Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics 3: Selected Papers from the 20th ISTAL 9788376560915, 9788376560908

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Edited by: Nikolaos Lavidas Thomaï Alexiou Areti-Maria Sougari

Major Trends

in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics Volume 3

Versita Discipline: Language, Literature Managing Editor: Anna Borowska

Language Editor: Edgar Joycey

Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics: Selected Papers from the 20th International Symposium on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics (April 1-3, 2011) / Edited by: Nikolaos Lavidas, Thomaï Alexiou & Areti-Maria Sougari. Published by Versita, Versita Ltd, 78 York Street, London W1H 1DP, Great Britain.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercialNoDerivs 3.0 license, which means that the text may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided credit is given to the author. Copyright © 2013 Selection and editorial matter: Nikolaos Lavidas, ThomaÏ Alexiou, Areti-Maria Sougari; individual contributors, their contributions. ISBN (paperback): 978-83-7656-089-2 ISBN (hardcover): 978-83-7656-090-8 ISBN (for electronic copy): 978-83-7656-091-5 Managing Editor: Anna Borowska Language Editor: Edgar Joycey www.versita.com Cover illustration: © Istockphoto.com/skvoor

Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics contains 80 papers on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics by prominent and young researchers, representing a large variety of topics, dealing with virtually all domains and frameworks of modern Linguistics. These papers were originally presented at the 20th International Symposium on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in April 2011. The third volume includes the section Language Teaching/ Learning – Education.

Contents Part II Selected Conference Papers Section 6: Language Learning/Teaching - Education Alexandra Anastasiadou The Impact of the Application of a Process Writing Component on the Students’ Writing Output in English as a Foreign Language...............................................................11 Alejandro García Aragón An Etymo-Cognitive Approach to Modern Greek Vocabulary Learning..................33

Βασιλική Γιαννακού Η λαϊκή, η ταβέρνα, τα Χριστούγεννα και… ο Σεφέρης ή η θεματολογία των κειμένων στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας......51 Carol J. Everhard Is Autonomy in Language Learning Attainable through Assessment?.....................77 Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis The Employment of Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies in Bilingual Pupils’ Creative Writing...................................................................................................................................97 Konstantina Iliopoulou and Areti-Maria Sougari Motivation-Related Issues to Learn Different Languages in an Intercultural School.....................................................................................................................................................115

Μαρία Καρακύργιου, Βικτωρία Παναγιωτίδου και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου Τα νέα επίπεδα και η νέα δομή του πιστοποιητικού ελληνομάθειας του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. ................................................................................................. 131

Eirene C. Katsarou Grasping the Nettle of L2 Idiomaticity Puzzle: The Case of Idiom Identification and Comprehension during L2 Reading by Greek Learners of English................143

Άννα Κοκκινίδου, Βασιλική Μάρκου, Θωμαή Ρουσουλιώτη και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου Η συμβολή του Κοινού Ευρωπαϊκού Πλαισίου Αναφοράς για τις Γλώσσες στη διδασκαλία και στην αξιολόγηση............................................................................. 163 Stergiani Kostopoulou Analysing the Lexical Demands of Subject Textbooks Used in Irish Post-Primary Education to Facilitate Immigrant Students’ Curriculum Access..............................183 Maria Kotsiomyti Teacher Observation and Greek State Teachers of English: Current Practices and Suggestions for Improvement....................................................................................................197 Marina Mattheoudakis, Thomaï Alexiou and Chryssa Laskaridou To CLIL or Not to CLIL? The Case of the 3rd Experimental Primary School in Evosmos................................................................................................................................................215 Elena Meletiadou and Dina Tsagari An Exploration of the Reliability and Validity of Peer Assessment of Writing in Secondary Education......................................................................................................................235 Evangelia Michail Raising Pragmatic Awareness through Teacher Illocutionary Acts..........................251

Σπυριδούλα Μπέλλα Καθάρισε αμέσως την κουζίνα παρακαλώ!: Αιτήματα μαθητών της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας. .......................................................................................................... 267 Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου Δείκτες εισαγωγής συμπληρωματικών προτάσεων στη Νέα Ελληνική ως Γ2: Πειραματική προσέγγιση με ρωσόφωνους μαθητές............................................... 285 Liliana Piasecka The Effects of Working on Multi-Word Expressions on the Development of Lexical Competence: A Case of 25 Students Enrolled in One Course...................301 Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel Proximal Predictors of L2 Willingness to Communicate in Polish Adolescents.........................................................................................................................................315

Evangelia V. Soulioti Implementing CLIL in a Tertiary Setting: Research on Learners’ Attitudes and Perceptions..........................................................................................................................................329 Maria Stathopoulou The Linguistic Characteristics of KPG Written Mediation Tasks across Proficiency Levels......................................................................................................................................................349 Δημήτριος Τζιμώκας και Μαρίνα Ματθαιουδάκη Δείκτες αναγνωσιμότητας: Ζητήματα εφαρμογής και αξιοπιστίας............................. 367 Dina Tsagari Contact Sessions in Distance Education: Students’ Perspective..............................385 Athina Vrettou Language Learning Strategy Use by Elementary School Students of English in Greece....................................................................................................................................................407 George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou Linguistics Textbooks in Greek: Publication Practices in the Last Three Decades...................................................................................................................................431 Thomas Zapounidis Breadth of Vocabulary, and Frequency and Recycling of Vocabulary Items in Primary Schools’ English Course Books................................................................................455

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Section 6: Language Learning/Teaching Education

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Language Learning/Teaching - Education

The Impact of the Application of a Process Writing Component on the Students’ Writing Output in English as a Foreign Language Alexandra Anastasiadou State School Advisor- Regional Directorate of Education for Central Macedonia Greece & Hellenic Open University [email protected]

Abstract Various theories concerning the teaching of writing in both an L1 and an L2 have been burgeoning since 1945, given the importance of mastering the ability to write legibly, fluently and coherently for the students’ academic success. The aim of this paper is to delve into young learners’ performance influenced by the applicability of the “process writing” approach in learning English as a foreign language and at the same time to trace any gender differences. More specifically, a study was conducted at the sixth grade of two Greek state primary schools. The findings presented in this paper are part of a greater study which involved two experimental (44 students) and two control (46 students) groups. The two experimental groups of the study attended seven specially designed writing lessons, whereas the control group members followed the materials of the coursebook. Both groups were given similar written assignments in order to receive comparable results. Entry and exit writing tests were administered to the participants of the study in order to explore their performance in the beginning and the end of the research and trace any differences due to the intervention, regarding both group and gender. The analysis of the group and gender parameters shows that there is change of performance between the two groups and genders.

1. Introduction Eminent linguists and researchers (Kroll, 1990; Brookes & Grundy, 1990; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Tribble, 1996; O’Brien, 1999; Hyland, 2002) argue that the teaching of writing has always gathered momentum in all educational systems, and many,

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mostly contradictory, suggestions have been worded about the best methods of teaching it. The first model concerning teaching writing, which surfaced in 1945 and prevailed until 1965, was controlled or guided writing (Pincas, 1962). Following the behaviourist approach, this model regarded writing in second language as a habit formation leading to a decontextualised text consisting of a series of sentences without any consideration for audience and purpose. In the mid-sixties the attention shifted to the layout of the product and, thus, the product-oriented pedagogy emerged, being a text-based approach (Tribble, 1996: 37). Model texts were introduced to students who were required to unquestionably apply their organisation to a similar piece of writing without any previous experimentation with their layout. In this light, writing was seen as simply imitation of input (Badger & White, 2000) without any active involvement of the students in the formation of the written text. In the early seventies, the process-approach (Taylor, 1981; Zamel, 1982; Raimes, 1983) refuted the linearity and excessive concern with form and predetermined patterns of the previous paradigms of teaching writing. Writing is a recursive problem-solving process to discover meaning. By no means does this emphasis on process indicate negligence of form, though. Hedge (1994: 2) claims that “process writing” takes equal consideration of both the form and the procedure, taking into account the students’ level and needs for writing, at the same time. Later other theorists like (Hedge, 1988; Byrne, 1988; and White & Arndt, 1991) elaborated more on the method, keeping its creative thinking aspect but also stressing other significant traits such as the purpose and audience, context and collaboration among the students and between the teacher and the students embedding, therefore, the interactive and social angles in writing. Finally, White & Arndt (1991) focused on the experimentation with the characteristics of various text types. The latest important approach to teaching writing is the genre approach (Hyland, 2002), the main tenet of which is to demand that the learners consciously discover and apply the rules of the written product, which varies according to the social context, where it is communicated. Every text type complies with the conventions of a recognisable generic type, takes into consideration the target audience and assumes that the content and layout of a piece of writing should pertain to a social purpose. The genre approach evoked criticism which was explicitly articulated by Harbord (2005: 5) who supports the view that this paradigm “is inherently prone to prescription” contradicting, thus, the assumptions of the learner-centred teaching. Another weak point is that it downgrades the cognitive struggle the writers go through while producing a text. In this paper the use of the “process approach” was selected as the most suitable pedagogy with the aim of empowering students to become familiar with the process of organising various texts and simultaneously obtain transferrable skills being, in this way, aided in their future writings.

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1.1. Description of the Process-Oriented Pedagogy Having prioritised process writing as the appropriate approach for teaching writing, an effort will be made in this section to present its underlying philosophy and stages, and suggest a proposed model. This paradigm stresses the process without neglecting the product, though, supplying the students with the opportunity to ameliorate their writing capacity. As early as 1971 Emig identified five stages of the composing procedure in the process approach: (a) prewriting (being motivated to write, generating ideas, outlining and rehearsing, making notes), (b) drafting (writing in progress individually or in collaboration), (c) revision (replanning, adjusting according to readers, and redrafting after receiving peer or teacher comments), (d) editing (getting ready for publishing the written text), and (e) publication (sharing the product with the public). During the whole process, the writers tend to their audience, the purpose of writing, the topic requirements, the generic type of the text and the social situation whereby writing is presented. Even though it could be corroborated that the elements of establishing the social context of a piece of writing and experimenting with the layout of different text types have been informed by the genre approach, these two vital issues were fully incorporated in the process writing philosophy by White & Arndt (1991). Thus, “process writing” has been developed to operate in an extended context, having assimilated vital elements of the genre approach. In this light, the present writer proposed a framework for process writing which indicates that writing is recursive rather than linear and exhibits the relationships between the various subcomponents of writing as well as the interactions of the participating members (Figure 1). The writer always bears in mind the task requirements encircling the target audience, the aim of writing, the genre of the text type, the topic specifications and the social situation within which writing is embedded. The teacher is also connected with all these elements in an effort to help the learner to fully comprehend and monitor the task specifications. Moreover, these task requirements interact with the text, in the sense that they define the layout of the constructed piece of writing. The task specifications initiate the process of writing which is cyclical, allowing the writers to move backwards and forwards while following the above mentioned stages of process writing. This recursive process is interdependently related to the text, since the process leads to the generation of the text and the text feeds the process. Both the teacher and the writer participate in the writing process and in the generation of the text and interact during the entire endeavour.

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2. Research Evidence on the Efficacy of “Process Writing” to Teaching Writing 2.1. Research on the Introduction of the Process Pedagogy in Various ESL/EFL Contexts Only a few studies have attempted to explore the wholesale application of the process approach to a product-oriented educational milieu. Three of these studies (Kern & Schultz, 1992; Gallego de Blibeche, 1993; Akyel & Kamisli, 1996) indicated positive results from the implementation of the process paradigm, namely on the students’ performance and attitudes towards writing. Nevertheless, no control group was included in Kern & Schultz (1992). Pennington et al. (1996) showed that the students’ reaction to the introduction of process writing was aligned with the teachers’ positive or negative preferences of the integration of the new approach. Hammouda’s (2005) study revealed the necessity to fine-tune and redefine the pedagogy to fulfil different learning styles and educational traditions. A study with disparate findings is the one by Gomez, Parker, Lara-Alecio & Gomez (1996) seeking to investigate the effectiveness of process writing against the product-centred method with a group of low achieving English proficient (LEP) sixth grade SL students. Social Situation + Purpose + Audience + Genre + Topic

Teacher

Revising

Writer

Text

Figure 1. The proposed model of process writing (Anastasiadou, 2010)

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The process writing group gained in meaning and productivity but there were not any statistically significant differences between the two groups. On the contrary, the product writing members equalled or even outperformed in organisation their process writing counterparts. The researchers admitted that these findings may be due to the limited time span of the study. With particular reference to Greek educational context, only a few studies have been carried out in Greece, involving early primary students (Giannakopoulou, 2002), Greek high school students (Hasiotou, 2005; Koutsogeorgopoulou, 2007; Drepanioti, 2009) or computer assisted process writing (Nikolaki, 2004; Simou, 2006; Takou, 2007), all of them demostrating beneficial effects on the students’ performance and attitudes towards writing due to the application of process writing.

2.2. Research on Gender-Related Differences A host of SLA studies addressed the differences between the two genders and offered evidential support that girls usually outperform boys. Two surveys regarding motivation in second/foreign language learning (Muchnick & Wolfe, 1982; Sung & Padilla, 1998) detected that females had significantly higher scores than their male counterparts. As far as time devoted to studying English and willingness to prepare homework are concerned, Nikolaou (2004) traced superiority of female performance over male output based on statistically significant difference.

3. Aim and Scope of the Present Study The aim of the current study was to explore the application of process writing in teaching young learners in the Greek state primary school with a view to investigating any improvement in performance concerning both group and gender. The original assumption of the present research is that it is the syllabus and the lack of active student participation in the writing process which prevents learners from developing writing ability in English. Therefore, a new syllabus was designed by the present writer for the purpose of the present research based on the “process-focused” (White & Arndt, 1991) approach to writing, which aims to familiarise students with the process of writing and on approaches about correct learning methodologies for young learners. The current study compares the existing syllabus1 at the state primary schools, which prioritises the product of

1 The syllabus which was in effect at the time of the conduct of the research, that is 20072008, was guided by the course book FUN WAY 3.

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writing, with the experimental syllabus concentrating on the process of writing on two dimensions: 1) the performance parameter: whether the parallel syllabus will manage to improve the students’ written performance, and 2) the gender parameter: whether the gender has an impact on the students’ reaction to the intervention. To this end, two research questions were addressed: • Will the students of the experimental group of the sixth grade of state primary schools, who receive process writing tuition, outperform the students of the control group as far as the overall writing ability in English is concerned? • Will there be any gender differences, as previous research has suggested? More specifically, will the girls of the experimental group respond more positively to this approach and present better results than the boys?

4. Methodology and Design A longitudinal research was conducted lasting one school year (2007- 2008) as part of a doctoral thesis. The study was carried out in the sixth grade of two state primary schools in Katerini, a northern town in Greece exhibiting the characteristics of the majority of the state elementary schools all over Greece as far as the student population is concerned, that is, most of the students are Greek and a percentage of them belong to families who have emigrated from the countries of the former Soviet Union, Albania and Romania.

4.1. Instrumentation A combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques was employed in order to “ensure greater reliability through triangulation” (Hyland, 2002: 158). The quantitative approach involved the use of 1. the reading, vocabulary and grammar sections of the Oxford Quick Placement test (2001) which is a standardised test, trialled with more than 5.000 students in 20 countries. Two versions were used to minimise the risk of cheating and determined the students’ level at A2- . This level matches the classification of the Pedagogical Institute and corresponds to the lower/early Waystage level according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001), whereby the students are basic users of a foreign language. 2. an entry writing test specified the students’ writing performance in the beginning of the study, while an exit writing test of similar difficulty detected the students’ writing capacity at the end of the research with a view to tracing any differentiation between the entry and exit point.

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The qualitative method consisted of the analysis of the presentation, organisation, coherence and layout of the main ideas of the students’ texts both at the entry and exit point and during some writing lessons. In an effort to formulate an efficient rating scale for the participants of this level, the CEFR was thoroughly examined. As a result, an analytic marking scheme (Appendix A) was designed providing detailed information about the students’ strengths and weaknesses. The requirements of the assessing scale of Cambridge ESOL Examinations KET (1998, 2006) and the KPG (Dendrinos, 2007) were also consulted for the construction of the present marking scheme. Thus, three criteria with respective sub-criteria, which evaluate both meaning and form, were singled out to be included in the analytic rating scale: Criterion 1: Sociolinguistic Competence. If the learner responded in terms of (a) communication of message, (b) fulfillment of required function, and (c) audience awareness. Criterion 2: Linguistic Appropriateness. The written text was assessed for (a) spelling, (b) punctuation, (c) grammatical accuracy, and (d) vocabulary range. Criterion 3: Pragmatic Competence. The written text was assessed for (a) organisation according to genre, (b) cohesion, (c) style, and (d) coherence. Both the entry and exit writing tests were graded by two experienced raters, holders of a Master’s degree specialising in the teaching and testing the four skills in English. Both raters thoroughly studied and experimented with the marking scheme with the aim of correctly and impartially implementing the predetermined criteria.

4.2. Participants Four mixed proficiency classes took part in the research: two experimental (44 students) and two control (46 students). One class from each of the two schools was randomly chosen as the experimental group while the other two classes served as control groups. In Greek state schools, the students are assigned in classes alphabetically minimising, thus, the risk of selection bias. The control group members followed the materials of the coursebook while the experimental group students attended seven writing lessons specially written by the researcher following the process writing tenets. Both groups were offered the same writing assignments so as to obtain comparable results. The two teachers of English who taught the experimental and control groups in both schools participated in the research. These two colleagues were present during the writing sessions but it was the researcher who did the actual teaching of writing.

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4.3. Analysis of the Collected Data Difficult as it may be, a qualititative analysis, which involved the comparison of the students’ entry and exit writing tests and their texts during the writing lessons, was ventured based on the implemented marking scheme. The statistical analysis was conducted using the SPSS 15.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL) and a p-value < 0.05 was defined as significant. The independent samples t-test was employed to gauge the participants’ grades according to group and gender at the beginning of the study. At the end of the research, the two-way ANOVA was preferred so as to measure not only the performance according to gender and group but also the interaction effect between the sex and the group with the aim of detecting any influence of the two variables on one another and the students’ output.

5. Findings and Discussion This section presents the results of the study and discusses their interpretation in an attempt to explore whether the research questions were verified in order to offer plausible explanations and to argue about the pedagogical implications of the received data.

5.1. Qualitative Analysis Some pieces of writing, corresponding to the entry test and the exit test (appendix B) respectively, will be presented and discussed here, in order to trace any differences between the two groups and justify the efficacy of the intervention. The participants’ writings will be provided exactly as they were worded. Experimental group ►Case one Student 53 E Entry text 15-10-07 Dear George How are you in boston? Are you OK? Here in Katerini weare all OK but the school year is beginning. How are you feeling?. Did you go for holidays? I go for holidays in Mykonos. It was really nice. I was swimming in the morning then I go for fishing with my father. How about your summer holidays? I hope see you soon. Whith love Alex (his surname- not to be provided for anonymity reasons). Katerini 60100 P.D I’m writing for your letter. And your dog isn’t in life

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Final text 60100 Greece Katerini 19 Pythagora Dear George I’m really fine and very very happy because the scools will end at two weeks. but I’ll loose my friends and that’s something bad maybe very bad. If we go for holidays we’ll go to germany with my family. There I have my cousins. I’ll play ther with them. What will you do on your summer holidays? Please write me soon. Love Dimitris P.S. If you want come in Greece In the first piece of writing the three parts of the message are introduced, whereas the fourth is partly attempted (i.e. there is no address) and partly wrong (that is, he signs off with his own name and surname instead of using the name given in the instructions. Furthermore, the postscript is incoherent). There is a fairly good organisation of ideas and the text is mostly comprehensible. There are a few problematic grammatical issues, mainly wrong use of tenses. The second text is far superior to the first one as far as structural organisation, communication of message, coherence, cohesion, ordering of ideas and audience awareness are concerned. To be more specific, all four parts of the message are sufficienty presented, the ideas are well-organised producing an intelligible text with appropriate linking words. There are some surface errors (i.e. loose, come in Greece), which do not interfere with the meaning, nonetheless. Control group ►Case two Student 2 C Entry text 35 Xandou St. Dear George, I’m sick. I feel happy because I see my friends. in school I went from holidays in Xalkidiki. There I went to swim, ate many ice-creams and bote souvenirs. There I lived two weeks. Were were you went in summer? Haved fun? What you did there? What do their parents? Love Dimitris P.S. In my holidays I went in Patra, Sparty and in Athens.

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Final text Xanthou 35 T.K. 60100 20/5/08 Dear George, How are you? I’m fine and happy, because is the last week. I play all day and go out with my friend. I’ll go with my syster and my parents to Corfu. I’ll take with me lots of money I’ll go swimming, I’ll play beach volleyball, football and basketball. I’ll travel by fery. I’ll go shopping all day. I’ll eat out with my parents and my sister. That’s all for me. Where you will go for holidays? Will you go to island? I wish you to be happy and excited. Love Christos In the first piece of writing, two parts of the message are adequately presented, whereas the other two are unsuccessfully addressed (i.e. the postscript is correct but irrelevant, since in the preceding text the student mentioned having gone to Chalkidiki on holidays and then in the postscript different holiday destinations are included). The ideas are not well-organised, even though the text is generally comprehensible. Besides, the occurrence of spelling, punctuation and grammar errors is more than frequent. The final writing displays significant improvement. Three parts of the message are explicitly introduced and one is partly addressed (i.e. there is no postscript) and partly incorrect as he signs off using his own name rather than the one given in the rubrics. There are some spelling errors with no influence on intelligibility but grammar agreement is occasionally neglected. (e.g. Where you will go for holidays?) Brief as the qualitative analysis of the written texts as it may be, it, nevertheless, revealed that the experimental group members were trained to read the assignment rubrics carefully, follow the task specifications, try to organise and reorganise their ideas, be careful while correcting their errors, and, as a result, they were able to produce better texts than the control group participants. In other words, the experimental group outperformed the control one in all the essential levels of writing, namely, the textual, ideational and organisational. Moreover, the interpretation of the presented written texts indicated that the experimental group students realised that writing represents a recycling, re-organisation and re-structuring of both ideas and form, rather than a linear process where the layout of the content and the structure is “a preliminary and finite stage” (White & Arndt, 1991: 78). In this vein, it was proved that far from being susceptible to prescription, neglecting individual differences, limiting the learners’ active participation, and shaping their way of thinking, as criticism (Reid, 184a, b; Horowitz, 1986; Hyland, 2002) levelled towards process writing supported, it ameliorates their creativity.

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5.2. Quantitative Analysis Table 1 illustrates that no statistical significance was found between the experimental and control group at the outset of the study, consequently, it can be easily deduced that the two sample groups were homogenous presenting equal writing performance in the entry test. Table 1. Independent samples t-test for grades at pre-test according to group GROUP

N

Mean

SD

CONTROL

46

4.27

2.62

EXPERIMENTAL

44

5.08

2.98

t - score

p (t-test)

-1.365

0.176

The independent samples t-test which was computed to compare the differences in grades between male and female participants at the initial point of the research demonstrated the following findings: 1. The mean score of the girls is 5.45 and for the boys 3.85 irrespective of the group they belong to (Table 2). 2. Since significance is 0.007, and therefore p< 0.01, it can be concluded that the difference in performance between the two genders is statistically significant. Table 2. Independent samples t-test for grades at pre-test according to gender GENDER

N

Mean

SD

MALE

44

3.85

2.70

FEMALE

46

5.45

2.73

t - score

p (t-test)

-2.779

0.007 < 0.01

Table 3 indicates that both the gender and the group have an impact on the students’ written attainment. For the two parameters the difference was significant at 0.017 level (gender) and 0.049 level (group). This points to the fact that in the exit test the experimental group outperformed the control one with a marginal significance at 0.049 which verifies the first research question. The statistical analysis concerning the two genders shows that the girls outperformed the boys in the post-test. This numerical superiority of the girls proves that females indeed presented better results. Consequently, the second research question is substantiated on statistically significant terms.

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No statistical significance was found for the interaction between gender and group, which signifies that gender and group have affected the final score as distinct variables and as a result the efficacy of the intervention is highlighted (Table 3). Table 3. Two-way ANOVA results for the post-scores by gender and group (Tests of Between-Subjects Effects) F

p

GENDER (main effect)

5.88

0.017 < 0.05

GROUP (main effect)

3.98

0.049 < 0.05

GENDER by GROUP(interaction effect)

0.229

0.633

On the other hand, the percentage rise of the experimental group at the entry and exit point shows a parallel increase between the two genders (Figure 2). Thus, it can be deduced that the applied intervention was challenging and affected positively both genders. This issue is worth noticing since the need for further research surfaces, which will investigate whether appealing teaching approaches and challenging, well-organised materials could lead to similar results in both sexes and trigger parallel improvement.

Gender ------ Male  Female

Figure 2. Comparison of pre- and post- scores of the two genders of the experimental group

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In Greece, it is the norm for students to attend private instruction in English which is differentiated into FL schools “frontistiria” or private lessons apart from the tuition they receive at the state schools. This is indicative of the prestige the English language holds in Greek society, as it is considered as a tool for professional and financial advancement. When the control and experimental group of the present study were asked about the attendance of private tuition, an interesting finding emerged as is indicated in table 4, that more members of the control group had received tuition through private lessons where instruction is individualised and covers the students’ needs more effectively. Table 4. Attendance of English classes at a private language school (frontistirio) or in private lessons at home EXPERIMENTAL

CONTROL

TOTAL

N

%

N

%

N

%

32

88.9

30

75.0

62

81.6

PRIVATE LESSONS

3

8.3

10

25.0

13

17.1

BOTH

1

2.8

0

0.0

1

1.3

FRONTISTIRIO

χ (2)=4.636, p=0.098 2

This finding verified that it was the application of process writing that affected the performance of the experimental group members rather than any other external factors.

6. Pedagogical Implications An attempt will be made in this part to provide certain recommendations concerning the teaching of writing, the salience of cooperation, the formulation of appropriate materials and the effective training of teachers.

6.1. Stressing the Importance of the Process of Writing The following suggestions are provided concerning the application of process writing, rendering, in this way, students into able writers: 1. Students should be trained in the process of writing by being given ample practice with planning, drafting, redrafting after receiving peer or teacher feedback and revising before editing their final product. 2. Devoting time to writing in the classroom is imperative, because students will develop linguistically and cognitively.

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6.2. Exploiting Collaboration One of the most central tenets of process writing is the capitalisation on cooperation: • Cooperation among the students during writing will engage them in an appealing context, whereby they will actively participate in the learning process and at the same time boost their “interpersonal intelligence” (Gardner, 1983) by interacting meaningfully with other people. • Moreover, collaboration between the teacher and the students will provide children with input within the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978) with the assistance from one more knowledgeable than themselves.

6.3. Maximising the Learning Milieu The learning context can be improved in the following aspects: a) The materials used at state school should be optional rather than preset by the Ministry of Education, giving each teacher the opportunity to select the syllabus which he/she believes is appropriate to the needs of his/her students. b) If the Ministry selects to assign a book for all schools, they have to hire wellqualified materials writers, who are familiar with the process paradigm, so as to design challenging syllabuses equipped with lessons which will foster the procedure of writing. c) Teacher trainers ought to be familiarised with the process approach and provide pre- and in-service training to teachers. This will enable teachers to create or choose appropriate supplementary materials to cover the inadequacies of the syllabus. d) Teachers need to reconsider their role as feedback and reward providers. They should concentrate more on what the students have attained rather than on where they have failed. Their role is redefined as a facilitator relinquishing the one of the omnipotent judge. e) Should any problems arise while implementing process writing, the teachers ought to be ready to do any necessary adjustments to fit the local context.

7. Conclusion In order to contribute to the need for more research on the efficacy of the process writing approach in the Greek context, the current study explored the extent to which this paradigm facilitated the students of the experimental group of the

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sixth grade of Greek state primary schools to improve their writing capacity in English as compared to the performance of the control group members. It was found that indeed the experimental group participants were aided to outperform their control group counterparts. Not only did this research investigate the group parameter but it also analysed the dimension of gender, showing that females presented better writings than males substantiating, thus, the second research question on statistically significant terms. On the other hand an interesting finding arose: even though the original assumption was that the girls would respond more positively to the intervention, both sexes of the experimental group displayed similar reaction to the new treatment and managed to benefit from its application. This necessitates further research on the importance of the value and the quality of the employed instruction techniques that will enable both genders to fully develop their potential. The contributions of the present research are the following: 1. The students realised that writing is not final and predetermined but a dynamic procedure, which follows a cyclical process and can be organised, reorganised and improved. 2. The process writing approach can turn sixth grade learners of the Greek state school into more autonomous, competent users of written discourse in English. 3. Learners in the process classroom are aided to assume more responsibility as writers participating meaningfully in the process of their own learning. 4. Finally, pedagogical and methodological innovations can succeed in the Greek state school if they are carefully designed and applied in classroom. Finally, further research is proposed in other learning environments, such as secondary schools and tertiary education, in order to validate the efficacy of process writing.

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References Akyel, A. and Kamisli, S. 1996. Composing in First and Second Languages: Possible Effects of EFL Writing Instruction. Paper presented at the Balkan Conference on English Language Teaching of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language: Instabul, Turkey: 1-31. Anastasiadou, A. 2003. Improving the Teaching of Writing in the Greek State Primary Schools: Developing Supplementary Writing Materials for the Sixth Form Students. Unpublished MA Thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Anastasiadou, A. 2010. Implementing the Process Writing Approach in the English Language Classroom: An Innovation for the Development of Young Learners’ Writing Skills in the Greek State Primary School. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki: Thessaloniki. Badger, R. and White, G. 2000. A Process Genre Approach to Teaching Writing. ELT Journal 54/2 April: 153-160. Brookes, A. and Grundy, P. 1990. Writing for Study Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Byrne, D. 1988. Teaching Writing Skills. London: Longman. Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework for Reference for Language: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dendrinos, B. 2007. KPG Script Rater Guide. Athens: National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Faculty of English Studies.

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Drepanioti, K. 2009. From Product to Process and Content Writing in Lower Secondary EFL Education: Researching the Issue Experimentally. Unpublished MA Thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Emig, J. 1971. The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. Gallego de Blibeche, O. 1993. A Comparative Study of the Process versus Product Approach to the Instruction of Writing in Spanish as a Foreign Language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University: Pennsylvania. Gardner, H. 1985. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Giannakopoulou, A. 2002. Children’s Writing in the Early Primary Years: a Processbased Approach to Teaching L2 Writing. Unpublished master’s thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Gomez, R. Jr., Parker, R., Lara-Alecio, R. and Gomez, L. 1996. Process versus Product Writing with Limited English Proficiency Students. The Bilingual Research Journal 20/2: 209-233. Grabe, W. and Kaplan, R. 1996. Theory and Practice of Writing. London: Longman. Hammouda, D.D. 2005. Adapting Process-oriented Writing Approaches to Crosscultural Contexts: the Case of French University Students. 3rd Conference of the European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing: Athens. Harbord, J. 2005. Developing Writing Skills: The Role of Models. 3rd Conference of the European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing: Athens. Hasiotou, V. 2005. Writing and the EFL Learner: a Case Study of Teaching Process Writing to Greek Junior High School Students. Unpublished master’s thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Hedge, T. 1988. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Horowitz, D. 1986. Process not Product: Less than Meets the Eye. TESOL Quarterly, 20: 141-144. Hyland, K. 2002. Teaching and Researching Writing. Harlow: Longman.

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Kern, R. and Schultz, J. 1992. The Effects of Composition Instruction on Intermediate Level French Students’ Writing Performance: Some Preliminary Findings. Modern Language Journal 76: 1-13. KET. 1998. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. KET. 2006. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Koutsogeorgopoulou, F. 2007. The Teaching of Process Writing and the Provision of Feedback in the 3rd Grade of Junior High School: Teacher Awareness. Unpublished master’s thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Kroll, B. 1990. What Does Time Buy? ESL Student Performance on Home versus Class Compositions. In Kroll, B. (ed) Second Language Writing: Research Insights from the Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kroll, B. 1990. Second Language Writing: Research Insights from the Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Muchnick-Goldber, A. and Wolfe, D.E. 1982. Attitudes and Motivations of American Students of Spanish. The Canadian Modern Language Review 38: 262281. Nikolaki, A. 2005. Implementation of a Computer-Assisted Process-Writing Framework in the State Primary School Curriculum. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Nikolaou, A. 2004. Attitudes and Motivation of Greek Upper Secondary School Pupils for Learning English As A Foreign Language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham: Birmingham. O’ Brien, T. 1999. The Teaching of Writing Skills in a Second/ Foreign Language. Vol. 3, 4. Patras: Hellenic Open University. Pincas, A. 1962. Teaching English Writing. London: The Macmillan Press Limited. Quick Placement Test. 2001. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Raimes, A. 1983. Techniques in Teaching Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reid, J. 1984a. Comments on Vivian Zamel’s ‘The Composing Process of Advanced ESL students: Six Case Studies’ TESOL Quarterly, 18: 149-159.

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Reid, J. 1984b. The Radical Outliner and the Radical Brainstormer: A Perspective on Composing Processes. TESOL Quarterly, 18: 529-533. Sepyrgioti, M., Papapetrou, M., Karidi, M., Kosovitsa, C. 1999. Fun Way English 3. Athens: OEΔΒ. Simou, T. 2006. A Process Approach to Writing Using Word Processing to Affect Young EFL Learners’ Writing Behaviour: a Proposal. Unpublished master’s thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Sung, H. and Padilla, A.M. 1998. Student Motivation, Parental Attitudes, and Involvement in the Learning of Asian Languages in Elementary and Secondary Schools. The Modern Language Journal 82/2: 205-216. Takou, E. 2007. The Word Processor as an Aid for Integrating Process Writing in the Young Learner EFL Classroom. Unpublished master’s thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras. Taylor, B. 1981. Teaching Composition to Low Level ESL Students. TESOL Quarterly, 10: 309-313. Tribble, C. 1996. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Vygotsky, L. 1978. Mind in Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. White, R. and Arndt, V. 1991. Process Writing. Harlow: Longman. Zamel, V. 1982. Writing: the Process of Discovering Meaning. TESOL Quarterly, 16: 195-209.

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Appendix A Marking scheme (Anastasiadou, 2010)

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All four parts of message clearly communicated. Good organisation of ideas. Fully coherent text. Simple connectors ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘because’ have been used. No effort is required by reader.

Minor spelling and punctuation errors which do not impede communication of meaning. Uses simple grammatical structures correctly most of the times. Use of simple vocabulary that is in his/her range.

10

All four parts of message communicated. Good organisation of ideas. Coherent text. Simple and mostly correct connectors used. No effort is required by reader.

Few spelling and punctuation errors which do not distort meaning. Uses simple grammatical structures correctly but occasionally mixes tenses and forgets agreement. Occasionally uses inappropriate words.

9

All four parts of message attempted or three parts of message are clearly communicated but one is unattempted. Quite good organisation of ideas. Coherent text. Simple and mostly correct linking words used. Minor effort required by reader.

Some spelling and punctuation errors which do not affect meaning seriously. Uses simple grammatical structures but often mixes tenses and forgets agreement. Repetition of vocabulary.

8

Only three parts of message attempted or two parts of message are clearly communicated but two are unattempted. Quite good organisation of ideas. Fairly coherent text. A few incorrect cohesive devices. Minor effort required by reader.

Some incorrect spelling and punctuation, and simple grammatical structures with a few errors which do not interfere with intelligibility seriously. Some incorrect words.

7

Only two parts of message are adequately communicated. Fairly good organisation of ideas. Cohesion devices are sometimes incorrect or inappropriate. A little effort may be required by reader.

Some incorrect spelling and punctuation. A few problematic grammatical structures. Some incorrect vocabulary. These problems partly affect intelligibility.

6

Only two parts of message communicated. Somewhat disorganised ideas but the text is generally coherent. Frequently incorrect and inappropriate cohesive devices. A little effort is required by reader.

Frequent spelling and punctuation errors which affect interpretation of meaning. Frequent errors in grammar. Limited vocabulary.

5

Only one part of message communicated. Poor sequencing of ideas. The text is mostly incoherent and the cohesion is very problematic. Considerable effort may be required by reader.

Spelling, punctuation, grammar and vocabulary errors are frequent and parts of the text are sometimes difficult to understand.

4

Question unsuccessfully attempted. Very poor ordering of ideas. The text is mostly incoherent and the cohesion is seriously problematic. Considerable effort is required by reader.

Spelling, punctuation, grammar and vocabulary errors are very frequent and a few parts of the text are unintelligible.

3

Question unattempted. The reader must rely on own interpretation.

Spelling, punctuation, grammar and vocabulary errors are so severe that intelligibility is almost impossible.

2

No response or scattered words.

Intelligibility is impossible.

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Appendix B Writing test (entry) (Based on an idea by Anastasiadou, A. (2003) You are Dimitris. You live in Katerini. This is the beginning of the school year. Send a letter to your cousin George who lives in Boston with his family. Say: How you are and how you feel about the beginning of the school year. Where you went for holidays and what you did there. Ask: About his summer holidays. Start and finish your letter appropriately and at the end of your letter add something you have forgotten. Write up to 100 words. Writing test (exit) You are Dimitris. You live in Katerini. Your cousin George, who does not speak Greek well, lives in Boston with his family. This is the end of the school year. Send a letter to your cousin George. Write: How you are and how you feel about the end of the school year. Where you will go for holidays and what you will do there. Ask: Ask his plans about his summer holidays. Start and finish your letter appropriately and at the end of your letter add something you have forgotten. Write up to 100 words.

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An Etymo-Cognitive Approach to Modern Greek Vocabulary Learning1 Alejandro García Aragón University of Granada [email protected]

Abstract Modern Greek textbooks generally introduce new vocabulary in very short contexts or long lists, and only sometimes do they provide the etymology of the vocabulary in order to give meaning to these ‘empty’ words. The etymo-cognitive approach aims to systematise and make explicit the semantic information that goes unnoticed in words sharing the same etymon. This is achieved using widely known words in the learner’s mother tongue and by means of etymo-cognitive maps. These are graphical devices in which etymologically related words can be logically structured and grouped according to the activity, the course level, and the type of learners involved.

1. Introduction The Structural Approach still predominates in standard textbooks addressed to Modern Greek (MG) learners. This approach was in fashion until the recent past: words and sentences were “presented and practised in a way which is intended best to help the learners to internalize them as forms containing meaning within themselves, as semantic capsules” (Widdowson 2002: 157). The assumption is that once learners have achieved this semantic knowledge through taught knowledge, they would be able to use it autonomously in communicative activities as in their mother tongue (L1). It goes without saying that words or phrases are easier to remember in context rather than as independent items (Robinson 2003). In an attempt to contextualize

1 This research has been carried out within the framework of the project RECORD: Representación del Conocimiento en Redes Dinámicas [Knowledge Representation in Dynamic Networks, FFI2011-22397], and supported by an FPU grant to the author (AP2009-4874), both funded by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation.

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new lexical knowledge, MG vocabulary and its declensions, conjugations, and derivatives are generally learnt separately in very short contexts or simply out of context that students have to learn on their own account (cf. Ibáñez et al. 1997; Villar 1997). Some MG textbooks include texts which may be preceded or followed by a list of ‘unknown’ or new vocabulary. However, if the textbook contains a great number of lists, or if their texts become increasingly longer, learners may encounter obvious recall or motivation problems. Besides, if the items on the lists are ‘explained’ by means of synonyms, whether in MG or other languages, there is the risk of including words that are more obscure than the word(s) they intend to explain. Not every synonym, if more than one is included, is adequate in any context or even in the text in which the ‘explained’ words are inserted. This may lead learners to believe that they are simpler or interchangeable synonyms or equivalences which are valid in any context (Hurtado 2007: 51). Some textbooks provide complete linguistic information about each unknown word or idiom. However, this is not useful information for every student level, especially intermediate and advanced students who are supposed to have mastered the basic rules. Other textbooks divide vocabulary into parts of speech. This may be helpful at first, but there are more efficient ways of organising it; for example, introducing new vocabulary by relating it to Ancient Greek roots in order to give meaning to these ‘empty’ words. However, this is done rather vaguely and never systematically.

2. The Etymo-Cognitive Approach The etymo-cognitive approach (ECA) is the result of qualitative research aiming to make explicit a type of semantic information that goes unnoticed in the process of learning MG as a second language (L2), while improving traditional MG learning methods. This approach is based on both the internal and external structure of MG, i.e. roots or etymons2 and their word-forms or derivatives. A large part of the Ancient Greek lexicon from around 800 BC has survived in MG. It has undergone very few changes, especially from around 330 BC on (from

2 By etymons and roots we mean complete words or isolated morphemes or letter strings which carry and transmit a basic or core concept(s) to other directly or indirectly related words, morphemes or letter strings, thus creating ‘families’ that can be normally identified by orthographical patterns. These core concepts are generally transmitted from etymon to etymon generally through metaphor, metonymy, derivation, analogy, and other cognitive and linguistic processes.

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Koine or ‘Common’ Greek), preserving and adapting its high morpheme-per-word ratio. The MG percentage of ‘derivativeness’ (or derivational synthesis) is thus higher than in other languages (cf. Rodríguez Adrados 1999; Polychrou 1997). As a consequence, the great number of derivatives is one of the most difficult obstacles a MG learner must overcome, as well as an ancient and apparently irrational orthography. However, this is only apparent because the greater the number of etymologically-related lexical units, the easier it is to group them. Due to MG iotacism and other phonological phenomena, many words may sound similar, and similar-sounding words interfere with recall (Baddeley & Hitch 1974 apud Randall 2007: 17). For instance, the word/etymon hypothesis = υπόθεση (from υπό ‘sub’ + θέση ‘position’), is pronounced /ipóθesi/. If the learner is to write down the word, there are several phonetically correct but orthographically incorrect ways to write it: ιπόθεσι, ειπόθεση, υπώθεσι, υπώθαισι, ιπώθεσυ, ηπόθαισει, υπόθεση.... However, only the last one is orthographically correct, and it is semantically motivated and relegates this word to a specific family. This identification is easier in some languages (e.g. English, French, German) than others (e.g. Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian) due to their orthographical systems. Even if users of the second group of languages knew the Greek origin of hypothesis, they would not know if the first i corresponds to an upsilon (υ), if the t corresponds to a theta (θ), and they may even wonder if the z in Romanian or s in Italian corresponds to a sigma (σ) or a zeta (ζ). Thus, knowledge of English and/or French is extremely useful when learning the orthography of a new MG word, since it would be easier for the learner to identify, retain, and thus transcribe and spell MG words/etymons. As a result, the learner’s L1 lexicon coming from Greek etymons can be easily identified and thus exploited in order to improve mnemonics. According to Goswami et al. (1997), the transparency of MG orthography may facilitate the recognition of smaller units within words. Our approach is based on the assumption that these smaller units frequently bear the same, or nearly the same, implicit semantic information. The shared semantic information between each etymon and its derivatives is made explicit through their orthography. For instance, ‘lunch’ (μεσημεριανό) is pragmatically and etymologically related to when it is eaten: ‘noon’ (μεσημέρι, from μέση ‘middle’ + ημέρα ‘day’). Roughly, the ancient word ημέρα (‘day’) is found in many other MG words, such as ημερήσιος, καθημερινός, ισημερινός, μεσημέρι, μεσημεριανό, ευημερία, εφημερίδα, πενθήμερο, καλημέρα, σήμερα, ενημερώνω, εφήμερος, ημερομηνία, ημερολόγιο, etc. Initially, their corresponding meanings may not be interrelated in the learner’s L1 vocabulary: daily, everyday, equator, noon, lunch, prosperity, newspaper, five-day, good morning, today, to update, ephemeral, date, calendar, etc. Nevertheless, there is a semantic relation to the concept day in these terms that is not evident in English. This phenomenon is more prominent in MG than in other languages, and we believe it should be structured and exploited for both natives and learners.

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Instead of taking MG etymology from a strict point of view, this approach takes advantage of widely known words in the learner’s L1 whose etymons come from Ancient Greek roots (as with most European languages) and which are still used in MG. Thus, the learner’s previous knowledge is transformed and re-directed in order to extract and underscore any shared meaning between the learner’s L1 and MG. In a nutshell, the ECA is based on both the internal (semantic) and external (orthographical) structure of MG, and more specifically on the following assumptions: • MG has a higher percentage of ‘derivativeness’ (or derivational synthesis) in its lexical units than other languages; • MG derivativeness implies having a greater number of etymologically related lexical units than in other languages; • MG roots/etymons and their derivatives share at least a pattern-related orthography, and thus they can be grouped orthographically; • MG derivatives frequently bear the same, or nearly the same, implicit semantic information through their etymons and their orthography, and thus can also be grouped semantically. Graphical representations of mental models are based on categorization and are implemented in the etymo-linguistically motivated cognitive maps or etymo-cognitive maps (ECMs) proposed in section 4.

3. Theoretical Underpinnings The ECA integrates part of the experientialist approach of Johnson (1987), Lakoff (1987) and Langacker (1987). Experientialism considers that language is based on the human experience of the real world, and thus language is seen as a tool of human cognition in order to convey meaning. Humans conventionalize and store cognitive categories in their brain, which constitutes the mental lexicon (Ungerer & Schmid 1996: 38). Categorization is thus the basis for linguistic comprehension and production. Since categories are dynamic and are the basis for language, language itself is inherently symbolic and contextual. In turn, there is ambiguity between cognitive and linguistic categories because they are structured according to prototypical relations and family resemblances, consisting of more or less prototypical members of idealized cognitive models, i.e. schematic simplifications and understandings of the real world as perceived by humans (Lakoff 1982: 165). It goes without saying that categorization and memory are highly interdependent facets of cognition (Heit 1997: 30). One important function of categorization is allowing inductive inferences or predictions about additional features (ibid.), and discovering hidden ‘systematicity’ in instances of apparent

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chaos or randomness (Lakoff 1987: 96). In this case, these ideas are applied to MG etymons/headwords of ECMs (central members of a map) and to prefixes, suffixes and other morphological changes or rules (which are the forms/shapes in which other family members are linked to the central members). Multidimensionality or poly-dimensionality (cf. Bowker 1997; Kageura 1997, inter al.) then arises when there are various possibilities of classifying the same concept into the same conceptual system, which is the case for VEHICLE (Figure 1):

Figure 1. A multidimensional classification for vehicle (adapted from Bowker 1997: 17; Faber & Jiménez 2004: 71)

The concept caR is thus represented from three points of view or dimensions. D1: medium of transportation, which categorizes caR as a land VeHicle; D2: type of propulsion, which categorizes caR as a MotoRiZed VeHicle; and D3: type of load, as a PaSSenGeR VeHicle. Our approach was heavily influenced by this notion, but also by the concept of graded structure (Barsalou 1987), which refers to a continuum of category representativeness, “beginning with the most typical members of a category and continuing through its atypical members to those nonmembers least similar to category members” (ibid.). Graded structure is central to predicting ease of category learning, with typical exemplars being easier to acquire than atypical exemplars (e.g. Rosch 1973, 1975, 1978; Mervis & Pani 1980; Rosch,

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Simpson & Miller 1976). In the following example, there is a graded structure of prototypicality of birds, from the most typical (robin, sparrow) to the most atypical exemplars (penguin, ostrich):

Figure 2. Prototype theory example: birdiness ranking (Hatch & Brown 1995: 58; Aitchison 2003: 54)

Graded structure goes hand in hand with conceptual salience and Relevance Theory (Sperber & Wilson 1986), which argues that an assumption is irrelevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is large. Moreover, what you remember well depends heavily on the context in which you are exposed to it, how relevant it is to your life. This is why typical or almost universal Greek-rooted words in the learner’s L1 should be included as the main infographical object of each etymo-cognitive map as symbolic units in a chain of family resemblance, multidimensionality, and prototypicality. According to Nuopponen (apud Rogers 2004: 216), conceptual systems can be organized into three types: hierarchical, sequential and heterarchical. Rogers argues that the latter is a formal organisation of connected nodes (MG symbolic units), without any single permanent uppermost node (headwords in ECMs). This means that heterarchical systems are a type of interconnected and alternating

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instantaneous hierarchical conceptual systems, in the way that an ECM can behave. Our premise is that heterarchy depends on a situated-contextualized purpose-based conceptualization (Barsalou 2005). In this way, the permanence of a specific uppermost node or concept (etymon, headword of an ECM) depends on the situated knowledge purpose (task, exam, knowledge field, type of learner, etc.). The interrelated cognitive abilities of category learning, inductive reasoning, and memory are significantly guided by people’s background knowledge, including both specific knowledge and more general principles (Heit 1997: 33). With this in mind, representation and multidimensionality depend on who is classifying. Therefore, it is not surprising that different types of users may use different criteria to classify the same domain or knowledge node (Picht & Draskau 1985: 48 apud Rogers 2004: 219). According to Armstrong (2006: 31), learners have different intelligences or minds which can be developed and work jointly. This multiplicity of intelligences was explored as early as 1983 by Gardner, who initially established eight basic intelligences that everyone possesses in a unique way (Sygmund 2006: 35). Among these intelligences, or minds (Gardner 2008), the most important for our approach is the linguistic intelligence. This is vital in order to master MG vocabulary, declensions, orthography, and etymology, the most challenging parts for most learners. This kind of intelligence can benefit from ECMs as tools to organize and interrelate a substantial amount of linguistic information. In the process of structuring an ECM, the logical-mathematical type of learner can also benefit from considering etymons as meaningful symbols that can be logically structured. One of the most attractive features of ECMs is that they can integrate different colours, lines, shapes, space, and relations among them, and people with a prominent spatial intelligence have a special sensitivity to them. Besides, the emotional type of learner can benefit from choosing which kind of ECM suits best his personal interests or style (Gardner apud Armstrong 2006: 18-22; Robinson 2003; Sygmund 2006). Moreover, the ECA is backed up by computational lexical access models. Following Forster’s search model, each headword or head-concept of each ECM becomes a recognizable symbol that triggers at least three different codes, modules or access files to the master file, which is the mental lexicon. These access files (i.e. orthographic, phonological, syntactic-semantic files) are arranged in our mind in order of decreasing frequency and recent activation (cf. Forster’s search model 1976, 1979, 1994 apud Randall 2007). The orthographic file is a crucial concept for our approach, since it is a starting point for the recognition of etymons, which are considered here as letter strings which bear a basic sense that relates every word that contains it. These files or codes are linked and interact also in other word recognition theories, such as Seidenberg and McClelland’s 1989 Triangle Model. According

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to these authors, there are three basic principles that need to be mastered by learners of English: a) The alphabetic principle, which states that “there are systematic correspondences between the spoken and written forms of words” (Seidenberg & McClelland 1989: 524). This principle can be fully applied to MG, since these correspondences are more systematic than in English. b) The orthographic redundancy principle, which states that not all combinations of the letters of the alphabet are equally permissible. In MG, for instance, “ηση” is more common than “τμη”, whereas “υυε” does not exist. This principle is very interesting for the ECA because it establishes whether a word belongs to the natural system of a language, and determines its frequency and recognisability of etymons. c) The morphological redundancy principle, which states that not all combinations of the morphemes of a language are “equally permissible”. This is also useful for our word recognition and the abundant derivative processes in MG. For example, the morpheme “ως” may follow roots like “κακός”, and never the other way around. Whereas single-route models like this assume that both regular and irregular morphology are processed by a single mechanism, dual-route models hold that morphologically regular words are processed by rules of inflectional concatenation, whereas irregular words are thought to be stored as wholes and can be accessed from lexical memory, such as Coltheart’s et al. 2001 dual route model of “visual word recognition and reading aloud”. Taft and Foster (1975 apud Randall 2007: 108) also argue that there is economy of storage involved in a morphological (root + affix) storage system. Regular derivatives are thus omitted in our approach, since they are stored as ‘rules’, not as ‘lexicon’. On the contrary, irregular words or etymons are highlighted in order to help store them as ‘wholes’ and so that they may be accessed from lexical memory.

4. Etymo-Cognitive Maps Etymo-cognitive maps (ECMs) are one of the most efficient implementations of the ECA. These are infographical maps in which the mentioned conceptterm relations can be logically structured in word clusters of etymologically related words. ECMs thus become representations of the individual’s specific lexical structuring and understanding of a language, and are based on ad hoc categorizations and motivations. These maps are always heterarchical, and can be mono-, bi-, or multilingual depending on the learner’s background and objectives, and the organization of ECMs is flexible and dynamic depending on the activity, the course level and the type of learner involved.

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ECMs cannot be domain-derived since they do not represent the relations shared by concepts in a specific (sub-)domain or event. Instead, ECMs represent a specific common meaning shared by the representation of different concepts. The main constraint is directionality, which must be from MG to the learner’s L1. However, ECMs can be goal- and user-derived, as well as in continuous development. We believe ECMs are a mnemonic improvement at various levels of knowledge-oriented and mental lexicon-inspired representations of the general lexicon of a language. ECMs are useful in highlighting the abstract sense relations between lexical items, and thus can be used as frames of reference when comparing the learner’s L1 and MG. Moreover, even though each infographical element or object seems to be isolated words or pairs of word-and-equivalent, this is far from being the whole story. Each object in each infographical node carries general intra- or interlinguistic relations (whose guiding thread are MG semes), thus helping learners establish subliminal ‘equivalences’ as well as ‘differences’ (because not every object must, or rather can, contain multilingual relations). Semantic relations cannot be considered as a matter of objective truth, but instead as a matter of users’ idiosyncratic mental representations of language, and processes involving them, and thus are not necessarily fixed in our minds but can be generated as needed (cf. Murphy 2003: 5, 42). In ECMs, the main semantic load is carried by and etymologically related to the head-concept/word. Then, this relation can be structured or grouped by any other relation(s), such as part_of_speech: verb / adjective / noun, etc. has_high / medium / low: frequency_in / relevance_for / number_of_derivatives, etc. has_suffixes / prefixes / no_affixes has_the_same_suffix / prefix_as is_antonym / synonym_of belongs_to > domain: GEOGRAPHY, MEDICINE, PHYSICS, etc. belongs_to > (sub)language: dialect / jargon / Ancient Greek / region, etc. These relations can be explicit or implicit in the maps. We recommend each ECM be provided with an archi-lexeme or headword in MG that should comply with the basic cognitive level requirements (Kleiber 1990: 84-87). According to this author, the basic level words are rapidly identified because they are linked to a simple and global idea; these words are generally short, frequently used words, and thus they belong to neutral contexts, contain a great amount of information, and are easier to process. Moreover, prototypical categories can be fully developed from the basic level to the superordinate and

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subordinate levels (Ungerer & Schmid 1996: 72). Therefore, each headword of an ECM should: • be the nearest MG lexical unit to the general concept that the etymon evokes: e.g. preferably clinic to clinometer; • have a typical equivalent/counterpart in the learner’s L1, which is the case for clinic. • be a complete MG lexical unit/etymon, not an isolated prefix or suffix (e.g. preferably starting with clinic/κλινική and continuing with -κλιν/ο-, but never starting with συν-, απο- or -ηση). • be the shortest MG lexical unit with that etymon (e.g. preferably clinic to polyclinical). According to Baddeley and Hitch (1974 apud Randall 2007: 17), the word length effect shows that memory is better for short words than long words. Accordingly, we also recommend that each etymologically related word: • be less frequent than the headword; • be preferably longer than the headword; • have a higher degree of specificity than the headword, and thus less easily recognised by learners; • be complete lexical units/etymons, not an isolated prefix or suffix.

4.1. Creating an ECM When it comes to creating an ECM, e.g., for the etymon -κλιν-, we could start by taking the almost universally salient Greek-rooted word clinic (κλινική) (Figure 7). This word is also shared by other languages such as English, Spanish, French, etc. In order not to miss all relevant words related to this specific etymon, a thorough analysis of a comprehensive mono- or bilingual dictionary of MG is extremely useful. A quick way of having a list of words containing that etymon is by consulting the Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη’s Reverse Dictionary Online. Through a simple search of the letter strings %κλιν% (Figure 3) and %κλίν% (Figure 4), we obtain an alphabetical word list. These word lists are then analyzed in order to dismiss any word not including typical concepts evoked by -κλιν-: inclination, declination, bed. Then, the resulting words can be individually checked against the web in order to see their frequency or relevance, in order to discard other words which are not found in current MG texts. Dictionaries and the web can also be consulted in order to add definitions, alternative senses or frequent collocations. Monolingual dictionaries online, such as Τριανταφυλλίδης On-Line (Figure 5), are quite useful. However, paper dictionaries are strongly recommended, such as Μπαμπινιώτης, in which a great amount of compounds and derivatives are provided (Figure 6).

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Figure 3. List of words sharing the letter string -κλιν- (Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη’s Reverse Dictionary)

Figure 4. List of words sharing the letter string -κλίν- (Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη’s Reverse Dictionary)

Figure 5. Entry example for κλινική (Τριανταφυλλίδης On-Line)

The teacher or learner can draw and distribute the final word list according to different criteria or dimensions: e.g. typicality or salience, derivative formation (prefixes, suffixes), word types, semantic criteria, etc. In Figure 7, the semantic and formal resemblance of the words clinic, clínica and κλινική was considered a relevant symbolic unit in order to become a headword. Each infographical object derived from the central nodes (κλινική, κλίνη) is a representation of concepts in a family resemblance context. A clinic is a place where beds can be found and, not surprisingly, the Greek etymon of κλινική (clinic) is again etymologically related to the concept bed, which, in turn, is best expressed as κλίνη (the second central infographical object), which is the learned word for bed.

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Figure 6. From Μπαμπινιώτης’ Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, Β’ Έκδοση 2005: 906

Figure 7. ECM of L1 word clinic (κλινική) and an etymologically related MG word (κλίνη)

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In the case of κλινική, on the left-hand side, the main criteria for derivatives were prefixes (αστυ-, πολυ-, προ-) and suffixes (-άρχης/-άρχισσα). These derivatives are grouped semantically in terms of space and colour, thus becoming subnodes with related words or expressions of their own (marked with arrows). The majority of these conceptual objects also contains English and Spanish equivalents to facilitate the comprehension of the readers, not to be learnt as the only possible equivalents. The MG learner or teacher can add frequent collocations or phrases, such as private clinic, psychiatric clinic, university clinic, and other uses of the same form κλινική, shifted from noun to adjective in clinical medicine (κλινική ιατρική). Of course, this distribution of the nodes is dynamic. Categories, collocations, positions and colours can be goal-derived or even ad hoc, i.e. not well-established in memory but are instead newly created to achieve a novel goal (Barsalou 1985, 1983 apud Barsalou 1987). The goal of the ECM in Figure 7 is to show the relation potential of a learned word, such as κλίνη in everyday words such as μονόκλινο, δίκλινο, τρίκλινο, etc. In the context of “booking a hotel room in Greece” these words are commonplace. It goes without saying that each ECM could be extended with proverbs or more specific sub-headwords, or be reused for different tasks. For example, Figure 7 can serve as an introduction to medical terminology in MG. Markers such as ΛΟΓ. (learned term/expression) and ΙΑΤΡ. (medical term/expression) were added. The common word for bed in MG, however, is κρε(β)βάτι, which could be the headword of another unrelated ECM. In addition to this, colours are a useful tool to express or highlight semantic or derivative relations, new attributes, or values to the headword (cf. Hampton and Dubois 1993: 15). For example, in Figures 7 and 8 colours were used to point out which items were more relevant for the task of the lesson.

Figure 8. ECM of the etymon -κλιν/ο-, etymologically-related to κλινη

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In Figure 8, the etymological relation of etymon -κλιν/ο- with κλίνη and κλινικη is expressed with a dotted line. This indicates that, even though the same etymon can be found in most objects of Figure 7, the semantic content varies from bed to inclination. We believe this semantic distribution is more useful than the strictly etymological one from Μπαμπινιώτης (Figure 6). In order to avoid confusion, we recommend these items be grouped separately. In contrast with popular words (ΔΗΜ.) in Figure 7, almost all derivatives of this etymon are rather learned (ΛΟΓ.) or belong to a specific domain, such as anatomy, archaeology, architecture, geology, navigation, technology, and physics. These domains are marked in Greek capitals (ΑΝΑΤ., ΑΡΧ., ΑΡΧΙΤ., ΔΗΜ., ΓΕΩΛ., ΓΡΑΜΜ., ΛΟΓ., ΝΑΥΤ., ΤΕΧ., ΦΥΣ.).

5. Conclusions and Future Research It goes without saying that a great part of MG etymons and lexicon has spread to almost all Occidental languages. As a result, the learner’s L1 lexicon coming from Greek etymons can be easily identified and thus exploited. The ECA takes advantage of the learner’s previous knowledge in order to provide meaning, prototypicality, and family resemblance to ‘empty’ words3, ‘irrational’ orthography and ‘isolated’ expressions. Since a great amount of MG words are related to each other both semantically and orthographically, they can be grouped and structured so that they can be retrieved more easily, as proposed in our ECMs. While elaborating an ECM, learners get involved in a challenging purpose that makes vocabulary items clearer according to their own needs and intelligences. Learners are drawn into participation in order to find rules, central nodes and family resemblances on their own: How are these words/concepts related? How can I relate them in order to retrieve them best according to my needs and background? Can I find a rule or do I have to learn these items independently? The outcome of this reasoning is a pictorial or diagrammatical device which, in turn, can be re-used for learning and refreshing already controlled information. Future research will explore feasible applications of ECMs in lexicography.

3 I.e. words that initially appear to be semantically void or obscure to a layperson, but in fact are not if their morphology and etymology are examined.

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References Aitchison, J. 2003. Words in the mind. An introduction to the mental lexicon. 3rd edition (1st edition 1987). Oxford and New York: Blackwell. Armstrong, T. 2006. Inteligencias múltiples en el aula. Guía práctica para educadores. Barcelona: Paidós. Barsalou, L.W. 1987. The instability of graded structure: Implications for the nature of concepts. In U. Neisser (ed.), Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 101-140. Barsalou, L.W. 2005. Situated conceptualization. In H. Cohen and C. Lefebvre (eds.), Handbook of categorization in cognitive science. St. Louis: Elsevier, 619-650. Bowker, L. 1997. Multidimensional classification of concepts and terms. In S.E. Wright and G. Budin (eds.), Handbook of Terminology Management: Basic Aspects of Terminology Management. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 133143. Faber, P. and C. Jiménez Hurtado. 2004. Traducción, lenguaje y cognición. Granada: Comares. Gardner, H. 2008. Las cinco mentes del futuro. Barcelona: Paidós. Goswami, U., C. Porpodas and S. Wheelwright. 1997. Children’s orthographic representations in English and Greek. European Journal of Psychology of Education 12(3): 273-292. Hampton, J. and D. Dubois. 1993. Psychological Models of Concepts: Introduction. In I. Van Mechelen, J. Hampton, R.S. Michalski and P. Theuns (eds.), Categories and

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Concepts. Theoretical Views and Inductive Data Analysis. San Diego: Academic Press. Hatch, E. and C. Brown. 1995. Vocabulary, semantics, and language education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heit, E. 1997. Knowledge and Concept Learning. In K. Lamberts and D. Shanks (eds.), Knowledge, concepts, and categories. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Hurtado Albir, A. 2007. Traducción y traductología. Introducción a la traductología. Madrid: Cátedra. Ibáñez, M.E., J.L. Casado and A. Masiá (1997). Estudio metodológico del griego moderno como lengua extranjera. In M. Morfakidis and I. García Gálvez (eds.), Estudios Neogriegos en España e Iberoamérica. Granada: Athos-Pérgamos, Fundación de la Cultura Helénica, Sociedad Hispánica de Estudios Neogriegos, 107-113. Johnson, M. 1987. The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kageura, K. 1997. Multifaceted/Multidimensional concept systems. In S.E. Wright and G. Budin (eds.), Handbook of Terminology Management: Basic Aspects of Terminology Management. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 119-132. Kleiber, G. 1990. La sémantique du prototype. Paris: P.U.F. Lakoff, G. 1982. Categories and Cognitive Models. Cognitive Science Program, Institute of Cognitive Studies, Berkeley: University of California. Lakoff, G. 1987. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. What Categories reveal about the Mind. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. Langacker, R.W. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Mervis, C.B. and J.R. Pani. 1980. Acquisition of Basic Object Categories. Cognitive Psychology 12: 496-522. Murphy, M.L. 2003. Semantic Relations and the Lexicon. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

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Picht, H. and J. Draskau. 1985. Terminology: An Introduction. Guildford: University of Surrey. Polychrou, T. 1997. Aprendizaje y aplicación. Selección metodológica en la didáctica del griego moderno. In M. Morfakidis and I. García Gálvez (eds.), Estudios Neogriegos en España e Iberoamérica. Granada: Athos-Pérgamos, Fundación de la Cultura Helénica, Sociedad Hispánica de Estudios Neogriegos, 125-128. Randall, M. 2007. Memory, Psychology and Second Language Learning. John Benjamins: Amsterdam / Philadelphia. Robinson, D. 2003. Becoming a Translator: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Translation. London: Routledge. Rodríguez Adrados, F. 1999. Historia de la lengua griega: de los orígenes a nuestros días. Madrid: Gredos. Rogers, M. 2004. Multidimensionality in concepts systems: a bilingual textual perspective. Terminology 10(2): 215-240. Rosch, E. 1973. On the Internal Structure of Perceptual and Semantic Categories. In T.E. Moore (ed.), Cognitive Development and the Acquisition of Language. New York: Academic Press, 111-144. Rosch, E. and C.B. Mervis. 1975. Family Resemblances. Studies in the Internal Structure of Categories. Cognitive Psychology 1: 573-605. Rosch, E., C. Simpson and R.S. Miller. 1976. Structural Bases of Typicality Effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2(4): 491-502. Seidenberg, M.S. and J.L. McClelland. 1989. A Distributed, Developmental Model of Word Recognition and Naming. Psychological Review 96: 523-568. Sperber, D. and D. Wilson. 1986. Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford: Blackwell. Sygmund, D. 2006. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences and its Influence on our Learning and Teaching. In A.J. Moya Guijarro, J.I. Albentosa Hernández, C. Harris (coords.), La enseñanza de las lenguas extranjeras en el Marco Europeo. Cuenca: Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.

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Ungerer, F. and H.-J. Schmid. 1996. An introduction to cognitive linguistics. London: Longman. Villar Lecumberri, A. 1997. Διδακτικά μέσα στο μάθημα της Νέας Ελληνικής γλώσσας: εικόνα και λόγια. In M. Morfakidis and I. García Gálvez (eds.), Estudios Neogriegos en España e Iberoamérica. Granada: Athos-Pérgamos, Fundación de la Cultura Helénica, Sociedad Hispánica de Estudios Neogriegos, 115-123. Widdowson, H.G. 2002. Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dictionaries Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη. Αντίστροφο λεξικό. http://www.greek-language.gr/ greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/reverse/ Μαγκρίδης, Α. and P. Olalla. 2006. Το νέο ελληνοισπανικό λεξικό - El nuevo diccionario griego-español. Μπαμπινιώτης, Γ. 2005 [1998]. Λεξικό της νέας ελληνικής γλώσσας. Αθήνα: Κέντρο Λεξικολογίας. Τριανταφυλλίδης On-Line. Λεξικό της κοινής νεοελληνικής. http://www.greeklanguage.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/triantafyllides/

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Η λαϊκή, η ταβέρνα, τα Χριστούγεννα και… ο Σεφέρης ή η θεματολογία των κειμένων στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας Βασιλική Γιαννακού Εθνικό και Καποδιστριακό Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών [email protected]

Abstract This paper deals with the topics and the content of the texts which are included in the most widely used coursebooks of Modern Greek as a foreign language. It depicts the variety of thematic areas and also focuses on thematic deficiencies. Furthermore, it compares the frequency of particular topics which appear in coursebooks with the students’ preferences and their learning expectations. Finally, the paper formulates conclusions and specific proposals about teaching Reading Comprehension through L2 texts and also about creating and reshaping text material of coursebooks of Modern Greek as a foreign language.

1. Εισαγωγή: Ο ρόλος των εγχειριδίων, της κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου και του κειμένου στη διδασκαλία της ξένης γλώσσας Τα εγχειρίδια, αποτελούν σημαντικά εργαλεία γλωσσικής κατάκτησης της ξένης γλώσσας (Tomlinson 2001: 67) και ταυτόχρονα συμβάλλουν στο γνωστικό, πολιτισμικό, ψυχολογικό και - σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις- στον ηθικό και τον διαπροσωπικό εμπλουτισμό των μαθητών, διαμορφώνοντας ως ένα βαθμό την κοινωνική και την πολιτισμική ταυτότητά τους (Tomlinson 2001: 67, Kramsch 2000, Arikian 2008: 72). Κύρια, ωστόσο, χρησιμότητά τους παραμένει η συμβολή τους στην ανάπτυξη των γλωσσικών δεξιοτήτων και ιδιαίτερα της Κατανόησης Γραπτού Λόγου (ΚΓΛ), η οποία συνιστά ενεργή μαθησιακή διαδικασία και πολύτιμο διδακτικό εργαλείο και για τους δύο πόλους της διδακτικής πράξης, τόσο για τον δάσκαλο όσο και για τον μαθητή (Κοντός κ.ά. 2002). Οι Lynch & Hudson (1991) και ο Arkian (2008) θεωρούν την ΚΓΛ, εξαιρετικά σημαντική, ίσως την πιο σημαντική από τις τέσσερις δεξιότητες για την εκμάθηση της ξένης γλώσσας. Πρόκειται για μια διαδικασία διαρκούς αλληλεπίδρασης ανάμεσα στο

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κείμενο και τον αναγνώστη, (Grellet 1981), η οποία προϋποθέτει και εμπλέκει μια ποικιλία δεξιοτήτων και οδηγεί στην ερμηνεία του κειμένου πέρα από το ίδιο, δηλαδή στη σχέση του με τον κόσμο (Nuttall 1982: 21-22). Η σημασία της ΚΓΛ ενισχύεται και από τον αναβαθμισμένο ρόλο του κειμένου γενικά στη διδασκαλία της ξένης γλώσσας. Ειδικότερα στα εγχειρίδια, το κείμενο έχει αντικαταστήσει -σύμφωνα με τις αρχές των νεότερων διδακτικών μεθόδων και κυρίως της Επικοινωνιακής- την πρόταση ως βάση ανάλυσης και διδασκαλίας της γλώσσας και πλέον αυτό εξοικειώνει τον μαθητή με τα φαινόμενα και τις μορφές της. Συνεπώς, έχει τοποθετηθεί στο κέντρο της διδασκαλίας της ξένης γλώσσας και λειτουργεί ως πυρήνας των δραστηριοτήτων, αλλά και ως άξονας ανάπτυξης όλων των γλωσσικών δεξιοτήτων, κυρίως όμως της ΚΓΛ. Τέλος, το κείμενο στα σύγχρονα εγχειρίδια συνδυάζει την ήδη υπάρχουσα γνώση με τη νέα, αναδιαμορφώνοντας συνεχώς τη σχέση του μαθητή με την ξένη γλώσσα και τον κόσμο (Nuttall 1982; Kramsch 2000; Wallace 2001).

2. Αρχές για την επιλογή κειμένων για ΚΓΛ στη Γ2 Η καταλληλότητα ενός κειμένου για την εξάσκηση της δεξιότητας της ΚΓΛ στην ξένη γλώσσα είναι συνάρτηση της ύπαρξης συγκεκριμένων χαρακτηριστικών, τα οποία ακολουθούν τις παρακάτω αρχές (Nuttal 1982: 25; Day 1994; Berardo 2006): α Αναγνωσιμότητα: Σύμφωνα με αυτή την αρχή, το κείμενο πρέπει να διαθέτει λεξιλογική και γραμματική καταλληλότητα, συγκροτημένη εσωτερική οργάνωση, σωστό βαθμό δυσκολίας ανάλογα με το επίπεδο γλωσσικής κατάκτησης για το οποίο προορίζεται, καθώς και κατάλληλη έκταση και μορφή. β. Ε  κμεταλλευσιμότητα: Το κείμενο πρέπει να ενδείκνυται για την εξάσκηση στις γραμματικές μορφές, στην επικοινωνιακή χρήση της γλώσσας, αλλά και για άλλες δραστηριότητες, όπως π.χ. σύγκριση των νέων πληροφοριών με τις ήδη γνωστές. γ. Καταλληλότητα περιεχομένου: Το κείμενο πρέπει να περιέχει νέο λεξιλόγιο, νέες, μη γνωστές πληροφορίες και ιδέες για τους φυσικούς ομιλητές της Γ2 και τον κόσμο γενικά, να παρέχει ανανεωμένα μαθησιακά κίνητρα στο μαθητή και να είναι κατάλληλο κοινωνικά και πολιτισμικά. Τα χαρακτηριστικά αυτά μπορούν να θεωρηθούν ως αρχές επιλογής των κειμένων που προορίζονται για διδακτικό υλικό της ΚΓΛ, αφού καθορίζουν αποφασιστικά τη μορφή και το περιεχόμενό τους.

3. Κριτήρια για την επιλογή του θέματος των κειμένων για ΚΓΛ στη Γ2 Η επιλογή ενός κειμένου για ΚΓΛ στη Γ2 πρέπει, επιπλέον, να ικανοποιεί τουλάχιστον έναν από τους δύο βασικούς στόχους της ανάγνωσης: την πληροφόρηση και/ή την

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Language Learning/Teaching - Education

Βασιλική Γιαννακού

ευχαρίστηση. Συνεπώς, σημαντικό ρόλο παίζει η επιλογή του θέματος του κειμένου, η οποία καθορίζεται από τα ακόλουθα κριτήρια (Krashen 1981; Dubin 1986; Grellet 1981; Williams 1986; Davoudi 2005): α. Προηγούμενη γνώση του θέματος: διευκολύνει και εμβαθύνει τη διαδικασία της κατανόησης. Η γνώση μπορεί να ‘οικοδομηθεί’ κατά τη διδασκαλία της Γ2 τόσο με την ανάγνωση ενός θέματος σε βάθος όσο και με την παρουσίαση πολλών κειμένων με το ίδιο θέμα. β. Ε  νδιαφέρον: διακρίνεται σε ατομικό και καταστασιακό και είναι το στοιχείο που οδηγεί τον αναγνώστη σε σχέση αλληλεξάρτησης με το κείμενο και σχετίζεται άμεσα με τα κίνητρά του. Κατά τη διδασκαλία μπορεί να ενισχυθεί με την ποικιλία θεμάτων, καθώς και με ειδικές τεχνικές παρουσίασης. γ. Πληροφοριακό περιεχόμενο: σχετίζεται με την ποσότητα και την πυκνότητα των πληροφοριών και είναι απαραίτητο για την ενεργοποίηση του ενδιαφέροντος και τη σύνδεση με την προηγούμενη γνώση. Ειδικότερα, για την επιλογή κειμένων με στόχο την ένταξή τους στα εγχειρίδια της Γ2, πρέπει, επιπλέον, τα κείμενα να χαρακτηρίζονται από τα εξής: α. Να διαθέτουν τίτλο ο οποίος να αποκαλύπτει σε μεγάλο βαθμό το θέμα τους. β. Ν  α συμβάλλουν στην εξέλιξη της γλωσσικής κατάκτησης και να δίνουν κίνητρα, για να εμπλακεί ο μαθητής ενεργά στη μαθησιακή διαδικασία. γ. Να πληροφορούν τον μαθητή, καθώς και να του δημιουργούν συναισθήματα και να τον διασκεδάζουν. Σύμφωνα με τους Carrell (1984), Williams (1986), Swan (2003) και Norton (2005) είναι δυνατό οι μαθητές να επιλέξουν τα θέματα των κειμένων που θα διδαχθούν ή και ολόκληρα κείμενα- για ΚΓΛ, πάντα, όμως, με την εποπτεία του διδάσκοντος. Προκειμένου για την επιλογή των θεμάτων των κειμένων, είναι χρήσιμο οι διδάσκοντες, αλλά και οι συγγραφείς εγχειριδίων να συμβουλεύονται τα αναλυτικά προγράμματα, τα οποία, εκτός από τις κατευθύνσεις που δίνουν για τη διδασκαλία της γραμματικής, της συντακτικής δομής και των λειτουργιών της γλώσσας, προτείνουν και νοηματικούς-θεματικούς άξονες για την οργάνωση της διδασκαλίας του λεξιλογίου. Στην παρούσα έρευνα η εξέταση του θεματικού περιεχομένου των εγχειριδίων στηρίχτηκε στο Αναλυτικό Πρόγραμμα για τη Διδασκαλία της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας σε Ενηλίκους για το Επίπεδο Επάρκειας (Κοντός κ.ά 2002) και στο αντίστοιχο για το προχωρημένο επίπεδο (Ιακώβου & Μπέλλα 2004). Βασικές έννοιες-άξονες των θεμάτων θεωρούνται η ύπαρξη, η κτήση, ο χώρος, ο χρόνος, η ποσότητα, η ποιότητα, η σκέψη, η συσχέτιση και με βάση αυτές προτείνονται οι εξής θεματικές περιοχές: α. Στοιχεία ταυτότητας (οικογενειακή ζωή, διαμονή σε ένα τόπο, θρησκεία, ηλικία, επαγγελματική κατάσταση, εξωτερική εμφάνιση, χαρακτήρας). β. Κατοικία-διαμονή (το περιβάλλον, το σπίτι ως χώρος, οι εσωτερικοί χώροι, εργασίες και έξοδα σχετικές με την κατοικία, διαμονή μακριά από το σπίτι).

Language Learning/Teaching - Education

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Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics

γ. Θέματα της καθημερινότητας (καθημερινές συνήθειες, ύπνος). δ. Εργασία (τύποι εργασίας, οικονομικές απολαβές, εργασιακές σχέσεις, έλλειψη απασχόλησης, παροχή εργασίας, ασφάλιση, προϊόντα εργασίας, προσόντα, εργασιακοί ρόλοι). ε. Ελεύθερος χρόνος (σπορ, παιχνίδια, διασκέδαση, ΜΜΕ, αναγνώσματα, τέχνες και θεάματα). στ. Ταξίδια-μετακινήσεις (μέσα και συνθήκες μεταφοράς, προορισμοί, ταξιδιωτικές διατυπώσεις). ζ. Διαπροσωπικές σχέσεις (τύποι σχέσεων, προσκλήσεις, αλληλογραφία, οργανώσεις και όμιλοι). η. Πολιτική (πολιτικά πρόσωπα, εκλογική διαδικασία, διακυβέρνηση, πολιτειακά συστήματα, πολιτικά προβλήματα, αντιδράσεις). θ. Οικονομία (προϊόντα οικονομικών συναλλαγών, τρόποι οικονομικής συναλλαγής, οικονομικές πράξεις, οικονομικές υπηρεσίες, οικονομική κατάσταση). ι. Κοινωνία (δικαιοσύνη, αποφάσεις, δικαστικοί ρόλοι και λειτουργίες, κοινωνικά προβλήματα: εθιστικές ουσίες, οικονομική δυσπραγία, προσβολή ανθρώπινης αξιοπρέπειας, ανισότητες, ρατσισμός, προστασία δικαιωμάτων). ια. Υγεία και περίθαλψη (μέρη του σώματος, σωματική κατάσταση, ατομική υγιεινή, αρρώστιες και ατυχήματα, περίθαλψη, θεραπείες, ιατρικές εξετάσεις, ιατρικές ενέργειες, ιατρικά όργανα, διατυπώσεις, άθληση). ιβ. Εκπαίδευση (τύπος εκπαίδευσης, Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, παρακολούθηση, εγχειρίδια, ερευνητικά μέσα, εξετάσεις, εγγραφές, εκπαιδευτικό προσωπικό). ιγ. Αγορές (εμπορική κίνηση, πρόσωπα της αγοράς, καταναλωτικά αγαθά, χαρακτηριστικά και αξία προϊόντων, τρόποι πληρωμής, ποιότητα προϊόντων). ιδ. Δ  ιατροφή (οδηγίες μαγειρικής, σκεύη, διατροφικές συνήθειες, τρόφιμα, ποτά, διατροφικά συστήματα, διατροφικά συστατικά, διεργασίες, γεύσεις, προβλήματα, η εστίαση στο εστιατόριο). ιε. Υπηρεσίες (ταχυδρομικές υπηρεσίες, τηλεπικοινωνίες, τραπεζικές συναλλαγές, νέες τεχνολογίες). ιστ. Τοποθεσίες -Μέρη-Αξιοθέατα (δημόσιοι χώροι, τοποθεσίες, αξιοθέατα). ιζ. Γλώσσα (γενικές έννοιες, προφορική και γραπτή παραγωγή, γραμματική, επεξεργασία λόγου). ιη. Οικολογία (κλίμα, γεωφυσικό περιβάλλον, χλωρίδα και πανίδα, προβλήματα και λύσεις, οργανώσεις). Επιπλέον, στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Ελληνικής ως ξένης -όπως και στα αντίστοιχα των ξένων γλωσσών (Arkian 2008)- απαντούν κείμενα και από τις παρακάτω Θεματικές Περιοχές: α. Βιογραφίες (κείμενα για τη ζωή και το έργο ατόμων ή ομάδων, π.χ. «Νέα Ελληνικά για μετανάστες,… και ξένους», επίπεδο Γ, σ. 208-211: σύντομες βιογραφίες του Γ. Σεφέρη, Οδ. Ελύτη, Κ. Καβάφη, «Συνεχίζοντας», βιογραφίες της Μαρίας Κάλλας (σ. 166) της Μελίνας Μερκούρη (169) του Μίκη Θεοδωράκη (σ.112), κλπ.).

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Βασιλική Γιαννακού

β. Διανοητικές και ψυχολογικές διαδικασίες (όνειρα, φαντασία, συναισθήματα, π.χ. «Συνεχίζοντας», σ. 34 απόσπασμα από το διήγημα του Περικλή Σφυρίδη ‘Ο πρώτος έρωτας’). γ. Παράδοση και Ιστορία (κοινωνικές και ιστορικές εμπειρίες που συνδέουν παλαιότερες εποχές με το σήμερα, π.χ. στο «Περισσότερα Ελληνικά», σ. 36 ‘Οι δώδεκα μήνες και το βαρέλι τους’, στο «Πλουτίζω τα Ελληνικά μου», σ. 30-31 ‘Η Ιστορία της ελληνικής γλώσσας’, στο «Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά», τεύχος 3 σ. 126 ‘Η βυζαντινή αυτοκρατορία’). δ. Λ  ογοτεχνία και αφηγηματική χρήση της γλώσσας (π.χ. στο «Ανακαλύπτοντας το κείμενο», σ. 10 ‘Ο καπετάν Μιχάλης’ Του Ν. Καζαντζάκη και σ. 7-8 το κείμενο ‘Πώς μεταμορφώθηκε η ζωή μου’).

4. Παρατηρήσεις για την παρουσία των Θεματικών Περιοχών στα εγχειρίδια Στην παρούσα έρευνα εξετάστηκαν 15 εγχειρίδια της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης, προκειμένου να καταγραφεί το εύρος κατανομής των Θεματικών Περιοχών και η συχνότητα εμφάνισής τους σε αυτά. Επελέγησαν εγχειρίδια και από τα τρία επίπεδα γλωσσικής κατάκτησης (τρία εγχειρίδια από το αρχάριο επίπεδο, επτά από το μέσο, και πέντε από το προχωρημένο), τα οποία έχουν εκδοθεί μετά το 1990 (λόγω της στροφής προς την επικοινωνιακή προσέγγιση στη διδασκαλία της ξένης γλώσσας, αλλά και της ποσοτικής και ποιοτικής αλλαγής στο κοινό που έχει στόχο την εκμάθηση της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας), περιέχουν κείμενα με έκταση τουλάχιστον 150 λέξεων και χρησιμοποιούνται συχνά στη διδασκαλία της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας. Από το σύνολο των Θεματικών Περιοχών (22), 2 εγχειρίδια καλύπτουν το 77,27% (17 Θ.Π.), 3 καλύπτουν το 68,18% (15 Θ.Π.), 2 το 54,55% (12 Θ.Π.), 1 εγχειρίδιο καλύπτει το 45,45% (10 Θ.Π.), 1 καλύπτει το 40,91% (9 Θ.Π.), 1 το 36,36% (8 Θ.Π.) και επίσης 1 το 22,73% (5 Θ.Π.). Η συχνότητα εμφάνισης των Θεματικών Περιοχών στα διδακτικά εγχειρίδια της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας φαίνεται στον Πίνακα 1, με αριθμητική απεικόνιση (πόσες φορές αναφέρονται στα εγχειρίδια θέματα από κάθε Θ.Π.) και με ποσοστιαία αναλογία επί τοις εκατό (τι μέρος καταλαμβάνει κάθε Θ.Π. στο σύνολο των εγχειριδίων) στο Σχήμα 1 φαίνεται η κάλυψη με γραφική παράσταση. Επιπλέον, στα πλαίσια των Θ.Π. καταγράφονται τα επιμέρους θέματα που εμφανίζουν τη μεγαλύτερη συχνότητα παρουσίας στα εγχειρίδια (Πίνακας 2).

Language Learning/Teaching - Education

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Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics

Πίνακας 1. Συχνότητα εμφάνισης Θεματικών Περιοχών στα εγχειρίδια

Θεματική περιοχή (ΘΠ)

56

Συχνότητα εμφάνισης ΘΠ στο σύνολο των εγχειριδίων

Ποσοστό εμφάνισης ΘΠ στο σύνολο των εγχειριδίων επί τοις %

1

Υγεία

10

45,45

2

Οικολογία -Γεωγραφία

10

45,45

3

Εργασία

9

40,91

4

Καθημερινότητα, ελεύθερος χρόνος

9

40,91

5

Ταξίδια, προορισμοί

9

40,91

6

Παράδοση - πολιτισμός

8

36,36

7

Κοινωνικά προβλήματα

8

36,36

8

Βιογραφικά κείμενα

7

31,82

9

Οικογενειακή ζωή

7

31,82

10

Διατροφή

6

27,27

11

Αθλητισμός

6

27,27

12

Αγορές

6

27,27

13

Ψυχαγωγία-Διασκέδαση

6

27,27

14

Γλώσσα -Λογοτεχνία

6

27,27

15

Εκπαίδευση

5

22,73

16

Κατοικία

5

22,73

17

Τέχνες

5

22,73

18

Τεχνολογία -Επιστήμη

5

22,73

19

Ιστορία

3

13,64

20

Πολιτική

3

13,64

21

Οικονομία

2

9,09

22

Συναισθήματα, ψυχολογικές διαδικασίες

1

4,55

Language Learning/Teaching - Education

Βασιλική Γιαννακού

Ποσοστό κάλυψης Θεματικών Περιοχών ανά εγχειρίδιο

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Σχήμα 1 Πίνακας 2. Συχνότητα εμφάνισης επιμέρους θεμάτων στα εγχειρίδια Θεματική περιοχή

Επιμέρους θέματα

1

Οικολογία

Ρύπανση αέρα, υδάτων, εδάφους

13

2

Κοινωνικά προβλήματα

Ανεργία

11

2

Ταξίδια -διακοπές

Σχέδια –Προτάσεις για διακοπές και ταξίδια Κράτηση εισιτηρίων για ταξίδι

11 5

3

Αγορές

Λαϊκή αγορά / Σούπερ μάρκετ

9

4

Καθημερινότητα

Αναζήτηση σπιτιού για ενοικίαση Ταχυδρομείο

8 5

5

Διατροφή

Μαγειρική

8

6

Τέχνη

Η ελληνική μουσική

7

7

Προορισμοί

Θεσσαλονίκη

7

8

Διασκέδαση-ψυχαγωγία

Ταβέρνα-εστιατόριο-ουζερί

5

9

Εργασία

Συνέντευξη για δουλειά

5

10

Εκπαίδευση

Εισαγωγικές εξετάσεις

5

11

Γιορτές-έθιμα

Πάσχα / Χριστούγεννα

5

12

Τεχνολογία

Κινητό

5

Language Learning/Teaching - Education

Συχνότητα παρουσίασης αριθμητικά στο σύνολο των

57

Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics

5. Παρατηρήσεις για τα θέματα των κειμένων από την εξέταση των εγχειριδίων Σχετικά με τις αρχές και τα κριτήρια επιλογής των κειμένων, προκύπτουν τα εξής: α. Η Αναγνωσιμότητα τηρείται σχεδόν απόλυτα. Αυτό σημαίνει ότι τα κείμενα των διδακτικών εγχειριδίων διαθέτουν την έκταση, τις γραμματικοσυντακτικές δομές, το λεξιλόγιο και το βαθμό δυσκολίας που αντιστοιχεί στο επίπεδο γλωσσομάθειας που απευθύνονται. β. Η  Εκμεταλλευσιμότητα τηρείται σε μεγάλο βαθμό, ωστόσο υπάρχουν περιπτώσεις που τα κείμενα δεν συνδέονται με τις δραστηριότητες που ακολουθούν (π.χ. στο «Πλουτίζω τα Ελληνικά μου», στο οποίο η σχέση των κειμένων με τις δραστηριότητες που ακολουθούν περιορίζεται σχεδόν αποκλειστικά σε έναν μικρό αριθμό ερωτήσεων κατανόησης). γ. Η Καταλληλότητα του Περιεχομένου αναφέρεται κυρίως στην παρουσίαση νέου χρήσιμου λεξιλογίου και σε πληροφορίες για τη ζωή και τις απόψεις των φυσικών ομιλητών της Γ2 και λιγότερο στην πρόθεση να δοθούν νέα κίνητρα στους μαθητές. Από τα κείμενα δεν προκύπτουν σημαντικά προβλήματα κοινωνικοπολιτισμικού τύπου (π.χ. ίσως φανεί παράξενο σε κάποιους μαθητές το κείμενο στη σ. 10 του εγχειριδίου «Συνεχίζοντας», όπου ένα ζευγάρι συζύγων διαπληκτίζεται παρουσία ενός φίλου). δ. Η Προηγούμενη Γνώση του θέματος χρησιμοποιείται σε μεγάλο βαθμό ως κριτήριο επιλογής των κειμένων, αφού στα περισσότερα κείμενα το θέμα είναι γνωστό και οικείο στον μαθητή. Ορισμένα, μάλιστα, εγχειρίδια επιδιώκουν τη δημιουργία ή την ενίσχυση της Προηγούμενης Γνώσης με την παρουσίαση περισσότερων του ενός κειμένων για το ίδιο θέμα (π.χ. το εγχειρίδιο «Ακολουθώντας το Κείμενο», το οποίο δεν έχει ένα μεμονωμένο κείμενο, αλλά σειρά κειμένων για κάθε Θ.Π.). ε. Τέλος, τα κείμενα δεν διαθέτουν πάντα επαρκές Πληροφοριακό Περιεχόμενο, ενώ ο παράγοντας Ενδιαφέρον δεν φαίνεται να είναι σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις στόχος των συγγραφέων των εγχειριδίων, αφού σε πολλά από αυτά τα θέματα των κειμένων ταυτίζονται (βλ. πίνακα 2). Στη θεματολογία των εγχειριδίων της διδασκαλίας της Ν. Ελληνικής ως ξένης αξίζει να επισημανθούν τα εξής: α. Υπάρχουν παρόμοια ή και ταυτόσημα θέματα, με πρώτα σε συχνότητα τον διάλογο στη λαϊκή αγορά, το φαγητό στην ταβέρνα, τη ρύπανση του αέρα, το ρεμπέτικο και τη Θεσσαλονίκη. Σαφώς, τα θέματα αυτά προσφέρονται για τη δραστηριότητα της ανάγνωσης, αφού παρουσιάζουν μεγάλο ενδιαφέρον. Για παράδειγμα, η συχνή παρουσία κειμένων για τη Θεσσαλονίκη, οφείλεται προφανώς στο ότι η πόλη είναι πλούσια σε ιστορία και αξιοθέατα, έχει έντονη παρουσία στην πνευματική ζωή και παράλληλα, είναι κατάλληλη και για αναψυχή. Συνεπώς, υπάρχει η δυνατότητα να παρουσιάζουν θεματική ποικιλία τα κείμενα που αναφέρονται σε αυτήν.

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Language Learning/Teaching - Education

Βασιλική Γιαννακού

β. Θέματα που είναι ενδιαφέροντα για τους μαθητές, όπως η διατροφή, η οικογένεια, η κατοικία, παρουσιάζονται με την ίδια οπτική (π.χ. γίνεται αναφορά μόνο στην ενοικίαση και όχι στην αγορά σπιτιού). Συνεπώς, υπάρχει περιθώριο επέκτασης και εμπλουτισμού των Θ.Π. γ. Ο σύγχρονος προβληματισμός αποτελεί βασικό άξονα της θεματολογίας των εγχειριδίων (π.χ. οικολογικά και κοινωνικά προβλήματα), σε σημείο, όμως, που σε ορισμένα εγχειρίδια στερεί το στοιχείο της διασκέδασης, επομένως και της ευχαρίστησης που προέρχεται από την ανάγνωση. Χαρακτηριστικό είναι ότι στα εγχειρίδια που εκδόθηκαν πριν από το 2000 υπερισχύουν τα θέματα που σχετίζονται με την οικογένεια, την κοινωνική ζωή και την παράδοση (π.χ. «Ελληνική Γλώσσα» του Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη), ενώ τα νεότερα εγχειρίδια φορτίζονται με προβληματισμούς όπως η δυσκολία εύρεσης εργασίας και το θέμα της ανεργίας, ακόμα κι αν απευθύνονται σε μαθητές του αρχαρίου επιπέδου (π.χ. «Ελληνικά Α΄»). δ. Στα περισσότερα εγχειρίδια βασικό χαρακτηριστικό στην επεξεργασία των θεμάτων αποτελεί η εξιδανίκευση κοινωνικών σχέσεων και καταστάσεων (π.χ. η ελληνική οικογένεια παρουσιάζεται χωρίς συγκρούσεις ή τα ταξίδια είναι ιδανικά, χωρίς προβλήματα στη μετακίνηση και/ή τη διαμονή), γεγονός που αφενός δεν ευνοεί την κοινωνική συνειδητοποίηση και αφετέρου δεν προάγει την επικοινωνιακή δεξιότητα των μαθητών σε δυσάρεστες περιστάσεις επικοινωνίας. Εξιδανίκευση παρατηρείται και στο θέμα της παρουσίας των μεταναστών, οι οποίοι εμφανίζονται πλήρως ενταγμένοι στη μεσαία αστική τάξη, που είναι, άλλωστε, και η μοναδική κοινωνική τάξη που παρατηρείται στα εγχειρίδια. ε. Αρκετές είναι οι πληροφορίες πολιτισμικού περιεχομένου (τόποι, έθιμα, γιορτές, δραστηριότητες), αλλά χωρίς την ανάλογη υποστήριξη από εποπτικό υλικό. Οι περισσότερες αφορούν την αρχαία Ελλάδα και δεν συνδέονται με την σύγχρονη (π.χ. «Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 2» ‘Οι θεοί των αρχαίων Ελλήνων’, σ.102). Επιπλέον, στα περισσότερα εγχειρίδια δεν υπάρχουν αναφορές στη λαϊκή παράδοση, ενώ σε άλλα είναι επιφανειακές (π.χ. «Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 3» σ. 18-21, στο κείμενο για το γάμο μπορούσε να γίνεται πιο αδρή παρουσίαση των εθίμων, να υπάρχουν εικόνες και δραστηριότητες ανταλλαγής συνηθειών και εμπειριών πάνω στο θέμα αυτό). στ. Οι τίτλοι των θεμάτων αποκαλύπτουν ότι το στοιχείο της πρωτοτυπίας είναι παρόν σε αρκετά εγχειρίδια: ‘Το κουβέρ και η ιστορία του’, ‘Η ιστορία του ελληνικού καφέ’, ‘Δώρα βάσει Savoir vivre’, ‘Νεοκλασικά κτήρια στην Αθήνα’, ‘Ο πικάντικος μεζές σπάει… τον πάγο’. Ωστόσο, ο βαθμός της παρουσίας του είναι σχετικά μικρός, αφού υπερτερεί η επανάληψη παρόμοιων θεμάτων. ζ. Αρκετά θέματα κειμένων παρέχουν πλούσιο και χρήσιμο πληροφοριακό περιεχόμενο: ‘Τα μουσεία της Αθήνας’, ‘Χρήσιμες συμβουλές για πρώτες βοήθειες’, ‘Πώς να κόψετε το κάπνισμα’, ‘Τι είναι τα Κέντρα Εξυπηρέτησης Πολιτών’, συνεπώς παρουσιάζουν αυξημένο τον παράγοντα Ενδιαφέρον. η. Εντύπωση κάνει η ύπαρξη κειμένων με απροσδόκητο περιεχόμενο, που υποστηρίζει την αντίθετη από τη συνηθισμένη άποψη σε κάποιο ζήτημα (π.χ. ‘Παραδόσεις με μέτρο για καλή υγεία’, ‘Το αλκοόλ σώζει ζωές’, κ.ά).

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θ. Ορισμένα θέματα παρουσιάζουν μικρή συχνότητα εμφάνισης (Α.Μ.Ε.Α, συναισθήματα, ψυχολογικές διαδικασίες, βιογραφίες). Σχετικά με τις βιογραφίες γυναικών, τα εγχειρίδια δείχνουν σαφή έως και αποκλειστική προτίμηση σε πρόσωπα που προέρχονται από το χώρο του Κινηματογράφου και της Μουσικής (Γεωργία Βασιλειάδου, Έλλη Λαμπέτη, Αλίκη Βουγιουκλάκη, Τζένη Καρέζη, Ρένα Βλαχοπούλου, Μαρία Κάλλας). Επίσης, αξίζει να αναφερθεί ότι πολλά εγχειρίδια έχουν ξεχωριστή ενότητα για τη θέση της γυναίκας και την ισότητα των δύο φύλων, αλλά υπάρχουν και κείμενα, στα οποία διακρίνονται παραδοσιακοί ρόλοι του άντρα και της γυναίκας (π.χ. ο πρώτος εργαζόμενος έξω από το σπίτι, η δεύτερη υπεύθυνη για τη φροντίδα των παιδιών). ι. Τα θέματα παρουσιάζονται με αυτοτέλεια σε κάθε κείμενο και όχι σε συνέχειες και, όπου υπάρχουν πρόσωπα, δεν είναι τα ίδια (εξαίρεση αποτελεί το εγχειρίδιο «Ελληνικά Α΄»). ια. Στα περισσότερα εγχειρίδια τα κείμενα εστιάζουν στην παρουσίαση των γραμματικών φαινομένων και τοποθετούν σε δευτερεύουσα θέση τους παράγοντες Ενδιαφέρον και Πληροφοριακό Περιεχόμενο. ιβ. Τέλος, τα κείμενα στην πλειονότητά τους αντανακλούν χρήσεις του γραπτού λόγου και δεν αποτελούν υλικά ανάγνωσης που απαντούν στην καθημερινή ζωή.

6. Οι προτιμήσεις των μαθητών στις θεματικές περιοχές Όπως ήδη αναφέρθηκε, είναι σημαντικό τα κείμενα που περιλαμβάνονται στα εγχειρίδια να επιλέγονται με βάση συγκεκριμένες αρχές και να διαθέτουν συγκεκριμένα χαρακτηριστικά, καθώς και να συμβαδίζουν με τις κατευθύνσεις που δίνουν τα αναλυτικά προγράμματα. Eνδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει να ελεγχθεί κατά πόσο τα θέματα των κειμένων που περιέχονται στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας ανταποκρίνονται στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών. Για το σκοπό αυτό διεξήχθη η έρευνα που παρουσιάζεται στη συνέχεια. Κύριος στόχος της έρευνας ήταν ο εντοπισμός των Θεματικών Περιοχών που ενδιαφέρουν τους μαθητές, ώστε να καταρτιστεί ο κατάλογος των δέκα επικρατέστερων σύμφωνα με τις δικές τους προτιμήσεις και να συγκριθεί με τη συχνότητα της εμφάνισής τους στα εγχειρίδια. Δευτερεύοντες στόχοι ήταν:α) η διερεύνηση των προσδοκιών που έχουν οι μαθητές σχετικά με τους τίτλους των κειμένων και β) η ανίχνευση της στάσης τους απέναντι στα κείμενα που δίνονται από τον διδάσκοντα και σε εκείνα που περιέχονται στα διδακτικά εγχειρίδια. Αποδέκτες της έρευνας ήταν 88 μαθητές, οι οποίοι προέρχονταν από 6 τμήματα του Διδασκαλείου της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας του Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών (δύο από κάθε επίπεδο Ελληνομάθειας). Η αριθμητική και ποσοστιαία αναλογία για τα τρία

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επίπεδα Ελληνομάθειας ήταν 31 μαθητές (35,2%) από το αρχάριο επίπεδο, 35 (39,8%) από το μέσο και 22 (25%) από το προχωρημένο. Ήταν όλοι ενήλικες, από 18 έως 45 ετών, από χώρες τεσσάρων ηπείρων (Ευρώπη, Ασία, Αμερική, Αφρική), με μητρική γλώσσα διαφορετική από την Ελληνική. Η έρευνα διεξήχθη στα τέλη Ιανουαρίου του 2011, ενώ οι μαθητές φοιτούσαν στα τμήματα εκμάθησης της Ελληνικής από τον Οκτώβριο του 2010. Από τα 88 υποκείμενα της έρευνας 52 ήταν γυναίκες και 36 άντρες (ποσοστό 59,1% και 40,9% αντίστοιχα). Το φύλο καταγράφηκε, ωστόσο δεν εξετάστηκαν οι προτιμήσεις με βάση αυτό για τρεις λόγους: α. Τα εγχειρίδια δεν μπορούν να διακριθούν σε «γυναικεία» και «αντρικά», όπως επίσης, και τα τμήματα εκμάθησης δεν μπορούν να αποτελούνται από μαθητές ενός μόνο φύλου. β. Το θέμα του συσχετισμού του φύλου και των προτιμήσεων στα θέματα ανάγνωσης κειμένων μπορεί να αποτελέσει από μόνο του μία ξεχωριστή έρευνα από κοινωνιογλωσσική ή/και από παιδαγωγική πλευρά. γ. Η αριθμητική αναλογία ανδρών και γυναικών θεωρήθηκε ότι μπορούσε να δώσει αποτελέσματα που αντικατοπτρίζουν την πραγματικότητα, αφού είναι και η συνήθης σε μία τάξη εκμάθησης ελληνικών, τουλάχιστον για το χώρο που πραγματοποιήθηκε η έρευνα. Ο τρόπος συλλογής των δεδομένων ήταν ένα ερωτηματολόγιο με 9 ερωτήματα (εκτός των ερωτημάτων που αφορούν τα προσωπικά στοιχεία). Με τα ερωτήματα έγινε προσπάθεια να ανιχνευτεί τι είδους ασχολίες, ενδιαφέροντα και αναγνώσματα έχουν οι μαθητές στον ελεύθερο χρόνο τους, στη μητρική τους γλώσσα και αν ισχύουν τα αντίστοιχα για την Ελληνική, έτσι ώστε να είμαστε βέβαιοι ότι οι επιλογές των Θ.Π. δεν είναι τυχαίες, αλλά ότι σχετίζονται με το επάγγελμα, τις σπουδές των μαθητών, με δραστηριότητες της καθημερινής ζωής τους ή με γενικότερες επιλογές τους. Επιπλέον, κάποια ερωτήματα τους ζητούσαν να δηλώσουν την προτίμησή τους σε ζητήματα της σύγχρονης εποχής ή παλαιότερων εποχών. Τα βασικά συμπεράσματα της έρευνάς μας προέκυψαν από το ερώτημα που περιείχε 22 επιλογές που αντιστοιχούν στις Θεματικές Περιοχές που αναφέρθηκαν παραπάνω (βλ. κεφ. 3). Επιπλέον, υπήρχε ένα ερώτημα για το τι προσδοκούν οι μαθητές από τον τίτλο των κειμένων, καθώς επίσης, και ένα ερώτημα για το αν οι μαθητές επιθυμούν τα κείμενα που διδάσκονται να περιέχονται σε κάποιο εγχειρίδιο ή αντίθετα περιμένουν να τα εντοπίσει και να τα επεξεργαστεί ο διδάσκων. Τα ερωτηματολόγια συμπληρώθηκαν ανώνυμα. Οι μαθητές κλήθηκαν να επιλέξουν τις δέκα ενότητες που τους ενδιαφέρουν περισσότερο ως θέματα κειμένων για την ΚΓΛ. Δόθηκε χρόνος να συμπληρώσουν οι μαθητές το ερωτηματολόγιο στην τάξη, ώστε να μην δεχθούν οποιεσδήποτε επιρροές. Οι δέκα πιο ενδιαφέρουσες για τους μαθητές Θεματικές Περιοχές, σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα της έρευνας καταγράφονται στον Πίνακα 3.

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Πίνακας 3. Προτιμήσεις μαθητών σχετικά με τις Θεματικές Περιοχές

Θεματική περιοχή (ΘΠ)

Αριθμός μαθητών που επέλεξαν τη ΘΠ

Ποσοστό μαθητών που επέλεξαν τη ΘΠ (%)

1

Ταξίδια - Προορισμοί

61

69,32

2

Παράδοση

53

60,23

3

Συναισθήματα

53

60,23

4

Υγεία

50

56,82

5

Ιστορία

50

56,82

6

Τέχνες (θέατρο, σινεμά, χορός, μουσική, κ.λπ.)

45

51,14

7

Γλώσσα

44

50,00

8

Διατροφή

42

47,73

9

Βιογραφικά κείμενα

41

46,59

10

Οικογενειακή ζωή

40

45,45

11

Καθημερινότητα

40

45,45

12

Κατοικία

39

44,32

13

Εκπαίδευση

38

43,18

14

Εργασία

37

42,05

15

Διασκέδαση -Ψυχαγωγία

36

40,91

16

Κοινωνικά προβλήματα

30

34,09

17

Τεχνολογία

28

31,82

18

Οικολογία - Γεωγραφία

25

28,41

19

Αθλητισμός

25

28,41

20

Αγορές

25

28,41

21

Οικονομία

17

19,32

22

Πολιτική

13

14,77

Ο Πίνακας 4 παραθέτει σε δύο στήλες τις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών στις Θ.Π. (Πίνακας 3) και τις αντίστοιχες επιλογές των εγχειριδίων (Πίνακας 1), ενώ στα Σχήματα 1 και 2 απεικονίζεται η σύγκριση αυτή με γραφικές παραστάσεις: Από την άμεση σύγκριση προκύπτει ότι υπάρχουν ομοιότητες, αλλά και σημαντικές διαφορές.

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Πίνακας 4. Σύγκριση της σειράς προτίμησης των Θ.Π. από τους μαθητές και της σειράς συχνότητας εμφάνισης των Θ.Π. στα εγχειρίδια ΘΕΜΑΤΙΚΗ ΠΕΡΙΟΧΗ ΚΑΤΑΤΑΞΗ ΘΕΜΑΤΙΚΩΝ ΠΕΡΙΟΧΩΝ ΣΥΜΦΩΝΑ ΜΕ ΤΟΥΣ ΜΑΘΗΤΕΣ

ΚΑΤΑΤΑΞΗ ΘΕΜΑΤΙΚΩΝ ΠΕΡΙΟΧΩΝ ΣΥΜΦΩΝΑ ΜΕ ΤΑ ΕΓΧΕΙΡΙΔΙΑ

1

Ταξίδια - Προορισμοί

Υγεία

2

Παράδοση - Πολιτισμός

Οικολογία - Γεωγραφία

3

Συναισθήματα

Εργασία

4

Υγεία

Καθημερινότητα - Ελεύθερος χρόνος

5

Ιστορία

Ταξίδια, προορισμοί

6

Τέχνες (θέατρο, σινεμά, χορός, μουσική, κ.λπ.)

Παράδοση - πολιτισμός

7

Γλώσσα - Λογοτεχνία

Κοινωνικά προβλήματα

8

Διατροφή

Βιογραφικά κείμενα και περιγραφές ανθρώπων

9

Βιογραφικά κείμενα και περιγραφές ανθρώπων

Οικογενειακή ζωή

10

Οικογενειακή ζωή

Διατροφή

11

Καθημερινότητα - Ελεύθερος χρόνος

Αθλητισμός

12

Κατοικία

Αγορές

13

Εκπαίδευση

Διασκέδαση-Ψυχαγωγία

14

Εργασία

Γλώσσα - Λογοτεχνία

15

Διασκέδαση -Ψυχαγωγία

Εκπαίδευση

16

Κοινωνικά προβλήματα

Κατοικία

17

Τεχνολογία - Επιστήμη

Τέχνες

18

Οικολογία - Γεωγραφία

Τεχνολογία -Επιστήμη

19

Αγορές

Ιστορία

20

Αθλητισμός

Πολιτική

21

Οικονομία

Οικονομία

22

Πολιτική

Συναισθήματα

Language Learning/Teaching - Education

63

ξ ίδ

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-Π ρο ο Π α ρ ισ μ Συ ρ ν α ά δο ο ί ισ θ σ η ήμ ατ Υγ α Ισ τ εία ο Τ έ ρ ία χ νε Γλ Β ιο ώ ς γρ Δ ια σ σ α α φ Ο ικ ικ ά τ ρ ο ο γε κε φ ή Κ α ν ε ι α κ ίμ ε ν α θη μ ε ή ζω ρ ιν ή ό Κ α τη τα τ Εκ Δ ια π α ο ικ ία σκ ίδ ε Κ ο έδ α σ ιν ω η - Ε ρ γ υ σ η α ν ικ Ψ υ ά π χ α σ ία ρ ο γω γ Ο ικ βλ ία ο λο γ ία Τ ε χ ν ή μ α τ α ο -Γ εω λο γ ί α γ ρ Αθ α λ η φ ία τ ισ Α μό ς Ο ικ γ ο ρ έ ο νο ς Π ο μ ία λ ιτ ικ ή

Τα

Ποσοστό εμφάνισης ρ οο ρι Παρ σμο ί άδο Συν αισθ ση ήμα τα Υγε ί Ιστο α ρία Τέ χ νε Γλώ ς σ Βιο Δια σα γρ α τρο φ φ Οικ ικά κεί ή ο γεν με ν α Καθ ειακή ζ ωή ημε ρ ινό τη Κατ τα ο Εκπ ικία αίδε Δια υ σκέ Ερ γ ση δ α σ ασία Κοι η Ψ ν ων ικά υ χαγω γ προ βλ ή ία ματ Οικ α Τε χ ο λο νο γία - Γε λογία ωγ Αθλ ρ αφία ητισ μό Αγο ς Οικ ρέ ς ο νο μ Πολ ία ιτική

Ταξ ίδια -Π

Ποσοστό προτίμησης

Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics

Προτιμήσεις μαθητών

64 80,00 70,00 60,00 50,00 40,00 30,00 20,00 10,00 0,00

Σχήμα 2

Συχνότητα εμφάνισης Θεματικών Ενοτήτων στα εγχειρίδια

50,00 45,00 40,00 35,00 30,00 25,00 20,00 15,00 10,00 5,00 0,00

Σχήμα 3

Language Learning/Teaching - Education

Βασιλική Γιαννακού

Τα ταξίδια, η παράδοση και η υγεία βρίσκονται σε υψηλές θέσεις στην επιλογή τόσο από την πλευρά των εγχειριδίων όσο και από την πλευρά των μαθητών. Η διατροφή, η οικογενειακή ζωή, η γλώσσα, η εκπαίδευση και τα βιογραφικά κείμενα είναι και στους δύο πίνακες στη μέση των προτιμήσεων. Κοντινές είναι οι θέσεις κατάταξης για τις Θ.Π. ‘Διασκέδαση-Ψυχαγωγία’, ‘Καθημερινότητα-Ελεύθερος χρόνος’, ‘Αθλητισμός’, ‘Αγορές’, ‘Κατοικία’, ‘Εκπαίδευση’. Η ‘Οικονομία’ και η ‘Πολιτική’ βρίσκονται στις χαμηλότερες θέσεις και στους δύο καταλόγους. Ανάμεσα στην επιλογή των θεματικών περιοχών από τα διδακτικά εγχειρίδια και στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών παρατηρούνται και σημαντικές διαφορές. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η θεματική περιοχή ‘Συναισθήματα’ κατέχει την 9η θέση στη συχνότητα εμφάνισης στα εγχειρίδια, ενώ η ‘Ιστορία’ την 7η. Οι μαθητές αντίστοιχα τις τοποθετούν στη 2η και την 3η θέση των προτιμήσεών τους. Οι θεματικές περιοχές ‘Εργασία’, και ‘Οικολογία’ εμφανίζονται στην 2η θέση, ενώ στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών βρίσκονται στην 11η και τη 15η θέση αντίστοιχα. Η υψηλή θέση προτίμησης των κειμένων που αναφέρονται σε συναισθήματα, ιστορία, παράδοση και βιογραφία αποδεικνύει ότι οι μαθητές ενδιαφέρονται περισσότερο για κείμενα με ανθρωπιστικό και όχι με τεχνοκρατικό περιεχόμενο, δηλαδή για κείμενα που αναφέρονται στην εσωτερική τους διάσταση, για αυτά που τους πληροφορούν για τον κόσμο και για όσα συμβάλλουν στην προσέγγιση διαφορετικών απόψεων και πολιτισμών. Ο πίνακας που ακολουθεί μας δίνει την εικόνα σχετικά με την προτίμηση αυτή ανά επίπεδο γλωσσομάθειας. Πίνακας 5. Προτιμήσεις Θεματικών Περιοχών ανά επίπεδο γλωσσομάθειας α. Θεματικές περιοχές με υψηλή θέση στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών Θεματική Περιοχή

Σύνολο μαθητών που επέλεξε την Θ.Π.

Παράδοση

Αρχάριοι

Μέσοι

Προχωρημένοι

53 60,23%

16 18,2%

18 20,5%

19 21,6%

Συναισθήματα

53 60,23%

14 15,9%

20 22,7%

19 21,6%

Ιστορία

50 56,82%

12 13,6%

18 20,5%

20 22,7%

Βιογραφία

41 46,59%

7 8%

16 18,2%

18 20,5%

Αρχάριοι

Μέσοι

Προχωρημένοι

11 12,5% 3 3,4% 2 2,3%

12 13,6% 8 9,1% 5 5,7%

5 5,7% 6 6,8% 6 6,8%

β. Θεματικές περιοχές με χαμηλή θέση στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών Θεματική Περιοχή Τεχνολογία Οικονομία Πολιτική

Σύνολο μαθητών που επέλεξε την Θ.Π. 28 31,82% 17 19,32% 13 14,77%

Language Learning/Teaching - Education

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Από τον πίνακα φαίνεται ότι η ‘Ιστορία’ είναι πρώτη στις προτιμήσεις των προχωρημένων, τα ‘Συναισθήματα’ είναι η πρώτη προτίμηση των μαθητών του μέσου επιπέδου, ενώ η ‘Παράδοση’ ήταν η Θ.Π. που επέλεξαν οι περισσότεροι αρχάριοι μαθητές. Στις Θ.Π. που τοποθετήθηκαν σε χαμηλή θέση προτίμησης παρατηρείται μικρότερο ενδιαφέρον στο αρχάριο και στο προχωρημένο επίπεδο και υψηλότερο στο μέσο. Με άλλα λόγια, οι μαθητές όταν βρίσκονται στα αρχικά στάδια της εκμάθησης της Ελληνικής, αλλά και στα υψηλά δεν ενδιαφέρονται για τεχνοκρατικού τύπου κείμενα. Ωστόσο, παρατηρείται μία μικρή αύξηση ενδιαφέροντος στο μεσαίο επίπεδο, γεγονός που ερμηνεύεται και από την ανάγκη των μαθητών να πλουτίσουν το λεξιλόγιό τους ακόμη και στους τομείς της ‘Τεχνολογίας’, της ‘Οικονομίας’ και της ‘Πολιτικής’. Η χαμηλή προτίμηση για τα ζητήματα της καθημερινότητας αποκαλύπτει επιπλέον ότι η ρουτίνα της πραγματικής ζωής δεν τους ευχαριστεί ιδιαίτερα ως θέμα ανάγνωσης. Με το σκεπτικό αυτό πιθανόν, τοποθετούν σε χαμηλή θέση και τη Θ.Π. ‘Αγορές’, η οποία σχετίζεται με καθημερινές δραστηριότητες και συναλλαγές, πράγμα που πρέπει να υπογραμμιστεί ιδιαίτερα, δεδομένου ότι το θέμα τη λαϊκής αγοράς παρουσιάζει εξαιρετικά υψηλή συχνότητα εμφάνισης στα εγχειρίδια. Ο Πίνακας 6 δείχνει την αριθμητική και ποσοτική διάσταση ανάμεσα στην Θ.Π. ‘Αγορές’, που αποτελεί στοιχείο της καθημερινής ζωής και της Θ.Π. ‘Ταξίδια-Προορισμοί’, η οποία σχετίζεται με επιθυμίες, όνειρα, αναμνήσεις και συναισθήματα και αποτελεί έξοδο από την καθημερινότητα. Παρατηρούμε ότι και στους αρχάριους η Θ.Π. ‘Αγορές’, βρίσκεται σε χαμηλή θέση προτίμησης και όχι μόνο στους προχωρημένους, οι οποίοι σαφώς κατέχουν το λεξιλόγιο της. Θ.Π. Πίνακας 6. Αριθμητική και ποσοτική σύγκριση των Θ.Π. «Ταξίδια-Προορισμοί» και «Αγορές» Θεματική Περιοχή

Σύνολο μαθητών που επέλεξε την Θ.Π.

Αρχάριοι

Μέσοι

Προχωρημένοι

ΤαξίδιαΠροορισμοί

61 69,32%

22 25%

24 27,3%

15 17%

Αγορές

25 28,41%

9 10,2%

10 11,4%

6 6,8%

Η κατάταξη της Θ.Π. ‘Κοινωνικά προβλήματα’ στη 16η θέση από τους μαθητές (έναντι της 7ης από τα εγχειρίδια) δηλώνει ότι πιθανόν προσδοκούν εγχειρίδια με πιο ευχάριστο περιεχόμενο και λιγότερο προβληματισμό. Αυτό αποδεικνύουν τόσο οι υψηλές θέσεις που κατέχουν οι Θ.Π. ‘Ταξίδια–Προορισμοί’, ‘Παράδοση–Πολιτισμός’, ‘Τέχνες’ (θέατρο, σινεμά, χορός, μουσική, κ.λπ.), ‘Γλώσσα–Λογοτεχνία’ όσο και οι χαμηλές θέσεις των Θ.Π. ‘Εργασία’, ‘Οικονομία’, ‘Κοινωνικά προβλήματα’ και ‘Τεχνολογία’. Μάλιστα, παρατηρήθηκε ότι δεν έδειξαν ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον ούτε και οι προχωρημένοι μαθητές, οι οποίοι γνώριζαν το απαιτητικό λεξιλόγιο των ενοτήτων αυτών (βλ. Πίνακες 5 και 6). Η μεγαλύτερη απόκλιση παρατηρείται στη Θ.Π. ‘Συναισθήματα’ (3η θέση στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών και 22η στις επιλογές των εγχειριδίων). Πράγματι, στα κείμενα των εγχειριδίων τα πρόσωπα παρουσιάζονται με βάση στερεοτυπικά πρότυπα

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(π.χ. σπάνια αντρικό πρόσωπο κάνει δουλειές του σπιτιού. Εξαίρεση αποτελεί το εγχειρίδιο «Ελληνικά Α΄»). Επιπλέον, διαθέτουν επιφανειακό συναισθηματισμό ή και πλήρη ισοπέδωση του συναισθηματικού τους κόσμου. Η έλλειψη κειμένων με αναφορά στη συγκεκριμένη Θ.Π. έχει επιπτώσεις στο γλωσσικό οπλισμό των μαθητών και στις δυνατότητες έκφρασης σε καταστάσεις που σχετίζονται με συναισθήματα. Επιπλέον, από την έρευνα φάνηκε ότι: 1. Η  συντριπτική πλειονότητα των μαθητών 65 στους 88 (ποσοστό 73,86%) επιθυμούν να διδάσκονται κείμενα για την εξάσκηση της δεξιότητας της αναγνωστικής κατανόησης από κάποιο εγχειρίδιο, αλλά να τους παρέχεται και επιπλέον υλικό από τον διδάσκοντα. Λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τις διαφορές που παρουσίασαν οι δύο πίνακες, αυτός των επιλογών των εγχειριδίων και ο αντίστοιχος των προτιμήσεων των μαθητών, μπορούμε να αποδώσουμε την επιθυμία τους αυτή στο γεγονός ότι τα εγχειρίδια δεν καλύπτουν ή δεν ταυτίζονται με τις επιλογές τους στο βαθμό που οι ίδιοι θα ήθελαν. Οι 21 στους 88 (23,86%) είπαν ότι επιθυμούν να διδάσκονται κείμενα από κάποιο εγχειρίδιο και όχι να λαμβάνουν επιπλέον υλικό από τον διδάσκοντα. Είναι φανερό, πάντως, ότι οι μαθητές αισθάνονται την ανάγκη ύπαρξης μιας σταθερής βάσης, την οποία παρέχει ένα εγχειρίδιο, όπως δήλωσαν οι 86 στους 88, ενώ μόλις 2 (2,27%) προτιμούν η επιλογή και η παρουσίαση του κειμενικού υλικού να γίνεται αποκλειστικά από τον διδάσκοντα. 2. Σ  το ερώτημα ‘Τι περιμένετε από τον τίτλο των κειμένων’, οι 55 στους 88 (62,5%) απάντησαν ότι θέλουν να είναι άμεσα αντιληπτό το θέμα, οι 28 στους 88 (31,82%) προτιμούν έναν τίτλο μη συνηθισμένο, που δεν αποκαλύπτει πλήρως το θέμα, αλλά τους προκαλεί να διαβάσουν το κείμενο και 5 μαθητές (5,68% ) δήλωσαν ότι θέλουν να καταλαβαίνουν από τον τίτλο την άποψη του συγγραφέα για το θέμα, ίσως για να ξέρουν εξαρχής αν συμφωνεί με τη δική τους. Αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι κανείς δεν σημείωσε την επιλογή ‘Θέλω να καταλαβαίνω αν το κείμενο γράφτηκε πρόσφατα ή παλιότερα’. Αυτό το τελευταίο συμβάλλει αποφασιστικά στο να απεμπλακούν διδάσκοντες και συγγραφείς εγχειριδίων από τον προβληματισμό και την αγωνία να υπάρχουν στα εγχειρίδια θέματα επίκαιρα, διότι, όπως φαίνεται, οι μαθητές προτιμούν να διαβάζουν για ζητήματα με ουσιαστικό ενδιαφέρον, άσχετα με το αν είναι ‘θέματα ημέρας’ ή όχι. Αυτό συμφωνεί και με την υψηλή προτίμησή τους για θέματα ιστορίας και παράδοσης, τα οποία δεν εμφανίζουν μεγάλη συχνότητα στα εγχειρίδια και συνεπώς, έχουν περιθώριο, αλλά και ανάγκη εμπλουτισμού.

7. Αντί συμπεράσματος Συνοψίζοντας, πρέπει να αναφέρουμε ότι στη σύγχρονη Διδακτική των ξένων γλωσσών, όπου όλα σχεδιάζονται με γνώμονα τις ανάγκες των μαθητών (Richards & Rodgers 1992: 156; Sparrow, Sparrow & Swan 2000), πρέπει και τα κείμενα για ΚΓΛ στα εγχειρίδια -και έξω από αυτά- να ακολουθήσουν την ίδια τάση και να λάβουν υπόψη τις προτιμήσεις του μαθητικού κοινού.

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Καταλυτικός είναι ο ρόλος του διδάσκοντος, καθώς είναι πιθανόν τα θέματα ενός εγχειριδίου να μην ενδιαφέρουν τον ίδιο, με αποτέλεσμα να τα παρουσιάζει με περιοριστική διάθεση τόσο ως προς το περιεχόμενο όσο και ως προς τις διαδικασίες που ακολουθούν την ανάγνωση. Θα ήταν πολύ θετικό για την αξιοποίηση των εγχειριδίων εάν οι διδάσκοντες αντί να απορρίπτουν συλλήβδην κείμενα που αναφέρονται σε παλαιότερα γεγονότα ή καταστάσεις, να επιδιώκουν να τα ‘επικαιροποιούν’. Ωστόσο, πρέπει να είναι σε θέση να προσφέρουν εναλλακτικές ή/και συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις για το περιεχόμενο των εγχειριδίων, εφόσον το επιθυμούν ή το χρειάζονται οι μαθητές τους. Για να ανιχνευτούν οι Θ.Π. και τα επιμέρους θέματα που ενδιαφέρουν τους μαθητές, ώστε να δοθεί το κατάλληλο συμπληρωματικό υλικό, μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ένα ερωτηματολόγιο, το οποίο θα ανιχνεύει τα θέματα που τους ενδιαφέρει να συζητούν, να αναζητούν στο Διαδίκτυο, να διαβάζουν σε βιβλία στη μητρική τους γλώσσα, καθώς και τους τρόπους που προτιμούν να περνούν τον ελεύθερο χρόνο τους και τους στόχους τους σχετικά με την εκμάθηση της Γ2 ( Nuttall 1982: 29; Cook 2005: 275). Έτσι, θα αποκαλύπτεται με όσο το δυνατόν πιο αυθεντικό τρόπο τι πραγματικά τους ευχαριστεί να διαβάζουν. Η διεξαγωγή τέτοιων ερευνών δεν βοηθάει μόνο τη διδακτική πράξη, αλλά και το σχεδιασμό της συγγραφής και της ανανέωσης των διδακτικών εγχειριδίων. Μάλιστα, απαιτείται, επιπλέον, να διεξαχθούν έρευνες για το συσχετισμό κάθε Θ.Π. με το επίπεδο γλωσσικής κατάκτησης, καθώς και με την ηλικία. Παράλληλα, οι συγγραφείς των εγχειριδίων πρέπει να αντιληφθούν ότι, πέρα από τους προβλέψιμους συσχετισμούς των επιμέρους θεμάτων στο εσωτερικό των θεματικών ενοτήτων (π.χ. ενδυμασία και μόδα, μετακίνηση και τουρισμός, κ.τ.λ.), πρέπει να επιχειρούνται νέοι απροσδόκητοι συνδυασμοί, που να ξεφεύγουν από τις στερεοτυπικές επιλογές και να είναι όσο το δυνατόν περισσότερο πρωτότυποι και πληροφοριακοί (π.χ. ενδυμασία και καιρικές συνθήκες, ενδυμασία και επάγγελμα ή μόδα και ψυχολογία, τουρισμός και οικονομία ή γεωγραφία, μετακίνηση και τεχνολογία ή ιστορικές πληροφορίες, κλπ.). Τέλος, όσοι ασχολούνται με τη συγγραφή εγχειριδίων, θα πρέπει να λαμβάνουν υπόψη τους ότι τα γραμματικά φαινόμενα είναι σταθερά και δεν είναι αυτά που κατά κύριο λόγο διαφοροποιούν τα εγχειρίδια. Αυτό που κάνει ένα εγχειρίδιο ιδιαίτερο είναι οι επιλογές των θεμάτων του (Singapor Wala 2003: 59), οι οποίες, τελικά, συνιστούν το περιεχόμενό του και, όπως αναφέρει ο Thanassoulas (1999), το καθιστούν αδιαμφισβήτητης αξίας όχημα για την κατάκτηση της ξένης γλώσσας.

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Βιβλιογραφία Arkian, A. 2008. Topics of reading passages in ELT coursebooks: what our students really read? The Reading Matrix, 8(2), September 2008. Retrieved 2 March 2011 from: http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/arkian/article.pdf. Arkian, A. 2009. Problems with coursebooks in EFL classrooms: prospective teachers’ opinion. Ekev Academic Review 38:309-317. Retrieved 2 March 2011 from: http://www. eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED506597.pdf Berardo, S.A. 2006. The use of authentic materials in the teaching of reading. In The Reading Matrix, 6 (2): 60-69. Retrieved 2 March 2011 from: http://www.readingmatrix. com/articles/berardo/article.pdf. Carrell, P.L. 1983. Three components of background knowledge in reading comprehension. TESOL Quarterly, 17 (4): 553-573. Cook, V. 2003. Materials for Adult Beginners from a L2 User Perspective. In Tomlinson B. (ed) Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum: 275-290. Cunningsworth, A. 1995. Choosing your coursebook. Heinemann: Oxford. Day, R.R. 1994. Selecting a passage for the EFL class reading. English Forum Teaching 32(1), Janauary-March 1994. Retrieved 5 March 2011 from: http://eca.state.gov/forum/ vols/vol32/no1/p20.htm. Davoudi, M. 2005. Inference Generation Skill and Text Comprehension. The Reading Matrix 5(1). Retrieved 6 March 2011 from: http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/ davoudi/article.pdf Dubin, F. 1986. Dealing with texts. In F. Dubin, D.E. Eskey and W. Grabe (eds) Teaching second language reading for academic purposes. Reading , M.A: Addison-Wesley.

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Grellet, F. 1981. Developing Reading Skills. A practical guide to reading comprehension exercises. Cambridge: C.U.P. Hidi, S., Baird, W. 1988. Strategies for increasing text-based interest and students’ recall of expository texts. Reading Research Quarterly, 23:465–483. Ιακώβου, Μ., Μπέλλα, Σ. 2004. Αναλυτικό Πρόγραμμα για τη Διδασκαλία της Νέας Ελληνικής ως Ξένης Γλώσσας σε Ενηλίκους. Προχωρημένο Επίπεδο. ΕΚΠΑ 2004. Κοντός, Π., Ιακώβου, Μ., Μπέλλα, Σ. 2002. Αναλυτικό Πρόγραμμα για τη Διδασκαλία της Νέας Ελληνικής ως Ξένης Γλώσσας σε Ενηλίκους. Επίπεδο Επάρκειας. ΕΚΠΑ 2002. Kramsch, C. 2000. Second language acquisition. Applied linguistics and the teaching of foreign languages. The Modern Language Journal, 84(3): 311-326. Krashen, S. 1981. The case for narrow reading. TESOL Newsletter, 15. Lynch, B. & Hudson, T. 1991. EST reading. In M. Celce-Murcia (ed.) Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.). New York: Newbury House. Lillo-Martin, D. 1991. Universal Grammar and American Sign Language: Setting the Null Argument Parameters. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press. Nicholson, T. & Imlach, R. 1981. Where do their answers come from? A study of the inferences which children make when answering questions about narrative stories. Journal of Reading Behavior, 13:111-129. Norton, J. 2005. Speaking test materials: Let’s give them something to talk about. Retrieved 3 March 2011 from: http://www.matsda.org.uk/folio_article_jan05.htm Norton Pierce, B. 1995. Social identity, investment and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29 (1): 22-29. Nuttall, C. 1982. Teaching Reading skills in Foreign Language. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Pennycook, A. 1994. The cultural politics of English as an international language Longman: London and New York. Richards, J.C. & T.S. Rodgers. 1992. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. A description and analysis. (First puplished 1986). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Singapore Wala, D.A. 2003. A Coursebook is What It is because of What It has to Do. An Editor’s Perspective. In Tomlinson, B. (ed) Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum, 58-70. Sparrow, L., H. Sparrow, P. Swan. 2000. Student centred learning: Is it possible? In Herrmann, A. and Kulski, M.M. (Eds) Flexible Futures in Tertiary Teaching. Proceedings of the 9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, 2-4 February 2000. Perth: Curtin University of Technology. Retrieved 10 August 2012 from http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf2000/ contents.html Swan, K. 2003. Learning effectiveness on line: what the research tells us. In J. Bourne & J.C. Moore (Eds.) Elements of Quality Online Education: Practice and Direction, 13– 45. Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Retrieved 3 March 2011 from: http://cguevara.commons. gc.cuny.edu/files/2009/09/learning-effectiveness.pdf Thanasoulas, D. 1999. Course Book, Take It or Leave It. Retrieved 5 March 2011 from: http://www.tefl.net/esl-articles/coursebook.htm Tomlinson, B. 2001. Materials Development. In R. Carter, D. Nunan (eds), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, B. 1998. Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, B. 2003. Developing materials for language teaching. London: Continuum. Wallace, C. 2001. Reading. In R. Carter, D. Nunan (eds.) The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Williams, R. 1986. “Top ten” principles for teaching reading. ELT Journal, 40(1): 42 45. Retrieved 3 March 2011 from: http://203.72.145.166/ ELT/files/40-1-6.pdf

Τα εγχειρίδια που εξετάστηκαν στην έρευνα Αγάθος, Θ., Γιαννακού, Β., Δημοπούλου, Β., Τσοτσορού, Α. 2004. Ακολουθώντας το Κείμενο. Εκδόσεις: ΕΚΠΑ. Αγάθος, Θ., Γιαννακού, Β., Δημοπούλου, Β., Τσοτσορού, Α. 2009. Ανακαλύπτοντας το Κείμενο. Φιλογλωσσία.

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Αρβανιτάκης, Κ., Αρβανιτάκη, Φ. 1994. Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 3. Εκδόσεις: Δέλτος. Αρβανιτάκης, Κ., Αρβανιτάκη, Φ. 2002. Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 1. Εκδόσεις: Δέλτος (νέα έκδοση). Αρβανιτάκης, Κ., Αρβανιτάκη, Φ. 2003. Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 2. Εκδόσεις: Δέλτος (νέα έκδοση). Βαζάκα, Μ. 2006. Στρατηγικές Ανάγνωσης. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο. Διακουμή, Ι., Παρασκευοπούλου, Χ., Παυλοπούλου, Α. 2004. Συνεχίζοντας Εκδόσεις: Ελληνοαμερικανική Ένωση. Δεμίρη-Προδρομίδου, Ε., Καμαριανού–Βασιλείου, Ρ. 2002. Νέα Ελληνικά για μετανάστες, παλιννοστούντες, πρόσφυγες και ξένους. Β΄ Επίπεδο. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο. Δεμίρη-Προδρομίδου, Ε., Καμαριανού–Βασιλείου, Ρ. 2002. Νέα Ελληνικά για μετανάστες, παλιννοστούντες, πρόσφυγες και ξένους. Γ΄ Επίπεδο. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο. Εμμανουηλίδης, Π., Εμμανουηλίδου-Πετρίδου, Έ. 1999. Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο. Καβουκόπουλος, Φ., Κουτσομητοπούλου, Ε., Αργυρούδη, Μ., Δαγκλή, Β. 1997. Νέα Ελληνικά για αρχαρίους. Εκδόσεις: Νεφέλη και Πανεπιστήμιο Κρήτης. Μπαμπινιώτης, Γ. 1993. Ελληνική Γλώσσα. Εκδόσεις: Ίδρυμα Μελετών Λαμπράκη (χρησιμοποιήθηκε η δεύτερη αναθεωρημένη-επαυξημένη έκδοση του 1995). Παναγοπούλου, Ε., Χατζηπαναγιωτίδη, Ά. 1997. Ελληνικά για προχωρημένους (ομογενείς και αλλογενείς), γ΄ κύκλος. Εκδόσεις: Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης, Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών (Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη). Σιμόπουλος, Γ., Παθιάκη, Ε., Κανελλοπούλου, Ρ., Παυλοπούλου, Α. 2010. Ελληνικά Α΄. Μέθοδος εκμάθησης της ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας. Εκδόσεις: Πατάκη. Σπυροπούλου, Μ., Θεοδωρίδου, Θ. 2004. Η γλώσσα που μιλάμε στην Ελλάδα. Τα Ελληνικά ως ξένη γλώσσα. Για προχωρημένους μαθητές της ελληνικής γλώσσας. Εκδόσεις: University Studio Press: Θεσσαλονίκη.

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Παράρτημα Το ερωτηματολόγιο της έρευνας Α. Μέρος Α΄ 1. Φύλο: Γυναίκα _________ Άντρας ___________ 2. Ηλικία: 18-24________25-35________ 35-45________ 45-55_______ πάνω από 55_________ 3. Χώρα: ______________________ 4. Τμήμα/ Επίπεδο: Α1_____ Α2_______ Β1______ Β2_______ Γ____________ 5. Σπουδές: Έχω τελειώσει τη δευτεροβάθμια εκπαίδευση _________________ Έχω τελειώσει το Πανεπιστήμιο_________________________ Έχω κάνει μεταπτυχιακές σπουδές____________________________ 6. Σπουδάζεις ή θέλεις να κάνεις σπουδές στην Ελλάδα;_____________________ 7. Εργάζεσαι ή θέλεις να εργαστείς στην Ελλάδα; __________________________ 8. Οικογενειακή κατάσταση: Ελεύθερος/-η _______________________ Παντρεμένος/-η _______________________ Με Έλληνα /Ελληνίδα _______________________ Έχω παιδί/ παιδιά _______________________ 9. Πόσο καιρό είσαι στην Ελλάδα; __________________________________ 10. Πόσο καιρό μαθαίνεις Ελληνικά; __________________________________ Β. Μέρος Β΄ 1. Τι είδους κείμενα σου αρέσει να διαβάζεις στον ελεύθερο χρόνο σου, στη μητρική σου γλώσσα; a. Κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με τη δουλειά ή τις σπουδές σου ________ b. Κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με τις ασχολίες που σε ευχαριστούν (hobbies, διασκέδαση) _______ c. Κείμενα με περιγραφικές πληροφορίες για κάποιο θέμα (π.χ. την ιστορία ενός μνημείου, ταξιδιωτικά κείμενα) ________ d. Κείμενα που δημιουργήθηκαν από τη φαντασία ενός συγγραφέα _______ e. Κείμενα από τα οποία μαθαίνεις πράγματα που σε βοηθάνε στην καθημερινή ζωή (σπίτι, μετακινήσεις)________ f. Κείμενα που μιλάνε για τα παλιότερα χρόνια _________ g. Κείμενα που παρουσιάζουν τη γνώμη κάποιου ανθρώπου/ κάποιων ανθρώπων για ένα θέμα __________ h. Κείμενα που δίνουν λύσεις σε δικά σου προβλήματα (υγείας, ψυχολογικά, εργασιακά, κ.τ.λ.)_________ i. Κείμενα για σύγχρονα θέματα που απασχολούν πολλούς ανθρώπους στον κόσμο (περιβάλλον, οικονομία, τεχνολογία)________

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2. Ποια από τα παραπάνω είδη κειμένων σου αρέσει να διαβάζεις σε κάποια ξένη γλώσσα που ξέρεις ή/και στα Ελληνικά; Γράψε τα τρία που σου αρέσουν πιο πολύ. a. ___________________________________________________ b. ___________________________________________________ c. ___________________________________________________ 3. Ποια είδη κειμένων θέλεις να υπάρχουν στο βιβλίο των Ελληνικών ή να διαβάζετε στην τάξη; Γράψε αυτά που σου αρέσουν πιο πολύ (μέχρι 3). a. ___________________________________________________ b. ___________________________________________________ c. ___________________________________________________ 4. Πιστεύεις ότι τα βιβλία με τα οποία μαθαίνεις Ελληνικά στην τάξη πρέπει να περιέχουν κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με την καθημερινή ζωή στην Ελλάδα; (μαγαζιά, μέσα συγκοινωνίας, συνθήκες εργασίας); Ναι ____________ Όχι__________ 5. Πιστεύεις τα βιβλία με τα οποία μαθαίνεις Ελληνικά στην τάξη πρέπει να έχουν κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με την Ιστορία και την παραδοσιακή ζωή (π.χ. γιορτές, έθιμα) της Ελλάδας; Ναι ____________ Όχι__________ 6. Στο μάθημα των Ελληνικών προτιμάς: a. Να έχεις ένα βιβλίο που θα περιέχει όλα τα κείμενα που θα κάνετε στην τάξη; _____ b.Το βιβλίο να μην έχει κείμενα (π.χ. να έχει γραμματική και ασκήσεις) και τα κείμενα να τα δίνει ο καθηγητής; _____ c. Να υπάρχουν στο βιβλίο κείμενα, αλλά να δίνει και άλλα ο καθηγητής; ______ 7. Αν έχεις για το μάθημα των Ελληνικών βιβλίο που περιέχει κείμενα, a. προτιμάς αυτά να είναι κείμενα που σου αρέσουν ή/και σε ενδιαφέρουν. b. δεν χρειάζεται τα κείμενα αυτά να σου αρέσουν ή να σε ενδιαφέρουν, μόνο να σε μαθαίνουν καινούργιες λέξεις και κανόνες γραμματικής. 8. Όταν διαβάζεις κείμενα στα Ελληνικά, από τον τίτλο του κειμένου θέλεις … (σημείωσε μόνο ένα, αυτό που θέλεις πιο πολύ): a. να καταλαβαίνεις αμέσως για ποιο πράγμα μιλάει το κείμενο ______ b. να καταλαβαίνεις αν το κείμενο είναι παλιό ή γράφτηκε πρόσφατα _______ c. να καταλαβαίνεις ποια είναι η γνώμη/ η στάση αυτού που το έχει γράψει ______ d. να μην καταλαβαίνεις τι ακριβώς θα διαβάσεις, αλλά να είναι ένας «έξυπνος» τίτλος που σε κάνει να θέλεις να διαβάσεις το κείμενο _______ 9. Ποια από τα παρακάτω θέματα θα σου άρεσε να βλέπεις στα κείμενα του βιβλίου των Ελληνικών ή σε κείμενα που σου δίνει ο καθηγητής/ η καθηγήτριά σου στην τάξη; Διάλεξε τα δέκα που σου αρέσουν πιο πολύ.

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Μου αρέσουν κείμενα που μιλάνε ή δίνουν πληροφορίες για…

1

τη ζωή των ανθρώπων, διάσημων και μη (πού γεννήθηκαν, πού και πώς έζησαν, τι ξεχωριστό έχουν /είχαν)

2

την οικογενειακή ζωή (πώς ζούνε οι οικογένειες, ποιες είναι οι σχέσεις παιδιών και γονιών, προβλήματα)

3

την εργασία (περιγράφουν επαγγέλματα, μιλάνε για τα προβλήματα και τα πλεονεκτήματα επαγγελμάτων, τη συμπεριφορά στη δουλειά, συμβουλές για να είμαστε καλύτεροι στη δουλειά μας ή για να μας προσλάβουν σε μια δουλειά ευκολότερα, π.χ. πώς φτιάχνεται ένα βιογραφικό σημείωμα)

4

το σπίτι (τη διακόσμηση, τα χρώματα και τα αντικείμενα που μας κάνουν να νιώθουμε καλύτερα, συμβουλές για την καθαριότητα, πώς να μειώσουμε τα έξοδα του σπιτιού)

5

το φαγητό (πώς φτιάχνεται, τι περιέχει, συνταγές, υγιεινή διατροφή, παραδοσιακή και εθνική κουζίνα, διατροφικά προβλήματα)

6

τις αγορές, τα νέα προϊόντα, τον τρόπο πληρωμής (κάρτες, δάνεια), την κατανάλωση από οικονομική και ψυχολογική πλευρά

7

την καθημερινότητα, τις συνήθειες και τις ασχολίες των ανθρώπων, τι κάνουμε κάθε μέρα, τι κάνουμε στον ελεύθερο χρόνο μας (ανάγνωση βιβλίων, τηλεόραση, ραδιόφωνο, περίπατοι)

8

το θέατρο, το σινεμά, τις τέχνες (χορός, μουσική, ζωγραφική, φωτογραφία, διαγωνισμούς τέχνης, π.χ. Eurovision, διάφορα φεστιβάλ)

9

την παράδοση (ήθη και έθιμα, γιορτές, τη ζωή στα παλιότερα χρόνια στην Ελλάδα και σε άλλες χώρες)

10

τον αθλητισμό, τη γυμναστική, τα αθλήματα (ποδόσφαιρο, μπάσκετ, κολύμβηση, κ.τ.λ.), τα παγκόσμια πρωταθλήματα, τους Ολυμπιακούς Αγώνες, σημαντικούς αθλητές

11

τα ταξίδια, τα μέσα μεταφοράς, τον τουρισμό, για συγκεκριμένους τόπους, αξιοθέατα και μνημεία

12

την ιστορία (γεγονότα, περιόδους, ιστορικά πρόσωπα στην Ελλάδα και σε άλλες χώρες)

13

τα συναισθήματα, την αγάπη, τη φιλία, τον έρωτα, τα προβλήματα στις σχέσεις των ανθρώπων και το πώς μπορούν να λυθούν, την επικοινωνία με τους άλλους (π.χ. αλληλογραφία, τρόποι καλής συμπεριφοράς, κ.τ.λ.)

14

την εκπαίδευση, το σχολείο, το Πανεπιστήμιο, το πώς μπορώ να σπουδάσω ή να συνεχίσω να μαθαίνω πράγματα, ακόμα και από το σπίτι μου (adult education and e-learning)

15

τη διασκέδαση, το πού και πώς μπορούμε να διασκεδάσουμε στην Ελλάδα και σε άλλες χώρες, πώς διασκεδάζουν οι διάφορες ηλικίες, παιχνίδια για μέσα και έξω από το σπίτι

16

την τεχνολογία, τον ψηφιακό κόσμο, τα καινούργια επιτεύγματα, τις τηλεπικοινωνίες, την επιστήμη

17

την οικονομία, την επιχειρηματικότητα, τα θέματα των τραπεζών

18

την υγεία, τα προβλήματα υγείας, σωματικά και ψυχολογικά και την αντιμετώπισή τους, το ιατρικό σύστημα για την περίθαλψη, τις οργανώσεις υγείας (Ερυθρός Σταυρός, Γιατροί χωρίς Σύνορα, κ.τ.λ.), την ομοιοπαθητική και άλλες εναλλακτικές θεραπείες

19

την οικολογία, το κλίμα, τα οικολογικά προβλήματα, το γεωφυσικό περιβάλλον, τη χλωρίδα και την πανίδα (ζώα και φυτά)

20

τη γλώσσα, τον τρόπο που σκέφτεται ο άνθρωπος για να μιλήσει, τη σχέση γλώσσας και μνήμης, την ιστορία της γλώσσας, τις ‘γλώσσες’ των διάφορων κοινωνικών ομάδων

21

την πολιτική, τα δικαιώματα και τις υποχρεώσεις των πολιτών, τις πολιτικές ιδεολογίες, τα πολιτικά προβλήματα των χωρών

22

τα κοινωνικά προβλήματα π.χ. ανεργία, εγκληματικότητα, έλλειψη στέγης, μετανάστευση, ναρκωτικά, βία

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Is Autonomy in Language Learning Attainable through Assessment? Carol J. Everhard Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]

Abstract Peer- and self-assessment seem to be crucial in the promotion of autonomy in EFL higher education; paradoxically, few studies have been conducted in this area. The Assessment for Autonomy Research Project (AARP) examined the assessment-autonomy relationship, through offering 1st year students responsibility for peer- and self-rating of oral and written assignments, using criteria checklists, and awarding real grades. Quantitative and qualitative data were gathered and analysed over a 5-year period, 2005-2010. There was clear evidence that assessment empowerment promoted critical thinking and offered students a greater degree of autonomy than they were hitherto accustomed to.

1. Introduction The relationship between autonomy and assessment could be termed ambivalent, mainly due to the paucity of research in this area, particularly in relation to EFL in higher education. Studies have focused either on speaking or writing, have been of short duration, usually one semester, and have been conducted mainly in the Far East, where modesty prevails among language learners, causing them to rate themselves particularly severely. The Assessment for Autonomy Research Project (AARP), which was conducted over a 5-year period, with 1st Year students on Language Mastery I courses in the School of English (SOE), Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh), between 2005-2010, provided the opportunity to examine the relationship between assessment and autonomy more closely.

1.1. Why autonomy? Autonomy in language learning has attracted great interest amongst language instructors over the last three decades, yet understanding, concerning what

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it is and how it can be promoted, is still somewhat vague. The creation of the European Language Portfolio (ELP) and the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) have gone some way towards furthering that understanding, since exploitation of the ELP involves learners in evaluation of their learning, through the use of criterial checklists, which promote reflection about learning, and, subsequently, autonomy. While there have been projects at local, national and international levels designed to encourage use of the ELP and the CEFR, their uptake in Greece seems to have been limited, and their implementation no more than superficial. One explanation might be that the emphasis there during the last three decades has been on “certification” for which students “prepare strenuously” (Sifakis & Sougari 2010: 305). According to Little (2003), the public examinations which provide certification have a “powerful washback effect” which can be detrimental to the fostering of autonomy and lead to “teaching for the exam”, a view supported in Greece by Prodromou (1995) and Vassilakis (Spyropoulou 2006). Testing and examinations breed fear (Boukouvalas 2001), make unreasonable demands on young people (Broadfoot 2005), and also breed reliance on more knowledgeable others (Everhard 2006), leading learners towards greater heteronomy.

1.2. Heteronomy vs. Autonomy Speakers and writers on autonomy in language learning tend to define from the outset what they mean by autonomy, to ensure that the listener or reader has the same conception of autonomy in their minds. However, only rarely do experts mention that the word autonomy has an opposite, of similar derivation, which is ‘heteronomy’ (Namenwirth 1996; Rujiketgumjorn 2000; Schmenk 2006), as shown in Table 1 below: Table 1. Derivation and meaning of autonomy and heteronomy WORD

GREEK DERIVATION

MEANING

autonomy

αυτός = self νόμος = law

rule, regulation, direction of self

heteronomy

έτερος = other νόμος = law

rule, regulation, direction by others

In foreign language learning, it can be useful not only to remember the antithesis between these two words, but also to think in terms of a continuum from heteronomy to autonomy, though not a continuum with fixed gradations or

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stages, but rather one which allows for greater or lesser degrees of autonomy and heteronomy and permits of progression, regression and a great deal of fluctuation in both directions (see Figure 1 below). Thus, language instructors remain aware that certain behaviours (Breen & Mann 1997: 145), promoted in the language-learning arena, are more or less conducive to autonomy and/or heteronomy.

HETERONOMY:

DEPENDENCE ON OTHERS

AUTONOMY:

DEPENDENCE ON ONESELF

Figure 1. Heteronomy and autonomy on a continuum

Schmenk (2006) insists we should not regard the polarity between heteronomy and autonomy as one of bad vs. good. Nevertheless, non-linguists remind us that dependence on others, while not always a bad thing, can be “debilitating” (Boud 1996: 44) and can constitute a “severe limitation” (Grow 1991: 129). Dependence on others, if perpetuated, may result in the phenomenon of “learned helplessness” (Dornyei 1994: 276), where learners are overcome by a feeling of powerlessness, remaining entrapped in the belief that things cannot be otherwise. Some researchers suggest we regard autonomy as a right (Hustler & Hodkinson 1996; Rujiketgumjorn 2000), or an entitlement (Wright 2005). Although this may sound extreme, it is important to consider the consequences, for our learners, of the continued promotion of heteronomy (Everhard 2006); thus, it is important to consider the more positive role assessment can play in the empowerment of learning.

1.3. Why Assessment? Lewkowicz & Moon (1985: 62) describe assessment as a “powerful weapon of control”, while Gibbs (1999: 41) regards it as “the most powerful lever teachers have” to influence students’ attitudes towards learning. By placing emphasis on grades and achievement in tests, education systems promote surface rather than deep learning and, in language learning, focus on what is likely to appear in the exam (Prodromou 1995; Spyropoulou 2006), ignoring other knowledge useful to a language learner and user. If such learning prevails through to higher education, according to McKay & Kember (1997: 55), students will “wish to be spoon fed and in turn they are

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spoon fed”, with responsibility for learning remaining with the teacher. This conflicts with what Kohonen (1992: 18-19) sees as the “task” of education, which should enable learners to become “a ‘fuller’ person with the capacity to reason, to feel and to act responsibly”, which can only be achieved through “an increasing capacity to assume responsibility for what one does”.

1.4. Degrees of Autonomy and Assessment The aim of the AARP was to examine Harris & Bell’s (1990: 111) suggestion, that the greater degree of involvement learners have in assessment procedures, the greater the degree of autonomy they enjoy, and to see if by combining it with Dam (1995) and Little’s (1996; 1999) 4 levels of necessary understanding for autonomy (see Figure 2 below), it was possible for participants to “assume responsibility” and become “fuller” persons (Kohonen ibid). Through the use of common criterial checklists, like those in Appendices 1, 2 & 3, it was possible to move from purely teacher-controlled to more learnercontrolled assessment, with Peer-assessment preceding, and being used as a springboard to Self-assessment (see Figure 2 below).

HETERONOMY TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT

AUTONOMY COLLABORATIVE ASSESSMENT

PEER-ASSESSMENT

SELF-ASSESSMENT

1. WHAT are we learning? 2. WHY are we learning?WH 3. HOW are we learning? 4. With WHAT SUCCESS?

Figure 2. Combining degrees of assessment and levels of necessary understanding

1.5. Turning a Constraint into an Affordance To turn assessment into an affordance, rather than a constraint in achieving autonomy, learners have to exercise critical thinking, or what Heron (1981: 66) refers to as “criterial thinking”. Such thinking deepens learners’ understanding of the subject-matter since “measuring” or “judging” work against criteria involves

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“far more rigorous processes than simply reading, listening or watching” (Race 1998: 114). In the AARP, by “learning to assess” and by “assessing to learn” (Chen 2008: 254), learners would, hopefully, prove themselves competent and trustworthy assessors.

2. Research Methodology To obtain information about both the products and the processes of assessment on the AARP, a mixed-methods approach was deemed suitable for gathering both quantitative and qualitative data.

2.1. Context The research groups were those assigned to the Instructor-Researcher (I-R) on the obligatory course Language Mastery I (LM I), in the SOE, AUTh, which were therefore convenience samples. LM I is taken in the autumn semester, ranging between 10-13 weeks in length, and focuses on descriptive and narrative discourse. The AARP was conducted in three stages: (1) the Pre-Study, 2005-2006; (2) the Main Study, 2006-2009, and (3) the Post-Study, 2009-2010. There were two cycles of writing assessment, based on two home writing assignments and one cycle of speaking assessment, based on in-class presentations. Groups ranged between 18 to 30 in number, and involved 246 students in total. A reliable international placement test determined the participants’ level of English, with CEFR B2 level predominating, and details of previous certification were also gathered. The majority of SOE graduates become teachers of EFL in state or private FL schools, so assessment skills are relevant to their future lives and careers.

2.2. Hypotheses and Aims The four working hypotheses on which the AARP was based were, if learners could: (1) p  eer-assess oral and writing skills, using predetermined criteria, with objectivity and reliability; (2) s elf-assess oral and writing skills, using predetermined criteria, with objectivity and reliability;

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(3) assume ownership of the assessment criteria checklists and assess in an atmosphere of cooperation and trust; and whether triangulated assessment could (4) become an affordance, leading to greater self-direction and autonomy. These working hypotheses would be tested in the Pre-Study, through particular pedagogical procedures and, if proved satisfactory, would be applied in the years that followed.

2.3. Research Instruments Instruments used in the collecting of data were (a) criteria checklists for two writing assignments and one oral assignment (see sample Appendices 1, 2 & 3), and (b) assessment questionnaires (see Appendix 4). Additional information was also gathered on Student Profile Cards and Learner/Teacher Contracts, but these were used to track progress by the I-R and AARP participants only (Everhard 2012). Since learners were novices in assessment and responsibility for rating and grading was shared equally between Self, Peer and the I-R, in each instance, they used criteria which were: (a) pre-determined by the I-R, without negotiation1; (b) a simple check-list with five criteria on a Likert scale from 1-5; (c) known to participants in the pre-production stage of the assignment, (d) familiar to them through peer-assessment processes. The criteria selected were holistic, avoiding specific categories such as ‘grammar’ and ‘vocabulary’ included by many other researchers. Research groups were mixed ability, so some students might be aware of their own competence or inadequacy in these areas and be negatively influenced. Figure 3 below distinguishes the differences between peer-assessment of writing and speaking. Only one Peer assessed each writing assignment, with their rating holding equal status with that of the Instructor or Self-assessor, while, with speaking, each member of the audience peer-assessed the presenter.

1 Formerly, researchers insisted that students should negotiate or create their own criteria, but recently Orsmond et al. (2000) found that this did not guarantee ownership of the criteria.

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WRITING SKILLS Instructor Assessment

Single Peer - Assessment

Self - Assessment

ORAL SKILLS Instructor Assessment

Group Peer - Assessment

Self - Assessment Figure 3. Assessment Cycle for Writing and Oral Skills

2.4. Data Gathering The AARP was a replicative study, year on year, fitted into normal teaching procedures to avoid unnecessary disruptions. Thus, the criteria checklists (see Appendices 1, 2 & 3), used in triangulated Peer-, Self- and Instructor assessment, served a dual purpose in a) configuring students’ assignment grades, and b) comparing Peer-, Self- and Instructor ratings statistically. Each of the five criteria were assessed on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, with 1 = weak, 2 = moderately weak, 3 = average, 4 = moderately strong and 5 = strong. The total grade, of 25, was downscaled to 10. At the end of the assessment process, a questionnaire (see Appendix 4) was used to formulate participants’ impressions and create a fuller picture of assessment success. The questionnaire used, 2005-2009, was an abridged version of one created by Antonopoulou (Antonopoulou et al. 2008) in 2002. Responses to the 10 questions were on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, where 1 = completely disagree, 2 = tend to disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = tend to agree, and 5 = completely agree. A new questionnaire (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012) was devised in the year 2009 to gather information about assessment intervention in the Post-Study.

2.5. Assessment Recording and Research Procedures In the case of writing assessment, all the participants used single criteria checklists and, for both peer- and self-assessment were encouraged to make corrections

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and comments on the texts, just as the instructor would do. Consequently, not just the grading would be triangulated, but also feedback. The assignment grade awarded to individuals was based on the average of Self-, Peer- and Instructor grades. In the case of peer-assessment of speaking, the instructor collected all the checklists, averaged the grade, added the grades from Self and Instructor, and calculated the average overall. Grades were recorded on Student Profile Cards, and electronically, for further analysis.

2.6. Statistical Analysis All of the data gathered concerning Self-assessment (S-A), Peer-assessment (PA) and Instructor-assessment (I-A), from each assignment completed on LM I, in each year of the AARP, in the Pre-, Main and Post-Study, was subjected to the same methods of statistical analysis. The Means, in each case, from each type of assessment, whether S-A, P-A or I-A, for each group, for each assignment, were subjected to One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), where p = .05, to permit comparison. Where significant differences were found, further analysis using the Tukey-Kramer Comparison Test of Pairwise Mean Differences was deployed. Assessment data was also analysed using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r ), where r = .05, to determine possible relationships between S-A and P-A (S-P), S-A and I-A (S-I), P-A and I-A (P-I). Chi-Square Tests were conducted (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012) with the pooled data from the two research groups each year, to determine any Self:Instructor (S:I), Peer:Instructor (P:I) and Self:Peer (S:P) rating frequency ratio patterns. Regarding the questionnaires, these were distributed at the end of each autumn semester. Frequency counts were conducted on the responses to each question by each participant and the data was recorded electronically. It was processed in two different ways: (1) using percentages which were displayed in xyz graphs, facilitating comparison; (2) according to the means of responses, which were subjected to t-analysis, permitting comparison between each pair of groups, from 2005 to 2009. The same procedures were followed with Post-Study questionnaires, this time for 22 questions (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012). Comments from students shed light on the ‘processes’ in students’ minds and their attitudes to the assessment experience. Answers to three open questions (see Appendix 4) in the Pre- and Main Studies, were recorded for further analysis. In the case of the Post-Study, space provided after each of the 22 questions furnished useful comments on intervention processes.

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3. Results The statistical analyses outlined above, produced very interesting results, an overview of which can be found in Table 2 below. Brief summaries of the results are given in the sections which follow.

3.1. Assessment of the 1st Home Writing Assignment ANOVA analysis of the 1st Home Writing Assignment (Writing 1) assessment, produced no significant differences in either Group A or Group B, indicating overall alignment between S-A, P-A and I-A in the AARP Pre-Study. However, in the three consecutive years of the Main Study (2006-2009), the first and larger of the two groups in each year produced significant differences, and this same pattern is repeated in the Post-Study (2009-2010). Groups A, B, D, F, H and J appear to demonstrate competence in their assessment, giving an overall success rate of around 60% among the total student constellation over the fiveyear period. If we also take into account the Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficients, the picture looks even more favourable, particularly in the case of Group C, 2006-2007, where we have correlation coefficients both in the case of Self-Instructor (S-I), of 0.61 and Peer-Instructor (P-I), of 0.62, which are very encouraging. The S-I correlation of 0.51 for Group F also offers confirmation that things went well, while the P-I correlation of 0.66 for Group J in the Post-Study, with Intervention, is also heartening. Although not displayed here, it should be mentioned that frequency rating ratios derived from chi-square test analyses showed, firstly, that in the PreStudy, S:I frequency rating ratios and P:I ratios, were very similar. Secondly, these same ratios continued to follow a very similar pattern of rises and falls throughout the AARP, although, for the most part, the S:I frequency rating ratios are more deviant. Thirdly, in the Post-Study, 2009-2010, the Intervention Exercise appeared to have a less positive effect on P-A and S-A rating than hoped for.

3.2. Assessment of the 2nd Home Writing Assignment An appraisal of assessment processes based on comparison of the means of true scores from S-A, P-A and I-A of the 2nd Home Writing Assignment, initially appears more disappointing than the 1st Home Writing Assignment. The same behavioural pattern occurs in the Pre-Study, with no significant differences in Groups A and B, demonstrating assessment alignment. The same behavioural

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sig. p=0.006 A>C only

n.s.

sig. p=0.005 A>B only

n.s.

2007-8 Group E

2007-8 Group F

2008-9 Group G

2008-9 Group H

0.66

0.62

0.51

0.61

0.50

n.s.

sig. p=0.021 A>B only

sig. p=0.017 A>B only

sig. p=0.048 A>B only

n.s.

sig. p=0.002 A>B=C

sig. p=0.010 A>B=C

sig. pB=C

n.s.

n.s.

Writing 2

One-way ANOVA & Tukey Kramer

0.65

P-I

0.66

0.47

0.48

S-I

P-S

Pearson corr. coeff.

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

sig. pC

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

n.s

Oral

One-way ANOVA & Tukey Kramer

0.51

0.52

0.44

0.46

0.51

0.75

P-I

0.45

0.42

0.45

S-I

0.44

0.50

0.65

0.67

P-S

Pearson corr. coeff.

p = 0.05 r = 0.05 n.s. = non-significant sig. = significant ANOVA - A = Self B = Peer C = Instructor PEARSON - S-I = Self-Instructor P-I = Peer-Instructor P-S = Peer-Self 2009-2010* = The results and values offered here are based only on participants in the Post-Study Intervention exercise. Non-participants have been excluded.

n.s.

n.s.

2006-7 Group D

2009-10* Group J

sig. p=0.002 A>C=B

2006-7 Group C

sig. pB>C

n.s.

2009-10* Group I

n.s.

2005-6 Group B

P-S

P-I

Writing 1

S-I

Pearson corr. coeff.

One-way ANOVA & Tukey Kramer

2005-6 Group A

Year & Group

Table 2. AARP Assessment Overview

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patterns also occur in the Post-Study, with significant differences in Group I and no significant differences in Group J. From thereon the similarity in assessment patterns ends and instead we have significant differences in five out of the six groups in the Main Study, with the same pattern of A>B=C occurring in three of those, namely Groups C, D and E, indicating over-inflated self-assessment but alignment between P-I. Our picture of the 2nd Writing Assignment changes when we take correlation coefficients into consideration. S-I correlations occur in three of the groups from the Main Study, namely Groups C, G and H, which is a very encouraging sign. In the Post-Study, Group J has a correlation coefficient occurring between P-I, which is also satisfying. This seems to bring the level of assessment success to the same level as the 1st Writing Assignment, which is approximately 75% over the five-year period. Regarding rating frequency ratios (not shown here) derived from chi-square test analysis (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012), the ratios in all categories in the Pre-Study, 2005-2006, show the greatest restraint and closeness. Restraint also occurs in the Post-Study, both in the I:S value which has been reduced from 1:5 to 1:1.7 and also in the I:P value, reversed since the 1st Writing assessment cycle, from 1:3.1 to 1.5:1. There seems to be a delayed reaction to Intervention in the 1st assessment cycle, with feedback fed forward into the 2nd assessment cycle, a phenomenon described elsewhere, but in relation to Oral assessment (Cheng & Warren 1999).

3.3. Assessment of Oral Assignments Initial impressions of oral assessment results, based on analysis of the means of true scores from S-A, P-A and I-A, for the Pre-Study (2005-2006), are the same as with writing, with no significant differences in either group, and no significant differences in five out of the six groups in the Main Study, with the one exception being Group E, 2007-2008, which also performed poorly on assessment of both the writing assignments. Pearson correlation coefficients offer confirmation of assessment success through P-I correlations for 5 and S-I correlations for 3 of the 10 groups. Group F, 2007-2008, has similar correlations for P-I, S-I and P-S, and emerges as the most successful group of all, while P-I and S-I correlations for Group H, 2008-2009, confirm healthy assessment alignment. Rating frequency ratios derived from chi-square test analysis (EverhardTheophilidou 2012), not displayed here, showed the greatest equilibrium between ratios in the Main Study, 2008-2009. An identical I:P value and the same equilibrium appears in the Post-Study. I:S ratios in the Pre-study are close to equalisation, with 1:1.2, which rises sharply in the following year,

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2006-2007, and continues to rise steeply, in 2007-2008, only to drop sharply in 2008-2009, and rise slightly in the Post-Study. Peaks for all ratios in 2007-2008 offer convincing evidence, of the vagaries of Group E, while close agreement between all ratios in 2008-2009, shows co-incidence that might have been expected the following year, due to Intervention. The I:S ratio in the Pre-Study, with the exception of 2008-2009, never came close to repetition, but instead was usurped by the I:P ratio in 2006-2007, 2008-2009 and 2009-2010, and is close to equalisation in all cases.

4. Discussion In the Pre-Study, there is evidence of strong assessment alignment with regard to both writing and speaking and the correlation coefficients produced between P-I in oral assessment are particularly gratifying. Questionnaire analysis also revealed that students in the Pre-Study felt they had greatly benefitted from the assessment process. In the Main Study, while the evidence of assessment alignment is not so immediately transparent with regard to writing, with only Group F producing ANOVA results consistent with those of Groups A and B, attention to the TukeyKramer results for Groups C, D, E, G and H in the 2nd Writing Assignment give evidence of Peer-Instructor consistency, while the correlation coefficients for 1st and 2nd writing assignments produced by Groups C, F, G and H give evidence of Self-Instructor consistency. In the case of speaking, the assessment alignment achieved in the Pre-Study was maintained in the Main Study, with the exception of one group, Group E, which constituted a rogue group. Closer inspection of participants in Group E revealed greater collaboration in pairs or groups in the presentation of their oral assignments, while all participants in Group F presented alone. This collaboration for Group E may have extended to assessment processes, resulting in friendship marking. The mixed results of the Main Study led the I-R to implement Intervention in the Post-Study in 2009-2010. While previously peer-assessment had been used as training for self-assessment, students were now offered training, through various intervention exercises (IE)s, before undertaking the peer-assessment process. Interestingly, assessment alignment in the Post-Study, both in the speaking IE and the writing IE, was impressively consistent; however, when it came to real assessment procedures, the IEs seemed to have little, no, or a delayed effect, making them seemingly redundant. This apparent redundancy was confirmed by qualitative data. This led to the conclusion that peer-assessment processes in themselves, as conducted in the Pre- and Main Studies, were sufficient practice for undertaking self-assessment, both in speaking and writing.

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5. Conclusion The AARP was a long-term study which was unique both in its simplicity and in its investigation of both writing and speaking assessment, with the same groups of students. Like some previous studies, there was evidence that peers could assess writing and speaking skills accurately, using criteria checklists, and that this was performed in an atmosphere of cooperation and trust. In addition, there were indications, albeit less, that students could self-assess speaking and writing skills, without exploiting their position of power. In contrast with previous studies of self-assessment, modesty did not seem to be an issue. Clearly, previous societal, cultural and academic conditioning all play their role in learners’ willingness to assume responsibility for assessment and to move further along the path to autonomy. It is also evident that the relationship between assessment and autonomy in EFL deserves much greater attention.

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References Antonopoulou, N., C. Everhard and E. Joycey. 2008. Use of peer-assessment and self-assessment with students in tertiary-level education. Journal of Applied Linguistics 24: 53-78. Boud, D. 1996. Some competing traditions in experiential learning. In S.W. Weil and I. McGill (eds.), Making sense of experiential learning: Diversity in theory and practice. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press, 38-49. Boukouvalas, J. June, 2001. Exams – the necessary evil. PALSO, Athens: Enimerosi, p.9. Breen, M.P. and S.J. Mann. 1997. Shooting arrows at the sun. In P. Benson and P. Voller (eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning. London and New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 132-149. Broadfoot, P. 2005. Dark alleys and blind bends: Testing the language of learning. Language Testing 22(2): 123-141. Chen, Y.-M. 2008. Learning to self-assess oral performance in English: A longitudinal case study. Language Teaching Research 12(2): 235-262. Cheng, W. and M. Warren. 1999. Peer and teacher assessment of the oral and written tasks of a group project. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 24(3): 301-314. Dam, L. 1995. Learner Autonomy, 3: From Theory to Practice. Dublin: Authentik. Dornyei, Z. 1994. Motivation and motivating in the foreign language. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3): 273-284.

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Everhard, C. 2006. Returning the dancing bears to the wild! 40th International Annual IATEFL Conference, 8-12 April, 2006, Harrogate, U.K. Everhard-Theophilidou, C. J. 2012. Degrees of autonomy in foreign language learning. PhD Dissertation, Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, School of English, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Gibbs, G. 1999. Using assessment strategically to change the way students learn. In S. Brown and A. Glasner (eds.), Assessment matters in higher education: Choosing and using diverse approaches. Buckingham and Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press, 41-53. Grow, G.O. 1991. Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly 41(3): 125-149. Harris, D. and C. Bell. 1990. Evaluating and assessing for learning (2nd ed.). London and New York: Kogan Page and Nichols Publishing. Heron, J. 1981. Assessment revisited. In D. Boud (ed.), Developing student autonomy in learning. London: Kogan Page, 55-68. Hustler, D. and P. Hodkinson. 1996. Rationales for student-centred learning. In R. Halsall and M. Cockett (eds.), Education and training 14-19: Chaos or coherence?. London: David Fulton Publishers, 108-119. Kohonen, V. 1992. Experiential language learning: Second language learning as cooperative learner education. In D. Nunan (ed.), Collaborative language learning and teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 14-39. Lewkowicz, J.A. and J. Moon. 1985. Evaluation: A way of involving the learner. In J.C. Alderson (ed.), Evaluation. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 45-80. Little, D. 1996. Learner autonomy in theory and practice: APAC ELT Convention, 29 Feb. - 2 March, Barcelona. Little, D. 1999. Autonomy in second language learning: Some theoretical perspectives and their practical implications. In C. Edelhoff and R. Weskamp (eds.), Autonomes Fremdsprachenlernen. Munich: Max Hueber Verlag, 22-36. Little, D. 2003. Learner autonomy and public examinations. In D. Little, J. Ridley and E. Ushioda (eds.), Learner autonomy in the foreign language classroom: Teacher, learner, curriculum and assessment. Dublin: Authentik, 223-233.

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McKay, J. and D. Kember. 1997. Spoon feeding leads to regurgitation: A better diet can result in more digestible learning outcomes. Higher Education Research and Development 16(1): 55-67. Namenwirth, E. 1996. Lever l’ambiguïté au sujet du terme d’autonomie? In G. Aub-Buscher (ed.), The linguistic challenge of the new Europe. Plymouth: CercleS, 23-35. Orsmond, P., S. Merry and K. Reiling. 2000. The use of student derived marking criteria in peer and self-assessment. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 25(1): 23-38. Prodromou, L. 1995. The backwash effect: From testing to teaching. English Language Teaching Journal, 49(1): 13-25. Race, P. 1998. Practical pointers on peer-assessment. In S. Brown (ed.), Peer assessment in practice: SEDA paper 102. Birmingham: SEDA, 113-122. Rujiketgumjorn, S. 2000. The control and dependency continuum in self-access. Independence, Newsletter of the IATEFL Learner Autonomy Special Interest Group, 28, 2-3. Schmenk, B. 2006. CALL, self-access and learner autonomy: A linear process from heteronomy to autonomy? In T. Harden, A. Witte and D. Köhler (eds.), The concept of progression in the teaching and learning of foreign languages. Oxford: Peter Lang, 75-90. Sifakis, N.C. and A.-M. Sougari. 2010. Between a rock and a hard place. In C. Gagliardi and A. Maley (eds.), EIL, ELF, Global English: Teaching and learning issues. Bern: Peter Lang, 301-320. Spyropoulou, A. January, 2006. It’s a sad fact that we teach for the exams. ELT News, Athens. Retrieved September 29, 2010 from http://www.eltnews.gr/ printinterview. asp? interview_id=30 Wright, V. 2005. Independent learning. In J. Coleman (ed.), Effective learning and teaching in modern languages. London: Routledge, 133-141.

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Appendix 1 Paragraph writing: assessment criteria checklist Writer’s St. No.: ____________ Assessor’s St. No.: ____________ Use the following criteria checklist: 1=weak 2=Moderately weak 3=Average 4=Moderately strong 5=Strong The language was precise and contained few errors 1 2 3 4

5

The paragraph had relevant and related content 1 2 3 4

5

The paragraph was of right size and well constructed around its topic 1 2 3 4 5 The paragraph flow was logical and helped the reader 1 2 3 4

5

The paragraph maintained interest throughout 1 2 3 4

5

To calculate the grade:Add the five ratings together. Multiply the total by four. Divide by ten. Grade awarded to PEER / SELF: …..

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Appendix 2 Narrative/descriptive essay writing: assessment criteria checklist Code number of writer: …………….. Code number of assessor: ……… Use the following criteria checklist: 1 = Weak 2 = Moderately weak 3 = Average 4 = Moderately strong 5 = Strong The essay conveyed an interesting message from beginning to end 1 2 3 4 5 All the information in the description was relevant and clear 1 2 3 4 5 Ideas were imaginative and nicely linked 1 2 3 4

5

Language was correct and used to good effect 1 2 3 4

5

The text was well-constructed and well-organised 1 2 3 4

5

To calculate the grade:1. Add the five ratings together. 2. Multiply the total by four. 3. Divide by ten. Grade awarded to PEER / SELF: …..

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Appendix 3 Oral presentation: assessment criteria checklist

Presenter’s Name/No.: _____________________________ Assessor’s St. No.: ____________ Topic presented: _______________________________ Date: ___________ Use the following criteria checklist: 1=weak 2=Moderately weak 3=Average 4=Moderately strong 5=Strong The presentation appears to be well-prepared 1 2 3 4

5

The content and materials are appropriate and interestingly presented 1 2 3 4 5 The order of the presentation is cohesive and flows without too much reliance on notes 1 2 3 4 5 The parts of the presentation are well-linked together 1 2 3 4

5

Ability to be understood (voice, delivery, pronunciation etc.) 1 2 3 4 5 To calculate the final grade:1. Add the five ratings together. 2. Multiply the total by four. 3. Divide by ten. Grade awarded to PEER / SELF: …..

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Appendix 4 AARP research assessment questionnaire Circle the numbers that represent how you feel about aspects of the assessment. 1=Completely disagree 2=Tend to disagree 3=Undecided 4=Tend to agree 5=Completely agree It was an interesting form of assessment. 1 2 3 4

5

I understood why this method of assessment was being used. 1 2 3 4 5 It was easy to assess the work of my peers (peer-assessment). 1 2 3 4 5 It was easy to assess my peers objectively. 1 2 3 4

5

It was easy to assess my own work (self-assessment). 1 2 3 4

5

It was easy to assess myself objectively. 1 2 3

5

4

The criteria checklists helped me to: understand the areas in which I was being assessed. 1 2 3 4

5

be a more active participant in the lessons. 1 2 3 4

5

pay attention to points I might otherwise have ignored. 1 2 3 4 5 develop critical thinking skills. 1 2 3

4

5

1. What were the strong points of the method? 2. What were the problems you encountered? 3. What suggestions would you make to improve the method?

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The Employment of Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies in Bilingual Pupils’ Creative Writing Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis University of Western Macedonia [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract The present research investigates the employment of cognitive and metacognitive strategies by bilingual pupils and the processes followed when they compose a short story in Greek (L2). The sample was comprised by 43 pupils enrolling in the 5th and 6th grade of Primary School. Data was collected through think-aloud protocols and individual retrospective interviews. The findings revealed variations between the two levels of language proficiency (good-weak writers) and types of bilingualism (simultaneous-successive) in terms of employing effective strategies and flexibility in strategy choice. Pupils’ difficulties were focused in the selection of appropriate vocabulary and organization of ideas.

1. Introduction Writing is a complex, recursive cognitive process involving mental processes and strategy use. As highlighted in the theoretical frameworks of L2 writing, a host of factors affect writing performance, such as syntax, lexicon, task objectives and “socio-cultural” factors (Lantolf 2004). Various writing processes are propounded in the best known models of L1 or L2 composing (Silva & Brice 2004). These models assume that various processes are responsible for textconstruction activity. The mental processes of writing encompasses a series of stages (basically pre-writing, writing, reviewing, and rewriting) involving multiple drafts. It has been underlined that among the factors that affect the process and product of L2 writing (a learner’s language proficiency, metacognitive knowledge about the writing task, employment of writing strategies, writers’ personal characteristics), writing strategies are particularly remarkable since it is their use

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that primarily separates successful from less successful writers (Baroudy 2008; Victori 1999). Strategies can pave the way toward greater proficiency, learner autonomy, and self-regulation (Hsiao & Oxford, 2002). There are various classifications of writing strategies and processes which were termed with different labels and have been used to interpret bilinguals writing processes and actions (Wenden 1991; Riazi 1997; Sasaki 2000). According to the classification of O’Malley and Chamot (1990), metacognitive strategies are those actions that aim at monitoring the writing process consciously without the direct involvement of the target language. Cognitive strategies are those writers use to implement actual writing actions and require a straightforward involvement with the target language (Carson & Longhini 2002). Cognitive strategies help students comprehend and produce language and include summarizing, translating, and taking notes while metacognitive strategies direct the acquisition of knowledge through self-monitoring, evaluating, or identifying the purpose of a language task (Olivares-Cuhat 2002). Studies investigating part of or the entire process of L2 writing commonly have reached to the conclusions that unskilled L2 writers tend to plan less and revise more at the word and phrase level (De Larios et al. 2006; Baroudy 2008), are less concerned about surface level revisions and more committed to the given assignment (Sasaki 2002). Diversly, skilled L2 writers plan more, revise at the discourse level, and elaborate in order to do the task most effectively (De Larios et al. 2006; Sasaki 2002). Strategy use is also influenced by the language proficiency, gender, school year or learning styles (Chamot 2004; Green & Oxford 1995; Lee 2003; Ehrman et al. 2003). Studies indicate that the unsuccessful writers tend to use rote memorization, repetition of spelling words, but seldom apply cognitive strategies in lesson review (Olivares-Cuhat 2002; Sasaki 2002). Skilled writers have a complete repertoire of strategies for planning, generating, organizing, and revising text (Griva et al. 2009). As for the relationship of strategy use and proficiency level, many studies had similar results that highproficiency students used strategy use more frequently than those in the lower proficiency levels (Green & Oxford 1995; Khali 2005; Lan & Oxford 2003; Lee 2003; Oxford 1990). Much less is the literature focusing on differences between the strategies employed by simultaneous and successive bilinguals. Although, some recent studies provide evidence that simultaneous bilinguals, who have learned both languages at the same time, show different strategies and speeds in the development of writing skills (Akita et al. 2007), engage in planning, spell more correctly in both languages in spite of different orthographies (Berman 1994). Successive bilinguals, who usually learn the second language in a different age and different context, after the

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establishment of their first language, are less flexible in lexical choice and spelling (Sousa et al. 2011). Thus, the study takes into account of the writers’ cognitive and metacognitive strategies by efficient and less efficient bilingual pupils and different types of bilingualism, simultaneous and successive. Knowing what skilled writers do as they compose, what specific strategies they use when they write, will help students to become better writers (Nyikos & Oxford 1993). Planning, revising, and managing the writing process are the “know-how” they need to become strategic writers (Harris & Graham 1994). There have been lots of studies investigating the strategy use (Green & Oxford 1995) suggesting that strategies are culturerelated and culture-specific (Olivares-Cuhat 2002; Bazerman 2008) and if they are used appropriately, they can be the crucial factors related to success in language learning especially for the inexperienced students (Ehrman et al. 2003).

2. The study The present research can be considered as an attempt to provide a source of insight into the strategies employed by bilingual children while writing in Greek. The reason of the study stemmed from the observed constant immigration influxes in Greece and the increasing immigrant pupils who are enrolling Greek primary school classes. Their differentiated linguistic and cultural backgrounds comprise of a teaching and educational challenge. The study aims at identifying the writing strategies and recording the difficulties observed during creative writing as well as tracing possible correlations between the language proficiency level and type of bilingualism. More specifically, the study investigates the following questions: a) W  hat are the strategies that bilingual pupils use in the pre-, while- and post- writing stage of their creative writing? b) Are the employed cognitive and metacognitive strategies used efficiently? c) What are the difficulties confronted by the pupils? d) D  o pupils of the two language proficiency levels and types of bilingualism differ in their strategy employment and confronted difficulties?

2.1. Sample 43 Albanian pupils (23 boys and 20 girls) who attended the 5th and 6th grade (M = 11,27 ± 0.31 years old) took part in the study. They were selected from a larger number of bilingual pupils, according to their language proficiency and type of bilingualism.

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2.2. Procedure All bilingual pupils were distributed the screening standardized test for the detection and investigation of their deficiencies and difficulties in the process of writing (Porpodas, et al., 2007). The pupils were grouped into two writing competence levels, according to their scores at the aforementioned test: the weak writers and the good writers. Think-aloud protocols, semi-structured interviews and key-observations were chosen for the identification of the cognitive and metacognitive strategies that were employed during the writing process key-observations. Each participant was asked to write a short narrative story based on five key words they were given. At the same time, they were asked to express their thoughts while planning, organizing ideas, writing and reviewing, focusing on the difficulties encountered. The individual semi-structured retrospective interviews followed next to allow flexible data collection so that emergent issues could be explored in depth, along with the discussion of the key themes regarding the writing strategies used and the overlapping of the difficulties that occurred in writing. Pupils’ behaviors were recorded, using a key-observation created by the researchers for the reasons of this research and had been piloted on previous stage.

2.3. Data Analysis The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the quantitative data analysis. The techniques of Chi-square test (χ2), Monte Carlo test and Cramer’s V test were performed in order to identify differences in strategy use between more and less competent readers as well as the types of bilingualism. The Cramer’s V correlation is mentioned as the most statisticallysound method for determining relationships. The consistency of the ratings assigned by the two raters (the researchers) and the inter-rater reliability of the classification of data was examined. Interrater reliability in classifying the data in variables should be both substantive and statistically significant. In this light, we employed sequentially four reliability indexes: Scott’s Pi (p), Cohen’s kappa (Ck), Krippendorff’s alpha (a), and Fleiss’ kappa (Fk), each of which provided a high score of reliability and significance ( .82). The verbal data, after being analyzed qualitatively, resulted in groups of categories/sub-categories, (Miles & Humberman, 1994), which were classified into basic thematic strands. The analysis of qualitative data resulted in thirtyseven (37) codes that were subsumed in eight (8) categories: cognitive prewriting strategies, metacognitive pre-writing strategies, cognitive while-writing strategies, metacognitive while-writing strategies, cognitive post-writing strategies, metacognitive post-writing strategies, word level writing difficulties

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and text level writing difficulties. The categories were grouped into four basic thematic strands: a) pre-writing strategies, b) while-writing strategies, c) postwriting strategies, and d) writing difficulties. Afterwards, contrastive tables were formed for each pupil, that were next commented. In order to evaluate writers’ strategy efficiency, each strategy was rated from 0 to 2, depending on their inefficient (0), relatively efficient (1) or efficient use (2). Similarly, the referred and detected difficulties were also assessed from 0 to 2: 0 for low difficulty, 1 for fair difficulties 2 for high difficulty.

3. Results 3.1. Cognitive and Metacognitive Writing Strategies The qualitative analysis of verbal data (think aloud protocols and semi-structured interviews) resulted in 37 codes considering bilingual pupils’ employment of cognitive and metacognitive strategies while writing creatively. 16 of the codes correspond to the use of cognitive strategies (see Table 1) while the rest 14 are connected with the adoption of metacognitive strategies by the pupils (see Table 2). The strategies of resourcing ideas (47 reports), retrieving from background knowledge (35 reports), local (33 reports) and global rereading (31 reports), retrieving (25 reports) and generating ideas (24 reports) were the most employed cognitive strategies in all three stages of the writing process. Evaluating local production (32 reports), global planning (31 reports), error correction on the post-writing stage (29 reports) as well as on while-writing stage (26 reports), monitoring local production (27 reports) and planning (26 reports) were the strategies most preferred in all stages.

3.1.1. Pre-writing Stage A large number of pupils employed certain cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies on the pre-writing phase, in order to plan and make drafts. The most employed strategies were: resourcing ideas (47 reports), generating ideas (24 reports), retrieving background knowledge (35 reports) and hypothesizing (14 reports). Pupils comment on their actions before writing: “when I realized what I had to do I started thinking how I will be relevant with it. I would like it to be like a fairy tale and I think I did it right” (pupil 6). The metacognitive strategies of this stage were connected to global planning (31 reports), evaluating of ideas (23 reports) and rehearsing (18 reports). A pupil mentioned: “I was thinking too long to decide what I could write. I wanted to pick

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Table 1. Codes related to cognitive writing strategies Codes

Interpretation

Stage

Occurrences

RESIDE

Resourcing ideas

Pre-writing

47

RETRIP

Retrieving

Pre-writing

35

LORERD

Local rereading

Writing

33

REREAD

Rereading

Post-writing

31

RETRIW

Retrieving

While-writing

25

GENIDE

Generating ideas

Pre-writing

24

AVOIDA

Avoidance

While-writing

23

ELABOR

Elaborating

While-writing

21

TRANSL

Translating

While-writing

19

MAKCON

Making connections

While-writing

18

TRANSC

Transcribing

Post-writing

17

LOCREV

Local revising

While-writing

16

REVISIN

Revising

Post-writing

16

HYPOTH

Hypothesizing

Pre-writing

14

RESIDS

Researching ideas

While-writing

12

RECALL

Recalling

While-writing

9

Table 2. Codes related to metacognitive writing strategies

102

Codes

Interpretation

Stage

Occurrences

EVALPR

Evaluating local production

While-writing

32

GLOPLA

Global planning

Pre-writing

31

ERRCOR

Error correction

Post-writing

29

MONLPR

Monitoring local production

While-writing

27

PLANN

Planning

While-writing

26

ERCORW

Error correction

While-writing

26

EVALID

Evaluate ideas

Pre-writing

23

MONPRO

Monitoring Production

Post-writing

23

REHIDE

Rehearsing ideas

Pre-writing

18

EVAPRO

Evaluating Production

Post-writing

16

REHSTR

Rehearsing structure

While-writing

15

EVAABI

Evaluating ability

Post-writing

12

EVPATA

Evaluating paragraph task

While-writing

8

FEEDBA

Feedback

While-writing

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interesting ideas. If an idea wasn’t appealing enough, I would think of something better. When I had planned every part of the story, I tried to organize the ideas and then I started writing” (pupil 32). The quantitative analysis of the pre-writing strategies (see Table 3) indicates that almost all cognitive and metacognitive strategies are used relatively efficiently. Table 3. Descriptive indices for pre-writing strategies employment. Categories

Cognitive Strategies

Metacognitive strategies

Codes

Inefficient use

Relatively efficient use

Efficient use

RESIDE

20,9%

41,9%

37,2%

RETRIP

23,3%

44,2%

32,6%

GENIDE

30,2%

25,6%

44,2%

HYPOTH

37,2%

27,9%

34,9%

GLOPLA

34,9%

39,5%

25,6%

EVALID

34,9%

39,5%

25,6%

REHIDE

37,2%

37,2%

25,6%

However, some differentiations were observed regarding the levels of writers. The good writers used all cognitive and metacognitive pre-writing strategies more effectively than the weak, who were less engaged to the prewriting processes. The χ2 and the Monte Carlo independence tests indicated some statistically significant differentiations between the two levels of writing competence. Similarly, the Cramer’s V test strengths the relationship between the writing level and the effective use of pre-writing cognitive and metacognitive strategies (see Table 4). Table 4. Differences between good and weak writers in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use Categories

Codes RESIDE

Cognitive Strategies

RETRIP GENIDE HYPOTH GLOPLA

Metacognitive strategies

EVALID REHIDE

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Weak-Good Writers χ2=15,457, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,600 χ2=25,306, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,767 χ2=21,974, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,715 χ2=27,592, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,801 χ2=15,719, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,605 χ2=23,824, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,744 χ2=25,604, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,772

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Moreover, no statistical differentiations were detected for the types of bilingualism.

3.1.2. While-writing Stage On the most creative stage, the while-writing, a major number of both cognitive and metacognitive strategies were used efficiently so that pupils achieve their goals. Particularly, almost all pupils adopted local rereading (33 reports) efficiently or relatively efficiently level (97,6%) unlike other cognitive strategies. Pupils reread locally either to detect and correct their mistakes, or to revise (16 reports) their compositions, or finally, to come up with further related ideas (12 reports) (see Table 5). A pupil mentioned on local rereading: “I read everything I have written in these two sentences to check whether I have missed a spelling mistake because I wasn’t careful enough about the spelling” (pupil 18). Table 5. Descriptive indices for while-writing strategies employment Categories

Cognitive Strategies

Metacognitive strategies

Codes

Inefficient use

Relatively efficient use

Efficient use

LORERD

2,3%

20,9%

76,7%

RETRIW

4,7%

27,9%

67,4%

AVOIDA

14,0%

37,2%

48,8%

ELABOR

23,3%

30,2%

46,5%

TRANSL

25,6%

53,5%

20,9%

MAKCON

34,9%

41,9%

23,3%

LOCREV

34,9%

30,2%

34,9%

RESIDS

16,3%

34,9%

48,8%

RECALL

20,9%

53,5%

25,6%

EVALPR

34,9%

44,2%

20,9%

MONLPR

32,6%

32,6%

34,9%

PLANN

30,2%

37,2%

32,6%

ERCORW

32,6%

37,2%

30,2%

REHSTR

44,2%

39,5%

16,3%

EVPATA

41,9%

34,9%

23,3%

FEEDBA

34,9%

41,9%

23,3%

Other cognitive strategies that were employed by the participant bilingual writers were those of retrieval (25 reports), avoidance (23 reports) and elaborating (21 reports). It is noted that the pupils were trying to retrieve ideas in this stage, too,

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from their background knowledge, in order to enrich the content of their story (“...I thought what I will add! Last week I watched a cartoon on tv and I will use some parts of it in my story!”), however avoiding perplexed plots and elaborated vocabulary. As marked by a pupil “I thought of something funny but I don’t know how to describe it in Greek, so I’ll skip it” (pupil 22). In some cases pupils recalled (9 reports) in order to constrain from making mistakes or to improve their thoughts. One of the participants said: “...when I have trouble expressing something I’m thinking about, I choose to write something else. I prefer using words I already am aware of, than searching them or trying to recall, despite the fact that my story will be less exciting” (pupil 7). There were 21 reports on the strategy of elaborating while writing, when pupils’ goal was to extend their writing as much as possible. A pupil commented on that: “I want my stories to be long and rich of information, because our teacher told us to write the more we can” (pupil 2). A large majority of the pupils tried to use connecting words and linkages (18 reports) so that their stories be coherent: “I want the reader to make sense of my text, so when I compose I am concentrated on using temporal connections and be specific. Many pupils don’t do so and you can’t really say what they’ve written about” (pupil 40). Another also efficiently employed cognitive strategy proved to be translating (19 reports). The pupils who mentioned it claimed that they translated into Greek all the ideas they generated: “When I have to write something, I think about the topic firstly in Albanian and then I am saying it in Greek and, lastly, I write it down” (pupil 41). Considering metacognitive strategies, a large part of the pupils were positive in evaluating (32 reports) and monitoring local production (27 reports), while many were those who were referred to the strategy of planning (26 reports). As mentioned: “I am thinking what I am going to say with these words. When I write I am careful to write it correctly so that it makes sense. When I finish it, I read it again so as to be ascertained that I’ve said everything I had thought” (pupil 15). The metacognitive strategies of rehearsing the text structure (15 reports) and evaluating each paragraph (8 reports), were not employed effectively since, according to quantitative data, the 44,2% and 41,9% accordingly, make ineffective use of them, in reference to the goal of writing. Another strategy that was employed on the while-writing stage is error correction (26 reports). Error correction seems to occur while pupils write (“When I realize that I have written something wrong I correct it immediately”) or when pupils review their writings at the end, to spot mistakes and correct them (“When I have completed a whole paragraph I read it again to find any mistakes. I don’t want anybody to think that I am a bad student and don’t know how to write a story”). Concurrently, some pupils mentioned seeking for feedback (7 reports) as a metacognitive strategy that aids them improve their writing. As remarked “...I do my best. I want to be a good writer and I try hard for this. I think that the more I study and practice, the better writer I become”.

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Some considerable statistical differentiations were discovered through chisquare χ2 and Monte Carlo independence tests for the pupils of different writing levels and types of bilingualism. Accordingly, the Cramer’s V test indicated significant correlation between the variables of competence level and type of bilingualism with the effective use of writing strategies (see table 6). Table 6. Differences between good-weak writers and successive-simultaneous bilinguals in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use Categories

Cognitive Strategies

Metacognitive strategies

Successive-Simultaneous Bilinguals

Codes

Weak-Good Writers

ELABOR

χ2=15,062, df=2, p=0,001 Cramer’s V=0,592

TRANSL

χ2=7,330, df=2, p=0,026 Cramer’s V=0,413

χ2=9,649, df=2, p=0,008 Cramer’s V=0,474

χ2=12,539, df=2, p=0,002

χ2=11,042, df=2, p=0,004

Cramer’s V=0,540

Cramer’s V=0,507

MAKCON LOCREV

χ2=16,196, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,614

RESIDS

χ2=6,485, df=2, p=0,039 Cramer’s V=0,039

RECALL

χ2=7,604, df=2, p=0,022 Cramer’s V=0,421

EVALPR

χ2=14,437, df=2, p=0,001 Cramer’s V=0,579

MONLPR

χ2=6,504, df=2, p=0,039 Cramer’s V=0,389

PLANN

χ2=10,785, df=2, p=0,005 Cramer’s V=0,501

ERCORW

χ2=23,547, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,740

REHSTR

χ2=21,713, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,711

EVPATA

χ2=25,880, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,776

FEEDBA

χ2=11,650, df=2, p=0,003 Cramer’s V=0,521

χ2=7,465, df=2, p=0,024 Cramer’s V=0,417

χ2=6,661, df=2, p=0,036 Cramer’s V=0,417

3.1.3. Post-writing Stage In the post-writing stage, a mediocre number of the bilingual students employed the strategies of rereading the whole text composition (17 reports), transcribing (16 reports) as well as revising (reports) all text. As pupils mentioned, they usually read the text they had composed (“I read what I’ve written to check it...”), to confirm the correctness and cohesion of their written production (monitoring production) (23 reports), to restore spelling and syntax mistakes (29 reports) (“I check the writing again at the end and I look-up some words to correct every

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mistake I spot” - pupil 19), evaluate the total production (16 reports) and their skills in writing (12 reports). The quantitative analysis for the data that stemmed from this stage indicated that bilinguals tended to handle the cognitive strategies more effectively than the metacognitive ones (see Table 7). In particular, the cognitive strategies of rereading and transcribing are employed efficiently by the 41,9% and 51,2% accordingly. On the contrary, all metacognitive strategies seemed to be employed inefficiently on the post-writing stage. Table 7. Descriptive indices for post-writing strategies employment. Categories Cognitive strategies

Metacognitive strategies

Codes

Inefficient use

Partially efficient use

Efficient use

REREAD

23,3%

34,9%

41,9%

TRANSC

20,9%

27,9%

51,2%

REVISIN

32,6%

39,5%

27,9%

ERRCOR

39,5%

32,6%

27,9%

MONPRO

32,6%

37,2%

30,2%

EVAPRO

37,2%

34,9%

27,9%

EVAABI

44,2%

27,9%

27,9%

The χ2 and Monte Carlo independence tests along with Cramer’s V test highlighted significant differentiations concerning the effective strategy use of post-writing strategies by the two writing competence groups, as shown at Table 8. Table 8. Differences between good-weak writers in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use

Categories

Cognitive strategies

Codes

Weak-Good Writers

REREAD

χ2=13,606, df=2, p=0,001 Cramer’s V=0,563

TRANSC

χ2=11,892, df=2, p=0,003 Cramer’s V=0,526

REVISIN

χ2=9,946, df=2, p=0,007 Cramer’s V=0,481

ERRCOR

χ2=17,894, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,645

MONPRO

χ2=23,525, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,740

EVAPRO

χ2=18,837, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,662

EVAABI

χ2=20,883, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,697

Metacognitive strategies

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Concerning the strategies employment by the two types of bilinguals, successive and simultaneous, no statistical differentiations were found.

3.2. Difficulties in Writing Regarding the difficulties encountered by bilinguals at a lexical level, it seems that the use of appropriate vocabulary (27 reports) and spelling (27 reports) constitute the most frequently confronted hurdles (see table 9). As many of the participants mentioned: “I can’t spell every word” (pupil 33), and “sometimes I am at short of words, I can’t recall the word I want to use” (pupil 2). Table 9. Categories and codes regarding writing difficulties Categories Word level

Text level

Codes

Interpretation

Occurrences

USAPVOC

Use of appropriate vocabulary

27

CORSP

Correct spelling

27

GENID

Generating Ideas

31

ORGID

Organizing Ideas

32

CONPLA

Content planning

36

SYNTX

Syntax

14

CORGRAMM

Correct grammar

23

The general difficulties that were recorded focused on the production (31 reports) and organization of ideas (32 reports) and planning the content while thinking about the topic (36 reports). Some pupils mentioned that syntax represents also an obstacle for the completion of a successful short story (14 reports). The correct use of the grammatical rules of the Greek language (23 reports) is also a difficult point when writing in L2 (“I usually mistake the genders. They differ in Albanian and I am confused when I am in a hurry to finish my writing. I have improved myself in the articles, though!”- pupil 5) The quantitative analysis indicated that bilingual pupils face greater difficulties in selecting appropriate, matching vocabulary (32,6%), spelling words (30,6%) and the overall planning of the content of their writings (25,6%) (see table 10). The differentiations uncovered by the independence tests (χ2 and Monte Carlo) regarding both writing competence level and type of bilingualism indicated significant correlations with the difficulties encountered in creative writing (see table 11).

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Table 10. Descriptive indices of difficulties on while-writing phase Categories Word level

Text level

Codes

Low

Fair

High

USAPVOC

37,2%

30,2%

32,6%

CORSP

37,2%

32,6%

30,2%

GENID

27,9%

51,2%

20,9%

ORGID

25,6%

51,2%

23,3%

CONPLA

16,3%

58,1%

25,6%

SYNTX

67,4%

27,9%

4,7%

CORGRAMM

46,5%

41,9%

11,6%

Table 11. Differences between good-weak writers and successive-simultaneous bilinguals in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use

Categories

Codes

Weak-Good writers

Successive-Simultaneous bilinguals

USAPVOC

χ2=20,930, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,698

χ2=6,503, df=2, p=0,039 Cramer’s V=0,389

CORSP

χ2=19,523, df=2, p=0,000 Cramer’s V=0,674

χ2=6,088, df=2, p=0,048 Cramer’s V=0,376

Word level

GENID Text level

χ2=10,942, df=2, p=0,004 Cramer’s V=0,504

GENID

χ2=11,674, df=2, p=0,003 Cramer’s V=0,521

CONPLA

χ2=14,388, df=2, p=0,001 Cramer’s V=0,578

CORGRAMM

χ2=11,983, df=2, p=0,002 Cramer’s V=0,528

4. Concluding Remarks The results of the research demonstrate that bilingual pupils employed a wide range of cognitive writing strategies, such as retrieving, rereading, avoidance, elaborating and translating. Many metacognitive strategies were also employed through all stages, like monitoring, planning, rehearsing, error correction, evaluating and seeking for feedback. Regarding the volume of strategies recorded, the most ‘strategy generating’ stage was accented to be the while-writing one. The findings highlighted some remarkable differences regarding the two levels of L2 language proficiency and types of bilingualism (simultaneous-successive).

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The less skilled writers made use of limited strategies and dealt with greater difficulties. Furthermore, they showed lower competence in the macro-processes of writing, narrow metacognitive awareness and metacognitive strategy use, in contrast to the good writers who were more efficient in their strategy use. The findings are in line with earlier research (Silva & Brice 2004; Ehrman et al. 2003), that have confirmed that good writers are more effective than their weaker counterparts in researching and generating ideas, hypothesizing. Moreover, the weak writers differ significantly regarding their use of metacognitive strategies, such as global planning, evaluating ideas and rehearsing ideas before writing (Ferrari et. al. 1998; Griva et al. 2009). The weak writers faced greater difficulties in the lexical level, like selecting the appropriate vocabulary and spelling, in contrast to the good writers, who focused on the macro process of writing demonstrating less difficulty in production and organization of ideas. In reference to the use of strategies by the simultaneous and successive bilinguals, no significant differentiations were indicated regarding the prewriting and post-writing strategies. Some noteworthy statistical differentiations were observed between the pupils of two types of bilingualism at the whilewriting stage. Simultaneous bilinguals were proved more efficient in choosing effective cognitive strategies, such as making connections, recalling and the metacognitive strategy of self-correcting. In reverse, successive bilinguals turned to translating. Previous research confirms this result as skilled writers and writers with higher L2 proficiency are less likely to use L1 while writing in L2 than the weaker ones (Victori 1999; Sasaki 2002; Lee 2003; Sousa et al. 2011). In addition, successive bilinguals dealt with extensive difficulties, in selecting proper vocabulary as well as spelling.

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References Akita, K., Prakash P., Prathibha, B., Panah, M.A. and Rao, C. 2007. Drawing and Emergent Writing in Young Children. Psychological Studies 52: 216-222. Baroudy, I. 2008. Process writing: successful and unsuccessful writers. International Journal of English Studies 8(2): 43-63. Bazerman, C. 2008. Handbook of research on writing: history, society, school, individual, text. New York: Taylor and Francis. Berman, R. 1994. Learner’s transfer of writing skills between languages. TESL Canada Journal 12(1): 29-46. Carson, J. and  Longhini, A. 2002. Focusing on learning styles and strategies: A diary study in an immersion setting. Language Learning (52)2: 401-438. Chamot, A.-U. 2004. Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 1(1): 14-26. De Larios, J.R.,  Manchon, R. and  Murphy, L. 2006. Generating text in native and foreign language writing: a temporal analysis of problem-solving formulation processes. The Modern Language Journal 90: 100-114. Ehrman, M., Leaver, B.L. and Oxford, R. 2003. A brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. System 31: 313-330. Ferrari, M., Bouffard, T. and Rainville, L. 1998. What makes a good writer? Differences in good and poor writers’ self-regulation of writing. Instructional Science 26(6): 473-488.

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Graham, S. and Harris, K. 1994. The role and development of self-regulation in the writing process. In D. Schunk and B. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulation of learning and performance: Issues and educational applications. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 203-228. Green, J. and Rebecca, Oxford. 1995. A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly 29(2): 261-297. Griva, E., Tsakiridou, E. and Nihoritou, I. 2009. Study of FL composing process and writing strategies employed by young learners. In M. Nikolov (Ed), Early Learning of Modern Foreign Languages. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 132-148. Hsiao, T.Y. and Oxford, R. 2002. Comparing theories of language learning strategies: A confirmatory factor analysis. Modern Language Journal 86(3): 368383. Khalil, A. 2005. Assessment of Language Learning Strategies Used by Palestinian EFL Learners. Foreign Language Annals 38: 108-117. Lan, R. and Oxford, R. 2003. Language learning strategy profiles of elementary school students in Taiwan. IRAL 41: 339-379. Lantolf, J.P. 2004. Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lee, S. 2003. ESL learners’ vocabulary use in writing and the effects of explicit vocabulary instruction. System 31: 537-561. Miles, M. and Huberman, M. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Nyikos, M. and Oxford, R. 1993. A factor analytic study of language learning strategy use: Interpretations from information processing theory and social psychology. Modern Language Journal 77(1): 11-22. Olivares-Cuhat, G. 2002. Learning Strategies, Writing Textbooks and Achievement in the Spanish Classroom: A Case-Study. Foreign Language Annals 35(5): 561570. O’Malley, M. and Chamot, A.-U. 1990. Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

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Oxford, R. 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. Porpodas, K., Diakogiorgi, K., Dimakos, I. and Karantzis, I. Ι. 2007. Εργαλείο Διαγνωστικής Διερεύνησης δυσκολιών στο γραπτό λόγο των Μαθητών Γ- ΣΤ’ Δημοτικού. Athens: Greek Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs - EPEAEK (2). Riazi, A. 1997. Acquiring disciplinary literacy: A social-cognitive analysis of text production and learning among Iranian graduate students of education. Journal of Second Language Writing 6(2): 105-137. Sasaki, M. 2000. Toward an empirical model of EFL writing processes: An exploratory study. Journal of Second Language Writing 9(3): 259-291. Sasaki, M. 2002. Building an empirically-based model of EFL learners’ writing processes. In G. Rijlaarsdam, S. Ransedell and M. Barbier (Eds.), Studies in Writing. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 49-80. Silva, T. and Brice, C. 2004. Research in teaching writing. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24: 70-106. Sousa, D., Greenop, K. and Fry, J. 2011. Cross-language transfer of spelling strategies in English and Afrikaans Grade 3 children. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 14(1): 49-67. Vicrori, B. 1999. An analysis of writing knowledge in EFL composing: a case study of two effective and two less effective writers. System 27(4): 537-555. Wenden, A. 1991. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Motivation-Related Issues to Learn Different Languages in an Intercultural School Konstantina Iliopoulou and Areti-Maria Sougari Secondary Sector, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract This paper reports on the findings of a study involving 98 lower secondary students who receive schooling in a Greek intercultural school, aiming to investigate their motivational orientations towards the learning of Greek as a second language, English as an additional language (which is also a compulsory school subject) and a chosen additional language (i.e. French and German). The study used closed questionnaire items which examined possible varying motivation among the respondents in order to find similarities and/or differences associated with the different target languages when compared with the students’ motivation to learn the language of the host country, which is also the medium of instruction. The findings shed light into learners’ motivation towards the various languages and offer insight into learners’ attitudes towards different foreign languages.

1. Introduction Many national language policies around the world promote multilingualism and it is quite common for students to learn a number of foreign languages simultaneously. Educational systems are faced with the challenge to address the needs of the student population while at the same time addressing social, cultural and political demands (UNESCO 2003). A number of fundamental standard-setting instruments have been trying to draw an international agreement on the issue of language and its importance in the educational system. In a number of learning environments, the choice of the language of instruction is the official language of a particular country. Certain educational policies conform to the various declarations and incorporate the languages spoken by the student population in their home environment within the school curriculum. Due to many problems associated with this undertaking, educational

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policies may dictate the teaching of particular languages which is associated with economic and socio-political principles (Tripolitakis, 2010). Admittedly, the learning of certain languages may invoke positive, ambivalent, or negative feelings. Even students who come from the same socio-cultural background may respond differently to the various languages incorporated in the school curriculum and subsequently inform their motivational orientations towards the learning of these languages. Few studies have tried to shed light on the learners’ attitudes and motivation to learn different target languages and when this was undertaken it was normally attempted within the same community (Clément & Kruidenier 1983, in the Canadian context; Schmidt and Watanabe 2001, in the Hawaiian context; Dörnyei & Csizér 2002, in the Hungarian context; Sciriha 2001, in the Maltese context; Shameem 2004, in the Fijian context; and Humphreys & Spratt 2008, in the Asian context). Furthermore, there is limited research on the effect of the cultural background of immigrant students on their attitudes and motivation to learn different languages (Bernaus et al. 2004 in Spain). The present study reports immigrant students’ attitudes and motivation to learn different languages taught in the Greek lower secondary context, while following tuition in an intercultural school, which accounts for great linguistic diversity in the language classroom. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate immigrant students’ motivational orientations towards the four languages incorporated in the curriculum: Greek as a second language and medium of instruction, English as an additional language (which is also a compulsory school subject) and a chosen additional language (i.e. French and German).

2. Background to the Study 2.1. Language Attitudes and Motivation Early attempts to investigate language attitudes and motivation to learn a second language are associated with the work conducted by Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972), who identified two types of motivational orientations: instrumental and integrative. The former refers to pragmatic reasons for wanting to learn a particular language, whereas the latter reflects a desire to learn a language so as to engage in conversations with the target population. Even though this dichotomy is viewed as an oversimplication of an extremely sophisticated and complex issue and as context-specific, relevant to sociolinguistic contexts similar to the Canadian, a number of studies have based their framework on the idea of the two orientations (Hamphreys and Spratt 2008).

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Extensive research has investigated the underlying motives to learn a second language over the past decades and many studies have investigated the relationship between motivation and the following: achievement (Dörnyei 2001; Gardner 1985; Masgoret & Gardner 2003; Muñoz & Tragant 2001), gender-related differences (Carr and Pauwels 2006; MacIntyre et al. 2003), the socio-educational context in which the various studies were carried out (Dörnyei 1990; Gardner 1988; Oxford and Shearin 1994; Warden and Lin 2000). Notwithstanding the fact that attitudes and motivation bear relevance to the choice of language that students opt for in schools (i.e. should they be given an option), their choice and motivation to learn these languages also relates to the status of languages (Sciriha 2001). In the Hungarian context, survey data, focusing on five target languages and six target language communities were collected with the help of the Language Disposition Questionnaire during three rounds by targeting the same population and by tracking changes over time within a particular population. This study made use of the generalized aspects of L2 motivation and its seven components as identified by Dörnyei, Csizér and Németh (2006): integrativeness, instrumentality, attitudes towards L2 speakers, vitality of the L2 community, cultural interest, milieu and linguistic self-confidence. The results demonstrated a change of the learner dispositions towards learning foreign languages over time, while English had maintained its high status due to the widely acknowledged role in the world. What is more, even though it seems that students’ attitudes towards learning a particular language can be influenced by their ethnic background (Brohy 2001), little research has attempted to highlight learners’ motivational orientations towards learning different languages in multicultural classrooms (Bernaus et al 2004; Sougari and Iliopoulou 2013). Therefore, the impetus for the present study is to contribute to the research on immigrant students’ attitudes and motivation to learn different foreign languages while attending an intercultural lower secondary school within the Greek educational context.

2.2. Intercultural Education in Greece Immigration influx in Greece has been taking place since the early 1990s and Greece has become a host for immigrants from eastern and central Europe, coethic ‘returnees’ and/or their descendants from the former Soviet Republics, Greek Albanians immigrants, others from Third World countries and a few Greek emigrants returning to Greece (Triantafyllidou and Gropas 2007, 2009). It is quite apparent that this immigration influx has altered the characteristics of the population by resulting in changes on the social, economic, ethnic, educational, religious and racial level. The societal diversity has also permeated the classroom setting and the new reality called for changes at the education sector. After all,

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for the purposes of national cohesion and national consciousness, it is important to integrate the migrant population in all aspects of public life. In response to growing immigration, initially reception classes were set up so as to cater for the immigrants’ cultural, educational and linguistic needs. Various pedagogical orientations have replaced previous structures of the educational system. The development of intercultural education has marked the establishment of a new category of schools, which host reception classes for students with limited or no knowledge of Greek (Law 2416/96; Paleologou 2004) Since 1996, out of a total 26 intercultural schools across Greece, thirteen are primary schools, nine are lower secondary schools and four are upper secondary schools. A school can be identified as an intercultural one when 45% of its student population is of non-Greek origin. It is worthwhile mentioning that the student body of each intercultural school may differ substantially in terms of the students’ country of origin. The diminishing number of upper secondary schools available can be associated with the immigrant students’ low interest in pursuing further education beyond the compulsory level. Even though these schools follow the ordinary curriculum, there is no need to cover the curriculum in its entirety. Special emphasis is placed on learning the Greek language as well as the other languages that are part of the compulsory curriculum (i.e. English and a choice between French or German). Greek is the medium of instruction, but English is also used in instances that need further clarification.

3. The Present Study The dearth of studies on immigrant students’ motivation to learn different languages in the Greek educational context have given rise to the present study. To be more specific, this study investigates the motivation to learn different foreign languages among immigrant students who follow instruction in a Greek lower secondary intercultural school. Therefore, the focus is on their motivation towards the learning of Greek as a second language, English as an additional language (which is also a compulsory school subject) and a chosen additional language (i.e. French and German). It becomes pertinent to address immigrant students’ attitudes in order to unravel the nature of the appeal exercised by the different languages.

3.1. The Respondents The current study was carried out on a sample of 98 (52% were male students, whereas 48% were female) immigrant lower secondary students at a Greek

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intercultural school, situated in Thessaloniki. The breakdown of the sample in the three grades was conducted as follows: 1st grade: 29.6%, 2nd grade: 35.7% and 3rd grade: 34.7% of student population. With particular reference to the distribution in the class for the subject of Greek, the following placement pattern appears: 1st grade beginners: 37.9%, intermediate: 31%, advanced: 31%; 2nd grade beginners: 22.9%, intermediate: 40%, advanced: 37.1%; and 3rd grade beginners: 29.4%, intermediate: 26.5%, advanced: 44.1%. According to the curriculum, the students, apart from Greek and English, had opted for a chosen additional language as follows: 66.3% (N=65) attended German and 33.7% (N=33) attended French. Due to the influx of immigrants to Greece, this particular school accommodates newcomers who have either recently migrated to Greece or those who had previously attended an intercultural primary school. Thus, in this study the students come from various countries and different linguistic backgrounds: 22.4% come from China, 18.4% come from Albania, 16.3% come from Georgia, 16.3% come from Russia, 16.3% come from Afghanistan, 5.1% come from FYROM, and 5.1% come from various countries.

3.2. Instrumentation For the purposes of the present study, quantitative and qualitative data were drawn in an attempt to assess students’ attitudes and motivation to learn different foreign languages in a Greek intercultural school. The respondents were granted their anonymity throughout the whole procedure. Quantitative data were gathered with the help of a questionnaire, which is an adaptation of the one used by Dörnyei and Clement (2001) in the Hungarian context. The wording of certain items was simplified, certain items were dropped and others were added; these changes were deemed necessary in order to suit the Greek context and to match the respondents’ proficiency level. Two versions of the questionnaire were made available: one in Greek and one in English. The respondents were given the option to report their views on the items in question in either one of the two languages. It is worthwhile mentioning that the majority of the respondents opted for the Greek version and explanations were provided where necessary depending on the learners’ proficiency level. In the case of beginners, the questionnaire was provided in English and further clarifications were given if needed. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: part 1 elicited some demographic information such as gender, age, country of origin, language(s) spoken in their home environment and their personal assessment of their command in the languages in question. The formation of their profile was intentionally placed in the front part of the questionnaire so as to introduce respondents to the rationale of the questionnaire; part 2 drew the respondents’ views about the

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learning of particular languages (i.e. Greek, English, French or German) as well as their attitudes towards the target speech community of each language, and part 3 elicited the students’ stance towards language learning. Due to our attempt to partially replicate the Hungarian study, the seven motivational dimensions (i.e. integrativeness, instrumentality, attitudes towards L2 speakers, vitality, cultural interest, milieu and linguistic self-confidence) identified by Dörnyei and Clement (2001) and Dörnyei and Cziser (2002) were retained. Qualitative data were drawn with the help of nine follow-up semi-structured interviews (i.e. three students of each grade and one of each proficiency level, who came from different countries, were interviewed). The interviews highlighted areas that needed further elucidation, i.e. what informs the participants’ attitudes to learning the languages included in the curriculum. The findings that were raised in the qualitative part are beyond the scope of the present paper and appear in another paper (Sougari and Iliopoulou 2013).

3.3. Data Analysis With regard to the analysis of the sample, the computation of frequencies and the implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-ranks test were conducted. The Wilcoxon signed-ranks test was used to assess the magnitude of the difference in the sample’s answers; to be more specific, the respondents’ perception about Greek is compared to each one of the other foreign languages incorporated in the curriculum. The choice of this particular test is based on the nature of the questionnaire, which elicited answers to items that appeared in a 5-point Likert scale; to be more specific, in part 2: 1 was ‘very much’ and 5 was ‘not at all’, whereas in part 3: 1 was ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 was ‘strongly agree’. Cronbach α was used in order to draw the internal reliability coefficients for each target language and was calculated separately for each language. It is worthwhile mentioning that in the case of answers to questions pertaining to attitudes towards the learning of French and German only the answers of those learners who were attending such courses were accounted for. The significance level was set at p.05 Greek vs French: N=18, z=-,342, p>.05 Greek vs German: N=45, z=-1,008, p>.05

2.60

2.50

2.76

2.71

Importance of learning theses languages in order to learn about the culture of its speakers Greek vs English: N=47, z=-,566, p>.05 Greek vs French: N=29, z=-3,792, p