Lithic Variability and Middle Palaeolithic Behavior: new evidence from the Iberian Peninsula 9780860545248, 9781407346885

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Lithic Variability and Middle Paleolithic Behavior new evidence from the Iberian Peninsula

C. Michael Barton

BAR International Series ·408 1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. W alker, M.A.

BAR -S408, 1988:

©

'Li thic Variabi 1 i ty and Middle Paleoli thic Behavior'

C. Michael Barton,

1988

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545248 paperback ISBN 9781407346885 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545248 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS

P age L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS L ISTS OF TABLES P REFACE

i v

1 . I NTR ODUCTIO N Ove rv iew o f Uppe rP le is tocene Ch rono logy a nd E nv ironmen t i n t he n or thwes te rn Med i terranean R eg ion T he M idd le P a leo l i th ic i n t he Nor thwes te rn Med i te r ranean I n troduc t ion t ot h eP resen tS tudy

1 2 1 1 4

2 . BACKGROUND AND D EPOS IT IONAL CONTEXTS G ibra l tar The A lcoy B as in S ummary

1 7 1 7 3 5 5 5

3 . METHODOLOGY B ackg round t o t he S tudy o f L i th ic V ar iab i l i ty Me thods a nd T echn iques

5 6 5 6 5 8

4 . QUANT ITAT IVE VAR IAB IL ITY I N M IDDLE PALEOL ITH IC TOOLS Var iab i l i ty i n E dges Var iab i l i ty i n P ieces A ssemb lage L eve l V a r iab i l i ty T ypes a nd Quan t i ta t ive V ar iab i l i ty Co mpa r ison o f R esu l ts w i th O ther S i tes S ummary

6 1 6 1 7 1 7 6 8 3 8 5 9 7

5 . D ISC USS ION L i th ic V ar iab i l i ty a nd M idd le P a leo l i th ic B ehav ior Conc lus ion s

9 9 9 9 10

APPEND IX I : MEASURE MENT T ECHN IQUES AND I NSTRU MENTS P ieces E dge s I ns trumen ts

12 12 12 14

APPEND IX I :

15

KEY TO ATTR IBUTES

APPEND IX I I : AVA ILAB IL ITY OF RA W DATA

19

B IBL IOGRAPHY

1 20

L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS

F igure

P age

1 . 1

Oxygen i s o tope c h rono logy f o rt he Uppe rP le is tocene

6

1 . 2

R econs t ruc ted modern v ege ta t ion z ones i nt he n or thwe s te rn Med i te rranean

8

1 . 3

Uppe rP le is tocene p o l len s equence s

1 0

1 . 4

L oca t ions o f I ber ian p en insu la s i tes d i scussed i n t h e t e x t

1 5

2 . 1

P lan v iew o f Gorham 's C ave

1 8

2 . 2

P lan v iew o f D ev i l 's T ower r ock s he l ter

2 0

2 . 3

P ro f i le o f Gorha m 's C ave d epos i ts

2 2

2 . 4

P ro f i le o f D ev i l 's T ower d epos i ts

2 3

2 . 5

P lan v iew o f C ova d e l S a l t

3 8

2 . 6

P lan v iew o f C ova d e l P as tor

3 9

2 . 7

P ro f i le o fC ova d e l S a l t d epos i ts ( e xposu re v i s ib le i n1 984 )

4 3

2 . 8

C ova Neg ra f auna lg roups

5 1

3 . 1

A t tr ibu tes measured o n t oo ls

5 9

4 . 1

D is tr ibu t ion o f v ar iab i l i ty i n e dge a ng les

6 2

4 . 2

D is t r ibu t ion o f v ar iab i l i ty i n e dge s hape

6 3

4 . 3

D is t r ibu t ion o f v a r iab i l i ty i n ( a ) r e touch i nvas iveness a nd ( b )e dge l eng th f o rr e touched e dges

6 4

S ca t te rp lo t o f e dge a ng le v s . i nvas ivenes sf o r a l l r e touched e dges

6 7

S ca t ter p lo t o fp iece w id th/ th ickness v s . r e touch i nvas iveness f o ra l l r e touched e dges

6 8

S ca t te r p lo t o f p iece w id th/ th ickness v s . e dge a ng le f o ra l l r e touched e dges

6 9

S ca t te rp lo t o fe dge a ng le v s . e dge l eng th f o r a l l c omp le te r e touched e dges

7 0

D is tr ibu t ion o f v a r iab i l i ty i n ( a ) p e rcen t o f t o ta l r e touched marg in p e r p iece w i th s t ep f l ak ing a nd ( b ) p e rcen to ft o ta l marg in r e touched p er p iece

7 2

V ar iab i l i ty i n means o f( a ) r e touched e dge a ng le a nd ( b )r e touch i nvas iveness f o rr e touched e dges i na s semb lages f ro m t he s i tes s tud ied

7 7

4 . 4

4 . 5

4 . 6

4 . 7

4 . 8

4 . 9

4 . 10

4 . 11

V ar iab i l i ty i n means o f( a ) e dge l e ng th a nd ( b ) S hape I ndex f o rr e touched e dges i na ssemb lages f r om t he s i tes s t ud ied

7 8

V ar iab i l i ty i n ( a ) means o fp e rcen t s t ep f l ak ing p e re dge a nd ( b ) p ercen to fp ieces w i th s t ep f l ak ing o n > 5% o ft o ta l r e touched marg in i n a ssemb lages f r om t he s i tes s t ud ied

7 9

L IST OF TABLES

T ab le

P age

2 . 1

S t ra t igraphy o f Gorham 's C ave

2 1

2 . 2

S t ra t igraphy o f D ev i l 's T owe r r ock s he l ter

2 4

2 . 3

S ugges ted c h rono logy f o r Go rham 's C ave a nd D ev i l 's T ower

2 6

2 . 4

Ma m ma l ian f auna f r o m Gorham 's C ave

3 1

2 . 5

V e r teb ra te f auna f r om D ev i l 's T owe r r ock s he l ter

3 3

2 . 6

L i th ic i nven tory f r om Gorha m 's C ave

3 6

2 . 7

S t ra t igraphy o f C ova d e l S a l t

4 1

2 . 8

S ugges ted c h rono logy a nd p a leoenv ironmen ts f o r s i tes i n e as tern S pa in

4 6

2 . 9

L i th ic i nven tory f r om C ova d e l S a l t

5 3

4 . 1

C o mpar ison o fp ieces w i th s t ep f l ak ing o n >5% o ft he r e touched marg in v s . p ieces w i th < 5 % s t ep f l ak ing

7 4

C o mpar ison o fp iece sw i th mod if ica ton o n >5 0% o ft he marg in v s . t hose w i th 30 ,000 Dev i l 's T owe r , l aye r3

accompanied by a reduction in sand deposition. Zeuner (1953) also correlated storm wave erosion at the mouth of the cave with layer J, suggesting a sea level close to that of the cave but not as high as in the lower beach deposits. As a group, layers S3 through the 2nd stalagmite seem best correlated with the early glacial of isotope stages Sd-Sa. In such a correlation, the carbonate horizons would be most likely represent the relatively mesic environmental conditions associated with stages Sc and Sa, while the sand layers represent the episodes of more glacial climate of stages Sd and Sb. The the more humid conditions of the first sand series (layers S3-Sl) and the greater aridity of the second series OQ-K) agrees with pollen data for the Mediterranean region for environments of stages Sd and Sb respectively. Likewise, marine core data suggest that the last moderately high sea level was during stage Sa, but that it was below the level of stage Se. The wave erosion associated with layer J is the last evidence for a moderately high sea level at the site, but not as high as the lower beach deposits. These layers are followed by a series of sand deposits (H-F) and the third stalag­ mite. The sands indicate that a sand source was once again active and that local conditions were drier. This is followed by a brief return to more humid conditions (the third stalag­ mite). This series of deposits could correlate with lower and middle pleniglacial conditions of stages 4 and 3. The sand layer H would correlate with the climatic deterioration and low sea level of the onset of full glacial conditions. Sand layers G and F seem to represent simi­ lar conditions, though they have higher organic contents than H (Zeuner, 1953). The radio­ carbon dates for G suggests that it may be associated with stage 3, while the Upper Pale­ olithic industry of F indicates that it is probably no older than this stage. The third stal­ gmite suggests increased humidity such as associated with part of stage 3 in pollen data from the region. Another series of sands follows (layers E-B), indicating a drop in available mois­ ture. The radiocarbon dates for layer D make the correlation between these sands and the glacial maximum of stage 2 quite reasonable. This is followed by a stalagmitic layer and the much less sandy layer A, marking a return to interglacial conditions (ie., stage 1).

Devil's Tower. Although the chronology of Devil's Tower was discussed by Garrod (1928), the stratigraphy has never been restudied with respect to current knowledge about Upper Pleistocene chronology and climatic variation. A possible chronology can be sug­ gested, however, based on Garrod's descriptions of the deposits and Zeuner (1953) analysis of the sediments at Gorham's Cave discussed above. The base of the Devil's Tower sequence is a raised beach (layer 7) 8-9 m. above mean sea level. Garrod equates this beach with the last interglacial. It is the same height as the one that Zeuner describes at Gorham's Cave (layer U) and represents the last time the sea was high enough to reach the site. This would suggest that like layer U at Gorham's Cave, this deposit would most likely date to the last interglacial, stage Se (see above). Layer 6, merely the cemented upper part of this beach and equivalent to layer T at Gorham's Cave, would then also date stage Se. At the upper end of the sequence, Garrod ascribes the "six rough flakes of quartzite, and a few fragments" from layer 1 to the Middle Paleolithic. There are too few pieces to be sure, but the lack of blades does not conflict with this suggestion. On the other hand, the re­ touched pieces of layer 2 are almost certainly Middle Paleolithic (see Chapters 4 and 5). This would indicate a date of no later than late stage 3 (c. 35,000 BP) for at least layer 2, and possibly layer 1. A 14C date from layer 3 is inconclusive, giving an age of > 30,000 BP (Almagro Gorbea, 1970). If a rather straightforward correlation between the deposits of Gorham's Cave and Devil's Tower Rock Shelter is postulated, a somewhat more detailed chronology can be es­ tablished. Such a correlation, although without direct stratigraphically evidence, is not 27

u nreasonab le . B o th s i tes a re i ns im i lar t opog raph ic s e t t ings ; t hey a re b o th c av i t ies , o pen ing t o t he s ea i n t he e as tern f a ce o f t he R ock , a ta bou t t he s ame e l eva t ion . A lso , t he s i tes a re o n ly af ew k i lome te rs a par t . I ts eem sr easonab le t oa ssume ,t hen , t ha t t he s ed imen ts a tb o th s i tes m igh tb et he r e su l to fg eomorph ic p rocesses ,c on t ro l led a tl e as ti np ar tb yf l uc tua t ions i n l o ca l e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions a f fec t ing b o th s i te si n as im i lar f a sh ion . A t Gorham 's C ave , t he a l terna t ing l ayers o f s ands a nd c arbona tes/f ine s ed i men ts/organ ics a re i n te rp re ted a s t he c omb ined r e su l t o fe us ta t ic f l uc tua t ions i n s ea leve l a nd t he ( poss ib ly r e la ted ) amoun t o f wa te r a va i lab le i nt h e R ock f o r s eepage a nd s p r ing a c t i v i ty ( s ee a bove ) . S im i lar ly , a l terna t ing l ayers o f s and a nd t u fa/ traver t ine a re f ound a t D ev i l 's T owe r . B eg inn ing w i th t he b each d epos i ts , ap oss ib le c or re la t ion o f a eo l ian s and a nd c a rbona te d epos i ts b e tween t he t wo s i tes i sp roposed i nT ab le 2 . 3 . I nt h is s cheme ,n ear ly a l l o f t he s equence wou ld b e a ssoc ia ted w i th s t age 5 . L aye rs 2 t h rough 5 ,r ep resen t ing t he e ar ly g lac ia l o f s t ages 5 d -5a wou ld b e k7 5 ,000 y ear s i n a ge ; i ft he r a ised b each r epresen ts s t age 5 ei t wou ld b eu pwa rds o f1 20 ,000 y ears i na ge . L aye r1 ,t hen ,i s mos tl i ke ly c or re la ted w i th t he c l i ma t ic d e ter iora t ion t ha t b egan i n s t age 4 . Un l ike t he s equence a t Gorham 's C ave , t here i sn o c l ear c u l tura le v idence f o rd epos i ts mo re r e cen t t han s t age 3 . On t he o the r h and , l aye r 1i sv ery t h ick ( ove r 4m i n p laces ) a nd c ou ld w e l l r ep resen t ac ons ide rab le l eng th o f t ime . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t t h is l ayer , a long w i th t he s e conda ry d epos i t , t he " wash " c ou ld e ncompass a l lo ft he f u l lg lac ia la nd Ho locene ( s tages 4 4 ) .

UPPER P LE ISTOCENE ENV IRONMENTS AT G IBRALTAR S ed imen t s . S ed imen tary e v idence a tb o th G o rham 's C ave a nd Dev i l 's T ower p o in ts t o a t l e as t as l igh t ly d r ie r a nd p oss ib ly c oo le r c l ima te a tt he s i te f o r mos t o f t he p e r iod o f P a leo l i th ic o ccupa t ion . T he many a eo l ian s and l a ye r s a tG orham 's C ave -w i thou t e v idence o f wea the r ing , as ubs tan t ia l f i ne s ed imen t c omponen t , o r s t a lagm i t ic c arbona tes sugges t t ha t t he c ave was r e la t ive ly d ry d ur ing t he t ime o f t he i r d epos i t ion . Add i t iona l ly , t hese s ands s ugges t t ha t d ur ing t imes o f l owe red s ea l eve l , t he re w as i n su f f ic ien t v ege ta t ion t o s t ab i l ize t he e xposed f o reshore s ands a nd p reven t s i gn i f ican t w ind e ros ion . I nf a c t , Z eune r ( 1 953 ) i den t i f ied o n ly a s i ng le s o i l h or izon i n i n t he mass ive s and b eds t ha t a ccu mu la ted a ga ins t t he e as tern s i de o f t he R ock , a bove C a ta lan B ay , s i nce t he f o rma t ion o f awave c u t p la t form 1 7 -18 m . a bove s ea l eve l ( p resumab ly d a t ing t ot he M idd le P le is tocene , a nd c e r t a in ly p reda t ing t he s ed imen ts i n Gorham 's C ave ) . S uch e v idence a l so s ugges ts r e la t ive a r id i ty . S im i la r c ond i t ions s eem t o b e r ep resen ted i n t he u nwea the red , a eo l ian s and d e p os i ts a tD ev i l 's T ower . T hese a l so s ugges t t ha t l ow s ea l e ve l e xposed a g rea te r e xpanse o f m in ima l ly s t ab i l ized s andy f o reshore f r om wh ich t he w ind c ou ld b low s and a ga ins t t he R ock a nd i n to t he f i ssure . Add i t iona l ly , t he l a ck o f c arbona tes i n t hese b eds s ugges ts t ha t t he p e r iod ica l ly a c t ive s p r ings a tt he s i te w e re i nopera t ive a ts uch t imes . T he a pparen t a r id i ty a tb o th s i tes c ou ld b e ar e su l t o f e i the r ar e la t ive d rop i n e f f e c t ive p rec ip i ta t ion o r t he l owe red s ea l e ve l , o r ac omb ina t ion o f t he t wo p henomena . A d ecrease i n e f fec t ive p rec ip i ta t ion wou ld r educe t he amoun to f wa ter a va i lab le i nt he R ock f o r s pr ings ; l owe r s ea l eve l c ou ld c ause a d rop i n t he l o ca l wa ter t ab le a nd a l so d ecrease s p r ing a c t iv i ty a tt he b ase o f t he R ock . S ed imen tary e v idence f o r c oo ler t empe ra tu res a s soc ia ted w i th t he s and l aye rs i s c ons iderab ly more e qu ivoca l a t Gorham 's C ave a nd l a ck ing a t D ev i l 's T owe r . S ubangu lar l imes tone d eb r is i nl a yer N/O o fG o rham 's C ave c ou ld b ep a r t ly c ryogen ic i no r ig in ( Zeune r , 1 953 ) . Howeve r , B u tze r ( 1 964 ) s ugges ts t ha t t r ue c ryogen ic d epos i ts may b e r a re t on onex is t en t a t l ow e l eva t ions i n t he wes tern Med i te r ranean , a l though t he d a ta f r om h i s e x tens ive s t udy o f Ma l lorcan s ed imen ts d os ugges tJ anuary mean t empe ra tures 5 °40 °b e low t hose o ft o d ay d ur ing t he l a s t g lac ia l ( Bu tze r , 1 964 ; 1 975 ) .

2 8

T he l aye rs o f mo re c a lcareous a nd c l ayey/s i l ty/o rgan ic s ed imen ta tG orham 's C ave a re mo re e as i ly i n te rp re ted a s t hey a re v ery s im i lar t o t hose f o rm ing t oday ( Zeune r , 1 953 ) . T hey s ugges tt empe ra te a nd h um id c ond i t ions i nt he c ave ,l i ke t hose o ft he p resen t . A t Dev i l 's T owe r , t h e c a lc iu m c arbona te b eds a re v ery p robab ly a r e su l t o f l o ca l s pr ing a c t iv i ty , e spec ia l ly a s t hese d epos i ts t end t o merge i n af a c ies r e la t ionsh ip w i th mas s ive s ands ar e la t ive ly s hor t d is tance f r om t he s he l te r . On t he o the r h and , Io bse rved a s im i la rs equence o fs ands a nd t u fa/ t rave r t ine l aye rs af ew h undred me ters s ou thwes t o ft he s i te . Wh i le n o t s ugges t ing t ha t t hese d epos i ts wou ld d i rec t ly c or re la te w i th t hose o f t he s he l te r , t he ir p resence i nd ica tes t ha t t he c a rbona tes may b e ar e su l t o fp henomena t ha t a f f e c ted more t han j u s t t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft he s i te . T hese t u fa/ traver t ine l aye rs s ugges t l o ca l ly mo is ter a nd p oss ib ly warme r c ond i t i ons t han d ur ing t he f o rma t ion o f t he s and b eds ( s ee B resson , e t . a l . , 1 973 ; B u tzer , 1 963 ; 1 975 ) . Add i t iona l ly , i ft he d arke r c o lor o ft he c arbona tes i sd ue t o ah ighe r o rgan ic c on ten t a s i st h e c ase a tG orham 's c ave , i t wou ld s ugges t t ha t more v ege ta t ion was g row ing a tt he t ime o ft he ir d epos i t ion t han d ur ing t he d epos i t ion o ft he s and l aye rs F ina l ly , t he c emen ted p or t ion o f t he b each d epos i ts a t b o th s i tes ( l ayer T a t Go rham 's C ave a nd l aye r 6a t D ev i l 's T ower ) a ppears c ha rac te r is t ic o f p rocesses c ur ren t ly o pe ra t ing i n t he wes te rn Med i te r ranean l i t tora l ( A lexande rsson , 1 972 :203 -223 ) . I n s ummary , s ed imen tary e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t he i mmed ia te e nv ironmen ts o f b o th s i tes , a nd p oss ib ly t h a t o f G ibra l tar a s a who le , was s omewha t d r ier a nd p oss ib ly s l igh t ly c oo ler d u r ing t h ee p isodes o fs and d epos i t ion . T hese a re c or re la ted w i th t he p e r iods o f g l ac ia l max ima d u r ing t h e e a r ly Uppe r P le is tocene . T he p e r iods o f c arbona te d epos i t ion a re c o r re la ted w i th i n te rg la c ia l a nd i n ters tad ia l c ond i t ions . E nv ironmen ts s im i lar t o t hose o ft h ep resen ta re s ugges ted f o rs uch t imes . F auna . T he ma r ine mo l luscs f r om t he s i tes m igh tp rov ide s o me e v idence f o rv ar ia t i ons i ns ea t empe ra tu re sd u r ing p ar to ft he s equence , a s sum ing t hey were t r an spor ted f r om t he b each t o t he c ave wh i le a l ive o r r e la t ive ly s hor t ly a f ter d ea th . P r ior t o l ayer G a t Go rham 's C ave , a l l s pec ies f ound i nt he d epos i ts a re t hose c ur ren t ly f ound i n t he Med i ter r anean o r i n t he A t lan t ic , r ang ing f r om G ibra l tar , s ou th ( Baden -Powe l l , i n Waech ter , 1 964 ) . B eg inn ing i nl aye r Ga nd c on t inu ing t h rough l aye rB , an umber o fA t lan t ic s pec ies t ha tr ange f r om G ib ra l tar , n or th j o in t h e a ssemb lage . Add i t iona l ly , i nl aye rs D a nd B a re f ound r epre s en ta t ives o f t wo n or th A t lan t ic s pec ies ( Mod io lu s m od io lus a nd Nuc i l la l a p i l lus ) t ha t a re n o tc ur ren t ly f ound i nt h e c oas ta l wa te rs o fG ibra l tar ( I b id . ) . T h is wou ld s ugges t t ha t wa ter t empe ra tures w e re c oo le rt h an p resen t i nt he t ime p e r iod d a t ing f r om l ayer G t h rough l aye r B . H owever , t he s a mp le s i ze i n t hese u pper l aye rs i s much g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he l ower l aye r sa nd may b e t he p r im ary r eason f o rt h is a pparen td i f fe rence . A t D ev i l 's T ower , t h e o verwhe lm ing ma jor i ty o f t he t axa f r om t he b each l eve l a re f ound i n t he Med i ter ranean t oday . T he r ange o f t he f ew f ound o n ly i n t he A t lan t ic i sn o t s pec i f ied . I n t he o the r l e ve ls , t he ma jor i ty o f t he s pec imens i sa l so o f a n A t lan t ic s pec ies o f u nspec i f ied r ange , P a te l l a v u lga ta ( F ischer i n G ar rod , e t . a l . , 1 928 ) . T he r ema ins o f mamma l ian f auna , wh i le a bundan t , a re e ven l e ss i n forma t ive f r om a n e nv iron men ta l s t andpo in t t han a re t he mo l luscs . T he f auna f r o m Gorham 's C ave a re l i s ted a c cord ing t on umbe rs o fe l emen ts p resen t f o r e ach t axon i ne ach l eve l ( Baden -Powe l l , i n Wae ch ter , 1 964 ) . A l though t he re i ss o me d isag reemen ta st ot he v a lue o fu s ing n u mber o f e l emen ts ( verses m in i mum n umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls ) t oa ssess r e la t ive a bundance o fd i f fe ren t s pe c ie s ( s ee Chase , 1 983 :11 16 , 1 8 ; P erk ins a nd D a ly , 1 968 ; K le in a nd C ruz -Ur ibe , 1 984 :24 3 8 ) , t h e r e la t ive n umbe r o fe l emen ts c an p rov ide t h is i n forma t ion , a tl e as t t o al im i ted d e g ree ( i t s ma jor p rob lem b e ing o ver rep resen ta t ion o f more a bundan tt a xa ) .

2 9

T he f auna l c oun ts f r om G orham 's C ave h ave b e en c onve r ted t op e rcen to ft o ta l e l e men ts b y l eve l i nT ab le 2 . 4 . Add i t iona l ly , t hese p ercen t sa re s ummed f o r s eve ra l g roups o f t axa w i th s im i lar e nv ironmen ta l a ssoc ia t ions . T he g roups i n c lude : as t epp ic , a Med i te r r anean/tempera te f o res t , a nd amon tane g roup f o r l a rge h e rb ivores ; ar abb i tg roup ( a s t hey a re t he mos tn ume rous o ft he f auna a nd p oss ib ly t he mo s tl o ca lt ot he r ocky c l i f f sa nd s andy f o reshore i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft he s i te ) ; a nd ac a rn ivore g roup ( t o a s ses s t he p o ten t i a l f o rn on -human c arn ivo re sb e ing r e spons ib le f o rt he a s semb lage ) . Mos to ft he t e r res t r ia l f auna r epresen ted a tb o th s i tes wou ld b e n a t ive t ot he r eg ion t oday ( Corbe t t , 1 978 :216 ) w i th h orse , r h inoceros , e l ephan t , a nd s o me o f t he l a rge c arn ivores b e ing t he p r imary e xcep t ions ( and a l l b u t r h inoceros a nd e l ephan t p robab ly l i ved i n t h e a rea d ur ing t he e a r ly Ho locene ) . Wi th t he e xcep t ion o fl ayers H a nd I , wh ich h ave v e ry sma l l s a mp les , members o f t he s t eppe g roup a re c ons is ten t ly r a re t h roughou tt h e s equence . G rass land e nv ironmen ts a re c ur ren t ly v ery r a re i nt he v i c in i ty o ft he s i te a nd a l so a ppea rt o h ave b een s o i nt he p as t . Med i ter ranean f o res ta nd mon tane r ocky s l opes a re c u r ren t ly f ound i nt he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft he c ave . T hese e nv i ronmen ts a re t hose b es tr ep re sen ted b y t h e l a rge u ngu la te r ema ins . Add i t iona l ly , r e la t ive f l uc tua t ions among t he d i f fe ren t u ngu la te g roups d o n o t a p p ear t oc o inc ide w i th s ed imen tary d a ta . Membe rs o ft he f o res tg roup t end t ob em ore f r equen t i nl aye rs U -G ,a nd l e ss f r equen t i nl ayer sF -A . Membe rs o ft h e mon tane g roup a r er e la t ive ly f r equen t i nl aye rs P -M , K , a nd B , wh ich may b ec oo le r a nd mo re a r id b ased o ns ed i men ta ry a nd s t ra t ig raph ic d a ta . B u t t hey a re a l so f r equen t i n l a ye rs U a nd A , wh ich r epresen t i n te rg lac ia l c ond i t ions , a nd r a re i n F -D wh ich a re c or re la ted w i th t he g lac ia l m ax imu m . Wh i le v ar iab i l i ty i nr e la t ive a bundance o ft a xa d o n o ts eem t op rov ide ac ons is ten t e nv ironmen ta l p ic tu re , t hey may p rov ide i n forma t ion a bou t h u man h un t ing s t ra teg ies a nd t he ir c hange t h rough t ime . T he mos t r ead i ly a ppa ren t p a t tern i n f auna l v a r iab i l i ty i st h a t i n t he M idd le P a leo l i th ic l aye rs ( U -G ) , l a rge u ngu la tes a r e more f r equen ta nd r abb i ts l e ss s o t han i n t he Uppe r P a leo l i th ic a nd mode rn l a ye rs ( F -A ) . T he r e la t ive f r equency o fc arn ivo re r ema ins i sv e ry l ow t h roughou t t he e n t ire s equence , s ugg es t ing t ha tt he ma jo r i ty o ft he f au n a lr ema ins r e su l tf r om h uman h un t ing ( s ee K le in a nd C ruz -U r ibe , 1 984 :84 ) . T h i sw ou ld s ug g es t t ha t t he re was ag rea te r emphas is o n t he h un t ing o fl a rge u ngu la tes d ur ing t h e M idd le P a leo l i th ic t han d ur ing l a ter o ccupa t ions o f t he s i te . N eve r the less , f auna f r om a l l t h ree e nv ironmen ta l z ones r ema ined a ccess ib le t ot he o ccupan t so ft he s i te ,b u t t hose f r om t he f o r e s ta nd mon tane z ones were mos tr ead i ly a va i lab le the c ond i t ions wh ich e x is tt oday . F or D ev i l 's T ower , t he f auna a re o n ly l i s ted a cco rd ing t o t a xa p resen t , w i th a f ew n o tes o nr e la t ive a bundance ,f o ra l l l aye rs c omb ined ( Ba te i nG a r rod ,e t .a l . , 1 928 ) . T hese a r e s hown i n T ab le 2 . 5 . T he s a me g roups a re r epresen ted a t D ev i l 's T ower a s a r e f ound a t Gorham 's C ave . R abb i ts ( Oryc to lagu s c un i cu lu s ) a re , a s a tG o rham 's C ave , t he mos t n ume r o us o ft he mamma l ian t a xa , a nd p robab ly r epresen t l o ca li nhab i tan ts o ft he r ocky t a lus a nd s andy f o reshore . R ema ins o f member so ft he f o res ta nd mon tane g roup s , i nc lud ing p ig ,r ed d eer , a nd i b ex a re d escr ibed a s r e la t ive ly a bundan t , wh i le t hose o f t he s t epp i c g roup ( i e . , h orse ) a re c ompara t ive ly r a re . T h is c l ose ly p ara l le ls t h e o vera l l d i s tr ibu t ion o f t axa a t Gorham 's C ave . F lora . D i rec t i n forma t ion a bou t t he v ege ta t ion i sa lmos t e n t i re ly l a ck ing f o r b o th s i tes . Ana lyzed macrobo tan ica l r ema ins a re o n ly r epor ted f r om G orha m 's C ave , a nd a re c on f ined t op oss ib le s eed f r agmen ts o fP inu sp ine a f r om l a ye rB ;c ha rcoa lf r om p ine ( P . p in e a ) a nd b oxwood ( Buxu s s p . ) f r om l ayer D ; a nd c ha rcoa l a nd c one f r agmen ts o f p ine ( P . p ine a ) f r om l aye rG( Me tca l fi n Waech te r , 1 964 ) . A l l o ft hese t r ee sc ou ld g row i n t he a r ea n a tura l ly t oday . I n s u mmary , e nv ironmen ta l f l uc tua t ions r e corded a tt he G ib ra l tar s i te sd u r ing t h e Upper P le is tocene i n c lude v a r ia t ions i nt he amoun t o fl and a r ea , p r ima r i ly s andy f o resho re , d epend ing o n s ea l eve l ; f l uc tua t ions i n a va i lab le wa ter , p oss ib ly l i nked t o v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e

3 0

T ab le 2 .4

F auna l Re ma ins f ro m Gorha m 's Cave

( Percen t o f t o ta l e le men ts b y l eve l ) S PEC IES

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H omo

0 . 0

1 . 2

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

D ice rorh inus s p . E quus c aba l lus

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 1

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 1 . 1

1 6 .6 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

1 6 .6 0 . 0

S t eppe G roup S um

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 1

0 . 0

0 . 0

1 . 1

1 6 .6

0 . 0

1 6 .6

S u s s c rof a C ervus e l aphus B o s c f .p r im igenius

0 . 0 1 . 3 0 . 0

0 . 8 2 . 8 1 . 2

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 3 4 . 5 0 . 1

0 . 0 5 . 3 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 2 9 .3 2 . 8

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

F ore s t G roup S um

1 . 3

4 . 8

0 . 0

4 . 9

5 . 3

0 . 0

3 2 . 1

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

C apr a c f . i b ex

2 5 .9

2 0 .0

1 .7

9 . 5

5 . 3

7 . 2

6 . 2

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

Moun ta in G roup S um

2 5 .9

2 0 .0

1 .7

9 . 5

5 . 3

7 . 2

6 . 2

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

O ryc to lagus c un icu lus L epus s p .

7 1 .4 0 . 0

6 9 .8 0 . 4

8 8 .2 0 . 0

7 8 .9 1 . 9

8 7 .5 0 . 0

9 0 .9 0 . 0

5 3 .1 0 . 0

8 3 .3 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

8 3 .3 0 . 0

R abb i t S um

7 1 .4

7 0 .2

8 8 .2

8 0 .8

8 7 .5

9 0 .9

5 3 . 1

8 3 .3

0 . 0

8 3 .3

C an i s l upus U r sus a rc tos C rocu ta c rocuta

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 8 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 5 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 2 . 8

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

( c opro l i tes ) F e l i s s i lve s tr i s

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 3

1 . 7

+ 0 . 0

+ 0 . 5

0 . 0

+ 0 . 0

0 . 0

F e l i s l y nx P an th era p ardus P an th e ra c f . l e o ?

1 . 3 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 8 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

1 . 8 0 . 0 0 . 0

2 . 8 0 . 5 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

C a rn ivore S um

1 . 3

0 . 8

0 . 0

1 . 6

1 . 7

1 . 8

6 . 6

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

H a l ichoerus g rypus Monachus m onachus

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

1 . 0 0 . 1

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

C etacea

0 . 0

2 . 4

0 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

Ma r ine G roup S um

0 . 0

2 . 4

0 . 0

2 . 1

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

R oden t ia

0 . 0

0 . 4

0 . 0

0 . 1

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

E r inac eus s p T a lpa s p .

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 5 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

6

0

6

s ap iens

T o ta ln

7 7

2 45

1 7

3 1

5 66

5 6

5 5

1 77

H

I

T ab le 2 .4 . ( Con t inued ) ( No f auna l r e ma ins f ro m l ayer S ) S PEC IES

K

L

M

N /O

P

Q

Homo

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

D ice rorh inus s p . E quus c aba l lus

0 . 5 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 2 2 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 7

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

S t eppe G roup S um

0 . 5

0 . 0

2 . 2

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 7

0 . 0

0 . 0

S us s c rof a C ervus e l aphus B o s c f . p r im igen ius

0 . 0 7 . 2 1 . 2

8 . 0 4 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 1 3 .4 2 . 7

8 . 8 8 . 8 0 . 0

0 . 0 1 0 .4 1 . 0

0 . 0 2 . 0 2 . 0

0 . 7 6 . 3 0 . 0

5 5 1 6 .6 0 . 0

0 . 0 1 4 .2 0 . 0

F ores t G roup S um

8 . 4

1 2 .0

1 6 .1

1 7 .6

1 .4

4 . 0

7 . 0

2 2 . 1

1 4 .2

C ap ra c f . i b ex

4 0 .2

0 . 0

3 3 .5

1 3 .3

3 1 .2

4 . 0

0 . 7

5 5

1 4 .2

Moun ta in G roup S um

4 0 .2

0 . 0

3 3 .5

1 3 .3

3 1 .2

4 . 0

0 . 7

5 5

1 4 .2

O ryc to lagus c un icu lus L epus s p .

4 6 .4 0 . 0

8 4 .0 0 . 0

4 5 .1 0 . 0

6 .6 0 . 0

5 4 .1 0 . 0

3 4 .0 0 . 0

3 9 .7 0 . 0

1 6 .6 0 . 0

1 4 .2 0 . 0

R abb i t S um

4 6 .4

8 4 .0

4 5 .1

6 .6

5 4 . 1

3 4 .0

3 9 .7

1 6 .6

1 4 .2

C an i s l upu s

0 . 5

0 . 0

0 . 2

0 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

U r sus a rc tos

0 . 7

4 . 0

0 . 2

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

C rocu ta c rocuta ( c opro l i tes ) F e l is s i lve s tr i s F e l l s l ynx

1 . 2 + 0 . 0 0 . 5

0 . 0 + 0 . 0 0 . 0

1 . 0 + 0 . 2 0 . 5

0 . 0 + 2 . 2 0 . 0

1 . 0 + 0 . 0 1 . 0

2 . 0 0 . 0 2 . 0

0 . 0 + 0 . 0 0 . 7

5 . 5

0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

P an thera p ardus P an th era c f . l e o ?

1 . 4 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 5 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

4 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

C arn ivore S um

4 . 3

4 . 0

2 . 6

2 . 2

3 . 0

8 . 0

0 . 7

5 5

0 . 0

H a l ichoerus g rypus Monachus m onachus C etacea

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

Ma r ine G roup S um

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

R oden t ia

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

E r inac eus s p T a lpa s p .

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 . 0 1 4 .2

s ap iens

T o ta l n

4 03

2 5

3 94

3 2

4 5

9 6

5 0

R

1 41

T

1 8

U

7

T ab le 2 .5 . Ver tebra te F auna f ro m Dev i l 's To wer r ock s he l ter . F ro m Garrod , e t . a l . ( 1928 )

M A M MALS O rde r I nsec t ivora T a lp a e uropea C roc idura r ussu la O rde r Ch irop tera Myo t i s , c f . m yo t i s N yc t inomus t e n io t is O rder C arn ivora C an i s l upus U r sus a rc tos Me les m e les H yena c r ocu ta F e l is p ardus F e l i s , c f . s y lve s tr i s L ynx p ard e l lus Monachus a l b iven ter O rde r L agomorpha O ryt to lagus c un icu lus O rde r R oden t ia E l iomys q uerc inus A podemus s y lva t icus A rv ico la s p . P i tymy s s p . M icro tus b recc iens is H y s tr ix c r i s ta ta O rde r A r t iodac ty la S us s crof a C ervus e l aphus B o s , c f . p r im igen ius C apra p yrena ica O rde r P er issodac ty la E quus s p . O rde r P robosc id ia E l ephas s p .

B IRDS O rder P asse r i forme s P yrrhocor ax g racu lus P yrrhocor ax a l p inus F r ing i l la , c f . c o e leb s P asser s p . T urdus v i sc ivorus T urdus , c f . m eru la T urdus s p . H i rundo r us t ica C yp se lus m e lba P i cus v i r id i s O rde r F a lcon i formes F a lco p eregr inus F a lco e l eonorae F a lco s ubbuteo F a lco t i nnuncu lus F a lco ( ? ) c enchr i s H a l iae tus a l b ic i l la H ierae tus f a sc ia tus H ierae tus p enna tus G yp s f u lvus O rder Anse r i formes O idem ia ( ? ) f usca Me rgus , c f . s e r ra tor O rde r P e lecan i formes P ha lacrocorax ( ? ) c a rbo P ha lacrocorax g racu lus O rder P roce l lar i i formes P uf f inus k uh l i P uf f inus a ng lorum O rde r C o lumb i formes C o lumba l i v ia C o lumba o enas C o lumba p a lumbus O rder C haradr i iformes S te rna ( ? ) s andv ic ens i s L arus f uscus A lca i mpenn i s U r ia t r o i l le O rder G a l l i f orme s A lec torn i s ( ? ) p e tr o sa

3 3

R EPT ILES T es tu do i b era

F ISH P erco id , c f . l a te s m isc , i n te rm inab le f r agmen ts

amoun t a nd d is tr ibu t ion o fp rec ip i ta t ion . Wh i le s o me f l uc tua t ion i n t empe ra tu re u ndoub t e d ly o ccurred , t he e v idence f o r t h is i sm in ima l . T hese e nv ironmen ta l f l uc tua t ions d o n o t , h owever , s ee m t o h ave b een e x treme o r t o h ave a f fe c ted t he a va i lab i l i ty o f t e rres tr ia l f auna f o rt he o ccupan ts o ft he s i te .

EV IDENCE FOR HUMAN ACT IV IT IES T he p r ima ry r e cord o fh uman a c t iv i t ies a tb o th G orha m 's C ave a nd D ev i l 's T ower i sf ound i n t he c h ipped s t one a r t i fac ts r e cove red f r om t he s i tes . T hese a re d i scussed b e low a nd i n more d e ta i l i n Chap ters 4a nd 5 . Howeve r ,o the re v idence f o rh u man p resen ce a nd a c t i v i ty i nG ib ra l tar a l so e x is ts a nd s hou ld b e a tl e as tb r ief ly n o ted . Human f o s s i l s . F ragmen tary h uman p hys ica l r ema ins we re d i scove red i nl ayer 4o f D ev i l 's T ower . T he se i n c lude mos t o f ac a lo t te , f a c ia l/ max i l lary f r agmen ts , ar i gh t t empo r a l , a nd a n ear ly c omp le te mand ib le ( Bux ton i n G ar rod , e t .a l . , 1 928 ) . A l l a re f r om a v e ry y oung i nd iv idua l , a bou t a ge f i ve . A l though i th as b een s ugges ted t ha tt he t empo ra l , wh ich c anno t b e a r t icu la ted w i th t he c a lo t te , may b e f r om a s e cond , y ounger i nd iv idua l , t h is h as n o t b een f i rm ly e s tab l ished ( S t r inge r , Hub l in , a nd V ande rmee rsch , 1 984 ) . Ac o mb ina t ion o f p r im i t ive a nd mode rn c harac te r is t ics h ave b een n o ted i nt h is s pec imen . Howeve r ,g iven t he i ncomp le te u nders tand ing o f Neande r tha l d eve lopmen t , t he e vo lu t ionary s i gn i f icance ( i f a ny ) o ft h is s u i te o ff e a tures i su nce r ta in ( I b id . ) . S ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s . E v idence f o r s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies a re r epor ted f r om b o th Gorham 's C ave a nd D ev i l 's T owe r . T h is i sp r imar i ly i n t he f o rm o f t he b ones a nd s he l ls o f a n ima ls t hough t t oh ave b een u sed f o r f ood ,d es c r ibed a sb u rned a nd b roken i n mos t o f t he D ev i l 's T owe r d epos i ts , a nd c har coa l f r om f i res t ha t wou ld h ave b een u sed f o rc ook ing a nd warm th . Charcoa l w as r epor ted f r o m many o f t he G orham 's C ave s t ra ta a nd f r om a l l b u t t he b each d epos i t a tD ev i l 's T owe r . I n s o me o f t hese d epos i ts , i tf o rmed d en se l e nses t ha t h ave b een i n terp re ted a s h ea r ths ( Tab le 2 . 1 , 2 . 3 ; Waech te r , 1 951 ; 1 964 ; G arrod , e t . a l . , 1 928 ) . A t l e as t s o me o f t h is i sc er ta in ly c harcoa l , p robab ly f r om h u man c aused f i res ( Me tca l f i n Waech te r , 1 964 ) . T he f auna l r ema ins f r om t he s i tes h ave b een d iscussed a bove . T he l ow f r equency o fc a rn ivore r ema ins a tG o rham 's C ave a tl e as t ,s ugges t st ha th u mans may we l lb e r e spons ib le f o r much o ft he f auna t he re . I ts hou ld b er emembe red ,h oweve r ,t ha t ac on s ide rab le p ropor t ion o ft h ed epos i t a t t he D ev i l 's T owe r c ons is ts o f t u fa . V ege ta l ma ter ia l a nd m ine ra l d epos i ts , s uch a s Man g anese , a re o f ten i n co rpora ted i ns uch c a rbona te d epos i ts d u r ing t he ir f o r ma t ion , p roduc ing d a rk s t a in ing t ha tc an b em is taken f o rc har coa l . B ones i n co rpora ted i n to s uch d epos i ts c an b e s im i lar ly d arkened , a ppear ing b urned a nd a re o f ten f r ac tured , b o th b y t he m echan ica l a c t i on o ft he s pr ing a nd f r om b e ing t r amp led b ya n ima ls d r ink ing a tt he s pr ing ( Shu t ler , 1 967 ) . Add i t iona l ly , s o me o f t he l aye rs a t G orha m 's C ave h ave a h igh o rgan ic c on ten t , r e su l t ing f r om b a tg uano , a lga l ma ts ,a nd o ther n on -human s ources ( Zeune r , 1 953 ) . T h is o rgan ic ma te r i a l c an a l so r e semb le c harcoa l i ns ed imen ts a nd s hou ld a tl e as tb ec ons idered a s ap o ten t ia l s ource f o r s ome o f t he ma ter ia l r epor ted a s s uch . T h i s i sn o t t o s ay t ha t n one o f t he " cha rcoa l " o r f auna l r ema ins a re t he r e su l t o f h uman a c t iv i t ies , e spec ia l ly c ons ider ing t he u nd ispu ted p resence o fh uman p roduced c h ipped s t one i mp lemen t s ,o n ly t ha tt h ep os s ib i l i ty o f an on -human s ource f o ra tl e as ts o me o ft h is ma te r ia ls hou ld b es er ious ly c ons ide red . I n a dd i t ion t o mamma l ian f auna , ma r ine mo l lusc s he l ls a re a l so p resen t a t b o th s i tes , a tt imes i n a bundance . A s t he s ea h as n o t r eached e i ther s i te s i nce t he f o rma t ion o f t he ir b asa l l aye rs , t he mo l luscs may we l l h ave b een b rough t h ere a s f ood -e spec ia l ly c on s i de r ing t ha t many o ft hem a re e d ib le ( F reeman , 1 981 ; Waech te r , 1 964 ; G ar rod , e t . a l . , 1 928 ) . L i th i c s . L i th ic a r t i fac ts a re b y f a r t he mos t a bundan t r e cord o f h u man a c t iv i t ies a t b o th s i tes . T he c o l lec t ion r e covered f r om Gorham 's C ave i st he l a rge r o f t he t wo . I n t he s even y ears o fe xcava t ion a tt he s i te , mo re t han 9 , 895 p ieces o fc h ipped s t one we re r e cove red ,

3 4

i n c lud ing 9 , 074 p ieces f r om t he M idd le P a leo l i th ic l aye rs a lone . As u mmary i nven tory o f t he l i th ics , b ased o n Wae ch ter 's ( 1 951 ; 1 964 ) r epor ts , i sg iven i n T ab le 2 . 6 . T he d ec l in ing q uan t i t ies o f a r t i fac ts w i th d ep th f o r t he M idd le P a leo l i th ic i s s o mewha t m is lead ing . L aye rs K -R we re e xcava ted o ver a n a rea o n ly a bou t h a l f t he e x ten t o f t he e xcava t ion o f l aye rs A J . S im i la r ly , o n ly av e ry sma l l a rea o fl aye rs S l -U were e xcava ted ( s ee F igures 2 . 1 a nd 2 . 3 ) . T ab le 2 . 6s hows t h a t , wh i le Waech te rr e cove red a nd d escr ibed av e ry l a rge n umbe r o fl i th ics f r om G orham 's C ave , i th as b een p oss ib le t ol o ca te a nd s t udy o n ly asma l l f r ac t ion o f t hese in c o l lec t ions t h a t a re c ura ted a t t he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f L on d on ,a nd t he G ibra l tar Museum i nG ib ra l tar . C are fu le xam ina t ion o f Waech ter 's r epor ts a nd a ccompany ing i lus tra t ion ss ugges ts ,h owever ,t ha tt he se c o l lec t ions p robab ly r epresen t mos t ( i fn o t a l l ) o ft he r e touched M idd le P a leo l i th ic t oo ls f r om t he s i te . A s s hown i n t he t ab le , t h et oo ls measu red f o rt h i ss t udy make u pi nn umbe rs a bou t8 0% o f Waech te r 's r epo r ted t oo l c oun ts f or t he t h ree ma in M idd le P a leo l i th ic l aye rs ( G , K , a nd M ) . A t l e as t p a r t o f t he r e ma in ing 2 0% c an b e a ccoun ted f o r b y p ieces Waech ter c ons idered a s t oo ls , b u t t ha t e i ther w e re n o t r e touched ( eg . , u n re touched , p o in ted f l akes a nd l eva l lo is p o in ts h e c l assed a s " po in ts " ) o r whose " r e tou ch " c ons is ted o f m in ima l e dge d a mage o f q ues t ionab le o r ig in . I t m igh tb e r easonab ly s u rm ised t ha t t he c o l lec t ions l e f t f o rs t udy a nd d isp lay i nG ib ra l tar a nd L ondon c o mp r ised a l l ( o rn ea r ly a l l ) o ft he p ieces h e c l assed a s t oo ls , a nd as e lec t ion o f t he b e t te r e xamp les o f u t i l ized f l akes , d eb i tage , a nd c ores . ( Th is was c er ta in ly t he c ase w i th t h ec ores . ) T he l o ca t ion o ft he m iss ing d eb i tage a nd c ores r e ma ins amy s tery . A s t he s t udy d es c r ibed h e re f o cuses o nv ar iab i l i ty i nt he r e touched p ieces ,h oweve r , t he measured s a mp le o fs uch a r t i fac ts f r om G o rham 's C ave c an p robab ly b ec ons ide red av e ry n ear ly c omp le te o ne . Near ly 5 00 l i th ics we re e xcava ted f r om D ev i l 's T ower , w i th a l l l ayers e xcep t 7 c on ta in ing c h ipped s t one ( Gar rod , e t . a l . , 1 928 ) . Un for tuna te ly , mos t o f t hese were u n re t ouched d eb i tage a nd c ores a nd ,i nk eep ing w i th t he u sua l p rocedures o ft he d ay , we re c on s i de red o f v ery m in ima l s i gn i f icance a nd d iscarded . No d escr ip t ion o r e xac t c oun t o f t h is ma te r ia l i sr e corded . 1 01 c h ipped s t one a r t i fac ts , 2h ammers tones , a nd t wo p ieces o fb one ( t hough t b y G a r rod t ob ep ressu re f l ake rs ) we re k ep t f r om t he e xcava t ions , a nd a re p resen t ly c ura ted a t T he B r i t ish Museum i nL ondon . O ft hese ,4 5 a re r e touched t oo ls a nd we re measured f o r t h is s t udy . J udg ing f r om G a r rod 's r epor t a nd i lus tra t ions , t h is a ppears t or epresen t a l l o r v ery n ea r ly a l l o ft he r e touched p ieces f r om t he s i te . T he r ema inder i n L ondon i n c lude 1 7 c ores ( one o f t he measured t oo ls i sa l so a c ore t ha t h ad b een r eused a s as c rape r ) a nd 3 9 u n re t ouched f l akes .

T he A l coy B as in S ETT ING T he A lcoy b as in i sl o ca ted m idway b e tween t he c i t ies o fV a lenc ia a nd A l ican te , a t t he n or theas tern e dge o f t he B ae t ic s ys tem o f moun ta in r anges t ha t o ccupy much o f t he s ou theas tern I be r ian P en insu la . T he r anges o f t h is p a r t o f t he B ae t ic s ys tem a re p r i ma r i ly c o mposed o ff o lded C re ta ceous l imes tone i n as ou thwes tt on o r theas to r ien ta t ion . T hose t ha t f o rm t he b oundar ies o f t h e A lcoy b as in i n c lude t he B en icade l l t o t he n or th , t he Mar io la t o t h e wes t , a nd t he A lmuda ina , S ere I la , A l faro , a nd A forada r anges t ot he e as t . T hese moun t a ins r i se t o h e igh ts o fo ve r 1 , 500 m . , wh i le t he e l eva t ion o f t he b as in r anges f r om 5 62 m . a t A lcoy i nt he s ou thwes tt oa bou t3 00 m . a round B en ia r res R ese rvo i ri nt he n o r theas t . T he b as in i t se l f i so f t e c ton ic o r ig in a nd f i l led w i th a t h ick s equence o f T e r t iary e ro s iona ld eb r is a nd l a cu s t r ine s ed imen ts . T he Qua te rnary d ra inage s ys tem ,c ons is t ing o ft he R io S erp is a nd i t st r ibu ta r ies , h as c u td eep ly i n to t hese s ed imen ts a nd f o rmed as e r ies o ft e r -

3 5

°'

3

?

48

10

F1-F2

?

?

38

3?

E1-E3

>1?

?

--

0

12

01-02

?

--

?

10

B

--

REPORTED BY WAECHTER (1951; 1964) Utilized Unretouched Cores

?

--

Tools

A

LAYER

9074

4

5

15

44

38

464

159

1467

126

1498

21

5233

54

>38

568

161

-

Total Pieces

95

0

0

0

2

2

6

0

18

0

26

0

41

3

0

0

10

-

59

1

0

0

0

2

8

0

26

0

16

0

6

2

0

105

2

0

0

2

12

37

0

31

0

14

0

7

0

0

0

10

0 5

-

--

259

3

0

0

4

16

51

0

75

0

56

0

54

5

0

5

20

--

IN LONDON AND GIBRALTAR (1984) Cores Debitage Measured Total Tools Pieces

Table 2.6. Lithic inventory from Gorham's Cave

races, the highest of which is about 70 m. above the current floodplain. The Serpis forms in the city of Alcoy from the junction of several rivers and streams, including the Polop, Barchell, Molinar, and Sine, and flows northeastward a little more than 40 km. to reach the Mediterranean at Gandfa (Villaverde, 1984:280; Houston, 1967:182-184, 194-196).

Cova del Salt. Cova del Salt is a very large rock shelter (actually more of an overhung cliff) located some 2 km. southwest of Alcoy. At an elevation of about 650 m. and facing east-northeast, it is located on the southern side of a large embayment opening to the east in high tufa/travertine cliffs (see Figure 2.5). Near the southern end of the Sierra de Mariola, the cliffs form the Falls of the Barchell River, which crosses the cliffs about 0.5 km. south of the site. The site itself is an abandoned falls of the river, the embayment and overhang forming as the falls retreated. Villaverde (1984:280) suggests the tufa/travertines are of uncertain Quaternary age, and Butzer feels they may be Middle Pleistocene (Mueller-Wille, 1983:177). In any case they predate the Middle Paleolithic oc­ cupation of the site. The shelter or overhang is 35 m. wide, 10-15 m. deep, and at least 30 m. high. An "upper cave", c. 4 m. high and 3 m. wide at the mouth, is located at the northwest edge of the shelter, 8-10 m. above the top of the excavated deposits. A substantial part of these de­ posit underneath the overhang (and also perhaps in the rest of the embayment) has been leveled for construction and as a source of "garden soil", producing a sort of terrace (Martin, n.d.). The excavations at the site took place along the outer (ie., northeast facing) edge of this terrace. In the area excavated, over 4.5 m. of sediments were exposed before reaching a rock floor, and the original thickness of deposits was probably much greater.

Cova del Pastor. Pastor is considerably smaller than Salt and is a true rock shelter or shallow cave. It is located 2.5 km. northwest of Alcoy where the Barranc del Sine has in­ cised a deep, narrow gorge through the southern quarter of the Sierra de Mariola. The site is at the base of the southwestern side of the gorge and at the top of what is probably a high alluvial terrace (or possibly colluvial deposits). The shelter opens to the northeast at an elevation of 800 m. It is 16.5 m. wide and 7 m. high at the mouth, and extends 6 m. into the rock of the gorge wall (Figure 2.6). Sound­ ings made in the back of the shelter reached a depth of 1.2 m. without reaching a rock floor (Segui, n.d.; Cortell and Segura, n.d.). HISTORY OF RESEARCH

Cova del Salt. El Salt was first visited by the Abbe Breuil, who considered the deposits to be of minimal archaeological significance (Villaverde, 1984:280). The potential of the site was not recognized until 1958, when a group of "aficionados" led by Dr. Vincente Pascual (then director of the Museo Arqueol6gico Municipal de Alcoy) found flint tools in the soil of a garden that was being leveled with sediments from the shelter. A surface collection at the shelter produced Middle Paleolithic artifacts, prompting the museum to apply for permission to excavate the site and to ask the owner to stop using the site as a source for gar­ den soil. While the museum was awaiting permission to proceed, a man by the name of Fer­ nando Ponsell managed to excavate a trench in the site. He reported three distinct layers of lighter sediment separated by charcoal layers. Most of the artifacts he recovered are thought to have been lost (Martin, n.d.; Villaverde, 1984:280). When permission was granted to the museum, the work undertaken was directed by Pascual and Ricardo Martin Tobfas of the Servicio de Investigaciones Arqueol6gicas of Barcelona. Most of the work at the site took place during two field seasons, totaling about 30 working days. Martin returned to the site for two more brief excavations of a week each in August of 1964 and 1965 to study the stratigraphy in more detail and take samples for paly-

37

C OVA D EL S ALT -- P LAN V IEW

f

u pper c ave

0

5

1 0m

e xcava ted a rea

l o ca t ion o f p ro f i le MM.

a l e l r

F igure 2 . 5

P lan v i ew o fC ova d e l S a l t .

3 8

COVA DEL PASTOR -- PLAN VIEW

�

''

'- � h

,�

' iO

'

''

$

rocks/ debris

'

',® "' '

block

1

Figure 2.6 Plan view of Cova del Pastor.

39

2m

n o log ica l , s ed imen to log ica l , a nd r ad ioca rbon a na ly ses ( Mar t in , n .d . ) . Un fo r tuna te ly a ny r e s u l ts f r om t hese a na lyses h ave n eve rb een p ub l ished . T he s i te was e xcava ted i n f i ve h or izon ta l u n i ts ,S ec tors A , B , D , E ,a nd H ( s ee F ig u re 2 . 5 ) t o ta l ing a bou t 3 6 m2 ( V i l laverde , 1 984 :280 ) . Ma r t in i den t i f ied f i ve u pper s t e r i le s t ra ta a nd s i x l ower a rchaeo log ica l s t ra ta . He a l so i den t i f ied t r ans i t iona l s t ra ta t ha t s epa ra ted t he a r chaeo log ica l l aye rs . T he d epos i ts w e re e xcava ted t o ad ep th o f 4 . 5m . b e l ow t he s ur face o ft he t e r race ,i nS ec tor A a tl e a s t ,b e fo re r e ach ing ar ock f l oo r . A ccord ing t o t he p e rsonne la tt he museum i nA lcoy ,a nd d ocumen ted i n ap ho to o fe xcava t ions a tt he s i te , e xcava ted s ed imen ts we re d ry s c reened . C ova d e l P a s tor . T he a rchaeo log ica l s i gn i f icance o f P as tor was f i r s t r e cogn ized b y a no the r g roup o f" a f ic ionado s " , M . B ro tön s ,J .P as tor , a nd H . G arc ia ,i n 1 951 . T hey e xcava ted asma l l , i r regu la r t r ench a ga ins t t he b ack wa l l o ft he s he l ter t o ad ep th o f al i t t le more t han 5 0 cm .r e cover ing a bundan tl i th ics a nd b ones . I n t he F a l l o f 1 976 , A . S egu i , f r om t he S e c c iön d e A rgue° log i a d e l C en t ro E x cur s ion i s t a d e A lcoy , e xcava ted as l igh t ly l a rger ( 0 .9 X 1 . 65 m . ) , more r egu lar t e s t t r ench a l ong t h e f r on t e dge o ft he B ro töns e xcava t ion . T h is t r ench , c a l led C a ta A , was e xcava ted t o amax i mum d ep th o f1 . 20 m . F ina l ly , Em i l io C or te 1 1 a nd J osé M ä S egura , f r om t he Mu seo A rqueo le i co Mun ic ipa l o f A lcoy , worked a tt he s i te b r ie f ly i n 1 972 . I nJ une o ft ha t y ear t hey c l eaned a nd p ro f i led t he wa l ls o fS egu i 's t r ench . T hey r e turned i nS ep tember t o map t he s i te . A t t ha t t ime , t h ey a l so e xcaVa ted asma l l ( 0 .75 X 0 . 75 m . ) s ound ing t ot he d ep th o f0 . 7m . A l l t h ree e xcava t ions i den t i f ied t h ree l aye rs , d escr ibed b e low ( F igure 2 . 6 ; V i l laverde , 1 984 :294 ; C or te 1 1 a nd S e g ura ,n .d . ;S egu i ,n .d . ) .

S TRAT IGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY S t ra t ig raphy o f C ova d e l S a l t . Mar t in ( n .d . ) d escr ibed t he d epos i ts o f C ova d e l S a l t i n v ar iab le d e ta i l . Add i t iona l ly , B u tzer v i s i ted t he s i te i n 1 979 , a nd e xam ined t he s ed imen ts i n S ec tor A a nd i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he s i te ( Mue l ler-W i l le , 1 983 :176 -180 ) . F ina l ly , i n Ma rch o f1 984 , Iwas g iven t he o ppor tun i ty t ob r ie f ly e xam ine t he s ed imen ts i nt he p a r to f t he o ld e xcava t ion t r ench t ha t r e ma ined e xposed . T he r e su l ts o f t hese v a r ious s tud ies a r e s u mmar ized i n T ab le 2 . 7 . F igure 2 . 7 s hows t he s ed imen ts a t t he s i te a s t hey a ppeared i n 1 984 . T h is p ro f i le h as b een ma tched w i th ap enc i l s ke t ch b y o ne o ft he e xcava to rs ( p robab ly Ma r t in ) t ha t s hows t he 5 s t er i le s t ra ta a nd 6 a r chaeo log ica l s t ra ta ( a long w i th t r ans i t iona l s t ra ta ) a s r e cogn ized d ur ing t he o r ig ina l e xcava t ion i n S ec tor A . Mar t in d escr ibes t h ese a r chaeo log ica l s t ra ta a s c ons is t ing o fa l te rna t ing l ayer s o fa sh , a shy s o i l , n on -ashy s o i l , a nd l i nes o f h ear ths . A s i nd ica ted i n F igure 2 . 7 , i tl i ke ly t h a t Ih ad t he o ppor tun i ty t o e xam ine as i gn i f ican t p a r t o f t hese d epos i ts i n t he s e c t ion t ha t r ema ined e xposed i n 1 984 . Wh i le n o h ear ths we re o bse rved ,l am ina o fd ark o rgan ica l ly s t a ined s ed imen ts , c on ta in ing c harcoa l o r c arbon ized p lan tr ema ins ,a nd " a shy " s ed imen ts w e re n o ted . A s a who le , t he d epos i ts a t C ova d e l S a l t f o rm a r ough ly f an l ike d epos i t f i l l ing , a nd s p i l l ing o u t o f , an o tch i n t he f a ce o f t he t u fa c l i f f s . J udg ing f r om t he s l ope o f t he d e p os i ts i n t he e xposed s e c t ion , t hey p robab ly o r ig ina l ly r eached a t l e as t t he mou th o f t h e u ppe r c ave i nt he b ack o f t he embaymen t . I ti sa pparen t i nT ab le 2 . 7t ha t t h e d epos i ts a tE l S a l t c an b e s epara ted i n to t wo g ross d iv is ions , a n u ppe r s e r ies o f c oarse g rave ls a nd l a rge b locks ,a nd al owe rs e r ies o ff i ne s i l ty s ands .T hese t wo d iv is ions mark a ma jor c hange i nt h e g eomorpho logy o f t he s i te . T he d is t r ibu t ion o fa r cheo log ica l ma te r ia ls c l ose ly c o r responds t o t h is ma jor d iv is ion , w i th t he u ppe r g rave ls e ssen t ia l ly a rchaeo log ica l ly s t er i le ( e xcep t f o rs ub recen t recen tc eram ics i nt he t op o ft he u ppe rmo s tl a ye r ) a nd t he l owe rs ands c on ta in i ng M idd le P a leo l i th ic a ssemb lages .

4 0

T ab le 2 .7 .

L aye r A

S tra t igraphy o f Cova d e l S a l t .

Coa r se g rave l a nd s and . ( Mar t in 's s t e r i le 1 3 ; B u tze r 's l e ve l C . ) P ink i sh g rey o r l i gh te r , c oa r se ly b edded , p oo r ly s or ted , s i l ty s and a nd c a lca reous t u fa g rave l t ha t f o rms i nd is t inc t l ense s . G rave l d ens i ty i s2 0 -40% w i th s i zes r ang ing f r om sma l l p ebb les t o l a rge b locks . T he sma l l p ebb les i n c lude b o th r ounded a nd a ngu la r p ie ce s , wh i le t he l a rge r ma te r ia li sa lmo s t a l la ngu la r . R ange s i nt h ickne s s f r om 1 . 2 m . a t S e c to r Ai nt he s ou thea s tt o0 . 2m . i nt he c en te ro ft he s ec t ion whe re i tt h ins t o am in ima l s u r face l aye r==ha sp robab ly b een a r t i f ica l ly l e ve led . C on ta in s c e ram ics o r t i le s ( mode rn o rs ub recen t ) . C on tac tw i th B ,i sc l ea r .

L aye r B

C oa r se g rave la nd s and . ( Mar t fn 's s t e r i le 4 ;B u tze r 's l e ve l B . ) S im i la rt ol aye rA . P ink i sh g rey o rl i gh te r , ma ss ive t ov e ry w eak ly b edded , p oo r ly s or ted , s i l ty s and a nd c a l ca reou s t u fa g rave l . G rave l d ens i ty i s2 0 -40% w i th s i ze s r ang ing f r om sma l l p ebb le st ol a rge b lock s ,t hough f ewe rl a rge r p ie ce s t han l aye rA . A l lp ie ce s a ppea r mo re r ounded t han t hose i nl a ye rA . A l so s l ope su pwa rd t ot he n o r thwe s t ,w i th t h ickne s s r ang ing f r om f r om 1 . 2m .a tS ec to r A t o0 . 2m . a tt he n or thwe s te dge o fS e c to rD . No c u l t u ra l ma te r ia lw as o bserved . C on tac t w i th l a ye r Ci sc l ea rt og radua l . C on tac t w i th l aye r Di sc l ear .

L aye r C

P ar t ly c e men ted l a ye r o f l a rge b lock s . p ro f i le . )

( I nc luded i n Ma r t in 's s t e r i le 4 ? No t i n B u tze r 's

P ink ish g rey o rl i gh te r , ma s s ive l aye ro ft u fa c obb le sa nd l a rge b lock s i n we l l s or ted s i l ty , f i ne s and . V e ry c a lca reous a nd s t ong ly c emen ted t o i ndu ra ted , w i th o ccac iona l f l ow s t one . T he c obb le s a nd b lock s v a ry i n s i ze u p t o> 1 . 5 m i n d iame te r . T he l aye r h as a max imum t h i ckne s so f1 . 5 m .i nS ec to rB ,s l op ing u pwa rd a nd t h inn ing t oe nd i nt he c en t e ro ft he s e c t ion . No c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l was o bse rved . C on tac t w i th D i sg radua l .

L aye r D

S i l ty f i ne s and . ( Mar t fn 's s t e r i le 5 ;B u tze r 's l eve lA . ) P ink i sh g rey ( 7 .5YR 7 /2 mo i s t ) , mas s ive , w e l l s or ted , mode ra te ly c ompac t , s i l ty f i ne s and o r s i l t l o am , c on ta in ing af ew l e n t i c le s o fb rown ( 7 .5YR 5 /4 ) s andy s i l t o r l o am . R eac t ion t o HC 1 i nd ica te s s i gn i f ican t c a rbona te c omponen t , v i s ib le a s s ma l l v es ic les , s ca t te red sma l l f l e cks , a nd t i ny n odu le s o f C aCO3. Mo re C aCO3 i sv i s ib le a nd r eac t ion t o HC l s t ronge r i np or t ion u nde r ly ing l aye r C==p robab ly f r om l e ach ing o ft u fa . C on ta ins � 0 0000 0 + + o � ccc+

+++

0

+

4

+ 2

+

+

=-=•

+ +

+

ooeo�9ec)eQO-fO0 0 0 CX: ---:-xx.,o O +

o +

+

+

c»++ o +IO o + Oo+-f«:HOCellOfOOIO-l-0-t+t-H-O�+ ++ +IO � 0000:x:,oocoeo +++ -+O ++++ o+HO O +o+ + + -IOIOOOO()eOe

+

+

eecx>

+

00

iOt+

+ + + +

+++o+

+

0 16

24

32

40

48

56

64

72

80

88

96

104

EDGE ANGLE (degrees)

KEY:

+

= 1;

o "' 2- 5;

• = 6- 2 0;

(SYMBOLS REPRESENT NUMBER OF OCCURRENCES)

Figure 4.6. Scatter plot of piece width/thickness vs. edge angle for all retouched edges.

69

PLOT OF EDGE ANGLE WITH EDGE LENGTH FOR COMPLETE RETOUCHED EDGES

(1133 CASES PLOTTED}

100.0

87.5

0 0 0

75.0

i, §

8 0

�I ! 8

62.5

50.0

0

37.5

25.0

12.5

0

0

0

8

0

0

8

0

0

60

50

20

0

0

80

100

120

EDGE LENGTH (mm)

KEY:

O= 1; O= 2-5; 8= 6-20; •= >20

(SYMBOLS REPRESENT NUMBER OF OCCURRENCES)

Figure 4.7. Scatter plot of edge angle vs. edge length for all complete retouched edges. 70

p roce s sc ou ld c on t inue wou ld p r ima r i ly d epend o nt he o r ig ina ls t eepness o ft he e dge a nd t he d i mens ions o f t he f l ake -more r educ t ion b e ing p os s ib le o n w ider a nd t h inne r f l akes , w i th mo re a cu te o r ig ina le dges . I ft h is was t he c ase ,t he l owe r ma rg in o ft he d is t r ibu t ion i nF igure 4 . 4 wou ld r epresen tt he l im i ts f o re dge a ng le a nd i nvas iveness d ur ing t he u se l i fe o ft he mos t a cu te e dged b lanks . A s o mewha t d i f fe ren t p a t te rn i ss een i n t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he a ng le a nd l eng th o fr e touched e dges , d i sp layed i nF igu re 4 . 7 . T he b iva r ia te d is t r ibu t ion s ugges ts t ha t a n i n c rease i n e dge l eng th i sa s soc ia ted w i th a n i n crease i n m in imum e dge a ng le u p t o t he max imum r e touched e dge l e ng th . G iven t he r e la t ionsh ips d es cr ibed a bove , t h is s ugges ts t ha t , f o r many e dges , t he l i nea r e x ten t o f r e touch i sp os i t ive ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he amoun t t he e dge was u sed ,r e sharpened ,a nd r educed . However , a bove a bou t 6 0 0,s t eepe r e dge a ng les a re a s soc ia ted w i th i n creas ing ly s hor te re dges . T h is s eems t or epresen te dges o n wh ich u se/ mod i f ica t ion was c oncen tra ted i n sma l l a r eas , n o tches f o r e xamp le , r a the r t han s p read o ve r t he e n t i re e dge . T h is i n c reas ing ly c oncen t ra ted u se i sa ccompan ied b yg rea te re dge r educ t ion a nd s t eepe re dge a ng les . T he t o ta l d is t r ibu t ion s ugges ts ad i cho tomy i nt he p a t te rn o fe dge u se -edges whe re u se i sc oncen t ra ted i n sma l la reas , s how ing a ni nve rse r e la t ion sh ip b e tween max imum e dge a nd a ng le a nd e dge l eng th , a nd e dges whe re u se i sl i nea r ly e x tens ive s how ing t he o ppos i te r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t hese a t tr ibu tes . I n s u mmary , t hen , p a t tern ing i n t he b ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ion o f e dge a t tr ibu tes s ug g es ts p r imar i ly mechan ica l r e la t ionsh ips b e tween a t tr ibu tes i n wh ich o ne a t tr ibu te l im i ts t he r ange o f v a r iab i l i ty i n a no the r . T he d eg ree t o wh ich e dges we re r educed s eems t oa c c oun tf o r as i gn i f ican t amoun to fv a r iab i l i ty i ne dge a ng le a nd t he i nvas iveness o fr e touch . I n g enera l , t hese d a ta wou ld s ugges t t ha t , f o r many e dges , t he amoun t t ha t a n e dge was u sed a nd r esharpened may b e amo re i mpor tan t c ause o f v a r iab i l i ty i ni t s f i na l morpho logy t han t he s pec i f ic a c t iv i t ies f o r wh ich i t was u sed . However , wh i le e dge l e ng th a l so s eems a ssoc ia ted w i th t he i n tens i ty o f r educ t ion , i ti s ap os i t ive a ssoc ia t ion f o rs ome e dges a nd an ega t ive o ne f o ro the rs . T h is may b er e f lec t i ng a na c t iv i ty r e la ted d icho tomy i nt he w ay e dges w e re u sed .

V a r iab i l i ty i n P ieces AGGREGATE EDGE VAR IAB IL ITY A l though v a r iab i l i ty i ne dge morpho logy a ppears c on t inuous a nd i so f ten n orma l ly d is t r ibu ted , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t e dges w i th s im i lar morpho log ies c l us te r o n p ieces t o p roduce d is t inc t t ypes a s i sa ssu med i n t ypo log ica l a na lys is . T ha t a t l e as t s o me o f t hese t ypes r epresen t a c t iv i ty s pec i f ic t oo l s i st he i mp l ic i t a ssump t ion i n mos t f unc t iona l s t ud ies o f r e t ouched t oo ls . T h is p oss ib i l i ty was e xp lored b y t he e xam ina t ion o f a ggrega te e dge v ar iab i l i ty o n p ieces . E xamp le s o f a ggrega te e dge v ar iab i l i ty i n c lude mean e dge a ng le o f t he r e touched e dges o n e ach p i ece , t he t o ta l e x ten t o f mod i f ied e dge , a nd t he p e rcen t o f t he t o ta l amoun to fr e touched e dge s how ing s t ep f l ak ing . T he d is t r ibu t ion o f mos ta gg rega te e dge v ar iab les i sc on t inuous a nd o f ten n o rma l , much l i ke t he v a r iab i l i ty i ne dge a t t r ibu tes . Agg rega te v a r iab les t ha t b ehave i n t h is man n er i n c lude mean , max imum ,a nd m in imum r e touched e dge a ng le o np ieces , mean , max imum , a nd m in imu m i nvas iveness , a nd t he t o ta l l eng th o f mod if ica t ion o n p ieces . T he amoun t o f s t ep f l ak ing o nr e touched e dge sa nd p os s ib ly t he amoun t o fe dge r e touched o n p ieces s how s omewha t d i f fe ren t d is tr ibu t ions , h oweve r . A sc an b es een i nF igure 4 . 8a ,p ieces c an b ed iv ided i n to t wo g roups o n t he b as is o f t he e x ten t o f whe the r o r n o t s t ep f l ak ing o ccurs o n more o r l e s s t han 5% o f t he r e touched

7 1

50%

DISTRIBUTION OF % OF TOTAL RETOUCHED MARGIN WITH STEP FLAKING

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

percent of total retouched margin

90% 100%

(A)

20% ·

0%

(B)

DISTRIBUTION OF % OF MARGIN RETOUCHED PER PIECE

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

percent of total margin retouched

90% 100%

Figure 4.8. Distribution of variability in (a) percent of total retouched margin with step flaking per piece and (b) percent of total margin retouched per piece. 72

marg in . F or t he g roup w i th s t ep f l ak ing h oweve r , t he p e rcen t o ft he r e touched marg in w i th s t ep f l ak ing d isp lays ac on t inuous , t hough s l igh t ly l e f t s kewed d is tr ibu t ion w i th 3 = 3 1 .1% , a =1 9 .6 , med ian =2 6% ,a nd mode =2 0% ( n =1 53 ) . I ts hou ld b en o ted h e re t ha t , f o rt h e mos t p ar t , t h e s t ep f l ak ing o bse rved a nd measu red i n t h is s tudy i sr e la t ive ly f i ne a nd d oes n o t c ons is ts o ft he h eavy s t ep f l ak ing t ha t wou ld b et e rmed Qu ina r e touch . F igure 4 . 8b s hows t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f t he p e rcen to ft he t o ta l p iece marg in wh ich i s mod i f ied . I ta ppears t ha t t h a t t he re may b e t wo o r t h ree modes t o t h is d i s tr ibu t ion , a nd t ha t i tc an b e d iv ided i n to t hose w i th 5 0% ,t hose w i th 5 0 -99% , a nd t hose w i th 1 00% o f t he i r marg ins mod i f ied . T h is may b e r ef lec t ing t he d i f fe rences b e tween e x tens ive a nd c on c en t ra ted e dge u se men t ioned a bove . Howeve r ,n one o ft he g roups s how a ni n terna ld i s t r ibu t i on a su n i form a s t he o ne t ha tc harac ter izes t he d iv is ions b ased o n s t ep f l ak ing . Add i t ion a l ly , t hey c ross -cu t t he d iv is ions b ased o n s t ep f l ak ing . I n o rde rt oa sses st h e s i gn i f ican ce o ft he d iv is ions b ased o ns t ep f l ak ing a nd e x ten t o fr e touch , t hey w e re e xam ined w i th r e spec t t ov ar iab i l i ty i no the r f e a tu res . T ab le 4 . 1 c om p ares p ieces w i th a nd w i thou t s t ep f l ak ing w i th r e spec t t oo ther a gg rega te v a r iab les . T ab le 4 .2 c ompares p ieces w i th l e ss t han 5 0% a nd g rea ter t han 5 0% o f t he marg in mod i f ied ( because t here a re o n ly 3 6p ie ces w i th 1 00% o ft he ma rg in mod i f ied , t hey h ave b een g rouped w i th t h e >5 0% g roup -n =2 6 1 f o rt he c omb ined g roup ) . I ti sa ppa ren t f r om t ab le 4 . 1 t ha t p ieces w i th >5% o f t he ir r e touched marg in d is p lay ing s t ep f l ak ing a re ma rked ly d i f fe ren t f r om p ieces w i th l i t t le o r n o s t ep f l ak ing . P ieces w i th s t ep f l ak ing h ave s t eeper e dge a ng les a nd more i nvas ive r e touch . Add i t iona l ly , t hey a re d n l a rger , r e la t ive ly t h icker p ieces w i th a l onger t o ta l marg in t han p ieces w i th l i t t le o r n o s t ep f l ak ing . F ina l ly , more o f t he marg in o f p ieces w i th s t ep f l ak ing s hows e v i d ence o f mod i f ica t ion a nd u se , a nd t he mod i f ied e dges a re l onger . T tes ts t od e te rm ine t he s i gn i f icance o f t hese d i f fe ren ces s howed t he t wo g roups d e f ined o n t he b as is o fs t ep f l ak ing d i f fe red s i gn i f ican t ly w i th r e spec t t o a l l t hese f e a tures . T ab le 4 . 2 s hows t ha t wh i le t he g roups d e f ined o n t he b as is o f t he p e rcen t o f t he marg in s how ing mod i f ica t ion d i f fe red , t hey d id n o td i f fe ra sp ro found ly a s t hose d e f ined b y s t ep f l ak ing . P ieces w i th mo re t han 5 0% o f t he ma rg in mod i f ied h ave s i gn i f ican t ly s t eepe r a nd mo re i nvas ive ly r e touched e dges t han p ieces w i th l e ss t han 5 0% mod i f ica t ion . S urp r is i ng ly ,p ieces w i th more o ft h e ma rg in r e touched a l so h ave l e ss s t ep f l ak ing . No t s o s urp r is i ng ly , t hey h ave l onger r e touched e dges . P ieces w i th more r e touch d o n o t d i f fe r s i gn i f i c an t ly f r om p ieces w i th l e ss t han 5 0% o f t he marg in r e touched w i th r e spec t t o a ny o f t he p iece d imens ions e xam ined . B o th w i th r e spec t t o t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f v ar iab i l i ty i n t he d e f in ing a t tr ibu te a nd w i th r e spec t t ov ar iab i l i ty i no the rf e a tu res ,t he g roups d e f ined o nt he b as is o ft he amoun t o f s t ep f l ak ing may r epresen t d i s t inc t d iv is ions i n t he a gg rega te v ar iab i l i ty o f c h ipped s t one a r t i fac ts . On t he o the r h and , t he g roups d e f ined o n t he b as is o f t he t o ta l e x ten t o f e dge mod i f ica t ion s eem more q ues t ionab le . T he s t ep f l aked p i ece s may r ep resen ts o me s o r to fh eavy d u ty t oo l .T he ir mean a rea a t d iscard i s a lmos t at h ird l a rger t han o the r p ieces , i n s p i te o f t he f a c t t ha t t he ir mean w id th/ th icknes s r a t io , r e touched e dge a ng le , i nvas iveness , a nd measures o fl i nea r e x ten to f r e touch , a s we l l a s t he amoun t o f s t ep f l ak ing a l l i nd ica te t ha t t hey e xpe r ienced c on s ider a b ly more u se a nd mod i f ica t ion ,w i th a ssoc ia ted r educ t ion i np iece s i ze . T h is wou ld s ugges t t ha t p ieces w i th more t han 5 % o f t he ir r e touched marg in d isp lay ing s t ep f l ak ing r epre s en ted o r ig ina l ly l a rger a nd s ubsequen t ly mo re h eav i ly u sed a r t i fac ts t han o the rp ieces .

7 3

Table 4.1. Comparison of pieces w ith step flaking on> 5% of the retouchedmargin vs. pieces with < 5% step flaking.

Aggregate Variable Mean angle of retouched edges (degrees): Mean invasivess (mm.): Total margin length (mm.):

X of >5% Step Flak ing

X of< 5% Step Flaking

2-Tailed T

a

59

53

5.45

0.0

985

8

5

9.47

0.0

98 5

122

104

6.73

0.0

986

% of margin modified:

54.6

41.1

7.45

0.0

986

Mean length of retouched edges (mm.):

43

32

8.91

0.0

986

-6.49

0.0

93 5

6.27

0.0

973

Width/thickness: Area (mm2):

3.39

4.49

1469

1120

Table 4.2. Comparison of pieces with modification on> 50% of the margin, vs.those with < 50% modification.

Aggregate Variable

Mean angle of retouched edges (degrees):

X of >50% Modified

X of