975,

1 11ff.). 7 ) m odified h is e arlier d ating o f

t he

" Assyrian

C emetery" a t M arl a fter f inding a f aience p laque i n t omb 6 56 b earing t he n ame o f A i nenophis I II o f E gypt ( c.1402-1364 B .C.); b ut, a s P eltenburg ( 1977, 1 92) p ointed o ut, t here i s c onsistent e vidence f rom o ther s ites, n otably T ell R imah, f or d ating t he d istinctive f acep endants, a lso f ound i n t he M arl c emetery , t o t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. T he g raves i n t his c emetery, i n c ourts 1 06 a nd 1 31 o f t he e arlier p alace, w ere w ell f urnished: " caract &isé p ar délégants rcipients e n f ritte v ernissée ( pl.XV.1): b onbonnières a c ouvercle, a mpoules, c oupes, j arres, g odets", a s w ell a s t he f ace-pendants ( Parrot, m uch i n

1 937, 8 3; c f. M allet, 1 975). A s t he r epertory o f c ommon w ith M an , i t i s b roadly t o t his p eriod

f orms h as t hat t he

f aience v essels f rom B abylon b elong ( Reuther, 1 926, 1 5, f ig.10). B abylon t he e xcavator i nterpreted t he c ontemporary " fire-pits" k ilns e d

f or

i n

t he m anufacture o f

t oo

f aience o bjects,

l ittle d etail t o c heck t his

b ut

A t a s

t he s ite i s r eport-

s uggestion.

T wo

s ets

o f

g raves, d esignated a s e ither f rom A lteren K assitischen S chicht o r t he J üngeren K .S., y ielded i n a ddition t o v essels, a v ariety o f b eads a nd a mulets

i n f aience

M ore f ew 7 8). a t

( Reuther,

1 926,

p ls.47-8,

5 8).

r ecent e xcavations a t N ippur r evealed i n K assite

l evels

" a

e xamples o f g laze o n a b ody o f s iliceous p aste" ( McCown, 1 967, W ithin t he b rickwork o f t he a ltar o f t he K assite N ingal T emple U r

W oolley f ound a n a ssortment o f o bjects

v essels a nd a f aience p otstand ( Woolley, 1 965, B ); a b ronze w orshipper s tatuette ( Woolley,

i ncluding t wo

f aience

1 03; U .3304, 3 314, A , 1 965, p l.28:U.18628),

s imilar t o e xamples f rom N uzi I I w as a lso i ncluded. I solated v essels a re r eported f rom g raves a nd b uildings o f t he K assite p eriod i n t he 1 53

H amrin r egion T hat

( Boehmer,

1 982,

3 2;

I nvernizzi,

1 980,

f igs.68-9).

t here w as a f aience/frit i ndustry s erving t he K assite c ourt

i s e vident e ven f rom t he r elatively m eagre r ange o f p ublished f rom e xcavations a t A qar Q uf ( Dur K urigalzu) f or g lass).

A s e arly a s

l evel I V,

f inds s o f ar ( cf.p.205 h ere

b uilt o n v irgin s oil s ometime i n

t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourteenth c entury B .C., r oom 1 5 p roduced t he m odel h ead o f a c amel ( ? ) and " fragments o f s everal s mall o bjects m ade o f f rit s ome o f w hich w ere t he h orns o f s mall a nimals" ( Baqir, 1 945, 1 3-14, p l.XXVII). A f inely m odelled s tag s h ead f rom l evel I B, a c entury o r m ore l ater, w as d escribed a s " in l imestone o r m ore

p robably

f rit"

( ibid.,

p l.XXVII).

S ome

t iles m ay b e

g lazed

s intered q uartz r ather t han g lazed t erracotta; a ccording t o e xcavator: " several t iles w ere f ound a t l evel I C a nd a t l evel T hey a re m ade o f c halky m aterial, b lue a nd y ellow g laze" ( ibid., 1 4). I t

i s

p roduction

b y n o m eans

a nd s ome s till r etain

c lear w here t he p rimary c entres

t he I I.

t races

o f

o f

f aience

w ere l ocated i n t his p eriod o f e xtensive p roduction

f rom

a bout 1 350 t o 1 100 B .C.; b ut t hey m ay n ot b e c onsidered i n i solation f rom t he c ontemporary g lass a nd m etal i ndustries ( see p p.31ff., 2 01ff.). A lthough w orkshops a t s uch s ites a s A ssur, N uzi a nd T ell R imah a pparently s upplied l ocal t emples a nd p alaces w ith s imple v otive o bjects a nd p ersonal o rnaments, s ome p roduction o f v essels f or t rade i s e vident. V essels, o f P eltenburg s " International W estern A siatic S tyle",

h ave

b een f ound i n C yprus,

i n S yro-Palestine a nd

i n

M esopotamia. S o w ide a d istribution o f s uch a r elatively f ragile c ommodity i s s ignificant. T hey w ere c learly p art o f a l uxury t rade; b ut h ow f ar t his e xtended b eyond g ift e xchange a t c ourt l evel, i t i s i mpossible

t o

g auge a t

t he m oment;

n or m ay i t b e

s aid

w ith

a ny

c dnfidence w here t hey w ere m ade, t hough w orkshops i n S yria a re m ost c cmmonly f avoured. B oth R as S hamra ( Ugarit) a nd M eskene ( Emar) h ave p roduced i ndustrial ( Louvre c ollections).

d ebris i ndicating l ocal f aience p roduction S ome s cholars ( cf. C ulican, 1 971) h ave s een

t heir s tylistic h omogeneity a s i ndicative o f a s ingle s ource o r a v ery c losely r elated g roup o f w orkshops, w hilst B arrelet ( 1968, 1 08, n .3)

a nd P eltenburg h imself p refer t he c oncept o f a m ultiplicity

o f

m anufacturing c entres; t he l atter a rguing t hat, t hough w estern i nf luences m ay h ave b een c rucial i n i nitiating c ertain t ypes o f p roduct ion, " some a pparently M esopotamian v ases o ccur i n t he w est t he a pogee o f t his s tyle, c .1400-1200 B .C." ( Peltenburg, 1 974, I t

i s n o e asier a t p resent

l ocal p roduction c entres,

t o d efine t he r elative

a s a gainst a f ew m ajor o nes,

d uring 1 08).

r oles o f m any i n t he d istri-

b ution o f m uch m ore c ommonplace o bjects. " Mitannian C ommon S tyle" c ylinder s eals o f f aience a re f ound t hroughout t he N ear E ast, a nd i nto t he p eripheral r egions, a rgues t hat d istinct g roups, N uzi, t ine

a t A lalakh i n S yria ( c.1350-1200 B .C.)

f aience M arlik,

i n t he L ate B ronze A ge. l ocally m anufactured,

( c.1550-1200 B .C.),

D abney ( 1984) a re e vident a t

a nd a t s ites

A

s imple

b eads o f s tandard d esign i s i llustrated b y t he o ccurrence a t n ear t he C aspian S ea i n I ran, a nd a t U r, o f s trikingly s imi-

l ar f aience p omegranate a nd d ouble-spiral b eads i n t he t hirteenth c enturies B .C. ( Maxwell-Hyslop, 1 971, 1 94).

t he

i n P ales-

A n e qually e xtensive d istribution o f

d istinctive g roup o f

d ifficulty

f aience f ace-pendants a lso

o f a ttribution.

f ourteenth a nd

d emonstrates

I n a c omprehensive s tudy 1 54

o f

t hem

P eltenburg p resent d ate.

( 1977)

s howed

d istribution

a

p attern

M esopotamian

c oncentration

a nd a rgued f or a

H e c ogently c hallenged K ühne s

i n

t hirteenth

t heir c entury

( 1974) e arlier v iew t hat

t hey

w ere o f " Hurri-Mitannian" o rigin a nd d ated t o t he b eginning o f t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. I n M esopotamia t hey h ave b een r eported f rom s ites l ike A bu G huraib, B ills, I sin, K ish , M an , N ippur, T ell R imah, S huweimiyeh i n H aditha, S ippar, T ell e d-Der, U r a nd U ruk ; f rom S usa a nd T choga Z anbil i n K huzistan ; f rom G ezer i n P alestine, t enburg

H ala S ultan T ekke i n C yprus a nd R as S hamra i n S yria .

( 1977,

f ig.217) p ointed o ut

P el-

t he c ontrasting d istribution o f

t he e arlier m etal a nd m oulded g lass n ude f emale f igurines, m ainly o f t he s ixteenth t o f ourteenth c enturies B .C., w hich a t p resent h ave a L evantine

c oncentration

a nd

a re u nreported f rom

M esopotamia

( cf.

B arag, 1 970). H e a lso u rged a s eparation o f t he " face-pendants" f rom t he " face g oblets" i n a ny s tudy o f f aience p roduction i n t he L ate B ronze A ge. T he

m ost

s pectacular

t eenth c entury,

f aience a nd g lass

s o f ar k nown,

i s

t hat

i ndustry o f

t he

t hir-

r evealed a t T choga Z anbil

i n

K huzistan b y G hirshman s e xcavations ( 1946-62). T his c ity, f ocussed o n a s pectacular c omplex o f s hrines a nd f unerary p alaces, w ith u nderg round v aulted t ombs, r ound a m onumental z iggurat, w as f ounded b y U ntash-GAL

i n

t he

s econd q uarter o f

t he

t hirteenth

c entury

B .C.

F aience w as e xtensively u sed t here f or p ersonal o rnaments a nd s eals, f or v essels, i ncluding s mall c osmetic c ontainers s haped a s f emale h eads, f or h uman a nd a nimal s tatuettes, a nd f or v otive m aceheads ( Ghirshman, 1 966, 1 968, p assim ; A miet, 1 966, f igs.267-9, 2 72). M ore s cattered e vidence f rom e arlier e xcavations a t n eighbouring S usa h ad i ndicated t he e xistence o f a M iddle E lamite f aience i ndustry, b ut n ot is g reat r ange s eems

( cf.

A miet,

1 966,

f ig.317).

T his i ndustry 's a ctivity

t o h ave b een l argely e xtinguished b y t he B abylonian i nvasion o f

t he l ater t welfth c entury B .C., w hen t here i s a b reak i n r ecognizable p roduction i n K huzistan u ntil a bout t he e ighth c entury B .C. A c ont emporary g lass a nd f aience i ndustry o n t he i sland o f F ailaka i n t he b ay o f K uwait a ppears t o h ave b een m ore c losely c onnected w ith t his E lamite

c raft

t radition

P ollard a nd Hjlund, ( v) T he o f

t han w ith t hat e vident

i n

B abylonia

( cf.

1 983).

T he F irst M illennium B .C.:

d ifficulties

i nvolved i n a ny s tudy o f t he m aterial

M esopotamia b etween t he e leventh a nd n inth

c enturies

c ulture

B .C.

h ave

a lready b een c onsidered i n r elation t o m etalwork ( pp.33ff.). I t i s v irtually i mpossible t o t ell w hether c ertain i ndustries p assed c omp letely

i nto e clipse w hen a rchaeological e vidence

i s

a bsent,

c on-

s istently s o i n t his c ase, o r l ingered o n i n i solated c entres w hose p roducts w ere n ot w idely d istributed. W hen s pecialist p roducts r ea ppear a fter a n i nterval, a lbeit i n f resh f orms a nd s tyles, t he l atter i s a n o bvious i nference. I n c ertain c ases, a s w ith g lazed t erracotta i n a rchitecture, t here i s s ome t extual e vidence t o s upport c ontinuity a gain

i t

( see

p .171).

i ndicates

t hat

W hen m aterial e vidence b ecomes

a vailable

t he N eo-Assyrian r epertory i n f aience i n

n o

w ay m atched t hat o f t he M iddle A ssyrian p eriod. T he s timulus f or r evival m ay w ell h ave b een w estern, u ltimately p erhaps " Phoenician , s ince " Egyptianizing" t raits a re p articularly e vident i n " Neo-Assynan" f aience a mulets a nd p endants ( Oates, 1 968, p l.XXXVIa-c).

1 55

I t H ere,

i s

t o

w estern I ran t hat a ttention m ust

a s w ith g lass

c .800 B .C.,

( p.206),

o ffers a v aluable

t he d estruction o f

f irst

b e

t urned.

l evel I V a t H asanlu,

t erminus a nte q uem,

e arlier b y a lmost

t wo c enturies t han a ny y et a vailable i n M esopotamia. f aience v essels f rom l evel I V a t H asanlu p rovide a n

T wo p ublished a rchaeological

h orizon f or a w hole s eries o f s imilar v essels r eported f rom c landest ine e xcavations i n w estern I ran i n t he l ast q uarter o f a c entury ( cf.

F ukai,

1 981):

a s mall,

b lue-glazed f aience b ox-shaped v essel,

w ith f eet a nd w ith h oles f or s ecuring a l id t o a r ound m outh, a nd a c one-shaped, f ooted g oblet, o f c ream-glazed f aience, d ecorated w ith c rude g eometric d esigns i n b lue a nd b rown ( Dyson, 1 968, 9 0, c entre, l eft; p l.XXXIX, t rated s urvey o f

c olour). F ukai ( 1981) h as p rovided a f inely i llust he a rt m arket e xamples, m any c asually a ttributed t o

" Ziwiyeh" ( Muscarella, 1 977); b ut, a t p resent, i t i s i mpossible t o g ive t hem a c lose d ating i n t he r ange n inth t o t he s eventh c enturies B .C., s ave f or t hose m ost n early m atching t he H asanlu e xamples. F ukai s E nglish t ext d oes n ot a lways c learly d istinguish b etween g lazed t erracotta v essels ( and t iles), w hich w ere a lso f ound b oth a t H asunlu a nd Z iwiyeh i n c ontrolled e xcavations, a nd f aience. T he b ody m aterial o f s ome o f t he l atter ( Fukai, 1 981, 1 1, p l.16_17)* i s g iven a s 8 7.2% s ilica ( faience). t he d ark p urple c olour " iron, u sed";

f or

t he b lue,

n o l ead,

A nalyses o f t he g lazes s howed t hat f or m anganese a nd t itanium c ompounds w ere " but

( they)

c ontained c upric o xide,

a s

w ell a s c alcium a nd p otassium , t hat f unctioned a s a f luxing a gent ; f or t he y ellow, c ontaining 2 4% l ead, " the e lement i mparting c olour t o t he y ellow g laze w as a ntimony, t hen t he y ellow ( Fukai, 1 981, 2 1)

t itanium w as u sed i n o rder t o s treng-

c olour"; t he w hite g laze d id n ot c ontain l ead ( cf.p.166). A lthough w est I ranian g lazed t iles o f

t he I ron A ge o ften s how A ssyrian i nfluence i n t heir d ecorative m otifs, t he f aience v essels h ave m uch m ore d istinctive c haracterist ics. T hey s eem t o c onstitute a r epertory o f s hapes a nd d esigns l argely i ndependent b oth o f t he e arlier M iddle E lamite a nd o f t he M iddle A ssyrian i ndustries, a nd a re u nrepresented i n c ontemporary M esopotamia. S tudy

o f

t he

N eo-Elamite f aience

i ndustry i s

c omplicated

b y

c hronological p roblems a nd r ecurrent u ncertainties a bout w hether t he v essels a re i ndeed f aience, a s s eems m ost o ften t o h ave b een t he c ase, o r g lazed t erracotta ( cf. A miet, 1 966, f igs.370ff.). D e M irosc hedji ( 1981, 9 ff.) h as a rgued t hat t he c ylindrical p yxides w ith m oulded d ecoration a re M iddle E lamite i n d ate. I t i s t he c uboid a nd v ariously s haped c ontainers w ith i ncised d esigns r ather t han m oulded d ecoration, s ometimes p olychrome, t hat a re N eo-Elamite, w ere p robably n ot m ade a fter a bout 6 50 B .C. ( cf. F ukai,

t hough t hey 1 981, 6 -7).

T he l ocal s eal i ndustry o f S usiana i n N eo-Elamite t imes a lso c ont inued t he e arlier t radition o f u sing f aience ( cf. d e M iroschedji, 1 982,

5 2-3). I n M esopotamia i n t he s eventh c entury B .C.,

l ength o f

t ime b efore

t hat

a nd f or a n

i n t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod,

b eads,

u nknown a mulets

a nd s eals, w ere m anufactured o f f rit a nd f aience, a s w ere s uch t radit ional i tems a s e yes f or i nlay i nto s tatues a nd v otive m aceheads. I n t he

*

N inurta

S ome o f

T emple

a t N imrud L ayard

t he c hemical a nalyses,

a s

( 1853,

3 57-8)

d iscovered

p ublished i n t he E nglish

a re p roblematic. 1 56

a

t ext,

m iscellaneous f aience; g lazed f rit".

c ollection

f rom

o f

o bjects,

s ome o f w hich w ere

t he s ame b uilding M allowan

( 1966,

8 2)

m ade

o f

r ecovered

" a

f aience r eceptacle, a nd t wo b anana-shaped o bjects m ade o f A lthough f aience w as u sed i n " Neo-Assyrian" t imes f or c ylin-

d er s eals i n a v ariety o f s tyles, i t s eals c ut i n w hat B uchanan ( 1966,

i s m ost o bviously e mployed 1 06, n os.606ff.) c alled

f or t he

" Debased L inear S tyle". P roduction o f s uch s eals m ay h ave b egun a s e arly a s t he m id. n inth c entury B .C. ( Parker, 1 955, 1 03ff.). I t w as t o c ontinue i nto t he P ersian p eriod. T hey a re w ell r epresented a mong t he c ylinder s eals e xcavated a t A ssur ( Moortgat, 1 940, n os.689-731) a nd a t N imrud ( Parker, 1 955; 1 962). T he f rit/faience r epertory o f a s mall

p rovincial t own o f

t he p eriod i s

i llustrated b y f inds a t

T ell

R imah ( Oates, 1 968, 1 32-3) a nd f urther a field a t S ultantepe ( Lloyd a nd G 8kce, 1 953, 4 9-50; L loyd, 1 954, 1 07), w here w estern i nfluence i s e vident b oth i n a mulets a nd v essels. I n A ndrae s ( 1925) p ublicat ion o f t he N eo-Assyrian g lazed t erracotta v essels f ound a t A ssur, v ery l ittle r eference i s m ade t o f aience. I t e ncourages t he a ssumpt ion t hat l ocally p olychrome g lazed t erracotta v essels h ad v irtually s uperseded f aience v essels i n t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod. A ndrae ( 1925, 3 5, 4 2, p l.18c) d escribed o nly o ne f aience b owl: " a c entre r osette o f y ellow, l ight b lue a nd w hite p etals i n t urn, a round t hem a w reath o f s pots a nd y ellow c ircle T he g laze i s d ifferent f rom t hat o n t he e arthnware b ottles, m uch t hinner a nd m ore d elicate". I t m ight b e a n i mport

f rom t he w est.

A lthough

t he N eo-Assyrian c ourt

p atronized a v igorous

i ndustry

p roducing g lazed a rchitectural t erracottas ( see p p.170ff.) a nd g lazed b aked c lay v essels, t here i s n o e vidence t hat t here w as a c omparable N eo-Assyrian f aience i ndustry p roducing i ts o wn d istinctive r epertory o f v essels a nd v otive o bjects. W here t here i s e vidence o f f aience a mulets a nd b eads, s eals a nd p endants, t hey m ay m erely b e a nother a spect o f t he " Syro-Phaenician" t echnological a nd c ommercial i mpact o n A ssyria,

r ather t han a n i ndigenous r evival o f

b efore i n M iddle A ssyrian t imes. w ere r esident

t he c raft w ell k nown

A rtisans w orking i n t his

t radition

i n A ssyrian c entres.

T he s ame w ould s eem t o b e

t rue o f B abylonia i n t he f irst m illen-

n ium B .C., w here g lazed t erracotta w as t he p referred m edium. I sol ated f inds f rom t he A chaemenid p eriod n eed n ot b e t he p roducts o f l ocal w orkshops. F rom U r W oolley c atalogued a s mall v essel s tand o f " green f aience" ( U.227: W oolley, 1 962, p l.31) a nd a " box o f g lazed f rit, m ade t o t ake a s wivel l id, o riginally b lue" ( Woolley, 1 962, U .16731), f rom a g rave a ttributed t o t he P ersian p eriod. A t t his t ime, l ets,

a s i n t he p revious p eriod, e specially " eyes o f H orus",

w idely d istributed a cross W herever i t u p o f

t he N ear E ast.

i s p ossible

t o c heck,

t he p osition a t U r s eems " While

w ere

f aience o r f rit p endants a nd a mui n a n " Egyptianizing" s tyle w ere

W oolley's

( 1962,

1 03)

i t w ould b e r ash t o s ay t hat a ny n ew m aterials

i ntroduced

o ldest

m aterials,

s hapes b rown,

a nd r ed,

i n

t he P ersian p eriod i t p aste

s umming

t o a pply:

o r g lazed

f rit,

i s

f or

b eads

t rue t hat o ne

o f

t he

w as n ow e mployed

i n

n ew

w ith a g reater r ichness o f d esign. S mall p endants o f y ellow o r b lue p aste i n t he f orm o f m iniature t ools s uch

a s a xe-heads a nd a dzes a re c ommon o n n ecklaces a nd t here a re m any v arieties o f p olychrome b eads, o vals o f g reen w ith y ellow 1 57

e nds

r osettes

a nd

s potted e ye-beads f ar m ore g ay i n

t han a nything w e h ave f rom t he N eo-Babylonian a ge. c ommonly u sed,

a nd t here a re e xamples o f

w hich a re o ften a ssociated w ith P hoenicia" n ical c omments o n s uch b eads B :

a ppearance

G lass

t oo i s m ore

t he i nlaid o r m osaic ( cf.

O da,

1 965,

b eads

f or t ech-

f rom I ran).

M ethods o f M anufacture: A s h as a lready b een p ointed o ut

( see p .133),

f aience b odies w ere

m ade p rimarily f rom s ilica ( sand o r p owdered s andstone, q uartz o r f lint) a nd a lkaline b inding a gents ( natron o r p lant a shes). A s t here a re n o k nown a ncient d escriptions o f m anufacture, a ncient m ethods h ave b een r econstructed i n m odern t imes f rom a c ombination o f e vid ence: f rom a nalyses o f a ncient f aiences a nd g lazes; f rom t heir s tructural e xamination u nder a m icroscope; a nd f rom e xperimental a ttempts,

u nder c ontrolled c onditions,

I n t he c ircumstances i t p roposals a re c urrent.

t o r eproduce a ncient

f aiences.

i s n ot s urprising t hat a n umber o f d ifferent S ometimes t hey v ary o ver f undamentals, m ore

o ften o ver d etails o f p rocedure, s ince t he p roposed m ethods a nd r ecipes d o n ot a lways r eproduce t he c haracteristics o f t he o riginals. E ven w ith t he a ncient E gyptian f aience i ndustries, t ively w ell k nown, o pinions v ary a nd i t i s o nly

w hich a re r elar ecently t hat a

m ultifacetted a pproach h as b egun t o p rovide a b roader b asis

f or s tudy

( Kaczmarczyk a nd H edges, 1 983). A s t here i s v ery l ittle p ublished i nformation o n W estern A siatic f aience, t echnological s tudy h as t o p roceed s tances

b y c omparison w ith E gyptian p rocedures. i t c an n ot b e s tressed e nough t hat t his

s olution. p roduction

I n t hese i s o nly a n

c ircumi nterim

I t i s a lready a pparent t hat t here a re a spects o f t he o f v itreous m aterials i n t he N ear E ast w hich d iffer f rom

t he E gyptian t raditions F or t he w hole o f

t o a g reater o r l esser e xtent.

t he N ear E ast

t here i s v irtually n o

a rchaeolo-

g ical i nformation o n t he m anufacture o f f aience. S chaeffer s ( 1962, 3 7) s uggestion t hat f aience m ight h ave b een f ired i n t he s ame k iln a s t ablets a t R as S hamra i s v ery u nlikely f rom t he e vidence c ited. T he o nly c onvincing e vidence f or a w orkshop m anufacturing f aience, p rimarily b eads ( including w asters), h as b een i dentified a t T yre i n t he L ate B ronze A ge l evels ( Bikai, 1 978, 7 -8; B rill, 1 978). I n a c ourtyard o f s tratum X VI t he e xcavators f ound a " work t able" a nd a " basin" f or g rinding a nd p reparing r aw m aterials, i ncluding c alcium c arbonate; i n t he o verlying s tratum X V t he c ourtyard a ppeared t o r emain i n u se f or t he s ame p urpose. T his t ime t here w as e vidence f or a k iln, i ncorporating a p ithos, a nd a p ile o f s elected s ea p ebbles. S tray

t erracotta k iln s etters w ith g laze a dhering t o

t hem m ight

i ndicate l ocal g lazed t erracotta o r f aience p roduction. W hen t he s etters a re a ctually m ade o f f aience ( if t he e vidence h olds), t hey e ven

m ore

p robably i ndicate

( Andrae, 1 935, 9 9-100, i n t heir i mplications. b luish-white p recisely f rom

s uch

g lassy m aterial

w hat

l ocal f aience p roduction,

a s a t

f rom " Kassite"

l evels a t

B abylon,

v itreous m aterial w as i n p roduction i s

e vidence.

A ssur

p l.39s,u,x). W asters m ay b e e qually e quivoc al R euther ( 1926, 1 5) r eported l arge l umps o f

T o

j udge

b y E gyptian

n ot

a nalogies

a

b ut

c ertain f aience

w orker s t ools w ould h ave b een s imple; m oulds a gain m ay o nly b e c onfidently i dentified w hen d irectly a ssociated, a s a t T ell e l-Amarna i n

E gypt,

w ith t he

t ypes o f

f aience a rtefact m ade i n t hem

1 894). 1 58

( Petrie,

R elsner s

( 1923,

1 34ff.) d escription o f

t he E gyptian M iddle K ingdom , o f f inds f rom K erma i n N ubia,

t he f aience i ndustry o f

a s i llustrated b y t he r emarkable r ange i s s till t he b est c oncise r eport o f t he

d ebris f rom a n a ncient f aience i ndustry. U ntil s uch i nformation i s a vailable f or t he N ear E ast, o ne p aragraph o f h is a ccount s uffices t o i ndicate t he k ind o f i ndustrial e vidence l ikely t o b e y ielded e vent ually b y e xcavation t here: " The c onclusion t hat o bjects w ere a t K erma,

t he w orkshops

f or t he m anufacture o f g lazed

i s b orne o ut b y t he d iscovery o f a ccidentally

g lazed s etters, m isfired p ieces o f f aience, l umps o f c opper o xide, l umps o f k eriak ( silicate), m ortars, p estles, c harcoal, a nd b eds o f w ood a shes a t L ower D effufa. T here w ere a lso a n umber o f s poiled b eads, a s w ell a s q uantities o f c arnelian a nd q uartz c rystals f rom which b eads w ere m ade.

s een j ust n orth o f R oom C ,

b ut

i t w as t oo d amaged t o b e d rawn. I t w as o f p ottery, t runcated c one s haped, a bout 8 0-100cm. i n d iameter, a nd a pparently h eated

O ne o ven w as

f rom

o utside. A s t he p ottery w as p robably b aked i n o pen k ilns, t his m ay h ave b een u sed f or g lazing f aience a nd s tone." ( Reisner,

( ?) o ven 1 923,

1 35). W ebb f aience B .C.

( 1978)

h as u sefully r eviewed t he s cattered

m anufacture

i n t he s econd q uarter o f

t he

e vidence

f irst

f or

m illennium

i n E gypt a nd t he W estern M editerranean. ( a)

C ores a nd M anufacture:

B oth L ucas

( 1962,

1 58) a nd m ore r ecently K aczmarczyk a nd H edges

( 1983, 1 23) h ave d emonstrated t hat o rdinary s and, s ometimes w ashed a nd s ifted, s ometimes n ot, w as t he s tandard b asis o f E gyptian f aience. P owdered q uartz w as e xceptional; o nly f or w hite f aience d oes t here s eem t o h ave b een a c lear p reference f or p owdered q uartz. T he o ldest W estern A siatic o bject t ested s o f ar, a b ead o f t he l ater f ourth m illennium B .C. f rom B rak, w as s hown t o h ave a n o rdinary f aience b ody. T he c opper p ercentage s uggest t hat i t w as o riginally g lazed b lue o r g reen; a v ery h igh N a:K r atio i ndicates t hat n atron, o rdinary s alt, o r l ow p otassium p lant a shes w ere t he a lkali s ource ( Mallowan,

1 947,

2 54-5 c f.

S tone a nd T homas,

1 956,

n o.26).

B imson

( 1973, 1 83) d emonstrated t hat, d espite i ts c lay-coloured a ppearance, a l id f ragment o f t he t hird q uarter o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., l evel V III a t T ell T aya, h ad a h igh q uartz b ody w ith c lay c ontent o f o nly 5 %. C ontemporary f aience b eads f rom t he s ame s ite h ad " typical c oarse s intered-quartz" b odies. A t N uzi, i n l evel I I a bout 1 400 B .C., f aience b eads w ere r elatively i nfrequent. V andiver ( 1982a, 9 0) d istinguished t wo m ain t ypes. T he c ylinder b eads h ave " a f ully o xid ized

b ody

t echnology s haped b y w ell t he o xidization,

a nd a g laze t hat a dheres w ell

s imilar i n

t o t he c ommon E gyptian t ubular b eads". g rinding, a re d ifferent: " the g laze

s tyle

a nd

T he m elon b eads, d oes n ot a dhere

i nterior o f t he b ody i s g ray-blue d ue t o i ncomplete a nd l arge o val a nd s pherical p ores a nd s mall b lack

f lakes i ndicate t he p ossibility o f a n o rganic a dditive b ead g laze i s h igher i n M g a nd m ore n early a pproximates

T he t he

m elon g lass

c omposition". P ollard s a nalyses ( in P ollard a nd M oorey, 1 982) o f c ontemporary f aience b odies f rom T ell R imah s howed a m arked d egree o f p urity, w ith t he p otassium a nd c alcium c ontents g enerally l ess t han 0 .5 a nd 1 .0% r espectively, a nd t he i ron c oncentration l ess t han 0 .5%. 1 59

W hen n o s ystematic r esearch h as

b een d one o n t he b ody o f f aience

o bjects f rom W estern A sia, i t s hould b e b orne i n m ind t hat i n E gypt, a lthough a c onsiderable p ercentage o f b odies w ere w hite ( Kaczmarczyk a nd H edges, 1 983, 1 86, t able X XX), t here w ere m any c ases i n w hich t he b ody h ad b een d eliberately p igmented a s b ackground f or t he g laze. T his w as t he d ifference u nderlying t he v ariants o f E gyptian f aience f irst d istinguished b y L ucas ( 1962, 1 61ff.) a nd r ecently r efined b y K aczmarczyk a nd H edges ( 1983, 2 18ff.). T he b odies o f l ater t hird m illennium B .C. f aience a t T ell T aya, f or e xample, a ppeared t o t he n aked e ye a s w hite, y ellow o r p ink ( Reade; p ers.comm.). T he q uestion i s w hether t he b ody m aterials h ere h ad b een d eliberately p igmented t o f orm a s uitable b ackground f or t he g laze o r w hether, a s m ay m ore o ften h ave b een t he c ase i n M esopotamia, t he c olour d erived n aturally f rom t he s and o f w hich t he b ody w as m ade. S imilar v ariations e vident i n f aience b odies f rom o ther M esopotamian s ites. N oble s

( 1969,

4 36-7

e xperiments,

f or

m aking

E gyptian f aience, o ffer t he b asis f or a g eneral p roduction ( cf. T ite e t a l., 1 983):

a re

s elf-glazing

c onsideration

o f

" Ingredients a re m ixed w ith a l ittle w ater a nd k neaded i nto a g ritty p aste. I n w orking w ith t he m aterial i t b ecomes a pparent w hy l arge a nd c omplicated s hapes w ere n ot m ade a ncient E gyptians. I f t he p aste i s t oo d amp, w ill

n ot

h old

i ts

s hape;

i f

i t i s

f rom f aience b y t he i t r eadily s lumps a nd

t oo d ry,

c racks a nd

i s

n on-

p lastic. W ith j ust t he r ight d egree o f m oisture, i t c an b e m odelled i nto s imple f orms o r p ressed i nto o ne-piece t erracotta m olds T he m ixture i s n ot a llowed t o d ry i n t he m old; i t m erely s erves t o f orm t he p iece, w hich i s t hen r emoved a nd a llowed t o d ry f reely". T hrowing f aience v essels o n a p otter s w heel, o wing t o t he l imited p lasticity 1 973, 1 70,

o f t he m aterial, i s e xtremely d ifficult ( Allan e t a l., p 1.4). I t i s u nlikely t o h ave b een u sed s ave f or s imple,

a nd c omparatively s mall, o f o ther w ays. I f A rpachiyah i s c orrect, b eing m ight

o pen s hapes.

V essels w ere m ade

i n a n umber

t he H alaf p eriod d ating o f t he v essels a nd t his i s u nlikely ( see p .142), t hey

f rom w ere

m ade b efore t he i ntroduction o f t he p otter s w heel. V essels b e m oulded e ither i n o ne p iece o r i n s ections, a nd t he p ieces

a ssembled o r m odelled r ound a " form" o f s traw a nd r eeds o r s omething s imilar, w hich w ould b urn o ut o n f iring, b ut c ommonly l eave a n egat ive i mpression i nside t he v essel. D etail o r f inishing w as s ometimes d one, a fter m oulding, w ith a s harp i nstrument. T he v essel m ight a lso b e m ade s olid a nd, a fter p artial d rying, t he e xcess m aterial s cooped o ut b efore f iring. A mulets, s eals a nd s ome b eads w ere m ould-made. W here e vidence e xists, n ot y et i n M esopotamia, s imple o pen m oulds o f b aked c lay s ufficed. B eads c ould a lso b e r oughly m odelled r ound a t ube o r w ire, a nd l ater g round, s craped o r i ncised ( Vandiver, 1 982a). S ome b eads

s how s igns o f h aving b een b ored a fter f iring.

E xperimental w ork h as

i ndicated t hat E gyptian f aience w as

a t b etween 8 00 0 a nd 9 50 0 C ( N6ble, 1 971;

8 70 0 920 ° C ;

s ufficient

K ühne,

t o r elease

t he s urface s alts

1 974).

1 969; S uch

9 50°C;

f ired

K iefer a nd A llibert,

a r ange o f

t emperature

t he m etallic o xides f or c olouring a nd t o

f or t he g laze.

i s f lux

T hese t emperatures w ere w ell w ithin

t he r ange o f a ncient M esopotamian k ilns ( Tite a nd M aniatis, 1 975). I n p ublishing t he l ate t hird m illennium f aience f rom T ell T aya R eade ( 1973, w ere

1 84) n oted

t hat:

a lso o f i nterest:

" two o f

t he s eason s b lue

o ne a pparently b ore 1 60

f aience

t he m arks o f

v essels

t he t ripod

s etter, o n w hich i t m ust h ave r ested i n t he k iln, a nd a nother h ad f ragments o f g reen m etallic f ilings, p resumably c opper, a dhering t o p art o f i ts s urface, a s I f t he c olour w as s ometimes a chieved w ithout m ixing a c ompound p roperly i nto t he g laze". P eltenburg ( 1972, 1 33) r ecognized t he p resence o f t ripod-stand m arks o n L ate B ronze A ge f aience v essels o f h is " Western A siatic S tyle"; t his I ncludes v essels f rom A ssur. T hey a re a lso e vident o n M iddle A ssyrian f aience b owls f rom T ell M ohammad A rab ( M . R oaf; p ers.comm.). A lthough t erracotta t ripod s eparators h ave b een r egularly r ecognized a mongst p ottery f rom S asanian

a nd

l ater l evels I n M esopotamia,

t hey

a re

n ot

n ormally

r eported e arlier. I t i s l ikely t hat t he " setters" t o s eparate e arl ier g lazed p ottery a nd f aience v essels w ere c ruder a nd m ay n ot b e e asy t o r ecognize a way f rom a k iln. ( b)

M ethods o f g lazing: ( i) A pplication o f a g laze:

I t w as f or l ong a ssumed t hat a ncient E gyptian ( and o ther) f aience g lazes h ad b een m anufactured b y t he a lmost u niversal m ethod o f g lazing u sed f or p ottery i n m ore r ecent t imes. F or t his p remixed i ngredients a re a pplied t o t he s urface b y d ipping o r b rushing t o b e s ubsequently f used b y k iln f iring ( cf. P etrie, 1 909, 1 07; B eck, 1 934a, 6 9; L ucas, 1 962, 1 72ff.). F or t his t he p owdered r aw m aterials ( quartz, c alcite, n atron) a re m ixed w ith w ater. W hen a pplied t o t he d ried b ody, t he p orous b ody a bsorbed w ater f rom t he g laze m ixture l eaving a f ine, p owdery c oating w hich m elted d uring f iring t o f orm a g laze. T he c haracteristics o f s uch a m ethod m ost o bvious t o i nspection b y e ye a re t he u neven a pplication o f t he g laze a nd d rip o r f low l ines. T he t hickness o f t he g laze d epends i n t his m ethod o n b ody p orosity a nd

I n

t he w ater c ontent o f

( ii)

S elf-glazing b y e fflorescence:

t his

f aience p roduction p rocess

( Noble,

t he s lurry.

1 969) w ater s oluble

a lkaline s alts s uch a s s odium o r p otassium c arbonates, s ulphates, a nd c hlorides, I n t he f orm o f n atron o r a sh, m igrate d uring t he d rying f rom

t he

b ody t o

t he s urface b y c apillary a ction a s w ater e vaporates

f rom t he s urface. T he a lkalis e ffloresce, o r p recipitate a s s alts o n t he s urface, f orming a w hite p owdery l ayer ( referred t o b y B inns e t a l., 1 932, a s " wicking o ut"). W hen t he d ried f aience o bject i s f ired i n a n oxidizing a tmosphere t he a lkaline s urface l ayer a cts a s a f lux a nd t he s urface f uses t o f orm a g laze. A n a ppropriate c olourant i s I ncluded i n t he r ecipe t o p rovide t he r equired g laze c olour. B inns e t a l. ( 1932) t ermed t his m ethod " self-glazing ". I n t his m ethod t he d rying r ate i s c ritical; a t hicker c oat o f g laze i s f ormed o n t hose p arts o f t he s urface w hich a re e xposed t o a g reater f low o f a ir a nd h ave a f aster d rying r ate. ( Iii) A s

S elf-glazing b y c ementation:

n o g laze s lurry i s a pplied p rior t o

a lso c alled o ne ( Wulff,

f iring,

t his m ethod

i s

" self-glazing", t hough i t i s d istinct f rom t he p revious 1 968; K iefer a nd A llibert, 1 971). T he o bject i s m odel-

l ed f rom c rushed q uartz m ixed w ith a n a dhesive, t hen e mbedded i n a p owder o f h ydrated l ime, p owdered q uartz, a lkaline p lant a sh a nd t he r equired c olourant. S mith ( 1972, 1 02) h as d escribed t he e nsuing 1 61

r eaction

" (this)

l ayer

s odium s ilicate g lass c ontaining a bout 7 3 p er c ent

T he

o f

c omposition

i s h eated t o p romote t he f ormation o f i s m olten a t 8 00 0 C a nd i t w ets

a

r eactions ilica.

t he s ilica b ut

d oes

n ot w et t he l ime, s o t hat t he ( objects) a re v irtually l evitated b y s urface t ension i n t he m idst o f t he b ed o f p owder w ithout s ticking t o i t. T he s ame p rinciple w as l ater u sed i n m aking t he f irst h ollow o bjects o f g lass, t he s o-called s and-core g lass v essels, b ut t he " sand",

o f c ourse,

w as a n on-wettable m aterial p robably l ime,

c er-

t ainly n ot s ilica" ( see p .214). W ulff ( 1968) a nd T ite e t a l. ( 1983) h ave s hown, h owever, t hat f iring t emperatures o f 1 000 ° C a re r equired. R ecent s tudies o f a l ong c hronological s eries o f E gyptian f aie nce o bjects ( Vandiver, 1 982a; 1 983a; a lso K aczmarczyk a nd H edges, 1 983) h ave s hown t hat a ll t hese m ethods w ere a t o ne t ime o r a nother i n u se i n E gypt, o ften s imultaneously. A fter t he p rehistoric p eriod o f e xperimenting w ith t he f orming a nd g lazing o f b eads a nd a mulets, s elf-glazing b y e fflorescence w as s tandard p rocedure. A lready b y t he f irst p art o f t he t hird m illennium B .C., d uring t he P rotodynastic p eriod ( Dynasties I -II), a pplication a nd e fflorescence w ere i n u se, o ccasionally e ven o n t he s ame o bject. C ementation m ay n ot h ave b een c urrent u ntil t he M iddle K ingdom ; t here i s n ot s ufficient e vidence a s y et t o d ate i ts f irst a ppearance i n W estern A sia. ( c)

P roduction a nd n ature o f i ndividual c olours i n g lazes:

K aczmarczyk a nd H edges

( 1983,

1 40ff.) h ave

s ummarized t he c hemi-

c al n ature o f g lass p igments i n g eneral i n s o f ar a s t hey a re r elev ant t o f aience m anufacture. I n a w ork o f t his t ype d etailed s cientific d ata i s n ot a ppropriate, b ut c ertain p oints n eed t o b e m ade. A s ingle e lement m ay b e r esponsible f or p roducing s everal d ifferent c olours d epending o n i ts state o f o xidization a nd w hether i t i s p resent a s a c ompound o r i n s olution. W hen i n s olution i n a g lass, t he c ombined e ffects o f c omposition a nd f iring c onditions a re c rucial, a s i s m ost c learly i llustrated b y i ron. c onditions, a nd w ith l ow c oncentrations o f a lkali,

U nder o xidizing i t i s p ossible t o

o btain a s olid s olution o f i ron o xide g iving a p ink c olour; o xidizing o r o nly m ildly r educing c onditions a b lue o r g reen

u nder c olour

i s p roduced, b ut s trongly r educing c onditions p roduce g ray o r b lack g lazes. T hus, w hilst c hemical a nalysis c an t hrow l ight o n t he p roduction o f d ifferent c olours, i t d oes n ot o f i tself o ffer e vidence o f t he m aker s i ntentions, p articularly w ith e arly g lazes. B rowns a nd r eds w ere p robably n ot d eliberately d istinguishable f or s ome t ime; w hilst g reen a nd b lue a re d ifficult, s ince t here a re s o m any i ntermediate s tates w ith l ittle c hemical d ifference b etween t hem. O nly w ith d eliberately m anufactured p olychrome m aker s i ntentions b e m ore c ertainly i nferred.

f aiences

m ay

t he

F or a ncient E gypt t he f ollowing c olour d evelopment b roadly a pp lied: g reen, b lue, b rown g laze a ppear i n t he f ourth m illennium B .C.; b lack,

w hite,

y ellow

w as

w ith m ore

a nd p urple a ppear i n t he F irst D ynasty,

a dded b y t he e arly X VIIIth D ynasty

i ntense b lue,

i ndigo a nd v iolet l ater

c .2900 B .C.;

( c.1500-1350

B .C.),

i n t he s ame d ynasty.

I n M esopotamia b lue, g reen a nd b lack m ay b e o bserved b y t he e nd o f t he p rehistoric p eriod; b rown/red a nd y ellow b y t he e nd o f t he t hird m illennium B .C.; M itannian p eriods. s eries

a nd a g reater v ariety o f s hades b y t he K assite a nd H edges ( 1982) h as t abulated t he m etal o xides i n a

o f M esopotamian f aiences

d ating f rom p rehistoric t imes 1 62

t o t he

A chaemenid

p eriod.

B imson ( 1973) p ointed o ut o f

t he

t hat

t he g laze o n a f aience v essel

E arly A kkadian p eriod f rom T ell T aya w as c oloured b y

w ith l ead p resent

i n s mall a mounts,

" however,

l id

c opper

t he l ead c ontent

w as

n ot h igh e nough t o a ffect t he c olour g iven b y t he c opper, w hich i s " turquoise b lue a s i n a n a lkaline g laze a nd n ot g rass-green a s i n a l ead g laze". A t N uzi V andiver ( 1982a) r eported t hat p remelted g round g lass w as u sed a s a r aw m aterial i n g lazes o n b oth c lay a nd o n s intered q uartz b odies, t hough w ork i s s till p roceeding o n t he t echnological R imah

r elations

b etween f aience a nd g lass a t N uzi.

( Pollard a nd M oorey,

1 982;

D ayton,

1 978,

4 36-7)

A t T ell t he y ellow

g laze c ontained l ead a nd a ntimony, w ith t he l ead g reatly i n e xcess a nd f ree o f z inc; l ead a ntimonate c ombined w ith c opper w as u sed a s a g reen p igment. T he b lack p igment i n g lass a nd f aience w as f errugin ous m anganese o f h ighly v ariable i ron c ontent. M anganese h ad b een u sed B .C.

f or b lack f aience a t K ish i n t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium ( Pollard a nd M oorey, 1 982). T he T ell R imah f aiences d iffer f rom

l ike c olours i n t he E gyptian r epertory v ery l ittle. K aczmarczyk a nd H edges ( 1983, 2 88) r ecorded o nly t wo c lear d istinctions: t he a bsence o f z inc i n l ead-containing g lazes a nd t he v ery m uch h igher i ron c oncentrations. H edges ( 1982, 9 8) n oted n ickel i n t he b lack g laze o f W estern A siatic f aience, b ut n ot i n E gyptian. H e a lso r eported f inding a ntimony i n E gyptian f aience o nly w hen a y ellow p igment ( lead a ntimonate) w as i nvolved; i n W estern A sia i t s eemed t o a ppear a s o ften w ith,

a s w ithout,

P eltenburg r ell

o f

C yprus,

a lkali

( 1974) h as p ublished u nquantified a nalyses b y

g lazes i ncluding

P alestine n ot h ave

l ead.

o n L ate B ronze A ge

f aience v essels f rom

o bjects w hich b e b elieved h ad b een m ade

M cKer-

K ition i n

i n

S yro-

a nd p ossibly a lso i n M esopotamia. T he w hite f aience d id a t in g laze; t he g laze w as p roduced b y t he a ddition o f

t o

t he r ecipe f or u ncoloured c ores,

a s e lsewhere a t

t his

t ime.

T he s upposed e xistence o f t in g lazes i n t he a ncient N ear E ast a ppears t o b e a m isconception, b ased o n m isreadings o f e arly a nalyses. T he m ain c olourant f or g reen w as c opper; s ometimes a m ixture o f c opperb lue a nd l ead-antimonate y ellow. Y ellow w as p roduced w ith l eada ntimonate o r i ron o xide. I n b lue t he c olourant w as c ommonly c opper ( or b y t he t he

s econd m illennium ,

a t

l east,

b ronze i .e.

c orrosion p roducts o f a c opper-tin a lloy).

o xidized s cale,

C alcium

a ntimonate

w as u sed a s a n o pacifier, c reating a m att b lue, p ossibly a f eature s pecifically d istinguishing t he " Western A siatic" f rom t he " Egyptian" m anufacturing t raditions ( Peltenburg, 1 974, 1 10; H edges, 1 982, 9 8). ( d) I n

P olychromy: W estern A sia,

a s

i n E gypt,

i t w as o nly a fter g lass w orkers

h ad p ioneered p olychromy, i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C., t hat i t e ntered t he f aience w orker s r epertory ( Peltenburg, 1 971, 9 ). E ven t hen t hey w ere s low t o d evelop t echniques b est s uited t o t heir o wn m aterial. I n W estern A sia d ifferent c oloured g lazes o n f aience r ested s ide b y s ide, d irectly a pplied t o t heir c arriers, w ere a pplied o ne o n a nother, f ollowing c losely t he p rocedures g lass w orkers.

1 63

o r o f

C :

A rchitectural u ses: F or

m uch o f

t he

t ime i n M esopotamia t he b odies o f

g lazed b ricks

w ere m ade o f c lay, b ut i n t he A chaemenid p eriod a t B abylon t here i s e vidence f or b odies o f f aience. A s t his d evelopment i s b est s een i n t he

c ontext o f g lazed b rick p roduction i n g eneral,

h ere o n p .182.

1 64

i t

i s d ealt w ith

N ote o n A nalyses. I solated a nalyses a re c ross-referenced i n t he p receding t ext. S o f ew a nalyses o f f aience f rom s ites i n M esopotamia h ave y et b een p ublished, a nd e ven t hen i n a m anner d ifficult t o c orrelate, t hat i t s eemed w isest j ust t o g ive r eferences h ere a nd n ot c orrelation a t t his s tage:

t o

1 .

B RAK:

l ate p rehistoric

2 .

J ANDAT N ASR : H edges t oric b eads.

3 .

K ISH:

S tone a nd T homas, 1 956, 6 4, s egmented b ead ( body o nly).

H edges

i n M oorey,

a nd v essels, 4 .

U MM E L-JIR:

i n M oorey,

1 978,

6 6,

1 978,

n o.26:

a ttempt

f iche 3 :F05:

f iche 3 :F04-5:

a ny

l ate p rehis-

p ersonal o rnaments

E arly D ynastic I t o A chaemenid.

H edges

i n M oorey,

1 978,

f iche 3 :F05:

E arly D ynastic

I II a nd l ater b eads. 5 .

T ELL A L-RIMAH: D ayton, 1 978, p assim; p ersonal o rnaments a nd v essels,

P ollard a nd M oorey, c .1400-1200 B .C.

1 982:

6 .

T ELL T AYA: B imson, 1 973: b eads a nd v essel l id, A kkadian p eriod; N eo-Assyrian p olychrome s herd, w hether o f b aked c lay o r s intered q uartz i s n ot s tated.

7 .

F AILAKA :

A nalyses u ndertaken a t

L aboratory

t he O xford U niversity

f or A rchaeology a nd t he H istory o f

( Pollard a nd H jlund, f orthcoming). m illennium f rag m ents ( "Kassite").

I V:

t o

5

R esearch A rt,

l ater

1 984 s econd

G LAZED T ERRACOTTA : F ew m ore

a spects o f c onfusions

t he t echnology o f t he a ncient N ear E ast h ave l ed a nd f alse a ssumptions t han t he p roduction o f

g lazed t erracotta o bjects. V aried a nd e nterprising a s w as t he f aience i ndustry o f E gypt i t n ever s eems t o h ave b een e xtended t o g lazing t erracotta b efore t he R oman p eriod, n ot e ven w hen g lass v essel p roduction w as i ntroduced i n t he e arly e ighteenth d ynasty f rom W estern A sia, a t a t ime w hen g lazed p ottery w as a lready c urrent i n S yria a nd M esopotamia. M odern s tudy o f t he s ubject h as b een b edevill ed

b y

r ecurrent

r eports b etween s intered q uartz

f ailures g lazed

( faience).*

t o d istinguish a ccurately

i n

e xcavation

b odies o f t erracotta a nd g lazed b odies o f E ven w hen g lazed t erracotta w as r ecog-

n ized i t w as a ssumed, i n t he a bsence o f u nambiguous a nd u p-to-date a nalyses, t hat t he g lazes i n t his c ase m ust b e l ead g lazes, s ince i t w as t hought t he a lkaline ( soda-lime-silica) g lazes u sed b y t he c ont emporary

*

f aience i ndustry w ould n ot h ave a dhered t o a n

e arthenware

I t s hould b e s aid t hat t his i s b y n o m eans a lways e asy b y e ye u nder f ield c onditions a nd t here w ere c ertain h ybrid c ompositions y et

t o

b e p roperly s eparated b y l aboratory a nalyses. 1 65

b ody. l ead c lay

E ven n ow, ( the b ody)

w hen i t h as b een s hown a nalytically ( see p .187)

t hat

f lux w ith a c ompatible c oefficient o f e xpansion t o f it a w as n ot u sed i n s ignificant q uantities i n M esopotamian

g lazes u ntil a n a dvanced d ate, c onfusions p ersist t hrough p opular m isconceptions o ver w hat c onstitutes a t rue l ead g laze. I t i s i mport ant t o d raw a s harp d istinction b etween a t rue l ead g laze, i n w hich a h igh p ercentage o f l ead ( say o ver 2 0%) i s p resent a s a f lux a nd b onding a gent i n t he g laze c omposition, a nd t hose g lazes i n w hich l ead i s p resent i n r elatively s mall p ercentages a s a c olour i n s pecific c olours. I t i s w ere n ot u sed u ntil s o l ate,

m odifier

p ointless t o s peculate w hy l ead g lazes s ave t o r emark t hat p ristine a lkaline

g lazes a re b rilliantly c oloured b y c ontrast w ith t heir d uller l ead g laze c ounterparts. T hey a lso o ffered a p otentially g reater c olour r ange a nd m ay h ave h ad a m ore g lossy a ppearance. T his

o bservation

c onveniently

r aises a b asic p roblem

i n

t he

s tudy o f a ncient g lazed t erracotta o bjects f rom I raq w here, e ven i n a ntiquity, n atural c onditions w ere n ot c onducive t o t heir s urvival i n a p ristine s tate. O nce g lazed t erracotta w as b uried t he h azards w ere a ll t he g reater i n p revailing s oil c onditions, p articularly i n t he c entre a nd s outh o f t he c ountry. W hen i t i s p ossible t o e xamine t he g lazes f irst h and b y e ye, i t i s o bvious, i n a ll b ut t he r arest c ases, t hat t heir c olours a re w eathered o r h ave b een c hemically m odified. E ven a llowing t hat t he f ollowing s tatement b y t he A merican e xcavators o f K horsabad t urns o n a n e xtreme c ase, i t i s a n i mportant c aution: " When f ound, t he c olour h ad l argely f aded o r d isintegrated, d uring w hich p rocess t he b lue a pparently f irst t urns t o g reen b efore b ecomi ng a p ale, d ead y ellow, w hile t he g reen r everts t o a p rimary b lue" ( Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 4 1). P ublication h as, u nfortunately , a dded a npther p roblem. A uthors, s ince t he m iddle o f t he l ast c entury, w ith c ommendable i ntent, h ave u sed c ontemporary p rocesses o f c olour r eprod uction l eading

t o i llustrate s ome o f t heir f inds. T hey e asily g ive a m isi mpression, s ince c olour-tinted d rawings m ay r estore t he

c olours t oo d ecisively, w hilst c olour p hotography m ay d istort, e spec ially i n r eproduction, t he s urviving c olour t ones. T his h azard i s i ncreased b y t he f act t hat s ome o f t he m ost c ommonly i llustrated g lazed-brick f riezes, t hose i n E ast B erlin f rom B abylon a nd t hose i n t he L ouvre f rom S usa, l aboratories s o t hat

h ave b een r estored i n m odern t imes i n m useum t he e xtent a nd t ones o f t he s urviving a ncient

s urface a re b y n o mea ns a lways e vident. M uch p ottery, p articularly f rom c landestine e xcavations i n w estern I ran, h as h ad i ts g lazed s urface " stabilized" a nd " improved" f or s ale o n t he a ntiquities m arket. I t

i s

n ot a lways

e asy

t o d raw a n a bsolute

s eparation

b odies o f s intered q uartz/sand a nd t erracotta b y e ye.

b etween

F or i nstance,

i n t he s econd q uarter o f t he f irst m illennium B .C., a t S anam a nd E l K urru i n N ubia, a nd o n t he i sland o f S amos, c omposite b odies o f c rushed q uartz a nd t erracotta . a re r eported. O nly s ystematic a nalyses o f

a w ide

a nd w hen,

r ange o f b ody m aterials t his a pplied

t here

f or M esopotamia w ill i ndicate

( for b ricks s ee p .182).

1 66

i f,

A :

P ottery: ( 1) T he

M iddle A ssyrian ( c.1550-1150 B .C.):

e arliest d ated e xamples o f g lazed t erracotta s herds i n

t he

N ear E ast a re t hose r eported t o b e f rom l evel V I a t T ell A tchana ( Woolley, 1 955, 2 99). T he t echnical d evelopments l eading t o t he e mergence o f g lazed p ottery o ccurred a t v ery m uch t he s ame t ime, a nd p robably i n t he s ame r egion, a s t he f irst e xperiments w ith t he m anuf acture o f c ore-formed g lass v essels ( see p .201). L evel V II a t T ell A tchana w as d estroyed w ithin t he M iddle B ronze 1 18 p eriod, s ometime i n t he m iddle o f t he s eventeenth c entury B .C., a lmost c ertainly b y t he a rmies o f t he H ittite k ing H attusilis I . T he s ubsequent l evel V I i s,

i n c eramic

t erms,

s till l argely t ied t o

t he t raditions o f M iddle

B ronze I IB-C, w hereas l evel V i s t ied t o t he L ate B ronze I p eriod, f rom a bout 1 550 B .C. W oolley d escribed t he s herds f rom V I a s " a f ew m iscellaneous f ragments o f g reen- o r b lue-glazed p ottery" ( AT/47/55). A c omplete g lazed j ar w as f ound i n a g rave a ttributed t o l evel V ( Woolley, 1 955, p l.LXXXIIIe); b ut t he t hree a ssociated c ylinder s eals i ndicate a l ater d ate, p robably i n t he f ifteenth c entury B .C. ( Collon,

1 981,

n os.51,

o rdinary a lkaline g lazes

6 3,

6 0).

A nalysis h as

s hown t hese t o b e t he

u sed b y f aience w orkers,

n ow f or t he

f irst

t ime a pplied t o a b aked c lay r ather t han t o a s iliceous c ore ( Peltenb urg, 1 969, 8 0, n .33). T hey a re n ot l ead g lazes a s w as a utomatically a ssumed a t t he T he

t ime o f d iscovery.

f irst r eported e xamples o f g lazed p ottery f rom

M esopotamia

a re t hose f ound i n T emple A a t N uzi d estroyed a bout t he m iddle o f t he f ourteenth c entury B .C.; t his i s a c ontext r enowned f or i ts r ange o f g laze, g lass a nd f aience ( see p .202). S tarr ( 1939, 9 1, 4 03, r e orted a t ripod b owl " covered w ith a n a ll-over c oating f amiliar b lue-green g laze" a nd s everal s mall g lazed p ots o r

p l.92Z) o f t he b ottles

( Starr, 1 939, 9 1, 3 91-2). I n B abylonia r elatively r are o ccurrences o f g lazed p ottery, a nd r are g lazed f igurines, h ave b een r eported f rom K assite l evels a t N ippur ( Gibson, 1 975, 1 6; 1 978, 8 1), a t U r* ( Wooll ey, 1 965, 9 8) a nd o n t he i sland o f F ailaka, i n t he b ay o f K uwait ( Pollard a nd H jlund, 1 983). A t T ell R imah, f rom a r oom i n M iddle A ssyrian t emple, w hence a lso c ame a c ollection o f g lass

t he a nd

f aience, i s r eported " a l arge, p ale g reen s pouted b owl" d escribed a s b eing o f " glazed p ottery" ( Carter, 1 967, 2 86). I n t he n orth g lazed s herds a re a lso r eported a t B illah, B rak a nd T ell a l F akhar ( Mahmoud, 1 970). A t A ssur,

w here

t he M iddle A ssyrian g raves

c ontained

f aience a nd

g lass v essels ( see p .204), g lazed p ottery i s r arely m entioned e xplic itly i n t he p ublished r eports ( cf. H aller, 1 954, 1 15: t ombs 3 7, 5 1; a lso g rave 1 33, w hich i s n ot " Neo-Assyrian"). f ig.164), i n h is g eneral a ccount o f A ssur, m onochrome g lazed p ottery j ars a nd b ottles o f A ssur

a lso

p roduced

a

u nique r elief

H owever, A ndrae ( 1977, i llustrated a r ange o f t he k ind f ound a t N uzi.

p laque

d escribed

a s

" eine

f arbigemallierte T onplatte" ( 6cm.xllcm.x2cm.). I t i s p ierced f or s uspension a t t he t op a nd i s m oulded i n l ow r elief w ith a r obed A siatic r eminiscent o f c ontemporary E gyptian r epresentations o f A siat ics o n p olychrome

*

S ome,

f aience

i f n ot a ll,

t iles

o f t his

i s

( Andrae,

f aience. 1 67

1 913,

1 33,

f ig;231;

1 935,

8 1,

f ig.63;

c f.

A lthough f aience, n ing o f

S tevenson-Smith, t rue

p olychromy

1 965, h ad

4 5,

f igs.69-70).

a ppeared

i n

W estern

A siatic

p erhaps u nder t he i nfluence o f g lass m aking, b y t he b egint he L ate B ronze A ge i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium

B .C., i ts e stablish.

e arliest a ppearance o n g lazed t erracotta i s l ess e asy t o I ts u se i n t hat c raft w as i nhibited b y a t echnical p rob-

l em , s ince i n t he c ase o f b aked c lay t he g lazes d o n ot s o e asily f use w ith t he c arrier a s i n f aience. A t ype o f c loisonné h ad t o b e d evised, w ith t he p olychrome s et b etween g laze o utlines, i n o rder t o p revent t he g laze c olours f rom r unning a nd m ixing. T his t rick h ad c ertainly b een m astered b y t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod, b oth o n b ricks a nd o n p ottery, b ut h ow m uch e arlier i s u ncertain. I n a s imple w ay i t i s e vident i n a rchitectural g lazed t erracottas o f t he e arlier t hirteenth c entury B .C. a t T choga Z anbil i n K huzistan ( Ghirshman, 1 966) w here e xtensive u se o f g lazed b ricks i s e vident f or t he t ime ( cf. P eltenburg, 1 971, 9 ). ( ii)

f irst

N eo-Assyrian t o A chaemenid ( c.850-300 B .C.):

A fter t he t welfth c entury i n A ssyro-Babylonia, a s i n S yroP alestine, t here a ppears t o h ave b een a b reak i n t he t radition o f g lazing p ottery; b ut i t i s p ossible, e specially i n B abylonia, t hat t his i s m ore a pparent t han r eal, s ince e xcavated l evels o f t his p eriod a re s till v ery r are. I n n either r egion i s t here e xplicit e vidence f or t he t ime a t w hich p roduction w as r esumed. I n A ssyria p olychrome g lazed b ricks ( see p . 1 70 ) were in use again by at l east t he e arly n inth c entury B .C. ( see p .172) a nd b y t he e ighth c entury, i f

n ot b efore,

I t w as w ares o f

g lazed p ottery w as o nce a gain c urrent i n

n ow o ften p olychrome i n c ontrast t o t he t he L ate B ronze A ge. P eltenburg ( 1969,

B abylonia.

m onochrome g lazed 8 6) a rgued t hat a

r evival o f g lazed p ottery p roduction i n S yria, w hich h as b een d ated o n t he b asis o f e vidence f rom A l M ina t o t he l ast t hird o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. a t t he l atest, w as u ltimately i nspired f rom B abylonia: " In t he s econd h alf o f t he e ight c entury b oth T iglath-Pileser I II a nd S argon I I d eported B abylonians t o N . S yria, a nd i t s eems o nly n atural t hat g lazed v ases o r e ven a B abylonian g lazer w ere i ncluded"

( Pelten-

b urg, 1 969, 8 6). S timulus d iffusion a long t he E uphrates m ight h ave b een a c ontributing f actor. M uch o f t he g lazed p ottery f rom B abylon ian s ites i s t oo b adly p reserved, o r t oo s paringly p ublished, t o a llow f or t he c lose a nalysis t hat m ight p ermit s ecure i solation o f l ocal s tyles a nd p roduction c entres a long t he l ines s uggested b y S trommenger ( 1967, 2 9). A ny t races o f c ontinuity w ith K assite c raft t raditions h ave y et t o b e e lucidated. I n t he w ere

" Neo-Assyrian" l evels e xcavated a t B abylon g lazed v essels

r elatively r are

( Reuther,

1 926,

2 2-3,

2 8,

p l.75a-d,

7 6:13;

K oldewey, 1 911, 3 5ff., f ig.54; 1 913, f ig.152 ( colour)). T hey w ere g lazed i n l ight b lue, w hite-and y ellow ; p olychrome d ecoration w as o nly o ccasionally r ecognisable, u sually i n w hite, l ight a nd d ark y ellow , l ight b lue a nd d ark b lue/black. B y t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod g lazed v essels w ere c ommoner, a gain i n w hite o r b lue g laze, a nd w ith p olychrome d esigns c onsisting o f r ows o f t riangles, r osettes, s quares a nd z igzags. A t N ippur ( McCown, 1 967, 7 9, p 1.100-1), a gain i n " Neo• Assyrian l evels, t he b ase g lazes w ere l ight b lue, g reyish w hite o r b lue-green i n t hat o rder o f

f requency.

c ombinations o f

l ight a nd d ark y ellow , 1 68

d ark b rown,

" Polychrome

d esigns o ccur i n

o range,

a g ray a nd

a b lue w hich p robably r epresent

t he s ame o riginal c olour,

l ight

g reen

o r y ellowish g reen, a nd w hite". G ibson ( 1980, 2 02) h as r eferred t o " dwellings o f t he e arly f irst m illennium c ontaining e xtraordinary n umbers

o f g lazed v essels" a t N ippur.

A

r emarkable g roup o f g lazed v essels w as

e xcavations a t c hronologically,

f ound i n

t he

p ioneer

N ippur. I t i s h ard t o p lace t hem w ith c onfidence t hough t hey m ay b e o f t he p ost-Kassite p eriod. T hey

w ere

" in

1 897, t op,

I I, p late f acing p .186). A b ox o n f our f eet, w ith p yramidal i s m ade o f a s piked o r k nobbly w are; t wo s maller b oxes, w ith

l ids,

a l arge u rn o n H ill I ,

a nd

t hree

j ars,

l lm.

b elow t he s urface"

o ne w ith a s topper,

a re m ore

c onventional.

" All t hickly g lazed w ith b lue a nd y ellow i n s tripes". v essels w ere o ver a h undred s mall f aience o bjects, b ored s ion:

" some

r ound,

s ome

o val,

s ome

( Peters,

W ith t he f or s uspen-

c rescent-shaped,

a nd

a ll

c oloured, s ome b lack a nd w hite, a nd s ome b lue a nd y ellow". A s ingle p ublished v essel o f " knobbly w are" f rom t he 1 976 e xcavations a t N ippur a ppears t o b e o f t he s ame t ype a s t his g roup. T he e xcavator d escribed i t a s a " glazed p ottery i ncense b urner". I t w as i n a b urial ( no-61) c ut d own i nto l evel I , d ated c .900 ± 2 00 B .C. ( Gibson, 1 977,

2 7, T he

f ig.). r evived u se o f g lazed w ares a t U r i s n ot

s ecurely d ated,

a s

i n h is " Neo-Babylonian c ategory, W oolley a lmost c ertainly i ncluded e xamples o f s eventh c entury o r e arlier d ate. H e o ffered a d etailed c omparison b etween w ares o f

t he N eo-Babylonian a nd A chaemenid p eriods

( Woolley, 1 962, 9 0; c f. H all, 1 930, 1 84-5, f igs. 1 47-8); b ut t his a lso h as t o b e u sed w ith c aution i n v iew o f t he d ifficulties o f c onfidently a ttributing v essel t ypes t o o ne o r o ther o f t hese priods: " Already b y t he t ime o f N ebuchadnezzar a bout o ne g rave i n e very t hree c an b oast a g lazed p ottery v essel; i n t he P ersian g raves t he p roportion i s h igher, b ut m ore s ymptomatic i s t he f act t hat o f a h undred t ypes w hich a re a lmost i f n ot q uite e xclusively P ersian 4 3 a re r epresented b y g lazed e xamples w e c an s ay t hat h alf t he c haracteristically P ersian t ypes a re g lazed w hereas o f t he 5 9 t ypes l isted a s p eculiar t o t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod o nly 1 2 s how e xamples o f g lazed w are. T he g lazed f orms a re f or t he m ost p art b road r immed s hallow b owls o r s quat j ars ; p ilgrim b ottles".

p lates ; s lender-necked b ottles ; s mall o r s uch e xotic f orms a s t he h andled f lasks a nd I n o ne c ase b owl s herds w ere d ecorated w ith a

p olychrome d esign o f a nimals a nd a t ree o n a w hite g round ( Woolley, 1 962, p l.35:U.6654). H all ( 1930, 1 84-5, f ig-148) r eported h alf a n o pen b owl d ecorated w ith " stripes o f b lue a nd y ellow o utside a nd a d esign o f b lue a nd y ellow s pots w ithin". N eo-Assyrian g lazed p ottery o f t he l ater e ight a nd s eventh c enturies B .C. i s b est k nown t hrough t he e xamples f ound a t A ssur, t o w hich A ndrae ( 1925) d evoted a m onograph i llustrated i n f ull c olour. T he p redominant f orms w ere b uckets, j ars a nd c losed b owls, o f v arious s izes, w ith p olychrome g lazes o n t he e xterior. S ome o f t he b uckets a nd j ars w ere o f c onsiderable s ize; t he s tandard j ars a re g enerally 8 t o 9 c m.

h igh a t

f ive

t hat s ize.

t imes

s ively f or

c ult

t he m ost,

p urposes.

t ion b urial ( Andrae, 1 925, f avourite g rave f urniture i s

w ith l arger e xamples

r eaching f our

T he b uckets m ay w ell h ave b een O ne o f -

t he l arger

u sed

o r

e xclu-

j ars c ontained a c rema-

p l.25A ; H aller, 1 954, 5 2-3, f ig.63A). " A a t a ny r ate i n l ate A ssyrian t imes, t hat

t he e ighth a nd s eventh c enturies B .C. 1 69

-

w ere t he

l ittle

b ottles

m anufactured s imple"

i n

( Andrae,

t he m ass, 1 925,

a t

3 4).

f irst r ichly d ecorated,

l ater

D rinking c ups, o r o pen b owls,

q uite

a nd d ishes

d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een g lazed i n t his w ay, s o t he g lazed j ars, p resumably i n t hemselves a l uxury i ndustry, m ay h ave b een c ontainers f or

v aluable

u nguents.

O nly a f ew s herds h ad

s urvived

w ith

t he

c olours p reserved t o s omething l ike t heir o riginal i ntensity. O n a r ich l ight b lue, o r g reen, b ase g laze d esigns w ere r endered i n w arm g olden y ellow, i vory a nd d ark b lue. " On t he s mall o bjects w oven p atterns a re u sed, s uch a s t he c hevron b and, a nd r ows o f c ircles, r ings, t here

s quares, t riangles, o r w reaths o f l eaves; i n t he b ig o nes a re b esides f riezes o f b attlements, r osettes a nd b ases o f

p illars, t aken o ver f rom a rchitecture" ( Andrae, 1 925, 3 4-5). S ome o f t he m ore e laborate d esigns e mployed t raditional m otifs f rom t he r eligious r epertory: a nimals f lanking " trees-of-life" w ith a w inged d isk h overing a bove; s cenes o f w orship w ith a ltars, s ymbols a nd s upplicants. S imilar g lazed p ottery h as b een f ound o n o ther s ites i n A ssyria, b ut p ublications a re f ew . I t i s s aid t o h ave b een " not u ncommon" a t N imrud ( Oates, 1 959, 1 38). M allowan ( 1966, 1 20, f ig.61, 1 87) r efers t o o ne l arge e xample d ecorated w ith a n o strich h unt, f rom t he N orthW est P alace a t N imrud a nd t o a nother, n ot d escribed, i n t he m ain r eception r oom o f a p rivate h ouse. T hat s uch v essels w ere t reasured l ong a fter t hey h ad p assed f rom p roduction i s i llustrated b y a b lue, w hite a nd y ellow g lazed " Neo-Assyrian ' j ar i n a g rave o f t he H ellenis tic p eriod a t N imrud ( Oates a nd O ates, 1 958, 1 30, 1 52, p l.XXVIII: 1 5). C omparable v essels w ere f ound a t K horsabad ( Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, s ite

p l.63:231, " C

2 44) a nd a n i solated e xample h as b een p ublished

a t T ell R imah

( Carter,

1 967,

f rom

p 1.9).

W estwards i nto S yria t his N eo-Assyrian i ndustry d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave h ad a ny m arked i mpact. P eltenburg, a s h as b een s een ( p.168), a rgued t hat a d istinctive g roup o f g lazed f lasks, w ith a w ide d istrib ution

i n

t he E ast M editerranean,

h ad c ome i nitially

f rom

S yrian

w orkshops. I f i nfluenced f rom t he e ast, i t w as b y B abylonian n ot A ssyrian c raft t raditions. T hey h ave d esign a rrangements, s hapes a nd c ertain t echnical t raits d istinct f rom t hose e vident a t A ssur. A reas o n t he s urface w ere r eserved i n t he b ase w hite g laze f or l ater f ill ing-in f ound

w ith g reen a nd b rown g lazes. i n B abylonia n ot a t A ssur,

f or t he p urpose

( Peltenburg,

1 969,

T his

" planning

t echnique"

w here o utline t echniques a re 8 3-4,

i s u sed

f ig.2j).

T he g lazed p ottery t raditions o f w estern I ran w ere a gain d ist inct, w ith d iffering m ethods o f g laze a pplication a nd c ontrasting c olour s chemes, t hough s ome o f t he s hapes a nd d esigns a ppear a lso o n N eo-Assyrian s ites i n I raq ( cf. H ennessy, 1 979, p ls.111-2 ( colour); F ukai, 1 981, p ls.8-9, 1 0-15 ( probably g lazed t erracotta, n ot f aie nce); G hirshman, 1 964, p 1.398; W ilkinson, 1 967, f ig.14). S uch v essels a ppear a t S usa i n t he e ighth t o s eventh c enturies B .C. ( Amiet,

1 966,

p l.378).

1 70

B :

A rchitectural U ses: ( i)

B ricks: ( a)

Among

M iddle a nd N eo-Assyrian(c.1550-650 B .C.):

t he w ide r ange o f g lazed o bjects

f rom s tratum I I a t

N uzi

t here a re o nly t wo p ublished e xamples o f g lazed b ricks: " from t he s carcity o f t his c lass o f o bject, i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hese t wo w ere u sed s ingly f or s ome s pecial p urpose, a nd n ot a s b uilding m aterial o r a rchitectural d ecoration"

( Starr,

1 939,

4 12,

p l.116A).

T hey w ere s maller t han t he s tandard b ricks a nd w hite g lazed. A part f rom t his e xceptional c ase, n o g lazed b ricks o r o rthostats h ave y et b een p ublished c ertainly M esopotamia; b ut i t i s ( c.1305-1274 g lazed b ricks

e arlier t han t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod i n p robably t o t he r eign o f A dad-Nirari I

B .C.) t hat t he e arliest t extual r eference b elongs ( Reade, 1 979a, 1 9).

t o

A ssyrian

T iglath-Pileser I ( c.1114-1076 B .C.) h as b een c redited w ith

t he

g lazed b rick f rieze o n t he l ower f acade o f t he A ssur T emple a t A ssur, d epicting b attles a nd p rocessions ( Haller a nd A ndrae, 1 955, 5 6). B ut W eidner ( 1926) a rgued, o n e pigraphical g rounds, t hat t his d ecoration s hould b e a ttributed t o S argon I I ( c.721-705 B .C.); F ridman ( 1969) h as p resented c ogent r easons f or i dentifying t he m onarch a s T iglathP ileser I II ( 744-27 B .C.); w hatever t he c ase i t i s N eo-, n ot M iddle, A ssyrian w ork. T iglath-Pileser I , a t N ineveh, s peaks o f: " bricks

g lazed

( the c olour o f) o bsidian,

p appardilu-stone [ yellow], [ white]. I i nstalled o n i ts d ian-coloured g lazed b rick, s on,

1 976,

3 3;

i n d escribing t he p alace h e b uilt

( and) t owers

l apis

l azuli,

p arutu-alabaster r eplicas, I n o bsi-

o f d ate p alms

m odified a fter O ppenheim,

"

1 970,

( Gray1 7).

T his i ndicates, w hatever t he t rue d ate o f t he A ssur f rieze, t he e nd o f t he M iddle A ssyrian P eriod a rchitectural d etails,

t hat b y i f n ot

" panoramas", w ere a lready e xecuted i n g lazed b rick. A lthough m oulded b rick f riezes w ere a f eature o f K assite a rchitecture, t he k nown examples

s how n o e vidence o f h aving b een g lazed.

T hroughout t he N eo-

A ssyrian p eriod i t s eems l ikely t hat " panoramas" t o b e f ound m ost c ommonly i n p alaces.

i n g lazed b rick w ere

R eade

( 1979a,

1 9ff.) h as c oncisely s ummarized t he m ain c harac-

t eristics o f N eo-Assyrian g lazed b rickwork.

H e

i solates

t hree

m ain

c ategories o f g lazed b ricks o r t iles: b ricks g lazed o n t he s quare s ide l ike a m odern t ile; b ricks g lazed o n o ne e dge, a nd s ometimes a lso o n p art o f a n a djoining e dge o r s ide; b ricks w ith o ne e dge m oulded a nd t hen g lazed. T he h istory o f t his c raft i s r ather u nevenl y r epresented i n t he s urviving m aterial e vidence, w ith a h eavy c oncentration o n t he n inth a nd l ater e ighth c enturies B .C. T he m ore e xtended d esigns, n ot v ery c ommon, a re u sually o n " tiles", w hilst e dge-glazed b ricks w ere u sed t o f rame a rchitectural u nits. A t A ssur s ome o f t he g lazed b ricks w ere s o l arge t hat A ndrae d escribed t hem a s " brick o rthostats" ( Andrae, 1 925, p l.7-10). S ome o lder r eferences t o " painted b ricks" a re t o g lazed o nes; i ng

t he o uter s urface d ecays

t he e ffect o f m att p aint.

1 71

l eav-

A R eade,

f ragmentary o rthostat ( 66.5x46.5cm.) ( Andrae, 1 925, p 1.7; 1 983, p 1.18) f ound i n t he T emple o f A nu a nd A dad, n ear t he

e ast c orner o f t he A dad Z iggurat a t A ssur, d ated b y i ts i nscription t o T ukulti-Ninurta I I ( c.890-884 B .C.) s hows a c hariot s cene, w ith l ittle b ut p arts o f t ween c hevron b ands. b lue g round a nother b ow,

t he h orse a nd c harioteer p reserved, f ramed b eT he s cene i s r endered i n d ark l ine o n a l ight

i n a c ombination o f y ellow,

i nscribed

f ragment

s et w ithin a d isk, I n

t he

N imrud,

t ext

( Andrae,

w hite a nd b lack.

p 1.8) a g od,

O n

w ith d rawn

h overs o ver a nother c harioteer.

c arved o n t he

A ssurnasirpal

b lue,

1 925,

s o-called

I I ( c.883-59 B .C.)

" Banquet

d escribed,

S tela", f or

t he

f rom f irst

t ime, w hat m ay h ave b een a m ore e xtensive u se o f g lazed b rick f riezes, o n t he e xterior c ourtyard w alls o f t he N orth-West P alace: " I d epicted i n g reenish g laze ( ? ) o n t heir w alls m y h eroic p raises, i n t hat I h ad g one r ight a cross h ighl ands, l ands.

l ands, ( and) s eas, ( and) t he c onquest o f a ll I g lazed b ricks w ith l apis l azuli ( and) l aid

( them) a bove t heir d oorways" I t i s u nfortunate

t hat v estiges

o f

( Grayson,

1 976,

1 72ff.).

t hese d ecorations

f ound b y

L ayard

a re n ow l argely l ost, s ince i t m ay b e t hat t he p hrase h ere t ranslated a s " greenish g laze" d escribes n arrative s cenes p ainted r ather t han r endered i n g lazed b rick. T he s outh s ide o f t he g reat o uter c ourty ard o f t his p alace w as a partments: " Between

o ccupied b y t he t riple e ntrances

t he b ulls a nd

f orming t he e ntrances

l ions

( i.e.

o f c arved

i n d ifferent p arts o f

t o

t he s tate

s tone),

t he p alace,

w ere i nvariably f ound a l arge c ollection o f b aked b ricks, e laborately p ainted * w ith f igures o f a nimals, a nd f lowers, a nd w ith c uneiform c haracters. I t i s r emarkable, t hat o n t he b ack o f t hese b ricks, o r o n o ne o f

t he s ides n ot

c oloured,

a re r ude d esigns,

i n b lack

p aint o r i nk , o f m en a nd a nimals, a nd m arks h aving t he a ppearance o f n umbers. T hey a ppear t o h ave b een b uilt i nto a w all a bove t he s culptures" ( Layard, 1 849, I I, 1 3-14; 1 853a, p 1.84; c f. D ayton, 1 978, 3 74, f ig.337). I n

e xcavating

t he T emple o f

• 1 '

( Ishtar) S arrat-niphi

a t

N imrud,

b uilt b y A ssurnasirpal I I, L ayard f ound t hat t he e xterior w alls h ad b een a dorned w ith g lazed b ricks a s w ere t he b attlemented " altars" o n e ither s ide o f t he e ntrance ( Layard, 1 853, 3 59; c f. R eade, 1 983, w atercolour o n c ontents p age); s uch w as a lso t he c ase w ith t he N inurta T emple

( Reade,

b y R assam i n 1 878

1 983,

( Rassam,

f ig.3) a nd t he K idmuru T emple,

1 897,

e xcavated

2 25).

F ragmentary g lazed b rick f riezes, f rom t he r oyal N ineveh ( Campbell T hompson a nd H utchinson, 1 931, 8 0-1,

p alace a t p l.XXVIII-

X XXII), i ncluded w ithin f raming b ands o f g uilloches a nd c hevrons, m ilitary s cenes a nd s cenes o f w orship, c omparable t o t hose o n t he b etter k nown c arved s tone o rthostats o f A ssurnasirpal I 1 's r eign, t hough t he b ricks m ight b e e arly i n t he r eign o f S halmaneser I II.

• *

L ayard s

s tandard w ord f or

" glazed". 1 72

" The

c olours m ost c ommonly u sed w ere w hite,

y ellow,

m ore r arely b rown, a nd v ery r arely r ed" ( ibid., g lazed b ricks w ere a lso p ublished f rom " above o r T emple s ite a t N ineveh,

a gain u sing b lue,

b rown, t he l atter u sually f or o utlines c hinson, 1 929, p l.LVII.350-8).

g reen,

b lack ,

8 3). n ear"

S cattered t he N abu

y ellow,

w hite a nd

( Campbell T hompson a nd

T he m ost g randiose a rchitectural m onument o f m aneser I II ( c.858-824 B .C.) w as

g reen,

t he ekal m a'arti

H ut-

t he r eign o f

S hal-

( Fort S halmaneser),

w hich o ccupied t he s outh-east c orner o f t he c ity e nclosure a t N imrud. O ates ( 1962, 9 , p 1.11-Ill), i n j ustifying h is r estoration o f t he W est G ate,

n oted t hat: " The

p roportions

b attlements b rick w alls.

i s

s ome

i dea o f

t he o verall s ize o f r osettes

i n

t he

g lazed

w hich w ere c ommonly u sed t o d ecorate t he u pper p arts o f t he N o g lazed b ricks h ave b een f ound a mong t he r uins o f t he o uter

w all o f F ort S halmaneser, t he

a nd

g iven b y t he r ows o f i mpressed

b ut

t hey w ere e mployed o n t he n orth f ace o f

S outh-east c orner t ower,

a nd f rom c omponents r ecovered t here w e

k now t hat

t he h eight o f e ach r osette w as

t hree c ourses".

A s emi-elliptical p anel, o ver f our m etres h igh, s urmounted t he c ourtyard d oorway o f r oom T 3 i n F ort S halmaneser, a nd o n t he o uter w all o f t he t hrone r oom ( Ti) t here h ad b een a g lazed b rick f rieze o f r osettes, f ound s cattered i n t he c ourtyard. R eade ( 1963; 1 978, p l.24 ( colour)) r estored a nd p ublished t he p anel,

c f. D ayton, w hich b ears

a n i nscription o f S halmaneser I II. I n t he l ower c entre p anel t wo k ings s tand f acing o ne a nother b elow a w inged d isk c ontaining " Ass ur', t hen c omes t he i nscription, a nd a bove i t r ampant b ulls, h eads t urned b ack , f lanking a t ree. T he w hole d esign i s f ramed f irst b y r osettes a nd g uilloches, t hen b y a t riple b order: f rom i nside t o o ut, o f a lternating p omegranates a nd b uds; o f k neeling g oats a nd p almettes.

T he

g laze c olours

u sed w ere g reen,

b lack o n a n e ntirely ( originally u ltramarine) I ndividual p anels a re l ess c ommonly

y ellow,

w hite

a nd

b lue b ackground.

r eported.

O ne,

m easuring

1 2 ' x9", f rom L ayard s e xcavations a t N imrud, o f t he n inth c entury B .C., s hows a k ing h olding a l ibation b owl, f ollowed b y a ttendants ( Layard, 1 853, 1 67-8; P errot a nd C hiplez, 1 884, 3 07-8, p 1.14; A ndrae, 1 925, 2 9; B M G uide, 1 922, 1 70, p l.XLIII; R eade, 1 983, f ig.41 ( colour)). I n a d welling h ouse ( no.69) a t A ssur, o n t he o uter l ine o f t he N eo-Assyrian c ity w all, a n " orthostat" ( 56x27.5cm.) w as s et i nto t he l ower p art o f a n i nside w all. T his m ay b e a s econdary u se ( Preusser, 1 954, 5 4-5, p l.25b; A ndrae, 1 925, pl.10 ( colour)) f or a n o bject m ade i n t he n inth c entury; b ut i ts d ating I s n ot c ertain. A d eity, o r h is s tatue, s et o n a p odium, i s w orshipped b y a m an s tandi ng b efore i t. I n t he f ield a bove h is h ead i s a l ocust; i n a l ine a t t he t op: a s un d isk; a w inged d isk ; a c rescent; a nd a r osette. I f t he a ttribution t o T iglath-Pileser I II ( c. 7 44-727 B .C.) i s c orrect ( Fridman, 1 969), s ome i dea o f t he m ore e laborate f igured d esigns o n g lazed b ricks o f t he m iddle o r l ater e ighth c entury

B .C.,

m ore c losely m atching t he s culptured f riezes, m ay b e g ained f rom t hose o n t he p odium i n f ront o f t he t emple o f A ssur i n t he c ity o f t hat n ame. T hey s howed a k ing o n c ampaign a nd a f ragmentary p art o f a k ing e nthroned

( see p .171). 1 73

T he

b est k nown N eo-Assyrian g lazed b rick

f riezes,

s ince

t hey

w ere e xcavated i n t he n ineteenth c entury a nd c oherently p ublished a t a n e arly d ate, a re t hose a t K horsabad s et u p b y S argon I I ( c.721-05 B .C.). A s L ayard ( 1849, I I, 1 3) r ecognized A ssyrian b uilders s eem t o h ave r eserved g lazed b rick d ecoration p articularly f or p anels o r f riezes

s et

a bove

t he

t rue v oussoirs o f

t he a rches

o f

g ates

a nd

d oorways ( cf.Pillet, 1 962, p l.VII; R eade, 1 983, f ig.7). P lace ( 18677 0, I , 2 34; I II, p 1.9-17; c f.Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 1 5) d iscovered a lmost i ntact t he g lazed b rick d ecoration o f t own g ate 3 a t K horsab ad. W ithin a b order o f s mall r osettes, t ypical N eo-Assyrian w inged g enii w ith p ails a nd c ones, a lternating w ith l arge r osettes, p rovided a n a potropaic f rieze. T he f igures a re i n y ellow ; t he r osettes i n w hite o n a b lue g round.

M ore s pectacular w ere

t he t ableaux f lanking

e ntrances

t he p alace d esignated

" Harem"

i n t hat p art o f

b y P lace,

b ut

s hown b y t he s ubsequent A merican e xcavators t o b e a t emple c omplex ( Loud, 1 936, 8 0ff.). I n t hese p alace s hrines t he g lazed b rick f riezes f lanked t he d oorways l eading f rom t he c ourtyard i nto t he t emple i tself, w here t hey t ook t he p lace o f t he s culptured w inged b ulls a nd g enii f lanking p alace p ortals. T hey r ose a bout 1 .50m. i n h eight, f rom g round l evel, a nd e xtended t he w idth o f t he b uttress w ith a p rojection o f 1 .00m. O n f igs.99,

f rom t he b uttress

f ace.

t he S in a nd S hamash T emples a t K horsabad ( Loud, 1 936, 1 04-6, 1 10, 1 15) s ingle f igures o f a l ion, a n e agle, a b ull,

a f ig-tree, a nd a s eeder-plough a re s et i n s equence o n t he f ace, w ith t he k ing a nd h is c hief m inister ( ? ) a t e ither e nd. N ingal

T emple

s pace

f orced

t he o mission o f t he e agle a nd

f ront I n t he

t he

b ull.

T he f igures w ere o utlined i n b lack o n a v ivid u ltramarine b lue g round; t hey w ere o f y ellow w ith b lack h air a nd b eards. T he l eaves o f t he f ig t ree w ere g reen; t he b order r osettes w hite-petalled w ith y llow c entres a nd s tripes. I n t he N abu T ample ( Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 5 6ff.) a p air o f f riezes f lank t he d oorway t hrough w hich a ccess w as

g ained t o

a dorn

t he

t he c entral c ourt,

f acade o f

t he p alace.

T he

f riezes h ere w ere

i n w hat i s r ecognizable, p 1. 1 7D, 4 4).

b ad,

w hilst i n t he c entral

t he i nner t emple e xactly a s

c ourt

t hey

r ound c ourt X XVII i n

l ess w ell p reserved;

b ut d id n ot,

s ubstantially d iffer f rom t he o thers

( ibid.,

T his b y n o m eans e xhausts t he r ole o f g lazed b ricks a t K horsao r p resumably e lsewhere i n t he l ater e ighth c entury B .C., s ince

t hey a re r egularly f ound, r ooms,

w here

i f n ot a lways

i n q uantity,

i n t he d ebris o f

t hey h ad s erved i n s ome m inor w ay t o d ecorate

t he i nte-

r ior, p erhaps a s n arrow r ows, c ommonly o f r osettes, b etween w all t op a nd c eiling. A m ore i ndividual u se i s t heir p resence, a s a s ingle b and o f r osettes, i n a lternate h orizontal j oints o f t he s tone f acing o f t he a rched b ridge c onnecting t he p alace a nd t he N abu T emple ( Loud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 5 6, p 1.12). T heir o nly o ccurrence a s p art o f a f ree-standing s tructure w as i n t he c entral c ourt o f t he N abu T emple, w here t hey f ormed p art o f a n a ltar ( ibid.,42, p l.22C-F). T his s tood 1 .50m. s quare, b ut b oth i ts , o riginal h eight a nd i ts s urface d esigns w ere

l ost. O utside A ssyria,

a ltar

o f c omparable

a t T ell H alaf t ype,

i n S yria,

w hat m ay h ave b een a n

w ith g lazed d esigns o n i ts

s ides,

s tood

b efore t he n inth c entury p alace p ortal. I t w as i n m uch b etter c ondit ion a nd i ts g eometric d esigns w ere s till e vident ( Naumann, 1 950, 7 1ff., c olour p lates I -Ill). I n t his c ase t he d esign c onsisted o f 1 74

r egisters

o f

r osettes

i n g reen a nd y ellow,

a s cale p attern,

i n y ellow

a nd w hite, a nd a g uilloche i n g reen, y ellow a nd w hite. I n s ome c ases h ere t he b ricks h ad b een c ut t o s hape t o m ake u p t he p attern r ather t han i t b eing p ainted o n t he s urface o f r ectangular b ricks. Amiet

( 1966,

p l.L)

h as

r econstructed

a

s imilarly

d ecorated

p odium o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. i n a t emple a t S usa. I t i s p ossible t hat i t i s f rom t his s ame b uilding, o r a r elated s tructure, t hat t wo p ieces o f d ecorated g lazed t erracotta, n ow i n t he B ritish M useum, o riginally c ame. T hey w ere p ublished b y S mith ( 1928, p l .XIV i , X XII d : B M 9 196, 1 17981) a s f rom t he e xcavations b y L oftus a t W arka; b ut t he p rotome, e xcavations a t S usa. I n p alace

h is

a t l east,

i nscriptions

i s m uch m ore l ikely t o b e f rom h is

S ennacherib

( c.704-681 B .C.)

a s e mbellished w ith g lazed b ricks

b lue ( Luckenbill, 1 924, f irst t extual r eference

r efers

t o

h is

t he c olour o f o bsidian

a nd

1 07 v i 4 2); h e a lso p rovides w hat m ay b e t he t o " glazed" b ricks f or a t emple ( ibid., 1 48).

T here i s n o a rchaeological m aterial c ertainly r elevant t o t hese r eferences. T o t he r eign o f h is s uccessor E sarhaddon ( c.680-669 B .C.) m ay b e a ttributed a s eries o f d ecorated g lazed b ricks ( "tiles") f ound b y L ayard, r ud,

r e-used

i n w hat

i s n ow k nown a s

i n a p avement w hose e xact

" Fort S halmaneser" a t

N im-

l ocation i s u nknown ( Layard,

1 853, 1 65-6; 1 853b, P l. 5 3-4). T hey s how A ssyrian s oldiers i n s eventh c entury u niforms c ampaigning i n E gypt ( Postgate a nd R eade, 1 976-80, 3 17). T he t echnique i s d istinctive; L ayard d escribed t hem a s

f ollows:

" the c olours h ave f aded

T he o utlines a re w hite,

a nd

t he g round a p ale b lue a nd o live g reen. T he o nly o ther c olour u sed i s a d ull y ellow" ( Layard, 1 853, 1 66). A lthough A shurbanipal ( c.6656 27 B .C.) b oasts o f b uilding a n e ntire N ew Y ear s C hapel o f b lue a nd r ed g lazed b ricks, a ppropriate m aterial e vidence f or h is r eign h as y et

t o b e

i dentified.

B efore p assing t o t he g lazed b rickwork o f p eriod i t i s i mportant t o n otice t hat m oulded

t he N eo-Babylonian o r s haped g lazed-

b ricks w ere r elatively r are i n A ssyria. T hey h ave b een r eported, a nd t hen u nusually, a t N ineveh ( Rassam, 1 897, 2 22; C ampbell T hompson a nd H utchinson, 1 931, p 1.26:2, 4 ) a nd a t N imrud ( Postgate, 1 973, 1 93), f rom a p anel a bove a n A shurnasirpal d oor. ( b)

N eo-Babylonian t o S eleucid ( c.600-300 B .C.):

B oth t he O ld T estament a nd c lassical a uthors p reserved m emories o f t he g lazed b rick d ecoration o f B abylon. E zekiel ( 23:14) r ecounts h ow O holibah " saw m ale f igures c arved o n t he w all, s culptured f orms o f C haldaeans, p icked o ut i n v ermilion.... " Whilst D iodorus S iculus, w riting i n t he f irst c entury B .C., i ncluded a d escription o f t wo m ajor p alaces, o ne o n e ither s ide o f t he E uphrates, g iven b y C tesias ( early f ourth c entury B .C.): A nd w ithin t his s econd,

c ircular

b ricks o f w hich,

i n

( the o üter p alace w all)

s he

f orm ( Koldewey p referred

b efore

t hey w ere b aked,

( Semiramis) " annular"),

b uilt a i n

t he

w ild a nimals o f e very k ind

h ad b een e ngraved, a nd b y t he i ngenious u se o f c olours t hese f igures r eproduced t he a ctual a ppearance o f t he a nimals t hemselves ( 11.8.3-6).

T hen:

1 75

" On

b oth

t he

t owers a nd

t he w alls

t here w ere a gain a nimals

o f

e very k ind, i ngeniously e xecuted b y t he u se o f c olours a s w ell a s b y t he r ealistic i mitation o f s everal t ypes; a nd t he w hole h ad b een m ade t o r epresent a h unt, c omplete i n e very d etail, o f a ll s orts o f w ild a nimals, a nd t heir s ize w as m ore t han f our c ubits. A mong t he a nimals, m oreover S emiramis h ad a lso b een p ortrayed, o n h orseback a nd i n t he a ct o f h urling a j avelin a t a l eopard, a nd n earby h er h usband N inus, i n t he a ct o f t hrusting h is s pear i nto a l ion a t c lose q uarters" F rom

( 11.8.6-9). t he e ighteenth c entury t ravellers c ommented o n t he

p reva-

l ence o f g lazed b ricks a t B abylon a nd o ther s ites i n t he s outh. B ut i t w as n ot u ntil t he G erman e xcavations a t B abylon t hat t he a ccount g iven b y D iodorus w as a ctually i llustrated: " The d iscovery o f t hese ( glazed) b ricks f ormed o ne o f t he m otives f or c hoosing B abylon a s a s ite f or e xcavation. A s e arly a s J une 1 887 I c ame a cross b rightly c oloured f ragments...." 1 31)

( Koldewey,

1 914,

2 6).

K oldewey ( 1914,

l ater c ommented o n t he d escription l eft b y C tesias

1 29-

i n t he l ight

o f h is o wn d iscoveries. T he f irst p assage a ppeared t o d escribe t he N eo-Babylonian d ecorations o f t he " Processional W ay" a nd t he " Ishtar G ate" ( see b elow), w hilst t he l atter r ecalled t he f ragmentary g lazed b ricks o f t he " Persian B uilding", f or o nly t here w ere h uman f igures d iscovered ( cf. H aerinck, 1 973). N ebuchadnezzar I I ( c.604-562 B .C.) r efers

i n

h is

i nscriptions

E sagila a t B abylon, i t ( Langdon, 1 912, t ing t he a pproach ( Langdon,

1 912,

t o t he b lue b ricks o f

t he

t emple

t ower

e specially t hose o f t he s anctuary w hich c rowned 1 14 i 4 3). T he " silver" c oloured b ricks d ecorat o a nother c hapel w ere p robably a lso g lazed

1 28 i ii 5 6;

c f.

1 58 v i 3 6).

A t B abylon t wo c omplete N eo-Babylonian s chemes o f d ecoration i n g lazed b rick m ay b e r econstructed. I n t he g reat r oyal p alace, t he " Southern C itadel",

t he

t hrone-room l ay o n t he s outh s ide o f

c ourtyard a pproached t hrough t hree d oorways, f lanked b y o ne t oward e ach e nd o f t he f acade.

t he m ain

o ne i n t he c entre A lthough d etails i n

t he r estoration o f t his d ecoration a re d ebatable ( Heinrich a nd S eidl, 1 968, f oldout p late), i ts g eneral s cheme i s a greed. T he e ntire w all w as d ecorated w ith p anels o f s lender c olumns w ith v olute c apitals, c onnected b y a s eries o f p almettes, r endered i n y ellow, w hite, l ight b lue a nd g reen, o n a d ark b lue b ackground. A bove w as a f rieze o f w hite d ouble p almettes, b ordered b elow b y a b and o f s quares, a lternat ely y ellow , b ackground,

b lack a nd w hite. W hite b orders, a gainst t he d ark b lue h eightened t he e ffect. B elow w as a p rocession o f l ions

p assant o n t he c entral a rchway ( Koldewey, 1 914, 1 04ff; 1 931-2, 8 4ff., p 1.37-8, c olour; M eyer, 1 965, p l.174 i n c olour = M oortgat, 1 969, p 1.292, n ot i n c olour). B etter k nown, p rimarily f rom t he m odern r econstruction i n t he V orderasiatischen M useum i n E ast B erlin, i s t he s o-called " Processional W ay" a nd t he " Ishtar G ate t hrough w hich i t p assed. A long t he l ower w alls o f t he " Way" w ere l ions p assant f ramed a bove a nd b elow b y r osettes; b lue g lazed b rick b attlements r an a long t he t op. O n t he w alls o f t he " Gate", f rom t he t op t o d eep i n t he f oundations, w here t hey w ere n ot g lazed, w ere s eparate r ows o f b ulls a nd " snake-dragons". T hey w ere w idely s paced, w ithin p atterned b ord ers, o n b attlemented f acades e ntirely s urfaced w ith d eep b lue g lazed b rick ( Koldewey, 1 914, 3 8ff.; 1 918; M eyer, 1 965, p l.168-71, i n c olour; M oortgat, 1 969, p l.289-91, n ot i n c olour). T he

s cattered e vidence

f or g lazed b ricks, 1 76

u sually

m onochrome,

f rom

o ther s ites i n B abylonia o ffers n o c oherent d esigns

r ecovered

a t

B abylon,

o nly i ndication o f

l ike

t hose

t he u se o f g lazed

b ricks

q uite c ommonly i n r eligious, i f n ot a lso i n s ecular, s tructures. U r W oolley r eported t hat " in t he r ubbish l ying a gainst t he s ides

A t o f

t he Z iggurat t here w ere f ound q uantities o f b ricks o f N abonidus o f w hich o ne s ide, o r o ne s ide a nd o ne e nd, w ere c overed w ith a b right b lue v itreous g laze" ( Woolley, 1 939, 1 33). E xamples n ow i n t he B ritish

M useum

( BM 1 16981) a re b lue,

b lue-green,

a nd d eep

r ed

i n

c olour. N one w ere f ound i n s itu a nd W oolley t herefore a ssumed t hat t hey h ad f allen f rom h igh o n t he s tructure, p erhaps f rom t he s anct uary o n t op, b y a nalogy w ith N ebuchadnezzar s E sagila d escription. T he

f amous

i nscription i n w hich D arius

I d escribed t he b uilding

o f h is p alace a t S usa c learly i nforms u s t hat t he b aked b ricks t hese w ere B abylonians" ( DSf: V allat, v estiges

1 971). o f

I n

g lazed

M esopotamia

" the m en w ho K ent, 1 950,

i tself o nly a t B abylon

b rick d ecoration c ertainly

o f

t he

w rought 1 42ff.;

a re

t here

A chaemenid

p eriod. T he s o-called " Persian B uilding", a djoining t he S outhern C itadel, c ontained f ragments o f p olychrome g lazed b ricks, p robably f rom f riezes o f g uards ( Koldewey, 1 931, 1 21ff., p 1.28 i n c olour; H aerinck, 1 973). T he d ate o f t his b uilding i s u ncertain. T he e xcav ators a ttributed i t t o A rtaxerxes I I, b ut O lmstead, f ollowed b y S chmidt ( 1953, 2 8) a nd H aerinck ( 1973, 1 29) h ave p referred D arius I . C ertainly i t h as b uildings A s m ight

t he s ame

t ype o f

l ayered,

r e-surfaced,

f loor a s

t he

a t P ersepolis a nd S usa m ost c ertainly d ated t o h is r eign. b e a nticipated, s uch d ecoration w as r elatively r are a t

P ersepolis,

w here s tone w as r eadily a vailable,

u se o f m otifs ( Schmidt,

1 953,

7 0-2).

B ut

a nd r estricted i n i ts

i t w as w ell r epresented a t

l owland S usa, a ssociated w ith v arious r ulers t hrough t he A chaemenid D ynasty. T he r epertory, w hether o f i ndividuals o r g roups o f p eople, o f a nimals a nd m onsters, a nd o f f loral d esigns ( Haerinck , 1 973, 1 18ff.),

h as m uch i n c ommon w ith t hat c arved i n s tone a t P ersepolis,

w here much o f i t w as o riginally p icked O ut c olours ( Roaf, 1 983, 8 -9).

c lear

o f

c omparable

T he p ersistence o f t he g lazed b rick t radition i n M esopotamia i s f rom t he d ecoration o f t he S eleucid A nu-Antum T emple a t U ruk

( Jordan,

T he

1 928,

1 8ff.,

( ii)

B aked c lay w all " nails"

i dea o f

p l.48ff.).

b y

( Boese, " peg" o r

a p eg d riven t hrough a h ole 1 971, " nail"

( sikkati) a nd p laques:

d ecorating w alls w ith t erracotta c ones a rranged

p atterns, t heir e nd d ipped i n p aint, p eriod i n M esopotamia. T he c ustom o f w all

i n p aint

1 55ff.). a ppeared

i n

g oes b ack t o t he p rehistoric s ecuring a s quare p laque t o a i n t he c entre

i s a lmost a s

o ld

D uring a l ong h istory m any v ariants o f t he ( Andrae, 1 925, f ig.38; 1 977, f ig.187); b ut

i t w as n ot u ntil a fter t he m iddle o f

t he s econd m illennium B .C.

t hat

t hey w ere m anufactured i n g lazed t erracotta. I n t he f ifteenth c ent ury B .C. a t N uzi ( with a t-least o ne e xception), a t T ell R imah a c entury o r s o l ater, a nd a t A ssur, t he h eads o f t erracotta w all k nobs, s ome w ith l ow r elief f loral o r g eometric d ecoration, c overed w ith g reen g laze ( Starr, 1 939, 4 07-9, p 1.97-8; C arter,

w ere 1 964,

4 0, t op; A ndrae, 1 935, p l. 1+ 1). I n g eneral w all p egs w ere a ssociated w ith s uch r oyal b uildings a s f ortifications, p alaces a nd t emples, a nd t heir h eads s ometimes c arry r oyal A ndrae, 1 913, p l.LXXXVI-II, X CIII,

i nscriptions ( cf. a t A ssur: X CV, C lIll); b ut t he g lazed 1 77

e xamples

o f

t he m iddle a nd

l ater s econd m illennium B .C.

a re p rimarily

f ound i n r eligious b uildings. T here w ere a lso " wall-pegs", s ometimes g lazed, a s i n t he M iddle A ssyrian I shtar T emple a t N ineveh, t hat h ad o pen ( "trumpet") m ouths ( Reade, 1 979a, 2 1). S ome

o f

p egs i n t he c ases t he

t he m ost e xplicit

i nformation o n t he s etting o f

s econd m illennium B .C. w as r ecovered a t N uzi: s hanks w ere n ot o f s ufficient l ength t o h ave

w all-

" In m any b orne a ny

g reat w eight; c onsequently, t heir m ain p urpose m ust h ave b een d ecor ation. S ince t hey w ere f ound o nly i n t he I shtar s ection o f T emple A , a nd i n L 5 a nd L 8, t he p alace c hapel, i t i s e vident t hat t his f orm o f d ecoration w as r estricted t o t he c ult. I n L 5 t hey w ere f ound i n p osition, i nserted i n t he w all 1 78cm . a bove t he p avement, 9 5cm. a part, t he f irst b eing 1 30cm. f rom t he c orner ( Fig.21). o f t his s ame t ype w ere f ound i n T emple A ( p1.98, E -H), e ntly i n t he s ame m anner" ( Starr, 1 939, 5 9, c f.151-2).

E laborations u sed a pparI n M esopota-

m ia a t t his t ime t here i s n o e vidence f or p laques s ecured t o t he w all b y s uch w all-pegs; w hatever t heir d ecorative r ole i t w as s elf-suffic ient. A t erracotta w all k nob f rom T ell R imah w as g lazed g reen w ith a n

a lkaline

g laze

c oloured b y c opper

( Pollard

a nd

M oorey,

1 982,

4 5ff.). T he

m ost

G hirshman

s pectacular

f ind o f

g lazed

a t T choga-Zanbil i n K huzistan,

w all-pegs w here

w as

s ome o f

m ade

b y

t he r ooms i n

t he f irst s tage o f t he Z iggurat, b uilt i n t he t hirteenth c entury B .C., h ad b een u sed t o s tore t hem i n q uantity ( Ghirsh i nan, 1 966, 1 2, p l.XVII-XIX, X XV). F ragments o f c omparable w all-pegs, i nscribed f or S lihak-Inshushinak, w ere f ound a t S usa ( Amiet, 1 967, 2 8-9). A t T choga-Zanbil t he p egs w ere a ssociated w ith s quare p laques w hich t hey h ad s ecured t o w alls t hrough c entral h oles. T he p laques a re d ecor ated i n l ow r elief w ith q uarter r osettes, t heir p etals b lue/green, w hite o r y ellow ; t he p rojecting p egs a lso h ave f loral d ecoration, s ometimes w ith p etals r endered i n w hite a nd y ellow. A ccording t o F ukai ( 1981, 5 ) b lue, g reen a nd w hite g lazes w ere u sed; t wo o ccas ionally i n c ombination, b ut n ever a ll t hree. H e a lso p ublished t he a nalysis o f a b lue-green g laze f rom o ne o f t he k nobs, s howing i t t o b e a n on-lead c opper g laze N o i nformation i s

a t

( ibid.,

6 ).

p resent a vailable o n t he u se o f

s uch g lazed

k nobs b etween t he t welfth a nd n inth c enturies B .C. i n M esopotamia o r W estern I ran. M ost o f t he k nown N eo-Assyrian e xamples s eem t o d ate t o t he n inth c entury B .C. A ndrae s s tudy o f 1 925 r emains t he b asic t reatment o f " The h ead o f

t his s eries, t hough i t i s b ased o n o nly o ne s ite, A ssur. t he k nob w as g iven a t apering n eck a nd o ne o r m ore r ings

a t t he f oot, a t t he p lace w here i t e nters t he w all. T he l ong s tem w hich m ust r emain f irmly i n t he w all i s l eft u nglazed, w hile t he f oot, n eck a nd h ead w ere o ften e namelled ( i.e. "g lazed"). I f t he s tem w as l eft o ut t he h ollow k nobs h ad t o b e f ixed t o t he w all w ith w ooden p egs, a nd t o a ttach i t i mmovably t o t he p egs i t w as m ade f ast w ith a p in f or w hich a h ole i s f ound , i n t he n eck. T he r ing a t t he b ase i s s ometimes w idened t o a d isk. . . . But u sually a nd e specially f rom t he n inth c entury o nwards, t he s tem i s l eft o ut, a nd t he n eck a nd h ead o f t he k nob a re m ade h ollow. I n t his w ay a rise t he k nob p late, i n w hich t he d isk a t t he b ase p reponderated a nd b ecame t he c hief p art o f t he d ecoration" W ith

( Andrae, t he

1 925,

i nformation

6 5). n ow a vailable f rom 1 78

T choga

Z anbil,

t he

p laque

m ay

c entury,

n ot

b e s een a s a t ypological d evelopment

t hough

p rototypes

h ow i ts

f or

t he a rrangement o f

s ometimes r ound, p erhaps b ecause o f

o n a w all. ( Preusser,

t hen r elates

o f

t he

t o t he M iddle

n inth E lamite

s een a t T choga Z anbil r emains o bscure.

C lear e vidence s haped, s carce,

r evival

t hese

l ozenge o r

c ushion-

w all p laques i n N eo-Assyrian b uildings i s t he h eight a t w hich t hey w ere n ormally s et

O n o ne w all o f t he P alace o f A ssurnasirpal I I a t A ssur 1 955, 2 1, p 1.14) w ere t he " ghosts" o f s eventeen s quare

w all p laques, a t a bout t he h eight o f a m an, s et i n a r ow. A ndrae ( 1925, 6 6) t hought t hat t his w as a l ater a rrangement, a s i f i n l ate A ssyrian t imes s omeone h ad h ad t he p leasure o f c ollecting a nd b ring"

i ng t ogether a gain, t o s ome e xtent s uitably, w ell-preserved k nobp lates f rom t he p alace r uins, p erhaps a t t he o rder o f t he B abylonian s atrap r esident i n A ssur". T he r eason f or s uch a n h ypothesis i s n ot e vident. M ost o f t he p laque d ecorations r estored a t A ssur w ere t he f amiliar f loral f riezes o f t he p eriod, k nown a lso o n s culptures a nd r are m ural p aintings. A f ew b ore g eometrical p etterns a nd t here w ere e ven f ragmentary 1 925 9 p l.9:31-6;

e xamples c arrying s cenes o f l ion-hunting ( Andrae, f ig.39 9 4 1, 4 5, 4 7-8). S imilar p laques h ave b een

f ound o n t he o ther m ajor N eo-Assyrian p alace s ites, a s a lso i n t emp les, t hough t hey h ave r arely b een w ell p ublished ( Khorsabad: L oud a nd A ltman, 1 938, 4 3; N imrud: L ayard, 1 853b, p 1.55.3; R assam, 1 897 9 2 25-6 ( BM 9 1679-82 9 1 31661); P errot a nd C hipiez, 1 884, f ig.127-8; B alawat: D ayton, 1 978, f ig.338; N ineveh ( British M useum)). T he s eries b egins i n t he n inth c entury, a t l east a t A ssur, a nd e ndured

t hrough i nto

t he s eventh c entury t here.

A ndrae d etected

s ome m odifications t hrough t ime i n t he d ecoration. I n c ommenting o n t he c olour s chemes h e r emarked t hat " we h ave t o d eal o nly w ith y ellow a nd l ight b lue, o nly i n a f ew c ases w ith a ny o ther c olour f or -

i nstance d ark b lue. d esign" ( Andrae, 1 925,

w ith

W hite a nd b lack g ive 7 3).

t he

e ssentials

o f

t he

T he f ashion f or g lazed p olychrome w all p laques s ecured b y p egs d ecorated h eads i s a lso f ound i n w estern I ran i n t he f irst

m illennium

B .C.

I n t he n inth c entury t hey s eem t o h ave

b een

m ore

i mmediately u nder t he i nfluence o f N eo-Assyrian d esigns, t hough s ome l ocal t raits a re a lready e vident. A t H asanlu, f or e xample, i n t he l ate n inth c entury d ebris o f l evel I V, p laques c omparable t o t hose f rom A ssur a ppear t o h ave b een s ecured t o w alls i n c ertain c ases w ith p egs h aving a nthropomorphic o r z oomorphic t erminals i n d istinctively l ocal s tyles ( Dyson, 1 959, 1 4, f ig-13, l ower r ight; F ukai, 1 981, f ig.9). W all t iles o f t his t ype h ave a lso b een r eported f rom t renches c ut i nto t he c itadel a t Z iwiyeh, p erhaps a c entury o r m ore l ater t han t hose f rom H asanlu I V ( Dyson, 1 963, 3 5). A t S usa t he M iddle E lamite t radition o f g lazed t erracotta e ndured, t hough u ndocum ented

until t he e ighth c entury B .C. ‚ when S hutruk-Nahunte I I b uilt a

small t emple a t

S usa.

A miet

( 1967) h as

r estored

c ontext o f i ts s cattered t erracotta d ecoration. d ecoration i s i mpossible t o r econstruct w ith h eight o n t he w alls z oomorphic p egs w ere u sed 3 80ff.; 1 967), b ut w hether t o s ecure p laques

t he

a rchaeological

T he a ctual s cheme o f c ertainty. A t s ome

( Amiet, 1 966, f igs.368, i s n ot e vident f rom t he

p ublications. P egs a nd p laques d o n ot a ppear t o h ave s urvived i nto t he B abylonian p eriod; p erhaps t hey w ere a n " Assyrian" p henomenon.

1 79

N eo-

( iii)

G lazed F ists

( "Hands o f I shtar"):

A mong t he b aked c lay a rchitectural f ittings u sed i n t he N eoA ssyrian p eriod t here i s a g roup o f l ife-sized, a nd s lightly l arger t han l ife-sized, s hanked h uman f ists, w hose e xact f unction h as y et t o b e e stablished ( van B uren, 1 968). I n t he m ost r ecent w ere u sed a potropaic

1 930, 2 70-2; 1 945, 5 9-9; P eltenburg, t reatment P eltenburg p roposed t hat t hey

p rimarily " as w indow-ledge f ixtures o f a d ecorative a nd n ature", l argely o n t he e vidence o f a b asalt f rame f rom

H ama, l evel E , c arved w ith a s eries o f a lternating, p rojecting t alons a nd r ecessed r osettes ( Peltenburg, 1 968, p l.XIV). A s t hese f ists w ere e ither g lazed o r c overed w ith b itumen, s ometimes o verlaid w ith s heet m etal, a n e xternal o r a n i nternal u se i s p ossible, t hough t he g lazes w ould n ot h ave w ithstood w ater e ffectively. I n t he N orth-West P alace a t N imrud S mith f ound o ne " planted u pright i n t he w all, e mbedd ed

i n m ortar b etween t he

b ricks"

( Smith,

1 875,

7 5ff.,

4 29).

A t

A ssur t hey w ere a lso r eported i n a v ertical p osition, t hough A ndrae, p robably c orrectly, t ook t his t o b e a r e-use ( Andrae, 1 925, 6 3, f ig.36). H e p referred t o s ee t heir r ole a s d ecorative: i nserted i nside r ooms u nder t he r oof b eams o r a s s upports f or g lazed f riezes ( Andrae, 1 913, 7 ; 1 925, 6 7). A r ole i n c eiling o r r oof c onstruction w as a lmost c ertainly t heir m ost c ommon u se ( cf. P reusser, 1 955, p l.14b). F ists h ave b een , r eported l oose i n d ebris f rom a ll m ajor N eoA ssyrian s ites ( Nimrud: L ayard, 1 853a, p 1.8 1+ , 1 4, 1 6; S mith, 1 875, 7 5ff.,

4 29;

M allowan,

1 953,

1 1;

1 954,

1 21,

1 24,

1 43;

N ineveh:

C ampbell T hompson a nd H utchinson, 1 931, 9 9, p l.XX.55, 5 7-8; K horsab ad: P lace, 1 867-70, I , 8 6; A ssur: A ndrae, 1 913, 8 , p 1.8, f ig.5, 3 6,

p l.CII.9464,

4 3,

p l.LXXIX ;

P reusser,

a v ariant f orm i s k nown f rom Z injirli, h ands; t hey a re g lazed, b ut u ninscribed

1 955,

2 1,

p 1.17).

I n S yria

w here t hey r esembled c upped ( Andrae, 1 943, 6 0ff., f ig.73,

p l.31d-e). T hey m ay a lso h ave b een u sed i n U rartu ( Peltenburg, 1 968, 5 8, n .6). T hey a re f irst r ecorded i n A ssyria w ith i nscriptions o f A ssurnasirpal . I I a nd a ppear t o b e m ost p opular i n t he n inth c entury B .C.; n one h ave s eventh c entury i nscriptions. T he i nscriptions r efer t o p alaces, t o t emples, a nd p ossibly t o g ates. T hey h ave a lso b een f ound l oose i n p rivate h ouses a t N imrud, a nd b y t he c ity w all a t A ssur, w here t omb 5 3).

t hirteen w ere a lso f ound i n a t omb

( Haller,

1 954,

1 55:

N o M iddle A ssyrian e xamples h ave b een r eported, n or a re a ny p recursors e vident o utside A ssyria b efore t heir e arliest a ppearance t here.

T hey s eem t o b e a l ocal p henomenon.

A s h as b een n oted,

s tructural r ole i s o bscure a nd m ay h ave b een v arious. t o c arry a ny g reat w eight. T he o nly c onstant i n t heir b een a potropaic ( van B uren, 1 945, 5 7ff.). w ith a p articular d eity i s n ot e vident i n l ogical I shtar" C :

a nd t extual e vidence, t he p opular i s b est a voided a s a g eneric t erm.

t heir

N one i s m ade r ole m ay h ave

A s i ntimate a ssociation t he a vailable a rchaeod escription

" Hand

o f

T erracotta S tatuary: T he

f ragments •S tratum

e arliest e xamples o f g lazed s tatuary f rom f rom

t he

I I a t N uzi.

f ifteenth A ccording

b roken a nd o ut o f p lace,

M esopotamia

c entury t emples B a nd C t o

t he

e xcavator:

i n

" these

g ive t he i mpression t hat b etween t he

1 80

G 50

a re i n

o bjects, t ime o f

T emple C o r B ( which a re i dentical i n t his b uilding) a nd T emple A , d estruction t ook p lace a s t horough i n t he c ase o f t he o bjects, t he w alls, a s t hat w hich o bliterated T emple A " ( Starr, 1 939, t he

l ast

f igure

i n t he s eries. i dentical

w ith

I n t hese t he

l evels w ere

" the h aunches

r ed a nd y ellow o nes

b ut

a

i f n ot 1 10),

o f a l ion

c overed w ith

t he

f amiliar g reen g laze a nd I ncomplete y ellow-glazed I shtar f igure w ith b lack o n t he g enitals a nd b reasts ( pl.99R)" ( Starr, 1 939, 4 16). T he l atter w as t he o nly I shtar f igurine t his e xcavation. T he g reater.

t reated i n t he r ound

f ound i n

r ange o f g lazed t erracotta f rom t he l ater T emple A w as I n t he n orth c orner o f G 29 w as " a g reen-glazed t erracotta

r epresentation o f a w oman's b reast ( p1.102, E ) a nd f ragments s imilar t o i t w hich m ay h ave b een p ieces o f a nother" ( Starr, 1 939, 9 0, c f.423). T hese w ere t aken, t hough s maller t han l ife-size, t o b e p arts o f a c omposite, l arge-scale d eity s tatue. I n t he c ourtyard w as a b lue-green g lazed t erracotta s tatuette o f a s tanding f emale w ors hipper ( Starr, 1 939, 9 6, c f.419-20). T races o f s mall g lazed a nimal f igurines, o f t ypes f ound u nglazed i n t he p rivate h ouses, w ere a lso r ecovered f rom T emple A ( Starr, 1 939, 9 7, p l.110B, n o w ay c ompare w ith t he l arger a nimal s culptures w hich t his l ong)

s hrine

i s b est k nown.

w ith a n e ven c oating o f

1 08); b ut t hey i n i n t erracotta f or

T here w ere a p air o f

g reen g laze,

l ions

s tanding o n a n

( 47cm. u nglazed

b ase ( Starr, 1 939, 9 7, 4 30ff., p l.110A, i llA); a nd a nother p air, t his t ime c ouchant, " covered w ith a t hick y ellow g laze w hich s treaks a cross t heir r ed-painted b odies" ( Starr, 1 939, 9 7, p l.111B, 4 30ff.). O nly o ne w as f ound I n t he T emple A C ella, s ignificantly c omplete; t he o thers w ere i n f ragments

i n t he c ourtyard o utside.

A lso i n f rag-

m ents w ithin t he c ella w as a g reen-glazed b oar - s h ead ( Starr, 1 939, 9 8, p l.112B). I t h ad t he appearance o f h aving b een a w all k nob p rpjection; t wo t usk-like o bjects o f b lue f rit m ay b elong t o i t. T here w as p 1.110C).

a lso e vidence f or a c omparable r am s h ead ( Starr, 1 939, M ore u nusual w as " an e ar o f a l ion i n t erracotta, c overed

w ith a d eep y ellow g laze o f e xceptional t hickness. T he r im a nd v eins w ithin t he e ar w ere s hown i n r elief a nd e xecuted i n g reen g lass" ( Starr, 1 939, 9 8). S tarr b elieved t hat g lazing w as t o o bjects f or t emple u se o r t o c ult v essels. T he

s tanding

o pen m outh

l eading

l ions w ere m ade i n f ive p arts: t o a h ollow i nterior;

f ront

r estricted s olely

b ody a nd h ead, l egs;

m ade s eparately ; t he b ase, u nglazed s ave f or d rips ( Starr, 4 30ff.). T he a ssembly o f t hese o bjects w as d istinctive: " The g laze

o nly a dhesive u sed i n

i tself.

B y

i t a lone

j oining t hese

t he f ront

l egs

-

w ith

t wo h ind-legs

s eparate p arts

1 939,

i s

t he

d ipped a ll o ver i n g laze

w ere h eld i n p lace b oth a bove a nd b elow . T he t wo h ind-legs w ere s imilarly c emented t o t he b ase a nd b ody a s w ell a s t o e ach o ther.

-

N ot u ntil t he b ody a lso w ith a n o ver-all c oating o f g laze w as s et i n I ts f inal p osition ( the h indquarters a re n ot e xactly c entered o ver -

t he

l egs),

w as

-

t he a ssembled o bject p laced i n t he k iln.

T he v itrifi-

c ation o f t he g laze f irmly c emented t he s ections t ogether, a nd t he e xcess w hich o ozed f rom t he j oints s erved t o m ake a n u nbroken s urface b etween t he s eparate p arts w hich w ere l ost w hen t he o bject w as b roken u p i n t he d estruction o f t he t emple" ( Starr, 1 939, 4 31). T he g laze w as i n v ery p oor c ondition a nd t he b ody w as a v ery c oarse w are, d ull b rick-red i n c olour a nd f riable, w ith t emper o f s and a nd s traw . T he s urface w as n ot s moothed d own b efore g lazing a nd t his h as a ffected 1 81

t he

l ie

o f

t he g laze.

b oar s h ead ( Starr, s ymmetrical s ections. T he w ays.

T he g laze p rovides 1 939,

4 35),

t he a dhesive a lso i n

w hich i s m ade

f rom t wo

t he

p erfectly

p air o f c ouchant l ions a re t echnically i nteresting i n o ther T hey a re d ecorated w ith a c omparatively r are y ellow g laze a nd

a t ype o f r ed p aint o nly f ound o n t hese o bjects a t N uzi: t ion o f r ed c olour a pplied t here b efore t he a pplication

" a f oundao f g laze.

T he c olour i s a b rilliant, d eep r ed, l oosing m uch o f i ts i ntensity o n e xposure t o t he a ir. I t r uns o ver t he b ody. T he g audy c ontrast o f d eep r ed g round a nd i ntentionally s treaked y ellow g laze m ust h ave b een s triking i n p ristine s tate". N o g lazed t erracotta s tatuary h as y et b een f ound i n M esopotamia t hat m atches t he g uardians o f t emple e ntrances f ound a t T choga Z anbil i n

K huzistan i n t he g reat

t hirteenth c entury z iggurat

c omplex.

A s

r econstructed t hese b ulls a nd g riffins a re a lmost a m etre a nd a h alf h igh a nd o ver a m etre l ong ( Ghirshman, 1 966, 4 9-50, p l.XXXII-V; 1 968, p l.LXVIII). S uch t erracotta t emple g uardians h ad b een k nown i n M esopotamia s ince a t l east t he e arlier s econd m illennium B .C., g lazed e xamples h ave y et b een r ecorded. A s w ith o ther a spects o f

b ut n o

t he g laze a nd f aience i ndustries,

t here

i s a h iatus i n t he e vidence a fter 1 200 B .C. f or b etween f our a nd f ive h undred y ears. E ven t hen, a lthough g laze c ame t o b e w idely u sed o n a rchitectural f ittings a nd p ottery, i t i s v ery r arely r eported o n N eo-Assyrian b aked c lay s tatuary. F rom s eventh c entury A ssur A ndrae ( 1925, 5 9ff., p 1.30) r eported a h orse s h ead, t he h ollow b ody o f a p ack a nimal a nd t he m ajor p art o f a f igure r estored a s a f emale w orshipper. A ll w ere p olychrome g lazed, t he w oman i n a g arment r ichly p atterned i n g reen, y ellow a nd b lue/black ( Klengel-Brandt, 1 978, n o.288, c f.289). B y t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod, i f n ot e arlier, i n

c entral

a nd

s outhern I raq s mall b aked c lay

f igures

w ere

m ore

c ommonly g lazed, a s w as c ontemporary p ottery. T he m ost n otable e xamples a re a s eries o f t iny h orsemen w hich r emained p opular t hrough t he A chaemenid p eriod,

g lazed a nd u nglazed

( Barrelet,

1 968,

1 28-9).

A s B abylon h as y ielded a t l east o ne g lazed P azuzu h ead, a nd e ven a t A ssur t here m ay b e g lazed h orsemen, t his p ractice c ertainly r uns b ack i nto t he s eventh c entury ( Reuther, 1 978, 6 0). D :

1 926,

2 4,

f ig.23;

K lengel-Brandt,

T echniques: ( i)

B ricks:

( a)

B odies a nd g laze c olourants:

T he

b ody o f g lazed b ricks u ntil t he A chaemenid P ersian

p eriod,

d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave d iffered s ignificantly f rom t hat u sed f or u nglazed b ricks. I n t he A chaemenid p eriod a b ody o f s intered q uartz o r f aience a ppears. I n d escribing t he f abric o f t he g lazed f ound i n t he A padana a t P ersepolis S chmidt d escribed t hem a s

b ricks " a t an,

r ather p orous, f rit-like m ass, a pparently m ade o f l ime a nd s and" ( Schmidt, 1 953, 7 1). T his i s p recisely h ow K oldewey ( 1931, 1 22) h ad e arlier d escribed t he g lazed b ricks o f t he " Persian B uilding" a t B abylon, a ttempt

f ollowing a nalyses b y R athgen. T his t o p rovide a b ody f abric t o w hich t he 1 82

i ndicates a c onscious g laze w ould a dhere

b etter.

C ertainly t he s urface o f

s urviving A chaemenid g lazed b ricks

i s c ommonly l ess " crazed" t han t hat o f N eo-Babylonian o r N eo-Assyrian o nes. T his m ight d emonstrate e ither t hat t he N eo-Elamite f aience i ndustry h ad h ad a g reater i mpact i n I ran o n t hose p roducing b ricks f or g lazing t han d id i ts M esopotamian c ounterpart ( whose e xistence a t t his t ime i s a nyway d oubtful ( see p .157)), o r t hat E gyptian t echnol ogy h ad a lready, i n t his r espect, i nfluenced A chaemenid c raftsmen. D ayton ( 1978, 3 83) h as a lso p ublished a n a nalysis o f a P ersepolis b rick c ommenting t hat " the b ody w as v ery s imilar t o a m odern s andl ime b rick ; n o c lay w as p resent a s t he a bsence o f a lumina s howed. T he c alcium o xide p roportion w as a bout 9 p er c ent, a nd t he a mount o f S i 0 , a bout 9 0%." B y c ontrast h is e xamination o f a N eo-Assyrian g laze a b rick, f rom F ort S halmaneser a t N imrud ( Dayton, 1 978, 3 75), r evealed t hat i t w as a v egetable t empered c lay b rick , w hich d id n ot a ppear t o h ave b een f ired m uch a bove 9 00 ° C . I t w as w edge-shaped, n ot r ectangular i n s ection, w ith a g lazed f ace 1 10mm. l ong; t he b ack f ace t apered t o 1 02mm. I t h ad b een f ired f ace u p I n t he k iln, a s t he g laze h ad r un i n s treaks d own t he u nglazed s ide i n f iring. T he g laze s howed t he p oor a dhesion c ommonly e ncountered o n N eo-Assyrian g lazed b ricks. W hether s uch b ricks, w hen u sed o n o utside w alls, w ere g iven a s pecial s urface t reatment h as n ot y et b een e stablished. S ome

g lazed b ricks,

p robably o f

t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod,

f ound

b y L ayard a t B orsippa w ere a nalysed b y d e l a B eche a nd P ercy ( Layard, 1 853, 1 66): " The y ellow i s a n a ntimonate o f l ead, f rom w hich t in h as a lso b een e xtracted, c alled N aples Y ellow T he w hite i s a n e namel o r g laze o f o xide o f t in.... T he b lue g laze i s c opper, c ontains n o c obalt, b ut s ome l ead; ... t he r ed i s a s ub-oxide o f c opper". T hese r esults h ave r ecently b een c orrected a nd m odified b y a nalyses d one b y H edges

a nd W erner

H edges g reen,

a nalysed t hree d ifferent c olour a reas, w hite, y ellow o n s ome w eathered N eo-Assyrian b ricks f rom t he s ite o f

N abu

T emple

a t

( cited b y D ayton,

N ineveh

1 978,

( Campbell T hompson

4 9;

c f.

a nd

a lso 3 78ff.).

H utchinson,

a nd t he 1 929,

P l. LVII): " These w ere e stimated f or

t heir c ontent o f C u,

Z n,

P b,

S n,

S b.

P b w as p resent a bove t he t race l evel o nly i n t he y ellow a reas, t oget her w ith S b, a nd X -ray d iffraction w ork o n a s ample o f t he m aterial s howed t hat i t c ontained l ead a ntimonate ( with v ery p robably a n e xcess o f l ead i n t he g laze). A ntimony w as p resent b oth i n t he w hite a nd y ellow a reas. P resumably t he w hite o f t he g laze i s d ue t o t he p resence o f c alcium a ntimonate. T in w as o nly p resent i n t races o n t he g reen a reas, w hich w ere t he o nly a reas c ontaining a s ubstantial a mount o f

c opper

( probably o riginally u p t o 5 % o f

t he

o xide).

Z inc

w as p resent i n a ll a reas a t t he 0 .1-0.2% l evel; i t w as n ot a ssociated w ith t he p resence o f c opper i n t he 9 s amples e xamined" ( Hedges a nd M oorey,

1 975,

F itz

3 1).

( 1982) h as

s tudied

t he N eo-Babylonian g lazed b ricks,

n ow i n

E ast B erlin, f rom t he P rocessional W ay a nd t he " Throne-room" a t B abylon. C obalt a nd c upric i ons i n t race a mounts p roduced t he b lue g lazes; c upric i ons c ontributed t o t he t urquoise c oloured g lazes. L ead a ntimonate w as t he y ellow c olourant, w hilst c alcium a ntimonate w as

t he o pacifier

f or t he w hite a nd s ome o f t he

t urquoise g lazes.

F ukai ( 1981, 2 5ff.) h as p ublished a nalyses o f f our c olours o n a g lazed b rick o f t he A chaemenid p eriod f rom S usa. T he y ellow g laze 1 83

c ontained 4 4% l ead,

w ith l ead a ntimonate a s c olourant.

F ukai

( 1981,

2 1) h as f ound c omparable y ellow , h igh-lead g lazes o n I ron A ge o bjects f rom A zerbaijan. F or t he w hite n o l ead w as r eported. T he g reen g laze, c oloured b y c opper, h ad l ead i n i t. T he b lack/purplish c olour w as l ow i n l ead w ith c opper o xide, i ron o xide a nd c obalt o xide a s c olourants. I n t he a nalyses o f S usa b rick g lazes p ublished b y D ayton ( 1978, 3 78-9) b lue i s a ttributed t o c obalt m odified b y a ntimony, t he o range/yellow t o i ron o xide r ather t han t o r educed c opper. T he d ark l ines o n a b rick f rom P ersepolis w ere s aid t o b e o f i ron o xide r ather t han m anganese; d esigns

b ut

t he c haracter o f t hese s eparators

r equires m ore

( b)

r esearch

M anufacture: ( 1)

i n p olychrome

( see p .185 b elow).

d esign a nd l ayout t echniques:

N eo-Assyrian p eriod

( c.1000-600 B .C.):

I n t he l ate e ighth c entury a t K horsabad t he g lazed b ricks w ere s tandard f ire-baked b ricks. T hey w ere " never e mployed s ingly,

t he

t hey w ere f irst s et u p a s u nits, p erhaps i n t he " paint-shop", w here t he d esign w as p ainted u pon t he f ace o f t he t emporarily e rected p anel o r

s tructure.

T he

p ainting f inished,

t he b ricks

w ere

c arefully

r emoved f or t he f iring r equired t o e ffect t he g laze. A t t he t ime o f r emoval f or g lazing t hey w ere m arked i n s uch a w ay a s t o e xpedite t heir f inal r e-assembly" ( Loud, 1 936, 9 3). " Such a p rocess i s e vid enced b y t he f act t hat, w hile a n e ntire d ecorative d esign m ay b e r epeated o ver a nd o ver a gain w ithout a pparent v ariation, o ne e xample i s n ever e xactly t he s ame, b rick b y b rick , a s a nother" ( Loud a nd A ltman,

1 938,

R eade

1 4).

( 1963),

i n p ublishing h is r econstruction o f a l arge n inth

c çntury p anel f rom N imrud ( see p .173 h ere), h as p rovided a m ore e laborate d escription o f t he p rocedures u sed i n m anufacture a nd a ssembly.

F itters

m arks w ere p ainted i n t hin g laze o n

t he

u pper

s ide o f a lmost a ll b ricks, o ne t o d enote t he c ourse t o w hich t he b rick b elonged, t he o ther i ts p osition i n t hat c ourse. S ignificantly t here w ere o missions w hen t he s hape o r d ecoration o f a b rick w as i tself d istinctive; d istinctions w ere a lso m ade b y u sing d ifferent g laze c olours. T he b ricks w ere s lightly b aked a nd, w hen n ecessary, s haved t hen

d own p rior t o p ainting. d rawn

o n t hem i n b lack ;

" The d esign i n a ll i ts t hese

d etails

l ines h ave s ometimes

w as

s urvived

w here t he g laze h as p erished. T he f itters m arks w ere a dded w hile t he b ricks w ere b eing p ut i nto o r t aken o ut o f p osition; f or t he m arking w as c ertainly d one b efore t hat,

f or g lazing,

t he g lazing,

t he b ricks w ere

i ndicated b y s everal s light

a nd i t

i s q uite c lear

p icked u p i ndividually.

i nconsistencies o f

l ine,

T his i s

w here t he p ain-

t er d id n ot c onscientiously f ollow h is p reliminary o utlines, a nd s ome o f t he c olour, a s w here a s ingle c hevron, b lack o n o ne b rick , b ecomes w hite o n t he n ext; m oreover t he d riblets o f g laze, w hich c ontinually o bscure ( Reade,

t he f itters m arks, n ever c oincide o n a djoining b ricks" 1 963, 4 0). T hey w ere b aked a gain a fter d ecoration, w ith t he

p ainted s ide u pwards; o n m any b ricks a nd t rickled d own t he s ides.

t he m elted g laze h as r un

I n t he c ase o f A ssyria i t i s p ossible w ith m ural p aintings. A s d raughtsmanship w ere c lose. B abylonian a nd A chaemenid,

t o m ake d irect

o ver

c omparisons

m ight b e e xpected t he t echniques o f T he A ssyrian, b y c ontrast t o t he N eog lazed b rick f riezes w ere murals i n e very 1 84

s ense

s ave

t hat

g laze r eplaced p igment a s

t he m edium

a nd

t reatments w ere d ifferent. E vidence, w here a vailable, A ssyrian s ites o ther t han K horsabad a nd N imrud, i ndicates

s urface

f rom N eot hat p roce-

d ures w ere u niform i n c ourt w orkshops. T he r ange w ell d ocumented. y ellow,

o f c olours f ound i n N eo-Assyrian g lazed f riezes i s T he c olours u sed f or g eometric d esigns w ere g reen,

d ark b rown a nd w hite,

m ore r arely a s trong r ed. b lue,

g reen,

w ith l ess c ommonly a n i ntense b lue a nd

O n t he f igured d esigns

w hite a nd b rownish-black.

i t

i s a gain y ellow,

C aution i s n eeded i n c omment-

i ng o n t he c olours u sed, s ince m odern r eproductions o ften g ive a r icher i mpression t han m ay b e j ustified. I n a s ingle c omposition t he r ange o f c olours i s o nly f rom t hree t o f ive: b rown, g reen, b lue, d ark a nd p ale y ellow ( Layard, 1 853a, p l.84.12); o range, l ilac, w hite, y ellow a nd o live-green ( Botta, 1 849-50, p l.155, f ig.3). C ombinations o f f our c olours a re m ore c ommon: r ed, w hite, y ellow a nd b lack ( Botta,

1 849-50,

p 1.155,

b rownish/black ( Layard,

f ig.2);

1 853b,

d eep a nd p ale y ellow ,

p 1.55,

f ig.6);

y ellow,

w hite a nd b lue,

w hite

a nd o live-green ( Layard, 1 853b, p 1.53, f igs,3 a nd 4 ; p l.54:12-14). W hen a s f ew a s t hree c olours a re u sed, t he b ackground i s g enerally a lso t he c olour o f t he f igures. Y ellow, b lue a nd w hite o n a b lue g round ( Layard, 1 853b, p 1.53, f igs.2 a nd 5 ; p 1.54, c olours o n a y ellow g round ( ibid., p 1.53, f ig.1);

f ig.9); t he s ame w hite a nd y ellow

o n a b lue g round ( ibid., p 1.54, f ig.7); w hite a nd y ellow o n o liveg reen ( ibid., p 1.53, f ig.1). T he s trength o f o utline i s m arked. I t i s a lmost a lways c oloured d ifferently f rom t he o bject d epicted, e ither i n b lack, w hite, y ellow o r b rown. T he f igures, b y c ontrast w ith t he s culptured

r eliefs,

s ize v aries c onsiderably, a t

l east

t hree ( 2)

f eet

a re g enerally s limmer a nd

f rom b rick-size f igures

l ess m uscular;

t o o thers s tanding

i n h eight.

N eo-Babylonian a nd P ersian p eriods

( c.600-330 B .C.):

V arious m ethods h ave b een p roposed f or t he c onstruction o f t he N eo-Babylonian g lazed r eliefs, t he e arliest b eing t hat o f T homas i n 1 863 ( cf. O ppert, 1 863, I , 1 45) a nd t he m ost c omprehensive K oldewey T h ( 1914, 2 8ff.). A m ethod o f m ass p roduction i s e vident f rom t he c onstant r eproduction o f t he s ame f ew m otifs. P resumably a m aster r elief w as m ade f or e ach m otif a nd t hen m oulds t aken f rom i t f or f orming t he i ndividual b ricks i nto w hich t he m aster p attern h ad b een d ivided

u p.

" The e dges

o f

t he

f igures d o n ot p roject m ore o r

l ess

s quarely a s t hey d o i n A ssyrian a labaster r eliefs, b ut i n a n o btuse a ngle. A lso t here a re n o e ven u pper s urfaces a s t here a re o n A ssyria n s tone c arvings. B oth p eculiarities w ould c onsiderably f acilit ate t he w ithdrawal o f t he t ile f rom t he m ould" ( Koldewey, 1 914, 2 9). T he b rick w as f ired b efore g lazing, " the c ontours w ere t hen d rawn o n i t w ith b lack l ines

o f a r eadily f usible v itreous c omposition,

l eav-

i ng c learly m arked f ields. T hese w ere f illed w ith l iquid c oloured ( glazes), t he w hole d ried a nd t hen f used, t his t ime a pparently i n a g entler

f ire.

A s

t he b lack , l ines h ad t he s ame

f using-point a s

t he

c oloured p ortions t hey o ften m ixed w ith t he c olours t hemselves . With t he P ersian g lazes t hese b lack l ines h ave a h igher m elting p oint a nd t herefore r emain d istinct a nd p roject a bove t he c oloured g lazes a fter f iring" ( Koldewey, 1 914, 2 9-30). F ukai ( 1981, 2 5) h as e xplained t hese p rominent o utlines a s i ndicative o f a s queeze t echnique, l ike t he u se o f a b ag f or i cing a c ake. B uilt-up l ines w ere

m ade

b y s queezing o ut

t he g laze

t hrough a n ozzle 1 85

f rom t he

b ag.

A s

t his

t echnique

i s p articularly e vident o n a n u nusually

e laborate

g lazed j ar f rom t he e xcavations a t B abylon ( Koldewey, 1 914, f ig.152 ( frontispiece); M ayer, 1 965, p l.157: b oth c olour), d ating t o t he s eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C., F ukai a rgued t hat t he t echnique p assed d irectly f rom N eo-Babylonian t o A chaemenid c raftsmen. A s t he b rickm akers a t S usa ( see p .177) a re k nown t o h ave b een B abylonians t his m akes g ood s ense; b ut t he m atter s till n eeds d etailed i nvestigation. S ome o f t he s urviving g lazed b ricks f rom P ersepolis a nd S usa ( cf. c olour p lates i n D ayton, 1 978, p 1.27-8) a ppear t o t he e ye t o h ave c loisons c arefully m ade f rom s hort, t hin s trips o f s ome m etal, p ossibly s heet c opper o r b ronze. T his m ethod o f l aying o ut t he d esign i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t he b lack l ines, w hether f lat o r p rojecting, j ust c ommented o n a nd t raditional b efore t he A chaemenid p eriod. S uch " metal" o utlines s eem a lso t o b e u sed o n a t l east s ome p arts

o f

B abylon

t he g lazed b rick d ecoration o f

( cf.

K oldewey,

1 931,

p l.39f,

t ).

t he

A chaemenid

T his

p alace

a ffinity w ith t hat u sed f or t he p olychrome i nlays s o p opular i n " Court S tyle" o f j ewellery p roduced u nder t he A chaemenids. I n

a t

t echnique h as a c lose

t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod g reen a nd b rown d o n ot

t he

s eem t o h ave

b een f ashionable c olours o n g lazed f riezes ( cf. K oldewey, 1 918, 2 7; 1 931, 8 5), t hough t hey r eappear i n A chaemenid t imes a t s uch m ajor s ites a s B abylon, P ersepolis a nd S usa ( Haerinck , 1 973, a nd y ellow, b lack a nd w hite, r etained t heir p opularity

1 20). B lue t hroughout;

r ed ( deceptively c hanged t o g reen, s ee p .187 h ere) a ppeared a t B aby -i on i n N eo-Babylonian t imes ( Koldewey, 1 918, 2 7; 8 5), b ut n ot a ppare ntly i n t he A chaemenid p eriod. I n o rder t o ( see p .184 h ere),

f acilitate t he a ssembly o f a d esign, a s i n A ssyria t he b ricks w ere m arked o n t he u pper e dge i n r ough

g laze w ith a s eries o f s imple s igns a nd n umerals. S ign w as i ntended t o m atch w ith s ign i n t he l aying. T his s ystem w as b est s een a t B abylon i n h e " Southern C itadel", g lazed b rickwork w ere r ecovered.

w here m ore c oherent H ere e ach c olour w as

s ections o utlined

o f i n

b lack a nd t he p osition m arks u sed a gain a s o n t he " Ishtar G ate". K oldewey d escribed i t a s f ollows: " Here ( i.e. o n t he c apitals) t he m arkings c onsist o f n umerals c ombined w ith d ots. T hey a re m arked o n t he u pper e dge o f t he b ricks w ith a p oor, s omewhat b lackened, g laze. T he

s igns

t he t he

l ateral a rrangement a re c lose t o t he v ertical j oints. E ach o f l atter s igns i s a c ounterpart o f t he s ign n ear t he v ertical j oint

o f t he c ourses

t hat

d istinguish t he c ourses a re i n t he c entre,

t hose

f or

b rick a djoining i t. O n t he c entral s igns t hat m ark t he t he t op c ourse o f t he u pper r ow o f v olutes h as o ne s troke,

t he s econd h as t wo, a nd s o o n u p t o s even. T he s even c ourses o f t he l ower r ow o f v olutes a re n umbered i n t he s ame w ay, b ut t he g roups o f s trokes a re p receded b y a d ot t o d istinguish t hem f rom t hose o f t he u pper s eries. F or t he s equence o f t he b ricks o ne o f t he i ntermediate o rnaments f orms a s ingle u nit w ith t he c apital a djoining i t t o t he r ight. A ll t he b ricks t hat b elong t o t he s ame u nit b ear t he s ame n umber o f

s trokes.

T he c ounting r uns

f rom l eft

t o r ight.

T he n ume-

r als a re c rossed b y a t ransverse s troke, w hich, i n o rder t o m ark t he d irection o f t he s igns, h as a d ot a ttached t o i t. T his d irection l ine

i s

p arallel

p arallel p robable t ogether,

t o

t he v ertical

j oint o n t he c entral

o rnament,

a nd

w ith t he f ront o f t he b rick o n t he v olutes. I t i s q uite t hat t he s eparate g roups w ere f irst p rovisionally b uilt a t a ny r ate f or t he p urpose o f d rawing t he d esign, w hich i s 1 86

s till

v isible

i n r ed c olour u nder

t he

( glaze),

s o a s

t o

s ecure

t hat

b oldness a nd f reedom o f o utline w hich d elights u s w ith i ts b eauty a t t he p resent t ime. B ut w hen o nce t he p rocess o f ( glazing) b egan t he -

t ransportation o f t he b ricks, u navoidable p rocesses t hat

t he d rying, t he b urning, h ad t o b e c arried t hrough

a nd a ll t he b efore t he

b ricks c ould b e p laced i n t he w all i t w ould b e i mpossible t o k eep t hem t ogether. T he m arks w ould t hen a fford t he o nly m eans o f p lacing -

t hem c orrectly o n t he w alls, g roups

t o

I n

a nd

r endering i t e asy t o d eliver t hem i n

t he r espective m asons. o rder

t o

c lose

t he

j oints c ompletely t he b ricks a re s lightly

w edge-shaped. T he j oints b etween t he c ourses a re l aid i n m ud o ver a sphalt, w hich, a s w e o bserve i n o ther c areful b uilding, d oes n ot e xtend b rick,

t o t he f ront o f t he b uilding b ut s tops a t a d istance o f h alf a t hus a voiding a ny b lotching o f t he f ace o f t he w all.

I n

a ddition t o t he b lack o utline a nd t he d ark b lue g round,

t he

c olours e mployed a re w hite, l ight b lue, y ellow a nd r ed. T he r ed n ow h as e verywhere t he a ppearance o f g reen, b ut w here t his c olour i s t hickened, a s f or i nstance w here d rops h ave t rickled d own, a c ore o f b rilliant r ed i s f ound c oated w ith g reen, w hich m ust b e t he r esult o f a s uperficial c hange o f c olour t hat h as o ccurred d uring t he c ourse o f a ges. W e h ave a lso s ome l arge p ieces o f g laze f rom a ncient b reakages i n w hich w e c an o bserve t his s ame f act. T he g reen c oating e xtends t o a d epth o f 2 t o 3m illimetres, w hich i n t he o rdinary g laze o n t he b rick w ould e ntirely s upersede t he o riginal r ed c olouring. T his i s a n i mportant p oint, b ecause t he m anufacture o f o paque r ed g laze h as b een a ttended w ith c onsiderable d ifficulty e ven i n r ecent t imes, w hile t ransparent r ed g laze i s m ade w ith e ase a t t he p resent t ime. T hus i n f orming a j udgement o n t he s ense o f c olour o f t he a ncient B abylonian

i t must n ot b e

f orgotten t hat

t his

f ine r ed w as

i ncluded

i n h is s cheme. W e c an a ll i magine a r ed-haired, b ut n ot a g reenh aired l ion" ( Koldewey, 1 914, 3 0). T his c hemical c hange i s t ypical o f a r ed g laze ( or g lass) c oloured b y r educed c opper. T his w ould n ot h ave b een o bserved h ad t he c olourant b een i ron. ( ii)

e ffect

P ottery:

N one o f t he g lazes o n p re-Islamic M esopotamian p ottery o r b ricks a nalysed, i n r ecent t imes, h as b een f ound t o b e a l ead o r a t in g laze i n t he s trict s ense o f t he w ord; t hey a re a ll a lkaline g lazes. T his w as f irst e stablished b y S alvetat i n t he n ineteenth c entury; b ut o bscured B irch, 1 858, ( with M oorey,

b y l ater i naccuracies a nd f alse i nterpretations ( cf. 1 48). I n a s eries o f a nalyses d one i n O xford H edges 1 975; H edges, 1 976; 1 982) e stablished a s eries o f

p oints a bout a ncient M esopotamian p ottery g lazes. C ompared w ith m odern a lkaline g laze ( Hedges, 1 982, t able 2 ) t here i s a l ittle m ore S i a nd a l ittle l ess A l o r A l + F e. I t i s b eneficial i f t he a lkali, e specially t he s oda c ontent, i s k ept a s l ow a s p ossible, s ince i t i s t he m ain c ontributor t o t he e xpansion c oefficient, a nd t hus t he l ower t he p ercentage, t he b etter t he c hances o f a dhesion. V andiver ( 1982a) h as s uggested t hat t he a dhesion o f a n a lkaline g laze t o a c lay b ody w as

p romoted b y t he p resence o f

s oluble s alts d eposited o n t he

s ur-

f ace a s e fflorescent p roducts d uring d rying. I n b etween

t he

v essels s o f ar e xamined t here i s

m ajor

d ifference

t he b ody f abrics o f g lazed a nd u nglazed v essels,

t hough o ne

1 87

n o

m ight h ave e xpected

t he

f ormer

t o c ontain m ore q uartz.

T hin s ection

m icroscopy d iscerned n o d ifferences ( Hedges, 1 982, 9 9). N or i s t here a ny s ignificant c hange i n g laze c omposition t hrough t ime. I n t he S asanian p eriod a t K ish t here w as a s light i ncrease i n A l a nd a c orresponding d ecrease i n S i, p erhaps a llowing f or a l ower m aturing t emperature a nd a g reater c ontrol o ver t he g laze. A lthough a nd N ineveh,

g lazes o n p ottery f rom s ites a s d ating

f rom t he K assite

t o

a s

F ailaka

t he S asanian p eriod,

f ar a part

r evealed

c omparatively l ittle v ariation i n t he g laze c omposition ( Pollard a nd Hjlund, 1 983), t here a re d istinctions t hat m ay b e i ndicative o f l ocal t raditions. A t N ippur t he g lazes w ere h igher i n p otassium t han a t K ish a nd N ineveh. A t t he s ame s ite t in w as a c ommon o ccurrence, b ut n ot l ead o r z inc; z inc w as u biquitous a t N ineveh, a nd a t K ish t in w as o nly f ound w ith a ny f requency i n P arthian a nd l ater s amples, a nd t hen l ead i s c ommonly f ound a s w ell. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat b arium i n t he g laze o r b ody m ight w ell b e i ndicative o f a n o rigin N ippur r egion. G lazes o n c lay f rom K assite l evels a t ( Kuwait)

h ave

a

r emarkable e xcess o f m agnesium o ver

i n t he F ailaka

l ime

g lazing. T his i s p robably t o b e e xplained b y t he f act a lkali c onsisted o f s alt d erived f rom s ea w ater. T he

i n

t he

t hat t he m agnesium

c alcium r atio i s c onsistent w ith t he u se o f s alt f rom s uch a s ource. T his m ay a lso h ave s ome c onnection w ith t he h igh-magnesia g lasses c haracteristic o f M esopotamia i n t he s econd m illennium B .C. ( Pollard a nd H jlund, 1 983), s ince c raftsmen m ay h ave b een u sing s alt f rom l ocal

s alt

p ans.

T he w hole h ere V ;

q uestion o f

c olourants

i n t he s ection o n f aience

i n c eramic g lazes

i s

d iscussed

( p.162).

E gyptian B lue: ( a) T he

f iring

T he m aterial: b lue

f rit

r eferred

t o a s E gyptian B lue

a n i ntimate m ixture o f q uartz,

w as

p roduced

b y

c alcite a nd a c opper c ompound

t ogether w ith a s mall a mount o f a lkali. T he r esulting f rit c onsists o f u nreacted q uartz a nd t he m ineral E gyptian B lue t ogether w ith v arying

a mounts

o f

g lass

p hase.

T he E gyptian B lue

m ineral

i s

a

s ilicate o f c opper a nd c alcium ( CuO.CaO.4Si0 2 ) , w hich i s i dentical t o t he n atural m ineral c uprorivarite. T he p ositive i dentification o f E gyptian B lue f rit i s n ot p ossible b y v isual e xamination b ut r equires X -ray d iffraction a nalysis. A s a r esult, t here i s r egular c onfusion i n

t he

t imes

l iterature b etween E gyptian B lue a nd o ther b lue

e ven,

o n o ccasion,

f rits,

b etween E gyptian B lue a nd b lue

s ome-

f aience

o r

b lue g lass.

b e

A s w ell a s p roviding a p igment, w hen p owdered, E gyptian B lue m ay m ixed w ith a b inding a gent, m oulded a nd r efined, t o m ake a rte-

f acts.

I t h as

s tudied h ere i s

n ot

t he d istinction o f b eing o ne o f

t hat

s urvived i nto

o nly r eferred

t o

t he v ery f ew m aterials

t he G raeco-Roman p eriod,

i n c lassical a uthors,

s o t hat

b ut a ppeared i n

i t t he

p ioneer e ighteenth c entury e xcavations a t P ompeii i n I taly, * where i t r apidly a ttracted t he a ttention o f c hemists. T he s ecret o f i ts m anufacture a ppears t o h ave b een l ost b etween a bout t he f ourth a nd t he n ineteenth c enturies A .D. I n t he f ourth c entury B .C. T heophrast us

( On S tones,

5 5,

e d.

C aley a nd R ichards, 1 88

1 956)

c ommented a s

f ol-

l ows o n k yanos G reek:

( cf.

F oster,

1 979,

1 0ff.;

H ittite:

k uwanna;

M ycenaean

k u-wa-no):

" Just a s t here i s a n atural a nd a n a rtificial r ed o chre, s o t here i s a n ative k yanos ( cf. s ections 3 9 a nd 5 1: l apis l azuli a nd a zurite) a nd a m anufactured k ind s uch a s t he o ne f rom E gypt. T here a re t hree k inds o f k yanos, t he E gyptian, t he S cythian a nd C yprian. T he E gyptian i s t he b est f or m aking p ure p igments, S cythian f or m anufactured,

t he t he

t hose t hat a re m ore d ilute. T he E gyptian v ariety i s a nd t hose w ho w rite t he h istory o f t he k ings o f E gypt

s tate w hich k ing i t w as w ho f irst m ade f used k yanos i n i mitation o f t he n atural k ind; a nd t hey a dd t hat k yanos w as s ent a s t ribute f rom P hoenicia a nd a s g ifts f rom o ther q uarters, a nd s ome o f i t w as n atural a nd s ome h ad b een p roduced b y f ire. T hose w ho g rind c olouri ng m aterials s ay t hat k yanos i tself m akes f our c olours; i s f ormed o f t he f inest p articles a nd i s v ery p ale, a nd c onsists o f t he l argest o nes a nd i s v ery d ark. a rtificially..... . I n t he f irst c entury B .C. E gyptian B lue ( caeruleum), t he n eously t o A lexandria,

w as m ade

t he f irst t he s econd

T hese a re

p repared

V itruvius ( VII:I,1) r ecorded t hat i nvention o f w hich h e c redits e rrob y f using t ogether s and

( which i n t he

c ase o f E gypt i s a n atural m ixture o f q uartz a nd c alcium c arbonate), c opper f ilings a nd n atron. P liny ( XXXIII:57-8), a bout a c entury l ater,

c alled c aeruleum a k ind o f

s and.

A fter t he p ioneering a nalyses,

a mong t hem t hose o f S ir H umphrey

D avy ( 1778-1829), t he m ost s ignificant o f t he e arlier s tudies i s t hat b y F oqu i n 1 884. H e i dentified t he c ompound a s C u0.Ca0.4SiO 2 a nd d efined t he o ptical c haracteristics o f t he c rystals. V arious s cient ists t hen a ttempted t o s ynthesize t his a ncient p igment, m ost c ompreh e t isively L aurie a nd h is c olleagues i n 1 914. T hey s ystematically i nvestigated t he e ffect o f t he f iring t emperature a nd t he c oncentrat ion o f a lkalis. T hey r eproduced E gyptian B lue b y h eating t ogether f ine s and, c opper ( fusion m ixture);

c arbonate, c alcium c arbonate a nd s odium c arbonate t he b lue c rystals w ere f ormed a t a bout 8 30 0 -

8 50 ° C . A mongst v arious m ore r ecent e xperimental r eproductions a nd a nalyses, t hree a re o f p articular i mportance. C hase ( 1971) i nvestig ated t he f iring t emperature r ange o ver w hich E gyptian B lue c ould b e p roduced a nd t he e ffect o f d ifferent f iring a tmospheres. H e i ncluded a s ample f rom N uzi. B ayer a nd W iedemann ( 1976) u sed d ifferential t hermal a nalysis t o i nvestigate t he f ormation a nd s tability o f t he p igment. T ite a nd h is c olleagues ( 1981; f orthcoming) a imed t o o btain i nformation o n t he a ncient m ethods f or p roducing t he w ide r ange o f E gyptian B lue f abrics w hich v ary f rom s oft a nd f riable t o h ard a nd s emi-vitrified a s w ell a s f rom l ight t o d ark b lue. T heir s amples i ncluded m aterial f rom E gypt ( late O ld K ingdom o nwards), a nd s ites o f t he L ate B ronze a nd I ron A ges i n S yro-Palestine a nd M esopotamia. T heir r esults s howed t hat E gyptian B lue c an b e s atisfactorily s ynthes ised b y f iring a m ixture o f q uartz, c alcite, m alachite ( copper c arbonate) a nd s odium c arbonate ( alkali) t o 9 00-1000 ° C f or a f ew h ours. I t w as a lso d emonstrated t hat s mall o bjects o f E gyptian B lue w ere

mos t

p robably

p roduced u sing a t wo-stage

f iring

c ycle

w ith

g rinding a nd m oulding t o t he r equired s hape b etween t he f irst a nd s econd f irings. T he c olour d epends o n t he s ize o f t he E gyptian B lue c rystals a nd t hus t he c oarse-textured m aterial p roduced b y t he f irst f iring

t ends

t o

b e a d arker b lue

t han 1 89

t he

f ine-textured

m aterial

p roduced a fter g rinding a nd w hich

d epends o n t he e xtent

f iring f or a s econd t ime. o f

t he

T he h ardness,

i nterconnecting g lass p hase

p re-

s ent i n t he m aterial, v aries a ccording t o t he f iring t emperature a nd a lkali c ontent. T hus, t he N eo-Assyrlan o bjects f rom N imrud a nd N ineveh w hich h ave a l ow a lkali c ontent ( 0.5 p er c ent) t end t o b e s ofter a nd m ore f riable t han e arlier o nes f rom E gypt, t he m ajority o f w hich

h ave

a h igher a lkali

c ontent

( 1-5 p er

c ent).

K acz inarczyk s

( personal i nformation) a nalyses o f L ate B ronze A ge e xamples f rom R as S hamra i ndicate t he u se o f b oth c opper a nd b ronze " scrap" a s c oloura nts a nd n o m arked c hemical d istinction i n c omposition b etween t he S yrian a nd E gyptian m aterial a t ( b) I n

t his

t ime.

H istorical s urvey o f u se: v iew o f

i ts n ame

s omething m ay a ppropriately b e

s aid

f irst

a bout t he a ppearance o f E gyptian B lue i n E gypt, a lthough t here i s a t p resent n o c ertainty t hat i t o riginated t here r ather t han s omewhere i n W estern A sia. L ucas ( 1962, 3 40ff.) s ummarized t he m atter, b ut r ather m ore d etail i s n eeded t o e stablish t he p ossible d ate o f i ts e arliest a ppearance i n E gypt. S amples a ttributed t o t he F ourth D ynasty h ave y et t o b e i dentified b y a nalysis. T he m ore i mportant o ccurrences o f t he F ifth D ynasty, f rom t he r uined S un T emple a t A bu G urob a nd i n t he d ecoration o f P er-Neb s t omb a t G iza h ave b een a nalyzed ( Ransom W illiams, 1 932, 2 9ff.). S tevenson S mith ( 1946, 2 56) e xtended t he h istory o f E gyptian B lue b ack I nto t he F ourth D ynasty w ith t hree m ajor c ases o f I ts u se, i dentified b y e ye, a ttributed r espectively t o t he r eigns o f C heops, C hephren a nd S hepseskaf. O n t he a bsolute c hronologies a t p resent u sed f or t he O ld K ingdom i n E gypt, t his w ould i ndicate w ell a uthenticated u se b y a bout 2 400 B .C., w ith m ore o r l ess c ertain e xtension b ack t o a bout 2 550 B .C., t hat i s t he r ange o f t he E arly D ynastic I II p eriod i n M esopotamia. T he p bssibility o f i ts e ven e arlier o ccurrence i n E gypt h as b een r aised b y a t l east o ne " blue p aste" v essel a ttributed t o t he P rotodynastic r oyal t ombs a t A bydos o f t he e arlier t hird m illennium B .C. ( Petrie, 1 920, p l.XXIII:14); b ut t his i s a v essel o f f aience w ith a b lue c ore. B lue

f rit h as b een i dentified i n a c avity i n a L ate

P rehistoric

l imestone i nlay f ragment o f t ypical M esopotamian t ype, n ow i n a p rivate c ollection ( Kozloff, 1 981, n o.2); b ut t he a nalysis w as o nly a p reliminary o ne. A s w ith s o m uch e lse i n t he h istory o f m aterials i n M esopotamia t he n umerous g raves o f t he " Royal C emetery" a t U r o ffer t he f irst r eal c heck o n i ts a ppearance, b ut h ere t he l ooseness o f W oolley s t erminology c reates I ts o wn p roblems. " Glass p aste" b eads, a s d istinct f rom f rit o r f aience, a re f irst l isted f or t wo g raves o f t he E arly A kkadian p eriod ( PGs 1 517, 1 601: U .13531, 1 3598; W oolley, 1 934, 5 87-8). T here i s t hen a l ong i nterval u ntil t he t hird q uarter o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. b efore i t c an b e t raced a gain ( at N uzi), a lthough t here i s n o r eason t o b elieve t hat i t c eased t o b e u sed, N uzi

i f o nly s poradically, f or b eads, a mulets, e tc. S tratum I I a t y ielded n umerous b lue f rit b eads ( Vandiver, 1 982a; s ee p .lSO

h ere) a nd a lso h alf a m oulded m acehead, f ound i n a p rivate h ouse, w hich G ettens i dentified a s E gyptian B lue ( in S tarr, 1 939, 4 60). I t I s r eported a s i nlays i n a g old b racelet o f t he K assite p eriod f rom D ur Kurlgalzu ( Maxwell - H yslop, 1 971 , 1 64 , p l. 127 ) . B oth s caraboid s eals a nd s mall " ingots" o f E gyptian B lue w ere r eported f rom L ate B ronze A ge l evels a t R as S hamra ( Louvre d isplay, 1 983) a nd t he m ater ial w as w idely u sed f or j ewellery i n t he L ate B ronze A ge. 1 90

A fter t he

t echnological D ark A ge,

f rom a bout 1 200-900 B .C.,

t he

b est i nformation o n a rtefacts o f E gyptian B lue c omes f rom t he d estruction d ebris o f l evel I V a t H asanlu i n n orth-west I ran c .800 B .C. A s t his s ite i s k nown t o h ave h ad d iverse c ommercial c ontacts w ith S yria a nd M esopotamia i t i s a lways d ifficult t o a ssess w hich o f t he o bjects f ound t here w ere p roduced i n o r n ear H asanlu a nd w hich w ere

i mported f rom c ountries

t o

t he w est,

a cross

t he Z agros.

T hese

f inds i nclude c omplete a nd f ragmentary v essels, s ome m oulded w ith l ow-relief d esigns, s ome m odelled t hree-dimensionally i n z oomorphic s hapes:

a b eaker

( Chase,

1 971,

f ig.5:1;

D ayton,

1 978,

f ig.334A);

a

b eaker f ragment ( Porada, 1 965, p 1.33); a nd a " lion v essel" w ith g old o verlays ( van L oon, 1 962). A s olid l ion-head f itting ( Dayton, 1 978, p 1.22:2) a nd a s o-called " sistrum h andle" ( Chase, 1 971, f ig.5:2) i ndicate t he e xistence o f a w ide r epertory o f o bjects. A s heetb ronze r am s h ead r hyton h as b lue f rit i nlays i n i ts e yes, e yebrows a nd n ostrils ( Dyson, 1 960, 1 28, u pper l eft) a nd t here a re c omparable b lue i nlays

i n a g old k nife-handle

( Porada,

1 965,

p l.31).

A rt h is-

t orical c riteria i ndicate b oth l ocal p roduction f or t he v essel f ragm ent d ecorated w ith r ampant g oats a nd f or t he k nife-handle, w hilst t he

" lion v essel" m ight w ell b e a n i mport.

I t i s u sually a ssumed t hat t he m ain s timulus f or t he p roduction o f o bjects i n E gyptian B lue a t t his t ime c ame f rom s omewhere i n S yroP hoenicia, t hough l ocal e vidence i s e xtremely r are a nd v irtually c onfined t o c oloured i nlays i n c arved i vories, p redominantly t hose i n t he s o-called " Phoenician S tyle" ( Barnett, 1 975, 2 40), o nly o ccasiona lly i n " Syrian" i vories. B oth a re b est k nown f rom s ites o utside t heir h omelands ( see p .207 h ere). I nlaid " Syrian i vories" w ere f ound i n H asanlu I V ( see p .208). F rom s eventh c entury l evels a t N imrud h as c ome e vidence w hich m ight b e t aken t o i ndicate a t rade i n b locks o r i ngots o f E gyptian B lue. I n R oom Z T 1 5 o f t he n orth w ing i n t he Nor th W est P alace " one l arge a mphora, N D 1 975, o f a t ype f amiliar f rom P alestine, c ontained i nside i t l umps o f E gyptian B lue, w hich w as t he s ubstance p rincipally u sed f or t he i ncrustation o f i vories" ( Mallowan, 1 966, 1 80). I n r oom S W 6 o f F ort S halmaneser " there w ere l arge l umps o f b right E gyptian B lue, N D 6 448, w hich w as c ertainly s tored f or t he p urpose o f i ncrusting i vories, f or t he m aterial u sed i n

t he

c loisons

i s

i dentical...

T he

d iscovery

o f

t hese

r aw

m aterials i mplies t hat t here w ere r epair s hops i n t he a rsenal w here, a s w e h ave a lready s een, t here w as p resumed e vidence o f s hell c arvers i n S W 3 " ( Mallowan, c raftsmen, w orking e xpatriates,

w ere

1 966, 4 08). H ere M allowan i s a ssuming t hat i n t he " Phoenician" s tyle, p erhaps t hemselves e xercising

u sing r aw m aterials b rought

t heir s kills i n t he

f rom e lsewhere.

p alace

B oth D ayton

w orkshops ( 1978,

3 2)

a nd T ite a nd o thers ( 1981) h ave p ublished a nalyses o f t he N imrud i ngots. D ayton ( 1978, 3 2) a lso p ublished f rom t he s ame s ite t wo o ther r aw m aterials w hich h e d escribed r espectively a s " a s tick o f v ery b right h yacinth b lue' c halky m aterial", w hich g ave a s trong t in r eading, t race

o f

p erhaps c obalt;

i ndicative o f b ronze s crap a s a c olourant, a nother,

s imilar

s tick,

A lthough i n r eferring t o g lass

a nd

a

w as p aler b lue.

f ragments

f rom t he t hrone-room o f

t he " Burnt P alace" a t N imrud M allowan n oted t hat t hey " are a ssociated w ith s everal s pecimens o f E gyptian B lue" ( Mallowan, 1 966, 2 09), f ew h ave y et

b een p ublished.

p resumably f rom ( Ibid., f ig.144:

H e

i llustrated a n E gyptian-style h eaddress,

a c omposite s tatue, o f f aience a nd E gyptian B lue N .D.1075(i)). F rom t he N inurta T emple a t N imrud 1 91

L ayard

( 1853,

3 57-8) h ad r eported:

" Figures o f w inged d eities, w ith a b lue d erived S urviving e xamples

e tc.,

o f c lay,

c oloured i n t he m ass

f rom c opper; e yes, b eards, h air a nd o rnaments..." a re n ow i n t he B ritish M useum , i ncluding o ne

f ragment o f a w inged g oddess ( Layard, 1 853, 3 57, l eft b eard f ragment w as a lso i llustrated b y L ayard ( 1853b,

=

B M 1 18785); a p 1.55:1). I n

c arved i vories t he i nlays a re s ometimes o f g lass o ver a E gyptian B lue ( Barnett, 1 975, 2 40).

b acking

o f

T hat v essels, o f f orms a lso c urrent i n m etal, w ere b eing m ade i n E gyptian B lue i s e vident a t t his t ime f rom a p hiale f ound a t T ell H alaf ( Hrouda, 1 962, 6 6, p l.49: 1 -3; 5 0:1) a nd f rom t wo v essels f ound i n T umulus P a t G ordion i n T urkey, w here b oth w ere r egarded b y t he e xcavators a s l uxury i mports ( Young, 1 981, 3 0ff., p l.14). O ne w as a j uglet, t he o ther a l otus-handled d ish. C omparable v essels, i n s tone a nd i n E gyptian B lue, a re r eported f rom I ron A ge C yprus. D espite " Egyptianizing" t raits, t here i s l ittle r eason t o p ostulate a n E gyptian s ource, f or t here, i f a nything, g reen f rit w as m ore p opular t ion).

t han b lue i n t he L ate P eriod

I t

h as

l ong b een r ecognized

( Kaczmarczyk,

p ersonal i nforma-

t hat E gyptian B lue w as a

m aterial

p articularly c haracteristic o f c ollections o f s carabs a nd s mall o bj ects i n " Egyptianizing" s tyle f ound t hroughout t he e astern M editerr anean 1 962, m uch

d uring

t he e ighth t o s ixth c enturies B .C.

4 67-8), t hough, u sed i n E gypt.

t heir c ommunities o f T hroughout W estern

i ncluding s uch s ites a s A ssur, N imrud a nd N ineveh i n M esopoi t i s a lso c urrent f or s eals, a mulets a nd b eads.

T he G erman e xcavators B lue

P ayne,

a s h as b een n oted, i t w as n ot a m aterial t hen W hen f ound i n E gypt i t i s u sually o n D elta

s ites, s uch a s N aucratis a nd T anis, r enowned f or f oreigners, a rtisans, t raders a nd m ercenaries. Api a, t âmia,

( James i n

a rtefacts.

r eported

f inding

I n

t he

a t

B abylon r evealed a v ariety o f

" Principal C itadel" o f t he

" remains.. . of

K asr

E gyptian K oldewey

l arge r eliefs c onsisting o f a b eauti-

f ul b lue p aste, s imilar t o l apis l azuli. T he f igures w ere m ade u p o f s eparate p ieces, e ach o f w hich o nly c ontained a s mall p art, s uch a s a l ock o f h air. O n t he b ack o f t hese s eparate p ieces t here w as a p rismatic a ddition, b y w hich t hey w ere a ffixed t o w hich w e k now n othing" ( Koldewey, 1 914, 1 58-9).

s ome b ackground o f A m iscellaneous

c ollection

l argely o bjects o r

o f p recious a nd

s emi-precious s tones,

f ragments o f t hem , w ere f ound i n w hat h ad o riginally b een t wo b askets i n a m ud-brick h ouse u nder a b uilding o f t he P arthian p eriod ( "A inran P erlen-Depotfund"). K oldewey ( 1914, 2 21) b elieved t hem t o b e t he r aw m aterials o f a b ead m anufacturer; i nscriptions i ndicate a d ate f or a t l east

s ome

o f

t he o bjects

i n t he N eo-Assyrian

a nd

N eo-Babylonian

p eriods. A mong t hem w ere o bjects o f i mitation s tone, i ncluding l arge, b lank c ylinder s eals o f " blue p aste" ( Koldewey, 1 914, 4 8) a nd v arious s eal,

f rit

s eals.

T hey . b elong t o a d istinct c lass

d ated b etween t he n inth a nd s eventh c enturies

o f

B .C.,

c ylinder a ssembled

b y M oortgat f rom e xamples e xcavated a t A ssur, T ell H alaf a nd B abylon ( Moortgat, 1 940, n os.689-731); i n s ome c ases t he m aterial " blue f rit" i s s pecifically i dentified. E gyptian B lue w as a lso u sed a t B abylon f or m ould-made v essels. R euther r eported a f ragmentary r elief v essel s howing a n ude f emale c lasping h er b reasts " in b lue p aste ( imitation l apis)" ( Reuther, 1 926, 1 40-1, f ig.90). H e a lso d escribed a s mall 1 92

v essel a s

b eing o f

T he i s

" imitation l apis"

( Ibid.,

2 23,

p l.75A).

r ange o f E gyptian B lue p roduction i n t he A chaemenid

b est

r epresented i n t he e xcavations a t P ersepolis i n

i nscribed ( Schmidt,

p eriod

I ran.

U n-

a nd i nscribed w all p egs w ere f ound i n " Xerxes H arem" 1 957, 5 0, f ig.4, p 1.42:27). I nlay b eards m ade o f t his

m aterial c ontinue d irectly a n e arlier t radition ( see p .191) ( Schmidt, 1 957, 7 2, p l.41:14-15). S ome o ther E gyptian B lue o bjects w ere d ist inctively E gyptian

( Ibid.,

6 8,

p l.31:3).

I n t he c hart o f t he

T ableware", 1 4 ( of 3 17) f ootless p lates, I ( of 7 ) ( of 1 82) s herds, a re d escribed a s " composition"

" Royal

f ooted b owls, ( Ibid., 9 1,

a nd 6 t able

V III). A b uff c oloured p ottery s herd, f rom a s tore-room ( 21) o f t he A padana, h ad b lue p igment i ncrusted o n p art o f i ts i nterior s urface t o a m aximum t hickness o f 0 .05cm., p erhaps i ndicative o f l ocal m anuf acture ( Ibid., 1 33). B y f ar t he f inest o bject i n E gyptian B lue, f ound m ore r ecently b y t he I ranian A ntiquities S ervice a t P ersepolis, I s t he S pycket,

h ead o f a y oung p rince o r p rincess 1 980), w earing a m ural c rown. I t

( Porada, i s 6 .5cm.

1 965, p 1.45; h igh a nd w as

p robably o nce t he h ead o f a s tatuette. I n

h is

r eport o n t he E gyptian B lue a t P ersepolis

( in

S chmidt,

1 957, 1 33ff.) M atson p roposed a p rocess o f m anufacture, w hich s ubs equent r esearch h as i ndicated i s a lmost c ertainly i ncorrect. ( c)

T extual r eferences:

T here B lue.

i s n o d irect

O ppenheim ( 1970,

t extual 1 3,

7 b)

i nformation i n A kkadian o n

E gyptian

b elieved t hat i t m ight b e t he m ate-

r ial r eferred t o i n c ertain c ases w here a rtificial l apis l azuli i mplied; b ut t here i s n o c ertainty a bout t he c ontexts h e c ites.

w as

N OTE T he P roblem o f O rigins T he

l iterature

o n

t he e arliest o ccurrence o f g lazed

M esopotamia i s p articularly h azardous

t o u se.

T his

m aterials

i n

i s n otably s o a t

A rpachiyah, w here a v ariety o f g lazed m aterials w ere e ncountered. H ere b oth r ecording o f c ontext a nd d escription o f m aterials i s o ften o bscure o r a mbiguous. A s M allowan d istinguishes 'frit' f rom ' glazed f rit

h e

m ay

m ean

t he

s pecific

d istinction

b etween

r elatively

u nweathered a nd b adly w eathered f aience. H e a lso m entions o rnaments i nlaid w ith " vitreous p aste", b ut i t i s n ot c lear

b itumen w hether

t hey w ere o f t he H alaf o r U baid p eriods. I f t here i s n o t rue f rit a t A rpachiyah, t hen t he 'bluish f rit ( see p . 1 43 h ere) f rom E ridu m ight b e t he e arliest r eference t o b lue f rit o r E gyptian B lue; b ut t he m atter r emains e ntirely o pen. 1 93

C hapter 3 :

A :

G LASS

T he M aterial: G lass h as

f erent f rom m anufacture, m elt, g lass

a h omogenous,

n on-crystalline s tructure,

q uite

d if-

f aience o r f rit. I n a g lass, a t s ome p oint i n t he t he i ngredients b ecome c ompletely f used i nto a l iquid

w hich i s c ooled a nd t hen s ets a s g lass. I n i ts s oftened f orm, i s r emarkably t ractable. I t c an b e r olled i nto s heets, d rawn

i nto t ubes, r ods o r t hreads; l t c an b e c ut w ith s hears o r t eased i nto s hape. I t c an b e p ressed i nto m oulds o r, a s w as d iscovered, p robably s omewhere i n S yro-Palestine, B .C., B :

b lown l ike a b ubble

i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f irst

c entury

f rom t he e nd o f a p ipe.

M esopotamian G lass a nd i ts s tudy: F inds

o f

n early a lways

e arly

g lass

i ll-preserved

i n M esopotamia a re ( cf.

v on S aldern,

r elatively 1 970,

2 04),

r are

a nd

s o t hey

h ave a ttracted m uch l ess a ttention t han h as b een a ccorded t o t he w ell-preserved, b rilliantly c oloured p olychrome g lass o bjects f rom N ew K ingdom t ombs i n E gypt. A lthough o ne o f t he f irst b ooks e ver w ritten o n a ncient B abylonia r efers t o g lass a nd g lazed b ricks ( Rich, 1 816, 2 9), a nd f inds w ere s poradically m ade t hroughout t he n ineteenth c entury ( cf.

P eters,

1 898,

I I,

1 34ff.,

K oldewey,

1 914,

2 55ff.),

p ioneer s tudents o f t he h istory o f g lass i n t his c entury, l ike K isa a nd v on B issing, d ismissed t he c laims o f M esopotamia. M eissner ( 1920, 2 35) t hought o therwise, a rguing t hat t here w as a l ocal i ndustry a s o ld a s t hat i n E gypt. S tarr ( 1939, 4 57-9) o pened a n ew e poch f or g lass s tudies i n M esopotamia, w hen i n h is f inal r eport o n t he e xcavations a t N uzi h e d evoted s pecial a ttention t o h is r emarka ble g lass f inds. T hen, i n t he f ollowing y ear, F ossing s G lass V essels b efore G lass B lowing ( Copenhagen, 1 940) b rought a ll t he M esop otamian e vidence s harply t o t he f ore. H e i solated a g roup o f e arly " Mesopotamian" g lass v essels, r ecognized a l ocal i ndustry a s e arly a s 1 300 B .C., a nd d efined i ts r elationship t o E gypt, t hough m aking c lear a n i ndependent M esopotamian t rend. W orld

W ar H arden

1 970)

h ave

s et

( 1968),

B arag

I n t he y ears

( 1962;

f ollowing t he S econd

1 970) a nd v on S aldern ( 1966;

t he s tudy o f M esopotamian g lass o n a f irm

b asis

o f

a ssembled e xamples a nd c omparative t ypology. O ppenheim ( 1970) g ave t he s ubject a f resh d imension b y d etailed i nvestigation o f t extual s ources,

w hilst B rill

t ary s tudies C :

( 1970;

1 978) a nd o thers h ave p ursued c omplemen-

o f c omposition a nd t echnology.

H istorical S urvey: ( i)

T he p rehistory o f g lass p roduction i n t he N ear E ast

S ince

B eck s

( to a bout

1 500 B .C.):

f undamental r eview o f 1 94

t he e vidence

i n

1 934,

n o

s ubstantial o bjects a ll o f

p rogress

h as

b een m ade

i n s tu'y o f

t b2

e arliest

g i

s

i n t he N ear E ast. B eck w as a ble t o l ist o nly 1 7 o bjects, n ot t hem o f c ertain d ate, a nd n ot o ne o f t hem a v essel, m ade

b efore a bout 1 500 B .C.

i n E gypt o r

t he N ear E ast.

A lthough t he

l ist

m ight b e s lightly l engthened f ifty y ears l ater, t here i s s till n o c ertain e vidence f or v essel p roduction b efore t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. M ost o f t he s pecimens w ere, a nd r emain, b eads, f ound s ingly o r i n r elatively s mall g roups. N one o f B eck's e xamples, n or a ny o f t he s ubsequent f inds, m ay c onfidently b e d ated b efore s ion,

t he m iddle o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. B eck's m ain c onclut hat i t w as p robably i n W estern A sia r ather t han E gypt, t hat

r egular g lass p roduction o riginated, ( Barag, 1 970, 1 32). B eck's a ttributed

c aution t o

a bout

l evel 4 o f

t ained b y s ubsequent M allowan, 1 933, 1 80-1,

h as a lso s tood t he t est o f

t he c orrect

d ating o f

t wo

g lass

t he G reat P it M M a t N ineveh h as r esearch ( Beck i n p l.LXXIX, 2 5-6).

t ime

b eads

b een

s us-

C ampbell T hompson a nd O ne b ead w as p ale b lue,

s pherical i n s hape; t he o ther " a h exagonal c ylindrical b ead, w hich h as b een c ut f rom a h exagonal r od", h ad b een a b rilliant g reen a nd f rom i ts s pecific g ravity B eck c onsidered i t t o b e a l ead g lass. A s B eck c ogently r emarked " it s eems t o m e m ost i mprobable t hat t hese b eads c an b e a s e arly a s s tated". I f t hese t wo b eads a re p ut t o o ne s ide, t he e arliest g lass b ead f rom W estern A sia i s t hat f rom T ell J udeideh i n t he A muq P lain o f S yria, a ttributed t o p hase " C", d ated t o t he e arlier t hird m illennium B .C. ( Braidwood, 1 960, 3 41, f ig.258). I t i s a w ell-preserved, s hort, o blate s pherical b ead, p ale y ellowg reen i n c olour. M atson ( ibid., 3 41) r eported t hat: " The b ead w as f ormed a round a s traight r od ( d.3.6mm) w hich g ave t he c ore a u niformly c ylindrical s hape, b ut t he o uter s urface, w hich ws p robably s haped b y r olling t he s oft g lass o n a f lat s urface a fter i t h ad b een g athered o n t he r od, i s m isshapen a nd p ock-marked. T he p resence o f s o m any s eeds a nd c ords i n t he g lass i ndicates t hat i t w as

m elted

a t a f airly l ow t emperature a t w hich t he

s till q uite h igh,

s o

t hat

t he g lass

h ad

v iscosity

t he s tiffness o f

w as

t hick m olas-

s es. I t c ould n ot b e s tirred o r w orked e asily i n s uch a s tate, s o t hat i t w as n ot c leared o f s eeds a nd c ords. H ad i t b een p ossible t o u se a h igher m elting t emperature, a b etter q uality o f g lass c ould h ave

b een m ade". I n g rave 5 A o f p it L 4 a t N uzi

1 939,

3 2,

5 15) w as

" a p lain,

( attributed

t o S tratum I V:

S tarr,

s traight c opper p in o f e ven d iameter,

1 4cm. l ong, w ith a l arge g lass b ead, 1 5mm. i n d iameter, s erving a s a h ead... I t i s, i n f act, i n m uch s ounder c ondition t han t he m ajority o f

t he N uzi g lass

b eads

( i.e.

o f

S tratum I I)"

( Starr,

1 939,

3 80).

I n

t he s ame g rave w as a c ylinder s eal, s till o n i ts c opper p in , a ssigned b y B oehmer t o t he l ater A kkadian P eriod ( c.2350-2150 B .C.) ( Starr, 1 939,

p l.55

F ,

P ;

B oehmer,

1 965,

n o.1566);

b roadly t he c hronological

h orizon t o w hich t his g rave w as a ttributed b y t he e xcavators, w ho f ound a c oncentration o f " Old A kkadian" t exts i n S tratum I V ( Starr, 1 939,

5 16).

S ince

s uch

" bead-heads" o n p ins h ad e arlier b een m ade o f

l apis-lazuli, t he a ssociation o f t he e arliest g lass, a s t he e arliest f aience, w ith t he c heaper r eproduction o f s emi-precious s tones i s e vident.

U nfortunately S tarr d id n ot

i llustrate

1 95

t his

f ind.

O f g reater g lass r od"

t echnical

f rom t he

s ignificance

" Main l evel o f

i s a p ale

b lue-green

" chipped

t he N orthern P alace" a t T ell A smar

i n t he f ill o f r oom E 1 6:16 ( Delougaz, 1 967, 1 89-190; 2 46; A s.31:671; c f. G ibson, 1 982). O bjects l ittered a bout t he f loor o f t his r oom i ncluded a s mall u pright-handled j ar ( 8.526:471); a n i mportant h oard o f j ewellery ( including f aience o bjects) w as f ound b uried b elow t he f loor o f t he r oom ( ibid., 1 90, 2 45: A s.31: 8 68-926). F rankfort ( et a l., 1 934, 5 6) p rovided t he f ollowing d escription o f t he c ontext f or B eck's t echnical r eport: " It w as

f ound a bove

t o t he p eriod o f

1 6 E 1 6 i n t he l ayer o f

t he d esertion o f

d ebris c orresponding

t he A kkadian p alace,

w hich,

a s w e

h ave s een, c ontained a lmost e xclusively o bjects o f S argonid t imes. I t w as f ound d efinitely b eneath w alls o f a r uined b uilding w hich h ad c ontained t ablets o f w alls l ay".

t he 3 8th y ear o f

S hugli.

T he f oundation o f

t he

o f t he b uilding s top h alf a m eter a bove t he l evel a t w hich i t F rankfort h imself d ated i t t o t he G uti p eriod o r " more p rob-

a bly t o t hat o f t he d ynasty o f A kkad". G ibson s ( 1982, 5 34) r evis ions i n t he d ating o f t his a rea w ould n ot i nvalidate t his c onc lusion; t hough t he t ablet ( sic) w ould n ow b e d ated S hulgi 4 0 o r 4 1. B eck p ublished t wo t echnical c omments o n t his f ind ( Frankfort e t a l., 1 934, 5 6ff., f ig.51; B eck, 1 934, n o.7, f igs.2 a nd 3 ); h e r eported t hat

" it

s hape,

a ppears

t o h ave b een m odelled o r m oulded

a nd h ad n ot b een c ut o ut o f a s olid b lock.

t o

i ts

T he g lass

p resent i s v ery

p ure; i t h as a f ew s mall b ubbles b ut i s s urprisingly f ree f rom s triae o r i nclusions o f q uartz o r d irt". T he o bject w as n ot a nalysed. I t l ooks a s i f m anufacture. P erhaps

i t m ight b e a t ype o f g lass

t he m ost

f amous

t ube

s ingle p iece o f

r egularly

r aw g lass

u sed

f rom

i n

M esopo-

t amia i s t he s mall l ump ( BM 1 15474) e xcavated a t A bu S hahrein ( Eridu) b y H all i n 1 919: " In t he r ubbish b ut n ot i n t he f loor o f t he h ouse, i mmediately b eneath t he B ur-Sin ( Amar-Sin) p avement, w as f ound a l ump o f o paque b lue v itreous p aste w hich I r ecognised a s t rue g lass" ( Hall,

1 930,

m ore p robably,

2 13).

T his w ould d ate i t

t he e arly U r I II p eriod.

t o t he d ynasty o f A kkad o r, B eck ( 1934,

n o.8,

f igs.4 a nd

5 ) c oncluded: " This s pecimen m ay h ave b een m eant m elted a nd m oulded t o t he d esired s hape;

t o b e c arved o r t o b e r eo r e ven, i t m ay h ave b een

i ntended p robably

t o g rind l t u p a nd u se i t a s a g laze. I n a ny c ase i t w as a m anufacturer's p iece o f m aterial a nd t he p robability i s

t hat

w as

i t

m ade

i n t he

i mmediate n eighbourhood o f

w here

i t

w as

f ound". T he g lass

i s

p ure u ltramarine i n c olour;

i t h as b een a nalysed b y

G arner ( 1956, 1 47ff.), w ho i dentified t he c olourant a s c obalt ( 0.15%). " Although t he a mount o f c opper i s 0 .40%, t hree t imes t hat o f c obalt, i t h as a m uch w eaker c olouring p roperty a nd i n f act w ould h ardly i nfluence t he c olour at a ll". T he c obalt w as i dentified a s o ne o f t he a rsenical o nes, e ither c obaltite o r e rythrite, a nd a ttrib uted

t o

a n I ranian s ource,

p erhaps t he

m ines

a t

K hemsar,

n ear

K ashan, a n e rythrite o f b eautiful a methyst-pink c rystals, w hereas t he c obaltite o f A zerbaijan i s a m etallic g rey i n c olour a nd m uch l ess l ikely t o a ttract a ttention. T he c obalt i s f ree o f m anganese, z inc a nd n ickel,

s trengthening

t he c ase

f or a n I ranian s ource.

1 96

O ppenheim a ppearance

( 1970,

i n

1 9-20) h as c alled a ttention t o

t exts

o f

t he U r I II p eriod o f a

t he v ery

m aterial

r are

k nown

a s

a nzahhu ( Sumerian A N.ZAH), o nce a s a b owl, o nce a s a r aw m aterial. H e b elieved i t t o b e a " primary g lass"; t hat i s a k ey i ntermediate m aterial i n t he p roduction o f a f inished g lass. T he C .A.D. r enders i t " an i mperfectly f used, c rude, f rit-like g lass"; b ut F oster ( 1979, 1 7; c f. L oding, 1 981, 1 2) h as t aken i t t o b e a m ineral, p erhaps a t ype o f q uartzite. W hatever t he c ase, a nd t he a vailable e vidence i s i ndecisive, i t d oes n ot p rovide c ertain e vidence f or g lass v essels a t t his t ime. A t m ost, i f a n a rtificial a nd n ot a n atural s ubstance, i t c omplements t he a rchaeologically a ttested p roduction o f f aience v essels a s

( see p .147 h ere) a nd i mitation o f c oloured s tones i n

g lass,

o n t he N uzi p inhead. O ppenheim

f ragments

( 1970,

" indicate

8 5) a

a lso a rgued t hat t he T ell A smar a nd

t echnical t urning p oint i n

t he

E ridu

h istory

o f

M esopotamian g lass m aking. W e m ay r ead h ere t he l evel a t w hich t he a nonymous c raftsman w ho p roduced t he " primary g lasses" ( see p .36) w as s upplanted b y t he c hemist. T he n ew a lkali-silicate g lasses w ere c ombined w ith t he

" primary g lasses"

c oloured s tones . a rchaeology. W hat t inuous t radition c omposition

i n o rder

t o p roduce i mitation

o f

T his g oes f ar b eyond t he p resent e vidence o f t he k nown m aterial c ulture i ndicates i s a c oni n t he m anufacture o f i mitation s tones, w hose

v aried c onsiderably;

b ut b efore t he

s ixteenth

c entury

B .C. l ittle, o r n one o f i t, w as o f g lass i n t he a ccepted m odern s ense ( ingredients f used i nto a l iquid m elt). I t w as v arious t ypes o f s intered q uartz, l arly w hen u sed I n

h is

g lazed a nd u nglazed, f or a nything o ther

a nalyses

o f

t he

i .e.

f rit a nd

f aience,

p articu-

t han b eads.

" Old B abylonian"

w ord-lists

o f

t he

e arlier s econd m illennium B .C. O ppenheim i solated c ertain s ubstances a s w hat h e c alled " primary g lasses" ( see a bove): a nzahhu, k utpc t, h ulu ju a nd h u3 ( Oppenheim, 1 970, 1 9ff.). V irtually n othing i s l nown o f t hese s ubstances; b ut, i n w hat O ppenheim s aw a s a s ignific ant, t ion

u ndated, s ub-period, a nzahhu p layed a m ajor r ole i n t he p roduco f i mitation c oloured s tones. " It m ay b e a ssumed t hat t heir

c omposition v aried g reatly a nd t hat t he m entioned d esignations r efer n ot o nly t o u ses a nd c olours, b ut t o s pecific s till u nknown p ropert ies

a s

w ell.

T hese m aterials

w ere u sed t o m ake

b eads,

i nlays,

c ylinder s eals a nd p robably b owls..." ( Oppenheim, 1 970, 8 4). O ppenh eim ( 1970, 8 4-5) e xtended h is p hilological a nalyses i nto t he a rea o f c ultural h istory b y a rguing t hat a ll t he e arly d esignations o f h is " primary g lasses" w ere n ot A kkadian w ords a nd t hat e ven t he S umerian A N.ZAH, f rom w hich a nza t ju i s d erived, c ould w ell b e a l oan w ord f rom s ome u nknown s ource. A l—t hough h e a dmitted t hat t he u ltimate o rigin o f t hese w ords h ad n ot b een e stablished, h e h azarded t he g uess t hat t hey c ame " into M esopotamia f rom t he n orthwest t ogether w ith t he s ubstances t hey d enote". S uch a v iew i s h ard t o s ubstantiate f rom t he a vailable a rchaeological e vidence, e ven i f p hilologically s ound; b ut

i t

i s n ot

I n k nown

a s

i mpossible.

t he l ong s eries o f t hird m illennium g raves a t U r, c ommonly t he " Royal C emetery", W oolley c atalogued t wo i nstances o f

g lass b eads, o ne f rom a L ate A kkadian g rave ( PG 1 213): " some g lass r ingbeads" ( U.12003); t he o ther f rom a N eo-Sumerian g rave ( PG 9 73): " beads.. . glass" b uted

t o

t he

( U.11427).

F rom o nly o ne o f

I sin-Larsa p eriod

( LG 1 21), 1 97

o f

t he 1 98 g raves t he

e arlier

a ttris econd

m illennium B .C.,

d oes h e r eport

" beads 1 8 c hiefly c arnelian a nd s ome

g lass" ( Woolley, 1 976, 2 05). B oth t he i dentification a nd t he a rcha eological c ontext o f t he " glass" b eads f rom E nunmah a re e quivocal; t hey w ere n ear a d rain i n r oom 9 ( Woolley, 1 974, 5 0). I n t he m ain t ext t hey ( U.152-3) a ppear a s " minute c rystal a nd p ebble b eads a nd a f ew l arger p aste a nd s tone b eads", ( ibid., 5 0). I n t he c atalogue U .153 i s p ut i n r oom 1 3 a nd l isted a s " Beads, m inute, o f t ransparent w hite g lass a nd o paque g lass p aste" ( ibid., 8 4). T his w ould a ppear t o b e a n e xample o f t he c ommon v isual c onfusion b etween r ock c rystal a nd g lass; t he s upposed e arly g lass b eads f rom T ell F arah ( Shuruppak) w ere a lso f inally s aid t o b e r ock c rystal ( Beck, 1 934, 1 0). A lthough B eck w as a lmost c ertainly r ight t o r eject a s " before 1 600 B .C." s ome r ed b eads f rom U r g iven h im b y W oolley f or e xamination, t he f rom t he s ite h e e xamined m ay n ot b e i ndependently c hecked. ( 1934,

1 8)

r eported t hat

" they w ere

o thers B eck

f ound w ith a s eries o f

f aience

b eads d efinitely s tated b y W oolley t o d ate b efore 1 600 B .C. T he d ust c onsists l argely o f b roken d own g lass o f a t l east t wo s orts, o ne p ractically

c olourless,

t he o ther y ellow g lass

s o c ommon

i n

E gypt

d uring t he X VIII d ynasty". A t

A ssur v arious v otive d eposits w ere p laced i n t he c orners

o f

t he Z iggurat. T wo s ets w ere e xcavated. T he l ower, o n b edrock , i ncluded s ome g lass b eads. O n t he c omparative d ating o f a ssociated b rickwork

t he e xcavator d ated t his b edrock d eposit

t o S hamshi-Adad I

( c.1813-1781 B .C.), t hough i t i s n ot c ertain t hat i t w as n ot c ont aminated b y S halmaneser I II s w orkmen a m illennium l ater ( Beck, 1 934, 1 7; A ndrae, 1 938, 9 0, p ls.45-6; H aller a nd A ndrae, 1 955, 2 ff.). T he u pper d eposit a lso c ontained g lass b eads. I t i ncluded s ilver a nd g old d isks i nscribed f or S halmaneser I II ( c.858-824 B .C.) a nd a s tone t ablet o f S halmaneser I ( c.1274-45 B .C.). H owever, a n i nscription o f A ad-nirari I ( c.1307-1275 B .C.) f rom A ssur s peaks o f " the g reat n ew Z iggurat b uilt b y m y f ather A n k-den-u i" ( c.1319-1308 B .C.) ( Edzard, 1 964),

s o

b eads,

w ith

t hese

b eads m ight b e

o thers

o f

f ourteenth c entury i n

a gate a nd f aience,

d ate.

w ere f ound

i n

G lass a n

o ld

A ssyrian g rave a t A ssur ( no-486) ( Haller, 1 954, 3 9). A t T ell A smar f rom h ouses b elow t he " Southern B uilding" , w hich a re a ttributed t o t he E arly L arsa P eriod, i n t he f irst c entury o r s o o f t he s econd m illenn ium

B .C.,

t he e xcavators r eported a " glass

t ubular

f ragment" a nd a

" glass b owl f ragment" ( Delougaz, 1 967, 2 63, n o.31:547; 2 64, n o.31:58). N o d etails h ave y et b een p ublished a bout e ither o f t hese f inds;

i f

c ance a t

c orrectly r eported,

t his

F rom

t he

l atter w ould b e o f

g reat

s ignifi-

d ate.

s uch m eagre a nd s cattered e vidence

m ay b e c oncluded.

T he s ample I s

s o s mall

l ittle o f

s ignificance

( particularly w hen

p oten-

t ially m isdated e xamples a re r emoved) t hat t he r emaining b eads m ight b e i nterpreted a s n o m ore t han c ompositions i ntended a s f aience w hich t urned c ompletely v itreous w hen o verfired. T he " glass t ubes" a nd t he E ridu l ump w ould t hen h ave t o b e s een a s b y-products o f t ion g lass

e arliest g lass h eim, p oint.

1 970, A s

O ppenheim t hey

g laze p roduc-

f or f aience m anufacture a nd n ot a s e vidence f or a n i ndependent i ndustry. H owever, i f a m ore p ositive l ine i s t aken a bout t he

w ere

p roduced

i n M esopotamia,

7 6, t he

c loser t o 0 ppenheim 5 p osition

( Oppen-

8 3, 8 5), i t i s n ecessary t o l ay e mphasis o n o ne s cribes w ho c ompiled t he l exical l ists u pon w hich

d rew f or h is a nalysis w ere c ataloguing t he n ames n aturally i nterested a rtificially.

i n i ncluding t hose

A lthough

t he 1 98

m eagre

o f

c oloured

m aterial

s tones s tones

e vidence

c ontinues

t o

s how t hat b efore 1 500 B .C.

s uch i mitations w ere

p re-

d ominantly o f f aience o r f rit, i t d oes a t l east i ndicate t he e mergence o f s ome p roduction i n g lass: t he s eeds o f a r epertory t hat w as t o r emain a s ignificant a spect o f M esopotamian g lass m anufacture f or l ong a fter 1 500 B .C. I ndeed t he v ery e xistence o f t he " glass t exts"

( see p .224)

i n l ater M iddle B abylonian a nd N eo-Assyrian

t imes

i s e vidence f or i ts c ontinuing i mportance. S ince t he m odern s tudent o f e arly g lass t echnology t ends t o s ee t he p roduction o f g lass v essels a s t he k ey f actor, i t i s e asy t o f orget t hat t his w as o nly o ne a spect o f t he i ndustry a fter 1 500 B .C. a nd n ot, t he o ne o f i nterest t o c ontemporary s cribes.

a s i t

h appens,

I n t his i nstance, p articularly, a b roader p erspective i s i ns tructive. I n t he N ear E ast, o utside M esopotamia, t here s till a ppears t o b e n o c ertain e vidence f or g lass b eads b efore t he M iddle B ronze A ge, s ave f or t he i solated A muq f ind ( p.195). I n A natolia S chliemann r eported t hree s mall g lass s pheres a nd a g lass b ead f rom t he

B urnt C ity o f T roy ( h g);

b ut

t here i s

f irstly s ome d oubt

a bout

t heir c ontext ( Schliemann, 1 884, 4 78, 4 80) a nd t hen m uch d ebate o ver t he a bsolute d ating o f t his l evel. B oth a t B ogazk3y a nd a t A lishar t here i s e vidence f or g lass b eads i n t he M iddle B ronze A ge l evels ( Boehmer, 1 972, 1 75, n o-1809; v on d er O sten, 1 937, 2 84-5, f ig.309). I n S yria W oolley ( 1955, 2 69) r eported p olychrome g lass b eads f rom t he t emple o f l evel V II a t T el A tshana. I n I ran b lue g lass b eads, c oloured w ith c obalt, h ave b een r eported f rom g raves a t G eoy T epe, u sually a ssigned t o t he p eriod b etween 2 000-1500 B .C. a nd p robably e arlier r ather t han l ater i n i t ( Burton-Brown, 1 951, 1 27ff.; C rawf ord, 1 975, 1 2). T hus, w ithin t he b road n etwork o f O ld A ssyrian t rade c ontact,

t here i s

t hat s eems m ore

t han a ccidental.

T he ( 1962,

e vidence

1 81;

c f.

" There i s, t iny

s ome f irm e vidence f or g lass b ead p roduction

f or E gypt h as b een a dmirably s ummarised

C ooney,

1 960,

t herefore,

g lass a mulets

d ate

b y

L ucas

1 1): n o d oubt w hatsoever t hat g lass b eads a nd

f rom a s e arly a s a bout

t he F ifth D ynasty ( c.

2 465-2323 B .C.), a nd i t i s e xceedingly p robable t hat t hey w ere a ll o f E gyptian m anufacture a nd t hat t hey w ere t he o utcome o f t he u se o f g lass a s a g lazing m aterial f or s teatite a nd q uartz ( both s olid a nd p owdered). S ome o f t hese e arly b eads, h owever, a re n ot n ormal g lass, b ut

w hat

e lsewhere I h ave

c alled

i mperfect

g lass ...

T hough

p os-

s ibly i ntended a s f aience, w hich i s g lazed q uartz f rit, t hey a re n ot, s ince t he m aterial i s o f s imilar c omposition t hroughout w ithout a ny c oating

o f g laze,

a nd,

t herefore,

t hey m ust b e c lassed a s

g lass.

T his i mperfect g lass c onsists o f g lass m atrix i n w hich a c onsiderable p roportion o f u ncon ibined q uartz i s e mbedded." T wo u djat t o t he

e yes o f b lack a nd w hite g lass

t he T enth D ynasty,

M iddle K ingdom ( Lucas,

g lass" y ears.

f ound a t S edment,

a re t he o nly o ther o bjects 1 962,

1 82).

d ated

t hat m ay d ate b efore

N one o f

t he o ther

" early

o bjects f rom E gypt h as s urvived c ritical e xamination i n r ecent T he o ccasional p roduction o f g lass i n t he M iddle K ingdom a nd

t hrough i nto t he S econd I ntermediate p eriod i ncludes b eads ( Lucas, 1 962, 1 81) a nd s ome i nscribed s carabs ( Martin, 1 971, n os.441, 1 198). T he

B oston M useum o f F ine A rts h as a t iny

g lass

p laque,

i nscribed

w ith t he n ames o f A hmose ( c.1550-25 B .C.) a nd A menophis I ( c.15251 504 B .C.), w hich i s t aken t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he l ater p art o f 1 99

A hmose s r eign

( Gordon,

1 982).

" An e lemental a nalysis

( in t he B oston

M useum l aboratory b y V an Z eist a nd S ayre) b y m eans o f e nergy d ispers ive X -Ray f luorescence s pectrometry s howed t he p resence o f c alcium, a m ain e lement i n g lass p roduction,

c opper a s a c olorant,

a n o pacifier, s trontium a s a n i mpurity c oming i n w ith i ron a s a n i mpurity" ( Gordon, 1 982, 2 94). T he

f irst

a ntimony a s

c alcium ,

r egular p roduction o f c ore-formed g lass

a nd

v essels

i n

E gypt i s s till h ard t o d ate. I f t wo g lass s herds f ound i n t he d ebris o f t he t omb o f T uthmosis I ( c.1504-1492 B .C.) r eally b elong t o h is r eign, t hen c entury B .C.;

p roduction m ay h ave b egun b y t he e nd o f b ut t his r emains d oubtful ( cf. B arag,

t he 1 970,

s ixteenth 1 81). I t

i s t o t he t ime o f T uthmosis I II ( c.1479-1425 B .C.) t hat t he e arliest r eliable e vidence b elongs. V essels o f t his r eign r epresent a n i mport ant

i nitial s tage o f

d evelopment,

s ince s hapes a nd d esigns w ere n ot

y et s tandardized. I n B arag s ( 1970, 1 83) v iew s ome s how n o e vidence o f f oreign i nfluence a t a ll, w hilst o ne h as a dopted d ecoration f amiliar i n M esopotamia a nd t wo m ay b e a ctual i mports f rom t hat a rea. I t i s p ossible t hat t he

s kills o f

f rom S yria, r eign

o f

i f n ot a ctual g lass

w ere f irst e stablished i n E gypt; T uthmosis

r epertory i s

f ollowing t he A siatic c ampaigns o f T uthmosis

g lass v essel p roduction, I V ( c.

1 401-1391 B .C.)

i t

i s n ot u ntil t he

t hat a

s tandard

( most e vident a g eneration o r s o l ater a t T ell

l ocal

a l-Amarna)

f irst e vident. W hatever t he c ase t here i s n o q uestion,

o f

b ut

I II

w orkers

t he

" invention"

s ixteenth

c entury

o f g lass B .C.

a s

i s s ometimes s tated,

s omewhere i n t he N ear E ast

i n a bout

T here w as s imply a m ajor c hange

i n

t he g lass

t echnology. W here t his t ook p lace, a nd u nder w hat c ircumstances, i s s till u nknown. A s t he o lder a rtificial s ubstances, t he f rits a nd fiences, a re c hemically v ery s imilar t o t he o paque, r ichly c oloured g lasses o f t he i nitial L ate B ronze A ge i n S yro-Palestine, i t i s l ikely t hat t he c hange t ook p lace i n a n a rea w ith a w ell e stablished f rit/faience i ndustry. S uch a n i nnovation i s l ikely t o h ave e merged i n a w ell p atronized c ourt o r t emple w orkshop. T he m oulding o f f aience n ude-female f igurines i n t he M iddle B ronze A ge, a s a t A lishar a nd K ültepe ( Dayton, 1 978, f ig.94) i n T urkey, i s e xactly m atched a mongst

t he

P eltenburg, p recursors,

e arliest e vidence f or g lass 1 971, 8 ; s ee b elow). i n t he s ame g eneral a rea,

a nd s pacer-beads o f m oulded g lass 1 92ff.;

S paer,

p roduction

( Kühne,

1 969;

T here a re a lso f rit o r f aience f or t he e arliest d isk-pendants

( Haevernick,

1 965;

B arag,

1 970,

1 984).

S mith ( 1981,

2 02,

2 48) h as a rgued t hat

t he c ementation p rocess

f or f aience m anufacture ( "self-glazing"; s ee p .161 h ere), i nvolving " very s ubtle b ehaviour o f a lkalies a nd s ilicates i n d ifferential c ontact w ith l ime a nd s ilica s urfaces ( cf. W ulff, 1 968)" g ave r ise d irectly t o t he m anufacture o f t he e arliest s o-called " sand-core" g lass v essels i n w hich t he a bly l ime, n ot s ilica.

" sand" w as a n on w ettable m aterial, p robI f s o, i t w ould b e i nteresting t o k now

w hether t his t echnique w as f irst w idely u sed f or f aience p roduction i n S yro-Palestine i n t he m ature M iddle B ronze A ge a s i t s eems t o b e a M iddle K ingdom i nnovation i n E gypt ( Vandiver, 1 983a). T he s imult aneous a ppearance ( see b elow) o f e vidence f or t he e arliest g lass v essels a nd t he f irst v essels o f g lazed t erracotta ( see p .167) a t T ell A tshana i n S yria, a t t he v ery e nd o f t he M iddle B ronze A ge, i s c ertainly

n ot c oincidence.

T hey a re t wo a spects o f a s ingle 2 00

m ajor

t echnological t his

t ime ( ii)

b reakthrough i n t he f aience w orkshops o f

r apidly t aken u p i n t he c ourt w orkshops o f T he M itannian,

K assite

a nd

M iddle

t he L evant a t

t he r egion.

A ssyrian

t raditions

( c.1500-1150 B .C.): A s

h as

j ust

b een a rgued,

s omewhere i n t he N ear E ast

i n

t he

s ixteenth c entury B .C. t here w as a m ajor t echnological c hange i n t he u se o f g lass, r equiring n ew t echniques, t he u se o f s pecial t ools, a nd a g ood k nowledge o f t he p articular p roperties o f g lass. F or t he f irst t ime t his h ot, m ake v essels. T he

v iscous s ubstance w as c oiled a round a c ore t o e arliest e vidence f or s uch v essels i s s till

e xtremely m eagre. W oolley f ound i solated s herds o f p olychrome, c oref ormed g lass v essels i n l evel V I a t T ell A tshana ( Alalakh) i n S yria, f or w hich t he l owest a ccepted d ating i s t he l ater s ixteenth c entury B .C.

( Woolley,

1 955,

3 00 A T/39/225;

B arag,

1 970,

1 57,

n o.4).

B y

c ontrast, n o o ther v essel s herds o utside A tshana ( level V w as a lso r eported t o h ave y ielded g lass s herds) m ay s afely b e d ated b efore t he s econd h alf o f t he f ifteenth c entury B .C.; s o c aution m ay s till b e i n o rder i n a ny a ssessment o f t he c ontext o f t hese p ieces a t A lalakh.* C ast V I,

o r m oulded g lass o bjects w ere a lso r eported

n otably a n ude-female p laque

1 970,

1 88ff.);

a nother

w as

i n

( Woolley, a

1 955,

2 47,

f rom

A tshana

p l.LVIb;

g rave a ttributed

t o

B arag,

l evel

V ,

( Woolley, 1 955, 2 20:AT/39/106). S tratum I X a t M egiddo ( c.1550-1475 B .C.) y ielded a g lass n ude-female p laque ( Loud, 1 948, 1 82, p l.241:4: a s " fayence") a s w ell a s a c omplete, m oulded, p lain g lass d iskp endant a nd m oulded, b lue g lass s pacer-beads ( Loud, 1 948, p 1.210:39, 4 1, c f.Barag, 1 970, 1 92). E xamples o f m oulded b lue g lass s tar-shaped d isk-pendants, n ude-female p laques a nd s pacer-beads i n t he A egean, i n a rchaeological c ontexts o f t he s ixteenth o r f ifteenth c enturies B .C., h ave b een i dentified a s o riental i mports ( cf. B arag, 1 970, 1 89ff.). A s s uch t hey a re f urther s upport f or t he a rgument t hat t here w ere a ctive g lass w orkshops i n S yro-Palestine b y t he e arliest p hase o f t he l ocal L ate B ronze A ge N o

( c.1550-1500 B .C.).

s ite e xcavated

i n M esopotamia h as l evels

t he c rucial p eriod, c .1600/1550-1450 B .C., t his e arly p eriod i s y et k nown t here. O ppenheim ( 1973) t ion

s ecurely

d ated

t o

s o n o g lass c ertainly o f

i nvestigated t he d irection i n w hich t he

o f g lass v essel m anufacture s pread a cross

i nven-

t he N ear E ast i n

t he

t hird q uarter o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. t hrough t wo k ey A kkadian w ords. A t ext f rom U garit i ndicated t hat t hey w ere s ynonymous: t he e xpression e hlipakku, p erhaps o f H urrian o rigin, a nd t he w ord m ekku, o f W est S emitic o rigin. T he f ormer i s a ttested a t B oghazköy i n A natolia, i n A lalakh ( Atshana), U garit, Q atna a nd N uzi b ut d oes n ot a ppear i n t he " glass t exts", t he l atter w as u sed i n T yre, U garit, a nd i n A ssyria. T his c ommodity, b y o ne o r o ther n ame, i s r equested b y t hg E gyptian p haraoh, i n t he A marna l etters, f rom a n umber o f r ulers o f c ity-states M ekku

*

i s

T here

i n P alestine a nd L ebanon,

t ranslated

a re

s herds

i n t he

s tandard

i ncluding A scalon a nd T yre. d ictionaries

o f p ottery a nd f aience v essels

a s

" a k ind

o f

a ttributed

b y

W oolley t o l evels V I-V a t T ell A tshana t hat a re d emonstrably o f l ater d ate ( in t he l ocal L ate B ronze A ge).

2 01

a

p recious

s tone"

( C.A.D.

s .v.:

c f.AHw,

s .v.:

" stone"),

w hilst F oster

( 1979, 2 1) r endered i t " finely p owdered q uartz". O n t he b asis o f h is s tudy o f t he M esopotamian g lass t exts, O ppenheim ( 1970, 5 7ff.; 1 973, 2 61) a rgued t hat i t w as t he " raw m aterial u sed b y c raftsmen w ho f ashion t he g lass c ontainers"; t hat i s a n a rtificial g lassy m aterial. E ven i n t he k ey t ext ( Oppenheim , 1 970, 5 5-6) m ekku d oes n ot h ave t o b e g lass; i t c ould w ell b e a n atural m ineral i ngredient u sed i n t he m anufacture o f a f rit o r g lass. O n h is t ranslation O ppenheim p ostul ated a n e xport t rade i n r aw g lass f rom S yro-Palestine. A lthough

O ppenheim

a ppreciated

t he

a nomaly

o f

a n

E gyptian

p haraoh k eenly r equesting r aw g lass " in s pite o f t he f act t hat a ll i ngredients n ecessary t o p roduce g lass o bjects w ere a bundantly a vaila ble i n E gypt" ( 1973, 2 63), t his d id n ot s hake h is f aith i n h is t ranslation. T he e xistence o f f lourishing g lass w orkshops a t A marna ( Lucas, 1 962, 1 91ff.) u rges e ven g reater c aution o ver 0 ppenheim 5 t ranslation. A lthough t he a nalytical e vidence i s s parse, i nformation o n t wo c olourants a lso t ends a gainst O ppenheim T h a rgument. T he c obalt b lues a nalysed t o d ate f rom E gypt a nd M esopotamia " clearly i ndicate t hat d ifferent s ources o f c obalt h ave t o b e s ought f or t he E gyptian a nd M esopotamian b rands o f c obalt" ( Kaczmarczyk a nd H edges, 1 983, 2 90). B rill s r esults o n l ead i sotopes a re e qually d istinct " the r esults e stablish b eyond r easonable q uestion t hat t he y ellow p igments w ere m anufactured a t d ifferent p laces, t he E gyptian i n E gypt a nd t he M esopotamian e lsewhere. . so t he y ellow p igment i tself w as n ot i n t his i nstance a n a rticle o f t rade" ( Brill e t a l., 1 974). .

-

-

S yrian g lass c raftsmen m ay w ell h ave b een i nstrumental i n a ccelerating t he d evelopment o f t rue g lass p roduction i n b oth E gypt a nd M esopotamia, b ut t his e quivocal l exicographic a rgument i s b etter l eft o ut o f t he d ebate. B y t he t ime e vidence f or g lass i s w idely a vailable, i n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury B .C., i nternational c ont acts a t c ourt l evel w ere w ell e stablished a nd f ar r eaching, q uite s ufficient t o d iffuse l uxury o bjects a nd r elevant t echnologies b etween E gypt,

t he M itanni a nd B abylonia,

a s O ppenheim

( 1973,

2 63ff.)

h imself w ell a ppreciated. W hether t here w as a c omplementary t rade i n r aw g lass o ver l ong d istances h as y et t o b e e stablished. T he

m ost

r emarkable c ollection o f e arly g lass f rom

M esopotamia

i s t hat r ecovered f rom s tratum I I a t N uzi, e qually w ell-known f or t he a ssociated f aience a nd g lazed t erracotta f ound t here ( cf. p p.150). B arag

( 1970,

v essels, V andiver

1 36ff.) h as p rovided t he b asic

t ypological s tudy o f t he

b ut m uch r emains t o b e d one o n t he o ther g lass o bjects. ( 1982a; 1 983) h as b egun t o e xamine t he t echnology o f t he

i ndustry a nd h er w ork h as a lready s hown t he v ariety o f t echniques i n u se. T his g lass w as c oncentrated i n t he d estruction l evel o f S tratum I I

( Starr,

1 939,

p assim) w hich m ay n ot d ate m uch b efore 1 350

B .C.

( cf. W ilhelm, 1 976). A s t here i s a g eneral t endency t o d ate N uzi S tratum I I t o t he f ifteenth c entury B .C., i t i s i mportant t o s tress t he p ossibility t hat m any o f t he e xcavated o bjects m ay b e a g enerat ion o r s o a fter t he e nd o f t hat c entury a nd s o m ore n early c ont emporary w ith t he A marna g lass f actories i n E gypt t han i s o ften a ppreciated. N o c emeteries w ere e xcavated a t N uzi, s o a ll t he g lass c ame

f rom t he t own,

C ourt G 50, ( "shrine"),

w here i t w as c oncentrated i n T emple A ( Cella G 29,

R oom H 7 a nd S treet 8 ) a nd i n t he P alace ( Rooms L 8 M 79 a nd C ourt M 100), w ith f urther f inds i n t he " House o f

S hilwi-Teshup"

( Room 4 4,

C ourt 1 5 a nd C ourt 7 ) a nd i n R oom C 22. 2 02

O ne

o f

t he m ost r emarkable d iscoveries a bout t he b eads

s uch q uantity i n T emple A a t N uzi w as

f ound i n

t he p robability t hat a s ignifi-

c ant n umber ( especially u npierced o nes) h ad b een p art o f t he a rchit ectural d ecoration , t hough n o w all w as p reserved t o a g reat e nough h eight t iated

t o s how e xactly h ow ( Starr, 1 939, 9 2ff.). T his w as " substanb y t he d iscovery o f a n u nbaked b rick i n t he n orthwest e nd o f

t he r oom, i n w hich h ad b een s et a r ow o f e lliptical a nd c ircular e yeb eads" ( Starr, 1 939, p 1.119, K l). T wo p laques, o ne o f l imestone, t he o ther o f b aked c lay, w hich h ad b een " overlaid w ith c oloured g lass i n w hich l aid"

g eometrical a nd c onventionalized t ree-of-life d esigns a re i n( Starr, 1 939, 9 3, p l.131, A , B ), w ere a ssumed a lso t o h ave b een

a ttached t o t he m udbrick w alls. T he e xcavator t hought t hat e ven a s ubstantial n umber o f p ierced b eads h ad b een s trung a s w all h angings a nd " were n ot t he g oddess",

s pecial o fferings t o, o r d ecorations f or, t he s tatue o f a s w ould c ommonly b e a ssumed o f b eads f ound i n t emple

c ontexts.

m any

T housands o f b eads w ere r ecovered ( Starr, f ragments o f c ore-formed g lass v essels,

p iriform b ottles,

1 939, 9 4, 4 45ff.) w ith w hose s hapes ( goblets,

s hallow b owls a nd s tands) w ere t hose o f

c ontempo-

r ary p ottery, s ome o f w hich w as g lazed. A part f rom a s hallow m onoc hrome g lass b owl, t he r eported N uzi g lass v essels w ere p olychrome, w ith b lue a s t he p rimary b ase c olour; t hread d ecoration w as i n w hite, y ellow, o range ( amber) a nd p ale b lue; r im t wists w ere o f b lue a nd w hite o r b rown a nd w hite. A v ariety o f g eometric p atterns, m eanders, f estoons, f eather-patterns, c hevrons a nd t wists w ere u sed. A b owl f rom t he P alace ( Starr, 1 939, 4 61, p l.119J; B arag, 1 970, 1 40, n o.14, f ig.13) r esembles t he m osaic g lass b etter r epresented a t A ssur. B arag d escribed i t a s " made o f r ed-brown, o paque c omposition m ixed w ith t hin y ellow a nd w hite t hreads". E qually u nusual i s a g obletfagment, a gain f rom t he P alace, p ublished a s " faience" b y S tarr ( 1939, 4 61, p l.1191). B arag ( 1970, 1 40, n o.15) i s m ore c autious. I t i s o f a m ixed o paque c omposition, t urquoise F urther

( ?)

s herds

T his

f aded

w hite

r ed-brown,

i n w hich d ark

f rom s imilar v essels w ere

u ncertainty u sefully s erves

t o

y ellow , b lue

d ark b lue a nd

s pots

a re

g lass.

f ound. i llustrate t he

d angers

o f

t rying t o c ategorize b y e ye t he p roducts o f a n i ndustry t hat w as b oth i nventive a nd v arious ( cf. V andiver, 1 982a; 1 983) p roducing a n umber o f c losely r elated a rtificial m aterials. S everal l umps o f d eep b lue, r aw g lass w ere f ound, b ut i n a l ocus ( C62) w hose e xact p osition o n t he s ite i s o bscure ( Barag, 1 970 ‚ 140-1, f ig.16). G lass w as u sed f or c eremonial m aceheads a nd " staff-heads" ( Starr, 1 939, 4 59-60). A mong p endants, r ound o nes w ith o r w ithout m oulded s tars, a re t he b est k nown

( Barag,

I shtar, n ude

w hose

1 970,

4 0) a nd h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he c ult

d evotees a re p erhaps a lso r epresented b y t he

f emale g lass p laques

f ound a t N uzi a nd e lsewhere

o f

m oulded

( Barag,

1 970,

1 40). T he

g lass

f inds

f rom N uzi,

n ow i n t he S emitic M useum a t H arvard,

h ave b een t he s ubject o f a s pecial t echnical s tudy b y V andiver ( 1983) a nd w hat f ollows d raws h eavily o n h er a ccount. A ccepting t hat m ost o f t he f inds d ate f rom t he l ater f ifteenth o r e arlier f ourteenth c entury s tages

B .C.

s he a rgues

t hat

t hey d o

o f a n e merging t echnology";

" not

r epresent

t he

i ncipient

m uch h ad a lready h appened.

A rtis-

t ic s kill w as m atched b y t echnical e xpertise; t he r ange o f c hemical c ompositions w as r elatively l imited, t hough t he n umber o f c olourants 2 03

w as

l arge;

t he r elated s oda-lime-silicate t echnology a t Nuzi w as a lso

s ophisticated a nd v arious ( see p .lSO). T he g lass r epertory i ncluded a rtefacts w hose f ind s pots s uggested t hat t hey w ere l uxury o bjects f or t he r ich; b ut g lass b eads w ere v ery w idely d istributed o n t he s ite. G lass, l ike f aience b efore i t, w as u sed t o i mitate s emip recious s tones a nd s hells. P atterns d rawn f rom n ature, a s w ell a s a mulets s haped l ike b irds,

f lies,

f rogs,

f lowers,

a nd s tars,

w ere

c haracteristic o f t his i ndustry. T he t echnical r epertory w as e qually d iverse: r od-forming f or b eads; m oulding f or " Ishtar" a mulets; d isks o f m olten g lass i mpressed w ith d esigns; r are e xamples o f r otary g rinding o f c old-glass b locks; c ore-formed p olychrome v essels; f reef ormed a mulets. A lthough a t p .150),

t his

t his s tage,

i s

a s w ith e xpanded f aience p roduction ( see

a n i ndustry p rimarily c oncentrated i n

O rganisations", t he p alaces a nd t emples o f m ajor c ities, s trictly c orrect t o s ay t hat " nearly a ll" e arly g lass i s

t he

" Great

i t i s n ot f ound i n

t emples ( as P eltenburg, 1 971, 8 ). A s i s n oted a bove a t N uzi, p ers onal o rnaments h ave a w ider d istribution. M ore e laborate a rtefacts o f g lass a re c ertainly c oncentrated i n p alaces, t emples a nd i n r ich g raves, a s w ould b e e xpected o f a l uxury m aterial; b ut t his i s n ot i ncompatible w ith s impler p roduction i n " cottage i ndustries", a way f rom t he p alace a nd t emple w orkshops, a t l east b y t he l ater f ourt eenth a nd t hirteenth c enturies, w hen g lass i s m ore w idely e vident a nd w as m uch u sed f or b eads, g raves a t T ell M ohammad A rab T he

g lass

a nd e ven c ylinder s eals, ( M. R oaf; p ers.comm.).

f inds a t A ssur,

a s

i n o rdinary

a nother s ite w ith a n a ctive

f aience

i ndustry a t t he s ame t ime ( cf. p .152), a re m ostly d ated t o t he t hirt eenth c entury a nd a gain d isplay c onsiderable t echnical v ariety. O ppenheim ( 1970) s uggested t hat t he " glass" t exts a ssembled s ix h endred y ears l ater i n A shurbanipai T h l ibrary a t N ineveh h ad f irst b een c odified a t A ssur a bout t his t ime. T he a rchaeological e vidence c ertainly i ndicates a l ocal i ndustry m aking g lass o f a ll k inds ( mosaic a nd c ore-formed v essels, i nlays a nd p robably p laques) a s w ell a s a c omplementary p roduction o f a rtefacts i n " glassy" ( sintered q uartz) m aterials. C ore-formed g lass v essels a nd s herds o f t hem w ere l argely f ound i n g raves, n otably i n t ombs 3 7 a nd 1 33, w hich h eld g lass c ontemporary w ith t hat f rom N uzi I I, a nd i n v arious p arts o f t he I shtar T emple ( Barag, 1 970, 1 41ff.), e rected b y T ukulti-Ninurta I ( c ..1243-1207 B .C.). T his g lass h as n ot y et b een f ully p ublished, t hough m uch o f t he a ssociated " faience" h as ( see p .152). I t i s u sually d ated t o t he t hirteenth c entury B .C., t hough s ome o f i t m ight b e s lightly e arlier. S o f ar a s i t i s p ossible t o j udge a t p resent, t he v ariety o f s hapes a nd d ecoration i s g reater t han a t N uzi, t hough t he c olour r ange i s c omparable. n ick, 1 968; v on S aldern, 1 970,

T he m osaic g lass f ragments ( Haever2 15, n o.l) a re o f o utstanding i mport-

a nce a nd c onstitute t he m ost i mportant s econd m illennium B .C. g roup o f s uch g lass y et p ublished. T he f ragments a re f rom v essels a s w ell a s i nlay p laques f or w alls a nd f or f urniture, u sing r ed, b lue, y ellow, g reen ( ?) a nd w hite g lass. C ullett w as a lso f ound, r ei nforcing t he c ase f or l ocal p roduction. F igured m osaic d esigns i nclude

h uman b eings,

a nimals,

a nd f loral d evices

r eminiscent

o f

c ontemporary m otifs o n s eals.

B azar

P olychrome p robably

s herds f rom g lass v essels f ound a t d ate t o t he l ater f ifteenth o r t o 2 04

B rak a nd C hagar t he f ourteenth

c entury B .C., o ther

( Barag,

i mportant

1 970,

1 46;

M allowan,

c ollection o f g lass

1 947,

7 7ff., 8 4).

f rom a n orthern

B ut

s ite

i s

t he t hat

f ound a t T ell R imah, w here, o nce a gain, t here w as e vident i ndication o f a n a ctive c ontemporary f aience a nd f rit i ndustry. T he m ajority o f t he f ragments a re " from M iddle A ssyrian l evels w ith a t erminal d ate o f c .1250 B .C. H arden, 1 969, ( cf.

B arag,

c omplete f emale t ypes.

a nd a m ean d ate o f 1 300 5 0 y ears" ( Oates, c ited b y 2 9). T hey w ere f ound i n t he l ate p hases o f L evel 2 1 970,

1 45).

C ore-formed v essels w ere r epresented

e xamples a nd b y s herds;

m oulded g lass b y

p laques a nd d emon m asks; S cholarly a ttention h as,

p endants,

b y

n ude-

b eads b y a v ariety o f p olychrome h owever, c oncentrated p articularly

o n t he f ragments o f a s eries o f s traight-sided, b utton-based g oblets m ade o f o paque m osaic g lass a rranged i n c hevrons o f g reen, w hite, b lue a nd y ellow c anes

( von S aldern,

1 966a;

1 970,

2 06,

2 13ff.;

H arden,

1 969). O ne a lmost f lat f ragment m ay b e p art o f a p laque o r a v ery l arge v essel. N o i ndustrial d ebris o r r aw g lass h as b een p ublished f rom t his s ite. T wo m osaic g lass b eakers f rom M arlik i n I ran m ay b e e xports f rom w orkshops i n A ssyria s pecializing i n t he p roduction o f s uch m osaic v essels ( von S aldern, 1 966a; 1 970, 2 08); t hey a re f rom g raves l ikely t o b elong t o I ron I ( c.1350-1000 B .C.), t hough t his c emetery w as i n u se f or s ome c onsiderable t ime i nto t he f irst m illenn ium B .C.

t he

An i mportant c ollection o f g lass f ragments w as r oyal p alace i n t he K assite c apital a t A qar Q uf

n ear B aghdad, i n r eign o f K urigalzu t his s ite, d ated B .C.), r efers t o " Palace o f

r ecovered f rom ( Dur K urigalzu),

c ontexts t he m ajority o f w hich a re d ated t o t he I I ( c.1332-1308 B .C.). A t ext f rom l evel I I a t i n t he 3 rd y ear o f K ashtiliashu I V ( c.1232-1225 g lass g iven t o a rtisans f or d ecoration i n t he

t he S tag"

( Gurney,

1 953,

n o.22).

G lass w as a lso

f ound i n

t he f inal d estruction l evels ( Ic) a t t he p alace, i n t he l ate t hirt eenth o r t welfth c entury B .C. T he p ublished i nformation o n t he g lass f inds ( cf. B arag, 1 970, 1 48ff; v on S aldern, 1 970, 2 07-8) i s l imited t o t he m ore u nusual t ypes a nd l ittle o r n o r eference i s m ade t o s herds o f c ore-formed p olychrome v essels. M osaic g lass w as e spec ially t wo

p lentiful.

m ain

o therwise

t ypes

G lass p laques w ere r eported;

o f r ed g lass

( with r elatives a t T ell R imah) s ome w ere p lain

i nlaid w ith w hite,

( or

o f

v ariegated?),

t urquoise-blue,

r ed

a nd

p erhaps y ellow g lass i n d esigns o f s tars, e ye-like d isks, l ozenges, a nd b irds-of-prey ( von S aldern, 1 970, n os.3-4). M osaic g lass w as a lso u sed i n t he m anufacture o f b owls a nd o ther v essels ( von S aldern, 1 970, n os.5-6; B arag, 1 970, 1 48). T exts i ndicate t hat w orkmen a t D ur K urigalzu w ere b eing i ssued w ith a v ariety o f p recious m aterials f or p alace d ecoration, s o h ere a gain, a s s eems t o b e t he c ase a t A ssur, N uzi a nd T ell R imah, r oyal a nd t emple w orkshops a re l ikely t o h ave i ncluded

t hose

F urther

o f t o

g lassmakers. t he s outh,

i n B abylonia,

g lass o f e arly

d ate

h as

r arely b een r ecorded. T he p ioneer e xcavation o f P eters a t N ippur p roduced a g roup o f f ragmentary, m oulded b lue g lass v otive a xeheads, w ith d edicatory i nscriptions f or t he K assite k ing N azi_Maruttash* ( c.1307-1282 B .C.)

( Peters,

a nalysis c f. N eumann, 1 927). w ith c omparable o bjects o f

*

A nd o ther

r ulers,

c f.

1 898,

1 34ff.,

1 43ff.,

3 73ff.,

w ith a n

T hey h ad b een h oarded b y a " jeweller", l apis l azuli a nd o ther s emi-precious

B rinkman,

1 976, 2 05

7 1,

n .289.

s tones,

i n t he P arthian s ettlement a t N ippur

S aldern,

1 970,

2 15,

n o.8).

A g rave o f t he

( Barag,

1 970,

1 48;

v on

" Kassite P eriod" a t U r

c ontained a p iriform g lass b ottle ( Woolley, 1 965, 7 8; B arag, 1 970, 1 47, f or d ating) a nd w hat m ay b e a c ontemporary b lack g lass r od o f n ine

t hreads,

m arked a t o ne e nd b y p incers

1 05:U.7593). p ottery w ere w orkshops

( Woolley,

1 965,

7 9,

n .l,

O n t he i sland o f F ailaka g lass, f aience a nd g lazed r ecorded i n K assite l evels, w ith s ome e vidence f or l ocal

( Pollard a nd H j1und,

1 983).

E vidence o f a n u nusually i nteresting g lass i ndustry, o f t he t hirteenth c entury B .C., w as e vident i n t he Z iggurat a rea a t T choga Z anbil i n Khuzistan. H ere l ong r od-formed t ubes m ade o f b lack ( or v ery d ark b lue) g lass d ecorated w ith a w hite t hread w ere u sed a s d ecoration o n w ooden d oors ( Ghirshman, 1 966, 3 0, 6 5, 7 4, f ig.20, p ls.XXV:1,4). F ragments o f s imilar t ubes a re a lso k nown f rom S usa ( Barag, 1 970, 1 49, n .88a). C onvex d isks a nd " eye r oundels" o f g lass w ere u sed a t T choga Z anbil t o d ecorate b ricks S aldern, 1 970, m ade o f f aience;

( Barag,

1 970,

1 49;

v on

2 16). A t t his s ite t he s eals o f p oorer q uality w ere b ut t he h igh q uality o nes, i n w hich K assite s tylis-

t ic t raits a nd E lamite i conography a re b lended, w ere c arved o n c ylind ers o f d ark b lue g lass ( Porada, 1 970), p resumably i n i mitation o f l apis l azuli. G lass s eals a re r eported o utside S usiana a nd F ailaka a t t his t ime r elatively r arely a nd t hen u sually i n S yria ( Buchanan, 1 966, w hat

n o.1008; P arker, 1 949, n o.155) o r n orthern M esopotamia. e xtent B abylonia s upplied t he i nitial t echnical " know-how"

E lamite w orkshops i s a n o pen q uestion ( cf. v on S aldern, b ut, i n v iew o f t he f lourishing M iddle E lamite m etal i ndustries

e vident a t S usa,

T o f or

1 970, 2 08); a nd f aience

s uch a n i ndebtedness s hould n ot b e

t oo

e asily a ssumed. T he i mpetus m ay b e o lder a nd h ave c ome t hrough c ommercial a ctivity l inking K huzistan w ith t he k ingdom o f M itanni a t a

t ime

w hen

c rucial e arly d evelopments i n

g lass

p roduction

w ere

h appening t here. I n

v iew o f

t he r arity o f g lass f inds

i n B abylonia a s

a

w hole,

a nd i n t he p eriod b etween a bout 1 200 a nd 7 50 B .C. i n p articular, t he s cattered g lass i nlays f ound i n t he m ain t emple c omplex a t L arsa a re o f p articular i nterest. A t s ome t ime d uring t he r eign o f A dad-aplai ddina ( c.1068-1047 B .C.), w hen r ooms 1 5 a nd 1 3, a nd c ourtyard I , w ere p aved, v arious i nlays, p redominantly o f b lue g lass, o ne a b eard f ragment ( Huot e t a l., 1 978, 19 3 -4 , f ig . 27'), a nother a n a nimal's h orn ( Huot, 1 983, 2 09), w ere b eing u sed i n t he d ecoration o f s tatua ry.

I f

t hese p ieces w ere i ndeed m anufactured a t t his

t ime,

t hey g o

s ome w ay t o b ridging t he g ap b etween t he f lourishing g lass i ndustries o f t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. a nd t he k nown r eturn o f g lass p roduct ion s ometime 1 976,

2 1-2,

i n t he n inth c entury B .C. 2 8)

( or p ossibly c obalt) a s ( iii)

T owards N ear

E ast,

( ninth t o s eventh c enturies B .C.):

R evival o f c ore-formed g lass p roduction:

t he e nd o f g lass

p resent e vidence

( Huot,

w ith c opper

t he b lue c olourant.

T he N eo-Assyrian p eriod ( a)

A p ublished a nalysis

i ndicates a s tandard M esopotamian g lass,

t he s econd m illennium B .C.,

p roduction s ubsided s o m uch t hat

t o h ave a ll b ut c eased.

i n E gypt a nd i t a ppears

T hereafter,

f or

t he p eriod

b efore t he f all o f t he A ssyrian E mpire i n w estern A sia, o nly s ites a t t he m oment p rovide a rchaeological t ermini a nte q uem 2 06

t he f rom t wo f or

s ignificantly v aried f inds o f g lass: w est I ran, d estroyed a bout 8 00 B .C.,

l evel I V a t H asanlu, i n n ortha nd t he m ain d estruction l evels

i n t he v arious m ajor b uildings a t N imrud d ated t o a bout 6 14/612 B .C. B oth s ites p resent p roblems o f t heir o wn. T he g lass f rom H asanlu i s o nly p artially p ublished. T wo f ragmentary b eakers a nd t he r emains o f a t hird, a re o utstanding e xamples o f t he m osaic g lass t radition e stablished i n M esopotamia i n t he K assite a nd M iddle A ssyrian p eriods ( von S aldern, 1 966, 9 ff; 1 970, 2 09ff., 2 16-17). S cholarly o pinion i s d ivided u pon w hether t hey w ere i ndeed m ade m any c enturies b efore t he d estruction l evel f rom w hich t hey w ere r etrieved, o r w hether t hey a re, c raft

f or t he p resent, a c ompletely i solated i ndication t hat t radition s urvived i nto t he e arly f irst m illennium B .C.,

s ibly

o nly

i n w estern I ran.

N o g lasses o f

t his s pecific t ype

t his p osa re

k nown f rom a M esopotamian o r S yrian s ite a fter t he s econd m illennium B .C. L ittle h as b een r eported o f t he o ther g lass f ound i n H asanlu I V. I t i s k nown t hat n o " Phoenician" i vories i nlaid w ith g lass w ere f ound t here, b ut s ome i n t he " Syrian s tyle" h ad i nlays, t hough n one h as b een s cientifically i dentified a s g lass ( Muscarella, 1 980, n os.222, 2 29, 2 67). B arag ( 1970, 1 94, n o.216) r eported s quare m oulded s hafts o f b lue g lass, p ossibly p arts o f f urniture, w ith a h ead o f a n a nimal ( 7), m ade o f b lack g lass w ith y ellow ( ?) T he

a nd a b ead w hite a nd

t wisted c anes m arvered i n. d ate

o f

t he r e-appearance o f

c ore-formed p olychrome g lass

v essels i n M esopotamia h as n ot y et b een e stablished w ith a ny p recis ion. B arag ( 1970, 1 94) c ites g rave 1 19 i n t he M erkes a t B abylon a s a f ixed p oint. I t c ontained a p ointed b ottle a nd a g lobular b ottle a nd

w as

b elow t he d ebris o f a h ouse s aid t o h ave b een d estroyed

b y

S ennacherib s s ack o f B abylon i n 6 89 B .C. ( ibid., 1 59-60). a ble v essels f rom s uch s ites a s A ssur, K ish a nd N ippur a re

C omparn ot s o

f irmly

c entury

f ixed i n t ime a nd

B .C. ( Barag, M oorey, 1 978, c atalogued

1 970, 5 2).

s ome m ay d ate a s

l ate a s

t he f ifth

1 56ff.; o n a l ower d ating f or t he K ish v essels, B arag ( 1970, 1 55) a nd v on S aldern ( 1966, 6 32)

o nly a f ew s herds o f c ore-formed g lass

f rom N imrud.

T wo

w ere f rom t he s houlders o f c ylindrical a labastra, d ecorated w ith a w avy t hread i n w hite. C ore-formed v essels a re r arer i n N eo-Assyrian p alace

e xcavations

t han i n t he p rivate g raves o f

t his p eriod s o

f ar

e xcavated. T here a re c ertain m arked t ypological d istinctions b etween t he B ronze A ge c ore-formed g lass v essels, w hen t he r epertory o f

L ate

s hapes w as r elatively l imited, a nd t heir I ron A ge s uccessors. T he e arly c raftsmen h ad e xcelled p articularly i n t he u se o f a v ariety o f c olours a nd i n s killed t reatment o f t hread d ecoration. T he s hapes o f t he

l ater

o ccur

g roup s how n o d irect

a nd

l inks w ith t he e arlier;

t he v essels a re s maller t han b efore.

n o o pen s hapes

T he q uality o f

t he

g lass a nd t he s kill o f t he w orkmanship i s a lso l ess i mpressive. T he p rimary g lass s hapes, p ointed b ottles, g lobular j ars a nd r elatives o f t he a labastron, a re t hose m ost p opular i n o ther m aterials. H andles, u nknown i n f ashion o f s mall l oops.

t he L ate B ronze . A ge g lass r epertory, n ow f ollowed t he s tone a labastra i n b eing " duck-shaped" v ertical t abs o r S o f ar, o utside t heir h omeland, t hese d istinctively

" Mesopotamian" s hapes i n g lass a re b est k nown f rom e xamples f ound o n t he i sland o f R hodes i n s eventh c entury a rchaeological c ontexts ( Harden,

1 981,

5 2ff.,

n os.78-81).

I n t he c ontinuing a bsence o f

l ocal e vidence 2 07

f or P hoenician g lass

m anufacture

b efore

i n M esopotamia, o bscure. W ith

t he e arliest r e-appearance o f c ore-formed v essels

t he s ource o f t he r evived g lass i ndustry r emains a f ew i solated e xceptions g lass d isappears i n E gypt

f rom l ate i n t he X XIst D ynasty ( c.1070-945 B .C.) u ntil t he X XVIth ( c.664-525 B .C.), w hen s tray e xamples a re a gain k nown. E ven s o, w ell d ocumented a nd s ecurely d ated g lass o f t he L ate P eriod i s r are. T he c raft d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een r evived l ocally o n a n e xtensive s cale u ntil t he X XXth D ynasty ( c.380-343 B .C.) ( Cooney, 1 976, X VX VI). b aked

A s t here w as a p ersistent t radition o f g laze m anufacture f or c lay o bjects i n A ssyria, a s a lso p robably i n B abylonia ( see

p .168), a l ocal i mpetus i s n ot w holly o ut o f t he q uestion. T his v iew w ould b e s trengthened i f t he g lass f ragments f rom L arsa ( see p .206) r eally w ere S o i vories

o f e leventh c entury m anufacture.

l ong a s t he d ate o f t he e arliest i nlaid " Phoenician" c arved i s u ncertain, e vidence f or g lass a nd f aience i ndustries i n

e ither S yria o r P hoenicia i n t he n inth c entury r emains o blique. I solated i mports o f g lass a nd f aience i n t he A egean w orld a t t his t ime h ave b een t aken t o i ndicate t he a ctivity o f S yro-Phoenician p roduction c entres. C onspicuous a mongst s uch f inds a re a v ariegated g lass b ead, t hreaded w ith o ver 1 000 f aience d isk b eads, f emale g rave i n t he A reopagus a t A thens ( Smithson, 1 968,

i n a r ich p l.33:78)

a nd f aience o bjects f rom L efkandi i n E uboea ( Popham e t a l., 1 982, 2 42ff., p l.20). T he i nlaid " Syrian c arved i vories f rom H asanlu I V m ay a lso i ndicate g lass p roduction i n t he n inth ( Muscarella, 1 980, 2 20). ( b) A t

T he e mergence o f

N imrud m oulded c ut-glass

c entury

i n

S yria

" clear" g lass: f ragments w ere o verwhelmingly

m ore

c onmon t han p olychrome c ore-formed g lass s herds ( von S aldern, 1 966; 1 970). T hey m ark a n umber o f c rucial c hanges. T raditionally g lass i n M esopotamia h ad i mitated t he a ppearance o f o paque, p recious a nd s emi-precious s tones, n ot o nly t he b lues o f l apis l azuli a nd t urq uoise,

b ut

a lso

t he v aried c olours o f b anded a gates.

N ow

f resh

c hemical d iscoveries ( see p .223 b elow) a llowed f or t he i mitation o f r ock c rystal, w hich w as p opular a t t he t ime a nd w orked i n s hapes a nd d ecorated b y t echniques e xactly r eplicated I n g lass ( Mallowan, 1 966, f ig.143; O liver, 1 973). G lass a labastra, n otably a w ell-known e xample i nscribed f or S argon I I ( von S aldern, 1 970, 2 18, n o.17), s mall h andled j ars, h emispherical o r s imilarly s haped b owls, a nd v ariously

s haped

c ups,

w ere

m ould-made

i n

g lass,

v arying

f rom

e xtremely t hin t o v ery t hick, f rom p ractically c lear t o a p ale g reen I n c olour. T hese v essels w ere g round t o s hape a nd p olished; s ome w ere d ecorated w ith c ut d esigns, u sually g eometric; o r, l ess f req uently, I ncrusted w ith m osaic g lass, o r p ainted. s kill r equired t o p roduce s uch b owls w ith t hin w alls

T he t echnical l ed b oth T urner

( 1955) a nd v on S aldern ( 1966, 6 27-8) t o s peculate o n t he p ossibility t hat t he b low p ipe, o r a nother u nrecognized p rocess, d ifferent f rom r egular

m oulding,

p ossible

t hat a l ost-wax c asting t echnique w as u sed.

i ng

h ad

b een . f amiliar t o t he g lass

m akers.

I t

i s

A s t here i s s till n o e vidence t hat E gypt h ad a n i ndustry p roducc ast a nd c ut g lass v essels f rom t he X XIV t o X XVI D ynasties

( c.724-525 B .C.), t he i nitial m anufacture o f t hese v essels i s c omm only a ssigned e ither t o P hoenicia, w here, a s w ith c ore-formed g lass, t here i s a gain a t p resent n o l ocal e vidence, o r t o A ssyria i tself. 2 08

B arag

( 1982,

1 7ff.)

h as

c ogently a rgued t he c ase

f or

P hoenicia,

a lbeit o n c ircumstantial e vidence, a ttributing t he c oncentration o f f inds a t N imrud t o P hoenician c raftsmen ( or m en t hey h ad t rained) a ctive i n A ssyrian c ourt w orkshops. H e i solated a s eries o f p ertin ent a rguments: g lass i nlays w ere u sed e xtensively i n " Phoenician" c arved i vories a nd h ave b een f ound i n g reater q uantities a t N imrud t han w ould b e e xpected t o r esult f rom t heir f alling o ut o f i mported c arved i vories ( von S aldern, 1 966, 6 32-3; B arnett, 1 975, 2 40); a u nique c ut g lass b owl f rom N imrud i s i nlaid w ith a c omparable t ype o f m osaic g lass ( von S aldern, 1 970, n os.29-30); a t l east o ne o f t he g lass

b owls

f rom

N imrud h as

c ut d esigns

i n

a

" Phoenician"

s tyle

( Lehrer, 1 974); t here a re g lass p laques f rom N imrud p ainted i n t he " Phoenician" s tyle ( Orchard a nd B rill, 1 978); t he " Sargon V ase" i s s haped l ike E gyptian r ock c rystal a labastra, c ian i n

t han

i n a n A ssyrian c raft

S pain,

a

k ey

a rtefact

t radition;

m ore

l ikely i n a P hoeni-

t he g lass

i n t his g roup o f

j ug f rom A liseda

g lass,

i s

a

t ypical

" Phoenician" s hape, h as a d ebased E gyptian h ieroglyphic i nscription, a nd i s f rom a n a rea o f k nown P hoenician c ontact; a nd t he i ndustry p ersisted a fter t he f all o f N ineveh i n 6 12 B .C., w hen i ts p roducts a re b etter k nown f rom C yprus a nd I taly t han f rom M esopotamia ( von S aldern, T o

1 970,

2 12).

w hat

e xtent

t he c hemical c hange t o c lear g lass m ay a lso

b e

a ttributed t o t he P hoenicians o r S yrians i s a t p resent a n o pen q uest ion. I n t heir s tudy o f E gyptian f aience K aczmarczyk a nd H edges ( 1983) h ave a rgued t hat i f o ne w ere t o l ook f or a t ime w hen a ntimony o xide m ight a lso h ave b een a dded a s a c larifier ( bleaching a gent) a nd n ot s olely a s a p igment, a s w as p reviously t he c ase, i t w ould b e t he X XVIth D ynasty ( c.664-525 B .C.). T he c lear g lass f rom N imrud w as m ade b efore a bout 6 14 B .C.; b ut a m oulded g lass o mphalos b owl p laced i n t umulus P a t G ordion b efore a bout 7 00 B .C. i ndicates t hat t his i f tdustry, w herever l ocated, w as a lready a ctive i n t he l ater e ighth c entury B .C.

( von S aldern,

v on S aldern b elieved t ure. N o s uch g lass A lthough e vidence f or ( see p .157), t here

1 959;

Y oung,

1 981,

3 2).

B oth Y oung a nd

t he G ordion b owl t o b e o f M esopotamian m anufach as y et b een r eported f rom E gypt o f t his d ate. a l ocal N eo-Assyrian f aience i ndustry i s s parse w as e xtensive p roduction i n A ssyria o f g lazed

p ottery a nd b ricks ( see p p.168ff.). T his i nvolved t he u se o f l ead a ntimonate t o c reate y ellow g lazes o r p ossibly ( in c ombination w ith c opper) g reen o nes, s o t he e xistence o f a l ocal c lear g lass i ndustry i n A ssyria b y t he r eign o f S argon I I ( c.721-705 B .C.), i f n ot b efore, i s p lausible. B ut s till c aptured S yrian o r P hoenician c raftsmen m ight

i nitially h ave b rought

t he t echnical k nowledge w ith t hem

f rom

t he w est a nd t hemselves, o r t heir p upils, p ractised i t a t t he A ssyri an c ourt. F resh e vidence i s n eeded t o e lucidate t he q uestion. ( c) M oulded I vories

C oloured g lass:

g lass

i nlaid

i n

r ich

c olours w as

w ith m onochrome p ieces o f

o f

e nduring

g lass,

i n

p opularity. i mitation

o f

p recious s tones, w ere a lready p roduced b y c raftsmen i n S yrian w orks hops a ctive d uring t he n inth c entury ( Barag, 1 983; B arnett, 1 982, 1 4,

4 4).

I n t his c ase

t he g lass

i nlays w ere s ecured i n a d istinctive

w ay w ith a s mall d epression d rilled i nto t he c entre o f t he b ackg round, p resumably t o t ake a n a dhesive. G lass i nlays a re, h owever, m uch m ore i ntimately a ssociated w ith c arved i vories i n t he " Phoenician" s tyle ( Barag, 1 983). T hese i nlaid i vories a nd a s eries 2 09

o f

s mall s quare p olychrome m osaic g lass t iles d ecorated w ith

r oset-

t es, h ave b een f ound p articularly a t N imrud ( von S aldern, 1 966, 6 23ff.), a t A rsian T ash ( Thureau-Dangin e t a l., 1 931, 1 38) a nd a t S amaria ( Crowfoot a nd C rowfoot, e vidence f or d ating a ny i vories

1 938, i n t he

5 6ff.). A s t here i s n o h ard " Phoenician s tyle ( or r elated

g lass) b efore a bout 8 00 B .C., t hey a re a ll a t p resent d ated a fter t he e nd o f H asanlu I V, w here n one w as f ound. B arag ( 1983) h as a rgued t hat t hey m ay i ndeed b e a n i nnovation o f t he f irst h alf o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. N or i s i t c lear, o nce a gain, w hether t hey w ere o nly m anufactured i n a s eries o f c losely a ssociated w orkshops i n P hoenic ia, a nd e xported t hence t o S yro-Palestine a nd M esopotamia, o r w het her, a s m ay w ell h ave b een t he c ase i n A ssyrian p alace w orkshops, e xpatriate c raftsmen p roduced

t hem i n f oreign c entres.

A d ark b lue g lass m ace o r s taff-head, p erhaps t he a ttribute o f a d eity s tatue, w as f ound a t t he b ottom o f a w ell i n t he N abu T emple a t N imrud ( von S aldern, 1 970, 2 24-5, n o.41a). A nother o f s ky-blue g lass w as f ound a t A ssur ( Haevernick a nd K ühne, 1 982). T hey i llustrate t he c ontinued u se o f o paque, c oloured g lass t o m ake o bjects i n d irect i mitation o f c omparable a rtefacts c arved i n s emi-precious s tones. I t w as t his p articular t ype o f g lass m anufacture t hat m ost c oncerned t he w riters o f t he " glass t exts" f ound i n t he " Library o f A shurbanipal" a t N ineveh ( iv)

( Oppenheim,

1 970;

s ee p .224 h ere).

T he N eo-Babylonian a nd A chaemenid p eriods

G lass

f inds

f rom s ites

l ike U r a nd B abylon

( c.600-330 B .C.):

( von S aldern,

1 970,

2 26ff.), r are a s t hey s till a re, i ndicate t hat l uxury c ast a nd c ut g lass, a s w ell a s c ore-formed g lass, w as u sed a nd p robably p roduced t o s ome e xtent i n M esopotamia i n t he N eo-Babylonian p eriod ( c.612-550 B .C.). T he c ore-formed p olychrome v essels, f or i nstance, a re t ypica lly M esopotamian i n s hape a nd s tyle, s o w ere p resumably m anufactured l ocally. I n M esopotamia d uring t he A chaemenid P eriod i solated f inds o f c lear o r e ngraved g lass

( cf.

( c.550-320 B .C.)

N ippur:

B arag,

t he

1 968),

s till v ery m uch a l uxury p roduct, a re k nown t o b e a s tandard p roduct o f w orkshops s erving t he A chaemenid c ourt a nd a ristocracy. T hey p roduced a s tandard r epertory o f f orms, u sually c opying t he s hapes o f t ableware m anufactured i n p recious m etals P ersepolis i llustrate t he r ange o f t his

( Oliver, 1 970). F inds f rom i nternationally a vailable

g lasswork ( Schmidt, 1 957, p ls.66-7). W hether i t w as o nly p roduced i n a f ew c entres c losely a ssociated w ith r oyal r esidences, o r m ore w idely,

s till

i s u nknown.

C ore-formed p olychrome g lass v essels ( Barag, 1 970) w ere p robably b eing m ade i n M esopotamia i n t he l ater s ixth a nd f ifth c en-

t uries B .C. T his i s a lso t he p eriod w hen w orkshops s omewhere i n t he E ast M editerranean r egion e merged a s p roducers o f a d istinctive r ange o f

c ore-formed

p olychrome v essels

t hat w ere w idely t raded

( Harden,

1 981, 5 2ff.). T here i s o nly o ne t ype o f v essel m ade a t t his t ime t hat a ppears l ikely t o b e f rom g lass w orkshops i n t he e astern r ather t han t he w estern e mpire.

T his

f ormed,

a d istinctive s quare-faced,

k ohl

t ubes,

o f

i s a g roup o f p olychrome g lass,

t apering f orm

( Barag, 1 975). A lso i n t his p eriod p ersonal o rnaments, s ome s eals, w ere m ade o f g lass t o s tandard p atterns. w idely d istributed

t hroughout

t he A chaemenid E mpire, 2 10

r od-

a mulets, a nd T hey a re s o

a nd b eyond

i ts

f rontiers,

t hat

i t i s

i mpossible

t o

i solate r egional t raditions.

A t

t his t ime d istinctive " eye-beads", p roduced i n W estern A sia, r eached a s f ar a s C hina ( cf. T aniichi, 1 983). O nly i n t he c ase o f c ylinder s eals a nd c onoid s tamp s eals i s i t p ossible t o d efine a c oncentration i n S yro-Phoenicia a nd s uggest t hat t hey w ere a l ocal p henomenon. S ummary: I t

i s c lear f rom t he d ata a ssembled i n t his

h istorical

s urvey

t hat g lass w as i ntentionally m anufactured i n W estern A sia f rom l east a bout 1 500 B .C., i n a n umber o f s hapes a nd b y a v ariety

a t o f

t echniques, u sing v arious c olours. A t rend i s b roadly d iscernible, m oving f rom o pacity, i n i mitation o f s emi-precious s tones I n t he l ater t hird a nd s econd m illennia B .C., t o t ranslucency a nd t ranspare ncy,

b y

t he s econd q uarter o f

t he f irst m illennium B .C.,

t hough t he

e arlier t radition a lso p ersisted f or s ome t ime l onger. T echniques, w hether i n c ore-formed o r m osaic g lass, i n t he e arlier, p olychrome s tage, e mphasized v ariegated c olour e ffects, w hilst i t i s o nly i n t he N eo-Assyrian p eriod i mitating c ut s tones

t hat t he i dea o f l ike r ock c rystal,

c lear, t ranslucent g lass, b ecame t he p rimary g oal i n

t he w orkshops o f t he A ssyrian a nd A chaemenid c ourts. T he c olours i ncluded b lue, n otably a t urquoise b lue, r ed, y ellow , g reen , b rown, b lack a nd w hite; t he t ransparent c olours w ere b lue a nd p urple. T he e arly c lear g lass T he

i s,

u nintentionally,

s hapes o f a ll g lass v essels

t inted g reen o r y ellow.

i n t he p eriod c overed h ere,

t hat

i s b efore t he i nvention o f g lass-blowing, d erive f rom c eramic, s tone o r m etal p rototypes. B eakers, g oblets a nd p iriform b ottles w ere t he f avourite s hapes a mong t he e arly c ore-formed, p olychrome v essels, w hilst v arious t ypes o f p ointed b ottle, o f a labastra, o f j ars, a nd f inally o f j uglets, e merged i n t he f irst m illennium . I n m oulded g lass t he b owl b ecame t he m ost p opular f orm i n t he f irst m illennium B .C. W ithout

d irect e vidence

f or p laces o f m anufacture,

s ources

o f

g lass f ound i n M esopotamia r emain c ontroversial. T he p resent p attern o f d istribution i ndicates t hat i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. t here w ere v arious g lass p roduction c entres i n n orthe rn M esopotamia a nd i n K huzistan ( Susiana), w hether t his w as a lso t rue f or B abylonia i s n ot q uite s o c lear, t hough e vidence f rom A qar Q uf, N ippur a nd F ailaka s uggest t hat i t w as. E vidence f rom c ities l ike A ssur, A qar Q uf, N uzi a nd S usa i ndicates t hat l ocal g lass w orks hops, w ithin t he o rbit o f m ajor r oyal o r t emple b uilding e nterp rises, s erved l ocal n eeds. T o w hat e xtent t here w as a lso a n e xtens ive c ommerce i n g lass v essels, o r m ore s ignificantly i n i ngots o f r aw g lass, f rom m ore m inor f actories i s n ot y et e stablished. s eems l ikely, S yria h ad i ts o wn v ery a ctive g lass i ndustries, t amian e xport m ay o nly h ave b een i nto w estern I ran. v essels t rade.

I f, a s M esopo-

T he m osaic g lass

f ound a t H asanlu a nd M arlik m ay b e e xamples o f s uch a n e xport A rchaeological f inds o f s econd m illennium B .C. g lass i n

M esopotamia a re s till b ewilderingly s poradic a nd r andom : c ane m osaics a t A qar Q uf a nd T ell R imah; o paque g lass m aceheads a nd a xeh eads a t N ippur a nd N uzi. I n t he f irst m illennium B .C.,

t o

j udge p articularly f rom

f inds

a t N imrud, r oyal p alaces o nce a gain h ad t heir o wn g lass w orkshops, e mploying c raftsmen I n s ome c ases b rought f rom t he w est n ot o nly t o 2 11

e xercise

t heir s pecial s kills,

b ut a lso t o t rain o n t he s pot a

n ew

g eneration o f a rtisans. T here a re n umerous i ndications t hat, a s i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B .C., t he i nnovative r egion i n

g lass

t echnology w as

q uestions a bout i t

i s

t o

t he w est o f M esopotamia.

B ut m any

i nnovation a nd d iffusion r emain w ide o pen.

p ossible

t o s uggest t he p ossibility o f

t wo

k ey

k ey

E ven

i f

g lassmaking

t raditions i n t he e arlier f irst m illennium B .C., w hich m ight b e d istinguished c rudely a s " Syrian" a nd " Phoenician" ( the f ormer m ore c losely l inked t o B abylonia b y t he E uphrates), i t i s s till n ot p oss ible

t o

i solate w ith c onfidence

t heir r espective r oles.

T he c hrono-

l ogical d istinctions I n t he a ctivity o f i vory a nd m etal w orkshops i n t hese t wo r egions, a rgued b y W inter ( 1977), i s i n i tself d ebatable. I t i s p ossible t hat g lass m anufacture r evived e arlier, a nd c eased s ooner, i n S yria t han i n P hoenicia; b ut h ard e vidence f or s uch a c onclusion i s s till a waited. A lthough i t f alls o utside t he c hronological r ange o f t his s ure vidence a dduced b y A dams ( 1981, 2 11-13) f or g lass p roduction i n

v ey,

t he S asanian p eriod h as i mplications f or w hat m ight b e e xpected e arlier p eriods w hen m inor g lass p roduction c entres a re s ought: l et m e c all a ttention t o g lass n orth

t he s eries o f

s ites

i n

s pecializing

i n

m anufacture a long a n ewly d ug S asanian c anal n orthwest a nd o f U ruk-Warka... T he s cale o f w hat c an o nly b e d escribed a s

i ndustrial p roduction t here i s s uggested b y m ounds h undreds o f m etres l ong t hat a pparently a re c omposed m ainly o f g lass s lag. N umerous g lass f urnaces a lso c an s till b e s een i n p lace. r esource b ase t hat l ed t o s uch s pecialization, t hat a bly

i n l ate S asanian t imes t he a rea s outh o f h ad b egun t o i nclude e xtensive s wamps.

T o u nderstand t he i t i s w orth n oting

t his c anal l ine p robH ere w ould h ave b een

f opnd l arge a ccumulations o f s nails a s a s ource o f c alcium c arb onate... S uitable w ater-laid s and m ight a lso h ave b een s upplied l ocally. F inally, n aturally o ccurring p lants i n t he s ame a rea a re r eported t o b e a s ource o f s odium c arbonate. T here i s l ittle t o s uggest t hat t hese s ites w ere e xtensively i nvolved i n f ashioning g lass v essels f rom t he r aw m aterial t hey p roduced i n s uch q uantities. B ut t he d istance

i mportant p oint i s t hat, i n d ifficult t errain a t a g reat f rom t he m ain c entres o f a dministration a nd c onsumption, a

l arge-scale i ndustrial o peration w ent o n ( probably i nto t he E arly I slamic p eriod) t hat i mplies a f airly h igh d egre o f e conomic i ntegrat ion n ot m erely i n t he c ities, b ut e xtending t hroughout t he c ountrys ide". E ven o n a m arginal s ite n ear U r i n t his p eriod t here w ere " glass s herds a nd g lass c ullet" ( H.T. W right I n A dams, 1 981, 3 35). D :

T echnology a nd C omposition: ( I)

G lass w orkshops a nd f urnaces:

O nly o ne p ossible g lass w orkshop h as b een i dentified i n a p otamian

e xcavation,

a t

N imrud,

a nd t hat a ppears

t o d ate

t o

M esot he

A chaemenid p eriod. I nsufficient i nformation h as b een p ublished f or a ny a ppropriate t echnical d escription. M allowan w ithdrew h is e arlier d ating t o t he l ater N eo-Assyrian p eriod ( 1954, 7 7, 8 2-3; 1 966, 2 091 0) a nd c ommented t hus ".. . on t he s outh s ide o f r oom 4 7 ( of t he B urnt P alace) t here w ere t races o f k ilns a nd o f a g lassmaker s k it, i ncludi ng o ne ( cf.

s pecimen o f s ealing w ax r ed g lass,

S tern,

1 981,

4 4-5,

f ig.5).

T his 2 12

p robably f rom a

c rucible

r ed g lass w as o f

t he l ead

s ilicate

t ype,

c ent

l ead o xide.

o f

c oloured w ith c uprous o xide,

a nd c ontained 2 2.8

T he k ilns w ith w hich t his

f ragment w ere

p er a sso-

c iated h ad b een s unk f rom a l evel c ontaining H ellenistic p ottery w hich c ould b e d ated a bout 2 00 B .C." M ore r ecent r esearch ( in B arag, f orthcoming) o n t his t ype o f g lass, i ncluding a C arbon 1 4 d ating, i ndicates t hat t he N imrud g lass w orkshop p robably b elonged t o t he A chaemenid r ather t han t o t he S eleucid p eriod. T here i s o ther i ndust rial d ebris f rom g lass m aking, i n t he N eo-Assyrian l evels a t N imrud, b ut n one o f i t o ffers c oherent i nformation o n w orking m ethods. T wo d isks

o f

o paque b lue g lass h ad p robably b een f ormed i n r ough

m oulds,

w hilst a t l east t wo p ieces o f c ullet, o r u nshaped f used g lass, a gain b lue,to b e u sed a s r aw m aterial, w ere a lso r ecovered ( von S aldern, 1 966,

6 33;

1 970,

T here

i s

2 23,

n o.37;

c f.

a nalysis

s cattered i nformation o f

i n T urner,

1 955,

t his k ind f rom a

6 7). n umber

o f

s ites i n M esopotamia; b ut i t n ow d oes l ittle m ore t han i ndicate l ocal p roduction, s ince, w ithout t he a rchaeological c ontext, n o e vidence o f w orkshop p ractices m ay b e r etrieved. " Segmental" i ngot f ragments, l ike t hose f rom N imrud j ust c ited, h ave b een f ound a t K ar-TukultiN inurta,

i n d ark b lue g lass

( Barag,

f orthcoming,

n o-171) a nd a t N uzi

( see p .203 h ere) f rom s econd m illennium B .C. c ontexts. F rom R assam s e xcavations a t D ilbat ( Dulaim) c ame f ragments o f i ngots o f d ark r ed t o o range g lass

( Barag,

f orthcoming,

n os.168-170).

T hey a re p arts o f

l arge, h eavy d isks w ith s traight e dges, p robably c ast i n d ish-like c rucibles s ometime b etween t he e ighth a nd f ourth c enturies B .C. A t ranslucent d ark b lue r ectangular g lass i ngot f rom K uyunjik h as b een d ated t o P ersepolis

t he A chaemenid p eriod b y a nalogy w ith a n e xample ( Barag, f orthcoming, n o.172). O ther l umps o f g lass

f rom f rom

K uyunjik a nd A bu S hahrein ( Eridu) m ay b e p ieces o f i ngots o r a t l east d ebris f rom l ocal g lass w orking ( Barag, f orthcoming, n os.182-5). G lass c anes f rom U r ( Woolley, 1 965, 1 05) a nd B abylon ( Barag, f orthc oming

n os.173-6)

i ncrease

t he g eographical r ange o f

e vidence

f or

l ocal p roduction. I n t he a bsence o f g enerally a ssumed, s ystem w as u sed, d rums .

t he e vidence o f e arly g lass

f actories,

i t

i s

a s a t T ell e l-Amarna i n E gypt, t hat a n o pen h earth w ith s hallow c rucibles s upported o n h eat r esistant

A s n o r eally h igh t emperatures w ould t hus h ave b een p ossible,

t he g lass w ould g enerally h ave b een w orked i n a p asty s tate ( Petrie, 1 894 1, 2 5ff.; V andiver, 1 982a, 7 7). B ut i n t he " glass" t exts ( see p p.224ff.)

s tudied

A ssyrian p eriod

b y O ppenheim ( 1970,

6 9ff.),

o f

t he l ater

( though p robably i ncorporating s ources g oing b ack

N eoa t

l east t o t he M iddle A ssyrian p eriod), t hree t ypes o f k iln-like s truct ures a re m entioned. T hey a re n ever e xplicitly d escribed. T he k i iru k iln, w ith s intering. s o t hat f urnace.

f our f ire o penings ( "eyes"), w as u sed f or f ritting a nd I t h ad a l ower p art o r " fireplace ", p ossibly c onstructed

f lames m ight r ise t hrough a p ierced f loor t o t he m ain T his s eems t o b e a s pecial t ype o f k iln, b ecause t he i ntro-

d uction t o t he t exts r efers t o " kiln f or g lass ( making)"; i ts S umerian d esignation i ndicates t hat i t w as p rovided w ith b ellows t o o btain t he r equired h igh t emperatures w ith a w ood f ire. T here w as a n a lternat ive t ype o f k ru k iln " with a c hamber , w hich c ould b e c losed w ith a " door". S uch k ilns w ere e vidently u sed a s m elting f urnaces, f or f ounding g lass,

p erhaps a r everberatory f urnace i n w hich t he

u pon t he m aterial e xposed t o

b ack

b rought u se o f

i nto u se f or p rolonged f irings o f u p t o a w eek a nd i nvolved " moulds" r ather t han t he s tandard " crucibles". T he t exts 2 13

i t.

T he a t nu

f lame i s

f orced

k iln

w as

s peak o f

" stands" w ithin t he k ilns a nd s labs o f b aked c lay u pon w hich

p rimary g lass w as c ooled a nd t hen g round u p f or T ongs ( "lifters"), r akes ( "turners") a nd t ools c rucibles a re

l isted.

T he

f urther p rocessing. f or h andling t he h ot

t exts m ention c onsistently h igh

t empera-

t ures t o b e h eld o ver l ong p eriods; t hey i ndicate h ow t he b oiling g lass s hould b e t ested f or v iscosity ; a nd t he c omplex s tages o f g rinding a nd f iring r equired t o p roduce t he d esired o paque, c oloured g lass. I n c ommon w ith g lass m akers u ntil m odern t imes, w hen c hemical r eactions c ould f inally b e a nalysed a nd c ontrolled, t hey a ppear t o u se r edundant m aterials a nd e xcessive c are, s imply b ecause t hey c ould n ot d istinguish p recisely t he e ffective f rom t he i neffective. ( ii)

t o

M ixing a nd M elting:

T here i s n o a ncient t extual e vidence f rom M esopotamia r elative t he m anufacture o f g lass a rtefacts. A rtists ( Labino, 1 966),

s cientists

( Schuler,

1 959,

1 959a,

1 962) a nd,

r egrettably,

f orgers

( cf. G oldstein, 1 977), h ave a ttempted t o r eproduce a ncient f orms a nd t echniques, s ometimes j ust f or t he e nd p roduct i tself, s ometimes a s a m eans s tudy

o f e lucidating a ncient t echnology. T o t his t he c omparative o f c ontemporary p rimitive g lass-making h as a lso m ade s ignifi-

c ant c ontributions ( 1967).

t he

i n t he h ands o f W ulff

( 1966)

a nd

C harlesworth

T he m ineral r aw m aterials u sed i n g lassmaking a re g enerally i n f orm o f o xides. T he " batch", f rom w hich t he m anufacturing p ro-

c ess b egins, n ormally c ontains a g lass f ormer ( the s and), a m odifier ( soda o r p otash) a nd a s tabilizer ( lime). I n m any i ndustries i t m ay a lso c ontain " cullet", i .e. e xcess g lass f rom p revious p roduction. T hen,

a s

r equired,

o ther i ngredients a re a dded:

c olourants;

o paci-

f iers; d ecolourants. T he i ngredients a re m ixed t ogether a nd h eated m a f urnace ( see p .213). A t a bout 1 400 0 C t he e ntire m ixture f uses i nto a v iscous l iquid. T he t emperature i s t hen h eld s teady f or s ome h ours; i t i s l owered ( to 1 100 0 1300 0 C ) t owards t he e nd o f t he o perat ion t o r aise t he v iscosity o f t he b atch s o t hat i t i s r eady f or m anufacture i nto a rtefacts. T his h as t o b e a r elatively q uick p roc ess, a t m ost a m atter o f m inutes, a s t he c ooling g lass c hanges r apidly f rom a h ighly v iscous ( iii)

l iquid

t o a s olid.

F orming P rocesses: ( a)

F ree-modelling:

T his, t he s implest o f t echniques, u sed v ery m uch i n t he a ncient N ear E ast,

d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a s f ree-modelled a nd t ooled

o bjects a re r arely e ncountered i n M esopotamian e xcavations. S mall b irds f rom N uzi s tratum I I ( Vandiver, 1 982a, 7 7ff., f ig.4) a re g ood e xamples o f t he t echnique. ( b) S o

C ore-formed:

f ar a s p resent e vidence g oes,

c ore-forming w as

t he e arliest

m ethod f or t he m anufacture o f g lass v essels ( Barag, 1 970) a nd m ay h ave d erived d irectly e ither f rom t echniques f or f orming s intered q uartz v essels o n a c ore o r s imply f rom g lazing p ottery v essels, t hough t he p riority o f t hat t echnique o ver g lass v essel-making h as y et

t o b e

f irmly e stablished.

W ith t he d iscovery t hat s and h ad n ot 2 14

b een a m ajor c onstituent f or t he c ore, t he t raditional t erm " sandc ore" w as d ropped ( Bimson a nd W erner, 1 969). A c ore o f c lay a nd d ung w as m ade f irst a nd r ound t his t he c raftsman t railed t he g lass ( cf. G oldstein, 1 979, f lgs.1-4), a gain p erhaps f ollowing, i f o nly b roadly, t echniques b y t hen s tandard i n f aience v essel-making. A s t he a ncient c raftsman a vailable

w as p robably w orking w ith t emperatures l ower t han t hose u nder m odern c onditions, t he v iscosity o f t he g lass w ould

h ave b een h igher a nd h e i s u nlikely t o h ave d ipped h is c ore i nto a p ot o f g lass a s h as o ften b een s uggested. H owever, a ny m odern r econs truction T he n eed

o f a ncient w ork-procedures m ust a llow f or m any v ariations. f or c onstant r eheating w ould h ave r equired m any s tages i n

t he p roduction

( Harden,

t hickness

t he s moothness o f

a nd

1 969,

5 0;

G oldstein,

1 979,

2 7-9).

W all

t he v essel's s urface w ere c ontrolled

b y r olling t he g lass-covered c ore a cross a f lat s urface ( marvering). V arious t echniques w ere u sed i n d ecoration. T he m ost c ommon w as t he a pplication o f d ifferent c oloured t rails, u sually m arvered i nto t he s urface, b ut s ometimes l eft i n r elief. H andles a nd f oot-rings w ere t hen . ad ded; i f a ppropriate, r ims w ere t railed o n a nd t hen f ashioned t o

s hape.

P reformed

r ods o r c anes o f g lass w ere a lso

a pplied

t o

c ore-formed o bjects.

B eads

( c)

R od-formed:

w ere

f ormed o n a r od,

a t t imes c oated w ith a c lay

c ore,

t rail d ecorated, i f r equired, a nd t hen t ooled. T his i s w ell i llus trated b y f inds a t N uzi ( Vandiver, 1 983, f ig.3). T he g lass t ubes f or a rchitectural i nlays f rom T choga Z anbil i n K huzistan i n t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. w ere a lso m ade i n t his w ay. O ne s till r et ains t he m etal r od, p resumably b ecause t he m aker w as u nable t o e xtract

i t

( Ghirshman,

w ould h ave s uggestion

1 968,

p l.L:2).

S ome k ind o f s eparating a gent

b een n eeded o n t he m etal r od. t hat i t w as l ime ( Goldstein,

G oldstein d iscounts 1 979, 2 8); V andiver

t he h as

p roposed a " parting l ayer o f c alcite a nd c lay" ( Vandiver, 1 983, 2 42). A s eries o f r od-formed k ohl t ubes w as m anufactured i n t he e astern A chaemenid E mpire ( d)

( Barag,

1 975).

M osaic G lass:

I t h as b een s uggested

t hat

t he m osaic g lass

t echnique w as

e vol-

v ed s ometime i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. f rom e xperim ents w ith t he r ods a nd t rails u sed b y c ontemporary c ore-glass m akers. I n s o f ar a s t he c hronology o f u nderstood t he e arliest v essels w ere m ade

t he p rocess i s a t p resent f rom s ections o f m onochrome

c ane, t hough a f ragment f rom A qar Q uf, w hich m ay b e o lder t han t he T ell R imah v essels, i s m ade o f a c ane c onsisting o f t hree c oncentric c olours: a b lue c entre w ith r ed s urround i n a w hite b order ( Harden, 1 969, 5 0, f ig.2). G oldstein ( 1979, 3 0-31, f igs.5-7) a dmirably s umm arizes a nd i llustrates t he p robable p rocedures o f m anufacture. H e e xplains h ow p reformed c anes o f g lass w ould b e c ut i nto t he r equired l engths f or t he m osaic p attern. T he c ane-sections w ould t hen b e a ssembled o ver a s olid c ore, p resumably w ith a b inder o f a dhesive, a nd t hen e nveloped i n a n o uter m ould ( cf. v on S aldern, 1 966a). T he m ould w ould t hen h ave b een h eated s lowly t o f use t he c anes w ithout a llowing t hem t o b ecome s o h ot t hat t he d esign w as l ost. T his w ould h ave r equired a s ophisticated k nowledge o f t he p roperties o f v arious g lasses. O nce t he c anes h ad b een f used, t he m ould w ould b e r emoved, t he g lass

s urface c leaned a nd m aybe p olished. 2 15

T here w as m uch

s cope

f or d amage a nd e rror;

b ut o nly t he e xcavation o f a g lass

r eveal

t his p rocedure.

t he d etails o f ( e)

M oulding

f actory w ill

M oulding a nd C asting G lass: t echniques h ad b een d eveloped o ver c enturies

f or

t he

p roduction o f s mall f aience o bjects a nd t he s ame m ethods w ere u sed f or g lass p endants a nd a mulets f rom e arly i n i ts h istory. P endants a nd i nlays w ere c ast i n s imple o pen m oulds; g round a nd p olished a fter r emoval f rom t he m ould, w hich w ould h ave b een p ut i nto t he k iln f or t he g lass t o b e f ired i n i t. C asting i n p iece-moulds w ould h ave b een a m uch m ore c omplex p rocess, f or w hich a nalogies w ith m etal c asting a re m isleading. A t t he t emperatures u sed i n a ntiquity t he g lass w ould n ot h ave f lowed i nto a c omplex m ould a s d id m olten m etal. S chuler ( 1959) h as p roposed m ethods f or m ould-casting g lass t hat w ould h ave o vercome a s

t his p roblem.

i t w as h eated i n a f urnace,

I n h is r econstruction t he

m ould,

w as c ontinually f illed w ith g round o r

pow dered g lass. F or m ore c omplex v essel s hapes a nd f or e laborately d ecorated i nlays, s uch a s b eards a nd w igs, t he l ost-wax t echnique w as p robably u sed t o m ake t he m oulds ( f) T his

( cf.

S chuler,

1 959,

4 9-50).

C old-cutting:

w as

a t echnique i n w hich g lass w as

t reated

i n

t he

s ame

m anner a s s tone h ad b een f or m illennia. A s g lass i s s lightly s ofter t han t he h arder s tones l ike q uartz o r f lint, c old c utting o r g rinding w as p ossible b oth f or f inishing g lass o bjects, f irst r oughed o ut b y c asting, o r f or w orking a v essel f rom a b lock o f g lass j ust a s a s tone v essel w ould h ave b een m ade. E xamples o f t he f irst p rocess a re k nown i n M esopotamia f rom t he l ater s econd m illennium B .C.; b ut t he l atter i s n ot e vident u ntil t he n ext m illennium i n A ssyria. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he f amous " Sargon v ase", o f t he l ate e ighth c entury B .C.,

w as p roduced b y c utting,

l ump o f g lass, f irst p repared.

g rinding a nd

p olishing.

A

a pproximately 1 0cm. h igh b y 7 cm. i n d iameter, w as T he b lock w as o f r easonable u niformity, o btained

f rom w ell-melted g lass a nd s ubsequently s low-cooled t o a void s hatteri ng. I t w as t hen w orked e xactly a s a s tone a labastron w ould h ave b een ( von S aldern, 1 970, n o.17, f ig.17). H owever, i t h as a lso b een a rgued t hat a l ost-wax m ethod c ould h ave b een u sed f or t he b asic s haping a nd o nly t he f inishing d one b y g rinding a nd p olishing. N one

o f

t he e xcavated e xamples o f N eo-Assyrian c ast,

c ut

a nd

p olished g lass h as y et b een t he s ubject o f a t horough t echnological e xamination; b ut G winnett a nd G orelick ( 1983) h ave p ublished t heir i nvestigation o f a n u nprovenanced v essel o f t his t ype

i n t he

C orning

M useum o f G lass. T his v essel i s a t p resent a ttributed t o a w orkshop i n S yria o r A ssyria i n t he e ighth o r s eventh c entury B .C., t hough i t m ight b e o f h oles

t he A chaemenid p eriod.

i n t he

t wo

p re-bonded w ith a n a brasive; l ier s how

T hey d emonstrated t hat

t he d rill

l ug-handles w ere p robably m ade w ith a c opper

d rill

a n i nstrument e vident c onsiderably e ar-

i n t he m anufacture o f c ylinder s eals. N o e vidence s urvived t o w hether a s olid c ore d rill o r a h ollow c ore b it h ad b een u sed;

t his m ay o nly b e d etermined " when t he r esults o f t he l eading e dge o f t he d rill c an b e s een" ( ibid., 2 54). T he i nner s urface s howed t hat o riginal

h orizontal r ibs p roduced b y d rilling h ad b een p olished 2 16

i n a

v ertical

d irection,

p erhaps

w ith a n a brasive u sed

w ith

c loth

o r

l eather. T here w as n o t race o f t he u se o f a l athe; t he r egular g rooves w ere p robably m ade w ith a brasives m anipulated b y h and. ( iv)

C omposition:

T oday t he c ommonest c ommercial g lass i s m ade b y h eating t ogether a m ixture o f s uch m aterials a s s and ( about 7 5%), l imestone ( about 1 0%) a nd s oda ( about 1 5%), a t a v ery h igh t emperature, t o f orm a l iquid. W hen t his l iquid i s t aken f rom t he f urnace i t s tiffens r apidly a s i t c ools, u ntil a t a bout 5 00 0 C i t r esembles g lass a s g enerally u nderstood. T he s oda a cts a s a f lux a nd t he l imestone a s a s tabilizing a gent t o g ive a d urable g lass. O ther o xides, s uch a s a luminium a nd m agnesium ( A1 2 0 3; M gO) a re a lso u sually p resent; t he f ormer i mproves t he c hemical d urability a nd r educes t he t endency o f t he m ix t o c rystallize, w hilst t he l atter d ecreases t he s olubility o f t he g lass. M any a ncient g lasses w ere f requently o f t his s oda-limes ilica c omposition; t he o ther c ommon c omposition h as p otash r eplacing s oda a s t he f luxing a gent. P otash ( K 20 ) a ssists i n m ak ing a g lass t hat

h ardens m ore r apidly a nd a t a h igher t emperature;

b ut i s

l ess

s uitable f or t he m oulding t echniques u sed i n a ntiquity. L ead o xide ( Pb0) i s a lso a g ood m odifier p roviding g lass o f l ow s oftening t emperature a nd h igh d ensity. T here

a re

t wo s ources o f

i nformation o n t he c omposition o f

t he

g lass e xcavated f rom a ncient s ites i n M esopotamia: t hat p rovided b y m odern m ethods o f s cientific a nalysis, w hich i s s till m eagre, a nd t hat d erived f rom t he c uneiform r ecords, a ssembled a nd c ritically s tudied b y O ppenheim ( 1970), w hich a re f ull o f o bscure t erminology. ( a)

M odern A nalyses: ( 1)

A ll

G eneral:

t he a nalyses o f a ncient g lass u ndertaken b etween

1 790

1 957 h ave b een a ssembled a nd c ritically a ssessed b y C aley ( 1962).

a nd H e

p ointed o ut a n umber o f g eneral c onclusions e merging f rom t he n arrow d ata-base a vailable t o h im f or M esopotamian g lasses: t he m agnesia c ontent w as s o h igh t hat t hese m ay p roperly b e c alled s oda-limem agnesia g lasses; d ifferences i n t he r atio o f a lumina t o s ilica m ight b e

d ue

t o

a c ontrast b etween t he q uality o f q uartz

s and

u sed

i n

A ssyria a nd B abylonia; t he r atios o f m agnesia t o l ime w ere d ecidely h igher t han i n c ontemporary E gyptian g lass; g enerally t he s ame c olouring a gents a ppear I n M esopotamian a s i n E gyptian g lass; a m ixed s oda-lime-lead t ype o f g lass h ad a ppeared I n M esopotamia b y a t l east t he e ight c entury B .C. C aution i s n ecessary w ith s ome e arly ( and c urrent)

a nalyses,

f aute d e m ieux, T he

s ince

a nd e rrors

f low o f

w eathered

s pecimens

w ere

a nalysed,

t hereby i ntroduced.

i nformation i n r ecent y ears h as m uch i ncreased;

b ut

n ot a s s ignificantly a s i n o ther a spects o f g lass s tudies, s ince s uitable s amples o f M esopotamian g lass a re n ot r eadily a ccessible t o s cientists f or a nalysis. G arner T h ( 1956) a nalysis o f t he E arly E ridu f ragment ( see p .196) w as a n i solated p iece o f r esearch. I n 1 969, B rill, i n r eviewing s cientific i nvestigations o f a ncient g lasses, b rought a s

p art

f orward h is o wn w ork o n g lass f rom T ell R imah a nd f rom N imrud o f

t he

s urvey.

H e p ointed o ut 2 17

t he

p otential

o f

s uch

t echniques a s l ead a nd o xygen i sotope a nalysis f or c haracterising e arly g lasses a nd, m ore p articularly, f or g rouping g lasses ( see p .113). T his h ad b een t he i ntention o f t he p ioneers u sing c hemical a nalysis; b ut f or t he m oment t he a vailable i nformation i s t oo m eagre, u neven a nd s cattered t o m ake a ny r eal a nd r eliable c ontribution t o s ource s tudies. M ost

p rogress h as b een m ade

i n t he s tudy o f

c omposition,

n otably

i n e stablishing t he i dentity o f c olourants, o pacifiers a nd c lar if iers. I n 1 963 S ayre p ublished a m ajor s tudy d emonstrating t hat b oth a ntimony a nd m anganese h ad b een u sed i ntentionally a s c olourants o r o pacifying a gents i n g lass m anufacture l ong b efore t hey w ere u sed a s d ecolourants. H e p roduced t he f irst i ndication t hat i n t he t ime o f t he N eo-Assyrian E mpire, b y a t l east t he s eventh c entury B .C., t he r ole 1 963,

o f a ntimony a s a n o xidizing a gent w as w ell a ppreciated ( Sayre, t able I II). A ntimony c hanges t he s tate o f o xidization o f t he

i ron

i n t he g lass m ix f rom t he f errous s tate

( a p ale g reen t int)

t o

t he f erric s tate, i n w hich i ron c auses o nly a p ale y ellow s hade a nd y ields a n a pparently c olour-free g lass. M ore r ecently V andiver ( 1982a, 1 983) h as p ublished a nalyses o f g lass f rom N uzi; B rill ( 1969) a nd P ollard ( 1982) o f t hat f rom R imah; P ollard ( 1983) o f t hat f rom F ailaka; a nd B rill h as c ontributed p articularly t o s tudies o f g lass f rom t he N eo-Assyrian l evels a t N imrud ( 1969, 1 970, 1 978). I n 1 970, w hen c ontributing t o 0 ppenhe1m s p hilological s tudy o f g lass, B rill a ssembled t he a nalyses o f M esopotamian g lasses, b y t hen a bout t wenty o f t hem ; b ut t heir v ariety w as s uch t hat i n a c omparative t able h e s ought o nly t o d escribe " a h ypothetical b ase g lass t o w hich a ddit ional c olorants a nd c olorant-opacifiers a s l isted s eparately i n t he t able, ( 2)

w ould h ave b een a dded"

( see t ables o n p p.219-20).

T he M itannian a nd M iddle A ssyrian p eriods: 1 550-1150 B .C.):

( c.

V andiver ( 1983) h as p ublished a t echnical s tudy o f t he N uzi g lass. H er r epresentative c ompositions ( see p p.221-2) f all w ithin t he s econd m illennium B .C. c ategory o f r elatively h igh K2 0 a nd M gO e stablished b y S ayre a nd B rill; a t endency t o h igher M g0:Ca r atios ( 0.3-0.8) m ay b e e xplained b y t he d olomitic l ime i n l ocal N uzi c lays. T he g lazes o n c lay v essels a t N uzi h ave t he s ame c haracteristic ( Mg0:Ca: 0 .5-0.8). V andiver f or c olour f ormation a t N uzi.

( 1983, 2 40) i dentified t hree m echanisms I n o ne, s olution o f i ons i nto t he b ase

g lass a pplied: t ranslucent t urquoise b lue w as f ormed b y a bsorption o f c olours o ther t han b lue b y c opper i ons, r equiring m elting i n a n o xidizing a tmosphere. I n a nother, p recipitation p rocesses o perated: r ed f ormed b y t he s cattering o f l ight f rom s ubmicron s ize, d roplets haped p articles o f c uprite, w hich p recipitate i n t he g lass m elt i n a r educing a tmosphere o ver a r ange o f t emperature. F inally, t here w as t he f or

i nclusion o f u nmelted p articles: l ead a nd c alcium a ntin ionates y ellow a nd w hite w hich r equire o xidization a nd r elatively l ow

t emperature m elting. a nd

V andiver

( 1983,

2 45)

s uggested

t hat

t he b lack

a mber g lasses w ere c oloured b y t he s ulphur-iron c hromophore u sed

t oday t o c olour b eer-bottles b rown.

2 18

C OMPOSITIONS O F M ESOPOTAMIAN G LASSES ( After B rill,

T ypical V alues

H ypothetical

C alculated

( and R anges)

" Base G lasses

"C omposition F or zu kU

2

F ound U p n A nalysis

1 970,

1 22)

C alculated S emi-Quantit ative C omp osition o f A R ed O paque G lass

S iO

5 5

6 4%

6 8

5 6

6 6%

7 0

5 6.0%

S i0

4 0%

N a 9 C aô

1 3 4

1 6 6 .5

1 9 8

1 4 4

1 7 7

2 0 1 0

2 3.8 6 .6

N a 26 C aO

1 8 5

K2O

1

1 .5

3

1

1 .5

3

3 .8

C u 2O

1 3

M gO A l 2 O3

3 1 .5

4 .5 2

6 3

3 1 .5

4 .5 2

6 3

5 .6 2 .2

P b0 S b 2 05

1 2 1

F e,O 3 T i 2

0 .5

1 0 .1

1 .5

0 .5

1 0 .1

1 .5

0

.7 0 .05

M nO

v ar.

0 .02

0 .05

S b 7O5 P bO

v ar. v ar.

0 .000X(?) 0 .000X(?)

n il n il

B aO S rO

0 .1 0 .1

0 .1 0 .1

0 .1 0 .1

" anzah u" O ther

P 05

0 .3

0 .3

1 .0

S 3 C l

0 .3 0 .3

0 .3 0 .3

0 .5(?) 0 .5(?)

1 1 0

O ther e lements s ometimes f ound i n t he r ange o f 0 .000X-0.2 i n a ncient g lasses f rom v arious s ources: B2 03 , L i 2O , R b 20 , V2 05 , C r 2 03 1 Z r0 2 , N iO,

1 .

Z nO,

A 9 20 ,

S n0 2 , B i 2 03 .

E xcluding r ed o paques w ith h igh P bO c ontents.

V alues

i n i talics

s how a pproximate m axima a nd m inima. 2 .

T o

b e m odified s ubstitutionally b y c olorants a nd c olorant-0paci

f iers. 3 .

S O

4 .

I ncludes K2 0 ,

V ar.

=

a nd C l u ncertain d ue

v ariable,

M gO,

t o u nknown e xtent o f

A l 2 O3 , F e 2 03 1

e tc.

d epending u pon c olour o f g lass.

2 19

r etention.

C OLORANTS A ND C OLORANT-OPACIFIERS ( after B rill,

1 970,

1 22)

1 -2% 0 .05-0.2%

b lue b lue

F e JSJx M ixture o f a bove

1 .5% 2 -3% 2 -3% 5 %

p urple t ransparent g reen t ransparent a mber t ransparent b lack " transparent"

C u, 0 P b

-5, -10, -15% 0 .OX, -3, . -10, ' ' 20%

r ed o paque

S nO S b 2 05

n il,

C uO C oO M n0 F e 0

. x ,

C a2S b 2 07 P b2S b 2 07 u0/Co0 C a2S b 2 07 + C

t ransparent t ransparent

. X%

2 % ( 2-5% S b 2 05 ) ( 2-5% S b 2 05 )

w hite o paque y ellow o paque l ight b lue o paque ( turquoise) g reen o paque

P b2S b 2 07 + C u0/CoO

K aczmarczyk a nd H edges ( 1983, 2 87) c ited S ayre s c omplete a nalys es o f f ive t hirteenth c entury B .C. g lass s amples ( 2 w hite; 2 b lack ; 1b lue),

a nd a g lazed b rick ,

f rom T choga Z anbil.

T he w hite g lass w as

a v ery p ure s oda-lime-silicate m aterial w ithout a ny i dentifiable o pacifier. A s t he b lue g lass c ontained l ess t han 0 .02% C oO a nd l ess t han 0 .04% M nO, t he c olour w as p roduced b y c opper a nd i ron. B oth o f t he b lack g lasses w ere c oloured w ith r educed i ron a nd n ot

m anganese,

a s t heir i ron o xide c ontents w ere f ar i n e xcess o f t he t race a mounts o f m anganese. N one o f t he g lasses c ontained m uch l ead; 0 .07% P b0 i n t he b lue g laze w as t he h ighest. O nly o ne, t he b lue g lass, h ad a d etectable o pacifier, 2 .2% S b 2 05 ( cf. B rill, 1 970, 1 16ff.). N eumann ( 1927; c f. C aley, 1 962) a nalysed t wo s pecimens o f b lue g lass f rom " Kassite"

N ippur.

o r c obalt; 0 .32% S n0 2 ) .

O ne w as

t urquoise c oloured a nd c ontained n o

l ead

b ut i ts c opper w as a ccompanied b y s ome t in ( 2.6% C uO; T he d arker b lue p iece w as c oloured b y c obalt, w hich w as

a ccompanied b y s ome m anganese ( 0.93% C oO; 0 .65% M nO). o r z inc w as r eported, a nd c obalt e xceeded m anganese, a bly I ranian c obalt

c omparable w ith t hat

A s n o n ickel t his w as p rob-

i n t he E ridu g lass

f ragment

( p.196). P ollard ( Pollard a nd M oorey, 1 982) h as a nalysed s ome o f t he " Mitannian/Middle A ssyrian" g lasses f rom T ell R imah. T hese s amples s howed c alcium c oncentrations i n t he r ange 2 -10%, s lightly h igher t han t he 4 -8% p reviously r eported f or M esopotamian g lass ( Brill, 1 970,

1 22);

s urface.

b ut

t his m ight b e e xplained b y c orrosion p roducts o n t he

A ntimony w as p resent i n a ll o bjects

t ested.

I n t he f rag-

m ent o f a mos aic g lass v essel i t w as p resent i n a ll c olours, w ith c opper i n t he o paque g reen a reas, m anganese a nd c opper i n t he b lack . T his d oes n ot s upport D ayton 's v iew ( 1978) t hat t he c opper w as a ssoc iated w ith b lack g lass, a ntimony w ith w hite. T he b lack a reas o f t he m osaic

g lass

h ad

r elatively l ess M n a nd m ore F e a nd

C u

t han

t he

c olouring o f b lack f aience. T he

u se o f c obalt i n b lue g lass

in

M esopotamia i s

m ented a s e arly a s t he U r I II p eriod a t E ridu ( Garner, p ublished a nalyses o f M esopotamian g lasses c obalt i s 2 20

f ully

d ocu-

1 956). I n u ncorrelated

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L

z

U i

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2 22

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= C z E I f r 1 0 )

w ith M nO o r F e 2 O2 a nd i s s eldom a ccompanied b y m ore t han t race a mounts o f n ickel o r z inc. T his i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t he c obalt u sed i n E gyptian f aience, g lass a nd p ottery p igments i n t he N ew K ingdom. K aczmarczyk ( pers.co t nm.) b elieves t hat c obalt i n t he a lum f rom t he D akhla O asis i s i nvariably a ccompanied b y a ll o f t hese e lements a nd i s t he l ikely s ource f or E gyptian g lass m akers i n t he N ew K ingdom. M esopotamia ( and E gypt i n t he f irst m illennium) i s l ikely t o h ave d rawn o n t he r ich d eposits o f h igh g rade c obalt i n I ran. W hen m anganese a ppears w ith t he c obalt i n M esopotamian g lass i t i s l ikely t o h ave b een i ntroduced i ndependently a s a c larifier ( cf. S ayre, 1 963). O n F ailaka i n t he K assite P eriod t wo t ypes o f b lue g lass w ere c urrent, o ne c oloured o nly b y c opper, t he o ther w ith 0 .10% c obalt i n a ddition, t o d evelop a d eep b lue c olour ( Pollard; p ers . c omm.). ( 3) B rill h as

T he N eo-Assyrian P eriod

s tudied

( 1970;

1 978)

( c.1000-600 B .C.):

t he c omposition o f t he c olourless

g lass f rom N eo-Assyrian l evels a t N imrud ( see p .208), b oth t hat u sed f or v essels, w hose o rigin i s u ncertain, a nd t hat f or t he m iniature p ainted g lass p laques, w hose p atterns a re " Phoenician". T hey a re t he u sual s oda-lime-silica t ype o f g lass. T he l evels o f p otassium a nd m agnesium a re h igh e nough t o p lace t hem i n t he h igh-potassium h ighm agnesium c ategory d efined b y S ayre ( 1963), a s w ould b e a nticipated f or " Mesopotamian" g lass. T hey a lso c ontain a ntimony a s a d ecolouri zer, p erhaps a lso a s a f ining a gent t o r emove s ome o f t he b ubbles f rom t he g lass ( Brill, 1 970, 1 16ff.). A " Phoenician" g lass p laque, w hich B rill e xamined, w as u nusual i n h aving 2 .6% l ead o xide. T his w ould b e e xplicable i n a c oloured g lass, b ut i ts r ole i n c olourless g lass i s p laques

l ess e asily e xplained ( Brill, 1 978, 2 9-30). O n t he p ainted t he o utline w as d one w ith a b lack p aint ( some b ituminous

s ubstance), w hilst a f inely g round E gyptian b lue f rit w as c olour c ertain s elected d etails o f t he p aintings ( Orchard,

u sed t o 1 978, 6 ).

I t i s j ust p ossible, t hough t his w as b y n o m eans c ertain, t hat t he p laques h ad o riginally b een p ainted , w ith w hite l ead t o p rovide a b ackground f or t he d esigns. K ühne

( Haevernick a nd K ühne,

1 982) h as p ublished a n a nalysis o f

a s ky-blue g lass m ace o r s taffhead f rom A ssur: H2 O :

C aO:

1 0.9%

S4 09 : 5 9% A t 3 : Ö0 .75%

M gO: N a 2O :

4 .6% 1 6.5%

T i : F e 2 ô2 :

C u0: M n 2 03 :

A g lass

s eal,

6 .2%

0 .13% 0 .55%

0 .6% 0 .04%

f rom l evel I I a t T ell T aya

n ot h ave b een o f l ocal m anufacture, c olourant ( Bimson, 1 973). ( 4)

( Neo-Assyrian),

w hich

h ad c opper n ot c obalt a s

T he A chaemenid p eriod

m ay

t he b lue

( c.550-330 B .C.):

I n v iew o f t he w ide d istribution o f s tandard t ypes g lassware t hroughout t he P ersian E mpire ( Oliver, 1 970),

o f f ine M atson T h

r eport ( 1957) o n t wo f ragments o f c olourless g lass v essels f rom P ersepolis h as a w ider r elevance t han m ight a t f irst b e a pparent. T hey w ere o f t he n ormal s oda-lime-silica c omposition w ith l ow 2 23

m agnesium a nd w ith a ntimony a dded a s a c larifier. b ead,

a

s lab a nd a l ump o f o paque

r ed g lass

M atson e xamined a

f rom P ersepolis.

T hey

h ad a c omplex c omposition i n w hich s everal i ngredients, i ncluding c opper, i ron a nd a ntimony, c ontributed t o t he d evelopment o f t he c olour ( Matson, 1 957, 1 31-2; c f. p .228 b elow f or m ore r ecent w ork o n t he m anufacture o f r ed g lass). F :

P rovenance S tudies: A lthough E gyptian g lasses o ften h ave a h igh m agnesia c ontent a nd

t hus a h igh m agnesia: l ime r atio ( Mg0:CaO), h igher i n M esopotamian t han i n E gyptian g lass. t hat

M atson

t his r atio i s I t i s o n t his

b ased h is c laim t hat t he c olourless g lass

h e

m uch f act

a nalysed

f rom P ersepolis ( see a bove) w as " made i n E gypt i n t he v icinity o f C airo o r i n t he D elta, s ince i ts M gO c ontent i s v ery l ow" ( Matson, 1 957,

1 29).

W ith t he p resent r estricted d ata-base s uch

s tatements

m ust n ecessarily b e c onjectural. G :

T he a ncient t extual t radition: O ne

o f

t he

m ost

i mportant c ollaborative

s tudies

o f

a ncient

M esopotamian t echnology i s G lass a nd G lassmaking i n A ncient M esopotam ia ( Chicago, 1 970), i nitiated b y t he p hilologist O ppenheim, w hose e dition v olume.

o f a s eries o f c uneiform " glass" t exts i naugurated T o t his B rill c ontributed a s cientific c ommentary.

t he T wo

h istorical a nd t ypological s tudies o f g lass v essels a nd o ther o bj ects, b y B arag a nd v on S aldern) c ompleted t he v olume. E ach o f t he f our s ections i s a n i mportant i ndependent e ssay; b ut, s ignificantly, t hey a re n ot c omplementary. " The g lass o bjects d o n ot ' illustrate ' t he h istory o f t his p articular c lass o f c uneiform l iterature a nd t he t exts a re u seless i n h elping u s t race t he t ypological h istory o f e arly M esopotamian g lass v essels" ( Barag, 1 970, 1 34). N or, h e m ight h ave

a dded,

d o

t hey o ffer i nformation o n

t echniques

o f

a rtefact

m anufacture o r o n w orkshop o rganization. N or e ven d o t hey o ffer a v ery s atisfactory g uide t o " glass" c omposition, a s B rill s s crupulous b ut i nevitably f altering a ttempts t o r eplicate t he m aterials t hey d escribe v ividly i llustrates. T his i s a p articularly c lear i llustrat ion

o f a r ecurrent d isjunction i n t he h istory o f e arly

t echnology:

a ncient t exts s erved a dministrative o r l iterary p urposes, t hey d id n ot r epresent a b ody o f t echnical o r " scientific" l iterature. T hey w ere f ar r emoved f rom p ractical k nowledge a nd c hemists i nterested i n a ncient g lass t echnology h ave b een h eard t o d escribe t hem a s " usel ess" f or r econstructing a ncient m ethods a nd r ecipes. T his m ay b e a n e xtreme T he

v iew;

b ut

i t h ighlights

d ifficulties

t he p roblem.

r un d eep,

a s O ppenheim c learly

p ointed

o ut.

C urrent u nderstanding o f t hese t exts i s, a t t he m ost b asic l evel, f aulty a nd i ncomplete. T hey e mploy a l arge n umber o f r are o r u nique w ords, r efer o bscurely t o c hemical p rocedures, a nd l ack a " scientif ic" m ode o f p resentation. T he c urrent s tatus o f t he t exts i s n ot a ssisted b y t heir c omplicated h istorical d evelopment, w hich h as t o b e u nravelled f rom i nternal e vidence. O ppenheim b elieved t hem t o b e p redominantly t he w ork o f s eventh c entury s cribes c opying e arlier r ecords, s ome o f w hich m ight b e o ver a m illennium o lder. A p relimina ry c ritical r eview o f 0 ppenheim s a pproach w as p rovided b y M uhly ( 1971). F oster ( 1979, 1 5ff.), p resumably w ith t he s pecialist p hilol ogical a ssistance o f h er h usband,

B .R.

F oster

2 24

( Foster,

1 979,

X VIII),

o ffered a c ritical s ummary o f 0 ppenheim s i nterpretation o f t he g lass t exts. T his i ncluded s ignificant m odifications i n h is t ranslation o f k ey w ords

( Foster,

d efinitions

1 979,

g iven

2 1)

t hat h ad

i n v olumes

p ublished b efore 1 970,

o f

t hemselves o ften d iffered f rom

t he

C hicago A ssyrian D ictionary,

w ith w hich O ppenheim w as

a ssociated.

T he m ain c orpus o f t hese " glass" t exts c ame f rom t he A shurbanipal" ( c.664-627 B .C.) a t K uyunjik ( Nineveh).

" Library o f O ppenheim

a rgued t hat t hey h ad b elonged t o a l arger b ody o f t exts o ffering " procedural i nstructions" i n m athematics a nd a stronomy, i n r itual a nd i n m edicine, i n c hemistry ( "glass" a nd p erfumes), a nd i n h orsemans hip.

T he

o riginal c hemical a nd e questrian t exts h e a ttributed

t o

s cribes w orking i n A ssur i n t he l ast t hird o f t he s econd m illennium B .C., a t t he h eight o f t he M iddle A ssyrian E mpire. T he " glass t exts" s eemed t o h im t o r epresent a n A ssyrian t radition, t hough r eferences t o p ast m asters o f t he c raft m ay i mply a h istory e xtending b ack i nto a t l east t he e arly M iddle B abylonian p eriod, i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. o r s oon a fter, a nd t o a c omplex g eographical o rigin f or

s ome o f

t he t echniques

i nvolved

( Oppenheim,

1 970,

5 1-3).

T he s urviving M iddle B abylonian " glass" t exts r epresent t he s ame t echnical t radition, b ut d ate o nly b etween t he f ourteenth a nd t welfth c enturies B .C. O ppenheim d emonstrated t hat t hey c annot c onfidently b e

t aken b ack t o t he l ater O ld B abylonian p eriod,

a s h ad p reviously

b een a ssumed. G reat n ature t exts.

c aution

o f t he B rill

i s

s till n ecessary i n

e xplaining

t he

p recise

m aterials w hose c omposition i s d escribed i n t hese ( 1970, 1 08) p ut t he p roblem s uccinctly ..there i s

s ufficient a mbiguity i n t he t ranslations o f t he t exts t o l eave r oom f or t he p ossibility t hat t he m aterials b eing p repared w ere g lassy f aience, E gyptian b lue, o r s ome r elated b ut n ot y et c learly d efined m aterial".

B ut

h e

f avoured

t he o pinion t hat

t he

m aterials

b eing

p repared a ctually w ere t rue g lasses ( i.e. f used, n ot s intered, c omp ositions). T he p roportions, h e a rgued, o f t he m ajor i ngredients c alled f or, a nd t he p resence o f a ntimony, c opper a nd l ead, a ll r elate w ell t o t he k nown c hemistry o f M esopotamian g lass a nd, s o f ar a s t ranslation p ermits, t here i s n o s ign o f i nappropriate m aterials a mong t he m ajor c onstituents. M uhly ( 1971, 1 81-2) w as m ore s ceptic al,

w hilst

F oster

( 1979,

1 6ff.),

a lthough s he b elieved t hat

m ajority o f t exts r eferred t o t rue g lass m anufacture, a ssumed m any o f O ppenheim s " primary, a lkali-silicate g lasses" w ere i n

t he t hat f act

f aience; o n t he t erminology u sed i n t his v olume ( and g enerally i n h er b ook) t his i s i mprecise. T he a lternatives, a s B rill a ppreciated, a re f rits

o r E gyptian b lue.

T hese

s ubstances a re m anufactured c hemical

i ntermediaries, t o b e u sed a s s tarting p oints i n c omplex p rocesses l eading t o t he p roduction o f c oloured m aterials i mitating s emip recious s tones; b ut w hether f or m anufacture, a s g lass a rtefacts, o r t o g laze t erracotta o r s intered q uartz w as i nformation n ot p riate t o t he s cribes p urpose a nd t herefore n ot e xplicitly ( cf.

M uhly,

1 971,

T hese

t exts

a ppros tated

1 81-2). a re

p art o f a t raditional

M esopotamian

l iterary

e nterprise: t he c ompilation o f l exical l ists. A s t hese h ad a lways i ncluded t erms f or n atural s tones, t he a rtificial m anufacture o f s uch s tones ( once i t b ecame a r egular i ndustrial a ctivity) w as n aturally o f i nterest. T hus t he " glass" t exts, i n a ccord w ith t his l ongs tanding

p urpose,

c oncern

t hemselves 2 25

w ith l ittle

m ore

t han

t he

a ppropriate t echnical v ocabulary.

A s

t he t echnical p rocedures t hem-

s elves w ere o f l ittle i nterest, a nd p robably u nknown, t o t he s cribes, t heir d escriptions a re r udimentary; s ufficient f or t he p urposes o f l exicography,

b ut

i nadequate a s d escriptions o f a n a ctual t echnology.

L iterary t radition i s a n otoriously i nadequate s ource f or t he h istory o f t echnology. D espite 0 ppenheim s ( 1970, 8 3ff.) a ttempt t o s ee a n h istorical d evelopment i n w hat h is t exts d escribe, ( complementary t o h is a nalysis o f t he h istorical e volution o f t he t extual t radition i tself), i t s eems t hey d eal w ith m ethods f or t he m anufacture o f i mitation c oloured s tones t hat c hanged l ittle b etween a bout 1 850 a nd 7 00 B .C. F or c enturies b efore t he e mergence o f a f ully f ledged g lass i ndustry ( c.1600-1500 B .C.) t his h ad b een d one e ither b y g lazing d ark-coloured s tones o r b y m aking r eplicas i n f aience ( see p p.133ff.). T his c raft t radition c ontinued, e ven a fter t he g rowing m astery o f g lass i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C., t he n ew m aterial p ermitted c loser i mitation o f t he o riginal

t hough s tones.

S ince f aience a nd g lass w orkshops w ere c losely a ssociated, a s a t N uzi a nd A ssur, b oth m aterials c ame t o b e u sed t o i mitate s tones. M odern s cientific e xamination h as o nly j ust b egun t o c omplex T here

h istory

o f

" glass" a nd

" glassy"

w ere c ertainly m ore c ategories,

m aterials

r eveal

i n

t he

a ntiquity.

p articularly a fter a bout 1 500

B .C., t han t he m odern d escriptive t erms " faience", " frit", " glass p aste', " glassy f aience" a nd " glass" c an a dequately d escribe. T he o nly p ractical a pplication r eferred t o i n t he O ppenheim c orpus o f t exts i s t he g lazing o f b ricks. O ppenheim , u sing t he l exical l ists o f t he O ld B abylonian p eriod ( c.1850-1600 B .C.), i solated v arious t erms f or w hat h e d escribed a s " primary g lasses", t hough t heir c haracters d iffer, a lmost t o t he p oint o f c onfusion : " I

p ropose

t o c all

A kkadian a s a nzahhu,

t he g lasslike s ubstances

k utpf l ,

h uluhhu ,

h ­u h Wü , -

w hich

a ppear

a s w ell a s b Usu

i n

( see p .16)

a nd t uzkf l, p rimary g lasses, e ach s pecific p roduct b eing a pparently e ndowed w ith d efinite c hemical p roperties. S ome o f t hem s uch a s -

a nzahhu a nd b Usu b eads

c an b e u sed

-

t o v essels

t o p roduce g lass o bjects,

i n t he c ore t echnique,

o thers

s uch

f rom s imple

a s

z ukO ,

a nd

t uzkü a re a ttested o nly a s i ntermediary p roducts u sed t o m anuf acture o paque c olored g lasses m eant t o i mitate p recious s tones. I n -

c ontra d istinction t o a nzahhu a nd k utpü, t he c omposition c alled h u1uhhu a nd h ahu ( also h u) d o n ot o ccur i n g lass t exts t he l atter i s o nce e xplained a s s lag f rom t he p otter s k iln." ( Oppenheim, 1 970, -

1 9).

t hese

T wo p oints a re i mportant i n c onsidering t his p aragraph. N one o f m aterials m ay y et b e r eliably i dentified i n t he s urviving

m aterial c ulture a nd t he e vidence f or a g lass

i ndustry i n M esopotamia

b efore 1 500 B .C. i s m eagre ( see p p.194ff.). A t t he e arliest s tage s uch a v ocabulary i s l ikely t o r efer e ither t o a spects o f f rit p rod uction, y et

t o

t o g laze m anufacture f or a pplication t o s intered q uartz ( not

t erracotta),

T he g lasses"

g iven

a nd t o s mall s cale p roduction o f g lass b eads.

r ecipes

f or t he m anufacture o f 0 ppenheim s

i nvolve g rinding,

n amed i ngredients.

T he

c ombining,

a nd f iring s everal

t wo m ajor c onstituents a re:

2 26

" primary s ets

o f

I m x nanakku:

" like r iver s ilt d otted w ith p ebbles" w as t aken b y O ppenheim ( 1970; 1 974) a s a g eneral t erm f or a h ard c onglomerate ( silicate s tones o r c oarse s and); B rill ( 1970, 1 09ff.) i dentified i t a s " quartzite p ebbles"; ( Foster ( 1979, 2 1) a s " quartzite,

N AGA ( ahussu):

p erhaps s and .

a p lant u sed a lso i n b leaching l inen a nd i n s oap p roduction ; t his, o r r ather i ts a shes, p rovided t he n ecessary a lkali.

T ogether

t hese

p lant") w as

p roduced z uk6,

a lso m ixed.

i n w hich U .BABBAR ( literally

T his w ord i s

f ound i n m edical

" white

t exts

r efer-

r ing t o w hat m ay b e t he s ap o f t he p oplar t ree, r eadily m ade i nto a p aste o r a dhesive t o b e u sed a s a b inding a gent ( Foster, 1 979, 1 6). B rill ( 1970, ( without U . BABBAR):

1 11)

a ttempted

a l aboratory s ynthesis

o f

Z uk

" The p roduct t hat r esulted w as n ot o nly a g lass, b ut a g lass o f u nexpectedly h igh q uality... I t w as e ntirely t ransparent, b ut h ad a n a mber c olor..." ( Brill, 1 970, 1 13). F urther e xperiment, i n a n o xid izing a tmosphere o r u sing a n o xidizing a gent, r emoved t he a mber, l eaving a p ale T he

b lue c olour.

t exts

d escribe t he h eating o f

t he b asic

i ngredients

i n

a

k iln u ntil s intering o ccurs; b oth t he m ineral a nd t he a lkali h ad b een g round b efore t he f irst s intering, a nd i t w as g round a gain b efore r eheating. T he f inished p roduct w as p oured o nto a k iln-fired c lay s lab t o c ool o ff. Z ukü w as o nly a b asis. I ts p rincipal d erived p rod uct

w as

t ers tu

m ade b y g rinding z ukf t a nd

t hrowing i t

p reviously h eated m ass o f t he u nidentified U RUDU.HI.A n ju " slow c opper") t o i ntroduce a b lue c olour. T his c opper

u pon

a

( literally c olouring

c ompound m ight h ave b een a b lue f rit, p erhaps E gyptian B lue, ( Oppenh eim, 1 970, 7 7), o r a m etallic a lloy ( Brill, 1 970, 1 23). T he t erm " fast c opper" o r w as

" fast b ronze" i s a lso u sed t o d escribe

i n t urn a n i ntermediary,

i t.

T ersitu

f or t he m anufacture o f o paque i mitation

l apis l azuli ( zagindurG); t his t ransformation w as m ade b y c ombining t ersitu w ith b üsu, a nzahhu a nd n amrütu. B i i u w as a nother o f O ppenh eim s " primary g lasses", m ade i n a s imilar m anner t o z uki. I t w as u sed i n t he l ater s econd m illennium B .C. f or t ableware, i nlaid s tatuettes a nd o il c ontainers o f

O ppenheim s

( 1970,

1 9)

s ynonymous r elationship t o m ineral, a t ype o f q uartzite m anufactured m aterial. e nigmatically " male" o r d istinguishing

a

l ight

( C.A.D.

s .v.).

p rimary g lasses,

A s a nzahhu, h as a c lose,

y et a nother a t

t imes

t he m ineral i mmanakku, i t m ight b e a ( cf. F oster, 1 979, 1 7), r ather t han a

I t c an b e " washed" o r " unwashed" a nd m ore " female", p erhaps ( on c lassical a nalogies) f rom a d arker c olour.

N amrütu

w as

w hite

c alcinated m aterial m ade f rom r ed c oral. H :

t ion

R ed g lass:

t he a ncient t exts a nd m odern a nalyses:

Z ukQ w as e qually a n i mportant i ntermediary s tage i n t he p roduco f r ed g lass, d istinguished a s " Assyrian" a nd " Elamite"; t he

f ormer r equiring t hat i t b e m ixed w ith l ead, a ntimony, c opper a nd a nzahhu; t he l atter i nvolving c ombination w ith t uzkc i, l ead, a ntimony, a nd a nzahhu. T uzkß, a nother " primary g lass" i n O ppenheim s

2 27

t erminology,

c onsisted o f m ekku,

f or O ppenheim a " glass"

f or o thers a

m ineral ( perhaps " powdered q uartzite": F oster, 1 979, 2 1), t o w hich w as a dded m inute q uantities o f k al /kalg iigu ( "red e arth") a s t he c olourant t o b e f used w ith s mall a dditions o f s and a nd a lkali. F oster ( 1979, 2 1) r enders t hese a s " cobalt c ompounds" a nd " potash" r espectively. I t i s p roduction o f r ed g lass t hat i s d escribed i n t he b est p reserved o f t he k nown " glass t exts" ( British M useum: 1 20960), d ated b y O ppenheim ( 1970, 5 9ff.) t o t he M iddle B abylonian p eriod. T his t ext h as b een w ell k nown s ince i ts f irst p ublication b y G add a nd C ampbell T hompson i n 1 936. I t h as a ttracted w ide a ttention i n n on-Assyriological l iterature o n a ccount o f i ts s upposed t ion o f c raft s ecrets b y b eing w ritten i n a c ryptographic

p rotecm anner.

O ppenheim ( 1970, 5 9ff.) c ogently r ejected " such f acile a nd u nfounded a ssumptions" a nd p rovided a n ew e dition. O nly a f ew w ords r emain u nintelligible a nd, t hough t he s yllabary u sed b y t he s cribe i s o ften a typical, s cribes s ecrecy.

t his

i s p robably a d isplay o f e rudition ( for o nly

f ellow

c ould h ave r ead i t a nyway), n ot a d evice f or e nsuring A m ore r elevant p roblem i s p rovided b y t he s cribe s d ating

o f h is t ext t o t he " year ( after t hat i n w hich) G ulkishar b ecame k ing". T his o bscure r uler w as t he s ixth i n t he " First D ynasty o f t he S ealand" i n t he s ixteenth c entury B .C. O ppenheim a rgued t hat t he r eference w as a n a nachronism, a rising f rom a d esire t o h ave t he t ablet a ccepted a s o lder t han i t w as; b ut s till " the q uestion i s n ot w hether t he

d ate o f

t he

t ablet i s c orrect o r n ot,

b ut

r ather w hether

t he d ating a nd t he e ntire s ubscript r efers t o t he o riginal o f t he t ext c opied o r w hether l t d ates t he c opy" ( Oppenheim, 1 970, 6 1). O ppenheim a nswered t his q uestion r ather o bliquely b y a ssuming t hat t he s cribe o f t his t ablet, w riting i t, p erhaps i n B abylon, i n t he f ourteenth

t o

t welfth c enturies B .C.,

u sed t he n ame o f a n o ld

f amous s cribe w ho h ad l ived i n t he t ime o f G ulkishar. " 1 1iddle B bylonian" t ext, w hich m ight w ell d escribe

a nd

I t i s t hen a e arlier c raft

p ractices. T he

f irst

t wo s ections

g ive

t he m aterials a nd q uantities n eeded

f or t wo t ypes o f r ed g lass; i n t he l argest s ection t he c onstituents a re c ombined. A t t he e nd, i n a n i ntriguing i ndication o f t he c omplex r ealities o f t he c over"

s uch w ork , t he c raftsman i s t old n ot t o w orry i f " inside t he d escribed r esult i s n ot a chieved. A r emedy i s

o ffered. I n 1 948 M oore p ublished h is a ttempt t o r epeat ( following t he o ld t ranslation) i n a m odern l aboratory;

t his r ecipe h e b elieved

l t t o b e f or a g laze f or a pplication t o a c lay b ody. I n 0 ppenheim s r evised r endering o f l ines 7 -11 t hey r efer t o m elting t he b atches i n c rucibles a nd

t he k iln p rocedures

f or

t his,

n ot

t o t he p reparation o f

c lay b odies f or g lazing, a s h ad e arlier b een s upposed. I ndeed t he r ecipe a s n ow t ranslated g ives n o i ndication o f t he p urpose f or w hich t he r ed g lass/glaze w as b eing m ade. A lthough t he s tages p roposed s eem u nnecessarily c omplicated t o a m odern c raftsman, i nsecure t emperature g rinding, p lete

c ontrols w ould h ave r equired t hem i n f ollowed

b y r emelting,

w ould a ssist

a ntiquity.

" Fine

i n e nsuring t he c om-

s olution o f a ny m aterial l eft u nincorporated a fter

t he

f irst

m elting, a nd w ould a lso g ive a m elt c ontaining m uch l ess b ubble, b esides e nsuring g reater u niformity o f c olour" ( Moore, 1 948, 2 7). B rill ( 1970, 1 21), f ollowing O ppenheim s n ew e dition, a ttempted t o r epeat t he i nstructions f or m aking a r ed o paque g lass: " ...the i ngredients i nclude b oth t hose w hich a re e ssential f or m aking a r ed 2 28

o paque

g lass a nd

t hose w hich a re b eneficial i n m aking

t hem ;

a nd

t he

c hemical t reatments s uch a s t he h eating p rocudures a re a ppropriate f or m aking r ed g lasses. M oreover, t he c hemical c omposition o f t he p roduct p repared

i s c onsistent,

a nalyses

e xcavated

o f

s ome

B imson a nd F reestone p ieces o f e arly r ed g lass

i n a s emi-quantitative

s pecimens

o f

s ense,

w ith

r ed g lasses".

( in B arag, f orthcoming) h ave r e-studied i n t he B ritish M useum c ollections. T hey

h ave s ignificantly i ncreased k nowledge o f t his t ype o f g lass a nd e arlier a nalytical s tudies o f i t m ust c onsequently b e u sed w ith c aution. T his t ype o f g lass h as l ong f ascinated s tudents o f e arly g lass s ince i ts t echnique o f m anufacture s eems t o h ave n o c lose p arallel i n m odern g lass t echnology. O paque r ed g lass i s k nown a s e arly a s t he f ifteenth c entury B .C. a t A lalakh i n S yria ( Barag, f orthcoming, n os. 1 80, A ) a nd a t T ell e l-Amarna i n E gypt a g eneration o r s o l ater ( Lucas, 1 962, 1 89-90). t ury B .C. i t w as u sed f or i nlays,

T hen a gain f rom t he e ighth c ena nd f or b eads a nd a mulets, i n

w estern A sia. B imson a nd F reestone h ave d emonstrated o f t wo m ain t ypes:

1 .

t he e xistence

" Cuprite" g lasses, o wing t heir c olour t o c rystals o f c uprite ( cuprous o xide: C u 20 ); t hose w ith w ell d eveloped c rystals h ave a d istinctively b right s ealing-wax r ed c olour. T he e arly c uprite g lass a t A lalakh d iffers f om t he l ater, f irst k nown a t A rslan T ash i n S yria a nd a t S amaria i n P alestine, a nd i n U rartu, i n t he e ighth c entury B .C., i n t hat i t c ontains n egligible q uantities o f l ead.

S ometime

i n t he s econd q uarter o f

t he

f irst

m illennium

B .C. i t w as d iscovered, p erhaps i n t he S yro-Phoenician g lass i ndustry, t hat t he a ddition o f l ead m ade s uccessful m anufacture o f l arge i ngots o f w ell c oloured c uprite g lass m uch e asier. T he p resence o f t he c uprous

p lumbous l ead ( Pb0) s eems t o a ssist t he s tability o f s tate, w hilst t he g reater s olubility o f c opper i n

l ead g lass f avours t he p roduction o f a g ood c uprite g lass. p resence o f a ntimony ( about 2 .5%) s uggests t hat i t m ay p layed a r ole s imilar t o t hat o f t he l ead. 2 .

T he h ave

" Copper r ed" g lasses a re d uller i n c olour. T he c olour i s a lso d ue t o c opper b ut i n a c olloidal ( non-crystalline) s tate. T hey c ontain m uch l ess c opper t han t he " cuprite" g lasses ( 1 t o 3 % a s a gainst 5 t o 2 0%)

a nd a re a lready e vident

i n E gypt a t

t he t ime

o f

t he X VIIIth D ynasty. I :

T he p roblem o f e namel: A

l ongstanding

( powdered

g lass

c ontroversy

o ver w hether o r

n ot

t rue

e namel

f used i n s itu) w as p roduced i n E gypt d uring t he

N ew

K ingdom h as h ighlighted t he c omplexities o f a ttempting t o i dentify e namel b y e ye, p articularly t hrough t he g lass o f s howcases i n m useums ( Teeter, 1 981). V arious t ypes o f s tone o r g lass i nlay, a nd t he m anipulation o f p liable g lass s ecured b y a dhesives, m ay a ll t oo e asily a ppear t o b e t rue e namel. A s i t i s r elatively e asy t o p lace p owdered g lass i n t he a reas t o b e d ecorated o n a p iece o f g oldwork a nd t hen f ire i t i n a f urnace o r o ver a c harcoal f ire, s tudents o f a ncient t echnology h ave b een s urprised b y t he a pparent a bsence o f t rue e namel . i n a reas w here g lass t echnology w as i nnovative a nd w here j ewellers w ere s killed i n t he p roduction o f f ine j ewellery i nlaid 2 29

w ith c oloured s tones o r p ieces o f g lass o r f aience.

B ut

t he p resence

o f t rue e namel i n j ewellery o f t he N ew K ingdom i n E gypt r emains o pen q uestion; e arlier o ccurrences a re e ven l ess p robable. I t

a n i s

m ore g enerally a greed t hat t owards t he e nd o f t he l ocal L ate B ronze A ge i n C yprus, i n t he t hirteenth c entury B .C., t rue e namelling w as p ractised o n t he I sland f or t he d ecoration o f g old e arrings a nd a s ceptre ( cf. A ström, 1 967, 1 02). I n t he c ontinuing a bsence o f c ert ain u se o f t he t echnique i n c ontemporary E gypt a nd S yro-Palestine, t he s ource o f t he e xpertise i s u sually t hought t o h ave b een M ycenaean ( cf. H iggins, 1 980, 2 4ff.). T he h istory o f t rue e namel i n a ncient M esopotamia i s w holly o bscure f or w ant o f w ell a uthenticated e xamples. I ndeed i n t he w hole o f W estern A sia o nly o ne o bject i s c ommonly s aid t o b e d ecorated w ith e namel b efore t he H ellenistic p eriod. T his i s a g old d iadem , w ith p etals e namelled i n y ellow a nd g reen, a ssociated w ith t he h oard f rom Z iwiyeh i n K urdistan, u sually d ated t o t he l ater e ighth o r e arly s eventh c entury B .C. ( cf. M axwell H yslop, 1 971, 2 14-5). E ven i n t his c ase t he i dentification i s n ot s cientifically d ocumented i ntegrity o f t his h oard i s s uspect ( Muscarella, 1 977).

2 30

a nd

t he

CL

CL

0 0—

LC )

A l c o r f e x l s

0 0.

H

C ' -

A l c o n l e x 7 s

0 0 0

G r o v e s

; ' l o s '

( N

0 0

C '

C ' .

0 0

C ' -

0 • -

0

o

—

v •

T a b l e I D i a g r a m o f t h e C h r o n o l g i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G l a z e d M a t e r i a l s a n d G l a s .

O

I 0 0

t U

Z

C t .

CD

L U