Literary History of Canada: Canadian Literature in English, Volume III (Second Edition) 9781487589370

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LITERARY HISTORY OF CANADA VOLUME III Canadian Literature in English

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LITERARY HISTORY OF CANADA Canadian Literature in English Second Edition VOLUME III

General Editor CARL F. KLINCK Editors

ALFRED G. BAILEY, CLAUDE BISSELL, ROY DANIELLS, NORTHROP FRYE, DESMOND PACEY

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS TORONTO AND BUFFALO

FIRST EDITION

1965

©UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS 1965 TORONTO AND BUFFALO

SECOND EDITION 1976 ©UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS 1976 TORONTO AND BUFFALO ISBN 0-8020-2214-6 (CLOTH) ISBN 0-8020-6278-4 (PAPER) LC 76-12353

This edition of the Literary History of Canada has been published with the assistance of a grant from the Ontario Arts Council.

To the memory of Desmond Pacey, scholar, teacher, friend, this volume is dedicated by the editors

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Desmond Pacey 1917-1975

William Cyril Desmond Pacey was born in Dunedin, New Zealand, on 1 May 1917. He died in Fredericton on 4 July 1975 at the age of fifty-eight. Pacey received his early education at the Magnus Grammar School in Newark, Nottinghamshire (1928-31), and at the high school in Caledonia, Ontario (1931-4). After a distinguished career as an undergraduate at Victoria College, Toronto, he won a Massey Travelling Fellowship to study at Trinity College, Cambridge (1938-40), where he earned a PH D. Upon his return to Canada he lived, as George Woodcock fittingly said, 'astonishingly parallel lives in the academic and the literary worlds.' Desmond became Professor of English at Brandon College (1940-44), and in 1944 Professor and Head of English at the University of New Brunswick, where he remained, until his death, as professor, Dean of Graduate Studies (from 1960), and Vice-President (Academic) (from 1970). Among his achievements was the development of his department as one of the most prominent centres for the study of Canadian literature. Always ready to promote the cause of study and research throughout Canada, he was a favourite and powerful speaker at conferences and 'learned' societies, and he influenced the spread and quality of Canadian literature courses in schools and colleges. Essays in Canadian Criticism 1938-1968 (1969) displays the variety of his published articles, his developing attitudes and opinions as a critic, his restless search for facts and values, and his identification of literary trends over three decades. He broke new ground as early as 1945 when he undertook the difficult task of demonstrating the literary and social sophistication of the Canadian west's least understood novelist, Frederick Philip Grove. To courage and imagination as a scholar, Pacey added tenacity. Over the next thirty years he investigated Grove's career and published Critical Views on Frederick Philip Grove (1970) and Tales From the Margin (1971). He did not live to see in print his complete edition of The Letters of Frederick Philip Grove. He also wrote the first 'full-dress' critical study of Ethel Wilson. The date of publication of the first Grove book (1945) places Desmond

DESMOND PACEY

Pacey among pioneer critics such as W.E. Collin, E.K. Brown, and Arthur Smith who 'discovered,' evaluated, and established for several generations the canon of the major Canadian poets and prose writers. Pacey's appreciative criticism was built upon 'a sketch map of the territory' (a coherent history of the literature around the principal authors, with, like Smith, concern about the nature of the literary background). His Creative Writing in Canada (1952) and his Ten Canadian Poets (1958) achieved great and merited authority among students and general readers as a pioneer guidebook for systematic study of Canadian literature. In 1955 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and in 1972 he received the Society's highest liferary award, the Lome Pierce medal. The Literary History may be regarded as an extension of his survey. He lent his authority and gave his full co-operation to the preparation of the larger 'sketch map' and reference work which reached back to pre-Confederation times, revealed indigenous literary activity, and included scholarly historical, social, and scientific writings. He spiced our deliberations with candour and humour; his own chapters are perceptive and comprehensive. To all the editors he still seems indispensable. His prestige as a literary historian stands, as it should, very high, and his role as a happy warrior for recognition of Canadian culture will long be remembered with gratitude in the nation he served so well.

Contents

xi

INTRODUCTION

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Politics and Literature in the 1960s The Course of Canadian Criticism Literary Criticism and Scholarship Canadian History Philosophical Literature Religious and Theological Writings The Physical Sciences and Engineering The Biological Sciences Writing in the Social Sciences Critical Theory: Some Trends Essays and Biography I Essays II Biography Children's Literature Drama and Theatre Fiction Poetry CONCLUSION

CLAUDE BISSELL DESMOND PACEY LAURIAT LANE, JR MICHAEL s. CROSS THOMAS A. GOUDGE JOHN WEBSTER GRANT JOHN H. CHAPMAN WILLIAM E. SWINTON HENRYS. MAYO MALCOLM ROSS

3 16 32 63 84 104 111 122 136 160

BRANDON CONRON CLARA THOMAS SHEILA A. EGOFF JOHN RIPLEY WILLIAM H. NEW GEORGE WOODCOCK

176 180 204 212 233 284

NORTHROPFRYE

318

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTES

333

CONTRIBUTORS

341

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

344

INDEX

345

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Introduction

THE Literary History of Canada, first published in 1965, is now issued in three volumes. During revision completed in 1975, the contents grew beyond a single set of covers. Parts i to in of the original book are now in Volume i ; part iv is now in Volume n. The new chapters concerned with the years 1960 to 1973 are in this third volume. The project for a Literary History was begun in 1957 and was brought to its first goal of publication by the editors and twenty-nine other contributors in 1965. They have been joined in recent years by twelve new contributors whose chapters appear in this third volume. Brief notes about them appear on pages 341-3. The subtitle of the Literary History explains its scope as 'Canadian ... in English.' 'Canadian' has been broadly used for whatever is native, or has been naturalized, or has a distinct bearing upon the native - that is, on people, events, and writings which had their focus in our 'environment,' as Northrop Frye has put it, this 'place where something has happened.' That which is distinctively Canadian-French in language, thought, culture, and literary production has been left, in accord with their own wishes, to the French scholars of Québec. The time will come, one may hope, when it will be possible to have a French series of books paralleling our English ones - and translations in each of the languages - to facilitate a much-needed comparative study. The initiative has even now been taken by Professor Maurice Lebel, a distinguished scholar of Laval University, who made an impressive French translation of our 1965 History. From its inception, the project for a Literary History has been devoted to two principal aims: to publish a comprehensive reference book on the (English) literary history of this country, and to encourage established and younger scholars to engage in a critical study of that history both before and after the appearance of the book (now books). This program emphasizes research and basic fact-finding as prerequisites for good criticism, but the writers of chapters have also contributed to

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criticism by exercising discrimination and taste cultivated in comprehensive acquaintance with literature and its traditions. The climate for studies in Canadian literature has improved remarkably since 1957. Younger readers would find it difficult to imagine the initial difficulties facing the original contributors, for these scholars lacked most of the advantages, however limited, prevailing at that time in American literature or in general Canadian history. There was a very narrow base of authenticated and organized information. The need for a History to deal with the literary products of the latest decade and a half is not felt in a limitation of materials, for publishers have recently turned out an immense amount, not only of new works and reprints, but also of critiques, interviews, casual advertisements, and even propaganda. The problems are still those of weighing, sorting out, selecting, discarding, and describing, and of passing over nothing of true significance. To these considerations the Literary History is still dedicated - and also to as much interpretation and objective criticism as the bulk and onrush of the material affords. Critical writings of the 1960s and the early 1970s in Canada have shown several marked tendencies. Among the most controversial of these is a growing independence, an application of standards in some sense native, and a hesitation to acknowledge British or foreign influences. These are wholesome gropings toward real maturity, but they are often confused and confusing if they do not have a broad base of knowledge of Canadian experience, traditions, and the whole existing 'environment.' The writers for the Literary History hope to perform a service by contributing to orderly and wise judgments upon our literary works, as steps toward realization of their significance for us and for readers of English literature outside our country. As a further contribution to the background of literary criticism in Canada, this volume treats not only works specifically classified as belles lettres, but also (chiefly in separate chapters, by specialists) other works generically and traditionally belonging to 'Literature.' A selection has thus been made of books significantly related to imaginative productions by other expressions of the thought and culture of this country. Canadian achievements in writings on history, philosophy, religion, the physical sciences, the biological sciences, and the social sciences have been outlined. The writers of these sections have appropriately shown how minds work in various important disciplines. Chapter 3 displays the strength and maturity of general literary scholarship in Canada. It would be too much to claim that we have in our volumes the intellectual history of Canada, even with restriction to the humanities, but the History does deal with much that would have to be taken into account in such a desirable, integrated cultural study. Publication of all kinds of books, articles, and journals shows few signs of

INTRODUCTION

Xlll

diminishing, and the 'Bibliographical Notes' which follow our text must be regarded as only what new research and criticism have now offered in anticipation of more to follow year after year. Not all of the contributors felt that such aids were necessary. The entire omission of notes for certain chapters means only that the writers have expected readers to acquire the habit of consulting the numerous bibliographies, and especially R.E. Watters's A Checklist of Canadian Literature and Background Materials, 1628-1960 (Toronto 1959; revised 1972). The editors wish to express their thanks for financial support for the second edition to the Canada Council and the Humanities and Social Science Research Councils; and for courtesy and the amenities of publication to the University of Toronto Press, especially to Miss Jean Jamieson (Editor, Humanities), to Miss Jean Wilson (who coped with the manuscript and saw three volumes through the press), and to Mrs Sally Wismer (who prepared the indices). We are also especially indebted to Mrs Pauline Campbell for secretarial assistance. None of the editors or contributors received any payment for his or her labour in research and writing, or fees for manuscripts. To those who contributed so graciously and generously, the editors offer this most sincere expression of their gratitude.

29 May 1975

For the Editors CARL F. KLINCK

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LITERARY HISTORY OF CANADA VOLUME III Canadian Literature in English

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1 Politics and Literature in the 1960s CLAUDE BISSELL

At the opening of the sixties, Canadians were aware that a new political age had begun, although its contours were still vague. The long years of Liberal rule, prolonged smoothly, with a sense of decorous inevitability under Louis St Laurent, had come to an end in the election of 10 June 1957, and had been firmly sealed in March 1958, when the Conservatives under John Diefenbaker had turned a precarious hold on office into a triumphant take over. An even more dramatic reversal took place later in the year in Quebec when the Liberals under Jean Lesage won the election and released the province from bondage to a narrow, introverted past. There was a feeling that the 'quiet revolution' in Quebec was likely to be accompanied by a more audible revolution on the federal front. Diefenbaker was not cast in a conventional Tory mould, and he was capable of sudden departures from normal policy and abrupt reversals of hallowed attitudes. His Minister for External Affairs, Howard Green, was a co-revolutionary, to some, a gentle sheep amid ravening wolves, to others, a tough idealist amid soft-headed men of custom. His steady pursuit of peace, his horror of nuclear proliferation coincided with a widespread popular radicalism in the early sixties - a mood that was sensitively caught in David Lewis Stein's novel, Scratch One Dreamer (1967). But by 1962 the Diefenbaker glow had vanished, smothered in bitter internal squabbles and extinguished in the elections of 1962 and 1965. Although the country had spoken uncertainly, and had given Lester Pearson and the Liberal party a grudging victory, still there were high hopes that the new age might now begin. Pearson was the best-known Canadian of his time; in international councils he was the ideal Canadian - unvexed, informed, wise, constantly striving to grasp the big reconciling unity amid petty diversities. But during his five years of power he never succeeded in rallying the country as a whole, and, in the election of 1965, the electorate still refused him a reassuring majority. His government was plagued by a succession of minor scandals, more evidence of individual impropriety than of government corruption, but, taken as a whole, sufficient to undermine confidence and to

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arouse suspicion. With the choice of Pierre Elliott Trudeau in 1968 as Pearson's successor, and his overwhelming triumph a few months later at the polls, the country seemed finally, after two false beginnings, to have found an embodiment of its hopes and aspirations. Trudeau despised the old politics of promise and counter-promise; he placed reason above emotion, the practical solution above the theoretical absolute; but, with it all, he was direct and unpretentious, an urbane and witty man in a domain hitherto dominated by laboured platitudes and solemn rhetoric. But Trudeau, like his predecessors, Diefenbaker and Pearson, could not sustain the wave of initial support. He lost much of his left-wing sympathy by his swift, ruthless measures against the Quebec separatist movement, which, in the fall of 1970, was threatening to turn sporadic acts of violence into a revolution; and his cool, clinical approach to emotional national problems puzzled and distressed many of his public supporters. His government narrowly survived the election of 1972, but there was, in effect, a declaration of disenchantment with Pierre Trudeau. Within 10 years Canada had repudiated its three national leaders - all men of unusual strength and, it would seem, of wide appeal, each considerably more attractive, certainly more engagingly complex than former leaders who had managed to enjoy long and unruffled reigns. The repudiation was not so much personal as an indication of the divisiveness within the country, of a feverish search, if not for a transcendent unity, at least for a peaceful diversity. Each of the three leaders had grappled with the problems, and had offered solutions that had received only partial assent. Diefenbaker harked back to the days of high colonialism. Despite the quibbling doubts of many and the savage protests of the few, Canada, he declared, was one country, united under the monarchy, dedicated to equal rights for all. He was the first prime minister to emphasize the ethnic variety of Canada, and he backed up his rhetoric with action. Not until his administration was 'the first Treaty Indian appointed to the Senate, the first of Ukrainian origin to the cabinet, and the first of Italian origin as a parliamentary secretary' (John Porter, The Vertical Mosaic, Toronto 1965, 71). He had, on occasion, a dogged sense of Canadian autonomy, and in the defence debates of 1963, on the question of manning the BOMARC missiles with nuclear warheads, he was determined to reach his own decision and not to be pushed into one by American pressure. Pearson, too, had a deep sense of Canadian unity, but he relied less than Diefenbaker did on external ties. When he replied on 25 July 1967 to Charles de Gaulle's famous 'vive le Québec libre' declaration, he spoke for all English Canadians and for many Québécois: 'Certain statements by the President tend to encourage the small minority of our population whose aim is to destroy Canada; and, as such, they are unacceptable to the Canadian people and its government. ' Canadians did not need to be

POLITICS AND LITERATURE IN THE 1960s

5

liberated, he added, reminding the General that 'many thousands of Canadians gave their lives in two World Wars in the liberation of France and other European countries.' Pearson placed great store on national symbols; during his years in office no other issue consumed more time and devoured more pages of Hansard than the issue of the flag. His government gave unstinted support to the centennial celebrations, and in the Montreal Expo, brilliantly conceived and superbly carried through, the country seemed to find a pleasant respite before it resumed political warfare. In his interpretation of federalism, and, in particular, of Quebec's place in federation, he was flexible and accommodating, striving to maintain a balance between Quebec's nationalist aspirations and the primacy of the federal government. Co-operative federalism was for him both an ideal and a technique. One of his first acts was to establish a Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism and, despite the criticism that the Commission was dividing the country, it laid the foundation for deeper understanding and for a liberal language policy. Pearson drew back from the tough nationalism propounded by the left wing of his party and the NDP. He gave lukewarm support to his Minister of Finance, Walter Gordon, when Gordon presented his abortive nationalist budget in 1963, and under pressure from the United States his government conferred citizenship on the Canadian editions of Time and Reader's Digest so that advertisers looking to the Canadian market could still enjoy tax deductions for advertisements placed in these magazines. He managed to keep Canada free from direct involvement on the American side in the Vietnam war, and even incurred the primitive wrath of President Johnson by suggesting a pause in American bombing at an embarrassing time for American strategy. But to many critics of American policy in the National Democratic party, and in the universities, he was hesitant and pusillanimous in his approach to the Vietnam war. In his concept of Canadian unity, Trudeau was unsympathetic to both the Diefenbaker and the Pearson points of view. He was a strict federalist, seeing Canada as a triumph of equipoise, a delicate tension. In a famous document published in Cité Libre in 1964, he and a number of his fellow FrenchCanadian intellectuals repudiated nationalism in all its forms: ' The most valid trends to-day are toward more enlightened humanism, toward various forms of political, social and economic universalism.' Even such an austere nationalist as Claude Ryan, editor of Le Devoir, was moved to refer to Trudeau's federalistic ideas as 'la froide logique de M. Trudeau.' Trudeau gladly accepted the concept of a multicultural mosaic; his insistence that the French language should have equality with English went along with the encouragement of ethnic variety. As a new and powerful recruit in the Liberal party with a special competence in constitutional problems, he was influential

6

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in the decision of the federal government in 1966 to withdraw entirely from any direct concern with higher education, and to make the universities a purely provincial responsibility. Although Trudeau disdained the rhetoric of nationalism, his natural scepticism and his instinctive opposition to the popular wisdom led him to support unorthodox approaches that were nationalistic in effect - the reduction in NATO forces, the early recognition of the Peoples' Republic of China, the assertion of Canadian suzerainty in the Arctic archipelago. Although, on the surface, Canadian political life in the sixties was often a dismal charade of personalities or a succession of minor domestic squabbles, it was, nonetheless, doggedly concerned with the fundamentals of national life. This characteristic, blurred in the day-to-day world of politics, emerged clearly in the political literature of the time. Never had Canadian historians and political scientists looked more closely and analytically at the country, not as a remote object in time, but as an immediate, pressing reality. Even the journalists responded to the mood. Peter Newman, the most accomplished journalist of the decade, covered the Diefenbaker and Pearson years in two deservedly popular books, Renegade in Power (1963), and The Distemper of Our Times (1968). He gave to contemporary figures an elaborate and colourful treatment hitherto reserved for those who had long ceased to trouble our spirits. The mood of formal political and historical comment, almost all of which came from the universities, was serious and troubled. Glen Frankfurter's Baneful Dominion, 1971, was a happy exception - a layman's informed and opinionated survey. If the sixties was the age of nationalism, in both English and French Canada, it was not a triumphant and glowing nationalism such as had coursed through the national veins in the post-confederation era, and less hectically, in the periods immediately following the two world wars. Birney's 'highschool land deadset in adolescence' had become 'a masochist perhaps, who thinks his sins require to be dismembered while alive.' Although there was a good deal of rhetoric, especially when the American obsession obtruded, analysis was bolstered by facts and generalizations emerged garlanded with statistics. Even the leaders of the radical nationalist wing of the National Democratic party, the Waffle movement (so-called, with typical Canadian irony, because they refused to 'waffle' on basic issues), relied more on careful analysis of the extent of American take over of specific industries than on emotional appeals to socialist ideology. The basic study of the period, John Porter's Vertical Mosaic, an analysis of class and economic power, was a great compendium of facts as well as a source of fresh insights into the rigid stratification of our society. Much of the political writing came from scholars who were strongly committed to a point of view (in itself a new development in Canada where

POLITICS AND LITERATURE IN THE 1960s

7

scholarship in the social sciences, with some notable exceptions, like Harold Innis, had been grey and neutral). The sense of commitment was strong because thoughtful political writers believed that Canada was facing ultimate issues on which her continuing existence depended. The sharpest differences of opinion arose in the analysis of Canadian-American relationships. Frank Underhill, who had been the foremost socialist intellectual in the thirties and forties, had gradually moved towards a liberal stance; young radicals now thought of him as an apologist for Pearsonian liberalism, and, above all, as a continentalist. His collection of essays, In Search of Canadian Liberalism, which came out at the beginning of the decade, concluded with a strong exhortation to Canadians to stamp out their attitude of smug moral superiority towards the United States, and to remember the traditions of criticism, idealism, and dissent that had flourished far more intensively in the United States than in Canada. His later book, The Image of Confederation (1964), had a stronger nationalistic ring. In his concluding sentence he reminded us that 'a nation is a body of people who have done great things together in the past and who hope to do great things together in the future. 'But we can do those 'great things,' said Underhill, only in an American way, and when 'we have at least achieved a Canadian identity, it will be only when we are satisfied that we have arrived at a better American way of life than the Americans have.' The diametrically opposed point of view - life through eliminating American influences - became increasingly the dominating theme in the writing of Donald Creighton, as he moved from formal history to didactic essay. Creighton speaks from a conservative point of view - the desire to preserve a political structure that has been carefully reared in the past, but it is a kind of conservatism not blessed in the councils of official conservativism or in the board rooms of large corporations. For it is bitterly opposed to superpower imperialism, and, above all, to the religion that the ultimate good is the satisfaction of consumer lusts. Creighton's point of view coalesces with left-wing attitudes. As Abraham Rotstein, the leading theoretician of left-wing nationalism pointed out: 'There is an important sense in which nationalism is inherently a conservative force; that is, it attempts to conserve and protect existing social institutions from outside penetration, in the name of the autonomy and self-determination of that society.' Right- and left-wing tendencies came together most powerfully in the work of George Grant, a philosopher with a persistent social conscience. He was also the writer most accessible to the literary world. Dennis Lee, the poet, refers to his collection of essays, Technology and Empire: Perspectives on North America, published in 1969, as 'the most profound book written in my country' ('Cadence, Country, Silence' in Liberté xiv 6 [1972], 75); and Margaret Atwood in Survival lists it as essential reading and draws upon its ideas.

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Grant's influence springs, in part, from his topicality: 'no serious person is interested in history .simply as antiquarianism but only as it illumines one's search for the good in the here and now' (Technology and Empire, 63). The 'here and now' rings even more clamorously through an earlier book, Lament for a Nation (1965), which interpreted the 1957 election as 'the Canadian people's last gasp of nationalism' (p 5) and Diefenbaker's defeat in 1963 as 'the end of Canada as a Sovereign state' (p 2). Diefenbaker emerges not as a heroic figure with a clear vision of his (and his country's) tragic fate, but as an eccentric individualist who had caught a partial vision of the good that might have been, who saw, in an obscure way, that Liberalism was the faith of the big corporations, whose ideal was one vast homogenized, technological society in North America. With topicality went an intense moralism; Canadian writers, like Canadians in general, have had a great concern with the good and the bad, particularly if the two can be sharply distinguished. Grant is in a popular Canadian tradition, although he is much more subtle and incisive than others who have sounded the moral alarm. But he retains a suggestion of the national self-righteousness that Andrew Macphail referred to when he talked about his generation as being 'the Thank-Gods of America, rejoicing that "we are not like those republicans and sinners who live to the southward' ' ' (quoted by Carl Berger, The Sense of Power [1970], 155). The Canadian society, Grant argues, which is now about to be swept into the maelstrom of American imperialism, had, by reason of its loyalist and catholic roots, a sense of order, a natural preference for restraint, above all, an instinctive understanding of the danger of unfettered individual freedom. What saved Grant from the great Canadian sin, moral arrogance, was his sense of tragic inevitability. North America, given its Calvinist roots and its founding expansionist philosophy - ('The view of everything but one's own ego - the new continent, native peoples, other nations, outer space, one's body - as a kind of raw material, here as pure value-free externality, to be manipulated and remade according to the hungers of one's nervous system and the logic of one's technology' [Lee, 'Cadence, Country, Silence,' 76]) was fated to be devoured by a remorseless imperialism (and Canada could preserve, only briefly, a tenuous independence). But inevitability was not necessarily good, and Grant insisted on the human dignity of lamenting what was passing away, and the intellectual courage of isolating, describing, and cursing the fatal disease. Although Grant's ideas were often the common property of the day, he expressed them with deep emotion and in a homely oracular style that was always arresting, if, at times, craggy and opaque. He was, then, available to the writers, not simply through his ideas, but also through his style. The slow, meditative, insistent cadence of Dennis Lee's Civil Elegies (1972) - the best public poem written in Canada - seems to be a lyric echo of Grant's prose.

POLITICS AND LITERATURE IN THE 1960s 9

Canadian social scientists were obsessed by 'the Canadian question' and did not address themselves to the wider issues that were exercising the New Left in the USA or that lay behind the popular apocalyptic romanticism of the day. The Canadian student movement of the sixties, not greatly concerned about national problems, found its ideas in foreign sources: the repressive nature of liberal tolerance in Herbert Marcuse; the concept of alienation in Marx; the distrust of bureaucracy and the redemptive power of community in Paul Goodman ; the necessity of violence in a righteous cause in the writings of oppressed revolutionaries like Frantz Fanon; the distrust of reason in Norman O. Brown and Charles A. Reich. The Canadians who dealt most cogently with these wider problems were literary critics, Northrop Frye and Marshall McLuhan. To Frye the ideas of the new left were, at best, rickety half-way houses; his book, The Modern Century (1967), casually spears a succession of popular sages as it moves magisterially along (eg, 'Sympathy for the youth who sees no moral difference between delinquency and conformity still inspires such Utopian works as Paul Goodman's Growing Up Absurd ' [p 77]). McLuhan appeared to be closer to some aspects of the new wave. He attacked systems and institutions, because they were often embodiments of the linear and segmented and destroyed the wholeness of man; he criticized universities for their emphasis on specialized goals, when the times called for the assumption by the student of a flexible role ; and he deplored the over-emphasis on the visual, an outcome of print culture, at the expense of the blending of all the senses. He hailed the electronic age, promising a world of simultaneity and oneness, that would, nevertheless, be made up of independent villages, no less global than the great concentrations of power. But his continuous emphasis on dialogue, on discovery through intellectual 'probes' was far removed from the soft romanticism of the age. McLuhan's work was more accessible to the literary radicals, the postmodernists, like bp Nichols, Graeme Gibson, Bill Bissett, Matt Cohen, Dave Godfrey, and Robert Kroetsch, who emphasized discontinuity and a direct perceptual approach, and saw art as a process in which the reader worked with the writer in an uncertain and shifting world, rather than as a finished, ordered product that the reader understood and passively contemplated. Insofar, however, as the Canadian student movement had any lasting effect, it derived its emphasis from one strand of Canadian nationalist thought - an insistence on the simple fact that personal loyalty to a country or institution is dependent on personal participation in the decisions that shape the country or the institution. Literature was more inclined to use the whole panoply of ideas, whether native or imported. Fiction was particularly receptive. The major novelist of the sixties, Margaret Laurence, although she went back again and again to her prairie roots, had no overt interest in national problems; her characters live in a world scorched by the flames of hell. Canadian poetry and criticism were more concerned with the particularities of

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the Canadian situation; and, at their most characteristic, they expanded and refined many of the ideas that had their origins in politics and political comment. If literature in the sixties responded to a basic political theme (what is the nature of the Canadian place and how does its definition relate to our well being?), specifically in such a work as MacLennan's Return of the Sphinx, generally in the poetry of Atwood and Purdy, in the plays of Reaney and many others, literature achieved a new self-consciousness as a force within society, edging slowly upward in the list of national priorities, getting concerned response, not simply polite recognition, from the centres of economic power. Cultural nationalism could, to an extent, be divorced from economic nationalism, and in the branch-plant economy there might very well be native nests of singing birds. This was the opinion of the eminent Canadian expatriate, John Kenneth Galbraith, who, during the period, had seen his regional study of 'the Scotch' in south-western Ontario become a best-seller. But Canadian writers had to rely on an uncertain and harrassed publishing and distributing system within their own country; and, for the first time, the writers turned from complaint to action. In the special issue of Canadian Literature devoted to publishing (number 57, summer 1973), George Woodcock pointed out in an introductory editorial that the scene had changed radically in the last five years. In 1967, the scene was the same as it had been for many years, 'a landscape of big commercial presses,' only afew of which made a serious effort to publish Canadian books. Since then, however, there had appeared a number of small presses, concerned exclusively with Canadian books, not content with striking a genteel blow for Canadian culture, but aspiring to reach a broad reading public. The emphasis was on the new and experimental in poetry and fiction; but there were books of a general nature, often, like The New Romans (1968), exploiting the wave of aggressive nationalism. The writers became activists, and several of the new houses - Anansi, Oberon, New Press, Press Porcépic, Coach House, Talonbooks - were started by writers. Dave Godfrey jauntily bestrides the new publishing world of the sixties, moving from Anansi (1967) to New Press (1969) to Press Porcépic (1971), and, like many of the young writers of this time, publishing his books through his own press. Most of the activists were young (below the fatal 30). They were the real youthful revolutionaries of the period, not their more highly publicized junior contemporaries in the universities, who went in more for pyrotechnics than action. The major commercial presses continued to make modest contributions to the publication of Canadian books, with the traditional leader and innovator, McClelland and Stewart, dramatically rescued from financial ruin by the Ontario government, maintaining its dominance. McClelland and Stewart took the lead in the paperback reprint boom: its New Canadian Library,

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begun in the late fifties, picked up enormous momentum in the sixties, and now numbers over one hundred volumes. This library goes a long way to solving the problems of basic texts for courses in Canadian literature. McClelland and Stewart also publishes the Carleton Library, an inspiration of the Institute of Canadian Studies at Carleton University. This library performs the same service for the social sciences that the New Canadian Library does for literature. Macmillan and Clarke, Irwin have reprint series, made up largely of books they have already published in hardcover; and the University of Toronto Press, besides putting out the Canadian University Paperbooks series, reprints of its own significant books, chiefly in Canadian studies, has recently begun two reprint series, Literature of Canada: Poetry and Prose in Reprint and the Social History of Canada series, which provide basic texts and scholarly introductions. Hurtig Publishers in Edmonton has begun a bold adventure of reprinting early travel literature; and Coles has begun a similar venture, chiefly of pioneer literature. The expansion in book publishing was accompanied by a similar, and, quantitatively, far greater, expansion in the publishing of literary magazines. Many of them were committed to a short life: they were often cheaply printed and distributed free, and became little networks for the exchange of ideas and impressions, or easily available outlets for new writers. (Tish in Vancouver was the best known of these.) Others sought a longer life and a more enduring format. A great number drew upon financial resources available in the universities during the sixties. Exile, published by Atkinson College at York University, was sternly devoted to the imaginative writer and excluded 'the scholarly praetorian guard,' whereas university-supported magazines like The Journal of Canadian Studies (Trent) and Mosaic (University of Manitoba) were scholarly reviews. The Malahat Review (founded at the University of Victoria to celebrate, both in content and format, Canada's centenary) publishes both imaginative writing and criticism. Exile and The Malahat Review made internationalism an editorial goal, and Canadian writers nestle side by side with writers from other countries. In the area of major magazines with a national audience, the message of the sixties was, 'We have come through.' In many ways, the most important magazine of the period was Canadian Literature, published by the University of British Columbia and edited by George Woodcock. When it emerged just before the opening of the decade, there was widespread scepticism. It was thought to be but another example of how we give the tough and indestructible plant of criticism a favoured place in the little garden of Canadian creativity. There would be, it was contended, a decreasing amount of good material, and the magazine would dwindle away in tedious repetition and pompous inventions. But none of these things happened, and the magazine is as fresh and vital as it was at the beginning. In part, this is due to the firm, scholarly editing

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of George Woodcock. But its is also a reflection on the vitality of the literature published in the sixties, and the increasing interplay between the creative and critical faculties. The other major literary magazines continue their traditional and influential ways: Fiddlehead, Tamarack Review (after a brief silence in the early seventies), the university quarterlies (with the University of Toronto Quarterly still resolutely devoting its summer issue to a review of everything of any note published in Canada during the previous year). The Canadian Forum, primarily a magazine of political and social comment, has always insisted on strong ties with the arts and literature. Its fiftieth anniversary volume (1972) could, with sober appropriateness, bear the subtitle, 'Canadian Life and Letters 1920-70.' On a more popular level, Maclean's and Saturday Night, the only Canadian magazines of a cerebral cast likely to be seen by the general Canadian reader, recovered from a series of mishaps, and by the last few years of the sixties had consolidated their positions. This was particularly true of Maclean's which, under the editorship of Peter Newman, moved into the black, combining serious political comment with popular fantasies about sex, hockey, and material success. Saturday Night had a lower and more distinguished profile, and a less certain economic base. Under Robert Fulford, who took over as editor from Arnold Edinborough in 1968, it followed a policy of publishing solid articles on politics, literature, and the arts, striving to expound the ideas that govern Canadian life. In its book review section, considerably enlarged, it gave priority to Canadian books, and its reviews were the best in Canada outside of the literary journals. All of these expansive developments (with the exception of the rise of Maclean's) could not have taken place without government paternalism on a substantial scale. The chief agency was the Canada Council; its resources available for the arts and humanities and social sciences grew during the decade from approximately four million to approximately thirty-five million dollars. Its support of literature had been initially concentrated on grants to individual writers, supplemented by grants for public readings, and writers in residence at universities. During the decade the support of publications, both in literature and scholarship, grew significantly. These programs received some support from the various provincial bodies for the arts that were launched in the sixties. But the problem of maintaining the publishing industry was beyond the power of federal and provincial cultural bodies combined, and required direct government intervention. The appointment of the Royal Commission on Book Publishing by the Ontario government in December 1970, was, in effect, a national act, since almost all book publishing in English was concentrated in Ontario. The Commission was a response to the sale of Ryerson Press to American interests, and the Commission's first step was to recommend, in an interim report, measures to save McClelland and Stewart from a similar fate. These measures were promptly taken, as were measures

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to implement further interim recommendations to prevent the distribution or wholesaling of periodical publications from becoming an American monopoly, and to enable publishers to secure loans from commercial lenders on a favourable basis. Subsequently the Ontario government made available the sum of $500,000 to be distributed by the Ontario Council of the Arts in support of literary activity; the Council allotted a substantial portion of these grants directly to publishers of books and magazines, and reserved approximately $100,000 for projects of a co-operative nature that might lead to more efficient methods of book distribution. In February 1972, the Secretary of State, Gérard Pelletier, announced a federal program to be implemented largely through the Canada Council, costing a total of $1.7 million for 1972-3, and consisting of increased grants to publishers, increased grants for the translation of Canadian books, the purchase of books for free distribution in Canada and abroad, and a program of exporting Canadian books. By the end of the sixties, the Canadian literary world had lost much of its defensive introversion. French and English literature still pursued their separate courses, but there were signs that each recognized a common ground. Ronald Sutherland's critical study, Second Image (1971), drew out analogies and parallels between the two literatures that were not laboured or forced, although his insistence that a consciousness of the double heritage constituted the 'mainsteam' of Canadian literature was not a necessary derivative from his argument. English Canada had always known a number of FrenchCanadian writers in translation, and during the decade Anne Hébert, MarieClaire Biais, and Roch Carrier became familiar figures across Canada. French Canada was not so receptive to English Canadians, but critics like McLuhan and Frye began to appear in the literary pages of Le Devoir. Within the English-Canadian literary world, some of the old rigidities disappeared. The tension between criticism and creativity decreased. Many writers moved back and forth between the two areas; in the various critical series that were launched in the sixties (McGraw-Hill Ryerson's Critical Views on Canadian Writers; Copp Clark's Studies in Canadian Literature; McClelland and Stewart's Canadian Writers; Forum House's Canadian Writers and Their Works) writers examined the work of their contemporaries (eg, Eli Mandel wrote about Irving Lay ton; Michael Ondaatje, about Leonard Cohen; George Bo we ring, about Al Purdy). The general effect was that of open dialogue and not of nervous self-protection. The barriers between the social sciences and history on one side, and literature, on the other, were breaking down as the result of the realization of many writers that their fundamental strength depended on the winning of political battles against pressures from without and apathy from within. And within the universities, Canadian literature, as late as the early sixties a nervous and self-conscious visitor in the halls of academe, acquired status and

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recognition. The outlines of a new scholarly approach to cultural history began to appear, especially in Carl Berger's The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism 1867-1914 (1970) and in A.G. Bailey's Culture and Nationality (1972). Bailey'sbook, a collection of essays that span a scholarly career beginning in the late twenties, contains numerous insights that cross disciplinary boundaries with easy authority. Berger's concerns were also the concerns of literary scholars. The themes of the rural idyll and the deadening effect of scientific materialism, prominent in Berger's book, reappear in more elaborate guise, for instance, in D.G. Jones's study of our major literary traditions in Butterfly on Rock: A Study of Themes and Images in Canadian Literature (1970). Within itself, the literary world acquired a new ease and even a consciousness of strength. Although the generations pressed hard on each other, and new ideas and fashions swept by in rapid succession, there was no bitter struggle between the old and the new. Some of the most vigorous and exploratory work came from writers who had established themselves in the forties and fifties: Ernest Buckler's novel of the sixties, The Cruelest Month (1963), was dismissed by senior academic critics, but was hailed by Dave Godfrey, who saw in Buckler an artist trying, like the young writers of the day, to show 'the glittering liquefaction' of things (Tamarack Review, summer 1965, 83); Robertson Davies moved easily and effectively from light to dark comedy; and Earle Birney, warmly receptive to youthful art, sought to relax the complex, subtle rhythms and the witty, concentrated language of his earlier prose; Mordecai Richler moved in Si Urbain's Horseman (1971) from intense regional studies to the international novel, in which England and Canada cast satiric light on each other. Literature, and its creators, became more visible. The insistence on a substantial Canadian content in television had something to do with this. But the popularity of the public reading - usually poetry, but often fiction - had a greater effect than Canadian television, which always drew back from any complete immersion in the arts. And the emergence of the little theatre in the large urban centres as a place primarily to put on Canadian plays helped to give the playwright - a Reaney, a Freeman, a French, or a Ryga - a substantial presence. By the beginning of the seventies, with successes at once popular and critical in poetry, fiction, and criticism, Margaret Atwood was the most visible figure and inspired profiles in newspapers and magazines. It would be possible to see some significance for the official state of literature in the giving of the Royal Bank award, the most ample available in Canada, to Morley Callaghan, in succession to a scientist, an engineer, and a cardinal. Confidence at home was accompanied by some recognition abroad. Canada has excelled at keeping a low cultural profile, and her success has been greatest of all in literature. Earle Birney, after his one-man cultural sweeps of

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the world, would point out that our embassies were never equipped with a cultural adviser, and looked upon poets as embarrassing intruders. That is now changing; the Canada Council has had a program for sending Canadian books abroad, and the recent project, Books Canada, an alliance between the federal government and 48 Canadian publishers, is designed to make Canadian books available on a wholesale and retail basis in the United Kingdom, the United States, and France. More important, the tone of comment on Canadian literature in the UK and USA is less crabbed and the content more informed. Some American magazines produced special Canadian issues (eg, The Atlantic [November 1964] and Cultural Affairs 6 [1969]); and the presence in Canada of a substantial number of anti-American Americans opened up a new view of the country (a good example is Edgar Friedenberg's review of the Canadian Forum's fifty-year selections in the New York Review of Books xx 8 [17 May 1973]). The most substantial outside look at Canada was Edmund Wilson's O Canada (1964), generally condemned by Canadian critics for its perversely restricted view. But Wilson was the first major American writer to take an extended look at our literature; and the book ends with a ringing salute to the Canadian sense of individualism. The Canadian hero, he says, is the old coureur de bois plunging, not into a vast untracked forest, but into the healing depths of his own spirit. This, surely, is not ignorant condescension, but informed praise! The mood of Canadian letters was reflected in the Canadian issue of the Times Literary Supplement (October 1973). The choice of writers was in itself significant - not, as in the past, an olympian observer in the United Kingdom, but a group of young Canadian writers and critics. The mood ranged from triumphant (Ronald Sutherland's 'Canada's Elizabethan Age'), through the cautiously optimistic (Margaret Atwood's 'a literary expansion of Malthusian proportions has taken place'), to Brian Stock's sombre social reflections ('culture was never related to social realities but rather to an abstract world derived from foreign literature'). Stock's comment posed a basic question: could the literature flourish on a cultural nationalism drawing its support exclusively from governments, while, at the same time, the country moved steadily towards economic integration with the United States? Whatever the answer, the writers went about their work with zest, conscious that the future might be gloomy, but delighted by the present plenitude.

2 The Course of Canadian Criticism DESMOND PACEY

In 1889 the Toronto-based satirical magazine Grip published the following list of rules for aspiring Canadian critics: 1 If possible, get yourself born in England, Scotland, or somewhere outside of Canada, at any rate, and brought up abroad until your ideas and habits of thought are fully matured. This is not absolutely essential, but it is a very great advantage. 2 Be intensely, excruciatingly "loyal" and very patriotic. You will easily demonstrate your loyalty by writing a poem in honour of the Governor-General - any kind of a poem will do, so long as the sentiments are sufficiently enthusiastic. Denounce Yankees and all their institutions on every possible opportunity. 3 Write in a formal, stilted style, and carefully, as you value your reputation, avoid any phrase or expression which is racy of the soil, such as is used in every-day life. Of course Dickens, Scott and Victor Hugo drew copiously on the popular vocabulary, and their works teem with slang expressions, but for a Canadian writer it would never do to depict Canadians naturally. If you must use slang, let it be pure English slang. 4 Your principal theme will, of course, be Canadian Literature. You will write articles entitled, "Have We a Canadian Literature?" "Need of a Canadian Literature," "Progress of Canadian Literature," etc. As everybody knows, it was by writing about English literature, the necessity of having it, and the means of encouraging it, that it got a start. 5 Work the mutual admiration racket, by mentioning favourably all the other native Canadian writers - especially, of course, Professor Goldwin Smith and C.G.D. Roberts. They will naturally praise you in return. It is needless to say that criticisms and articles upon Canadian writers form the staple of "Canadian literature," distinctively so called. N.B. - It is by no means necessary to have read the writings you praise. Follow these directions implicitly, and you will very shortly be acknowledged by the fraternity as a native Canadian "Litterateur," and some weeks you may be able to make as much as five dollars by your contributions to the press. (Grip 32 [6 April 1889] 213)

These rules imply some disconcerting home-truths, and as a native of New Zealand who is distrustful of American influences in Canada, whose style is

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not noted for its colloquial ease, who has written a plethora of general articles on the past, present, and future of Canadian literature, and who is always duly respectful of his betters, I am perhaps tempting Fate by citing them. There has been a tendency for Canadian literary criticism to be strongly influenced by persons not of Canadian origin; there has been a continuing strain of nationalistic defensiveness in it; it has with a few notable exceptions such as Lome Pierce and John Sutherland been academic in style, affiliation, and influence; and there has been an inclination to deal in large generalities rather than in detailed practical criticism. The satirist, however, quite properly for his purposes, gives only one side of the picture, and the implications of his rules are far from being the whole truth. Even in the nineteenth century there were Canadians who cared strongly about our literature and wrote about it with at least a measure of objectivity: such men as J.G. Bourinot, J.C. Dent, E.H. Dewart, C.G.D. Roberts, and W.D. Lighthall. The present century, and especially the last fifty years, has seen the gradual but sure emergence of a literary criticism in this country which is based upon a shrewd understanding of Canada but not upon a romantic adulation of everything Canadian; which is expressed in a language recognizably indigenous in its allusions, vocabulary, and rhythms; and which has increasingly concerned itself with close analysis rather than with general exhortation. The development of a large body of informed and responsible criticism has been most rapid in the last decade. When the six editors of the Literary History of Canada began our work in the late fifties, we hoped that its eventual publication would stimulate critical activity in this country, but none of us anticipated that the effects would be so immediate and multitudinous. By my count, and I am sure my list is not exhaustive, there have appeared in the last ten years no less than fifty-five anthologies, thirty-two of them in poetry alone, over sixty critical monographs, and eighteen collections of critical essays. Only in literary biography, where an exhaustive search turns up only seven titles, in literary history, where the monumental Literary History has so far only one new companion, Elizabeth Waterston's Survey: A Short History (1973), and in scholarly editions of texts and letters, has there been a dearth of activity. In addition to all this critical activity in book form, of course, there has been a daunting mass of periodical articles, essays, and reviews, the bulk of them in the pages oiCanadian Literature, founded by George Woodcock in 1959, and the Journal of Canadian Fiction, founded by John Moss in 1972, but with many scattered articles in other periodicals published in centres from coast to coast, and some outside our borders. Some of these periodical articles have been of outstanding quality, and appear to have made a permanent impact upon our critical sensibilities. Without attempting to be exhaustive, I am

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thinking of such articles as Warren Tallman's 'Wolf in the Snow,' Robert L. McDougall's 'Class in Canadian Literature,' Louis Dudek's 'Nationalism in Canadian Poetry,' Dorothy Livesay's 'Tennyson's Daughter or Wilderness Child: The Factual and Literary Background of Isabella Valancy Crawford,' Alfred G. Bailey's 'The Historical Setting of Sara Duncan's Imperialist,' and Sister Beverley Mitchell's 'Association and Allusions in The Double Hook.' There have also been several series of reprints of Canadian literary and allied works, of which the best known is the New Canadian Library, published by McClelland and Stewart under the general editorship of Malcolm Ross. That series, however, has recently been joined by others emanating variously from Mel Hurtig in Edmonton, Coles Publishing Co. in Toronto, and the University of Toronto Press (Literature of Canada: Poetry and Prose in Reprint, edited by Douglas Lochhead). The items in these series sometimes contain critical introductions of considerable length and value, and collectively they have made a substantial contribution to a critical awareness of our emerging literary tradition. I shall attempt later in this chapter to be more specific about the tendencies apparent in the relatively large mass of criticism which has appeared in the last decade, but in order to understand this recent work it is desirable first to set it in historical perspective. There had been scattered forays into the field of Canadian literary criticism and scholarship prior to 1920. Almost exclusively, they had taken the form of introductions and notes to anthologies of Canadian poetry, such as those by Edward Hartley Dewart and William Douw Lighthall, or of chapters in books devoted to Canadian cultural development, such as John G. Bourinot's Our Intellectual Strength and Weakness (1893) and John C. Dent's The Last Forty Years (1881), and of reviews and review articles in such periodicals as The Week and The Canadian Magazine. The first concerted efforts to establish Canadian literature as a suitable field for systematic and extensive exploration occurred in the nineteen-twenties. The developments of that decade have some almost uncanny similarities to those of the most recent decade: new magazines were founded, the Canadian Authors' Association was established (note that the last decade has witnessed the establishment of the League of Canadian Poets and of the Writers' Union), courses in Canadian literature were established in our universities, poets and novelists such as Carman and Grove made triumphant lecture tours from coast to coast, literary awards were founded and Canadian writers for the first time won prestigious international literary prizes (Martha Ostenso for Wild Geese, for example, in 1925, and Mazo de la Roche íorJalna in 1927). Most relevant to our immediate purpose, there was a great expansion in Canadian publishing. The several series of monographs which have been

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appearing in our decade had their analogues in the twenties in Lome Pierce's Makers of Canadian Literature, and in the Master Works of Canadian Authors, a series launched by the Radisson Society in 1925. Both these series petered out before they had achieved their ambitious aims, but their very initiation expressed the new mood and purpose. Again, a number of histories of Canadian literature were published in the twenties. Headwaters of Canadian Literature (1924) by Archibald MacMechan was a brief, judicious, and conservative appraisal of the principal works; Highways of Canadian Literature, however, published in the same year under the joint authorship of J.D. Logan and Donald French, was a much more bulky, less discriminating, and more flamboyant book, finding in our infant literature all sorts of schools and trends. Lome Pierce's Outline of Canadian Literature (1927) was a more modest handbook, and dealt not only with Canadian literature in English but also with Canadian literature in French; for a decade or so it remained the standard reference book. Only two of the surveys published in the twenties, however, seem likely to retain permanent critical interest. Ray Palmer Baker's Harvard doctoral dissertation, published in 1920 as A History of English-Canadian Literature to the Confederation, confines itself to the very early period, but is substantial in scholarship and penetrating in critical analysis. Lionel Stevenson's Appraisals of Canadian Literature (1926), on the other hand, deals mainly with Canadian literature since the Confederation, and is now experiencing a revival because of its shrewd analysis of basic conditions which still concern Canadian critics. Another way in which the twenties resembled the recent period was that it saw the reissuing of Canadian 'classics,' many of which had been out of print for some years - books such as Richardson's Wacousta, Moodie's Roughing It in the Bush, and Kirby's Golden Dog. Furthermore, a start was made in the twenties on publishing critical monographs of Canadian authors. Although they were far less numerous than those appearing in the late nineteen-sixties and seventies, beginnings were made with James Cappon's studies of Carman and Roberts, V.L.O. Chittick's Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1924), Odell Shepard's Bliss Carman (1924), Carl Y. Connor's Archibald Lampman (1929), and the studies of Kirby and Pickthall by Lome Pierce. This first decade of systematic literary criticism in Canada was avowedly nationalistic in inspiration and intention. With some rare exceptions, the critical standards were low, and to read the encomia which were bestowed on mediocre works and authors is today somewhat embarrassing. The spirit of the decade is perhaps best encapsulated in the poster of the first Canadian Book Week, which read: '700 Canadian Authors in our Wonderful Canada. Have you read their books?' Sceptics such as Douglas Bush, A.J.M. Smith,

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and F.R. Scott protested against this crass nationalism and 'boosterism,' but they could not dampen its fires: it took the great depression of the thirties to do that. For all its excesses, however, the decade was a significant one: essential foundations were laid for the subsequent study of Canadian literary development. The individual most responsible for laying these foundations was Lome Pierce (1890-1961), whom I should select as the representative critic of that period. The range of his activities, interests, and achievements is almost incredible. As editor of the Ryerson Press for almost forty years he encouraged, and often published, almost every Canadian writer of any significance. He launched the Makers of Canadian Literature series, which was planned to include forty volumes although only thirteen were actually published; the Canadian Men of Letters series, which included E.K. Brown's On Canadian Poetry (1943) and my Frederick Philip Grove (1945); the Ryerson Books of Prose and Verse (the chief significance of which was that they made selections of Canadian writing available in Canadian schools); the Canadian History Readers and the Canadian Art series. He also established the Ryerson Poetry Chapbooks, which eventually included no less than two hundred items. He himself edited an anthology, Our Canadian Literature, prepared the handbook entitled An Outline of Canadian Literature, wrote critical biographies of William Kirby and Marjorie Pickthall, edited the selected poems of Bliss Carman and Marjorie Pickthall, and wrote several impassioned books and pamphlets dedicated to the advancement of a national spirit and culture. Pierce's nationalism had nothing crass about it: it was idealistic, almost apocalyptic, as in the passage from A Canadian People which caught the imagination of John Sutherland and led the latter to use the part italicized below as the motto for Northern Review. The cosmopolite has no history because he has no strong, undivided ego, no well-defined home, no pure native language, no lofty sense of duty, or destiny. The voices of the world's great centres may be urbane, bland, sophisticated, but there is no high purpose in them, and no nation can survive without that. No nation can achieve its true destiny that adopts without profound and courageous reasoning and selection the thought and styles of another.... (loc. cit., p 24)

Lome Pierce's influence extended over a period of forty years, but it was at its height in the twenties and thirties. While he was devoting himself to the development of a national sense of identity and to the maintenance of literary values which can best be summed up in the phrase 'romantic idealism,' a counter-tendency was making itself felt in the work of A.J.M. Smith, F.R. Scott, A.M. Klein, and Dorothy Livesay. These persons, at any rate at this period, were practising poets rather than critics, but they made critical pronouncements which were influential and provocative. Although they were

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nationalists too, in a sense, they took the view that true nationalism was better fostered by critical examination of weaknesses and deficiencies than by uncritical adulation; and although the romantic impulse was still strong in them, they at least wanted to modify romanticism by a strong infusion of irony or to discipline it by the application of such so-called 'classical' virtues as economy, wit, order, and control. This counter-tendency to the romantic nationalism of Pierce and the twenties and early thirties became itself the dominant tendency of the forties and fifties. The new spirit of sophisticated scepticism had found early expression in the articles written by Bush, Smith, and Scott in the Canadian Forum in the late twenties, in the prefaces (both the one by Scott that was printed and the one by Smith that was rejected) to the anthology New Provinces (1936), and in the first and only book-length collection of Canadian critical essays published in the thirties, W.E. Collin's The White Savannahs (1936). Collin's book was as enthusiastic in its praise of Canadian poets as Pierce's work, but it found its standards in the modernist poetry of Eliot and the later Yeats and championed symbolic allusiveness and experimental verse techniques. The dominance of a new spirit, however, was most firmly asserted in 1943, when Smith published the first edition of his Book of Canadian Poetry and E.K. Brown his critical study On Canadian Poetry. Between them, Smith and Brown certainly controlled the critical atmosphere in the forties, Smith by the virtual monopoly and high prestige that his verse anthology enjoyed, and Brown because of the influence of his critical study and of his annual surveys of Canadian poetry in the University of Toronto Quarterly. Smith, then, with E.K. Brown as his principal lieutenant, became the representative critic of the forties and fifties. Characteristically, Smith has been a far less prolific writer than Pierce - he is by nature and precept exigent - but the influence he has exercised has been out of all proportion to the volume of his publications. Fortunately his collected critical essays, Towards a View of Canadian Letters, were published by the University of British Columbia Press in 1973, and we can now see the main outlines of his critical creed set forth in a single volume. He has stood always for high standards, and has consistently opposed parochialism, vagueness, rhetoric, and sloppy technique. He has maintained that Canadian writing must be judged by world standards, must be conscious of its time as well as its place, and must be ready to subject itself to detailed critical scrutiny. It is in the close reading of specific poems and passages that Smith has most distinguished himself as a practical critic - see, for example, the fine essay on Duncan Campbell Scott which was originally delivered as a lecture in the Our Living Tradition series at Carleton University - but on occasion he has been as impassioned in generalization as Pierce. Witness this well-known passage addressed to young Canadian poets:

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Set higher standards for yourself than the organized mediocrity of the authors' associations dares to impose. Be traditional, catholic, and alive. Study the great masters of clarity and intensity. ... Study the poets of today whose language is living and whose line is sure. ... Read the French and German poets whose sensibility is most intensely that of the modern world ... Send your verse to the best English and American magazines. Until you are sure that your work is acceptable there, leave the Canadian magazines alone. (Towards a View of Canadian Letters, p 185)

Just as Lome Pierce in the twenties and thirties inspired a whole group of other writers and critics, so did A.J.M. Smith in the forties and fifties. Northrop Frye has said in the preface to The Bush Garden that his own quickened interest in Canadian poetry resulted from his reading of Smith's Book of Canadian Poetry, and indeed his review of that book in the Canadian Forum has become one of the classics of our criticism. It was in part the example of Smith's Book of Canadian Poetry which led me to edit my Book of Canadian Stories in 1947, and his influence, together with the informed encouragement of Lome Pierce, A.G. Bailey, and E.K. Brown, which prompted me immediately afterwards to prepare the first edition of Creative Writing in Canada (1952) and its more analytical successors, Ten Canadian Poets (1958) and Essays in Canadian Criticism (1969). It is probable that Malcolm Ross, A.G. Bailey, Roy Daniells, Carl Klinck, Claude Bissell, Hugo McPherson, and Milton Wilson would make similar avowals. This group of critics, most of whom were eventually to be involved in the Literary History of Canada, were together to make a very significant contribution to the development of Canadian criticism. Most of them had come to know one another in the nineteen-thirties and forties, as students or lecturers at the University of Toronto. Although they all had a strong interest in Canadian writing, they were far from being merely parochial: most of them had studied also in Great Britain or the United States, and all of them were scholars knowledgeable about other literatures as well as that of their native or adopted country of Canada. Malcolm Ross's main contribution has been his judicious editing of the New Canadian Library series, but he also edited Our Sense of Identity (1954) and the anthology Poets of the Confederation (1960), and he has written some perceptive critical articles and introductions. A.G. Bailey and Claude Bissell have pioneered in the writing of Canadian intellectual history; of Carl F. Klinck we shall have more to say below; McPherson and Wilson have been amongst our most original and imaginative critics, McPherson especially of the novel and Wilson of poetry. Milton Wilson also edited two fine anthologies, Poetry of Mid-Century (1964) and Poets between the Wars (1967), and wrote a critical study of E.J. Pratt which is mentioned below. Roy Daniells' many essays and articles on Canadian literature and culture have yet to be collected in book form, but they reveal a

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quick sensitivity to literary technique, and an ability to relate literature to the other arts, on the one hand, and to social and intellectual history on the other. Since most of these men began their work in the nineteen-forties, it is hard to understand why George Woodcock maintains that the serious and sophisticated criticism of Canadian literature began in the nineteen-fifties, with the appearance of Northrop Frye's annual surveys of Canadian poetry in the University of Toronto Quarterly of that decade. Frye's surveys, excellent as they were, merely carried on a distinguished tradition which E.K. Brown had established. A more likely turning point would be Collin's White Savannahs; but the most likely - and indeed in my view the indubitable - turning point was the appearance of the Smith and Brown books in 1943. By that time, Brown and Smith were professors of English in distinguished American universities, and the fact that two eminent Canadian expatriates cared enough about the literature of their native country to write books about it did much to dissipate our lingering colonial inferiority complex. To return to the historical process, we have seen that what we may for the sake of simplicity call the romantic idealism and nationalism of Lome Pierce provoked a counter-tendency in the classical and metaphysical cosmopolitanism* of A.J.M. Smith, and that this counter-tendency eventually became the dominant one. A similar dialectical process occurred with respect to Smith, and began remarkably soon after his dominance was established. The counter-tendency manifested itself most clearly in John Sutherland's preface to his anthology Other Canadians (1947). (This preface, by the way, is probably most conveniently accessible in The Making of Modern Poetry in Canada [1967], edited by Louis Dudek and Michael Gnarowski, an indispensable book for anyone who wants to observe at close range the cut and thrust of critical controversy in Canada from 1910 to 1965.) In a fine polemic, Sutherland seized upon one of the weaknesses of Smith's criticism - his tendency to apply the terms classical and metaphysical too indiscriminately - and had some great fun with it, as in this passage: The raging passion that we can detect in Mair's poetry was evidently under the control of a master spirit who combined the zeal of an arsonist with the efficiency of a fire-chief. Arsonist emotion and fire-chief intellect are asked to beget a child, which will combine the better qualities of both, and possess something entirely new. This "something else" is comprehended by the term "metaphysical," the use of which has always given Eliot and his followers special advantages over other critics. (The Making of Modern Poetry in Canada, p 52)

As for Smith's cosmopolitanism, Sutherland saw it as merely a polite synonym for colonialism, and he argued for a poetry which would be North *I am aware that this label is an inexact one. There are strong romantic and national strains in Smith - but the emphasis is indicated by the convenient label.

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American rather than English in orientation and which would embody, as he saw the poetry of Dudek, Layton, and Souster already beginning to do, 'a more Canadian point of view, a greater interest in themes and problems of a Canadian kind, and a social realism which distinguishes it from the political make-believe of other poets.' (ibid., p 60) Smith's critical influence had begun to wane by the mid-fifties, and one might have expected the social-realist brand of nationalism preached by the early Sutherland and practised by such writers as Layton, Dudek, Souster, and Miriam Waddington (and later by Purdy, Nowlan, Newlove, and Acorn) to become the new direction. I would have welcomed such a development, for much as I respected Smith's standards my own sympathies were with the social realists. What happened, however, was something quite different. Instead of the Smith thesis of cosmopolitan classicism provoking the direct antithesis of national realism, what developed was a synthesis of Pierce's national myth-making and Smith's literary sophistication in the form of the now dominant Frye school of mythopoeic and thematic criticism. Developed, that is, as far as criticism is concerned. We may observe in passing that criticism leads a life somewhat divorced from that of the creative literature of its time. Pierce, at a time when the trend in poetry was towards wit, scepticism, and social satire, and in fiction towards social realism of the Grove and Callaghan varieties, was still upholding the romantic nature poetry of Carman and Roberts and the historical romance of William Kirby; Smith stood for cosmopolitan and classical values at a time when the most creative literary practitioners were nationalistic and realistic in outlook. The influence of criticism upon creative writers is at best indirect, at worst quite irrelevant. It is upon the tastes of the reading public, and of their fellow-critics, that critics exercise their influence. Frye is a partial, but only partial, exception to this rule: his influence upon other critics has been more direct and effective than his influence upon poets and novelists. We have now, in this survey, reached our own most recent past, and because we are so close to it it is difficult to see its dominant patterns so surely. There may, for example, be some who challenge the view that the dominant school of criticism in Canada in the past decade has been that of Northrop Frye. Who are the other possible candidates? George Woodcock is clearly one. As founder and editor of the magazine Canadian Literature, author of books on Richler and MacLennan and of a collection of his own incisive critical essays entitled Odysseus Ever Returning (1970), editor of two collections of essays from his own magazine -A Choice of Critics (1966) and The Sixties (1969) - and a collection of critical essays on Malcolm Lowry (Malcolm Lowry: The Man and His Work, 1971), Woodcock certainly has been a powerful and productive figure. He has been influential in directing a much larger share of critical attention to our prose fiction (in which A.J.M.

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Smith apparently has had almost no interest), and in involving us in the discussion of moral, social, and political values and issues in our literature. Influential as Woodcock has been, however, he has limitations that deny him the role of representative critic of our era. He is too eclectic in his critical approach to be truly distinctive; he is, or at least has so far been, insufficiently responsive to the peculiar value to us, as Canadians, of our earlier literature; and he is too ready to patronize us, as in references to 'the little zoo of Canadian letters' and 'the significant part which immigrants from Britain have assumed in the Canadian literary world.' Often his spiritual allegiance seems to lie with British writers of the thirties - an allegiance by no means unworthy, but not the ideal point of view from which to observe the development of Canadian writing. Although a Canadian by birth, Woodcock's long absence from Canada during the critical twenties, thirties, and forties cost him dearly in his attempt to understand the developing literary tradition of this country. Woodcock, in short, has been a tremendous influence for good, but he is not the Pierce or Smith of the present era. Another possible candidate for the representative role would be Carl Klinck. As the moving spirit behind, and indeed the hard-pulling horse before, the Literary History of Canada (1965), as the author of books on Wilfred Campbell and E.J. Pratt, co-editor of the influential Canadian Anthology ( 1955), and author of a host of articles and reviews on our early writers of both prose and poetry, Klinck has certainly done much to uphold the standards and promote the interests of Canadian scholarship. If, as I hope, Canadian literary studies now move into a phase where scholarship rather than thematic criticism is the dominant concern, the development will owe very much indeed to Carl Klinck. He has been a pioneer in Canadian literary scholarship. The fact is, however, that thematic and mythopoeic criticism, stemming from Frye's review of A.J.M. Smith's Book of Canadian Poetry, his often scintillating conclusion to the Literary History of Canada, and the other essays and reviews recently gathered together in The Bush Garden (1971), is today, and has been for some eight years, the dominant school of Canadian criticism. This is not the time or place, and I am certainly not the man, to attempt even a brief assessment of Frye's role as a critical theorist.* The fact that he has attained a world-wide reputation in this role has been of great indirect significance to Canadian writing, for it has given us all a sense of pride and self-confidence. My own concern here can only be to indicate, however inadequately, the part he has played in the criticism of Canadian literature. Let me begin by noting that there are interesting similarities between Frye and Lome Pierce: both were ordained as ministers of the United Church of *See, however, Chapter 10 by Malcolm Ross.

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Canada and thus have broad theological training and interests in addition to their literary interests; both tend to see literature as closely allied to religion and as having an apocalyptic dimension ; both have a deep pride in Canada and an intense concern with its spiritual and cultural destiny. Obviously Frye is a much more rigorous thinker and more demanding critic than Pierce ever was, but the general direction of their thought is not dissimilar: both see literature as, quite literally, essential to the spiritual health of the individual and the nation. As a practical critic of Canadian writing, particularly in his role as author of the annual surveys of Canadian poetry in the University of Toronto Quarterly in the nineteen-fifties, Frye was so stimulating that one cannot expunge a twinge of regret that he has not done more of it. He demonstrated in those annual reviews a finely epigrammatic and yet colloquial style, a gift of imagery worthy of a poet, as when he writes of Layton's The Black Huntsmen in 1951: 'The idea in Mr Layton's poetry is to use an intensely personal imagination as an edged tool against a world cemented by smugness, hacking and chopping with a sharp image here, an acid comment there, trying to find holes and weak spots where the free mind can enroot and sprout' (The Bush Garden, p 8), and a taste which is remarkably catholic (he can appreciate and discriminatingly praise such diverse poets as Charles Bruce, Alfred G. Bailey, Irving Layton, Thomas Saunders, George Johnston, and Jay Macpherson). His reviews are so full of wit that I am tempted to enliven this chapter by quoting from him at length - but I will content myself by reminding you of a few of his choicest witticisms: One can get as tired of buttocks in Mr Layton as of buttercups in the Canadian Poetry Magazine, (ibid., p 8) [ Birney ' s] account of a plane trip across Canada where, in spite of some excellent passages, some of the boredom of the trip seems to have leaked into the poem. (ibid., p 16) A glance at any American anthology reveals a series of poets who have progressed from gargle to Guggenheim in six easy volumes, (ibid., p 23) I find it hard to understand why one should look for sermons in stones when the inability to preach is so attractive a feature of stones, (ibid., p 119) This is like saying that because the quintuplets are Canadian, producing children in litters is a Canadian characteristic, (ibid., p 131)

Frye is sometimes betrayed into too hasty generalization, as when he writes 'Nature is consistently sinister and menacing in Canadian poetry' (ibid., p 142), and I frankly disagree with his theoretical views (which he does not in these reviews espouse in practice) that criticism is not and should not be concerned with evaluation, and that literature owes more to other works of

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literature than to the writer's own life and times. But any such niggling objections fade into insignificance in the face of the magnificent insights of Frye's best passages, passages which will soon have launched a thousand theses and a score of books. For example: The United States is a symmetrical country: it presents a straight Atlantic coastline, and its culture was, up to about 1900, a culture of the Atlantic seaboard, with a north-south frontier that moved westward until it reached the Pacific. Canada has almost no Atlantic seaboard, and a ship coming here from Europe moves, like a tiny Jonah entering an enormous whale, into the Gulf of St Lawrence, where it is surrounded by five Canadian provinces, all out of sight, and then drifts up a vast waterway that reaches back past Edmonton. There would be nothing distinctive in the Canadian culture at all if there were not some feeling for the immense searching distance, with the lines of communication extended to the absolute limit, which is a primary geographical fact about Canada and has no real counterpart elsewhere, (ibid., p 10) If we put together a few of these impressions, we may get some approach to characterizing the way in which the Canadian imagination has developed in its literature. Small and isolated communities surrounded with a physical or psychological "frontier," separated from one another and from their American and British cultural sources: communities that provide all that their members have in the way of distinctively human values, and that are compelled to feel a great respect for the law and order that holds them together, yet confronted with a huge, unthinking, menacing, and formidable physical setting - such communities are bound to develop what we may provisionally call a garrison mentality, (ibid., p 225) This mood is closer to the haunting vision of a serenity that is both human and natural which we have been struggling to identify in the Canadian tradition. If we had to characterize a distinctive emphasis in that tradition, we might call it a quest for the peaceable kingdom, (ibid., p 249)

Five of the books inspired at least in part by those memorable passages are D.G. Jones's Butterfly on Rock (1970), Margaret Atwood's Survival (1972), W.H. New's Articulating West (1972), Laurence Ricou's Vertical Man/Horizontal World (1973), and John Moss's Patterns of Isolation (1974). The distinction of Moss's book is that it is the first thorough-going attempt to apply Frye's concepts systematically to the corpus of Canadian prose fiction, and although it occasionally over-reaches itself and is somewhat turgid in style it contains some very acute perceptions. New seems to be a relatively recent recruit to the Frye battalion - his introduction, title, and subtitles are in the Frye tradition, but most of his book consists of straightforward evaluative and interpretative essays. Ricou announces a Frigian approach in his preface - 'Man on the prairie, as portrayed in Canadian fiction, is defined especially by two things: exposure, and an awareness of the surrounding emptiness' but quite often he forgets the master, and becomes a more modest regionalist, in the rest of the book. Jones and Atwood, however, are Frigian to the bone, the former solemn, dignified, and hortatory, the latter trenchant, sometimes flippant, occasionally impassioned but always invigorating. Butterfly on Rock is probably the most thoughtful, consistent, and penetrating book of its kind in

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Canadian literary history; Survival is certainly the most popular, witty, and enlivening. Margaret Atwood makes the study of Canadian literature into a game - and I do not mean that in a pejorative sense at all, since I share Leonard Cohen's view that 'games are nature's most beautiful creation.' Although her central thesis - that the distinguishing characteristic of Canadian literature is its obsession with survival - is dubious, the incidental critical illuminations are so brilliant as to make the book richly worthwhile. Survival has already become a kind of literary Bible for many Canadian students. Frye's influence is also evident in many of the monographs published in the various series that began to appear in the latter half of the 1960s as a result of the interest engendered by, and reflected in, the publication of the Literary History of Canada in 1965. There is obviously not space here to deal individually with all the fourteen books which have so far appeared in the Canadian Writers Series emanating from McClelland and Stewart, the ten that have appeared in Copp Clark's Studies in Canadian Literature, the six in Forum House's Canadian Writers and Their Works, the eight in Twayne's World Authors series, or the nine in the McGraw-Hill Ryerson series, Critical Views on Canadian Writers. Each of the series has its strengths and its weaknesses, with the possible exception of the Copp Clark books, in which I find the quality uniformly high and the length generally adequate to the subject. The Canadian Writers' series is the most extensive in coverage, but its contributors have to labour under the frustrating constraint of confining themselves to sixty-four pages - which for Milton Wilson on Pratt, for example, is obviously absurd. Surely more flexibility should be permitted, at any rate now that the series has established itself? The Forum House series imposes a similar handicap upon itself, and suffers moreover from difficulties of distribution and publicity. This latter problem assumes almost fatal proportions in respect to the Twayne series - although two or three of the books are of very high quality, they are inadequately promoted and poorly distributed. It may be invidious to single out some of these monographs for special mention, since virtually all of them are of respectable quality. It would be at least equally invidious, however, not to pay tribute where tribute is due. In the McClelland and Stewart series, outstanding items, in addition to Milton Wilson's closely argued book on Pratt, are Michael Ondaatje's book on Leonard Cohen (1970), which is full of brilliant aperçus, Robertson Davies' study of Stephen Leacock (1970), which is especially helpful about Leacock's life and personality, Richard Robillard's critique of Earle Birney (1971), which is distinguished by its close textual and technical analysis, Ronald Bates' concise but remarkably lucid exposition of the criticism of Northrop Frye (1971), and William H. New's study of Malcolm Lôwry (1971), a thorough-going and frequently perceptive attempt to explicate Lowry's involved symbolism and complex themes.

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In the Copp Clark series, WJ. Keith's book on Charles G.D. Roberts ( 1969) is chiefly valuable for its serious analysis of Roberts's prose fiction: on the poetry it has little new to say. Hallvard Dahlie's Brian Moore (1969) contains some fresh biographical material, together with a series of unpretentious but perceptive analyses of each of the novels in turn. D.O. Spettigue's Frederick Philip Grove (1969) has been to some degree superseded by Spettigue's own subsequent work, especially his FPG: The European Years (1973), but it will be remembered for its brilliant exposition of the inconsistencies in Grove's own accounts of his early life. His later book establishes, beyond all reasonable doubt, the European identity of Grove, and is the most exciting piece of biographical research in our recent history. Victor Hoar's Money Callaghan (1969) is not especially illuminating about Callaghan's ideas, but it is extremely good as a study of the style and form of his fictions. George Woodcock's Hugh MacLennan (1969) is, as we might expect, written with easy authority, and makes the decisive observation, essential to a proper understanding of MacLennan, that 'that novelist relies more than at first seems apparent in his writing on the movements of the unconscious mind.' A quite different but none the less valuable study is George Bowering's/4//>H/-i/y (1970), an honest, unacademic, fellow-craftsman's book which is both informative about Purdy's life and perceptive about the technique of his work. Ernest Redekop's Margaret Avison (1970) is another excellent study: he wrestles honestly and agilely with the difficult, allusive, complex poems of this writer, and when he cannot pin them down he frankly admits his inability. Miriam Waddington's study of A.M. Klein (1970) is marred by her apparent anxiety to score debating points over other critics such as Louis Dudek and myself, but Mrs Waddington's knowledge of Yiddish language and literature often yields genuinely fresh insights. Sandra Djwa's E.J. Pratt (1974) is valuable for its explicit recognition of Newfoundland influences upon Pratt, and for its quite thorough attempt to relate Pratt's ideas to main currents of nineteenth-century thought. The only really outstanding item in the Forum House series is Eli Mandel's Irving Layton (1969), which certainly contains some brilliant insights in spite of its oblique and often opaque style. Phyllis Grosskurth, .however, is judicious in her summing up of Gabrielle Roy's total achievement, and Elspeth Buitenhuis is very informative about Robertson Da vies' writing methods and provides a perceptive summary of his development. The McGraw-Hill Ryerson series, Critical Views on Canadian Writers, consists largely of compilations of reviews and previously published critiques of the authors concerned, and hence largely precludes individual brilliance on the part of the various editors. Perhaps the chief value of the series is that it makes available contemporary reviews from newspapers and magazines, otherwise very difficult to obtain. In the Twayne series, we should note the

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valuable biographical material provided by Margaret Stobie in her book on Grove (1973), together with her exposition of some of his leading ideas; special tribute should also be paid to Alvin Lee's book on James Reaney (1968), which combines sensitive close reading of the text with a fine sense of the overall themes and patterns of Reaney's work. My own Ethel Wilson (1968) sheds some new light on Mrs Wilson's life, and I hope also on her work. A few outstanding critical studies have appeared outside of the various series. Patricia Morley's The Immoral Moralists (1972), a comparative study of Hugh MacLennan and Leonard Cohen from the point of view of their moral concepts, is somewhat clumsy in style and structure, but is a sincere and commendable effort to cut across such related disciplines as religion, history, and literature. Robert Cockburn's The Novels of Hugh MacLennan (1970) is an honest and readable study, but perhaps its chief importance is that, by so clearly demonstrating that MacLennan's novels will not stand up when judged by the criteria of conventional social realist fiction, it drives us to look elsewhere for the sources of the power that MacLennan undoubtedly exerts over us. Clara Thomas's Love and Work Enough: The Life of Anna Jameson (1967) is devoted to a figure somewhat peripheral in our literary history, but it is a model of exact scholarship, being comprehensive, well documented, and based upon the extensive use of letters and other manuscript material. The same author has recently published Our Nature-Our Voices: A Guidebook to English-Canadian Literature, Volume i (1973), a useful handbook which provides brief biographical and critical introductions to fifty writers from the beginnings to the present day. From There to Here, Volume n of Our Nature Our Voices, written by Frank Davey, was published in 1974. The writers included in that volume are all contemporary ones. There are several other books worthy of special tribute. Ronald Sutherland, in Second Image: Comparative Studies in Quebec ¡Canadian Literature (1971), makes a bold and often exciting excursion into the much-neglected but potentially most fruitful field of comparative Canadian criticism. Norman Shrive, in his biography of Charles Mair (1965), provides one of the few authoritative biographical studies of Canadian authors: let us hope that his example will be widely followed. And Eli Mandel, in Contexts of Canadian Criticism (1971), has edited a book of essays which is unusual in its structure: a final section on 'Patterns of Criticism' (illustrated by essays by Frye, Wilson, Paul West, R.L. McDougall, Warren Tallman, Henry Kreisel, and Dorothy Livesay) is prefaced by groups of essays which seek, first, to provide the social and historical context and, secondly, the theoretical context, of Canadian criticism. The value of the book resides not so much in the samples of Canadian literary criticism that appear in the final section (good as all of them are, most of them are readily accessible in other collections), but rather in Mandel's closely argued introduction, the presence of articles on Canadian history and politics which do indeed shed light on our literary development,

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and above all in the lucid, unpretentious and humbling essay on 'Art and Criticism' by Francis Sparshott. Finally, there is Engagements (1972), a collection of Irving Layton's prose which contains most of his critical articles and reviews, his forewords, prefaces, and introductions, and 'assorted letters and vituperations.' Vituperative the book often is, but it is often also perceptive, provocative, and even profound. To mention it is to be reminded that many of Canada's creative writers have also made extremely valuable contributions to our critical heritage - one thinks of A.J.M. Smith and F.R. Scott, Dorothy Livesay and Miriam Waddington, Louis Dudek and Henry Kreisel, Margaret Atwood and D.G.Jones. This chapter began with a quotation from Grip which I acknowledge to contain some bitter truths about the Canadian critical tradition. Briefly to return to that quotation, I believe that this chapter has demonstrated that some of the weaknesses alluded to therein are no longer valid. There is now such a sustained and vital tradition of Canadian criticism from Canadian sources that we do not need to fear, but indeed should welcome, critical intrusions from citizens of other countries. Critics such as Pierce, Smith, Daniells, Klinck, Frye, and Woodcock have demonstrated beyond all cavilling that Canadian criticism need not be stilted in style nor pompous in attitude. Although the still relatively small size of the Canadian literary world makes objective criticism of our own authors difficult, we have certainly passed beyond the mutual admiration society stage. One of the weaknesses alluded to in the Grip article, however, the tendency to be too general in our critical discussions, has still not entirely been eradicated. Although much has been done, much more remains to be done in the close critical scrutiny of individual poems and stories. There are, finally, lacunae in our critical and scholarly activities to which Grip does not allude at all. Much of our criticism has proceeded from a very narrow or shallow scholarly base. Before Canadian literary scholarship can truly be said to have come of age we must have more authoritative biographies, more editions of our writers' letters, more comprehensive and sophisticated editions of their collected works. Introductory historical surveys such as my own Creative Writing in Canada, thematic surveys such as the recent books of Jones, Atwood, and Moss, preliminary critical assessments of individual authors such as the various recent series of monographs have provided - these works were useful in their day, but their day is over, or soon will be. Much hard scholarship must come before another major critical breakthrough can occur. Fortunately almost all the members of the generation of critics born between 1900 and 1925 are still alive and at work, and a younger and even more numerous group born between 1925 and 1950 is already active. The tradition is well established and we can await its development and elaboration with confidence.

3 Literary Criticism and Scholarship LAURIAT LANE, JR

How narrowly must we define literary scholarship, including criticism, to delimit our subject yet keep some sense of its full scope?* Many books usually identified with other fields are also important as literary scholarship. And then there are the writings of Marshall McLuhan. In the past few years McLuhan has brought out at least eight major contributions to 'McLuhanism': The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962), Understanding Media (1964), The Medium is the Message (1967, with Quentin Fiore), War and Peace in the Global Village (1968, with Fiore), Through the Vanishing Point (1968, with Harley Parker), Counterblast (1970), Culture is Our Business (1970), and From Cliche to Archetype (1972, with Wilfred Watson). For one reviewer in the University of Toronto Quarterly McLuhan has perpetrated 'the most publicly accepted humbuggery of the nineteen-sixties' (how McLuhan might react to the unconsciously Joycean 'humbuggery' we can only guess); but for another reviewer, possibly in rebuttal, McLuhan 'is transparently honest and incapable of charlatanism.' The gap between these two judgments, both apparently from the viewpoint of literary scholarship, implies an underlying disagreement about whether McLuhan's more recent and famous work, especially since The Gutenberg Galaxy, is literary or, even, scholarship. For McLuhan, at least, we could consider this issue by way of Eugene McNamara's collection of McLuhan's literary criticism, The Interior Landscape (1969), comparing these essays first published from 1943 to 1962 with the books above. We will find in The Interior Landscape critical insights about such figures as Pound, Lewis, Pope, Poe, and above all Joyce, figures whose force and presence, as Donald Theall has shown, continue in McLuhan's work up to the present. Behind these essays, we can see the outline of McLuhan's 'system' taking shape and even, if so inclined, feel the inevitable pressure toward distortion of so sweeping a vision. Or we could take expert guidance from Theall's own book on McLuhan, The Medium is the Rear View Mirror (1971), also clearly the work of a literary scholar. Theall places and judges McLuhan's total achievement sympatheti*See p 344 for acknowledgments.

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cally yet inexorably according to the standards of the discipline from which it originated. He shows both how certain writers McLuhan obviously knows well and has acknowledged did help him and how others whom he might have been expected to know could have helped him toward a less exposed stance with less distortion on the way such as the oversimplified account of The Dunciad at the end oí The Gutenberg Galaxy, which Theall lays bare less in wrath than in sorrow. Theall shows how McLuhan has adopted and adapted literary forms: aphorism, epigram, pun, metaphor, essay, exegesis, to create his own literature, as 'a kind of pseudo-poet,' in his own form, the 'essai concret.' Whether or not themselves examples of literary scholarship, McLuhan's recent works are clearly legitimate occasions for it. Recent responses to patterns of academic mobility and possible cultural imperialism have also made us aware of the difficulty of defining 'Canadian' literary scholarship accurately, or even the literary scholarship 'of Canada. In some sense the work of a scholar born, educated, and continuously teaching in Canada must, by common reason, be more Canadian than that of a scholar, say, who came to Canada - not always from the United States - in the sixties, wrote or at least published his work in Canada, and may have already sought or be about to seek other woods and pastures. But more Canadian in what sense, and to what significance for the purposes of this survey? Or, to what degree is the continuing work of such figures as Douglas Bush, Leon Edel, Gordon Kirkwood, Hugh Kenner, J.C. Lapp, or A.E. Carter, part of the literary scholarship of Canada? There are many literary scholars whose positions partake, to some degree, of these ambiguities. And no one could deny the intense interest and importance of, for example, Theall's appended 'speculative note' on 'the influence of the Canadian university milieu on McLuhan,' or of other such inquiries that might be directed at the work of appropriate individuals: Northrop Frye, as Theall points out, would be another obvious subject for such analysis. In his essay on 'Criticism' in The Sixties (1969, ed. George Woodcock), Peter Stevens discussed at length three clearly Canadian critics: McLuhan, Frye, and Eli Mandel. In this survey of literary scholarship from 1961 to 1973, however, rather than focus too closely on certain individuals, no matter how deserving of such attention, I hope by a method of judicious and relatively unbiased broad sampling to give a fair, if approximate, general picture of the activity of literary scholarship in Canada, its subjects, its emphases, its accomplishments. I shall deal with work whose authors, with few exceptions, at least resided in Canada when their work first appeared, and I shall consider individual achievements in more detail only as common sense demands and space allows. In his discussion of earlier literary scholarship, Millar MacLure alludes to a 'highly selective and incomplete' bibliography of 'roughly 150 items,' not all

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of them books, 'produced by scholars working in Canadian universities since about 1920.' For the purposes of this chapter, by comparison, I confront an equally selective and incomplete list, limited to books produced by scholars working in Canadian universities since 1961, of over 500 items. In The Humanities in Canada (1964), F.E.L. Priestley had already recognized a great increase in scholarly activity from 1947 to 1964 and outlined some of its causes: general change in attitude, academic ambition and mobility, institutional inducement, graduate study and supervision, and sabbatical leave. Or, to put it another way, a general growth of professionalism in all senses of the term. It took another book of the same length, R.M. Wiles, The Humanities in Canada (1966), to complete Priestley's listings and bring them down to the end of 1964. In his preface to this second book, Maurice Lebel prophesied 'un fort volume de plus de 400 pages' for the period 1965 to 1980. But there have been no further volumes of The Humanities in Canada, 'fort' or otherwise; probably because Lebel's hypothetical but very real 400 pages overspilled their bounds some time in the late sixties rather than in 1980, and as a result and to my especial regret, at this point - no complete bibliography of the humanities in Canada after 1964, one that would include work in progress and periodical publication as well as books, exists or perhaps ever will. The Inventory of Research in Progress in the Humanities (1971- ), although a useful if incomplete chart of research interests and work in progress, gives no specific, accurate guide to actual scholarly achievements. And, of course, there are many who would argue for the total absorption of the Canadian or any other literary scholar into the 'world' of international learning without a trace of national affiliation or identity, an argument obviously antithetical to the aim of the remainder of these pages. Not all good literary scholarship gets financial support, nor is all supported study successful (although I would argue a rate of return far higher than from most other kinds of 'investment'). Nevertheless, the generosity and good sense of the Canada Council, of its awarding agencies and committees, make the Council's annual reports one guide to the total activity of literary scholarship in Canada since 1960: group and individual research projects, subsidized journals, annual or special conferences and seminars, and published books. One of these scholarly activities is the conferences devoted to topics in literary scholarship that have become more and more widespread and frequent in Canada during the last dozen years. To my knowledge, no complete calendar of these gatherings exists, but the Canada Council does list those it supports, and each of us knows of others by word of mouth, public advertisement, or fond memory. In addition to the yearly Shakespeare seminars at Stratford (Ontario), there was the World Shakespeare Congress at Vancouver in 1971, an elaborate, prestigious, and by all reports highly successful occa-

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sion, and in a related field there are the annual or biennial conferences on Elizabethan theatre at Waterloo. In 1970, the centenary of Dickens's death was observed at gatherings of divers size and scope in Halifax, Lennoxville, Toronto, and Edmonton. Many conferences are relatively specialized, on subjects such as Thomas Gray, Middlemarch, Baudelaire, or 'the Late Ch'ing Novel in Chinese Literature (1900-1910).' Others bring scholars together under a broader banner: medieval studies, medieval drama, Victorian studies, Irish studies, Ibero-american literature, Asian studies, comparative literature, and so on. Each of these meetings, large or small, has its own atmosphere and special worth. A few, such as a joint meeting in Montreal in 1969 with the African Studies Association (USA), apparently created more excitement than the scholarly temperament can normally tolerate (a condition one hopes did not hold at the 'sixth annual meeting of the Samuel Johnson society of the Northwest,' at Calgary). And there is the series of annual conferences at Toronto on editing texts of different periods in English literature, and, of course, the spring meetings of the Learned Societies. Some of these conferences, not as many as one might wish, have published their proceedings, or a selection from them. One strength of such conferences has been the participation of scholars from outside Canada, whose contributions naturally find a place in these published collections. But many distinguished Canadian contributors are also present, and the collections are almost without exception - edited by Canadian scholars, as well. This is true of Shakespeare 1971 (1972), edited by Clifford Leech and J.M.R. Margeson, the proceedings of the World Shakespeare Congress. Besides contributions from Europe, Great Britain, the United States, and Japan, it includes papers by Herbert Berry, G.R. Hibbard, R.W. Ingram, Jill Levenson, and John C. Meagher, on the Boar's Head playhouse, the role of Shakespeare's distrust of the poetical in the making of his dramatic poetry, the structural role of music in the plays, the dramatic and thematic force of the silences in Lear, and certain weaknesses and failures in the editorial annotation of the plays. Roy Daniells composed scholarly verses to crown the occasion and the collection. Three volumes of more specialized papers from the Waterloo conferences on the Elizabethan theatre, edited by David Galloway (i, 1969; n, 1970; HI, 1973) have similar features to Shakespeare 1971, although, alas, no verses, and include papers by Herbert Berry (two), W.R. Gair, J.A. La vin (two), Clifford Leech (two), Trevor Lennam, Lise-Lone Marker, and D.F. Rowan (two). Another series is the volumes that emerged from the annual conferences at Toronto on editing and publishing problems. Without taking space here to analyze their contents in any detail, they are: R.J. Schoeck, éd., Editing Sixteenth-Century Texts (1966), J.M. Robson, éd., Editing NineteenthCentury Texts (1967), D.I.B. Smith, éd., Editing Eighteenth-Century Texts (1968), W.J. Howard, éd., Editor, Author, and Publisher (1969), Francess

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Halpenny, éd., Editing Twentieth-Century Texts (1972), D.I.B. Smith, éd., Editing Seventeenth-Century Prose (1972), and J.D. Baird, éd., Editing Texts of the Romantic Period (1972). This invaluable set - for the series has an obvious unity - is both an excellent guide for planners, makers, and users of scholarly editions and, as we shall see later, added evidence of the high scholarly principles behind the many editing projects at or in some way associated with Toronto. The conferences continue, and we may hope for more of these helpful symposia to be published. The various talks and toasts offered at the annual Shakespeare seminars in connection with the Stratford Festival - by such Canadian scholar-critics as Northrop Frye and Robertson Da vies, along with many others - have been edited by B.A.W. Jackson in a series of volumes from 1961 on. Beginning in 1966, Norman Rosenblood has edited similar collections of papers from the Shaw seminars at Niagara-on-the-Lake. Other, separate conferences also have had their papers published. Along with or as part of other activities, literary scholarship passes on its findings and conclusions to both formal student and general reader. Such passing-on takes place whenever a scholar or critic meets a class or gives an informal talk or public lecture, sometimes at literary conferences like those noted above. It can also take many published forms: editions - popular or text, short critical manuals or studies, anthologies of critical essays by various hands. Well within the bounds of literary scholarship are Macmillan of Canada's College Classics in English (general editor, Northrop Frye), each volume of which is separately edited by such obviously qualified and conscientious scholar-editors as Kenneth Kee, Sidney Warhaft, R.D. McMaster, John M. Robson, Philip Pinkus, and G.G. Falle. Canadian literary scholars have also contributed to other paperback series: Airmont, Rinehart, Everyman, Signet, Penguin, and Viking Portable. Norman Endicott's Anchor edition of Sir Thomas Browne (1967) goes splendidly beyond the usual scope and significance of such projects and also appeared in an independent hardcover edition. Directed as much to fellow-scholars as to students, and hence even more open to judgement by more than one standard, are the many recent short critical books or anthologies of criticism on a single author. In the British Writers and Critics series, we have F.W. Watt on Steinbeck (1962), George Wing on Dickens (1969), Michael Collie on Laforgue (1964), Saros Cowasjee on Sean O'Casey (1963), Geoffrey Rans on Poe (1965), and Norman MacKenzie on Hopkins (1968), to name only some. In the American Twayne series, again to name only a few, are Chinua Achebe by David Carroll (1970), Elizabeth Bowen by Allen E. Austin (1971), John Middleton Murry by Ernest Griffin (1969), Norman Nicholson by Philip Gardner (1973), Friedrich Schlegel by Hans Eichner(1970), andS/r Walter Scott by John Lauber (1966).

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Two contributions to the British Studies in English Literature series, Clifford Leech's Webster: The Duchess of Malfi (1963) and John Pettigrew's Tennyson: The Early Poems (1970), were singled out for special praise in the University of Toronto Quarterly (Pettigrew has also done important articles on Tennyson). Another British series, Profiles in Literature, has D.E.S. Maxwell, Herman Melville (1968), and Ian Adam, George Eliot (1969). And these are only a sampling. Limited by format to a brief compass whether dealing with a single play or the works of Dickens, these studies do all they can within such limits to bring out or re-state their subject's major worth and significance with a minimum of learned fuss. For the beginning or advanced student, such books bring his evolving knowledge into a trial order; for the scholar they also can be a helpful example of how someone else has done the job we are all trying, day by day, class by class, to do. Committed to similar aims are such series of CBC talks, now in book form, as D.R. Galloway, Shakespeare (1961), Sidney Lamb, Tragedy (1965), Eli Mandel, Criticism (1966), and Hans Eichner, Four German Writers (1964). Also valuable to scholars and teachers - more so than sometimes allowed are anthologies of criticism on one topic, by several critics, and here again Canadian scholars have contributed significantly. Oxford's Galaxy Books include A.E. Barker, Milton (1965). In the Spectrum series of TwentiethCentury Views and Twentieth-Century Interpretations, we have Clifford Leech, Marlowe (1964), Peter Buitenhuis, The Portrait of a Lady (1968), Michael O'Brien, Oedipus Rex (1968), and John Carroll, Richardson (1969). The Patterns of Literary Criticism series, originally published jointly by Chicago and Toronto with Marshall McLuhan, R.J. Schoeck, and Ernest Sirluck as general editors, but now published by Chicago alone, have included Clifford Leech, éd., Shakespeare: The Tragedies. (1965), Beatrice Corrigan, éd., Italian Poets and English Critics 1755-1859 (1969), S.P. Rosenbaum, ed., English Literature and British Philosophy (1971), and Eli Mandel, éd., Contexts of Canadian Criticism (1971). Much fuller and devoted mainly to criticism of an author during his or her lifetime are the volumes in the Critical Heritage series: J.R. de J. Jackson, Coleridge (1970), David Carroll, George Eliot (1971), Michael Thorpe, dough (1972), and Colin Partridge, co-editor, Gissing (1972). Also much fuller, and especially notable, is A.C. Hamilton's collection of nearly six hundred pages of criticism, three-quarters of it since 1960, Essential Articles for the Study of Edmund Spenser (1972). The volume includes essays by A.S.P. Woodhouse, S.K. Heninger, Jr, Northrop Frye, Millar MacLure, A.K. Hieatt, William Blissett, James Carscallen, Paul Delany, and Hamilton himself, work which, for one reviewer, 'reflects the traditional importance of Spenser in the literary curriculum of Canadian universities.' This would be an appropriate place to mention A Theatre for

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Spenserians (1973), ed. Judith Kennedy and J. A. Reither, of whose six papers reprinted from the 1969 International Spenser Colloquium, three are by MacLure, Hieatt, and Hamilton, the last also in Essential Articles. The articles reprinted by Hamilton in Essential Articles first appeared in such journals as the Journal of English Literary History, the University of Toronto Quarterly, and Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. But not all significant scholarly articles are reprinted in book form, however, and without a systematic survey such as that conducted for The Humanities in Canada, it would be impossible, even if space did allow, to give a full or fair idea of the Canadian literary scholarship appearing in periodicals. The University of Western Ontario does give an annual President's Medal for the best scholarly article; recent awards for literary scholarship were: R.B. Parker, 'Dramaturgy in Shakespeare and Brecht' (UTQ, 1963), Philip Stratford, 'Chalk and Cheese: A Comparative Study of A Kiss for the Leper and A Burnt-Out Case' (UTQ, 1964), Andrew Brink, 'Sylvia Plath and the Art of Redemption' (Alphabet, 1968), and 'Point of View in The Waves: Some Services of the Style' by J.W. Graham (UTQ, 1970). As well as the University of Toronto Quarterly, other Canadian periodicals, some of them also helped by the Canada Council, publish the work of literary scholars. Some recent issues of certain general periodicals show the following range of topics: in UTQ, essays on Erasmus, Joyce, Edmund Blunden, and David Jones; in The Dalhousie Review, on Bellow, Shakespeare, Twain, and Derek Walcott; in Queen's Quarterly, on Yeats, Pound, Scottish literature, Orwell, and Woolf. A recent issue of Mosaic, a special Faulkner issue, includes essays by R.G. Collins, Joseph Gold, and Michael Millgate. Not only this issue but earlier special issues of this journal have also been issued as books: From an Ancient to a Modern Theatre', Chaos and Form/ History and Literature: Ideas and Relationships; The Novel and Its Changing Forms (all 1972); and The Eastern European Imagination in Literature (1973). Other Canadian periodicals, such as Phoenix and Seminar, bring together the work of a single discipline. And the Humanities Association Review gathers essays from a wide range of fields, including literary studies. Beyond these lie hundreds of other learned journals throughout the world and in Canada in which regularly appear such examples of the literary scholarship of Canada as George Clark, 'The Battle of Maldon: A Heroic Poem' (Speculum, 1968), Michael Steig, 'Dickens, Hablot Browne, and the Tradition of English Caricature' (Criticism, 1969), W.B. Thome, "Pericles and the "Incest-Fertility" Opposition' (Shakespeare Quarterly, 1971), and P.M. Daly, 'A Defence of Interpretation,' Western Canadian Studies in Modern Language and Literature (1969) - the list would be never-ending - which will at least get just recognition from those who share their objects of concern, although only rarely do they catch the attention of even the most scholarly

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general reader. Any detailed account of these remains beyond my scope, as does any account of another phase of literary scholarship in Canada, the unpublished graduate theses, MA and PHD, collected by and available from the National Library in Ottawa. Having given some attention to various activities of literary scholarship in Canada since 1960,1 now come to what for most readers remains the centre of literary scholarship: those book-length, authoritative editions and works of criticism, biography, literary history, formal or genetic analysis, and so on, addressed primarily to fellow scholars, present and future, and judged by their standards. At this point, it becomes even more obvious that this chapter should itself be a book and its author, or compiler, be a team of authors each with special qualifications and ample space to do right by his or her own branch of literary scholarship. If nothing else, the following pages may provide both positive and negative incentive toward such a book, or series of books. Literary scholarship is, of course, a continuing activity, and much of the scholarship since 1960 grows organically out of that already examined by Millar MacLure. While in a sense all work considered in these pages probably had its fair seed time in the years after World War n, certain works are more obviously the continuation of an intellectual commitment whose rewards were already conspicuous by 1960. This is true most unambiguously of those major scholarly editing projects still proceeding with conscientious and stately port toward full embodiment. The first double volume of Kathleen Coburn's edition of Coleridge's Notebooks appeared in 1959, the second in 1961, and the third in 1973, with two more double volumes estimated to follow. In her essay in Editing Texts of the Romantic Period, Professor Coburn outlines the great difficulties of acquisition (not helped, one gathers, by a biblio-klept butler of the early 1900s), editorial policy, decipherment, arrangement, and annotation attendant on her task. Her comments can only add to our awe at the triumphant results. In the same book, George Whalley discusses similar difficulties with Coleridge's Marginalia, to be published in 'four volumes or so' as part of the Collected Works (of which Professor Coburn is general editor), difficulties that appear almost - if possible - as overwhelming as those surmounted in editing the Notebooks. That printed sources can give almost as much trouble to their editor as manuscript ones is made clear by John Robson's 'Textual Introduction' to Mill's Principles of Political Economy ( 1965), part of the projected Collected Works (general editor, F.E.L. Priestley). This statement is conveniently reprinted in Brack and Barnes, Bibliography and Textual Criticism (1969) as a caution to would-be editors and a sample chart through very crowded waters.

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Since then, Robson has included 'Principles and Methods in the Collected Edition of John Stuart Mill,' a summary of the practical and philosophical policies governing the whole project, in Editing Nineteenth-Century Texts, and has produced Mill's Essays on Economics and Society (1967), Essays on Ethics, Religion, and Society (1969, with Priestley and D.P. Dryer), and A System of Logic (1972), as well as his own study, The Improvement of Mankind: The Social and Political Thought of John Mill (1968). (The fiscal implications of an edition such as that of Mill for its publisher are neatly summarized by Francess Halpenny in her paper in Editor, Author, and Publisher.) Other editor-scholars recognized by Mac Lure continued or completed their work during the sixties. G.M. Story followed his Sonnets of William Alabaster with an edition of twelve sermons of Lancelot Andrewes (1967). Joyce Hemlow's work on the Fanny Burney papers has produced A Catalogue of the Burney Family Correspondence, 1749-1878 (1971, with Jeanne M. Burgess and Althea Douglas), with many volumes of the papers themselves presumed to follow shortly, and Clarence Tracy has given us an edition of Richard Savage's Poetical Works (1962) and Johnson's Life of Savage (1971). Along with completing his seven-volume edition of the poetry of Philippe Desportes (with the Malherbe commentary) - an account of which is included in Editing Sixteenth-Century Texts - Victor Graham has edited Representative French Poetry (1962) and Sixteenth-Century French Poetry (1964), and has written various critical studies including The Imagery of Proust (1966) and Estienne Jodelle, 'Le Recueil des Inscriptions' 1558: A Literary andIconographical Exegesis (1972), the latter an especially rewarding collaboration with W. McAllister Johnson, an historian of the fine arts, now repeated in The Paris Entries of Charles rx and Elisabeth of Austria 1571 (1973). A full list, by J.H. Parker, of editing and translating by Beatrice Corrigan is appended to J.A. Molinaro, éd., Petrarch to Pirandello: Studies in Italian Literature in Honour of Beatrice Corrigan (1973). Professor Corrigan is also co-ordinating editor of the projected English translation of the works of Erasmus, of which the first two volumes of the Correspondence (1974-5) have been published. One of the two literary editors of the Collected Works, D.F.S. Thomson, had earlier shown evidence of his interest in Erasmus by the publication of his Erasmus and Cambridge: The Cambridge Letters of Eras mus (1963). A parallel enterprise is being undertaken in French at Laval University in collaboration with the University of Brussels. Other scholars have continued their commentary on a special author or field. Hans Eichner followed his edition of Friedrich Schlegel's Literary Notebooks with a critical book on Schlegel (1970), and has followed that, in turn, by editing and contributing a long section to 'Romantic' and Its Cognates: The European History of a Word (1972), to which George Whalley and

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Raymond Immerwahr have also contributed long sections that are virtually books in themselves. Eichner is also co-editor of a new edition of Schlegel. To his earlier work, Hermann Boeschenstein has added Gottfried Keller (1969) and German Literature of the Nineteenth Century (1969). A.D. Winspear, who earlier translated Lucretius, has written what is actually a lively introduction to the ideas and the poetry, Lucretius and Scientific Thought (1963). Watson Kirkconnell has collected That Invincible Samson (1964), analogues to Milton's poetic drama, ana Awake the Courteous Echo (1973), which does the same service for Comus, Lycidas, and Paradise Regained. Kirkconnell has also translated Adam Mickiewicz, Pan Tadeusz (1962), and with C.H. Andrusyshen, The Ukrainian Poets 1189-1962 (1963), and Taras Shevchenko, The Poetical Works (1964). R.M. Wiles' Freshest Advices: Early Provincial Newspapers in England (1965) complements his earlier Serial Publications in England before 1750, The work of Wiles and others is opening up to a wide range of critical approaches important areas of eighteenth-century literature and general culture. In another, very different mode of study, Marion B. Smith's Dualities in Shakespeare (1966) comes after many years of teaching, lecturing on, and writing about the sonnets and plays and transforms a recurring critical concern into a unifying thesis. Another example of the literary scholar who has continued his work into the sixties would be G.M.A. Grube, who has translated Marcus Aurelius (1963) and done a general study oí The Greek and Roman Critics (1965). The final writings of the late A.S.P. Woodhouse and the book of essays published in his honour provide a convenient and appropriate introduction to the continuing strength and variety of Milton studies in Canada since 1960. This topic might be bracketed between Woodhouse's stringent, antiLeavisite review in the University of Toronto Quarterly of John Peter, A Critique of Paradise Lost (1960), and Roy Daniells' sympathetic but judicious notice in The Dalhousie Review (1973) of Woodhouse's posthumous.The Heavenly Muse: A Preface to Milton (1973, ed. Hugh MacCallum). Something of the continuing complexity of Milton studies and of Woodhouse's relation to them is neatly expressed by Daniells: He believed that truth can, by dispassionate and assiduous search, be found ; that, when found, it can and must be communicated. His shining virtue is his complete consistency, the unbroken continuity of each line of enquiry undertaken, whether biographical, ideological, aesthetic, or textual. One concomitant, it must be admitted, is an unwillingness to note that, from another point of view or with another set of criteria than those employed, a different pattern might appear. This double quality was, of course, a marked characteristic of Milton himself. ...

In The Heavenly Muse MacCallum has drawn together into a continuous, coherent discourse materials both published and unpublished, revised and unrevised, from 1942 through 1964. The book fulfills the intentions outlined in

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the opening chapter, 'Prospect: The Study of Milton,' which though previously unpublished reflects many of the principles articulated in Woodhouse's paper, 'The Historical Criticism of Milton' (PMLA, 1951). And if the book seems to end too abruptly so, it must be regretted, did the career and the life. The presence of Milton also pervades the Woodhouse festschrift, F.W. Watt and Millar MacLure, ed., Essays in English Literature from the Renaissance to the Victorian Age (1964). Both Douglas Bush's essay tribute and M.H.M. MacKinnon's list of Woodhouse's publications demonstrate their subject's lifelong commitment to Milton's writings. At the heart of the collection are four essays on Milton, two of which seem especially Woodhousean: H.M. MacCallum, 'Milton and Sacred History: Books xi and xn of Paradise Lost,' and A.E. Barker, 'Structural and Doctrinal Patterns in Milton's Later Poems.' For other essays Milton is an important point of reference: William Blissett, 'Spenser's Mutabilitie,' F.E.L. Priestley, 'Pope and the Great Chain of Being,' and Northrop Frye, 'The Problem of Spiritual Authority in the Nineteenth Century. ' Milton even forms the occasion for a Satanic footnote in John Robson's 'John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, with Some Observations on James Mill' concerning a 'piece of the true balustrade.' Two collections of papers edited by Balachandra Rajan originally marked Milton tercentenaries observed at the University of Western Ontario in 1967 and 1971 and display the work of various Canadian Miltonists. Paradise Lost: A Tercentenary Tribute (1969) has essays by Rajan, Barker, Daniells, Frye, and MacCallum, and The Prison and the Pinnacle (1973), devoted to Samson Agonistes and Paradise Regained, includes essays by Barker, Rajan, and Frye. Other books on or including Milton are: Daniells, Milton, Mannerism and Baroque (1963), Woodhouse, The Poet and His Faith: Religion and Poetry in England from Spenser to Eliot andAuden (1965), Rajan, The Lofty Rhyme: A Study of Milton's Major Poetry (1970), Burton J. Weber, The Construction of Paradise Lost (1971), William H. Halewood, The Poetry of Grace: Reformation Themes and Structures in English Seventeenth-Century Poetry (1970), and S.E. Sprott, éd., John Milton, A Maske: The Earlier Versions (1973). Recent studies in Canada give signs of what may be a general trend in Shakespeare criticism, growing attention to the comedies with agreater variety of critical method. Not only do periodical articles and collections of lectures and essays evidence this but also a number of books - though fewer than might have been expected. In Twelfth Night and Shakespearean Comedy (1965), three lectures given in Halifax on the 400th anniversary of Shakespeare's birth, Clifford Leech traces, within the limits of the format, the shifting balances in early Shakespearean comedy between skepticism and 'festival,' shows how Twelfth Night constitutes both a triumph and a turning

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point, and identifies the 'several different orders' of comedy after that play, especially in Troilus and Cressida and The Winter's Tale. Ralph Berry in Shakespeare's Comedies: Explorations in Form (1972) starts from the premise that 'the function of Shakespeare's comedies is not to yield up a metaform,' accepts the Folio category, but ends, significantly, with Twelfth Night, deliberately omitting both the problem comedies and final romances and thus, by conscious intention, setting himself somewhat apart from recent critical interests. Playing down the idea of festive comedy and assuming that 'the behavior of the dramatis personae is, or ought to be, explicable in terms of naturalistic psychology,' Berry, again in his own words, 'in place of the pleasure principle ... advance[s] the reality principle as the proper criterion of the conclusion.' Three other, more specialized studies are: J.M. Lothian, Shakespeare's Charactery: A Book of'Characters' from Shakespeare (1966), G.P.V. Akrigg, Shakespeare and the Earl of Southampton (1969), and Paul Marcotte, Priapus Unbound: Shakespeare's Concept of Love Inferred from Six Early Works (1971). It is only a few steps in the library stacks from these books to other studies of Renaissance drama or its background. In addition to Akrigg's earlier Jacobean Pageant (1962), and Berry's The Art of John Webster (1972), we have Millar MacLure, George Chapman (1966), a critical study of the tragedies, comedies, poems, and translations of this learned, complex, and uneven writer - MacLure has also edited Marlowe's poems for the Revels series (1970). Other studies on individual writers are B.N. DeLuna's controversial Jonson's Romish Plot: A Study of 'Catiline' and its Historical Context (1969), and D.M. Holmes, The Art of Thomas Middleton (1970). In 1967, J.M.R. Margeson, co-editor with Leech of Shakespeare 1971, published The Origins of English Tragedy, a cogent, highly compressed survey of the genre from classical and medieval origins to the late Elizabethan and Jacobean triumph. The 'age of the editors,' as MacLure called it, continues with the same energy and even greater variety. Besides those continuing projects considered previously, there are new editions of separate medieval and Renaissance plays by scholars such as John Wright, W.E.D. Atkinson, F.D. Hoeniger, R.B. Parker, and J. A. Lavin, as well as Michael Booth's helpful collections of plays not otherwise readily available: Hiss the Villain: Six English and American Melodramas (1964), Eighteenth Century Tragedy (1965), and, in two large volumes, English Plays of the Nineteenth Century (1969), with two more volumes promised. Booth has also written a study of melodrama and melodramatic acting, English Melodrama (1965). And the editing of other literary texts from across the whole field of literature in English goes on: N.H. MacKenzie, Hopkins's Poems (1967, with W.H. Gardner) Ralph Maud, Thomas's Notebooks (1967), Dentón Fox, Henryson's The Testament of Cres-

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seid (1968), E.D. LeMire, Morris's Unpublished Lectures (1969), Irving Massey, Shelley's Posthumous Poems (1969), A.D. Hartley, Maurice's Sketches of Contemporary Authors (1970), Susan Dick, Moore's Confessions of a Young Man (1972), and A.D. Pritchard, Cowley's The Civil War (1973). There are also some especially well-edited works which are genuine products of the literary imagination that happen to escape the conventional genres and the standard curricula. Armin Arnold, for example, in The Symbolic Meaning (1962), has reunited in book form the earlier versions of D.H. Lawrence's essays on American Literature and argued persuasively not only for their significance, which is evident, but even for their superiority over the later, more extreme version Lawrence published as Studies in Classic American Literature. In the long introduction to her edition (1968) of Bartholomew Yong's translations of Montemayor's Diana and its continuation, Gil Polo's Enamoured Diana, Judith Kennedy makes a case for their literary importance and worth which the texts themselves confirm. For another, very different example of Renaissance culture and literary eloquence, we have Nathaniel Culverwell's Discourse of the Light of Nature, éd. R.A. Greene and Hugh MacCallum (1971), a work whose expressiveness is not wholly obscured for the non-specialist reader by the formidable scholarship within it and by that which, necessarily, surrounds it in this edition. And finally we might note Andrew Brink's edition of TheLifeof the Reverend Mr George Trosse (1974), the powerfully written spiritual autobiography of a late seventeenth-century Protestant dissenter. Also occupying a place both within and without the conventional bounds of imaginative literature are several collections of letters, whose varying scope and emphasis give an idea of the possibilities of this mode of literary scholarship: Samuel Richardson, Selected Letters, ed. John Carroll (1964); The Correspondence of James Boswell and John Johnston of Grange, éd. R.S. Walker (1966); The Quest for Rananim: D.H. Lawrence's Letters toS.S. Koteliansky, éd. G.J. Zytaruk (1970) - Zytaruk has also written D.H. Lawrence's Response to Russian Literature (1971); Thomas Hood, Letters, éd. P.F. Morgan (1973); and Joseph Spence, Letters from the Grand Tour, ed. Slava Klima(1974). One must make special recognition of the editorial and other contributions of G.B. Bentley, Jr, to the study of Blake. In 1963 Bentley brought out a combined edition and study of Vala, or The FourZoas which, to those who have had occasion to handle it, is quite literally a monumental example of scholarly bookmaking as well as an invaluable text for all fully committed Blakeans. The next year Bentley issued with M.K. Nurmi A Blake Bibliography, a skillfully organized list of over two thousand items by and about Blake, with generous introductions and annotation and a very thorough index. In 1967 came a second edition and study, this time of Tiriel, smaller in compass to suit the original manuscript, but as carefully and fully presented as

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that of Fa/a. In a contribution to Editing Eighteenth-Century Texts, 'William Blake's Protean Text,' Bentley outlined the unique difficulties of his projected edition of the writings along with the bibliophilie satisfactions to be found on the way. In 1969 Blake Records, more than six hundred pages of contemporary references to Blake, gathered invaluable but often out-of-theway material first brought to our attention in A Blake Bibliography. And Bentley has prepared an elaborate catalogue (1971) for the Pierpont Morgan Library. A number of scholarly editions form part of the growth of Irish studies in Canada since 1960. As well as collections of Greek, Renaissance, and modern British poetry, Robin Skelton has edited J.M. Synge: Translations (1961), Six Irish Poets (1962), Synge's poems as Volume i of the Collected Works (1965), of which Skelton is general editor, Riders to the Sea (1969), and Jack B. Yeats, Collected Plays (1971), and collaborated with Ann Saddlemyer on The World of W.B. Yeats (1965), the catalogue of a centenary exhibition at the University of Victoria, which includes several essays on Yeats. Saddlemyer, in turn, has edited two volumes of Synge's plays complete with variants and revisions, as Volumes in and iv of the Collected Works (1968), Lady Gregory's Collected Plays (1970), and Synge's Letters to Molly (1971). M.J. Sidnell has co-edited Druid Craft: The Writing of 'The Shadowy Waters' (1971), which offers not only the varying manuscripts of Yeats's play but extensive commentary on it. Books about Yeats during the same period are: Joseph Ronsley, Yeats' Autobiography: Life as Symbolic Pattern (1968), R.F. Beum, The Poetic Art of William Butler Yeats (1969), Eric Domville, A Concordance to the Plays of W.B. Yeats (1972), and the annual publication, Yeats Studies (1971Robert O'Driscoll, co-editor), whose 1972 issue includes essays by Saddlemyer, Rajan, and Skelton. Skelton has also done three studies of Synge: J.M. Synge and His World (1971), The Writings ofJ.M. Synge (1971), and a shorter work, J.M. Synge (1972) for a series of books on Irish writers that also has Brian Friel by D.E.S. Maxwell (1973), and promises Charles Lever by M.S. Elliott and Jack B. Yeats by Skelton. Saddlemyer has published two short critical studies, In Defence of Lady Gregory (1966) and J.M. Synge and Modern Comedy (1968). Since 1968 there have been annual seminars at Toronto on Irish writers, and at least one group of lectures have been published as Theatre and Nationalism in Twentieth-Century Ireland, ed. Robert O'Driscoll (1971), with contributions by O'Driscoll, Saddlemyer, Michael Sidnell, and others. One might also note here, though it may not strictly belong, J. Percy Smith's study of Shaw's development, The Unrepentant Pilgrim (1965). For other Irish writers, especially Joyce, it seems that Canadian literary scholarship can be found mainly in critical journals and in collections of lectures or essays by several hands. Joyce does, of course, also

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have an important and continuing presence in the writings of both Frye and McLuhan. Enough work has already appeared to suggest that Canada, for reasons linguistic, cultural, and political, makes a good vantage point for the study of Commonwealth literature. In this wide category can be found a wealth of literature written in a roughly common language, sharing a common complexity of relation with at least one imperial centre, sometimes more, and perhaps most important - a literature which, although paid little heed until recently, has within it some of the most distinguished writers of prose and poetry in the world today, writers such as Naipaul, Walcott, Achebe, or Patrick White, all of them linguistically accessible to readers and scholars in both Great Britain and North America. J.P. Matthews, Tradition in Exile: A Comparative Study of Social Influences on the Development of Australian and Canadian Poetry in the Nineteenth Century (1962), has been praised by an Australian scholar both for its comparative analyses and for bringing to general critical attention many writers, especially Australian ones, who deserve such notice. C.F. MacRae has written an introductory study, Adam Lindsay Gordon (1968), of an Australian poet whose claim to either of these labels remains, in spite of MacRae's sympathetic efforts, open to dispute. In An Introduction to the Australian Novel 1830-1930 (1972), Barry Argyle, who had earlier written a study of Patrick White, analyzes in some detail works by ten novelists from Henry Savery's Quinlus Servinton, with its absorption of the influence of both Scott and Byron, to Richardson's trilogy, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony, tracing, in the author's terms, the interconnected themes of'cruelty and isolation' in Australian fiction. Patricia Morley, The Mystery of Unity: Theme and Technique in the Novels of Patrick White (1972), is doubly Canadian in its explicit application of the critical theories of Northrop Frye to an elaborate study of a major novelist recently granted the ambiguous but real recognition of a Nobel Prize. So far, formal scholarly study of African literature in English has confined itself chiefly to Nigerian and South African literature, the latter until recently obscured within the main body of English literature. There have been at least four books about Nigerian writing by Canadians: two general studies, Margaret Laurence's introduction to Nigerian dramatists and novelists, Long Drums and Cannons (1968), and Bruce King, éd., Introduction to Nigerian Literature (1971), which has essays by King and G.D. Killam, as well as by several non-Canadian critics; and two studies of the novels of Chinua Achebe by Killam (1969) and David Carroll (1970). The most recent Canadian study of South African literature is Rowland Smith, Lyric and Polemic: The Literary Personality of Roy Campbell (1972), the main title of which reflects both the range of Campbell's poetry, as Smith sees it, and the shape of his literary career. Recent Canadian studies of West Indian literature have appeared in

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journals such as World Literature Written in English, Caribbean Quarterly, and the Journal of Commonwealth Literature. Judging by the number of Canadian scholars who have written studies of American writers for the Writers and Critics series, Canada can also be a vantage point for the interpretation of American literature for a British audience - and for an American one. In that series we have studies by Maxwell, Frye, Millgate, Leech, Rans, and Watt, on Cozzens, Eliot, Faulkner, O'Neill, Poe, and Steinbeck respectively. One of the most industrious critics of American fiction, Michael Millgate, followed his short book on Faulkner with a more general survey, American Social Fiction: James to Cozzens (1964), and followed that in turn with a full-length bio-critical study, The Achievement of William Faulkner (1966), packed with information and insight. He then co-edited Lion in the Garden: Interviews with William Faulkner 1936-1962 (1968, withJ.B. Meriweather), before turning his attention, at least for a time, from Yoknapatawpha to Wessex. Another Canadian study of Faulkner is Joseph Gold, William Faulkner: A Study in Humanism (1966). Among the writers considered m American Social Fiction was Sinclair Lewis; D.J. Dooley has tried to come to some sort of terms with Lewis's very uneven work and shifting literary reputation in The Art of Sinclair Lewis (1967). For two writers whose art is opposed in different ways to Lewis's bluntly critical quasi-realism, we have Evelyn Hinz, The Mirror and the Garden: Realism and Reality in the Writings of A nais Nin (1971), and S.A. Black, James Thurber: His Masquerades (1968). Praised highly in American Literary Scholarship 1967 as 'one of the best books written in this or any other year about a sub-genre of American fiction, ' Stanley Cooperman's World War I and the American Novel (1967), not only analyzes the obvious examples but describes both the general impact of the war and subsequent critical responses to the fiction reflecting that impact. Moving back in literary-historical time, we find several major critical studies of other American writers of prose fiction: Marston LaFrance, A Reading of Stephen Crane (1971), Sister M. Corona Sharp, The Confidante in Henry James: Evolution and Moral Value of a Fictive Character (1963), Peter Buitenhuis, The Grasping Imagination: The American Writings of Henry James (1970), and Hugo McPherson, Hawthorne as Myth-Maker (1969), all of which have received wide and deserved attention as will Maqbool Aziz's forthcoming variorum edition of The Tales of Henry James. Although much of the commentary on American poetry done in Canada has not yet reached book form, eg, Paul Surette's excellent work on Pound's Cantos, two recent books do provide, each in its own way, necessary background information for critical appraisal: EJ. Mullaly, Archibald MacLeish: A Checklist (1973), and Mary Novik, Robert Creeley: An Inventory (1973), generous guides to the publication of writings by and about their subjects that

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illustrate dramatically the different literary destinies that may choose or be chosen by the poet and man of letters in the United States. Novik's book is evidence of the critical attention given on the west coast of Canada to a 'school' of American poets that is at least equal to the recognition they have received - frequently from each other - elsewhere. This attention is exemplified in such critical chapbooks, if this be the right term, as Frank Davey, Five Readings of Olson's Maximus (1970), and Warren Tallman, Three Essays on Creeley (1973), and in several unpublished theses. Anne C. Bolgan's What the Thunder Really Said (1973) may not tell us whether Eliot's The Waste Land is an American or a British poem, but her identification and weighing of the different forces that went into this work, whose critical identity has shifted steadily from cultural to personal, metaphysical to psychological 'neo-epic,' raises discussion of this poem to a new level of potential authority and certitude. Although only a few universities in Canada offer the full range of linguistic studies, there is ample encouragement for literary scholarship in the major foreign languages as well as in comparative literature. Here too the range and amount of scholarship and criticism in recent years allow for only the most selective and tentative sort of survey. To begin with a few comparative studies, the title of Ruth Wisse's The Schlemiel as Modern Hero (1971) suggests a wider scope than actually provided, but her study does delineate the European identity of this character type and its mutations in recent American fiction. On the other hand, in Part One of Strangers and Pilgrims: An Essay on the Metaphor of Journey (1964, with George Roppen), Richard Sommer explores the archetypal characteristics and significance of his topic by drawing on examples from Homer to Bunyan and gives an introduction to any use of the journey as metaphor, from Pickwick Papers to Moby Dick, and a background for the separate studies by Roppen in Part Two. Paul Piehler, in The Visionary Landscape (1971), employs both classical traditions and Jungian theory for an interpretation of major medieval allegories from Boethius to Dante and The Pearl. Using a specific rhetorical treatise as a controlling framework, Annabel Patterson, in Hermogenes and the Renaissance (1971), analyzes comparatively by genre both English and continental poetry. Three studies quite different in methodology are excellent examples of comparative consideration of the various forms taken by a single mythological figure under the pressure of specific historical and cultural circumstances: Eva Kushner, Le Mythe d'Orphée dans la littérature française contemporaine (1961), Patricia Merivale, Pan the Goat-God:His Myth in Modern Times (1969), and J.B. Friedman, Orpheus in the Middle Ages (1970). In The Nárreme in the Medieval Romance Epic (1969), Eugene Dorfman sets out 'first, to present an experimental theory on the functional analysis of literary structures into

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constituent units, narrernes; second, to exemplify the theory in practice, mainly by the detailed analysis of two major Romance epics, the Roland and the Cid, supported by a less detailed examination of twelve additional Romance narratives.' The result, an interesting study for comparatists and for any student of literary structure and structural criticism. In 1968 Karl Guthke wrote an essay for Colloquia Germánica, 'Germanistik in Kanada,' in which he examined undergraduate and graduate teaching and gave specific recognition to the work of such eastern Canadian scholars, among others, as Armin Arnold, Barker Fairley, Hermann Boeschenstein, and Hans Eichner, as well as citing other individual researchers and critics across the country and considering briefly the special Canadian scholarly interest in the writings of Heinrich Heine. Another survey will appear in a volume on German studies abroad now being prepared by the Institute fur Deutsche Sprache at Mannheim. Seminar, 'A Journal of Germanic Studies,' (1965- ), sponsored jointly by the Canadian and Australian associations of Germanists, supplies through its articles, reviews, notices, and even advertisements an incomplete but continuing record of work done in Canada in recent years. (A more complete annual bibliography by the Canadian Association of University Teachers of German collapsed under its own weight and has not been revived.) Two new publications should be noted: Germano-Slavica, 'A Canadian Journal of Germanic and Slavic Comparative Studies' (1973- ), and an annual publication, Carleton Germanic Papers (1973- ). There is also a monograph series, Canadian Studies in German Language and Literature, edited by A. Arnold, H. Eichner, and M.S. Batts and published in Switzerland, which has issued thirteen volumes of literary scholarship. One representative sampling of German studies in Canada would be the work of the contributors to Essays in German Literature in Honour of G. Joyce Hallamore (1968), éd. M.S. Batts and M.G. Stankiewicz. Hermann Boeschenstein's achievements have already been twice recognized in the Literary History, by Millar MacLure and, more briefly, by myself. Rosemary Piccozzi published, as no. 5 of the Kanadische Studien,/! History of Tristan Scholarship (1970). A.W. Riley has done Elisabeth Langgàsser-Bibliographie (1970), along with several critical articles on that author. G.L. Tracy's essay in the collection is part of his continuing work on Brecht, and a similar claim can be made for the remaining contributions. Essays in German Literature was reviewed in Letters in Canada; one of the few other studies of German literature to be so noticed is H.J. Schueler, The German Verse Epic in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century (1967), which is praised for raising issues beyond the limited literary merits of much of its material. Besides Hans Eichner's Friedrich Schlegel (1970), at least two other Canadian scholars have written books for the Twayne World Authors series:

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G.W. Field, Hermann Hesse (1970), and M.S. Batts, Gottfried von Strassburg (1971). Heinz Wetzel, who reviewed the Hallamore volume for the University of Toronto Quarterly, has done two books on an important poet of the earlier twentieth century: Klang undBild in den Dichtungen Georg Irakis (1968), andKonkordanzzu denDichtungen Georg Irakis (1971). V.G. Doerksen has published Môrikes Elegien und Epigramme: Eine Interpretation (1964) and edited a series of excellent period anthologies with P.O. Daly. As one last example of German studies, consider how well both advanced and general readers of Dai Nibelungenlied have been served by recent Canadian literary scholarship. D.G. Mowatt has translated the work carefully and fluently for the Everyman's Library (1962). At the other extreme, M.S. Batts has prepared a parallel-text edition of the three main versions of the poem ( 1970), in a folio volume of over eight hundred pages, including character index and extensive bibliography, analyses, and facsimiles of the various manuscripts. Somewhere between these two is The Nibelungenlied: An Interpretative Commentary, by Mowatt and Hugh Sacker (1967); besides a general introduction and selective bibliography, this work gives a stanza-bystanza commentary on the critical problems posed by the poem, keyed equally well to English translation or variorum German text, and would be invaluable to the student of either. Some of the best recent scholarship on French literature has dealt with the writings of the eighteenth century. At least five Canadian scholars are preparing volumes for the new edition of Voltaire's works under the general editorship of the redoubtable Theodore Besterman. Two works provide valuable background for more specific analyses: P.M. Conlon, Prélude au Siècle des Lumières en France: Répertoire chronologique de 1680 à 1715 (1970), an exhaustive year-by-year chronicle of literary-intellectual events and publications at the beginnings of the Enlightenment, and J.A. Leith, The Idea of Art as Propaganda in France 1750-1790 (1965), the history of a significant shift in ideas toward the end of the same period whose effects are still much with us. Earlier, Conlon had surveyed Voltaire's Literary Career from 1728 to 1750 (1961) and R.S. Ridgway had considered La Propagande philosophique dans les tragédies de Voltaire (1961), which led to his recent Voltaire and Sensibility (1973). Radically different in critical method is another new study: Pierre and Marie-Paule Ducretet, Voltaire's 'Candide': Etude quantitative (1974), a model for other employments of the same methodology and a foundation for further qualitative analyses. Three other studies, on three different genres, show the variety of literary scholarship possible in this period. In Diderot the Satirist (1971), Donal O'Gorman follows short introductory analyses of Satire première and Lui et Moi with an elaborate historical-critical exegesis of Le Neveu de Rameau which has been described by a fellow-Dideroist as 'brilliant and highly origi-

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nal.' E.J.H. Greene's Marivaux (1965) surveys Marivaux's development, showing the interrelation between essays, fiction, and plays, considers the major works perceptively at more length, and concludes with a full review of Marivaux criticism from 1763 to 1965 - all in 350 pages. In The Sixth Sense: Individualism in French Poetry 1686-1760 (1966), Robert Finch has brought the poetry of this period back into the centre of critical attention. To the generous excerpts in this study he has added a separate, companion anthology, with Eugene Joliat, French Individualist Poetry 1686-1760 (1971). It should also be noted that David Smith, author of Helvétius: A Study in Persecution (1965), is now directing the editing of the correspondence of that writer-philosopher. Several of the above studies appeared in the University of Toronto Romance series; also in the series is John Flinn, Le 'Roman de Renart' dans la littérature française et dans les littératures étrangères au moyen âge (1963), an encyclopedic survey and analysis praised at length and highly by A.R. Harden in the University of Toronto Quarterly. Harden has edited La Vie de Seint Aubin (1968) and Trois Pièces médiévales (1967), as has D.J. Conlon, Le Rommant de Guy de Warwick et de Herolt D'Ardenne (1971) and Li Romans de Witasse le Moine (1973). In La Chanson de Willame: A Critical Study (1966), H.S. Robertson offers a thorough literary-critical analysis in place of traditional scholarly pieties, chiefly Gallic, with persuasive and iconoclastic results. An especially handsome example of the bookmaker's art, G.D.West, An Index of Proper Names in French Arthurian Verse Romances 1150-1300 (1969), offers in its entries, its commentaries, and its bibliography an invaluable guide to Arthurian character, action, and place and to the major scholarship concerning them. Another special emphasis is Naturalism, especially the writings of Zola. A group at Toronto is working toward an eventual edition of his correspondence. Four books on Zola have already appeared in the University of Toronto Romance series, three of them by scholars in Canada; F.I. Case's La Cité idéale dans 'Travail' d'Emile Zola is the most recent (1974). B.H. Bakker has 'edited' -the term is hardly adequate for the result - 'Naturalisme pas mort': Lettres inédites de Paul Alexis à Emile Zola 1871-1900 (1971) which, with its introduction, texts, detailed annotation, and appended documents, chronology, and bibliography, becomes, to borrow the editor's words, 'un véritable journal de la bataille naturaliste.' One event in that battle is given thematic and genetic analysis in David Baguley's 'Fécondité' d'Emile Zola: Roman à thèse, évangile, mythe (1973). A 1974 book on an earlier novelist that is most impressive is Anthony Pugh's Balzac's Recurring Characters. Representative of the wide critical and scholarly interest in French fiction of the present century, and of some of its special concerns, is the work of

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Bryan T. Fitch. Before and since coming to Canada, Fitch has written several critical studies: Narrateur et narration dans 'L'Etranger' d'Albert Camus (1960), Le Sentiment d'étrangeté chez Malraux, Sartre, Camus et Simone de Beauvoir (1964), Les Deux Univers romanesques d'André Malraux (1964), and Dimensions et structures chez Bernanos (1969). He has collaborated with P.C. Hoy on an extensive bibliography of Camus criticism for the series Calepins de bibliographie (1969). He is also editor of a series of Camus studies and, together with scholars from Indiana, Tennessee, Florida, and England, played a large part in the conference and subsequent volume, Camus 1970 (1970), held in Florida but published in Sherbrooke, Quebec, a collaboration representative of the ecumenicism of much of French studies in Canada. Phoenix: The Journal of the Classical Association of Canada (1946- ) continues to display, in Millar MacLure's words, 'the range and quality of contemporary scholarship in Classics. 'Of the contributors to Phoenix singled out by Mac Lure, several have subsequently published books on their special subjects: C.W.J. Eliot, Coastal Demes of Attika: A Study of the Policy of Kleisthenes (1962), J. W. Graham, The Palaces of Crete (1963), W.J.N. Rudd, The Satires of Horace (1966), and D.J. Conacher, Euripidean Drama (1967). It is clear from these titles, from the pages of Phoenix, and from other information received that much of the most distinguished classical scholarship in Canada is in fields - history, archeology, philosophy, mythography, numismatics - not strictly literary yet related in various ways to literary scholarship. One example of archeological field work would be the excavations and restorations at Anemurium (Eski Anamur) in Turkey, continued annually from 1966 under the direction of Elizabeth Alfoldi-Rosenbaum and now under James Russell - other Canadian scholars involved include L.C. Smith and E.H. Williams. In addition to the annual reports, Elizabeth AlfoldiRosenbaum has already published The Necropolis of Anemurium (1971), and other articles on the inscriptions are appearing. Other Canadian classicists are active on important projects throughout the Middle East in Italy, Crete, Cyprus, Israel, and, of course, Greece itself. Outstanding among studies of ancient religions is the work of Tram tarn Tinh: Le Culte d'Isis à Pompei (1964), Le Culte des divinités orientales à Herculanum (1971), and Le Culte des divinités orientales en Companie (1972). Equally outstanding is the work of J.M. Rist on ancient philosophy: Eros and Psyche (1964), Plotinus: the Road to Reality (1967), and Stoic Philosophy (1969). A very significant work of historical analysis and synthesis is Alan Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology (1972), which gathers together material from a great variety of sources and authorities and explores the complex possible relations between different reckonings. A work also of primarily historical interest is G.V. Sumner, The Orators in Cicero's 'Brutus' (1973). Another recent work, of

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especial interest to textual scholars, is Virginia Brown, The Textual Transmission of Caesar's 'Civil War' (1972), which is also the basis for a new edition of the text now in progress. M.E. Milham has edited Apicius (1969) for the Bibliotheca Teubneriana. Such works, of course, often shade imperceptibly into more clearly literary scholarship - nowhere more often than in classical studies. This is certainly true of two works published in 1971. In Plutarch and Rome, C.P. Jones considers one important strain in the essays and lives of a prose artist whose literary reputation has never lessened among fellow essayists. As its subtitle indicates, T.D. Barnes's Tertullian: A Historical and Literary Study follows a re-examination of all the biographical evidence with a study of the intellectual background and literary development of the philosopher-rhetorician. In Plato's Psychology (1970), T.M. Robinson traces through the full length of the writings the shifting and at times contradictory meanings ascribed to psyche (soul, mind). Turning to more directly literary scholarship, three attractive books illustrate how student editions of Latin poetry have improved, if memory be trusted, since my youth: H.H. Huxley, éd., Virgil, Georgics i and iv (1963), A.G. McKay and D.M. Shepherd, eds., Roman Lyric Poetry: Horace and Catullus (1969), and Kenneth Quinn, éd., Catullus: The Poems (1970). McKay, director of the summer school of the Vergilian Society at Cumae, has also gathered into a well-illustrated, readable volume, Vergil's Italy (1970), almost all that is known about the historical and topographical basis of the poetry, supported with full annotation and bibliography. Quinn has written or edited several critical studies: Virgil's 'Aeneid': A Critical Description (1968), Approaches to Catullus (1972), and Catullus: An Interpretation (1973). Four other works of literary scholarship illustrate both the wide chronological range of classical writing, from several centuries before Christ up to the European Renaissance, and a range of methodologies from the most factual to the most imaginative. Paolo Vivante, in The Homeric Imagination (1970), attempts through fourlong, related analyses of the 'mode of apprehension,' to discover 'the signs of a pervasive thought or of a distinctive imaginative principle ... within certain broad fields of meaning - god, man, nature, time.' The book is eloquent and persuasive. D.E. Gerber,/4 Bibliography of Pindar 1513-1966(1969), has been praised by reviewers as 'indispensable' and 'comprehensive' for its well-organized wealth of bibliographical information. Gerber is the new editor of Transactions of the American Philological Association. In Comparative Studies in Republican Latin Imagery (1972), Elaine Fantham examines and compares the imagery of selected writers, especially Terence, Plautus, and Cicero, to determine its social context and Grecian background, its content, and its special syntactical and other literary characteristics. (More limited in subject matter but more varied in critical

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method is M.O. Lee, Word, Sound, and Image in the Odes of Horace [1969].) Fourth and last, mNeo-Latin Literature and the Pastoral (1965), W.L. Grant surveys and classifies the pastoral writings of over two hundred Renaissance poets from Dante onward and downward to the early eighteenth-century John Hubbock, author ofThamesis, whose obscurity seems richly earned. As for literary scholarship in other modern and ancient languages, especially the non-European ones, a few examples will have to suggest the amount of work being done, in articles and theses as well as books. A.M. Fox and J.H. Parker have edited two important bibliographies of Spanish literature: Lope de Vega Studies 1937-1962 (1964) and Calderón de la Barca Studies 1951-1969 (1971). Parker has also done a study of an early Portuguese dramatist, Gil Vicente (1967). Other Canadian work on Lope de Vega in the earlier part of our period is Diego Marín, Uso y función de la versificación dramática en Lope de Vega (1962, 2nd éd., 1968), his critical edition of El galán de la Membrílla (1962), and W.T. McCready, La Heráldica en las obras de Lope de Vega y sus contemporáneos (1962) and Bibliografía temática de estudios sobre el teatro español antiguo (1966). Marín has also written other, more general studies, such as La Civilization española: Panorama histórico (1961) and Breve Historia de la literature española (1966). MJ. Valdés has done a very important critical study, Death in the Literature of Unamuno (1964), and, with M.E. de Valdés, An Unamuno Source Book (1973), a bibliography of his library and readings with an interpretive essay. In Italian studies, J.A. Molinaro has not only edited Petrarch to Pirandello (1973), with its contributions by Canadian Italianists D. Aguzzi-Barbagli, S.B. Chandler, M. Kuitunen, K.L. Levy, and H.S. Noce, but has done A Bibliography of Sixteenth-Century Italian Verse Collections in the University of Toronto Library (1969) whose detailed entries, commentary, and various indexes make it a valuable general guide to the poetry as well. A continuing project is the Yearbook of Italian Studies (1971), co-edited by Antonio d'Andréa of McGill and Dante nella Terza of Harvard and published by the Italian Cultural Institute, Montreal. Andrea is also co-editing, with Pamela D. Stewart, the Discours contre Machievel of Innocent Gentillet (1974), a companion study to which is Stewart's Innocent Gentillet e la sua polémica antimachievellica (1969). W.A.C.H. Dobson has continued his studies on archaic Chinese grammar and language, already recognized by MacLure, with several books (1962, 1964, 1968), but more meaningful to non-specialists is his translation of Mencius (1963), an eloquent, annotated rendering and reordering of the oblique and disorderly original. Dobson also prepared a helpful bibliographical directory, The Contribution of Canadian Universities to an Understanding of Asia and Africa (1964), which includes several literary scholars whose careers in Canada have flourished since. Makoto Ueda, for example, has done

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a comparative study of great importance for students of modern poetry, Zeami, Basho, Yeats, Pound (1965), and a subsequent full-length critical introduction for western readers, Matsuo Basho (1970), of the seventeenthcentury Japanese master of the haiku. An example of literary scholarship in Biblical studies is R.C. Culley, Oral Formulaic Language in the Biblical Psalms (1967). A very active area of creative literature and literary scholarship that may not get mention elsewhere in the Literary History will have to be represented here by one thorough and sincere but critically undiscriminating survey, M.I. Mandryka, History of Ukrainian Literature in Canada (1968). More respectable academically than Mandryka's labour of devotion and much more sophisticated critically, Lubomir Dolezel's Narrative Modes in Czech Literature (1973) applies the methods of structural analysis of the Prague Linguistic School to the role of the narrator. But in spite of the intellectual distance between these last two studies it would be a pity if, in the world of literary scholarship, there were not room for both. A simple chronological approach, period by period, will allow us to consider a selection of the remaining literary scholarship on English literature. Two important recent trends in Anglo-Saxon studies are exemplified by the work of Canadian scholars. Firmer commitments to Anglo-Saxon poetry as poetry, and not just as history or philology, have resulted in recent critical studies such as Alvin A. Lee, The Guest-Hall of Eden: Four Essays on the Design of Old English Poetry (1971), a consideration of the thematic unity or underlying myth of this poetry which also sheds light on the meaning and expressive power of individual poems. A pair of related studies, Computers and Old English Concordances (1970), ed. Angus Cameron, Roberta Frank, and John Leyerle, and A Plan for the Dictionary of Old English (1973), ed. Frank and Cameron, record the two conferences and other steps by which were determined the sponsorship and general strategy of an internationally collaborative adoption of computer techniques for major projects such as the dictionary, along with various concordances. A Plan for the Dictionary also provides such important related materials as a reference guide to the manuscript sources and editorial state of all the surviving Old English texts. Moving significantly beyond the mainly factual and technical studies of earlier scholars, Chauncey Wood shows, in Chaucer and the Country of the Stars (1970), how effectively astrological allusions are used to give direct or ironic allegorical, mythological, or other significance to event and character in the poetry. This very interesting book, handsomely illustrated, seems a thorough treatment of a complex and controversial topic. Interwoven with astrological significations, as Wood also demonstrates, are the kinds of animal lore and symbolism considered by Beryl Rowland in Blind Beasts: Chaucer's Animal World (1971). Although this study may possibly be loosely organized,

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as suggested by Paul Piehler in the University of Toronto Quarterly, a more rigorous approach would not have allowed the fullness of presentation and interpretation the author achieves. Earlier, Rowland edited Companion to Chaucer Studies (1968), which includes essays by five Canadian scholars: Rowland, Wood, Dentón Fox, R.M. Jordan, and L.K. Shook. Rowland's most recent study is Animals with Human Faces (1973), and she is editor of the forthcoming Chaucer and Middle English Studies: In Honor of Rossell Hope Robbing, which includes work by various Canadian medievalists. Two other recent books are: Sheila Delany, Chaucer's House of Fame: The Poetics of Skeptical Fideism (1972), and Penelope Doob, Nebuchadnezzar's Children: Conventions of Madness in Middle English Literature (1974). Of especial interest to Chaucerians, Ronald Sutherland's parallel-text edition of the Romaunt of the Rose and the probable source lines in the Roman de la Rose (1967), also has textual notes, selective bibliography, and a long genetic introduction which uses our extensive certitude about the French texts to reduce considerably our confusions about the English one. Continually keeping before us the widest implications of his discussion, J.M. Stedmond in The Comic Art of Laurence Sterne (1967) not only brings Tristram Shandy into clearer critical focus as to genre, style, satire, and comic stance, but provides indirectly a set of theoretical categories and analytic tools for the study of other 'irregular' works of equal length and equal complexity, from Burton's Anatomy to the Cantos of Ezra Pound. Stedmond is also co-editor of The Winged Skull (1971), papers from a Sterne bicentenary gathering at the University of York, co-sponsored by McMaster University but with only one Canadian contribution, by Clarence Tracy on Tristram Shandy's background in eighteenth-century biography. Another bicentenary collection, F earful Joy (1974), ed. James Downey and Ben Jones, papers from the Thomas Gray conference at Carleton University, has contributions from Tracy, Jones, Kenneth MacLean, Eli Mandel, James Steele, and George Whalley. Other contributions to the study of eighteenth-century fiction are D.M. Korte, Annotated Bibliography of'Smollett Scholarship 1946-68(1969), and Irwin Gopnik, A Theory of Style and Richardson's Clarissa (1970). James Gray, Johnson's Sermons: A Study (1972), seems a full study of what will remain, for most readers, a lesser side of Johnson's many-sided genius. W.J.B. Owen, Wordsworth as Critic (1969), and J.R. de J. Jackson, Method and Imagination in Coleridge's Criticism (1969), have a common concern for the central issues in romantic literary theory, as confronted by two closely related poetic and critical minds. Also closely complementary are Geoffrey Durrani's two studies of Wordsworth's poetry, William Wordsworth (1969) and Wordsworth and the Great System: A Study of Wordsworth's Poetic Universe (1971), one a more general critical introduction, the other a more scholarly analysis of intellectual attitudes, both valu-

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able. Ross Woodman's The Apocalyptic Vision in the Poetry of Shelley (1964), draws on Shelley's background and his prose to explore a central tension in the poetry between myth and irony and to bring the topic to at least temporary coherence and illumination. A number of more systematic studies have appeared since the last of the essays on widely varied aspects of Browning's writing that were later collected in the two editions of W.O. Raymond's The Infinite Moment (1950, 1965). W.E. Whitla, The Central Truth: The Incarnation in Robert Browning's Poetry (1963), argues that the wholeness of the poetry is found in its rendering of those incarnational experiences that satisfy the search for physical, artistic, and spiritual unity. T.J. Collins, Browning's MoralAesthetic Theory 1833-1855 (1967), while sharing many of Whitla's concerns, is more strictly developmental and, perhaps for this reason, differs from Whitla - at one point explicitly - on the degree of unity and certitude Browning achieves. O.S. Hair, Browning's Experiments with Genre (1972), examines in some detail Browning's attempts from Pauline to The Ring and the Book to establish and interrelate appropriate poetic forms for the kinds of concern considered by Raymond, Whitla, and Collins, All four of these studies and another, David Shaw, The Dialectical Temper: The Rhetorical Art of Robert Browning (1968), acknowledge the importance to Browning studies of F.E.L. Priestley, whose 'Some Aspects of Browning's Irony' is in Clarence Tracy, éd., Browning's Mind and Art (1968). Priestley's recent Language and Structure in Tennyson's Poetry (1973) demonstrates the same continuing concern for the subtle, developing relation of technique and matter as do his essays on Browning. Dickens studies in Canada have come a considerable way since the pleasant imprécisions of Stephen Leacock. A major step in Dickensian bibliography is Joseph Gold's The Stature of Dickens: A Centenary Bibliography (1971), which includes among its well-organized, well-indexed, near-definitive listings the work since 1960 of such Canadian Dickensians as Gold himself, Michael Goldberg, Lauriat Lane, R.D. McMaster, Michael Steig, and George Wing. Two recent books, Michael Goldberg, Carlyle and Dickens (1972), and N.M. Lary, Dostoevsky and Dickens (1973), are good examples of the kind of thorough, documented influence study and literary comparison that are replacing earlier, more casual Unkings and that should encourage similar books on the relation between Dickens and such figures as Smollett, Fielding, Joyce, and Faulkner. Gold has also done a full-length critical study, Charles Dickens: Radical Moralist (1972). In it he gives a sustained moral, at times allegorical, reading of almost all Dickens's major fiction, one whose seriousness and centrality, despite some controversial particular interpretations, reaffirms a very important reason - Gold would say the most important - for the stature of Dickens.

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Other studies of Victorian fiction also make important reaffirmations with new insight. Henry Auster's Local Habitations: Regionalism in the Early Novels of George Eliot (1970) establishes the special regional quality of each of the early works, including the three separate Scenes, and relates it to problems of interpretation. Juliet McMaster's Thackeray: The Major Novels (1972), through four essays on the four major novels and one separate analysis of certain psychological 'ambivalent relationships,' insists - against such various voices as those of Leavis and Van Ghent - on the integrity and coherence of Thackeray's art, its narrative techniques, its highly conscious stylistic control, its full awareness of moral irony and ambiguity. Michael Millgate's Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (1971), like his book on Faulkner, criticizes the total prose fiction within a fully-developed factual, biographical context. And in Imagination Indulged: The Irrational in the Nineteenth-Century Novel (1972), E.B. Gose, Jr makes his reaffirmation of one important, recurring source of the power of Victorian fiction an occasion for detailed analysis, often in archetypal terms, of works by Emily Bronte, Dickens, Hardy, and Conrad. Four additional books by Canadian scholars give a spectrum of Victorian studies from narrative biography through general critical survey to the most comprehensive kind of annotated bibliography: Phyllis Grosskurth, John Addington Symonds (1964), W.J. Keith, Richard Jefferies (1965), Jane Millgate, Macaulay (1973), and W.E. Fredeman, Pre-Raphaelitism: A Biblio-Critical Study (1965). The number and variety of studies of modern British literature are such that a chronological list of the more conspicuous examples will have to suffice to suggest the quantity and quality of work being done: Philip Stratford, Faith and Fiction: Creative Process in Greene and Mauriac (1964), George Woodcock, The Crystal Spirit: A Study of George Orwell (1966), G.H. Thomson, The Fiction of E.M. Forster (1967), Denis Godfrey, E.M. Forster's Other Kingdom (1968), M.B. Foster, Joyce Gary (1968), Michael Kirkham, The Poetry of Robert Graves (1969), S. de V. Hoffman, Comedy and Form in the Fiction of Joseph Conrad (1969), Keith Alldritt, The Making of George Orwell (1969), Tom Marshall, The Psychic Mariner: A Reading of the Poems ofD.H. Lawrence (1970), Keith Alldritt, The Visual Imagination ofD.H. Lawrence (1971), George Woodcock, Dawn and the Darkest Hour: A Study of Aldous Huxley (1972), W.C. Wees, Vorticism and the English Avant-Garde (1972), John Brebner, The Demon Within: A Study of John Cowper Powys' Novels (1973), and O.P. Thomas, Richard Hughes (1973). To end what has been a survey of the general activity of literary scholarship and criticism in Canada since 1960 with some consideration of the special yet exemplary role of Northrop Frye is highly appropriate, in many ways. For just as the identity of literary scholarship can be seen as having shifted in recent

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years, very gradually, from the special achievements of outstanding individuals to a total activity within which specific individual achievements find their place, so Frye's more recent work, and especially his published books, can be seen, with only some distortion, as a gradual modulation from two special achievements, Fearful Symmetry and Anatomy of Criticism, to a continuing activity of critical, scholarly, and cultural comment. The varying forms and concerns of this activity, considered in retrospect, offer not only a model and guide for us all but also a kind of recapitulation of the subject of this chapter. (One should also note, however, a possible second modulation: the absence of any published books since 1972 and Frye's laconic statement in the Inventory of Research in Progress in the Humanities, 'writing a Book on the Literary Criticism of the Bible.') Thus, as visiting professor and invited lecturer Frye has at least sampled the migratory patterns or multi-national status of many Canadian literary scholars. As we have already seen, he has contributed generously to literary conferences in Canada and elsewhere. He has done introduction, selections, and notes for Emily Dickinson in Major American Writers (1962). He has edited and contributed to Blake ( 1966) for the Twentieth-Century Views series and Romanticism Reconsidered (1963), the English Institute Essays for 1962. He delivered and published The Educated Imagination (1963), CBC Massey Lectures. He has written T.S. Eliot (1963) for the Writers and Critics series and A Study of English Romanticism (1968) for the Studies in Language and Literature. He has issued three collections of his own essays and addresses: Fables of Identity (1963), The Stubborn Structure (1970), and The Bush Garden (1971). He has delivered and published lectures on Milton, The Return of Eden (1965), and on Shakespeare,/! Natural Perspective (1965) on comedy, and Fools of Time (1967) on tragedy. And he has also delivered and published three series of lectures on more general topics: The Well-Tempered Critic (1963) on language and literary criticism and literary education, The Modern Century (1967) on some relations between modern culture, modern literature, and modern education, and The Critical Path: An Essay on the Social Context of Literary Criticism (1971). Certain common recurring concerns linking this great variety of publications can be briefly and approximately identified - but without claiming to give any sense of their full content or significance, which would be the topic of a separate study, on Frye alone. One concern would be the application of critical principles and categories from the Anatomy, and especially from the third essay, 'Archetypal Criticism: Theory of Myths,' to writers as different as Milton, Stevens, and Dickens - on the last of whom Frye has written one of the best short essays we have. A second concern would be further applications of the schematic imagination, if we can label it thus, to general areas of literary experience not fully analyzed in the Anatomy. A good example would

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be 'Manual of Style,' the second part of The Well-Tempered Critic. Frye has also remained concerned with 'my conception of Romanticism ... part of one of the most decisive changes in the history of culture' (introduction, Fables of Identity), as in his essay 'The Drunken Boat,' in Romanticism Reconsidered and The Stubborn Structure, and its expansion in A Study of English Romanticism. (This concern is also, obviously, an outgrowth of Frye's original and continuing analysis of Blake's literary and cultural importance.) As historian of culture, Frye has concerned himself as well with our present condition, as in 'City of the End of Things' from The Modern Century or 'The Knowledge of Good and Evil' from The Stubborn Structure. By an obvious extension he has articulated his own version of the function of the critic at the present time - in two essays written specifically for the Modern Language Association, in the seven essays that make up the first half of The Stubborn Structure, above all in The Critical Path, and by the example of his own other criticism. And finally, to quote from the preface to The Stubborn Structure: Essays on Criticism and Society, 'as some of those who write about me are still asserting that I ignore the social reference of literary criticism, the sub-title calls the attention of those who read me to the fact that I have written about practically nothing else.' (Frye's equally continuing special concern with Canadian literature and culture is outside the scope of this chapter.) Also since 1960 there has grown up another important relationship between Frye's writings and literary scholarship and criticism; his general ideas and specific commentaries have themselves become objects of literary study, to our further enlightenment and enrichment. This recent 'study' of Frye has taken several forms, some less respectable and respectful, to be sure, than others. It ranges in tone from Ronald Bates, Northrop Frye (1971), Canadian Writers #10, to Pauline Kogan, Northrop Frye: The High Priest of Clerical Obscurantism (1969), Literature and Ideology Monographs #1, with Northrop Frye in Modern Criticism (1966), 'Selected Papers from the English Institute,' providing a set of balanced assessments and a checklist of writings by and about Frye through 1965. One form of this study of Frye's writings is simply the widespread, by-andlarge responsible reviewing that each of his major books has received, conveniently recorded in the 'checklist.' From Fearful Symmetry on, each new book by Frye has been taken, quite properly, as a significant scholarly event and has been examined both in its own right and as part of a cumulative critical position. Frye's comment on specific writers has also stimulated a continuing dialectic with other scholars who happen to share his interest in Blake, Shakespeare, Milton, Beckett, or whomever, as in Ralph Berry's 'Shakesperean Comedy and Northrop Frye' in Essays in Criticism (1972) or Malcolm Ross's chapter on criticism of Canadian literature in the present volume. A third form would be the anthologies of essays by various critics on a single

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author, such as Shakespeare, or on a single topic, such as comedy, in which the organized juxtaposition of Frye's statement with those of others also establishes a kind of dialectic, further directed by the commentary, questions, and other apparatus that often make up the remainder of such anthologies. Reviews, of course, can grow into review articles, either at the time or if and when reprinted, and review articles, in turn, can be followed by separate critical essays on Frye such as Eli Mandel's 'Toward a Theory of Cultural Revolution: the Criticism of Northrop Frye' in Canadian Literature (1959). Frye is also becoming the subject of master's and doctor's theses - and not only in Canada. And there are three books on Frye, already cited above. Bates's general survey of Frye's writings for the Canadian Writers series is a wholly sympathetic consideration by a former student who obviously knows Frye's work thoroughly. It would encourage any reader to go on and read Frye; for someone who has only had occasion, or leisure, to read a particular segment of Frye's criticism, it could provide a more total context for that reading; and it identifies certain recurring logical and even aesthetic structures characteristic of Frye's own writing as literature. The English Institute Essays for 1965, edited by Murray Krieger, were obviously the occasion for an amicable but major evaluation of Frye's importance and of the validity of his ideas. The essays by Krieger, Angus Fletcher, W.K. Wimsatt, and Geoffrey Hartman, and the response by Frye to them more than fulfil the obligations of the occasion. In his introduction, Bates cites the anonymous Objective Idealism is Fascism: A Denunciation of Northrop Frye's 'Literary Criticism. ' This publication, which I have not seen, appears to be close kin to Kogan's polemical diatribe against Frye as 'the High Priest of Clerical Obscurantism.' Kogan's study, which does seem to be based on a reasonably complete reading of Frye's criticism, is hopelessly and regrettably flawed by jargon anda priori rigidities. I say 'regrettably,' because the presence of Frye as implied or explicit antagonist in a work such as Louis Kampf and Paul Lauter, éd., The Politics of Literature (1972) -a presence, however, interestingly questioned by the editors themselves in their introduction - makes one regret the lack of a thorough examination of Frye by a critic of the subtlety and stature, say, of Georg Lukács. One obvious next step in the study of Frye would be to explore the full implications of his statement, already quoted above, that he has written about 'practically nothing else' than 'the social reference of literary criticism.' In conclusion, few of us, as literary scholars, are ever wholly satisfied with what we have done or what we hope to do. But our intentions, I believe, are honourable, all the same. The makers of literary scholarship in Canada and elsewhere do, at least, aspire to the high aims set for them by Northrop Frye at the end of his essay, 'The Knowledge of Good and Evil,' in The Stubborn Structure: 'The scholar as man has all the moral dilemmas and

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confusions of other men, perhaps intensified by the particular kind of awareness that his calling gives him. But qua scholar what he is is what he offers to his society, which is his scholarship. If he understands both the worth of the gift and the worth of what it is given for, he needs, so far as he is a scholar, no other moral guide.'

4 Canadian History M I C H A E L S. CROSS

It was a buoyant time for Canadian historians. Massive growth of universities, and especially of graduate schools, expanded the numbers in the profession; the centennial and the rise of nationalism provided publishers and readers for their works. It was easy, in all of the hubbub, to fail to notice that the period was one of promise more than of accomplishment. Yet there were important landmarks. Some memorable books were published, such as: Carl Berger's The Sense of Power; WJ. Eccles' The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760 and France in America ; Eric Ross's Beyond the River and the Bay: Some Observations on the State of the Canadian Northwest in 1811 with a View to Providing the Intending Settler with an Intimate Knowledge of That Country; S.J.R. Noel's Politics in Newfoundland; J. Russell Harper's Paul Kane's Frontier. More important than what was done, however, was what was undone. Since the 1930s Canadian historiography had been dominated by the 'Laurentian' orthodoxy. As an organizing principle for an immature discipline, the concept of the central importance of the St Lawrence River and its connections to Britain had served well. But it also inhibited study of other aspects of Canadian history, of regionalism, social classes, intellectual developments. With its stepchild metropolitanism, the Laurentian hypothesis had become a dogma reverently repeated rather than intellectually tested. This controlling concept began to break up during the 1960s. The essential presentism of all historical study found the traditional approach unsatisfying. In the first flush of the achievement of Canadian autonomy, the centralizing philosophy of Laurentianism had been attractive, grounding Canadian nationhood in geographic and economic realities. But it offered less thirty years later when the St Lawrence connections to Britain had been severed, when new economic realities and their ties to the United States challenged rather than strengthened Canadian nationalism, when provincialism made clear that a highly centralized nation was no longer possible. The break-up did not see the emergence of any widely held general interpretation of Canadian

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history, but it did open the discipline to a wide range of new theories and approaches. The ground was cleared for accomplishments of the kind which had marked the golden age of Canadian historiography in the 1930s. Laurentianism did not disappear, of course. Even when it no longer spoke to economic and social truths, its geographic emphasis and its stress on pragmatic growth still appealed in this survival-conscious land. The most popular historical works of the period were well within the tradition - Pierre Berton's two volumes on the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The National Dream: The Great Railway, 1871-1880 (1970) made clear that Berton's interpretation was thoroughly Laurentian. The CPR, that man-made extension of the St Lawrence, was an essential step in the necessary task of nation building; its supporters were farsighted statesmen, its opponents men of little vision. In the Berton rephrasing of Laurentianism, there was no alternative to Sir John A. Macdonald's St Lawrence-based nationalism. The second volume, The Last Spike: The Great Railway, 1881-1885, which won the Governor-General's Award for 1971, was equally unsympathetic to other views of the nature of Canada. This centralist interpretation was a familiar one for those who had read Donald Creighton's biography of Macdonald. There was a nice irony in the conservative academic, Creighton, finding his most faithful disciple in the liberal journalist, Berton. But Berton did work new ground in the social context he provided for his description of the railway's construction. With meticulous research and with his easy style, Berton drew the best picture yet given us of prairie life in the 1880s and of the labourers who built the CPR. Nor was the master himself silent. Donald Creighton, who retired from the University of Toronto in 1970, was the elder statesman of both Laurentianism and the historical profession. He published three major works in the period. The Road to Confederation: The Emergence of Canada, 1863—1867 (1964) was an interesting example of Creighton's own evolution within the Laurentian tradition. It maintained belief in the central importance of the St Lawrence and in Macdonald-style centralized nationalism. Yet in many respects it was in marked contrast to Creighton's own earlier treatment of the subject, British North America at Confederation (1939). Then, economics had made Confederation nearly inevitable. By 1964, however, Creighton appeared to see the union as much less a sure thing, as a coup brought off by diplomacy and political cunning. Great men had replaced great forces as the moving elements. This transition in Creighton's thought, a profound loss of optimism in the certainty of Canadian success, was illustrated again in the collection of his essays, Towards the Discovery of Canada (1972). Creighton's most important book of the period was his ironically entitled Canada's First Century, 1867-1967 (1970). It was a dark and brooding study of the dissolution of Macdonald nationalism and, as a result, of Canadian

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independence. Creighton's anxieties over French-Canadian challenges to Ottawa and over American economic and cultural influence made him despair of Canada's future. His ever powerful formulation of ideas and the compelling force of his literary style gave his pessimism the sense of near-inevitability that his optimism about Confederation had once enjoyed. Viewed from his perspective, Creighton had many reasons to write a history of despair. The British tie was gone, replaced by an American connection and an alien American value system. The strong central government, necessary to hold the vastness of Canada together in the face of the American threat, was crumbling before provincialism and the 'myth' of the cultural compact of English and French. One cannot help but feel, however, that the artist's sense of the dramatic weight of tragedy contributed to Creighton's dark vision. And Donald Creighton remained the consummate practitioner of the art of history. The failure of the noble experiment that was Canada was expressed most succinctly in Creighton's farewell address to the Canadian Historical Association in 1969, a paper he entitled 'The Decline and Fall of the Empire of the St Lawrence.' Canada now stands alone. She has stood alone, in reality, ever since the beginning of the Second World War. And the fate that overtook the Empire of the St Lawrence in both its fur-trading and grain-trading days has now overtaken Canada, the Empire's residuary legatee. Since 1940, Canada has been exposed to the irresistible penetrative power of American economic and military imperialism.... The whole trend is now probably irreversible. At any rate, the experience of the last dozen years goes far to prove that it cannot be easily changed. It is now more than twelve years since the pipeline debate first revealed the deep anxiety of the Canadian people over the prospect of American domination ; but since that time they have never agreed on a method of resistance.... The reason for this drastic decline in the confidence and prestige of the government of Canada is, at bottom, fairly simple. It arose out of a profound and revolutionary change in the way in which the Canadian people looked at their federal union. For the first time in the hundred years of their history, a large and influential number of Canadians were induced to accept the idea that what were now called "ethnic and cultural values" were, and ought to be accepted, as the fundamental values in Canadian federalism. The most important thing about Canada was not its economic growth, its constitutional viability, its political independence and freedom from external control, but simply and solely its cultural duality. ... Bilingualism must be officially recognized and as far as possible protected and promoted throughout the whole of Canada; and Quebec must be recognized as essentially different from the other provinces and given a special position distinct and largely detached from the rest of Canada. These ideas, the dominant ideas in Canada today, are in effect, a repudiation of the intentions of the Fathers of Confederation; and, in the decade that is now ending, they have led to a steady demolition of the structure the Fathers built. ... In the present state of Canadian opinion on federalism, it [the federal government] may suffer substantial losses. And thus Canada may very well enter the final struggle of its existence as a united and separate nation without the means of ensuring its own survival. (Historical Papers, pp 22-5)

Another of the established historians who worked within the tradition with mature scholarship and literary skill was W.L. Morton. Once the leading

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Prairie historian, Morton symbolized his transition to national philosopher by leaving Manitoba for the Oxford-like Trent University at Peterborough, Ontario. He did not entirely give over the western history in which he first won his reputation. His classic Manitoba: A History was revised in 1967 by adding a chapter on developments since 1955. With Margaret Arnett McLeod he produced a startlingly new interpretation of an early Métis leader in Cuthbert Grant ofGrantown: Warden of the Plains of Red River ( 1963). It saw Grant, so long castigated as the villain in the Seven Oaks massacre of 1816, as an impressive and constructive leader who brought the Métis to terms with the Red River settlement. A similarly sympathetic view of the Métis at a later date emerged in Morton's introduction to a collection of documents on the troubles of 1869, Manitoba: The Birth of a Province (1965). However, his interests increasingly lay with the question of Canadian nationalism and national identity. To the Canadian Centenary series, of which Morton was executive editor, he contributed the pivotal volume, The Critical Years: The Union of British North America, 1857-1873 (1964). It was not vintage Morton, for he had difficulty tying together the many themes and regions. But the central thesis was characteristically bold. Moving beyond the economic determinism of earlier Laurentianism, Morton stressed the moral determinism which underlay Confederation; union, in this interpretation, was the expression of an overwhelming sense of national purpose. A similar view ran through Morton's concluding essay for a volume he edited, The Shield of Achilles: Aspects of Canada in the Victorian Age (1968). In 1963, Morton had published a general history, The Kingdom of Canada. It was a difficult and often frustrating book; brilliant insights and lyrical passages were interspersed in confusing attempts to cover too much material and in patches of unsatisfactory writing. Yet it was a pleasure to see Morton work out his ideas across the entire scope of Canadian history. Here the broad outlines of a conservative interpretation of Canada, one gentler and more sympathetic to regionalism and to French Canada than Creighton's, was presented to students. Despite its deficiencies, the result was the best singleauthor textbook of the period. Historians were already familiar with that conservative interpretation, which had been finely argued by Morton in The Canadian Identity (1961). Canada was seen as conditioned by two major factors - its northernness and its organic conservatism. The nation had been marked by the challenge of a northern environment and shaped by the communal and governmental action necessary to cope with such an environment. Similarly, emphasis had been placed on the role of government in social and economic development by the conservatism of a nation with the tradition of imperial and monarchical connections. Canada, then, was a very different sort of North American society, one standing in sharp contrast to the United States. It was committed

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to communal rather than purely individual activity; as a monarchy, it was based on the principle of allegiance rather than the social contract; its agency of change was tradition, growing organically, rather than revolution. There was a liberal historical tradition, as well. A man in, but not of, the old guard was the combative and controversial Frank H. Underbill. He died in 1971 and with him went an orthodoxy very different from the Laurentian. Underbill was a Liberal and a liberal, a believer in the individualism of North America, an enemy of the protective nationalism of Creighton and Morton. Appropriately enough, his traditional liberalism - the Liberalism of a North York Grit, as he described himself- found its last and best expression just before the outburst of a new wave of protective nationalism when Underhill published a series of CBC lectures, The Image of Confederation (1964). In his usual irreverent fashion, Underhill took aim at all of the cherished beliefs of the conservative historians. The National Policy: What Macdonald did was to attach to the national government the interests of the ambitious, dynamic, speculative or entrepreneurial business groups, who aimed to make money out of the new national community or to install themselves in the strategic positions of power within it - the railway promoters, banks, manufacturers, land companies, contractors, and such people. They supplied the drive behind his so-called National Policy, and they stood to reap the greatest benefits from it.... The actual, functioning nationalism, therefore, that emerged out of Confederation was based on a triple alliance of federal government, Conservative party, and big-business interests: government of the people, by lawyers, for big business. (The Image of Confederation, PP 24-5)

Or imperial sentiment: The diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1897 also helped powerfully in the growth of imperial sentiment. Special jubilee stamps were issued, containing a map of the world that was splashed with red wherever there were British possessions, with a proud declaration at the bottom of the stamp: "We hold a greater empire than has been." Who were the "we" who held this great empire? We Canadians? Of course not. But our Postmaster-General was identifying us with the British people who did hold it.... A small boy in a little Ontario village was well prepared by 1899 [during the Boer War] to sing Soldiers of the Queen, that most vulgarly boastful of all imperialist war-anthems, (p 38)

Or Canadian nationalism and relations with the United States: We need some constructive activity to take us out of ourselves and to save us from degenerating into the gloomy, bad-tempered Ulster of North America, forever brooding hysterically on the dangers of absorption by the more numerous and more lively people to the south of us. If we were playing a part in a vigorous and progressive Atlantic community, we would not be so obsessed by doubts as to our ability to play an independent, self-respecting part in North America. For we are inescapably North Americans. In the long run our Canadian civilization will be a North American one. It is foolish to hope for anything else. If we are eventually to satisfy ourselves that we have at last achieved a Canadian identity, it will be only when we are satisfied that we have arrived at a better American way of life than the Americans have. A better A merican way of life, not just a better way of life. (pp 68-9)

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Another style of liberalism was that of Arthur R.M. Lower of Queen's. As he revealed in a lively autobiography, My First Seventy-Five Years (1967), Lower was a life-long combatant for liberal values. However, unlike Underbill's, Lower's liberalism had no difficulty co-existing with Canadian nationalism. Nor did it have any difficulty in accepting the broad outlines of the Laurentian interpretation. Lower's work on the timber trade combined Innis' staple approach - the bedrock of Laurentianism - with Lower's own refreshing bent for individualistic social history. Thanks to his earlier books, Settlement and the Forest Frontier (1936) and The North American Assault on the Canadian Forest (1938), we possessed a more rounded picture of timberers than of almost any other group in our past, a picture drawn not only with thorough scholarship but with wit and literary grace. Having written of two phases of nineteenth-century timbering - its relationship with domestic settlement and the influence of the American market - Lower completed the portrait in 1973 with Great Britain's Woodyard: British America and the Timber Trade, 1763-1867, a study of the transatlantic trade. A welcome summation of his work, it was nevertheless a curious book, a grafting of some new material onto the body of a fifty-year-old PHD thesis in an uneasy amalgam which, as well, wanders rather far from its ostensible topic. Liberalism wore a more modern garb, and a Laurentian topcoat, in the work of J.M.S. Careless. A generation younger than Underhill or Lower (Careless was born in 1919), he was less pugnacious, less crusading than either; his scholarship more easily absorbed the Laurentian tradition into a liberal philosophy. Indeed, he made the only major progress in the tradition since the founding days of Innis and Creighton. His articles and his twovolume biography of George Brown, Brown of the Globe, i: The Voice of Upper Canada, 1818-1859 (1959), n: Statesman of Confederation, 1860-1880 (1963), laid the basis for a 'metropolitan' interpretation of Canadian history. It supplemented the view of the central importance of the St Lawrence with an emphasis on the controlling influence of urban metropolitan centres on Canadian economic, social, and intellectual life. Liberalism, the creation of the countryside in Underhill's interpretation of Clear Grittism in Upper Canada and Progressivism on the prairies, became for Careless a doctrine comfortable in the city, a doctrine not born in North American individualism but rather powerfully influenced by ideas imported from Britain. Brown, founder of the Canadian Liberal party, dominated the Grits of western Upper Canada through the agency of the first genuine Canadian metropolitan newspaper, the Toronto Globe, bringing a city-bred moderation and business-like viewpoint to Ontario Liberalism. Tested in a few articles on the business communities of such cities as Victoria and Winnipeg, Careless' metropolitanism nevertheless was never fully worked out beyond the restricting boundaries of a political biography. It

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remained a tantalizing suggestion. The one volume in which it might have emerged full-blown was Careless' contribution to the Canadian Centenary series, The Union of the Canadas: The Growth of Canadian Institutions, 1841-1857 (1967). Even here, however, the thesis remained only a postulate in a book typically thorough and well written, yet disappointing in its failure to offer the anticipated major statement of the metropolitan hypothesis. Metropolitanism was the first expression of a growing interest in urban history which eclipsed the older preoccupation with the history of frontier staples. Careless' work found echoes in the finely balanced little book by John Irwin Cooper, Montreal: A Brief History (1969). With the skill of a lifetime of scholarship and teaching at McGill, Cooper produced a model urban biography, placing municipal development firmly within the context of class and ethnic relations, economic growth and communal life. Cooper's book had the flair and style of the best descriptive social history, but that approach was already giving way to other approaches. The quantifiers were abroad in the land, a new type of historians, with tables of prices and populations rather than state papers, computers rather than writing desks. Urban history was a popular field for quantitative research. Leading the way was a massive project begun in the mid-1960s at Toronto's Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, a reconstruction from census and assessment records of life in Hamilton, Ontario, between 1851 and 1871. Under the direction of a young American educational historian, Michael Katz, the project began to spin off richly detailed accounts of aspects of the city's social history. These reports were available only in manuscripts privately circulated by the project. Katz, however, did publish several articles, notably 'The People of a Canadian City: 1851-2,' Canadian Historical Review (December 1972). It showed how statistical research could add bulk to what had been only guesses about the nature of urban life; it also raised some anxieties about quantitative research undertaken without adequate historical context. As Katz was proving the value of the statistical approach, Peter G. Goheen was indicating another profitable line of inquiry - that of urban geography. In Victorian Toronto: Patterns and Process of Growth (1970), Goheen drew an enlightening picture of the city's growth and its impact on its citizens, of the segregation of classes and occupational groups in the industrial community. Urban problems very much preoccupied people in the 1960s. History, as much as literature or the press, reflects the concerns of its time. It changes, usually subtly, sometimes profoundly, to mirror in a contemplative fashion the society in which it is written. History responds to the changing needs of nationalism. History responds to the stresses of urbanization. This study of the apparently fixed past is in fact always shifting; to capture such a relative reality is as much the work of the poet as of the researcher. And of the philosopher.

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W.L. Morton was one who attempted to lift the study of Canadian history to the level of philosophy. Another was George Grant, a professor of religion at McMaster University. Grant saw a crisis of values and attempted to find the explanation for it in history. He believed Canada had been built on conservative values, and could only survive through them. But they were dead, or dying. 'The impossibility of conservatism,' he lamented, 'is the impossibility of Canada.' What hope was there for conservative nationalism in a world of liberal technology, in a world whose value system had imploded into the banalities of American materialism. Like Donald Creighton, Grant could only find despair. Yet, like Creighton, he was driven to search through history to find understanding. Their despair was a curious one, perhaps a characteristically Canadian one, which led not to quiescent and stoic acceptance, but to repeated and angry amplification. Grant's writings, Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism (1965) and Technology and Empire (1969) were often open to attack as academic history. Yet they conveyed a powerful truth, for they spoke to the deep anxieties of Canadians and did so within a general interpretation of Canadian history which seemed, philosophically and emotionally, true. Conservative nationalism was not only a philosophical system but also a field of study. It received careful historical attention in one of the most important books of recent years, Carl Berger's The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism, 1867-1914 (1970). Berger sketched portraits of some of the leading Canadian imperalists - men such as Toronto aristocrat and magistrate George T. Denison and Principal Grant of Queen's. In the process, he added substance to some of the ideas of the latter's grandson, George Grant. Berger saw late nineteenth-century imperialism as a form of conservative nationalism, a belief that Canadian nationalism could best flourish within the framework of the British empire. Despite displaying a sharp eye for the often bizarre idiosyncrasies and the grandiose selfimportance of his subjects, Berger was generally sympathetic to their interpretation of Canada. Of equal importance to his reinterpretation of imperialism, which has been for so long the whipping-boy of liberal historians, was the interest Berger generated in intellectual history. It was perhaps a reflection of contemporary cultural nationalism, perhaps simply a reflection of the persistent search for interesting, manageable topics for study, that The Sense of Power stirred enormous excitement among academic historians. A whole generation of graduate students, it seemed, rushed to find thesis topics in intellectual history. The future, one can safely speculate, will see a whole library of intellectual biographies of nearly everyone who has set pen to paper in our past. It is not an entirely happy prospect. Even in Berger's book, intellectual history at times became both abstract and static, divorced from the historical

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context of the ideas and the chronological development of the thinkers. It remained, in Berger's hands, a valuable tool for historical understanding; in the hands of those less skilled it might well be a singularly blunt instrument, misleading and fundamentally ahistorical. Fortunately, there were already examples of intellectual studies which largely avoided these pitfalls. Ramsay Cook, for one, always grounded his investigation of ideas firmly on political realities. In 1963 Cook published The Politics of John W. Dafoe and the Free Press, an account, part intellectual biography, part standard political biography, of the Winnipeg journalist and his search for a twentieth-century political party which would embody his nineteenth-century liberal ideology. From prairie populism Cook turned his attention to the very practical intellectual problem of interpreting the relations of English and French within Canada. Cook attacked the problem through investigation of the historical traditions of both peoples and the development of their conceptions of Canada and its federalism. As well as editing several collections of writings on these themes, he produced three substantial studies of his own. Canada and the French-Canadian Question (1966) was made up of Cook's own essays on French-Canadian intellectuals and intellectual development, and on the problems in French-English relations. The book confirmed Cook's place as a leading practitioner of intellectual history and the history of political thought, and as the most persuasive spokesman for moderate federalism and anti-nationalism. Cook's history was at a polar extreme from that of Donald Creighton. French Canadians, both agreed, would be better off within the Canadian federation than separated into their own state, but there the agreement ended. Cook was a sympathetic observer of French Canada, anxious to maintain Québécois culture and language. They could best be protected, he was sure, within a flexible Canadian federation committed to bilingualism and biculturalism. And Cook said, his eye as squarely on Creighton as it was on French-Canadian intellectuals, a major source of contemporary difficulties was the divisive use of history as a nationalist weapon. If Canadians would give over the misuse of history and ignore sterile nationalism, the purposes of Confederation could be achieved. Cook moved further into current political controversies in The Maple Leaf Forever: Essays on Nationalism and Politics in Canada (1971) which reinforced these views and expressed considerable admiration for Pierre Elliott Trudeau's approach to federalism. A more scholarly treatment of one aspect of the controversy, the concept of a 'cultural compact' at Confederation, received extended discussion in Cook's study for the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, Provincial Autonomy, Minority Rights and the Compact Theory, 1867-1921 (1969). While hardly settling this passionate dispute, Cook made a powerful case for the anti-compact interpretation,

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viewing the idea of a compact between 'founding peoples' or between provinces as a political weapon invented by the provinces well after Confederation as a means of prying more power out of Ottawa. Cook was very clearly a partisan in the debate, as an early supporter of Trudeau. However, one did not have to share his views on Canadian politics to be impressed by his skill at historical analysis, to feel that his was intellectual history practised with sensitive attention to context and to historical development. Cook was a healthy exception not only in the way in which he approached intellectual history but in his attention to Quebec. It was somewhat surprising that, in the era of the Quiet Revolution, there was not more good history of French Canada written by English-speaking Canadians. There was a considerable rush of graduate students to thesis topics on Quebec, many of them working under Cook first at Toronto and later at York University, and every university attempted to hire a specialist in French-Canadian history. But the scholarly results were disappointingly slim. Only the interpretation of New France took major strides forward during the period. Some of the background to Quebec nationalism in the twentieth century was sketched in Joseph Levitt's Henri Bourassa and the Golden Calf: The Social Program of the Nationalists ofQuebec (1900-1914) (1969), a thorough study of the Quebec politician and founder of Le Devoir. Levitt looked at the way in which French-Canadian nationalists committed to a corporatist political philosophy attempted to come to terms with industrialization. Aside from Cook's work, and the translation of polemical French-Canadian books such as Léandre Bergeron's A History of Quebec: A Patriot's Handbook (1971) and Pierre Vallières' White Niggers of America: The Precocious Autobiography of a Quebec 'Terrorist' (1971), there have been few interpretations of more recent Quebec history. The only solid study on the Duplessis era was H.F. Quinn's The Union Nationale (1963). An excellent introduction to the Quiet Revolution itself was provided by Richard Jones's Community in Crisis: French-Canadian Nationalism in Perspective, first published in 1967 and updated in 1972. It was a perceptive and sympathetic general view by an English-speaking scholar teaching at Quebec's Laval University. The phenomenal upsurge of Social Credit in Quebec in the 1962 federal election demanded attention and two very solid books were written about it Maurice Pinard's The Rise of a Third Party: A Study in Crisis Politics (1971) and Michael B. Stein, The Dynamics of Right-Wing Protest: A Political Analysis of Social Credit in Quebec (1973). Between them, and despite the difficulty and inelegance of their social science styles, they gave a picture of a political party unparalleled in its completeness by that available of any other Canadian party. Stein's emphasis on Social Credit leadership in Quebec was complemented by Pinard's study of its supporters. A curious pattern emerged of a right-wing leadership connected to a potentially left-wing body of suppor-

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ters, of Social Credit triumphing almost by default in the absence of a left-ofcentre alternative which might have mobilized Quebec discontent. French Canada between the Conquest and the end of the nineteenth century began to receive more attention. In a dry but thorough treatment of politics, American historian Helen Taft Manning's The Revolt of French Canada, 1800-1835: A Chapter in the History of the British Commonwealth (1962) traced out the political and constitutional roots of French-Canadian nationalism. A popular and highly readable volume by free-lance writer Joseph Schull, Rebellion: The Rising in French Canada, 1837 (1971) carried the political story forward to its climax in rebellion. It remained true, nevertheless, that the two solitudes spoke all too little across the barrier of language and that there was nothing in English which compared with the superb social and economic context supplied by Fernand Ouellet's Histoire économique et sociale du Québec, 1760-1850 (1966). The study of the postrebellion period, like that of the pre-1837 era, concentrated on political history almost exclusively, as the major contributions indicate - William Ormsby's The Emergence of the Federal Concept in Canada, 1839-1845 (1969) and Jacques Monet's The Last Cannon Shot: A Study of French-Canadian Nationalism, 1837-1850 (1969). It is a discouraging commentary on the damaging discontinuities of English-language historiography that this should be so, that historians in English Canada did not follow up earlier leads although Ouellet himself drew his inspiration from previous English-language studies in social and economic history such as Creighton's Commercial Empire of the St Lawrence (1937), R.L. Jones's 'French Canadian Agriculture, 1815-1850,' Agricultural History (1942), and W.H. Parker's 'A New Look at Unrest in Lower Canada in the 1830's,' Canadian Historical Review (1959). There were several exceptions to this generalization. Stanley B. Ryerson, prominent Canadian Communist, intelligently applied Marxist principles to the relations of English and French in The Founding of Canada: Beginnings to 1815 (1960) and the much more impressive Unequal Union: Confederation and the Roots of Conflict in the Canadas, 1815-1873 (1968), which stressed the economic and class bases of ethnic and political struggles. While hardly a finished analysis, Ryerson's work opened a new dimension in Canadian historical interpretation, a dimension unjustly neglected because of political bias. Another attempt to work within the social and economic context was William F. Ryan's The Clergy and Economic Growth in Quebec, 1896-1914 (1966). A revisionist history, written by a scholar who was himself a priest, it attempted to argue, not altogether convincingly, that the Catholic Church was more progressive on economic questions than it had usually been pictured to be. The most exciting area of French-Canadian studies, and perhaps of Cana-

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dian history generally, was the pre-Conquest period. Contemporary controversies undoubtedly contributed an impetus. Polemical essays raised the question of the nature of French-Canadian society before the Conquest and therefore of both the impact of British rule on French Canadians and of the potential of an independent French Canada; the stimulus worked its way into scholarship. Probably more important, however, was the impact of academic history in France. Students of New France maintained a familiarity with the advances in French social and economic history and thus achieved a sophistication usually lacking in the more parochial studies of other eras of Canadian history. The best of the French-language tradition was made available in Marcel Trudel's The Beginnings of New France, 1524-1663 (1973), a brilliant narrative by the dean of French-Canadian historians. In style and drama, Trudel's history inevitably invited comparison with that of Creighton. Yet Trudel's was much cooler and more objective, more academic in the best sense of that term. Brisk and readable, it nevertheless showed a familiarity with modern approaches, encompassing the most recent demographic research on the population of New France. Trudel's book was a contribution to the Canadian Centenary series and was all the more impressive in comparison with the same series' volume on the end of the French régime. George F.G. Stanley's New France: The Last Phase, 1744-1760 (1968) was a very traditional study with undue emphasis on military affairs. Excellent studies of the period ranged from the traditional to the innovative. Farley Mowat, the peripatetic writer on the wilderness, studied the earliest explorations in a very enjoyable book, Westviking: The Ancient Norse in Greenland and North America (1965), a valuable source which was unfortunately marred by Mowat's dogmatic certainty about his theories on the Viking voyages. Indeed, the subject of early exploration, on which there is so little hard evidence, appeared to bring out the messianic in many authors. The American historian Samuel Elliot Morison wrote a bright and popular volume, The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages, AD 500-1600 (1971) which showed the same characteristics as Mowat's book; a willingness to press conclusions from the most circumstantial data and an intolerance for dissenting views. Both, however, seemed balanced in comparison with the eccentric little book in the Canadian Centenary series by the late Tryggvi V. Oleson, Early Voyages and Northern Approaches: 1000-1632 ( 1963), a disjointed study full of strange ideas about the Vikings and the origins of the Eskimos. Two biographies stood out: Morison's Samuel de Champlain (1972), very good on Champlain's career as an explorer; and John Upton Terrell's La Salle: The Life and Times of an Explorer (1968). Geographers made some of the most important contributions, bringing a broad expertise to historical

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studies. Andrew Hill Clark inAcadia: The Human Geography of Early Nova Scotia to 1760 (1969) exemplified the possibilities of the approach while another geographer, Cole Harris, provided by far the best account of New France's central institution in The Seigneurial System in Early Canada: A Geographical Study (1966). On the social history of New France, striking new evidence was offered in Word from New France: The Selected Letters of Marie de l'Incarnation (1967), translated and introduced by Joyce Marshall. As well as presenting a varied picture of life in the colony between 1639 and 1672, it gave a powerful sense of the religious impulses of the time. A useful essay on the government of early Canada was André Vachon's The Administration of New France (1970). The best of the historiography of New France, indeed the best of Canadian historiography, was the prodigious output of W.J. Eccles of the University of Toronto. Eccles emerged to the first rank of historians in 1959 with his revisionist biography of Frontenac. A flood of articles and books followed. In Canada under Louis xiv, 1663-1701 (1964), the basic outlines of Eccles' new interpretation appeared. The paternalism of the French régime, attacked so vigorously by English-speaking historians from Francis Parkman on, was for Eccles a healthy influence, providing the necessary support for the success of a colony with a tiny population. This metropolitan interpretation of the positive influence of French paternalism was expanded in The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760 (1969), Eccles' contribution to the Histories of the American Frontier series. He showed clearly that it was the strategic purposes of the empire, not the rugged individualism of fur traders, which explained the nature and pace of the expansion of the frontier of New France. And he demonstrated the strength and flexibility of both the government and society of New France, which compared favourably with those of New England. As well as in this metropolitan focus, Eccles made a breakthrough in his treatment of the Indians, giving emphasis to the independent course pursued by tribes all too often portrayed as mere puppets in white power games. His conclusion about Indian relations with the French and the English by the time of the Conquest rings true: 'in North America, the Indian quickly came to realize, too late, that the French would have been the lesser of the two evils' (p 185). Some of the flavour of the Eccles' reinterpretation, and the pungent style in which it was expressed, can be gained from a passage from The Canadian Frontier in which Eccles discussed the legal system of New France. Much of the credit for the seeming equity and efficacy of the Canadian judicial system must be given to Colbert and Louis xiv. They were painfully aware of the gross abuses rampant in the courts of law in France, but the vested interest of the legal fraternity was too powerful to allow effective reforms. In New France this did not obtain, and sweeping departures from custom were made at the outset. One of the most effective of these reforms was Colbert's refusal to allow any

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lawyers to practise in the colony. The drawing up of contracts and work of that sort was done by notaries, who also received copies of the intendant's ordonnances and promulgated them; but in court every man pleaded his own case, and the judges interrogated both litigants and witnesses under oath, then rendered their verdict.... .. .there is no evidence whatsoever that the departures made from legal practices in France were brought about by the influence of the frontier. They represented reforms imposed by the central government and reflected the humanitarian attitude of Louis xiv and his ministers. ... Unlike in England and its colonies, property was not sacred; it was human rights, not property rights, that were paramount. Here again, the frontier environment had no influence whatsoever. These were values imported from the mother country, (pp 79-80)

Yet another American collaborative effort, the New American Nation series, brought forth the most complete statement of the Eccles' theories. France in America (1972) saw him at his fighting best, throwing out startling new insights, demolishing accepted versions of history (and accepted historians). New France, as Eccles pictured it, was a society of considerable mobility, a feudal society kept open by the abundance of land, a society in which the peasantry enjoyed the security of feudal tenure but without imposition by the seigneurs. More, New France was a garrison in which the military generated prosperity through its expenditures and increased mobility by allowing Canadiens to advance socially through army careers. Eccles' New France shared only a name with the traditional Parkmanesque priest-ridden province of older English-language historiography. Provincial power encouraged regional studies not only in Quebec. Regional history gained a new respectability in the period and some of the best historical writing fell into that category. Newfoundland was especially well served. The details of its political and constitutional history were filled in by Gertrude Gunn in The Political History of Newfoundland, 1832-1864 (1966) and St John Chadwick in Newfoundland: Island into Province (1967). The tangled story of the fisheries was unravelled in Gillian T. Cell's admirable English Enterprise in Newfoundland, 1577-1660 (1969) and Frederick P. Thompson's The French Shore Problem in Newfoundland (1961). The title of Christmas Mumming in Newfoundland: Essays in Anthropology, Folklore, and History (1969), edited by Herbert Halpert and G.M. Story, did not lead one to expect the rich body of social history to be found in it, a brilliant recapitulation of the traditional society of the island. The recent history of Newfoundland produced several interesting volumes. Richard Gwyn, a political journalist, wrote a biography of Joseph R. Smallwood which was almost as fascinating as the man himself. Gwyn's Smallwood: The unlikely Revolutionary first appeared in 1968 and a revised edition in 1972 brought the story to Smallwood's resignation from the premiership. It would be matched in 1973 by the politician's own autobiography, / Chose Canada, a book full of tall tales, racy stories, and the boundless charm which had made Joey Canada's most successful statesman. If Gwyn

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and Smallwood opened up the history of Newfoundland since 1949, the period immediately before Confederation was even more accessible thanks to a remarkable book by political scientist S.J.R. Noel, Politics in Newfoundland (1971). The often bizarre politics produced by the action of modernization upon the traditional values of Newfoundland were brilliantly described and analyzed. Rigorous in evaluation, the book, nevertheless, was enormously enjoyable to read. For example, Noel's description of events in April 1932, when the government of Sir Richard Squires was under attack for corruption: what began as an orderly demonstration demanding a "proper investigation" into the charges against ministers turned into a seething mob often thousand people massed outside the legislature where the House was in session. When a deputation failed to secure entrance, the mob began to stone the building. Inside, debate was drowned by the noise of breaking glass. Outside, the public explosion had begun. At some point in the outburst, mounted police began to push the crowd back, but their efforts were more provocative than effective. The demonstrators turned their stones upon them, knocking them from their horses, and surged unhindered up the steps of the legislature. As they reached the doors they were met by more police, who charged with batons flailing. The mob fell back from this unexpected assault, but a second wave of attackers, some armed with clubs, could not be stopped. The police were forced to retreat, the doors gave way, and the battle moved inside. There, while the police successfully defended the Assembly chamber, the mob took possession of the basement, looting government offices and destroying files and records, (pp 201-2)

Political history, and political science, need not be dry or dull, Noel went far towards proving. Other regions also enjoyed worthwhile studies. Two volumes were produced on the period of the 'Great Awakening' in Nova Scotia, J.M. Bumsted's Henry Alune, 1748-1784 ( 1971) and A People Highly Favoured of God: The Nova Scotia Yankees and the American Revolution (1972) by Gordon Stewart and George A. Rawlyk, books which taken together give not only varying interpretations of the American Revolutionary era in Nova Scotia but also make a significant contribution to intellectual history. W.S. MacNutt wrote a dry but thorough New Brunswick, A History: 1784-1867 (1963). More successful was MacNutt's The Atlantic Provinces: The Emergence of Colonial Society, 1712-1857 (1965). Although hampered by the curious decision of the Canadian Centenary series to devote only one volume to this long period of the region's history (in contrast, Upper Canada between 1784 and 1841 had a volume to itself), MacNutt produced an admirable work of synthesis, effectively balancing social, economic, and political developments. The first general scholarly study of the region, it re-emphasized the strength and vitality of these colonial societies on the brink of the Confederation era. The latest history of British Columbia, on the other hand, was anything but dull. Martin Robin's two-volume history, The Rush for Spoils:

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The Company Province, 1871-1933 (1972) and Pillars of Profit: The Company Province, 1934-1972 (1973), was written from a socialist perspective and in a flamboyant style which made it controversial and interesting. Robin's British Columbia, dominated by giant resource industries, was a 'company province' in which the owners and their workers were sharply divided, without a large middle class to mediate between them. Politics became a process of finding ways to divert the electorate, thus heading off overt class conflict and keeping the province safe for development. It was an intriguing conception, one which might have useful application in the study of other provinces. All regions received a good deal of historical attention, but the prairies more than any other. Collections of essays on western politics abounded, at least one of which was a volume of considerable quality. Politics in Saskatchewan (1968), edited by Norman Ward and Duff Spafford, contained fourteen essays on topics ranging from the Ku Klux Klan to the medicare crisis. James H. Gray, a retired newspaperman, wrote a series of popular and enlightening books on neglected aspects of western history. Two were volumes of personal reminiscence, The Winter Years (1966) on Winnipeg during the depression, and The Boy from Winnipeg (1970), a compelling account of growing up during World War i. They were the best sort of autobiography, that which adds to an interesting story the objective value of social history. Prostitution, a sure-fire topic for popular history, was the subject of Gray's Red Lights on the Prairies (1971), while that other subject of universal interest, alcohol, was discussed inBooze: The Impact of Whisky on the Prairie West (1972). Gray's books were not analytical social history, but they were well researched, crammed with unfamiliar details, and enlivened by a spirited liberalism. Canadian geographers made some of the most important contributions to historiography in the period, with their sensitivity to the relationship between man, economic factors, and the land. As well as Clark's Acadia and R.C. Harris's The Seigneurial System in Early Canada: A Geographical Study, there was James T. Lemon's The Best Poor Man's Country: A Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (1972), winner of the prestigious Beveridge prize in American history. Although on a non-Canadian subject, it was highly instructive in approach for Canadian historians with its sophisticated use of demographic data. On a Canadian subject, a brilliantly innovative work by a geographer was Beyond the River and the Bay ( 1970) by Eric Ross. A tour de force of imagination, it pictured the west in 1811 as seen through the eyes of an imaginary traveller writing a guide book for a British audience. Using only sources available in 1811, and capturing the tone of such books accurately, Ross brought the early prairies alive as no other writer had done. In the process, he provided one of the best descriptions available of Indian life and customs in the last days of the fierce competition between the Norwesters and the Hudson's Bay Company which did so much to disrupt Indian life.

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The native peoples, indeed, for the first time began to draw historical attention in perhaps another example of the way in which contemporary preoccupations influence the interests of historians. Early Indian history was again an area in which geography contributed to history. Conrad Heidenreich's Huronla: A History and Geography of the Huron Indians (1973) was a geographical study which won the first Sainte-Marie prize in seventeenth-century history. Anthropologist Bruce Trigger contributed even more with his The Hurons: Farmers of the North (1969), a fine reconstruction of Huron society as it was before the destruction of the Huron nation by the Iroquois in the 1640s. Two general studies of the Canadian Indians appeared, Robert Surtees' The Original People (1971) and E. Palmer Patterson's The Canadian Indian: A History since 1500 (1972). Surtees' book was reasonably successful on its level, a general introduction for students. Patterson was disjointed and too incomplete to succeed as a general history, but the approach was interesting, bringing to the study of Canadian Indians insights gained in work on Third World peoples. Later Indian history emerged largely in biographies. Grant MacEwan, then lieutenant-governor of Alberta (his successor was an Indian), wrote a biography of Chief Walking Buffalo of the Stonies, Tatanga Mani (1969) and a volume made up of thirty-three brief biographies of Indian leaders, Portraits from the Plains (1971). These were conventional works, but a biography both excellent and innovative in technique was Hugh A. Dempsey's Crowfoot: Chief of the Blackfeet (1972). Skillfully combining conventional historical records with Indian oral history, Dempsey captured the spirit as well as the career of this remarkable native leader. The same period was the subject of Desmond Morton's eminently readable The Last War Drum (1972), a study of the last military conflict between Indians and whites in Canada, the Northwest Rebellion of 1885. One of the genuinely exciting historical works of recent years was also concerned with Indians - Paul Kane's Frontier (1971), edited with a biographical introduction and a catalogue raisonné by J. Russell Harper. This handsome volume included Harper's intelligent introduction and catalogue of Kane's art along with a new edition of Kane's Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America, first published in 1859, and over 250 reproductions of Kane paintings and drawings. No coffee table book this, it was a major scholarly contribution and a timely reminder of the importance of this artistic pioneer. After Harper's book, there can be no disputing his judgment that 'Paul Kane now emerges as a giant among North American artists of his period' (pix). There were other historical areas which saw the beginnings of breakthroughs between 1960 and 1973. The study of ethnic groups made significant advances with books such as Jean Burnet's Ethnic Groups in Upper Canada (1972), Robin Winks's The Blacks in Canada (1971), and the excellent The

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Doukhobors by George Woodcock and Ivan Avakumovic (1968). Military history, already well established, enjoyed further successes. Desmond Morton, emerging as one of the most important young historians with his The Last War Drum and his biography of Toronto's nineteenth-century reform mayor, William Howland (1973), described effectively the role of the militia in late nineteenth-century Canada in Ministers and Generals: Politics and the Canadian Militia, 1868-1904 (1970). Perhaps the most attractive of all Canadian military figures, General A.G.L. McNaughton, soldier, politician, and nationalist, was the subject of a three-volume biography, McNaughton (1969) by John Swettenham. The third volume, on the years 1944 to 1969, was the most interesting, covering McNaughton's involvement in the conscription crisis of 1944 and his later effort to prevent Canada blundering into the Columbia River treaty with the United States. The dominant figure in military history, however, remained Colonel C.P. Stacey, founder of the Armed Forces Historical Branch and later professor of history at the University of Toronto. One of a rare breed, Stacey was a historian of surprising objectivity and mature research skills who yet wrote with wit and colour; and he invested military history with a full sense of the political and social context in which it operated. His major work of the period was Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939-1945 (1970), a study of Canadian national policies during World War n. As well as unravelling the governmental and military bureaucracy behind war planning, Stacey drew a vivid picture of the problems faced by a country overwhelmed by its two powerful allies, Britain and the United States. Canada, it appeared from Stacey's study, was not even the junior partner that previous writers had described; it was more of a filing clerk. Economic history, the mainstay of Canadian historiography in the 1930s, recovered from long neglect in the 1960s. The study of business began to move beyond the 'official history' stage into serious and objective analysis. One of the leaders in this progress was William Kilbourn. In 1960 he published The Elements Combined: A History of the Steel Company of Canada, a company history which succeeded in putting the company into its national context. He followed this in 1970 with Pipeline. Trans-Canada and the Great Debate: A History of Business and Politics, a revealing look at the relations of government and business under the businessman-politician C.D. Howe. The first volume of Merrill Denison's Canada's First Bank: A History of the Bank of Montreal (1966) was a detailed and valuable study of the first quarter century of the pioneer institution. The second volume, published in 1967, was a disappointing once-over-lightly of the subsequent history of the bank. Organized labour received perhaps more attention than any other aspect of economic history. Charles Upton's general history, The Trade Union Movement of Canada, 1827-1959 (1967, revised 1973) was written from a left-wing

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perspective and certainly was not an objective account of the rise of labour; it was, nevertheless, the best general treatment available. A number of more specialized studies increased understanding of unionism: Paul A. Phillips's No Power Greater: A Century of Labour in British Columbia (1967); Martin Robin's Radical Politics and Canadian Labour, 1880-1939 (1968); and Gad Horowitz, Canadian Labour in Politics (1968), a study of the relations of organized labour and the CCF between 1932 and 1961. All of these were works by socialists. A more conservative interpretation, and a drier approach, is found in Stuart Jamieson's Times of Trouble: Labour Unrest and Industrial Conflict in Canada, 1900-66 (1971) and John H.G. Crispo's defence of the international unions, International Unionism: A Study in CanadianAmerican Relations (1967). The most objective and most scholarly work of labour history in the period, however, was Irving Abella's Nationalism, Communism, and Canadian Labour, 1935-1956 (1973), a careful study of the struggle for political control in the Canadian labour movement. Abella came closer to giving due credit to the work of Communists in building industrial unionism than had any other non-Communist writer. In the process, he gave us the best picture available of some crucial episodes such as the Oshawa strike against General Motors in 1937. As in so many other areas, a favourite mode of expression in economic history was the collection of essays. Two of these collections fairly well summed up the advantages and disadvantages of this device as both a scholarly and aliterary form. Enterprise and National Development (1973), edited by Glenn Porter and Robert Cuff, was compiled from essays originally published in a special Canadian issue of the Business History Review. While it suffered in places because of its origin, it was a generally interesting and provocative collection. Three of the articles, in particular, demonstrated some of the important areas into which economic and business history was moving. T. W. Acheson's essay on the social history of business compared the structure of the industrial élite in 1885 with that of 1910. Michael Bliss, one of the most prolific and reliable writers on business history, produced a study of the intellectual history of business in an article on Canadian combines policy and the thought behind it in the period 1889-1910. And, in the most lively essay in the book, Christopher Armstrong and H.V. Nelles studied the relationship between business and politics in an investigation of Ontario business' love affair with the federal government in the first decade of the twentieth century. Standing in the sharpest contrast to this useful collection was Canadian Business History: Selected Studies, 1497-1971 (1971), edited by David S. Macmillan. A drab selection of articles on the same tired topics fisheries, biographies of railwaymen, etc. - it was a depressing commentary on how quickly a new field can slump into mediocrity. New approaches, nevertheless, were emerging and holding out exciting

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possibilities for the future. Yet some of the more conventional areas of historiography continued to yield good results. Biography, given such an impetus in the early 1950s by Creighton's Macdonald, was still popular and productive. One of the best biographies was H. Blair Neatby's balanced second volume of the official biography of Mackenzie King, published in 1963, which carried King's story from his position of power in the early 1920s to his 'valley of humiliation' in the early 1930s. Much less objective was the biography of King's arch rival; Arthur Meighen: A Biography, 3 volumes (1960-5), by Roger Graham, who was too close to its subject to provide a rounded picture. A similar comment could be made of two books by political scientist Dale Thomson, his biography of the Liberal prime minister of the 1870s, Alexander Mackenzie: Clear Grit (1960), and his totally uncritical study of the later Liberal leader, Louis St Laurent, Canadian (1967). Far from uncritical, journalistic, probably unfair, but excitingly readable was the dissection of St Laurent's successor, John Diefenbaker, by Peter Newman in Renegade in Power: The Diefenbaker Years (1963). A good and generally balanced discussion of a highly controversial figure was to be found in Neil McKenty'sM//c/z Hepburn (1967), a biography of the bizarre Ontario populist premier of the depression era. Autobiographies supplied some of the most entertaining reading of the period, and even, occasionally, some new information. The best-seller was Mike: The Memoirs of the Right Honourable Lester B. Pearson, Volume i, 1897-1948 (1972). While it told little that historians did not already know, it was lively and genial, like its author. The second volume, on the period to 1956, was pieced together after Pearson's death by John Munro and Alex Inglis and published in 1973 ; lacking unity and Pearson's wit, it was decidedly inferior to the first volume. Two autobiographies which did tell a good deal were that of C.G. Power, A Party Politician: The Memoirs of Chubby Power (1966), which gave a fine inside look at the federal cabinet during World War n, and Farmer-Premier: The Memoirs of E.G. Drury (1966), the self-portrait of the United Farmers premier who led Ontario between 1919 and 1923. Political history, too, had skilled practitioners. P.B. Waite assessed Confederation as seen through contemporary newspapers in The Life and Times of Confederation, 1864-1867: Politics, Newspapers, and the Union of British North America (1962). A fine general history of Upper Canada was contributed to the Canadian Centenary series by Gerald M. Craig in Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (1963), a comprehensive treatment of all aspects of provincial history. The CCF, which has received more close attention than other political parties, was the subject of two very good books. Walter Young, a British Columbia political scientist, gave a thorough assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the federal party in The Anatomy of a Party: The National CCF, 1932-61 (1969). Much livelier was the brilliantly

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written study of the Ontario party, The Dilemma of Canadian Socialism (1973) by historian and political activist Gerald L. Caplan. And so it went. It has been estimated that between 1967 and 1972 alone, over five hundred historical works were published in Canada. To make neat patterns of this considerable effusion is the work of a loftier intelligence than that of the historian. It is only somewhat easier to winnow the relatively minute quantities of wheat from the vast stockpile of chaff. Yet certain developments do seem clear. The period saw new contemporary influences provincial and regional interests, the increasing power of workers, the rise of nationalism - operate on both the choice of subjects made by historians and the way in which they approached those subjects. The major result was the lifting of the dead hand of the Toronto-centred, conservative interpretations which had dominated historiography for three decades. No new synthesis emerged to replace the old; but the doors were open to new ideas and new styles. That was worth three quiet, reserved Canadian cheers.

5 Philosophical Literature THOMAS A.

GOUDGE

A dominant fact about Canadian philosophical literature in the 1960s is that it greatly increased in volume. A large part of the volume consisted of articles in journals, as was the case elsewhere in the Anglo-American world. But there was also a substantial number of books. This was a period of unprecedented expansion in higher education across the country. Older departments of philosophy made many additional appointments in a short space of time, and at the newer universities new appointments had to be made to set up their departments. Thus the total population of academic philosophers became much larger than it had been. Many of the younger appointees had recently finished PH D theses which could readily be made the basis of articles or books. A new avenue of publication opened up with the establishing in 1962 of the first professional journal of philosophy in the country, Dialogue, under the aegis of the Canadian Philosophical Association, itself founded in 1958. Both the journal and the association are bilingual. These are some of the factors that contributed to the extraordinary increase in the literature during the decade.* The specialization which had begun earlier was now accentuated. Within a few years books appeared in all the main divisions of philosophy. There continue to be studies of individual thinkers and texts of the past, and standards of historical scholarship remain high. But many studies leave aside textual and historical concerns in order to tackle topics analytically. Philosophers make use of new techniques to help them construct and criticize arguments, explore conceptual meanings, and undertake phenomenological *In this section, as in Ch. 5 of Vol. 11, no attempt has been made to mention every philosophical book published by a Canadian, or even to mention every book of each philosopher. Instead, I have focussed on what I take to be representative works, and I accept full responsibility for inclusions and exclusions. Additional titles will, however, be found in the 'Notes and Bibliography' of the chapter. Several books published in 1973, such as A.H. Johnson's Experiential Realism and J.F.M. Hunter's Essays after Wittgenstein, did not become available to me until too late in the year to enable me to take them into account in planning and writing the chapter.

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analysis and description. The topics singled out for investigation are often ones being widely canvassed throughout the philosophical world. Thus interest is strong during this period in theory of action, philosophy of mind, meta-ethics, and the philosophy of religion. In view of this state of affairs works can be best discussed not chronologically but in the particular division of the subject to which they belong. GREEK PHILOSOPHY

The enduring vitality of Platonic thought is illustrated by two books of the period: R.E. Allen's Plato's 'Euthyphro' and the Earlier Theory of Forms (1970) and T.M. Robinson's Plato's Psychology (1970). Allen offers a new translation of the Euthyphro interspersed with commentary and supported by a long interpretative essay. His central contention is that Plato's early dialogues contain a definite, although implicit, theory of Forms, which provides a metaphysical basis for the dialectic practised in those dialogues. The early theory is distinct from the more inclusive theory of Forms of Plato's middle period. A salient feature of the early theory is the clear separation of Forms, both epistemologically and ontologically, from their instances. In both senses the Forms have priority and constitute an unchanging hierarchical scale. Robinson takes up a different aspect of Plato's thought, namely, his doctrine of the psyche or soul. The book gives a comprehensive account of this doctrine in the Platonic corpus. A number of senses in which the term 'psyche' is used are distinguished, and attention is called to ambiguities that arise in various contexts. Some dimensions of the term's meaning are, however, common to many of the dialogues. For instance, the soul is spoken of consistently as substantial and indestructible (hence pre-existent and immortal), as the rational element in man, as constituting the 'true self and as entombed in the body. At least one dialogue, the Phaedo, proposes that the soul has a quasi-biological function as the 'life-principle.' Robinson further suggests that on certain assumptions about the order of composition of relevant dialogues, Plato's doctrine displays a 'comprehensible pattern of development.' Two works on the founder of Neoplatonism, Plotinus, were published by Canadian scholars in 1967. They are J.M. Rist's Plotinus: The Road to Reality, and J.N. Deck's Nature, Contemplation and the One. The study by Rist is an interpretation of the whole of the Plotinian philosophy. That philosophy is both affirmed as a set of doctrines and also lived as a personal commitment of Plotinus' mystical temperament. The special problems generated by this double aspect are treated in some detail. Deck's study argues for the unity of Plotinus' thought, taking its binding ideas to be those found in the treatise 'On Nature, Contemplation and the One.' The thesis that 'Nature

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contemplates' is discussed at length, and its importance for the Plotinian world-view underlined. In pursuing his basic aim, the author seeks to remove, or mitigate, many ostensible contradictions that occur in the texts he examines. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

The extensive reinterpretations of scholastic thought that have been produced in the twentieth century, largely because of the work of Gilson, are brought into clear focus in A. A. Maurer's Medieval Philosophy (1962). This book presents an account of the ideas of the main figures and intellectual currents from the fourth to the sixteenth centuries, beginning with St Augustine and concluding with Suarez. The account thus embraces some of the thinkers of the Renaissance period as well as the leading schoolmen. Among the themes treated is the gradual distinction and final separation of philosophy from theology, which became most extreme in the Latin Averroists of the thirteenth century. In the writings of the greatest of the schoolmen, St Thomas Aquinas, the science of theology is all-embracing, but philosophy is a well defined part of it; and his own philosophy, as Maurer brings out, is an original, strongly argued system incorporating much of Aristotle yet reflecting also influences from Greek Neoplatonism and from Arabian and Jewish thought. A minor theme of the book is the occurrence of a scientific renaissance in the late Middle Ages which paved the way for the achievements in science at the start of the modern era. EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY

The chief figures of the period of early modern philosophy whose thought has been investigated recently are Hobbes, Locke, Hume, Kant, and Hegel. As a rule, investigation is concerned only with a few aspects of the thought of each figure, but these aspects are treated in depth. Occasionally, doctrines common to several philosophers are examined together. There is no hesitation about raising questions as to whether a given doctrine is well stated or ill stated, whether arguments advanced are strong or weak, whether a position advocated is true or false. Sometimes improved versions of doctrines and arguments are constructed during a discussion. In short, a philosopher is treated as if he were a contemporary, and his work is judged by criteria now in use, not by criteria used in his own day. This approach is illustrated by O.P. Gauthier's The Logic of Leviathan: The Moral and Political Theory of Thomas Hobbes (1969). The book presents not only an assessment of Hobbes's moral and political views, but also a theory which aims to avoid their difficulties and at the same time 'is coherent, plausible and true ... to the spirit of Hobbes's thought. ' Gauthier argues that given the conception of man adopted in Leviathan, the logical upshot must be

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anarchy, not absolute sovereignty. For if every man is intractable and seeks only to maximize his own power at the expense of his fellows, political society becomes impossible. Even those who rule can have no other aim than to increase without limit their individual power. Yet political society does exist. Hence Hobbes must be misstating the case. A major correction can be made, Gauthier remarks, if we admit that men are tractable and have a customary disposition to accept social regulations and arrangements. In the light of this conception, Hobbes's simple alternatives - either the anarchistic state of nature or the tyranny of the absolute ruler - become merely ideal limits between which many live options exist. The signal merit oí Leviathan, Gauthier concludes, lies not in the content but in the conceptual structure of its theory, especially in the concept of authorization. It provides a more adequate metaphor than the conventional one of covenant for the formulation and discussion of political relations. A somewhat similar approach is taken by J.W. Yolton in Locke and the Compass of Human Understanding (1970). This work examines three central issues taken up by Locke in the last chapter of his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, namely, the division of the possible objects of knowledge into the things of nature, voluntary human actions, and modes of communication. Natural philosophy, ethics, and logic or semiotics deal respectively with these matters. Among the conclusions that result from Yolton's detailed analysis the following are cardinal. Locke is not engaged in trying to justify the knowledge of nature that we have but merely to describe it. The only method we have for obtaining this knowledge is observation, since a deductive science of nature is impossible. Although we do perceive physical things in the ordinary sense, the process does require ideas caused by insensible corpuscles which at best resemble perceived things only in some features. These things have primary qualities unconditionally, but have secondary qualities conditionally. In discussing Locke's theory of action, Yolton shows how its range extends over most of the important issues that are nowadays called 'meta-ethical.' Semiotics is also shown to encompass many points that have come in for their full share of attention by linguists and philosophers of language in the present century. A book which concentrates on topics rather than on historical scholarship is Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes (1971) by Jonathan Bennett. It singles out the views of the philosophers mentioned on meaning, causality, and objectivity. Textual material is frequently reconstrued in contemporary terms so as to assess its soundness or usefulness for current discussions of the three themes. Bennett exposes the difficulties of the simple, empirical view of meaning espoused by these philosophers, especially by Locke. He contrasts this empirical view with the more adequate approach to meaning by way of the notion of the uses of expressions and the rules that govern those uses. In the

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treatment of the issue of objectivity, which occupies the second half of the book, Locke's doctrine of substance, his theory of perception, and the wellknown distinction between primary and secondary qualities come in for close examination. Berkeley, it is contended, in seeking to exploit Locke's arguments to support his own immaterialism or idealism, misunderstands important details. However, Locke's arguments themselves are not free of confusions. Hume's position on objectivity, Bennett holds, boils down to the conclusion that our belief in an external world, if it is to be justified, has to be analyzed in purely phenomenal terms. Yet because of his commitment to an empirical theory of meaning, Hume cannot accept phenomenalism, a position Bennett himself appears to find congenial. Another side of Hume's philosophy is investigated in Pall Árdal's Passion and Value in Hume's Treatise (1966). Part of the purpose of this study is to show the relevance of Hume's treatment of the passions of love, hatred, pride, and humility to his moral theory. In carrying out this purpose the relevant ideas of the Treatise are expounded and elaborated. Ardal holds to be mistaken the view that what is said about the indirect passions of love, hatred, pride, and humility has little or no bearing on ethical issues. For Hume explicitly remarks that virtue and vice can give rise to these passions which, in turn, give rise to evaluations. True, such evaluations are never impartial, and hence cannot be genuine moral evaluations. The latter are based on 'calm passions,' such as disinterested benevolence, which ensure impartiality. Contrary to a common opinion, Hume does not identify sympathy and benevolence. Sympathy is a principle of communication among persons, not a passion. Ardal likewise holds to be mistaken the view that Hume is a moral subjectivist and a psychological egoist. His moral theory is, however, judged to be a version of emotivism. An analysis and interpretation of central themes in the Critique of Pure Reason are presented by O.P. Dryer in Kant's Solution for Verification in Metaphysics (1966). The book is not a commentary but a detailed study of those parts of the Kantian text which relate to the question of how metaphysical knowledge is obtained. Detaching the text in large measure from its historical setting, Dryer contends that Kant shows conclusively that and how metaphysics can be established as a science. Indeed, to show this is the main aim of the Critique. Accordingly, its cardinal question, 'how are a priori synthetic judgments possible?' is taken to mean 'how are synthetic judgments verified a prioriT Since the judgments involved are metaphysical, that is to say, since they state what must be true of objects in general, their verification can be neither purely deductive nor purely inductive. It is rather, Dryer contends, a process of verification by means of pure intuition in Kant's sense of that term. Thus there is a similarity between the way certain geometrical truths are indirectly verified and the way metaphysical truths are.

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Verificational procedures in the two sciences are closely linked. One may even say, Dryer remarks, that metaphysics for Kant is a kind of generalized geometry. A quite different view of metaphysics is implicit in the philosophy of Hegel, a central aspect of which is examined by E.L. Fackenheim in The Religious Dimension in Hegel's Thought (1967). One of the aims of Hegel's vast system is to overcome the abstractions generated by human understanding, and in particular, to reconcile reason with religious feeling, the idea of human freedom with the idea of a freely creating God. The book examines the extent to which this particular reconciliation is achieved within the terms of Hegel's thought. A crucial point is whether or not the transformation of religion into speculative philosophy, which is at once demanded by religion and at the same time preserves its essence, is really accomplished. Fackenheim concludes that it is, but not in the timeless sense demanded by the Hegelian system. Rather, it is accomplished under quite special historical conditions, viz., those arising from the union of Protestant Christianity with the secular bourgeois outlook at the start of the nineteenth century. Hence Hegel did not achieve his ultimate aim. 'Were he alive to-day, he would not be an Hegelian.' His system could not be updated, even by Hegel himself. RECENT PHILOSOPHY

The philosopher whom many would regard as the most significant in France since Bergson is the subject of T.D. Langan's Merleau-Ponty's Critique of Reason (1966). It is a statement and evaluation of this philosopher's views on a wide variety of topics by one who is generally sympathetic to the position developed, but who aims at comprehensiveness of treatment rather than at analytic depth. Langan takes the major problem to be whether or not Merleau-Ponty's key idea of the action of the human body (corps propre} in the process of knowing enables him to give an adequate account of objective knowledge of the world. The problem looms large because of the connection of French phenomenology in particular with the tradition of Cartesian, which has always been vulnerable to the charge of extreme subjectivity in the way it interprets knowledge. The book finds that despite Merleau-Ponty's success in dealing with many of the problems of Husserl and Sartre, he too falls short of giving an adequate account of objectivity. In the end the structure of the world seems to be determined not by any thinking substance but by the activity of the body. For it is the body that animates the world, imposing a synthesis on the experience of the world and providing the ground for its orderly character. Yet the body is within the world and forms with it a system of great complexity. Langan proposes certain ways in which difficulties arising from this position might be handled. A significant British philosopher of the twentieth century is dealt with by

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Lionel Rubinoff in Collingwood and the Reform of Metaphysics: A Study in the Philosophy of Mind (1970). The book counters the contention that Collingwood's thought moved from the standpoint of idealism to that of historicism. On the contrary, Rubinoff argues, Collingwood was committed throughout his philosophical life to an idealist metaphysics. It is implicit in all his work, and can be reconstructed as a system by taking note of his successive attempts to establish a rapprochement between philosophy and history. These two disciplines, although distinct, are not separate. They both presuppose a scale of overlapping forms which allows for continuities and discontinuities. Both employ the method called by Collingwood 'categorical thinking.' It results in categorical singular judgments in the case of history, and in categorical universal judgments in the case of philosophy. Such judgments stand in sharp contrast with the hypothetical universals to which the natural sciences are limited. Rubinoff holds that the distinctive metaphysical system implicit in Collingwood's philosophy presupposes the classical idealist doctrine of the concrete universal. It is the presence of this doctrine that accounts for his life-long hostility to perceptual and epistemological realism. Like the classical idealists he regarded mind as the source of all categorical principles, but since the essence of mind is 'historicity,' each principle has its own history in the progressive scale of forms. Rubinoff himself finds this doctrine basically acceptable. A German mathematician and philosopher who has lately received posthumous recognition as a thinker of great originality is Gottlob Frege (d. 1925). Studies of his work are appearing in increasing number, and two of them fall within the scope of the present chapter. They are J.D.B. Walker's A Study of Frege (1965) and E.W. Kluge's translation of an introduction to Frege's On the Foundations of Geometry and Formal Theories of Arithmetic (1971). Walker presents a number of Frege's leading ideas on the philosophy of logic, mathematics, and language. One of the best-known of these ideas is the distinction between the two aspects of signs or names: their reference (Bedeutung) and their connotation (Sinn). This distinction is shown to be more complex and perhaps less consistent than it has sometimes been thought to be. The book also looks at broader aspects of Frege's thought, such as his views on the nature of science and of knowledge. Kluge has translated a series of discussions between Frege and the mathematicians Hubert, Korselt, and Thomae. The central issue concerned the soundness of the formalistic approach to mathematics. In his introduction Kluge gives an account of the general semantic theory whose acceptance led Frege to reject all varieties of formalism. Because he held that mathematical propositions are both meaningful and true, he scornfully rejected the view of Thomae that mathematics is a game of symbol-manipulation, and he was equally opposed to the position of the early Hubert and of Korselt that mathematics is a system of formal connections of axioms and their logical consequences.

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Recent philosophy is studied in a somewhat longer perspective by Fraser Cowley in A Critique of British Empiricism (1968). The book focuses on certain doctrines of mind and experience which the author finds in Locke, Hume, Russell, Ayer, and Ryle. These doctrines are critically assessed from a broadly phenomenological standpoint which is indebted to the ideas of Merleau-Ponty on the role of the human body in perceiving the world. Cowley contends that empiricism harbours a basic incoherence. On the one hand it assumes that the sole objects of perceptual experience are subjective states of mind (ideas, impressions, sensations, sense data, etc.). On the other hand, it accepts the truth of a physiological account of perception which requires that bodies, sense-receptors, nerves, brains, etc., exist as objective causal conditions of mental states. But if the former assumption is made, the existence of these conditions remains utterly problematic. This incoherence has been concealed from empiricists themselves because they employ the ambiguous term 'sensation,' which can signify either what is perceived or the way something is perceived. A much more satisfactory theory can be arrived at, according to Cowley, if it is recognized that perceiving is a function of the body, not as a physiological object but as self and agent. Such a theory involves dropping the view that perceiving is the work of the mind dealing with its own ideas, impressions, sense data, etc. Even linguistic versions of empiricism developed by Ayer, Ryle, and Goodman retain, it is alleged, many of the assumptions of the classical tradition, despite increased sophistication in the handling of problems. Part of the reason for the continuance of the assumptions lies in the great influence of Hume on British philosophers. Hence Cowley devotes nearly half the book to an examination of Hume's thought. It now becomes necessary to mention some representative works that deal, during the period under review, with non-historical topics. These topics fall within the main systematic areas of philosophy. ETHICS A book that offers an analysis of a complex group of concepts used in deliberating about decisions and actions is O.P. Gauthier' s Practical Reasoning (1963). The typical situation here arises when a person is faced with some practical problem, and reviews relevant considerations in order to reach a conclusion about what is to be done. The considerations are often based exclusively on the person's wants, desires, needs, aims, etc., and in such cases the reasoning is prudential. But there are grave difficulties, Gauthier argues, in trying to give an analysis of practical reasoning in just these terms. A more comprehensive basis has to be found. It is forthcoming in cases where the individual agent takes account of 'all wants of all persons.' Only then is the reasoning moral. The condition which underlies this move from the prudential to the moral is that what is desirable to anyone provides a reason

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for acting for anyone. Furthermore, any bit of practical reasoning (prudential and moral) plays a twofold role. It offers an explanation of the action proposed to cope with the practical problem, at least in the instances where 'the reasons for acting are also the reasons why the agent acts as he does.' And it offers a justification of the action, provided the agent's reasons for the action are good ones. A large number of conceptual details pertaining to these issues are explored in the book. Its general method reflects the influence of Oxonian linguistic analysis as practised by J.L. Austin. Classical or 'act' utilitarianism is presented and defended against attacks of its critics by Jan Narveson in Morality and Utility ( 1967). As an ethical theory utilitarianism undertakes to provide a test procedure for determining the moral value of actions in terms of the consequences for those who are affected by the actions. The principle involved in the test is that of two alternative lines of action, one has more objective moral value than the other if and only if it produces a greater net amount 'of what is valued by those affected than the other produces.' What is valued is ultimately the satisfaction of interests, desires, wants, etc. The book takes the position that those who object to act-utilitarianism and who have sought to replace it with 'ideal' utilitarianism or 'rule' utilitarianism fail to make out a case. Those who reject all versions of utilitarianism on the ground that they do not offer an adequate account of obligation and of distributive justice, also fail to make out a case. Narveson contends that on the contrary it is possible to give a proof of act-utilitarianism which will 'establish the theory all at once.' The proof he offers involves the claim that if an agent accepts the fact that some action will satisfy an interest as a reason for performing the action, he cannot consistently limit the range of interests to his own, but must regard the satisfying oí any interest as a reason for performing the action. Such a generalization is exactly what utilitarianism requires. The other features of the proof do not interfere with its formal or a priori character. AESTHETICS

The somewhat special field of aesthetics is treated inclusively from a modern point of view by F.E. Sparshott in The Structure of Aesthetics (1963). The book describes the four main problems in the field as: the meaning and viability of the concept of art; the nature of aesthetic judgments; the meaning of the terms which enter into those judgments; and the proper analysis of art works. Thus the book aims to give a comprehensive picture of the conceptual and logical issues embedded in those problems. Sparshott is opposed to philosophies of art that try to fit their concepts into tightly organized systems. His manner of proceeding is strongly pluralistic. Issues are taken up one at a time, and distinctions made singly, not in wholesale fashion. He does suggest, however, that a number of connections among the various problems can be

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established by noting the importance of the concept of order. This importance is evident in both the appreciation and the creation of works of art. He also shows sympathy for the general thesis that the arts symbolize by means of diverse media the forms of feeling. But the idea that a unique aesthetic experience is the primary datum for a philosophy of art is judged to be unacceptable. METAPHYSICS

Although Canadian philosophy was not much affected by the hostility to metaphysics engendered by logical positivism before World War n, the subsequent decline of that movement helped to provide a climate in which different kinds of metaphysical work could go on freely. Three books will be mentioned as typical examples of this work in the period being considered. J.W. Yolton's Metaphysical Analysis (1967) is an example of an approach to the subject which has been influenced by the linguistic turn taken by much Anglo-American philosophy as positivism waned. Yet the book makes clear at the outset that it rejects the view which sees metaphysical problems as 'generated by a careless attention to language.' These problems arise for critical philosophical consciousness, embodied in talk which occurs in many conceptual systems that deal with the world. Hence metaphysical analysis seeks to understand such philosophical talk, keeping in mind the plurality of conceptual systems. Yolton selects for examination two ontological languages: phenomenalism in both sensory and idealistic versions, and sensedatum dualism. These are looked at closely in the first two sections of the book. A general point which emerges is that just as each ontological position is relative to its own conceptual system, so is metaphysical analysis. There is no conceptually neutral perspective reserved for the metaphysician. What he has to do, therefore, is to become self-conscious about his own conceptual commitments while examining other positions on their own terms. Only then can he make out where each position is closed or open to the criticisms of others. In the final section of the book, Yolton discusses some logical and linguistic conditions that regulate metaphysical analysis. These are, broadly, that semantic reference has to be included as an integral part of the meaning of expressions, that although correspondence is the basic truth relation the terms of the relation are functions of the particular ontological language espoused, and that truth is not to be ascribed to an ontological position, since 'ontology determines truth.' A kind of metaphysical analysis quite different from the above is offered in Joseph Owens's An Interpretation of Existence (1968). This study combines exposition of the Thomistic doctrine of existence with an elaboration of it in contemporary terms so as to set forth the doctrine as a defensible alternative to modern scepticism and subjectivism. Ever since Kant advanced his argu-

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ment that existence is not a real predicate, and that metaphysical thinking about existence cannot lead to knowledge, a sceptical attitude has been widespread concerning the worth of such thinking. Owens seeks to counter this attitude by arguing that knowledge of existence is attainable. It is not, however, exclusively conceptual knowledge. At the outset it is knowledge which occurs in a 'synthesizing act of cognition that for convenience may be called judgment.' The act is a non-conceptual but intellectual grasp of existence. The task of metaphysics is to proceed from this cognitive encounter to conceptual understanding of existence by utilizing analogy. Various concepts of other objects are applied analogically to what is grasped in existential judgment. Existence is thus held before the mind while the intellect explores its nature by means of certain basic categories. The results of the exploration demand expression not in separate words or concepts, but in sentences of propositions. These metaphysical propositions and their linguistic formulations reflect the nature of existence itself, and it is therefore capable of being known. In the final chapter of the book, Owens gives a compact account of the history of philosophic attempts to grapple with the problem of existence since Aristotle's statement of it. A metaphysical study which shows considerable indebtedness to the Hegelian tradition is presented in Leslie Armour's Logic and Reality (1972). As its subtitle indicates, the book explores 'the idea of a dialectical system,' and the system envisaged is one 'in which form and content can be developed together' so comprehensively that the set of concepts involved will accommodate every item of possible experience. A double-barrelled principle is applied to guide the development. The principle embodies a 'general exclusion reference' and a 'specific exclusion reference' of concepts which relates them in pairs of opposites. The initial pair of opposites is 'being' and 'pure disjunction. ' From them a central group or core of concepts is generated. It in turn provides a basis for generating other concepts whose interconnections become more and more complex and whose reference becomes more and more specific or particular. The resulting system, Armour holds, is simply 'an organized cluster of ways of looking at the whole universe of discourse ... a unified series of perspectives.' But the role of the system is not just descriptive. It also aims to be explanatory of the items which it encompasses. These include such things as temporality, process, individuality, freedom, personality, etc., construed in the light of a distinction of a plurality of ontological levels. The unity of this dialectical system, unlike the system of Hegel, is said to be of a kind which does not make it absolute or ultimate. PHILOSOPHY OF MIND AND ACTION

The standpoint of philosophers who find topics for reflection arising out of other disciplines is represented in Charles Taylor's The Explanation of Be-

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haviour (1964). This book explores a central problem which arises from the science of psychology, namely that of giving an adequate explanation of animal behaviour, including the behaviour of humans. Taylor undertakes to show that behaviourist and neo-behaviourist modes of explanation are not conceptually satisfactory ways of accounting for the whole range of activities of higher animals and of man. These modes of explanation are basically mechanistic. They represent all behaviour as falling under laws that are couched in causal, stimulus-response terms. Although such laws do apply to some behaviour, they are not adequate to account for behaviour which is intentional and goal directed or ' Ideological. ' What is needed in the latter case are teleological explanations whose laws have a quite different form from that of mechanical laws. The major difference lies in the use which teleological laws make of concepts involving intentionality. Thus there are two distinct and incompatible explanation schemes, marking the gulf between, for example, reflex bodily movements and rational purposive behaviour. The failure to recognize this gulf has, Taylor contends, bedevilled behaviourist learning theory, perceptual theory, etc., to the detriment of psychology as a science. By admitting teleological models of explanation which are testable empirically the science will be able to advance to a satisfactory general theory of animal behaviour, without distorting the character of human activities. A work which presents a constructive philosophical doctrine of action, embracing what human beings do and also what many inanimate objects do, is D.G. Brown's A ction (1968). The treatment sets out from a generic interpretation of its central concepts. Actions and their agents are of two main sorts. Inanimate objects are agents when they cause or produce effects. Hence what takes place in such situations is explained causally. Human beings are agents in virtue of the fact that they occupy 'a point of view' in which 'questions of what to do arise,' and these questions are settled not by theoretical answers but by actions that are the outcome of practical reasoning. The actions are effects attributed to persons. Hence what takes place is explained rationally by discovering the grounds the persons had for performing the actions. Although rational explanation is thus quite different from causal explanation, Brown holds that the two are not incompatible. For it might turn out that the causal explanation of a particular bodily movement, say, raising a hand, 'lay in just those events in the brain which were required for a man's deciding how to vote.' The actions of inanimate objects allow of no such duality. They are amenable to causal explanations only. Moreover, since causal explanations involve a distinctive sort of necessity, it must enter into a human bodily movement. But the necessity is not invoked at all when effects are attributed to the person who has the body. Thus an over-all doctrine of action must allow for both causal and non-causal attributability, limiting their conjoint occurrence to the cases in which a human agent moves his body.

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An issue in the philosophy of mind which has been neglected for some time is taken up by Terence Penelhum in Survival and Disembodied Existence (1970). His aim is to investigate the extent to which the concept of personal survival of bodily death is a logically coherent one. The chief problem arises from the consequence that if there is survival the person must continue as a disembodied spirit, and hence must presumably have special powers of perception and activitity since sense organs and brain processes are lacking. Such powers, although special, need not be utterly incomprehensible to us. A formidable difficulty does arise, however, because of the requirement that a disembodied spirit must be the same person as the one previously embodied, and must be identifiable as the same person. There must, therefore, be conditions which ensure self-identity. In the case of embodied persons, these conditions are supplied by memory and by bodily continuity or sameness. A close examination shows, Penelhum contends, that they are not independently sufficient conditions of self-identity. On the contrary, memory is a sufficient condition only if bodily continuity obtains. Thus 'memory is a parasitic concept, and needs a body to feed on. ' If so, personal identity cannot be ensured in the case of disembodied spirits. Hence survival of that sort is not conceptually intelligible. Somewhat analogous difficulties attach to the idea of survival in the sense of reincarnation, bodily transfer, and bodily resurrection. The difficulties can be partially mitigated by ruling out the possibility of any intermediate bodiless state between death and these forms of survival. But even here the ordinary concept of personal sameness has to be modified. The classical question of the relation between speech and thought, together with its bearing on the theory of mind, is discussed by Zeno Vendler in Res Cogitans: An Essay in Rational Psychology (1972). Setting out from some recent ideas of Austin and Chomsky, on the subject of learning and speaking one's mother tongue, the book develops a position akin to that of Descartes on the central question. Adverse criticisms are therefore made of empiricist and neo-behaviourist doctrines whose influence has been substantial in determining views in this area. There are strong reasons for holding that neither doctrine can yield an account of the process by which men learn a first language. On the contrary, the process seems to require the postulation of 'a native equipment of ideas' not itself learned but genetically determined, and hence 'innate.' Saying something and comprehending something said involves 'a concept which ... essentially corresponds to the Cartesian idea of thought and thinking. ' Verbs of mental action (eg, decide) and verbs of mental state (eg, believe) ultimately make sense only if there are mental acts and mental states. Indeed, Vendler adds, 'we are aware of these mental acts and states immediately, not less than of the sensations we feel, the pains we suffer, the mental images we entertain.' Such 'objects' of mental acts and states are non-verbal, expressible although not always expressed, in speech. Thus the

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commonsense notion that language expresses or can express our thoughts is basically sound. So is Descartes' principle that I am identical with my mind. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

One of the first books by a Canadian to apply Oxonian techniques of linguistic analysis to problems in the philosophy of religion is Donald Evans's The Language of Self-Involvement (1963). It approaches these problems by investigating the ways in which everyday language can manifest the feature of self-involvement, that is, the ways in which a man's utterances are logically connected with his 'practical commitments, attitudes and feelings.' The special insight used in the investigation is Austin's thesis that some language is performative, specifically, on occasions when in saying something one does something. Thus, in saying 'I apologize,' I apologize; in saying 'I thank you,' I thank you; and so on. Such performatives have important relations to their user's attitudes, intentions, etc. Evans singles out for analysis a constituent of many attitudes which he calls an 'onlook,' exemplified by cases where one 'looks on x as y. ' He judges this constituent to be essential for a proper understanding of religious language. The second part of the book explores the complex 'onlook attitude' which Christians believe is prescribed by God, and which is reflected in the Biblical language that says: 'God created the heavens and the earth.' Although the main stress falls on analysis of the logic and meaning of this Biblical language, apologetic enters in so far as it is denied that the language is devoid of meaning, as logical empiricist critics have maintained. Furthermore, when the self-involving implications of the language are understood, a basis is laid for establishing the truth of Christian religious claims. For these claims presuppose 'a complex biblical onlook which is accepted and adopted in a decision of faith.' A sceptical assessment of the central religious conceptions of the JewishChristian-Islamic tradition is made by Kai Nielsen in Contemporary Critiques of Religion (1971). He raises the philosopher's question whether those conceptions are intelligible and coherent enough to be worthy of acceptance by a rational being. A number of contemporary philosophers have argued that the question has to be answered negatively. Other philosophers have defended the traditional conceptions. Nielsen analyzes various moves and countermoves in this controversy. The logical positivists, for example, rejected as meaningless such sentences as 'There is a God' or 'God created the world.' Their reason was that these sentences lack any connection with a method by which they could be factually verified. Weak formulations of this reason are undoubtedly vulnerable to criticism. But strong formulations, Nielsen contends, have never been shaken seriously by attacks. Moreover, the nub of the difficulty raised by logical positivism cannot be avoided by anyone who seeks to defend theism. Those who regard a verificationist approach as passé

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nowadays, and who undertake to support fideism by appealing to linguistic and conceptual relativism, are caught in a contradiction which should lead them to scepticism. For conceptual relativism makes it impossible to give an objective justification of the 'world-historical claims' which every great religion makes in purporting to be more than just one among a number of alternatives. Quite apart from issues of meaning, the book concludes, the conception of God as a transcendent being is basically incoherent. When the conception is examined closely, it turns out that there is no way to identify, not just experientially but even reflectively, the unique reality people claim to be talking about when they use the word 'God' in religious utterances. The disagreements between believers and sceptics are investigated from a neutral position by Terence Penelhum in Problems of Religious Knowledge (1971). At the heart of the disagreements are problems raised by the cognitive claims which believers advance and sceptics reject. These problems fall within the epistemology of religion. The book accordingly deals with such matters as proof, verification, the probative force of revelation and faith, and, of course, arguments for and against knowledge of God's existence. In connection with the last matter, one line of investigation distinguishes 'theistic statements' from 'non-theistic statements' by taking the former to be statements which, if they were true, could only be known to be true by someone who knew that God exists. Non-theistic statements are outside this class. Penelhum then takes up the view that a theistic conclusion cannot be proved from non-theistic premises known to be true. But he draws a distinction between a moderate and a radical version of this view. The radical version denies that there are any non-theistic statements which, even if true, could prove theistic conclusions. The moderate version ('moderate theological non-naturalism'), while agreeing that there are no non-theistic statements known to be true which can function in a proof of theism, yet allows that there might be such statements. On the radical approach, nothing could ever make rejection of theism irrational. This position, Penelhum contends, is itself irrational. Moderate theological non-naturalism, on the contrary, is a rational option. Moreover, it should be acceptable to both believers and sceptics. For both parties should be able to agree that certain situations which could be described in non-theistic terms, would if found, put theistic claims beyond reasonable doubt. Thus opposition between believers and sceptics is not necessarily total. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

Since 1960, Canadian philosophers have contributed substantially to the history and philosophy of science. Their contributions show the same trend towards specialization as has been shown in other areas of the subject. Hence most of the publications have been in the form of articles in specialized

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journals. But there have also been a number of book-length studies from which items can be chosen for comment. One aspect of an issue with a long history is dealt with by Robert McRae in The Problem of the Unity of the Sciences: Bacon to Kant (1961). This study embraces the views of major thinkers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, several of whom were accomplished scientists as well as philosophers. The idea of the unity of the sciences varied considerably during this period. McRae discusses four different versions: the unity of a logical system without diversity of the sciences (Descartes, Leibniz, Diderot, D'Alembert); the unity of a logical system with diversity of the sciences (Bacon, Kant); the unity of a Ideological system (Condillac); and the unity of method (all these philosophers, except Kant). There was also considerable variation in the role attributed to the idea by different thinkers. Bacon and Descartes gave it a central role in their programs for revolutionizing the conception of scientific knowledge. Kant regarded unification as meeting a demand of reason for the unity of all human knowledge. The French Encyclopedists gave the idea a vital role in promoting enlightenment and effecting social change. Throughout the discussion of these matters, McRae makes plain the interaction of scientific and philosophical themes in the intellectual history of the times. A work which treats the interaction of scientific and philosophical motifs in the thought of one individual is William R. Shea's Galileo's Intellectual Revolution (1972). It focuses on Galileo's so-called 'middle period,' which culminated in the Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems (1632). It was this book more than any other that demolished the Aristotelian view of the cosmos, established Copernicanism, and by implication opened up a whole new way of looking at nature. Shea discusses in detail the course of the argument as well as its background. He shows that Galileo's scientific accomplishments were matched by a considerable grasp of methodological and philosophical issues. Hence 'to the two basic tenets of Aristotelian empiricism, anthropocentric teleology and reliance on the immediate disclosures of sense-experience, Galileo opposes the two main principles of mathematical Platonism, geometrical harmony of the universe and faith in the explanatory power of mathematics.' Not all of the alleged 'proofs' of the Copernican theory given in the Dialogue are sound. For as Shea points out, the one Galileo had most confidence in -the physical proof of terrestrial motion based on the phenomena of the tides - is from the modern standpoint wholly misguided. Yet the 'proof is illuminating because of its connection with the platonistic presuppositions of Galileo's natural philosophy. These presuppositions played a vital role in the intellectual revolution that he brought about. Two classical concepts which have occupied human thought in metaphysics and the sciences are examined by Bas C. van Fraassen in An

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Introduction to the Philosophy of Time and Space (1970). His approach to these concepts is historical, but the techniques he employs to discuss them are analytical and to some extent mathematical. The discussion extends from the doctrines of Aristotle to the theory of relativity. Of the three chief contributions to the subject in the eighteenth century - those of Newton, Leibniz, and Kant - van Fraassen judges that of Leibniz to be the soundest. He contends that Leibniz was 'the first major philosopher to grasp the importance of the subject of order to a theory of time and space.' Yet his theory of temporal and spatial order was based on a rationalist account of causation, and was therefore vulnerable to Hume's radical critique of that account later on. When the special theory of relativity was formulated in the twentieth century, a way was opened for a philosophical advance along the Leibnizian road. A central concept needed for the advance, according to van Fraassen, is that of'causal connectibility' as a type of physical relation. With its aid he constructs the outline of a causal theory of time and space-time. Other traditional questions such as whether time can have a beginning or an end, whether it has an intrinsic direction, and whether space has limits, are also examined closely in the course of the book. Several works dealing with the philosophy of physical science have been published by Mario Bunge in the period under review, and a representative volume is his Foundations of Physics (1967). It develops the thesis that the application of the axiomatic method is essential to a productive investigation of the foundations of the physical sciences. But it is not sufficient, Bunge holds, to use standard logico-mathematical axiomatics. What is needed is 'physical axiomatics,' in which the correspondence rules of the standard scheme are replaced by 'real' physical postulates to bridge the gap between the formalism of a theory and its existential content. By means of this device, an objective or realist account of physical knowledge can be given instead of the more usual subjective or idealist account that has been given, especially in quantum mechanics. Subjectivism has been mainly encouraged by interpretations of the 'Copenhagen school' which Bunge criticizes. He particularly objects to the principle of complementarity with its built-in duality of'waves' and 'particles.' In the axiomatization which he favours, this duality is dropped and replaced by 'quantons,' the term he introduces to designate basic microsystems which are sui generis. This term does not generate misleading images in the way the orthodox 'wave-particle' notion does. A path is thus provided for a new version of quantum-mechanical theory. The conceptual move involved does not, he contends, represent any intrusion of philosophy into physics. A group of issues in the biological sciences is dealt with by Thomas Goudge in The Ascent of Life: A Philosophical Study of the Theory of Evolution (1961). The book presents the issues as arising from the synthetic theory of

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biological evolution, the mid-twentieth-century descendant of Charles Darwin's theory of 1859. An investigation is made of a number of linguistic and conceptual shifts that have taken place since Darwin, and along with this, some of the modes of explanation and some metaphysical implications of the theory are explored. It is argued that evolutionary explanations do not all conform to the nomological-deductive model exemplified by the physical sciences. There are, in addition, other types, such as 'integrating' and 'narrative' explanations, which do not involve laws or make positive predictions. It is further argued that among the metaphysical implications of the theory, the ideas of'direction,' 'novelty,' 'progress,' and 'purpose,' suitably specified, have a place. So do the issues of human evolution and its probable or possible future. The book received the Governor-General's Non-Fiction Award in 1962. The similarity between philosophical problems in biology and those in physics forms the background of the discussion by Michael Ruse in The Philosophy of Biology (1973). This work takes up not only the subject of evolutionary theory, but also genetics (Mendelian, population, and molecular), taxonomy (phylogenetic and phenetic), and teleology. The analytic schema of logical empiricism is adopted with certain qualifications in approaching these subjects. Individual problems are closely related to biological details, and criticisms are made of interpretations put forward by other philosophers. Ruse contends that the nomological-deductive model of explanation is sufficient to embrace the whole of biology. The structure of theories here, as elsewhere in science, is mathematico-deductive and in principle axiomatic. Population genetics, the central life science, according to the argument, bears testimony to all this. Yet biology, unlike physics, does have a place for a weak form of Ideological reference in characterizing the functions of organic systems. The ideological element is irreducible in the sense of being untranslatable, but it might be eliminated from biological discourse in the future. The bonds which exist between the life sciences and the physical sciences are discussed in relation to the results of molecular biology at the close of the book. The philosophy of the social sciences is considered from a methodological standpoint by Frank Cunningham in Objectivity in Social Science (1973). The central problem here is whether or not the social sciences can give objective descriptions and explanations of their subject matter. Anti-objectivism argues that they cannot do so, and Cunningham's main purpose is to show how inconclusive such negative arguments are. Accordingly, he exhibits the weaknesses of a large array of them, including arguments based on general assumptions about scientific knowledge, arguments based on linguistic relativism, and arguments based on perceptual relativism. Then he takes up several anti-objectivist claims related specifically to the subject matter of the

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social sciences. Thèse claims appeal to such things as human uniqueness, human freedom, human values, the interaction of the social scientist with his subject matter, and so on, as undermining any hope of objectivity. The book contends that none of the arguments advanced in this area can withstand criticism. In the light of his many-sided critique of anti-objectivism, the author gives a 'sketch of an objectivist position,' according to which a socialscientific theory is able to reach objectively true conclusions and a social scientist can pursue his inquiries so as to arrive at such a theory. The situation here, in short, is the same as that in any domain where genuine knowledge is attained. ENCYCLOPEDIAS AND COLLECTIONS

In concluding this survey, brief note must be taken of two other sorts of publications with which Canadian philosophers have been increasingly associated. The first are international encyclopedias and dictionaries for which they have been invited to write articles in particular areas of their specialities. The second are collections of essays they have edited in the interests of advanced scholarship. Both sorts of activity represent a distinctive kind of participation in the work of the world community of philosophers. One of the earliest to contribute to a standard work of reference was O.S. Brett, who wrote the article on the history of psychology for the fourteenth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica (1928). In the last decade, the following multi-volume publications have appeared, to which the Canadian philosophers listed have contributed: New Catholic Encyclopedia (1967), F.H. Anderson, L.E. Lynch, A.A. Maurer, J. Owens, A.C. Pegis, E.A. Synan; The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1967), R.E. Allen, D. Braybrooke, W.H. Dray, T.A. Goudge, A.A. Maurer, T. Penelhum, L.J. Shein; Dictionary of Scientific Biography (1970), T.A. Goudge; Dictionary of the History of Ideas (1973), T.A. Goudge, H.J. Johnson, R.F. McRae, M.E. Marmura, K. Nielsen, J.W. Yolton. Among collections of essays edited by philosophers in Canada, the following are representative: A.M. Johnson, Whitehead and the Modern World (1950); R.J. Butler, Analytical Philosophy, First Series (1962), Second Series (1965); Raymond Klibansky, Contemporary Philosophy: A Survey, Vol. i (1968), Vol. ii (1968), Vol. in (1969), Vol. iv (1971), published under the aegis of the International Institute of Philosophy; Mario Bunge, Studies in the Foundations of Methodology and Philosophy of Science, Vols, i and n (1967); J.W. Davis, D.J. Hockney, and K. Wilson, Philosophical Logic (1967); R.W. Binkley, R.W. Bronaugh, and A. Marras, Agent, Action and Reason (1971); R.E. Butts, J.J. Leach, and G. Pearce, Science, Decision and Value (1973); R.E. Butts and J.W. Davis, The Methodological Heritage of Newton (1970); A. Marras, Intentionality, Mind and Language (1972); C.A. Hooker,

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Contemporary Research in the Philosophy and Foundations of Quantum Theory (1973). A number of these collections are made up of papers that were read at special conferences and colloquiums. Two of the philosophical volumes which have been published in the edition of the Collected Works of John Stuart Mill (1963- ) contain introductory essays by Canadian philosophers. O.P. Dryer writes on 'Mill's Utilitarianism' in Vol. x, and R.F. McRae writes an 'Introduction' to Vols, vu and VIH (A System of Logic Ratiocinative and Inductive). The record of Canadian philosophical literature thus far in the twentieth century may be viewed, I think, as supporting the contention advanced at the start of Chapter 5 in Volume n of the Literary History of Canada that philosophy in Canada has undergone a remarkable evolution during the past sixty years. Even if one remains sceptical about such a contention, one can hardly doubt that the subject is now in a flourishing condition and that this fact augurs well for its future.

6 Religious and Theological Writings JOHN

WEBSTER

GRANT

By the early 1960s, religious thinking was again undergoing a dramatic turnabout. Questions once more overshadowed affirmations, and the questions were posed with vehemence rather than with the wistfulness that had characterized the liberal era. In retrospect one can see that the neo-orthodoxy prevalent in the 1940s and 1950s had carried the seeds of its own downfall. By distinguishing divine revelation from human speculation it had exposed the pretensions of western social and political institutions to embody the essential values of Christianity. But what of the claims of the churches themselves to embody the gospel in their structures and formularies? Once people began to question the credibility of social institutions in general, they were unlikely to exempt the churches. The credibility of the churches was, indeed, the leading issue of the 1960s, and when their traditional message also came under attack it was less often because the propositions seemed untenable than because the messengers no longer carried conviction. In this movement of protest, and in the efforts towards theological reconstruction that have emerged from it, Canadians have been involved, almost for the first time, not chiefly as borrowers or developers but as active and prominent participants. The shock wave of criticism was anticipated, and presumably to some extent stimulated, by widespread self-examination and reappraisal within the religious communities themselves. Joseph C. McLelland of the Presbyterian College, Montreal, challenged traditional categories of sacred and secular in The Other Six Days (1959). Leslie Dewart's appraisal of church-state relations in Cuba in Christianity and Revolution (1963) was distinctly unflattering to the church. The overseas missionary enterprise began to come under serious scrutiny, stimulated partly by the Chinese débâcle and partly by awareness of discontent within the younger churches. L.M. Outerbridge (1900-60) in The Lost Churches of China (1952) saw the fate of these churches as the result of a failure of Christianity in the west. John Webster Grant noted in God's People in India (1959) some of the difficulties of transforming enclaves of foreign influence into indigenous churches. Dennis E. Clark's The

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Third World and Mission (1971) indicates that this process of self-examination is now going on among conservative evangelicals. As churches reconsidered their approach they began to revamp their programs with unusual vigour. One result was the New Curriculum of the United Church, of which the adult study book The Word and the Way (1962) by Donald M. Mathers (1921-72) of Queen's Theological College was one of the few curricular pieces to merit inclusion in a survey of serious theological literature. Another, much more far-reaching in its effects, was the Second Vatican Council. Its implications became the theme of a major conference at St Michael's College, Toronto, the proceedings of which were edited by L.K. Shook, CSB, and issued in two volumes as The Theology of Renewal (1968). The general shape of this searching from within was perhaps best summed up in The Church in the Modern World (1967), a Festschrift for Dr J.S. Thomson edited by George Johnston and Wolfgang Roth. The greater openness of the churches to change implied greater openness to one another, especially as it became obvious that they shared many common problems. The calling of Vatican n was followed by what has been called an 'ecumenical thaw. ' Several prominent Canadian theologians collaborated, for the most part optimistically, in The Unity We Seek (1962) edited by W.S. Morris of Huron College. Gregory Baum, OSA, one of the contributors to this volume, wrote of ecumenical prospects even more enthusiastically in Progress and Perspectives (1962). Roman Catholics especially began to explore the traditions of other Christians; notable examples were T.M. McDonagh's The Law and the Gospel in Luther (1963) and Boniface Lautz' The Doctrine of the Communion of Saints in Anglican Theology (1967). By 1968 John Burbidge, a young United Church minister, was setting forth a theological basis for Christian union in One in Hope and Doctrine. Meanwhile Jews also were being included in the dialogue. Stuart E. Rosenberg took the initiative from the Jewish side in Bridge to Brotherhood (1961), while Roland de Corneille, who held a special commission from the Anglican diocese of Toronto, suggested some practical methods of building the bridge in Christians and Jews: Dialogue (1966). The hope of a speedy relaxation of tensions has not been realized, however, and Alan T. Davies blamed Christians for many of the difficulties in Anti-Semitism and the Christian Mind (1969). Arthur Gibson sought to extend the range of dialogue still further in The Faith of the Atheist (1968). Possible ecumenical contributions to the search for Canadian unity were also explored, although with no very positive prognosis, in One Church, Two Nations? (1968), edited by Philip LeBlanc, OP, and Arnold Edinborough. Already, however, an orderly process of ecclesiastical updating and mutual understanding was being overtaken by an upsurge of aggressive criticism. Pierre Berton's The Comfortable Pew (1965), written from a self-consciously

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aloof position but commissioned by the Anglican Church, was both a remarkable publishing success and the initiator of a new genre of sensational exposés of the church. Written largely from within ecclesiastical institutions, and sometimes at their instigation, these sometimes indicated an almost masochistic appetite for self-condemnation. Some very articulate members of the Roman Catholic laity spoke their minds in Brief to the Bishops (1965), edited by Paul Harris. Ernest Harrison called for liberation from institutional shackles in Let God Go Free (1965), and raised a storm in the Anglican Church by proposing in the next year/I Church without God. The British theologian Charles Davis, after explaining his reasons for leaving the Roman Catholic Church in ,4 Question of Conscience (1967), accepted a post in Canada and thus gave the ensuing controversy a distinctly local interest. Not without irony the task of replying to him was assumed by Gregory Baum, commonly regarded as one of the church's most trenchant critics, in The Credibility of the Church (1968). Even the newly popular ecumenical movement was not immune to criticism; a proposal for church union endorsed by the Anglican and United churches in the mid-1960s was greeted with less than enthusiasm by J.C. McLelland in Toward a Radical Church (1967). Such a shaking of the foundations could only be the prelude to a painstaking reconstruction of theology. In this effort Roman Catholic scholars have had a remarkable prominence, contrasting sharply with a previous coolness to theological innovation. It was made possible, in considerable measure, by a resurgence in biblical scholarship that brought Roman Catholics into contact with Protestant colleagues and led them to a similar stress on the significance of the Bible as a record of salvation-history. Two Canadian Jesuits, both associated with Regis College, Willowdale, contributed significantly to this revival. R.A.F. MacKenzie examined the theological significance of the Old Testament in Faith and History (1963), and David M. Stanley published The Apostolic Church in the New Testament in the same year. This intensification of concern for biblical categories was surely a factor in leading Leslie Dewart, in his controversial book The Future of Belief (1966), to examine with unaccustomed suspicion the domination of Christian thought by hellenistic assumptions. In this book and in The Foundations of Belief (1969), however, his chief concern was not specifically with biblical faith but with religion in its totality. By the end of the decade, indeed, the phenomenology of religion was increasingly preoccupying Roman Catholic theologians. Gregory Baum, a leading advocate of this approach, set forth in Faith and Doctrine (1970) a view of doctrine as constantly in need of reformulation by the church. One Roman Catholic theologian who came into prominence during the decade has already attained a world-wide reputation. International conferences have been held to discuss the theology of Bernard J.F. Lonergan, si, and a centre has been established at Regis College to make available materials

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for the study of his work. His published output has been spare. Insight (1957) was about human cognition rather than religion, although it was intended to provide a basis for the study of theology. In Collection (1967), F.E. Crowe, SJ, brought together a number of Lonergan's smaller pieces. Only in 1972, with Method in Theology, did he first publish a theological book. It is not easy for a non-expert, or indeed for anyone, to summarize Lonergan's work. In the introduction he distinguishes two ways of looking at theology: 'When the classical notion of culture prevails, theology is conceived as a permanent achievement, and then one discourses on its nature. When culture is conceived empirically, theology is known to be an ongoing process, and then one writes on its method.' As the title of the book suggests, Lonergan has chosen the empirical approach with its emphasis on the method rather than the content of theology. Clearly, however, he expects that his model will be productive of content of permanent significance. Protestants were meanwhile coming to terms with a succession of new theological tendencies: the shifting of emphasis from revelation to faith by Rudolf Bultmann and the post-Bultmannians ; the call to hope of Jurgen Moltmann and others in Germany; the assertion by various American theologians that God is dead, whatever that may mean. The most prolific Canadian Protestant writers of the decade were highly sceptical of all such tendencies. James D. Smart sought to rehabilitate the Old Testament by the application of a neo-orthodox hermeneutic in The Strange Silence of the Bible in the Church (1962) and to commend the approach of Earth rather than of Bultmann in The Divided Mind of Modern Theology (1967). Kenneth Hamilton, of the University of Winnipeg, established himself meanwhile as a watchdog of Christian orthodoxy against sundry misunderstandings of the Christian faith. In Revolt against Heaven (1966) he spread his net most widely, arguing that Christianity cannot dispense with belief in the supernatural. S.B. Frost's Standing and Understanding (1969) and George Johnston's The Spirit-Paraclete in the Gospel of John (1970), however, leave the impression that at McGill the era of neo-orthodoxy had receded into the past. Its categories were totally rejected, indeed, in Aarne Siirala's Divine Humanness (1970), a search for an 'empirical theology' that would leave behind both the 'positivism of science' and the 'positivism of theology.' Theological positions commonly rest on philosophical presuppositions, and those of the 1960s were no exception. Whereas the connection of theological liberals had been with nineteenth-century idealism and that of neoorthodoxy - not always admitted - with existentialism, the new theological orientation was greatly furthered by the rise of linguistic analysis. Several Canadian writers made the association explicit. Donald D. Evans, a former student of J.L. Austin, offered in The Language of Self-Involvement (1963) 'a philosophical study of everyday language with special reference to the Chris-

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tian use of language about God as Creator. ' W. E. Hordern' s Speaking of God, published in the same year, was a defence of the language of revealed although not of natural theology as a form of meaningful speech with its own autonomous rules. The relation to linguistic analysis was less explicit in Leslie Dewart's Religion, Language and Truth (1970) and Gregory Baum's Man Becoming: God in Secular Language (1970), but both writers were keenly aware of the importance of language to theology. The continued vitality of the older idealism was demonstrated, however, in Emil L. Fackenheim's magisterial The Religious Dimension in Hegel's Thought (1967). To George P. Grant of McMaster University the fashionable trends of the 1960s were no more congenial than the neo-orthodoxy that had preceded them. Although he has not written a book explicitly devoted to religion or theology, his philosophical and political writings are full of references to a God whose existence sets limits to 'our right to change the world' and demands the formulation of a moral philosophy based on law. Towards the end of the decade, as disillusionment with the values of technological civilization set in and concern for ecology came to the fore, Grant's brand of conservatism began to appeal to some radicals. Pastoral and apologetic literature was marked by a conspicuous turning away from systematic presentations of'the message of the Bible' or 'the faith of the church' in favour of attempts to restate religious concepts in contextual terms. Positions were sometimes orthodox, sometimes revisionist, but the approach was almost always exploratory and sometimes self-consciously unconventional. During the demobilization years the churches had begun to involve themselves deeply in pastoral counselling, and as a result the influence of Sigmund Freud became increasingly pervasive. In The Third Revolution (1954), Karl Stern urged Roman Catholics to accept psychiatry as a foundation on which theology could build, and Canon (now Bishop) G. Emmett Carter promoted the same marriage of ideas in Psychiatry and the Cross (1959). In More Loves than One (1963), however, Stuart E. Rosenberg set biblical teachings over against the views of both 'crisis theologians' and 'psychotherapist preachers. ' Insights were sought from clinical experience by Aarne Siirala in The Voice of Illness (1964), from the films of Ingmar Bergman by Arthur Gibson in The Silence of God (1969), and from an examination of evolving patterns of sexuality by Herbert W. Richardson in Nun, Witch, Playmate (1971). Joseph C. McLelland, seeking his insights chiefly in the Bible, urged in The Clown and the Crocodile (1970) that 'drama is best when it is tragic; religion when it is comic.' Religious traditions inevitably began to come under more critical reexamination. In Christian Faith and the Interpretation of History (1966), Gordon L. Keyes of Victoria College showed himself considerably less impressed by St Augustine than Cochrane had been. William Klassen's

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Covenant and Community (1968), one of Canada's first books on the Anabaptist movement, was already a revisionist work in relation to established scholarship in the field. Even less reverence toward accepted interpretations marked The Idea of the Victorian Church (1968) by Desmond Bowen, an Anglo-Catholic who was little impressed by the Oxford Movement. To Jewish writers, compelled to grapple with the significance of the holocaust of the 1940s, reappraisal of tradition was a matter of urgent necessity. In The Case for the Chosen People (1965), W. Gunther Plaut sought to account for the existence and survival of the Jews. The implications of the holocaust for Jewish self-understanding have been examined in several writings of Emil L. Fackenheim, notably in God's Presence in History (1970). The religious history of Canada was also subject to constant, if seldom dramatic, reinterpretation. A field that had once been dominated by pastors and ecclesiastical officials was now visibly being taken over by universitybased historians, and filial piety gave way to critical examination. Denominational origins came in for considerable reappraisal. Goldwin S. French analysed the political ramifications of early Methodism in Parsons and Politics (1962), while Judith Fingard questioned the effectiveness of some early missionary work in The Anglican Design in Loyalist Nova Scotia, 1783-1816 (1972). Interest also began to extend to the twentieth century, especially in terms of the interaction of church and society. Stewart Crysdale concentrated on official statements by church bodies in The Industrial Struggle and Protestant Ethics in Canada (1961). W.F. Ryan, sj, insisted in The Clergy and Economic Growth in Quebec (1966) that during the early years of this century the Roman Catholic Church had not been the barrier to industrialization it was often supposed to be. Richard Allen's The Social Passion: Religion and Social Reform in Canada, 1914-28 (1971) was a thorough and long-needed analysis of the Protestant social gospel. Inevitably, too, the centennial of confederation called forth comprehensive examinations of Canadian religious history. The most ambitious of these was a three-volume History of the Christian Church in Canada (1966-72) by H.H. Walsh, J.S. Moir, and J.W. Grant. Summing up several decades of critical research, it would serve in turn as a springboard to further investigation and revision of judgment. The most striking development in recent years has been an expansion of interest beyond the religious traditions that had been formative in Canadian society to religion in all its varieties as a field of scholarly investigation. Interest in 'world religions' first became widespread during the postwar period of religious revival, especially among those who had reservations about the absolute claims of any religion, and it was vastly encouraged by the multiplication of departments of religion in provincial universities where any appearance of sectarianism had to be avoided. As in other countries, the leading pioneers were Christians in search of a satisfactory theology of

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mission. R.H.L. Slater published while at McGill a study of Buddhism entitled Paradox and Nirvana (1951), and extended his field of interest in later writings. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, who made his reputation first in Islamic studies at McGill, turned increasingly during some years as director of the Center for the Study of World Religions at Harvard to an examination of the nature and significance of religion itself as manifested in its various particularities. His most substantial books have been The Meaning and End of Religion (1963) and Questions of Religious Truth (1967). Charles Davis returned to the original question, the significance for Christian faith of the existence of many religions, in Christ and the World Religions (1970). Within the last few years, however, the most notable trend has been towards the assembling in university departments of specialists on various traditions: Sheila McDonagh on Islam, Klaus Klostermaier and Paul Younger on Hinduism, Herbert V. Guenther on Tibetan Buddhism, Kenelm Burridge on cargo cults and millennial movements, David Aberle on the religions of North American Indians, and others too numerous to mention. Many of these specialists have made reputations elsewhere and arrived in Canada too recently to be claimed with confidence as Canadian writers. They are more likely to participate in the development of an international tradition than to formulate a specifically Canadian one. The work of many of these newer writers appears in SR - more formally Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses - which in many respects represents current trends as the Canadian Journal of Religious Thought represented those of the liberal era and the Canadian Journal of Theology those of the neo-orthodox revival. SR succeeded the Canadian Journal of Theology in 1971, retaining the sponsorship of the theological societies that had been associated with the earlier journal while gaining that of the Canadian Society for the Study of Religion and of several French-Canadian associations. It seeks to incorporate both the theological concern of the Canadian Journal of Theology and the broader interests of its new sponsors. It retains the Canadian bias of its predecessor while continuing to solicit contributions from scholars of repute in other countries. It is bilingual, maintaining linguistic balance both in its contents and in the composition of its editorial team. A journal serving such diverse interests is bound to lack the consistent character a more homogeneous clientele would make possible. Its eclectic range, composite appearance, and provisional criteria of judgment are, however, precisely the features that enable it to reflect with fair accuracy the present state of Canadian religious thought.

7 The Physical Sciences and Engineering J O H N H. C H A P M A N

THE GREAT DEBATE: A SCIENCE POLICY FOR CANADA?

In the sixties began a decade of debate, centred on the question of a 'science policy' for Canada. The debate was a sign of a maturing scientific community, growing and expanding out of a colonial reliance on the older members of the English-speaking world for leadership in science and technology. Science policy, meaning agreed national objectives for research (which is particularly costly in the physical sciences), was hardly an issue prior to 1960, there being too little science to have much policy about. The National Research Council came into being after the World Wan, ostensibly to bring the economic benefits of science to Canada through the use of research to aid the growth of manufacturing industry in the country. Research by government to create an awareness of science, and research in post-graduate faculties of Canadian universities to create a cadre of scientists, succeeded in creating a science establishment in both these sectors, but, unfortunately, not in the manufacturing industry. The cost of supporting the growing infrastructure of Canadian science assumed such proportions by the late 1950s as to incite a general questioning of its purpose and its end. The background of this debate, the aims and objectives of twenty years of Canadian science after World War n, was most eloquently set out by E.W.R. Steacie in Science in Canada (1965), a collection of his speeches edited by J.D. Babbitt. His views on research in the universities were that 'the important thing is to avoid planning, coordination, and the attempt by a committee to direct everything. ' With that sentiment, as applied to research in the universities, there can be little argument. But one cause of the 'great debate' was the assumption by scientists in government and industry that they too should work by that gracious rule. A new journal, Science Forum, came into being in 1968, as a 'national forum in which Canadian scientists and engineers can discuss their vital issues,' and as a platform of debate of national problems of broad general interest. The editor, David Spurgeon, wrote in the initial issue that the journal

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was not concerned solely with discussions by and for scientists about their own affairs, but also with questions of public policy, with helping nonscientists understand the implications of the effects of science and technology, and with developing a public appreciation of their importance. Science Forum was intended to be to Canada what journals like Nature and Science were to Britain and the United States. Although it has not yet achieved the stature and the readership of these older journals, much of the writing in Science Forum is excellent. The articles on the first men in the Arctic by William Taylor and on the ecology of the North by Ian McTaggartCowan are eminently readable and informative examples. The discussion of 'The Role of Government as a Patron and User of Science and Technology' by W.G. Schneider is perhaps the best discussion of the later phase of the 'great debate' on science policy. In Canada's Science Policy and the Economy (1969), N.H. Lithwick of Carleton University analysed the issues as an economist saw them. He made the distinction between policy for science as an end in itself and policy for using science as a means for social ends. Lithwick concluded that there appeared to be a lack of demand on the part of business for scientific activity, as the result of the import of foreign designs and data and better alternatives for spending on fixed capital formation in Canada. Ownership of industry is concentrated in large United States companies; domestically owned companies, in the hands of a small tightly-knit economic élite, keep decisionmaking in a circle that is 'intent on self-preservation and is the antithesis of an innovation-conscious society that thrives on the search for improvement in all directions.' Seldom are government publications lucid and eloquent literature. The third report by the Senate Special Committee on Science Policy under the chairmanship of Maurice Lamontagne is an exception in the clarity of its presentation and the vigour of its language, as, for example, 'what we need is not a ballet of bureaucrats choreographed to demonstrate reaction to a suddenly felt concern, but more winning teams. ... The universal problem is to innovate organizational structures that will allow the effective deployment of skills and knowledge to obtain a satisfying homeostasis between science, technology, and society.' The setting for the background of this debate is recounted by Mel W. Thistle in The Inner Ring (1966), in which he describes the early history of the National Research Council of Canada during the formative years from 1917 to the depression days of 1935, when the basis of this great national scientific institution was being laid. Arthur W. House wrote in 1962 of the early love affair with science, in Research, Key to the Future, while J.J. Brown described some of the frustra-

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tions Canadians were beginning to feel with the lack of fulfillment of the promises of the investments in scientific research, inldeas in Exile: A History of Canadian Invention (1967). 'The paradox that enlivens the history of Canadian invention is that Canada is a great producer of ideas, yet it has virtually no native technical industry.... The story of Canadian invention and technology can be seen as a melancholy procession of golden opportunities which we have let slip through our fingers.' Alexander Graham Bell, who gained fame and fortune when he left Canada, is one of the best known of Canadian inventors, whose contributions to the invention of the telephone have eclipsed his early work. He and Casey Baldwin built Canada's first aircraft. That story is told by John H. Parkin in Bell and Baldwin: Their Development of Aerodromes and Hydrodomes at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, 1907-1944 (1964). These frustrations led B.R. Myers, who came to Canada in 1959 to the new University of Waterloo, to find the academic and engineering scene backward and barren compared to that in Britain or the United States. His comments are colourfully recorded in North of the Border (1963). Throughout this period, Canadian scientists attempted in word and print to convince the public that the picture was not all gloomy. W.E. Knowles Middleton gave a series of lectures which were broadcast by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and later published as The Scientific Revolution (1963). John K. McCreary wrote oí Science and Man's Hope (1972), and Hans Selye, the celebrated investigator of stress in humans, wrote, in the same year, of his experiences in being a scientist under the title From Dream to Discovery. Charles de Koninck published a series of lectures on the philosophy of science in 1960, which was republished in 1964 under the title The Hollow Universe. D.K.C. MacDonald, a scientist well known for his work on low temperature physics, but whose career was tragically cut short, wrote Faraday, Maxwell and Kelvin (1964). Hugh Grayson-Smith published The Changing Concept of Science in 1967 and Robert E. Butts and John W. Davis were editors for a symposium at the University of Western Ontario on The Methodological Heritage of Newton (1970), which included essays on hypothesis jingo, the Clarke-Leibniz controversy, gravity and intelligibility, Newton's rules of philosophizing, and classical empiricism. In 1972, Philippe Garigue wrote Science Policy in Canada, and G. Bruce Doern rephrased the debate as Science and Politics in Canada (1972). Prominent in the record of the literature of this period are the proceedings or other accounts of many of the symposia of the Royal Society of Canada. They are outstanding among Canadian scientific writings for the quality and the readability of the essays. In addition to those mentioned elsewhere, one should note Evolution, Its Science and Doctrine, edited by T.W.M. Cameron

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in 1960. The papers by Gordon M. Shrum, 'Heri, Hodie, Cras, from Coherer to Maser,' G.M. Volkoff 'On Cosmology,' and N.H. Grace's 'Evolution and Industry' are noteworthy. W.E. Knowles Middleton was for many years a meteorologist, and later head of the optics section of the National Research Council. He has written extensively and readably on the invention and history of meteorological instruments and on the history of theories of rain and precipitation. The Experimenters (1971) is a study of the Academia del Cimento, founded in 1657 in Florence, the first organized laboratory devoted entirely to experimental science in the modern sense. The book provides a fresh perspective of the brilliant period of Tuscan science that centred on the work of Galileo. J. Stewart Marshall gave a series of lectures broadcast by the CBC and later issued in bound form in 1964. These lectures, describing the atmosphere and how the weather is driven, explain weather maps and forecasting and the physical facts of rain, snow, and hail. The final lecture moves upward through the troposphere and ozonosphère to the ionosphere, where whistlers, the singing voice of thunderstorms, are trapped by the earth's magnetic field as particles are trapped in the Van Allen belt. The debate in Canada over science and technology is part only of a much larger debate on the whole question of man's survival. Among Canadian contributions to this larger debate have been This Good, Good Earth (1971) by R.O. Brinkhurst and D.A. Chant and Crisis: Readings in Environmental Issues and Strategies (1971) by R.M. Irving and G.B. Priddle. THE GOOD EARTH AND A PERIPATETIC SCIENTIST

Dr J. Tuzo Wilson was in Moscow in the summer of 1958 as President of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, attending a meeting of the special committee that had organized the International Geophysical Year, when he determined to return to Canada via the trans-Siberian railway, and the Peoples' Republic of China. Although named the International Geophysical Year, it was an odd 'year,' being eighteen months long, beginning in mid-1957 and ending in December 1958, so organized that there would be an adequate overlap of winter and summer data from the northern and southern hemispheres. This amazing world-wide co-operative scientific endeavour was described by Dr Wilson in IGY, the Year of the New Moons (1961), moons in this case referring to the first artificial earth satellites, Sputnik and Explorer, launched during the IGY to study the earth's outer atmosphere. Wilson wrote of the complex layers of the atmosphere about earth that 'the earth, like Salome, is shrouded in seven veils ... these veils are earth's garments, but in a rather immodest fashion, they are transparent, as we can tell whenever we look up at a cloudless sky.'

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The account of Wilson's month-long journey through Siberia and through China ancient and modern is related in One Chinese Moon (1959). Wilson chose to travel by railway in order better to know the land and its people. He wrote from the perspective of a geologist, seeing the land as the present stage of a changing scene, as mountains build and erode and rivers cut their way through layers of history. He saw the people of China in the framework of their past. He visited laboratories but he spares the reader the technical detail, which he saves for his accounts of the people, their dress, their work, and their demonstrations of faith in China and its future. His credentials as an international rather than Canadian scientist opened many doors for him, although a countryman of Norman Bethune is made to feel welcome in China in any event. The geologist in Wilson wrote of Lanchow, the gateway to China from central Asia: Beyond [Lanchow] across the deserts, skirting the northern flank of the Tibetan Mountains, stretched the old Silk Road to Turkestan, India, Arabia and Europe. As far back as the Ch'in dynasty in the third century B.C. , Lanchow was known as the Golden City, as much for the yellow loess that has blown from the western deserts and drifted deep on its hills as for its entrepôt trade and its rich fields and orchards, (p 200)

As a westerner, standing a head above most Chinese, he felt loneliness yet sympathy with them. As he left Canton to cross over to Hong Kong, Wilson wrote, 'immersed in the smells of the East as thick as herb soup ... sweating through the humid night, I felt as soggy and alone as a single grain of barley among the rice that had sunk to the bottom of the bowl.' An opportunity to measure progress in China came in 1971, when Wilson returned to China, this time with his wife, as recounted in a second book, Unglazed China (1973). He wrote of modern factories and ancient temples, geophysical institutes and astronomical observatories, seeing ancient and modern with the enquiring eye^ of an enthusiastic scientist visiting a strange and fascinating country much different from his own. During the period between these two visits, our concepts of terrestrial geology had made tremendous strides. The ideas that the continents had once been joined together, had broken and drifted apart, found sudden favour after a century of obscurity because of the discoveries that the crust of the earth was formed of great rectangular plates which were growing and pushing upward in the centre of the Atlantic Ocean and pushing North America away from Europe at the rate of about an inch a year. These ideas, and the findings on which they were based, excited his Chinese hosts, the more so since they became current only in the past decade. Professor Wilson was the contributor who described the process in Continental Drift (1966), edited by G.D. Garland, the record of a symposium held by the Royal Society of Canada at

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Charlottetown, PEÍ, in 1966. David M. Baird simplifies these concepts in Our Earth in Continuous Change (1971). Finally, Earthquakes and Earth Structure (1964) by John H. Hodgson, then Chief of the Division of Seismology of the Dominion Observatory in Ottawa, describes vividly some of the more damaging earthquakes of recent history, tells when, where, and how earthquakes arise and how seismologists study them. Hodgson's book is a useful background to the recent theories of plate tectonics and the reborn concepts of continental drift, to which Canadian geologists have contributed a great deal in the last decade. Several colourful accounts of geology on the smaller scale dealing more directly with Canada were published during this period. David M. Baird, in a Guide to Geology and Scenery of the National Capital Area (1968), discusses how after the last ice age the lowland to the south of the rapidly eroding Gatineau Mountains 'was invaded by a shallow sea, into which masses of fine sediments were being poured' to lay down the beds of quick clay which overlies the sedimentary rocks of the region. A Guide to Geology (1963) is an entrancing little book on the geology of Canada's national parks, written to excite the interest of visitors. Those who frequent the parks in winter, especially those who skate or ski, will find The Magic Surface (1963) by Charles D. Niven enlightening and entertaining, ice being that little understood substance, nominally frozen water, which demonstrates a magical lack of friction to sliding steel or wood. Moving to the western plains and mountains, S.J. Nelson in The Face of Time (1970) described the geological history of western Canada. In Canada's Buried Treasures (1968), Bernard L. McEvoy tells a story full of anecdote and detail, of Canada's mineral resources, of the discovery of gold in the sand and gravel of the Fraser, the Cariboo, and the Yukon; of hard-rock mining in Sudbury and of the smelter at Trail; of the finding of oil at Oil Springs in Ontario, and at Turner Valley and Leduc in Alberta. C.S. Beals is editor of Science, History and Hudson Bay (1968), a compendium of knowledge, nominally of Hudson Bay but actually of Arctic Canada, its physical characteristics, its flora and fauna, and the people who lived there or who discovered and developed it. The chapters by H. A. Thompson on the climate, F.G. Barber on the water, Margaret M. Lardner on the ice; J.H. Meek on the aurora and ionosphere, D.C. Rose on cosmic rays, and G.C. Dobler on tides and currents, are more general, and summarize the present state of knowledge of the physical science of the polar regions and include helpful lists of references. The discussions by C.S. Beals, Ian Holliday, and J. Tuzo Wilson on the theories of the origin of Hudson Bay, the possibility of meteoric impact several billion years ago or of a great scar formed when two continents came together in Precambrian times, are especially interesting as an exposé of scientific controversy between proponents of opposing theories.

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A CENTURY OF ENGINEERING

The centennial of Confederation prompted Canadians to look at themselves and their achievements. Expo 67 was perhaps the most public and visible manifestation of national pride in a hundred years of achievement, but Canadians were also encouraged to look back over a history of feats in engineering works. Transportation was the first need of a new nation building a home in a harsh new continent, canals and railways for settlers to enter and their products to leave. Canada must be unique in the world in that a condition of its existence was the pledge to build the world's longest and costliest railroad across empty country, much of it unexplored. This 'act of insane recklessness' by the government of Sir John A. Macdonald was the cornerstone of his transcontinental policy, the settlement of the north-west. Pierre Berton has looked at the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway from the viewpoint of the journalist and historian in his two books, The National Dream (1970), and The Last Spike (197'!). Before this hoped-for settlement could come about, however, the land had to be surveyed and divided into townships, sections, and lots in preparation for the flood of settlers to come on the new railway yet to be built. The story of surveying and mapping in Canada has been told by Don W. Thompson in his three volumes of Men and Meridians (1966, 1967, 1969). Thompson traces the story of surveying in Canada from the father of land surveying in Canada, Samuel de Champlain, who was a navigator and geographer as well as an administrator and who made the first maps of eastern Canada (1632). It is recounted that in June 1613 Champlain lost his astrolabe while making a temporary camp on the west side of the Ottawa River, and afterwards was unable to determine his latitude for the rest of that trip. An instrument, made in 1603, was discovered near Renfrew, Ontario in 1867, probably the same astrolabe lost by Champlain 274 years before. The stories of the pioneer surveys of New France, the Maritime provinces, the Great Lakes, and the early international boundary surveys are interspersed with stories of the coming of the settlers and photographs and maps of the lands where they homesteaded. In 1842, the formation of the Geological Survey of Canada marked the beginning of the senior scientific organization of the federal public service of Canada under its first head, Sir William Logan. After Confederation, the survey to find a route for the new transcontinental railway became urgent. In Thompson's words: In 1871 a reconnaissance of the country west of the Great Lakes was made at the instigation of the federal government in order to explore the possibilities of building a railway to the Pacific Ocean. These surveys were made under the direction of Sandford Fleming, as chief engineer in charge of a staff of surveyors and engineers. During a six-year period they traversed the country in various

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directions in search of the most promising route for the Transcontinental. In all, they scouted an area 2,700 miles by 500 miles, extending over 54 degrees of longitude and 10 degrees of latitude. This comprised an area larger than France, Belgium, Holland, Germany and European Russia combined. Fleming was left to his own resources, the government being content to urge upon him all possible speed in completing his task. (Vol. u, p 85)

Thus began the survey for the transcontinental railway across Canada. The sense of history and excitement of these men carries through to us as Thompson gives a series of vignettes of the people who explored the path for the railway, particularly of the surveyors probing the mountain passes. Working east from the Pacific, Walter Moberly wrote: I now returned and met the party a short distance from the valley of the Blueberry River ... The weather was now cold and it began to snow. I found the levels taken by me ... corresponding closely with those taken by the leveller of the party, one making the difference in height, from a common point on the Columbia River, to another in the "Flat" 1,607 feet, and the other, 1,610 feet. I now felt quite certain that the railway would be built through the country I had explored, and every possible provision was made by me to complete the exploratory surveys and follow with the location ones. (Vol. u, p 88)

Thompson's work is written in non-technical language and is profusely illustrated with photographs, diagrams, and maps of the surveyors and the territories over which they worked. A more informal work is Surveyors of Canada by Courtney CJ. Bond (1966). But the CPR was not the first railway in Canada. As Robert F. Legget tells it m Railroads of Canada (1973), the first railway train steamed from LaPrairie on the St Lawrence to St Johns on the Richelieu on 21 July 1836. The line provided a short cut for shipping timber to the United States. Two years later, Nova Scotia coal was being hauled to the wharves at Pictou by a steam train that replaced horse power used on the tramway since 1818. Short sections of rail were also laid to avoid portages by freight-canoes and boats going up the Ottawa. The Carillon and Grenville portage railway was constructed in 1854 to circumvent the Long Sault and Carillon Rapids and the tedious passage through eleven locks on the Ottawa River. This enterprise, 'one of the almost unbelievable romances of Canadian railroading,' was the only part of the Great Montreal and Ottawa Valley Trunk line to be built. A horse-drawn portage railway was constructed on the north side of the Ottawa River past the Chats Falls and operated from 1846 to 1879. Legget tells of the Bytown and Prescott Railway, which began operations in 1850, and of the chartering in 1912 of the Pacific Great Eastern, which eventually ran from Vancouver to Prince George in BC. Transportation by railway in Canada has had an odd history, as described by Robert R. Brown in The Ice Railway (1960), one of the most daring innovations in the history of Canadian railways, the winter crossing of the

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frozen St Lawrence River between Montreal and Longueuil between 1880 and 1883. This was also the age of square-rigged vessels in the Maritime provinces, which S.T. Spicer has described mMasters of Sail (1968). Legget set down the story of that feat of military engineering, the Rideau Canal from Kingston to Ottawa, in his earlier book, The Rideau Waterway (1955). Legget has been a prolific and picturesque portrayer of the history of engineering in Canada, from Geology and Engineering (1962) to Cities and Geology (1973). Finally, Canada's centennial inspired the staff of the National Research Council Division of Building Research under the editorship of Thomas Ritchie to produce Canada Builds 1867-1967 (1967). A more recent but also noteworthy achievement in engineering in Canada was the development at Chalk River, Ontario, of atomic reactors to produce electric power. The Canadian efforts grew out of a joint project with the United States and Britain during World War n to build the first atomic bombs, which were used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki to bring the war with Japan to its conclusion. After the war, Canada turned to peaceful uses of the atom and adopted an independent course, different in principle from the courses of other countries. Canada committed itself very early to build reactors which used natural uranium and which depended on heavy water as a moderator of the neutrons in the core of the reactor. The early history has been described by D.M. LeBourdais in Canada and the Atomic Revolution (1959), and more recently (1965) Wilfrid Eggleston carried the tale forward in Canada's Nuclear Story, a tale of which Canada can well be proud and which is not nearly well enough known among Canadians. Henry E. Duckworth gave an amusing and readable account of atomic physics in a popular vein in Little Men in the Unseen World (1963), a guide to atomic physics, with explanations in lay terms of atomic reactions, both fission and fusion. Another kind of engineering applied new techniques to the study in Canada of a phenomenon which long has puzzled mankind, that of meteors. Meteors are seen on a summer's night as 'shooting stars.' D.W.R. McKinley, working at the National Research Council and studying meteors' behaviour when viewed by radar, wrote Meteor Science and Engineering (1961), an authoritative work by a Canadian who was a pioneer in the science. Meteors were first seen during World War n as radar objects, at that time a nuisance and a curiosity. After the conflict was over, McKinley used the knowledge of radar and the equipment developed during the hostilities to unravel the secrets of the behaviour of these visitors from outer space, since many more could be seen and recorded by radar than by batteries of watchers staring at the sky. He collaborated with Peter Millman in a more general discussion of the subject entitled Meteors (1963). Millman is a well-known astronomer, who described

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his personal experiences of his science in a series of broadcasts heard on the CBC University of the Air and published as This Universe of Space (1961). Man began his voyages to the stars during this decade and speculated on what he might find there. One of the more prolific writers on the subject was Norman John Berrill of McGill University, whose thoughts ranged over many physical and biological factors important to life on this planet and on other worlds. He wrote Man's Emerging Mind (1961), the story of man's progress through time; You and the Universe (1958); Worlds without End (1964), a discussion on life on other planets, the possible nature of such life, the need of sexual reproduction for rapid evolution; Worlds Apart (1966), a reflection on planets, life, and time; and Inherit the Earth (1966), man on an aging planet. In these books, his mind ranging over the history of evolution: the age of the earth in relation to two billion years of fossils, meteorites, primitive life on Mars, continental drift and pole wandering, manned space flight, and biological clocks, Berril sees the development of man's abilities, at least in part, as a dialogue between the individual and his environment. Perhaps Berril's message can be summed up thus: 'Man is born unequal, it is true. The only equality lies in the right, if any, for equal opportunity to develop freely his own worth.' Some engineering projects should never be. At a symposium held by the Royal Society of Canada in 1966, General A.G.L. McNaughton, engineer and one-time president of the National Research Council of Canada, argued powerfully in his essay 'A Monstrous Concept, a Diabolic Thesis' against the carefully reasoned and well-prepared proposal of us Senator Frank E. Moss for the 'continent-wide collection, redistribution [from Canada], and efficient utilization [in the USA] of waters now running off to the seas totally unused or only partially used.' It was one of McNaughton's last public appearances before his death, but the debate was won, at least emotionally, by him. At any rate, little has been heard of the senator's 'continental water policy' since this confrontation on the public platform. During the latter part of this period two volumes appeared which, although dealing with the very technical topic of telecommunications, sought to inform the public rather than technicians. Telecommunications for Canada (1973), edited by H. Edward English, is a series of eight studies on the telecommunications industries and related public policies. It deals primarily with Canadian experiences and with the challenges that face Canadian business and government institutions concerned with telecommunications. It is an effort to synthesize the economic and social role of the telecommunications industry and includes a number of comprehensive policy proposals dealing with the past record, current setting, and future challenges. English and his collaborators had before them Instant World (1971), a report on telecommunications in Canada, whose author or authors are anonymous.

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Thus Canadian scientists, through their contributions to the great debate about our national science policy, and through their many attempts to elucidate their fields of expertise for the layman, have in the past decade and a half contributed much to our literature in the broader sense of that word: the written record of the thoughts and deeds of man.

8 The Biological Sciences WILLIAM E. SWINTON

There have been considerable advances in the biological and medical sciences in the last decade and it would be impracticable as well as misleading to regard the printed book as the whole, or even the most important source of the story. Equally, although it might prove useful to give a list of the works or the authors' names, it would not necessarily reveal Canadian thought and its trends and it would not separate either from the mosaic of world science. A reader cannot have reached these pages without having absorbed the various meanings or interpretations of the words 'literary' and 'literature' ; but it would be possible to have done so without appreciating the facts that science is no longer one discipline or even a group of subjects that polymaths can cover, or that the writing of biological science is subject to certain rules that more imaginative subjects lack. Science is expanding today not only by new discoveries but by new divisions. In writing and teaching it is interdisciplinary, one science interwoven with another, so that now no science, like no man, is an island. Henry Margenau, who delivered one of the Gerstein Lectures at York University in 1967 (published in Science and the University), has written: The major problems of today (in the classification of science) are not thus assignable. The exploration of space demands the skills of mathematicians, physicists, chemists and biologists. Cancer research likewise requires all of these. Hybrid subjects like quantum chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, geophysics, magnetohydrodynamics to name a few, are springing up everywhere and university administrators are prematurely grey because the stone walls between old established departments are breaking down and cattle are moving across. The long and short of it is simply that subject matter is no longer the discriminating characteristic of the special sciences, nor are particular facts the distinguishing features of the provinces of nature.

For purposes of easy reference the progress of science has been divided in this volume into the physical and the biological, the latter of which includes medicine in a general sense. Where then does one put molecular biology, now so important in both biology and medicine but incapable of study or descrip-

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tion without the physical scientist? Agriculture, which in a general view appears biological enough, now involves engineering, energy, economics, geology (for soils and for fossil fuels), and accounting, none of which figures in a non-physical chapter. Indeed were we to demand space for this important aspect of Canadian life we should be led into the modern understanding of the origin of farming and its interesting history, including the Neolithic Revolution and the history of the domestication of animals. For this we might rightly be accused of contravening the territory of the archaeologist and despite all science's essential interconnections, the territorial imperative does exist in science, and boarders or invaders - the cattle - tend to be repelled. Nor can we be entirely happy in the definition of Canadian. When is biology Canadian?; when the biologist is Canadian or when the work is done in Canada? Or its results are declared at a Canadian convention?; or its publication is in a Canadian journal? Let us examine these questions. Biology is, in general, the science of living, or once-living, things. One can take a broad and reasonably satisfactory view of the field, as we shall see, but biology is full of animals and plants, some of great importance as origins of disease. Many new forms are discovered every year and by the internationally established Laws of Zoological Nomenclature the new forms can only validly be named in a publication, and the kind of publication is carefully prescribed. Much of this vital work is done on grants and one finds that such financial support is most frequently given to those whose work can be assessed by their previous performances in learned journals. It is, therefore, natural that the new scientific results will appear in well-established international journals so that the facts may become widely known and that maximum benefit may accrue to the advancement of science and the recognition of the author. Biological prophets, like others, seek recognition in countries other than their own. Science is not, of course, all the naming of new animals, plants, or diseasebearing organisms such as viruses, which are neither plant nor animal but particles of nucleoproteins, but this procedure explains why many of the advances are not in the bookshops. In the last decade considerable advances have been made in these fields and in related subjects; animal and plant structure, physiology, disease, classification, geographical distribution, and their effects on, or usefulness to, the human population. Such things are the day-to-day concern of the scientific worker. His work will be published eventually in a scientific paper, a learned journal, or a book. It may appear in a government report, and there are many such Canadian reports of great importance in both science and medicine. The continuing advance of science can be guaranteed not only by the scientists and their individual research but by the universities, government departments, and industrial laboratories from which they write. There can be no weakening in this work, as governments realize; thus we have science

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policies and councils where none existed before, we have new university presses which publish many of these reports and act as publishers and agents for writers and other publishers in many parts of the world. Montreal and Toronto appear on the title pages of books by authors who have never been in Canada but whose work must be absorbed and used here. The reverse, of course, is also true. The work of Canadians (eg, the discovery of insulin, of Marquis wheat, and of the cobalt bomb) is of world-wide importance and use. Contrary to some modern prophets the book does not disappear in competition with other media; it prospers, even the biological book. The medium in biology and in medicine is certainly not the message. But if there is a message that can inform, entertain, or terrify the public in any of these reports, papers, or books, it will find its way to the newspapers, the magazines, and to the radio and television. From here, oddly enough, it may appear again in translation or transformation in the form of a book or pamphlet, as has happened with a series of first-class television programs (eg, the CBC publication, Darwin and the Galapagos [1966] and others to be mentioned). The search is therefore no longer confined to an important book that starts a trend, for the book may inspire a newspaper columnist, or critic, a magazine editor, or a radio or television writer, and the trend or another trend may start from there. Thus, by a series of gradations (and occasionally by degradation) the depths of science may be plumbed or at least observed by the many. This is valuable, for the trend, or cultivation, of science can only be maintained adequately where there is public encouragement and financial support. This does not mean that the original discovery must have been made in Canada, for science is international, but if we are to remain in an agreeable state of parity with other nations we must develop and share the fruits of all scientific and medical discovery and invention. Fortunately the results of such progress are rarely kept secret or national for long. Biology consists essentially in the study of living, or once living, things as we have already said. It has, as we have also seen, important relationships with the physical sciences, especially the geological sciences and geophysics. We now know the date of the earth's origin and this has been confirmed by radioactive chemical methods and by the ages of meteorites. Furthermore, the latter have been intensively searched, in Canada as elsewhere, for signs of life. The outer layer of the earth's material, the crust, is all of its substance to which we have direct access, and it is this that contains our history of life in its fossils, the remains of our predecessors from ancient seas and altered lands. Fossils, of course, have been known for centuries but their distribution, and the light it throws on the disposition of the continents, have been greatly clarified in the last few years. It was suggested many years ago that the continents had drifted, but the

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mechanism that produced this shifting was not clear. Now the process has been explained and the relationships of the land animals of the last 150 million years or so have become equally clear through this geophysical work in which Canadians have played a prominent part. Much older fossils, whose remains are so far too rare and crushed for satisfactory delineation, come from the oldest section of the accessible crust, the so-called Azoic or Proterozoic or Precambrian rocks, whose crushed and almost impenetrable solidity we see in the Canadian Shield. Impenetrable though they may seem, they have yet yielded evidence that was discussed at a symposium at the University of Western Ontario, London, by Professor E. S. Barghoorn, of Harvard, in March 1968. These important discoveries have been described at meetings and in the journals of learned societies. The fossil story has been continued, again mainly in learned journals and museum publications but in more digestible form, by Madeleine Fritz of the Royal Ontario Museum, who has dealt with the backboneless forms (fossil invertebrates) whereas the lower forms of the vertebrates, which are of great evolutionary significance, have been dealt with by Robert Carroll of McGill University in a series of very important scientific papers. Most of Dr Carroll's material comes from eastern Canada. The backboned fossils, mainly the dinosaurs, or large reptiles, and early mammals of western Canada have been dealt with by Dale Russell, of the National Museum in Ottawa, who has made considerable advances in our knowledge of dinosaurs, again mainly in scientific journals, while Loris Russell, of the Royal Ontario Museum, has produced a series of morphological and physiological papers on fossil reptiles (including dinosaurs) and on his own discoveries of fossil mammals in Saskatchewan. W.E. Swinton, formerly of the Royal Ontario Museum, published a series of books on fossil amphibians, reptiles and birds, mainly for the British Museum (Natural History) in London, although the materials discussed include Canadian specimens and the books are available in Toronto. In 1970 he published The Dinosaurs, which is an attempt to synthesize knowledge of these animals and their world. The pioneer palaeontological work of a Toronto medical man, Davidson Black, who discovered in 1927 a single lower molar tooth in Choukoutien in China and named it Sinanthropus pekinensis (and thus led to the search for, and discovery of, the more complete remains of Pékin Man, now known as Homo erect us), had his biography written by Dora Hood. This work is referred to later under biography, but is important for anthropology. One of the most important books on Man's origin and evolution is not by a Canadian but by Bjorn Kurten, a well-known Finnish palaeontologist, although his book, Not from the Apes, was published here in 1972. This is an important contribution to the subject, for it suggests that the ancestry of man

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and that of apes have been separate for at least 35 million years. Man is not, therefore, a descendant of apes and monkeys although they may have come from early ancestors of man. A happy trend has been the attention given to science, especially biology and medicine, in The Nature of Things and This Land, which are Canadian television series. Some resulting publications (eg, Darwin and the Galapagos, CBC, 1966) have already been mentioned and The Ultimate Science by Brian Hocking (CBC, 1963) is an earlier example of the reproduction of eight half-hour programs from the radio University of the Air and shows what can be done to inculcate and retain interest in a wide conspectus of life, on general biology and the environment. A later, and somewhat similar pamphlet, is that by R.E. Balch, The Ecological Viewpoint (CBC, 1965), which carries on the story with special emphasis on forest, insects and man and nature, as given in five radio programs. Animals and Man, a CBC Television Nature of Things presentation, is a largeformat, very well-illustrated account of a thirteen-episode series broadcast in the fall of 1965 in which the writers were William Whitehead, John Napier, and John Livingston. The book is an excellent introduction into animal life, evolution, and the history of biology that is informative in itself and in its excellent illustrations. A larger survey, in book form and also well illustrated, is the comprehensive and eminently readable The Science of Life by Gordon Rattray Taylor (1963). Another work of quite exceptional range and interest which is by an American Professor of English, H.R. Hays, but which was first published in Canada, is Birds, Beasts and Men: A Humanist History of Zoology (1972). This is an excellent history of the rise of science, especially biology, through the centuries and seems to have escaped the notice, or at least the reading lists, of many students of the history of science. Another general nature book is Animal Worlds, which is large, informative, and very well illustrated. The author, Marston Bates, is a well-known American biologist but the book is for every man or woman. It was published by Random House, Canada, in 1964. Among the series of popular texts, with splendid illustrations, many often in colour, are the volumes of the Life Nature Library. There are too many of these to be detailed, but they deal with animals and plants of various geographical regions, with the regions themselves, such as polar regions, the sea, deserts, and with man's evolution and evolution as a process. They are highly informative but are not generally available in bookshops. They are published simultaneously in the USA and Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service '71 is the title of a well-produced, authoritative, and excellently illustrated brochure. Although the Director of the Wildife Service states in his preface that the report 'will not rank as literature,' it will

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certainly appeal to all those with a sincere interest in nature, and its varied articles are important. The Department of the Environment is responsible for the Service and the publication. In more strictly academic biology, Canadians in universities and museums have been active over the years and the following results of their industry are not statistically representative even if chronologically appropriate. They are chosen from the output of printed books, since a list of the specialized papers in the Canadian and international journals could fill all of the space allotted to biology in this volume. One should mention here that the principal interest in the more popular accounts of biology and medicine as compared with the academic works is often not very great but the academic works, by the International Rules of Nomenclature, which must be observed in the making and naming of new species, and other major advances in biological knowledge, are produced in a stylized or systematic form, and are therefore less likely to appeal on sight to the amateur. Nonetheless it is in these pages that the advances of knowledge are presented to the notice of the international scientific world, although their authority does not necessarily render them unreadable to a more general audience. The outstanding works are, by chance, mainly zoological. Among them is E.O. Dodson's Evolution, Process and Product (1961). This is essentially addressed to students and those to whom a firm understanding of the modern principles of evolution is necessary. The author is from the University of Ottawa and there have been several editions of this important work. In 1964, J.R. Dymond, former Professor of Zoology at the University of Toronto and of the Museum of Zoology at the Royal Ontario Museum, produced his comprehensive history, Ichthyology in Canada (Copeta, March 1964), which has since been brought up to date and amplified by W.B. Scott (also of the Royal Ontario Museum). In Freshwater Fishes of Eastern Canada (2nd éd., 1967), and in their massive Freshwater Fishes of Canada (American Wildlife Society Award 1974), W.B. Scott and E.J. Grossman produced essential works for the study of Canadian icthyology. Birds have also fared well in Canada, where there have been outstanding ornithologists and artists in recent years. In 1963 appeared W.E.C. Todd's impressive volume, Birds of the Labrador Peninsula. Earlier, Leslie Tuck's The Murres, their Distribution and Biology (1960) (which won the Canadian Wildlife Service's award in 1961) attracted much attention. Another success was Hours and the Birds: A Saskatchewan Record (1967) by R.D. Symons. Whereas these works dealt with Canadian birds as they are, many ornithologists were seriously concerned with the diminishing numbers and even loss of avifauna. In 1963, the Royal Ontario Museum persuaded a retired Toronto businessman and amateur ornithologist to undertake the preparation

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and publication oí Where is that Vanished Bird?. This is an index to the known specimens of extinct - or near to extinct - North American species and is thus a valuable catalogue. The author was Paul Hahn, who had the valued assistance of James L. Baillie, the Museum's remarkable ornithologist, whose own studies, mainly in local journals, did so much to stimulate Ontario naturalists. More recent examples of a happy combination of experts are Birds of the Northern Forest (1968) and two volumes entitled Birds of the Eastern Forest (1966, 1970). The texts were by John A. Livingston, formerly of the CBC and now of York University, with the illustrations by the well-known bird artist, J.F. Lansdowne. The Curator of Mammals in the Royal Ontario Museum, R.L. Peterson, wrote the Mammals of Eastern Canada, an impressive study, published in 1966. More recent, around the world, and particularly in Canada, has been the concern with ecology and conservation. Much has been written, especially in the press and in magazines, about the problems, and although none of us expects the world to die in our own life-time, there are grave fears for it in the years to come, based largely upon the lack of concern of the majority of the population, the indifference to the laws already established by many member nations and signatories of international agreements, and by the desire of many to hold on to myths and turn deaf ears to the facts. In no field of scientific interest is the slogan so clearly demonstrated - 'My mind is made up; don't bother me with facts.' But facts there are and the writing is in the books (and on the wall) for all who care to read. An outstanding book in this connection is One Cosmic Instant ( 1973) by the John A. Livingston already referred to. This work is subtitled 'A Natural History of Human Arrogance,' and the arrogance is, of course, the belief, fostered in many respected sources, that God gave Man dominion over all other creatures. Man has certainly responded to that 'command' and has depleted the flora and fauna of every continent in the name of self-interest. Professor Livingston deals with all this, but in a scholarly way, with a wealth of reference and quotation. Indeed, this work, which deserves serious study, is really a series of profound essays on man's inhumanity to his blood relations and his consequent weakening of the very process by which he himself lives. It cannot be a hopeful book, unless a greater number of those who read show more concern for the environment. Pollution through ignorance ; poisoning of the lands and seas by the careless; exploitation of the animals of land and sea far beyond the food needs of the world; killing for 'sport'; to say nothing of this ingrained belief in the lower status of the rest of living things; all these are already known and disregarded. How long can we go on doing these things without a catastrophic answer? Professors teach and write, but the politicians

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largely are deaf to the calls, and nature suffers, some of it already beyond recall. Livingston's book is a scholarly work but if it needs annotation and emphasis, both are already there. Farley Mowat, an established and eminently readable Canadian author, is also a naturalist and biologist and he combines all these qualities in most of his works. There are those who will not care for his conclusions, but they will not be biologists, for Mowat, in his graceful style, dots the i's and crosses the t's of the conservationists'arguments, and does so from his personal observation. This means that many of his writings are both absorbing and sad. For it is sad to say farewell to the great beasts of the world, whose demise is so often unnecessary. Never Cry Wolf (1963 and 1973) and A Whale for the Killing (1972) should be compulsory reading in schools and colleges of every denomination. Perhaps it is significant that all these books, Livingston's and Mowat's, are published by McClelland and Stewart. While essentially they are texts, with interesting narratives, on conservation, they are also books on behaviourism, a biological subject that otherwise has had little literary output in Canada, perhaps because of the plethora elsewhere. Farley Mowat's most powerful writing has been on the denizens of the great waters but, in Canada, the quieter waters have not been left unnoticed. Two works by H.B.N. Hynes of the University of Waterloo must be mentioned: The Ecology of Running Waters and The Biology of Polluted Waters, whose contents are evident from the titles, were published in 1971. To round off this picture of Canada's wildlife is the current series of volumes, The Illustrated Natural History of Canada, being produced on a regional basis and with a well-written and popular text and large-sized illustrations. Concern with man, as a zoological species, has not been great in Canada, and W.E. Swinton's attempt to discuss human giantism in both animals and man (Giants, Past and Present, 1966) met with little success. Perhaps the title sounds too mythological to be taken seriously. Actually the living needs of the famous giants are interesting, and in a world where the civilized nations show a marked increase in human stature over the years, the question of increasing size of individuals in an already over-populated world should be a matter of concern. The list so far has one obvious omission; there is no mention of a specifically botanical book. There are, of course, many botanical books, mainly in the fields of horticulture, agriculture, and forestry, none of which is primarily the concern of this chapter. Nonetheless, it might be brought to the attention of Canadian readers that if there is no shortage of botanists, horticul-

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turists, and woodsmen, there is a national lack of appreciation of botanic gardens, and it would be a welcome trend to a wide circle of scientists and the public if the great cities could be persuaded to give attention in full to this real human need instead of titillating the public mind with a few greenhouses (or perhaps more appropriately, conservatories). When it comes to the medical literature of the decade there is a plenitude of first-class material. This should not be surprising. Nearly a century ago Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr, who was a physician as well as philosopher and author, wrote: 'There is a closer relation between the Medical Sciences and the conditions of Society and the general thought of the time, than would at first be suspected.' Today that relationship is more than clear; it has to be paid for by each of us. In medicine as in biology, the main progress of the associated sciences is shown in journals and proceedings. The books are mainly textbooks for the students or collected Advances for the professional. Some of the Canadian textbooks are famous and have seen many editions in use throughout the world. Grant's anatomy textbooks and hisAtlas of Anatomy, of which the sixth edition appeared in 1972, just before its author's death, are examples. Specialist trends are seen in such important works as those of the internationally famous Montreal specialists; Wilder Penfield's general writings and Hans Selye's works, especially the latter's In Vivo: The Case for Supramolecular Biology, published in 1967. Excerpts from these works have been reproduced in several magazines and in the press. More recently, J.S. and M.W. Thompson collaborated in Genetics in Medicine, first produced for this important field in 1966 and in a new edition in 1973. In this class also are the highly topical works on physical fitness by R. J. Shephard: Endurance Fitness (1969); Frontiers of Fitness (1971) and Alive Man!: The Physiology of Physical Activity (1972). These are works appropriate in a decade when executive fitness has become of almost national importance. Related to the national interest in medical services and care is the famous Best and Taylor, The Physiological Basis of Medical Practice the sixth edition of which appeared in 1966 and reappeared, edited by other hands, in 1973. Doctors and Doctrines: The Ideology of Medical Care in Canada, by Bernard Blishen, set standards in 1969 that may not all have been reached in this country, but there can be no doubt that in the last few years a remarkable series of volumes has appeared on the public attitude to the doctor and his place in the community, from various points of view. Many of these publications have wide sociological implications and must be listed. In 1965 the Royal Commission on Health Services produced a comprehensive survey of the health of the Canadian people, analysing the state of health, whether good or bad, and the environments of Canadians. The facts and

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figures of this valuable document have perhaps been given less public attention than they should. To read these pages helps one to realize the massive problems of maintaining the population in working order, in happy leisure and retirement, and the fact that doctors do not treat disease so much as deal with millions of sick and maladjusted human beings, who are not helped, on either side, by merely being statistics. More recently W.H. Le Riche produced an interesting study that is complementary. His People Look at Doctors and Other Relevant Matters arose out of a Sunnybrook Health Attitude Survey and was published by Sunnybrook Hospital (Toronto) in 1971. Dr Le Riche and Jean Milner also published a more strictly scientific study, Epidemiology as Medical Ecology, in the same year. Ontario and Saskatchewan, as provinces, were quick to publish other reports and supplements on the cost and success of medicare. The Ontario Council of Health (reports and supplements); Ontario's Committee on the Healing Arts (report 1970); E.A. Pickering, Report on the Special Study Regarding the Medical Profession in Ontario (1973) and H.R. Robertson's special study for the Science Council of Canada, Health Care in Canada (1973), are all important. C.H. Shillington rounded off the picture in The Road to Medicare in Canada (1972). The list of quite specialized, although often also highly interesting, medical papers can often be relieved by consulting the medical journals such as The Canadian Family Physician where, for example, J.O. Godden, in 1973, wrote on 'Why Doctors Should Write about Things as They Are' and 'Maxims to Help Aspiring Physician-Writers Get Started.' More precise advice was given by W.T.W. Clarke on 'Medical History Writing' (University of Toronto Medical Journal, 1973). Nor are the medical writers without pity or aid for their patients, as witness A.L. Shute's 'Compassion, Courtesy, Concern for Citizens and Community Compels Clinicians to Co-Opt Communication as a Constant Companion.' This alliterative attitude and addition to medical literature is also in the University of Toronto Medical Journal for 1973. And the aged are not forgotten, for in a more specialized paper in a more specialized journal (Canadian Journal of Otolaryngology, 2, 1973) D.A.F. Ellis discussed 'The Development of the Aged Face.' This is something that many of us see daily in our mirrors with increasing dissatisfaction and it may be some comfort to know that there are scientific principles behind the unhappy process, for where there are recognized causes and principles there may sometimes be cures. One of the most generally interesting and informative medical books is The General Practitioner by Kenneth F. Clute (1963). Perhaps the fact that Dr Clute graduated in both classics and medicine accounts for the clarity of his style and the orderliness of his information. For this is essentially an informa-

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tive book, its subtitle being A Study of Medical Education and Practice in Ontario and Nova Scotia.The medical education is, however, far more than study for the MD. The book is a guide to the general practitioner on relationships with his patients, the hospital, and the health schemes and contains a very great deal of matter that interests patients as well as doctors and gives statistics of value to the historian and researcher. Other relevant and interesting medical matters may be classified more appropriately as history, and the trend towards the history of science and medicine has been one of the developments in universities as well as in literature in the last decade. There is a growing realization of the value of history as a gateway to knowledge. The prospect is not new and as long ago as 1911, William James was writing: You can give humanistic value to almost anything by teaching it historically. Geology, economics, mechanics are humanities when taught with reference to the successive achievements of the geniuses to which these sciences owe their beginning. Not taught thus, literature remains grammar, and a catalogue, history a list of dates, and natural science a sheet of formulas and weights and measures.

Viewed thus, Canadian literature abounds with appropriate subjects for biographies and their achievements. Among those that have their written memorials, we may here list: H.E. MacDermot, One Hundred Years of Medicine in Canada, 1867-1967 (1967); Lewis D. Slater, Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, 1887-1947(1969); B.R. Blishen, Doctors and Doctrines: The Ideology of Medical Care in Canada (1969). A fascinating account of a country doctor's life has been given by W.V. Johnston, Before the Age of Miracles (1972), and a wider survey was that of T.F. Rose, who wrote and published From Shaman to Modern Medicine: A Century of the Healing Arts in British Columbia (1972). Margaret Angus's Kingston General Hospital: A Social and Institutional History (1973) was more than a tribute to an ancient city and a centre of hospital and medical school pioneers. The geographical balance was maintained by Ken McTaggart in The First Decade: The Story of Canadian Medicare in Saskatchewan (1973). Canadian Hospitals, 1920 to 1970: A Dramatic Half Century, by G. Harvey Agnew, was published posthumously in 1974, and is an excellent survey of difficulties and success. As for the depiction of personalities, be it in strict biographies or in catalogues of those that begat us, there was E.H. Craigie and W.C. Filson, The World of Ramon y Cahal, to prove that all good Canadian scientists do not forget their foreign sources (1968). Even earlier, Glenn Wiggins of the Royal Ontario Museum paid tribute to The Centennial of Entomology in Canada, which was really a tribute to the late E.M. Walker, museum man, entomologist, professor of zoology, and physician; a great Canadian humanist.

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Centennial year saw the publication for the Canadian Federation of University Women of a series of biographies of twenty Canadian women. The volume is entitled The Clear Spirit and contains accounts of two notable women we can include in this chapter. The first is Maude E. Abbott (1869-1940), who was the first woman to graduate in medicine at Bishop's College, Montreal, in 1894. She was awarded the honorary MD, CM degrees by McGill in 1910. She became curator of the Medical Museum at McGill but later was widely recognized for her abilities and was a visiting professor and adviser to several Canadian and us medical schools and institutes. Her biography is contributed by Jessie Boyd Scriver, another McGill MD. An equally intrepid lady was Alice Wilson (1881-1964), Canada's first woman geologist and palaeontologist. Graduating from Victoria University and having experience in specimen handling and examination at the University of Toronto Museum (later the basis of the Royal Ontario Museum), she joined the Geological Survey of Canada in 1909, to begin a long and distinguished career in a subject that had hitherto had little attraction for women. 'The earth touches every life,' she wrote long ago. 'Everyone should have some understanding of it.' Had her words been listened to, some of today's problems would be more easily soluble. This biography is agreeably written by Anne Montagnes. Two remarkable men are doctors who served for relatively short periods in China, but left their marks indelibly on that country. The first is Toronto's Davidson Black, who can claim fame as a finder of Pékin Man, the fossil human formerly known as Sinanthropus pekinensis (now recognized as Homo erectus). Dr Black died at the untimely age of 50 and his biography, by Dora Hood, was published in 1964 - Davidson Black: A Biography. The other doctor is Norman Bethune (1890-1939), who in his short life encompassed many things, the most remarkable of which was his eighteen months in China, where working often single-handed, he made such an impression on that vast land that today his laboratory and hospital and his tomb and statue are places of pilgrimage and almost every Chinese school-child is inculcated with the veneration of this Canadian medical pioneer. For Canadians a fitting and timely tribute has been made by Roderick Stewart's Bethune (1973), and there has been a revised edition of The Scalpel, the Sword by T. Allan and S. Gordon (1972). By far the most impressive historical and biographical work in recent years is not by a Canadian about a Canadian or published by a Canadian press. It is a massive volume of 512 pages with more than ahundred illustrations, twelve of the plates being in colour. The author is a New Zealander who has been working in the British Museum (Natural History) in London for many years and the result is Joseph Banks in Newfoundland and Labrador: His Diary, Manuscripts and Collections (1971). The author is Averil M. Lysaght and the

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whole production is a masterpiece of research on a little-known episode of Joseph Banks' life. Well-known as a sailor-naturalist, he is usually associated with Cook's voyages but he visited the east coast of Canada in 1766 in the Niger. Being wealthy, he was able to take great care of his collections and many distinguished artists were employed to record some of them. These original drawings and paintings are reproduced here and a full modern description of the objects, plant and animal, is given, while Banks' diary is printed and annotated. Some of Cook's early maps are also reproduced. In a brief foreword the Hon. Joseph Smallwood says that this is 'a book that will rightly take its place at once with the dozen greatest works written about Newfoundland.' It is also a very considerable contribution to Sir Joseph Banks' biography and to those of his contemporaries and associates, including James Cook. If Newfoundland has this memorial, it also has others, and, as has been pointed out already, the works of Farley Mowat are among them, especially Wake of the Great Sealers (1973). Another book about the sea, although much greater in geographical scope than Newfoundland, is Alan Edmonds' Voyage to the Edge of the World, which recounts the remarkable voyage of the Canadian research vessel Hudson round both North and South America. The author took part in this historic journey, which is likely to become a travel classic and meantime is a Canadian achievement of high courage and importance. This book was also published in 1973. The Strange Story of Grey Owl by Lovât Dickson (1973) deserves a place in any history for several reasons: the historical (for Lovât Dickson 'discovered' and encouraged the pseudo-Indian); the literary quality of the book; and the natural history. Grey Owl in his own writings merits attention and reprinting (which is in fact being done), for he was a true naturalist and his own origin is unimportant. A Book of Grey Owl (1973) gives selections from his wild-life stories. Another author, more strictly a novelist, shows such a consciousness of nature and our relationships that in some ways he recalls Grey Owl. W.O. Mitchell's Who Has Seen the Wind? (1947) (redone as a paperback in 1960) and The Vanishing Point (1973) both reveal their author as a keen observer of the often forgotten world of which we are a part, although in which we sometimes play a minor role. The Literary History of Canada is only a part too, a small but important platform in a sea of specialized writings. No man can read all of the scientific literature of today in any recognized discipline, at least if he hopes to do other things as well. Yet we have said almost nothing of the behavioural sciences, which concern what man has made of himself and is making of his life and environment. Perhaps the place for this literature, which is not preponderant in Canada, is with the social sciences, psychology, and urban studies.

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What has been done in this chapter is to provide enough guidance for the reader who wants knowledge and to show that in the understanding of the world, Canadians are as busy and adaptive as the beaver that is often their country's pictorial representative. But from what has been said it should be clear that Canadians take their proper place and are at home in world science. Compared with the numbers of their colleagues in many other parts of the world, they are, however, few, although their voices are clearly heard. Canada itself is an immense country, much of it ripe for industrial development, so that the duty for Canadians to preserve the ecological balance - the balance of nature - is extremely important. The first step is to understand the problems, to realize that natural resources are not inexhaustible and that man himself as a part of nature is vulnerable. The second step is to learn that nature is not always red in tooth and claw and that man does not inherit a destructive or aggressive attitude. His desire to dominate - and indeed to decimate - some of his fellow creatures is acquired and the practice of this pursuit is full of myth. The list of biological works should go some way to curbing, if not curing, these false ideas. Whether or not we read and learn, the truth still exists: that we have to realize that we are one with the animals and that their survival and ours are inextricably linked. Let us hope that further editions of the Literary History of Canada increasingly will record the twin ideals of a greater concern for conservation and a lessening inhumanity from man to man and from man to animal.

9 Writing in the Social Sciences HENRY

INTRODUCTION

B. MAYO

In Volume n of the Literary History of Canada (p 52), the concluding remark was made that as the number of scholars in the social sciences increased, scholarly writing in these fields would also expand rapidly. That prediction has been amply borne out. The university 'explosion' of the 1960s has been accompanied by, and has partly even caused, a cultural explosion in all kinds of literary and artistic output - in the most narrowly 'cultural' fields as well as in the social sciences. Aside from American foundations, the great patrons of the social sciences in Canada in the past used to be Royal Commissions. The work of the latter has continued, eg, on the status of women and on bilingualism and biculturalism, to mention only two of the more well-known and productive commissions. Their role has been supplemented also by 'task forces,' parliamentary committees, government departments, and private associations; and above all by the fructifying flow of funds to scholars from the Canada Council, established in 1957. Both within and without the universities, in the social sciences, as in other categories, Canadian 'literature' pours from the presses. There are even bookstores whose content is wholly of Canadiana, a phenomenon surprising to an older generation which remembers the years of bookish famine. The enormous surge in demand for social scientists in the 1960s could not be met from the small domestic supply. It turned out to be unlucky if not foolish for Canadian universities to have set themselves so strongly against graduate studies in the years before 1960. So the universities were compelled to import faculty from all over the world, but chiefly from the United States. Some have condemned this foreign influx, and have gone so far as to advocate quotas on all foreign scholars, presumably analogous to the quotas on American players in the Canadian Football League. Instant development, as economists know, cannot be attained without large injections of foreign capital. Furthermore, it is probably true that most of the

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world's social scientists of all kinds are in the USA. This is Canada's gain, since we can draw easily upon American personnel and techniques ; neither should we forget the 'brain drain' from Canada which has given Canadians opportunities abroad. If scholarship is to be confined to national compartments and not judged by international standards, it can easily become mediocre and chauvinistic. As in the past, the social sciences have addressed themselves mainly to empirical studies of Canadian society, its institutions and its working. This has been done in several ways. In one, the older material has been worked over more thoroughly and given quite new interpretations. In another, whole new fields have been cultivated that were barely explored before. In some of these studies, as in urbanization and regional disparities, multi-disciplinary approaches have sometimes been made. Canadian social scientists have also turned more often to non-Canadian topics of many kinds. In so doing they have become more internationalist. This is not to say that we have now studied the whole spectrum of Canadian society, for many gaps still remain. It is fair to say, however, that although a consensus of theory and analysis is lacking in many fields, recent Canadian social science writing is rather more theoretical than in the past. The social sciences are thus reaching beyond description towards explanatory and general theory. If, as Rousseau said, 'A thinking man is a depraved animal,' then Canada has fallen from its state of former innocence to become 'depraved' by thought. In current jargon this might be called 'consciousness-raising' ; or one might say that social scientists are bringing the more sophisticated tools of their disciplines to bear upon Canada data. One fact is indicative of the expanded number of social scientists and by implication (one hopes) of their quality: a decade ago there was one association in Canada for all social scientists - the Canadian Political Science Association with, in 1935, one journal. In 1964, sociologists and anthropologists broke away to found their own journal and later their own association, and in 1967 the process was repeated by the economists. There are now three main associations for the social sciences, each equipped with its own professional journal, and this is to say nothing of the sub-species of associations and journals which have sprung up. Another trend is also more marked in the last decade, and, unless it is swamped by a wave of narrow nationalism, it will bring more of our writing in the social sciences to scholars everywhere in the world. That trend is the extension of the frontiers of the disciplines and sub-disciplines. Canadian social sciences, in this sense, have become more professional, and are taking a larger part in theory construction and testing, and in adding to the sum total of well-established human knowledge. If comparison is odious, so is the choice of authors and/or books to rep-

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resent the most important writings in the social sciences in the period under review. The choices are of course personal, although made in many cases after consultation with specialists in each field. An attempt was made not to repeat many of the references to the early 1960s given in the earlier edition of the Literary History of Canada. Finally, some interpretive comments are made in the hope that these will prove more enlightening than a mere booklist. ECONOMICS One could say, with some justice, that economic history dominated much of Canadian economics until recent years. The influence of H. A. Innis was the outstanding one, his work emphasizing staple production, as in the fur trade and the cod fisheries, thus giving a thread of interpretation to Canadian history. Innis' main work has been re-assessed, and, as everyone knows, his later, more speculative writing on communications has indirectly led to the Marshall McLuhan phenomenon. The tradition of a happy mingling of economics and history has been carried on, however, by others such as J.H. Dales, in The Protective Tariff in Canada's Development (1966), and with sharper theoretical tools than Innis employed. For the principles of economics one may go to texts such as that by M.K. Inman and F.R. Anton (2nd éd., 1965); A.D. Scott's adaptation of Paul Samuelson's well-known book (3rd Can. éd., 1971), Muriel Armstrong's text (1970), M. Archer's Introductory Macro-Economics (1973), David Stager's Economic Analysis and Canadian Policy (1973), or to several others. The lack of good introductory books in economics using Canadian data, so long felt in our universities, no longer exists. For general surveys of Canada's economy and problems one may turn to André Raynauld's factual The Canadian Economic System (1967, from the French original of 1964); to Ian M. Drummond, The Canadian Economy (2nd ed., 1972), or to the more theoretical The Canadian Quandary (1963) by Harry G. Johnson. Books of readings on the Canadian economy are numerous; among them are collections by J.J. Deutsch et al. (rev. éd., 1965); T.N. Brewis et al. (rev. éd., 1965); Timothy Reid, ed. (1969); I.-D. Pal, ed. (1971); the newer D.A.L. Auld's Economics: Contemporary Issues in Canada (1972); and the more advanced work of L.H. Officer and L.B. Smith, eds., Canadian Economic Problems and Policies (1970). The purpose of these surveys and readings is sometimes to teach methods of studying economic problems and at other times to use the economist's methods to assess public policies. Policy analysis is in fact the vogue in nearly all the social sciences today. Both public and private institutes for policy analysis have been founded, which bring forth fascinating, if often conflicting, conclusions. The fact that the conclusions often conflict shows that there is more than 'science' to making and evaluating public policies. There is no

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escaping value judgments, although some economists appear to think otherwise. A short book that is rather amusing (an unusual feature of economic writings) is J. Carr et al., Cents and Non$ense: The Economics of Canadian Policy Issues (1972). Analyses of particular economic policies have been put forth before now. Some are concerned with the general problem of economic growth, a subject today of world-wide controversy. Among these are books by O.J. Firestone, Problems of Economic Growth (1965), and his later (edited) Economic Growth Reassessed (1972); N.H. Lithwick and T. Wilson, The Sources of Economic Growth (1968); Lithwick's Economic Growth in Canada (1967); and Philip Mathias' Forced Growth, a study of five cases, of which only one (Churchill Falls) was successful. To this list should be added Gordon Bertram, The Contribution of Education to Economic Growth (1966) - a subject which W. Hettich has also attempted. Some writers, for example L.H. Officer in An Econometric Model of Canada (1968), N.K. Choudry et al. (1972), and J. Helliwell et al. (1969), consider growth and other objectives, in their attempt to understand the economy, by means of model building. Officer et al. (1973) pursue a similar aim by considering supply relationships, and R.W. Caves and G.L. Reuber by the study of international capital flows (1970). Options for Canadian economic policy have been analysed by R.G. Bodkin et al. (1966). Dorothy Walters has written on both Canadian growth (1970) and income levels (1968). So far as one can tell, there is no great agitation against economic growth per se in Canada, although some of its consequences, such as pollution and resource wastage, have been criticized. Economics was known for a long time as 'political economy' and the close, even reciprocal, relationship of the state and the economy was admitted. Many specialized books have been produced on the relationship, but few on its general theory. The lack has now been filled in part by a recent volume, K.J. Rea and J.T. McLeod, eds., Business and Government in Canada (1969). One feels surprised that economists have not given economic (or Marxist) interpretations of Canada's history. Neither have the political scientists or sociologists found high-level theories which would interpret Canadian development. That task has fallen, faute de mieux, into the hands of historians and fiction writers. As befits a great trading nation, Canada's relations with other countries have come in for much scrutiny. A general overview is Canada's International Trade: An Analysis of Recent Trends and Patterns by B.W. Wilkinson (1968). S.G. Triantis has written on trade balances (1967), A.L.K. Acheson et al. on Bretton Woods Revisited (1972), and R.M. Dunn on exchange rates (1971). The issue of free trade or protection is as hotly contested now as in the days of Sir John A. Macdonald, but it is better analysed and understood. Presumably this leads to a wiser choice of policies, although this assumption

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may be doubted. H.C. Eastman and S. Stykolt, The Tariff and Competition in Canada (1967), have addressed themselves to a perennial question, and so have J. Dales (op. cit.), and J.R. Melvin and B.W. Wilkinson (1968). Nontariff trade barriers have been explored by C. Pestieau and J. Henry (1972). Liberalized or free trade, especially with the USA, has been treated by sundry authors for its effect on various industries: eg, by G.I. Trant et al., on agriculture (1968); by J. Singer on the steel industry (1969); by John M. Munro on transportation (1969); by B.M. Downie on wages (1970); more generally by Roy Matthews on industrial viability (1971), and by Milton Moore (1970) on competition. H. Shibata has assessed the fiscal aspects of free trade with the USA (1969), and Paul and Ron Wonnacott have written Free Trade between the US and Canada: The Economic Effects ( 1967). The question of protection in general is discussed in H.G. Gruebl and Harry Johnson, eds., Effective Tariff Protection (1971); to which may be added S. Stykolt, Efficiency in the Open Economy (1969), ed. by A. Scott and J. Rae. Others, among them J.H. Young, have also written on international trade. It is almost impossible to write objectively on the subject of Canada-us economic relations. The multi-national corporations (usually translated as us firms operating a 'branch plant' Canada), have brought forth a recent plethora of books. The most objective works on the multi-national corporation are: A. E. Safarían, The Performance of Foreign-Owned Firms in Canada (1969); Litvak, Maule, and Robinson, Dual Loyalty: Canadian-US Business Arrangements (1972); and a reader edited by Gilles Paquet, The Multinational Firm and the Nation State (1972). For the reliable data on ownership and 'takeover' one must refer to Safarian's Foreign Ownership of Canadian Industry (1966), and to G. Reuber and F. Roseman (1969), and with special reference to capital inflows from the us, to H.G.J. Aitken (1961) and Irving Brecher (1965). Of books on economic nationalism, the following sample may suffice: for a defiant attack upon the multi-national corporation in Canada there is Kari Levitt, Silent Surrender (1970), the title of which when joined in thought with Partner to Behemoth by J.W. Warnock (1970) conjures up visions of a curious coupling. Some of the nationalist books combine history with economics and other social sciences as in A. Rotstein,ed., The Prospect of Change (1965). In Close the 49th Parallel, Ian Lumsden, ed. (1970), fires a whole broadside; while Gary Teeple, éd., Capitalism and the National Question in Canada (1972) is considerably more class-conscious; and J. Laxer, The Energy Poker Game (1970) shows how an energy nationalist thinks. The list of books on economic nationalism is long - from Walter Gordon through Melville Watkins to the lunatic fringe. The interested reader need only visit a bookshop to have his jingoism titillated. Seldom can so few have been so vocal or with such little effect upon economic policy. This is perhaps because economic nationalism is chiefly a central Canadian phenomenon and makes little appeal to the

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eastern and western regions of the country, which are less fussy about the source of capital for their economic development. Two other points may be made: (a) by no means all Canadian economists are nationalist in their views; and (b) there may really be some political and other effects that warrant concern over foreign ownership in Canada. It follows that moderate public policies to lessen either economic dependence, or its undesirable consequences, may be justified. The older topics which have been written on before, and often written on well, have undergone deeper economic analysis in the last decade. Among these are money and banking. Some of the newer books are: Canadian Money and Banking by J.W. O'Brien (1965), and on the same topic, E.P. Neufeld (1964). The monetary aspects of money and banking are mingled in J.P. Cairns and H.H. Binhammer (1965) and in Binhammer's own study (2nd éd., 1972); and attention to theory is also given by J.A. Galbraith (1970) and Paul Trescott (2nd éd., 1965). A closely related work on the Canadian financial system in general is that by D.E. Bond and R.A. Shearer (1972). One might mention also Paul Wonnacott, The Canadian Dollar (1965), and E.P. Neufeld, The Financial System of Canada (1972). On other standard topics there have also been new books: on combines policy by S. Stykolt (1965); on agriculture by G. McCrone (1962) and by R.H. Crown and E.O. Heady (1970); on public finance by R.M. Bird (1970) and J.C. Strick (1973). With special attention to the theory of collective choices and 'public goods,' Albert Breton, J.W. Weldon, and D.M. Winch have made distinguished contributions. Among other writers in these fields are W.I. Gillespie, on the incidence of taxes (1966); and on other aspects of public finance, E.J. Hanson, D.V. Smiley, M.C. Urquhart and K.A.H. Buckley, J.S. Dupré, S.S. Reisman, A.D. Scott, R.M. Burns, Claude Forget, and many more. Some of the books on public finance have focussed on this topic only insofar as it affects federal-provincial-municipal relations, a subject always of keen interest in Canadian politics. A convenient anthology is that by A.J. Robinson and James Cutt, Public Finance in Canada (1968). Certain newer topics have forced themselves recently into the arena of urgent public policy debate, and consequently economists have produced books about them. Such, for example, are: National Resource Policy in Canada (1972), by T.I. Burton; J.H. Dales, Pollution, Property, and Prices (1968); N.H. Lithwick, Canada's Science Policy and the Economy (1969); L. Waverman, Natural Gas and National Policy (1973). Other authors have done books on the economics of special topics: petroleum, A.R. Plotnick (1964); disarmament, Gideon Rosenbluth (1967); water, R. Bocking (1972); education, advertising, and patents, the versatile O.J. Firestone (1966 to 1971); inflation, N.M. Swan and D.A. Wilton (1971); income distribution, Ian Bo wen (1970), and others.

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Of the newer topics that have received the attention of economists, as government policy generated their analyses, are some on urban studies (see under political science) and on regional economics. In both these fields, however, there is much more work for economists to do. Regional studies are represented by Alan Green, Regional Aspects of Canada's Economic Growth (1971); S. Ostry and T.K. Rymes, eds., Papers on Regional Statistical Studies (1966); W.D. Wood and R.S. Thoman, eds., Areas of Economic Stress in Canada (1965); T.N. Brewis, Regional Economic Policies in Canada (1969), as well as T.K. Shoyama and a few others. H. Buckley and E. Tihanyi have assessed a range of public policies in Canadian Policies for Rural Adjustment (1967). To some extent economic geography has also contributed, eg, P. Camu et al., eds., Economic Geography of Canada (1965); and there is the three-volume study by P.J. Usher on the ecology and economy of The Bankslanders (1971). A few studies have appeared on the economics of development in other countries, eg, by W.G. Demás on the Caribbean (1965). Regional economic studies have sometimes been broken down more finely, often by province, and even by areas within a province. Among the provinces most studied is Newfoundland. After it joined Canada in 1949 social scientists could have a field day. Most of the studies have been sociological, or even anthropological, but some have been made in economics, particularly in connection with modernizing a pre-industrial economy, with the fisheries, and with resettlement programs. Of the latter the most outstanding work is P. Copes, The Resettlement of Fishing Communities in Newfoundland (1972), and there is also Cato Wadel on modernization (1969). Case studies have been made of other provinces, eg, of Nova Scotia by John F. Graham ( 1963) and by John T. Sears (1972); of the economic potential and the impact of free trade on British Columbia by R.A. Shearer et al. (1968 and 1971); by D.M. Ray on industrial location in southern Ontario (1965), and by K.J. Rea on The Political Economy of the Canadian North (1968). In view, however, of the great emphasis which national policy puts upon the lessening of regional disparities, one finds a certain lack of economic theory devoted to industrial location and urbanization, despite studies such as Roy George's of manufacturing in Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Quebec (1970). The economics of labour has brought forth a considerable body of writing in the last decade: eg, A.E. Kovacs, éd., Readings in Canadian Labour Economics (1961); S.G. Peitchinis, The Economics of Labour (1965); Frank Anton, Wages and Productivity (1969); as well as J.T. Montague, Labour Markets in Canada (1970), J. Steiber, éd., Employment Problems of Automation and Advanced Technology (1966), and a substantial volume by S. Ostry and M. Zaidi, Labour Economics in Canada (1972). A second volume by H.D. Woods, Labour Policy in Canada (1973), replaces the earlier single

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volume by Woods and Ostry (1962). Unemployment and changes in the occupational composition of the labour force, including the larger role of women, have also been written about, by S. Ostry, N. Meltz, and several others. Closely connected, of course, is the question of industrial relations, trade unionism, and the like. On these we have not only the earlier work by H.D. Woods, and S. Jamieson'slnduslrial Relations in Canada (2nd éd., 1973), but also J. Crispo's International Unionism (1967), and his book of readings (1967). On trade union history there are Senator Eugene Forsey and Charles Lipton; on labour law, A.W.R. Carrothers; there are also many studies of special aspects of labour relations by John L. Young (1964), C.H. Curtis (1966), E.E. Herman ( 1966), H.C.Goldenberg and J. H.G.Crispo (1968), G.F. MacDowell (1971), and others. The final question which should be put about the economic literature is this: has it contributed to the world's knowledge in the discipline? The answer is yes. After all, economic 'science' is, generally speaking, more advanced everywhere and more quantifiable than other social sciences. Since 1969 Nobel prizes have been awarded in economics (although not yet to a Canadian) , which is possibly some indication that economics is thought to be closer to the natural or 'hard' sciences. Economists have, so to speak, a common 'expertise' (or set of analytical tools); and there are also many more economists in the country than there are political scientists or sociologists. They are thought to be more useful, so there is more employment for them than for the other kinds of social scientists. It is scarcely necessary to speak of the earlier period - of the 'nonCanadian' John Rae in economic theory (on whom a biography has appeared by R. Warren James [1965]), or of the great contribution of the Innis school of economic history. (Innis has been re-assessed, somewhat misleadingly, by Robin Neill in A New Theory of Value [1972].) In the 1940s and 1950s, substantial contributions were made to economic theory by scholars such as M. Timlin, B.S. Kierstead, D.B. Marsh, and E.F. Beach, while other scholars were of international repute in other fields. Contributions to the discipline can be made in several ways: (1) by influential textbooks; and we can say that Canadians have written them, although not until recently; (2) by studies of Canadian materials which contribute to method and theory as well as description. In this too we can take pride, whether in banking, resources and conservation, labour, international trade, or several other fields; and, of course, in economic history, as J.H. Dales and others have gone beyond the 'staple' school. Economic historians now think in other categories, some quasi-Leninist and nationalist; (3) studies of nonCanadian material could also contribute to the theory or 'science' of economics. On this subject there has been less writing (for instance, there is

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little on the history of economic thought), although one should mention some of Harry Johnson's work in international economics, eg, Economic Policies towards Less Developed Countries (1967) or his Essays in Monetary Economics (1967); or T.K. Rymes, On Concepts of Capital and Technical Change (1971); or J.F. Helliwell on Public Policies and Private Investment (1968); or Murray Kemp's Pure Theory of International Trade (1964), which is something of a classic. (The purist might not count Kemp as a Canadian author in spite of his long stay at McGill.) Among other names of international repute who have made significant contributions for work in various branches of the discipline are A.D. Scott, G. Rosenbluth, R. Wonnacott, D.M. Winch, S. Ostry, A.E. Safarían, C. Barber, G. Reuber, D. Hartle, W. Hood, and - as the saying goes - 'others too numerous to mention.' Canada has been well served by its economists. POLITICAL SCIENCE

As in other social sciences, the writing on government and politics has vastly expanded since 1960, both in depth and breadth. The standard texts on the federal government have gone marching on through successive and improved editions: The Government of Canada by Dawson and Ward (5th éd., 1970), and Democratic Government and Politics by Corry and Hodgetts (3rd éd., 1963). To these has been added another quality overview, J.R. Mallory's The Structure of Canadian Government (1971). Older institutions have been reappraised, as in F.A. Kunz's book on the Senate (1965). Following the earlier works of N. Ward and W.F. Dawson on the House of Commons, there is D. Smith, The Speakership (1965). A different and broader type of survey is also available, especially The Canadian Political System: Environment, Structure and Process by R.J. van Loon and M.S. Whittington (1971). There have been some shorter ones as well, such as those by W.L. White et al. (1972) and R.A. Khan et al. (1972), which have turned more to process and policy than to structures, and to the interrelation of politics with the social and economic environment. Books in this vein remind one of the early H.M. Clokie (1944), but they also use newer concepts - such as political 'socialization' and political 'culture' (borrowed chiefly from the United States but now in circulation internationally); and they have used other tools of analysis such as opinion research, statistical analysis, and quantification (borrowed almost wholly from other social sciences). A. Kornberg, Canadian Legislative Behaviour (1967) is of this newer 'survey and quantify' approach. It used to be true that the minor political parties, especially Social Credit, had been studied most, but that the great Liberal and Conservative parties were studied least. Alas, this is still true, in spite of J. Pickersgill, The Liberal Party (1962), and books by Heath MacQuarrie (1965) and J.L. Granatstein

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(1967) on the Conservative party, and of some journalistic ventures. Among the other aids are autobiographies, such as that of L.B. Pearson (1973), and the release of records, eg, those of Mackenzie King (éd. J. Pickersgill and D. Forster, 1960, 1968, 1970). The incredible Mackenzie King has also been the subject of a biography by R. MacGregor Dawson and Blair Neatby (1958, 1963); and Roger Graham has written about the unrepentant Arthur Meighen (3 vols., 1960, 1963, 1965). There are also memoirs such as those of Pierre Sevigny (1965), and of Judy LaMarsh (1969), and of C.G. Power (ed. by N. Ward, 1966). D. Smith has written on Walter Gordon under the title Gentle Patriot (1973). Of the political biographies, one of the best is Richard Gwyn's Smallwood: The Unlikely Revolutionary (1968). Thanks to these and many more books of a similar kind, we can now pierce a great deal of the darkness in which politics and parties were formerly shrouded. On parties in general and their part in the political process we have been fortunate with such books as F.C. Englemann and M. Schwartz, Political Parties and the Canadian Social Structure (1967), and even on the lesser parties there has been new material and new thinking, as in Leo Zakuta (1964) and in Walter Young's more extended analysis (1969) - both on the CCF. S. Lipset's Agrarian Socialism has been revised and improved (1968), and M.B. Stein has written on Social Credit in Quebec ( 1973). Maurice Pinard, The Rise of a Third Party (1971), is a study in political sociology, linking party (the Créditistes) with more general political theory. Even the Communist party has been historically analysed by W. Rodney (1968). On elections and their relation to parties we have T.H. Quaker, The Election Process in Canada (1970); Peter Regenstreif on parties and voting in the Diefenbaker years (1965); R.I. Cohen, Quebec Votes (1965); John Meisel, Working Papers on Canadian Politics (enlarged edn., 1973) which, among other things, treats of the elections of 1968 and 1972; J. M. Beck, Pendulum of Power (1968); J.C. Courtney, éd., Voting in Canada (1967); and J. Laponce, People vs Politics (1969). New material has both extended our knowledge and suggested reforms in K.Z. Paltiel, Political Party Financing in Canada (1970), and we have J.C. Courtney on The Selection of National Party Leaders in Canada (1973). Pressure group studies are in short supply in Canada, but the position has been improved somewhat with Gad Horowitz (1968), Martin Robin (1968), and D. Kwavnick (1972) - all writing on the relation of labour and politics. Obviously there is a large mine yet to be explored, not only of pressure groups in themselves, but also of their relation to politics, in spite of a few special studies by Helen Dawson, G.B. Doern, Malcolm Taylor, and others. R. Presthus, Elite Accommodation in Canadian Politics (1973), goes some way towards opening up the mine. In the last decade or so a number of anthologies in Canadian political

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science have been compiled. These do duty for full-length books, being culled largely from professional journals. In another respect they respond to the student and public desire to know more about the realities of the political system. They are thus valuable teaching aids (except that some of them lack any focus or viewpoint), and are at the same time a stimulus to research by pointing in the directions where we are ignorant. Among the better known are Paul Fox, éd., Politics: Canada (3rd éd., 1970), Hugh Thorburn, éd., Party Politics in Canada (3rd éd., 1972), O. Kruhlak et al., eds., The Canadian Political Process (rev. éd., 1973) and The Political Process in Canada, edited by J.H. Aitchison (1963). F. Vaughan et al. have brought out a work on Contemporary Issues in Canadian Politics ( 1970). Constitutional and legal studies have proceeded apace, as one might expect, since this field was pioneered first. The older books and scholars are well known and need not be enumerated here (see Volume n of the Literary History of Canada, p 48). A few among the newer books are Alexander Smith, The Commerce Power in Canada and the United States (1963), P. Russell, Leading Constitutional Decisions (rev. éd., 1973) and O.P. Browne, The Judicial Committee and the British North America Act (1967). G.V. LaForest, L.C. Greene, J.G. Castel, Charles Bourne, and others have gone beyond purely Canadian topics into sundry branches of international, environmental, and space law. On judicial review and the constitution in general are E. McWhinney, Judicial Review (4th éd., 1969); B.L. Strayer, Judicial Review of Legislation in Canada (1968); notably R.I. Cheffins, The Constitutional Process in Canada (1969); and an anthology, W.E. Lederman, éd., The Courts and the Canadian Constitution (1964). Once the 'winds of change' had blown through the Vatican and its Church, similar drafts of fresh air were bound in due course to affect even the legal profession of Canada. At any rate law reform is now 'in the air.' For that reason a concern for civil liberties and rights for all - including the hitherto 'disadvantaged' groups in society - has increasingly marked legal scholarship in this country. One thinks, for example, of books by a new generation of scholars which includes D.A. Schmeiser (1964), Mark MacGuigan (1966), W. Tarnopolsky (1966), J.N. Lyon and R.G. Atkey (1970), and Allan Gotlieb (1970). A most interesting aspect of this trend is the study of the judicial system itself, two such convincing works being Martin L. Friedland, Detention before Trial (1965), and J. Hogarth, Sentencing as a Human Process (1971). The Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (first report 1965) was a kind of grand inquest of the nation in its French-English relationships and consequently in its whole federal aspect. It commissioned many studies - too numerous to list here - which threw light on the peculiar nature

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of the Canadian federation. Masses of official documents and other writings exist with special references to the efforts at rewriting a constitution (a consummation not necessarily to be wished), and about sharing revenues and expenditures. Federalism, and federal-provincial relations, have in fact been one of the dominating interests of political science in the last decade, as indeed they have been of political life since 1867. What redeems this century-old debate from the tediousness which has always been its trademark is the emergence of the French Fact - the Quiet Revolution, the Parti Québécois, and the possibility of Quebec secession. A sprinkling of the books in English must suffice to illustrate this preoccupation with the new federalism: P.-A. Crépeau and C.B. Macpherson, eds., The Future of Canadian Federalism (1965), R.M. Burns, éd., One Country or Two? (1971), J.P. Meekison, éd., Canada's Federalism: Myth or Reality? (2nd éd., 1971), D.V. Smiley, Canada in Question (1972), and Richard Simeon, Federal-Provincial Diplomacy (1972). And of course there are the writings of P.E. Trudeau himself, so well known that perhaps only one needs to be mentioned here: Federalism and the French Canadians (1968). Of extreme prominence today, and perhaps of importance to the future of Canada, is the appearance of an articulate nationalism, (see also under economics). In fact, two kinds of nationalist writing have entered the social sciences, as indeed other kinds of literature. These are: Quebec nationalism and an all-Canadian nationalism. Both varieties range through the customary spectrum of right-wing to left-wing politics. The Quebec separatist position is the more understandable and is of course quite incompatible with one Canadian state. It can draw something from the past, and it is entirely French, being bound together and to some extent insulated, by language. The panCanadian nationalism is harder to defend. It is beset by regionalisms, and is also on the horns of a cruel dilemma, since all of the arguments which it uses on behalf of one Canada pure and undefiled by foreign (read United States) influence, can also be turned by Quebec nationalism against the one Canada idea. The references to French-Canadian nationalism of the past are no longer good enough today. Among the newer works in English and in English translation on nationalism in Quebec are: H.B. Myers, The Quebec Revolution (1964), S. Chaput-Rolland, My Country: Canada or Quebec? (1966), R. Levesque, An Option for Quebec (1968), M. Rioux, Quebec in Question (1971); D. Thomson, éd., Quebec Society and Politics (1973); and the collections made by R. Cook (1969), Richard Jones (1972), and others. One should perhaps speak also of Pierre Vallières, White Niggers of America (1971), and Choose (1972), the later recantation of his earlier tactical views. There is also a whole literature, in both English and French, about the

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FLQ crisis of 1970 - mostly critical (with hindsight) of the governments of Quebec and of Canada. So far as the English-language writings on this subject are concerned, most of them are ephemera from the Canadian nationalist core of writers in Ontario. Denis Smith's Bleeding Hearts ... Bleeding Country (1971) is perhaps the best of this genre. The most moderate and multi-disciplinary statements on nationalism may be seen in P. Russell, éd., Nationalism in Canada (1966). A scholarly inquiry is D.V. Smiley's The Canadian Political Nationality (1967); and there is always Ramsay Cook, The Maple Leaf Forever (1971). George Grant has become a prophet with great honour in his own country because of his nationalist Lament for a Nation (2nd éd., 1970). Few, if any, scholars have studied in depth the impact of the United States upon Canada in fields other than the economic; a fact which is emphasized in R.A. Preston, éd., The Influence of the United States on Canadian Development ( 1972). One cannot, in all conscience, cite the many polemical 'non-books' on the Americanization of this and that in Canada. The political question about native peoples - Indians and Eskimos (Inuit) which has overshadowed all others is that of government policy towards them. Is the goal eventual assimilation; or are 'native cultures' to be left alone, on reservations or elsewhere? It is easy to be dogmatic, and to say that nothing can stop the process of assimilation. However, it is not clear whether all natives want the same thing, because they differ so much among themselves. The writing on the native peoples has tended to cross the different disciplines, and for the most part is listed under sociology (q.v.). Health services also raise political questions, both in the provision of health care - doctor and hospital services; and in the control and use of non-medical drugs. (Again see under sociology.) But these subjects have been explored in only a limited way by political scientists. Shifting now to provincial governments, one notes that, besides those already covered by earlier books (in Volume II of the Literary History of Canada), several other provinces have since been written about - there is a volume by F.F. Schindeler, Responsible Government in Ontario (1969), an excellent study, Politics in Newfoundland by S.J.R. Noel (1971); and a two-volume study of British Columbia by Martin Robin (1972, 1973), which however must be read cautiously because of its bias and carelessness. It is, however, often entertaining. N. Ward and D. Spafford have edited Politics in Saskatchewan (1968). Alberta in the past has been mined for Social Credit material, but there is no up-to-date study of politics in that province. For Quebec, apart from H.F. Quinn's The Union Nationale (1963) and such aids as Leslie Roberts' biography of Duplessis (1963), one must go to the periodical literature, and of course to the recent literature in French. A systematic knowledge of provincial government and politics as a whole is still sadly

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lacking. Martin Robin (1972) and D. Rowat( 1973) have made the first attempts on a comparative basis. The books are also not numerous when we turn to public administration. But there are more than appear at first sight, since many of the writings of other kinds on government often have a high administrative component. W.E. Grasham and Germain Julien have a good Canadian Public Administration Bibliography (1972), which includes work published also on many kinds of non-government administrations. A book by J.S. Hodgson, Public Administration (1969) is a rarity, being entirely on Canada. Among the new anthologies are W.D.K. Kernaghan and W.H. Willms, eds., Public Administration in Canada (2nd éd., 1971), and that edited by Kernaghan alone on bureaucracy (2nd éd., 1973), which focuses upon the links between policy and administration. J.E. Hodgetts has added to his earlier studies A Physiology of Government 1867-1970 (1973), and we have a definitive book on at least one institution, The Civil Service Commission, by Hodgetts, McCloskey, Whitaker and Wilson (1972). And on the administration of Canadian Crown Corporations there is C.A. Ashley and R.G.H. Smails (1965). Saul J. Frankel has written Staff Relations in the Civil Service (1962), now somewhat out of date. On many aspects of administration we have little in book form for the national level and even less for the provincial and municipal levels. Nor are there books on organizational or administrative theory by Canadians. We know a bit more about, say, the Treasury Board, thanks to W.L. White and J.C. Strick (1970). Memoirs of civil servants are usually cautious, but they tell us a good deal of value. One thinks of Arnold Heeney's memoirs (1972). K. Archibald's Sex and the Public Service (1970) is about women in the federal service, a topical subject now that the status of women is being furthered by government policy. It may not yet be time for a book on the administration of another policy: bilingualism. Urban and regional studies have had an exceptional proliferation. It has dawned on Canadians that more then 80 per cent of them are urban dwellers, despite the fondly held myth that we are a people of the great outdoors and the northern frontier. Moreover, in their growth our cities have turned up problems, or what are thought to be problems, so that government attention (and research money) has been increasingly devoted to find solutions to those 'problems' (or, sometimes, 'crises'). Much of the publication has thus been 'mission-oriented' and, at an even more elementary level, descriptive. There is not one book dealing with municipal government as a whole in Canada, except for K. Crawford's out-of-date study in 1954. The reader may begin with a number of piecemeal studies, of varying quality, eg, T.J. Plunkett, Urban Canada and its Government (1968), D.C. Rowat, The Canadian Municipal System (1969), L.D.

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Feldman and M.D. Goldrick, eds., Politics and Government of Urban Canada (2nd éd., 1972), or N.H. Lithwick, Urban Canada: Problems and Prospects (1970). The advantages of the last two are partly multi-disciplinary, and they direct our thinking to the consideration of political and other theories that might serve as a guide to our urban future. One of the great drawbacks to the study of urbanization is in fact the lack of any agreed theory. Many of the so-called political theories about municipalities are simply myths. As for economic theory, urban growth and its problems have been sadly ignored. Economics has always been keenly conscious of time, but certainly not of city-space. Hence it is heartening to find that economists are beginning at long last to grope around for theory that makes sense of cities. In this connection, one must commend the pioneers who have ventured into this territory, N.H. Lithwick and G. Paquet, eds., Urban Studies: A Canadian Perspective (1968). It is possible that the main defect of the urban literature as a whole is a defect not found in any of its parts. There are excellent books on land use, planning, zoning, city design, architecture, urban geography and sociology and demography and history, housing, financing, sewage disposal, neighbourhood action groups, élites - and so the list could go on, like the Arabian Nights tales. To paraphrase slightly: 'they've got the bridle and the curb, all right, but where's the bloody horse?' In short, every separate aspect is written about, but no one has made sense of the city as a whole: not even of the how, let alone the why and wherefore, in any comprehensive theory drawn - or welded together - from the various disciplines, including economics. Alas, perhaps none can be found; or perhaps many, all fiercely contending, will co-exist; or to change the mataphor: the main thing may be to keep the boat afloat, since we do not know either our origin or our destination. One is tempted to leave it at that, with mere reference to the excellent bibliographical services now available, and to the excellent monographs prepared for Urban Canada by Gillespie, Lithwick, Feldman, Reynolds, and Smith. This would be unfair perhaps to many of the writers on urban affairs in Canada -to John N. Jackson, The Canadian City (1973), J. and R. Simmons, Urban Canada (1969); A. Rose, Governing Metropolitan Toronto (1972); Harold Kaplan, The Regional City (1965), and Urban Political Systems (1967); or to the recent Urban Systems Development in Central Canada, ed. by L.S. Bourne and R.D. MacKinnon (1972); James Lorimer for The Real World of City Politics (1970); and to very many more who have written on urban or regional government in one or more of its many aspects. Alas, if merely to live is to commit some injustice, to select is always to distort. Of the political institutions newly studied, but certainly not yet fully covered are: The Structures ofPolicy-Making in Canada, ed. by G.B. Doern and R. Aucoin (1971); the relation of science and politics by Doern (1972); the

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office of the prime minister by T.A. Hockin, éd., Apex of Power (1971), a subject about which, like the Cabinet, and caucus, we know far too little; the politics of broadcasting, (F. Peers, 1969), and of airlines (David Corbett, 1965); immigration into Canada (F. Hawkins, 1972); the ombudsman, an office made known to Canadians largely by D. Rowat (2nd éd., 1968); Some Observations on Participatory Democracy, by F. MacKinnon (1973), and a reader on citizen participation in Canada by J.A. Draper, ed. (1971). For obvious reasons Canada's foreign relations have been much more studied and written about in recent years. Unfortunately the biennial series Canada in World Affairs has not appeared since the volume by Peyton Lyon (1968) which brought events to 1963; the flow of collections of documents and speeches on foreign policy, maintained formerly by R. A. MacKay and others, stopped at 1954. One hopes that these series will soon be resumed. External affairs, like urban affairs, are multi-disciplinary, so the range of books is large. On foreign aid there is A.A. Fatouros and R.N. Kelson, Canada's Overseas Aid (1964), and Keith Spicer on the same subject, relating it to foreign policy (1966). On treaties we have Canadian Treaty-Making, Allan Gotlieb (1968), and David Deener has edited a volume, CanadianUnitedStates Treaty Relations (1963); a topic on which R.J. Deli sle( 1967) has also published. On our newly awakened concern with northern resources and sovereignty there is a growing literature, at least since R. St J. MacDonald, éd., The Arctic Frontier (1966). Others have written on defence policy, eg, Andrew Brewin (1965), Jon B. McLin (1967), and Colin S. Gray (1972); H. von Riekhoff has written NATO: Issues and Prospects (1969), a subject on which John Gellner (1970) and Peyton Lyon (1971) have also published. On peace-keeping we have Alistair M. Taylor et al. (1968), and David Cox, ed. (1969); on 'middle power' status, J. King Gordon, éd., Canada's Role as a Middle Power (1966). There recently has been much soul-searching for Canada's role in the world. Officialdom has published a great deal, so it is fortunate that independent scholars have also engaged in this quest; eg, Peter Dobell, Canada's Search for New Roles (1972); S. Clarkson, éd., An Independent Foreign Policy for Canada? (1968); Lewis Hertzman et al., Alliances and Illusions (1969); J.L. Granatstein (1962 and 1969), and J.W. Warnock (1970). In much of this writing we are regarded as a satellite of the United States, sometimes as virtually a colony, being exhorted to stand up for our rights, as in Independence: the Canadian Challenge, by A. Rotstein and G. Lax, eds. (1972). (On trade and economic relations with the us, see under Economics.) More objective, although not without a viewpoint on the analyses of foreign policy as a whole, are Peyton Lyon (1963); R.W. Reford, Canada and Three Crises (1968); James Eayrs, The Art of the Possible (1961) and/n Defence of Canada (3 vols., 1964, 1965, and 1972); John Holmes, The Better Part of

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Valour (1970); and more recently still, B. Thordarson, Trudeau and Foreign Policy (1972). On the actual making of foreign policy there is R.B. Farrell (1967), a disappointing book; but an interesting attempt to relate domestic issues to foreign policy is made by T.A. Hockin et al., in The Canadian Condominium (1972). D.C. Thomson and R.F. Swanson, Canadian Foreign Policy: Options and Perspectives (1971), is equally interesting but broader in scope. Canadians have also written about international relations in a wider sense than merely Canada's foreign policy. There are many 'area studies' specialists now busily at work. Among them are H. Gordon Skilling, A. Bromke, Teresa Harmstone, B. Bociurkiw, R. Selucky, and others, on Soviet and east European affairs; J.R. Cartwright and J. Nellis, among others, on Africa; Michael Brecher and E. L. M. Burns on the Middle East ; J. F. Melby on China(1968), Michael Brecher on India(1966), and so on. On international affairs there has also been some writing of a more general, even theoretical nature, eg, K.J. Holsti, International Relations: A Framework for Analysis (2nd éd., 1967), and O.R. Holsti on content analysis with reference to international relations in Enemies in Politics (1967). This looks like a coming field, as Canadians turn their eyes outward to understand and explain the international system as a whole (which, if it exists, is clearly sui generis). Luckily there are many able young scholars ploughing this furrow. Other non-Canadian topics of several kinds are being written about too: eg, on UK political parties, R.J. Jackson Rebels and Whips (1968); Jackson and Stein, eds., Issues in Comparative Politics (1971); J. Kersell et al. on Comparative Political Problems (1969); D. Verney on politics in Sweden and Britain; D.Rowat on federal capital cities around the world; E.L.M. Burns on disarmament (1972). There also has been a turning towards more political theory. No one else has been, or perhaps need be, quite so speculative in high-level theory as W. Leiss (1972). Since democratic theory was surveyed by H.B. Mayo (1960), C.B. Macpherson has turned to the same topic (1965), and more recently in Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval (1973). George Woodcock, surely Canada's most prolific author, has written Anarchism (1962) and, still in the Herbert Read tradition, The Rejection of Politics (1972). Claude Ake has written A Theory of Political Integration (1967), Christian Bay has revised The Structure of Freedom (1965), and W.J. Stankiewicz has edited/n Defense of Sovereignty (1969) and written and edited other works. Z.A. Jordan has written distinguished volumes on Marxist theory. Some theorists have turned to the reinterpretation of authors famous in the history of political thought: among them are C.B. Macpherson on Hobbes and Locke in his Theory of Possessive Individualism (1964); F.M. Barnard on

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Social and Political Thought of Herder (1965); J. W. Gunn on Politics and the Public Interest in the 17th Century; (1969); George Feaver on Sir Henry Maine (1969); A. Parel, éd., The Political Calculus (1972), a volume on Machiavelli; D.R. Cameron, The Social Thought of Rousseau and Burke (1973), and the list could be extended. Such a flowering of political theory was quite unknown among Canadian scholars in the past. Other kinds of book are now being written that we could roughly call histories of political ideas in Canada. This trend is best exemplified by Carl Berger, The Sense of Power (1970), on ideas of Canadian imperialism, and by A.P. Thornton (1965), on the same subject. Such books are in turn closely related to those that attempt an interpretation of Canadian history. There is, eg, John Warkentin, éd., Canada: A Geographic Interpretation (1968). There are also some efforts at Marxist explanation, both from the old and new Left, but generally speaking the concept of class has not been much used in Canadian history or politics. Nationalism, always underrated by Marxists, has loomed much larger as a unifying theme. George Grant, in Technology and Empire (1969), seems to be a technological determinist. As to the more narrowly political, the model (or typology) of 'consociational' democracy is sometimes offered, being written on, eg, by S.J.R. Noel and K.D. McRae. This model is partially testable in Presthus, Elite Accommodation (op. cit.), and in his forthcoming second volume. McRae has also used the 'fragmentation' model of Louis Hartz for the founding of new societies. Gad Horowitz has used similar ideas, emphasizing the Tory element in Canada which makes a socialism also possible (unlike the USA). These high-level flights have their heuristic value. They may even be partly true. At any rate they now make it possible if one were to put together an anthology of Canadian political thought to offer a choice of general explanatory theory, as well as the usual 'isms' and the writing on special political topics. Finally, in assessment, one may say that political science in Canada has leaped ahead in the last dozen or so years. The knowledge of things political has been greatly extended, new methods of analysis have been put to work, and the discipline is more professionalized. Whether the frontiers of this so-called 'science' have been extended as much as in economics is very doubtful. The progress, including that in political theory, is not yet tested by time; but it can certainly be said that scholars of international recognition now adorn several branches of the political field of study. We have come a long way since Stephen Leacock wrote his textbook in 1906. SOCIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY

Sociological writing in Canada started from a very small base in the early

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1960s. If any school of writing dominated, it was that of the historical, associated with names such as S.D. Clark, and, like the Innis school of economic history, it centred upon Toronto. Since then the number of scholars has increased enormously. Of all the social sciences, sociology has had to seek the largest proportion of teachers from outside the country, particularly from the United States. The nationalist zealots have tended to give the impression that sociology is an American invention (perhaps even a plot) by American 'imperialism' to convert Canada into a 'colony.' In fact, the world-famous names in sociology are not American at all but European - Comte, Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Le Play, Spencer - to mention only a few of the more outstanding. There is no doubt, however, that many sociologists in Canada have merely taken over the methods and techniques of sociology in the United States, and adapted them to the Canadian material. Books for beginners in sociology could conceivably take two forms: one, teaching the principles of the subject, using Canadian material for illustration. This is the way, for instance, that economics is generally taught. Or, two, the attempt could be made to survey Canadian society from the perspectives of the discipline of sociology. This is the way that sociology (like political science) is generally taught. No doubt the difference can be regarded merely as a matter of emphasis, but it can also be seen as an implied estimation of the greater progress (or rigour) that has been made by economics. The only Canadian texts (in the first sense above) are those by Guy Rocher, A General Introduction to Sociology (trans, from the French, 1972), an important theoretical text; and by Crysdale and Beattie, Sociology Canada: An Introductory Text (1973). Books that use the other approach are fairly numerous. The standard survey is perhaps that edited by B.R. Blishen et al. (3rd éd., 1968). Other books widely used are W.E. Mann, éd., Canada: A Sociological Profile (2nd éd., 1971), and J. Gallagher and R. Lambert, eds., Social Process and Institutions: The Canadian Case (1971). Among those emphasizing change are B.Y. Card, Trends and Change in Canadian Society (1968), R.J. Ossenberg, éd., Canadian Society: Pluralism, Change and Conflict (1971), and Social and Cultural Change in Canada (2 vols., 1970), edited by the indefatigable W.E. Mann. Perhaps one should add B. Finnigan and C. Gonick, eds., Making It: The Canadian Dream (1972), which is more personal and interpretive. Similar works, not always easy to fit into a disciplinary pigeonhole, are George Woodcock's Canada and the Canadians (1970), and - less wide-ranging and literate - R.H. Leach, éd., Contemporary Canada (1968). The classic on stratification is, of course, John Porter's The Vertical Mosaic (1965), and, in briefer statistical form, his Canadian Social Structure (1967). These are now supplemented by Curtis and Scott, Social

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Stratification in Canada (1973). With a more historical approach there is S.D. Clark's The Developing Canadian Community (2nd éd., 1968). An attempt to summarize issues is contained in C.L. Boydell et al., Critical Issues in Canadian Society (1971). A contribution to an understanding of Canadian national feeling has been made by M.A. Schwartz, Public Opinion and Canadian Identity (1967). As in political science (and to a lesser extent, economics), sociologists have attempted to analyse the urbanization of Canada. Of a general nature are F.L. Jones, Dimensions of the Urban Social Structure (1969), S.D. Clark, The Suburban Society (1966), and M. Katz, The Hamilton Project (1971). At the opposite pole -the rural life -are L. Nelson, Rural Sociology (1969) and H.C. Abell, Rural Families and their Homes (1971), and somewhere in between is B.Y. Card, éd., Perspectives on Regions and Regionalism (1969). The sociology of underdevelopment is attempted in a rather uneven book by Zimmerman and Duwors, eds. (1970). Problems of adjustment to town life and of the decline of some rural settlements have all been written about. C. Zimmerman and G. Moneo have studied The Prairie Community System (1971), and J.A. Abramson, Rural to Urban Adjustment (1969). An especially interesting set of studies has been made of the recent resettlement in Newfoundland, eg, by N. Iverson and D. Matthews, Communities in Decline (1969); J.F. Paris, Cat Harbour (2nd éd., 1972); R.L. Dewitt, Public Policy and Community Protest (1969); Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen in the Age of Industry (2nd éd., 1972); L.J. Chiaramonte, Craftsman-Client Contacts (1970); and R. Paine, éd., Patrons and Brokers in the East Arctic (1971), dealing with Eskimos and Indians. Others have studied similar problems of adjustment to industry and changing conditions elsewhere in the country - eg, a good book by A.H. Richmond on ethnic segregation in Toronto (1972); and another by S. Ziegler, on Italian Households in Toronto (1972). Race relations are of course too important to be subsumed under urban adjustment and modernization. A.H. Richmond has brought together a volume of readings (1972) and there is S. Lieberson, Language and Ethnic Relations in Canada (1970); Gerald Walsh, Indians in Transition (1971); Teaching Prejudice (1971) by G. McDiarmid and D. Pratt, is a content analysis study of textbooks which document the 'stereotypes' held by Canadians of various minorities, but says nothing of the effects. As for studies of the special pieces of the Canadian mosaic, there are Davis and Krauter, The Other Canadians: Profiles of Six Minorities (1973), R.W. Winks, The Blacks in Canada (1971), and the welcome two volumes by J.L. Elliott, éd., Native Peoples, and Immigrant Groups (1971), and A.H. Richmond, Post-War Immigrants in Canada (1967). A considerable number of books have appeared on the Indians of Canada,

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and a few on the Métis and Eskimo (Inuit). These have been of several kinds eg, those by Indians themselves such as Harold Cardinal, The Unjust Society (1969), and others of a more personal nature, such as K. Gooderham, éd., / am an Indian (1969). Some, such as Heather Robertson's Reservations are for Indians (1970) are part of a new literature of social protest. More professional studies have appeared, eg, on the Iroquois by Alma Green in Forbidden Voice (1972); on the Hurons, by E.G. Trigger (1969), on the Shoshoneans, by Edward Dorn (1966), on the Blackfeet by H. Dempsey (1972), on the Métis of the far north by R. Slobodin (1966), and on west coast Indians (see also Volume n of the Literary History of Canada) such as the Kwakiutl by R.P. and B.C. Rohner (1970). Other important works have been written by A.G. Bailey, The Conflict of European and Eastern Algonkian Cultures, 1504-1700: A Study in Canadian Civilization (2nd éd., 1969) and J.F. Prendergast and E.G. Trigger, Cartier's Hochelaga and theDawson Site (1972). On the Indians in general there are E.P. Patterson, The Canadian Indian (1972), H.B. Hawthorn's Survey of Indians of Contemporary Canada (2 vols., 1967), and the excellent reader edited by Mark Nagler, Perspectives on the North American Indians (1972). The Eskimo of the Arctic have been studied by F. V. Valentine and F.G. Vallée ( 1968). The adjustments to modern life to be made by Eskimo have been investigated by J. and I. Honigmann (1965), and that of Indians by E. Dosman (1972). Sociology in Canada, unlike in Britain, did not begin from social work. Nonetheless, a considerable portion of Canadian sociology has been directed towards social problems or social welfare. Two such books are: R. Laskin, éd., Social Problems: A Canadian Profile (1964), and John S. Morgan, Welfare and Wisdom (1966). Social deviance and crime appear to have considerable attraction for sociologists. This is quite understandable. Consensus and conformity in some measure (we do not know exactly how much) are necessary for any society to hold together. All societies also have some conflict, and this is largely the origin and substance of politics. But non-conformity that takes a non-political form is generally what is meant by social deviance, since crime is illegal, whereas deviance may not be. Writers in this field include: W.T. McGrath, éd., Crime and its Treatment in Canada (1965); W.E. Mann, Society behind Bars (1968) and his edited Social Deviance in Canada (1971); and another reader, Deviant Behaviour and Societal Reaction, ed. by Boydell et al. ( 1972). E. Fallah has written on capital punishment (1972). There is also, as one might expect after the reports of the Le Dain Commission (1972-3), recent literature on drugs and their abuse and what to do about it, but little of this information is professionally sociological. Some of the books however are certainly informative, eg, that by H. and O.J. Kalant

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(1971), by A. Malcolm, misleadingly titled The Pursuit of Intoxication (1971), and by R. Whitaker, Drugs and the Law (1969). On one aspect of the delivery of health care, as a result of the Hall Commission Report (1964-5), one may cite B.R. Blishen, Doctors and Doctrines (1969). A reader on the so-called 'counter-cultures,' entitled Society's Shadow (1972), edited by K. Westhues, is moderately good. In a nationalistic book, Read Canadian, edited by R. Fulford, D. Godfrey, and .A. Rotstein (1972), James Lorimer says (p 161) that 'the subject of poverty in Canada is an American invention.' But this, even though one sees what is meant, is really going too far. The next thing we know, the Americans will be blamed for the Elizabethan poor laws in England. The truth is that as Canada has become more affluent and has grown a more sensitive social conscience, the poverty question has thus come to the fore, in public debate and in scholarly study. Poverty, including that of the working poor, which makes up more than half of the 'poor,' is now perceived as important enough to have had a Senate committee report (1971), and a kind of counter-report by I. Adams et al., The Real Poverty Report (1971). On poverty in general, and its possible elimination, there is a bibliography (rev. éd., 1967), by Freda Paltiel, and another by B. Schlesinger for both Canada and the USA (1966). There are such readings as W.E. Mann, éd., Poverty and Social Policy in Canada (1970), and J. Harp and J. Hofley, eds., Poverty in Canada (1971). Other studies deal with one aspect (eg, housing) by M. Dennis and S. Fish (1972), whereas others deal with leisure, and anumber of valuable documentaries have appeared of special areas, eg, Cabbagetown Diary: A Documentary by J. Butler (1970), or special aspects such as that of men on relief (Hofley and Geisel, 1971). The life of the working poor in a Toronto district has been detailed in J. Lorimer and M. Phillips, Working People (1971), and W.A. and M. Westley have written The Emerging Worker (1971). The literature on poverty also overlaps in places with studies of housing, the guaranteed annual income, regional disparities, and native peoples. It is not easy to separate sociology from anthropology or indeed from parts of all social studies. It is mainly a question of emphasis and approach. How, for instance, shall we classify H. Halpert and G.M. Story, eds., Christmas Mumming in Newfoundland (1969)? Or R. Anderson and C. Wadel, eds., North Atlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing (1970)? On the other hand, if only for convenience, many of the studies on the indigenous peoples - Indians and Eskimo (Inuit) - are best classified as anthropology: eg, Keith Crawe, A Cultural Geography of the Northern Foxe Basin, NWT (1969); N.A. Chance, Conflict in Culture (about the Cree Indians, 1968), and perhaps books by B.G. Trigger on pre-history and on the

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Hurons (1968, 1969), by A.R. King on education and Indian identity (1967), and by others such as Brenda Beck on Peasant Society in Konku (1972). Social psychology would perhaps be the best characterization of John D. Ketchum,Ruhleben:A Prison Camp Society (1965). Similar doubts about categories apply to E.F. Sharp and G. A. Kristjanson, The People of Manitoba (1951-61) (1966), or to Betty Macleod, éd., Demography and Educational Planning (1970). More clearly in the demography field are C. Grimstaff et al., Population Issues in Canada (1971), and a slight book by L.R. Marsden, Population Probe: Canada (1972), and perhaps the best to date, W. Kalbach and W. McVey, The Demographic Bases of Canadian Society (1971), although it is descriptive rather than explanatory. Many Canadian institutions have been written about by sociologists, sometimes skilfully, sometimes scarcely rising above the level of journalism. One of the new issues of political life is that of bilingualism, and sociologists have made a start on this issue, as with R. Darnell, éd., Linguistic Diversity in Canadian Society (1971), and R.J. Joy, Languages in Conflict (1972). But since the understanding of Quebec society as a whole is necessary, one must go to Quebec sociologists, starting perhaps with Marcel Rioux and Yves Martin, French-Canadian Society (1964), and to historians such as Mason Wade. F. Elkin has made a careful inventory of research on The Family in Canada (1964). There is enough material now for the first book of readings, K. Ishwaran, éd., The Canadian Family (1971), but unfortunately this book is somewhat a-theoretical. H.H. Irving has written The Family Myth (1972). Besides his work on the family, Elkin has written Rebels and Colleagues: Advertising and Social Change in French Canada (1973). And besides her Canadian work Aileen Ross has written Student Unrest in India (1969). The student militancy of the 1960s (and there was some in Canada) has not really been investigated properly from a sociological viewpoint. Neither for that matter have universities themselves. R. Breton has, however, studied career decisions of Canadian youth (1972), and B. MacFarlane and others have worked on manpower planning. Oddly enough there is not much analysis by Canadians of the Women's Lib 'movement' in Canada. B. Singer and L. Green have written on communications (1972), the former having also edited a reader on the subject (1972). Leisure has to some extent been treated, eg, by C. Brightbill (1966). Both the media and leisure - as well as many other subjects such as women in society, the world of work, aging will very likely engender investigations into the many gaps that exist. Already the younger scholars are busy, eg, D. Solomon, who has studied hospitals (1966), in doing so following a tradition set at McGill by Oswald Hall. A few have written on methodology, among them D.F. Forcese and S. Richer,

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Social Research Methods (1972). An unusually theoretical reader is D. Da vies and K. Herman, eds., Social Space: Canadian Perspectives (1971). If we ask whether Canadian sociologists have extended the frontiers of the discipline, the answer is not so easily given as in economics. The reason is partly that the two subjects are very different: in economics the extensions to theory and analysis are, so to speak, cumulative. Not so in sociology, which is a subject less easily defined and where almost no theories are agreed on. As in the days of the masters, such as Weber or Durkheim, there are today some 'over-arching' theories. One thinks, for example, of Talcott Parsons in the United States. But Canada has not yet produced such 'grand theorists' unless we count Marshall McLuhan, who is perhaps more justly called a social philosopher or a philosopher of history. There are, however, some theories, narrower in scope, such as the popular 'bonding' theory of Lionel Tiger, and the rather more general theorizing of Guy Rocher. We can say, however, that Canada has produced sociologists of international repute - Clark, Porter, Oswald Hall, F. Elkin, N. Keyfitz, and a very few others. We can also say that among the more notable work by sociologists in Canada has been some from Quebec, eg, that by R. Breton, H. Guindon, J. Brazeau, Philippe Garigue, Guy Bourassa, Guy Rocher, and others. A curious fact strikes the reviewer of Canadian sociology: a large part of it has not been done by foreigners after all, as the 'Canada-firsters' might lead us to think.

10 Critical Theory: Some Trends MALCOLM ROSS

Sometimes one wonders if literary criticism in Canada has not become a verbal universe in its own right, containing and controlling under its own inexorable laws all those spun-off pieces of mind - novels, poems, plays -that seem to whirl in archetypal space behind the fragile garrison line of the 49th parallel. Yet, as George Woodcock observed in an essay 'Away from Lost Worlds,' published in 1964 (included in Odysseus Ever Returning: Essays on Canadian Writers and Writings [1970] 10-11) it is 'only in the last decade' that 'Canadians have turned with any seriousness or much depth to the critical consideration of their own literature.' In Woodcock's opinion, Northrop Frye's annual reviews of Canadian poetry in Letters in Canada, which began to appear in 1952, mark a significant new development in our critical writing. By the end of the fifties, Woodcock asserts, younger critics 'had already begun to build on the foundation laid by Northrop Frye.' A counter-development in critical activity is also mentioned by Woodcock. In 'the undergrowth' of little magazines that began to appear in the fifties 'there is a tendency away from the mythological and metaphorical towards a preoccupation with speech rhythms and rather direct statement' - a tendency away from the grand archetypal design of Frye's aesthetic and towards the popular immediacy of American practice and attitude. It is the purpose of this essay to locate the central issues that have appeared in the critical thought of recent years in English Canada. No brief study of these issues can attempt to take account of the scores of critical articles that have appeared in the university quarterlies, Canadian Literature, Tamarack Review, Canadian Forum, Mosaic, Fiddlehead, Delta, Tish, Combustion, and CIVIn. What may be possible in limited space is an account and estimate of the main theoretical concerns and quarrels in our recent criticism. In any approach to recent criticism it is useful to remember that when, in 1928, A.J.M. Smith published in the Canadian Forum, 'Wanted - Canadian Criticism,' we had serving us as criticism a species of book reviewing (often

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anxiously patriotic and 'appreciative') and several earnest exercises in literary history, the most enduring of which was Archibald MacMechan's Headwaters of Canadian Literature. It was part of Smith's task to deliver us, if he could, from a blinkered prudery and a simple-minded maple leaf piety. But above all, he sought to call forth the philosophical critic who would 'examine the fundamental position of the artist' and who would make us conscious of our position in time, not just in space. Since then, of course, we have been shorn quite bare of our fleecy innocence. Our place in time has been located and relocated by Eli Mandel, Milton Wilson, and Marshall McLuhan. Our criticism sometimes breaks out beyond the prudent boundaries of philosophical endeavour, aspiring to the condition of a theology of literature, queening it over all we know and all we need to know. As Eli Mandel puts it in his fine introduction to Contexts of Canadian Criticism, we nowadays must interpret the function of criticism 'so broadly as to include whatever comes into the Canadian vision : in brief all those contexts within which discussions of literature in this country take place.' It is even possible to argue that much of what we refer to as literary criticism is not literary criticism at all. According to George Whalley, for instance, criticism should be a humble and ancillary occupation, guided, commanded and humiliated by literature. Its character is functional. ... At the least it is a means of inducing and sustaining reflection; at best it is a... means of heightening one's awareness of literature ... I should like to keep this simple function of criticism clear by splitting off from the term at one end everything that belongs in the abstract and speculative domains of poetics and aesthetic theory, and, at the other end everything that belongs to scholarship ... ('Scholarship and Criticism,' UTQ xxix [October 1959J42)

I suppose that this is a definition of what Mandel calls 'parasitic' as opposed to 'autonomous' criticism. It may seem to come close to what Frye means by 'reviewing.' Whalley, however, does not maintain that criticism can afford to be uninformed by aesthetic theory or by learning. Nor does he mean to suggest that we are to contemplate the work of art as if it hung suspended and alone in a value-free vacuum. Rather his pronouncement helps us to recognize that what we often think of as literary criticism in Canada is really a search for those very values - aesthetic, philosophical, social, moral - which should have, indeed sometimes may have, shaped and informed our literature. In short, we may have been, we may still be, in search of the ground of criticism: we may be in the process of devising a meta-criticism which can become the pre-condition of an authentic practical criticism at once faithful to literature and properly 'humiliated' by literature. It is with 'meta-criticism' that I shall be mainly concerned here. For the purposes of this essay, Frye's judgement of Layton is less important than his treatment of myth. Sutherland's reading of Pratt is less important than his conversion to 'the art-religion hypothesis.'

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Our meta-critical quest has been plagued from the beginning by two obsessive questions. The first (and it seems perennial) is nationalistic: Do we have a recognizable cultural identity? The second is like unto it: Do we indeed have a culture, a literature, our own moment of place in the larger imaginative order? The two questions have become inextricably entangled. For example, Frye's notion of 'the garrison mentality,' with its historical reference to an actual state of mind characteristic of pioneer communities, has grown into the symbol of an infinite series of'Establishments' - social, political, psychological, and even metaphysical. Frye, in attempting to specify a temper peculiarly Canadian, is at the same time making for us a myth, a little Canadian myth to be measured against the big myths of the verbal universe. I shall return to some consideration of Frye's aesthetic of the myth. At this point, it need only be said that in Frye, as in D.G. Jones and Margaret Atwood, the nagging question of a Canadian cultural identity persists, as it has (without full answer) from the time of Confederation. This search for 'identity' is, of course, really an effort to break out of the cocoon of colonialism. And we have found it difficult if not impossible to ponder the second question (the question of the quality and stature of our literature) without worrying about our colonial hangovers. The most perceptive essay on our predicament - and achievement - as colonials is A.G. Bailey's 'Evidences of Culture Considered as Colonial' (Culture and Nationality [1972]). More recently, John Moss, in Patterns of Isolation (1974), has demonstrated that, in writers like Sara Jeannette Duncan and John Richardson, an unashamed awareness of the colonial situation can be turned to the advantage of art. And, as we shall note later on, a somewhat similar claim was made by Milton Wilson and A.J.M. Smith. But a certain uneasiness remains and affects the way in which we put the larger aesthetic and philosophical question. John Sutherland's retort to Smith's introduction to The Book of Canadian Poetry (in the preface to Other Canadians, Part i [1947]) illustrates how our anxious national self-scrutiny can lead us from the question of identity to the greater question of the purpose and power of our literature. Sensing that, by 'the native tradition' Smith had really meant 'The Canadian Authors Association,' and by 'the cosmopolitan tradition' he had meant everything approved by T.S. Eliot in his Anglo-Catholic phase, Sutherland opened an attack on 'the art-religion hypothesis,' which he saw as a device taken over by 'Bishop' Smith to keep us colonial. Sutherland, therefore, would secularize art, strip it of all religious and metaphysical pretension, make it useable as a weapon in the class struggle. It is probable (as Wynne Francis and Miriam Waddington both attest) that Sutherland was never a thoroughgoing and instructed Marxist. In his attack on Smith he is, in the main, a Canadian continentalist resisting British

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influence on Canadian writing, whether that influence be exerted by T.S. Eliot, ' B i shop ' Smith, or the Anglo-Canadians of the Preview group. For e ven the avowed Marxist, Patrick Anderson, is put beyond the pale because he is British, middle-class, and damnably sophisticated. But if Sutherland's Marxism is little more than a tactical weapon in a war with the outlanders, his belief that literature should be made 'to express the aims of a people' (in this case, a people inescapably North American) ushers in a view of art which insists on the supreme importance of content and on extra-literary values which are to command the artist and which art must be made to affirm. Here is an aesthetic which might be called (after Frye) social 'Tarzanism,' extra-literary in the ends proposed, and in the means dependent on raw experience and the rawer idiom and rhythms of popular speech 'Brooklyn-bumism.' Sutherland, of course, was to repudiate the whole position he had adopted against Smith, against religion, against Europe, and his later aesthetic will have its part in a more rarefied debate soon to begin. But the populism and continentalism of his early essay seem still to reverberate in the work of a critic as persuasive as Warren Tallman. And twenty years after Sutherland's 'Other Canadians,' Robert McDougall, in his impassioned essay, 'The Dodo and the Cruising Auk: Class in Canadian Literature,' is urging Canadian writers to abandon the cosmopolitan and urbane tradition of an academic culture. In the words of Walt Whitman, McDougall tells our writers to turn their backs on academe and 'go freely with powerful and uneducated persons.' Like Sutherland, he looks hopefully to American examples and he is no less insistent that our writers, abandoning an alien gentility, should open their eyes and their minds to the facts of our time and our place. But McDougall is no Marxist, real or half-real, and he presents a socio-political aesthetic with a difference: It is not the reinforcing of the class struggle that is wanted, not the triumph of the proletariat nor of John Birch societies ... it is rather turbulence that is needed - the kind of turbulence that encompasses the whole of the social mosaic and makes possible within it that freedom of choice and of movement for the individual which, from a secular point of view, is the best means open to us of enabling him to realize the creative potential within him. (Canadian Literature, 18 [Autumn 1963] 19; essay reprinted in Contexts of Canadian Criticism)

Although McDougall says nothing about literature articulating 'the aims of the people,' it is obvious that for him, as for Sutherland, art has its roots in the social order. And his aesthetic is clearly secular. The 'art-religion hypothesis' is out of bounds to the writer engaged either in changing the world or in proclaiming from the eye of the hurricane the creative potential of a turbulent freedom.

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In both Sutherland and McDougall the question of a Canadian cultural identity is subsumed under a theory of the social matrix of all art. Suspect is the cultivated, the cosmopolitan, the urbane. To gain an identity is to lose it and then to 'go freely with powerful and uneducated persons.' But 'the Canadian question' is to be subsumed under far different aesthetic credos than this. It is Northrop Frye who has, more than anyone else, put into perspective and thus into a kind of hierarchical order and coherence the nagging questions that have beset our criticism. In Frye's thought, 'the Canadian question' rises not only to the question of the social relevance of art, the content of art, but to questions about the religious and mythic reach of art. Whether or not one is disposed to follow him all the way, it is indisputable that he has opened for us a mode of discourse which ignores nothing and claims everything. At the core of his aesthetic is the assumption that art is art and not another thing, that art is craft, that art is shaped from art, takes life from a life which is its own and gives out that life, which then is life indeed. The social realist is disturbed by this aesthetic. Is there nothing before art? Does not art well up from life itself? Defenders of'the art-religion hypothesis' are equally disturbed. Is there nothing beyond art? Does not art, the greatest art, open us to the contemplation of a reality beyond and above all art? Such issues inevitably arise in any discussion of Frye's aesthetic. But before approaching Frye and the implications for our critical theory of some of the responses to Frye, I shall look at two major essays which have a bearing on the ideas advanced by Sutherland and McDougall and which will serve as a link between 'the art-society hypothesis' and the mythopoeic theories of Frye and his followers. The first of these essays is Milton Wilson's response to Sutherland ("Other Canadians and After'); the second is A.J.M. Smith's 'Eclectic Detachment.' Both Wilson and Smith see advantages for the writer in our cultural colonialism. Both critics are here more concerned with form than with content, with craft than with statement. In Wilson's words: I even wonder if colonialism may not be, in theory at least, the most desirable poetic state. It gives you a catholic sense of all the things poetry can do without embarrassing you by telling you what at this particular moment it can't.... The Canadian poet has all the models in the language (not to mention other languages) at his disposal, but lacks the deadening awareness that he is competing with them. (A.J.M. Smith, éd., Masks of Poetry [1962] 137-8)

Similarly, Smith avers that the Canadian writer 'can draw upon French, British and American sources in language and literary convention; at the same time he enjoys a measure of detachment that enables him to select and adapt what is relevant and useful' ('Eclectic Detachment,' Canadian Literature 9 [Summer 1961] 7). Neither Wilson nor Smith can be justly accused of slighting 'content,' especially social content; both recognize that in a shrinking world the imagination of Canadian writers is inevitably charged with the tumults and terrors

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that pervade the whole of modern experience. We need not look abroad for the themes of art, for we share the angst of this age with others. Yet it is the great 'sources in language and literary convention' (Literary History of Canada, u, p 347) on which we draw. It is to the forms of literature that we must go. As Frye is to put it, these forms 'exist within literature itself and cannot be derived from any experience outside literature. What the Canadian writer finds in his experience and environment may be new, but it will be new only as content; the form of his expression of it can take shape only from what he has read and not from what he has experienced.' Frye means more by 'form' than do Smith and Wilson, going beyond, while including in his notion of form, their technical and structural emphasis. As George Bowering has noted ('Why James Reaney is a Better Poet,' Canadian Literature 36 [Spring 1968] 40-9), by forms Frye seems to mean 'ideas and events' - the great myths, the great archetypal patterns of the total imaginative enterprise of man. As early as his review of Smith's Book of Canadian Poetry, Frye had argued that 'originality is largely a matter of returning to origins, of studying and imitating the great poets of the past.' When Canadian writers have gone wrong it has not been by going out into 'God's great outdoors' (with Ferdinand the Bull) or by echoing the commonplaces of common speech (Tarzanism) but by going to the wrong books. The Canadian novelist, for instance, obsessed with a need for content ('sincere feeling and a good deal of observation') too often fails in his apprehension of the formal possibilities inherent in what he has felt and observed. He fails in his art because he has failed in his reading. 'Eclectic detachment,' therefore, provides no guarantee that we shall choose aright. At least not yet - or not until very recently. For Frye sees in our historical situation and in our colonial insecurity the root cause of a cultural predicament which has, almost until now, made an 'eclectic detachment' quite impossible for us. From earliest times a 'garrison mentality' was engendered by the defensive isolation of our scattered pioneer communities. From the beginning we have been dominated by a 'herd-mind in which nothing original can grow.' Snug behind the garrison wall, our earliest writers were dogmatically sure of their derivative moral and social values. 'Using language as one would use an axe, formulating arguments with sharp cutting edges, ' our religious and political dogmatists bequeathed to Canadian expression a rhetorical rather than a poetical character, a character which is still evident: As the centre of Canadian life moves from the fortress to the metropolis, the garrison mentality changes accordingly. ... it becomes more of a revolutionary garrison within a metropolitan society. But though it changes from a defence of to an attack on what society accepts as conventional standards, the literature it produces, at every stage, tends to be rhetorical, an illustration or allegory of certain social attitudes. ('Conclusion,' Literary History of Canada, u, p 346)

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The popular mythology of our earlier literature, the success-story formula with all its moral earnestness and romantic or melodramatic attitudinizing, was the imaginative stuff of the old garrison, just as the literature of social protest is the imaginative stuff of the proliferating new garrisons of metropolis. It is only as we are able to abandon the popular and rhetorical mythologies of garrisons old and new and advance into the autonomous kingdom of the mythic that we can leave behind us what Douglas Le Pan calls 'the country without a mythology' and find our way into the authentic 'country of mythology.' Here, at last outside the cocoon of our colonialism, 'eclectic detachment' may serve us well, freeing us from a fixation on the substance of accident of the present. By Frye's yardstick, the 'art-society hypothesis' of McDougall and the early Sutherland has to do with the literature of rhetoric and might be said to constitute the aesthetic of the new metropolitan garrison. As I have mentioned, defenders of the 'art-society hypothesis' are appalled at Frye's refusal to see experience itself as Primum mobile of the verbal universe. George Bowering, in his contentious essay 'Why James Reaney is a Better Poet,' accuses Frye of turning literature into a game, a game 'with no moral referent,' a game in which it is assumed 'that literature has no connection with ordinary life, positive or negative.' But what Frye proposes is no game. His verbal universe, created by the imagination out of the raw stuff of nature and event, is meant to be the mighty paradigm for all human hope and deed. In Frye, literature replaces religion by first absorbing it and then going beyond it. For in myth, beyond belief and beyond all need to believe, a new heaven and new earth wait to receive and grant our highest wish. For Bowering, as for the early Layton and Louis Dudek and all the artists in uniform on guard within our garrisons of the mind, myth that transcends the flesh of fact can have no dominion over us. But it must be stressed that there is an ascending hierarchy of the mythic in Frye's aesthetic. His 'garrison' is in itself a myth compounded of facts of time and place and facts of mind. It is a myth in motion, inching its way along a line of event and attitude from wilderness to metropolis. It is a myth breeding myths in its own image, popular myths which Frye finds to be rhetorical rather than poetical. And it is to free the myth-making faculty from the rhetoric of the garrison confine that he points to the life-giving archetypes of the open verbal universe. As we shall see, the ascent from the rhetorical to the poetical is proposed not as a way out of, but as a way into life, into the possession of life, and a life more abundant. As Frye presents it, the ascent from popular and historical myth to the saving myths of the archetypal heavens is no mere bookish exercise. We retreated, in the first place, into our cultural garrison out of terror - 'not a terror of the dangers or the discomforts or even the mysteries of nature, but a

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terror of the soul at something these things manifest.' As early as 1943 in his review of The Book of Canadian Poetry, Frye is telling us that 'our thrifty little heaps of civilized values look pitiful beside nature's apparently meaningless power to waste and destroy on such a superhuman scale, and such a nature suggests an equally ruthless and subconscious God, or else no God' (The Bush Garden, 138-9). The Canadian imagination, obsessed with 'the riddle of unconsciousness in nature,' which is 'the riddle of death in man,' has fled for protection behind the rhetorical defences of the garrison community. Or when it has daringly sought a romantic union with nature it has done so at the expense of community. 'Some blessed power' is sensed in nature only in moments when the city appears as the city of the end of things, the city of dreadful night. For Frye, our salvation comes not through escape from the garrison, from the city, or from the terror at something manifested by nature. It does not come by escape into the timeless heaven of the ruling archetypes, there to dwell forever above the flesh of fact. Our salvation, discerned and then devised by the imaginative power, comes in the incarnation of the myth in the fact - comes in time and through time. It comes to fullness and to flesh in the post-modern global village after 'physical nature has retreated to outer space and only individual and society are left as effective factors in the imagination' ('Conclusion,' Literary History of Canada, u, p 360). Exalted to the seventh heaven of the mythic wish, the imaginative power, purged of the sin of rhetorical concern, will return at last to make poetry out of 'the aims of the people' and even out of that turbulence which could not set us free. In the brave, new, electronic world-to-come, 'post-Canadian, post-British, poste very thing except the world itself (Northrop Frye, Literary History of Canada, u, p 360) perhaps Sutherland and McDougall will sit on sainted seats. In this heavenless heaven, with the sky shoved back by hand, there will be no colonies, no garrisons, no gods of earth or sky. Man will be all in all. The garrison myth, compounded of 'factors' of time and place, has been taken up into the empyrean of the total imagination, delivered there from servitude. History itself becomes a work of art, the peaceable kingdom-to-come. Myth without belief relieves man of his terror before 'the unconscious god' and allows him to build a city of splendid light. The 'art-religion hypothesis' and the 'art-society hypothesis' are absorbed alike into this lavish secular myth, and transcended by it. Frye's aesthetic theory thus over-arches the concerns of Canadian criticism in all its major modes. Whether, as in Margaret Atwood, the concern is with the secular implications of Frye's garrison myth, or as in D.G. Jones, it is with the religious or quasi-religious possibilities of Frye's biblical archetypes, nothing of serious speculative import has been offered us which has not been affected by Frye's thought. In effect, he has caught up all our national anxieties, all our

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moral and metaphysical concerns, all our critical and formal queries about the nature and purpose of arts, reordered them, transubstantiated them, made of them a great Summa, made of criticism itself a total gestalt, a substitute for a religion. No wonder that defenders of the 'art-religion' hypothesis are disturbed. There on the page is the spectacle of religion swallowed whole by an aesthetic, and it is no more credible to them than would be the spectacle of Jonah swallowing the whale. Frye will not be able to persuade those who insist that myth is impossible without belief and that belief holds fast beyond the reach of myth. Even in the minds of critics who are recognizably Frigian, half-Frigian, or quarter-Frigian, the uneasy sense that myth and art are in some way entangled with belief and will shrivel without belief, sets up a counterpoint of qualification to any total acceptance of Frye's position. It is understandable that the social realists find Frye's peaceable-kingdom-to-come too far removed in principle from that very dynamic of commitment needed to create it. But in transcending the 'art-religion' hypothesis, Frye has disconcerted those who envisage a reality beyond art, even, heaven help them, beyond criticism itself! It is interesting to remember that E.K. Brown, who gave us our first convincing analysis of the 'plight' of the Canadian writer in the puritancolonial garrison, maintained, in a review of F.R. Scott's Overture, that The first great strength of poetry is a core of belief. No one who knows the history of poetry can doubt that it is an immense advantage to a poet that he should believe firmly, and that his belief should be comprehensive, enlarging to the spirit, and so substantial as to command at the very least the reader's ungrudged respect. ('Letters in Canada' UTQ xv [April 1946] 270)

Belief is the dynamic of the poetic and myth-making faculty, Brown would seem to suggest. Commitment, whether it be to the will of God, to the earthly Utopia, or simply to 'the greatness of mind,' both precedes and pervades the creative process. From this perspective, myth without belief and without the horizon of purpose will seem as dead as works without faith. There has persisted in our criticism from Brown's day to this, an extraliterary or trans-literary worry about the need for commitment in art and in theories of art, which has not been relieved by Frye's imaginative mystique. Writing in 1960, and addressing his strictures not to Frye but to himself, John Sutherland ('The Past Decade in Canadian Poetry,' Northern Review iv 2 [December-January 1950/1] 120) apologizes for his earlier attack on 'Bishop' Smith: 'Well, I take it all back ... events have shown that he was substantially right.' Sutherland goes on to observe that 'recent writers no longer attribute the present state of the world to class oppression, but to a guilt which makes

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no class distinctions and which involves every individual including the poet. ' Not only does Sutherland hear a specifically religious note in the poetry of Kay Smith and James Wreford; he also finds a new dimension of selfsearching and moral commitment, essentially religious, in the work of writers as various as P.K. Page, Earle Birney, Dorothy Livesay, and F.R. Scott. He might have added to the list novelists like Morley Callaghan and Hugh MacLennan. Sutherland is not here narrowing his sense of religious commitment to any kind of doctrinal orthodoxy, nor is another representative critic, Frank Davey, writing in Tish (1962): True art has always been a groping for the "Real".... Thus it has always been allied with religion and philosophy as both another handmaiden and another voice of the human soul. ... Certainly man cannot return to the old God-centered universe of the past. ... [But] each poet has a grand feeling for the world, universe, man and the timeless processes that operate in and through them - a feeling which is largely religious (with a small "r").

Art, for Davey, is testimony, not testament, testimony to the presence of a 'Reality' beyond imagination, beyond reason, compelling both, eluding both, a 'Reality' visible to us only in the shadow it casts of myth and symbol. Brown, Sutherland, and Davey, of course, write from outside Frye's system, and without reference to it. More pertinent, perhaps, is the kind of qualification to the doctrine of myth without belief made by critics who have been deeply influenced by Frye. D.G. Jones, in Butterfly on Rock (1970), explores, inventively, the garrison myth in all its guises and, like Frye, tries to peer through the historical and imaginative experience of Canadians to what lies beyond that experience. He is not insensitive to the restless question of our identity but believes it to be 'less a question of nationalism than of an imaginative stance towards the world, towards nature and culture, past and present, the life of the body and the life of the mind, the fact of death. Jt is a question of finding a satisfying interpretation of these fundamental elements in human life so that one can take a stand, act with definitive convictions, have an identity' (Butterfly onRock, 5, italics mine). In temper, if not in doctrine, Jones seems closer to Davey and the later Sutherland than to Frye. He is in search of commitments, of 'definitive convictions' which make it possible to take a stand. The quest which we follow in his book is ultimately a religious quest. By sheering off from dogma, Jones avoids that pitfall of rhetoric which Frye sees opening under the literature and aesthetic of commitment. And by dismissing 'myth without belief in favour of myth that makes belief possible, Jones marries vision to deed, the ultimate to the immediate. Drawing on biblical patterns and symbols, Jones sees the world of Canadian literature as a kind of Old Testament world,

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a world of Adam separated from his Creator and cast out of Eden to wander in the wilderness. It is a world of the scattered tribes of Israel, in exile from the Old Kingdom and not yet restored to the New. ... It is an Old Testament world which implies, sometimes without much hope, sometimes with great confidence, its completion in the New. (ibid., 15)

There is no suggestion here, of course, that Canadian life and letters have been subject to an imperialism of the archetypes, that Canadian poems have somehow been made out of Jewish poems. The biblical analogy is simply a vehicle for asserting the recurrent need and hope of man in infinitely receding historical landscapes. And, like John Sutherland before him, Jones feels the stirring of a strange new hope in our writers, the beginnings of a belief that, as Irving Layton puts it, 'someone from afar off/blows birthday candles for the world.' In what follows, I do not mean to imply that Jones is in any sense a 'churchman' or that his thought is explicitly Christian. Indeed, in 'A Letter on Poetry and Belief published in Delta (April 1958) Jones confesses that he is ' sceptical that the universe has any purpose ; it seems to me it just is. ' The tone of his letter is utterly humanist and even the idea of sacrifice is advanced in social rather than religious terms. By 1970 and Butterfly on Rock the tone of his writing has changed and deepened with a religious resonance that is unexpected but real. Nevertheless, in his revulsion against CalvinistJansenist prudery, he indicts the institutional church as the foe of nature. He has no difficulty in finding illustrative villains among the churchmen presented to us by Leacock, MacLennan, Callaghan, and Sinclair Ross. The church stands high within the garrison which we have built against the wilderness of our own nature, and Jones is for tearing down the walls and letting the wilderness in. He even seems to suggest that all forms of moral discipline, Christian or profane, are garrison armament, defensive, restrictive, lifedenying. It is in support of this view of garrison morality that he turns approvingly to Warren Tallman's essay 'Wolf in the Snow.' For Tallman, the Canadian imagination teems with the vision of men twisted and broken by moral and religious prescription. But, says Tallman, 'the continent itself-the gray wolf whose shadow is underneath the snow - has resisted the culture, the cultivation, the civilization which is indigenous to Europe but alien to North America even though it is dominant in North America' (Canadian Literature 6 [Autumn 1960] 43). In a few works, and most notably in Mordecai Richler's The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, the wolf is let loose and over-the garrison wall. In the character of Duddy, all moral pretence is abandoned and with it all conscience and all constraint. In the portrait of Duddy there is achieved 'the true North American tone. ' Duddy 'doesn't care, he doesn't care and doesn't care. ' Thus

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Richler, declares Tallman, 'is at one with the considerable group of contemporary writers - call them mugs, call them angry, call them beat - who are seeking in their art those readjustments which will permit them to relate their sensibility to what actually is.' Tallman's gray wolf is a fiercer symbol of everything that Frye had meant by Ferdinand the Bull and by Tarzan. And that Tallman's wolf is on the loose and over the wall is evident in the explosion of violence and ostentatious sexuality which now enlivens even the most unlively of the arts. D.G. Jones, far from blinking at the implications of Tallman's thesis, himself finds Leonard Cohen's Beautiful Losers to be 'fundamentally a spiritual book' because, in its deliberate obscenity of language and episode, it utters the protest 'of inarticulate man, of inarticulate nature, of the body,' against false, life-denying codes of propriety. Cohen, Jones contends, 'reaffirms the two poles of the irrational, the world of the flesh and the world of the spirit' (Butterfly on Rock, 81). Beautiful Losers proclaims a new order of sanctity in which 'mind remains, but as an aspect of a larger and more mysterious order in which it must speak through the flesh, or with the flesh, and not against it' (ibid.). Louis Dudek (who once described Cohen's work as 'a mixture of sacred oils and sewage water' [Canadian Literature 41 (Summer 1969) 114] ), a critic who himself has always favoured 'the school of direct speech, direct relation to life, and reductive realism,' has come to complain 'that blatant vulgarity, sick humour, exhibitionism have suddenly become a glut on the market....' He predicts that ' "the new barbarism" will have its reaction, just as Victorian sentimentality did, and the retreat will be to a more esoteric refinement' (Dudek, 116). Meanwhile, we have let the wilderness in and are engaged in marketing it as an aphrodisiac. But let the wilderness in we must, says Jones, if we are to recover wholeness and lift the life of the flesh into the full life of the spirit. There is risk in this, but the risk must be taken and taken in faith. And what is happening, as the garrison walls fall, is not a retreat into 'a more esoteric refinement' but rather an advance into the bane and blessing of being. As early as the animal stories of Charles G.D. Roberts and in some of the lyrics of Bliss Carman there is evident a Job-like acceptance 'of the darkness as well as the light, of the lethal as well as the vital implications of all life, love, or action' (Butterfly on Rock, 95). There were chinks in the garrison wall even then. And in recent novels like LePan's The Deserter, MacLennan's The Watch that Ends the Night, Gabrielle Roy's The Cashier, Adèle Wiseman's The Sacrifice, Jones finds a faith, existential rather than doctrinal, which 'springs from the acceptance of suffering as ineradicable, as part of the essentially sacrificial process of life' (ibid., 161-2). Such acceptance stands on

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what Paul Tillich calls 'the courage to be.' And in discussing with insight and sympathy Margaret Avison's specifically Christian poetry, Jones states that she 'would agree with Tillich when he says that any Church that would be adequate to his conception of life must be a Church under the Cross, "the church which preaches the Crucified who cried to God who remained his God after the God of confidence had left him in the darkness of doubt and meaninglessness" ' (ibid., 137). In a thickening procession from Isabella Valancy Crawford to John Newlove, we see advancing poets and novelists who have been able in some degree to abandon the garrison of an exclusive culture and go into the wilderness, where they experience, not a greater sense of alienation, but a greater sense of vitality and community. Implicitly or explicitly, each may be said to accept the fellowship of death, to lie down with the grass snake among all the other skeletons of badgers and raccoons and men, only to discover that the one great serpent has crept out upon the sky and coiled about his head like a crown of power. The night is transfigured, and a menacing world takes on the beauty of strength broken by strength and still strong, (ibid., 136)

While the faith which Jones expresses, and which he finds expressed in his writers, is never dogmatic or in any sense 'confessional,' his mind is not closed to the transcendent, or even to the explicitly Christian. He seeks an identity, not peculiarly Canadian yet not 'inappropriate for Canadians either. ' And identity is realized in the act of commitment, commitment not first to a cause or to a doctrine, but to a 'sacrificial view of life,' to that eternal need of dying into life which great art affirms and celebrates. No need now to shove back the sky by hand, no need to fret about survival, colonial 'frostbite,' 'eclectic detachment,' or the brave new world. Seek first this true identity and all that is needed shall be added unto it. And having exalted myth into belief, we can now 'take a stand.' We can utter the language of the streets without fear of Tarzanism. We can even express 'the aims of the people' without falling into the sin of rhetoric. D.G. Jones transfigures the mythopoeic theory of literature by providing it with the dynamic of commitment. Margaret Atwood, in Survival (1972), flattens the mythopoeic mode into a one-dimensional fiction of fear and failure in Canadian writing. Terror-stricken by the 'monster' nature and now by our 'monster' neighbour, Canadians have been obsessed with the need to survive which, when pushed to the limits, becomes 'a will not to survive,' a need to fail. We are exposed in our literature as self-certified victims. Perhaps the enormous popularity of this book (particularly in Toronto) is a revelation of a masochistic strain still lurking in the Canadian psyche. Certainly, Margaret Atwood has little sense of the 'sacrificial embrace,' of that positive acceptance of suffering from which flows the water and blood of

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life. For Atwood, crucifixion is execution and nothing more. We must, she tells us, 'face the fact that Canadian literature is undeniably sombre and negative, and that this to a large extent is both a reflection and a chosen definition of the national sensibility' (Survival, 245). So dark is her view of the Canadian tradition that it is easy to miss the little loophole of light which she opens, or seems to open, into the future. Following Frye and Robin Mathews, she speculates that 'the pull of the native tradition is not in the direction of individual heroes at all, but rather in the direction of collective heroes' (ibid., 172). As she ponders the predicament of nation as victim, she takes some courage in the observation 'that English Canadian writers are beginning to voice their own predicament consciously, as French Canadian writers have been doing for a decade ...' (ibid., 244-5). And so, despite 'the bleak ground' under her feet, Atwood takes heart in the epiphany of 'the collective hero' and, with stoic resolve, in 'the halting but authentic breakthroughs of characters who are almost hopelessly trapped, the moments of affirmation that neither deny the negative ground nor succumb to it' (ibid., 245). Out of critical awareness, responsible rationality, and collective heroism, not to mention stoical fortitude, she seems to think that we may yet be able to make a life and a literature for Canadians. Such hope is not to be despised. It would be a larger hope if Margaret Atwood better knew the ground on which she stood. Without attempting the grand ascent from Frye's myth of the garrison to his empyrean of the world-ruling archetypes, Atwood tries to arrive in one level step at Frye's demythologized myth of a de-natured future where 'only individual and society are left as effective factors in the imagination.' Unlike Jones, for whom, by an act of faith, inner commitment contains and commands all other commitment, Atwood succeeds in giving us no more than the latest popular myth of Frye's new metropolitan garrison. In other words, Atwood offers us a rhetoric, not a poetic. It would be inappropriate here to discuss in detail two seminal critical theorists, Marshall McLuhan and Francis Sparshott, since neither is directly concerned with Canadian writing. Eli Mandel, in his introduction to Contexts of Canadian Criticism (1971), adroitly relates the thought of each to aspects of Frye's critical theory. McLuhan's 'image of the human body filling (or becoming) the universe' is not unlike Frye's ultimate vision of a humanized universe in which 'individual and society' are the only 'effective factors' left to the imagination. McLuhan arrives at his vision by a different route and he leaves his vision open to religious possibilities which Frye seems to have dismissed. The nub of Sparshott's thought stands in opposition to the vast speculative claims of Frye's theory. In Mandel's words, Sparshott holds that 'criticism is evaluation grounded in reasoned discourse' (Contexts of Canadian Criticism,

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21). In Sparshott's own words, its 'proper province ... remains that marked out by the terminology appropriated to complex structures of formal speech: evaluation, appraisal, explanation, interpretation' (ibid., 176-7). Sparshott, as Mandel observes, 'thus reintroduces the form-content dualism' and insists 'on a secondary derived position for criticism with respect both to art and to theories of value' (ibid., 22). Like George Whalley, Sparshott refuses to admit 'that the critic's work is somehow more vital than the work he is writing about' (ibid., 20). And Sparshott is prepared to look beyond criticism and beyond art to values which inform both. One notable critic who shares the main assumptions of George Whalley and Francis Sparshott is George Woodcock, founder and editor of Canadian Literature and himself the author of striking critical estimates of such writers as Layton, Richler, Birney, and Cohen. As W.H. New points out in his introduction to Odysseus Ever Returning, for Woodcock 'the literature of Europe provides the touchstones by which to estimate the worth of the new.' Céline, Kafka, Mann, Proust, Gide 'are compass points observed in a relaxed way by a man moving knowledgeably through the wilds of more than one literature.' Woodcock makes his judgements with the exercise of a discriminating 'eclectic detachment' which is always guided by a respect for the craft of writing. Although he is wary of the kind of a priori 'commitment' which comes out in the work of art as preachment, he is always concerned with the 'truth' of a work of art in a moral and social context. His taste is catholic enough to savour the work of poets as far from each other as Irving Layton and A.J.M. Smith. He can catch at once the thematic significance of a novel like Beautiful Losers and yet assess the reasons for its failure as artifice, as craft. It may be that he sometimes approaches a literary work with the wrong expectations. For instance, a critic like C.T. Bissell, whose credo is not unlike Woodcock's, makes a much more convincing appraisal of Callaghan's The Loved and the Lost, a novel which seems to baffle Woodcock. And D.G. Jones goes deeper than Woodcock in his reading of MacLennan's The Watch that Ends the Night. But if Woodcock has his blind spots they are remarkably few and he is our finest exponent of practical criticism. In thus reviewing what seems to me to be the major issues in our recent critical thought, I have not been able to do anything like justice to the astonishing range of work that has appeared in Canadian journals, big and little, in monographs, in critical introductions to texts in the New Canadian Library and in the new University of Toronto Press reprint series (Literature of Canada: Poetry and Prose in Reprint). Our practical criticism, not without debt to the theorists we have been discussing, is becoming increasingly professional in its attention to craft as well as to statement. Indeed we have a

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remarkable run of essays by craftsmen on craftsmen. No one has written better on Pratt than Birney, on Klein than Miriam Waddington, on Margaret Avison than Bowering and A.J.M. Smith. Irving Layton and Mordecai Richler have both written impressively on the theory and practice of the craft of writing. And a new legion of little magazines (Open Letter, Tish, Combustion, CIV In) have crackled with manifestoes on problems of language, form, the mixed media, concrete poetry - on the whole craft in process and in search of direction. Then, too, we have broken a way into the garrison hold of our earlier literature, bringing into open daylight on the pages of Canadian Literature and The Journal of Canadian Fiction such worthies as James de Mille, Joseph Howe, Sara Jeannette Duncan, Mrs Leprohon. In the work of Ronald Sutherland and Mary Jane Edwards we are beginning to compare 'the two solitudes' of French and English writing. And our place in the pattern of Commonwealth literature is at last being explored. Tradition in Exile (1962) by John Matthews was an important pioneer study in this area. But it was no less a scholar and critic than Desmond Pacey who recently reminded us that as yet we have had no definitive scholarly biography of any major Canadian author; we have no comprehensive scholarly edition of the letters of any Canadian author; we have no comprehensive scholarly edition of the collected works of any Canadian author; we have no profound study of the relationship of Canadian literature to the literature of any other country, nor of the relationship of our literature to our total social and cultural development.... So far we have done the easy things - the impressionistic critical essays, the tracing of image patterns, the exploration of dominant themes. ('The Study of Canadian Literature,' Journal of Canadian Fiction 11, 2 [Spring 1973] 71-2

By the time this essay appears in print D.G. Pitt's definitive scholarly biography of E.J. Pratt may be on our shelves. And Desmond Pacey himself was preparing an edition of the letters of Charles G.D. Roberts. He would not, I am sure, have regarded the critical writing of Frye, Jones, John Sutherland, and A.J.M. Smith as a 'dilettantish affair.' And, of course, he recognized that the work of a man like Carl Klinck has, over the years, laid a solid foundation for the scholarly assessment of the whole tradition of Canadian writing. That the best of our critical essays are much more than impressionistic is attested by Pacey's own studies of the major Canadian poets and of 'the innocent eye' of Ethel Wilson. Nevertheless he was right in asserting that 'virtually all the hard scholarly labour remains to be done.' I suspect that before the time of Frye and Smith and Jones and Klinck and Pacey - and the Woodcocks, the Milton Wilsons, the Eli Mandéis, the Hugo McPhersons - the work that Pacey saw before us could not even have been envisaged, let alone begun. Perhaps we can now begin these labours knowing that we do not labour in vain.

11 Essays and Biography I Essays BRANDON CONRON*

In the period between 1960 and 1973 the Canadian essay continued to be influenced largely by the directness and force of journalism. As an instrument reflecting topical concerns it conveyed the alternating moods of disillusion and of national boostering which centred particularly around various political and emotional responses to Canada's centennial in 1967. The essay also reflected interpretations of changing life styles in Western civilization under the impact of technology, as thoughtful writers contemplated seriously or humorously the contrast between old and new standards of morality, dress, warfare, and even of critical literary assessment. The note of nostalgia for the passing of a more innocent age or a greener landscape was increasingly heard. In the tradition of the scholarly essayist, Northrop Frye maintained the distinction of earlier academic colleagues. In such publications as The Educated Imagination (1963), The Modern Century (1967), and his investigation 'of the Canadian imagination' in The Bush Garden (1971) he moves from his primary interests in literature and education to a broad and provocative exploration of various aspects of contemporary life. His style, muscular and often humorous, has a self-confident ease and clarity perfected by long practice. Authors already established in other genres continued or embarked upon writing during the sixties. Robertson Davies in Samuel Marchbanks' Almanack (1967) expanded his witty and critical examination of Canadian life. Hugh MacLennan, in articles which appear in Maclean's, offers illuminating insights, supported by historical analogies, into the national problems posed by French Canada and American influence. In the commercial and social criticism of The Big Sell (1963) and The Smug Minority (1967), Pierre Berton occasionally makes general observations on human nature with the detachment of the essayist. Mordecai Richler admits that for him the form is both challenging and personal. In Hunting Tigers under Glass (1968), dominated *Assisted by Sheila Zelsman

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by 'a unifying tone of voice; a certain skepticism, a tendency to deflate,' and in Shovelling Trouble (1972), he expatiates upon such themes as Jewish experience, a concern with literary matters (including 'Why I Write'), and the changing Canadian scene. The appeal of many of these 'essays and reports' lies in Richler's cosmopolitan focus and urbane style. Hugh Hood, in the twelve essays of The Governor's Bridge is Closed (1973), expresses with clarity and good humour his cheerful belief in Canadian life and culture. His relaxed explorations and meditations provide moving insights into his own and the reader's consciousness. Kildare Dobbs's Running to Paradise (1962), notable chiefly for its flexible style, is largely autobiographical reminiscence, broadened in scope by more general commentaries on aspects of contemporary life. His Reading the Time (1968) comes closer to achieving the status of a collection of essays. The author's 'habit of arranging information, arbitrarily received, in significant patterns' provides a perspective of'the landscape of his part of the twentieth century.' The topics range from a treatment of a child's Christmases, a layman's view of military thinking, through the implications of the loss of the British Empire, to a discussion of the 'beat' movement and Wilhem Reich's theories of psychotherapy. The reader is left with the impression of an extensive and intelligent awareness, expressed in a style informed with decorum: elegiac or racy, marked by comic hyperbole or discursive reasoning, analytic or conversational as befits the topic. A number of journalists whose collected columns display essay methods and materials should be mentioned here. The posthumous collection of contributions by Ralph Allen (1913-66) to the TorontoDaily Star andMaclean's, entitled The Man from Oxbow: The Best of Ralph Allen (1967), contains a number of balanced and relaxed theme pieces. Robert Fulford, in his volume of articles originally written for the same publications, Crisis at the Victory Buriesk: Culture, Politics and Other Diversions (1968), has gathered mainly occasional columns into larger thematic units of more than ephemeral interest and significance. Richard Needham in his Globe and Mail commentaries exploits a consistent set of attitudes and prejudices, projecting an individual image for a special audience. His books, Needham's Inferno (1966), The Garden of Needham (1968), Friend in Needham (1969), and Hypodermic Needham (1970), with their witty extravagance, satire, and amusing controversy approach an essayist's versatile style. Another experimenter in persona journalism is Harry Bruce who, in The Short Happy Walks of Max MacPherson (1968), a collection of reviews of 'a walk a week' in and around Toronto written for the Toronto Daily Star, combines history, description, and geography in a chatty, sometimes impressionistic style. Among the humorists, Gregory Clark and Eric Nicol have continued to write refreshing and amusing anecdotes. A posthumous collection, Newton

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McTavish's Canada: Selected Essays (1965), provides more reminiscences of the former editor of the Canadian Magazine. Norman Ward in Mice in the Beer (1960) and The Fully Processed Cheese (1964) displays an attitude characterized by tolerance and amusement towards rather topical themes (form letters, deadlines, politicians) and focuses particularly on the special foibles of the academic community, of which he is a rather untypical member. Wilder Penfield admits to the inspiration of his mentor Sir William Osier in both medical and literary pursuits. Penfield in his first book, The Second Career (1963), published three years after his retirement from neurosurgery, is concerned with integrating a professional life devoted to science with a more personal, but no less personally significant, 'career' that brings him in contact with contemporary life, the problems of writing, and the world of politics and ideas generally. His subjects in this and a subsequent volume, Second Thoughts (1970), are concerned with education, history, and political affairs. His literary claims are modest: 'essays meant for popular reading,' as lucid as his medical logic and as engaging as his personality. The philosophical point of view is that of a traditionalist, and the morality which emerges emphasizes 'changing but continuous purpose' in an 'aristocracy of effort' demanding 'eternal vigilance and resolute action.' John Kenneth Galbraith, equally renowned internationally in his own profession, also ventured into literature with his amusing, often ironic, and acerbic account of Ontario boyhood, The Scotch (1964). In A Contemporary Guide to Economics, Peace and Laughter (1971), with its expansive and informal approach, he has transformed into the semblance of literary achievement the viewpoint of a versatile and perceptive economist and diplomat. In his folksy, humorous, and nostalgic memories of rural simplicity,/! Time to Pass Over (1962), A Countryman's Christmas (1965), The Faith of our Fathers (1966), and Goodbye, Little Town (1970), Gordon Greene has made fruitful use of his memories of life and people in small-town Arthur, Ontario. In Professor Go Home (1967) he is explicitly 'agricultural,' dealing not with the past but with the present in a rural setting where, though nature can often be a soul-shattering taskmaster, farming is still 'a religion and reward.' Harry Boyle also exploits memories of a homespun boyhood in several books: Mostly in Clover (1963), Homebrew and Patches (1963), With a Pinch of Sin (1966), Memories of a Catholic Boyhood (1973). Straws in the Wind (1969) is more 'escape' than remembrance, a 'look at some of the pleasant qualities that remain.' In all these writings the organization is loose, the commentary wide-ranging, the evocation of rural atmosphere and the tone often sentimental. Western Windows (1967) by Bruce Hutchison gives an account of his 'double life' as journalist and farmer-woodsman. Admitting, like Greene, the

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less joyful aspects of farm life - 'death and poison' - he reaffirms that 'things today are wider but not so deep,' until we relearn to enjoy nature. But in both treatment and approach he strikes a more enduring note than do Boyle or Greene. Yet another variation on the same theme is Howard Mitchell's The Battle of Mole Run and Other Offenses (1966), which in a chatty, rambling style combines reminiscence with a rather unconvincing celebration of the joys of country life. The history of the Canadian essay during the period from 1960 to 1973 traces the continuing pervasive influences of journalism. Economical, undogmatic attention to theme and easy discursiveness seem to have survived chiefly in nostalgic reminiscences about a more relaxed age, often expressed in a sentimental and undistinguished style. Perhaps because the staged aspects of television made personal charisma more important than platforms in campaigning, political speeches with the style and eloquence of the essay virtually disappeared. This change is dramatically attested in the speeches of Vincent Massey represented in Confederation on the March (1965), which, although not entirely political, belong to a bygone age of oratory. Television's slick comic routines have also made it more difficult for the humorist to maintain freshness in a column. The increased tempo, the revolution in mass communications, and the pragmatic urgency of technological life have militated against the traditional elements of the essay. The literary scholar Marshall McLuhan has come to terms with these contemporary subjects and trends in a new type of essay (described by Donald F. Theall as the essai concret) that is a calculated displacement of the older form. He presents an assemblage of verbal and visual, spatial and durational material to exemplify his themes in what he calls a 'collide-oscope of interfaced situations' (The Medium is the Message) without linear sequence. Neither tentative nor expository but rather exploratory and suggestive, illustrative and dogmatic by swift turns, his writing is replete with metaphors, puns, paradoxes, aphorisms, and half-truths. Although McLuhan prefers to work with collaborators (eg, Quentin Fiore, Jerome Agel, Wilfred Watson, and Harley Parker), his style, like that of the traditional essayist, is highly individual. And while his intellectual, societal, and commercial probes have had a widespread impact, his technique has been assimilated rather than imitated by other Canadian writers.

II Biography CLARA THOMAS BIOGRAPHY IN CANADA* On the one hand, there is the light-hearted, notional biography with its gaudy jacket, which has been written with a keen eye, not so much for fact, as for sales; and on the other, there is the solemn work of commemoration, usually in two fat funereal volumes, which looks, as Lytton Strachey observed, as if it had been composed by the undertaker, as the final item of his job. (Donald Creighton, 'Sir John Macdonald and Canadian Historians,' Canadian Historical Review xxix 1 [March 1948])

From 1817 to 1973 some twelve hundred biographies of Canadians were published, more than half of them since 1960. Yet Professor Creighton's paper, written and delivered as a corrective to narrow nationalism amongst historians in general and 'Grit Historians' in particular, is the single outstanding statement which we have had on the practice of biography in this country; and for all its astringent tonic for the scholars to whom it was addressed, Professor Creighton does not entirely acknowledge biography as a literary genre. Instead he calls it 'a distinct and special branch of historical writing.' Biography is, however, a genre of literature, its conventions and requirements growing out of the very nature of the genre itself. They evolve from the requirements of the material which the author must use and shape in his unremitting endeavour 'to transmit as enduringly as is possible distinctive personality and achievement' (Sir Sidney Lee, The Perspective of Biography, English Association Pamphlet No. 4, 1918). Any life or any talent can strike the biographer as wonderful, demanding from him an obsessive and patient effort towards framing, containing, and elucidating the complexities of a personality and a time. As Henry James long ago insisted for the writer of fiction, the biographer, too, must be granted his donnée ; and like the novelist his primary need is also expressed in James's exhortation - 'to be one of those on whom nothing is lost.' The notion of biography as the special preserve of the historian has made its logical descent from Carlyle. His enthusiasm for heroic figures and the vitality of the transmission of his conviction into words has had in some degree its effect on every biographer from his time until our own. Virtually all educators in the latter half of the nineteenth century believed in teaching history through biography - but there were ten thousand bland eulogies of 'Great Men' written for every blazing work like Carlyle's Cromwell. As a teaching re*I am indebted to the research assistance of Mr Thomas W. Smith.

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source, biography was both over-used and misused. In Canada the movement of the genre towards enclosure within the broader discipline of history has always been noticeable. In the 1850s Egerton Ryerson urged the incorporation of the reading and teaching of biographies into history classes in the schools of Ontario and today the term 'definitive biography' connotes the ultimate accolade to the historian. Equally noticeable in this country has been the decline of biography's prestige in departments of English, where it also suffered a term of over-use and abuse and where, now, the description 'critical biography' makes a hesitant bid toward the assurance of intellectual respectability. Over twenty years ago Desmond Pacey made a plea for the undertaking of completely documented and researched biographies of our major authors: in 1972 and 1973, in papers delivered at the universities of Calgary and Western Ontario, he reminded his audiences of that plea and of the very little biographical work done by literary scholars in the interval. Our lethargy is difficult to explain and impossible to justify. While historians have been steadily and scrupulously writing the lives of our political leaders, our writers' lives and times have gone unrecorded. We have been constrained, it would seem, because of our defensive hesitancy about the proper balance between biography and criticism. Graduate programs in English have been largely unwilling to accept biographical studies as dissertation projects. Now, however, Douglas Spettigue's FjPG: The European Years (1973) should finally dispel any inhibitions lingering among literary scholars: Spettigue's resolute unmasking of the various identities and tracking of the early career of P.P. Grève add enormous dimensions to the possibilities of our understanding the Canadian works of Frederick Philip Grove. In general the practice of defining or categorizing biographies according to one of the common labels - the prestigious 'definitive' or 'scholarly,' the slightly defensive 'critical,' 'journalistic,' or 'popular,' often misrepresents the book and, almost always, the writer. For every biographer finally recognizes what every fiction writer also acknowledges - that there is no possibility of building a verbal structure that will entirely contain and illuminate a life; hence from the writer's point of view there is no 'definitive' biography possible. At the same time every biographer also recognizes that, although he is doubly bound by factual, temporal events within a life and by his responsibility to search and sift all possible sources, he alone is the transmitter, interpreting as he structures his materials. Even though he may exercise the most ironwilled effort of detachment from the material with which he is working, he will inevitably leave his marks and signs upon it. In Sidney Lee's words: Unity of spirit, cohesion of tone, perspective, these are the things which a due measure of the

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creative faculty will alone guarantee. Otherwise the delineation will lack the semblance of life and reality. Unlike the dramatist or the novelist, the biographer cannot invent incident to bring into relief his conception of the truth about the piece of humanity which he is studying. His purpose is discovery, not invention. (Sir Sidney Lee, The Perspective of Biography, English Association Pamphlet No. 4, 1918)

Canadian biographies give abundant evidence of the biases which may distort the vision of the biographer, particularly of the memorializing, heroworshipping impulse and of the historian's tendency to strive for an objective detachment from his subject, sometimes at the expense of elements of the personality which he is seeking to transmit. Far too much good work has been rendered less effective than it might have been by the minimal requirements of the condescendingly termed 'popular biography.' In many instances authors and publishers have omitted all reference material from works whose authority and success within the genre is thereby totally undermined. Documentation is a necessary element of any biography, making visible the frame of reference within which the writer works and by its authority supporting and enhancing the measure of his success. We have, however, many distinguished examples of the genre, both in its traditional patterns - the recording and interpreting of a life and personality in relation to his times as in Donald Creighton's John A. Macdonald, for instance - and in the genre's contemporary, developing patterns as well - the illumination of a man or woman's exfoliating talents and convictions as in the literary biographies of George Woodcock, or of events in their complexity of people, place, and time as in Pierre Berton's The Klondike or Woodcock and Ivan Avakumovic's The Doukhobors. The are many more which speak well for the endurance of the genre in the evidence they give of the biographer's craft patiently learned and then transmuted into a convincing illusion of his subject's life upon the page. COLLECTIONS

Our literature has been particularly prolific of biographical collections which range all the way from exercises in 'vanity publishing' to the contemporary major and authoritative project, The Dictionary of Canadian Biography! Dictionnaire biographique du Canada. The Ontario County Atlases of the 1870s included biographical sketches of their subscribers - for a fee. Certain collections were inspired by piety or patriotism - the Reverend W.H. Withrow's Worthies of Early Methodism (1878), J.G. Bourinot's Builders of Nova Scotia (1900), or W.S. Herrington's Heroines of Canadian History (1909). Fennings Taylor's Portraits of British Americans (1865-8) is memorable today because Mr Taylor's sketches accompany a collection of photographs by W. Notman. Post-Confederation nationalism and a self-conscious Canadian boosterism inspired such collections as John Charles Dent's The Canadian Portrait

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Gallery (1880-1), Graeme Mercer Adam's Prominent Men of Canada (1892), and John A. Cooper's Men of Canada: A Portrait Gallery (1901-2). From this period David Breakenridge Read's The Lives of the Judges of Upper Canada and Ontario from 1791 to the Present (1888) and The Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada and Ontario, 1792-1899 (1900) are particularly and almost uniquely valuable as informative documents. Some collections - Augustus Bridle's Sons of Canada (1916) and the several volumes of W.J. Karr's series The History of Canada through Biography (1929) - were designed as school texts and as such were both attractive and useful. Some, such as W. Perkins Bull's From Brock to Currie (1935), are curiosities in our literature. Among recent collections, The Clear Spirit: Twenty Canadian Women and Their Times (1966), edited by Mary Q. Innis, is a valuable compendium of information, although the blandness of its over-all tone does not always do justice to the personalities it records. Henry J. Morgan was a busy collector of biographical data: his Sketches of Celebrated Canadians and Persons Connected with Canada was published in 1862, The Canadian Men and Women of the Time in 1898, and his Types of Canadian Women in 1893. In 1886 George MacLean Rose instituted an attempt at a dictionary listing of Canada's notable figures in A Cyclopedia of Canadian Biography. Being Chiefly Men of the Time (1886-1919). This work appeared in three volumes, its cover title Representative Canadians. Hector Charlesworth's Cyclopaedia of Canadian Biography (in the Twentieth Century) appeared in 1919. Jesse Edgar Middleton edited The National Encyclopaedia of Canadian Biography in 1935, but his compendium had neither the coverage nor the authoritative quality of William Stewart Wallace's The Dictionary of Canadian Biography, published by Macmillan in 1926, 1945, and 1963. The great dictionary project now under way is built in no small measure on the groundwork laid by Wallace. Norah Story's Oxford Companion to Canadian History and Literature (1967) and its Supplement (1973), edited by W.H. Toye, contain scores of biographical entries as well as admirable surveys of the genre as a whole. The Supplement is particularly complete as a reference work because of its inclusion of information about Francophone writers and scholars. Three collections have been devoted exclusively to our writers: Clara Thomas's Canadian Novelists 1920-1945 (1946), Guy Sylvestre, Brandon Conron, and Carl Klinck's Canadian Writers ¡Ecrivains Canadiens (1964, 1966), and Clara Thomas and Frank Davey's Our Nature -Our Voices (Vol. i, 1973, Vol. ii, 1974). The comprehensive Dictionary of Canadian Biography ¡Dictionnaire biographique du Canada was originally made possible by a bequest from the estate of James Nicholson (1861-1952). Research headquarters were set up, in Toronto attached to the University of Toronto Press and, in Quebec, to

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L'université Laval. George W. Brown was General Editor from 1959 to his death in 1963; David M. Hayne from 1965 to 1969; and the project continues under the present General Editorship of Francess G. Halpenny with Jean Hamelin as Directeur Adjoint. The aim of this enormous work is to provide 'a complete record of the activities of all noteworthy inhabitants of Canada from its earliest times to the ultimate date of publication.' Volume i (1966) was devoted to persons who died between the year 1000 and 1700; Volume n (1969) to persons who died between 1701 and 1740. The Dictionary was the recipient of a Centennial Commission Award of $160,000 directed to biographical research in the years 1850-1900. The first fruits of this grant and of the Ottawa Research Centre which it made possible was Volume x (1972), covering the years 1871 to 1880 and edited by Marc La Terreur. In 1973 a Canada Council grant made it possible for the Dictionary work to be accelerated and its objectives to be clarified. Beginning in 1976, it is expected that one volume will be published each year. Volume HI, from 1741 to 1770, was published in 1974. Volume ix, from 1861 to 1870, is well advanced towards publication. The quality of research, writing, and bilingual production in Volumes i, n, in, and x is very high; the entire project is of inestimable value to this country, both to its present and continuing scholarship and to our sense of the worth and the diversity of thousands of individuals' contributions to the fabric of our history. TO 1920 In any count-down of Canadian biography of the nineteenth century the works by and about clergymen tally a very large score. Preachers of all denominations found abundant exempla of holy lives and godly works in the pastorates and missions of their forerunners and colleagues. Sometimes they simply eulogized and so memorialized their subjects, but sometimes their records are valuable in the historical-documentary sense. The Reverend John Davis'sThe Patriarch of Western Nova Scotia: The Life and Times of the Late Rev. Harris Harding (1866); the Reverend Matthew Richey ' s A Memoir of the Late Rev. William Black, Wesleyan Minister, Halifax, NS (1839), an account of the founding of Methodism in the Maritimes, and the Reverend George Patterson's Memoir of the Rev. James MacGregor, VB (1859), an account of the founder of Presbyterianism in Nova Scotia, are valuable records. Methodism in Upper Canada produced one natural writer and biographer in John Beulah Carroll (1809-94), whose accounts of the life and times of the itinerant preachers of Methodism are alive with energy and enthusiasm. Past and Present; or the Description of Persons and Events Connected with Canadian Methodism (1860) and Case and His Cotemporaries; or the Canadian Itinerants' Memorial, Constituting a Biographical History of Meth-

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odism in Canada, from Its Foundation into the Province Till the Death of the Rev. William Case (5 vols, 1867-77), are the most wide-ranging of a long list of his books, stories, and pamphlets. A selection of his work called Salvation! O the Joyful Sound: The Selected Writings of John Carroll (1967) was edited, with an introduction on Canadian Methodism, by John Webster Grant. Throughout his long life the Reverend Henry Scadding, an Anglican clergyman, scholar, and man of letters, was an indefatigible recorder of men, places, and events. His The First Bishop of Toronto: A Study (1868), a memorial to John Strachan, was written shortly after the bishop's death in 1867. D'Arcy McGee exercised his lively writing skill in clerical as well as patriotic biography: A Life of the Rt Rev. Edward Maginn, Coadjutor Bishop ofDerry was published in 1857 and his Historical Sketches oj'O'Council and His Friends in 1845. His own first memorial was written during his lifetime by Fennings Taylor in 1864, then enlarged and republished shortly after his assassination: The Hon. D'Arcy McGee: A Sketch of His Life and Death (1868). Among the few non-clerical biographies in Canada before Confederation, and perhaps the earliest Canadian biography of all, was The Mysterious Stranger (1817) by Walter Bates, a Loyalist from Connecticut who had come to New Brunswick and become Sheriff of King's County. His book was based on the life of the rascally horse thief, Henry Moon (Henry More Smith), whose crimes were notorious in both Canada and the United States. The book was reprinted in England as Companion for Caraboo, with the added story of Caraboo, a female impersonator. In 1963 Barbara Grantmyre retold Moon's story in Lunar Rogue. Among the lives of important public figures, two pre-Confederation biographies are outstanding, Edward Ermatinger's Life of Colonel Talbot and the Talbot Settlement (1859) and Charles Lindsey's The Life and Times of William Lyon Mackenzie with an Account of the Canadian Rebellion of 1837, and the Subsequent Frontier Disturbances, Chiefly from Unpublished Documents (2 vols, 1862). Ermatinger's frankness was offensive to some of his more influential readers. His book was suppressed and then superseded by the revised work of his son, Charles Oakes Ermatinger, in 1904. Lindsey's account of his father-in-law, Mackenzie, is a vivid biography, with sympathy for the man and his aims, but also with a canny understanding of Mackenzie's weakness and of the complexity of the time and issues at stake. Mackenzie comes to life in Lindsey's pages as a passionate, restless, reform agitator, whose judgment on occasion was obscured, or routed, by emotion and involvement, but whose devotion to principles of freedom and justice was unfailing. The proliferation of biographies between Confederation and the turn of the century divided almost evenly between memorials of clergy and of men who were notable in some aspect of the country's fortunes - in politics, education, or business. Naturally, the death of a public figure motivated a memorial:

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George Brown, shot by a disgruntled employee in 1880, was eulogized by Alexander Mackenzie's The Life and Speeches of the Hon. George Brown (1882); John Strachan, who died in 1867, was memorialized in the Reverend Alexander Neil Bethune's Memoir of the Rt Rev. John Strachan (1870); Egerton Ryerson's death in 1882 was followed quickly by Joseph Antisell Allen's Dr Ryerson: A Review anda Study (1884) and then by the work of his colleague and friend, John George Hodgins, who edited Ryerson's autobiography, The Story of My Life (1883), and then wrote his own tribute, Rev. Egerton Ryerson, Founder of the School System of Ontario (1889). Joseph Edmund Collins's The Life and Times of the Rt Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald (1883), an anecdotal, 'human interest' collection, was revised after Macdonald's death in 1891 by G. Mercer Adam and published as Canada's Patriotic Statesman: The Life and Career of the Rt Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald (1891). Emerson Biggar's anecdotal Life of Sir John A. Macdonald (1891) is in a similar vein - extremely selective and warmly eulogistic. Macdonald's nephew, James Pennington Macpherson, published his twovolume Life of the Rt Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald (1891), the year of Macdonald's death, but his laborious account, largely of parliamentary proceedings, was speedily superseded by Joseph Pope's Memoirs of the Rt Hon. Sir John Alexander Macdonald (2 vols, 1894). Pope had been secretary to Macdonald and was his literary executor; he based his biography on the study of the voluminous documents available to him. By the standards of present-day historians, Pope's work is tepid and uncritical, but it is still, in Donald Creighton's words, 'the best, by long odds,' of the early treatments of Macdonald. The Hon. Alexander Mackenzie: His Life and Times (1892) by William Buckingham and George Ross memorializes the 'Grit' prime minister and eulogizes the Liberal party in about equal portions. William Kingsford, whose ten-volume History of Canada is the first exhaustive treatment of our history, also published Sir Daniel Wilson, a memorial, in 1893, and George Fenety, who had known Joseph Howe, published his Life and Times of the Hon. Joseph Howe in 1896. John Castell Hopkins, the tirelessly productive historian and writer, published his Life and Work of the Rt Hon. Sir John Thompson, Prime Minister of Canada (1895) shortly after Thompson's sudden death at Windsor Castle in 1894. Three colourful figures from the days of 1812 were the subject of short and eulogizing biographies in this period: Mrs Sarah Anne Curzon told the story of Laura Secord (1891), Mary Agnes Fitzgibbon wrote the story of her grandfather and his life and times in A Veteran of 1812: The Life of James Fitzgibbon (1894), and Reuben Calvert wrote the story of Abigail Becker, The Heroine ofLongpoint (1899). Although almost all of the biographies of this period are so largely eulogistic

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memoirs, they are often valuable as documentary evidence of contemporary ethics and attitudes and most of them provide priceless evidence of the nineteenth-century Canadian's set of mind. The Reverend Hugh Johnston's A Merchant Prince: The Life of the Hon. Senator John Macdonald (1893) is an astonishing piece of social history as well as the documenting of the rise to wealth and fame of a poor and sickly Scottish boy. Total respect for God, for work, and for financial success - here is the very fabric of the puritan business ethic in Victorian Canada. To an enquiring reader of the present day Johnston's words imply and connote far more than their literal meaning, as they pay tribute to an entirely successful - on his century's terms - business, religious, public, and private life. It is both necessary and extremely fruitful to make an imaginative effort to read, not only the lines themselves, but also the social and religious implications of the lines of such biographies. In the nineteenth century the genre of biography was conventionally a memorializing genre and most lives are obscured by a wash of adulation. With few exceptions we must look elsewhere in the Canadian literature of that century for records of convincingly real and complex people and events - to the autobiographical sketches written by Susanna Moodie in Roughing It in the Bush (1852) and Life in the Clearings Versus the Bush (1853); the pages of Robert Gourlay ' s Statistical Account of Upper Canada Compiled with a View to a Grand System of Emigration (2 vols, 1822); John Charles Dent's Story of the Upper Canadian Rebellion (2 vols, 1885) and The Last Forty Years: Canada since the Union of 1841 (2 vols, 1881); and Kathleen and Robina Lizars' In the Days of the Canada Company: The Story of the Settlement of the Huron Tract and a View of the Social Life of the Period, 1825-1850 (1896). The latter, with its stress on colourful personalities, is our first - and a fine example of what might be called the corporate biography, as now practised by Pierre Berton and, in some of their works, by George Woodcock and Farley Mowat. The first concerted effort towards providing biographies of Canadians and the most successful Canadian publishing venture to that time was George Morang's Makers of Canada series. Between 1903 and 1908 twenty volumes of biography were published under the editorship of two of Canada's leading literary men, Duncan Campbell Scott and Pelham Edgar. Inevitably, the volumes varied greatly in the quality of their writing, but the enterprise as a whole was a great success and it speaks strongly as a memorial to Canada's first period of national confidence and academic consciousness. In fact this series may be considered a landmark and a turning point in the practice of biography in this country. Although the general tone was that of the Whig historian, as Professor Windsor points out in 'Historical Writing to 1920' (Chapter 13, Volume i, Literary History of Canada), and the choice of lives is indicative of the same bias - a volume on Ryerson, but none on Strachan, for

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example - a major remove from biography as a eulogizing memorial is everywhere discernible in these volumes. At this distance the loss is sometimes considerable and the gain miniscule: hence Nathaniel Burwash's Ryerson is a wooden book compared to Hodgin's memoir of Ryerson simply because it is so resolutely free of any emotional tone. The ability to hold the man and his times in balance while resolutely keeping the working out of the individual's destiny in the forefront of the work's intent is, in general, not noticeably successful in these works, although the historian Adam Shortt wrote vividly and with impeccable sources on Lord Sydenham, as did Jean Mcllwraith on Frederick Haldimand and Duncan Campbell Scott on John Graves Simcoe. The men who planned the project held to a high and complex ideal which combined professionalism, patriotism, and practicality: J. Castell Hopkins, historian and writer, John Willison, editor of The Globe, and George Morang, the publisher, who called the series his 'great enterprise' and whose method of selling the books by subscription was outstandingly successful. Their writers achieved a very high minimum quality and the series as a whole set a standard by which other biographies and all continuing professionalism in the field of history were to be measured. The Makers of Canada works were designed to be scholarly studies; the success of the enterprise sparked two further large projects: Canada and Its Provinces: A History of the Canadian People and Their Institutions by One Hundred Associates (23 vols, 1914-17), edited by Adam Shortt and A.G. Doughty, and The Chronicles of Canada (32 vols, 1914-16), edited by George Wrong and H.H. Langton. The Chronicles were conceived of and commissioned to various writers as studies for the general reader; many scholars wrote for both the Chronicles and the Makers series. An insight into what was then considered as the acceptable academic level for a biography and what was considered fitting for the general reader is possible by a comparison of, for instance, Leacock's or Skelton's volumes for the two series. Some of the Chronicles were broad studies; others such as W.L. Grant's The Tribune of Nova Scotia: A Chronicle of Joseph Howe (1915), C.W. Colby's Founder of New France: A Chronicle ofChamplain (1915) and The Fighting Governor: A Chronicle of Frontenac (1915) were single biographies. Most of them are written very simply, without scholarly apparatus but with an engaging story-teller's enthusiasm. They are slight, but readable and informative pieces of work with a warmth of tone and involvement that the more detached professionalism of the Makers series did not - or could not - achieve. In contrast to the growth and consolidation of Canadian history as an academic field of study and research, the development of Canadian literature among academic disciplines was painfully slow. Until well into our own time our practising authors have not been matched by critics with anything like the historians' sense of professionalism - in fact it was a historian, John George

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Bourinot, who in 1893 had delivered Our Intellectual Strength and Weakness, a presidential address to the Royal Society and a landmark survey of the state of our literature. In particular there was no possibility of drawing on any professional group of literary scholars for a concerted effort toward setting down the lives or publishing the works of Canadian writers in any way comparable to the Makers of Canada or the Chronicles of Canada series. There is a considerable irony in the editorship of the Makers of Canada by Duncan Campbell Scott and Pelham Edgar: the one was an outstanding poet, the other a literary scholar; together they edited a series given over entirely to historical, not literary figures. There was, however, a consistent although somewhat hesitant interest in Canadian literature, marked by William Douw Lighthall's survey introduction and projection of the future of our literature in his Songs of the Great Dominion (1889) and the presence in Canada and Its Provinces of Thomas Guthrie Marquis's 'English-Canadian Literature' and Camille Roy's 'French-Canadian Literature.' Seriously and proudly as these men wrote of our literature, they would all have agreed that although the makers of our laws and school systems were fitting subjects of biography, the makers of our poetry and fiction were less so - and that not necessarily because their work was considered less, but because the mystique which surrounded literature made a biography seem an invasion of privacy. Aside from a few isolated works such as George Grant's monograph, Joseph Howe ( 1904), Francis Blake Crofton' s Haliburton: The Man and the Writer: A Study (1889), and Lawrence Johnstone Burpee's Charles Heavysege: A Monograph (1901), there was no considerable biographical treatment given to any of our writers until the 1920s. To read Bourinot's essay and then to consider the life and works of Charles Mair is to gain insight into a strange contradiction of feeling about our literature. Bourinot and Mair were contemporaries; they were both involved emotionally and actively in the affairs of this country and they both believed that Canada had a special and great destiny. On the one hand, Bourinot elevated our literature, particularly its poetry, but it was an elevation to an ornamental, an inspirational, and a didactic purpose. On the other hand, Charles Mair, going to the polar point of convinced nationalism, spoke of the creating of a national literature rather as the manufacturing of a necessary national commodity, the building up of a national dairy industry, for instance. With what seems to us to be an incredible and ludicrous naïveté, he set out to be our 'National Dramatist' with his Tecumseh and our Longfellow with his Ballad of Laura Secord. A colonial uncertainty, embarrassment, and ambivalence towards writers is documented, of course, as early as Susanna Moodie's work. 'Who in England wants to read about Canada,' a correspondent asked her, and her children were looked upon as strange, or teased and ostracized because their mother was of the odd breed - a writer. Yet in the

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mid-1890s, when J.E. Wetherell collected a school text of Canadian poets, he felt that he had sufficient tradition to choose from to call his work Later Canadian Poems (1893). Professor Creighton points to the relative unimportance of universities in Canada during the nineteenth century as a factor in late-developing historical-biographical techniques. The same reason may be claimed for the late development of scholarly confidence in Canadian literary studies: the committee project which has issued in the Literary History of Canada is comparable, not only in the achievement of the text itself, but also in its implications of pride and confidence in the total body of our literature, to Canada and Its Provinces, the historians' project of some fifty years earlier. 1920-60 In the decade after World War i there was a period of national literary enthusiasm comparable to the contemporary explosion of the late 1960s and 1970s. The formation of the Canadian Authors' Association in 1921; the presence and influence of such popular figures as Stephen Leacock, Ralph Connor (the Reverend Charles W. Gordon), and Charles G.D. Roberts, isolated events such as Mazo de la Roche's winning of the Atlantic Monthly prize for Jalna in 1927, the literary activities of The Canadian Forum and Saturday Night: all of these were elements in an upsurge of interest and activity in the writing of biography. The entire genre had been given a great infusion of iconoclastic vigour by the work of Lytton Strachey, who broke down the Victorian biographical conventions of propriety and the memorial and thereby opened the genre, both to writers and to a new and more general readership. In the twenties and thirties the division between 'popular' and 'scholarly' biography was first established by critics and academics, the latter differentiated largely by a full documentation of sources in footnotes and bibliography, the former not necessarily less precise in its preparation, but usually far less formal in its presentation. In this decade, for the first time, a biographer might hope for a great popular success with the reading public. There was an especially eager public for biography romanticized into costume drama and in this area Mrs L. Adams Beck of Victoria was outstandingly successful. Under the pseudonyms of E. Harrington and L. Moresby she wrote some twenty books on historical figures of which The Divine Lady (1924), the story of Emma Hamilton, was made into a memorable silent film. Duel of the Queens (1930), the story of Elizabeth i and Mary Queen of Scots, transformed the facts of history into romantic melodrama to the enthusiastic acceptance by thousands of readers of both its book and its magazine-serialized versions. Dorothy de Brissac Campbell's DuBarry: An Intimate Biography (1931) and The Intriguing Duchess: Marie de Rohan, Duchesse de Chevreuse (1930), although written to a similar

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formula with an added hint of scandal in their titles, were neither as slickly professional as Mrs Beck's work nor as successful. The first concerted attempt to focus public attention on the writers of Canada was made by Lome Pierce, for many years editor-in-chief of Ryerson Press and Canada's foremost cultivator of Canadian writers and their works. Pierce conceived the Makers of Canadian Literature series as a group of small, well-printed and -produced volumes each combining a short biography, an appraisal of the work of an author, a selection from his work, and a bibliography. These, like the earlier Chronicles, were designed for the general reader and they fulfill their purpose admirably. Although the appraisals are very often appreciations rather than criticisms in the contemporary sense, they were for several decades the chief and often the only printed sources of information about our writers. Eleven volumes appeared between 1923 and 1926, with a twelfth, Victor Lauriston's Arthur Stringer: Son of the North, in 1941. Lome Pierce's own William Kirby: The Portrait of a Tory Loyalist (1929) is a pot-pourri of anecdote, incident, and evaluation. A far larger book than those which he published in his Makers of Canadian Literature series, it suffers from its lack of selectivity and form. James Cappon, Professor of English at Queen's University, published two distinguished works on our writers in this decade: Charles G.D. Roberts (1925) and Bliss Carman and the Literary Currents and Influences of His Time (1930). The twenties was also the decade in which a few young Canadian scholars found that American graduate schools were willing to entertain research projects on Canadian writers. Carl Klinck's Wilfred Campbell: A Study in Late Provincial Victorianism (1942) was the outcome of PHD work at Columbia at this time. V.L.O. Chittick's Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1924) and Carl Y. Connor's Archibald Lampman: Canadian Poet of Nature (1929) are also essentially products of American graduate schools. There were in addition a number of competent and readable biographies of Canadian historical figures published in the twenties. Some of these, such as Ralph Flenley's Samuel de Champlain: Founder of New France (1924), Charles Cochrane's David Thompson, the Explorer (1924), Howard Kennedy's Father Lacombe (1928) and Lord Strathcona (1928), were patterned after the Chronicles of Canada, simply designed, and written primarily to give a wider perspective to the reading and teaching of Canadian history in schools. Others, such as William Kennedy's Lord Elgin (1926) and John Macnaughton's Lord Strathcona (1926), combined a kind of official memorializing purpose with solid historical research. A few such as Chester New's Lord Durham: A Biography ( 1926), Mark Sweeten Wade's Mackenzie of Canada (1927), George P. de T. Glazebrook's Sir Charles Bagot in Canada: A Study in British Colonial Government (1929), and Frederick

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Niven's The Story of Alexander Selkirk (1929) were - and are - real contributions to biographical literature and scholarship, combining careful research and writing skill with the obsessive interest in and effort toward the illumination of the subject that is the biographer's first and constant requirement. Some works of distinction arose from localized or specialized enthusiasms. William Renwick Riddell wrote of Ontario's history: his William Kirby (1923) and John Richardson (1926?), as well as his William Dummer Powell (1924) and John Graves Simcoe (1926) are products of careful research. Edith Archibald's Life and Letters of Sir Edward Mortimer Archibald, by his Daughter (1924), prompted by family loyalty and the availability of family papers, is a valuable compendium. Two lives of D'Arcy McGee came out in 1925, Isabel Skelton's romanticized work and Alexander Brady's more sober view. Mrs Skelton also published Isaac Jogues in 1928. Lawrence Johnstone Burpee wrote the first work on Fleming in Sandford Fleming: Empire Builder (1915), Robert Gordon of John Gait (1920), and in 1930 William James Loudon published A Canadian Geologist, the life of J.B. Tyrrell. Until the thirties, biographies of Canadian women had been monuments to holiness - missionary-teachers - or to bravery - historical heroines. Then, after the 1929 Privy Council decision for 'Women as Persons,' a trickle of works about outstanding public figures began to appear. Annie Harvey Hanley's The Mohawk Princess: Being an Account of the Life ofTekahionWake (1931) is a poignant memorial to Pauline Johnson's talents and tragedy. Elizabeth Bailey Price's My Seventy Years (1938), the story of Martha Black of the Yukon, is distinguished both for the unremittingly adventurous spirit of its remarkable subject and for the liveliness and the skill of its telling. Hugh Ernest MacDermot's Maude Abbott: A Memoir (1941) and Kennethe M. Haig's Brave Harvest: The Life Story of E. Cora Hind (1945) are solid contributions to the genre, although they communicate more sense of the industry than of the spirit of their subjects. Byrne Hope Sanders' Emily Murphy, Crusader (1945) follows the same pattern and is an admirably detailed piece of work, although there is a considerable overlay of hero worship on the part of its author which sometimes obscures into a wash of charm the essential dynamic toughness and undefeatable self-confidence of Emily Murphy. Harold Innis's Peter Pond, Fur Trader and Adventurer (1930), John W. Dafoe's Clifford S if ton in Relation to His Times ( 1931), and J. A. Roy's Joseph Howe: A Study in Achievement and Frustration (1935) advanced the cause of history through biography in the thirties. The first volume of C.B. Sissons's Egerton Ryerson: His Life and Letters (1973) remains one of our outstanding volumes of biography. Sisson's combining of impeccable scholarship with a humane understanding and interpretation of his subject produced a remarkable work. One of the most useful, interesting, and entertaining exercises in

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questioning the validity of a Canadian legend was W.S. Wallace's The Story of Laura Secord: A Study in Historical Evidence (1932). Lovat Dickson's works on George Belaney, the strange nature-cultist who became famous in the thirties as Grey Owl - The Green Leaf: A Tribute to Grey Owl (1936) and Halfbreed: The Story of Grey Owl (1939), Malcolm Weldron's Snow Man: John Hornby in the Barren Lands (1931), Kim Beattie's Brother, Here's a Man! The Saga of Klondike Boyle (1940), and Dorothy Duncan's Partner in Three Worlds: The Biography of Jan Rieger (1944) mark very different removes from the conventional 'clergy, explorers, soldiers, or statesmen' subject matter for biographers. These authors wrote of the men they chose, not because their lives were necessarily inspirational or elevating to readers, but because they as biographers were obsessively caught up in the interest of those lives and the necessity they felt to record them for others. Lome Pierce encouraged and published Elsie May Pomeroy's Sir Charles G.D. Roberts (1943), an uncritical, anecdotal, and entertaining life, far from authoritative, but still, twenty-five years later, the only attempt we have at a full treatment of the life of Roberts. Over the years Pierce also extended the public educational project he had instigated in his Makers of Canadian Literature series with several short, simple, but informative biographies of Canadian artists: Blodwen Davies' Paddle and Palette: The Story of Tom Thomson (1930); E.R. Hunter's J.E.H. Macdonald: A Biography and Catalogue of His Work (1940); William Colgate's C.W. Jefferys (1945); Pierce's own Thoreau Macdonald (1945); and Charles Marius Barbeau's Henri Julien (1941), Côté, the Wood Carver (1943), and Painters of Quebec (1946). Donald Creighton's critique of Canadian biography was first delivered as a paper in 1948. Valid although its comments were to the practice of biography in the past, there is sound evidence that even as he inveighed against them, biographers were speedily progressing toward a higher standard of excellence and a more comprehensive definition of the genre. In the first post-war years Canadian biography was distinguished by the publication of Lloyd Stevenson's Sir Frederick Banting (1946) and by C.B. Sissons's second volume of EgertonRyerson:His Life andLetters (1947). Sissons's volume carried on the meticulous scholarship of his first one and his work remains the most complete portrayal of Ryerson which we have had. Stevenson's Banting likewise goes far beyond the memorializing of Canada's notable medical scientist; with perceptive scholarship and real literary grace he tells the story both of the man and of his work. Judith Robinson's Tom Cullen of Baltimore (1949), the story of another Canadian doctor who became a famous member of the Johns Hopkins Medical School, is also written in a style that enhances the research details of the work. Three slighter but still memorable works were published in 1949: James H. Cranston's Etienne Brûlé: Immortal Scoundrel, Hubert R. Evans's North to the Unknown: Achievements and Adventures of

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David Thompson, and Richard S. Lambert's Franklin of the Arctic: A Life of Adventure. These works are marked by their common effort to make the lives of important historic figures readable while still retaining authenticity of detail. Their aims are modest - no one of their authors works with the precision or the accumulation of detail that could claim a totally scholarly stand, but each book within its own self-defined terms is a satisfying whole. Hugh Maclntyre Urquhart's Arthur Currie: Biography of a Great Canadian (1950), the official life of the commander-in-chief of Canada's forces in World War i, is a painstaking piece of work, thoroughly researched and documented, although understandably eulogistic because of its author's official responsibility. Josephine Phelan's The Ardent Exile: The Life and Times of Thomas D'Arcy McGee (1951) communicates with flair and sympathy the quality of its extraordinarily colourful, dramatic subject. Bruce Hutchison's The Incredible Canadian: A Candid Portrait of Mackenzie King (1952), written in a fast-paced, fact-filled style by one of the most talented writers and journalists this country has produced, delivers to readers not only the living portrait of his subject, but a large cross-section of the social history of this country in King's time. Journalistic biography can be seen at its best in the work of Hutchison as, in the same decade and for the same subject, the care and meticulous research of the historian biographer can be seen in R. MacGregor Dawson's William Lyon Mackenzie King: A Political Biography, Volume i, 1874-1923 (1958). Dawson's volume takes King to the end of the Empire Conference in 1923. His work on King, cut off by his death in 1958, is careful and reasoned, without the colour and pace of Hutchison's, but also without any trace of the sentimental admiration which cloys the pages of Henry R. Hardy's Mackenzie King of Canada (1949), a book based on a newspaper series called 'Mr Canada,' published before King's death. Donald Creighton's John A. Macdonald, whose first volume, The Young Politician, was published in 1952, followed by Volume u, The Old Chieftain, in 1955, provided Canada's historian biographers with a milestone and a measuring stick against which to test their own research and writing skill from that day onward. The man who emerges from Creighton's pages is neither over-eulogized at the expense of his common humanity, nor is he ever robbed of the dignity of his person or his achievement. Furthermore the complexity of his times and the many-faceted nature of the circumstances and the decisions which arose from his times are shown in their complicated patterns. In both its scholarship and its prose style Creighton's efforts and aims for the craft of biography were abundantly vindicated. Donald G. Kerr's Sir Edmund Head: A Scholarly Governor (1954) perfectly exemplifies the traditional - and doggedly continuing - scholarly, pedestrian, and thesis-oriented work. On the other hand, Frederick C. Hamil's Lake Erie Baron: The Story of Colonel Thomas Talbot (1955) combines thorough re-

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search with a dynamic engagement with his subject and a colour of language that widened this book's readership far beyond the area that the professional historian can usually expect to reach. The same is true of William Kilbourn's The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada (1956), a work which had, and still has, the wide appeal of fast-paced journalistic biography, while relinquishing none of its scholarly foundation. Kilbourn writes an evocative and metaphoric prose; his dramatizing of Mackenzie and his times is a triumphant blend of good scholarship and good writing. Ted Allan and Sydney Gordon's The Scalpel, the Sword (1952) was the first and for two decades the only biography of Norman Bethune, an intensely sympathetic treatment of this gifted and self-sacrificing man. Women figure with a new prominence in the fifties, both as writers and as subjects of biography. The work of two historians adds an important dimension to documentation on the Canadian past: Margaret A. Banks's Edward Blake: Irish Nationalist (1957) is not a complete biography, but rather a specialized and detailed treatment of Blake's years in Irish politics from 1892 to 1907. Elisabeth Wallace's Goldwin Smith: Victorian Liberal (1957) set down for the first time a detailed and documented study of Canada's most controversial man of letters, a much-needed corrective to Theodore Arnold Haultain's Goldwin Smith: Life and Opinions, a memorializing volume of 1913. Jessie Beattie's Black Moses: The Real Uncle Tom (1957) is a wellpaced life of Josiah Henson, written by a practised professional writer; Josephine Phelan wrote The Bold Heart: The Story of Father Lacombe (1956), a competent but a lesser work than her McGee; Iris Noble's The Doctor Who Dared: William Osier (1959), Margaret D. Stuart's Ask No Quarter: A Biography of Agnes Macphail (1959), and Hilda Ridley's The Story of L.M. Montgomery (1956) combine tributes to their subjects with valuable information about them. All three, however, leave the reader with rather flat and conventional portraits of illustrious persons. Elizabeth Waterston's Pioneers in Agriculture (1957), biographical sketches of Massey, Mclntosh, and Saunders, is a useful collection as are Byrne Hope Sanders's Famous Women: Can, Hind, Gullen and Murphy (1958) and Viola Pratt's Famous Doctors: Osier, Banting, Penfield (1956). Elizabeth M.G. MacGilFs My Mother, the Judge (1955) tells the story of Judge Helen Gregory MacGill; although, understandably, the author eulogizes her subject, she also gives the essential quality of this privileged, strong-willed, adventurous, and remarkably able woman. Grace Maclnnis's story of her father, J.S. Woodsworth: A Man to Remember (1953), is a spiritual biography written with a rare combination of love and frankness. It is a very personal portrait and a very distinguished one, free of sentimentality and resting confidently on the qualities of a man who was manifestly remarkable in his purpose and his integrity. Two slight and historically biased biographies of Louis Riel appeared in the

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fifties: WilliamM. Davidson' s LouisRiel, 1884-1885: A Biography (1955),and George H. Needler's Louis Riel: The Rebellion of 1885 (1957), the latter written from the viewpoint of one who went west with the group of University of Toronto volunteers to put down the uprising of 1885. During the forties and fifties Needier, retired head of the Department of German at the University of Toronto, researched and wrote a number of historical, biographical, and literary monographs on Canadian subjects. His brief but useful compilation, Otonabee Pioneers: The Story of the Stewarts, the Stricklands, the Traills and the Moodies, was published in 1953 and his Colonel Anthony Van Egmond in 1956. Roderick Haig-Brown's The Captain of the Discovery: The Story of Captain George Vancouver (1956, reprinted in 1972) is a well-told story of Vancouver by a writer whose own engagement with adventure and the sea is evident in the sense of immediacy his work communicates. Less skilled, but informed by a similar enthusiasm, is Edgar A. Woods's The Map-Maker: The Story of David Thompson (1955). Leslie Roberts's The Life and Times of Clarence Decatur Howe (1957) is a competent, journalistic treatment beginning with Howe's acceptance of a cabinet portfolio in 1935. It is not blindly partisan, although Roberts plainly admires Howe's strength. Two writers instituted interest in colourful or notorious Ontario characters and events: Carl Klinck by his collection of essays by and about William Dunlop of Goderich and The Canada Company, William 'Tiger' Dunlop: Blackwoodian Backwoodsman (1958), and Thomas T. Kelley by his The Black Donnelly s (1954), a rather superficial investigation of the ignorance, malice, and superstition that led to the murder of the Donnelly family near Lucan, Ontario. This fruitful decade in the history of Canadian biography closed with important work by three historians: William J. Eccles' Frontenac: The Courtier Governor (1959), James M. Careless' Brown of the Globe, Volume i, The Voice of Upper Canada (1959), and Kenneth W. McNaught's A Prophet In Politics: A Biography o f J . S . Woodsworth (1959). Both Eccles and Careless are primarily historians of a period rather than biographers of a man. Their central characters come through less as individuals than as keynote figures in the history of their times. Eccles illuminates an entire period through his treatment of Frontenac, substituting its historical complexity for the conventionally simple, romanticized myth of Frontenac, the man. Careless makes a comparable contribution to our understanding of the Canadian nineteenthcentury scene, highlighting its complexity through his central figure and thereby successfully dispersing oversimplified concepts of a black-and-white, Grit-and-Tory Canadian past. By contrast, McNaught's study of J.S. Woodsworth always centres on the man. McNaught illuminates a time in Canadian life and politics through a study in which his perception of his subject and his careful scholarship are completely and successfully fused. His work is complementary to Grace Maclnnis's - his final judgment confirms

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both his labour and hers: 'Like all prophets Woodsworth was greatest as critic. And as such he lived essentially in isolation - an isolation the more complete because of his moral courage.' 1960-73 Biography in the 1960s was affected by a double impulse: the one, the examples and standards set by historians in the 1950s; the other, the beginning of an interest in all things Canadian that accelerated as the decade advanced toward Canada's centennial and has continued to accelerate ever since. Historians continued to do their painstaking and valuable work; a few journalists continued to write with authority plus a pace and colour that the historians did not often allow themselves; and, more and more, both experienced and novice writers, engaged with the life of some Canadian character, found publishers for their work. Three series of books on our writers, largely critical but also bringing forward some biographical material, were begun by Canadian publishers in the 1960s: McClelland and Stewart's Canadian Writers series (1969- ), a tributary of the New Canadian Library series; Copp Clark's Studies in Canadian Literature (1969- ), and Forum House's Canadian Writers and Their Works (1969- ). Of these the Copp Clark volumes give the writer and his subject the best production and a more generous word allowance than the cramped format of the other two series allows. The American-based Twayne World Authors series gives its writers a still more expansive frame of reference and word allowance. Among the volumes of this series Brandon Conron's Morley Callaghan (1966), Donald Stephens's Bliss Carman (1966), Desmond Pacey's£i/ze/ Wilson (1968), Alvin Lee'sJamesReaney (1968), and Margaret Stobie's Frederick Philip Grove (1973) combine considerable biographical material with careful critical considerations of their authors' works. Certain of our major historical figures were given authoritative treatment in the first years of the decade: the second volume of J.M.S. Careless' Brown of the Globe won the Governor-General's Award for non-fiction in 1963; Roger Graham's Arthur Meighen appeared in three volumes between 1960 and 1965; G.F.G. Stanley's Louis Riel in 1963; H. Blair Neatby's continuation of Dawson's work, William Lyon Mackenzie King, Volume n, The Lonely Heights, in 1963; Dale Thomson's Alexander Mackenzie: Clear Grit in 1960; and two biographies of Champlain, M.E. Dionne's Champlain in 1963 and Morris Bishop's Champlain: The Life of Fortitude, also in 1963. Of these two, the former is a relatively dispassionate, exploratory, and assessing work, while the latter combines a vast assembly of material with an obviously deep feeling for the man. Bishop's work is essentially a 'hero biography' of the old school, but its emotional impact successfully enhances, rather than distorts its scholarship.

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The same is true of John Morgan Gray's Lord Selkirk of Red River (1963). Gray's work communicates his own affection and respect for his subject, his impeccable research into a multitude of source materials, and the total quality of Selkirk, the man. Edward McCourt's Remember Butler: The Story of Sir William Butler, 1838-1910 (1967), shows a similar combination of warmth towards his subject and skill in his research. His work has a corresponding success. McCourt does not limit himself to Butler's Canadian career, but deals fully with the wide-ranging, soldiering, adventuring life of this man whose The Great Lone Land is one of the classics in our literature of travel. W.H. Graham's The Tiger of Canada W est (1962) also combines research and a skilful writing style to do justice to the colour of his subject, the legendary 'Tiger' Dunlop of Gairbraid. Unfortunately Graham's sources and documentation are not assembled to give his book the authority which it deserves. Two journalists published strikingly successful biographies in 1963: Peter C. Newman's Renegade in Power: The Diefenbaker Years, and Joseph Schull's Laurier: The First Canadian. Each writer deals with the man and his complex interaction with his times. Both men combine wit and imagination with their very high levels of research, interpretation, and writing competence. Both successfully use certain impressionistic techniques which can only be effective in biographical writings when they are rooted in a combination of precise knowledge and a vivid historical imagination. Schull's flashback technique in 'A Valedictory Address,' Chapter 1 of his Laurier, is a tour de force. Newman's work is one of the first and is likely to remain one of the most successful attempts in our literature to write, without either undue praise or rancour, of a public figure still very much alive and powerful. Neil McKenty, in Mitch Hepburn (1967), uses some impressionistic techniques as well, but with far less success, producing embarrassing areas of unassimilated imaginative detail in a work which is otherwise sound. Dale Thomson's Louis St Laurent (1967) takes a careful and supremely respectful historian's approach to his subject; to compare his works with Newman's is to see the very clearly marked contrast between the sober, academic biography and the more readable, racy, and contentious work of the journalist. Ernest Watkins's R.B. Bennett (1963) was written from the Bennett papers at the University of New Brunswick; although it is neither compellingly readable nor an exhaustive treatment of Bennett it is a valuable guide to his life and career. Among numbers of works covering a widening range of Canadian subjects, Fred Landon's An Exile from Canada to Van Diemen's Land (1960) is the moving account of Elijah Woodman, transported for his participation in the Upper Canadian rebellion of 1837. William Kaye Lamb's The Hero of Upper Canada (1962) is the story of Sir Isaac Brock, and James Grierson MacGregor's Peter Fidler: Canada's Forgotten Surveyor (1966) is an excellent account of the life and works of the surveyor of many of our western rivers. It contains a particularly frank account of the neglect and injustice

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suffered by his Indian wife, Mary, and their family after Fidler's death. John Upton Terrell's La Salle: The Life and Times of an Explorer (1968) is a fine recreation of character and environment; beside it Edmund Boyd Osier's LaSalle (1967) is a slight work, interesting to read but largely dependent on traditionally accepted accounts of the explorer. Men of the west and of the Arctic were extensively represented in biographies in these years: Nan Shipley's The James Evans Story (1966), the life and work of the Wesleyan missionary and his work with the Cree alphabet; John W. Chambers's Fur Trade Governor: George Simpson (1960); Mary Entwistle's Tom Tiddler's Ground (1961), the life of Bishop William Bompas of the Arctic; Lucia Ellis' s Klondike Kate (1962), the life and legend of Kitty Rockwell, 'Queen of the Yukon'; Dudley Copeland's Livingstone of the Arctic (1967), a documentation and commemoration of the man who is remembered in the north for his years of medical services to the Eskimos; and Marjorie Wilkins Campbell's McGillivray, Lord of the Northwest (1962), a particularly fine biography, although its authority is weakened by lack of documentation. Sandra McKee's Gabriel Dumont: Indian Fighter (1967), Norma Sluman's Poundmaker (1967), and William Eraser's Big Bear, Indian Patriot (1966) indicate a long-delayed movement toward serious recognition of important Indian and Métis men from our past. D.M. LeBourdais' Stefansson, Ambassador of the North (1963) is likewise a readable, although certainly a partisan treatment of the colourful, intrepid, and controversial explorer. Several works on businessmen are products of these years. Mary Etta Macpherson's Shopkeepers to a Nation (1964) tells the story of the Batons. Her work is uncritical, but it assembles facts with the expertise of the professional journalist, and it has the factual fascination of an Eaton's catalogue. Ross Harkness in J.E. Atkinson of the Star (1963) commemorates and documents the life of the founder of another financial empire; Alan Wilson's John Northway: A Blue Serge Canadian (1965) combines the story of a businessman with afine sense of the accompanying social history of his time; and Scott and Astrid Young, in O'Brien: From Waterboy to One Million a Year (1967), wrote a lively biography of Michael John O'Brien, mining magnate, railway financier, and one of the founders of the Montreal Canadiens hockey club. H. Montgomery Hyde's The Quiet Canadian (1962) is acareful study of Sir William Stephenson, the Canadian who was at the head of British Intelligence during World War n. In Lunar Rogue (1963) Barbara Grantmyre rewrote the story of Henry Frederick Moon, the rascal who was the subject of our earliest biographical sketch. Marion Robinson told the life story of Dr Marion Hilliard and paid tribute to both the life and the service of this great woman in Give My Heart (1964); and Ronald Hambleton essayed the first, tepid life of Mazo de la Roche of Jalna in 1966, a far less interesting piece of work than Miss de la Roche's autobiography, Ringing the Changes. A beginning was made in full

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studies of nineteenth-century literary figures in Norman Shrive's Charles Mair: Literary Nationalist (1965) and Clara Thomas's Love and Work Enough: The Life of Anna Jameson (1967). These studies are both spacious enough to give a sense of the dynamic, many-faceted, and many-talented quality of their subjects. John B. Windsor's The Mouth of the Wolf (1967) is the story of George Patterson, a Canadian prisoner of war who became a secret agent after escaping into Italy. Iris Allan's Bush Pilot (1966) records the life of W.O.P. May. William A. Bishop's The Courage of the Early Morning (1965), the story of his father, World War i air ace Billy Bishop, and Alan Capon's//« Faults Lie Gently: The Incredible Sam Hughes (1969) are two of the strangely few biographies of military men in our entire literature. The massive rise in public consciousness of all things Canadian which accompanied centennial enthusiasm and has issued in a continuing postcentennial nationalism has had its effects in some concerted efforts on the part of publishers to sponsor the writing of biography. Oxford University Press's series of biographies directed to a general and secondary school readership has issued in a group of relatively short, eminently readable works written by scholars who have combined first class scholarship with plain and lively prose. Among these are Donald Swainson's John A. Macdonald: The Man and the Politician (1971), James K. Smith's David Thompson: Fur Trader and Explorer (1971), Dorothy B. Smith's James Douglas: Father of British Columbia (1971), Barbara Robertson's Wilfrid Laurier: The Great Conciliator (1971), Hartwell Bowsfield's Louis Riel: Rebel and Hero (1971), and David Flint's two works, William Lyon Mackenzie: Rebel against Authority (1971) and John Strachan: Pastor and Politician (1971). The University of Toronto Press also instituted a short biography series, an adjunct of its major undertaking, the Dictionary of Canadian Biography. John L.H. Henderson's John Strachan, 1778-1867 (1969) was the first work to be published in this series. Henderson's soundness of research was in no way sacrificed to his book's necessary brevity. His volume was followed by Lionel Groulx' Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière, 1693-1756 (1970), Bruce Hodgins's John Sandfield Macdonald, 1812-1872 (1970), J.M. Bumsted's Henry Alline, 1748-1784 (1971), and David Gagnon's The Denison Family of Toronto, 1792-1925 (1973). These works are brief, but they are exemplary pieces of scholarship. Clara Thomas' s Ryerson of Upper Canada (1969), also a relatively short biography, attempts to set Ryerson against his times in a rapidly-developing Upper Canada and to interpret his life and its powerful influence on our educational system. Roy Daniells's Alexander Mackenzie and the Northwest (1969), published in Faber and Faber's travel library, adds a dimension of breadth to a factual account of Mackenzie. Daniells combines his own experience and imaginative grasp of the north and his assimilation of Harold Innis's important work, The Fur Trade in Canada, in his understanding of Mackenzie.

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The traditional, conventional combination of painstaking attention to the progress of a life's events with an admiring memorial is represented by John Swettenham's two volumes of McNaughton (1968, 1969) and by Robert Speight's Vanier: Soldier, Diplomat and Governor-General (1970). In neither case does the man emerge entirely convincingly from the events which surround him and the attitude of his biographer toward him. R.M.J. Baldwin, in The Baldwins and the Great Experiment (1969), traced three generations of the family from their arrival in Upper Canada in 1799, stressing the lives and the work toward responsible government of Dr William Warren and his son, Robert Baldwin. Floyd S. Chalmers's A Gentleman of the Press (1969), a biography of John Bayne Maclean, does bring his subject to the foreground of the events which surrounded him; Chalmers's technique, which he describes as 'personal research and my own memory,' together with the professional assistance of Mary Etta Macpherson, has produced a vivid portrait and a document of considerable significance to a student of Canadian social and business history. Murray Donnelly's Dafoe of the Free Press (1968) is also a successful attempt to describe and delineate the interaction between a man and his environment - 'it shaped him and he shaped it; and therein lies the story of this book.' The recent proliferation of biographies of historical figures is a hopeful extension and recognition of the genre among biographers as such and of readers' and publishers' awareness of it, although the wide range in their recognition of the need for documentation still undermines the effectiveness of some of these works: Marcus van Steen's Governor Simcoe and His Lady (1968); John Andre's William Berczy, Co-Founder of Toronto (1967); Audrey Y. Morris's Gentle Pioneers: Five 19th Century Canadians (1968), the story of the Moodies, the Traills, and the Stricklands; Victor Ullman's Look to the North Star: A Life of William King (1969), the story of the man whose devotion to the cause of anti-slavery resulted in the founding of the Negro community of Elgin, near Chatham, Ontario; Sylvia Boorman's John Toronto: A Biography of Bishop Strachan (1969); Ruth McKenzie's Laura Secord: Legend and Lady (1971), which authenticates parts of the legend of Laura Secord, while refurbishing her tale with factual detail; and Ottelyn Addison and Elizabeth Harwood's Tom Thomson: The Algonquin Years (1969) and William T. Little's The Tom Thomson Mystery (1970). Both of the latter are attempts to interpret a creative life and a mysterious death, the first from the point of view of respectful devotees of the man and his paintings, the second from the detective-journalist's point of view. Hugh Maclean's Man of Steel: The Story of Sir Sandford Fleming (1969) and Clifford Wilson's Campbell of the Yukon (1970) are balanced and informative accounts of their subjects, although lacking in the degree of documentation that would give them lasting and definitive authority. Dorthy McLaughlin Henderson's Robert McLaughlin: Carriage Builder (1968) combines fam-

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ily tribute with a factual account of her remarkable subject and Marion MacRae's MacNab ofDundurn (1971) tells the story of one of Canada's great nineteenth-century builders. Thomas P. Slattery gives a very detailed treatment to his subject in The Assassination ofD'Arcy McGee (1968) as does Lois D. Milani to hers inRobert Gourlay, Gadfly: Forerunner of the Rebellion of Upper Canada (1971). Each of these writer's works is consistently directed toward the theme of its title; neither one pretends to be writing from a detached overview. Slattery finally satisfies where Milani does not, however, because her involvement amounts to total partisanship, obscuring the cranky humanity of her subject and the complexity of his times. Several biographies of careful scholarship have opened up important lives and areas for enlightenment: Charles S. O'Brien's Sir William Dawson: A Life in Science and Religion (1971) treats Dawson, the eminent McGill scientist, in relation to his participation in the debate about the implications of evolutionary theory in the nineteenth century. Crowfoot: Chief of the Blackfeet (1972) by Hugh Dempsey is a well-documented account of an Indian leader and, through him and his portrait, of the decline of his tribe. Helen E. Reid tells the controversial story of Isaac Barr and the colonists he led, with a strong case in favour of Barr, in All Silent, All Damned: The Search for Isaac Barr (1969). James Douglas: Servant of Two Empires (1969) by Derek Pethick and William Rodney's Kootenai Brown: His Life and Times (1969) are fast-paced accounts, particularly the latter, which tells the story of a man who was a guide for the North-West Mounted Police, a scout during the Rebellion of 1885 and, finally, game warden at Kootenay Forest Reserve. Red on White: The Biography of Duke Redbird (1971) by Marty Dunn is an experimental attempt to assemble and give form to an assortment of tapes, drawings, and poetry. Interesting, sometimes moving, it is a kind of album of its subject rather than a coherent structure. John Hawkins writes of Angus L. Macdonald, premier of Nova Scotia for much of the thirties and forties, in The Life and Times of Angus L. ( 1969) and Smallwood: The Unlikely Revolutionary ( 1968), by Richard Gwyn, combines a fast-moving, readable life of the man with a history of Newfoundland since Confederation. Although, as one reviewer put it, 'it would require the skill of a theologian counting angels on the head of a pin to write truthfully and with balance about a living politician,' both Geoffrey Stevens' s Stanfield (1973) and Denis Smith's Gentle Patriot: A Political Biography of Walter Gordon (1973) are admirable efforts in this direction. Smith's work, however, is more successful than Stevens's in giving a real presence to his subject. Roderick Stewart's Bethune (1973) is a short, but intensively-documented biography of Norman Bethune. It does not in any way supplant Allan and Gordon's The Scalpel, the Sword, but the records it contains, of men who knew Bethune and worked with him, illuminate the potent legend of the man. Pierre Berton's narratives tell stories of places and events but they must, finally, be

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categorized under the broad genre of biography because they centre so intensely on the lives of individual men and women. Beginning with The Klondike in 1958 and culminating with The National Dream: The Great Railway, 1871-1880 (1970) and TheLast Spike: The Great Railway, 1881-1885 (1971), a very large Canadian readership has demonstrated its enthusiasm for works both popular in their appeal and scholarly in their documentation. A small group of men and women whose subjects have not been Canadian have consistently done distinguished work in the genre of biography. George Woodcock is in the forefront of these writers, his many critical and biographical works including The Crystal Spirit (1966), a biography of George Orwell for which Woodcock was awarded the Governor-General's medal; The Anarchist Prince: A Biographical Study of Peter Kropotkin (1971); Henry Walter Bates, Naturalist of the Amazon (1969); and Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1969) [American edition dates]. Like Woodcock in many of his works, Barker Fairley in his A Study of Goethe (1961) works in a field which meshes biographical and critical interpretation. Phyllis Grosskurth's John Addington Symonds (1964), which also won a Governor-General's award, is a fine biography, as is Mollie Gillen's The Prince and the Lady (1970), the story of the Duke of Kent and Mme de St Laurent. Mrs Gillen is an outstanding historical biographer, combining the best elements of scholarly research, the biographer's enthusiasm and sympathy for her subjects, and a vivid historical imagination. Lovât Dickson, who wrote two works on Grey Owl in the thirties, also published Richard Hillary in 1950 and his comprehensive H.G. Wells in 1969. His Wilderness Man (1973) is a return to, and a further discovery of, Archibald Belaney, 'Grey Owl,' the mysterious man who first challenged him as a biographer. Among Canadians who have engaged the labours of biographers elsewhere, Lord Beaverbrook is pre-eminent. A.J.P. Taylor's Beaverbrook (1973), a strongly partisan but keenly analytic treatment of Max Aitken by a distinguished English historian, will remain for some time the authoritative study. At the present time in Canada the genre of biography enjoys a wide and growing readership. To academic biographers the influence of Donald Creighton means a consciousness of style and a striving for grace of expression added to meticulous scholarly research. Among other writers, the work of such biographers as Woodcock, Schull, Newman, Hutchison, and Berton persuasively demonstrates that a force of impact and a depth of meaning are added to a writer's work by his attention to careful research and documentation. We are now some distance along the road toward a final cancelling both of arbitrary distinctions between so-called 'popular' and 'academic' biographers and of artificial stratification of the reading public. To literary scholars, however, Desmond Pacey's challenge remains unanswered and paramount - we surely must begin to engage in extensive biographical research on our authors.

12 Children's Literature SHEILA A. EGOFF

By the 1960s children's books in other countries, particularly the United States, had begun to change as society changed. Television in particular brought children into the adult world more quickly than ever before and all the current problems, doubts, and uncertainties began to be reflected in children's books. Abandoning the story-cum-adventure convention, the children's novel became the fictional equivalent of the 'young person's guide to problems' -psychological, physical, and sociological. Almost none of these quite dramatic shifts in subject and taste showed up in Canada. Canadian children's books, whether from determination or as the result of circumstance, did not join the mainstream of current writing; they remained eminently stable if not downright conservative. While American and British and Australian children, as seen through their books, were coping with ineffectual parents, no parents, one parent, being unhappy, growing up, tuning in, dropping out, or brushing up against drugs, alcohol, homosexuality, and racism, Canadian children were still visiting a lighthouse, crossing the barrens, discovering a cache of Indian relics, escaping a murderer, catching a bank robber, or getting a pony for Christmas. But significant changes did come within this period, particularly from 1965 to 1970. These included a greater variety in themes and settings, a greater emphasis on the traditions of our native peoples, more successful ventures into fantasy (not easily attainable even in older cultures), more books with female characters, and more authentic biographies. For the writers who stayed within the Canadian convention - a vast background, the Indians, the Eskimo, the past - the resulting books were extraordinarily good, probably the best of their kind. And perhaps most important of all, after years of dull-looking books, publishers found the interest and/or the money to produce books that were visually attractive and even enticing. These were no mean achievements. But as the 1960s drew to a close, the alarms appeared to outdo the flourishes. From 1960 to 1965-6 the number of books published each year rose steadily; but from 1966 on there was a noticeable decline. That gains in

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quality came during this same period of quantitative decline is a phenomenon as welcome as it is difficult to explain - but it may be temporary: good writing does not ordinarily spring up in isolation from other kinds. Some of the best writing had a sturdy base in Indian and Eskimo myths and legends. In point of time the Indian tales came first. With the beginning of the 1960s a small but vigorous group of writers demonstrated the skills of selection and interpretation as well as a knowledge of Indian life, and made literature out of a large, unwieldy, diverse mass of oral tradition hitherto locked within the pages of anthropological studies or in the memories of the Indians themselves. Some of the important books were: Robert Ayre's (b. 1900) Sketco the Raven (1961), Christie Harris's (b. 1907) Once upon a Totem (1963), Kathleen Hill's (b. 1917) Glooscap and His Magic: Legends of the Wabanaki Indians (1963), Dorothy Reid's Tales of Nanabozho (1963), and George Clutesi's (b. 1905) Son of Raven, Son of Deer: Fables of the Tse-Shaht People (1967), which was the first literary treatment by an Indian of his own oral tradition. Indian legends continue to be a strong part of our writing and publishing - Christie Harris's second book of Indian legends, Once More upon a Totem, was published in 1973. But much remains to be done. These stories will have to be written and rewritten until a dozen or so surface as the best and they will have to be told so well that they can enter our national consciousness - on the level of 'Cinderella' and 'Jack the Giant Killer' instead of remaining in a separate cultural stream. William Toye's simple, direct retellings of the west coast Tsimshian story, The Mountain Goats of Temlaham (1969) and the east coast Micmac legend, How Summer Came to Canada (1969), present outstanding legends. They are among our few fullcolour picturebooks and there is no doubt that the colourful collage illustrations by Elizabeth Cleaver have greatly helped to attract young readers to these tales. The same comments could be made about Eskimo legends as about Indian. But these have been retold much more recently; Ronald Melzack's (b. 1929) The Day Tuk Became a Hunter and Other Eskimo Stories (1967), Helen Casweh"'s Shadows from the Singing House (1968), Melzack's Raven, Creator of the World (1970) and Maurice Metayer's (b. 1914) Tales from the Igloo (1972). Even this small group shows that the disparities of condition and life style make little basic difference to human needs and deeply rooted life patterns. Eskimo tales have their distinctive traits, but they also share a commonality with folktales around the world. A consistent spokesman for the Eskimo has been James Houston (b. 1921). His legend-type stories, beginning in 1965 with Tikta'liktak, and illustrated with his sculptured drawings have done much to make the life style of a people who live in the most inclement climate in the world familiar to us. His later books were The White Archer (l967),Akavak (1968), Wolf Run (1971), and Ghost Paddle (1972).

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In general our folklore falls into four quite separate groups - Indian, Eskimo, French-Canadian, and English-Canadian with little assimilation and borrowing among them, thus illustrating that Canada is culturally still a mixture and not a compound. With the chief exception of Marius Barbeau and Michael Hornyansky's The Golden Phoenix (1958) from the previous decade, English-Canadian folklore has almost been non-existent. A rarity was Shogomoc Sam (1970) by Lorrie McLaughlin (1924-71), emanating from the logging lore of the New Brunswick woods and with a perceptible 'tall tale' flavour. Many writers of this period made a bow with one book and were not heard from again in this field. One can only presume that the disappointing sales outweighed any other incentive. Such writers were: James McNamee with My Uncle Joe (1962), James Reaney (b. 1926) with The Boy with the R in His Hand (1965), Paul St Pierre (b. 1923) with Boss of the Namko Drive (1965), William Stevenson (b. 1924) with TheBushbabies (1965), and Doug Wilkinson (b. 1919) with Sons of the Arctic (1965) among many others. Some writers who had served a long apprenticeship wrote their most compelling books during this period. Roderick L. Haig-Brown's The Whale People (1962) is a magnificent portrayal of west coast Indian life before the white man came. Christie Harris, long known for her historical fiction such as Cariboo Trail (1957) and West with the White Chiefs (1965), told the true and sadly dramatic story of the impact of the traders and missionaries on the proud Haida people in Raven's Cry (1966). In biography, the Canadian Lives series set a high standard for children. It includes a group of notable subjects - Louis Riel, David Thompson, Alexander Mackenzie, James Douglas, John Strachan, William Lyon Mackenzie, John A. Macdonald, and Wilfrid Laurier. All are by qualified experts on the man and the times and interpret the evidence without neglecting anecdote and social background. The text of William Toye's Cartier Discovers the St Lawrence (1970) is partly based on passages in his The St Lawrence and in Biggar's Voyages of Jacques Cartier. With its large, striking colour illustrations by Lazlo Gal, it is a fine example of authentic history for young children. Since poetry has been such a dynamic (and lately even explosive) part of Canadian adult literature, it is amazing that so little has appeared for children. This paucity has occurred in spite of the foundations laid by Desmond Pacey's (b. 1917) charming nonsense verses The Cow with the Musical Moo (1952), Hippity Hobo and the Bee (1952), and The Cat, the Cow and the Kangaroo (1968). This tradition of our own brand of nonsense (a kind of Canadian Edward Lear) has been reinforced by Dennis Lee's (b. 1939) Wiggle to the Laundromat (1970), Alligator Pie (1974), and Nicholas Knock (1974). Lee makes considerable use of things Canadian. His avowed intent has been to give Canadian children a sense of their particular time and space - a feat that

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obviously cannot be accomplished in writing from other countries, no matter how excellent it is. Northrop Frye once pointed out that 'In what Canadian poets have tried to do there is an interest for Canadian readers much deeper than what the achievement itself justifies.' Fortunately Lee can hold his own with the best of nonsense versifiers. Nicholas Knock has a wider range than Alligator Pie. The title poem is a drama in seven parts - a celebration of the youthful imagination in the face of adults and their institutions. Regrettably the narrative form in poetry (like rhyme) is unpopular with most modern poets who write for children. This may explain why, in spite of the numerous books of poetry published for children, especially in the United States, it remains a form unattractive to them for leisure reading. Lee can be thanked for putting story back into poetry as well as for his other notable talents. An exciting anthology of Canadian poetry for children, The Wind Has Wings: Poems from Canada was published in 1968. The compilers, Mary Alice Downie (b. 1934) and Barbara Robertson, sought Canadian poems that might interest children and found seventy-seven -from Eskimo chants to poems by Klein, Reaney, and Layton, and including the good old 'Shooting of Dan McGrew.' The collage illustrations, in four colours and black-and-white, have brought the artist, Elizabeth Cleaver, both national and international recognition. A few writers such as David Walker (b. 1911), Ruth Nichols (b. 1948), and Christie Harris applied a psychological approach to the portrayal of their main characters - but only slightly, just enough to make their books exceptions rather than trend-setters, at least for the present. The land and the elements are still virtually the centrepiece of their stories and they all keep to the conventional novel form with plot, adventure, and descriptive passages. David Walker's Dragon Hill (1963), set on the Atlantic seaboard, has an 'old-hat' theme - the crusty, terrifying curmudgeon tamed by children - but it is rooted in the moral problems of the real world, problems of friendship, hatred, and sacrifice. The style here could be described as modern - emphatic, impressionistic, somtimes jagged and jerky, but always successful. Walker's second book, Pirate Rock (1969) - a Buchan-type spy story - is set against the magnificent background of the Bay of Fundy. His boys are as much at home on the water as the boys of the 'B.O.W.C.' a hundred years before. But the villain is not completely villainous; the boys who trap him feel also that they have betrayed him, and the adults exist in the story as people, as something real outside of their parental role. Even in a story for younger children,Big Ben (1969), Walker shows that he can deal with the complexities of human nature. Ruth Nichols's two fantasies, A Walk Out of the World (1969) and The Marrow of the World (1972), also have recognizable terrains. The mountains and rivers of British Columbia loom large in the first book and the rough country around Georgian Bay forms the setting for the second. Canadian

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writers, seemingly, do not need to create 'other worlds' to project themselves into fantasy - our own land serves well enough. So in these fantasies the real world and the fantasy world do not seem all that far apart. In Secret in the Stlalakum Wild (1972) Christie Harris is especially concerned to keep the feet of both her characters and her readers firmly placed in the here and now. She provides only brief glimpses of an extraordinary reality (the ancient native spirits of the Indians, the gods of the Stlalakum) in and out of which her young heroine steps several times in the course of the story. And yet, as in Ruth Nichols's books, there is an attractive tone to this mingling of fantasy and reality. We are asked to believe that mundane lives and events can be touched on occasion by a magical order; that links of communication may open at times between our own and other orders of reality; and, more important for her story, that an earlier order, communicated through myth, may well be the root of our own. Christie Harris also remains in the Canadian tradition with her ecological ideology. W. Towrie Cutt's Message from Arkmae (1972) has a stronger, even a more didactic ecological message tinged with delicate and haunting fantasy. The Finman, sole survivor of a legendary race, is as awesome as his sonorous warning to the human race. Cutt was born in the Orkney Islands, the setting for his story. This makes it quite unusual, since almost all Canadian children's books have Canadian settings. A few notable exceptions are William Stevenson's The Bushbabies (1965), which is set in modern Kenya, and two novels of the Napoleonic era, Redcoat Spy (1964) and Substitute General (1965), by John Redmayne, a pseudonym for Donald J. Goodspeed and Herbert F. Wood. Many books written for adults have been 'taken over' by children. The classical examples, of course, are Robinson Crusoe and Swiss Family Robinson; in our own time and country the animal stories of Seton and Roberts and Mowat's The Dog Who Wouldn't Be are widely read by children. Such 'take-overs' are welcome additions to the body of children's literature since they avoid the occupational hazard of works specifically designed for children - writing down or condescension. A number of recent authors have all chosen the same way of gaining acceptance by both age groups: write as an adult but about oneself as a child. These books are A Child in Prison Camp (1971) by Shizuye Takashima, Pictures Out of My Life (1971) by Pitseolak, and A Prairie Boy's Winter (1973) by William Kurelek (b. 1927). All are true stories. Takashima relates, without bitterness, her two years as a child internee in British Columbia during World War n. Pitseolak ('Sea Pigeon' in Eskimo) tells of what it was like to be young in an environment whose harshness was far easier to handle than the complexities imposed by presentday white civilization. William Kurelek describes a rural boyhood that was dominated by winter. These are unusual books; perhaps more significant for

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their illustrations (these are artist-writers) than for their texts. However, if they stand outside the mainstream of writing for children, they still contribute to its development and enrichment. If autobiography is the newest element in Canadian children's literature, the 'Indian theme' must be the very oldest. Yet there have been fresh approaches even here. Formerly books about Indians, even the most authentic, invariably were concerned with the past and depicted the Indian primarily as he affected the white pioneer. The new trend is to concentrate on Indians in present-day society and to centre attention on the Indian's own situation and outlook. John Craig's (b. 1921) No Word for Good-Bye (1969) is an eloquent statement of Indian-white relations played out between two boys at a Winnipeg summer resort. Jean Mackenzie's River of Stars (1971) is arough, tough story of fishing off the coast of British Columbia and an Indian boy's struggle to make a living in a white-dominated area that once belonged to his people. John Craig's newest book Zach (1972) is frank and forceful about Indianwhite conflicts but it also, unfortunately, shows what happens when a social consciousness theme dominates the story rather than becoming an integral part of it. LOOKING BACKWARD AND FORWARD

The problems of Canadian children's literature have always been those of its parent literature. The two cannot be separated. Whatever has been said about our literature (and it has been said frequently enough) as the product of a colonial, pioneer, frontier mentality, can include children's books. Indeed the literary themes which Margaret Atwood has identified as 'survival' can be seen in our children's literature in their most direct and forceful form. In a child's Canada, the land is overwhelmingly larger than its people with only the occasional scene of cosiness and domesticity to interrupt the endless parade of nature in the raw and nature in the grand. The plots are almost inevitably played out in the great outdoors with casts of animals, Indians, Eskimos, fur-traders, trappers, fishermen, and others battling the environment. And because the environment is seen in purely physical terms, the conflicts are won by the possession of the 'manly' virtues. With the merest handful of exceptions, the protagonists are young males who overcome their 'natural enemies' by dint of their courage, endurance, self-reliance, and woodsmen skills. But if children's books share with the adult literature the same basic theme of survival, the tone is quite different. Where adult literature equates 'survival' with alienation, coldness, and hostility, children's books equate it with challenge - and an almost joyous one at that ! A favourite plot is how the young lad comes to feel at home in his wilderness. Even in our earliest books there is a celebration of nature rather than antagonism towards it - a responsiveness,

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a zest, an exuberance. Perhaps Ballantyne set the tone in 1856 when he wrote in The Young Fur Traders : 'All nature was joyous and brilliant and bright and beautiful. Morning was still very young - about an hour old.' Here and elsewhere the Canadian wilderness is presented as a friendly playground, or at least as something that can be handled. Furthermore, Canadian children, as seen through their books, may be terrified or triumphant but are never sour or sullen. They have not heard of an identity crisis, don't know how to introspect, and can scarcely tell a lie. Compared with their Canadian elders, or for that matter with their own age group in American children's literature, they are singularly uncomplicated, puzzlingly cheerful, and everlastingly lucky. All this is to say that Canadian children's literature has the very serious faults of being naïve, repetitious, and one-dimensional. In general our writers for children have clung too assiduously to the land and the past as if these were our only strengths. It is time, surely, for a greater variety of themes - urban, feminine, domestic, and personal. Over eighty per cent of the population lives in urban centres. Although we may still feel subconsciously the physical pressure of the land outside these cities, we are also a people that now have to explain to our children that milk comes from cows. Another major problem is economic rather than thematic. One great reason for the relative scarcity of good Canadian children's books is that there are not even that many dull Canadian children's books. The market is simply too small to attract many professional writers. Our inordinate number of onebook authors more likely ran out of incentive than inspiration. These difficulties will not be easily remedied, for the forces operating against Canadian publishing are strong. Canada may well be unique in the degree of foreign competition that its publishers face; it imports more books than any other country in the world. American books in particular are not only easily accessible, but they are likely to be more publicized than their Canadian counterparts. Our newer books in particular do not easily become well known; they may be summarily reviewed or not reviewed at all. Our national media - newspapers, magazines, radio, television, the National Film Board pay little or no attention to them, or to their writers, a situation that does not exist in any other English-speaking or European nation. The publishers have to justify publishing new children's books in the knowledge that there is an insubstantial market for them. And because there has never been a substantial market, the publishers must operate without the support of a backlist of bestselling children's classics (the publishing rights to Anne of Green Gables are held in the United States). Canadian publishers frequently find it impossible to sell a first run of 3,000 copies of a worthy Canadian title - a figure that more often than not fails to allow for basic expenses of production if every

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copy is sold. It is not surprising the annual number of children's books published in the last five years has decreased. Small and fragile though it is, Canadian publishing for children has contributed more than its full share, past and present, to the development of a Canadian literature. L.M. Montgomery and Ralph Connor, Roberts and Seton, Haig-Brown and Mowat are names as likely to evoke recognition and remembered joys as any in the history of Canadian writing. Moreover, the names do not merely occur, they combine. They add up to a tradition - albeit a short and limited one. That tradition, when reinforced by the works of our more recent authors, is still strong enough to resist powerful influences from abroad. Although American writers for children have given themselves over almost wholly to 'problem-centred' fiction, in Canadian books children are still children and the conflicts they deal with are universal and elemental and not pseudo-existential. Perhaps Canadian children's books at their best are the equivalent of the classic cowboy or nature film. Unpretentious but not therefore lacking in artistry, familiar indeed yet perennial in their appeal, they speak for the basic and generous qualities of life. Having established a style of its own, Canadian children's literature has already become distinctive and may well become distinguished.

13 Drama and Theatre JOHN RIPLEY*

' Theatre ... as something of value to a discerning public has never counted in the life of English-language Canada,' lamented Nathan Cohen in 1959. 'Nor is it likely to in the reasonably foreseeable future,' he concluded.1 And at the time the late critic's pessimism was neither unique nor unfounded. Given our theatrical tradition, or lack of it, not even the blithest visionary could have anticipated that within a dozen years a coast-to-coast chain of twenty-three Anglophone and Francophone companies would offer a total of 6,489 performances in a single season (1971-2), and that 3,112 of these would feature Canadian plays. Without a hint of exaggeration, David Peacock, Theatre Officer with the Canada Council, could assure The Montreal Star in 1973, 'Canadian theatre is no longer just an idea, a case of wishful thinking, or a dream. As of now it's an established fact.'2 To reflect upon the evolution - or, more accurately, explosion - of Canadian theatre since 1960 is to witness a cultural miracle; and miracles have a way of defying critical explanation. Possible contributing factors have been cited in plenty: the financial and artistic success of Stratford; the impact of television drama; the inspiration of the Massey Commission; the funding and leadership of the Canada Council; a middle class with increased leisure and cash; an influx of cultured European immigrants; the challenge to cultural expression offered by Centennial Year; and the national self-confidence generated by Expo. No doubt all contributed something, together with a thousand other influences unremarked to date. To identify likely ingredients, however, is not to discover a recipe. Only time and critical distance can give us that. In the meantime, our inability to account for our good fortune in no way precludes a grateful chronicle of its arrival and some attempt to define its quality. *My warmest thanks to Miss Heather McCallum and the staff of the Theatre Section of the Metropolitan Toronto Central Library for their generous co-operation.

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THEATRE 1960-1973

In 1960 thé amateur theatre, thanks to the tenacious support of the Dominion Drama Festival, provided most Canadian theatre-goers with their staple fare. There was, of course, the Stratford Festival for Shakespeare lovers prepared to travel; and the Canadian Players periodically toured revivals of the classics. Fortunate Winnipeggers had their Manitoba Theatre Centre, founded two years earlier, while Torontonians made do with the foundering Crest, the fledgling Toronto Workshop Productions, and the footloose Canadian Players when at home. What may one day prove to be the cornerstone of our present theatre structure was laid on 2 November 1960 when the colingual National Theatre School opened in Montreal with thirty-one students. 'The creation of the school,' noted Michel Saint-Denis, 'symbolizes the artistic maturity of the men of theatre in Canada and of their sincere desire to accept their future responsibilities.'3 He might also have lauded a faith bordering on fantasy. In the previous year, according to Cohen, only a hundred actors found full-time theatre employment; yet a third as many again were now being prepared for a non-existent job market. A year later the Canada Council noted the bleak future faced by NTS graduates ; but the solution it proposed was to increase employment rather than restrict the supply of actors. A National Theatre School, it argued, demanded a national theatre; but not in the sense of a single company located in an architectural monument in one major city. Rather, the essential of a national theatre, as we see it, is that it should reach a national audience - e ven if this audience must for convenience be broken down into regional audiences.4

The goal of a frankly regional, as opposed to a self-consciously national, theatre released a torrent of creative energy in communities across the country. The Manitoba Theatre Centre, born of a merger of Winnipeg amateur companies, daily proved the viability of regional theatre; and throughout the next decade a succession of struggling professional groups profited from the MTC'S example. In 1963 Halifax's Neptune Theatre and Vancouver's Playhouse Theatre Company launched their first seasons. Edmonton's Citadel joined them in 1965, with Regina's mobile Globe (a Theatre for Children company at first) close behind in 1966. Montreal's Saidye Bronfman Centre Theatre opened in 1967, Theatre Calgary in 1968, Centaur Theatre (Montreal) and Theatre New Brunswick (Fredericton) in 1969, and Toronto's long-awaited St Lawrence Centre in 1970. 1971 brought Ontario three new regional ventures: Sudbury Theatre, Theatre London, and Theatre North-West (Thunder Bay). Contrary to the Canada Council's conviction that 'Stone walls do not a

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theatre make nor licensed bars a stage,'5 the monumental National Arts Centre in Ottawa stumbled to life in 1969 at a cost of about $46 million. Although technically a regional theatre, it does few productions of its own, and functions mainly as a showcase for visiting regional companies and touring troupes from abroad. To say that by 1971 regional theatres existed throughout the country is stylistically facile, but less than strictly true; more accurately, there were theatres in various regions. Few companies grew out of existing community organizations, as did the MTC, nor did any widespread local demand bring them to birth; rather they were imposed by the enlightened few upon the unsuspecting many. Nevertheless it is much to their credit that most of these cultural transplants are successfully overcoming initial rejection symptoms, and some are already genuinely regional institutions. Most play lengthy seasons, and actors establish permanent homes in the communities they serve. Tours of schools and outlying centres are commonplace. Many companies offer classes for amateurs, assist young playwrights, work in local universities and colleges, and arrange theatre-appreciation programs. While establishing the root structure necessary for long-term survival, many regional theatres exist financially on a day-to-day basis. Although government support at all levels has increased rapidly (Canada Council operating grants, for example, climbed from $106,000 in 1960-1 to $3,903,000 in 1972-3), ticket sales remain all important. Artistic directors have thus been understandably cautious in their choice of repertory. A fairly typical season of six plays might include two classical pieces, two serious contemporary dramas, a light comedy, and a Canadian work. An average sale of 65 per cent of theatre seats by subscription attests to patrons' satisfaction with their director's choice. The flowering of regional theatres has in no way inhibited the proliferation of festival and summer stock groups. Although offering comparatively short seasons, they command impressive support from audiences and funding agencies. Four out of a dozen or so are of major importance. The Stratford Festival has known little but mass adulation since its founding two decades ago, although its critics have been more vocal recently about a decline in artistic standards and its neglect of Canadian plays. Shakespeare's prosperity no doubt inspired the Shaw Festival (established in 1962 at Niagara-on-theLake), which specializes in the work of its namesake and his contemporaries. The Charlottetown Festival, founded in 1964 in the newly-opened Confederation Centre Theatre, offers mainly Canadian musicals, while Festival Lennoxville, launched at Bishop's University in 1972, stages three major productions of Canadian plays each summer. Reaction to what they decry as 'establishment theatre' has inspired a third element in the Canadian theatre dynamic - the underground or alternative

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theatre. George Luscombe's Toronto Workshop Productions staked a claim in this area as early as 1958, but it remained a solitary cultural ornament for a decade thereafter. In the late sixties and early seventies, however, a rush of Toronto experimental groups joined him, thanks to the aid of Opportunities for Youth and Local Initiatives grants. Among the more stable have been Studio Theatre Lab, Theatre Passe Muraille, Factory Theatre Lab, Global Village, Creation 2, Tarragon Theatre, and Toronto Free Theatre. Their example has not been lost on the rest of the country; John Juliani's Savage God company and the Arts Club in Vancouver, Theatre Three in Edmonton, and Pier One Theatre in Halifax provide strong evidence to the contrary. Four of these troupes already command national respect for the quality and significance of their work. Toronto Workshop Productions and Theatre Passe Muraille (opened in 1968) specialize in collective creation pieces without excluding other kinds of drama; and although the bulk of their material is Canadian, it is not exclusively so. Because of their working methods, the playwright is not predominant. Scripts are evolved jointly by actors, director, and dramaturge. Factory Theatre Lab, founded in 1970 by Ken Gass, and Tarragon Theatre, brought to birth by William Glassco in 1971, are both defiantly Canadian in content and playwright oriented. Factory Theatre Lab seeks to showcase as many Canadian scripts as possible in formats ranging from staged readings to fully realized productions. In the first three years of operation more than a hundred new plays enjoyed workshop or mainstage performances. In the process playwrights are offered whatever assistance time and resources permit. Tarragon Theatre, on the other hand, prefers to work longer and more closely with playwrights, and stages fewer but more polished productions. All these troupes live on the brink of bankruptcy; and the aid offered the more fortunate ones by grant-giving bodies is both out of line with grants to regional and festival companies and sadly disproportionate to their contribution to the national theatre environment. Encouraged perhaps by the vitality of the alternative theatre, established companies have recently begun to provide studio facilities for inexpensive staging of new and experimental works. Typical are Manitoba Theatre Centre's Warehouse, Neptune's Second Stage, and Stratford's Third Stage. Actors have cause to view the Canadian theatrical efflorescence with mixed feelings. Although there is more work available for more people, the individual actor's salary remains at a bare subsistence level. According to Actor's Equity Association figures, provided by Burnard Chadwick, 2,000 members are currently active as compared with about 1,200 in 1969. Between 1971 and 1973, although employment increased 25 per cent faster than membership, salaries remained appalling. In 1970, the latest date for which figures are available, average income from stage employment was only about $4,000

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annually. In 1969 only forty-eight actors earned between $7,500 and $12,500. Seven found themselves in the $12,500-$15,000 range, while four enjoyed a princely remuneration of $15,000-$20,000.6 If the way of the actor is hard, though, the route for the playwright is well-nigh impassible. Throughout the past decade while the Canada Council bemoaned the dearth of playwrights, dramatists railed ineffectually at directors who held that native drama spelt ruin. A 1971 study7 of seventeen seasons offered by seven regional theatres between 1965 and 1971 revealed that of 108 plays produced only nineteen were Canadian. The report went on to claim that thirteen of these ranked between first and third in terms of box-office popularity. While one might cavil at the statistical methodology which yielded these figures, there is no denying that the regional theatre has been no great patron of the Canadian dramatist. But its lack of ardour has no doubt been motivated as much by economics as aesthetics, as noted earlier. When Canadian plays were done, however, playwrights failed to receive anything like adequate remuneration. In 1970, the Playwrights' Circle reported that 'of the more than seven million dollars in budgets passing through the hands of our subsidized English-language theatres, something like fourteen thousand came to Canadian playwrights.'8 In a determined assault upon the problem, the Canada Council in 1971 sponsored a Stanley House seminar (commonly called 'The Gaspé Conference') on 'The Dilemma of the Playwright in Canada.' After some days of debate, the dozen or so invited playwrights, dramaturges, and administrators produced a report and a series of proposals designed to ameliorate the playwright's lot. Perhaps its most controversial recommendation was that 'all Canadian grant-giving agencies stipulate that not later than the first of January, 1973, any theatre receiving funds will be required to include in its repertoire at least one Canadian work in each two works it produces.'9 'While reluctant to impose quotas,' the Canada Council announced a year later, it had formally appealed to the companies to include more Canadian plays in their schedules. There was a warm response on the part of most companies, and... it appears that close to 50% or about 107 of the 228 plays to be produced in 1972-73 by Council-supported companies will be by Canadian authors.10

The long-term results of the Council's pressure remain to be assessed. In the meantime Canadian drama is at last in the national eye; and the Council's sympathy finds tangible expression in strengthened support for theatres and festivals featuring Canadian plays, assistance to publishers of Canadian scripts, and grants to individual playwrights. If the Gaspé Conference did not effect an overnight turnabout in the playwrights' fortunes, it at least drastically altered their self-image.

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Dramatists now came to see themselves not merely as isolated individuals uniquely discriminated against, but as a group of professionals with common concerns. On the strength of this new-found solidarity, a group of about thirty professionally-produced playwrights organized the Playwrights' Circle. Their prime achievement to date has been the establishment of the Playwrights Co-op in 1972, a non-profit Toronto organization with a salaried staff of six who advise novice playwrights, act as agents and promoters for established ones, and publish (by Gestetner process) new Canadian scripts at reasonable prices. At the moment the Co-op services eighty-six memberplaywrights across Canada, and is subsidized by the Canada Council and the Ontario Arts Council. Thanks to the Playwrights Co-op and other ventures, more has been done to get Canadian plays into print in the past three years than in the previous quarter century. In addition to individual scripts issued by a variety of publishers, the Playwrights Co-op has printed some 130 titles, and Talonbooks and New Press have brought out worthwhile series. The first three volumes of Rolf Kalman's A Collection of Canadian Plays make available some seventeen one-act and full-length works. A further three volumes are planned. Critical studies of Canadian theatre will be greatly facilitated by Brock University's indispensable Bibliography of Published Canadian Stage Plays in English 1900-1972 and its First Supplement to the Bibliography of Published Canadian Plays which list some hundreds of scripts with details of publication, plot summaries, and places and dates of their premières. Communication within the theatre community and between the theatre and its audience more or less matched the expansion of dramatic activities. The Canadian Theatre Centre from 1956 until its unfortunate demise in 1973 kept its membership in touch with each other and with international developments. Its periodical, The Stage in Canada, minutely chronicled domestic theatre activity and regularly monitored international trends. That's Showbusiness, a Canadian version of Variety which appeared in 1972, and reasonably good theatre coverage by Performing Arts in Canada have done much to compensate for its absence. Newspapers, too, have become more expansive in their treatment of theatre affairs, and a number employ specialist writers. Late in 1973, the Canadian Theatre Review, a quarterly published by York University, made a welcome appearance. EDUCATIONAL AND AMATEUR THEATRE

The impact of theatre upon the cultural fabric of the country has been quickly reflected in the schools. Already drama is a recognized subject in the curriculum of a number of provinces, and school tours by professional companies are routine. Sometimes regional theatres offer these productions as part of the activities of the regular company ; others have developed small performing

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groups which specialize in drama for children. Independent troupes of the latter sort are Vancouver's Playhouse Holiday, Edmonton's Citadel-onWheels, Regina's Globe Players, Toronto's Young People's Theatre, and Montreal's Youtheatre. Thanks to their enthusiasm hundreds of thousands of children enjoy professional productions annually. Universities, too, have come to look with favour upon drama and theatre as legitimate subjects of study ; and the pioneering departments at the universities of Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia have been joined by a host of others. Most institutions offer drama as a regular liberal arts subject, and some provide teacher-training as well. A few, however, operate full-scale professional training programs. The universities of Alberta, Victoria, and Windsor are active in this area. Graduate studies are widely available. The University of Toronto's Centre for the Study of Drama offers the most extensive program. While professional and educational theatre have been enjoying a sprightly if sometimes ungainly adolescence, its longtime mother and nurse, the Dominion Drama Festival, has retreated to the chimney corner with an acute identity crisis. Throughout the period under study, the Festival was beset, as always, by financial woes. Cal vert Distillers withdrew its support in 1960, and the Canadian Association of Broadcasters served as patron until 1966. Since then, in spite of some Canada Council assistance, money worries have been incessant. Coupled with the battle of the bank balance came a certain unease about its role in the contemporary theatre environment. A long series of diagnostic reports throughout the sixties culminated in a brains trust sponsored by Rothman's in 1970. It found the organization suffering from excessive conservatism, confused about the meaning of amateurism, and lacking a sense of direction. After much agonized debate, a number of changes were effected. Competitive festivals ceased in 1970 and annual showcases replaced them. In 1972 the organization changed its name to Theatre Canada, and has since tended to emphasize year-round regional activity as much as the annual national fiesta. In spite of its internal malaise, however, the DDF launched an ambitious festival of Canadian plays in Centennial year. In all, sixty-two scripts were staged, and twenty-nine of these were premières. During brief pauses for breath, Canadian theatre can look back upon its achievements to date with considerable pride. Whatever may be its shortcomings, it exists. And implied in existence is the potential for development and change. True, actors are underpaid; playwrights are underexposed; and alternative theatres are undersubsidized. But these weaknesses represent less a cause for dismay than a challenge to artistic growth and creative administration.

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DRAMA 1960-1973

Although Canadian theatres have not exercised themselves unduly on behalf of the native playwright, their presence is chiefly responsible for his advent. Without a stage and actors, the writing of plays is a futile pastime ; and this fact no doubt accounts for the paucity of dramatic literature prior to 1960. Since then several hundred Canadian scripts have had full-scale performances of one kind or another, including more than two hundred between 1971 and 1973.n An examination of only printed texts gives an inadequate picture of our output since the number of plays printed is but a fraction of those produced. Instead, we must look at the totality of Canadian work staged, for, after all, performance is the essential mode of play publication.12 A survey of dramatic writing for the period 1960-73 reveals no masterpieces. Major figures are only beginning to emerge, and most have written comparatively few plays. Their best work is still to come. A mass of writers have turned out a script or two, and many of these efforts are promising. Although craftsmanship is frequently lacking, their themes are vital and worthwhile. Most dramatists have not yet gone beyond an exploration of the theatre as a medium of expression and the first raw attempts, with varying degrees of success, to make it say something about ourselves. But to witness this process is an intensely absorbing experience. Few plays have been written by what are traditionally known as 'men of the theatre.' Instead, writers for other media, charmed by the 'insubstantial pageant,' brought their skills and limitations to its service. Poets, radio and television writers, novelists, and journalists have all contributed worthwhile pieces. And recruits from other fields - doctors, lawyers, businessmen, and professors - have waded in with alacrity. Although excited and challenged by the theatre, novice dramatists find themselves, like early writers for television and radio, unable fully to exploit its potential. All too many treat the play as merely a novel or short story in dialogue; and the dialogue too often degenerates into mere debate. Much of the talk is designed for a reader's eye, not for a theatregoer's ear. Writers are frequently insensitive to the oral dimension of language, to the subtle distinctions which individuate speech from person to person and region to region. A major fault is an understandable, if regrettable, ignorance of what the acting process involves. All too often scripts are written without considering the actor, and turn out to be virtually unplayable. Speech is sometimes stilted and artificial; movement is not provided for; and the psychology of characters is frequently so poorly handled that the actor has too much or too little to do. More often than not, the playwright tries to convey everything in words, and fails to tap the actor's non-verbal skills.

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Plays repeatedly suffer from a lack of structure. The author seems quite unaware of the need for action, if only of the psychological sort. The plot evinces no organic growth; development and release of tension are ignored; and the audience's perceptual apparatus seems of no importance. So unconscious are many dramatists of the visual element that their offerings seem better suited for radio performance or closet reading. Unfamiliarity with the basics of the medium has not deterred experiments with a wealth of dramatic forms; realistic drama, theatre of the absurd, spectacle and revue, the documentary, the musical, epic theatre, melodrama, satire, and farce all have been essayed. Before treating plays written exclusively by the dramatist, a number of collective creation presentations, which owe their scripts jointly to actors, director, and dramaturge, merit attention. The trailblazer in this area has been George Luscombe's Toronto Workshop Productions. Dedicated to the wedding of artistic expression to political concern à la Joan Littlewood, Luscombe's productions offer dramatic comment on a variety of international moral issues. Particularly impressive have been The Mechanic (1965) - with Jack Winter as dramaturge - an exploration of dehumanization in contemporary society, Chicago '70 (1970), a biting serio-comic treatment of the trial of the Chicago Seven, Mr Bones (1972), an exposé of American racism staged as a black-and-white minstrel show, and Richard Third Time (1973), an anti-Nixon satire. Although not exclusively a collective creation company, Theatre Passe Muraille has contributed several outstanding examples of this genre. All were directed by Paul Thompson. Where Luscombe frequently used literature or documentary material as the starting point for improvisation, Thompson sought to bring his company into direct touch with the experience they would recreate. To prepare The Farm Show (1972), director and actors lived for six weeks on a farm near Clinton, Ontario, where they involved themselves deeply in community life. The outcome is a richly textured collage of mime, stories, conversations, monologues, poems, music and songs which depict the rural life style with honesty and originality. The same technique produced Under the Greywacke in 1973. This time the group settled in Cobalt, Ontario, 'a ghost town which refuses to die.' Interviews in which unemployed residents recall a prosperous past and image an affluent future yield haunting portraits of a town in limbo. For two other exceptional pieces the company turned to history. 1837 (1973) is a dramatization of the rebellion of that date, while Doukhobors (1971) chronicles the dogged refusal of this recalcitrant sect to reconcile private morality with the claims of public order. Since 1965 the use of collective creation techniques has been nationally widespread; and much of the work produced has proved inferior. The best, however, exhibits remarkable freshness and vitality; and its use of the news-

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paper, the government document, even small-town conversation, as grist for the dramatic mill forcibly reminds us that theatre material is to be found wherever we look for it. A most valuable side-effect has been the inevitable interplay between actor and dramatist in the process of play-making. The resultant awareness of and respect for the other's craft cannot but strengthen in the long term both play writing and performance. To run an eye down the list of more traditional theatre pieces to appear since 1960 is to remark the perennial fondness of Canadian playwrights for history. Perhaps in a strongly nationalistic era dramatic authors felt the need to contact their roots or to seek historical analogues for contemporary perplexities. It may simply be that, concerned with coping technically with an unfamiliar medium, they imagined the comparatively structured nature of the recorded past might pose fewer problems than the 'God's plenty' of a protean present. Whatever the impulse, it proved sound in many cases, and accounts for some of our best stage writing to date. One of the most workmanlike and theatrical of these efforts is Arthur Murphy's The First Falls on Monday (Kawartha Festival, 1967); but, premiered amid the cultural largesse of Centennial Year, it received less attention than it deserves. With the founding fathers and their wives as dramatis personae, the Halifax surgeon convincingly recreates the somewhat obscure weekend which preceded the Monday, 1 July of Canadian Confederation. The picture which unfolds is a largely unheroic account of the political and social manoeuvres, domestic infighting, and disinterested sacrifice behind the absence of Charles Tupper and D'Arcy McGee from Macdonald's first cabinet. Much of the action is based upon documentary evidence, but when history is silent Murphy wades in with informed conjecture. And so convincing is his hypothesis that Herbert Whittaker finds it 'worthy to impose itself on our history as firmly as Shakespeare's view of Richard n.' 13 The play is solidly constructed ; and the weight of factual data seldom hampers the dramatic flow. The dialogue is consistently telling and natural; and the playwright's insights into the wellsprings of human conduct are shrewd and original. Murphy's portraits of the vacillating Tupper and his ambitious Agnes rank with the best in our dramatic gallery. Murphy is, on the whole, less interested in the events and issues of history than in the people behind them; and this bent is shared by James Reaney, Ann Henry, John Thomas McDonough, Sharon Pollock, and John Coulter. All contribute studies of individuals in conflict with social and political forces which exact a price for their defiance but fail to bankrupt their moral resources. James Reaney's Sticks and Stones (Tarragon, 1973), the first part of a projected trilogy titled The Donnelly s, focuses upon James Donnelly, a nineteenth-century tenant farmer, who finds the quarrels of his Irish birth-

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place now menace the life he seeks to build in Ontario. Threatened with the loss of his farm and ostracized by his neighbours for his political views when in Ireland, he is eventually driven to kill a man and imprisoned for seven years. Throughout that time his wife carries on his struggle while raising eight children. With Donnelly's return from prison the persecution intensifies; yet far from being weakened by it, the Donnellys find family solidarity strengthened by the need to survive. This play represents Reaney's most effective union of poetry and theatre to date. Using the historical facts about the Black Donnellys as a starting point, he constructs a fluid poetic fantasy where nightmare images of violence, fear, and hatred interweave with the most earthy and mundane rural pursuits. Time shifts at will from past to present to future ; words slip from prose into poetry and back again; choral speech interrupts dialogue and soliloquy. A play within a play counters Reaney's sympathetic view of the Donnellys with a dramatization of the traditional legend. Although in no way a documentary, one wonders if Reaney's poetic impressionism does not bring us nearer the core of the Donnellys' sensibility than the most naturalistic treatment could have done. Part of the play's success lies in Reaney's new-found ease with the theatre medium. Actors' skills are challenged to the full; eight players, aided by two marionettes and a mass of props, portray the inhabitants of an entire community. Objects, sounds, movements, and costumes are not adjuncts to words, but essential components of stage images. The major items of setting are ladders of various lengths which serve to suggest country roads designated as either Catholic or Protestant depending on members of which faith live beside them. At other times the ladders and their shadows symbolize the rigidlysectioned homesteads to which the settlers maintain a loyalty bordering on fanaticism. Visual and sound effects are simple, but telling: a handful of earth, a miniature burning barn, a wagon wheel, a buzzing fly, a whistled tune. Less ambitious than Reaney's play, but intensely moving nevertheless, is Ann Henry's realistic Lulu Street (Manitoba Theatre Centre, 1967). The historical event is the Winnipeg Strike of 1919, but the dramatic conflict is not so much between capital and labour as between Matthew Alexander, militant labour leader, and his adolescent daughter, Elly. Robbed of her father's attention by the human flotsam and jetsam who cram their decaying house, Elly rejects Matthew's activism in favour of freedom from poverty and fear. Ultimately, however, her dream eludes her; for Matthew needs more to lead than to love. While the play is flawed by somewhat awkward introduction of necessary historical background, it recreates a rich cross-section of the labour fraternity of the period. Losers all, Miss Henry's characters are never caricatured or sentimentalized; instead they merit her compassion for what they are, and her respect for their visions, however quixotic, of what they might become.

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John Thomas McDonough's Charbonneau and the Chef (no Englishlanguage production to date) treats another labour conflict, this time Quebec's infamous Asbestos strike of 1949; and the antagonists are no less than Joseph Charbonneau, Archbishop of Montreal, and Maurice Duplessis, premier and virtual dictator of Quebec. Charbonneau, his Christian conscience stung by Duplessis' brutal attempts at strike-breaking, supports the strikers with whatever influence he can summon. After a fruitless series of confrontations with the archbishop, Duplessis persuades the Vatican to dismiss him. Stunned and incredulous, Charbonneau goes into virtual exile in Victoria. Although the play's structure comprises mainly a series of Charbonneau's conversations with clerical friends, union officials, and Duplessis, the powerfully-etched archbishop holds our attention till the last. Unfortunately, one cannot say as much for the rest of the dramatis personae ; Duplessis is curiously wooden; and representatives of labour, capital, and the church are mere stereotypes. The heroes of Sharon Pollock's Walsh (Theatre Calgary, 1973) and John Coulter's The Trial of Louis Riel (Saskatchewan House, Regina, 1967) are chronologically more remote, but their resistance to authoritarian pressure differs from Charbonneau's neither in degree nor kind. The former play finds Major James Walsh, superintendent of the North-West Mounted Police post at Fort Walsh in 1877, ordered by Macdonald's government to harass Chief Sitting Bull and his entourage into returning to the United States and certain death after they had sought asylum in Canada. Aware that the prime minister's decision is motivated by mere political expediency, Walsh cannot reconcile his mandate to enforce the law with his innate aversion to injustice. Kiel's dilemma is even more harrowing. Coulter's piece sees the Métis leader trapped between a prosecution determined to prove his actions treasonous and a defence resolved to establish his insanity. Convinced that acquittal on the grounds of mental incapacity would invalidate his life's work, Riel rejects his counsel and argues his sanity before the court in the full knowledge that success may mean a death sentence. Both plays offer memorable characterizations of their leading figures, and their structure is workmanlike. Neither, however, transcends mere reconstruction of historical incidents; the contemporary resonance and relevance of A Man for All Seasons or Luther are lamentably missing. Michael Cook's Colour the Flesh the Colour of Dust (Neptune, 1972) and Carol Bolt's Buffalo Jump (Passe Muraille, 1972), although dramatizations of history, edge nearer to political statement. Sadly, however, the authors fail to commit themselves fully either to a political stance or a theatrical style. Cook's record of life in a Newfoundland fishing village during the Seven Years' War is a painful, yet movingly lyrical, tale of successive English and French occupations, and their effect upon the local judicial and economic system as experienced by the longsuffering poor. Bolt disinters the poverty

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and politics surrounding the Ottawa March of 1935, and through astute use of documentary material creates an evocative collage of Depression sights and sounds. Both plays, while reasonably theatrical, lack intellectual muscle: Cook settles for a hymn to the endurance of the common man, while Bolt loses sight of social issues in spectacle and nostalgia. Although informed by Brechtian epic conventions, neither piece uses them with consistency or point. Lightweight and unpretentious, but stageworthy, are Gavin Douglas's The Wooden World (Neptune, 1968), a potted history of Nova Scotia drawn from diaries, letters, newspapers, and songs; John Gray's Louisbourg (Neptune, 1964), a period farce set in eighteenth-century Cape Breton; and Tommy Tweed's John A. Beats the Devil (Neptune, 1964), an irreverent glance at Confederation's architect. Non-Canadian history attracted few writers, and their output is qualitatively unimpressive. Typical are Stewart Boston's Counsellor Extraordinary (Citadel, 1971), a wearisome recreation of the intrigue-ridden court of Elizabeth i, and Michael Bawtree's The Last of the Tsars (Avon, 1965), a self-indulgent chronicle of the twilight of the Russian monarchy. Among the best of the genre are Jack Winter's Before Compeigne (TWP, 1963) which takes up the Joan of Arc tale as her fortunes turn downward, and Arthur Murphy's Tiger! Tiger! (Neptune, 1970), a sensitive portrayal of the eighteenth-century medical pioneers, William and John Hunter. Michael Ondaatje's dramatization of his Collected Works of Billy the Kid (St Lawrence Centre, 1971) has been revived several times to critical acclaim. While the Canadian past provoked some worthwhile scripts, most playwrights found the here and now infinitely more to their taste. A spirit of social criticism imbues much of the best work; and the realistic style predominates. Absurdism lures a number of young writers; but, mistaking an apparent freedom of form for an invitation to chaotic play, few succeed to any marked degree. Toronto writer John Herbert's Fortune and Men's Eyes, a searing indictment of the Canadian penal system, is doubtless our best drama to date. After a New York première early in 1967, the play transferred to Toronto's Central Library Theatre a few months later. Since then it has enjoyed over a hundred professional revivals internationally. Set in an Ontario reformatory, the play follows Smitty, a young prisoner caught in a brutalizing homosexual environment, as he learns the politics of survival. Unwaveringly clear-eyed in his observation, yet wonderfully tolerant of human frailty, Herbert confronts us with figures who never forfeit our understanding, though at times they may tax our sympathy. Alternately lyrical, brutal, angry, and cruelly funny, Fortune is more than an attack upon a social institution; it is a profound affirmation of the human drive to love no matter how arid the environment, and a reminder of the spiritual penalties which attend its denial.

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More nationally oriented, although no less socially aware, is British Columbia novelist and playwright, George Ryga, whose passionate concern for the dispossessed animates five major plays: Indian (CBC-TV, 1962), The Ecstasy of Rita Joe (Vancouver Playhouse, 1967), Grass and Wild Strawberries (Vancouver Playhouse, 1969), Captives of the Faceless Drummer (St Lawrence Centre, 1972), and Sunrise on Sarah (Lennoxville Festival, 1973). In Indian, a one-act confrontation between an Indian, his employer, and the Indian agent, Ryga introduces, and explores with agonizing tension, a motif which dominates his later work - the plight of those who suffer a social alienation worse than death itself. Seen through the eyes of his employer, the Indian protagonist is but an irresponsible child-man to be motivated by cajolery and threat; when later, like some contemporary Ancient Mariner, he compels the terrified agent to hear his halting attempts at self-articulation, another person emerges. 'I never been anybody. I notjust dead ...I never live at all. What is matter? ... What anything matter, sementos?' Society has not destroyed him; it has never allowed him to be born. Although treated as a 'sementos' or a 'man who has lost his soul,' he regards the white man as the sementos. All Ryga's heroes, with varying degrees of awareness, covet a spiritual leap to life, an escape from the sementos of all sorts who would deny them their right to consciousness. The Ecstasy of Rita Joe portrays an Indian girl who quits the reservation for an alien urban environment. All too soon she finds herself in court on successive charges of vagrancy, prostitution, and theft. Eventually she is raped and murdered. On a bare stage enclosed by a circular ramp, Ryga orchestrates a symphony of despair. A warp of confrontations with a complacent magistrate is interwoven by a woof of impressionistic vignettes in which Rita Joe relives moments of childhood security, country freedom, and tribal companionship. As the hand of the law falls ever heavier, the past loses its power to charm, and her unattainable dream of a home and children with Jamie Paul intensifies. Meantime the menacing silhouette of the murderers betokens an end to both memory and hope; while the mindless lyrics of a fashionably cynical folk singer wash over all. The Indian characters are drawn with immense gentleness and insight, although they are never sentimentalized. The whites, however, receive less attention. The magistrate, the social worker, and the teacher are more caricatured than characterized; and the play's impact is consequently weakened. Although intellectually simplistic and short on solutions to the issues it raises, the play evokes an overwhelming awareness of the Kafkaesque alienation of native people. Ryga's vocabulary is of the simplest, yet his dialogue is richly rhythmic and infinitely subtle; and his imagery is often breathtaking. In spite of its flaws, Ecstasy offers some of the most moving moments to be found in Canadian theatre.

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In Grass and Wild Strawberries Ryga examines the disenfranchisement of the young. Teenaged Susan and Allan, fearful of losing their souls to the sementos over thirty, drop out of straight society in favour of hippy escapism. Allan, an aspiring painter, initially finds himself at odds with his Uncle Ted, a diehard socialist who insists that the social system must be changed by committed struggle from within. Later, however, matured by a bad acid trip, a drug-related prison sentence, and his forthcoming fatherhood, Allan concludes that art must be 'more than memory ... it has to be a weapon.' Even the spectacle of Uncle Ted unemployed and seeking charity from the church fails to weaken his resolve. Although popular and timely in 1969, Grass's subject matter and language now seem hackneyed. Despite its delightful blend of realism and expressionism, its apt word-pictures and exquisite lyrics, it currently offers more to the nostalgia collector than to the living theatre. Captives of the Faceless Drummer, too, has not escaped the ravages of Future Shock. Echoing the kidnapping of Pierre Laporte, the drama treats the abduction of a Canadian government official by urban guerrillas. For about ninety minutes the guerrilla leader, known only as 'the Commander,' and Harry, the captive, alternately bait and scrutinize each other. Contrary to the Commander's assertion that their conflict is merely part of a'war... between you who have everything and us who have nothing,' Ryga makes it abundantly clear that neither man has much. Both are victims of forces which withhold self-realization from them. In the end the Commander is shot; Harry is freed to resume his former captivity; and we are left to ponder which is the more fortunate. Although in the wake of the October Crisis Captives jarred the Canadian consciousness momentarily, our subsequent recognition of kidnapping and hijacking as an international fact of life has minimized its force, and underlined its want of intellectual incisiveness and emotional punch. Stripped of its political pretensions, the play comprises merely the mutual recriminations of two ineffectual people. The debate format is wearing, and the intermittent flashback scenes of Harry's wife, mistress, and friend, while welcome visual relief, strike one as more a clumsy afterthought than an integral structural component. More sensitive and less ephemeral, but seriously flawed in other ways, is Ryga's attempt to take up the cudgel on behalf of contemporary women. In Sunrise on Sarah he limns a socio-sexual portrait of a thirtyish British Columbia teacher through a series of psychiatric interviews interspersed with sequences in which she lives out her memories and fantasies. Sarah seems intended to represent the prototypical modern woman torn between her own conception of herself and society's image of her. She has escaped from the restraints of her mother's generation only to find she has not escaped to

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anything. While the theme is apropos and Sarah's agonized sensibility carries conviction, the play fails to establish its bona fides as a piece of social criticism. No Molly Bloom, Sarah comes across as too lightweight to typify half the human race. Her fantasies and anxieties are too private, too esoteric, to echo much beyond her own bedroom. Far from encountering the consciousness of an entire sex, we simply eavesdrop on a neurotic's therapy session. Although deeply sympathetic to Sarah's woes, Ryga again sidesteps any serious analysis, not to mention resolution, of the problem he poses. Sarah merely decides to show the psychiatrist the door and make the best of her lot. While the faults of individual plays are undeniable, the total impact of Ryga's work remains unique and impressive. He is as yet the only Canadian dramatist of stature to deal consistently with themes of national, social, and political concern ; and his profound compassion and fierce rage are vital in a society inclined to materialistic complacency. Hardly less welcome are the delicate lyrics, splendid rhetoric, and intricate rhythms of his dialogue which underscore by contrast the uniform drabness of much of our stage prose. Also a playwright of protest, but intent upon a smaller target, is David Freeman, a Toronto writer, whose Creeps (Factory Theatre Lab, 1972), Battering Ram (Tarragon, 1973), and You're Gonna Be Alright, Jamie-Boy (Tarragon, 1973) all turn the dramatic spotlight on society's cripples. Creeps, like Fortune and Men's Eyes, owes much of its thrust to the brutal honesty with which a distasteful subject is treated. Set in a sheltered workshop for cerebral palsy victims, Freeman's autobiographical study asserts irrevocably the right of the spastic to be regarded as more than an object of charity. Four young men, all physically disabled, meet in the lavatory for a bull session while a female supervisor storms outside the door. In the succeeding raw interplay of character Freeman forcibly demonstrates that their drives and frustrations are the same as our own. Intensified by a mood of constriction born of contorted physical movement and the claustrophobic setting, Freeman's dialogue spits and sings with merciless accuracy. The play deservedly received the Chalmers Award for 1972. In Battering Ram Freeman returns to the lot of the handicapped, but reminds us that the physically infirm are not the only, or perhaps the most pitiable, cripples. Irene, a widowed hospital volunteer, invites the paraplegic Virgil into her home ostensibly as an act of altruism; in reality, however, she uses him to alleviate her own insecurities. Nora, her cynical and sadistic teenaged daughter, sees him as a weapon to shatter her mother's pathetic but essential self-deception. Virgil, a calculating, self-pitying wheelchair stud, plays one woman off against the other for his own ends. At the final curtain all three confront their inadequacies in a triumvirate of pain where each is both

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exploiter and exploited. Broader in scope and more telling in import than Creeps, if somewhat less intense, the play evinces the same deft structure, keen psychological insight, and adroit dialogue. Freeman's more recent, but disappointing, You're Gonna Be Alright, Jamie-Boy features a household of maimed psyches, although nobody is physically crippled. The hackneyed plot chronicles an explosive evening spent by a pair of middle-aged television addicts with their teen-aged son, just home from a mental hospital, an alcoholic married daughter, and her impotent husband. Despite some incisive lines and the odd flash of almost brutal wit, the play's contrived conflict and stereotyped characterization transmute social concern into soap opera. Less intent on social criticism than Freeman, yet equally moved by the individual drive toward self-realization, is Toronto dramatist, David French, whose Leaving Home (Tarragon, 1972) and Of the Fields, Lately (Tarragon, 1973) both deal with the 'torment of love unsatisfied' in a family of Newfoundland expatriates. Although earning a living in Toronto, Jacob Mercer, the father, spiritually espouses the values of the Atlantic fishing village he left behind. Like Willy Loman, he discovers that urban society discredits the skills and gifts that in another time and place would have made him a leader of men and a hero to his family. His corrosive self-doubt leads him by turns to belittle his two better-educated sons and to demand from them a filial love and respect which he forfeits by his conduct. The first play treats the trauma surrounding the departure of the teenaged boys from the parental hearth. Billy, the younger son, leaves to enter a shotgun marriage, while Ben goes off to save himself from the destructive onslaught of Jacob's jealousy. In Of the Fields, Lately Ben returns from Regina for his Aunt Dot's funeral after an absence of two years to find his father recuperating from a heart attack. To spare Jacob the risk of a return to work, Ben volunteers, with considerable trepidation, to remain at home and support his parents. Jacob's hunger for his son's companionship leads him to accept the offer, but the ensuing dependency so ravages his pride that the old antagonism erupts with renewed intensity. Even as Ben left home the first time to retain his own self-respect, he finds he must set out again to allow his father the same right. While father-son identity feuds are not new to the stage, French manages to treat the subject in an original and vital way. The characters, although they embody universal aspirations, speak with a voice recognizably Canadian. Their sensibility is as native as the Newfoundland cadence of their conversation. The rambunctious, obstinate, yet vulnerable Jacob has all the vitality of an O'Casey creation yet remains unmistakably one of us. Scarcely less familiar are his long-suffering, unsentimental wife, Mary, and the wellmeaning but impulsive sons. No Canadian playwright has a finer sensitivity to

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the subtlest variations in the emotional pulse of a character, or a keener ear for the equally delicate rhythms of individual speech. Although both plays are of superior quality, the Chalmers Award-winning (1973) Of the Fields, Lately has the richer resonance. Where Leaving Home maintains a frenetic bustle of song, dance, laughter, and violence, Death hovers over the second drama, imparting an air of resigned tranquility throughout. The unobtrusive subplot in which Uncle Wiff unavailingly attempts to give Aunt Dot in death an affection he denied her in life exquisitely counterpoints Ben's determination to love his father enough to let him die with integrity. Altogether, the play's autumnal mood and its muted and subtle emotion mark an immense advance in both French's art and craft. French's fascination with the unarticulated needs and thwarted hopes of ordinary people is shared, if less ably exploited, by William Fruet and Tom Hendry. Fruet's Wedding in White (Poor Alex, 1972) recounts the rape of a feeble-minded girl by a soldier-friend of her brother during World War n, and her subsequent forced marriage to an aging suitor by whom she is brutalized a second time. Hendry's Fifteen Miles of Broken Glass (Central Players, Toronto, 1970) offers a nostalgic glimpse of the growing pains of a Winnipeg high school boy in the dying days of World War n ; while his How are Things with the Walking Wounded? (Toronto Free Theatre, 1972) depicts the second anniversary party of a Montreal homosexual couple during which the guests turn on each other in an orgy of mutual destructiveness. Throughout the past decade, French-Canadian plays in translation have proved a welcome supplement to our theatrical fare; but they provide small relief from the meat and potatoes realism of their Anglophone counterparts. Gratien Gélinas's Bousille and the Just (Comédie Canadienne, 1961), translated by Kenneth Johnstone and Joffre Miville-Dechêne, describes the intimidation of a slow-witted witness into committing perjury, and his subsequent suicide as a result of the damage to his religious sensibility. Originally a touching piece of melodrama, the subject now seems somewhat jaded if not totally irrelevant. Gélinas's Yesterday the Children Were Dancing (Charlottetown Festival, 1967), translated by Mavor Moore, seems to wear rather better. This play focuses upon the dilemma of a Francophone Montreal lawyer, a devout believer in federalism, who must decline a Liberal nomination in a national election due to his separatist sons' acts of sabotage. With the hindsight born of 1970s turmoil, we may find some of the political stances a trifle naïve today; nevertheless, the drama still states the opposing viewpoints with cogency and lays bare with almost embarrassing candour the corrosive effect of the war of ideas on the closest human relationships. Michel Tremblay's work is little threatened by the calendar, for he writes of the working poor of Montreal's East End with a harrowing authenticity which

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is timeless and universal. En Pièces détachées, translated by Allan Van Meer as Like Death Warmed Over (Manitoba Theatre Centre, 1973), records a few hours in the life of an alcoholic waitress preyed upon by a parasitic husband, a dominating mother, and an insane brother. Although crudely structured and lacking in emotional subtlety, its cumulative sense of mental and spiritual oppression is overwhelming. Les Belles-Sœurs, translated by Bill Glassco and John Van Burek (St Lawrence Centre, 1973), although equally pessimistic, makes its point as often with laughter as with lament. A working-class housewife wins a million trading stamps and invites her relatives and friends to help her paste them into books. In the course of a turbulent evening the women alternately fight, joke, reminisce, and steal. Their enormous vitality and will to endure at once affirm the tenacity of the human spirit and implicitly indict a social system which offers its disinherited green stamps as the sole passport to dream-country. Forever Yours, Mary Lou, also translated by Glassco and Van Burek (Tarragon, 1972), is a more complex and fractionally less bleak piece in which two sisters chat while their dead father and mother monologue away on either side of the stage. Haunted by their parents' murder-suicide after a marriage of mutual torture and despair, each girl seeks relief in her own way. Manon condemns herself to guilt-ridden reminiscence and religious exercise, while Carmen rejects the past and finds happiness as a cowboy singer at the Rodeo Bar. Although arguably a parable of the old and new Quebec, the play's power derives not from its political aptness, but from its complex contrapuntal structure, its delicate interplay of memory and desire, its virile language, and its uncanny grasp of the anatomy of human loneliness. All three plays undeniably suffer by translation. All are written in joual, an impoverished sub-language which has no equivalent in Canadian English. Moreover, the tone of the original scripts is materially altered by the substitution of English obscenity for French blasphemy. Jean Barbeau's Kafkaesque indictment of police brutality, The Way of Lacross (Poor Alex, 1972, trans. Philip and Susan London and Laurence Bérard), and Roch Carrier's bizarre chronicle of World War n's intrusion upon a Gaspé village, La Guerre, Yes Sir (Avon, 1972, trans. Suzanne Grossman), adapt more readily to the English idiom but captivate us less. Translated but as yet unproduced are Marcel Dubé's Ibsenian exposition of family guilt, The Wild Geese (trans. Jean Remple), and Guy Dufresne's trenchant study of economic opportunism, The Call of the Whippoorwill (trans. Philip London and Laurence Bérard). More narrowly regional in appeal, although an Anglophone cultural product, is Michael Cook's picturesque Head, Guts, and Sound Bone Dance (Saidye Bronfman Centre, 1974), in which an aging Newfoundland seaman, his son-in-law, and his half-witted son spend their days in the ritual recreation of a vanished fishing industry. Arthur Murphy's Charlie (Neptune, 1967), a

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graphic portrait of unemployed Cape Breton coal miners, evinces a like insularity, although the dynamic presence of Martha MacLean almost redeems it. Len Peterson's The Great Hunger (Arts Theatre, Toronto, 1960), an Eskimo version of the Hamlet theme, aspires to widespread relevance but settles for self-conscious folklore. Herschel Hardin's Esker Mike and His Wife Agiluk (Factory Theatre Lab, 1971) also treats the northern lifestyle, but local colour gives place to the raw primitivism of Greek tragedy. Agiluk, the Eskimo wife of Esker Mike, a white trapper, tires of giving their children to the missionaries. She clings resolutely to those she now has, and refuses her husand further marital rights. Raped by a friend of Esker Mike, she is trapped into carrying his child and bearing her husband another by way of compensation. To accommodate her future family she murders the children she cherishes, and waits stoically for the RCMP. While the play's severe structure and bold colouring recall classical tragedy, the Greek cosmic scale and textural richness are missing. The piece is, nonetheless, a theatrical tour de force of remarkable promise. Attempts at non-realistic theatre have been legion, but successes have been rare. James Reaney's semi-realistic Listen to the Wind (Summer Theatre '66, London, Ont.) interweaves scenes from rehearsals of a Gothic drama by a group of children with the real-life terrors of one of the actors. But despite its compelling atmosphere of Bronteian decay, the piece appears self-consciously contrived. His Colours in the Dark (Avon, 1967), an unaffected impressionistic collage of childhood images, is a feast for the eye and ear. Amid a welter of undisciplined, derivative essays in absurdism, Beverly Simons's Crabdance (premiered in Seattle but revived at the Vancouver Playhouse in 1972) eclipses all competitors. Sadie Golden, a middle-aged housewife, entertains three salesmen with whom she plays games appropriate to mother, wife, and lover; and reveals herself gradually, yet inevitably, as the elemental female - a creative, enduring force, ever living, ever dying, forever reborn. A stunning and complex ritual, the drama merits the closest critical and theatrical attention. By far the weakest area of Canadian dramaturgy is comedy. Apart from the light-hearted historical efforts mentioned earlier, less than a dozen native comedies received full-scale productions in the past decade. Most of these were farces, and three were from the pen of Vancouver humorist, Eric Nicol. His first and only noteworthy effort, Like Father, Like Fun (Vancouver Playhouse, 1966), treats a lumber company president's attempts to get his son seduced to save him from an early marriage. Its successors, The Fourth Monkey (Vancouver Playhouse, 1968) and Pillar of Sand (Vancouver Playhouse, 1973), are feeble in the extreme. Arthur Murphy's situation comedy, The Sleeping Bag (Neptune, 1966), finds a virginal secretary, a bluff

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explorer, and a dispassionate scientist marooned in the Arctic. The girl fashions herself a sleeping bag, and man of action and intellectual vie for the privilege of sharing it with her. The idea, although hardly novel, can sustain a good hour's romp, but forced to last twice that time it wears a trifle thin. Finally some mention should be made of the considerable number of high-quality plays for children. Some are designed to be performed to conventionally passive audiences, while others encourage the child's active participation. Many offer mature examinations of important themes. Particularly worthwhile are Chris Newton's documentary of life in early British Columbia, Where Are You When We Need You, Simon Fraser? (Playhouse Holiday, 1971), Eric Nicol'sBeware the Quickly Who (Holiday Theatre, 1967), and The Clam Made a Face (Holiday Theatre, 1968), and James Reaney's Names and Nicknames (Manitoba Theatre Centre, 1963).

14 Fiction WILLIAM

H. NEW

Much Canadian fiction between 1960 and 1973 demonstrated a continuity with the past.* It was academic, sometimes arcane, usually middle class in its affirmation and rejection of values, and it was concerned with the psychic isolation that recurs so frequently as a motif in modern literature. The landscape continued to exert its presence, formidable both as an ally and an antagonist in characters' various quests for answers, identities, comfort, and consolation. Characters continued to question their own and their society's failings. And authors - in conscious parody, laconic understatement, wry reflection, and bitter wit - demonstrated their appreciation of the ironies that underlay the specific tensions they wrote about. Although that continuity might reflect something about the Canadian character, it emerges more concretely from the fact that many of the authors who published in this period Callaghan, MacLennan, Richler, Raddall, Costain, Moore, Ross, Buckler, Kreisel, de la Roche, Mitchell, Bird, and LePan, for example - had established their voices in the 1940s and 1950s and earlier. In their new work, some change does occur. MacLennan is more dour in Return of the Sphinx (1967) than in Each Man's Son (1951); Richler's St Urbain's Horseman (1971) shows less youthful exuberance than does The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (1959); Buckler's Ox Bells and Fireflies (1968) is more gloomy about contemporary life than is The Mountain and the Valley (1952). Although such differences reflect in part the age of each writer at the time of writing and the particular demands of each work, they also suggest that the decade of the 1960s had a palpable effect on Canadian writing, and that generalizations which simply affirm the threads of continuity with the past obliterate much of the period's character. The 1950s expressed the liberal views of English and Scots Canada, affirming as ideals an international social identity and an image of the nation as a cultural mosaic. It was marked by Calvinist mores, which affected both the "This chapter has been prepared with the assistance of Miss Kaye Mill.

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manner of literary expression and the possibility for publication. It was literarily committed to 'realism' -to the mimetic representation of ordinary lives, even though in retrospect the 'ordinary' might seem to have been somewhat idealized - and to sequential narrative form. In its celebration of individual lives it tried to demonstrate the psychological dilemmas behind political choice rather than to confront political issues themselves. And for the most part - Gabrielle Roy, Ethel Wilson, and P.K. Page being the chief exceptions - the literary point of view of the time was male. It was MacLennan's decade. By contrast, the 1960s was the decade of Malcolm Lowry (paradoxically, for he died in 1957) and of Margaret Laurence. Lowry demonstrated the intensity of experience that could be wrought in prose, and the dense texture of language that could result from an appreciation of myth and ritual; Laurence explored the essential differences between middle-class expectations and other values, articulated a female perspective, and offered evidence to many younger writers to affirm that the simple fact of being alive was a political act. By the 1970s, simple linear narrative was giving way to complex artifice; 'realism' was losing ground to improvisational modes, to science fiction, to the surreal, the absurd, and the consciously contrived mythic and fabular; ethnic minorities sounded their various voices; cultural nationalism took the place of liberal internationalism; political and social pressures of the time were resulting in literary commitments to moral choice, although such choice was frequently predicated on a rejection of institutional mores; and a remarkable amount of good writing appeared. It reflected current political events, social attitudes, sexual conventions, theories of communication, interpretations of history and time, explorations of science and metaphysics, and hypotheses concerning values and realities and ways of knowing them. It was a time full of paradoxes and difficult decisions, the literature expressing disappointment, anger, and tension more often than joy. But during it, vital fiction became the accomplishment of many writers and remained no longer the preserve of a select few. If the work of the 'popular' writers of the time was frequently more artful than artistic, it still established the normative background against which to see the more serious writings, and so it has a curious historical value. Its very superficiality - its narrative speed, simplicity of characterization, simplistic orderliness of ideas - provides a direct picture of the issues that preoccupied the period. Inevitably much was written as escapist romance, like the work of W.E.D. Ross (b. 1912), who published formula fiction under a variety of pseudonyms including Marilyn Ross, Leslie Ames, and Rose Dana. Or it was written with Hollywood transformation in mind, like the five novels of Arthur Hailey (b. 1920 in England; emig. 1947; now a Bahamian resident): The Final Diagnosis (1959), In High Places (I960), Hotel (1965), Airport (1968), and Wheels (1971). The novels are written with the craft of the scriptwriter; they

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are filled with carefully staged scenes and overt emotional conflicts ; they rely heavily on dialogue; they acquire their degree of credibility from research into background details. Their stylistic texture is simple, their message direct, their intellectual challenge limited, and their questioning of the moral status quo non-existent. But they give the impression of providing the inside truth about the professions and industries they examine, and in that offer of'secret' knowledge lies their appeal. 'Power' (industrial, political, sexual) was a captivating subject. King Rat (1962) and Tai-Pan (1966) by James Clavell (b. 1924; emig. to USA in 1953, later to Canada), adventures set in south-east Asia at the time of the Japanese occupation, fulfil similar expectations. Their pacing is fast, their issues clear. But the central situation of King Rat - the exercise of vicious talents that allow particular personalities 'wartime' power - relates both to the popular world of Hailey and to serious analyses of contemporary behaviour. An increase in violence accompanied increases in population, urban pressure, bureaucratic impersonality, and socially acceptable amorality; and policies of confrontation (whether consciously or unconsciously adopted) characterized much everyday life in the late 1960s. Canadian news media responded to political violence both in and outside the country, to student demonstrations (which were often motivated by pacifist ideals), to race riots, air piracy, and other acts involving ultimata, making them all part of the fabric of daily experience. In an environment redolent with conflict between extremes, the 'middle' itself had to become a radical position to survive. Inevitably Canada's accepted 1950s function as International Interpreter had to alter. The anti-Communist sentiment which had worried the 1950s (and given Igor Gouzenko's The Fall of a Titan the Governor-General's Award in 1954) faded in the face of more immediate pressures: ecology, inflation, American ownership. (MacLennan's Return of the Sphinx in effect sounded an elegy for that era.) The Hostages (1966) by Charles Israel (b. 1920 in the us ; emig. 1953) adapts the new violence to the era, encapsulating Indian-Pakistani and ArabIsraeli conflicts in United Nations quarrels, and narrating a suspense story in which UN children are made victims of political ambitions and American fears of China. In the manner of popular fiction, its resolutions are rather facile, but it gives topical force to the growing tension between anonymous political power and highly personal moral and political effect. Various works take up this same conflict. Ask the Name of the Lion (1962) by Ralph Allen (1913-66), for example, is set in a stereotypical Africa at the time of the Congolese Lumumba rebellion. The South African émigré John Peter(b. 1921;emig. 1950), withAlong thatCoast (1964) andRunaway (1969) focussed more realistically on South Africa's racial tension. Tom Ardies (b. 1931) and Shaun Herrón (b. 1912; emig. 1958) built their observations of violent social behaviour into the spy thriller and the murder mystery, forms

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which during the 1960s and 1970s were also attempted by Michael Sheldon (b. 1918), Llew Devine, and others. Before he returned to Europe in 1967, Nicholas Monsarrat wrote in The Time before This (1962) an Arctic warning of Armageddon. Ian Adams (b. 1937) in The Trudeau Papers (1971) and Bruce Powe (pseud. Ellis Portal; b. 1925) in Killing Ground (1968) added something of science fiction to the thriller and offered committed and inventive but simplistic portraits of domestic political crises. Powe envisioned civil war, and Adams a war between the us and Canada. Knowledge Park (1972) by Stephen Franklin (b. 1922), views the future more idealistically, although it never resolves a central tension between an acceptance of institutional authority over private lives and an assertion of'the flexibility of human institutions [which] was remarkable if the threat was great enough.' By the year AD 2000, it suggests, the American presence in Canada will come under control; more important, the country will have committed itself to building the world's largest library and so to finding, in the preservation of knowledge, a way to world security. More dour in their reflections on political violence and more challenging than 'popular' fiction are The Revolution Script (1971) by Brian Moore (b. 1921 ; emig. 1948), a venture into aform that was called the 'non-fiction novel,' and The Day Before Tomorrow (1971) by David Helwig (b. 1938). Moore's book purports to document the October Crisis of 1970, which had crystallized for many Canadians their attitudes (heretofore laissez-faire) towards federalism and Quebec separation; the book's sympathy for the young revolutionaries and antipathy towards the prime minister's actions accorded with much current intellectual feeling in the country, but its one-sidedness fails to recreate the moral tension that the actual events aroused. Helwig's book is much more thought provoking. It focusses on the process by which a revolutionary is made; its central character observes how institutions and authorities on both political 'sides' deceive and sacrifice his brother, and he resolves to be an independent activist in each present moment he lives. The anarchist sentiment (which recurs in Dave Godfrey's The New Ancestors) is given a different shading in Scratch One Dreamer (1967), a moving novel by David Lewis Stein (b. 1937). Telling of a young man's rejection of his father's labour-union activism only to discover (in the face of current military engagement and pacifist demonstrations) the impossibility of remaining unaligned, it establishes firmly the relation that writers in the decade began increasingly to observe between psychological and political identity. His second book, My Sexual and Other Revolutions ( 1972), links sexual, political, and literary 'liberations' ; by turns parody and put-on, it also manages to spoof the humourlessness which characterized many contemporary 'political' stances. But despite the seeming flippancy, Stein remained sympathetic to

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what was called the 'counter culture,' and, like Helwig, a serious social commentator. The chief 'enemy' in 1960s fiction can thus be seen not as science and technology, as in much British and American writing (indeed, technology is more frequently seen in Canada as an aid to knowledge and survival); nor as an ideological menace, as it was during World War n and the 1950s Cold War; but as bureaucratic authority. Governments, educational and religious establishments, political parties, and industrial and commercial complexes all came under attack. So did Americanism, which, as is epitomized by Margaret Atwood's Surfacing, was frequently made synonymous with technology, ideology, and bureaucracy all together. Some 'popular' books did probe the consciences of industrial leaders sympathetically (for example, David Walker's Where the High Winds Blow [1960] and Ernest G. Perrault's The Kingdom Carver [1968] and The Twelfth Mile [1972]). And an occasional historical novel explored past authority: The White Boar (1968) and The Wrong Plantagenet (1972) by Marian Palmer (b. 1930), about early English monarchical history; The Torch (1960) by Wilder Penfield, the distinguished physician (b. 1891), about Hippocrates; The One True Man (1963) by Norman Newton (b. 1929), about the hypothesis that the Phoenicians settled Mexico; and Charles Israel'sRizpah (1961) and Who Was Then the Gentleman (1963), respectively about Saul and the Peasants' Revolt. But most observers of the bureaucratic scene were inclined to suspect the existence of conscience in any of its leaders. There were books explicitly about the Canadian electoral system, such as, Backroom Boy s and Girls (1973) by John Philip MacLean (b. 1926). There were witty non-fiction exposés of the bureaucratic mentality, such as those by Laurence J. Peter (b. 1919, and later a resident of California): The Peter Principle (1969, with Raymond Hull), trenchantly affirming that an individual is promoted to the level of his incompetence, and The Peter Prescription (1972). Other novels include The String Box (1970) by Rachel Wyatt (emig. 1957); The Midas Compulsion (1969) by Ivan Shaffer (b. 1928 in Ireland; emig. 1962); Watcha Gonna Do Boy ... Watcha Gonna Be? (1967) by Peter Taylor (b. 1939); and three studies of urban violence by John Buell (b. 1927): The Pyx (1959), Four Days (1962), and The Shrewsdale Exit (1972). Like one of his characters Buell sought a 'rhetoric that filtered out emotion,' but the exorcism of evil that his novels attempt is often impeded by a reliance on technical formulas. The result leaves his work on the borderland of popular fiction. Erebus (1968) by Robert Hunter (b. 1941) - a Winnipeg story about sexual discoveries, social injustice, and youthful commitment - wavers similarly between technical cliché and sincere emotional tension. The brittle dialogues of James Burke (b. 1917), in FleeSeven Ways (1963) and The Firefly Hunt (1969), and ofRobert Troop (b.

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1932), in The Sound of Vinegar (1963) and The Hammering (1967), are more satirical in purpose, variously taking to task the entrepreneurism, arid family life, empty sex, and class consciousness they find characteristic of modern society. Concerned with the same themes, although technically more innovative, Graeme Gibson (b. 1934) devised in his two books Five Legs (1969) and Communion (1971) a more elaborate plot line and a greater break from a realistic style. His works are serious attempts to reflect the 1960s breakdown of 1950s systems and values. The character of Felix Oswald in Communion, who is also depicted in the earlier book, becomes a representative modern young liberal - sympathetic to the caged and victimized (a husky in a veterinarian's office), but susceptible to the violence his sympathies can unleash, hence tormented both by idealism and nightmares, and uncertain of where reality lies. Social comedy thus turns into black comedy, and the individual becomes the victim of his own existence. The most successful social critiques are by Leo Simpson (b. 1934 in Ireland; emig. 1962), Richard B. Wright (b. 1937), Peter Such (b. 1939 in England; emig. 1953), and particularly Juan Butler (b. 1942). Simpson's Arkwright (1971) has the lightest touch among the works in this group. Its title character is at once an ambitious man and one with conscience, anxious to break into his uncle's corporate empire and anxious to expose it, bedevilled by his private life and striving to keep it continuing. The tensions are told in measured ironies, the style itself contributing to the humour and pathos. But central to the conflict is the difference between Addison Arkwright's continuing faith in man and the characteristic stance of the industrial society, which has transferred its faith from man to machines. Wright's The Weekend Man (1970) also treats the personal/industrial conflict with ironic humour. In it, an ordinary man, burdened by the routine of work, finds escape in idiosyncrasies that then threaten his private security. As with Arkwright, conclusions to such dilemmas cannot be certain, and the intrusion of uncertainty and rapid change into what had seemed an ordered world tests not just an individual's powers of endurance and adaptation but also the degree to which individual resources can withstand the pressures of corporate images. Fallout (1969) by Peter Such, with the 1950s Elliot Lake uranium boom as its setting, also probes 'man in the middle, machine all around him,' but with less wit and more overt earnestness. The details of landscape and industry, the colloquial language, the almost effortless realization of dramatic scenes provide a technical frame for the contrast between the private lives of the characters and the industrial complex that has brought them briefly together. The mythological epigraphs and the recurrent Noah's Ark references suggest a didactic purpose for the novel also, or at least a commitment to new beginnings. But in the world of Juan Butler, such hope for the future seems impossible; pressures are now,

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and vision is only into darkness. Cabbagetown Diary: A Documentary (1970) and The Garbageman (1972), with their central refuse metaphor and their laconic 'factual' detailing of urban violence and personal alienation, are sociological horror stories of remarkable power. Butler creates shocking scenes not to titillate or reform, nor even to educate the middle class; rather, in presenting to his age a compact glimpse of what it has become, he is probing the tangible relationships between social structure and psychological motivation and offering a coherent, if often repellent, explanation of human behaviour. Almost as counters to the cynicism that can be read into these works however controlled and sprightly the artistry of the words that express it there did appear a series of memoirs and more gentle regional portraits that celebrated the continuing beauty of life. The Incredible Journey (1961) by Sheila Burnford (b. 1918) became a kind of immediate children's classic because of its spirit. The lyrical humorous reminiscences of Harry Boyle (b. 1915) - Mostly in Clover (1963), With a Pinch of Sin (1966), and Homebrew and Patches (1963) - come as close to the pastoral as modern Canadian fiction gets, although two novels, A Summer Burning (1964) and The Great Canadian Novel (1972), do not ignore the disruptions that sometimes accompany remembered youth. The two volumes of The Bandy Papers by Donald Jack (b. 1924) - Three Cheers for Me (1962) and That's Me in the Middle (1973) create an amusing picaresque out of World War i recalled. The satiric amusement that enters the work of James McNamee (b. 1904) - Florencia Bay ( 1960), My Uncle Joe ( 1962), and Them Damn Canadians Hanged Louis Riel (1971) - makes the regional memoir into somewhat more of a social critique. And TheHumback (1969) by Mort Forer (b. 1922), about a French community in Manitoba, tempers its acknowledgement of ongoing life with an awareness of upset and distress. More typical of serious fiction were the rejections of the past, the disputes with authority, the characters who delighted in hedonism and then found even that delight to fade when a private identity seemed impossible. Sometimes such rebellion took the form of the standard Bildungsroman, in which sexual and intellectual discoveries provided the chief activity. Mordecai Richler's The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (1959) offers one lively paradigm of such adventures; the reflective observations of life in Paris in the 1920s, Memoirs of Montparnasse, which John Glassco (b. 1909) wrote between 1928 and 1933 but did not publish till 1970, provide another. Glassco's story of infatuation with surrealism, conscious posturing, literary hopes, and sexual ambitions is told with real flair; the prose style is one of the most pleasurable in Canadian literature. Glassco shows great skill at portraiture; Gertrude Stein, Morley Callaghan (whose own memoir That Summer in Paris was published

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in 1963), Lord Alfred Douglas, and others come alive on the page in a very few words. That talent is matched by his creative control over the apt image, his wit, his ability to record living dialogue, and his sense of scene and pacing. Beside it, works like Harold Horwood's Tomorrow will be Sunday (1966) and White Eskimo (1972) pale somewhat. Respectively they concern a boyhood on the Newfoundland coast and a legendary white rebel-hunter (possibly hero, possibly villain) among the Labrador Eskimos. Although invested with a spirit of place and a not unperceptive knowledge of human behaviour, the novels are frequently flattened by their reportorial style. There is expository power in some of the passages in White Eskimo, but the characters remain stereotypes on the page. And Goldenrod (1972) by Herbert Harker, which purports to contrast two ideas of manliness in a story about a cowboy's love for his land and his family, ends up controlled by its own conventions. Much more obviously geared for the popular market are The Violent Season (1961) by Robert Goulet (b. 1924), and Night of the White Bear (1971) and The Enemy I Kill (1972) by Alexander Knox (b. 1907; an exile since 1927). In these works, depth of character and the respective settings (lumberjacks in a small Quebec town and Eskimos on the Arctic tundra) are subordinated to the ostensible shock of the sexual liaisons and the speed and harshness of their adventures. Goulet's attack on the Church and his exposé of the violence of the charivari are interesting thematically in the history of Canadian literature, and the archetypal character of the Good Prostitute relates to some of the works of Callaghan and Leonard Cohen; but generally the book is subverted by its stylistic reliance on cliché. There are parallels, then, between much popular and serious fiction, which reflect three features of the time that produced it: a growing cynicism about political affairs, a growing confusion about the relation between personal sexual behaviour and traditional social mores, and a growing consciousness about economic class divisions within the country and their relation to particular immigrant groups. What makes one group 'popular' and the other 'serious' is the degree to which simultaneously a writer is stylistically free from cliché, perceptive of human behaviour, and capable of transcribing his insights into characters and situations. The serious writer is committed both to the realities of the world he creates within his book and to taking his readers into that world; the popular novelist relies on confirming in his readers' minds the beliefs and attitudes they already possessed. Because of ideological enthusiasm and human fallibility, the distinction is sometimes hard to make ; a failure to recognize originality sometimes takes a generation to rectify. It took ten to twenty years, for example, for Malcolm Lowry and Ethel Wilson to be widely applauded. Given that need for reappraisal, it is necessary also to question contemporary enthusiasms objectively. When the writer is himself conscious of the distinction and uses it in his own works - as is the case with

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Mordecai Richler (b. 1931) - the problem is compounded. His public in the 1960s applauded quality; they delighted in his books' frank sexuality and social iconoclasm. He repudiated the Canadian middle class, but his books reached exactly that market. With Pierre Berton, Farley Mowat, Robertson Da vies, and others, he reached Book of the Month Club members, but his works of the 1960s reflect uneasily the tension between committed private artist and accomplished public entertainer. The Incomparable Atuk (1963) portrays the rise and fall of an Eskimocum -entrepreneur whose rise is due to the Canadianization of Canada, whose success derives from his understanding that Canadian junk must therefore replace American junk in the people's estimation, and whose demise comes when the culture is re-Americanized. Richler's piercing wit and obvious impatience with pretensions and uninformed nationalism results in some brilliant dialogue and very funny scenes. Cocksure (1968) continues to demonstrate that ability, narrating the story of an ordinary WASP named Mortimer Griffin, whose problems come from his failure to be homosexual or Jewish or black or part of any other minority favoured by the majority that seems to hate itself. The circularity of Griffin's dilemma effectively illustrates the absurdity of the society Richler criticizes, but these books draw their life from negation, from the process of putting down the empty world that has always been equated with 'power' and 'success.' Richler's essays collected in Hunting Tigers under Glass (1968) and Shovelling Trouble (1972) more directly attack the Jewish and Anglo-Saxon power structures in North America; they also reveal more openly his disappointment in them. A kind of personal betrayal informs the world he sees, which makes difficult any effective counterthrust to his revelations of absurdity. All he can offer is himself, the life he recalls in The Street (1969), where ambition and tenderness intermingle. But that can be enough. In St Urbain's Horseman (1971), where guilt (real and imagined) and love (corrupted and refined) are woven into a more densely textured social fabric than Richler before had shown, the various tensions insist on the profound meaning that attaches to an individual life. The book might end up a grand failure, overreaching itself, lapsing too often into burlesque, but that fate is infinitely more significant than the slick success that Atuk and Cocksure so immediately won. St Urbain's Horseman ties together a number of the themes that Buddy Kravitz began, and it does so - seriously, with a growing appreciation of the release and pleasure laughter provides, as well as of its corrosive power - in full knowledge of the intervening books. Duddy himself figures as a minor character in it, having sold out to slickness and not having realized the dimensions that Richler earlier suggested might be his ; but the central character, Jake Hersh, artistically successful and yet nervous about his own talents, possesses ordinary values that make him an extraordinary man. Poised be-

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tween Establishments, he strives to be his own man, but constantly he is compromised by his private self. Horrified by his limitations, he seeks the Muse, art, success; horrified by success, he courts nonentities - a theme picked up in Simpson's Arkwright and Wright's The Weekend Man -and finds himself trapped by corrupt human beings of a different kind. Exploring his guilt and his innocence takes Richler into an analysis of complex moral dilemmas. They become, in the process, a guide to the burdens contemporary people carry and to the potential for happiness which their innate and unassailable weakness still allows them. Other writers who explored the difficulties and pleasures of affirming a Jewish identity in North America include Jack Ludwig, Leonard Cohen, Irving Layton, Coleman J. Newman, Phyllis Gotlieb, Shirley Faessler, Seymour Blicker, and (at some remove) Norman Levine. Blicker (b. 1940) is the least effective. His two works Blues Chased a Rabbit (1969) andShmucks (1972), respectively detailing stories of sadism in the American South and obstinacy in the back lanes of Montreal, feature sex and violence as their chief entertainments and patterns of fictional resolution. They testify to the pettiness of many confrontations, but they lack the gentle sensitivity to human striving that appears, for example, in Layton's short stories in The Swinging Flesh (1961), later collected with other prose pieces (many vitriolic) in Engagements (1972), ed. Seymour Mayne; they lack also the delight in sexual vitality, the sheer wit and gusto that characterize the work of Richler and Jack Ludwig (b. 1922) at their best. Ludwig's Confusions (1963) and Above Ground (1968) are both set in the United States, where Ludwig has been resident; the first explores the idiosyncrasies of academia, the second the desire of its central character, Joshua, to be free of illness and reminders of his own mortality. Love becomes Joshua's way of evading the issue, but only as long as he can keep changing partners; in time he realizes that he cannot flee himself or his past, and that acknowledging death does not mean abandoning life. Living out each moment, he becomes 'Lazarus,' in an 'unfmishing tale ... images in frames, of swift metamorphoses.' The idea is underlined by the book's rolling, filmic technique. Girls of Two Summers (1966) by Gerald Taaffe (b. 1927), set in Montreal, provides another celebration of physical pleasure. But it is in the work of Leonard Cohen (b. 1934) that sexual and social inhibitions are most openly attacked. His celebration of all manner of sexual acts, recorded in explicit and extravagant detail in Beautiful Losers ( 1969), seemed a genuine break through psychic and social censorship. (The year before had seen the publication of Stephen Vizinczey's In Praise of Older Women; both were greeted with extraordinary enthusiasm, which seems to gauge an impatience with repression rather than to offer a clear sense of either book.) Because of its subject and its stylistically innovative approach to it, Beautiful Losers is a useful guide to mid-1960s sentiments. Cast as a personal history, an idiosyncratic

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letter, and an 'objective' epilogue, it traces the interaction between four characters: the narrator; his wife Edith; their lover, mentor, creator, and destroyer F. ; and a long-dead Indian saint, Catherine Tekakwitha. The nature of innocence and saintliness is talked about; the saintliness of the flesh is affirmed; and moments of loss, of expended self (hence moments of selfabasement, a point which affected Scott Symons' Place d'Armes), are announced as moments of great beauty. Overlaying the book is Cohen's irrepressible irony, and many of the scenes of beautiful loss are calculatedly absurd. As with Richler and Layton, Cohen assumes many masks as author parodist not the least among them - but beneath them is an intense seriousness about the torments of trying to exist as a human being, capable of joy, in an uncompromising and paradoxically erratic world. In the enthusiasm for Beautiful Losers, Cohen's first novel The Favourite Game (1963) went largely unnoticed. More conventional in form and subject, it tells of a young man's sexual fantasies and experiences, and of his growing appreciation of individual freedom. In it there are supple characterizations, ironies and technical skills of substantial merit; and there is a memorable portrait, at the end of the book, of a strange boy who would rather count mosquitoes than play camp games, who becomes for Breavman, the central figure, a stimulus to individuality and a kind of talisman. We Always Take Care of Our Own (1965), the first novel of C.J. Newman (b. 1935), some of whose short stories appeared with those of John Metcalf and D.O. Spettigue in New Canadian Writing 1969, also probes intelligently the realities of Montreal Jewish society: the impulse to succeed and the estrangement experienced at the heart of home. As Cohen went on to technical experimentation, in order to express the absurdity and the Freudian concepts that mark his understanding, so Newman went on to examine further the philosophy of the relationship between language and alienation. A Russian Novel (1973) is a ratiocinative third-person journey into human behaviour, probing the reasons for which people rebel and the limited powers of a writer to 'bear witness to life.' The plot of the book takes a young Canadian, David Miller, to Russia to gather material for a biography of an 'orthodox' Russian writer; the difficulties he encounters with politics and language supply the intellectual and narrative tension; the moral dilemma facing Miller surfaces when he realizes the extent of the influence of Canadian social systems upon him, and develops as he sheds his illusions about a writer's distinctive knowledge and power. He thought he had been free. His central search for a way to reconcile 'reality' and 'truth' thus comes face to face with his unconscious social biases and the limitations of his language. Newman notes, about one phase in Soviet history: With the publication of Ivan Denisovitch, by Solzhenitsyn, it had seemed to become possible for people to indulge themselves in that strange, almost quixotic, and intoxicating experience of telling the truth to each other. Almost, it did not seem to matter what truth, the truth about what:

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you could listen to your own voice, like that of a stranger's to you for having had, for so long, a strained artificial tone to it, you could listen to your voice picking its way among a feast of words, choosing only the best, the most exact, the clearest, the most truthful. Writers might write with almost a whole new vocabulary.

Cohen's F. wrote at one point: This letter is written in the old language, and it has caused me no little discomfort to recall the obsolete usages. I've had to stretch my mind back into areas bordered with barbed wire, from which I spent a lifetime removing myself. However, I do not regret the effort.

The trials of society and artistry are thus brought together. Beautiful Losers aside, one of the things demonstrated by the series of novels detailing Jewish experience in Canada is that the 'realistic' mode of fiction did not die in the 1960s. But for the most part it became the domain of the ethnic minorities. Such novels mirrored directly the 'newspaper' realities of physical labour, sex, poverty, crime, and hunger; whatever the abstract topics they broached, their concern was to record that which was seen and heard in 'ordinary' neighbourhoods rather than that which was dreamed or imagined. The concern for the 'ordinary' was a testament to their social commitment. To intensify that striving for 'relevance' to actual life, several authors depicted urban slum conditions rather than average suburban ones, and saw a sense of 'community' as a divisive as much as a unifying force. The work of Hugh Garner (b. 1913) provides an apposite example. Focussing recurrently, even compulsively, on life during the 1930s and World War n, it acquires its most gruff vigour in its portraits of Toronto's Cabbagetown. Garner declares his interest in the area in his preface to Cabbagetown (1968): This continent's slums have been the living quarters of many immigrant and ethnic poor: Negro, Mexican, Jew, Indian, Italian, Irish, Central European and Puerto Rican. The French Canadians have their Saint-Henri in Montreal and Saint-Sauveur in Quebec. Cabbagetown, before 1940, was the home of the social majority, white Protestant English and Scots. It was a sociological phenomenon, the largest Anglo-Saxon slum in North America.

The same sentiment is expressed on the opening pages of The Sin Sniper (1970). The community has all the features of the ethnic enclave: economic pressure, separation from the secure and anonymous middle class, incredible aspiration, a certain resignation to fate, and that bittersweet fleeting joy that gave Gabrielle Roy, writing about Saint-Henri, her title Bonheur d'occasion. Writing stories of growing up without access to social stability, without opportunity for adhering to ethical ¡deals, without much promise of success or much hope of improvement and with more concern for physical survival than human beings ought to have to bear, Garner manages to contrive credible

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colloquial dialogue and to convey an immediate sense of place. In his other recent novels, Silence on the Shore (1962) and ,4 Nice Place to Visit (1970), and short stories, Hugh Garner's Best Stories (1963), Men and Women (1966), Violation of the Virgins (1971), he pits his sympathy for the innate decency of human beings against his anger towards social conditions. The scenes that emerge from that tension, sometimes anecdotal, sometimes sustained, inevitably engender pathos. But Garner's commitment to his literary method and perception of reality will not allow him any other conclusion. Despair and optimism would be equally blind ; preaching a doctrine that would alter situations would be out of character; he can only take the world 'as is.' The patterns of immigrant settlement across Canada produced a lot of communities that shared many characteristics with Cabbagetown, SaintHenri, and St Urbain Street. And the trials and triumphs of these groups were narrated often by writers who shared those experiences but whose vernacular control of English seldom matched the intensity of their observations; their novels will seem more important to the sociologist than to the formalist literary critic. The value of works like Kastus Akula's Tomorrow is Yesterday (1968) or Hilda Shubert's They Came from Kernitza (1969), for example, lies in their documentation of Byelorussian and Jewish experience in Canada. Somewhat more structured and less mannered are Sons of the Soil (1959) by Illia Kiriak (1888-1955), about Ukrainian settlement;/! Stranger and Afraid (1954) by Marika Robert (emig. 1951), about Hungarian encounters with Germans, Communists, and Canadians; Why Should I Have All the Grief? (1969) by Phyllis Gotlieb (b. 1926), about Polish Jews seeking the freedom of a place to live. The English-speaking immigrants had difficulties in adapting, too. No Englishman Need Apply (1965) by Denis Godfrey (b. 1912) deals with the long-standing Canadian rejection of English academics. The Streets of Askelon (1972) by Tony Aspler (b. 1939 in England and again resident there after several interrupted years in Canada) wittily depicts a soulless, provincial Montreal, divided against itself and incapable of appreciating the vitality of an outside world of sophisticated civilization. Brian Moore's short Canadian residence ended when he left for New York and Hollywood in 1959. John Peter, even in Take Hands at Winter (1967), his one novel with a Canadian setting, remained subconsciously concerned with his native South Africa. English-born Nigel Foxell (b. 1931) questions in Carnival (1968), against a part-romantic and part-realistic German setting, the necessity of giving up Europe in order adequately to accept Canada. American-born John Sandman and David Evanier (b. 1940) and English-born John Mills (b. 1930), in Eating Out (1969), The Swinging Headhunter (1972), and The Land of Is (1972) respectively, do not confront the differences between Canadian and American cultures but in wittily macabre fashion condemn the similarities. The distinguished American novelist Joyce Carol Gates, resident in Windsor since

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1967, did not turn her attention to Canadian life at all. John Metcalf (b. 1938 in England) in Going Down Slow (1972) and a book of short stories called The Lady Who Sold Furniture (1970) turned amused but sympathetic eyes on the educational idiosyncrasies of his country of adoption. And Simon Gray, who was educated and who taught in Canada before returning in 1964 to England to become a stimulating stage and television playwright, wrote in Colmain (1963) and Little Portia (1967) glittering indictments of petty provincialism, whether in the English public school system, or in New Thumberland ('Canada's least progressive province'), or in bureaucracies anywhere. In the satiric ironies of Metcalf and Gray, however, and in the bizarre world of Mills and Evanier, 'realism' has been left behind. Such books ask readers to appreciate their stylistic texture, their rendering of experience rather than their mirroring of it; the exaggerations of reality result in witty incongruities that provide release for the tensions of reality in the process of recognizing and relating to them. Among the most adept of the immigrant writers were two Caribbean novelists: Harold Sonny Ladoo (b. Trinidad 1945;emig. 1968;d. 1973), whose No Pain Like This Body (1972) tells a painfully lyric story about the daily pressures that affect a rural East Indian family on 'Carib Island'; and Austin C. Clarke (b. Barbados 1932; emig. 1956; named 1972 as Cultural Attaché to the Barbadian Embassy in Washington), whose mordant wit exposes the economic and racial tensions that burden the Caribbean and Canada alike. Clarke's early novels, The Survivors of the Crossing (1964) and Amongst Thistles and Thorns (1965), focus primarily on Barbados. Both works show his talent for drawing character and recording dialect. The first tells of the pressures that affect sugar cane plantation workers whose jobs are dependent on their subservience and their willingness to work for minimal pay, and for whom escape lies variously in the rumshop, talk, and dreams of emigration to Canada. They are the 'survivors of the crossing,' the children of the transported slaves who actually survived life on the slave ships, now themselves slaves of an economic system. One of the group makes it to Canada and writes glowing reports home that encourage another man to rebel; he is desolated by his discovery that the reports are untrue, that Canada offers in fact only another form of slavery. And Clarke's wit manages to indict the economic and political establishments that rely (however unknowingly) on such deprivation, while it sympathizes intensely with the petty foibles that concomitantly emerge in the characters of individuals enslaved. Clarke's later work - two parts of a trilogy, called The Meeting Point (1967) andStorm of Fortune (1973), and a book of stories called WhenHe was Young and Free and He Used to Wear Silks (1971) - focusses on the transplanted Caribbean community in Canada. Some of the stories appeared later as sections of Storm of Fortune ; in others Clarke tries out a technique that blends

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inner and outer realities and which might be called stream-of-experience or stream-of-event. The title story, for example, is an energetic explosion that somehow conveys an entire scene, with all its attendant emotions, in a single unending sentence. The two novels trace the experiences of Bernice Leach, a black maid for a Toronto Jewish family. Like her West Indian friends in Toronto, she is treated as a mere object, but where others are used sexually and cast aside or killed, she is used menially and left to be introspective. Increasingly an emptiness grows. The story is told in Clarke's inimitable tragicomic tones. Portraits of the 'ugly Canadian' tourist abroad and of the unthinking Canadian at home are drawn so skilfully as to challenge conventional liberal-mindedness and sear the imagination. But the novel takes the West Indian exiles as its main characters, and probes most particularly - with vitality and wit - the continuation of a spirit of community and an appreciation of life. Another approach taken to the phenomenon of cultural transplantation is that of Rudy Wiebe (b. 1934), who was concerned with exploring his Mennonite roots and reconciling that sense of community with an affirmation of religious, political, social, and agrarian individuality. If all his novels display a certain artificiality of structure, there is in them also a candour and originality of mind that makes them among the more striking accomplishments of the decade. Peace Shall Destroy Many (1962) is a young man's novel, full of gentle love and abrupt anger, set in a small prairie Mennonite community towards the end of World War n. The members of the faith are pacifist and independent, but just as the independence inspires a sense of personal responsibility, it can also lead to stubborn self-centredness, an arrogation of righteousness, and a conflict between two interpretations of responsibility. The central conflict in the novel involves a young man who is committed simultaneously to preserving peace and to joining the war effort to preserve peace; it is paralleled by a generational dispute between the Deacon, rigidly unwilling to surrender his good-intentioned authority, and his children, who are goaded to extravagant action in order to express their own identities. The cause of peace becomes destructive. But enclosing the violence are lyrical passages describing the seasons and recording the voices of young children; they affirm a continuity between the past and the future, and suggest a basis for faith in the order of the universe and for hope. The theme iterated early in this novel, 'truth necessitated following,' provided the impetus for Wiebe's next two works. First and Vital Candle (1966) tells of a man's quest for meaning in a life made meaningless by the rigidity of his early exposure to religion; in an openly evangelical style, Wiebe traces his move north to Ojibway and Eskimo country, his immersion in other systems of belief and in more urgent pressures of physical survival, and his rediscovery and acceptance of Christianity. The Blue Mountains of China (1970), with

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an almost epic cast of characters, is a more ambitious and successful book. At one level, it can be said to trace the wanderings of the Mennonite communities from Germany through the Ukraine to Paraguay and Canada, and to underline the continuing commitments to their individuality which urge contemporary Mennonites to move again - to Vietnam, for example. At another level, the book is concerned with trying to identify the power that engenders and sustains these wanderings. A passage in Peace Shall Destroy Many is helpful here; Wiebe writes: 'Perhaps that was what a myth was for: to show man to himself; if he knew enough about himself, could he comprehend the whole story?' The Blue Mountains does not resolve that question; if anything, it affirms that never being able entirely to articulate or hold the truth that one knows to exist can be a sustaining resource. The book invites comparison with Abraham Klein's The Second Scroll; factual knowledge and spiritual faith sometimes disjoin, sometimes unite in the changing mental states of individual men. For both writers, poetry utters a testament of that tension, and for both that appreciation results in some fine evocative prose. Two examples of that capacity in Wiebe's work suggest the direction in which his work is moving, from the relatively realistic portrayal of a specific group to an exploration of the epistemological processes by which people understand themselves, their world, and their values. Part Two of First and Vital Candle - entitled 'Oolulik' in Wiebe's anthology The Story-Makers (1970) - and 'Where is the Voice Coming From?' which appeared in David Helwig's anthology Fourteen Stories High (1971), attempt to come to terms with the mythos that gives life respectively to Eskimo and Cree belief; both stories end with profound respect for the power of these cultures and with an awareness of the enormous distance that separates a European Canadian from them. At the same time, they implicitly assert a need to attempt to understand, and they underline the insistency with which the several indigenous cultures assert their presence in Canadian life and (increasingly) in the Canadian imagination. Much critical energy was spent in the 1960s trying to come to terms with the Indian presence in Canada and the historical absence of an Indian presence in Canadian literature. And writers themselves - poets like John Newlove and dramatists like George Ryga and Herschel Hardin, for example - found compulsive subjects in the life of the indigenous peoples. Norman Newton's The Big Stuffed Hand of Friendship (1969) deals incidentally with racial prejudice. Late in 1973 there appeared at least four serious responses to various Indian cultures; Peter Such's Riverrun, about the Beothuks; W.O. Mitchell's The Vanishing Point, about an Alberta Stony band; Wayland Drew's The Wabeno Feast, about the relation between contemporary life and an Algonquin custom; and Rudy Wiebe's The Temptations of Big Bear, which concerns the Cree at the time of the 1885 Riel Rebellion, and furthers that

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author's exploration of history, myth, and the limits of freedom. But besides Wiebe, the most successful prose writer to tackle the subject was Alan Fry (b. 1931), an Indian agent in the Yukon and on the west coast of British Columbia, whose involvement in the actual lives of Indians gave him a warm appreciation of the social problems that contemporary Canadian culture poses for them. How a People Die (1970), which never pretends to be high art, manages a degree of intense social documentation which is emotionally arresting. Observing the chasm that repeatedly develops between intentions and acts, between the ideal and the workable, Fry indicts the bureaucracies that interfere with personal relationships, questions the clear-sightedness and impugns the motives of many do-gooder journalists and would-be social workers, and manages still to sympathize with the individuals who are trying to make the system work. He is also author of The Ranch on the Cariboo (1962) and a second novel, Come a Long Journey (1971). More ambitious, it tells a simple story of a Yukon hunting trip; but in splicing into it passages of memoir and folktale, Fry creates a complex reflection on the nature of friendship and the demands of wilderness life. The work of Fred Bodsworth (b. 1918) is also invested with a wealth of observed detail, but the narrative power of individual action scenes is seldom sustained. Works like The Sparrow's Fall (1967) and The Last of the Curlews (1963), with their sharp understanding of animal behaviour, tell lyrically of life and death in the North. But in The Strange One (1959) or The Atonement of Ashley Morden (1964) - the latter a novel about physical bluster and moral courage, as a man who was a failure as a World War n bomber finds and then rejects success as a developer of bacteriological weapons - when Bodsworth attempts to contrive realistic psychological portraits, his style fails him. His reliance on third-person technique and his too-frequent lapses into descriptive cliché, flat supporting characters, and arbitrary coincidence interfere with the realism he is attempting to establish. So the extensive technical and scientific knowledge that underlies the book dies in the actual characterizations. Bodsworth is rare in Canadian literature in that he does focus on a conflict between nature and technology ; but he fails to make his sympathetic observations of, for example, wolf behaviour anything more than an undigested fable in the midst of a 'realistic' fiction. The fable has its own interest, of course, but in Bodsworth's work the conflict between aesthetic modes is not sufficiently controlled. The attractions of fable led also in the 1960s to a resurgent interest in folk myth and folktale. Several anthologies resulted, including: Anerca, ed. Edmund Carpenter (1959); What they used to Tell About, ed. Peter Desbarats (1969); / Breathe a New Song, éd. R. Lewis (1972); Poems of the Eskimo, ed. Kathryn Kernahan(1972); Tales from the Igloo, ed. Maurice Metayer (1972); and various Queen's Printer publications by Diamond Jenness and Marius Barbeau. Indian and Eskimo writers also emerged to formulate a perspective

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which English-Canadian literature had not heretofore appreciated. Harpoon of the Hunter (1970) by Markoosie (b. 1943) describes Arctic life before the European arrival. An anthology of social comment, I am an Indian, ed. Kent Gooderham, appeared in 1969. And George Clutesi (b. 1906), a member of the west coast Tse-Shaht band, declared in his introduction to Son of Raven, Son of Deer (1967) some of the reasons why an Indian literary voice was necessary: Quaint folklore tales were used widely to teach the young the many wonders of nature; the importance of all living things, no matter how small and insignificant; and particularly to acquaint him with the closeness of man to all animal, bird life and the creatures of the sea. The young were taught through the medium of the tales that there was a place in the sun for all living things. ... The Indian parent refrained from the non-Indian adage of "Don't do this. Don't do that." Instead he taught his children in parables and tales in which all animals in his own world played important roles. It was not long before the child realized that all animal life was an integral part of all creation.... The Indian child of today is left bewildered by the white man's fairy tales that are too often tragic, injurious and harmful and frequently foster anxiety in the childish mind.

His book effectively retells a series of moral fables, and his second work, Potlatch (1969), recreates a west coast Indian custom that was legally forbidden from 1884 to 1954. It is no doubt true that much of the interest in Indian and Eskimo cultures derived from a liberal sense of communal social guilt amongst many white people; it is one of the motivations that Alan Fry castigates, finding that new assertion of tolerance equally as uncomprehending as the old bureaucracy. Something of the same sentiment motivated the rising interest among some English-speaking Canadians in the aspirations of the Québécois (particularly the separatists). Others were serious and committed in their interest, and their views, firmly and intelligently held, added a new dimension to EnglishCanadian writing. The discovery of a genuine social moral issue troubling a country that to earlier writers had seemed remarkably free of serious social disruption forced many people to reconsider the bases on which the social structure was founded. In Quebec itself, Jean-Paul Desbiens (b. 1927) forcefully criticized the traditional power structures, in The Impertinences of Brother Anonymous (1960, transí, by Miriam Chapín, 1962). The Parti Pris literary movement (documented in Malcolm Reid's The Shouting Signpainters, 1972) emerged in Montreal in the 1960s as an influential leftwing nationalist political force. Pierre Vallières (b. 1938) gave the conflict with English Canada an overt racial metaphor in his White Niggers of America (1968; transí, by Joan Pinkham, 1971). Many of the young Quebec writers were translated - including Roch Carrier, Marie-Claire Biais, Michel Trem-

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blay, Réjean Ducharme, Hubert Aquin, Gilles Vigneault - and provided to English-language writers an inventive stimulus and an example of fine writing. And several English-language books about English-French relations were written. They included Hugh MacLennan's disappointed observation of the failure of traditional federalism and the barrenness of the violent separatist movement, Return of the Sphinx (1967); The Chain (1969) by Hélène Papchristides Holden (b. 1935); and Brian Moore's tendentious Revolution Script (1971). Quebec in Revolt (1965) by Herman Buller (b. 1927), who also wrote One Man Alone (1963), is a fairly conventional historical novel, which makes of the nineteenth-century 'Guibord Affair' - drawn as a conflict between the Roman Catholic Church and intellectual independence - a key to the tensions of modern Quebec. The Lonely Ones (1969) (later titled Big Lonely) by James Bacque (b. 1929), whose second novel was called Young Man of Talent (1972), tells of friendships that cross the political boundaries between English and French and of the suffering that occurs in a time of active nationalism. And Ronald Sutherland (b. 1933) wrote in Lark des Neiges (1971) a novel which illustrates a thesis that he enunciated in his critical work Second Image (1971): that the 'mainstream' of Canadian literature concerns the relationships between English and French. Told within the mind of Suzanne MacDonald Laflamme, it recreates a household day and interrupts it with memories of earlier life and other loves ; written in fragments of both languages, it probes a psychic isolation, a crisis in identity, against which the Quebec political slogan 'maîtres chez nous ' acquires substantive meaning. That sense of dislocation appears in yet another form in the number of novels by expatriate Canadians or about the experience of being abroad. David Knight (b. 1926) is one of many writers (like Laurence, Godfrey, Livesay, Thomas) who had some experience teaching in Africa, and his novel Farquharson's Physique and What it Did to His. Mind (1971) describes the growing feeling on the part of its title character - in the face of military rebellion in 1966 - that he cannot remain uncommitted. But any act, however personally satisfying, is also self-destructive, with inevitable repercussions on others that get beyond the individual's control. There are a number of parallels between the involvement here - 'political' in both its narrowest and largest senses - and those in works by Leonard Cohen, David Helwig, and David Lewis Stein. Being taken out of one's home is not a holiday any more; it is an immersion in discomfort and an opportunity for finding meaning. But the discovery of personal worth emerges from a discovery of social corruption; values become increasingly difficult to share because individuals are increasingly separated from their society. It is an environment in which action can be seen as either necessary or pointless, and the equally compulsive social movements of 'activism' and 'opting out' - particularly among the young gave contemporary expression to such unease. Two novels about escaping to

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the Balearic Islands, Formentera (1972) by Roy MacSkimming (b. 1944) and Daughters of the Moon (1971) by Joan Haggerty, concern some of the problems associated with 'opting out.' Both are about unsuccessful love relationships - Haggerty's about pregnancy and childbirth in particular - and they show how an emotional inarticulateness separates people even on an idyllic island. The idyll, in effect, could exist only before the troubled people arrived. To observe that the characters in these novels are seldom very interesting is to underline the problem they are trying to explore: in life, logic insists, all lives have value, but how does an author create a sense of monotony or repetitiousness in characters' lives without becoming monotonous or repetitious? Haggerty contrives insistent images and stylistic rhythms to give substance to her characters' moods, but the novel still remains aloof. More accomplished as stylists of the ordinary are Norman Le vine (b. 1924 in Ottawa and resident in England since 1949) and Mavis Gallant (b. 1922 in Montreal and resident in Paris for most of her adult life). Both were more readily acclaimed in England than in Canada. Both are conscious of questioning their childhood faith (Judaism and Catholicism respectively) and of having left a life of unbearable provincialism which still proves unreasonably attractive. There is something of a Katherine Mansfield syndrome in all this, and something of her solution: a paring of style to a simple but urbanely witty form, ostensibly objective but capable of considerable emotional power, and a focus on moments in people's lives with the precision of the vignette in an endeavour to fix exactly a particular time and place. Such powers of concentration were bound to lead both of them into writing short stories, and it is an art for which they have considerable gift. Levine's stories were published in a variety of journals, from Botteghe Oscure to Harper's Bazaar and Vogue, and collected in two volumes, One Way Ticket (1961) and / Don't Want to Know Anyone Too Well (1972); nearly all Mavis Gallant's stories appeared separately in the New Yorker before being collected in The Other Paris (1955), My Heart is Broken (1964) - which took a new title in the English edition (from a different story in the collection): An Unmarried Man's Summer (1965) -and The Pegnitz Junction (1973). The title of Levine's second collection supplies a ready indication of the stance of his work; many of his stories are couched as first-person narratives, with the narrator sympathetically observing the scenes, people, and events around him, but almost clinically detached from them. Aesthetically this results in a deceptively flat tone; the author portrays no grand displays of emotion, for these would absorb his narrator too much, yet neither author nor persona is unmoved by life. The laconic tone and the deliberate, sequential observation of petty events order the narrator's world for him at the same time that they provide a defence against the terrors and disorders that lurk in the shadowy corners of ignorance and memory. Irretrievable opportunities, lost hopes, decisions never made - a sense of these intangible experiences, all adjuncts to

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the passing of time, underlies the narrator's hold on what in the present actually exists and occurs. But the effect of the prose style is to remind readers of the multitude of pressures that motivate action and inaction. Levine's two novels, The Angled Road (1952) and From a Seaside Town (1970), develop the same principle. In the latter, ajournai for which a travel writer writes goes bankrupt, leaving him stranded in a seaside town with only his own resources to fall back on; he cannot simply be the tourist, objectively measuring native experience for other people, but because of his own temperament he cannot become a true townsman either. As the novel unfolds, the narrator becomes increasingly willing to accept the passing of time, for he starts to value more perceptively that which exists in each moment of his experience. Neither the narrator nor Levine declares that the trivia sometimes observed are intrinsically significant; such details merely matter to the consciousness of the person who observes them and acquire meaning indirectly. Mavis Gallant's style is often similarly laconic, focussing on subtle shifts in attitudes of mind rather than on the events which cause them, but she is a much wittier writer than Levine and a more acerbic social commentator. Levine's forte is the simple sentence; Gallant relies more frequently on parallel clauses, and from the balances she thus contrives comes much of her irony. Again the style serves as an ordering medium through which disordering experience can be articulated and made bearable. And throughout her work, the experience which is most disordering is that of travelling with another generation in a land different from home. As a character named Flor observes about her mother, in Gallant's first novel, Green Water Green Sky (1960), 'I might have been a person, but you made me a foreigner.' At another point she hears 'the question, the ghost voice that speaks to every traveler, "Why did you come to this place?" Until now, she had known: she was somewhere or other with her mother because her mother could not settle down, because every rented flat and villa was a horrible parody of home, or the home she ought to have given Flor.' Answerless, she begins to withdraw and ends in madness. But Gallant finds this an unsatisfactory resolution in her subsequent works. Her view of people's burden does not change. The novella 'Its Image on the Mirror,' for example, which appears in My Heart is Broken, speaks of characters who are ' innocent, ready for death,' but that story closes with resignation to reality: I suspected, then ... that all of us ... were obliged to survive. We had slipped into our winter as trustingly as every night we fell asleep. We woke from dreams of love remembered, a house recovered and lost, a climate imagined, a journey never made; we woke dreaming our mothers had died in childbirth and heard ourselves saying, "Then there is no one left but me !" We would waken thinking the earth must stop, now, so that we could be shed from it like snow. I knew, that night, we would not be shed, but would remain, because that was the way it was. We would survive, and waking - because there was no help for it - forget our dreams and return to life.

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Gallant does not thereby cease to quarrel with that which in reality she finds reprehensible; her documentary introduction to a book detailing a contemporary French scandal, called The Affair ofGabrielle Russier (1971), makes this quite clear. But her Jamesian understanding of behaviour, her fresh manipulation of contrasts between Europe and North America, and her increasing skill at handling dialogue and creating credible characters, both male and female, make her later works more ambivalent in their interpretation of experience and more stylistically urbane in their rendering of it. Sara Jeannette Duncan and Ethel Wilson can be seen as her predecessors, therefore, but Gallant is wholly contemporary and not to be contained by a national label. A Fairly Good Time (1970), which draws its understated title from the writings of Edith Wharton, probes not only the breakdown of an exiled Canadian woman's French marriage, but also the woman's perception of herself and her relationship with other people generally. The result is a substantial exercise in point of view. Letters, journals, flashbacks, streamof-consciousness monologues - all join with the narrative flow to illuminate the mixed emotional reaction the characters have towards one another; they also supply the technical means by which to transfer onto the page the several levels of understanding that the central character has of her situation. The Pegnitz Junction examines an equally complex situation. Here Gallant shifts her setting to Germany and considers not only the exigencies of exile but the particularly desolating kind of alienation caused by exile in one's own land. Taking as her topic for various stories the plights of refugees, travellers, war veterans, and others, she contemplates the Germans trying to find Germany again in a divided postwar land. In a simple but effective interchange, the title novella gives voice to their dilemma: "Pegnitz is a railway junction. This means that from Pegnitz there are any number of trains to take us home." Little Bert could not have been listening carefully, for he said, "Are we home now?" "No, but it is almost like being home, because we know where we're going." "That's not the same as being home," said little Bert... They would soon see that they were just a few feet from a barbed-wire frontier....

The exchange verges on the absurd. But then, runs her argument, much contemporary life seems to be absurd in its over-organization, its inability to recognize values, its failure to appreciate the individual or individuality. In responding to the pressures of that absurdity, and in probing sympathetically the borderlands of eccentricity which at once contribute to and derive from it, Mavis Gallant finds her central topic and overriding concern. In another way such attributes of behaviour concern Robertson Da vies (b. 1913) as well. Although his earlier works had suggested that Davies was a brilliant but shallow satirist, capable of coruscating caricatures and devastating reduction of Canadian social and literary provincialism - a view reinforced

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by the publication oí Samuel Marchbanks' Almanack in 1967 - the plays and novels he published in the early 1970s show a much greater depth of psychological understanding. The early novels are by no means inexact in their portrayals of human foibles, but the later ones more thoroughly comprehend them and reveal a systematic analysis of behaviour. In writing them Davies manages to unite many of the features of the realistic novel with his search for a different kind of authenticity. His style remains urbane, witty, magnificently and elegantly controlled. He uses it not to display a superiority over bourgeois ambitions but to forge his way into myth and magic and discover their significance for everyday life. At once, then, Fifth Business (1970) and The Manticore (1972), linked novels spanning two generations, which narrate a story of a death and several attempts to understand it, can be seen as elaborate 'realistic' detective fiction and as theoretical analysis of the intangible in human experience. They have suspense, wit, and show evidence of a quick mind behind them; and they invoke the contrast between Europe and Canada to yet another end. Davies observed in a 1972 interview in Maclean's : A lot of people complain that my novels aren't about Canada. I think they are, because I see Canada as a country torn between a very northern, rather extraordinary, mystical spirit which it fears and its desire to present itself to the world as a Scotch banker.

The tensions aroused by the division - Margaret Atwood, in an endnote to The Journals of Susanna Moodie, termed it 'cultural schizophrenia' - lead in Davies' world to a contrast between imaginative life and temporal bounds. 'Imagination' is thus not an escape from reality but an integral part of it. For psychic 'balance,' that is, Canada must accept both sides of itself. In acknowledging its European connections, it must seek neither the historical nor the romantic past as mutually exclusive, for both are alive in the psychic life of the present culture. Hence Fifth Business takes as its central character a retired and apparently bland schoolmaster, Dunstan Ramsay, and reveals the dimensions of his mind and spirit: he is hagiographer, traveller, and 'fifth business' (the dramatic character who - although not himself hero or heroine, confidant or villain - affects the outcome of the play). That Ramsay's role is important to an understanding of the death of another character, Boy Staunton, is underlined when in explaining that death, a group of travelling European illusionists observe: " He was killed by the usual cabal : by himself, first of all ; by the woman he knew ; by the woman he did not know; by the man who granted his inmost wish; and by the inevitable fifth, who was keeper of his conscience and keeper of the stone. "

In such elliptical explanation, the novel closes. The form is dramatic; the curtain falls at the climax. In The Manticore, somewhat less successful

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because of its more overt patterning, Staunton's grown son goes to Switzerland for Jungian therapy. The Jungian patterns supply the structure of the novels (and of Da vies' later plays) as well as their intellectual theory. In the process of discovering ego, anima, and shadow, David Staunton acquires an understanding of human history and of his own. As this novel closes, it, too, grasps elliptically at significant meaning, but its metaphor this time, to readers of 1960s fiction, is familiar: "Every country gets the foreigners it deserves..." Was I going down the staircase to a strange land? Was I, then, to be a stranger there? But how could I be foreign in the place where my treasure lay? Surely I was native there, however long 1 had been absent?

Davies' powers of social analysis and personal observation did not lead him, as they led Le vine and Gallant into writing short stories; his characters required the novel form, for they needed a fully-drawn social structure as a landscape to walk through. But his sensitivity to the psyche, to the imaginative powers that influence individual identity, brought him to a related acknowledgement of contemporary psychological and sociological thought. The concern for discovering another way than that of the middle class to define authentic experience is related to his concern for restructuring the way one can think about life. And as both these concerns are tied to literature, any effort to restructure modes of thought is tied to restructuring patterns of expression. The compulsive effort of the 1960s surfaces again: as the problem with 'realism' was that it was confused with 'reality,' it was necessary, many writers felt, if they were to break out of that process of structuring reality or relating to contemporary social experience, that they recognize the conventions of'realism' as conventions and therefore develop new configurations of language and art. Put another way, for some writers such concerns developed directly from their observation of social inequalities around them. But they abjured the conventional documentary form as being a literary arm of the social structure they wanted to revamp. They sought instead for a way of expressing the individual personality. The intellectual framework for such an endeavour lay in anthropology and in the burgeoning interest in sociology, linguistics, and structuralism that by 1970 had developed out of it. Writers who influenced that movement included Claude Lévi-Strauss, Herbert Marcuse, and R.D. Laing; in Canada, the communications theories of H.A. Innis and Marshall McLuhan became important, as did George Woodcock's history of anarchism, George Grant's right-wing Loyalist cultural nationalism and Abraham Rotstein's left-wing economic nationalism. The stylistic experimenters reasoned that if the language used by people in a culture embodied the biases of that culture, and if they quarreled with their culture's biases, then they must individually reconstruct its language. Most 'radical,' in this sense, of Canadian writers were Bill Bissett, bp Nichol, Matt Cohen,

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Margaret Atwood, and Dave Godfrey. There were others whose sense of individual perspective expressed itself in more conventional ways, particularly in the short story, but even here there was some definite manipulation of form. The short story was, in the 1960s, possibly under the influence of film, reborn as an exciting art form. Inevitably, as there were over 1,100 stories by over 550 authors published in Canadian periodicals between 1960 and 1973, many were written to formula or with little artistic control. To list the practitioners that reviewers found the most successful is to list the chief prose writers of the period: Atwood, Biaise, M. Cohen, Elliott, Gallant, Garner, Godfrey, Helwig (for The Streets of Summer, 1969), Hood, Laurence, Levine, Lowry, MacEwen, Metcalf, Munro, Newman, Nowlan, Richler, Rule, Smith, Thomas, Wiebe. To add the contemporary collections of stories written earlier, by Morley Callaghan, Howard O'Hagan, Ethel Wilson, and Sinclair Ross; and to appreciate the number of other skilful writers, like Terrence Heath (b. 1936) with The Truth (1972), Michael Bullock (b. 1918; emig. 1968) with Green Beginning Black Ending (1971), or particularly Andreas Schroeder (b. 1946) with The Late Man (1972) and J. Michael Yates (b. 1938; emig. 1966) with The Abstract Beast (1971), who attempted to evoke in prose the spareness and sharpness of poetic images, is to gauge something of the vitality of the form in Canadian writing and the energy with which writers and readers responded to it. Creative writing schools developed. The academic study of Canadian literature expanded. Anthologies abounded, and included: Robert Weaver's Canadian Short Stories, first series (1960), second series (1968), and Ten for Wednesday Night (1961); Giose Rimanelli and Roberto Ruberto's Modern Canadian Stories (1966); Norman Levine's Canadian Winter's Tales (1968); Alec Lucas's Great Canadian Short Stories (1971); John Metcalf s Sixteen by Twelve (1971) and The Narrative Voice (1972); David Helwig's Fourteen Stories High (with Tom Marshall, 1971) and 72: New Canadian Stories (with Joan Harcourt, 1972); Tony Kilgallin's The Canadian Short Story (1971); George Bowering's The Story So Far (1971); and Donald Stephens' Contemporary Voices (1972). Three 'international' collections that included a number of Canadian stories were Rudy Wiebe's The Story-Makers (1970); W.H New's Four Hemispheres (1971); and Anna Rutherford's Commonwealth Short Stories (1971). Some of the most interesting of the many uncollected and unanthologized stories are the following: Adèle Wiseman's 'Duel in the Kitchen' (Maclean's, 1961); Wilfred Watson's 'Four Times Canada is Four' (Alphabet, 1963); Mordecai Richler's 'Bambinger' (Atlantic Advocate, 1965); George Bowering's 'Flycatcher' (Fiddlehead, 1965) and 'The WhiteCofiin\Quarry, 1967); John Hulcoop's 'A Fable for James' (Fiddlehead, 1968); David Helwig's 'A Road through Summer Fields' (Quarry, 1967) and 'Red Barn, Interior' (Journal of Canadian

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Fiction, 1972); Anne Marriott's 'On A Sunday Afternoon' (Queen's Quarterly, 1971); Margaret Atwood's 'Polarities' (TamarackReview, 1971); Beth Harvor's 'The Hudson River' (Fiddlehead, 1971); Oonah McFee's 'Song of Araby' (Texas Quarterly, 1971); W.D. Valgardson's 'An Act of Mercy' (Dalhousie Review, 1971); Jack Hodgins's 'Every Day of His Life' (Northwest Review, 1968) and 'After the Season' (Wascana Review, 1972). The range of journals is immediately striking; in addition to those already mentioned, Canadian Fiction Magazine, Jewish Dialog, Copperfield, Impulse, Northern Journey, University of Windsor Review, Antigonish Review, Exile, Canadian Forum, West Coast Review, and Prism International all published a substantial number of short stories, and stories by Canadian writers appeared also in various American, Australian, and other international journals. Useful surveys of little magazine and little press publishing are to be found in two issues of Canadian Literature, nos 33 and 57. There are several remarkably fine individual short stories which received more widespread notice - Margaret Laurence's 'The Perfume Sea' in The Tomorrow-Tamer, Dave Godfrey's 'The Hard-Headed Collector' in Death Goes Better with Coca-Cola, Alice Munro' s ' Thanks for the Ride ' in Dance of the Happy Shades, and Malcolm Lowry's 'The Forest Path to the Spring' in Hear Us O Lord from Heaven Thy Dwelling Place, for example - but the most characteristic use of the art form at this time was in the short story sequence. Such a form did not necessarily entail using the same protagonist from beginning to end, creating a loosely linked narrative (although Laurence's Bird in the House can be read this way), nor did it demand a single technical perspective or an artificial unifying gimmick. The shifting perspective, the manipulation of place and time, the linguistic dislocations that in different ways mark Lowry'sHear Us O Lord from Heaven Thy Dwelling Place (1961), Elliott's The Kissing Man (1962), Smith's Cape Breton is the Thought Control Center of Canada (1969), Godfrey's Death Goes Better with Coca-Cola (1967), and Blaise's A North American Education (1973) establish a coherence of a different kind. Such works strive for the expression of a total linguistic gesture: the restructuring of the world in the mind of the writer/reader. Lowry, writing to Albert Erskine in 1953 (Selected Letters, ed. Harvey Breit and Margerie Bonner Lowry, 1965), tried to explain his own understanding of the technique he was putting into operation: Cabriola (I seem to have said this before) is - or will be - a novel. But so is "The Forest Path to the Spring" another short novel. Cabriola and "Forest Path" taken together make, as you will see, another kind of novel. "Ghostkeeper," "Pompeii," Cabriola and "Forest Path" make yet another kind of novel. Hear Us O Lord - with its 12 chapters - would be, if done aright, less a book of short stories than - God help us - yet another kind of novel....

Elliott and Biaise were less direct about the technical intention of their method, but were powerful stylists in their own right.

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The Kissing Man (1962) by George Elliott (b. 1923) is an extraordinarily gentle book, deceptively simple and uncharacteristically affirmative in a time of stress. Elliott observes conflict all right; as one character puts it in 'What do the Children Mean?': My world ... is that field of barley there, long cleared of stumps, ploughed and cultivated, sown to barley and clover last spring, carefully harvested, stocked and threshed, and the clover left to get a root-hold for the winter. All order, all order, the manager thought. But his world is this long grass and weeds that grow thick-stemmed and too tough to destroy along the road where people go, up and down the road, close beside that.

But confrontation is tempered by an appreciation of continuity between the present moment and the good in the past and future. The line of antecedence that Callaghan claimed between himself and Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio seems here to be invoked again; vignettes of ordinary life in a small town, of the virtues of eccentricity and the nebulousness of emotional needs, of love and death, which lose their significance the moment they become commonplaces, form both the topical substance of the book and its message. Truth and meaning exist in the living of life, which is an ordinary talent, the more to be appreciated the more the world categorizes and controls one's response to place and time. A similar sensibility informs the prose of Alden Nowlan (b. 1933). Miracle at Indian River (1968) gathers together eighteen stories about the Maritimes. Laconic, witty, gentle, and perceptive, they look shrewdly at institutions like the Church, with its profound influence on cultural mores, sympathetically at the idiosyncrasies of individuals, and forcefully at the economic limitations that burden the entire community. Various Persons Named Kevin O'Brien (1973) is more uneven. Billed as a novel and structured as eleven vignettes in the title character's memory of his changing identity, it again affirms an appreciation of cultural roots, but the Maritime mystique of the earlier book is lost in the attempt to explore character in more depth. The world of Clark Biaise (b. 1940 in North Dakota; emig. to his mother's native Montreal in 1966) is more troubled than Nowlan's, less lyrical than Elliott's; yet in his affirmation of personal identity, he comes in A North American Education (1973) to comparable conclusions. Cast as autobiographical memoirs, the book is punctuated by epigraphs from Sartre and Pascal, to the effect that by living in the past and future and mythologizing his relation to them, man denies himself preparedness for the present moment. His stories focus on three related kinds of exile: the impulse to self-effacement that overwhelms a New Canadian in Montreal, learning two languages and trying to hide his difference from himself most of all; the experience of being an outsider that a Westerner, married to an Indian (Biaise is married to the Indian novelist Bharati Mukherjee, author of The Tiger's Daughter [1973]) acts out in the context of a culture radically different from his own; and the gap between

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generations that describes differing codes of ambition and value. For Elliott, continuities between tradition and contemporary life are more easily to be achieved; Biaise, acutely conscious of the terrors of day-to-day survival that impede (although do not deny) happiness, finds life more dislocating. But like Elliott he has a gift for intensely observing significant moments and for transforming fine detail into luminous images in a terse natural style that is all the more impressive as we recognize how much effort went into its contriving. The control over the language of expression, moreover, is an implicit statement about the process of acquiring control over the actual world through which one moves. Ray Smith (b. 1941 in Cape Breton), in the title story of Cape Breton is the Thought Control Center of Canada (1969), makes that technical process into an explicitly historical/national condition. Establishing the tensions caused by Calvinist sensibilities and a colonial perspective, he goes on to affirm a relationship between political and sexual victimization. Affirmation of sexual libertarianism becomes an equivalent for affirmation of political freedom; declarations of national love are intercut with fragments of personal communication. In all there is a sense of the ironic absurdity of conventions and the immediate powerlessness of individuals who stubbornly refuse to surrender their cultural identity. He renders that absurdity with a rapidly shifting, sometimes allusive, sometimes consciously sophomoric prose style. Experiments such as his were genuinely trying to extend the range of literary language in Canada, and although enterprises going on in the name of experiment frequently attract more shallow imitators than they do serious writers, stylistically experimental books by unestablished writers were not likely to be accepted by established publishing houses. In a different decade writers like Smith - certainly so many young writers - might therefore not have been published. The publication explosion in the 1960s, however - which was predicated in part on the independence of the youth culture, the new nationalism, and the physical possibility of publishing with the development of new processes like photo-offset printing - happened because of the development of a number of artistically respectable little presses. Smith was published by the House of Anansi in Toronto, as were Charters, Ladoo, Sandman, Scott, Gibson, Marois, Drew, Matt Cohen, Payerle, Such, and some of the works of Clarke, Godfrey, Atwood, Garber, and Engel. Anansi was founded in 1967 by Dave Godfrey and Dennis Lee in an effort to combat the rejection of quality works by existing presses which found them too experimental, too regional, or too uncommercial. Godfrey left the press in 1969, Lee in 1972; Shirley Gibson joined the Board of Directors in 1970 which in 1973 also included Ann Wall, Margaret Atwood, and Charles Vincent - and became president in 1972. Oberon Press in Ottawa was founded in 1966 by Michael Macklem, and published Helwig, Foxell, Mills, and some

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MacEwen. New Press was established in Toronto in 1969 by Roy MacSkimming, Dave Godfrey, and James Bacque, who later that year sold a 49 per cent interest to Maclean-Hunter; it published Godfrey, Sutherland, lanora, MacSkimming, and some of Kroetsch and Stein. Godfrey's other venture, Press Porcépic in Erin, Ontario, began in 1971 in an effort to bring fine design back to printing; it published Vigneault. Coach House Press in Toronto was established in 1965 by Stan Bevington, Dennis Reid, and Victor Coleman; concerned with 'post literate fiction outside words,' it published Barry Nichol's Two Novels, and the satiric Great Canadian Sonnet ( 1970) by David McFadden (b. 1940), which was illustrated by Greg Curnoe. It produced some of the most visually attractive books of the period. Under David Robinson's directorship, attractively designed books also came from Talonbooks in Vancouver, which grew out of the little magazine Talon (1963-8) in 1967 and variously involved Jim Brown, Gordon Fidler, Peter Hay, and Dwight Gardiner. November House in Vancouver produced O'Brien, Evanier, and Kenneth Dyba's Sister Roxy (1973); Sonó Nis Press, established in 1968 by J. Michael Yates and Ann J. West, and moving from Vancouver to Port Clements to Mission, BC, published Yates and Harlow and concerned itself with Canada's multilingual heritage. And there were others. Taken together, the works they produced were among the most avant-garde of the time; without them Canadian fiction would be far more sedate. If the 'experimental' novels were often in themselves more inventive than accomplished, enthusiasm outstripping expression, their value lay in exactly that degree of urgency: in their commitment to the freedom of the imagination and their accompanying invigoration of Canadian prose style. Generally they were socially critical books, too, and Victor Victim (1970) by Michael Charters (b. England 1940; emig. 1965), in many ways a thoroughly British book about caste, fairly clearly articulates one of the central tensions that these writers confronted. Its central character, narrating his life while ensconced in a mental hospital, represents an acutely thwarted generation. Brought up to abhor sex as obscene and to admire stereotypical sexual roles (Canada - a land of'men's men'), he learns to be horrified by any close touch. Afraid of committing himself to any relationship with others, he reduces all relationships to obscene ones as a way of affirming his own morality. But it is a skewed view of human values, in which violence becomes a sublimation for sex and hence an admirable activity. Where, then, Charters asks, does sanity lie if the socially 'respectable' attitude to human sexuality can be seen to be so mad. In Summer of the Black Sun (1969) by Bill T. O'Brien (b. 1943), the madness of a manic depressive becomes the only escape from social institutions; in Love-Love (1972) by Montgomery Swift (b. 1937), incomprehensible language is ostensibly translated as 'proof of traditional mores for the young and disbelieving; and in The Afterpeople (1970) by

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George Payerle (b. 1945), full of authorial intrusions, epigrammatic observations, and surreal leaps of time and logical sequence, a parody of a detective story attempts to redefine the boundaries between sane and insane, real and unreal. Like them, the work of Lawrence Garber (b. 1937) combines an astringent view of society with a self-deprecating black humour which is a kind of defence against absorption by the horror. Characteristically, such works take the form of a journal of personal discovery (it is a context in which the publication of Glassco's Memoirs of Montparnasse must also be seen), and Garber's first novel Garber's Tales from the Quarter (1969) is almost a prototype. A fictional 'Garber' figures as the leading character of this long series of vignettes. Individually skilful but cumulatively monotonous, the portraits tell of his encounters with the many varieties of Parisian sex, and of the sadness of detachment that grows with empty, ritualistic communication. Words become talismans to hurl and invoke, but they mask meaning as much as they convey it. And in the three surreal novellas that make up Garber's next work Circuit (1970), which play with film techniques, codes, nonsense syllables, and all the scenes that have become de rigueur in the contemporary best-seller, the disintegration of language and meaning is both subject and method. Two Novels (Andy and For Jesus Lunatik, 1969) by bp Nichol (b. 1944) utters the same theme, inverting and reversing one of the novels on the page and directing that another part be cut out and pasted elsewhere so that the idea of book itself might be challenged. If art renders experience and experience is process, Nichol argues, then the enclosed linear structure of the book rigidifies and so destroys it. A move into ' mixed media' - and Nichol was experimenting at the same time with concrete poetry - was a natural extension of his idea. For Scott Symons (b. 1933) in Combat Journal for Place d'Armes (1967), diary and manifesto are accompanied by a packet of maps and postcards in order to achieve a similar end: that of recreating for a 'reader,' without using the conventions of realism, the actual processes of life/art. The diarist's fragmented descent into an imaginative/real inner world/underworld of political introspection and homosexuality is a wilful denial of his everyday 'normality' in order to apprehend any meaningful distinctions there might be - particularly for himself as a writer - between conventional and 'free' identities. Although in his novel Mirror on the Floor (1967), George Bowering also probes violence and madness in a narrative of a young man's emotional uncertainties and limited capacity for selflessness, it is fundamentally more conventional than his poetry or his lyric autobiographical memoir, Autobiology (1972). By giving that later work the title he does, Bowering affirms clearly his appreciation of the difference between an ongoing organic process and a rigid artifact. The work of Matt Cohen (b. 1942), who emerged as the most accomplished

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of the young experimental stylists, further considers the nature of artistry itself. Korsoniloff (1969), an unsuccessful journal/novel about the mental indecision of a contemporary Hamlet, is conscious of its own fragments, its inability to be complete. Johnny Crackle Sings (1971), about the life styles open to a successful pop singer, contrasts the harmonies of natural cycles with the manipulations endemic to public life. The contrast is reflected in the style; advertising slogans, brand names, and deliberate clichés, with all their demands for stock responses, are built into the prose alongside tantric litanies. The juxtaposition is sometimes comic, more often simply a cadenced medium within which to celebrate individuality. The whimsy and satire that variously characterize the stories oí Columbus and the Fat Lady (1972) underscore Cohen's social and moral commitment; he is most successful, in fact, as a contemporary fabulist, placing the colloquial and mundane beside the elevated and romantic, probing multiple points of view, making observation an art of the mind as well as an act of the eye and involving his readers in the process of knowing it. Three other writers took traditional literary forms and archetypes as the basis for their satire. Claudio lanora (b. 1933 in Italy), in Sint Stephen Canada, Polyphemus' Cave and the Boobieland Express (1970), details the erotic odyssey of a character named Stephen Canada. Martin Myers (b. 1927), in The Assignment (1971), creates a junkman named Spiegel, mysteriously given an assignment as The Wandering Jew, who bungles his task in a series of often very funny episodes, cinematically told episodes. And Chris Scott (b. England 1945), who demonstrates a Barthian talent for parody in Bartleby (1971), creates another erotic epic quest. In it, the process of writing becomes a key issue; author and characters war with each other over control of the manuscript and the dimensions of reality. Shandyan absurdities counter sequential narrative principles, and the result is a witty celebration of the powerful link between artifice and imagination. The sustained work of Hugh Hood (b. 1928) provides a connection between the realistic and stylistically experimental. Four novels, three collections of short stories, and a sports book (Strength Down Centre: The Jean Beliveau Story, 1970) indicate that his passion for hockey matches that of another novelist and sports writer, Jack Ludwig. But Hood's intellectual frame of reference for his stories is Roman Catholic, not Jewish, and his response to Montreal and the human condition is accordingly different. The novels are intelligent works. White Figure White Ground (1964) is imbued with an interest in Sartre and Genet, and observes how a painter strives to distinguish between a libertinism he despises and a healthy acknowledgment of his sexual being, and how in his work he tries both to succeed and to paint that which is invisible - light sources rather than colours. But these ideas lie on the surface fairly overtly. The painter observes at one point:

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I've always depended on form. I'm a very formal painter but I never realized how much till I started this thing. Form is illumination: the phrase likely occurs in some textbook somewhere. I seem to recall something about splendor veri and inner radiance, and the clarity of the intelligible in the sensible, and all that jazz....

The conversational tone but formally argumentative style is typical of Hood. He strives not for conscious symbolism, but for the effect of surface reality which on examination proves to be masking much deeper truths. While his répertoriai third person approach to dialogue does not always adequately distinguish characters' separate personalities, his effort - as in his painter's paintings - to have ' "what's outside inside ... or the other way around" ' characterizes the intent of the tone structures which (given this masking technique) his writings become. The Camera Always Lies (1967) concerns life in the film industry in New York and Hollywood - a topic which also indirectly attracted screenwriter Timothy Findley (b. 1931) in his nightmarish second novel The Butterfly Plague (1970), where the brutalities of Nazi Germany are fantastically superimposed on a different kind of life. For Hood the world is inherently chaotic, made acceptable only by human assertions, of which religion is the most powerful kind. As the title metaphor of his next work has it, life and football are both A Game of Touch (1970). The Montreal setting (as it does for MacLennan, Biaise, and others) establishes a context of political and moral 'involvement' for the characters' day-to-day choices. And the characters themselves, partly because of Hood's increasing control over first-person point of view, are more individually realized. In You Can't Get Therefrom Here (1972), Hood pursues further the impact of moral involvement on the mind - setting his work in the African country of Leofrica, with its 'ordinary' coastline and 'uncharted' interior, and probing such ideas as the mythologizing of industry, the viability of independence, and the dangers of internecine conflict. Leofrica is both invented and imaginary; it is a sort of Canada rewritten by the mind. But in spite of its allegorical aptness it lacks the cultural immediacy of the African novels of Godfrey, Knight, and Laurence. Although it revealed that Hood had honed further his skill at characterization and the degree of subtlety with which he could pursue his themes, he remained most known as a writer of short stories, a large number of which have not been collected. Two collections - Flying a Red Kite (1962) and the book that demonstrates his most successful use of the technique that unites the prose tone-poem with the documentary vignette, Around the Mountain: Scenes from Montreal Life (1967) - appeared before Hood (with Clark Biaise, Raymond Fraser, John Metcalf) formed a group called The Montreal Story-Tellers. Another collection was called The Fruit Man, the Meat Man & the Manager (1971). Many of the stories skirt the banal, for Hood is responsive to ordinary situations and not reluctant to

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express sentiment directly. But in the short story he can be at his wittiest ('The Dog Explosion'), his most immediately sensitive to voice and motivation ('Harley Talking,' 'Who's Paying for this Call'), his most overtly sympathetic to human inconsistency ('Cura Pastoralis'), and his most technically experimental ('Places I've Never Been'). The range is impressive. Hood's continuing attempt to reach from the known to the unknown describes an inquiring mind, appreciative of tradition while wholly contemporary, seeking answers to the unanswerable paradoxes of human behaviour. Whereas Hugh Hood's Africa is an intellectual construct, that of Margaret Laurence (b. 1926 in Neepawa, Manitoba) is a physical region of personal experience as well. And whereas Hood's style is plain out of a desire to avoid symbolism, Laurence's embraces conscious symbolism while it strives for the immediacy of ordinary experience. Her work includes two books of short stories, four novels, an autobiographical journal, a book of translations, a critique of contemporary Nigerian fiction and drama (Long Drums and Cannons, 1968), and a children's book (Jason's Quest, 1970). The range and quality of her work made her the most recognized and accomplished of the writers of the 1960s. Her short stories were anthologized, her novels sold widely in paperback, theses on her work began to multiply, and A Jest of God was successfully filmed as Rachel, Rachel. Although the novels that most critics have acclaimed as her finest are set in Manitoba, it seems to have been her experience of Africa (as much as any one thing can be claimed as a stimulus) that spurred her into writing. Travels through both east and west Africa brought her into contact with oral cultures conscious of the division between their traditional ancestral past and their contemporary partly Westernized present - with cultures, moreover, which had recently produced artists who were struggling to articulate those tensions. She respected the artists and the people, and she seemed to recognize in their lives some echo of her own. Her first published book, a translation of Somali folk tales entitled/I Tree for Poverty (1954), speaks in its introduction of relationships between literary form and social experience - the status of women, the character of religious experience, and the nature of humour being three specific topics within that context - which underline what in the 1970 reprint of the book she called 'the validity of human differences.' But as the opening of her autobiographical account of her life in east Africa (The Prophet's Camel Bell, 1963; retitled New Wind in a Dry Land in the us edition, 1964) observes: 'in your excitement at the trip, the last thing in the world that would occur to you is that the strangest glimpses you may have of any creature in the distant lands will be those you catch of yourself.' These two books, together with This Side Jordan (1960) and The Tomorrow-Tamer and Other Stories (1963), rendered her African experience, but they all pointed her back to Canada and to herself.

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This Side Jordan, her first novel, is set in pre-independence Ghana and concerns the life of an idealistic young teacher, Nathaniel Amegbe. Nathaniel, conscious at once of tribal tradition and the pressures of modern life, of demeaning colonial security and the pressures of personal and political independence, discovers a symbiotic relationship between himself and his country. His wife fears abandoning old rituals; he is contemptuous of them but aware of Ghana's ancient glory. Into his life comes an English couple, the Kestoes, whose marital tensions in some degree mirror his own; the additional conflict they represent, between arrogant colonial conservatism and well-meaning but equally condescending liberalism, echoes the political dilemma the country faces in trying to work out its contemporary image. Another parallel and contrast is introduced in the person of Victor Edusei, whose nationalist temperament is more revolutionary than Nathaniel's. Laurence's technical method is thus clear; her characterizations depend on the reflector technique and her plot moves forward in a series of permutating meetings between the characters, resolving itself in future promise when both Miranda Kestoe and Aya Amegbe give birth. In retrospect the 'crossing Jordan' metaphor of the title seems a little strained, the formal parallels too neat to render adequately the political realities which are the book's subject. And they run up against the specific details of daily life - marketplace conversations, highlife dancing - which are clearly seen and heard. By the time of The Stone Angel (1964), Laurence had managed to contain the intrusive artifice; the route lay through The Tomorrow-Tamer (1963), a collection of short stories published in various journals over the preceding eight years. As in This Side Jordan, there is in these stories a tendency to shift from conversational style to a kind of elevated Old Testament rhetoric when African dreams, motives, and proverb-inspired utterances become the subject. But the short story's length, its focus on a single illumination, its different handling of character all forced the author to select details rigorously. The result is a less diffuse realization of emotional and intellectual tensions. The stories focus repeatedly on outsiders trying to cope with their own identities. The white narrator of 'The Drummer of All the World,' brought up beside African children by his missionary father, finds himself as an adult devastatingly separated from the past and those friends; an exiled hairdresser in 'The Perfume Sea,' stateless in the newly independent country, must find a way of redefining his world; Godman, the dwarf, and Moses, the 'master,' in 'Godman's Master' must find separately satisfactory definitions of their own manhood. Godman's observation 'I fear and fear, and yet I live,' moreover, voices the temper of much of Laurence's work. Intermingled are hope and despair, laughter and pathos, uncertainty, irony, and compassionate feeling the mixture emphasizing Laurence's understanding of the emotional heights and depths which rack and govern people's lives and of the often petty

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everyday events against which they struggle and which, paradoxically, also give them the will to persist. The Stone Angel (1964) and A Jest of God (1966), both set in Manawaka, Manitoba, and on the west coast, take up this tension between fear of life and commitment to living. The former studies the final days in the life of an irascible old woman; the latter probes the mixed feelings of a young woman entering upon middle age and seeking a nebulous fulfillment she has never felt she has had. Both focus sensitively and literately on the fact of being a woman, and develop in Canadian fiction an exploration of female independence that had surfaced before through Brooke, Moodie, Duncan, Wilson, and others. The Stone Angel, the story of Hagar Shipley, develops by flashback and symbol. Hagar is ninety years old; smokes and complains for enjoyment; affirms she lives in the present, not in the past; and ironically finds herself constantly remembering her youth, her admiration of and conflict with her rigid father, her physical pleasure with her husband, Bram, who represents all that her culture thinks of as 'masculine,' her quarrel with what that same culture finds 'feminine' (things pretty, delicate, graceful, wistful, retiring, shy), and her mistaken judgments of her two sons: John, the 'masculine' one, whom the culture effectively destroys by the images it creates for him to live up to, and Marvin, the 'weak' one, whose strength lies in a gentleness that Hagar finds passive and unadmirable. Forced at last to recognize but not admit her weaknesses, she asserts herself in a final burst of living, refusing to 'go gentle into that good night.' Laurence queries thereby the relation between time (divided into moments of historical experience) and life (the ongoing process of remembering, anticipating, and re-experiencing events in the world of the mind). The Biblical parallels (Hagar, the desert, the Ishmaelites) not only reinforce the sense of isolation Hagar feels and her mixed reaction to Old Testament justice and the Pauline attitude to women, but also create a further temporal paradigm within which the act of living is played out. They establish a kind of Calvinist 'mythical' framework for Canadian moral decisions and give enormous depth to the first-person characterization. Laurence's control of individual sentence patterns - to delineate character and to convey thematic concerns stylistically (through contrasts and elisions, for example) - also increased, and her handling of imagery gives her work a subtle cast and a complex texture. One phrase in The Stone Angel gives A Jest of God its title: 'I've often wondered why one discovers so many things too late. The jokes of God.' The celestial ironies that the phrase speaks of are given substance by the actual experience of the central character, Rachel Cameron. A teacher who is afraid of death and constantly jolted by the irreverent vitality of the children around her; an aging young woman afraid of spinsterhood, rejecting her mother's

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enfolding household, her friend's lesbian advances, and the help and escape offered by Pentecostalism; an insecure human being seeking a human relationship, who experiences merely a sexual encounter instead ; a single woman whose 'pregnancy' turns out to be a benign tumour - Rachel is more than all of these, for she manages a distance from herself, an ironic eye on her own experiences, that at once gives her narrative a distinctive personality and makes the novel a harrowing portrait of a struggle with alienation. Laurence achieves this intensity through her use of the first-person point of view and her control over tone. The restraint that governs Rachel's observations, the fragments of vision, the laconic admissions and observations, and the flashes of bitter wit demonstrate stylistically the shifting state of mind that leads Rachel to a better understanding of herself and to a still uncertain but less reluctant affirmation of her independence. When in The Fire-Dwellers (1969), Laurence attempts a portrait of Rachel's suburban Vancouver sister, Stacey MacAindra, she experiments even more with first-person technique, splicing memories, private thoughts, and current happenings as though they were film clips. The intentional fragmentation of style reasonably recreates Stacey's disintegrating world, but the result, however useful for the development of Laurence's artistic perspective, seems not entirely satisfactory as a novel. The dialogues are burdened by their colloquiality; the male characters (although recognizable factual types) are fictional clichés; and the circumlocution of the passages describing sex seem arch rather than inherently part of the character Laurence is trying to portray. The stylistic problem is one that MacLennan and Kroetsch have been similarly obstructed by: the danger implicit in the presentation of a limited sensibility is that it is the author's capacities, rather than the characters, which may seem affected. Still, to have observed the compulsions of a housewife simultaneously desirous of her suburban security and attracted by the glamour of liberation is to have seen a particularly dislocating example of contemporary alienation. With A Bird in the House (1970), collecting stories published as early as 1963 and creating of them the same kind of loosely-linked narrative as one finds in the work of Elliott and Biaise, Laurence focusses more directly on the Calvinist inheritance in Canada and returns to her successful Manitoba setting. The book also, most clearly of her 'Canadian' works, suggests one of the attractions of Africa for her: its modern history has been a quest for independence, but realizing that goal has allowed no nation to rid itself entirely of the European cultural heritage it has rebelled against. For Vanessa MacLeod, the recurrent character in these stories, a comparable tradition is represented by her Calvinist grandfather Connor and her grandfather's house ; the opening of 'The Sound of the Singing' specifies: 'That house in Manawaka is the one which, more than any other, I carry with me.' At the end of 'Jericho's Brick Battlements,' the sentiment recurs:

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I did not go to look at Grandfather Connor's grave. There was no need. It was not his monument. I parked the car beside the Brick House. The caragana hedge was unruly. No one had trimmed it properly that summer. The house had been lived in by strangers for a long time. I had not thought it would hurt me to see it in other hands, but it did. I wanted to tell them to trim their hedges, to repaint the window-frames, to pay heed to repairs. I had feared and fought the old man, yet he proclaimed himself in my veins. But it was their house now, whoever they were, not ours, not mine.

The observations ring a story about growth and rebellion and give it its frame of reference. There is more gaiety and more undiluted affirmation about this memoir than there is in much of Laurence's work, but it is not less serious for that. Its central topic concerns the virtues of traditional family structures and the constraints imposed by them. In exploring them, Laurence moves even closer to an analysis of contemporary 'political' experience. Such a concern for family ties affected other writers as well. Sometimes the result was a fairly cor\ventiona\Bildungsroman, such as House of Hate (1970) by Percy Janes, which is characterized by its Newfoundland setting and its earthy dialect. Sometimes it glitters with such a precise observation of the quirky logic and chilling dispassion of child behaviour, as with Pandora (1972) by Sylvia Fraser, that it becomes a vivid portrait of a whole place and time. Pandora creates all WASP suburbs in the 1940s, where Monopoly streets came alive, the War and the Depression loomed offstage, nakedness was a threat, obedience a virtue impossible to understand, and the pressure strong to maintain the status quo. Sometimes family conflict was given specific political character, as in David Lewis Stein's Scratch One Dreamer; or politics surrounds it, as Auschwitz does in Crying as She Ran (1970) by Charlotte Fielden; or it was made into a bizarre, nightmarish blend of the ordinary and the irrational, as in Timothy Findley's The Last of the Crazy People (1967), which tells of a mad family's impact on an eleven-year-old child. Or it exists as an 'offstage' presence, as in the denial of roots that engenders the fantasies of Telephone Pole (1969) by Russell Marois (b. 1945). Most characteristically, the writers about family ties have been women. (Some male writers attempted to use a female persona - notably Brian Moore with / am Mary Dunne and Ronald Sutherland in Lark des Neiges. More often men wrote of women, with differing biases. The repetitive conquests that are detailed in abooklike In Praise of Older Women [1965] by Stephen Vizinczey [b. 1933; emig. 1956] typify much about modern attitudes - the treatment of woman as object - that the novels by women writers reject.) For Marian Engel and Margaret Atwood, for example, family ties are both a bondage and an opportunity for creation. But that creative opportunity is also a paradox, for 'house and family' can be characterized as the only preserve allowed women by a male society (and even then ostensibly governed by a male 'head'), and as one which takes advantage of- makes a confining role out ofa woman's sexual function.

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The work of Mavis Gallant can be seen in this context also, questioning the enclosures caused by marriage and family and providing assertions of independent identity. Beside her struggles to control style and create character, various other books might seem slight. A Lover More Condoling (1968) and Hunger Trace (1970), for example, by Adrienne Clarkson (b. 1939 in Hong Kong; emig. 1942), are popular treatments of superficial society, based on the distinctions between love, sex, and hunger. Heart's Tide (1972) by Judith Copithorne (b. 1939) is stylistically unpolished. Two novels by Patricia Blondal (1927-59), A Candle to Light the Sun (1960) and From Heaven with a Shout (1962), respectively about life in a prairie town and a marriage that reveals the aloofness of established Vancouver Island society, are more interesting. Jane Rule (b. 1931 in New Jersey; emig. 1957) probed the idea of marriage from another perspective. The Desert of the Heart (1964), for example, about an American woman's Reno divorce and growing willingness to admit her attraction to another woman, is frank and sympathetic. It also opens with a direct statement that relates her work metaphorically to Gallant's, Laurence's, Thomas's, and Atwood's: For everyone, foreign by birth or by nature, convention is a mark of fluency. That is why, for any woman, marriage is the idiom of life. And she does not give it up out of scorn or indifference but only when she is forced to admit that she has never been able to pronounce it properly and has committed continually its grossest grammatical errors. For such a woman marriage remains a foreign tongue, an alien landscape, and, since she cannot become naturalized, she finally chooses voluntary exile.

The style that here seems somewhat formal is much more polished in Rule's second work, This is Not For You (1970). Cast as a first-person memoir, a letter to a lover that will never be sent, it traces the intricacies of heterosexual and homosexual love and works out the tenuous justifications for the limitations the narrator imposes on her own life. The ending is not happy, but 'happy enough'; the differences between ideals and expediency mark the arena in which the drama is played through, and the unrelenting laconic tone intensifies the recurrent estrangements. The first-person format is important to the meaning; the T and 'You' describe an intensely personal relationship. That it is constantly interrupted and negated further underlines the isolation that can accompany any affirmation of a separate identity. Against the Season (1971) is more conventional in form, more explicit in individual scenes, more concerned with the adaptation people make to the roles expected of them than with the breaks from social patterns. Emerging directly from the cultural landscape of rural Ontario, the work of Alice Munro (b. 1931) also contemplates the restrictions imposed by gender in modern society. The individual short stories of her first book, Dance of the

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Happy Shades (1968), probe brilliantly into the states of mind that both motivate and accompany events in life. In ' Thanks for the Ride,' for example, a young city man's first sexual experience is made into a moment of intense revelation: for the man, who is not altogether pleased by his self-discovery; for the woman, who is confirmed in her awareness of the limitations that her small town has imposed on her life; and for the reader, who is absorbed into the landscape and made conscious of the sexual discrepancies that characterize much about contemporary social structure. 'Boys and Girls' tells of the same discrimination, documenting the family expectations that reinforce traditional roles for boys and girls, and detailing the process by which a girl comes not to rebel against them but to question the freedom from them that she had always thought she possessed. Such manipulation of logical perspectives is typical of Munro's work. A novel, Lives of Girls and Women (1971), confirmed her as one of the most gifted of modern Canadian prose stylists. The deceptive casualness about individual observations in her work conceals the careful artifice behind them; cumulatively they build substantial portraits of complicated human beings, whose relation with their particular society is more than casual and whose response to it encroaches insistently upon readers' emotions. The title figures of Lives of Girls and Women include Del Jordan, the young narrator, whose sardonic and sensitive recollections of her childhood and adolescence in the small town of Jubilee comprise the story; her mother, self-reliant and forthright; aunts, whose home became a country with its own customs and language ; neighbours ; teachers ; friends, with whom Del is distant, then intimate, then distant again as she grows into her own world. The town's social hierarchies are exposed; the religious conventions that underlie that structure are dispassionately observed; the sexual needs and embarrassments of an age are catalogued. Time passes, and Del Jordan comes to be. What she ultimately realizes is the difficulty of communicating the realities she has lived. Seen from outside, they lack the depth of the experience itself; recorded, they become artificial and take on an alphabet that others cannot be expected to know. Language and life become for Munro, as for many of her contemporaries, subtle antagonists in a game of understanding. Audrey Thomas (b. 1935 in Binghamton, NY; emig. 1959) is also conscious of the exigencies of art form, and the flexible, witty, exact style she developed conveys at once her powers of precise observation and her sense of the emotional depths that underlie surface behaviour. A book of short stories, Ten Green Bottles (1967), together with stories like 'Aquarius' (collected in Donald Stephens's Contemporary Voices), reveals her talent for evoking the particular atmosphere of time, place, and culture, and for relating to it a human dilemma. 'Omo,' for example, set in Ghana (where she lived for two years), is pungent with ironies and invites comparison with Laurence's

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'Godman's Master.' In it a black American Peace Corps worker seeks roots in an Africa that now uses Omo, a detergent that washes 'whiter than white,' an Africa from which an albino African is alienated in another way. In 'Xanadu,' a white woman frames her black servant with theft so that, embarrassed out of self-respect by his domestic efficiency, she can dismiss him. And in 'If One Green Bottle...,' the fragments of image and recollection and insight that reach a woman's conscious mind as she suffers a miscarriage, connect into a moving portrayal of disillusionment. Mrs Blood (1970) is also set in Ghana. The middle volume of a proposed trilogy, it focusses on a woman's uncertainties about her own identity during the upset of a threatened miscarriage in a foreign country. Husband, lovers, family, confinement and freedom, here and there, past and present, are all juxtaposed and gradually joined in the two interweaving monologues of the woman's split self: that of 'Mrs Blood,' her visceral subjective female identity, and that of 'Mrs Thing,' her ostensibly objective being. This sense of division seems to be fundamental to Thomas's world. Two linked novellas, Munchmeyer and Prospero on the Island (1971), take it up in another formal way. The first novella concerns the dislocation of a recently separated youngish male writer, who is taken without his glasses into a world of nightmarish fantasy; the second tells the more bucolic story of the young woman who wrote 'Munchmeyer,' who finds the world of personal experience and the world of literature constantly meshing, making her separation from her own character problematic. Such divisions throw into perspective Thomas's concern for the separations that link men and women, and emphasize the privacy (rather than the politics) of the universe she attempts to decode. The exigencies of marriage, pregnancy, childbirth, and miscarriage are also directly articulated by Joan Haggerty and Marian Engel (b. 1933). For Engel there is a relation between character and society that Thomas chooses not to discuss. Her first novel, No Clouds of Glory! (1968), concerns the independence of Sarah Porlock, PHD, specialist in Australian and Canadian literature who acerbically finds in her subject 'a host of Sarahs looking for themselves' and is appalled; approaching thirty, she is appalled also by the way her commitment to intellectual independence has upset her capacity for love. About one lover she observes: 'Joe didn't belong to me. We were borrowers of each other, in need of a laugh or a poke, or a proofreading; come to Sarah for soup.' But her distrust of her own literature - ' "satire," the holding of pain at arm's length instead of loving it; or this nostalgia, the one tradition Canadians follow well' - raises questions about her distrust of herself. The search for an authentic identity forms the substance both of the rest of that novel and of her second work, TheHoneyman Festival (1970). The latter tells, from the perspective of a woman pregnant with her fourth child, an intelligent and witty story of ambivalent reactions to family life and intellectual freedom.

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That there should be any tension at all between affection and intelligence provides one of the book's central questions; that the book should end with another question indicates some of the uncertainty and some of the pathos of the central character, whose monologue admirably reveals her personality. Giving the most dynamic focus to these problems of family, sexuality, and political identity is the work of Margaret Atwood (b. 1939), who attracted even more attention as a gifted poet and a stimulatingly idiosyncratic critic than.she did as a novelist. The Edible Woman (1969) and Surfacing (1972) won many admirers, although both books can be faulted on many grounds: their shallowness of characterization, reliance on categories as both the means and substance of behavioural analysis, lack of compassion for human foibles, artificiality of plot, subordination of orderly development to the brilliance of set scenes, and stylistic self-indulgence. The Edible Woman particularly - a glittering book about a woman's sense of being cannibalized by a consumer society, culminating in a scene where she bakes a cake shaped like herself to feed to her estranged boyfriend - sacrifices its success to its own wit, as though an easy command over language made the author herself suspect the ideas it might convey. But Surfacing, which is a much better book, declares the author's intentional laconic tonality, her affirmation of people as extensions of their landscape, and her conviction that compassion can be an excuse for reluctance to become politically engaged. The sense of 'victimization' which provides the central metaphor of her critical work Survival (a 'thematic guide to Canadian literature,' 1972) appears very strongly in Surfacing as the link between the femaleness of the central character and the dilemma of the nation in which she lives. Expressive of the radical nationalism which characterized much Canadian life in the early 1970s, Atwood's work also voices current ideas about alienation, women's liberation, indigenous mythologies, ecology, and commercialism, and so becomes both a significant gauge of its own time and an example to other artists of one way of responding to the interpénétration between literature and life. Surfacing takes place in Quebec, which for the English-speaking Canadian narrator is itself alienating: 'Now we're on my home ground, foreign territory.' She has gone, with two men and another woman, from whom she is quickly alienated also, to a lakeside cabin where she used to live and from which her father has now disappeared. American ownership threatens to take over the land; American technology has already flooded much of it for power; American culture has influenced Canadians so that they no longer seem a distinguishable people. Atwood's resolution takes her character into a rediscovery of the meaning of some Indian petroglyphs; she must lose her old self and language in order to recognize a new one, cast away a superimposed mythology in order to accept the spiritual relationship between self and landscape that is native to the place. If in the process she seems to become

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mad, that is a limitation on the part of the perceivers, not the perceived; it is possible to dismiss this as facile reasoning, but to the extent that Atwood is concerned less with the question 'Who are we?' than with the question 'How do we know who we are?' it fairly reflects her philosophical perspective. It also suggests that conventional methods of critical evaluation may not apply. Various writers seem to have influenced her work. Laurence's feeling for place, Doris Lessing's concerns with the politics of language and identity, William Golding's episcopal exploration of evil: these are elements which find new expression here. Paramount in Surfacing is a sense of evil, and the book, locating it in Americanisms, imbalances, and losses of identity, probes its way towards a knowledge of when and how it began. The horn and garden imagery in the book thus takes on significant moral dimensions, and the quest for knowledge itself - which had been the impulse behind Canadian historical expansion - is seen as an ambivalent pursuit. That recognition does not deter the author from her nationalist fervour; it does, however, make her proCanadianism more than empty chauvinism and give it a complex ethical cast. Given this psychic and moral context, the contemporaneity of Robertson Davies and Malcolm Lowry (1909-57) is easy to understand. Both observed conflict between good and evil and tried to give artistic form to the tension. And Lowry particularly, like Atwood, was constantly struggling for an identity, constantly in search of a new garden and for a way of articulating his exile from the old one; like Davies, he found something of an explanation of his dilemma in Jungian psychology. But he read also in Aiken, Ortega, and Hesse, in Cabbalistic and Theosophist doctrine; he sought myths and systems from the Tarot Pack and Voodoo to Neoplatonism and managed to integrate them into a unified view of life. The right of Canadian literature to claim him at all has been often challenged, particularly after he became internationally recognized and respected. His sojourn in Canada was brief (1939-54) and interrupted, and although North Vancouver became the 'Eridanus' Paradise of his books, and although Canada was the place where he did his most vigorous writing, he never trusted the government enough to take out citizenship. But as he wrote in 1957 to Ralph Gustafson, who wanted to anthologize some of his poetry: whether I qualify strictly as a Canadian is another matter though I like to think I do: under the old law I did, though I still have a British passport, albeit I took out Canadian papers, never decided on any final citizenship, so am classed as a Canadian resident.... But I never became a Canadian citizen under the new law: nonetheless I've as much right to call myself Canadian as Louis Hémon had and I even wrote a Canadian national anthem, though nobody's sung it except me. I had a childish ambition - maybe not so childish - always to contribute something to Canadian literature though, and I wrote a book called Under the Volcano, which has become fairly well known, but which people seem to think is written by an American.

His Selected Letters (1965), together with unpublished notes and letters in the University of British Columbia Lowry manuscript collection, furnish a

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number of other instances of the ironies in his life and of his sometimes bemused and sometimes tortured responses to them. The letters also give some indication of the process by which he wrestled and exaggerated his life into artistic form and offer sensible critical clues to some of his literary intentions. Under the Volcano (1947) is generally regarded as his finest novel, a complex book about political expediences in Mexico during the 1930s, about love, guilt, exile, and separation, about a sensitive alcoholic's hallucinating debilitation and spiritual insights, and about the tensions between comedy and tragedy, heaven and hell, that rack ordinary lives. Such a summary does disservice to the textures of the book, to its exploration of place and manipulation of time, to its skilled handling of imagery and admirable evocation of the personality of its central character, the dismissed British Consul, Geoffrey Firmin. Its significance for Canadian literature of the 1960s lies not only in its integral artistry, but also in its relation to Lowry's later works. Together they were to form a six- or seven-volume cycle called 'The Voyage that Never Ends' (Lowry's 1951 letter to Harold Maison describes the plan in more detail). The cycle was to probe possession and dispossession, both psychic and material; it would reveal the multiple identities that make up the individual personality (in particular that of his persona Sigbj0rn Wilderness); it would lessen the reliance of the novel form on external linear narrative and strive instead for a textural artifice that would make reader and writer into its subject and protagonist. Although it is not yet possible to claim his direct influence on subsequent Canadian writing, the intellectual adventure in which he was engaged, and which he sought to express, can be seen as a clear antecedent for the work of Godfrey (the distorted quest) and Kroetsch (the tension between known and unknown), for example, as well as of the decade's many stylistic experiments. Hear Us O Lord from Heaven Thy Dwelling Place (1961), a short-storysequence/novel, illustrates Lowry's application of stylistic density. The individual stories range from a simple moral fable ('The Bravest Boat': a lyric testament to happiness) to an elaborate amalgam of logbook, poetic glosses, and stream-of-consciousness ('Through the Panama': a look at the disintegration of identity); and from a witty juxtaposition of journal entries ('Strange Comfort Afforded by the Profession': an exploration of the ambivalent benefits of knowledge) to a large symphonic structure ('The Forest Path to the Spring': a celebration of life and of man's relationship with natural life cycles). Linked to each other by interlocking images, running leitmotifs, and theme, they together trace the progress of man's mind through turmoil to harmony. Each story tells of a voyage and return, a move from tenuous stability into the terrifying heart of peril and back again. However harrowing each journey, and however difficult to come through, it is compulsively necessary for the mind to undertake if it is to stay alive. But (the

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acquisition of knowledge always interrupting and shifting Eden), the point of return is never exactly the same as the point of departure. Identity alters. Lowry's later novels, in unfinished manuscript form when he died, were pursuing the same theme, taking it in a metaphysical direction. Present and past, life and death, fact and fiction: these became the landscapes through which his characters moved. Dark as the Grave Wherein My Friend is Laid (1968, ed. Douglas Day and Margerie Lowry), for example, explicitly takes the reader on as the author's co-artist; it is a roman à clef about the reading and writing of Under the Volcano or (as his persona calls his book) 'The Valley of the Shadow of Death.' As the plot merely takes the novelist back to the Mexico that had earlier inspired him to write, the book's power lies in the tension between factual and fictional reality rather than in narrative suspense. The novelist had made a demonic landscape out of Mexico; to revisit Mexico was thus paradoxically to invoke both the spirit of creativity and all the tormenting demons. Such a portrayal of the working processes of the creative mind was deliberately designed to absorb the reader into its anarchy. What appeared superficial about the character drawing, and repetitive, formless, uncontrolled about the prose was therefore part of Lowry's challenge to the accepted canons of formal critical judgement. But his use of the novel form led him promptly into a dilemma - the medium automatically gave some form to the formlessness, the constantly changing ongoing vitality of which he wished to write - and his difficulty in resolving it may be one of the reasons that prevented him from completing these works. Certainly Earle Birney and Margerie Lowry, the editors of Lunar Caustic (1963) -a novella set in a New York psychiatric hospital, again about the contrast between 'angelic' and 'demonic' states of mind - had two versions of the story to work with: 'The Last Address,' which was published in L'Esprit as 'Le Caustic lunaire' in 1956, and a later draft, 'Swinging the Maelstrom.' And in the manuscript of October Ferry to Cabriola (1970, éd. Margerie Lowry), whole scenes reappear in different places, as the author sought for the most satisfying arrangement of his material. These late works-in-progress - which also include a story called 'Ghostkeeper,' published in New American Review (1973) -thus testify more to the fertility of Lowry's imagination than to a solid artistic achievement. But even then they contain intense baroque lyrical passages which indicate that his talent had by no means diminished. Towards the end of 'La Mordida,' for example, Sigbj0rn Wilderness prays: that what had died was himself, and what came about through these confusions, these oscillations, these misunderstandings and lies and disasters, these weavings to and fro, these treacheries, these projections of the past upon the present, of the imagination upon reality, that out of these dislocations of time, these configurations of unreality, and the collapse of will, out of these all but incommunicable agonies, as of the mind and heart stretched and attenuated beyond endurance on an eternal rack, out of arrant cowardice before little danger, and bravery in the face of what seemed slight to overcome, and heartbreak, and longing, had been born, darkly and tremulous, a soul.

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The manuscript 'La Mordida,' which is largely an unfictionalized history of Lowry's own political detainment in Mexico in 1946, was to have closed the 'Voyage' cycle, and this excerpt indicates the spiritual metamorphosis that would lead his characters back to heaven. 'Heaven' - located in these works in the British Columbia mountains - was seen as a landscape inextricably joined with that of Hell (the Mexican Cordillera), but they were not places or opposing (conquerable) forces so much as they were states of mind in the individual consciousness, which required acknowledgment and balancing. Perceiving the existence of heaven, moreover, may be an unconscious act; achieving it demands the exercise of the mind, and for Lowry this proposition led to some of the most difficult torments of all. October Ferry to Cabriola was the most successful of his late works, perhaps because of its more intricate patterning, but also because of the extent to which Lowry allowed it to work out this intellectual process. At one level the novel tells simply of a couple (Ethan and Jacqueline Llewelyn) being evicted from their house in 'Eridanus' and seeking a new one on Gabriela Island, in the Gulf of Georgia. At another it recreates the pattern of dispossession that marked his own life, appears in his other fiction, and derives from archetypal stories of banishment and mythic quest; Llewelyn is pursued by guilt and the past as much as by municipal authority, and like Wilderness (entering wilderness to seek himself), Llewelyn must accept his past in order to discover his identity. At another level still, however, October Ferry to Cabriola reworks literary analogues to establish (by their very congruence with his own work) a collapse of linear history and temporal distinctions, and an assertion of the communal solidarity of the human imagination. As in 'Through the Panama,' for example, the geographic directions are drawn from Neoplatonic literature (East the world of the gods, West of the demons, South of the affective relations, and North of the intellect); Wilderness and Llewelyn, that is, must both intellectualize their perceptions, as they move on the northerly leg of their journey, before they can move east and achieve some degree of equilibrium. In the hands of a lesser writer, such patterning might appear mechanical and the heavy use of allusions result in pastiche. Lowry made it into an art. The Tarot references in Under the Volcano (Hanged Man, Wheel of Fortune, Tower), like the Homeric parallels, the Faust motif, the Divine Comedy, and the Grail legend, which all found their way into his work, were neither ornaments nor ends in themselves; rather, they helped him to declare his appreciation of the civilizing power of the mind, which gives current vitality to ritual and tradition, and at the same time to order his relationship with the beautiful, the wild, the unknown. Various other writers, conscious of dualities in human experience, turned like Lowry to mythic systems in order to articulate them. One of the problems of mythic systems, however, is that if they do not appear to emerge organically from the life being portrayed by a novel and the ideas being raised in it,

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then they seem merely an arbitrary intellectual whim, the game of a wordsmith rather than the synthesizing effort of an artist. The poet Daryl Hiñe (b. 1936) seems conscious of that distinction throughout his satire of literary eccentricity, The Prince of Darkness & Co. (1961). Profoundly knowledgeable in Classical mythology, he deals in his book with characters who use that knowledge as a social weapon; the result is literate, but artificial, which lacks the personality of his impressionistic travel book, Polish Subtitles (1962). Another poet, Gwendolyn MacEwen (b. 1941), who can respond intuitively and enigmatically to myth, is affected by a similar uneasiness in the novel form. Julian the Magician (1963) contemplates the life and death of a magician who finds the events of his life corresponding with those of Christ and who - either in desperation or from desire for fulfilment - ultimately pleads for crucifixion. Along the way the book counterpoints rational and mystical explanations for events, and portrays both the agony of a man beset by his 'awareness,' and the puzzlement and distrust of his society, which cannot adequately comprehend him. The open-endedness of the book is repeated in her next novel also, a fictional rendering of the life of the Pharaoh Akhenaton, King of Egypt, King of Dreams (1971). It renders history with patient detail but also with imaginative hypothesis, and concocts a rich theatrical tapestry out of a contemporary appreciation of the ways in which the mind accepts as true - and therefore makes connections between - both empirical realities and dreams. The gnomic impulse and opulent sense of texture that characterize her style give her work a prophetic cast, realized again in Noman (1972), a collection of interrelated short stories. All three works use the technique of counterpointing dream and documentary. As Julian's diary becomes an epilogue in MacEwen's first novel providing another focus on the 'truth' of his experience, so the title story of Noman becomes a kind of explanatory framework within which to interpret the earlier elliptical fragments. In all the stories, past and present blend. A vital world of Indian myth confronts contemporary social inequalities in 'House of the Whale,' for example, and 'Kingsmere,' tacitly juxtaposing political shrewdness and spiritualism, distinguishes between an artificial gathering of ruins and the anarchic wilderness of Noman's land. In the process, linear time gives way to something like quantum units of time - moments of understanding in which the mind (hence the identity and the body politic) are alive. Throughout, MacEwen asserts the need for individuals to listen for a new language if they wish, by understanding their own minds, to understand the world they live in, the world their own minds make. Two works related to this sense of an interpenetrating past and present are Pilgarlic the Death (1967) by Bernard Epps (b. 1936 in England) and a 1959 novel by Sheila Watson (b. 1909) called The Double Hook, which during the 1960s gradually acquired an admiring readership. Epps's work contrives to

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show the common denominators of life and death that govern a small Quebec town. Cyclical patterns abound to reaffirm life principles, and the characters' names are simplified - Dougal the School, Alan the Pigman, John the Law, the Hermit - to give their lives a radical timelessness. But their dialogues are wholly contemporary and colloquial. Dougal, as teacher, probes the distinction between living and knowing about life and affirms that although science can answer the questions where and what, it can never adequately answer why. The answer to why, embodied in such human reactions as joy, commitment, and love, remains a vital mystery. Sheila Watson's The Double Hook is more stylized still, more tonally elusive, and although simple in language and plot, more difficult to grasp. A man, James Potter, murders his autocratic mother in the rural Cariboo country, feels even then that he has not escaped her, then finds that he has. But such a direct statement does not convey the book's ambience; that lies in the reader's response to the symbols and the patterns of repetition, which work out both the ancient European-Middle Eastern rituals of the fertility cycle and the equally traditional Indian myth of Coyote, fear. The blending of the two mythologies underlies the process of revitalizing the landscape, which begins when James Potter recognizes 'That when you fish for the glory you catch the darkness too. That if you hook twice the glory you hook twice the fear.' Four other writers, in widely varying ways, also responded to a mythos of western landscape: Paul St Pierre (b. 1923), who skilfully adapted Breaking Smith's Quarter Horse (1966), a lively and funny horsetrading story, from one of the episodes of his successful television series, Cariboo Country; another dramatist, George Ryga (b. 1932), whose two novels of Alberta, Hungry Hills (1963) and Ballad of a Stone-Picker (1966), tell brooding and sometimes polemical tales of bleak human relationships in stark landscapes, of social injustice, and of fleeting moments of compassion; Robert Harlow (b. 1923); and Robert Kroetsch (b. 1927). Harlow's first two books did not win much attention. Royal Murdoch (1962), which tells of the impact of an irrepressible early settler upon his town and upon subsequent generations in it, is marred by overextended dialogues and syntactical formality. Realistic convention and stylistic artifice also quarrel in A Gift of Echoes (1965), but it moves more quickly and shows more control over the creation of individual scenes. Set again in the foothills country, where the railroads run to the east as though 'consciously skirting bedevilled ground,' it tells the story of a man so pursued by the past that he re-enacts some of it, haltingly reaching for release and identity. Harlow's urge to write a big novel, sprawling through space and generations, is still better realized in Scann (1972). Telling of a newspaperman's quest for the truth about his community, it more ably controls the technical leaps it makes from everyday reality to the imaginative, imagined, and bizarre. Scann himself assumes many identities as he pursues

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his goal, and finds himself beset by language along the way; the newspaper report and the novel not only differ in kind but they also emerge from different states of mind, differing relationships with the surrounding landscape, and as Scann becomes involved in the art of creation, his understanding of history and his appreciation of vital human behaviour both alter. Robert Kroetsch also emerged from some obscurity by the time of his third book. The first two, But We are Exiles (1965), set in the Rockies and on the Mackenzie River, and The Words of My Roaring (1966), about'Alberta politics, seemed to many readers highly regional in appeal. The first, which concerned an antagonism between two men which led to violence and demanded that the survivor recognize the extent of his involvement with the other, invites immediate comparison with Bodsworth's The Atonement of Ashley Morden. By the second, Kroetsch had honed his dialogue, developed his ability at drawing characters, and let loose a sharp sardonic wit. The Words of My Roaring demonstrates a willingness to joust with Establishments, a sympathy for the little men whose valuable lives are affected by them, and a certain feel for the issues that sway ordinary people's political selves. Extended into a view of national attitudes and symbols, these qualities appear also in the short stories that Kroetsch published with some by James Bacque and Pierre Gravel in his anthology Creation (1970). But there is also a sense of a merging between the real and the larger-than-life in The Words of My Roaring - particularly in the characterization of the young undertaker-politician Johnnie Backstrom-that joins it to Kroetsch's successful The Studhorse Man (1968). These two novels became the first two volumes in Kroetsch's 'trilogy' ('triptych' might be more accurate) Out West. The Studhorse Man, a comic and absurd, yet anguished and serious story of Hazard Lepage's attempts to mate his stallion and preserve the line, takes Kroetsch into elaborate realms of parody and myth. The episodes in the book exactly parallel those in the Odyssey; Hazard's life becomes a quest for a self-destructive ideal; all kinds of oppositions catch the characters out as they travel between reality and dream; and along the way, 'myths' like the Golden West and the Canadian Mosaic are both celebrated and challenged. As the first two volumes of Out West can be seen loosely to concern themselves with political and mythic apprehensions of reality, the third volume, Gone Indian (1973), records an encounter with the real and imagined landscapes of 'West' - from romantic stereotyped Indian to Indian vision, from the Canadian, post-Edenic fact to the American transformation of Canada into another Edenic American frontier - which results in spiritual conflict as well as physical trial. If Jeremy Sadness, the central Manhattan-born character who 'dreamed northwest,' seems lost and inarticulate in his quest, that is part of Kroetsch's aim. As in The Studhorse Man, the characters' identities are given by his fictional technique into the hands of another. People narrate other

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people's lives, and so redraw them. The process of being absorbed into another's dream utters an alienation of a profound and horrifying kind, which is only intensified by the brittle sexual wit that marks the trilogy's surface. The cultural overtones they carry, moreover, relate Kroetsch's books closely to those of Atwood and Godfrey; a way of saying implicitly establishes a way of knowing, and if these processes are surrendered to others, that which is distinctive about them no longer survives. The intense realization of region that marks these works, and the quest for the myths that emerge from a particular landscape, characterize works from other parts of the country as well. From Wiebe and Laurence in the west to Horwood in Newfoundland, writers are concerned with the significance of regional distinctiveness. For Wayland Drew (b. 1932), the region is northern Ontario. In his novel The Wabeno Feast (1973), boys as they grow up find their harmony with the land destroyed by the ecological imbalances and social violence of contemporary urban life ; only rediscovering the natural world offers any hope. There are obvious connections between the book and those of writers like Laurence and MacLennan. But by the technique of juxtaposing scenes of such contemporary moral disorder with pictures of an historical quest of a different kind - here the seventeenth-century Hudson Bay expeditions and the encounter with the Indian Wabeno feast, celebrating all that is anti-natural - Drew is linked also with Leonard Cohen, Margaret Atwood, and others whose experiments with literary form are related to their search for a natural order for nation and spirit. Of all the younger writers who responded to this new surge of nationalism, Dave Godfrey (b. 1938) is the most innovative and the one who most clearly takes all of Canada as his mythic region. That perspective possibly derives from his years outside the country (as a student in the USA and a cuso worker in Ghana). Certainly an essay about Ghana, entitled 'Letter to an American Negro,' which appeared in Tamarack Review in 1967 and then in Man Deserves Man: cuso in Developing Countries (1968), which Godfrey edited with Bill McWhinney, speaks of political and cultural nationalism in a way that illuminates the 'new conservatism' of his publishing ventures. It is not a conservatism of method, but a social stance seeking to invigorate and preserve an essential tradition. To distinguish between that and the status quo took him into the intellectual and metaphysical pursuits that structure his fiction. Some short stories appeared in Tamarack Review and other journals; some were collected (along with work by David Lewis Stein and Clark Biaise) in New Canadian Writing 1968; but Godfrey's first collection appeared in 1967 with the mordant title Death Goes Better with Coca-Cola. The fourteen stories in it vary in setting from Ghana and the us to Canada, in topic from hunting and Vietnamese war resistance to the nature of artistry, and in style

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from apparently realistic to consciously artificial; they are punctuated with irony and they implicitly condemn the American cultural presence outside the United States. The epigraph, from Konrad Lorenz's On Aggression, explicitly questions whether a conquered culture can survive - not because of the external danger, but because the colonial mentality of the conquered people expresses itself by aping the conqueror's mode of life. The recurrent 1960s idea of confrontation is not far removed from this observation; and if Godfrey's quests take him in search of a way of combatting cultural colonialism, his appreciation of Lorenz also brings him face to face with the Canadian cultural mix and the particular presence of Quebec within Canadian confederation. His book of short stories as an entire unit describes a relatively plotless, tense, symbolic progress, in which the author's consciousness of the powers and limitations of language is as important a technical device as the actual patterns and images he employs. The fourteen symbols that preface the stories are drawn from the / Ching and add a dimension of spiritual quest to the laconic colloquiality of the episodes themselves; in order, they represent the following states of mind: Mëng (youthful folly), Sui (following), Feng (abundance),/ (the corners of the mouth, providing nourishment), Ku (work on what has been spoiled), Po (splitting apart), Lü (treading, conduct), Tun (retreat), K'uei (opposition), Sun (decrease), P'i (standstill), Chien (development, grand progress), Tung Jen (fellowship with men), K'un (oppression, exhaustion). What is argued is a kind of counterpoint between community-minded and venal forces, culminating in the brilliant, witty, protesting story 'The Hard-Headed Collector.' That story, in mythic, archetype-distorting terms, follows the progress of a band of artists eastward across Canada in search of the totemic Tree of the World. Spliced into the narrative are fragments of a newspaper report which describes the American control over the Canadian economy and the American 'ownership' of an art collection bought by the profits made from exploiting Canadian resources. In the tonal contrasts between the two motifs, two views of art - as experience and commodity - come into conflict; and in observing that only the survival of 'true' art will allow the culture to survive, the story becomes a political fable of substantial complexity. The point that Godfrey makes in his Man Deserves Man essay - by his phrase 'those intellectual sunglasses we of the true north always put on in places of a different possibly dazzling, brightness' - is taken up by his novel set on the 'Lost Coast'of Africa, The New Ancestors (1971). A true disciple of Margaret Laurence, Godfrey uses Africa to talk implicitly about his own culture. In his book, the 'European' émigrés in Africa and the Africans themselves are alike alienated from their spiritual home. And Marxist and American capitalist 'answers' in that context seem merely conventions of an artificial order; the more they are adopted the further the society moves from

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its own integrity. Drawing upon political philosophy, African mythology, and - most interestingly of all, as a signal of possible future directions for Canadian writing - modern science (entropy, quantum theory, genetics), Godfrey contrives an elaborate story about revolution. But it is about mental revolution as much as political. What is being explored - in journal, genealogical chronicle, history, and vision - are the processes by which people receive experience, 'know' it, and come to terms with that elusive and many-faceted knowledge in words. Hence the novel takes language itself as one of its central concerns. The Akan proverbs that punctuate the book call attention to their sound and rhythmic function as well as literal meaning, for example; they utter the moral truths of an ancestral cultural tradition in danger of being supplanted at the same time as they evoke for the artist the creative possibilities of his craft. Each time they are sounded they ought to come alive in a new way; denied respect, they would be reduced to cliché or collectible artifact, and along with the culture they articulate, would then reflect merely a vacuum where there was once a way of life. The argument takes Godfrey on a tough intellectual journey, but it is one which also demonstrates his stylistic virtuosity, his fine eye for details of setting and behaviour, and his capacity for creating memorable individual characters and recreating radically different states of mind. Language is not an end in itself for him, nor is the act of revolution a final answer; but the anarchy of engaging oneself with each of them can be creative. The act of writing is a political act, indissolubly bound with the culture in which it takes place. For Godfrey, as for other writers of the time, finding a fresh language with which to express that belief was part of the belief itself : a need to invoke the many relations between art and society. For some writers, art and myth provided ways to establish substitute social forms; Godfrey's view of the function of art was less rigid, for it embraced at the same time a willingness to accept the unpredictability of change. With talents like Godfrey's and Atwood's, Laurence's and Butler's, Kroetsch's and Wiebe's, Munro's and Matt Cohen's, Canadian fiction in 1973 was still developing. But these writers and their contemporaries, during the preceding decade, had already produced some intellectually sharp and stylistically adept short stories and novels. By turns witty, laconic, passionately earnest, ethically committed, attracted by the sociological functions of art and the artistic possibilities of myth, their voices varied. Yet they shared a concern for language and form that changed the literary climate in Canada. The conventions of realism gave way to the innovative artifice of postrealism; the ideals of internationalism were countered by the urgent pressures of cultural independence; the biases of traditional social structures were exposed and challenged; and Canadian books found a larger public. In effecting this transformation, writers developed a literature which neither ignored nor apologized for its regional roots, and which made artistic use of them.

15 Poetry GEORGE WOODCOCK

In 1963, writing in Canadian Literature on 'poets in their twenties,' George Bowering - himself of that generation - made the accurately prophetic remark: 'If the publishers can keep up with the poets (and some of them are becoming unusually receptive) the next ten years will be, in terms of sheer quantity at least, the most fruitful in the history of Canadian poetry.' Events have proved him dramatically right, although not entirely through the receptiveness of publishers, since the vast increase in the production and availability of poetry during the past decade has been due very largely to the enterprise of the poets themselves, who have sought their own ways of discovering publics for a multitude of poems that Canadian trade publishers were quite incapable of handling. Let me illuminate with some figures the changing situation between the 1950s and the present. In 1959, 24 books of English verse were published in Canada; most of them appeared from the established houses. Round about 1963 the growth in publication was sharply evident, and in 1970 more than 120 books of verse were published, a five-fold increase in a decade. Only a small proportion of these books now came from the trade publishers, even though firms like McClelland and Stewart had broadened their poetry publishing programs greatly during the 1960s, and most of the increase was due not to old-style vanity publishing, when a poet paid to have his work printed and sometimes distributed by enterprisers on the doubtful margin of the publishing industry, but to the emergence of many new little presses, amateur in the best sense of the word and operated mainly by practising poets to present their own verse and the work of other poets they admired. To guide me in preparing the present essay, I spent most of a summer and autumn locating, listing, and reading books of verse that had appeared between 1960 and 1973. When I finally closed the list at the end of 1973 I found that I had traced some 1,125 books of verse - not counting anthologies -that had been published by Canadian writers in the English language during the fourteen years in question. They were written by 590 poets, which carries us a

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long way from the situation as late as the early 1960s when, as Louis Dudek said, 'twenty or so poets might be thought to represent all the reputable poetry of the country.' Nor was any diminution of the process evident by the time I closed my list; in fact, within that very week I received eight new books of verse from three different little presses, one in Fredericton, one in rural Saskatchewan, and one in Vancouver. In addition, some sixty anthologies published during the same period included the work of many poets who by the end of 1973 had not published volumes, and I have no doubt that if one were to count also the younger poets published in the many more or less fugitive little magazines whose appearance has paralleled that of the little presses, the total number of poets actively at work during this period would be nearer to 1,000 than to the 590 whose books appeared between 1960 and 1973. Such a situation offers obvious problems to the literary historian as well as to the critic, and these problems have already been reflected in the changing practices of critical magazines. In the early 1960s, both Canadian Literature and the annual 'Letters in Canada' supplement to the University of Toronto Quarterly were able to notice at some length every book of verse that appeared, with the exception of the few obviously talentless vanity publications. Up to 1967, in their excellent essays on the year's poetry in 'Letters in Canada,' Milton Wilson and his successor Hugh MacCallum devoted two or even three pages each to the best of the books published during the period; in this way they continued the practice established by Northrop Frye in a preceding decade. But from 1968 the comments became perceptibly briefer as the numbers of titles demanding attention mounted, and by the time Michael Hornyansky took over the survey of poetry (he began with the year 1970), all pretence to cover every volume or even to present a study in depth of the volumes noticed had of necessity been abandoned; superficial comments, often flippantly delivered, revealed the critic's surrender before the complexity of his task. Similarly, in 1971 the editor of Canadian Literature was forced to admit that his boast, made on the foundation of the journal in 1959, of guaranteeing a review of every book of poems that came to his desk could no longer be sustained. In making a similar announcement for the present essay - that I cannot hope meaningfully to discuss all the 590 poets who published volumes during the period, let alone those represented merely by uncollected poems in anthologies or magazines -1 take consolation in the fact that what I am writing is history, and, because history is organized memory, the historian should write only of what - for whatever reasons - appears to him memorable. I have found a useful guide to the criteria of perpetuation in a remark which Milton Wilson made when writing in Canadian Literature at the beginning of the period I am discussing on A.J.M. Smith's Oxford Book of Canadian Verse: 'This anthology is the result of an admirable and successful compromise

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between three aims: (a) to cover the historical range of Canadian poetry, (b) to include as many poets as possible, and (c) not to defeat Mr Smith's own poetic standards of economy, accuracy, intensity and purity.' My own aims, evolving in the long hours of reading familiar and unfamiliar material that have been necessary for this task, somewhat similarly became (a) to consider in general terms the changes that have taken place in the writing and publication of poetry during recent years, (b) to discuss as many poets as my space will meaningfully permit (which I calculate will allow me to mention no more than a quarter of the 590 book-publishing poets), and (c) to make my selection of those I shall discuss in such a way that new trends are fairly described without doing violence to my own standards as a poet within the modernist tradition. The task of fairly rigorous selection has been not merely necessary in terms of space, but also salutary. For while the poetry explosion has proceeded like the population explosion, according to geometric proportions, the number of outstanding poets it produces seems to have increased at a rate much nearer to the arithmetic proportion. There are, indeed, many more good living Canadian poets to be read in 1973 than there were in 1959, but not seven or eight times as many, although seven or eight times as many books of verse are being published. At the same time a great deal of impressive work has been done during this period, and some of the writers whose reputations have been made with such rapidity over these years (eg, Margaret Atwood and Michael Ondaatje or, more recently, Tom Wayman and Dale Zieroth) have shown themselves to be fine poets by any standard of excellence, fine in vision and craft alike. Perhaps the change in the public view of poetry - which reflects a complementary change in the poet's view of his public - is the most immediately striking feature of the period I am discussing. When the period begins in 1960, we are still at the end of the Ryerson Chapbook era, when in financial terms poetry was a lame duck genre which publishers kept alive either from genuine idealism or to reap prestige, which the public mostly ignored, and which rarely brought much profit to the poet. Nowadays poetry is not merely - in numbers of titles - the most published of all genres in Canada; it sells more reliably than fiction, and poets, recently derided, have become something very near to culture heroes, especially among the young, so that almost any modestly-known verse-writer can attract to a reading of his work enough poetry fanciers to fill reasonably large lecture halls on most Canadian campuses and in most Canadian towns sophisticated enough to possess art galleries. In an essay on recent poetry in English which he contributed to the symposium entitled The Sixties (University of British Columbia Press, 1969), Louis Dudek presented a remarkable analysis of 'the change in audience relationships in Canadian poetry' which was by that time already much in

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evidence. He saw among the poets a shift from the 'resistant modernism' of the era dominated by Pound and Eliot, with its frankly elitist view of the role of poetry, to 'a new type of populism' which reached out to become the expression of the contemporary 'moral release of the young.' In other words, Dudek was suggesting that the poetic upsurge was in one of its aspects a manifestation of that many-faceted and many-depthed revolt against the establishment which we describe for the sake of convenience as the counterculture. At the same time, as Dudek observed, there has been a change in poetic practices which is linked with the availability of new media, although it would be wrong to make any facile McLuhanesque generalizations on this issue, since the majority of poets have remained strongly print-oriented, and only a tiny minority have abandoned the book of verse as a sign of achievement in favour of some more ephemeral kind of mixed media presentation. What has actually happened is a combination of the use of new media to extend the potential audience for poetry at the same time as poets have in part returned to an oral tradition by which verse is written with the rhythms of speech in mind. Although during the 1960s there were attempts, especially by the members of the Tish group which arose about 1963 in Vancouver, to create a theory of poetry appropriate to Canadian speech patterns, in practice the revival of the oral presentation of poetry has been noticeable mainly in the inclination among some poets to make greater use of conversational rhythms and colloquial diction. Formal experimentalism of the kind one associated in the past with - say - Guillaume Apollinaire and E.E. Cummings - has tended, as we shall see, to remain surprisingly marginal and surprisingly unoriginal in its Canadian manifestations. It is something much nearer to an Early Wordsworthian or a Whitmanesque search for pristine diction and rhythms that has motivated the more popularly successful of recent Canadian poets in their search for an appropriate expression of their people's experience. At the same time many have been content to follow personal paths of development and to seek their own ways of formal expression without veering noticeably towards either experimentalism or populism for its own sake; such poets - among whom one must include names like Margaret Atwood and Margaret Avison, P.K. Page and John Glassco - have gained from the general increase in the popularity of poetry without in any way abandoning their faithfulness to the subtler dictates of the inner ear. During the later 1960s there was, indeed, a tendency towards the commercial promotion of poets by certain trade publishers, one of whom went to the extent of arranging for groups of poets whose works he published to wander over the country giving performances like small circuses, and such experiences led some of the more flamboyant poetic personalities to adopt self-advertising manners and styles. To attract the considerable audiences

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that helped to make poetry, for the first time in Canadian history, a financially profitable activity, they were often willing to select their readings with a view to popular acclaim by emphasizing the jocular manner and the sexual theme. Yet it is difficult to assess accurately the relevance of this passing phase, since the poets who most sensationally participated - one thinks immediately of Irving Lay ton, Earle Birney, and Al Purdy - do not seem to have suffered any diminution in the general quality of their poetry that might be directly attributed to such activities; indeed it is possible - as Louis Dudek suggested that some of them may have experienced a measure of development 'under the stimulus of public acclaim,' and in this connection one cannot help being impressed by the way in which Al Purdy's achievement of maturity as a poet coincided with his attainment of mastery in public performance. The public readings, and the airings on radio programs like CBC'S Anthology, have undoubtedly found their main public response through the contemporary cult of the immediate effect, the total happening in which both poem and persona are at the same time experienced. But over the past decade the oral presentation of poetry has shown its importance in more durable ways. Poetry libraries are now likely to include recordings of various kinds as well as printed books. Some of the younger experimental poets, like Bill Bissett and bp Nichol, have included flexible plastic recordings with their books of poems, so that readers may follow them with the outer as well as the inner ear. More ambitious records of better-known poets, such as Irving Layton, Al Purdy, Earle Birney, Leonard Cohen, Joan Finnigan, Margaret Atwood, Margaret Avison, and Gwendolyn MacEwen, have been issued by CBC Learning Systems and by such recording companies as Folkways, Caedmon, and Columbia. Tapes and cassettes of these and other Canadian poets have been made by the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education and by such commercial undertakings as the High Barnet Company. Even small presses have prepared large long-playing discs like the recording of some 38 poems, Four Kingston Poets (the poets being Tom Marshall, Stuart McKinnon, Gail Fox, and David Helwig) which Quarry Press issued as a pioneering feature in 1972, while in 1971 the sound equivalent of a small press, DNA, began issuing tapes of experimental poetry from Victoria. The intrinsic value of oral poetry readings in comparison with the private reading of poetry on the page can be disputed, since many poets have such poor deliveries that they fail to draw the best out of their works. But to all this varied activity in sound recording there is a secondary result that is important in the eye of the literary historian; from 1960 onwards the voices and reading styles of Canadian poets - and the personalities and interpretations such voices and styles project - have been preserved for posterity as those of no earlier Canadian poets have been. On the other hand, despite attempts by the concrete poets to blend the appeals to the various senses, experimental films that set out to include poetry

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have not been notably successful or even numerous, and films featuring poets have been rare. One of the most ambitious, the National Film Board's Ladies and Gentlemen ... Mr Leonard Cohen, stresses the sensational aspect of Cohen's career, that of the popular singer, at the expense of his poetry; more successful, because more carefully related to its subject's central intent, is Michael Ondaatje's Sons of Captain Poetry, which portrays the works and ways of bp Nichol, the youthful dean of Canadian concrete poets. There seems, indeed, an obstinate orality to non-dramatic poetry, whether read aloud or silently, which lends itself only to the pictures of the mind's eye, and television has been notably lacking in its presentation of poetry except when written in play form with the intent of a visual projection along highly formalized lines. Thus we can say that, while the media of sound and sight have somewhat expanded the resources of poets and varied the enjoyment of poetry since 1960, and have contributed to the mechanical perpetuation of the poet's persona, their effect has been generally peripheral, and it has been in the opportunities given to expand the printing of poetry that modern technology has most notably contributed to the expansion in the publication of poetry, and hence in the kind of enduring interest on the part of readers, that leads to the multiplication of poets. It is a phenomenon not without its negative aspects, as Louis Dudek implied when, in the essay I have already quoted, he remarked that 'the crowd of minor poets, small presses and magazines has increased phenomenally, blurring all literary distinctions.' But in every time of high literary activity, certainly since the beginnings of the modern period before World War i, it is in the little magazines and in the productions of the small presses that a high proportion of the next decade's significant writers have always first appeared ; the last fourteen years in Canada have been no exception to that rule. But the little magazines and the small presses have not only given the means of early expression to many good minor poets and a few major ones; they have also, in Canada, tended to preserve the regional character of our poetic traditions, for, unlike the large trade publishers and the national magazines, they feel no need for metropolitan facilities and are as likely to be found - like the Seven Persons Repository - in a small Albertan settlement or - like Anak Press - in a remote Saskatchewan community like Wood Mountain, as they are to exist in Toronto or Montreal. There is a certain symbiosis within the community of small publishing, which since 1960 has gradually taken over the greater part of the printing and distribution of Canadian poetry. The editors of little magazines and small presses are drawn from the same group, most of them practising poets and a considerable number university teachers by avocation, and are often the same people in the sense that they run magazines and presses successively or even simultaneously. Although the reverse is less frequent, small presses are often

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built up around little magazines and sometimes survive after their parents vanish (as Talonbooks of Vancouver outlived Talon and Blewointment Press survived Blew Ointment) or hive off into separate existence, as Fiddlehead Poetry Books parted from Fiddlehead, with both surviving healthily. Most Canadian literary magazines publish verse, and a few are devoted entirely to poetry, so that the kind of undergrowth of periodical publication out of which books of verse tend to emerge has depended greatly on the number of such magazines in existence; undoubtedly there is a close correlation between the increase in the number of active poets publishing books since 1960 and the growing ranks of literary magazines. Except for three or four university-supported periodicals, very few existing Canadian literary magazines in fact date from before 1960. The middle fifties, after the disappearance of Alan Crawley's Contemporary Verse and John Sutherland's Northern Review, was a singularly barren period, in which only The Canadian Forum and Fiddlehead effectively sustained the publication of poetry. The change began later in the decade with the appearance of The Tamarack Review, Prism, Yes, and Delta, all of them open to the work of new poets and all surviving well into the era under discussion, although only Tamarack and Prism continue today. James Reaney's Alphabet appeared in 1960 and lasted, appearing sporadically, until 1971, and by 1963 determinedly experimental sheets like Blew Ointment had come into existence. There is no space to list all the magazines devoted entirely or in part to poetry that have appeared during the past 14 years for, as Wynne Francis remarked in a survey of the scene early in 1973, referring only to the independent little magazines with no university affiliations: 'A full list, including a score each from Toronto and Vancouver, would run close to sixty titles, all of which existed some time during the past five years and about half of which are extant' (Canadian Literature 57). If one adds the university-based journals which also publish poetry, the sixty of Professor Francis's estimate would increase to more than eighty, and if one covered the whole period, and not just the past five years, the total would reach well over a hundred. Many of these have been one-issue magazines, and few have lasted as long as a decade. As one would imagine, so many magazines, publishing anything from six to fifty poems an issue, have been unable to sustain a high level of quality. Some of them, like Tamarack and The Malahat Review, have maintained a mandarin rigour in their selections; other journals appear to have no standards of any kind, and a remarkable amount of apprentice work that should merely have been shown around among poets at work has found its way into print. Yet the quantity of magazines, which has encouraged such laxness in selection among editors and in self-criticism among poets, has also provided an open field of publication in which a remarkable variety of styles has been nurtured. Some of the little magazines, indeed, have played important roles in the literary history of

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the time by introducing new poets or groupings of poets, and these will find mention later in the essay. Among publishers of poetry one cannot forget the dissemination of the work of both younger and established writers by which some of the commercial publishers contributed to the Canadian poetic renaissance from 1960 to the present. The Canadian house of McClelland and Stewart produced not only the work of well-known poets like Earle Birney, Irving Lay ton, and Al Purdy, but also that of newcomers like Tom Wayman and Sid Marty. But so, one notes in wry judgment of the accusations made by Canadian literary nationalists, did the 'branch plant' Oxford University Press, which not only gave print to the long-unfashionable excellence of John Glassco's poetry but also fostered the ascetic experimentalism of Margaret Atwood. Even more ironically, while Ryerson Press's support of Canadian poets - vital during the difficult decades of the 1940s and 1950s - virtually ended when the firm was sold to the American publishing giant of McGraw-Hill, so did Macmillan's similar role when that English subsidiary was absorbed by the Canadian publishing giant of Maclean-Hunter. This suggests that it is less the owning nationality of a publishing house that determines its inclination to publish poetry than the kind of philosophy shaping its view of a duty towards literature. If corporation profits are the over-riding consideration in a house's policies, then poetry will assume at best a token presence in its lists; but the more its editors and proprietors see publishing as vocation rather than business, the greater consideration will be given to the poet's art. Thus we find that the new Canadian houses, halfway between the established trade publishers and the non-commercial small presses, which sprang up under the stimulus of national sentiment during the 1960s, have tended, succumbing to the imperatives of financial survival, to become progressively less interested in the publication of poetry, turning increasingly towards polemical writings on the topical issues of the day. The conclusion that emerges is that poetry is most likely to be published, even in an era when it is unusually popular, as it was between 1960 and 1973, either by large houses like McClelland and Stewart and Oxford whose overheads are covered by other kinds of books and who produce verse because they feel it necessary to round out their public function, or by small presses into whose considerations the question of profit - or even of avoiding loss - does not enter. Such small presses were responsible for at least three-quarters of the 1,125 books of verse published in Canada during the years with which this essay is concerned. They varied in productivity from presses that put out one book or brochure and then died, to lasting ventures like Fiddlehead Poetry Books of Fredericton, which brought out more than a hundred books of verse between 1960 and 1973. Other productive presses have been Talonbooks of Van-

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couver, which between 1967 and 1973 published sixty volumes of poetry and plays, Very Stone House which began in Vancouver and in 1970 metamorphosed into Ingluvin Press of Montreal, Coach House Press and Weed/Flower Press of Toronto, Quarry Press of Kingston, and Delta Canada of Montreal. Some well-known Canadian poets have been connected with these ventures, including Fred Cogswell, Seymour Mayne, Victor Coleman, Tom Marshall, and Louis Dudek, while Raymond Souster was the moving force behind the now defunct Contact Press of Toronto, which during the 1960s published early volumes of poets like Al Purdy, Margaret Atwood, and John Newlove. By the 1960s Montreal had ceased to be the great centre of poetic creation and publication that it was during the 1940s and to a dwindling extent during the 1950s, and - as with the little magazines - a majority of the small presses after 1960 operated from either Toronto or Vancouver, the latter community experiencing for at least a decade afterwards the effects of the poetic upsurge that took place there during the early 1960s. But the distrust of metropolitan centres that was a feature of the contemporary counter-culture showed itself not only in the inclination among the poets themselves to disperse into remote and rustic locations (like Al Purdy's now celebrated Ameliasburgh and Dale Zieroth's retreat, the Rocky Mountain Trench) but also a tendency for small presses to become dispersed foci of poetic activity, spread among smaller urban and rural centres from Charlottetownon Prince Edward Island, where Square Deal Publications operates, to the remotely opposite end of the country at Port Clement in the Queen Charlotte Islands, where Sonó Nis Press - run by the poet J. Michael Yates retreated from Vancouver for a period at the end of the 1960s. If the small presses and little poetry magazines have varied in their settings between metropolitan Bohemia and marginal Bucólica, they have varied also a great deal in their attitudes towards the production of poetry. Some, like Fiddlehead Poetry Books and Weed/Flower Press, have shown a preference for the kind of slender brochure of verse that starts a poet on his course of publication, and have tended to accompany this modesty of format by an uncritical editorial catholicity, so that in their cases one must balance the publication of much verse that should never have seen the darkness of print against an initial encouragement of quite a number of poets who have since proved their merit. Other small presses - Raymond Souster's Contact Press and Louis Dudek's Delta Canada are good examples - have published volumes as large in size as those produced by the established trade publishers. As to the quality of production, there seems to have been a divergence of attitudes almost philosophic in nature and intensity between those small houses - like the avant-garde Blewointment Press of Vancouver - which defiantly used the greyest and smudgiest of mimeograph processes, as if to emphasise their rejection of all the accepted canons of publication, and others

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- Coach House and Talonbooks notable among them - who have sought to enhance the appeal of the poems they publish by the use of sophisticated design and fine printing. Thus, in their own variety, the small presses that operated between 1960 and 1973 and almost all of which came into being during that period, tended to reproduce the great variety of approaches to the poetic art that emerged during the period itself or were inherited from earlier decades. What I have been saying about the publication of poetry in its various forms during the period in question would be of peripheral relevance if this were a merely critical essay. In terms of literary history it is of central importance because it illustrates how in Canada at this time a literary ambience was created of a kind that had never existed in this country before. The greatly increased production of poetry and the greater number of poetry magazines and presses obviously interacted reciprocally; the first reason for creating new presses was that the established publishing houses could not or would not cope with the phenomenal amount of verse being written by about 1963, but conversely the increasing numbers of magazines and presses stimulated the new poets to keep on writing. But the magazines and the presses, like the great upsurge in poetry readings, were also aspects of the creation of a nationwide community of poets that took place during the 1960s, when poets began to wander over the country, giving readings, meeting other poets, setting up in 1966 a League of Canadian Poets which at the end of 1973 was flourishing with more than 150 members (all of whom had respectable publication records), and leavening the regionalism that modern Canadian writers cherish with a network of mutual support that has meant an end to the sense of isolation in a philistine environment that one senses from reading the letters and even the poems of so many Canadian writers in the past. But the influence and the relevance of poets during the 1960s and the early 1970s went beyond their own community. They may not have become Shelley's 'unacknowledged legislators of the world,' but they did tend to a great extent to become the spokesmen for the alternative impulses and movements in contemporary society; students flocked to readings not merely because they were interested in poetry but also because poets had to a great extent taken on the role of counter-culture heroes; and, if such phenomena may arguably be held to be extra-literary, one must also take into account that poetry became at this time much more integrated into the general fabric of Canadian literature than at any previous period. During the period in question a significant number of Canadian poets - Leonard Cohen, Margaret Atwood, Gwendolyn MacEwen, George Bowering, James Reaney, Alden Nowlan, and David Helwig notable among them - published either novels or plays or short stories, and in every case it was something more than poets merely dabbling in other genres; it was a question of genuine intermedial activity in

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which the poetic resources of metaphor and fantasy were used to enlarge the scope of fiction and drama. The actual novels and plays written by poets will be discussed by other writers in other chapters of this book, but the existence of novels and plays so notably influenced by poetic concepts and techniques as Gwendolyn MacEwen's Julian the Magician (1963) and James Reaney's The Killdeer (1963) must be noted at this point because it illuminates the peculiar centrality which the poet had assumed in the Canadian literary scene by the early 1960s and which he continued to maintain for the rest of the decade; not only were poets more numerous and more productive than writers of any other kind, but their influence also tended to modify other forms ofwriting. The relationship between poetry and criticism in this period is especially interesting. While it would be an over-simplification to suggest that sound criticism of Canadian poetry began with Northrop Frye's contributions during the 1950s to the University of Toronto Quarterly'?, annual 'Letters in Canada' surveys, the fact remains that from this time onward the imaginative discussion of poets and their works became a progressively more significant element in Canadian writing. It was carried on during the 1960s by Milton Wilson and his successors in the University of Toronto Quarterly's poetry chronicles, and in articles and reviews by many writers in Canadian Literature, which was founded in 1959, the year when Northrop Frye ceased to contribute to 'Letters in Canada.' It has often been said that Northrop Frye, as a critic, profoundly influenced the mythopoeically inclined Canadian poets of the 1950s, but the case is hard to prove, as is any case for criticism, as such, influencing the imaginative activities of the poet. On the other hand, there is no doubt that poetry has influenced criticism, in so far as much of the best criticism has been written by poets (Dryden, Coleridge, Arnold, and Eliot central among them) who were speaking out of their experience as poets. In Canada between 1960 and 1973 not only was there an unprecedented volume of critical writing about our poets (published in essays but also in books dealing both with general trends and individual authors), but a significant proportion of the best of this kind of criticism was written by poets, notably A.J.M. Smith, Eli Mandel, Louis Dudek, George Bowering, Margaret Atwood, D.G. Jones, Roy Daniells, Robin Skelton, and George Woodcock. Perhaps appropriately, it was poetcritics who developed most interestingly the mythological insights that came into Canadian criticism from Sir James Frazer by way of Northrop Frye. The relationship between criticism and anthologizing is very close, and for this reason I have chosen the anthologies published between 1960 and 1973 as a suitable point of transition from the charting of the special world of poets and poetry with which this essay has so far been concerned, to the discussion of what individual poets have been writing during this period. The point at which

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the anthologist touches the critic lies in his inevitable creation, by the process of discrimination and choice, of an interpretative pattern delineating the poetry of his chosen period or province. Margaret Atwood has claimed that 'anthologies are mirages created, finally, by their editors,' and there is enough truth as well as wit in this remark to suggest to us how far an anthology presents an invisible thesis. Influential anthologies can condition the views of whole generations regarding their poetic heritages; one cannot forget the distorted view of English poetry widely prevalent in the late Victorian era thanks to Palgrave's Golden Treasury, and it is now evident that, limited though Canadian pre-Confederation poetry may have been, it was neither so bad nor so banal as Edward Hartley Dewart's Selections from Canadian Poets represented it in our pioneer anthology in 1864. Yet anthologists, whose role - like that of the historian - is to select the memorably representative, sometimes perform positive functions in helping to define a tradition, and in the delineation of a Canadian tradition no critic or literary historian has done more than A.J.M. Smith, who in 1960 followed his pioneering Book of Canadian Poetry (1943) with the Oxford Book of Canadian Verse, which broke ground by including works by poets writing in both English and French, and thus provided a basis for comparative study of the two Canadian traditions. The Oxford Book covered the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (before that period Smith found nothing worth preserving). It was followed in 1967 by Modern Canadian Verse, an anthology beginning between the Great Wars with E.J. Pratt and ending with poets then in their twenties. In both these anthologies Smith combined a strong historic sense of what was germane to the period he was illustrating with a fine ear for the best in whatever manner a poet might represent; as a result, his judgment of past Canadian verse has provided a chart of poetry considered as a manifestation of Canadian culture which few other critics or literary historians have challenged. Just as significantly, the youngest poets whom he picked for his Modern Canadian Verse are among those who are now generally recognized as the best of their time. Modern Canadian Verse, like its predecessor, contained poems in both English and French; this was not an example widely followed by anthologizers, for the only imitators were two annual bilingual anthologies which the Ryerson Press issued in the early 1960s: Poetry 62, edited by Eli Mandel and Jean-Guy Pilon, and PoésielPoetry 64, edited by Jacques Godbout and John Robert Colombo. Attempts to bridge the various Canadian cultures, at least in terms of poetry, were in fact surprisingly rare in view of the current interest in matters of biculturalism and multiculturalism. The only anthologies of French poetry in translation were John Glassco's The Poetry of French Canada in Translation (1970), a superbly rendered collection of works from the seventeenth century onward, and Fred Cogswell's more restricted volumes, One

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Hundred Poems of Modern Quebec (1970) and A Second Hundred Poems of Modern Quebec (1971). An anthology full of unexpected treasures, and the first of its kind, was Volvox: Poetry from the Unofficial Languages of Canada -in English Translation (1970), compiled by J. Michael Yates, and containing translations - often by well-known Canadian poets - of verse from no less than sixteen of Canada's less numerous linguistic communities. Among the other fifty anthologies published during the period, the most useful were a small group of general anthologies - and the most interesting were a group of anthologies dominated by special interests. Among the general anthologies, in 1967, appeared new and enlarged editions of Ralph Gustafson's Penguin Book of Canadian Verse, and of The Blasted Pine, the collection of mainly Canadian satirical verse assembled by A.J.M. Smith and F.R. Scott. The peculiar requirements of college courses in Canadian literature led to the appearance of a number of volumes devoted to restricted groups of poets chosen by the editors as the most significant representatives of their times. Milton Wilson restricted his Poets between the Wars to E.J. Pratt, F.R. Scott, A.J.M. Smith, and A.M. Klein. Eli Mandel produced three anthologies. Two of them, Five Modern Canadian Poets (1970) and Eight More Canadian Poets (1971), presented a range of the more interesting poets who had emerged since World War n, from Birney to Atwood; Poets of Contemporary Canada 1960-70, a companion volume in the New Canadian Library to Milton Wilson's Poets between the Wars, is interesting in the present context because it conveys the opinion of a leading poet and critic who first emerged in the mythopoeic 1950s on the most interesting poets who began to speak with compelling voices after 1960 ; he chose as his ten preferred poets Milton Acorn, Al Purdy, Margaret Atwood, Joe Rosenblatt, Leonard Cohen, John Newlove, George Bowering, Gwendolyn MacEwen, Bill Bissett, and Michael Ondaatje: an interesting combination of the populist, the romantic, and the neo-experimentalist trends at work in new Canadian poetry during the 1960s. A more substantial collection - excellently chosen and provided with pertinent notes on the poets - was 15 Canadian Poets (1970), edited by Gary Geddes and Phyllis Bruce. The aim of Geddes and Bruce was not to find the new poets of 1970, but those of any age who seemed to be producing outstanding poetry; they included surviving warriors from past decades like Earle Birney, Irving Layton, and Raymond Souster. Even so, it was still striking to observe the number of poets who since 1960 had moved forward out of obscurity into acceptance. Al Purdy, Leonard Cohen, Margaret Avison, and Eli Mandel were known but unacknowledged at the beginning of the decade; Margaret Atwood, George Bowering, Victor Coleman, D.G. Jones, Gwendolyn MacEwen, John Newlove, Alden Nowlan, and Michael Ondaatje had not even been heard of in 1960. Six out of the fifteen chosen by Geddes and Bruce as significant poets of 1970 had appeared in

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the final pages of Smith's Oxford Book of 1960; fourteen appeared in Smith's Modern Canadian Verse in 1967; this coincidence, I suggest, marks the first half of the 1960s as perhaps the most important five or six years in the history of Canadian poetry in terms of the emergence of vital new talent. Among the more specialized anthologies published between 1960 and 1973, a fair number predictably expressed the neophily of the period, concerning themselves with young poets and 'new poetry.' An early example of this kind of anthology was Raymond Souster's New Wave Canada (1966), produced largely in response to the west coast poetic upsurge of the 1960s, but curiously - containing none of the major figures of that movement (such as George Dowering and Frank Davey), and, with exceptions like Victor Coleman, bp Nichol, and Michael Ondaatje, presenting interesting but minor poets whose later work did nothing to justify Souster's polemical subtitle: 'The New Explosion in Canadian Poetry.' Three more interesting Canada-wide collections of works by younger Canadian writers were Al Purdy's Storm Warning (1971), Soundings (1970) edited by Jack Ludwig and Andy Wainwright, and Mindscapes (1971), in which Ann Wall collected substantial groups of work by four younger poets, Dale Zieroth, Paulette Jiles, Susan Musgrave, and Tom Wayman, in the process drawing attention to the newer talents likely to be considered most highly in the 1970s; all four of the poets in Mindscapes represented a degree of liberation from the ideological obsessions and the counter-cultural fads of the 1960s, and all subsequently published volumes of much more than passing interest. Finally, in Made in Canada: New Poems of the Seventies (a curiously titled volume since it was published in 1970 and most of its contents must have been written no later than 1969) Raymond Souster and Douglas Lochhead somewhat limply attempted to repeat New Wave Canada ; with a certain discretion, they did not claim this very mixed collection as a 'New Explosion.' The decentralist urges that in Canada affected poetry even more than the other literary arts led to a considerable number of local anthologies, and in following them one can observe the shifting regional pattern of poetic activity in Canada over the past generation. In the 1940s, Montreal was perhaps the liveliest centre of Canadian poetry in English, but during the period between 1960 and 1973 it produced only one very slender anthology, Four Montreal Poets (Marc Plourde, Arty Gold, Peter van Toorn, and Richard Sommer), edited by David Solway (1973). The importance of British Columbia as a poetic centre was illustrated by the presence of at least five anthologies of local work. Contemporary Poetry of British Columbia, edited by J. Michael Yates (1970), contained the work of no less than 56 poets working west of the Rockies, including Dorothy Livesay, P.K. Page, Earle Birney, and John Newlove; a more avant-garde collection, West Coast Seen (1969), edited by Jim Brown and David Phillips, represented 28 poets, most of them not

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included in Contemporary Poetry, and in general representing a younger, more experimental but less craftsmanly group of writers. Introductions from an Island (1969) and Vancouver Island Poems (1973), both published in Victoria, and Log Cabin:Eight to Eleven-Thirty (1973), published from Prince George, illustrate the fissiparous tendency even of regionalism on the west coast (the Island, the Lower Mainland, and the Northern Interior becoming cultural as well as geographical divisions), while British Columbia particularism acquired a negative counterpart in Peter Anson's Canada First (1969), a collection of work by young poets which deliberately excluded the west coast, as its subtitle - A mare usque ad Edmonton - provocatively indicated. Other regional collections of the period were 39 Below: The Anthology of Greater Edmonton Poetry (1973), Dennis Lee's T.O. Now: The Young Toronto Poets (1968), Harold Norwood's Voices Underground: Poems from Newfoundland (1972), and Dorothy Farmiloe's Contra Verse (1971), devoted to the work of nine poets from Windsor. Inevitably, there were also anthologies devoted to non-territorial fields of interest, in which the curiosity of the theme tended to take precedence over the quality of the work. Doug Fetherling's Thumbprints (1969) collected poems about hitch-hiking, Michael Ondaatje's The Broken Ark (1971) was devoted to animal poems, and in How Do I Love Thee (1970) sixty Canadian poets, marshalled by John Robert Colombo, picked their favourites among their own poems and gave their reasons for the choices. The themes of Love where the Nights are Long: Canadian Love Poems, edited by Irving Layton (1962), and of Dorothy Livesay's 40 Women Poets of Canada (1972), were obvious; the latter was an unusually fine collection, and no wonder, for in poetry Canadian women have demonstrated their powers perhaps more impressively than in any other art. One kind of anthology has been rare in Canada, and this fact strikingly suggests that Canadian poets share with their British counterparts a disinclination to separate into the kind of verse-writing cliques and cénacles which flourish in Europe. While during this period there were many anthologies defined - as the times seemed to demand - by generation, there were few dominated by formalistic dogmas. The only group that seemed cohesive enough to produce an impressive cluster of anthologies in fact represented an international trend whose roots lay distant in time and place from Canada; this was concrete poetry. Bp Nichol published in 1970 the first Canadian anthology devoted to this school: The Cosmic Chef: An Evening of Concrete. Shortly afterwards John Robert Colombo, that assiduous impresario of novelty, collected a group of works by Canadian concrete poets in his New Directions in Canadian Poetry (1971), accompanying them with an interesting introductory essay. In 1972 Oberon Press published Four Parts Sand, a slender collection of doodles and typescapes by Earle Birney, Judith

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Copithorne, Bill Bissett, and Andrew Suknaski; it is a visually amusing entertainment whose relation to poetry by any reasonable definition was non-evident. Although the actual shapes that critics and anthologists give to literary traditions may be their own, the traditions are real. Poetry is - though perhaps not so completely as Northrop Frye suggested - bred from poetry, and in a country with a new and still emergent literature like Canada, the continuity which a sense of the tradition implies is particularly important. When one considers the poetry published in Canada between 1960 and 1973, there are two ways of assessing the traditional element. One lies in understanding the effort in successive poets to give expression to that combination in experience of setting and society, filtered through the individual sensibility, which is the material of Canadian culture as it is of any other. The other is to treat the matter in a much more closely aesthetic way and to see tradition in terms of form and technique, a view which inevitably takes us outside the Canadian setting, since the more closely concerned Canadian poets become with formal values, the more likely they are to be attached to traditions that are more than national. These two aspects of tradition will apply in varying proportions to the individual writers I am now about to consider. In the most obvious way, the Canadian poetic tradition was manifested between 1960 and 1973 by the fact that almost every poet of any importance writing during the 1950s published at least one volume - and in many cases several - during the succeeding period. The cast of creators in fact changed by expansion rather than supercession, for it was an encouraging aspect of the times that, far from older poets losing attention as younger ones emerged, they actually benefitted from the new climate of interest in poetry, which provided stimulation as well as support, so that some who had been active in earlier decades and had fallen more or less silent during the 1950s, returned as P.K. Page and Dorothy Livesay did - to write with renewed vigour and transformed perceptions during the 1960s. Indeed, the only important poets surviving from past decades who fell notably silent were E.J. Pratt, whose death in 1964 removed the most influential single Canadian poet of any age, Jay Macpherson, who after 1960 published no more new poems than the handful appended to the second edition of The Boatman (1968) and Douglas LePan, who has published individual poems in recent years but no volume since 1953. One result of the heightened interest in poetry during the 1960s was the publication of many definitive collections, not only by veterans of the decades between the wars, like A.J.M. Smith, Dorothy Livesay, and F.R. Scott, but also by poets as young as Leonard Cohen. At the same time a number of important posthumous volumes appeared. A.J.M. Smith edited and introduced The Collected Poems of Anne Wilkinson (1968), which contained many

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poems not in the poet's previous volumes, and Len Gasparini assembled under the title of Acknowledgment to Life (1970) the poems - with their distinctive flavour of the English forties - of Bertram Warr, who died in action in 1943. In Songs for a New Nation (1963) appeared the last unpublished verse of a belated Confederation poet, A.M. Stephens, praised by Roberts, who died in 1942. W. W.E. Ross, whom Raymond Souster described in the dedication to New Wave Canada as 'the first Canadian modern poet,' lived until 1966, although he had ceased to write serious poetry some years before. It is significant of the durability of his sparse and laconic verse that in 1968 two poets so various as Raymond Souster and John Robert Colombo could collaborate to edit and publish Shapes and Sounds, the collection of Ross's poems he never prepared in his lifetime. Any division of contemporary Canadian poets even into broad categories is bound to be somewhat arbitrary, and if I attempt a rough classification into formal traditionalists, formal experimentalists, and the larger category whom one may perhaps describe as Canadian modernists, I do so with the knowledge that the arrangement is principally one of convenience, and that whatever may exist in common within the various groups, the boundaries are not sharply defined, and each poet is in any case important for his individual qualities and not for his resemblances to other poets. Even in dividing formal traditionalists from formal experimentalists, one is troubled by the fact that these two apparently contradictory categories - in the Canadian situation at least - intermingle, if for no other reason than that experimentalism is so established a doctrine of the avant-garde that it has long become a tradition of its own. Certainly the experimental poetry presented in Canada during the 1960s and early 1970s as the ultimate in daring and originality astonished no one who had lived as a young poet in Europe during the era of Dada and surrealism. One of the three leading self-avowed Canadian experimentalists, John Robert Colombo, is in fact an avowed admirer of the Surrealists. His more conventional poems, best represented in Abracadabra (1967), tend towards Gothic fantasy and a witty neo-surrealist disjunction of images, although there is also a meditative strain which becomes most evident in the aphoristic pages of Neo Poems (1970), one of Colombo's least known books but perhaps his best. Colombo is most known for his 'found poems,' based on the surrealist doctrine of the trouvaille, or 'found object.' From The Mackenzie Poems and The Great Wall of China, both published in 1966, to John Toronto (1969) and The Great San Francisco Earthquake and Fire (1971), Colombo has devoted most of his energies to finding the poetry latent in prose, which he rearranges into verse form, while in his more recent Praise Poems (1972) he achieves a further degree of sophistication by rearranging the found poem into acrostics. There seems more wit than poetry in such amusing exercises, but

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Colombo has led at least one elder Canadian poet to follow his example, for in 1967 F.R. Scott published Trouvailles, a volume of poems 'found' mostly in newspaper prose. Among the modest group of poets who have produced concrete poetry, the main contemporary experimentalist rival to Colombo's kind of neosurrealism, Earle Birney, a longtime typographical doodler, must be included as a part-time adherent; younger concretists include David Aylward, Maxine Gadd, D.A. Levy, and Bertrand Lachance. Few of them are concretists pure and simple, for Herbert and Cummings long ago exhausted the interest of type manipulation, and the desire for originality has led these poets not only to deal with intellectual concepts almost as much as they deal with visual shapes, but even in the world of shapes to produce such elegant variations as the graceful arabesque pen-and-ink drawings, with words growing among them like fruits, which Judith Copithorne published in a series of collections fromRain (1969) to Heart's Tide (1972). The most prolific and important poets in this movement have been Bill Bissett and bp Nichol. Between 1965 and 1973, using many small presses but never publishing with the established houses, Bissett issued at least 22 and Nichol at least 16 books and brochures. They have a great deal in common their inclination to manipulate the visualities of the page, and their complementary inclination to lift the poem off the page into sound or even into some happening that attempts the total involvement of the senses. But there are differences of temperament and technique that incline one to describe Bissett as representing the romantic and Nichol the classicist face of the movement. Bissett, who runs Blewointment Press in Vancouver and publishes much of his verse there, projects an extraordinary mixture of abstract typescape, Gothic fantasy, mantra, phonetic spelling, counter-culture propaganda, and iconoclastic ranting which, from principle, he rarely attempts to discipline. In consequence his best book is one that other poets took in hand, Nobody owns the earth, a Bissett selection made by Dennis Lee and Margaret Atwood (1971), although another large collection, Pass th Food Release th Spirit Book (1972), prepared by Bissett himself with uncharacteristic critical rigour, perhaps shows his work in greater variety. If one considers Bill Bissett as a kind of exalted mantrist, bp Nichol fits much more closely into the pattern of intellectual magic one associates with the alchemist. He is concerned with breaking down and reconstituting, not material elements, but language. In his earliest poems of the 1960s he was engaged largely with dissecting the constituent sounds of words, and later he came to examining the forms of the alphabet and their bearing on language. The result of all this experimentation is that even when Nichol comes - as he does -to write recognizable poetry, it has an imagist sharpness, hardened into obsidian by an intellectual force the imagists - Hulme excepted - avoided.

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Among Nichol's many volumes, perhaps the best to illustrate the variety of his approach are Still Water (1970), a silvered box containing cards on which the words are arranged to make scenes and evoke emotions ; The Other Side of the Room (1971), a collection of lyrics - or as near as Nichol ever comes to ihem;Journeyings and the Returns, a truly surrealist trick collection of cards, discs, foldouts, etc. ; and The Martyrology (1972), a long poem of considerable intellectual complexity in which Nichol uses the search for spiritual fulfilment as an analogy for the search for linguistic purity, but all with an irony his more ecstatic admirers tend to overlook. The area of concrete-surrealist experimentalism represented by Colombo-Bissett-Nichol merges into another development from traditional experimentalism, the associational technique, reinforced by what Allan Ginsberg has appropriately called an 'acerb repugnant honesty,' which characterizes the work of Victor Coleman, whose attempts to create a free flow of imagery and thought often end in a buildup on the dam of incomprehension. Light Verse (1969) and America (1971), among Coleman's halfdozen books, represent the lyrical and satirical extremities of his manner. Formal conservatism is as limiting a factor as a preoccupation with formal experimentation. The difference is perhaps that the conservative accepts the limitations of a traditional form because it is sufficient for what he wishes to convey. If the Confederation poets often wrote like Keats or Arnold, it was largely for the simple reason that they felt and saw like Keats and Arnold, and the adoption of a long-used form in the present decade does not mean that its user is less than a true poet, although it does perhaps indicate a cautious and reclusive temperament. Such poets will not be typical of their time, and it is unlikely that they will be among its major or most significant representatives, for the more powerful a writer is, the more he is impelled to create new forms, not for the sake of originality, but merely because the largeness of his talent demands a unique expression. In this sense, major poets are always innovators. But this does not mean that the minor poets who are not innovators lack a sincere vision or a true ear. Among the conservatively traditional poets who published poetry between 1960 and 1973 were Philip Child, whose The Wood of the Nightingale (1965), dealing with the brutality of war, is one of the few long narrative poems recently written in Canada, Goodridge MacDonald, who died in 1967 and whose Selected Poems appeared in 1970, Dorothy Roberts, whose continuing output was represented by two volumes during the 1960s (Twice to Flame, 1961, and Extended, 1967), and Neil Tracy, still writing vigorously in orthodox sonnet form, who published Shapes of Clay (1967) and Voice Line (1970). The work of Kenneth Leslie, who had published no volume of verse since the 1930s, was collected in Poems of Kenneth Leslie (1971), which contained a small section of new poems and recalled to attention a long-

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neglected writer whose lyrical tone - at times disconcertingly reminiscent of Bliss Carman - was related to a radicalism of outlook sympathetic to the present generation. The energies of that extraordinary man of parts, Watson Kirkconnell, sustained him well into the 1960s, when he published not only his own Centennial Tales and Selected Poems (1965) but also translations into athletic English verse from Ukrainian and Polish poetry. Among the younger poets who have written interestingly in the traditional voice are Douglas A. Fales (Glengarry Forever, 1973); Sean Haldane, founder of the Ladysmith Press, whose Skindiving (1972) collects the best from earlier volumes and shows his writing slowly freeing itself into looser forms; Glenn Clever in Age of the Astronauts (1971), Go Gentle (1971), and O Can (1972); Robin Mathews in a series of small collections of witty, sometimes vituperative but usually insubstantial verse from The Plink Savoir (1962) to This Cold Fist (1969); and Mamie Pomeroy, the best of whose several rather melancholic volumes is perhaps For Us Living (1970). Michael Parr brought with him from Britain a kind of philosophic nature poetry much in the line of Edward Thomas and Andrew Young, and in The Green Fig Tree (1965), many of whose poems concern the English countryside he had left, he contributed a vein of bucolic meditation unusual in Canadian writing. Another volume almost entirely dominated by English experience was George Woodcock's Selected Poems (1967) which, except for four poems written in the 1960s, reflected in their technical polish and their mythological inclinations the attitudes of English modernism before, during, and after World War H. A residue of Celtic twilight and of Irish political sentiment continued to the end to inspire the rather contrived poems of Padraig O'Broin, who died shortly after the publication of his last book, No Casual Trespass, in 1967. Michael Collie is another poet who has never quite shaken free from his British background, and from the peculiar romanticism prevalent a generation ago, so that, although he has set poems in Canada (as in The House, 1967), he seems most at home in the corners of the European continent that stimulated the sensibilities of the 1920s and appear admirably in his Kerdruc Notebook (1972). Since all rules have exceptions, the generalization that traditional verse forms tend to indicate caution and réclusion must be relaxed in the direction of two kinds of poet, the witty and the wise. The satirical poet and the philosophical poet are exceptions in that they are often best served by bending traditional forms to their own uses. In the first case this is because satire is an essentially public art whose success depends on no technical difficulties being placed in the way of the reader and which often deepens its appeal if parody of the familiar is added to other devices. In the second case it is because the measured flow of certain forms of metrical verse, irregularly rendered, is even more effective than the fluency of prose for the expression of philosophic

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concepts. (Milton, after all, claims more philosophically inclined readers than Locke, and Wordsworth than Kant.) Robert Finch, whom the scarcity of Canadian poets had placed in the company of the avant-garde in the forties, revealed clearly his traditionalism of form and sentiment in the three volumes he published after 1960 -Ads in Oxford (1961), Dover Beach Revisited (1961), and Silverthorn Bush (1966). The taste for rococo elegance that led Finch into studies of French eighteenth-century poetry was reflected in these collections of sometimes reflective, often satirical verse. More consistently satirical have been the verses of George Johnston, who is more willing than Finch to bend the traditional measures to his own purposes, using irregularity as a means of intensifying his parody of imitated forms and his mockery of the middle-class delusions that haunt his poems. His Home Free appeared in 1966, and in 1972 a collection of his verses from 1935 onwards entitled Happy Enough, including a series of more recent poems in which, as the ageing poet himself comes under examination, the satire softens into ironic reflection on the human condition as his life exemplifies it. A curious mixture of wit and wisdom, of reverence and mockery, appears in The Chequered Shade (1963), the second book by Roy Daniells, which contains perhaps the most accomplished adaptations of a traditional form the sonnet - achieved by a recent Canadian poet. The form, with Daniells, is old; the language is contemporary and the wit has afine intellectual tension, as he proceeds from the first section of historical reflections on a European year to the vital central sequence in which texts from the Psalms and the New Testament are used to reveal the agony of endurance that marks man's relationship with whatever is not himself. Perhaps the most removed of all recent poets from the current preoccupations of the Canadian literary world is Daryl Hiñe. Hiñe has become a deliberately cosmopolitan figure; he left Canada in 1959, lived for years in France, and returned not home but to the United States, where he took up the editorship of Poetry. As Robin Skelton has said, Hiñe 'is not an easy poet to pigeonhole. He is a wit, an ironist, a metaphysical, a symbolist, an allegorist, a lyricist, a traditionalist, an inventor.' His poems are meticulously structured, and the volumes he published after 1959 - The Devil's Picture Book (1960), The Wooden Horse (1965), and Minutes (1968) - show an extraordinary virtuosity in their revivification of almost every known poetic form from the sonnet to the sestina to the villanelle. The other distinguishing feature in Hine's poetry is his interest in classical myths and in their ironic juxtaposition to modern situations. This interest led him to his translation of The Homeric Hymns (1972). Moving into the philosophic area, one finds poets like R.A.D. Ford and Ronald Bates, whose second major volume, Changes, appeared in 1968,

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occupying the borderland where mere poetic reflectiveness merges into identifiable philosophy. Bates has termed himself a 'professorial poet'; even his love lyrics become involved in themes of temporality and death, and in manner as in message his poems tend to level out into the unexciting calm of a Middle Way. Ford's The Solitary City (1969) is an example of a type of book that has become rather familiar in Canada in recent years - the sequence of travel poems. Half of it consists of translations from the languages of countries where Ford has served diplomatically, and the other half is heavily loaded with vignettes of those countries, diluted by the reflective mood into the tenuousness of water-colour. Our most relentlessly philosophical poet is - not surprisingly - a professional philosopher, Francis Sparshott. Sparshott's two collections,/! Divided Voice (1965) and ,4 Cardboard Garage (1969), are metaphysically and satirically nimble within their usually very regular formal patterns, but there is a certain rarefaction of the intellect about them that tends to atrophy emotional apprehension. For all his suggestive illustrations of the ambiguities of existence, Sparshott remains the superb intellectual versifier rather than the complete poet. A similar comment might be made on Richard Outram, whose first volume, Exsultate Jubilate (1966), is distinguished by its iconographie opulence and whose smaller second book, Seer (1973), has a fine aphoristic conciseness; both books, like both of Sparshott's, leave one admiring from the outside rather than entering in. The difficulty of wedding feeling and reflection make all the more outstanding the achievement of John Glassco. Glassco did not publish his first volume of verse, at least under his own name, until he was almost fifty. His second volume, A Point of Sky, appeared in 1964, and his Selected Poems in 1971, including a number of pieces that had not been collected before. With their Augustan manner, their polished diction, their elegiac tone, Glassco's poems project the sophistication of a man of letters deeply conversant with both English and French literatures; their matter is often bucolic, the simply sensitive delineation of Glassco's own life in a part of rural Québec that history has passed over and left neglected. The nostalgic sense of loss these poems project is extraordinary, yet it is opposed by an acceptance of the moment's intrinsic worth: Only the modesty The perfection Of the flight or death of a bird.

The poets of the Maritimes, and especially of New Brunswick, seem always to swim outside the mainstream of Canadian poetry, perhaps because the contribution of that region in the post-Confederation era was considerable enough to leave an independent tradition. Certainly there are poets of whom,

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apart from their individual worth, it is most easy to think of first as Maritimers ; they are poets who, unlike E.J. Pratt or in a later generation Elizabeth Brewster and Milton Acorn, were content to continue living in Fredericton or whatever other Atlantic community they chose, and to take the matter for their poetry from the region, to live poetically - as it were - off the land. A.G. Bailey, the oldest of these poets and founder of the Fiddlehead magazine in the 1940s, published his fourth book of verse, Thanks for a Drowned Island, in 1973. Apart from being the work of an insufficiently acknowledged poet who has continued over a long career to explore the possibilities of his craft with an eye to the idiosyncracies of his own talent, it presents a typically Maritime combination of successive modernist developments, with a strong disinclination to deal in matters outside local and personal experience. Only a few poets elsewhere in Canada - Al Purdy, Patrick Lane, Sid Marty, and the new prairie landseapists - give one as consistently intense a sense of place as the Maritimers, and that applies - because of their tendency to take their imagery from the immediate setting - even when they are not writing landscape or seascape poems. Bailey's verse is that of a man who has obviously read and understood Eliot and Stevens and is thoroughly steeped in the lore of contemporary poetry, but who belongs to a society where rural experience is still dominant, its rhythms of life and ways of speech insistent. Fred Cogswell is formally a less experimental poet than Bailey; where he departs from regular forms, it is usually into a rather loose free verse. Cogswell is concerned with the ways in which the setting and the society of the Maritimes shape people and their fates; many of his poems are portraits, others are laconic comments on existence. There is the occasional myth, and a good deal of reflection on the imprisoning effects of conventions of thought The Chains ofLiliput [sic] named in the title of a collection published in 1971. Between 1960 and 1973 Cogswell published no less than six thin volumes of verse, mostly from his Fiddlehead Poetry Books press, of which Immortal Plowman (1969) and/« Praise of Chastity (1971) are especially worth attention. A collected Cogswell has been long overdue. Other Maritime poets who in recent years have published verse well worth attention are Robert Gibbs, of whose four books of largely recollective verse published since 1968, Earth Charms Heard So Early (1970) and A KindofWakefulness (1973) are the most substantial and perhaps the best; Robert Cockburn, whose Friday Night Fredericton is largely devoted to the celebration of local folk mythology; and M. Travis Lane, author of An Inch or So of Garden (1969) ana Poems 1968-72 (1973). The most important contemporary poet of the Maritimes, as well as the most prolific, is Alden Nowlan, barely known in 1959, when he had published only a single volume, but now, with eight substantial books to his credit, a

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leading poet in national as well as local terms. Of his books, seven lie in the period between 1960 and 1973 : Under the Ice ( 1960), Wind in a Rocky Country (1961), The Things Which Are (1962), Bread Wine and Salt (1967), The Mysterious Naked Man (1969), Playing the Jesus Game (1970), and Between Tears and Laughter (1971). Replying to a question by the editor of Contemporary Poets of the English Language (1970), Nowlan remarked: 'I write about what it is like to be Alden Nowlan because that is the only thing I know anything about.' If one takes that as something more than mere solipsism, it is a true statement, for Nowlan is one of the microcosmicmacrocosmic poets, constantly moving within his own world, which is that of the puritanical small towns and the wild logging camps of New Brunswick. In telling his anecdotes, in recording sharp fragments and points of experience, Nowlan combines a concise form with an easy conversational manner and yet at times achieves a super-real intensity of vision which launches personal experience into universality. There is a naturalness of flow, an apparent ease of writing in Nowlan's verse which one suspects is the result of great actual care and application. A roll-call of those one may regard as representing the mainstream of Canadian poetry inevitably begins with the poets already established in 1960. Several who belonged to the first wave of the Canadian poetic renaissance the generation whose earliest works were published between the wars - were still active during this period. A.J.M. Smith published his Collected Poems in 1962, and in 1967 Poems New and Collected. Both seemed insubstantial volumes to represent a lifetime of work - the first of 100 and the second of 160 pages - but the rigour of their selection matched Smith's extraordinary exactitude in craftmanship and his preternatural clarity of image and phrase, so that they were among the most memorable volumes of the 1960s. F.R. Scott's Selected Poems appeared in 1966; a complete collection of his work remains to be made. Scott's progression has been from the social towards the personal, and on to the verges of the metaphysical, but without ever losing the balanced rationality that has always characterized his writing. The most significant poems from Signature (1964) were included in Selected Poems, but in 1973 Scott published a further volume, The Dance is One, which includes a long sequence on a journey to the Mackenzie, other travel poems, and a number of translations from the French. In addition Scott published the volume of found poetry already mentioned - Trouvailles: Poems from Prose (1967). Smith and Scott followed fairly predictable courses, the character of their poetry remaining virtually unchanged as they proceeded increasingly into the dimension of personal detachment; the poems they wrote after 1960 do not notably modify previous estimates of their total achievement. The case is quite different with Dorothy Livesay, who has created what is virtually a

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second life in poetry, as she herself appears to have recognized in devising the title for her definitive volume: Collected Poems: The Two Seasons. In her case too there has been a progression from the social to the personal, but accompanied by a radical change in her poetic style that came about when she returned to Canada in 1963 after a period of teaching in Zambia. The break in experience which her life in Africa represented was followed by a spell of linguistic research, and by a deep immersion in the resurgence of new poets and poetry which she found in progress in Vancouver on her return. The Colour of God's Face (1964) charted her African experience, and then in The Unquiet Bed (1967) and in Plainsongs (1969), she published a series of confessional poems whose candour was mirrored by a style whose apparent freedom was based on a new precision of phrasing and diction. More than any other of the established poets, Dorothy Livesay rose in stature from 1960 onwards; the awkwardness of much of her early verse was purged away. Livesay has always been interested in the long poem, and two recent volumes, The Documentaries (1968) and Disasters of the Sun (1971) were devoted to this genre. A resurgence of poetic creativity occurred also in the case of Ralph Gustafson, who remained virtually silent from 1944 until in 1960 he dramatically returned to publication with two volumes in a single year -Rocky Mountain Poems and Rivers among Rocks, followed by Sift in an Hourglass (1966), Ixion's Wheel (1969), and a group of political poems, Theme and Variations for Sounding Brass (1972); his Selected Poems appeared in 1972. Although the self-transformation as a poet which one sees in Dorothy Livesay has not occurred in Gustafson, his poems have developed in substance and vividness; yet even in the roughest cut of their eloquence, they retain a quality of artifice, shown in phrasings that often seem too contrived, in allusions whose remoteness it is hard to justify. Two poets who began writing and publishing in magazines before 1939, but did not receive their meed of recognition until some time later were R.G. Everson and Earle Birney. Everson's first volume appeared in 1957, when he was well into his own fifties, and his idiosyncratically actualist poetry is effectively represented only in the volumes published after 1960 - Blind Man's Holiday (1963), Wrestle with an Angel (1965), TheDarkisNot so Dark (1969), ana Selected Poems, 1920-1970 (1970). Like John Glassco, Everson is the kind of late-developing poet whose best work - sharply imagistic though at times it may be - grows from a rich cultural compost. At the end of a long dedication to the poetic craft, he is still appreciated mainly - but highly - by poets. There is much of the poet's poet in Earle Birney as well, grafted on to a less impressive public poet. Birney's inclination to mingle histrionics with poetics has indeed tended to obscure the importance of his best work of the 1960s. A

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desire to remain in the permanent avant-garde (even when the avant-garde was turning full circle and returning to the fashions of half a century ago) induced him to devote excessive energy to the wooing of audiences by a dramatic style of poetry reading and to the kind of typographic trick poetry that older poets (like E.E. Cummings) and younger poets (like bp Nichol) have done more neatly. This Birney dominates such books as Rag & Bone Shop (1970) and What's So Big about Green (1973). Yet other volumes of the same period - Ice Cod Bell or Stone (1962) and Near False Creek Mouth (1964) - contain perhaps the best of all Birney's poems; deeply meditative travel poetry, dramatic monologues, autobiographical reflections, told often in a loping colloquial style that is perhaps more truly characteristic of him than any other of his chameleon voices. The title poem oí Near False Creek Mouth is a remarkable example of extending a personal point of reference, a narrow location in space and time, into a series of reflections with universal relevance to man's condition. Birney's great range, both in mood and in quality, was shown in two collections published during the 1960s, Selected Poems (1960) and The Poems ofEarle Birney (1969). Anne Marriott, another poet who first emerged in the 1930s and produced her most interesting work in the 1940s, broke a long publishing silence in 1971 with the appearance of a slim brochure, Countries, whose poems revealed no interesting developments. Among the poets variously associated with the Montreal movement of the 1940s, the most consistently productive has been Irving Layton. Few years between 1960 and 1973 passed without a new volume of his poems. Three of the eleven that appeared were collections: the Collected Poems of 1965, the Selected Poetry of 1969, and the Collected Poems of 1971. The eight individual volumes were The Swinging Flesh (1961), Balls for a One-Armed Juggler (1963), The Laughing Rooster (1964), Periods of the Moon (1967), The Shattered Plinth (1968), The Whole Bloody Bird (1969), Nail Polish (1971), and Lovers and Lesser Men (1973). There is no doubt that in terms of popular acclaim the 1960s was Layton's decade, when he moved out of small press printing into large-circulation publication, while writing as prolifically as he had always done, and in which he became the most popular among the poets who during this period turned public entertainer. What surprises, in view of such a quantity of writing, is the relative lack of recent change or development in Layton's work. It is as if his gifts had run into a pool, where they now circle, constantly boiling like certain thermal pools in the mountains of New Zealand. Layton's poetry remains essentially didactic and constantly agitated; there are still the familiar obsessions with sex, with the poet's ego, with the poet's detractors, with those the poet despises, the glorifications of creativity and life as against order and art, the hatred of critics, the love for the trivial epigram, the Nietzschean waywardness. What has declined, as volume

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has followed volume, is the immediate lyrical urge of the Layton who wrote up to the mid-1960s, and it is for this reason that the Collected Poems of 1967 is the most important of the volumes he published between 1960 and 1973, for here is gathered, along with much that is banal and ephemeral, the best of Layton - the series of splendid passionate and compassionate elegies on the human and animal condition that place him among our best poets. Louis Dudek, so closely associated with Layton and with Raymond Souster in the movement of the 1940s and even afterward, wrote little poetry after 1960. His Atlantis (1967), like his earlier Europe and En Mexico, takes a journey (again to Europe) as the framework for a series of reflections on man and history and nature, strongly reminiscent at points of Pound's Cantos. Dudek's Collected Poetry (1971) consists principally of work written and published before 1960, and apart from Atlantis contains only a few lyrics from the later period, but it adds to the earlier separate volumes by giving a dramatic overview of Dudek as a humane and thoughtful poet, dedicated to the modernist ideal and supported by an austere pride of craft and vision that had prevented him from ever wooing popular acclaim. There is a naturally aristocratic touch to Dudek's poetry as well as to his view of the art; Raymond Souster is perhaps the most naturally populist of all Canadian poets, finding his subjects in the small events of urban life, in the muted triumphs of nature. Throughout the 1960s and the earlier 1970s he has sustained and refined the particular colloquial virtues of his poetry; the influences of the haiku and of imagism are still present, and so is the epigrammatic sharpness that characterizes his poems at their best. As always, Souster has found it difficult to sustain the tensions of the long poem, and at his most didactic he is still liable to lapse into an embarrassing mawkishness. His poems are most effective when grouped together; then their muted tones and quiet emphases blend into the mosaic of a highly individual poet's world Souster's Toronto. In 1969 Souster published his comprehensive collection, So Far So Good: Poems 1938-68, and in 1971 his Selected Poems. His other books of this period included A Local Pride (1962), Place of Meeting (1962), The Colour of the Times (1964), Ten Elephants on Yonge Street (1965), As Is (1967), and The Years (1971). Lost and Found (1968) was a collection of unpublished earlier poems which the poet would have been wise to have left out of print. P.K. Page returned to poetry after a long silence and periods of living away in Mexico, Brazil, and Australia. In 1967 she published Cry Ararat! for which she picked the best poems from her earlier volumes - forty in all - and added seventeen new poems. Slender though it was, the book re-established P.K. Page as one of Canada's important modern poets, and since its publication she has been steadily writing new poems, increasingly metaphysical in quality, the phrasing honed down to a fine purity, yet the surface colour that made her early poems so attractive still remaining.

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In Miriam Waddington's case there was a briefer gap between her poems of the 1940s and 1950s, and those of a later decade, yet by the time she published The Glass Trumpet in 1966, followed by Say Yes! in 1969, a considerable shift in sensibility had taken place, most clearly marked in her collection, Driving Home: Poems New and Selected (1972). There one sees clearly the greater richness and insight of the later poems, where, under the clouds of nostalgia and disillusionment, the poet looks with a clear eye for the meaning of her existence and her very self. The later poems are arranged in tall columns of narrow and laconic lines in which every phrase rings and every image stands in isolation, before the reading eye incorporates it into the exhortation or the recollection or the tale which is the poem's substance. Lyric poets dying or growing silent young seems less the Canadian pattern than poets - we have seen it with Birney and Livesay and Page and Waddington - bursting into renewed vigour at middle age. What cultural peculiarity of our life produces this kind of creative climacteric is matter for some other context than this, but perhaps the most striking example is a poet who published his first volume in the 1940s, received less than a line in the first edition of the Literary History of Canada, but emerged to become one of the most popular poets in the 1960s: Al Purdy. If Souster is the poet of a single city, Purdy plays a double role as lyrical chronicler of Loyalist Canada, writing from the omphalos of Ameliasburgh, Ontario, and as the most vigorous of all traveller poets, who has given us Canada in verse, from east to west, from the Great Lakes to the Arctic, and, not content with that, has added Europe and Asia and Africa. Purdy published twelve volumes of verse between 1960 and 1973. The most important are Poems for All the Annettes (1962), The Cariboo Horses (1965), Wild Grape Wine (1968), and Selected Poems (1972). Beginning in the 1940s as an almost timidly traditional poet, Purdy has ripped his way through the forms, acquiring a great amount of autodidactic knowledge on the way, to become one of the most fluent and idiosyncratic of Canadian poets, extraordinarily open to impressions, and perhaps more able than any of his contemporaries to set into verse the historical and geographical complexities that make Canada. The curious impression - itself a myth - that the 1950s in terms of Canadian poetry was dominated by a school of mythopoeics under the influence of Northrop Frye has long been dissipated. In considering the work of poets of that decade who continued actively during the subsequent decades, it is difficult to imagine how it ever emerged. Certainly it is now hard to think of a single school that would embrace poets as varied as Leonard Cohen, Milton Acorn, James Reaney, Eli Mandel, Phyllis Webb, Eldon Grier, Elizabeth Brewster, D.G. Jones, Kenneth McRobbie, and Wilfred Watson. Some of these writers published few poems after 1960. Both James Reaney and Wilfred Watson devoted themselves mainly to dramatic writing of various kinds. Watson published after 1959 only one slight book which added little to

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his achievement, The Sorrowful Canadians (1972). James Reaney published two small and enigmatic volumes, Twelve Letters to a Small Town (1962) and The Dance of Death at London, Ontario (1963), but in 1972 his complete Poems - all his non-dramatic writings including many unpublished pieces appeared under the fine editorship of Germaine Warkentin, and did much to remedy the critical neglect into which as a non-dramatic poet he had fallen during the 1960s. Kenneth McRobbie, whose earlier promise had seemed considerable, published in 1960 one brief volume (Eyes without a Face) and then fell silent. These poets had largely diverted their energies into other fields. The case of Phyllis Webb was somewhat different. She published her second volume, The Sea is Also a Garden, in 1962, and followed it by a very sparse collection, Naked Poems, in 1965; in 1971 her Selected Poems, containing only two hitherto unpublished poems, appeared, and since then she has published in literary journals a slight selection of her 'Kropotkin Poems.' This scantiness of production seems linked with philosophic difficulties in dealing with her dominant themes of loss and unfulfilment, complicated by a purist aesthetic that demands a way of statement stripped to the essential bone. With Leonard Cohen, as with Layton, the act of retrospectively collecting his poems in the 1960s seemed to mark a watershed. Three smaller volumes, The Spice-Box of Earth (1961), Flowers for Hitler (1966), and Parasites of Heaven (1966) built up to the Selected Poems of 1968, in which the various modes of Cohen's poetry came together - the romantic, the satiric, and the renunciatory, the last expressed also in his novel, Beautiful Losers. At his most popular, Cohen is the traditional romantic projected in his songs and the poems related to them; the satirist of Flowers for Hitler presents a more original poetic persona. His most recent book, The Energy of Slaves (1972) carries renunciation to its final end, for Cohen tips romanticism into a selfpitying cynicism and seems to write bad poems with deliberation. The antinovelist of Beautiful Losers in the final resort becomes the anti-poet, a process rendered easy by the fact that in Cohen there was never any evident dedication to the actual craft of poetry. The reverse is the case with Eli Mandel. Mandel collaborated with Phyllis Webb and Gael Turnbull in a joint volume - Trio - during the 1950s, but his individual volumes all date from the 1960s and later, beginning with Fuseli Poems (1961), and continuing with Black and Secret Man (1964), An Idiot Joy (1967), and Stony Plain (1973); poems from all these collections are included in a selection of Mandel's poems entitled Crusoe, made by Margaret Atwood and Dennis Lee and published in 1973. Mandel was once classed among the mythopoeics, and some of his early poems were indeed very deliberately mythological, but in recent years he has become much more concerned with the ironic observation and projection of modern life, and with the reduction of

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poetry to an essential starkness which is perhaps to be regarded as the opposite of all he detests in the world outside poetry. D.G. Jones is one of the least placeable and also one of the best of contemporary Canadian poets. During the 1960s he published two volumes, The Sun is Axeman (1961) and Phrases from Orpheus (1967). Perhaps of all Canadian poets now writing, Jones is the most genuinely mythopoeic, since he has transmuted so many of his concepts into broadly mythological forms within which he works his imagery and phrasing with an extraordinary exactness. His poetic achievement finds a mirror image in Butterfly on Rock, a critical work in which, even more intensively than Northrop Frye, he investigates the role of the myth in Canadian writing. Milton Acorn may be Canada's last - may indeed be its only - proletarian poet in the sense of a genuinely populist and revolutionary urge that is transmuted into poetry and often does not destroy it. He has published a number of individual collections, notably The Brain's the Target (1961), Jawbreakers (1963), and More Poems for People (1972). A good selection of his poems was made by Al Purdy and published in 1969 under the title of I've Tasted my Blood. As Dorothy Livesay has pointed out, Acorn's work shows a considerable range of poetic skill, even when it appears - as it often does - to be straightforward statement; nevertheless, there are times when the propagandist intent becomes too insistent. Elizabeth Brewster is the least complex of these poets, reminiscent in many ways of the writers of the Maritimes, where her origins lay. Her two recent books, Passage of Summer (1969) and Sunrise North (1972), face the problems of her world with an engaging self-deprecation and a good deal of understated humour; kindness could perhaps define their mood, which is uncomplicated by any great urge towards technical sophistication. Elizabeth Brewster seems one of our few naturally direct poets. Eldon Grier is the last of the notable Montreal poets writing in English. He was a painter before he became a poet, and all his collections, from/4 Friction of Lights (1963) and Pictures on the Skin (1967) down to the Selected Poems, 1955-1970 of 1971, contain a strong visual element, which has pushed Grier in one direction towards imagism and in the other towards an arrangement of poetic elements strongly reminiscent of surrealist techniques in painting and collage. In discussing the poets who emerged during the 1960s it is difficult to think otherwise than in terms of geographical nodes or loci; the poets have tended so to arrange themselves and the critics - perhaps with some exaggeration have been inclined to stress the importance of certain regions (especially the west coast) in the poetic renaissance of the 1960s. Apart from the Maritimes one can, with some plausibility, isolate five regions as showing some high degree of poetic activity during the 1960s: the west coast, Toronto (which has

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always been a gathering rather than an originating point for poets), Kingston, Windsor, and in comparatively recent years the prairies; Montreal, in spite of the publishing activity of Louis Dudek and others, has greatly declined as an innovatory centre in English poetry. With Toronto one habitually associates many of the more important poets to emerge during the 1960s, eg, Margaret Avison, Margaret Atwood, Gwendolyn MacEwen, Michael Ondaatje, and Dennis Lee. Margaret Avison, who published individual poems rather widely in the 1950s but was slow to collect them, is represented by two volumes published in the 1960s: Winter Sun (1960) and The Dumbfounding (1966). From the beginning her poems were uncompromisingly dense and difficult, seeking complex metaphysical solutions, and in her second volume especially her profoundly religious and visionary inclination becomes dominant. No other Canadian poet rivals - or has rivalled - her in the intensity with which she projects the spiritual reality of being a Christian. Margaret Atwood has published a series of eight brochures and small books of verse, but with a self-critical rigour typical of her attitude towards all her work, she has not yet put together a larger collection. The most important of the books are The Circle Game (1966), with which she won the Governor-General's Award at the age of 27, The Animals in that Country (1968), Procedures for Underground (1970), Power Politics (1971), and that extraordinary work of recreative imagination, The Journals of Susanna Moodie (1970). Margaret Atwood's work combines an intense psychological realism with great visual sensibility, an astringent view of human relationships and a sparse discipline. Her extraordinarily tough and resilient kind of phrasing serves the clear-sightedness, not without compassion, that most distinguishes one's impression of Margaret Atwood as a poet. Margaret Atwood has remarked that Gwendolyn MacEwen tends 'to become preoccupied with the brilliant and original enamel surfaces she creates.' Such surfaces, however, accord with the exotic treatment in MacEwen's poems of the archetypal patterns that emerge and re-emerge in cultures from ancient times until today, and that treatment in turn does not hamper the genuine profundities of thought and feeling in her four principal volumes, The Rising Fire (1963), A Breakfast for Barbarians (1966), The Shadowmaker (1969), and The Armies of the Moon (1972). Equally immersed in the exotic, to the extent at times of Gothic exaggeration, is Michael Ondaatje. His earliest book, The Dainty Monsters (1967) contains many fine and very personal lyrics, but the later volumes, The Man with Seven Toes (1969), The Collected Works of Billy the Kid (1970), and Rat Jelly (1973), tend greatly towards the surrealistic dislocation of actuality, often expressed in fantastic narrative. Dennis Lee, in The Kingdom of Absence (1967) and Civil Elegies (1967),

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republished with additions in 1972 as Civil Elegies and Other Poems, endeavours, in a vigorous kind of running verse that sometimes stumbles on the edge of rhetorical prose, to wed the spiritual and physical anxieties of the time. While often he attains a high degree of polemical eloquence, his concern can become too heavy for the verbal structure that sustains it. He could be our finest political poet; he is not so yet. Other poets of special interest one associates with the Toronto literary milieu (and representative books) are George Jonas (The Happy Hungry Man, 1970), Phyllis Gotlieb (Ordinary, Moving, 1969), Shirley Gibson (/ am Watching, 1973), Robert Hogg (Standing Back, 1971), Joe Rosenblatt (Bumblebee Dithyramb, 1972), Robert Flanagan (Body, 1970), and Doug Fetherling (Our Man in Utopia, 1971). The west coast had been a continuing centre of poetic creativity since the 1940s in Victoria, when Alan Crawley established Contemporary Verse. The upsurge of poetry that took place in Vancouver in the early 1960s, and largely centred around the magazine Tish, was not therefore a new phenomenon; it was merely a response to a general continent-wide movement that found an especially sympathetic background in Vancouver. The leading poets connected with Tish, George Bowering and Frank Davey, have long gone their ways to become poets with individual styles quite distantly removed from the Black Mountain influences under which they began, although Davey at least still makes pious obeisances to the memory of Olson. Both have become prolific writers, Bowering with 15 and Davey with 11 volumes to his credit in a decade. Bowering's best books are Rocky Mountain Foot (1969) and Touch (1971); Davey's most representative are perhaps Bridge Force (1965) and Arcana (1972). Other poets closely connected with the Tish movement were Fred Wah, Lionel Kearns, David Cull, and Daphne Mariait. But between 1960 and 1973 many poets uncommitted to this movement worked on the west coast. Three came from abroad in mid-career: the American J. Michael Yates (The Great Bear Meditations, 1970), the New Zealander Mike Doyle (Earth Meditations, 1971), and Robin Skelton, already well known as poet, anthologist, and critic, who became a centre of literary activity in Victoria during the 1960s, founding The Malahat Review and publishing a series of books of verse in which he adapted the muted manner of the English 1950s to a reflective and often narrative style of poetry related to his experience of Canada and notably represented in Selected Poems (1968) and The Hunting Dark (1971). Notable among other poets active on the west coast between 1960 and 1973 were Red Lane, whose Collected Poems appeared in 1968 after his early death; Patrick Lane, whose mountain poems scattered through a number of books are especially notable; Tom Wayman, whose Waiting for Wayman (1973) is among the best radically oriented poetry written in Canada; Andreas

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Schroeder (The Ozone Monster, 1969); Marya Fiamengo (Silt of Iron, 1971); Susan Musgrave (Entrance of the Celebrant, 1972); Gary Geddes (Rivers Inlet, 1972), and Ken Belford (The Post Electric Cave Man, 1970). Of the small but active group of poets who in recent years have gathered at Windsor the most interesting are Peter Stevens, for a time poetry editor of Canadian Forum (Breadcrusts and Glass, 1972), Eugene McNamara (Passages and Other Poems, 1972); Len Gasparini (Cutty Sark, 1970), and Dorothy Farmiloe (Blue is the Colour of Death, 1973). Although Quarry Press exists in Kingston, it has had little evident influence on the gathering of poets there, which appears to have been accidental or, at most, academic. They include David Helwig, who has explored and adapted traditional forms to great effect in fine poems of recollection and personal meditation (represented notably in The Sign of The Gunman, 1969 and The Best Name of Silence, 1972), Tom Marshall (The Silences of Fire, 1969), and Gail Fox (TheRingmaster's Circus, 1973). Finally, in the prairies, which for so long had little poetic expression beyond the verses privately printed by forlorn enthusiasts in dying towns, a distinctive poetry of the vast spaces and the long roads has at last appeared. John Newlove was the first practitioner of this kind of verse, concerned with the nature of the land, the moral meaning of its history, the guilts and failures of those who inhabit it. He is - among his eight books - represented at his best by Moving in Alone (1965), Black Night Window (1968), and Lies (1972). Two poets even more intimately concerned with the daily character of prairie existence -the close personal experience of its hardships and frustrations, are Dale Zieroth, whose fine first book (Clearings) appeared in 1973, and Andrew Suknaski, whose Wood Mountain Poems (1973) is the most representative of the four very slender brochures he has produced. Another excellent first volume, coming from the mountains of the west round about the Great Divide rather than from the prairies, was Sid Marty's Headwaters (1973); largely inspired by the poet's life as a forest warden, these poems are notable for their sharp observation and tight narrative. Other poets writing on, but not always of, the prairies are Stephen Scobie (The Birken Tree, 1973) and Douglas Earbour (Land Fall, 1971). In these pages I have attempted to convey a sense of the extraordinary breadth, fertility, and variety of poetry in Canada between 1960 and 1973; I have tried to represent every aspect of the movement. I have been able to discuss - even briefly - only a relatively small minority of the active poets and their books, and I am conscious that in my choice I have been guided largely by personal taste, and that there are many poets whom another historian might well have preferred to mention. Even as it is, I am conscious of writers in my own judgment deserving of attention who have been omitted for lack of the space that would have turned this essay into a book, and for this reason I

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end with a further list of names (again obviously incomplete) to suggest the possibilities I have been unable to explore. I regret deeply that I do not have the pages to present them in a critical equivalent of the Salon des Refusés: all of them in their own ways are true poets: Lloyd Abbey, Nelson Ball, Henry Beissel, Stanley Cooperman, Bruce Elder, Joan Finnigan, Brenda Fleet, Brendan Galvin, C.H. Gervais, Gerry Gilbert, Don Gutteridge, William Hawkins, Harry Howith, Paulette Jiles, Roy Kiyooka, Joy Kogawa, Simon Leigh, Christopher Levenson, Pat Lowther, Bryan McCarthy, Barry McKinnon, Florence McNeil, George McWhirter, Michael Malus, Seymour Mayne, Peter Miller, Harry Moscovitch, Roña Murray, David Phillips, Marc Plourde, Don Poison, Linda Rogers, Jack Shadbolt, Glen Siebrasse, David Solway, Richard Sommer, Heather Spears, Fraser Sutherland, John Thompson, Peter Trower, Christopher Wiseman, Derk Wynand, Marg Yeo. Among these names the future of Canadian poetry will largely lie.

Conclusion NORTHROP

FRYE

It is difficult to know what to say, as a general conclusion, to this part of the Literary History that is not already said or implied in my previous conclusion. Ten or twelve years is not a generation, much less, even in these future-shock days, a historical period. The logical starting point, I think, has to be the reason for producing a volume of this size so few years after the original one, and the reason is not difficult to grasp. Mr Cross, writing on history, says that five hundred books in that field were produced during five of the years he covers; Mr Woodcock counts over a thousand volumes of verse, excluding anthologies; nearly every contributor says or implies something about the colossal verbal explosion that has taken place in Canada since 1960. Such a quantitative increase eventually makes for a qualitative change: this change cannot, in so short a time, reveal much essentially new to the critical observer, but it does mean that the trends I studied in the previous conclusion have reached something of a crisis since then. All I can do here is to try to characterize that crisis: there can be no question of attempting any rounded general survey of the period. Our reviewers are comprehensive to the verge of omniscience, and with all their selectivity they have little space to do more than mention a great number of books which are not simply entertaining, interesting, or instructive, but are richly rewarding to read. Such critical comments as they are able to make are often tantalizingly brief, like Mr New's remark about the influence of structuralism and linguistics on the prose style of Canadian fiction. The fact that the book is something of a catalogue is nothing against it, but is on the contrary essential to its usefulness. Part of the total verbal explosion is the information explosion, and one of the more efficient ways of trying to cope with that is the 'review of recent scholarship' article, a genre which this book closely approximates. Critical methods, confronting such an avalanche of material, have to become rather more subtle than they were in the old days of collecting Canadians, putting the authentic specimens of Loyalist descent (or 'stock,' in the E.K. Broadus anthology) in the centre of a penumbra of immigrant, expatriate, transient, and tourist writers, some of whom, like Grove and Grey Owl, turned out to be masks of quite different people. The mask in Canadian literature would make a good thesis for somebody, and doubtless has done. Twenty years ago, the Canadian critical scene was full of schools and orthodoxies and heresies and divergences and conflicting theories, the preval-

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ence of which, in literary criticism no less than in religion or psychology, indicates a general failure to understand what is being talked about. It would be an affectation for me to pretend not to notice that I am extensively featured in this book myself, and among the many things I am grateful for and deeply appreciate, one is the fact that the phrase 'the Frye school of mythopoeic poetry' is so briefly dismissed by Mr Woodcock. There is no Frye school of mythopoeic poetry; criticism and poetry cannot possibly be related in that way; the myth of a poem is the structural principle of that poem, and consequently all poems that make any sense at all are equally mythopoeic, and so on and so on: the phrase, as Borges remarks about something in Fichte, is almost inexhaustibly fallacious. The concreteness of this book, the absence of anxiety and special pleading, the constant awareness of the genuine authority of the literature the reviewer is dealing with, is reflected in the literature itself. Mr Bissell notes that a good deal of recent political writing, even when strongly partisan, shows a real concern for objectivity and respect for facts; and similarly, the thesis novel, the assertive poem, the rib-nudging allegory, the assumption that literature can be 'effective' only when it turns into sub-literary rhetoric, seem to be receding from the literary scene. For well over a century, and years before the satire in Grip that Mr Pacey quotes, discussions about Canadian literature usually took the form of the shopper's dialogue: 'Have you any Canadian literature today?' 'Well, we're expecting something in very shortly.' But that age is over, and writing this conclusion gives me rather the feeling of driving a last spike, of waking up from the National Neurosis. There is much more to come, just as there were all those CPR trains still to come, but Canadian literature is here, perhaps still a minor but certainly no longer a gleam in a paternal critic's eye. It is a typically Canadian irony that such a cataract started pouring out of the presses just before Marshall McLuhan became the most famous of Canadian critics for saying that the book was finished. I doubt if one can find this in McLuhan, except by quoting him irresponsibly out of context, but it is what he was widely believed to have said, and the assertion became very popular, as anything that sounds anti-intellectual always does. Abandoning irony, one may say that a population the size of English-writing Canada, subject to all the handicaps which have been chronicled so often in Canadian criticism, does not produce such a bulk of good writing without an extraordinary vitality and morale behind it. At the same time, to achieve, to bring a future into the present, is also to become finite, and the sense of that is always a little disconcerting, even though becoming finite means becoming genuinely human. Canadians, as I have implied, have a highly developed sense of irony, but even so, De Gaulle's monumental gaffe of 1967, 'vive le Québec libre,' is one of the great ironic remarks in Canadian history, because it was hailing the

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emergence of precisely the force that Quebec had really got free from. For the Quiet Revolution was as impressive an achievement of imaginative freedom as the contemporary world can show: freedom not so much from clerical domination or corrupt politics as from the burden of tradition. The whole je me souviens complex in French Canada, the anxiety of resisting change, the strong emotionalism which was, as emotion by itself always is, geared to the past: this was what Quebec had shaken off to such an astonishing degree. It was accompanied, naturally enough, by intense anti-English and separatist feelings, which among the more confused took the form that De Gaulle was interested in, a French neo-colonialism. This last is dead already: separatism is still a strong force, and will doubtless remain one for some time, but one gets the feeling that it is being inexorably bypassed by history, and that even if it achieves its aims it will do so in a historical vacuum. I begin with French Canada because it seems to me that the decisive cultural event in English Canada during the past fifteen years has been the impact of French Canada and its new sense of identity. After so long and so obsessive a preoccupation with the same subject, it took the Quiet Revolution to create a real feeling of identity in English Canada, and to make cultural nationalism, if that is the best phrase, a genuine force in the country, even a bigger and more significant one than economic nationalism, which is, as Mr Mayo notes, mainly a Central Canada movement. The immense power of American penetration into Canada is traditionally thought of as either economic or sub-cultural: Canadians buy American cars and watch American situation comedies on television. Without denying the importance of these phenomena, in the last decade there has been a considerable growth of emphasis on more genuinely cultural aspects. This emphasis has affected Canadian attitudes to the publishing business, to the Canadian editions of Time and the Reader's Digest, to American television programs brought in, with their advertising, by cable, and to many other things; but perhaps the most widely publicized issue has been that of American appointments to Canadian universities. The reactions to these proposals for quota systems and the like, may be theoretically untenable and practically impotent, but the kind of problem they try to meet is not an unreal one. Academics of course are a conservative breed, and they still try to keep explaining to one another that scholarship knows no boundaries. Scholarship may not, but culture does; and the only reason for having scholarship is that it is necessary to culture. I am not a continentalist myself, although I have been called one, and I can see that in the later work of Underbill, for instance, a writer whom of course I deeply respect and have learned much from, a naive admiration for things American amounts almost to a betrayal of his own liberalism. An independent Canada would be much more useful to the United States itself than a depen-

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dent or annexed one would be, and it is of great importance to the United States to have a critical view of it centred in Canada, a view which is not hostile but is simply another view. The United States has its share of fools like other countries, and just as fifty years ago senators would propose that Britain hand over Canada in payment of her war debt, so there are senators and others now (see Mr Chapman's article) who tell us how lovely it would be if we placed all our resources unquestioningly in American hands. Resistance to such things is in the United States' own best interests. The nationalism that has evolved in Canada is on the whole a positive development, in which self-awareness has been far more important than aggressiveness. Perhaps identity only is identity when it becomes, not militant, but a way of defining oneself against something else. In any case problems of culture and of verbal articulation are the primary concern of this book. I see the kind of creative vitality which this book records as an emerging form of Canadian self-definition, and that involves looking at the difference from the American parallel development. The word 'parallel' is important: Canada may be an American colony, as is often said, by me among others, but Canadians have never thought of the United States as a parental figure, like Britain, and analogies of youthful revolt and the like would be absurd. To begin with a different kind of analogy: in countries where Marxism has not come to power, but where there is a strong Marxist minority, we see what an advantage it is to have a unified conceptual structure that can be applied to practically anything. It may often distort what it is applied to, but that matters less than the tactical advantage of having it. Defenders of more empirical points of view find their battlefronts disintegrating into separate and isolated outposts. They may demonstrate that this or that point is wrong, but such rearguard actions lack glamour. The same principle can be applied to the pragmatic, compromising, ad hoc, ramshackle Canadian tradition vis-à-vis the far more integrated and revolutionary American one. The coherence of the 'American way of life' is often underestimated by Americans themselves, because the more thoughtful citizens of any country are likely to be more preoccupied with its anomalies. Hence outsiders, including Canadians, may find the consistency easier to see. De Tocqueville, who didn't like much of what he saw in the United States, wrote his book very largely about that consistency, almost in spite of himself. As Canada and the United States went their separate ways on the same continent, eventually coming to speak for the most part the same language, their histories took on a strong pattern of contrast. The United States found its identity in the eighteenth century, the age of rationalism and enlightenment. It retains a strong intellectual fascination with the eighteenth century: its founding fathers are still its primary cultural heroes, and the bicentenary celebrations of 1976, from all accounts, will be mainly celebrations of the eighteenth

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century rather than of the present day. The eighteenth-century cultural pattern took on a revolutionary, and therefore a deductive, shape, provided with a manifesto of independence and a written constitution. This in turn developed a rational attitude to the continuity of life in time, and this attitude seems to me the central principle of the American way of life. The best image for it is perhaps that of the express train. It is a conception of progress, but of progress defined by mechanical rather than organic metaphors, and hence the affinity with the eighteenth century is not really historical: it tends in fact to be anti-historical. Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, with their imperturbable common sense, are thought of, in the popular consciousness, more as deceased contemporaries than as ancestors living among different cultural referents. The past is thus assimilated to the present, a series of stations that our express train has stopped at and gone beyond. In law and politics, new situations are met by reinterpreting, or in the last resort amending, an eighteenth-century document: proceeding, in other words, in a deductive direction, giving priority to the kind of logic which most clearly represents the mechanics of thought. In economics, there has been, and with qualifications there still is, a strong belief in laissez-faire, as a continuous and semi-autonomous process that will work by itself if left alone. The most characteristic American philosophical attitude is the pragmatism, so different from Canadian pragmatism, which sees truth as emerging from a course of consistent action. Its most characteristic attitude to education is the anti-contemplative Dewey conception of learning through doing, or, again, through continuous activity. In religion, the real established church in the United States is that of eighteenth-century deism, where God is the umpire behind the competing churches, leaving man to justify himself by the continuity of his good works, which include the separating of church from state and the secularizing of education. In attempting to characterize such a central driving force, one is bound to oversimplify and ignore powerful counter-forces. The United States is full of people deeply opposed to the attitudes I call characteristic. I see these attitudes, however, as symbols of something which has so far proved flexible enough to contain and absorb those counter-forces, greatly modifying itself as it has done so, but becoming stronger in consequence, and hence still in the driver's seat. What I am trying to describe cannot be reduced to a cliché, like the 'Consciousness One' of The Greening of America, or the naive optimism that perished with the 1929 crash, or a simple-minded trust in technology, much less 'materialism,' or a 'worship of the almighty dollar.' The traumas of Vietnam and Watergate have another side. The original impulse to go into Vietnam was part of quite genuine political belief which, as a belief, is still there; and what carried public morale through the sickening revelations of Watergate was a loyalty to the constitutional tradition, which still functions

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much as the Torah does for Judaism. In the beginning the Americans created America, and America is the beginning of the world. That is, it is the oldest country in the world: no other nation's history goes back so far with less social metamorphosis. Through all the anxieties and doubts of recent years one can still hear the confident tones of its Book of Genesis: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident.' At least a Canadian can hear them, because nothing has ever been self-evident in Canada. Canada had no enlightenment, and very little eighteenth century. The British and French spent the eighteenth century in Canada battering down each other's forts, and Canada went directly from the Baroque expansion of the seventeenth century to the Romantic expansion of the nineteenth. The result was the cultural situation that I tried to characterize in my earlier conclusion. Identity in Canada has always had something about it of a centrifugal movement into far distance, of clothes on a growing giant coming apart at the seams, of an elastic about to snap. Stephen Leacock's famous hero who rode off rapidly in all directions was unmistakably a Canadian. This expanding movement has to be counterbalanced by a sense of having constantly to stay together by making tremendous voluntary efforts at intercommunication, whether of building the CPR or of holding federal-provincial conferences. There is a novel called Canadian Born, by Mrs Humphry Ward, written about 1908. In the opening pages we meet the heroine, Lady Merton, an Englishwoman whose father is important enough for her to be travelling across Canada in a private railway car. They are held up by a 'sink-hole,' described as 'a place where you can't find no bottom,' and which ten trainloads of dumping has failed to fill. Still, Lady Merton is deeply impressed with what she sees of 'the march of a new people to its home,' especially after she meets an attractive Canadian male, and says to a less enthusiastic Britisher, 'Don't you feel that we must get the natives to guide us - to put us in the way? It is only they who can really feel the poetry of it all.' She later says: 'We see the drama - we feel it - much more than they can who are in it,' and quotes Matthew Arnold: 'On to the bound of the waste - on to the City of God!' The author is a keen and intelligent observer, and her view of Canada in 1908 is consistent with many other contemporary views of it. She is also trying hard not to be patronizing. Nevertheless the great march of a new people can be seen better by visitors from higher civilizations, and the natives, poor sods, can only feel (not write) the poetry of it all. They may be headed for the City of God, but it is a very long way to the bound of the waste, and in the meantime there is that sink-hole. She has caught one of the essential Canadian moods, the feeling of apology for being so huge and tedious an obstacle on the way to somewhere more interesting, whether the City of God, the glittering treasures of the Orient, or the opulent United States. It seems to me very characteristic

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of Canada that its highest Order should have for its motto: 'looking for a better country. ' The quotation is from the New Testament, where the better country really is the City of God, but the feeling it expresses has more mundane contexts. Such feelings of insecurity and inferiority are still with us: the brain drain has eased considerably, but there is the more serious issue raised in J.J. Brown's Ideas in Exile, referred to by Mr Chapman; and we still force pastoral myths on our children designed to reassure their elders, according to Miss Egoff. But transitions to something different are marked in this book. Some of the articles deal with non-literary subjects, and there, what is important, for the present context, is not that many Canadians are distinguished chemists or engineers or whatever, but that all the non-literary subjects have their role to play in creating the imaginative climate that this book is trying to put into isobars. If we look at Mr Swinton's chapter, for instance, we see that there is no such thing as 'Canadian biology': the phrase makes no sense. But the fact that Canada was, a couple of generations ago, regarded as possessed of 'unlimited natural resources,' and the later pricking of that gaseous balloon, gives biology a distinctive resonance in Canadian cultural life, and helps, for instance, to make Farley Mowat one of our best-known and best-selling authors. Much the same is true of the intense Canadian interest in geology and geophysics, reflected in Mr Chapman's account of Tuzo Wilson. I have often thought that Robert Frost's line, 'The land was ours before we were the land's,' however appropriate to the United States, does not apply to Canada, where the opposite seems to me to have been true, even in the free land grant days. Canadians were held by the land before they emerged as a people on it, a land with its sinister aspects, or what Warren Tallman, referred to by Mr Ross, calls the 'gray wolf,' but with its fostering aspects too, of the kind that come into the phrase of Alice Wilson which one is grateful to Mr Swinton for quoting: 'the earth touches every life.' Many of these themes illustrate the importance in Canada of the theme of survival, the title of Margaret Atwood's very influential book which is, as Mr Pacey says, a most perceptive essay on an aspect of the Canadian sensibility. Mr Ross points out some of its limitations: it does not have, and was clearly not intended to have, the kind of comprehensiveness that a conceptual thesis, like the frontier theory in American history, would need. But it is not simply saying that Canadians are a nation of losers. What the author means by survival comes out more clearly, I think, in her extraordinary novel Surfacing, where the heroine is isolated from her small group and finds something very archaic, both inside and outside her, taking over her identity. The word survival implies living through a series of crises, each one unexpected and different from the others, each one to be met on its own terms. Failure to meet the crisis means that some death principle moves in. From Mr

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Goudge we learn that the theme of survival has had some odd extensions in Canadian philosophy: death itself may be simply one more discontinuity in existence. This discontinuous sense of life is obviously a contrast to the American sense of continuity, and it affords more scope for the tragic, as distinct from the ironic, mood in Canadian literature. American fiction is prevailingly ironic for many reasons, but one reason is that irony (as a mode of fiction, not as an attitude) fits the American continuous perspective: it presents life as a horizontal continuum which stops rather than ends, like a car which may or may not go into the ditch but has run out of gas anyway. In tragedy, however dingy the hero may be, there is a fall through time, a polarizing of two levels of existence. They are equally valid forms, but there is a great deal more facile irony than facile tragedy, and the standard ironic formulas, the Slow Strangle, the Ouroboros, or Biting Oneself in the Tail, the Hateful Self-Discovery, are often used rather perfunctorily, as symbols of a serious literary intention. Tragic narratives are more structured, formalized, even contrived, reflecting as they so often do the sense of contrivance in outward circumstances. The affinity with the tragic is part of the affinity with formalism in Canadian writing, and both may be connected with the sense of discontinuity, the feeling for sudden descent or catastrophe, that seems to me to have an unusual emphasis in Canada. The theme of descent may be as astringent as it is in Surfacing or as genial as in Robertson Davies' Manticore, where it takes the form of a Jungian analysis followed by images of caves and bears. But in the Zurich clinic, no less than in the Quebec forest, there is still something of the 'gray wolf,' even of the sink-hole. In the fall of the hero of David Knight's tightly constructed Nigerian story, Farquharson's Physique, in the Donnelly massacre at the end of Reaney's trilogy, in the writhings of Margaret Laurence's Hagar and Rachel (Mr New points out the importance of the perspective on time in The Stone Angel), we realize that we are still in the country of Grove and Pratt. Some contributors have commented on the tragic tone of George Grant's Lament for a Nation and Creighton's Canada's First Century: the interest of such books does not end with the issues they deal with, because the tragic is always a major aspect of the human situation. Still, one may hope for a writer of equal power who will see a structure of comedy also in the Canadian story. If we look at the three eighteenth-century events that defined the future of Canada (as of so much else in the modern world), the Quebec Act, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution, we see the whole range of a political spectrum that still confronts us. The Quebec Act came close to an Edmund Burke model: it was an inductive, pragmatic recognition of a de facto situation, and the situation was one of those profoundly illogical ones that Burke considered typical of human life generally. The two factors to be taken

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into account were: (a) the British have conquered the French (b) the British have done nothing of the kind. The only way out of this was a settlement that guaranteed some rights to both parties. The French Revolution, proceeding deductively from general principles, was what Burke condemned so bitterly as 'metaphysical,' and was also the forerunner of the dialectical Marxist revolutions. The American Revolution came in the middle, a strong contrast to the Canadian settlement, as we have seen, but keeping far more of the broadening-through-precedent British tradition than the French one did. Hence although the United States itself got started on a revolutionary basis, it was a basis of a kind that made it difficult for that country to come to terms with the later Marxist revolutions. This produced a growing isolation from other revolutionary ideologies and societies, the climax of which was the maintaining, for so many years, of the grotesque fantasy that the refugee army in Formosa was the government of China. At the same time, the 'melting pot' assumptions of the nineteenth-century United States, the ambition described in the inscription on the Statue of Liberty of making a united democracy out of the most varied social and racial elements, became profoundly modified. The conception of the 'hundred per cent American' has been succeeded by a growing feeling that the various elements in American society can perhaps contribute more to it by retaining something of their original cultural characteristics. Here there is a growing similarity to the Canadian pattern, where the necessity of recognizing two major social elements at the beginning meant that nobody could ever possibly know what a 'hundred per cent Canadian' was, and hence led to a much more relaxed ideal of a national 'melting pot.' When the last edition of this book was published, the centenary of Canadian Confederation was coming up: the bicentenary of the American Revolution is the corresponding event on this horizon, if an anniversary is an event. It seems to me that a very curious and significant exchange of identities between Canada and the United States has taken place since then. The latter, traditionally so buoyant, extroverted, and forward-looking, appears to be entering a prolonged period of self-examination. I am setting down very subjective impressions here, derived mainly from what little I know of American literature and literary criticism, but I feel that a search for a more genuinely historical dimension of consciousness has been emerging at least since Vietnam turned into a nightmare, and is still continuing. Part of it is a different attitude to the past, a re-examining of it to see what things went wrong when. This is not simply a reversing of the current of continuity, like a psychiatric patient exploring his childhood: there seems to be a growing tendency to think more in terms of inevitable discontinuities. Erik Erikson's book on identity, an attempt to clarify the psychology of the disturbances of a few years ago, is an example.

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Another part of the re-examination, and imaginatively perhaps the more significant part, revolves around the question: has the American empire, like the British empire before it, simply passed its climacteric and is it now declining, or at least becoming aware of limits? If so, the past takes on a rise-and-fall parabola shape, not a horizontal line in which the past is on the same plane as the present. This may not sound like much on paper, but changes in central metaphors and conceptual diagrams are symbolic of the most profound disturbances that the human consciousness has to face. After the strident noise and confusion of the later sixties, there was, for all the discussion, an eerie quietness about the response to Watergate, and to the irony of a President's turning into a cleaned-out gambler a few months after getting an overwhelming mandate. Even the violence of the now almost unmanageable cities seems to have caused less panic than one might reasonably have expected. Perhaps it is not too presumptuous to say, although few non-Canadian readers would understand what was meant, that the American way of life is slowly becoming Canadianized. Meanwhile, Canada, traditionally so diffident, introverted, past-and-future fixated, incoherent, inarticulate, proceeding by hunch and feeling, seems to be taking on, at least culturally, an inner composure and integration of outlook, even some buoyancy and confidence. The most obvious reasons for this are technological. The airplane and the television set, in particular, have brought a physical simultaneity into the country that has greatly modified the older, and perhaps still underlying, blazed-trail and canoe mentality. As Mr Cross says, we are now in a post-Laurentian phase of development. In the railway days, being a federal MP from British Columbia or a literary scholar in Alberta required an intense, almost romantic, commitment, because of the investment of time and energy involved in getting from such places to the distant centres that complemented them. Today such things are jobs like other jobs, and the relation to the primary community has assumed a correspondingly greater importance. This is the positive and creative side of the relaxing of centralizing tensions in modern society, of which separatism represents a less creative one. The influence of television is often blamed for violence, and certainly there are television programs that are profoundly distasteful from this point of view. But there is another side to television: bringing the remote into our living room can be a very sobering form of communication, and a genuinely humanizing one. I remember the thirties, when so many 'intellectuals' were trying to rationalize or ignore the Stalin massacres or whatever such horrors did not fit their categories, and thinking even then that part of their infantilism was in being men of print: they saw only lines of type on a page, not lines of prisoners shuffling off to death camps. But something of the real evil of the Vietnam war did get on television, and the effect seems to have been on the whole a healthy

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one. At least the American public came to hate the war, instead of becoming complacent or inured to its atrocities. Similarly in Canada: Eskimos, blacks, Indians, perhaps even Wasps, cannot go on being comic-strip stereotypes after they have been fully exposed on television. Of course better knowledge can also create dislike and more tension; and when I speak of an exchange of identities I certainly do not mean that Canada will acquire anything of the simplistic optimism of an earlier age in the United States. Television is one of many factors which will make that impossible. Another is the curtailing of resources, already mentioned. Still another is the emergence of chilling technical possibilities in genetics, which raise questions about identity that make our traditional ones look like learning to spell cat. Another is the geography of the global village. In the nineteenth century the Canadian imagination responded to the Biblical phrase 'from the river unto the ends of the earth,' and one of the historians referred to by Mr Cross, W.L. Morton, has written with great sensitivity about the impact, psychological and otherwise, of the northern frontier on the Canadian consciousness. But now Canada has become a kind of global Switzerland, surrounded by the United States on the south, the European common market on the east, the Soviet Union on the north, China and Japan on the west. In some essays in this book a distinctive Canadian bias shows through that may be culturally significant. The fact that Descartes is a French philosopher is not simply a biographical fact: Descartes is French in the sense that he is a permanent and central part of a tradition that makes France different in its cultural pattern from other countries. Similarly with Locke as a British philosopher, or Kant as a German one, or William James as an American one. Canada seems to have no philosopher of this defining kind: what Canadian philosophy does have is a strong emphasis on religion, so remarkable as to be worth pausing on for a moment. Mr Goudge, writing of philosophy, is compelled to deal with religion even though there is a separate chapter on religion; the only cult-philosopher in the country, Bernard Lonergan, referred to by Mr Grant, is a religious philosopher; much is said in this book and elsewhere about the religious drive in George Grant, in McLuhan, in myself. In Creighton the drive may not be technically religious, but it is certainly prophetic. Here again French Canada established a pattern which English Canada to some degree imitated, of keeping church and state closer together, particularly in education, than was done in the United States. Mr Grant's urbane treatment of ecumenical movements in Canada makes it clear that while religion is ideally a uniting force in society, it is more likely in practice to be a divisive one. Religion in Canada has closely followed the centrifugal and expanding rhythm of Canadian life, spearheaded by missionaries, from the seventeenth-century Jesuits to our own time - even Norman Bethune was a missionary in a sense. As it did so an

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intensely competitive spirit developed, as we can see if we walk through any Canadian town. The centrifugal movement came to a halt when the population started rolling back into the growing cities, and the urbanizing of Canadian mores greatly weakened the social influence of the churches, which long remained fixated on the earlier social values. The temperance movement, for example, as we find it in, say, Nellie McClung, was often associated with a very genuine political liberalism, even radicalism, in nineteenth-century Canada, but the growth of cities turned it into a horse-and-buggy phenomenon that could rouse no response except ridicule. There is nothing here sociologically different from what happened in the United States, but the comparative absence of what I have called American deism may have made the impact of religion on the Canadian consciousness more direct. I remember a Spring Thaw skit of some years ago, where a Roman Catholic, an Anglican, and a United Church leader sang a song about charity and brotherly love, then each in turn, after glancing darkly at his confrères, stepped forward and informed the audience that of course he was God's accredited spokesman. The audience found the skit very funny, but I recall someone remarking that possibly only a Canadian audience would have done so. I had long realized that the religious context of so many Canadian intellectuals had something to do with the peripheral situation of Canada, in the way that, for instance, Denmark was an appropriate place for a Kierkegaard in nineteenth-century Europe. Kierkegaard's hostility to what he called 'Christendom' had a lot to do with the impact of the mores of bigger countries on his own. When I read Mr Woodcock on the role of the Canadian poet as a counter-culture hero, something else rang a bell, and enabled me to make a connection with literature. Canada has always been a cool climate for heroes: Mr Bissell speaks of the grudging support given to our last three prime ministers, all of whom, whatever one thinks of their policies, have compared very favourably, in intelligence and personal integrity, with some of those who adorned the White House in the same period; and Mrs Thomas's survey of Canadian biography reveals very little response in Canada to any Carlylean great-man conception of history. It would be interesting, and very typical of Canada, if Canadian literature had found its soul, so to speak, by defining the poet as a counterhero or anti-hero. Of course this counter-cultural aspect of poetry is true of the United States also; but it seems to me that Canada has been steadily building up something like a North American counter-culture against the United States which is now big and complex enough to be examined on its own terms. Once more, 'against' simply means differentiation. It may be the end of the century before any real coherence will emerge from our cultural pattern: so far we are confined to what Eliot would call hints

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followed by guesses. But some things in the Canadian tradition are beginning to look very international. It seems to me that in the democracies generally today, the dialectical habit of mind is giving way to a tendency to think in containing terms, where the antithesis is included and absorbed instead of being defined by exclusion. This is really a conservative tendency in thought, although not directly connected with political conservatism: Mr Bissell quotes an example of it from Abraham Rotstein, who is very far from being a right-winger. At the same time, as we can see if we look carefully at what Mr Cross has to say about W.L. Morton, W.J. Eccles, and Carl Berger in particular, the tendency is conservative, in the sense of revolving around the question of what it is necessary or important to conserve. As such, it is a tendency that fulfils the tradition of Burke in Canada, in which opposition forms a larger synthesis instead of an apocalyptic separation of sheep and goats. The anti-Marxist attitude of mind suggested here, if I am right about it, is one of crucial importance for literature, in Canada and elsewhere. Marxism is a very remarkable intellectual achievement as well as the dominant moral force in the contemporary world, but, at least wherever it has come to power, it cannot really cope with the humanities or with the place of the arts in modern society. When I read through the more purely literary chapters of this book, and check them against my own meagre first-hand knowledge, I am struck by a feature of Canadian writing that seems to me a literary parallel to the conservative tendency just spoken of. It might be called formalism or even classicism: I should prefer, however, to call it simply professionalism. Modern society has decreed that very few writers shall live by paper alone, and the great majority of our writers are part-time writers, but that is not what I mean. I mean writing from within literature and within its genres, as opposed to the Tve got something important to say' approach of the amateur, who then looks around for a fictional or poetic vehicle to put his important say into. The professional attitude has affinities, if we like, with the principle that the medium is the message. I should say rather that in fully realized writing there is no difference between structure and content, what is called content being the structure of the individual work, as distinct from the structure of the convention or genre to which it belongs. Professionalism means technique and craftsmanship, which amateur writers often think of as a weakening of the moral fibre. Canadian criticism has been plagued a good deal by the foolish notion that imagination is a by-product of extremes, specifically emotional extremes. We can't have a great literature in Canada because we're too safe, sane, dull, humdrum - not enough lynchings, one critic suggested. The professional writer discovers from his experience that the imagination is the constructive element in the mind, and that intensity cannot be conveyed except through structure, which includes de-

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sign, balance, and proportion. Of all genres, this is perhaps most obvious in the drama, where the show has to go over or else, and Mr Ripley has some trenchant observations about the importance of a professional attitude in the theatre. Once technique reaches a certain degree of skill, it turns into something that we may darkly suspect to be fun: fun for the writer to display it, fun for the reader to watch it. In the old days we were conditioned to believe that only lowbrows read for fun, and that highbrows read serious literature to improve their minds. The coming of radio did a good deal to help this morbid situation, and television has done something (not enough) more. We now live in a time when Leonard Cohen can start out with an erudite book of poems called Let Us Compare Mythologies, the chief mythologies being the Biblical and the Classical, and evolve from there, quite naturally, into a well-known folk singer. Mr Woodcock points out the immense importance of the revival of the oral tradition, the public speaking of poetry to audiences, often with a background of music, in making the serious poet a genuinely popular figure. To be popular means having the power to amuse, in a genuine sense, and the power to amuse is, again, dependent on skill and craftsmanship. Mr Woodcock speaks of an element in Earle Birney's poetry that might almost be called stunting, an interest in every variety of technical experiment, as though experiment were an end in itself. This is not a matter of panting to keep up with all the avant-garde movements: Birney is a genuinely contemporary poet, and his versatility expresses a central contemporary interest. Mr Lane refers to the zany quality in Marshall McLuhan's style that has infuriated some people into calling him a humbug and a charlatan. James Reaney writes plays, sometimes tragic ones, full of the let's-pretend devices of children's games, devices which, if they were described out of their context, might sound like Peter Quince and his wall in A Midsummer Night's Dream. The verbal wit that comes through in, say, Leonard Cohen's Beautiful Losers, in some of Needham's essays (see MrConron's article), in the concrete poets, is a sign of the presence of seriousness and not the absence of it, the serious being the opposite of the solemn. We are a long way from the days when a bewildered Joyce, confronted with responses to Finnegans Wake which invariably treated it with either awe or ridicule, said: 'But why couldn't they see that the book was funny?' About twenty years ago I started trying to explain that the poet qua poet had no notion of life or reality or experience until he had read enough poetry to understand from it how poetry dealt with such things. I was told, in all quarters from Canadian journals (see Mr Ross's article) to university classrooms, that I was reducing literature to a verbal game. I would not accept the word 'reducing,' but otherwise the statement was correct enough. Now that the work ethic has settled into a better perspective, the play ethic is also

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coming into focus, and we can perhaps understand a bit more clearly than we could a century ago why Othello and Macbeth are called plays. Play is that for the sake of which work is done, the climactic Sabbath vision of mankind. A book concerned entirely with play in this sense passes over most of what occupies the emotional foreground of our lives at present: inflation, unemployment, violence and crime, and much else. The historian of Elizabethan literature, praising the exuberance and power of that literature, would not necessarily be unaware of the misery, injustice, and savagery that pervaded English life at the same time. What seems to come to matter more, eventually, is what man can create in the face of the chaos he also creates. This book is about what has been created, in words and in Canada, during the present age, and the whole body of that creation will be the main reason for whatever interest posterity may take in us.

Bibliography and Notes GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (selected books in print, 1975) A BASIC REFERENCE BOOKS

Walters, Reginald Eyre (compiler). A Checklist of Canadian Literature and Background Materials, 1628-1960 [Canadian Literature in English] (compiled for the Humanities Research Council of Canada). Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1959; 2nd edition, revised 1972 Walters, Reginald Eyre and Inglis Freeman Bell (compilers). On Canadian Literature, 1806-1960: A Check List of Articles, Books, and Theses on English-Canadian Literature, Its Authors, and Language. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1966, reprinted with corrections and additions 1973 B BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Amtmann, Bernard, Inc. (booksellers). Catalogues. Montreal: 1948. See A Catalogue of the Catalogues Issued since 1948 (1964) Brodeur, Léo A. and Antoine Naarnan (compilers). Répertoire des thèses littéraires canadiennes (janvier 1969-septembre 1971). Index of Canadian Literary Theses (January 1969-September 1971). Sherbrooke: Centre d'Etude des Littératures d'Expression française 1972 Canadian Historical Review (quarterly). Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1920Contains (quarterly) a list of 'Recent Publications Relating to Canada.' (abbrev. CHR) Canadian Literature (quarterly). Vancouver: University of British Columbia 1959Canadian Periodical Index. Toronto: Toronto Public Libraries 1929-32, and 1938Canadiana: A List of Publications of Canadian Interest. Ottawa: National Library of Canada 1951Dominion Drama Festival. Canadian Full-Length Plays in English: A Preliminary Annotated Catalogue. Edited by W.S. Milne. Ottawa: The Festival (200 Cooper St) 1964 Gnarowski, Michael (compiler). A Concise Bibliography of English-Canadian Literature. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1973 Journal of Canadian Fiction. Montreal, Bellrock Press 1972. Contains an annual list of Post-Graduate Theses in Canadian Literature: English and English-French Comparative Lande, Lawrence (collector and compiler). The Lawrence Lande Collection in the Redpath Library ofMcGHI University. Montreal: Lawrence Lande Foundation for Canadian Historical Research 1965 - (collector and compiler). Rare and Unusual Canadiana. First supplement to the Lande Bibliography. Montreal: McGill University 1971 Naaman, Antoine. Guide bibliographique des thèses littéraires canadiennes de 1921 à 1969. Montréal: Cosmos [1970] Peel, Bruce (compiler). A Bibliography of the Prairie Provinces to 1953: With Biographical Index. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1956; revised 1973 Priestley, F.E.L. The Humanities in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1964. See 'Appendices,' pp 93-246.

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Smith, A.J.M. The Book of Canadian Poetry. Toronto: W. J. Gage 1948; 3rd edition, revised and enlarged 1957. Pp 505-21 Staton, Frances M. and Marie Tremaine (editors). A Bibliography ofCanadiana. Toronto: Public Library 1934. First Supplement by Gertrude M. Boyle, assisted by Marjorie Colbeck 1959 Story, Norah, The Oxford Companion to Canadian History and Literature. Toronto: Oxford University Press 1967 Toye, William. The Oxford Companion to Canadian History and Literature. Supplement. Toronto: Oxford University Press 1973 Tremaine, Marie. A Bibliography of Canadian Imprints, 1751-1800. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1952 university of Toronto Quarterly. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, from 1931. Contains an annual review of 'Letters in Canada' (since the review for the year 1935) Walters, R.E. (compiler). 'Bibliography' in C.F. Klinck and R.E. Walters (editors), Canadian Anthology. Toronto: W.J. Gage 1955, 1957; revised 1965; revised 1974 C GENERAL STUDIES AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES

Alwood, Margarel. Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature. Toronto: Anansi 1972 Baker, Ray Palmer. A History of English-Canadian Literature to the Confederation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Universily Press 1920. Reprinled, New York: Russell and Russell 1968 Bourinol, John George. Our Intellectual Strength and Weakness. Thomas Gulhrie Marquis, 'English-Canadian Literature.' Camille Roy, 'French-Canadian Literature.' Introduclion by Clara Thomas. Toronto: Universily of Toronto Press 1973 Brown, E.K. On Canadian Poetry (edited by G. Clever). Ollawa: Tecumseh Press 1973 Canadian Literature (quarterly) Vancouver, BC: Universily of British Columbia 1959Crilical arlicles on Canadian lileralure Canadian Writers [a series of New Canadian Library 'original' handbooks on selected writers (general editor, Dave Godfrey)]. Toronto: McClelland and Slewart Canadian Writers and Their Works [a series of handbooks on selected writers (general editor, William French)]. Toronto: Forum House Collin, W.E. The White Savannahs. Toronto: Macmillan 1936. Reprinled by ihe Universily of Toronto Press 1975, inlroduction by Germaine Warkentin Crilical Views on Canadian Writers [a series of anthologies of selected crilicism on selected writers (general editor, Michael Gnarowski)]. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Toronto: Universily of Toronto Press. A series of volumes, of which four have been published: i, 1000-1700 [1966]; ii, 1701-1740 [1%9]; in, 1741-1770 [1974]; x, 1871-1880 [1972] Dudek, Louis and Michael Gnarowski (editors). The Making of Modern Poetry in Canada. Toronto: Ryerson Press 1971 Egoff, Sheila A. The Republic of Childhood: A Critical Guide to Canadian Children's Literature in English. Toronto: Oxford Universily Press 1967; 2nd edilion, 1975 Frye, Northrop. The Bush Garden: Essays on the Canadian Imagination. Toronto: Anansi 1971 Fulford, Robert el al. (editors). Read Canadian: A Book about Canadian Books. Toronto: James Lewis and Samuel 1972 Gibson, Graeme (interviewer). Eleven Canadian Novelists. Toronto: Anansi 1973 Jones, Douglas G. Butterfly on Rock: A Study of Themes and Images in Canadian Literature. Toronto: Universily of Toronto Press 1970 Klinck, Carl F. and Reginald E. Wallers (editors). Canadian Anthology. Toronto: W.J. Gage 1955; 3rd edilion, revised and enlarged 1974

BIBLIOGRAPHY

335

Lande, Lawrence. Old Lamps Aglow: An Appreciation of Early Canadian Poetry. Montreal: author 1957 Literature of Canada: Poetry and Prose in Reprint [general editor Douglas Lochhead]. Cloth and paperback reprints of Canadian literary works with introductions for each volume by Canadian scholars McDougall, Robert L. (editor). Our Living Tradition. Carleton University and University of Toronto Press 1957, 1959, 1962, 1965 (1957 volume edited by Claude T. Bissell) Mandel, Eli (editor). Contexts of Canadian Criticism. A Collection of Critical Essays. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1971 Marquis, Thomas G. 'English-Canadian Literature.' See Bourinot, John George. Matthews, John P. Tradition in Exile: A Comparative Study of Social Influences on the Development of Australian and Canadian Poetry in the Nineteenth Century. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1962 Moss, John. Patterns of Isolation in English-Canadian Fiction. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1974 New, William H. Articulating West: Essays on Purpose and Form in Modern Canadian Literature. Toronto: New Press 1972 New, William H. (compiler). Dramatists in Canada: Selected Essays. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press 1972 New Canadian Library Series [general editor, Malcolm Ross]. Paperback reprints of Canadian literary works with introductions for each volume by Canadian scholars Pacey, Desmond. Creative Writing in Canada. Toronto: Ryerson 1952; revised and enlarged 1961 - Ten Canadian Poets. Toronto: Ryerson 1958 - Essays in Canadian Criticism 1938-1968. Toronto: Ryerson 1969 Park, Julian (editor). The Culture of Contemporary Canada. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1957 Rashley, R.E. Poetry in Canada: The First Three Steps. Toronto: Ryerson 1958 Rhodenizer, Vernon Blair. Canadian Literature in English. Montreal: Quality Press 1965 Ross, Malcolm. The Arts in Canada. Toronto: Macmillan 1958 Roy, Camille. 'French Canadian Literature.' See Bourinot, John George. Royal Society of Canada. Proceedings and Transactions Smith, A.J.M. The Book of Canadian Poetry. Toronto: W.J. Gage 1948; 3rd edition, revised and enlarged 1957 - Towards a View of Canadian Letters: Selected Critical Essays, 1928-1971. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press 1973 Stephens, Donald (editor). Writers of the Prairies. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press 1973 Studies in Canadian Literature [a series of studies of selected Canadian writers (general editors, Hugo McPherson and Gary Geddes)]. Toronto: Copp Clark Sutherland, Ronald. Second Image: Comparative Studies in Québec/Canadian Literature. Toronto: New Press 1971 Sylvestre, Guy, Brandon Conron, and Carl F. Klinck. Canadian Writers/Ecrivains canadiens. Toronto: Ryerson 1964 Thomas, Clara. Our Nature - Our Voices: A Guidebook to English-Canadian Literature. Toronto: New Press 1972 Twayne World Authors series [biographical and critical books on selected Canadian writers (general editor, Joseph Jones)]. New York: Twayne Publishers University of Toronto Quarterly. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1931. 'Letters in Canada' (critical articles), annual surveys since the review for the year 1935

336

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wallace, W. Stewart. The Macmillan Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Toronto: Macmillan 1926; 3rd edition 1963 Waterston, Elizabeth. Survey: A Short History of Canadian Literature. Toronto: Methuen 1973 Woodcock, George (editor). A Choice of Critics. Toronto: Oxford University Press 1966 - (editor). The Sixties: Canadian Writers and Writing of the Decade. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Publications Centre 1969

SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES, BY CHAPTERS EDITORS' NOTE: A s a general rule, footnotes to the chapters were avoided in favour of inclusion in the text of all relevant material and an indication of the sources of most references and quotations. For some chapters, therefore, no additional notes are supplied. For others, the reader will find in this section the contributors' lists of the most useful printed sources which they have consulted, together with their suggestions for further reading. The appropriate items in Watters's Checklist and in our 'General Bibliography' should be consulted for each chapter of this volume of the Literary History.

CHAPTER 3. LITERARY CRITICISM AND SCHOLARSHIP

For printed sources I have used especially: F.E.L. Priestley, The Humanities in Canada (1964); R.M. Wiles, The Humanities in Canada (Supplement 1966); The Canada Council Annual Reports; 'Letters in Canada,' University of Toronto Quarterly (1961-73); The National Library of Canada, Canadiana ( 1961-July 1973); the Directory of American Scholars ( 1969); and the MLA Bibliography ( 1961-71 ). I should also like to acknowledge advice or materials from the following: M.S. Batts, W.F. Blissett, J.A. Molinaro, T.M. Robinson, C.D. Rouillard, and several colleagues at the University of New Brunswick. None of these, of course, bears any responsibility for the sins of compression or omission I have had to commit. When unsure of the 'Canadian' status of a particular scholar I have taken what guidance I could -1 hope not too unwisely - from the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, the Dictionary of American Scholars, and the Inventory of Research in Progress in the Humanities.

CHAPTER 5. PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE

Canadian philosophers were also active in areas other than those represented by the works mentioned in both Volume n, Chapter 5 and Volume HI, Chapter 5. These areas include the editing of texts and anthologies; the writing of introductory works for use in the classroom; and the presenting of philosophical ideas to the general public. Publications which resulted from such activities embrace the following titles: TEXTS EDITED

F.H. Anderson, Plato's Symposium (1948), Meno (\949),Phaedo (1951), Bacon's Atetv Organon

BIBLIOGRAPHY

337

(and Related Writings) (1960); T.A. Goudge, Bergson's Introduction to Metaphysics (1949); A.H. Johnson, The Wit and Wisdom ofWhitehead (1947), The Wit and Wisdom of John Dewey (1949), ed., Whitehead and the Modern World: Collected Essays (1950), Whitehead's American Essays in Social Philosophy (1959), Whitehead's Interpretation of Science (1961); A.C. Pegis, The Wisdom of Catholicism (1949); L.E.M. Lynch, Pieper's Justice (1955), Gilson's Christian Philosophy of St Augustine (1960); A.A. Maurer, Aquinas' On Being and Essence (1949), Boethius' On the Division and Methods of the Sciences (from De Trinitate) (1953); J.W. Yolton, Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (3rd éd., 1971; abridged, 1965); R.E. Butts, Whewell, Theory of Scientific Method (1968); R. George, Bolzano, Logic and Epistemology (1972). ANTHOLOGIES EDITED

W.H. Dray, Philosophical Analysis and History (1966); S. McCall, Polish Logic 1920-1939 ( 1966); D. Braybrooke, Philosophical Problems of the Social Sciences (1965); J.H. Woods and L.W. Sumner, Necessary Truth (1969); W. Dunphy, The New Morality (1967); D.D. Evans, Peace, Power and Protest (1967); T. Penelhum and J.J. Macintosh, The First Critique: Reflections on Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason' (1969). INTRODUCTORY TEXTS

To general philosophy: R.C. Lodge, Applied Philosophy (1950); M. Long, The Spirit of Philosophy (1953); A. Stro\\, Philosophy Made Simple (1956), Introduction toPhilosophy (1961). To special topics: W.H. Dray, Philosophy of History (1964); I. Hacking, The Logic of Statistical Inference (1965); A.C. Michalos, Principles of Logic (1969); J. Wheatley, Prolegomena to Philosophy (1970). Talks on the CBC radio which were subsequently published make up O.P. Grant's Philosophy and the Mass Age (1959); L.E.M. Lynch's Christian Philosophy (1963); and A.R.C. Duncan's Moral Philosophy ( 1965). A number of other philosophers have also presented ideas on both CBC radio and television over the years. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

G.P. Grant, 'Philosophy,' in Royal Commission Studies (1951); Philosophy in Canada: A Symposium (1952), with an introduction by F.H. Anderson; T.A. Goudge, 'A Century of Philosophy in English Speaking Canada,' Dalhousie Review, XLVII, 4 (1968); Robert E. Butts, 'Philosophy of Science in Canada,' Journal for General Philosophy of Science (Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie) Band v, Heft 2 ( 1974) 341-58. This article is accompanied by a comprehensive bibliography compiled by Robert E. Butts and John Galinaitis, pp 390-406. It may appear surprising to some that no reference has been made here to B. Lonergan's Insight: A Philosophical Study of Human Understanding (1957), regarded in certain quarters as a very important philosophical book by a Canadian. The reasons for the omission are these. The book was published during a long period of absence of the author from Canada (1953-65), and its influence on the trends discussed in the chapter has been nil. Extreme differences of opinion about the book's philosophical worth are to be found. The book has therefore not been discussed in the chapter, but it has now been mentioned!

CHAPTER 6. RELIGIOUS AND THEOLOGICAL WRITINGS The essay by the late Very Rev. James S. Thomson on 'Religious and Theological Writings,' Chapter 29 in the first edition of the Literary History of Canada, has been of great assistance in the

338

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writing of the present chapter. Students whose interest is primarily bibliographical will find the earlier chapter useful as a supplement. See also my chapter (29) in the revised Volume n of the Literary History of Canada. With this notable exception, critical surveys of Canadian religious writing have seldom been attempted. General and denominational histories mentioned in the text contain numerous references to works, usually historical, by Canadian authors. Annual reviews of religious literature in the University of Toronto Quarterly are extremely valuable for recent years, as are the book review sections of the Canadian Journal of Religious Thought, the Canadian Journal of Theology, and Studies in Religion /Sciences Religieuses for the periods covered by these journals. Otherwise, the most useful general critiques are two essays: Gerald R. Cragg, 'The Present Position and the Future Prospects of Canadian Theology,' Canadian Journal of Theology 1 (1955) 5-10; and N.K. Clifford, 'Religion and the Development of Canadian Society: An Historicgraphical Analysis,' Church History 38 (1969) 506-23. Many early Canadian religious books are not easily located. The best single collection is that of the Archives of the United Church of Canada at Victoria University, Toronto. An important repository that might easily be missed is the New York Public Library.

CHAPTER 13. DRAMA AND THEATRE

1 2 3 4 5 6

Nathan Cohen, 'Theatre Today: English Canada,' Tamarack Review xm (Autumn 1959) 24 Myron Galloway, 'Helping Those Who Help Themselves,' Montreal Star, 8 Dec. 1973 The Canada Council Fourth Annual Report (1960-61) 30 The Canada Council Fifth Annual Report 1961-62 4 Ibid. 'On Being a Canadian Actor: Two Perspectives,' Canadian Theatre Review i (Winter 1974)

7 'Brief to the Advisory Arts Panel and The Canada Council from The Playwrights Committee of ACTRA,' November 1971 8 Ibid. 9 ' "A Strange Enterprise," Conclusions and Recommendations of a Seminar Sponsored by the Canada Council at Stanley House, July 19 to 23, 1971 ,' 2 10 The Canada Council Fifteenth Annual Report 1971-72 21 11 Don Rubin, 'Creeping Toward a Culture: The Theatre in English Canada since 1945,' Canadian Theatre Review i (Winter 1974) 20 12 The Brock Bibliography and its First Supplement list all plays published to date. I have included theatre and year of professional premieres wherever possible. 13 The Globe and Mail, 27 June 1967 Bibliographical note: The Brock Bibliography and its First Supplement list all books of importance, and the periodicals mentioned in this essay are the prime source of articles. The most comprehensive collection of Canadian theatre material is in the Theatre Section of the Metropolitan Toronto Central Library. Note of Thanks My warmest thanks to Miss Heather McCallum and the staff of the Theatre Section of the Metropolitan Toronto Central Library for their generous co-operation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

339

CHAPTER 14. FICTION

Of the approximately 125 other novels published during this period and not discussed elsewhere in this chapter, most were formulaic. They divide into five main groups: stories about war (usually World War H) and about the peace movement, historical romances, hockey and football stories, social welfare stories (immigrant groups, ecology, the native peoples, the business world), and exotic setting romances. Many overlapped categories. Often they are overlaid by a veneer of psychology, and the Possessive Mother features as a recurrent character type. The best of these works are probably C.J. Eustace's A Spring in the Desert (1969), Ray Ostergard's The Vernal Equinox (1964), John Porter's Winterkill (1967), and Joseph Schull's TheJinker (1968). Biographical information about some of the major writers can be found in Contemporary Novelists, ed. James Vinson (New York: St Martin's 1972). Bibliographies of primary and secondary titles appeared annually in Canadian Literature from 1960(for 1959)to 1971 (for 1970); after that date, listings are to be found in The Journal of Commonwealth Literature and The Journal of Canadian Fiction. Critical studies of fiction in the 1960s increased as the number of journals devoted to the study of Canadian literature grew. Of particular interest is Canadian Literature, established in 1959 and edited by George Woodcock, in which many provocative articles and reviews appeared. Issue #41 (later published separately as The Sixties [Vancouver: University of BC 1969]) surveyed the period 1959-69 and contained reflections by such writers as Laurence, Richler, and Levine on their own development. Selected essay s from Canadian Literature were published as A Choice of Critics, ed. George Woodcock (Toronto: Oxford 1966)), and many of Woodcock's own essays were collected under the title Odysseus Ever Returning in the New Canadian Library (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1970). That series, in 1973 reaching 93 volumes, contained useful critical introductions to individual works and writers. Other journals to publish key articles included Journal of Canadian Fiction (estab. 1972, ed. Denis Smith), The Fiddlehead (ed. Fred Cogswell and later Robert Gibbs), Tamarack Review (ed. Robert Weaver), and the established university quarterlies. Other collections which included essays on 1960s fiction are Desmond Pacey's Essays in Canadian Criticism 1938-1968 (Toronto: Ryerson 1969), W.H. New's Articulating West (Toronto: New Press 1972), Ronald Sutherland's Second Image (Toronto: New Press 1971), and Contexts of Canadian Criticism,ed. Eli Mandel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1971). Three books provide more general overviews of Canadian literature: Margaret Atwood's Survival (Toronto: Anansi 1972), D.G. Jones's Butterfly on Rock (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1971), and Northrop Frye's The Bush Garden: Essays on the Canadian Imagination (Toronto: Anansi 1971). And several monographs on individual writers appeared, most attached to one of three series: Copp Clark's Studies in Canadian Literature, McClelland and Stewart's Canadian Writers, and Twayne's World Authors. These included: George Woodcock's Mordecai Richler (Toronto: M & S 1970), Clara Thomas's Margaret Laurence (Toronto: M & S 1969), Michael Ondaatje's Leonard Cohen (Toronto: M & S 1970), W.H. New's Malcolm Lowry (Toronto: M & S 1971), and Richard HauerCosta'sMa/co/mL0H>ry (New York: Twayne 1972). Perle Epstein's The Private Labyrinth of Malcolm Lowry (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston 1969) examines the Cabbalistic elements of Lowry's Under the Volcano, and Patricia A. Morley's comparative study The Immoral Moralists (Toronto: Clarke Irwin 1972), focusses on the idea of puritanism in the work of Hugh MacLennan and Leonard Cohen. Two collections of reviews and articles appeared: Mordecai Richler, éd. G. David Sheps (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson 1971), and Malcolm Lowry: The Man and His Work, ed. George Woodcock (Vancouver: University of BC Press 1971). And there were two collections of interviews:

340

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Donald Cameron's Conversations with Canadian Novelists (Toronto: Macmillan 1973), and Graeme Gibson's Eleven Canadian Novelists (Toronto: Anansi 1973). There were also several books published which, although not biographical or critical in nature, nor even in some cases directly concerned with the 1960s, affected a number of writers of the time and gave their works a sociological and philosophical frame of reference. Among them were George Woodcock's The Rejection of Politics (Toronto: New Press 1972), Anarchism (Cleveland: Meridian 1962), and Canada and the Canadians (Toronto: Oxford 1970); John Porter's The Vertical Mosaic: An Analysis of Social Class and Power in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1965); Nairn Rattan's Reality and Theatre (Montreal: HMH 1970; transí. Alan Brown, Toronto: Anansi 1972); George Grant's Philosophy in the Mass Age (Toronto: Copp Clark 1959, rev. 1966) and Technology and Empire (Toronto: Anansi 1969); Carl Berger's The Sense of Power (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1970); Abraham Rotstein's The Precarious Homestead: Essays on Economics, Technology and Nationalism (Toronto: New Press 1973); and the several volumes on communications theory by H.A. Innis and Marshall McLuhan.

Contributors CLAUDE BissELL, University Professor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario; President of Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, 1956-8; President of the University of Toronto 1958-71. Author of two books on higher education: The Strength of the University (Toronto 1968) and Halfway Up Parnassus (Toronto 1974). Editor of Great Canadian Writing (Toronto 1966). Author of articles on Victorian literature, Canadian literature, and various aspects of higher education. JOHN H. CHAPMAN, Assistant Deputy Minister, Research, Department of Communications, Ottawa, Ontario. Co-author of Upper Atmosphere and Space Programs in Canada (1967) and author of numerous articles in space science and science policy. BRANDON CONRON, Professor of English, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario. Author of Money Callaghan (New York 1966) in Twayne World Authors series and of articles on Canadian and Commonwealth literature. Editor of the Latin pieces in The Literary Works of Matthew Prior (Oxford 1959, rev. 1971), of Gabrielle Roy's Street of Riches (Toronto 1967), and of Money Callaghan (Toronto 1975) in Critical Views on Canadian Writers series. Co-editor, with Guy Sylvestre and Carl Klinck, of Canadian Writers ¡Ecrivains canadiens (Toronto 1964, rev. 1966). MICHAEL s. CROSS, Professor of History, Dalhousie University. Author of The Frontier Thesis and the Canadas and The Workingman in the Nineteenth Century. Editor of the Canadian Historical Review. SHEILA A. EGOFF, Professor, School of Librarianship, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia. Author of The Republic of Childhood: A Critical Guide to Canadian Children's Literature in English (Toronto 1967); associate editor and co-author of Only Connect: Readings on Children's Literature (Toronto 1969); and author of numerous articles on children's literature. THOMAS A. GOUDGE, Professor of Philosophy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario. Author of The Thought ofC.S. Peirce (1950), The Ascent of Life: A Philosophical Study of the Theory of Evolution (1961), Bergson's Introduction to Metaphysics, edited with an introduction. Member, Editorial Board, The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1967). JOHN WEBSTER GRANT, Professor of Church History, Emmanuel College of Victoria University, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario. Author of Free Churchmanship in England (London 1955), God's People in India (Toronto, London, and Madras 1959), The Canadian Experience of Church Union (London 1967), The Church in the Canadian Era (Toronto 1972). Editor of Die Unierte Kirchen (Stuttgart 1973).

342

CONTRIBUTORS

LAURiAT LANE, JR, Chairman, Department of English, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick. Editor of English Studies in Canada (1975), Approaches to Walden (1961), coeditor, with G.H. Ford, of The Dickens Critics (1961), and senior editor of The Stature of Dickens (1971). Author of articles and introductions on Dickens, Thoreau, and American fiction. HENRY B. MAYO, Professor of Political Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario. Author of Democracy and Marxism (New York 1955), Introduction to Marxist Theory (New York 1960); Introduction to Democratic Theory (New York 1964), Democracy in Canada (Toronto 1975), and of articles and chapters on contemporary political theory. WILLIAM H. NEW, Associate Professor of English, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia. Author of Malcolm Lowry (Toronto 1971), Articulating West (Toronto 1972), Among Worlds (Toronto 1975), and several articles. Associate editor of Canadian Literature ; editor of Four Hemispheres (Toronto 1971) and Dramatists in Canada (Vancouver 1972); coeditor, with Jack Hodgins, of Voice and Vision (Toronto 1972). DESMOND PACEY, late University Professor of English and Vice-Président (Academic), University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick. Author of Frederick Philip Grove (1945), Creative Writing in Canada (1952; enlarged edition 1967), Ten Canadian Poets (1958), Ethel Wilson (1967), Essays in Canadian Criticism (1969), and of several books of short stories and children's verse. Editor of several anthologies and of The Letters of Frederick Philip Grove (1975). Author of many critical articles and reviews on Canadian literature. JOHN D. RIPLEY, Associate Professor of English, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec. Professor Ripley has acted and directed in Canada and Europe. MALCOLM ROSS, Thomas McCulloch Professor, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Author of Milton's Royalism (Ithaca 1943), Poetry and Dogma (New Brunswick, NJ, and Toronto 1954). Editor of Our Sense of Identity (Toronto 1954) The Arts in Canada (Toronto 1958), The New Canadian Library (Toronto 1955), Author also of numerous articles on seventeenth-century, Victorian, and Canadian literature. WILLIAM ELGIN swiNTON, formerly Centennial Professor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, and Senior Fellow, Massey College, Toronto, Ontario. Author of The Dinosaurs (London 1970) and many other books on palaeontology, handbooks of the British Museum (natural history), and articles on the history of science and medicine. CLARA MCCANDLESS THOMAS, Professor of English, York University, Toronto, Ontario. Author of Canadian Novelists, 1920-1945 (1946), Love and Work Enough: The Life of Anna Jameson (1967), Margaret Laurence (1969), Ryerson of Upper Canada (1969), Our Nature: Our Voices, Vol. i (1973), and The Manawaka World of Margaret Laurence (1975). Author of numerous articles and introductions for reprints of Canadian works, and general editor of McClelland and Stewart's Heritage series (1975).

CONTRIBUTORS

343

GEORGE WOODCOCK, editor of Canadian Literature, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia. Author of The Crystal Spirit (London 1966), Anarchism (Cleveland 1962), Canada and the Canadians (Toronto and London 1970), Herbert Read (London 1972), Odysseus Ever Returning (Toronto 1972), The Rejection of Politics and Other Essays (Toronto 1972), and some thirty other books (including anthologies) in the fields of history, biography, travel, criticism, and verse. NORTHROP FRYE, University Professor and Professor of English, Victoria College, University of Toronto. Author of Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake (Princeton 1947), Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton 1957), The Well-Tempered Critic (Bloomington 1963), Fables of Identity (New York 1963), The Educated Imagination (Toronto 1965), The Modern Century (Toronto 1967), The Stubborn Structure: Essays on Criticism and Society (London 1970), The Bush Garden: Essays on the Canadian Imagination (Toronto 1971), and The Critical Path: An Essay on the Social Context ofLiteraiy Criticism (Bloomington 1971). Author also of numerous other books and articles and editor of many volumes of literary criticism.

Acknowledgments The Canada Council, Ottawa, for grants-in-aid-of-research to George Woodcock, W.H. New, and Miss Kaye Mill (assisting W.H. New). Canada, Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, Ottawa, for quotations from Don W. Thompson, Men and Meridians n (1967) 85,88. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Toronto, for quotations from Frank Underbill, The Image of Confederation ( 1964) 24-5, 38, 68-9. Canadian Historical Review (University of Toronto Press), for quotations from Donald Creighton, 'Sir John Macdonald and Canadian Historians,' CHR, xxix (March 1948) 1-13. Canadian Literature (University of British Columbia), for a quotation from Robert McDougall, 'The Dodo and the Cruising Auk,' 18 (Autumn 1963) 19. General Publishing Co Ltd, Toronto, for a quotation from Mavis Gallant, My Heart is Broken (1974). Gray Publishing Ltd, Sidney, BC, for a quotation from George Ciutesi, Son ofRaven,Son of Deer (1967). McClelland and Stewart, Ltd, Toronto, for a quotation from A.J.M. Smith, editor, Masks of Poetry (1962). The Macmillan Company of Canada Ltd, Toronto, for a quotation from 'The Decline and Fall of the Empire of the St Lawrence' in Towards the Discovery of Canada (1972) by Donald Creighton. New Press, Toronto, for a quotation from C.J. Newman, A Russian Novel ( 1973). University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico, for a quotation from W.J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier 1534-1760 ( 1969) 79-80. University of Toronto Press, for quotations from D.G. Jones, Butterfly on Rock: A Study of Themes and ¡mages in Canadian Literature (1970); S.J.R. Noel, Politics ¡n Newfoundland (1971). University of Toronto Quarterly (University of Toronto Press), for quotations from Northrop Frye's reviews of poetry in 'Letters in Canada 1951,' UTQ, xxi 3 (April 1952) 255; 'Letters in Canada 1952,' UTQ, xxn 3 (April 1953) 269-70, 275; 'Letters in Canada 1953,' UTQ, xxin 3 (April 1954) 254; 'Letters in Canada 1959,' UTQ, xxix 4 (July 1960) 450; from F.R. Scott, 'Letters in Canada 1945,' UTQ, xv 3 (April 1946) 270; from George Whalley, 'Scholarship and Criticism,' UTQ, xxix 1 (October 1959)42-3.

Index

Agent, Action and Reason (1971)102 Agnew, G. Harvey 132 Agrarian Socialism (1968) 145 Agricultural History (1942)73 Aguzzi-Barbagli, D. 54 Aiken, Conrad 274 Airmont (paperback series) 36 Airport ( 1968) 234-5 Aitchison, J.H. 146 Aitken, H.G.J. 140 Aitken, Max (Lord Beaverbrook) 203 Akavak( 1968) 205 Ake, Claude 152 Akrigg, G.P.V. 43 Akula, Kastus 245 AlPurdy(\970)29 Alabaster, William 40 Alexander Mackenzie: Clear Gr/7(1960)82, 197 Alexander Mackenzie and the Northwest (1969)200 Alexis, Paul 51 Alfoldi-Rosenbaum, Elizabeth 52 Alive Man!: The Physiology of Physical Activity (1972) 130 All Silent, All Damned: The Search for Isaac Barr (1969) 202 Allan, Iris 200 46 Adams, Ian 157,236 Allan, Ted 133, 195,202 Alldritt, Keith 58 Addison, Ottelyn201 Administration of New Allen, Joseph Antisell 186 Allen, R.E. 85,102 France, The (1970) 75 Allen, Ralph 177,235 Aeneid( Virgil) 53 Allen, Richard 109 Affair ofGabrielle Russier, Alliances and Illusions (1969) The( 1971)254 151 African Studies Association Alligator Pie (1974) 206, 207 (us)35 Afterpeople, The (1970)261-2 Alline, Henry 77,200 Against the Season (1971) 270 Along that Coast (1964) 235 Age of the Astronauts (1971) Alphabet (magazine, 1960-71) 38,257,290 303 Agel, Jerome 179 America (1971) 302

Abbey, Lloyd 317 Abbott, Maude E. 133,192 Abell, H.C. 155 Abella, Irving 81 Aberle.David 110 Above Ground ( 1968) 242 Abracadabra ( 1967) 300 Abramson, J.A. 155 Abstract Beast, The (1971)257 Acadia: The Human Geography of Early Nova Scotia to 1760(1969)75,78 Acceptable Inequalities (I. Bowen, 1970) 141 Achebe, Chinua 36,46 Acheson, A.L.K. 139 Acheson, T.W. 81 Achievement of William Faulkner, The (1966)47 Ads in Oxford ( 1961) 304 Acknowledgment to Life (ed. 1970)300 Acorn, Milton 24,2%, 306, 311,313 Action (1968) 95 Actor's Equity Association 215 Adam, Graeme Mercer 183, 186 Adam, Ian 37 Adam Lindsay Gordon ( 1968)

American Literary Scholarship 1967 47 American Social Fiction: James to Cozzens (1964) 47 American Wildlife Society Award 127 'Ames, Leslie.' See Ross, W.E.D. A.M. Klein (Waddington, 1970)29 Amongst Thistles and Thorns (1965)246 Anak Press (Wood Mountain, Sask.) 289 Analytical Philosophy (1962, 1965) 102 Anansi. See House of Anansi. Anarchism (1962) 152 Anarchist Prince, The: A Biographical Study of Peter Kropotkin(\971)203 Anatomy of Criticism (Frye) 59 Anatomy of Melancholy, The (R. Burton) 56 Anatomy of a Party, The: The National CCF, 1932-61 (W. Young, 1969) 82, 145 Anchor (paperback series) 36 Anderson, F.H. 102 Anderson, Patrick 163 Anderson, R. 157 Anderson, Sherwood 259 André, John 201 Andrea, Antonio d' 54 Andrewes, Lancelot 40 Andrusyshen, C.H. 41 Andy. See, Two Novels. Anerca(\959)249 Angled Road, The (1952)253 Anglican Design in Loyalist Nova Scotia, 1783-1816, The (1972) 109 Angus, Margaret 132 Animal Worlds ( 1964) 126 Animals with Human Faces (1973)56

346 Animals and Man (CBC television series, 1965) 126 Animals in that Country, The (1968)314 Anne of Green Gables (Montgomery) 210 Annotated Bibliography of Smollett Scholarship, 1946-68 ( 1969) 56 Anson, Peter 298 Anthology (CBC radio program) 288 Antigonish Review 258 Anti-Semitism and the Christian Mind ( 1969) 105 Anton, Frank R. 138, 142 Apex of Power (197\) 151 Apicius (1969)53 Apocalyptic Vision in the Poetry of Shelley, The (1964) 57 Apollinaire, Guillaume 287 Apostolic Church in the New Testament, The (1963) 106 Appraisals of Canadian Literature (1926) 19 Apprenticeship ofDuddv Kravitz, The (\959) 170,233. 239,241 Approaches to Catullus ( 1972) 53 Aquin, Hubert 251 Aquinas, Saint Thomas 86, 93 Arcana (1972)315 Archer, M. 138 Archibald, Edith 192 Archibald, Sir Edward Mortimer 192 Archibald, K. 149 Archibald Lampman: Canadian Poet of Nature (1929) 19, 191 Archibald MacLeish: A Checklist ( 1973) 47-8 Arctic Frontier, The (1966) 151 Ardai, Pall 88 Ardent Exile, The: The Life and Times of Thomas D'Arcy McGee(\95\) 194, 195 Ardies, Tom 235 Areas of Economic Stress in Canada (1965) 142 Argyle, Barry 46 Aristotle (Greek philosopher) 86, 94, 99, 100 Arkwright(\91\)238,242

INDEX

Armed Forces Historical Branch 80 Armies of the Moon, The (1972K314 Armour, Le sue 94 Arms, Men and Government: The War Policies of Canada, 1939-1945(1970)80 Armstrong, Christopher 81 Armstrong, Muriel 138 Arnold, Armin 44, 49 Arnold, Matthew 294, 302, 323 Around the Mountain: Scenes from Montreal Life (1967) 264 An of John Webster, The (1972)43 Art of the Possible, The (1961) 151 Art of Sinclair Lewis, The (1967)47 Art of Thomas Middleton, The (1970)43 Arthur Currie: Biography of a Great Canadian ( 1950) 194 Arthur Meighen: A Biography (R.Graham, 1960-5)82, 145, 197 Arthur Stringer: Son of the North (1941) 191 Articulating West (1972)27 Arts Club (Vancouver) 215 Arts Theatre (Toronto) 231 Ash-(1967)310 Ascent of Life, The: A Philosophical Study of the Theory of Evolution (1961) 100-1 Ashley, C.A. 149 Ask the Name of the Lion (1962)235 Ask No Quarter: A Biography of Agnes Maephail (1959) 195 Aspler, Tony 245 Assassination of D'Arcy Mi-Gee, The (1968) 202 Assignment, The ( 1971) 263 Atkey.R.G. 146 Atkinson, J.E. 199 Atkinson, W.E.D. 43 Atlantic, The (us magazine) 15 Atlantic Advocate (magazine) 257 Atlantic Monthly Prize (De la Roche) 18, 190 Atlantic Provinces, The: The

Emergence of Colonial Society, 1712-1857(1965)77 Atlantis (1967)310 Atlas of Anatomy 130 Atonement oj Ashley Morden, The( 1964) 249. 280 At wood. Margaret 7, 10. 14, 1 5 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 3 1 , 162, 167, 172-3.209,237.255.257. 258, 260, 269, 270,273-4, 281,283. 286-96passim. 301,312,314,324 Aucoin. R. 150 Auden, W.H.42 Augustine, Saint 86, 108 Auld, D.A.L. 138 Auster, Henry 58 Austin, Allen E. 36 Austin, J.L. 92. 96, 97, 109 Autobiologv (Bowering. 1972) 262 Avakumovic, Ivan 80, 182 Averroës (Spanish-Arabian philosopher) 86 A vison, Margaret 29, 172, 175, 287, 288,296,314 Avon Theatre (Stratford, Ont.) 224,230,231 Awake the Courteous Echo (1973)41 Ayer, Alfred Jules 91 Aylward, David 301 Ayre, Robert 205 Aziz, Maqbool 47 Babbitt, J.D. I l l Backroom Boys and Girls (1973)237 Bacon, Sir Francis 99 Bacque. James 251. 261, 280 Bagot, Sir Charles 191 Baguley, David 51 Bailey, AlfredG. 14, 18,22,26, 156, 162,306 Baillie, James L. 128 Baird.DavidM. 116 BairdJ.D. 36 Baker, Ray Palmer 19 Bakker, B.H.51 Balch.R.E. 126 Baldwin, Casey 113 Baldwin, R.M.J. 201 Baldwin, Robert 201 Baldwin, Dr William Warren 201 Baldwins and the Great Experiment, The(\969)20l

INDEX

Ball, Nelson 317 Ballad of Laura Secord (Mair) 189 Ballad of a Stone-Picker ( 1966) 279 Ballantyne.R.M. 210 Balls for a One-Armed Juggler (1963)309 Balzac, Honoré de 51 Balzac's Recurring Characters (1974)51 Bandy Papers, The: Three Cheers for Me (\962) and That's Me in the Middle (1973)239 Baneful Dominion ( 1971 ) 6 Banks, Sir Joseph 133^ Banks, Margaret A. 195 Bankslanders, The (1971) 142 Banting, Sir Frederick 193, 195 Barbeau, Charles Marius 193, 206,249 Barbeau,Jean 230 Barber, C. 144 Barber, F.G. 116 Barbour, Douglas 316 Barghoorn, E.S. 125 Barker, A.E. 37, 42 Barnard, P.M. 152 Barnes, T.D. 53 Barnes, Warner 39 Barr, Isaac 202 'Barrington, E.' See Beck, Mrs L. Adams. Earth, Karl 107, 263 Bartleby (1971)263 Basho, Matsuo55 Basic Goals and the Financing of Education (Hettich et al., 1972) 139 Bates, Henry Walter (naturalist) 203 Bates, Marston 126 Bates, Ronald 28, 60,61,304-5 Bates, Walter (Loyalist sheriff) 185 Battering Ram (1973) 277-8 Battle of Maldon, The (anon., Old English poem) 38 Battle of Mole Run and Other Offenses, The (1966) 179 Batts, M.S. 49, 50 Baudelaire, Charles 35 Baum, Gregory 105, 106, 108 Bawtree, Michael 224 Bay, Christian 152 Beach, E.F. 143

Beals.C.S. 116 Beattie, Christopher 154 Beattie. Jessie 195 Beattie, Kim 193 Beautiful Losers (1969) 171, 174,242-3,244,312,331 Beauvoir, Simone de 52 Beaverbrook, Lord (Max Aitken) 203 Beaverhrook (1973)203 Beck, Brenda 158 Beck, J.M. 145 Beck. Mrs L. Adams ('E. Barrington'; 'L. Moresby') 190, 191 Becker, Abigail 186 Beckett, Samuel 60 Before the Age of Miracles (1972)132 Before Compeigne (1963) 224 Beginnings of New France, 1524-1663, The (1973)74 Beissel, Henry 317 Belaney, Archibald. See 'Grey Owl.' Belford, Ken 316 Beliveau, Jean 263 Bell, Alexander Graham 113 Bell and Baldwin: Their Development of Aerodromes and Hydrodornes at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, I907-1944(\964) 113 Belles-Sœurs, Les (trans. 1973) 230 Bellow, Saul 38 Bennett, Jonathan 87-8 Bennett. R.B. 198 Bentham, Jeremy 42 Bentley, G . B . . J r 44-5 Bérard, Laurence 230 Berczy, William 201 Berger, Carl 8. 14,63,70-1, 153.330 Bergeron, Léandre 72 Bergman, Ingmar 108 Bergson, Henri 89 Berkeley, George 87. 88 Bernanos, Georges 52 Berrill, Norman John 120 Berry. Herbert 35 Berry, Ralph 43, 60 Berton, Pierre 64,105-6, 117, 176, 182, 187, 202-3,241 Bertram, Gordon 139 Best, Charles H. 130 Best Name of Silence, The (1972)316

347 Best Poor Man's Country, The: A Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (\972)18 Besterman, Theodore 50 Bethune, Rev. Alexander Neil 186 Bethune, Norman 115, 133, 195,202,328 Bethune (1913) 133,202 Better Part of Valour, The (1970)151-2 Between Tears and Laughter (1971)307 Beum.R.F. 45 Beveridge Prize (American history) 78 Bevington, Stan 261 Beware the Quickly Who (1967) 232 Beyond the River and the Bay: Some Observations on the State of the Canadian Northwest in 1811... (1970) 63,78 Bibliografía temática de estudios sobre el teatro español antiguo ( 1966) 54 Bibliography of Pindar ¡513-1966, A (1969)53 Bibliography of Published Canadian Stage Plays in English ¡900-1972 and First Supplement (Brock U) 217 Bibliography of SixteenthCentury Italian Verse Collections in the University of Toronto Library, A ( 1969) 54 Bibliography and Textual Criticism (1969)39 Bibliotheca Teubneriana 53 Big Bear, Indian Patriot ( 1966) 199 Big Ben (1969)207 Big Lonely. See, Lonely Ones, The. Big Sell, J/!f(1963) 176 -Big Stuffed Hand of Friendship, The (\969)24% Biggar, Emerson 186 Biggar, H.P. 206 Binhammer, H.H. 141 Binkley,R.W. 102 Biography of an Institution, The: The Civil Service Commission of Canada, /908-/967(Hodgettsetal., 1972)149

348 Biology of Polluted Waters, The(\97l)l29 Bird, R.M. 141 Bird, Will R. 233 Bird in the House, A ( 1970) 258, 268-9 Birds, Beasts and Men: A Humanist History of Zoology (1972)126 Birds of the Eastern Forest (1966, 1970)128 Birds of the Labrador Peninsula (1963) 127 Birds of the Northern Forest (1968)128 Birken Tree, The (1973) 316 Birney, Earle6, 14-15,26,28, 169, 174, 175,276,288,291, 296,297,298,301,308-9, 311,331 Bishop, Billy 200 Bishop, Morris 197 Bishop, William A. 200 Bissell, Claude T. 22, 174 Bissett, Bill 9, 256,288,296, 299,301,302 Black, Davidson 125, 133 Black, Martha 192 Black, S.A. 47 Black, Rev. William 184 Black Donnellys. See Donnelly family. Black Donnellys, The (1954) 196 Black Huntsmen, 7^(1951)26 Black Moses: The Real Uncle Tom (1957) 195 Black Night Window ( 1968) 316 Black and Secret Man (1964) 312 Blacks in Canada, The (1971) 79,155 Biais, Marie-Claire 13,250 Biaise, Clark 257, 258,259-60, 264, 268, 281 Blake, Edward 195 Blake, William 44-5, 59,60 5/0^(1966)59 Blake Bibliography, A (1964) 44,45 Blake Records (1969)45 Blasted Pine, The (1967) 296 Bleeding Hearts ... Bleeding Country ( 1971)148 Blew Ointment (Vancouver magazine) 290

INDEX Blewointment Press (Vancouver) 290, 292, 301 Blicker, Seymour 242 Blind Beasts: Chaucer's Animal World (191 \) 55 Blind Man's Holiday ( 1963) 308 Blishen, Bernard R. 130. 132, 154, 157 Bliss, Michael 81 Bliss Carman: O. Shepard ( 1924) 19; D. Stephens ( 1966) 197 Bliss Carman and the Literary Currents and Influences of His Time (Cappon, 1930) 19, 191 Blissett, William 37,42 Blondal, Patricia 270 Blue is the Colour of Death (1973)316 Blue Mountains of China, The (1970)247-8 Blues Chased a Rabbit ( 1969) 242 Blunden, Edmund 38 Boatman, The (1968) 299 Bociurkiw.B. 152 Bocking, R. 141 Bodkin, R.G. 139 Bods worth, Fred 249, 280 Bo(1969)73 Emerging Worker, The (1971) 157 E.M. Forster's Other Kingdom (1968)58 Emily Murphy, Crusader (1945)192 Employment Problems of Automation and Advanced Technology (1966) 142 En México (Dudek) 310 En Pièces détachées (trans, as Like Death Warmed Over, 1973)230 Encyclopedia Britannica (éd. 1928) 102 Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The (1967) 102 Endicott, Norman 36 Endurance Fitness (1969) 130 Enemies in Politics (1967) 152 Enemy I Kill, The (1972) 240 Energy Poker Game, The (1970) 140 Energy of Slaves, The (1972) 312 Engagements (1972) 31, 242 Engel, Marian 260, 269, 272-3 Engleman, F.C. 145 English, H. Edward 120 English Association 180, 182 English Enterprise in Newfoundland, 1577-1660 (1969) 76 English Institute Essays 59,60, 61 English Literature and British Philosophy (1971) 37 English Melodrama (1965) 43 English Plays of the Nineteenth Century (1969) 43 Enterprise and National Development (\913) 81 Entrance of the Celebrant (1972)316 Entwistle, Mary 199 Epidemiology as Medical Ecology (1971) 131 Epps, Bernard 278-9 Erasmus (Dutch humanist) 38, 40 Erasmus and Cambridge: The Cambridge Letters of Erasmus (1963)40

Erebus ( 1968) 237 Erikson, Erik 326 Ermatinger, Charles Oakes 185 Ermatinger, Edward 185 Eros and Psyche ( 1964) 52 Erskine, Albert 258 Esker Mike and His Wife Agiluk (1971)231 Eskimo of the Canadian Arctic (Valentine and Vallée, 1968) 156 Eskimo Townsmen (}. and I. Honigmann, 1965) 156 Esprit, V (magazine) 276 Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke) 87 Essays in Canadian Criticism (ed. Pacey, 1969) 22 Essays in Criticism (1972) 60 Essays on Economics and Sociely(LS.M\\\,ed. 1967) 40 Essays in English Literature from the Renaissance to the Victorian Age (1964) 42 Essay s in Ethics, Religion, and Society (J.S. Mill, ed. 1969) 40 Essays in German Literature in Honour ofG. Joyce Hallamore(l96&)49,50 Essays in Monetary Economics ( 1967) 144 Essays after Wittgenstein (1973)84n Essential Articles for the Study of Edmund Spenser (1972) 37,38 Estienne Jodelle, 'Le Recueil des Inscriptions' 1558: A Literary and Iconographical Exegesis (1972)40 Ethel Wilson (Pacey, 1968) 30, 197 Ethnic Groups in Upper Canada (1972)79 Etienne Brûlé: Immortal Scoundrel ( 1949)193^1 Eugene O'Neill (Leech) 47 Euripidean Drama (1967) 52 Euripides (Greek dramatist) 52 a/rope (Dudek) 310 European Discovery of America, The: The Northern Voyages, AD 500-1600 ( 1971 ) 74 Euthyphro (Plato) 85

INDEX Evanier, David 245, 246, 261 Evans, Donald D. 97, 107-8 Evans, Hubert R. 193-4 Evans, James 199 Everson, R.G. 308 Everyman (paperback series) 36,50 Evolution, Its Science and Doctrine (T.W.M. Cameron, 1960)113 Evolution, Process and Product (Dodson, 1961)127 Exile (York U magazine) 11, 258 Exile from Canada to Van Diemen's Land, An (1960) 198 Experiential Realism (1973) 84n Experimenters, The(\91\) 114 Explanation of Behaviour, The (1964)94-5 Exsultate Jubilate ( 1966) 305 Extended ( 1967) 302 Eyes without a Face ( 1960) 312 Faber and Faber (travel library) 200 Fables of Identity ( 1963) 59,60 Face of Time, The (1970) 116 Fackenheim, Emil L. 89, 108, 109 Factory Theatre Lab (Toronto) 215,227,231 Faessler, Shirley 242 Fairley, Barker 49, 203 Fairly Good Time, A (1970) 254 Faith of the Atheist, TV (1968) 105 Faith and Doctrine (1970) 106 Faith and Fiction: Creative Process in Greene and Mauriac (1964) 58 Faith and History (1963) 106 Faith of our Fathers, The (1966)178 Fales, Douglas A. 303 Fall of a Titan, The (1954) 235 Fallah, E. 156 Falle, G.G. 36 FU//OH/( 1969) 238 Family in Canada, The (1964) 158 Family Myth, The (1972) 158 Famous Doctors: Osier, Banting, Penfield (\9S6) \95

Famous Women: Carr, Hind, Gullen and Murphy (1958) 195 Fanon, Frantz9 Fantham, Elaine 53 Faraday, Michael 113 Faraday, Maxwell and Kelvin (1964) 113 Paris, J.F. 155 Farm Show, The (1972) 220 Farmer-Premier: The Memoirs ofE.C.Drury(\966)S2 Farmiloe, Dorothy 298,316 Fartjuharson's Physique and What it Did to His Mind (1971)251,325 Farrell.R.B. 152 Father Lacombe (1928) 191 Fatouros, A.A. 151 Faulkner, William 38,47,57, 58 Favourite Game, The (1963) 243 FearfulJoy(\913)56 Fearful Symmetry (Frye) 59, 60 Feaver, George 153 'Fécondité' d'Emile Zola: Roman à thèse, évangile, mythe (1973) 51 Federal-Provincial Diplomacy (1972)147 Federalism and the French Canadians (1968)147 Feldman.L.D. 150 Fenety, George 186 Festival Lennoxville 214,225 Fetherling, Doug 298, 315 Fiamengo, Mary a 316 Fichte, Johann Gottleib 319 Fiction of EM. Forster, The (1967)58 Fiddlehead (Fredericton magazine) 12, 160, 257,258, 290,306 Fiddlehead Poetry Books (Fredericton) 290,291,292, 306 Fidler, Gordon 261 Fidler, Mary 199 Fidler, Peter 198-9 Field, G.W. 50 Fielden, Charlotte 269 Fielding, Henry 57 15 Canadian Poets ( 1970) 2% Fifteen Miles of Broken Glass

359 (1970)229 Fifth Business ( 1970) 255 Fighting Governor, The: A Chronicle of Frontenac (1915)188 Filson,W.C. 132 Final Diagnosis, The (1959) 234-5 Financial System of Canada, 77^(1972)141 Finch, Robert 51,304 Findley, Timothy 264,269 Fingard, Judith 109 Finnegans Wake (Joyce) 331 Finnigan, B. 154 Finnigan, Joan 288,317 Fiore, Quentin 32, 179 Fire-Dwellers, The (1969)268 Firebrand, The: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada ( 1956) 195 Firefly Hunt, The (1969)237-8 Firestone, O.J. 139, 141 First Bishop of Toronto, The: A Study ( 1868) 185 First Decade, The: The Story of Canadian Medicare in Saskatchewan (1973) 132 First Falls on Monday, The (1967)221 First Supplement to the Bibliography of Published Canadian Plays (Brock U) 217 First and Vital Candle (1966) 247,248 Fiscal Adjustment and Economic Development:... Nova Scotia (J.F. Graham, 1963)142 Fiscal Harmonization under Freer Trade (Shibata, 1969) 140 Fish, S. 157 Fitch, Bryan T. 52 Fitzgibbon, James 186 Fitzgibbon, Mary Agnes 186 Five Legs ( 1969) 238 Five Modern Canadian Poets (1970)296 Five Readings on Olson's Maximus (1970)48 Flanagan, Robert 315 Flee Seven Ways (1963) 237-8 Fleet, Brenda 317

360 Fleming, Sir Sandford 117-18, 192,201 Flenley, Ralph 191 Fletcher, Angus 61 FHnn,John51 Flint, David 200 Florencia Bay (1960) 239 Flowers for Hitler ( 1966) 312 Flying a Red Kite (1962) 264 Folkways (poetry recordings) 288 Fools of Time (1967) 59 For Jesus Lunatik. See, Two Novels. For Us Living ( 1970) 303 Forbidden Voice (1972) 156 Forced Growth (Mathias) 139 Forcese,D.F. 158 Ford, R.A.D. 305,306 Foreign Ownership of Canadian Industry (1966) 140 Forer, Mort 239 Forever Yours, Mary Lou (trans. 1972) 230 Forget, Claude 141 Forment era ( 1972) 252 Forsey, Senator Eugene 143 Forster, D. 145 Forster, E.M. 58 Fortune and Men's Eyes (1967) 224,227 Fortunes of Richard Mahony, The (H.H. Richardson) 46 40 Women Poets of Canada (1972)298 Forum House (publisher) 13, 28,29, 197 Foster, M.B. 58 Foundations of Belief, The (1969)106 Foundations of Physics (1967) 100 Founder of New France: A Chronicle ofChamplain (1915)188 Founding of Canada, The: Beginnings to 1815 (1960) 73 Four Days (1962)237 Four German Writers (1964) 37 Four Hemispheres (1971)257 Four Kingston Poets (recording, 1972) 288 Four Montreal Poets (1973) 297 Four Parts Sand (1972) 298 Fourteen Stories High (1971)

INDEX 248, 257

Fourth Monkey, The ( 1968) 231 Fox, A.M. 54 Fox, Dentón 43,56 Fox, Gail 288, 316 Fox, Paul 146 Foxell, Nigel 245, 260 FPG: The European Years (1973)29,181 France in America (1972)63, 76 Francis, Wynne 162,290 Frank, Roberta 55 Frankel, Saul J. 149 Frankfurter, Glen 6 Franklin, Benjamin 322 Franklin, Sir John 194 Franklin, Stephen 236 Franklin of the Arctic: A Life of Adventure ( 1949) 194 Fraser, Raymond 264 Fraser, Sylvia 269 Fraser, William 199 Frazer, Sir James 294 Fredeman, W.E. 58 Frederick Philip Grove: Pacey ( 1945) 20; Spettigue ( 1969) 29;Stobie(1973)30, 197 Free Trade between the US and Canada: The EconomicEffects (1967) 140 Freeman, David 14,227-8 Frege,Gottlob90 French, David 14,228-9 French, Donald 19 French, Goldwin S. 109 French-Canadian Society (1964)158 French Individualist Poetry 1686-1760 (1971)51 French Shore Problem in Newfoundland, We (1961) 76 Freshest Advices: Early Provincial Newspapers in England (1965) 41 Freshwater Fishes of Canada (1974)127 Freshwater Fishes of Eastern Canada (1967) 127 Freud, Sigmund 108,243 Friction of Lights, A (1963) 313 Friday Night Fredericton (Cockburn) 306 Friedenberg, Edgar 15 Friedland, Martin L. 146 Friedman, J.B. 48

Friedrich Schlegel(\97Q) 36, 49 Friel, Brian 45 Friend in Needham (1969) 177 Fritz, Madeleine 125 From an Ancient to a Modern Theatre (\972)W From Brock to Currie (1935) 183 From Cliché to Archetype (1972)32 From Dream to Discovery (1972)113 From Heaven with a Shout (1962)270 From a Seaside Town (1970) 253 From Shaman to Modern Medicine: A Century of the Healing Arts in British Columbia (1972)132 From There to Here (A Guidebook to EnglishCanadian Literature, vol. II, 1974)30, 183 Frontenac, Count 75, 188, 196 Frontenac: The Courtier Governor (Eccles, 1959)75, 196 Frontiers of Fitness (1971) 130 Frost, Robert 324 Frost, S.B. 107 Fruet, William 229 Fruit Man, the Meat Man & the Manager, The (1971)264 Fry, Alan 249, 250 Frye, Northrop 9, 13, 22, 23, 24,25-8,30,31,33,36,37, 42,46,47,58-62,160-3 passim, 164-8,169,171,173, 175,176,207,285,294,299, 311,319,328 Fulford, Robert 177 Fully Processed Cheese, The (1964)178 Fur Trade in Canada, The (H. Innis) 200 Fur Trade Governor: George Simpson (1960) 199 Fuseli Poems (1961) 312 Future of Belief, The (1969) 107 Future of Canadian Federalism, The (1965) 147 Gabriel Dumont: Indian Fighter ( 1967) 199 GabrielleRoy (Grosskurth,

INDEX

1969)29 Gadd, MaxineBOl Gagnon, David 200 Gair, W.R. 35 Gai, Lazlo 206 Galán de la Membrillo, El (éd. 1962)54 Galaxy Books (Oxford series) 37 Galbraith,J.A. 141 Galbraith, John Kenneth 10, 178 Galileo (Italian scientist) 99, 114 Galileo's Intellectual Revolution (1972)99 Galissonière, La, RolandMichel Barrin de 200 Gallagher, James E. 154 Gallant, Mavis 252,253-4,256, 257,270 Galloway, Da vid 35,37 Gait, John 192 Galvin, Brendan 317 Game of Touch, A (1970) 264 Garbageman, The (1972)239 Garber, Lawrence 260,262 Garber's Tales from the Quarter (1969)262 Garden ofNeedham, The (1968)177 Gardiner, Dwight 261 Gardner, Philip 36 Gardner, W.H. 43 Garigue, Philippe 113, 159 Garland, G.D. 115 Garner, Hugh 244-5, 257 Gasparini, Len 300, 316 'Gaspé Conference' (playwrights) 216 Gass, Ken 215 Gauthier, D.P. 86-7,91-2 Geddes,Gary296,316 Geisel (sociologist) 157 Celinas, Gratien 229 Gellner,John 151 General Introduction to Sociology, A (trans. 1972) 154 General Practitioner, The: A Study of Medical Education and Practice in Ontario and Nova Scotia (1963) 131-2 Genet, Edmond-Charles 263 Genetics in Medicine ( 1966, 1973) 130

Gentillet, Innocent 54 Gentle Patriot: A Political Biography of Walter Gordon (1973)145,202 Gentle Pioneers: Five 19th Century Canadians (1968) 201 Gentleman of the Press, A (1969)201 Geological Survey of Canada 117, 133 Geology and Engineering (1962) 119 George, Roy 142 George Chapman (1966) 43 George Eliot: Ian Adam (1969) 37; D.Carroll (1971) 37 Georgics I and IV (Virgil, ed. 1963)53 Gerard Manley Hopkins (N. MacKenzie, 1968) 36 Gerber, D.E. 53 German Literature of the Nineteenth Century (1969) 41 German Verse Epic in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century, The (1967) 49 Germano-Slavica (comparative studies journal) 49 Gervais.C.H. 317 Ghost Paddle (1972) 205 Giants, Past and Present (1966)129 Gibbs, Robert 306 Gibson, Arthur 105, 108 Gibson, Graeme 9,238,260 Gibson, Shirley 260, 315 Gide, André 174 Gift of Echoes, A (1965) 279 Gil Polo's Enamoured Diana (Montemayor, ed. 1968)44 Gil Vincente (1961) 54 Gilbert, Gerry 317 Gillen, Mollie 203 Gillespie (urban studies writer) 150 Gillespie, W.I. 141 Gilson, Etienne 86 Ginsberg, Allan 302 Girls of Two Summers (1966) 242 Gissing, George 37 G/ssmg(1972)37 Give My Heart (1964) 199 Glass Trumpet, The (1966) 311

361

Glassco, John 239-40, 262, 287,291,295,305,308 Glassco, William 215, 230 Glazebrook, George P. de T. 191 Glengarry Forever (1973) 303 Global Village (Toronto theatre) 215 Globe (Toronto), later Globe and Mail 68, 177, 188 Globe Players (Regina theatre troupe) 218 Globe Theatre (Regina) 213 Glooscap and His Magic: Legends of the Wabanaki Indians (1963) 205 Gnarowski, Michael 23 000^/^(1971)303 Godbout, Jacques 295 Godden,J.O. 131 Godfrey, Dave 9, 10, 14, 157, 236,251,257-6 \passim, 264,275,281-3 Godfrey, Denis 58,245 God's People in India (1959) 104 God's Presence in History (1970)109 Goethe, J.W. 203 Goheen, Peter G. 69 Going Down Slow (1972) 246 Gold, Arty 297 Gold, Joseph 38,47,57 Goldberg, Michael 57 Golden Dog, The (Kirby) 19 Golden Phoenix, The (1958) 206 Golden Treasury (Palgrave) 295 Goldenberg, H.C. 143 Goldenrod( 1972) 240 Golding, William 274 Goldrick, M.D. 150 Goldwin Smith: Life and Opinions (Haultain, 1913) 195 Goldwin Smith: Victorian Liberal (E. Wallace, 1957) 195 Gone Indian (1973) 280-1 Gonick, G. 154 Goodbye, Little Town (1970) 178 Gooderham, Kent 156,250 Goodman, Nelson 91 Goodman, Paul 9 Goodspeed, Donald J. See 'Redmayne, John.'

362 Gopnik, Irwin, 56 Gordon, Adam Lindsay 46 Gordon, Rev. Charles W. ('Ralph Connor') 190,211 Gordon, J. King 151 Gordon, Robert 192 Gordon, Sydney 133,195,202 Gordon, Walters, 140, 145, 202 Gosse, E.B.,Jr58 Gotlieb, Allan 146,151 Gotlieb, Phyllis 242,245,315 Gottfried Keller (1969) 41 Gottfried von Strassburg (1971)50 Goudge, Thomas A. 100-1, 102 Goulet, Robert 240 Gourlay, Robert 187, 202 Gouzenko, Igor 235 Governing Metropolitan Toronto (1972) 150 Government of Canada, The (1970) 144 Government of Federal Capitals, The (Rowat, 1973) 152 Governor-General's Award 64,101,197,203,235,314 Governor Simcoe and His ¿a¿y (1968) 201 Governor's Bridge is Closed, The( 1973) 177 Grace, N.H. 114 Graham, J.W. 38 Graham, J.W. (classics writer) 52 Graham, John F. 142 Graham, Roger 82, 145, 197 Graham, Victor 40 Graham, W.H. 198 Granatstein, J.L. 144-5,151 Grand Jeu de la politique, Le (Sevigny, 1965) 145 Grant, Cuthbert 66 Grant, George Monro 70,189 Grant, George P. 7-8,70,108, 148,153,256,325,328 Grant, J.C. Boileau 130 Grant, John Webster 104,109, 185 Grant, W.L. 54, 188 Grantmyre, Barbara 185,199 Grasham, W.E. 149 Grasping Imagination, The: The American Writings of Henry James (1970) 47

INDEX Grass and Wild Strawberries (1969)225,226 Gravel, Pierre 280 Graves, Robert 58 Gray, Colin S. 151 Gray, James 56 Gray, James H. (newspaperman) 78 Gray, John 224 Gray, John Morgan 198 Gray, Simon 246 Gray, Thomas 35,56 Gray son-Smith, Hugh 113 Great Bear Meditations, The (1970)315 Great Britain's Woodyard: British America and the Timber Trade, 1763-1867 (1973)68 Great Canadian Novel, The (1972)239 Great Canadian Sonnet (1970) 261 Great Canadian Short Stories (1971)257 Great Hunger, The ( 1960) 231 Great Lone Land, The (W. Butler) 198 Great Railway, The. See, National Dream, The', and Last Spike, The. Great San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, The (1971) 300 Great Wall of China, The (1966)300 Greek and Roman Chronology (1972)52 Greek and Roman Critics, The (1965) 41 Green, Alan 142 Green, Howard 3 Green, L. 158 Green Beginning Black Ending (1971)257 Green Fig Tree, The (1965) 303 Green Leaf, The: A Tribute to Grey Owl (Dickson, 1936) 193,203 Green Water Green Sky (1960) 253 Greene, Alma 156 Greene, E.J.H. 51 Greene, Gordon 178,179 Greene, Graham 58 Greene, L.C. 146

Greene, R.A. 44 Greening of America, The (C.A. Reich) 322 Gregory, Lady 45 Grève, F.P. 181. See also Grove, Frederick Philip. 'Grey Owl' (Archibald Belaney) 134, 193,203,318 Grier,Eldon311,313 Griffin, Ernest 36 Grimstaff, C. 158 Grip (Toronto magazine) 16, 31,319 Grosskurth, Phyllis 29,58,203 Grossman, Suzanne 230 Groulx, Lionel 200 Grove, Frederick Philip (P.P. Grève) 18,20,24,29,30, 181, 197,318,325 Growing Up Absurd (P. Goodman) 9 Growth of Government Spending in Canada, The (R.M. Bird, 1970) 141 Grube,G.M.A.41 Gruebl, H.G. 140 Guenther, Herbert V. 110 Guerre, Yes Sir, La (trans. 1972)230 Guest-Hall of Eden, The: Four Essays on the Design of Old English Poetry (1971) 55 Guide to Geology, A [of Canada's national parks] (1963)116 Guide to Geology and Scenery of the National Capital Area (1968)116 Guidebook to EnglishCanadian Literature, A. See, From There to Here and Our Nature - Our Voices. Guindon, H. 159 Gullen, Augusta Stowe 195 Gunn, Gertrude 76 Gunn, J.W. 153 Gustafson, Ralph 274,296,308 Gutenberg Galaxy, The (1962) 32,33 Guthke,Karl49 Gutteridge,Don317 Gwyn, Richard 76,145, 202 Habit of Authority, The (A.P. Thornton, 1965) 153

INDEX Haggerty, Joan 252, 272 Hahn, Paul 128 Haig, Kennethe M. 192 Haig-Brown, Roderick L. 196, 206,211 Hailey, Arthur 234-5 Hair, O.S. 57 Haldane, Sean 303 Haldimand, Frederick 188 Halewood, William H. 42 Hal/breed: The Story of Grey Owl (Dickson, 1939) 193,203 Haliburton, Thomas Chandler 19, 189, 191 Haliburton: The Man and the Writer: A Study (1889) 189 Hall, Oswald 158, 159 Hall Commission. See Royal Commission. Hallamore, G. Joyce 49,50 Halpenny, Francess G. 35-6, 40, 184 Halpert, Herbert 76, 157 Hambleton, Ronald 199 Hamelin, Jean 184 Hamil, Frederick C. 194-5 Hamilton, A.C. 37, 38 Hamilton, Lady Emma 190 Hamilton, Kenneth 107 Hamilton Project, The (1971) 155 Hamlet (Shakespeare) 231 Hammering, The (1967)238 Hanley, Annie Harvey 192 Hanson, E.J. 141 Happy Enough (1972) 304 Happy Hungry Man, The (1970)315 Harcourt, Joan 257 Harden, A.R. 51 Hardin, Herschel 231,248 Harding, Rev. Harris 184 Hardy, Henry R. 194 Hardy, Thomas 58 Harker, Herbert 240 Harkness, Ross 199 Harlow, Robert 261,279-80 Harmstone, Teresa 152 Harp .John 157 Harper, J.Russell 63,79 Harper's Bazaar (magazine) 252 Harpoon of the Hunter (1970) 250 Harris, Christie 205,206,207, 208

Harris, Paul 106 Harris, R. Cole 75,78 Harrison, Ernest 106 Hartle, D. 144 Hartley, A.D. 44 Hartman, Geoffrey 61 Hartz, Louis 153 Harvor, Beth 258 Harwood, Elizabeth 201 Haultain, Theodore Arnold 195 Hawkins, Freda 151 Hawkins, John 202 Hawkins, William 317 Hawthorn,H.B. 156 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 47 Hawthorne as Myth-Maker (1969)47 Hay, Peter261 Hayne, David M. 184 Hays, H.R. 126 Head, Sir Edmund 194 Head, Guts, and Sound Bone Dance ( 1974) 230 Headwaters (Marty, 1973)316 Headwaters of Canadian Literature (MacMechan, 1924)19, 161 Heady, E.G. 141 Health Care in Canada (1973) 131 Hear Us O Lord from Heaven Thy Dwelling Place ( 1961 ) 258,275-6 Heart's Tide ( 1972) 270, 301 Heath, Terrence 257 Heavenly Muse, The: A Preface to Milton (ed. 1973) 41-2 Heavysege, Charles 189 Hébert, Anne 13 Heeney, Arnold 149 Hegei, G.W.F. 86, 89,94, 108 Heidenreich, Conrad 79 Heine, Heinrich49 Helliwell.J.F. 139, 144 Helvétius, Claude Adrien 51 Helvétius: A Study in Persecution (\96S) 51 Helwig, David 236,237,248, 251,257,260,288,293,316 Hemlow, Joyce 40 Hémon, Louis 274 Henderson, Dorothy McLaughlin201-2 Henderson, John L.H. 200

363 Hendry,Tom229 Heninger, S.K.,Jr37 Henri Bourassa and the Golden Calf: The Social Program of the Nationalists of Quebec (1900-1914) (1969)72 Henri Julien (1941) 193 Henry, Ann 221,222 Henry, J. 140 Henry Alline, 1748-1784 (1971) 77,200 Henry Walter Bates, Naturalist of the Amazon (1969)203 Henryson, Robert 43 Henson, Josiah 195 Hepburn, Mitch 82, 198 Heráldica en las obras de Lope de Vega y sus contemporáneos, La (1962) 54 Herbert, George 301 Herbert, John 224 Herder, Johann Gottfried von 153 Herman, E.E. 143 Herman, K. 158 Herman Melville (1968) 37 Hermann Hesse (1970) 50 Hermogenes and the Renaissance (1971) 48 Hero of Upper Canada, The (1962)198 Heroine ofLongpoint, The (1899)186 Heroines of Canadian History (1909)182 Herrington, W.S. 182 Herrón, Shaun 235 Hertzman, Lewis 151 Hesse, Hermann 50, 274 Hettich, W. 139 H.G.Wells (1969) 203 Hibbard, G.R. 35 Hieatt, A.K. 37,38 High Barnet Company (poetry tapes) 288 Highways of Canadian Literature (1924) 19 Hubert, David 90 Hill, Kathleen 205 Hillary, Richard 203 Hilliard, Dr Marion 199 Hind,E. Cora 192, 195 Hiñe, Daryl 278, 304 Hinz, Evelyn 47

364 Hippity Hobo and the Bee (1952)206 Hippocrates (Greek physician) 237 His Faults Lie Gently: The Incredible Sam Hughes (1969) 200 Hiss the Villain: Six English and American Melodramas (1964)43 Histoire économique et sociale du Québec, 1760-1850 (1966) 73 Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) 65 Historical Sketches ofO'Connell and His Friends ( 1845) 185 Histories of the American Frontier (series) 75 History of Canada (Kingsford) 186 History of Canada through Biography, The (series, 1929)183 History of the Christian Church in Canada (1966-72) 109 History of English-Canadian Literature to the Confederation, A (1920) 19 History of Quebec, A: A Patriot's Handbook (1971) 72 History of Tris tan Scholarship, A (1970)49 History of Ukrainian Literature in Canada (1968) 55 Hoar, Victor 29 Hobbes, Thomas 86-7, 152 Hockin,T.A. 151, 152 Hocking, Brian 126 Hockney.D.J. 102 Hodgetts, J.E. 144, 149 Hodgins, Bruce 200 Hodgins, Jack 258 Hodgins, John George 186,188 Hodgson, J.S. 149 Hodgson, John H. 116 Hoeniger, F.D. 43 Hoffman, S. de V. 58 Hofley.John 157 Hogarth, J. 146 Hogg, Robert 315 Holden, Hélène Papchristides 251

INDEX (Milton Moore, 1970) 140 Holliday,Ianll6 How a People Die ( 1970) 249 Hollow Universe, The (I960, How Summer Cometo Canada 1964)113 (1969)205 Holmes, D.M. 43 Howard, W.J. 35 Holmes, John 151 Howe, Clarence Decatur 80, Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Sr 196 130 Howe, Joseph 175, 186, 188, Holsti,K.J. 152 Holsti, O.K. 152 189, 192 Howith, Harry 317 Home Free (1966) 304 Homebrew and Patches (1963) Howland, William 80 Hoy, P.C. 52 178, 239 Homer (Greek poet) 48,53,277 Hubbock,John54 Hugh Garner's Best Stories Homeric Hymns, The (trans. 1972)304 (1963)245 Hugh MacLennan (1969) 29 Homeric Imagination, The Hughes, Richard 58 (1970)53 Hughes, Sir Samuel 200 Honeyman Festival, The Hugo, Victor 16 (1970)272-3 Hulcoop, John 257 Honigmann, I. 156 Honigmann, J. 156 Hull, Raymond 237 Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, Hulme.T.E. 301 The: His Life and Times Human Rights, Federalism, (1892)186 and Minorities (A. Gotlieb, Hon. D'Arcy McGee, The: A 1970) 146 Sketch of His Life and Death Humanities Association Review 38 (1868)185 Humanities in Canada, The Hood, Dora 125, 133 (Priestley, 1964; Wiles, Hood, Hugh 177,257,263-5 1966) 34, 38 Hood, Thomas 44 Humback, The (1969) 239 Hood, W. 144 Hume, Da vid 86,87, 88,91, Hooker, C.A. 102 100 Hopkins, Gerard Manley 36, Hunger Trace (1970) 270 43 Hopkins, John Castell 186, 188 Hungry Hills (1963) 279 Horace (Latin poet) 52,53,54 Hunter, E.R. 193 Hunter, J.P.M. 84n Hordern, W.E. 108 Hunter, John 224 Hornby, John 193 Hornyansky, Michael 206,285 Hunter, Robert 237 Hunter, William 224 Horowitz, Gad 81, 145, 153 Horwood, Harold 240,281,298 Hunting Dark, The (1971) 315 Hunting Tigers under Glass Hostages, The ( 1966) 235 (1968)176,241 Hotel (1965) 234-5 Huronia: A History and GeogHours and the Birds: A Sasraphy of the Huron Indians katchewan Record (1967) (1973)79 127 Hurons, The: Farmers of the House, Arthur W. 112 Nort/i(1969)79, 156, 157 House, 7^(1967)303 House of Anansi (Toronto pub- Hurtig, Mel 18 Hurtig Publishers (Edmonton) lisher) 10, 260 11,18 House of Hate (1970) 269 Husserl, Edmund 89 Houston, James 205 How are Things with the Walk- Hutchison, Bruce 178-9,194, 203 ing Wounded? ( 1972) 229 How Do I Love Thee ( 1970) 298 Huxley, Aldous 58 How Much Price Competition? Huxley, H.H. 53

INDEX Hyde, H. Montgomery 199 Hynes, H.B.N. 129 Hypodermic Needham (1970) 177 I aman Indian (ed. Gooderham, 1969) 156,250 / am Mary Dunne (B. Moore) 269 1am Watching (1973)315 ¡Breathe a New Song (1972) 249 I Chose Canada (Smallwood, 1973)76 I Don't Want to Know Anyone Too Well (1972)252 lanora, Claudio 261,263 Ibsen, HenrikJ: 230 Ice Cod Bell or Stone (1962) 309 Ice Railway, The(\96Q) 118-19 Ichthyology in Canada (1964) 127 Idea of Art as Propaganda in France 1750-1790, The (1965)50 Idea of the Victorian Church, The( 1968) 109 Ideas in Exile: A History of Canadian Invention (1967) 113,324 Ideas and Relationships (1972) 38 Idiot Joy, An (1961) 1\2 ICY, the Year of the New Moons (1961) 114 Illustrated Natural History of Canada, The (series) 129 Image of Confederation, The (1964)7,67 Imagery of Proust, The (1966) 40 Imagination Indulged: The Irrational in the NineteenthCentury Novel (1972) 58 Immerwahr, Raymond 41 Immigrant Groups (1971) 155 Immoral Moralists, The (1972) 30 Immortal Plowman (1969) 306 Imperialist, The (S.J. Duncan) 18 Impertinences'of Brother Anonymous, The (1960, trans. 1962)250 Improvement of Mankind,

The: The Social and Political Thought of John Mill ( 1968) 40 Impulse (magazine) 258 In the Days of the Canada Company: The Story of the Settlement of the Huron Tract and a View of the Social Life of the Period, 1825-1850(1896) 187 In Defence of Canada (1964, 1965,1972)151 In Defence of Lady Gregory (1966)45 In Defense of Sovereignty (1969)152 In High Places (1960) 234-5 In Praise of Chastity ( 1971 ) 306 In Praise of Older Women (1968)242,269 In Search of Liberalism (Underbill) 7 In Vivo: The Case for Supramolecular Biology (1967) 130 Inch or So of Garden, An (1969)306 IncomparableAtuk, The (1963) 241 Incredible Canadian, The: A Candid Portrait of Mackenzie King (1952) 194 Incredible Journey, The (1961) 239 Independence: The Canadian Challenge ( 1972) 151 Independent Foreign Policy for Canada?, An (1968) 151 Index of Proper Names in French Arthurian Verse Romances 1150-1300, An (1969)51 Indian (1962)225 Indians in Transition (1971) 155 Industrial Relations in Canada (1973)143 Industrial Struggle and Protestant Ethics in Canada, The (1961)109 Industrial Viability in a Free Trade Economy (Roy Matthews, 1971) 140 Infinite Moment, The (1950, 1965)57 Inflation and the Canadian

365 Experience (Swan and Wilton, 1971)141 Influence of the United States on Canadian Development, The(\912) 148 Inglis,Alex82 Ingluvin Press (Montreal; formerly Very Stone House, Vancouver) 292 Ingram, R.W. 35 Inherit the Earth (1966) 120 Inman,M.K. 138 Inner Ring, The (1966) 112 Innis, Harold A. 7,68,138, 143, 154, 192,200,256 Innis, Mary Q. 183 Innocent Gentillet e la sua polémica antimachievellica (1969)54 Insight (1951) 107 Instant World (1971) 120 Institute of Canadian Studies (Carleton U) 11 Institutional Financing of Small Business in Nova Scotia (Sears, 1972) 142 Intentionality, Mind and Language (1972)102 Interior Landscape, The (1969) 32 International Geophysical Year 114 International Institute of Philosophy 102 International Relations: A Framework for Analysis (1967)152 International Spenser Colloquium (1969) 38 International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics 114 International Unionism: A Study in CanadianAmerican Relations (1967) 81,143 Interpretation of Existence, An (1968)93^1 Intriguing Duchess, The: Marie de Rohan, Duchesse de Chevreuse (1930) 190-1 Introduction to the Australian Novel 1830-1930, An (1972) 46 Introduction to Canadian Politics and Government (W.L. White et al., 1972)144

366

INDEX

James Evans Story, The (1966) 199 James GouldCozzens (D.E.S. Maxwell) 47 James Reaney (A. Lee, 1968) 30,197 James Thurber: His Masquerades (1968)47 Jameson, Anna 30,200 Jamieson, Stuart 81, 143 Janes, Percy 269 Jason's Quest (1970) 265 Jawbreakers (1963)313 J.E. Atkinson of the S tar ( 1963) 199 Jefferson, Thomas 322 Jeffreys, C.W. 193 Jeffries, Richard 58 J.E.H. Macdonald: A Biography and Catalogue of His Work( 1940) 193 Jenness, Diamond 249 Jest of God, A ( 1966) (filmed as Rachel, Rachel) 265,267-8 Jewish Dialog (magazine) 258 Jiles, Paulette297,317 J.M. Synge (R. Skelton, 1972) 45 J.M, Synge: Translations (1961)45 J.M. Synge and His World (1971)45 J.M. Synge and Modern Comedy (1968) 45 Joan of Arc 224 Jodelle,Estienne40 Jogues, Father Isaac 192 John, Saint 107 John A. Beats the Devil (1964) 224 Jack, Donald 239 Jack B. Yeats (R. Skelton) 45 John Addington Symonds (1964)58,203 Jackson, B.A.W. 36 John A. Macdonald: The Man Jackson, J.R. de J. 37,56 and the Politician Jackson, John N. 150 (Swainson, 1971)200 Jackson, R.J. 152 Jacobean Pageant (1962) 43 John A. Macdonald (Creighton): The Young Jalna (1927) 18,190 James, Henry 47,180,254 Politician (1952) and The James, R. Warren 143 Old Chieftain (1955) 64,82, 182,194 James, William 132, 328 James Douglas: Father of John Gait ( 1920) 192 British Columbia (D.B. John Graves Simcoe: Riddell Smith, 1971)200 (1926) 192; D.C.Scott 188 James Douglas: Servant of John Middleton Murry (1969) TwoEmpires (Pethick, 1969) 36 202 John Northway: A Blue Serge

Introduction to Democratic Theory (Mayo, 1960) 152 Introduction to Nigerian Literature (1971) 46 Introduction to the Philosophy of Time and Space, An (1970)100 Introduction to Political Science, An (Khan et al., 1972) 144 Introductions from an Island (1969)298 Introductory MacroEconomics (1973)138 Inventory ofResearch in Progress in the Humanities (1971- )34,59 Irving, H.H. 158 Irving, R.M. 114 Irving Layton ( 1969) 29 Isaac Jogues (1928)192 Ishwaran, K. 158 Israel, Charles 235, 237 Issues in Comparative Politics (1971)152 Italian Cultural Institute (Montreal) 54 Italian Households in Toronto (1972)155 Italian Poets and English Critics 1755-1859 (1969) 37 Ivan Denisovitch (Solzhenitsyn) 243 I've Tasted my Blood (1969) 313 Iverson,N. 155 Ixion'sWheel( 1969) 308

Canadian (1965) 199 John Rae, Political Economist (R.W. James, 1965) 143 John Richardson (1926?) 192 John Sandfield Macdonald, 1812-1872(1910)200 John Steinbeck (Watt, 1962) 36,47 John Strachan: Pastor and Politician (Flint, 1971)200 John Strachan, 1778-1867 (J.L.H. Henderson, 1969) 200 John Toronto (poetry, Colombo, 1969)300 John Toronto: A Biography of Bishop S trochan (Boorman, 1969)201 Johnny Crackle Sings (1971) 263 Johnson,A.H. 84n, 102 Johnson, H.J. 102 Johnson, Harry G. 138, 140, 144 Johnson, Lyndon 5 Johnson, Pauline 192 Johnson, Samuel 40, 56 Johnson, W. McAllister 40 Johnson's Sermons: A Study (1972)56 Johnston, George (poet) 26, 304 Johnston, George (theologian) 105, 107 Johnston, Rev. Hugh 187 Johnston, John 44 Johnston, W.V. 132 Johnstone, Kenneth 229 Joliat, Eugene 51 Jonas, George 315 Jones, Ben 56 Jones, C.P. 53 Jones, D.G. 14,27,31,162, 167,169-72,173, 174,175, 294,296,311,313 Jones, David 38 Jones, F.L. 155 Jones, R.L. 73 Jones, Richard 72,147 Jonson, Ben 43 Jonson 's Romish Plot: A Study of 'Catiline' and its Historical Context (1969) 43 Jordan, R.M. 56 Jordan, Z.A. 152 Joseph Banks in Newfound-

INDEX

land and Labrador: His Diary, Manuscripts and Collections (1971) 133^4 Joseph Howe (G.M. Grant, 1904)189 Joseph Howe: A Study in Achievement and Frustration (J.A. Roy, 1935) 192 Journal of Canadian Fiction, The 17, 175,257-8 Journal of Canadian Studies, The (Trent U) 11 Journal of Commonwealth Literature 47 Journal of English Literary History 38 Journals of Susanna Moodie, 7Vi(1970)255,314 Journeyings and the Returns (Nichol) 302 Joy,R.J. 158 Joyce, James 32,38,45-6,57, 331 Joyce Gary (1968) 58 J.S. Woods-worth: A Man to Remember (Maclnnis, 1953) 195,196-7 Judicial Committee and the British North America Act, The( 1967) 146 Judicial Review (McWhinney, ed. 1969) 146 Judicial Review of Legislation in Canada (Strayer, 1968) 146 Jules Laforgue (Collie, 1964) 36 Julian the Magician (1963)278, 294 Juliani, John 215 Julien, Germain 149 Julien, Henri 193 Jung, C.J. 48,256,274,325 Jurisprudence: Readings and Cases (MacGuigan, 1966) 146

93^t, 99, 100, 304, 328 Kant's Solution for Verification in Metaphysics (1966) 88-9 Kaplan, Harold 150 Karr, W.J. 183 Katz, Michael 69, 155 Kawartha Festival 221 Kearns, Lionel 315 Keats, John 302 Kee, Kenneth 36 Keith, W.J. 29, 58 Keller, Gottfried 41 Kelley, Thomas T. 196 Kelson, R.N. 151 Kelvin, William Thomson 113 Kemp, Murray 144 Kennedy, Howard 191 Kennedy, Judith 38,44 Kennedy, William 191 Kenner, Hugh 33 Kent, Duke of 203 Kerdruc Notebook (1972) 303 Kernaghan, W.D.K. 149 Kernahan, Kathryn 249 Kerr, Donald G. 194 Kersell, J. 152 Ketchum, John D. 158 Keyes, Gordon L. 108 Keyfitz, N. 159 Khan.R.A. 144 Kierkegaard, Soren 329 Kierstead.B.S. 143 Kilbourn, William 80, 195 Kilgallin, Tony 257 Killam, G.D. 46 Killdeer,The( 1963) 294 Killing Ground (1968) 236 Kind of Wake fulness, A (1973) 306 King, A.R. 157 King, Bruce 46 King, William (abolitionist missionary) 201 King, William Lyon Mackenzie 82,145,194, 197 King of Egypt, King of Dreams (1971)278 Kafka, Franz 174,225,230 King Lear (Shakespeare) 35 Kalant, H. 156 King Rat (1962) 235 Kalant, O.J. 156 Kingdom of Absence, The Kalbach, W. 158 (1967)314-15 Kalman, Rolf 217 Kingdom of Canada, The Kampf, Louis 61 (1963)66 Kanadische Studien (series) 49 Kingdom Carver, The (1968) Kane, Paul 63,79 237 Kant, Emmanuel 86,88-9,

367 Kingsford, William 186 Kingston General Hospital: A Social and Institutional History ( 1973) 132 Kirby, William 19, 20, 24,191, 192 Kiriak, Illia 245 Kirkconnell, Watson 41, 303 Kirkham, Michael 58 Kirk wood, Gordon 33 Kiss for the Leper, A (F. Mauriac, 1922) 38 Kissing Man, The (1962) 258, 259 Kiyooka,Roy317 Klang und Bild in den Dichtungen Georg Trakls (1968) 50 Klassen, William 108-9 Klein, Abraham M. 20-1,29, 175,207,248,296 Kleisthenes (Athenian leader) 52 Klibansky, Raymond 102 Klima, Slava44 Klinck, Carl F. 22,25,31,175, 183,191, 196 Klondike, The (1958) 182,203 Klondike Kate (1962) 199 Klostermaier, Klaus 110 Kluge, E.W. 90 Knight, David 251,264,325 Knowledge Park (1972) 236 Knox, Alexander 240 Kogan, Pauline 60,61 Kogawa, Joy 317 Konkordanz, zu den Dichtungen Georg Trakls (1971) 50 Kootenai Brown: His Life and Times ( 1969) 202 Kornberg, A. 144 Korselt (German mathematician) 90 Korsoniloff (1969) 263 Korte, D.M. 56 Koteliansky,S.S.44 Kovacs, A.E. 142 Krauter, Joseph 155 Kreiger, Murray 61 Kreisel, Henry 30, 31,233 Kristjanson, G.A. 158 Kroetsch, Robert 9,261,268, 275,279,280-1,283 Kropotkin, Peter 203 'Kropotkin Poems' (Webb) 312 Kruhlak, O. 146

368 Kuitunen, M. 54 Kunz, F.A. 144 Kurelek, William 208 Kurten, Bjorn 125 Kushner,Eva48 Kwavnick, D. 145

INDEX

tions in Canada (1970) 155 Language of Self-Involvement, The( 1963) 97,107-8 Language and Structure in Tennyson's Poetry (1973) 57 Languages in Conflict (1972) 158 Labour Economics in Canada Lansdowne, J.F. 128 (Ostry and Zaidi, 1972) 142 Laponce, J. 145 Labour, Management and the Laporte, Pierre 226 Public (Goldenberg) 143 Lapp,J.C.33 Lardner, Margaret M. 116 Labour Markets in Canada (Montague, 1970) 142 Lark des Neiges ( 1971 ) 251, Labour Policy in Canada 269 (H.D. Woods, 1973; H.D. Lary, N.M. 57 Woods and Ostry, 1962) LaSalle,Sieurde74, 199 142-3 La Salle (E.B. Osier, 1967) 199 Lachance, Bertrand 301 La Salle: The Life and Times of Lacombe, Father Albert 191, an Explorer (Terrell, 1968) 195 74, 199 Ladies and Gentlemen ... Mr Laskin, R. 156 Leonard Cohen (NFB film) Last Cannon Shot, The: A 289 Study of French-Canadian Ladoo, Harold Sonny 246,260 Nationalism, 1837-1850 Lady Who Sold Furniture, The (1969)73 (1970)246 Last of the Crazy People, The (1967)269 Ladysmith Press 303 LaForest.G.V. 146 Last of the Curlews, The ( 1963) 249 Laforgue, Jules 36 Last Forty Years, The: Canada LaFrance, Marston 47 since the Union of 1841 Laing, R.D. 256 (1881)18, 187 Lake Erie Baron: The Story of Last Spike, The: The Great Colonel Thomas Talbot Railway, 1881-1885(1911) (1955)194-5 64, 117,203 LaMarsh, Judy 145 Lamb, Sidney 37 Last of the Tsars, The (1965) 224 Lamb, William Kaye 198 Last War Drum, The (1972)79, Lambert, Richards. 194 80 Lambert, Ronald S. 154 Lament fora Nation: The De- Late Archaic Chinese (Dobson) 54 feat of Canadian NationalLate Han Chinese (Dobson, ism (1965, 1970)8,70, 148, 1964)54 325 Late Man, The (1972)257 Lamontagne, Maurice 112 Later Canadian Poems (ed. Lampman, Archibald 19, 191 Wetherell, 1893) 190 Lam/Fa//(1971) 316 7 La Terreur, Marc 184 Lana of ¡s, The ( 1972) 245 Lauber, John 36 Landon,Fred 198 Laughing Rooster, The (1964) Lane, Lauriat 57 309 Lane, M. Travis 306 Laura Secord (Curzon). See, Lane, Patrick 306, 315 Story of Laura Secord. Lane, Red 315 Laura Secord: Legend and Langan, T.D. 89 Lady (Ruth McKenzie, Langgàsser, Elisabeth 49 1971)201 Langton, H.H. 188 Laurence, Margaret 9-10, 46, Language and Ethnic Rela-

234,251,257,258,264, 265-9,270,271,274,281, 282,283,325 Laurier, Sir Wilfrid 198,200, 206 Laurier: The First Canadian (1963)198 Lauriston, Victor 191 Lauter, Paul 61 Lautz, Boniface 105 La vin, J.A. 35,43 Law and the Gospel in Luther, The( 1963) 105 Lawrence, D.H. 44,58 Layton, Irving 13,24,26,29, 31,161,166,170,174,175, 207,242,243,288,291,296, 298,309-10,312 Lax,G. 151 Laxer, J. 140 Leach, J.J. 102 Leach, R.H. 154 Leacock, Stephen 28, 57, 153, 170, 188, 190,323 Leader and a Laggard, A: Manufacturing Industry in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario (George, 1970) 142 Leading Constitutional Decisions (ed. 1973) 146 League of Canadian Poets 18, 293 Lear, Edward 206 Learned Societies 35 Learning Systems (CBC poetry recordings) 288 Leaving Home (1972) 228-9 Leavis, F.R.41,58 Lebel, Maurice 34 LeBlanc, Philip 105 LeBourdais,D.M. 119, 199 Le Dain Commission. See Royal Commission. Lederman, W.E. 146 Lee, Alvin A. 30, 55, 197 Lee, Dennis 7,8,206-7, 260, 298,301,312,314-15 Lee,M.O.54 Lee, Sir Sidney 180, 181-2 Leech, Clifford 35, 37,42,43, 47 Legget, Robert F. 118,119 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 99, 100,113 Leigh, Simon 317 Leiss, W. 152

INDEX Leith,J.A. 50 LeMire, E.D. 44 Lemon, James T. 78 Lenin.V.I. 143 Lennam, Trevor 35 Lennoxville Festival 214,225 Léonard Cohen (Ondaatje, 1970)28 LePan, Douglas 166, 171,233, 299 Le Play, Frédéric 154 Leprohon, Mrs J.L. 175 Le Riche, W.H. 131 Lesage, Jean 3 Leslie, Kenneth 302-3 Lessing, Doris 274 Let God Go Free (1965) 106 Let Us Compare Mythologies (L.Cohen) 331 Letters (T. Hood, ed. 1973) 44 'Letters in Canada' (UTQ annual review) 12,21,23,26, 49,50,160,168,285,294 Letters from the Grand Tour (Spence,ed.1974)44 Letters to Molly (Synge, ed. 1971)45 Levenson, Christopher 317 Levenson, Jill 35 Lever, Charles 45 Levesque,R. 147 Lévi-Strauss, Claude 256 Leviathan (Hobbes) 86-7 Levine, Norman 242, 252-3, 256,257 Levitt, Joseph 72 Levitt, Kari 140 Levy.D.A. 301 Levy, K.L. 54 Lewis, R. 249 Lewis, Sinclair 32,47 Leyerle, John 55 Liberal Party, The (1962) 144 Liberté (magazine) 7 Lieberson,S. 155 Lies (1972)316 Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada and Ontario, 1792-1899, We (1900) 183 Life in the Clearings Versus the Bush (1853)187 Life of Colonel Talbot and the Talbot Settlement (1859) 185 Life and Letters ofEgerton Ryerson (Sissons, 1937, 1947)192, 193

Life and Letters of Sir Edward Mortimer Archibald, by his Daughter (1924) 192 Life Nature Library (series) 126 Life of the Reverend Mr George Trosse, The (ed. 1974)44 Life of the Rt Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald (J.P. Macpherson,1891)186 Life of the Rt Rev. Edward Maginn, Coadjutor Bishop of Deny, A (1857) 185 Life of Savage (S. Johnson, ed. 1971)40 Life of Sir John A. Macdonald (E. Biggar, 1891) 186 Life and Speeches of the Hon. George Brown, The (1882) 186 Life of Thomas D'Arcy Mi-Gee, The (I. Skelton, 1925)192 Life and Times of Angus L., The (1969)202 Life and Times of Clarence DecaturHowe, The (1957) 196 Life and Times of Confederation, 1864-1867, The: Politics, Newspapers, and the Union of British North America (\962)«2 Life and Times of the Hon. Joseph Howe (\&96) 186 Life and Times of the Rt Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald, The (J.E.Collins, 1883) 186 Life and Times of William Lyon Mackenzie, The, with an Account of the Canadian Rebellion of 1837... Chiefly from Unpublished Documents (1862)185 Life and Work of the Rt Hon. Sir John Thompson, Prime Minister of Canada (1895) 186 Light Verse ( 1969) 302 Lighthall, William Douw 17, 18, 189 Like Death Warmed Over (1973; trans, from En Pièces détachées) 230 Like Father, Like Fun ( 1966)

369 231 Lindsey, Charles 185 Linguistic Diversity in Canadian Society (1971) 158 Lion in the Garden: Interviews with William Faulkner /9J6-/962(1968)47 Lipset, S. 145 Lipton, Charles 80-1, 143 Listen to the Wind ( 1966) 231 Literary History of Canada 22, 134-5, 190; ed. 1965 17,25, 28, 138, 311; ed. 1976 (vol. i) 187, (vol. ii) 49, 103, 136, 146, 148, 156, 165, 167 Literary Notebooks (Schlegel, ed. Eichner) 40 Literature of Canada: Poetry and Prose in Reprint (series) 11,18,174 Literature and Ideology Monographs 60 Lithwick,N.H. 112, 139, 141, 150 Little, William T. 201 Little Men in the Unseen World (\963) 119 Little Portia ( 1967) 246 Little Theatre 14 Littlewood, Joan 220 Litvak.l.A. 140 Lives of Girls and Women (1971)271 Lives of the Judges of Upper Canada and Ontario/rom 1791 to the Present, The (1888) 183 Li vesay, Dorothy 18,20-1,30, 31, 169,251,297,298,299, 307-8,311,313 Livingston, John A. 126,128-9 Livingstone of the Arctic (1967)199 Lizars, Kathleen and Robina 187 Local Habitations: Regionalism in the Early Novels of George Eliot (1970)58 Local Pride, A (1962) 3\Q Lochhead, Douglas 18, 297 Locke, John 86,87-8,91, 152, 304,328 Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes ( 1971)87-8 Locke and the Compass of

370 Human Understanding (1970)87 Lofty Rhyme, The: A Study of Milton's Major Poetry (1970)42 Log Cabin: Eight to ElevenThirty (1973)298 Logan, J.D. 19 Logan, Sir William 117 Logic of Leviathan, The: The Moral and Political Theory of Thomas Hobbes (1969) 86-7 Logic and Reality ( 1972) 94 London, Philip 230 London, Susan 230 Lonely Ones, The (1969; later titied Big Lonely) 251 Lonergan, Bernard J.F. 106-7, 328 Long Drums and Cannons (1968)46,265 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth 189 Look to the North Star: A Life of William King (1969) 201 Lope de Vega, Felix 54 Lope de Vega Studies 1937-1962(1964)54 Lord Durham: A Biography (1929) 191-2 Lord Elgin (\926) 191 Lord Selkirk of Red River (1963)198 LordStrathcona: H. Kennedy (1928) 191; J. Macnaughton (1926)191 LordSydenham (Shortt) 188 Lorenz, Konrad 282 Lorimer, James 150, 157 Lost Churches of China, The (1952)104 LostandFound (1968) 310 Lothian, J.M. 43 Loudon, William James 192 Louis xiv, King 75,76 Louis Riel (G.F.G. Stanley, 1963) 197 Louis Riel, 1884-1885: A Biography (Davidson, 1955) 196 Louis Riel: Rebfl and Hero (Bo wsfield, 1971)200 Louis Riel: The Rebellion of 1885 (Needier, 1957) 196 Louis St Laurent, Canadian (1967)82,198

INDEX

Loiiisbourg ( 1964) 224 Love-Love ( 1972) 261 Love where the Nights are Long: Canadian Love Poems (1962)298 Love and Work Enough: The Life of Anna Jameson ( 1967) 30,200 Loved and the Lost, The (Callaghan) 174 Lover More Condoling, A (1968)270 Lovers and Lesser Men ( 1973) 309 Lower, Arthur R.M. 68 Lowry, Malcolm 24,28,234, 240, 257, 258,274-7 Lowry, Margerie Donner 258, 276 Lowther, Pat 317 Lucas, Alec 257 Lucretius (Roman poet) 41 Lucretius and Scientific Thought (1963)4! Ludwig, Jack 242, 263,297 Lui et Moi (Diderot) 50 Lukács, Georg61 Lulu Street (1967) 222 Lumsden, Ian 140 Lunar Caustic (ed. 1963)276 Lunar Rogue (1963) 185, 199 Luscombe, George 215, 220 Luther, Martin 105 Luther (drama) 223 Lycidas (Milton) 41 Lynch, L.E.102 Lyon.J.N. 146 Lyon, Peyton 151 Lyric and Polemic: The Literary Personality of Roy Campbell (\972)46 Lysaght, Averil M. 133-4

McCreary,JohnK. 113 McCrone.G. 141 MacDermot, Hugh Ernest 132, 192 McDiarmid.G. 155 McDonagh, Sheila 110 McDonagh,T.M. 105 Macdonald, Angus L. 202 MacDonald, D.K.C. 113 MacDonald, Goodridge 302 Macdonald, J.E. H. 193 Macdonald, Senator John 187 Macdonald, Sir John A. 64,67, 82, 117, 139, 180, 182, 186, 194,200,206,221,223,224 Macdonald, John Sandfield 200 MacDonald, R. St J. 151 Macdonald, Thoreau 193 McDonough, John Thomas 221,223 McDougall, Robert L. 18, 30, 163, 164, 166, 167 MacDowell.G.F. 143 McEvoy, Bernard L. 116 Mac E wan. Grant 79 MacEwen, Gwendolyn 257, 261,278,288,293,294,296, 314

McFadden, David 261 MacFarlane.B. 158 McFee, Oonah 258 McGee.D'Arcy 185, 192, 194, 195,202,221 MacGill, Elizabeth M.G. 195 MacGill, Judge Helen Gregory 195 McGillivray, William 199 McGillivray, Lord of the Northwest (1962) 199 McGrath.W.T. 156 McGraw-Hill Ryerson (publisher) 13, 28, 29,291. See also Ryerson Press. Macaulay, Thomas 58 MacGregor, Rev. James 184 Macaw/ay (1973) 58 MacGregor, James Grierson Macbeth (Shakespeare) 332 198 MacCallum, Hugh M. 41,42, MacGuigan, Mark 146 Machiavelli, Niccolô 153 44,285 Mcllwraith, Jean 188 McCarthy, Bryan 317 McClelland and Stewart (pub- Maclnnis, Grace 195, 196-7 lisher) 10-11, 12, 13, 18,28, Mclntosh (agricultural pioneer) 195 129, 197,284,291 McKay, A.G. 53 McCloskey, William 149 MacKay.R.A. 151 McClung, Nellie 329 McKee, Sandra 199 McCourt, Edward 198 McKenty, Neil 82, 198 McCready,W.T. 54

INDEX Mackenzie, Alexander (prime minister) 82, 186, 197 Mackenzie, Alexander (explorer) 191,200,206 Mackenzie, Jean 209 MacKenzie, Norman H. 36,43 MacKenzie, R.A.F. 106 McKenzie, Ruth 201 Mackenzie, Willian Lyon 185, 195,200,206 Mackenzie of Canada (1927) 191-2 Mackenzie King of Canada (H.R. Hardy, 1949) 194 Mackenzie King Record, The (Pickersgill and Forster, 1960, 1968, 1970) 145 Mackenzie Poems, The (1966) 300 McKinley,D.W.R. 119 McKinnon, Barry 317 MacKinnon, F. 151 MacKinnon, M.H.M. 42 MacKinnon, R.D. 150 McKinnon, Stuart 288 Macklem, Michael 260 McLaughlin, Lorrie 206 McLaughlin, Robert 201-2 Maclean, Hugh 201 Maclean, John Bayne 201 MacLean, John Philip 237 MacLean, Kenneth 56 Maclean-Hunter (publisher) 261,291 Maclean's (magazine) 12, 176, 177,255,257 MacLeish, Archibald 47 McLelland, Joseph C. 104, 106,108 MacLennan, Hugh 10, 24, 29, 30, 169, 170, 171, 174, 176, 233,234,235, 251, 264, 268, 281 Macleod, Betty 158 McLeod.J.T. 139 McLeod, Margaret Arnett 66 McLin.JonB. 151 McLuhan, Marshall 9,13, 32-3,37,46,138,159,161, 173,179,256,287,319,328, 331 MacLure, Millar 33, 37^3 passim, 49,52,54 McMaster, Juliet 58 McMaster, R.D. 36, 57 MacMechan, Archibald 19,

161 Macmillan, DavidS. 81 Macmillan (publisher) 11, 36, 183,291 MacNab, Sir Allan Napier 202 Mac Nab ofDundurn (1971) 202 McNamara, Eugene 32, 316 McNamee, James 206,239 McNaught, Kenneth W. 196-7 McNaughton, Gen. A.G.L. 80, 120,201 Macnaughton, John 191 McNaughton (1968-9) 80,201 McNeil, Florence 317 MacNutt, W.S. 77 Macphail, Agnes 195 Macphail, Andrew 8 Macpherson, C.B. 147, 152 McPherson, Hugo 22,47, 175 Macpherson, James Pennington 186 Macpherson, Jay 26, 299 Macpherson, Mary Etta 199, 201 MacQuarrie, Heath 144 MacRae,C.F. 46 McRae, K.D. 153 MacRae, Marion 202 McRae, Robert 99, 102, 103 McRobbie, Kenneth 311,312 MacSkimming, Roy 252, 261 McTaggart, Ken 132 McTaggart-Cowan, Ian 112 McTavish, Newton 178 McVey.W. 158 McWhinney, Bill 281 McWhinney, E. 146 McWhirter, George 317 Made in Canada: New Poems of the Seventies (1970) 297 Magic Surface, The (1963) 116 Maginn, Rt Rev. Edward 185 Maine, Sir Henry 153 Mair, Charles 23,30, 189,200 Major American Writers (1962) 59 Makers of Canada (series) 187-8, 189 Makers of Canadian Literature (series, 1923-6, 1941)19,20, 191,193 Making of Canadian Policy, The (Farrell, 1967) 152 Making of George Orwell, The (1969)58

371 Making It: The Canadian Dream ( 1972) 154 Making of Modern Poetry, The (1967)23 Malahat Review, The (U of Victoria) 11,290,315 Malcolm, A. 157 Malcolm Lowry (W.H. New, 1971)28 Malcolm Lowry: The Man and His Work (ed. Woodcock, 1971)24 Malherbe, François de 40 Mallory,J.R. 144 Malraux, André 52 Malus, Michael 317 Mammals of Eastern Canada (1966)128 Man for All Seasons, A (drama) 223 Man Becoming: God in Secular Language (1970) 108 Man Deserves Man: CUSO in Developing Countries (1968) 281,282 Man from Oxbow, The: The Best of Ralph Allen (1967) 177 Man with Seven Toes, The (1969)314 Man of Steel: The Story of Sir Sandford Fleming ( 1969) 201 Mandate of Heaven, The: Record of a Civil War, China 1945-49 (Melby, 1968) 152 Mandel,Elil3,29,30,33,37, 56,61,161,173^,175,294, 295,296,311,312-13 Mandryka, M.I. 55 Manitoba: The Birth of a Province (1965) 66 Manitoba: A History (1957, 1967)66 Manitoba Theatre Centre (MTC) 213, 214, 215, 222, 230,232 Mann, Thomas 174 Mann.W.E. 154, 156, 157 Manning, Helen Taft 73 Man's Emerging Mind (1961) 120 Mansfield, Katherine 252 Manticore, The (1972) 255-6, 325 Map-Maker, The: The Story of David Thompson (1955) 196

372 Maple Leaf Forever, The: Essays on Nationalism and Politics in Canada ( 1971 ) 71, 148 Marcotte, Paul 43 Marcus Aurelius (Roman philosopher) 41 Marcuse, Herbert 9, 256 MargaretAvison (1970)29 Margenau, Henry 122 Margeson.J.M.R. 35,43 Marginalia (Coleridge) 39 Marie de l'Incarnation 75 Marin, Diego 54 Marivaux, Pierre de 51 Marivaux (1965) 51 Marjorie Pickthall: A Book of Remembrance (Pierce) 19, 20 Marker, Lise-Lone 35 Markoosie (Eskimo writer) 250 Mariatt, Daphne 315 Marlowe, Christopher 37,43 Marlowe (1964) 37 Marmura, M.E. 102 Marois, Russell 260, 269 Marquis, Thomas Guthrie 189 Marras, A. 102 Marriott, Anne 258, 309 Marrow of the World, The (1972)207 Marsden, L.R. 158 Marsh, D.B. 143 Marshall, J. Stewart 114 Marshall, Joy ce 75 Marshall, Tom 58,257, 288, 292, 316 Martin, Yves 158 Marty, Sid 291, 206,316 Martyrology, The (1972) 302 Marx, Karl 9,73,139,152,153, 154,162,163,282,321,326, 330 Mary, Queen of Scots 190 Maske, A: The Earlier Versions (Milton, ed. 1973) 42 Masks of Poetry (1962) 164 Massey, Hart Almerrin 195 Massey, Irving 44 Massey, Vincent 179 Massey Commission. See Royal Commission. Master Works of Canadian Authors (series) 19 Masters of Sail (1968) 119

INDEX Mathers, Donald M. 105 Mathews, Robin 173, 303 Mathias, Philip 139 Maison, Harold 275 Matsno Basho ( 1970) 55 Matthews, D. 155 Matthews, John P. 46, 175 Matthews, Roy 140 Maud, Ralph 43 Maude Abbott: A Memoir (1941)192 Maule, Christopher J. 140 Maurer, A.A. 86, 102 Mauriac, François 58 Maurice, F.D. 44 Maximus Poems, The (Olson) 48 Maxwell, D.E.S. 37,45,47 Maxwell, James Clark 113 May.W.O.P. 200 Mayne, Seymour 242, 292,317 Mayo, H.B. 152 Mayor Howland, the Citizens' Candidate (D. Morton, 1973)80 Mazo de la Roche ofJalna (1966)199 Meagher, John C. 35 Meaning and End of Religion, 77iE>(1963) 110 Mechanic, The (1970) 220 Medieval Philosophy (1962)86 Medium is the Message, The (1967)32, 179 Medium is the Rear View Mirror, The (197'!) 32-3 Meek,J.H. 116 Meekison, J.P. 147 Meeting Point, The ( 1967) 246 Meighen, Arthur 82, 145, 197 Meisel, John 145 Melby,J.F. 152 Meltz.N. 143 Melville, Herman 37 Melvin, J.R. 140 Melzack, Ronald 205 Memoir of the Late Rev. William Black, Wesley an Minister, Halifax, NS, A (1819) 184 Memoir of the Rev. James MacGregor, VB (1859) 184 Memoir of the RtRev. John Strachan (1870) 186 Memoirs of a Bird in a Gilded Cage (LaMarsh, 1969) 145

Memoirs of Montparnasse (1970)239^10,262 Memoirs of the Rt Hon. Sir John Alexander Macdonald (1894)186 Memories of a Catholic Boyhood ( 1973) 178 Men of Canada: A Portrait Gallery (1901-2) 183 Men and Meridians (1966-9) 117-18 Men and Women ( 1966) 245 Mencius (Chinese sage) 54 Mencius (trans. Dobson, 1963) 54 Mendel, Gregor Johann 101 Merchant Prince, A: The Life of the Hon. Senator John Macdonald (mi) 187 Merivale, Patricia 48 Meriweather, J.B. 47 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 89,91 Merleau-Ponty's Critique of Reason (\966)%9 Message from Arkmae ( 1972) 208 Metaphysical Analysis (1967) 93 Metayer, Maurice 205, 249 Metcalf, John 243,246, 257, 264 Meteor Science and Engineering (1961) 119 Meteors (1963) 119 Method and Imagination in Coleridge's Criticism (1969) 56 Method in Theology (1972) 107 Methodological Heritage of Newton, The (1970) 102, 113 Métis of the Mackenzie District, The (Slobodin, 1966) 156 Mice in the Beer ( 1960) 178 Mickiewicz, Adam 41 Midas Compulsion, The (1969) 237 Middlemarch (G. Eliot) 35 Middleton, Jesse Edgar 183 Middleton, Thomas 34 Middleton, W.E. Knowles 113,114 Midsummer Night's Dream, A (Shakespeare) 331 Mike: The Memoirs of the Right Honourable Lester B.

INDEX Pearson (1972, 1973)82, 145 Milani, Lois D. 202 Milham,M.E.53 Mill, James 42 Mill, John Stuart 39-40,42,103 Miller, Peter 317 Millgate, Jane 58 Millgate, Michael 38, 47, 58 Millman, Peter 119-20 Mills, John 245, 246, 260 Milner, Jean 131 Milton, John 37,41,42, 59,60, 304 Millón (\9f>5)31 Milton, Mannerism and Baroque (1963) 42 Mindscapes( 1971)297 Ministers and Generals: Politics and the Canadian Militia, 1868-1904 (1970) 80 Minutes (1968)304 Miracle at Indian River ( 1968) 259 Mirror on the Floor ( 1967) 262 Mirror and the Garden, The: Realism and Reality in the Writings ofAnais Ñin (1971) 47 Mr Bones (1972)220 'Mr Canada' (newspaper series) 194 Mrs Blood ( 1970) 272 Mitch Hepburn (1967)82, 198 Mitchell, Sister Beverley 18 Mitchell, Howard 179 Mitchell, W.O. 134,233,248 Miville-Dechêne, Joffre 229 Moberly, Walter 118 Moby Dick (Melville) 48 Modern Canadian Stories (1966)257 Modern Canadian Verse (1967)295,297 Modern Century, The ( 1967) 9, 59,60, 176 Modern Language Association 60 Modern Senate of Canada, The (Kunz, 1965) 144 Mohawk Princess, The: Being an Account of the Life of Tekahion-Wake (1931) 192 Moir.J.S. 109 Molinaro, J.A.40, 54 Moltmann, Jurgen 107 Moneo, G. 155

Monet, Jacques 73 Money and Banking in Canada (Neufeld, 1964) 141 Money, Banking and the Canadian Financial System (Binhammer, ed. 1972) 141 Monsarrat, Nicholas 236 Montagnes, Anne 133 Montague, J.T. 142 Montemayor, Jorge de 44 Montgomery, L.M. 195, 211 Montreal: A Brief History (1969)69 Montreal Star, The 212 Montreal Story-Tellers, The 264 Moodie, Susanna 19, 187, 189, 255,267,314 Moodie family 196,201 Moon, Henry Frederick (Henry More Smith) 185,199 Moore, Brian 29,233,236,245, 251,269 Moore, George 44 Moore, Mavor 229 Moore, Milton 140 Morality and Utility (1967) 92 Morang, George (publisher) 187,188 More Loves Than One (1963) 108 More Poems for People (1972) 313 'Moresby, L.' See Beck, Mrs L. Adams. Morgan, Henry J. 183 Morgan, John S. 156 Morgan, P.P. 44 Môrike, Eduard Friedrich 50 Morikes Elegien und Epigramme: Eine Interpretation (1964)50 Morison, Samuel Elliot 74 Morley, Patricia 30, 46 Morley Callaghan : Conron (1966) 197; Hoar (1969) 29 Morris, Audrey Y. 201 Morris, W.S. 105 Morris, William 44 Morton, Desmond 79, 80 Morton, W.L. 65-7,70, 328, 330 Mosaic (U of Manitoba magazine) 11, 38, 160 Moscovitch, Harry 317 Moss, Frank E. 120

373 Moss, John 17, 27, 31, 162 Mostly in Clover (1963) 178, 239 Mountain Goats ofTemlaham, The (1969)205 Mountain and the Valley, The (1952)233 Mouth of the Wolf, The (1967) 200 Moving in Alone (1965) 316 Mowat, Farley 74,129, 134, 187,208,211,241,324 Mowatt, D.G. 50 Mukherjee, Bharati 259 Mullaly,E.J.47 Multinational Firm and the Nation State, The (1972) 140 Munchmeyer ( 1971)272 Munro, Alice 257,258, 270-1, 283 Munro, John 82 Munro, John M. 140 Murphy, Arthur 221, 224, 230, 231-2 Murphy, Emily 192, 195 Murray, Roña 317 Murres, The, their Distribution andBiology(\96Q) 127 Murry, John Middleton 36 Musgrave, Susan 297, 316 My Country: Canada or Quebec? ( 1966) 147 My First Seventy-Five Years (Lower, 1967) 68 My Heart is Broken ( 1964) 252, 253 My Mother, the Judge (E.M.G. MacGill, 1955) 195 My Seventy Years (M. Black, ed. 1938) 192 My Sexual and Other Revolutions (1972) 236-7 My Uncle Joe (1962) 206,239 Myers, B.R. 113 Myers, H.B. 147 Myers, Martin 263 Mysterious Naked Man, The (1969)307 Mysterious Stranger, The (1817)185 Mystery of Unity, The: Theme and Technique in the Novels of Patrick White ( 1972) 46 Mythe d'Orphée dans la littérature française contemporaine, Le ( 1961) 48

374 Nagler, Mark 156 Nail Polish ( 1971)309 Naipaul, V.S. 46 NakedPoems (1965)312 Names and Nicknames ( 1963) 232 Napier, John 126 Narrateur et narration dans 'L'Etranger' d'Albert Cam«í(1960)52 Narrative Modes in Czech Literature (1973) 55 Narrative Voice, The (1972) 257 Nárreme in the Medieval Romance Epic, The (1969) 48-9 Narveson, Jan 92 National Arts Centre (Ottawa) 214 National Dream, The: The Great Railway, 1871-1880 (1970)64,117,203 National Encyclopaedia of Canadian Biography, The (1935)183 National Film Board 210,289 National Library (Ottawa) 39 National Museum (Ottawa) 125 National Research Council 111, 112, 114, 119, 120 National Resource Policy in Canada (1972) 141 National Theatre School (NTS) (Montreal) 213 Nationalism in Canada ( 1966) 148 Nationalism, Communism, and Canadian Labour, 1935-1956 (1973)81 Native Peoples (1971) 155 NA TO: Issues and Prospects (1969)151 Natural Gas and National Policy (1973)141 Natural Perspective, A (1965) 59 'Naturalismepas mort': Lettres inédites de Paul Alexis à Emile Zola /S7/-/900(1971)51 Nature (British journal) 112 Nature, Contemplation and the One (1967) 85-6 Nature of Things, The (television series) 126

INDEX Near False Creek Mouth (1964)309 Neatby, H. Blair 82, 145, 197 Nebuchadnezzar's Children: Conventions of Madness in Middle English Literature (1974)56 Necropolis of Anemurium, The (1971)52 Needham, Richard 177, 331 Needham's Inferno (1966) 177 Needier, George H. 196 Neill, Robin 143 Nelles,H.V.81 Nellis, J. 152 Nelson, L. 155 Nelson, S.J. 116 Neo-Latin Literature and the Pastoral (1965) 54 Neo Poems (1970) 300 Neptune Theatre (Halifax) 213,215,223,224,230,231 Neufeld, E.P. 141 Neveu de Rameau, Le (Diderot 50 Never Cry Wolf(\961, 1973) 129 New, Chester 191 New, William H. 26,28, 174, 257 New American Nation (Séries) 76 New American Review 76 New Ancestors, The(\97l) 236, 282-3 New Brunswick, A History: 1784-1867(1963)77 New Canadian Library (reprint series) 10-11, 18,22, 174, 197,296 New Canadian Writing: Dave Godfrey, D.L. Stein, Biaise ( 1968) 281; Metcalf, Spettigue, C.J. Newman ( 1969) 243 New Catholic Encyclopedia (1967)102 New Directions in Canadian Poetry ( 1971)298 New France: The Last Phase, 1744-1760 (1968)74 New Press (Toronto) 10,217, 261 New Provinces (poetry anthology, 1936)21 New Romans, The (1968) 10

New Theory of Value, A (1972) 143 New Wave Canada (1966) 297, 300 New Windin a Dry Land (1964) (us title for The Prophet's Camel Bell, 1963) 265 New York Review of Books 15 New Yorker (us magazine) 252 Newfoundland: Island into Province (1967) 76 Newfoundland Fishermen in the Age of Industry (1972) 155 Newlove, John 24,172,248, 292,296,297,316 Newman, Coleman J. 242, 243-4,257 Newman, Peter C. 6, 12, 82, 198,203 Newton, Chris 232 Newton, Sir Isaac 100,102,113 Newton, Norman 237, 248 Newton McTavish's Canada: Selected Essays (1965) 177-8 Nibelungenlied, The: An Interpretative Commentary (1967)50 Nice Place to Visit, A (1970) 245 Nichol, bp (Barry) 9,256,261, 262,288,289, 297,298, 301-2,309 Nicholas Knock ( 1974) 206, 207 Nichols, Ruth 207-8 Nicholson, James 183 Nicholson, Norman 36 Nicol, Eric 177, 231,232 Nielsen, Kai 97-8,102 Nietzche, Friedrich 309 Night of the White Bear (1971) 240 Nin, Anais 47 Niven, Charles D. 116 Niven, Frederick 191-2 No Casual Trespass (1967) 303 No Clouds of Glory! ( 1968) 272 No Englishman Need Apply (1965)245 No Pain Like This Body (1972) 246 No Power Greater: A Century of Labour in British Columbia (1967)81

INDEX No Word for Good-Bye (1969) 209 Noble, Iris 195 Nobody owns the earth (1971) 301 Noce,H.S. 54 Noel, S.J.R.63,77, 148, 153 Noman( 1972) 278 Non-Tariff Trade Barriers as a Problem in International Development (Pestieau and J. Henry, 1972) 140 Norman Nicholson (1973) 36 North American Assault on the Canadian Forest, The (1938) 68 North American Education, A (1973)258,259-60 North A tlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing ( 1970) 157 North of the Border (1963) 113 North to the Unknown: Achievements and Adventures of David Thompson (1949)193^1 Northern Journey (magazine) 258 Northern Review (Montreal, 1946-56)20,168,290 Northrop Frye (R. Bates, 1971 ) 28,60,61 Northrop Frye: The High Priest of Clerical Obscurantism (Kogan, 1969)60,61 Northrop Frye in Modern Criticism (English Institute, 1966)60 Northway, John 199 Northwest Review 258 Not from the Apes (1972) 125-6 Notebooks: Coleridge (ed. 1959, 1961, 1973) 39; Dylan Thomas (ed. 1967)43 Notman.W, 182 Novel and Its Changing Forms, TVie (1972)38 Novels of Hugh MacLennan, TM1970) 30 November House (Vancouver publisher) 261 Novik, Mary 47 Nowlan, Alden 24,257,259, 293,296, 306-7 Nun, Witch, Playmate (1971) 108

Nurmi,M.K.44 O Can (1972) 303 O Canada (1964) 15 (Dates, Joyce Carol 245-6 Oberon Press (Ottawa) 10,260, 298 Objective Idealism is Fascism: A Denunciation of Northrop Frye's 'Literary Criticism' (anon.) 61 Objectivity in Social Science (1973)101-2 O'Brien, Bill T. 261 O'Brien, Charles S. 202 O'Brien, J.W. 141 O'Brien, Michael 37 O'Brien, Michael John (1851-1940)199 O'Brien: From Waterboy to One Million a Year (1967) 199 O'Broin, Padraig 303 O'Casey,Sean36,228 O'Connell, Daniel 185 October Ferry to Cabriola (ed. 1970) 258, 276, 277 O'Driscoll, Robert 45 Odysseus Ever Returning: Essays on Canadian Writers and Writing (\97Q) 20, 160, 174

Odyssey (Homer) 280 Oedipus Rex (1968) 37 Of the Fields, Lately (1973) 228-9 Officer, L.H. 138, 139 O'Gorman, Donal 50 O'Hagan, Howard 257 Old Chieftain, The. See, John A. Macdonald (Creighton). Ole son, Tryggvi V. 74 Olson, Charles 48, 315 Ombudsman, The: Citizen's Defender (Rowat, 1968) 151 On Aggression (Lorenz) 282 On Canadian Poetry (E.K. Brown, 1943)20,21,23 On Concepts of Capital and Technical Change (1971) 144 On the Foundations of Geometry and Formal Theories of Arithmetic (Frege, trans. 1971)90 Once More upon a Totem (1973)205

375 Once upon a Totem (1963) 205 Ondaatje, Michael 13,28,224, 286,289,296,297,298,314 One Chinese Moon (1959) 115 One Church, Two Nations? (1968)105 One Cosmic Instant (1973) 128-9 One Country or Two? (1971) 147 One in Hope and Doctrine (1968)105 One Hundred Poems of Modern Quebec (1970)295-6 One Hundred Years of Medicine in Canada, 1867-1967 (1967) 132 One Man Alone ( 1963) 251 One True Man, The (1963) 237 One Way Ticket ( 1961) 252 O'Neill, Eugene 47 Ontario Arts Council 13,217 Ontario Council of Health 131 Ontario County Atlases (1870s) 182 Ontario Institite for Studies in Education (Toronto) 69,288 Open Letter (magazine) 175 Option for Quebec, An (1968) 147 Oral Formulaic Language in the Biblical Psalms ( 1967) 55 Orators in Cicero's 'Brutus,' The (1973) 52 Ordinary, Moving (1969) 315 Organized Labour and Pressure Politics (Kwavnick, 1972) 145 Original People, The (1971)79 Origins of English Tragedy, The(\967)43 Ormsby, William 73 Orpheus in the Middle Ages (1970)48 Ortega y Gasset, José 274 Orwell, George 38, 58,203 Osier, Edmund Boyd 199 Osier, Sir William 178, 195 Ossenberg, R.J. 154 Ostenso, Martha 18 Ostry,S. 142, 143, 144 Othello (Shakespeare) 332 Other Canadians: An Anthology of New Poetry in Canada, 1940-1946 (1947) 23, 162, 163, 164

376 Other Canadians, The: Profiles of Six Minorities (1973)155 Other Paris, The (1955) 252 Other Side of the Room, The (1971)302 Other Six Days, The (1959) 104 Otonabee Pioneers: The Story of the Stewarts, the Stricklands, the Traills and the Moodies( 1953) 196 Ouellet, Fernand 73 Our Canadian Literature (ed. Pierce) 20 Our Earth in Continuous Change (1971) 116 Our Intellectual Strength and Weakness (1893) 18, 189 Our Living Tradition (Carleton U series) 21 Our Man in Utopia (1971) 315 Our Nature — Our Voices (A Guidebook to EnglishCanadian Literature, vol. I, C.Thomas, 1973; vol. 11, Davey, From There to Here, 1974)30,183 Our Sense of Identity (1954) 22 Out West (Kroetsch trilogy) 280-1 Outerbridge, L.M. 104 Outline of Canadian Literature , An (1927) 19, 20 Outram, Richard 305 Overture (F.R. Scott) 168 Owen, W.J.B. 56 Owens, Joseph 93-4, 102 Ox Bells and Fireflies (1968) 233 Oxford Book of Canadian Verse (A.J.M. Smith, 1960) 285-6,295,297 Oxford Companion to Canadian History and Literature (N. Story, 1967) and Supplement (Toye, 1973) 183 Oxford University Press 37, 200,291 Ozone Monster, The ( 1969) 316

INDEX

299,310,311 Paine, R. 155 Painters of Quebec (1946) 193 Pal, I.-D. 138 Palaces of Crete, The ( 1963) 52 Palgrave, Francis Turner 295 Palmer, Marion 237 Paltiel, Freda 157 Paltiel, K.Z. 145 Pan the Goat-God: His Myth in Modern Times (1969) 48 Pan Tadeusz (trans. 1962)41 Pandora (1972) 269 Papers on Regional Statistical Studies (1966) 142 Paquet, Gilles 140, 150 Paradise Lost (Milton) 41,42 Paradise Lost: A Tercentenary Tribute (m