Lingnan Hung Kuen: Kung Fu in Cinema and Community 9789629375423, 9789629373528

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

嶺南洪拳 電影•社群

Edited by HING CHAO

With contributions from RICHARD ALLEN JEFFREY SHAW SARAH KENDERDINE ERNIE WOLFE III

Project editor Designer
 Photographer
 Editorial support Editorial intern
 Design consultant Motion capture data support Graphics support
 Research

Joanna Pierce Carrie Yu Tang Ming Tung Choi Tsz Wai Cheng Tsz Nok Chilai Howard Cheng Lau Chi Fung Lee Hin Ching International Guoshu Association Lam Sai Wing Hung Kuen Research Society

This catalogue is published as a companion book to the exhibition Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century: Kung Fu Narratives in Hong Kong Cinema and Community, on view at Hong Kong Visual Arts Centre, 6–25 September, 2017, and the Gallery at City University of Hong Kong, 8 December 2017–11 February 2018. The exhibition was made possible by the Hong Kong Arts Development Council, and Promoting Happiness Index Foundation Hong Kong Limited. Additional support was provided by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, City University of Hong Kong, Lau Kar Leung Film Boxing Director Charitable Foundation Limited, and Lam Sai Wing Hung Kuen Research Society. The exhibition was organized by the Institute of Chinese Martial Studies in association with the International Guoshu Association. Front cover is adopted from Howard Cheng’s original exhibition poster design for Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century. ©2018 City University of Hong Kong All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, internet or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the City University of Hong Kong Press. First published 2018 Printed in Hong Kong ISBN 978-962-937-352-8 Published by City University of Hong Kong Press Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong Kowloon, Hong Kong Website: www.cityu.edu.hk/upress Email: [email protected]

TAB LE O F CO N TE N T S Tribute to the Lam and Lau Families — John Tsang

vii

Preserving Lau Kar Leung’s Kung Fu Heritage — Lau Kar Leung Film Boxing Director Charitable Foundation

xi

Statement on Hong Kong Martial Arts Living Archive — Sarah Kenderdine

xiii

Lingnan Hung Kuen: An Intangible Cultural Heritage — Louis Ng

xv

Preamble: Towards an Appreciation of Hong Kong Kung Fu Cinema ­— Roger Garcia

xvii

Preface ­­­— Hing Chao

xxi

Note on the Spelling of Chinese Names Chapter 1 Legacy of Lam Family Hung Kuen Hing Chao

xxiii 27

Chapter 2 Lau Kar Leung’s Hung Kuen Cinema: A Martial Arts Perspective Hing Chao

57

Chapter 3 The Paradoxes of Tradition: Lau Kar Leung at Shaw Brothers Richard Allen

87

Chapter 4 The Golden Age of Hand-Painted Movie Posters from Ghana, West Africa mid 1980s–1999 Ernie Wolfe III

123

Chapter 5 The Museological Re-enactment of Lingnan Hung Kuen Jeffrey Shaw & Sarah Kenderdine

137

Endnotes

163

Selected Bibliography

167

List of Contributors

169

Lam Chun Fai, head of Lam Family Hung Kuen, at Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century exhibition opening.

T RIBU TE TO TH E LAM AN D L AU FA M I LI ES John Tsang Former Financial Secretary of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

Hing Chao is my brother in the arts — martial

Learning martial arts is a process of self-

arts, that is. His sifu (teacher) Master Lam

discovery through exploring and reliving the

Chun Fai is my sibak (my teacher’s elder

wisdom and experiences of our forefathers

brother in martial arts lineage). We are

while safekeeping this slice of our national

members of the same Hung Gar family.

cultural heritage. There was a saying in the

Brother

and

movie The Grand Masters, “See yourself, see

curiosity in martial arts surpasses my own.

the world, see the people”, and I think this is

That is quite something for such a young

what learning martial arts is all about. Chinese

person, as I have spent some six decades

martial arts today are no longer just a matter for

living with martial arts. In fact, his involvement

practitioners in the Chinese diaspora around the

with the arts surpasses most people I know;

world. It is a matter for martial arts enthusiasts

it is just phenomenal.

of any nationality anywhere in the world.

I do not believe it is unfair to say that Brother

Look at the Chinese martial arts scene today

Hing is mad about martial arts. He is captivated

in North America and in Europe, where the

by every aspect of this traditional Chinese

discipline thrives with notable distinction. Many

discipline, from training of the body and the

styles and traditions that were nearly lost or

mind to practising the finer features of the

were close to extinction in their place of origin

arts, as well as researching, learning about

have been able to find a sustained following and

and appreciating the history and development

have blossomed in their adoptive homes. The

of the arts through the ages. Brother Hing is

styles found in many countries have remained

totally committed to furthering his knowledge

true to their origins, and these migrant

of the arts, from fist to weapon forms as well

traditions, inherited over several generations

as their practical applications. He is currently

in these adoptive homes, have been able to

concentrating his focus on the Lam family

flourish. The work and persistence of brother

system of Hung Gar kung fu as well as the

Hing will benefit this worldwide network of

genre of Hakka kung fu.

martial arts enthusiasts for generations to come.

Hing’s

passion,

proficiency

T R I B U T E TO T H E L A M A N D L AU FA M I L I E S

vii

Maintaining a small slice of our civilization has

days on end thereafter. That was how we felt

become a massive contribution to the world.

about the films made by Sifu Lau Kar Leung.

The one person who should be given great

Another

credit for the promotion and propagation of

propagation of Chinese martial arts is my sigung

Chinese martial arts worldwide is Bruce Lee.

Lam Cho (teacher of my teacher, sifu Kwong Tit

There is no question about his ability and

Fu). He was the chief disciple and nephew of

his achievements in the arts, but his biggest

Lam Sai Wing, the disciple of the legend, Wong

contribution has been his vision of employing

Fei Hung. Sigung Lam Cho nurtured throughout

the movie medium to bring Chinese martial arts

his entire life this multi-generational heritage of

to every corner of the globe. To many people

the Lam family, and propagated the arts widely

around the world, Bruce Lee symbolizes kung

and successfully here in Hong Kong as well as

fu. Despite receiving his education in the

in many parts of the United States and Europe.

significant

contributor

to

the

United States, he promoted traditional Chinese culture through the power of movies that he

Many Chinese martial arts practitioners around

made popular — kung fu movies, no less.

the world today specializing in the Hung Gar

He is without any doubt the most influential

style are probably students of the Lam family

ambassador of Chinese culture.

system. I was very fortunate to have been one of the guests at Sigung Lam Cho’s 100th

Sifu Lau Kar Leung, also a member of the Hung

birthday party that was held in Hong Kong, and

Gar family, was another person who contributed

the presence of many students from different

significantly to the propagation of Chinese

parts of the world testified to the fantastic

martial arts through the movie medium. His

reach of the system and underscored the story

many, now legendary, films brought Chinese

of his influence.

martial arts and genuine Hung Gar kung fu to audiences worldwide.

The Lau and the Lam family systems have similar origins in Hung Gar kung fu, and they share the

Unlike other directors and martial arts/action

same objective of promoting and propagating

coordinators, he was not only interested in

this system to a worldwide audience. The

projecting the artistic value of his films, he was

recent highly successful exhibition Lingnan

also interested in maintaining the accuracy,

Hung Kuen Across the Century held at the Hong

comprehensiveness and originality of kung fu

Kong Visual Arts Centre and City University of

and its many styles and forms.

Hong Kong highlighted a new perspective of the interactions between these two systems.

When his movies first appeared on screens in

We should certainly explore the possible

New York, they were events of anticipation for

convergence of these two great family systems

me, my brothers in my kung fu school in Boston,

to further strengthen the constituents of the

as well as martial arts enthusiasts living on the

respective systems and reinforce our efforts in

east coast of the U.S. The Boston crowd would

sharing our passion with even more enthusiasts

get together in the first weekend of the film’s

around the globe.

showing, organize a fleet of cars, make the four

viii

hour plus drive each way to Manhattan, watch

The world today prefers innovation, speed and

the movie and come home happy and content,

returns over tradition, culture and heritage.

discussing the details all the way home and for

In the context of our globalized world, this

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

is something about which we have to be

admirable. Reading this book and gaining a

realistic. However, this inclination has caused

better understanding of Chinese martial arts

great threat and damage to the preservation of

is the best possible support of brother Hing’s

our cultural heritage and the maintenance of

effort. It is also the most direct and simple

traditional practices. Against this background,

way of helping to preserve this small slice of

what brother Hing is doing today is truly

our heritage and culture.

T R I B U T E TO T H E L A M A N D L AU FA M I L I E S

ix

Mary Jean Reimer-Lau and Jeanne Lau, the wife and daughter of the late Lau Kar Leung, at the exhibition opening at the Hong Kong Visual Arts Centre.

P RESE RVI N G L AU KAR L EUN G’ S K U NG FU H E RI TAG E Lau Kar Leung Film Boxing Director Charitable Foundation

Lau Kar Leung Film Boxing Director Charitable

which we hope could then be used to teach

Foundation

by

prospective students. However, the purpose

Mary Jean Reimer Lau (“MJR”) in 2014 to

of documentation was not merely to educate

memorialize the legacy of the late kung fu

students who either wished to become martial

master, film director and actor, Lau Kar Leung.

artists or were interested in its philosophy,

Lau sifu started learning kung fu at the age of

but to also provide a history of Chinese kung

seven in Guangzhou, China.

fu, which until now has been largely orally

(“LKLF”)

was

established

For more than

seven decades, he perfected the art taught by

transmitted.

his father, Lau Zaam. Lau Zaam was a disciple of Lam Sai Wing who in turn was a disciple of

In 2015 MJR approached Hing Chao, a

the legendary Wong Fei Hung.

descendant of the Lam school of Hung Kuen and a dedicated martial arts practitioner. With

All of Lau Zaam’s knowledge was passed to

LKLF’s support, Hing was able to get the Hong

Lau Kar Leung who continuously sought to

Kong Martial Arts Living Archive project — a

broaden his skills by learning numerous other

collaboration between the International Guoshu

kung fu fighting styles whilst incorporating new

Association (which Hing co-founded) and the

techniques to form his own unique style. His

City University of Hong Kong — off the ground,

knowledge in kung fu was unsurpassed, while

which set out to create a permanent digital

he was among the very few in the modern era

archive that will preserve a myriad Chinese

to master at least thirty-six different martial arts

martial arts techniques for future generations.

weapons. In addition, Hing’s own vast knowledge allowed When Lau Kar Leung passed away in 2013, the

for the inclusion of many other Chinese kung

LKLF was established not only to memorialize

fu styles and histories to be incorporated into

him, but to also provide aid to martial art stunt

the living archive. Traditionally, techniques and

people in the Hong Kong film industry. At the

teachings were passed down from a kung fu

same time, the LKLF set out to document

master to their disciple(s). In the absence of

relevant kung fu styles using visual aids,

a disciple, the legacy and teachings would be

P R E S E R V I N G L AU K A R L E U N G ’ S K U N G F U H E R I TA G E

xi

lost. Due to the efforts of the LKLF, MJR and

is the realization that the late Lau sifu was

Hing, for the first time, it has become possible

such an extraordinary person that when he

to safeguard the knowledge of Chinese kung

passed away, regretfully he took much of his

fu against the passage of time and prevent

knowledge, techniques and masteries with him.

branches from disappearing. At the same time,

However, while it is true that a good portion of

the endeavour to document and digitalize this

Lau sifu’s skills are forever lost, there is also

information can be continuously expanded

the possibility of reconstructing a good deal of

as lesser known kung fu styles become

his techniques, principles and even martial arts

incorporated into this enterprise.

thinking from the movies he personally acted in and directed and through piecing together the

Our conviction behind this undertaking for

skills inherited and taught by a handful of his

the preservation of the art of Chinese kung

remaining disciples.

fu through a more substantive method, rather

xii

than the traditional way of passing relevant

In order to ensure that future generations can

knowledge and skills from master to disciple,

learn and train in the Lau and Lam kung fu

was due to two factors. The first is that,

styles or, indeed, other forms of Chinese martial

throughout history, there were, and always will

arts, MJR and Hing are continually working

be, individuals of such extraordinary talent, that

with relevant forums to ensure that younger

the heights they reach in martial arts cannot be

generations have access to reliable information

equalled, much less surpassed, by those who

on the history, legacy and principles of Chinese

inherit their teachings. In addition, each master

martial arts. The exhibition Lingnan Hung Kuen

has unique interpretations and expressions of

Across the Century: Kung Fu Narratives in

kung fu techniques, which are difficult for their

Cinema and Community and the present book

disciples to mimic and adopt. The second factor

are some of those forums.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

STAT E ME N T O N H O N G KON G MA RTI A L A RTS L I V I N G AR C H I V E Sarah Kenderdine Co-founder of Hong Kong Martial Arts Living Archive Director of ArtLab, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)

The Hong Kong Martial Arts Living Archive fuses

transmission of such cultures. This collaboration

theory and practice in an ambitious undertaking

sees experimental technologies as vital to the life

to document, archive and present the living

of the practices it records as well as intangible

traditions of Chinese martial arts. Initiated by

cultural heritage more broadly.

the International Guoshu Association (IGA) in partnership with City University of Hong Kong’s

Research in academic institutions is shifting

(CityU) School of Creative Media, the project

focus towards societal impact as a metric

leverages the technologies and aesthetics of

of value. Practice-driven research is widely

new media art as an essential aspect of its

considered to be part of the best practice

programme. Recently joined collaborator, the

toolkit for achieving this impact. Familiar in

École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne,

the arts, it is being applied to emergent topics

Switzerland (EPFL), will add to this endeavour

in the nascent field of digital humanities.

the expertise of its newly founded Laboratory for

As a cross-disciplinary field, digital heritage

Experimental Museology (eM+—part of EPFL’s

research includes both the development of new

Digital Humanities Institute).

archival and analytic methodologies for living traditions and new paradigms for experimental

The Archive is the first motion capture inventory

museology. This project engages with both

of southern Chinese kung fu practice, and

strands of advancement, aiming to support

represents an opportunity to create new forms

kung fu traditions that are at risk of being

of continuity for physical cultural practices

relegated to the past in suspended animation

and traditions for which the original modes of

as great masters pass away and fewer and

knowledge transfer are under threat. China is

fewer students take up the practice.

a leader in the recognition of intangible cultural heritage.1 However, traditional practices and

CityU and EPFL create strategies for encoding,

holistic cultures such as kung fu are subject to

retrieving and re-enacting intangible heritage in

the impact of rapid social, cultural and economic

ways that allow these archives to be “alive” in the

changes that have drastically altered the

present. The exhibitions of the Hong Kong Martial

conditions that have governed the uptake and

Arts Living Archive bring together historical

S TAT E M E N T O N H O N G K O N G MARTIAL ARTS LIVING ARCHIVE

xiii

materials with creative visualizations derived

digital strategies can help to sustain intangible

from

processes

heritage despite the difficulties associated with

motion-over-time

documenting the ephemeral, codifying the tacit,

advanced

including

motion

documentation capture,

analytics, 3D reconstruction, and panoramic

and mediating the embodied.

video. Exposing the potential of experimental museology to revivify cultural heritage, the

Exhibitions

archival materials created through this research

2016

are re-interpreted and re-performed through the

• 300 Years of Hakka Kung Fu: Digital

mediums of augmented and virtual reality and

Vision of its Legacy and Future, Heritage

interactive media art. This archive utilizes new

Museum, Hong Kong, and City University

immersive and interactive display paradigms to

of Hong Kong.

perpetuate the performances of past masters for future generations. Applied within a pedagogical

2017 • Kung Fu Motion, Immigration Museum,

framework, these strategies of documentation

Asia TOPA: Asia-Pacific Triennial of

and display can be mobilized for returning this

Performing Arts.

corporeal knowledge to the body—to new

• Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century:

students of future generations. The “living

Kung Fu Narratives in Hong Kong Cinema

archive” emerges as part of a contemporary

and Community, Hong Kong Visual Arts

reciprocity

Centre and City University of Hong Kong.

between

expert

and

novice,

performer and digital master.

2018 • Kung Fu Motion: A Living Archive, ArtLab,

By providing the circumstances for embodied knowledge transmission through platforms that return codified knowledge to the body of the visitor, the exhibitions create a space in which

xiv

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

EPFL, Switzerland. 2019 • Kung Fu Motion: A Living Archive, ZKM Karlsruhe, Germany.

LINGNA N H U N G K UEN : A N IN TA N G I BL E CU LT UR AL H ER I TAGE Dr Louis Ng Deputy Director, Leisure and Cultural Services Department

Hong Kong’s local culture is unique in itself.

art items has successfully heightened public

Nevertheless, it shares much in common

awareness and appreciation of the tradition and

with Chinese culture at large, and some of

transmission of Hung Kuen in Hong Kong.

its traditions and customs have contributed enormously to the forging of a transnational

It is most encouraging to note that, in parallel

identity. Despite the pervasive influence of

with

Western culture on our daily lives, these

organizations in the community contribute to

traditions never fail to remind us of our Chinese

the preservation of martial arts in their own

identity. Chinese martial arts, or Chinese kung

ways. For instance, the International Guoshu

fu, are definitely part of that valuable heritage.

Association has been collaborating with the

the

Government’s

efforts,

different

Centre for Applied Computing and Interactive Thanks to mass media, movies in particular,

Media of City University of Hong Kong to build

Chinese martial arts have engendered global

up the Hong Kong Martial Arts Living Archive

enthusiasm for many decades and their

since 2013. To date, over fifty kung fu styles

significance is also increasingly recognized in

have been captured and preserved through the

Hong Kong. Indeed, Chinese martial arts form

application of information and communication

an integral part of the intangible cultural heritage

technologies. The archive has actually provided

(ICH) of Hong Kong. In 2009 the Government

a rich source of material for the Lingnan Hung

endeavoured to identify and define the various

Kuen across the Century: Kung Fu Narratives

elements of ICH present in Hong Kong and

in Hong Kong Media and the Community

launched a territory-wide survey to establish

exhibition.

an ICH database. During the four-year survey, quite a number of local kung fu masters were

Hosted by the Institute of Chinese Martial

interviewed and information pertaining to them

Studies

was documented in detail. Among the thirty-six

Kong Visual Arts Centre, the exhibition is a

martial art items on the first local inventory list

highlight of the Hong Kong Culture Festival

promulgated in 2014, six of them are related

2017. By presenting martial arts-inspired new

to Hung Kuen. The recording of these martial

media works, the exhibition showcases the

with

the

support

of

the

Hong

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: A N I N TA N G I B L E C U LT U R A L H E R I TA G E

xv

achievement and legacy of local masters Lam

informative and interesting exhibition. My

Sai Wing and Lau Zaam, and the contribution

heartfelt appreciation is extended to the

of Lau’s son, director Lau Kar Leung to martial

International Guoshu Association and the

arts movies. It is hoped that the exhibition will

Centre for Applied Computing and Interactive

rekindle the passion for Chinese martial arts

Media of City University of Hong Kong for

among the general public, and connect the

their unstinting support for the development

digital-savvy generation to kung fu traditions.

of the Hong Kong Martial Arts Living Archive. Their concerted effort in preserving martial

xvi

I would like to congratulate the Institute for

arts means so much to the aficionados and the

Chinese Martial Studies for organizing this

community at large.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

P REA MBL E : TOWAR D S A N A PPR E C I AT I ON OF HONG KO N G K U N G F U C I N E M A Roger Garcia Executive Director of the Asian Film Festival

Many audiences come to an awareness

The popular and influential genre that we know

of martial arts through the cinema, usually

as kung fu films began in post-war Hong Kong

through

a

and sprang from a deep rooted culture of martial

significant number of martial arts followers

arts, historico-myth, and novels (especially by

and aficionados have come to martial arts

the Hong Kong author Jin Yong, aka Louis Cha)

cinema (and Hong Kong movies) through

and later, comic books (for example, by Tony

their own practice of the discipline. While it

Wong). As such, Hong Kong and its popular

is a community unto itself, the links between

culture was the main driver of martial arts films

martial arts and the cinema is considerable

in the second half of the twentieth century

and for the layman, this relationship offers an

and one might add, was also the repository of

insight into both worlds.

different martial arts styles. These films form a

Hong

Kong

films.

Likewise,

significant contribution to world cinema (and The martial arts film is Chinese culture’s unique

in extenso popular culture) whose depth and

and enduring contribution to world cinema.

breadth continues to impress.

Like the American western, or Japanese samurai film, the martial arts movie has unique

For the cinephile who comes to martial arts

and distinctive characteristics but contains

through Hong Kong films, navigating the history

elements that can transcend borders and appeal

and culture of martial arts can be as challenging

to audiences around the world. In short, it is a

as Gordon Liu’s training in The 36th Chamber

mythology that has a deep specificity but also a

of the Shaolin. At times baffling, sometimes

universality. Like the western, its mythology is

convoluted, with unexpected strategies, it is

rooted in geography and history, and a morality

like learning a language with its own rules of

that underlies the actions and techniques of

grammar and vocabulary.

its heroes and villains. It is the structuration of these elements that allows — sometimes —

The

for the form to transcend space and time.

accompanying exhibition sets out for the

research

in

this

volume

and

its

PREAMBLE: T O W A R D S A N A P P R E C I AT I O N O F H O N G K O N G K U N G F U C I N E M A

xvii

first time an important part of the martial

personality first and second as a proponent of

arts narrative as it developed in Hong Kong,

kung fu. While Lee talked and wrote much about

essentially the Lingnan Hung Kuen style

his “Jeet Kune Do”, his legacy has less to do with

founded by Lam Sai Wing (1860–1943), and

his style and disciples than the man himself.

one of its greatest practitioners in the cinema, Lau Kar Leung. The essays explain much of the

The legacy and mythologization of martial arts

history, styles and techniques that underlie

was left to several other talents in the post-war

what we see in martial arts films, and help us

Hong Kong film industry. The popular narrative

understand the cultural and historical context

of the burning of the Shaolin monastery and the

of the films’ narratives and actions. A careful

dispersal of its various disciples, especially the

viewer of the films will rapidly understand that

southward move that spawned the Ten Tigers

the films are not just fight fests (if at all), but

of Guangdong and the emergence of Wong Fei

they attempt to tell the kung fu story through

Hung, was consolidated from the 1960s, mainly

episodes from its mythology/history and some

through the Shaw Brothers Mandarin-language

of its venerable and colourful characters —

studio pictures. Before that time however, we

Wong Fei Hung, Lam Sai Wing, Hung Hei Goon

find a number of dedicated martial artists active

among others. The information and analyses

in Guangdong province in the 1930s. Through

in this volume are invaluable tools that enable

migration, they created a community in post-

outsiders to gain a deeper and more enriched

war Hong Kong, and the first Wong Fei Hung

understanding of the culture and significance

films with the iconic Kwan Tak Hing in the titular

of these “super heroes” of southern Chinese

role appeared in the 1940s. A host of martial

culture and their stories.

arts movies were made by an array of studios from poverty-row outfits to large so-called “left

How Hong Kong martial artists from a centuries-

wing” (China aligned) studios in both Cantonese

long tradition came to influence profoundly the

and Mandarin. They featured real martial artists

quintessential art form of the twentieth century

performing real kung fu — for a while the only

is an extraordinary feat that is a story of Hong

“special effects” were painted backdrops of an

Kong itself, a tiny territory determined to make

imagined rural China. These films feature Yuen

its place in the world through the resilience and

Siu-tien and Lau Zaam, the fathers respectively

talent of its people. Normally this story is told

of Yuen Woo Ping and Lau Kar Leung who would

as a progress first through manufacturing, then

both have an enormous impact on Hong Kong

trade and more recently, in global finance. It is

martial arts films and international cinema. Both

rarely told through the popular culture of Hong

fathers provide the connection with tradition —

Kong, the tastes of its audience and especially

Lau Zaam for example studied under Lam Sai

its filmmakers whose work over the years has

Wing, a disciple of the real Wong Fei Hung.

put Hong Kong on the international cinema

This is also the world of Ip Man, a more recent

map. Martial arts, as manifested in Hong Kong

addition to the kung fu film’s popular vernacular.

cinema, have been central to this propagation. The Lau and Yuen sons were both deeply rooted

xviii

Bruce Lee was the first global martial arts

in southern martial arts Hung Kuen, which has

superstar. He died in 1973 and he was perhaps

the cut-and-thrust of a horizontal style that is

the first martial artist who understood how to

well suited to the rectangular frame and tracking

project himself through the medium of film.

shot of the cinema. It also places the hero and

He is one of the few whom one thinks of as a

villain on the same physical plane where the

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

fight becomes a test not only of skill but also

all found in Quentin Tarantino’s homage to Asian

moral rectitude. This approach to action film —

martial arts cinema, Kill Bill (which also stars

where the villain is placed on the same level

Gordon Liu, who regularly starred in many Lau

as the hero — had a profound influence on the

Kar Leung films of the 1970s and 1980s).

characterization of Hong Kong heroes and villains who are rarely black and white but a variety of

An overarching theme in Lau Kar Leung’s oeuvre

shades of grey. Thus we witness the codification

is family relationships. The core master-disciple

of chivalry (the knight errant of Chinese classical

relationship is portrayed as a kind of love-hate

literature), and honour among cops and robbers

narrative that delves into the complexities of

(such as John Woo’s The Killer and Andrew Lau/

loyalty and authority. Marital relationships also

Alan Mak’s Infernal Affairs); and an atmosphere

feature, surprisingly for martial arts films. Not

if not of claustrophobia, then of everyone in the

since Wu Ma’s stunning Deaf Mute Heroine

movie living in an enclosed world of unstated

(the titular kung fu superwoman Helen Ma

rules — the jiang hu or (in simple terms) the

seeks revenge for the death of her woodcutter

martial arts world.

husband) have we witnessed the tenderness and combative affection in the framework of

The authenticity of martial arts in Hong Kong

violent action. For example, Heroes of the

cinema, its adherence to tradition while it is

East stars Lau Kar Fai (Gordon Liu), a Chinese

also being translated to the modern world,

martial arts expert, and Mizuno Yuko, his female

and the sheer physical skill in choreography

Japanese counterpart, as newlyweds. They

and execution, are the elements that brought

constantly bicker and fight, arguing over whose

Hong Kong martial arts to bear on international

country’s arts and skills are superior. In My Young

cinema.

Auntie, Kara Wai is an attractive martial artist of traditional virtues who is plunged into a cultural

Many of these aspects are found in the work

clash and comedic chaos when faced with the

of one of Hong Kong’s greatest filmmakers

Westernized ways of a younger relative when

— Lau Kar Leung, who for many years was

she arrives at the family home of her deceased

something of a guilty pleasure for foreign

husband in nineteenth-century Guangzhou. It is

audiences. His film, Executioners from Shaolin

not difficult to see auterism in Lau’s work, his

is an episode from the life of Hung Hei Goon

concept of martial arts as a family clearly based

and becomes a discourse on the roots of and

on his own life experience.

inspiration for martial arts. His great films, The 36th Chamber of the Shaolin and Dirty Ho

Martial arts, through its very skills, seeks to

(among others) emphasize the dedication of the

unlock the potential of the human body, to

true martial artist and the training and sacrifice

imagine and to realize — at least in the cinema

that one must make for the discipline, and the

— the transcendence of physical limitations.

importance of understanding the purpose in

Such ambition is also the ambition of cinema, a

doing so (whether for revenge, justice etc). As

desire to create a world from the imaginations

the essays on Lau Kar Leung in this volume

and dreams of mortals and in so doing, arrive

explain, the extended fight sequence that

at a deeper understanding of ourselves. The

climaxes Martial Club is a definitive tour de force

martial arts project represented by this book

of Hung Kuen. The influence of these films are

takes us one step further along this path.

PREAMBLE: T O W A R D S A N A P P R E C I AT I O N O F H O N G K O N G K U N G F U C I N E M A

xix

P REFACE Hing Chao Editor Executive Director of Institute of Chinese Martial Studies

This catalogue is a companion book for the

the exhibition and book. The materials presented

exhibition Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century:

in the first two chapters are drawn from the

Kung Fu Narratives in Hong Kong Cinema and

repository of knowledge of these two great kung

Community, which was made possible through

fu families, who also provided the images for the

generous donations from Promoting Happiness

corresponding chapters. We are also indebted

Index Foundation Hong Kong Limited, Lau Kar

to Mark Houghton, Lau Kar Leung’s disciple and

Leung Film Boxing Director Charitable Foundation

successor, for his kind assistance. We would

Limited, and a grant from the Hong Kong Arts

also like to extend our thanks to Oscar Lam,

Development Council.

fourth generation master of the Lam family, and Jeanne Lau, Lau Kar Leung’s daughter, for their

The exhibition is a celebration of Hong Kong kung

participation and contribution. It has been a joy

fu masters of the Lingnan Hung Kuen school,

and an honour to bring these two legendary

who have made significant contributions to the

kung fu families together, and we look forward

development of Chinese martial arts and kung fu

to watching how their interwoven stories unfold

cinema around the world. In this regard, we are

in the future.

particularly grateful to the Lam and Lau families, who generously shared their knowledge, as well

Neither the exhibition nor the present book

as personal memories, photographs and videos,

would have been possible without the support

and allowed the curators to tap into their rich

of Celestial Pictures Limited, who granted us the

family traditions. A special note of thanks is due

license to use original film posters, video clips

to Master Lam Chun Fai, the current head of the

and images from four iconic films made by Lau

Lam family Hung Kuen school and president of

Kar Leung between 1975 and 1984 — Challenge

Lam Sai Wing Hung Kuen Research Society, and

of the Masters (1976), The 36th Chamber of

Mary Reimer, wife of the late kung fu master

Shaolin (1977), Martial Club (1981), and The Eight

and film director Lau Kar Leung and director of

Diagram Pole Fighter (1983). Visuals from these

Lau Kar Leung Film Boxing Director Charitable

four films provide the substance for Chapter

Foundation Limited. Both provided much needed

Three and a significant portion of Chapter Two.

guidance during the planning and execution of

Taking this opportunity, we would also like to

P R E FA C E

xxi

thank Juliana Wong, distribution director of

their painstaking efforts have enabled us to bring

Celestial Pictures Limited, and Josephine Ng,

the early twentieth century master back to life.

formerly manager of distribution and marketing

Their work is discussed in detail in Chapter Five,

of Celestial Pictures Limited, who assisted us

which will give readers unique insights into the

every step along the way.

interface between technology and kung fu, and how new media tools may be put to use for the

We are grateful to director Shu Kei and Professor

study, preservation and education of martial arts.

Richard Allen for sharing their unique insights

This chapter also features the 3D conversion

and critical perspectives on Lau Kar Leung’s

of selected scenes from The 36th Chamber of

kung fu films, which significantly enriched both

Shaolin, which was ably undertaken by Salon

the exhibition and the present book.

Films Ltd., and a six-angle installation featuring performances of iconic Hung Kuen boxing sets,

Ernie Wolfe III kindly loaned his wonderful

Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen and Fu Hok Seung Ying

collection of Ghanaian kung fu posters from the

Kuen, by Oscar Lam.

golden period of Ghanaian poster art from the 1980s to 1999. These posters are the subject of

Last but not least, we are grateful to the

Chapter Four.

wonderful editorial support from City University of Hong Kong Press. Joanna Pierce, editor at

xxii

Special thanks are due to Carl Whiteside and

CityU Press, patiently guided us through the

Waterproof Studios from Vancouver for building a

process of producing the book, while Carrie Yu

convincing life-like 3D figure of Hung Kuen master

expertly supervised its design, based on creative

Lam Sai Wing, and Victor Wong and vfxNova for

guidance from Howard Cheng, the designer of

creating the animation for this figure. Together,

the original exhibition.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

NOT E O N TH E SPE L LI N G OF C HI N E S E NA ME S It has not been possible to adopt a single

To assist the reader ploughing through the not

standard for the spelling of Chinese names

insignificant number of Chinese names, the

consistently in this book for a number of

following rules are adopted. 1) Official spellings

reasons. First of all, significant differences in

for Chinese place names are used throughout the

pronunciation exist between the Mandarin

text, which generally follow contemporary Mandarin

and Cantonese dialects and, depending on

spelling. Therefore, even though certain places such

the cultural and vernacular context in which a

as “Canton” (which has a longer history in the

name arises, we adopt one or the other form of

English language and had been in use since the

spelling. The second complication derives from

nineteenth century) may be more readily recognized

the fact that for both Cantonese and Mandarin,

to the English readership, the name we use is

competing

systems

“Guangzhou”. 2) For well-known Chinese martial

were developed at different times in Hong

arts personalities, we follow the established

Kong, Taiwan and Mainland China, all of which

convention within martial arts literature, for example

remain in use. A third contributing factor is that

“Wong Fei Hung” rather than “Wong Fei Hong”,

different spelling systems may occur within

even though the latter is often preferred outside

the same context of use, notably in the Shaw

martial arts literature. 3) Where referring to film

Brothers Studio/Celestial Pictures production

titles, actors and actresses, film characters and other

notes,

spelling/transliteration

Taiwanese

personnel involved with specific films, we adopt the

Mandarin and Mainland Chinese Mandarin

name/spelling used by the production company (i.e.,

spellings sometimes occur concurrently.

Shaw Brothers Studio and Celestial Pictures).

such

that

Cantonese,

N OT E O N T H E S P E L L I N G OF CHINESE NAMES

xxiii

Studio portrait of Lam Sai Wing in Tit Sin Kuen (Iron Wire Boxing) pose.

1

CHAPTER

L E G AC Y OF L AM FAM I LY H UN G KUEN Hing Chao

T

he Lam family is one of the most

presence throughout the Eurasian continent,

respected martial arts families both

extending to Southeast Asia, the Americas,

in Hong Kong and internationally.

Australasia and beyond.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, they have been at the forefront of martial arts

The achievements of the Lam family are broad

development and have played a formative role

and far-reaching. Since Lam Sai Wing’s days, the

in creating modern kung fu culture. The head of

family has pioneered the use of photography and

the family, Lam Sai Wing (1860–1943) was one

other media tools to document Chinese martial

of the earliest modernizers in Guangzhou and led

arts. This spirit of innovation has continued with

the effort to transform traditional martial arts into

each successive generation as they explore

a modern system during the 1920s and 1930s.

new strategies to record and disseminate kung

Following in his footsteps, his son, master Lam

fu. Today, working closely with International

Cho (1910–2012), forayed into different kung

Guoshu Association and the Centre for Applied

fu styles and aggressively expanded Lingnan

Computing and Interactive Media, City University

Hung Kuen, giving form to the contemporary

of Hong Kong, the Lam family has gone beyond

Hung Kuen system. Today, under the leadership

conventional media in their quest to preserve the

of Lam Chun Fai (b.1940), Lingnan Hung Kuen

family legacy in a future-proof manner, making

has grown into one of the most comprehensive

use of an array of documentary strategies

and influential kung fu systems with a significant

including motion capture, 3D animation and

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

27

advanced motion analysis. Chapter Five will

masters, we attempt to sketch their individual

assess the Lam family’s use of digital and media

achievements as well as collective contributions

technologies more fully.

to Chinese martial arts and contemporary kung fu culture as a whole.

The Lam family also played a critical role in modernizing southern Chinese martial arts and creating contemporary kung fu culture. In this connection, Lam Sai Wing and Lam Cho’s endeavour to build a modern Lingnan (or Cantonese) martial arts system in the first half of the twentieth century through to the first two decades after World War II, centering

Founder of Lam Family Hung Kuen: Lam Sai Wing (1860–1943)

L

am Sai Wing was born into a martial arts family in Pingzhou, Nanhai prefecture, in

Guangdong province. He learnt martial arts from

around the Nam Mou Athletic Association, was

his grandfather Lam Baak Sin and great-uncle

particularly significant. This laid the foundation

Lam Geui Chung, both accomplished Hung Kuen

for subsequent developments which slowly

martial artists. Early training gave Lam Sai Wing

took shape in Hong Kong in the 1960s and

a solid foundation but he continued to study with

1970s. The emergent modern kung fu culture

renowned masters after moving to Guangzhou.

extended beyond the traditional realm of

In “A Brief History of the Late Master Lam Sai

Chinese physical culture, as community kung

Wing” by Cheung Biu Wun, in Chu Yu Zai’s Iron

fu practice amalgamated with new media

Wire Boxing (1951), it is said that Lam followed

forms, and in particular cinema, which came to

renowned masters Wu Kam Sing, “Northern

dominate mainstream popular culture post war.

Chinese boxer surnamed Kang”, Chung Hung

Followers of Lam family teachings, in particular

San1 and, finally, Wong Fei Hung. It is uncertain

the legendary Lau Kar Leung and his family,

exactly what he learnt before taking instruction

played a leading role in this process, as we shall

from Wong Fei Hung, but likely he fused his

see in Chapter Two.

earlier learning into the Hung Kuen system. According to Mr Lam Sai Wing’s Abridged

After a century of development, in the eyes of

Biography, written by Wai Siu Baak, “Lam

many, the identity of Lam Family Hung Kuen

followed Master Wong Fei Hong for over twenty

has become interwoven with popular culture

years and inherited Wong’s teachings. Then he

and cinema. It is true that the Lam family has

set up his own martial art school in Guangzhou

benefitted from an explosion of interest in the

at the age of forty-five.” 2

wake of a long list of Hung Kuen-inspired kung fu films from 1949 onwards. At a fundamental

In martial arts folklore, the Lok Sin Theatre

level, however, beyond the occasional dabbling

Incident, in which Lam Sai Wing and his students

in film and media, the Lam family has always

were ambushed by a horde of assailants, was

kept their focus on kung fu practice itself,

legendary.3 As oral tradition had it, Lam Sai Wing

preserving its legacy and spreading martial

escaped from the incident relatively unharmed,

arts as an invaluable form of Chinese physical

while inflicting serious injury on his attackers.

culture, and making this accessible to the wider

After this incident, which took place probably

global community.

some time in the 1900s in the twilight of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), legends about his martial

28

In the biographical journey outlined below,

arts prowess became widespread. The Lok

through three generations of Hung Kuen

Sin Theatre Incident looms large in Cantonese

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Portrait of Sun Yat Sen and the presidential medal dated 5th May in the 10th year of the Republic, i.e. 1922.

martial arts folklore in general, and occupies a

China’s first indigenous martial arts association

central place in Lam Sai Wing’s mythology in

modelled on the YMCA, and Zhang Zhijiang’s

particular. In historical terms, however, Lam

Central Guoshu Institute in Nanjing, which

Sai Wing’s real contributions, which were well-

eventually became the dominant form throughout

documented, took place during the Republic of

the country. 4 Strong regional character coloured

China (1912–1949).

these experiments, reflecting the fragmented nature of Chinese politics in the first half of the

Lam Sai Wing shot to prominence soon after the

twentieth century, but with the exception of

establishment of the Republic and was among

Chin Woo Athletic Association, what they had in

the leading martial artists in Guangdong at the

common was a close association with the military.

time. In 1922 his performance of Tiger and Crane Boxing to fundraise for an orphanage in Canton

In line with national development, Guangdong’s

won plaudits from Sun Yat Sen, the founding

military governors during the late 1920s and

father of the Republic of China, who awarded

1930s also attempted to construct their own

him the presidential medal and addressed him

regional martial arts systems. Originally, after

as “Mr. Fu-Hok” (Mr. Tiger-and-Crane).

attending the first national Guoshu examinations held in Nanjing in October 1928, Guangdong

During the late Qing and early Republic, Chinese

governor Li Jishen (1885–1959) looked to adopt

martial arts went through a phase of intensive

the Guoshu model as he set up Two Guang

modernization with competing models emerging

Guoshu Institute in March 1929. However, his

in different parts of China, including Ma Liang’s

position was usurped several months later and

New Martial Arts under the Beiyang regime in

Two Guang Guoshu Institute did not survive its

northern China, Chin Woo Athletic Association,

infancy.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

29

The man who replaced him, Chen Jitang (1890–1954) set his mind on modernizing and industrializing Guangdong, but while he took a personal interest and patronized Chinese martial arts, even going as far as engaging civilian boxers as military combat instructors, he fell short of building a comprehensive system to rival the Central Guoshu Institute or, indeed, that could be compared with Ma Liang’s New Martial Arts or Chin Woo Athletic Association. Be that as it may, Lam Sai Wing maintained and further cemented his position as a leader in Guangzhou’s martial arts community during Chen Jitang’s rulership between 1926 and 1936. He became martial arts instructor for the general headquarters of the National Revolution First Army — a continuation of his association with the military which began with Lee Fook Lam 5 — taught hand-to-hand combat to the officers and choreographed a sabre routine, Commander’s Sabre, which is preserved in the Lam family’s repertoire and continues to be practised to this day. At the same time, he served as martial Lam Sai Wing in Nationalist government military uniform. Chinese title reads: “Guoshu (i.e. Chinese martial arts) instructor for National Revolution Army First Army Headquarters”. Image from 1936 edition of Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen.

arts teacher to Chen Jitang’s family, a role he fulfilled until Chen’s overthrow in 1936. During this period, as one of the premier martial artists in Guangzhou, Lam Sai Wing probably also had some level of exchange with other leading masters, including northern Shaolin master Gu Ruzhang, with whom it is said Lam Sai Wing had a falling out.6 It was probably during this time that he also choreographed the famed Fifth Brother Trigram Pole.7 It is said that at the peak of Lam Sai Wing’s career, anyone who wished to open a martial arts school in Guangzhou had to seek his approval, such was the extent of his influence and the awe in which he was held.

Chu Yu Zai, novelist and Lam Sai Wing’s student, also the author of Tit Sin Kuen (circa 1950s, exact date unknown).

30

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Around 1926 Lam Sai Wing was invited by the Hong Kong Butchers’ Association to teach martial arts.8 This can be seen as a stepping

Lam Sai Wing with his followers in HK, dated 1935.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

31

Nam Mou Athletic Association 1954 reunion, commemorative photograph with Lam Cho (fifth from left) and Geng Dehai (fifth from right) in the centre.

32

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

33

Lam Sai Wing posing with his students in a studio.

Lam Sai Wing’s school group photo, dated New Year’s Day of 1935.

34

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

stone as Lam Sai Wing later relocated to Hong

(“south” and “martial”) probably also refers to

Kong with his entire family. He was probably the

the southern orientation of the new martial arts

most influential master to set up headquarters in

association, both in terms of geography and

Hong Kong before the war, and brought with him

contents, suggesting a focus and orientation

important new concepts influenced by modern

around southern styles which had been largely

martial arts movements such as Chin Woo

ignored by existing martial arts organizations,

Athletic Association and the Central Guoshu

including Chin Woo. At the same time, Lam Sai

Institute.

Wing never intended to exclude northern martial arts from the Nam Mou Athletic Association, as

It is difficult to determine exactly what his

he gathered an outstanding group of southern

thinking regarding martial arts was from the

and northern martial arts masters under its

published literature, which was mainly written

umbrella, including the influential northern

by his students, sometimes with liberal, not to

master Geng Dehai, who became its chief

mention erroneous, interpretations, as in the

northern instructor and developed a lifelong

case of Chu Yu Zai’s Iron Wire Boxing. What is

friendship with Lam Cho, Lam Sai Wing’s

obvious, however, is that while Lam Sai Wing

nephew and successor.

took what he liked from various modern martial arts systems, he had his own embryonic vision

For a time, the Nam Mou Athletic Association

for a unified Cantonese (or southern Chinese)

ran parallel to the Lam School, and by the

system that would integrate the different schools

outbreak of the war, Lam Sai Wing had several

and regional styles. In the “Autobiography” in

branches in Hong Kong with, allegedly, over

Lam Sai Wing’s Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen, he said

two thousand students.11 The Nam Mou Athletic

that with dedicated practice one could reach

Association shut its doors during the occupation,

a point where “a thousand fists [will come]

but was successfully brought back after the

under one standard, [as] ten thousand methods

war by Lam Cho, who took it to new heights

converge into a unifying principle”. 9 At the same

in the 1950s and 1960s. The Nam Mou Athletic

time, in the latter part of his life, Lam Sai Wing

Association is a forgotten chapter in Hong Kong

often used the name “Lingnan martial arts” to

martial arts history. It was one of the earliest

describe his system, which reinforces the view

and most important modern Chinese martial

that he intended to construct a system that

arts organizations in Hong Kong, which laid

would transcend the division of styles that had

the foundation for the development of modern

long hampered Chinese martial arts.

Guoshu in the city after 1949.

In this connection, perhaps the most significant

Lam Sai Wing’s other outstanding achievement is

project Lam Sai Wing undertook to overcome

the rich legacy he created through photographic

these boundaries was to establish the Nam

documentation and publishing. Taking his cue

Mou Athletic Association, which he set up in

from Chin Woo Athletic Association which made

Hong Kong some time before the war. Following

extensive use of photography to document,

Chin Woo’s example, the new organization was

publish and transmit Chinese martial arts, he

called an “athletic association”, which suggests

was among the first to attempt to systematically

its ambition to include new Western concepts of

document traditional martial arts in southern

“sport” and “physical education” in theory and

China, leaving behind a rich legacy of visual

practice. Its name was probably inspired by the

and textual materials. Between 1923 and 1951,

Nam Mou School 10 in Guangzhou. “Nam Mou”

Taming the Tiger Boxing, Tiger and Crane Boxing

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

35

Lam Sai Wing Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Book (1936).

and Iron Wire Boxing were published. They record the essential teachings of Lam Family Hung Kuen as well as techniques handed down from Wong Fei Hung. Taming the Tiger in I-Character Boxing, the foundational Hung Kuen form, was released in two different versions, the second being a commemorative issue, which was published in 1936, seven years before Lam Sai Wing’s death. It contains an extensive number of photographs, and was the only book that made use of Lam Sai Wing’s real portraits rather than hand-drawn illustrations. Some would argue that it was in publishing that Lam Sai Wing attained the greatest achievement, but in truth this was merely one aspect of his greater vision to construct a modern Lingnan martial arts system.

36

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Master Lam Cho demonstrating Seung Lung Dou.

Second Generation Lam Family Master: Lam Cho (1910–2012)

taught martial arts. For a period of two years he

L

am Cho was born in the village of Pingzhou,

play a significant role in his development as a

Nanhai prefecture, on the 18th day of the

martial artist, as he was exposed to different

first lunar month, 1910. Orphaned at a young

types of martial arts during this period and

age, Lam Cho was raised by his uncle Lam Sai

gained a broader perspective which later led to

Wing. Even though his family circumstances

his reform of Hung Kuen.

toured widely with the troupe and performed at many villages throughout the Pearl River Delta area. His time on the Red Boat was to

were comfortable, Lam Sai Wing brought his nephew up under strict discipline, with the

Gifted with extraordinary memory and a keen

view to make him his successor. In his early

sense of observation, Lam Cho incorporated

teens Lam Cho was sent away to the Red

many classic martial arts sets and techniques

Boat to learn Cantonese opera, where he also

into Lam Family Hung Kuen, merging various

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

37

kung fu styles which considerably enriched and

In the decades after the war, Lam Cho took

enhanced Lam Family Hung Kuen. Lam Family

a leading role in popularizing Chinese martial

Hung Kuen as we know it owes much to Master

arts in Hong Kong. He re-established Nam

Lam Cho’s reform and innovation. The core

Mou Athletic Association, which had been

techniques — Taming the Tiger Boxing, Tiger

suspended during the war. It became one of

and Crane Boxing and Iron Wire Boxing — were

the most active martial arts clubs in the post-

handed down from Wong Fei Hung and Lam Sai

war period and facilitated exchanges between

Wing in a direct line of transmission. Building

northern and southern Chinese martial arts

on the foundation of his ancestors’ martial

and martial artists in Hong Kong. Lam Cho

techniques, however, Lam Cho boldly introduced

was also involved in philanthropy and took part

innovations, refinements and additions, which

in fundraising for relief during Hong Kong’s

finally gave shape to the Lam Family Hung Kuen

intense water shortage in the 1960s.

system of today. In the second half of his long life, Master Lam During the late 1920s and 1930s Lam Cho

Cho concentrated on teaching martial arts and

followed his uncle in his peregrinations between

his medical practice. As Chinese martial arts

Guangzhou and Hong Kong. In 1931, at the age

reached the peak of its popularity in Hong

of twenty-one, Lam Cho opened his own kung

Kong, Lam Cho and his group were constantly

fu school and dit da clinic on Pottinger Street

in demand for public performances, and rubbed

in Hong Kong’s Central district. In the same

shoulders with the elite and with celebrities,

year, he was invited to perform Chinese martial

such as the eminent actor Sun Ma Sze Tsang,

arts at a British military exercise at Lufeng. His

who was a personal friend and frequent

martial arts performance — perhaps one of the

guest at his gatherings. In general, however,

first public occasions that a “Chinese boxer”

Lam Cho stayed out of the limelight and his

demonstrated before a predominantly Western

favourite pastime was simply to practice and

audience — won plaudits from all present and

ponder on traditional martial arts in which

received favourable coverage. By all accounts

he took a deep interest in going beyond the

Lam Cho was already recognized as one of the

inherited system.

foremost martial artists in Hong Kong as the 1930s drew to a close.

Lam

Cho

recognized

the

importance

of

innovation at an early stage, thus he made

38

In 1941 during the Japanese occupation of

effective and sensible adjustments to Hung

Hong Kong, in the absence of regular police the

Kuen’s boxing sets. He introduced changes

city ran riot with looters and thieves. To prevent

to the sequence of Taming the Tiger Boxing in

looting in his neighbourhood, Lam Cho formed

I-Character, made it less repetitive as well as

a self-protection unit with twenty to thirty of

more dynamic and interesting. At the same

his students. During this period, a large part of

time, he was interested in practical, application-

Yau Ma Tei including the entire strip of Nathan

oriented training and came up with a new

Road fell under Lam Cho’s protection. However,

two-man training set for Fu Hok Seung Ying

under intense pressure from the Japanese, Lam

Kuen (Tiger and Crane Boxing). In addition, he

Cho was forced to move back to his ancestral

assimilated into the Hung Kuen system other

village with his family and the ailing Lam Sai

outstanding empty-hand sets, including Lau Gar

Wing, who passed away peacefully at a barber’s

Kuen (Lau Family Boxing), Bun Bou (Crushing

shop in 1943.

Step) and Hou Kuen (Monkey Style).12

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

However, it was in weapons that Lam Cho made the greatest contribution. Compared to the limited range of weapon techniques inherited from his uncle Lam Sai Wing, Lam assembled and choreographed a large number of new weapon sets including Lau Family Staff (Lau Gaa Gwan), Wu Dip Seung Dou (Butterfly Double Knives), Seung Long Dou (Double Dragon Swords), Monkey Staff (Hang Che Pang), Daan Dou, Siu Tiu, Mui Fa Cheung, Yiu Gar Dai Par, etc. Lam Cho took tremendous care in selecting and rebuilding the Lam Family weapons system, as each of them represents the finest techniques of that weapon in south China.13 Lam Cho’s achievements are best summarized by the phrase “inheriting from the past while inspiring the future”. On the one hand, he systematically reformed the techniques inherited

Master Lam Cho demonstrating Bun Bou.

from Hung Kuen masters Wong Fei Hung and Lam Sai Wing, and gave it a stricter theoretical framework.

On

the

other

hand,

through

exchanges and innovation, he improved the structure of the Lam Family Hung Kuen system, and by fusing the good qualities of diverse martial arts styles and schools, he significantly enriched Lam Family Hung Kuen. Vitally, many of the martial arts techniques and sets incorporated from external styles have since fallen into decline, and his timely effort in studying, documenting and systematizing these valuable techniques, in both empty-hand and weapon forms, has preserved for posterity precious elements of traditional southern Chinese martial arts which would otherwise have been lost, and these represent another important aspect of Master Lam Cho’s rich legacy.

Lam Cho performing at a fundraising event at the Queen Elizabeth Stadium during the 1960s.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

39

Lam Cho (bottom row, second from left) with the famous actor Sun Ma Sze Tsang (bottom row, third from left).

40

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Master Lam Chun Fai practising Yiu Gar Dai Par with Master Lam Cho looking on in the background.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

41

42

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Kwun Lun Gim demonstration.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

43

Third Generation Lam Family Master: Lam Chun Fai (b.1940)

L

Republic, Greece, the Netherlands, Sweden and many other countries. Since Lam Cho’s passing, Lam Chun Fai has

am Chun Fai, the eldest son of Lam Cho,

become the de facto head of Lam Family Hung

started to learn martial arts when he was

Kuen. He is now the chairman of Lam Sai Wing

five and began to assist his father instructing

Hung Kuen Research Society, vice president of

martial arts at the age of twelve. Following his

the Hong Kong Wushu Union, founding president

childhood in the Blue House in Wan Chai, he took

of the China (Hong Kong) Traditional Wushu

up the responsibility of inheriting and spreading

Federation and advisor to the International

Lam Family Hung Kuen in his early teens. At

Guoshu Association.

that time, Master Lam taught at four martial arts schools, two on Hong Kong Island and another

While actively promoting Lam Family Hung

two in Kowloon, including the famous Lam Sai

Kuen abroad, Lam Chun Fai also keeps a

Wing Gymnasium. By the age of eighteen, he

watchful eye on the development of traditional

had already opened his own dit da clinic cum

martial arts in Hong Kong. In 2010, the Hong

martial arts school on King’s Road in North Point.

Kong Home Affairs Bureau invited the public to

During his teen years, he used to perform two

join a regional survey to identify important local

rounds of two-man sets with his father at festive

cultural heritage for the first Intangible Cultural

celebrations, one being Fu Hok Seung Ying Deui

Heritage (ICH) inventory list of Hong Kong. Upon

Chak (Sparring Set of Tiger and Crane), the other,

receiving the news, Lam Chun Fai immediately

Seung Bei Sau Deui Cheung (Double Daggers vs.

partnered

Spear). For that reason Lam Cho was particularly

Association to register Lam Family Hung Kuen,

strict in his training.

Taming the Tiger Boxing in I-Character, Tiger

with

the

International

Guoshu

and Crane Paired Forms Boxing, Iron Wire

44

In daily life Lam Chun Fai keeps a very low

Boxing, and Fifth Brother Trigram Pole, as Hong

profile, but commands deep respect within

Kong’s ICH. At the same time Lam Chun Fai

martial arts communities both in Hong Kong

gathered his students and began to collaborate

and overseas. For the past thirty years, he has

with the International Guoshu Association

spared no effort in promoting traditional martial

to systematically document the legacy of

arts, and has given many seminars in Europe

Lam Family Hung Kuen, leading to a series of

and America.

publications as well as the present exhibition.

In 1994 he lectured and gave seminars at

Lam Chun Fai is the custodian of Lingnan Hung

Harvard University, and in doing so brought

Kuen. At a time when traditional martial arts are

traditional southern Chinese martial arts to one

rapidly disappearing in Hong Kong, he is leading

of the most important academic centres in the

the way in his efforts to document and promote

U.S. Since then, Lam Chun Fai has travelled to

Chinese martial arts, both in Hong Kong and

different countries annually to teach Hung Kuen.

internationally. Like the trilogy of books written

As a result of his tireless efforts, Lam Family

by Lam Sai Wing and his students in the

Hung Kuen has blossomed in Europe. Today,

first half of the twentieth century, his recent

practitioners and enthusiasts of Hung Kuen can

publications — Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung

be found all over the world, with schools in the

Gee Fok Fu Kuen (2013), Hung Kuen Training:

U.S., Canada, the U.K., Germany, Italy, the Czech

Chin Cheung and Fok Fu Kuen Deui Chak (2014),

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Lam Chun Fai.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

45

Lam Cho (centre) and his eldest son Master Lam Chun Fai (left).

46

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

and Iron Wire Fist (2017) — have become instant classics and will remain important references for generations to come. More than that, Lam Chun Fai has sought to win wider recognition of Lingnan Hung Kuen as intangible cultural heritage through engagement with the government during Hong Kong’s first territorywide ICH survey, and an ongoing partnership with the International Guoshu Association in research, documentation, exhibition and promotion. But, fittingly, Lam Chun Fai’s most enduring legacy will perhaps be the Hung Kuen culture he has created in Europe, which now has thriving communities stretching across the continent from the Czech Republic in eastern Europe to the United Kingdom in the West. Hung Kuen has truly become international.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

47

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

49

Group photo of the Lam school with masters Lam Cho (in tuxedo and wearing a bow tie) and Lam Chun Fai (in plain black uniform) in the centre.

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Lam Cho’s kung fu school at Tsing Yi Tin Hau Festival.

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

51

Lam Chun Fai performing at Wong Fei Hung’s 160th birthday celebration in Sai Chiu San (Xiqiaoshan), Foshan.

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Lam Chun Fai giving a seminar at Harvard University in 1994 (top left); international students (top right, middle left and right); and Lam Chun Fai (seated, centre) with disciple Pavel Adamek (seated) and his school in Czech Republic (bottom).

L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

53

Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen book launch in Hong Kong in 2013.

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L E G A C Y O F L A M FA M I LY HUNG KUEN

55

2

CHAPTER

LAU KAR LEUNG’S HUNG KUEN CINEMA: A MARTIAL ARTS PERSPECTIVE Hing Chao

H

ung Kuen’s long association

Lau Kar Leung went into film almost at the same

with cinema began with black-

time, first working as an extra before moving

and-white Wong Fei Hung films

on to action choreography and, subsequently,

in 1949. However, it was the Shaw Brothers’

directing. He went on to achieve great fame

kung fu cinema that truly propelled Hung Kuen

and success as a filmmaker. His ability to infuse

to the world stage during the 1970s and ’80s. In

his films with traditional Chinese martial arts,

this process one name came to the fore — the

as well as develop a unique lens to capture,

legendary kung fu film director, Lau Kar Leung

represent and re-imagine traditional martial

(1934–2013) 1 .

arts, led to a synthesis of kung fu practice and film that is at once authentic and beautiful.

Lau Kar Leung was the son of Lau Zaam, who was a Hung Kuen master and student of Lam Sai

Lau Kar Leung’s films can be bloody, yet

Wing. After the war, Lau Zaam moved to Hong

violence is moderated through graceful kung fu

Kong with his family. Like many immigrants at

movements with almost dance-like qualities. It

that time, upon arriving they found themselves

is this seamless blend of cinema and kung fu

homeless, jobless and destitute. Through

that has mesmerized the world.

friends’ introductions Lau Zaam went into acting and, alongside Kwan Tak Hing, got a role

In many ways, if Bruce Lee planted the seeds

in the original Wong Fei Hung series.

of kung fu in the West, then Lau Kar Leung was

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57

responsible for turning uncultivated foreign soil into a fertile ground for Chinese martial arts. Whereas the former projected kung fu as an abstract philosophical concept, seen in flashes of brilliance in sharp, lightning-fast movements that pepper his four-and-a-half films,2 Lau Kar Leung offered a sustained visual feast that completely overwhelms the senses and indeed, one’s imagination. Lau Kar Leung had a long film career spanning five decades, with his involvement with cinema dating from 1950 3 until Seven Swords in 2005, which he both choreographed and played a lead role in. For the purpose of this book, we will focus on his middle years from 1976 to 1984. During this period Lau Kar Leung made Hung Kuen his central occupation, bookended by The Spiritual Boxer (1975) where he made his directorial debut, and The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter (1983). In the section below, we offer Lau Zaam and Lau Kar Leung’s abridged biographies. This is followed by a visual essay, accompanied by brief descriptions, of four of Lau Kar Leung’s classic films — Challenge of the Masters (1976), The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (1977), Martial Club (1981), and The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter (1983) — which I consider to have the most obvious connections to his Hung Kuen roots. This chapter concludes with a reading of Lau Lau Kar Leung had a long film career spanning half a century. Here are snapshots from his early career (top), and in his last film, Seven Swords (2005) (bottom).

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Kar Leung’s martial arts thinking from his Shaw Brothers’ era films.

First Generation Lau Family Hung Kuen Master: Lau Zaam

O

ne of Lam Sai Wing’s most distinguished students,

Lau

Zaam,

became

an

important Hung Kuen master in his own right, establishing a kung fu “dynasty” which eventually became legendary throughout the

Lau Zaam, founding father of the Lau family kung fu dynasty.

world. It is said that Lau Zaam was already an able martial artist before studying with Lam Sai Wing and, like many contemporary masters in

lasting impression of “Butcher Wing” (Lam Sai

Guangzhou, he seemed to have a fairly eclectic

Wing’s nickname) in the public consciousness.

martial arts background, dabbling in both

In the same way that the public has come to

Lingnan and northern martial arts.

perceive Wong Fei Hung through successive generations of actors from Kwan Tak Hing

Considerable cross-fertilization between the

to Jet Li, public imagination of Lam Sai Wing

Lam and Lau families took place; not only did

is, perhaps more than people realize, filtered

Lau Zaam inherit and pass on Lam Sai Wing’s

through Lau Zaam.

Lingnan Hung Kuen, the Lam family in turn drew nourishment from Lau Zaam’s innovations.

Lau Zaam remained an enduring source of

A case in point is the Double Dragon Sabres

inspiration for Lau Kar Leung throughout the

(Seung Lung Dou) routine choreographed by

latter’s career, who often had recourse to his

Lau Zaam, which has since become a signature

father’s stories and experiences in his creations

weapon set in Lingnan Hung Kuen.

including, memorably, the stacked-pyramid lion dance performance in Martial Club (1981),

Lau Zaam had an unusual career as a martial

and the teahouse scene in Drunken Master II

artist. Originally, he plied his trade as a martial

(1994) where Jackie Chan fought with split

arts teacher in Guangzhou. After relocating to

bamboo, which is said to be based on a real-life

Hong Kong, he pursued an acting career while

experience in a street battle in Sheung Wan fish

continuing to teach martial arts. He was part of

market.

the original cast for the Wong Fei Hung films, playing the role of his teacher Lam Sai Wing.

Through his sons Lau Kar Leung and Lau Kar Wing, nephew Lau Kar Yung, and adoptive son

Lau Zaam was among the earliest kung fu

Gordon Liu, all accomplished martial artists

masters to bridge martial arts and cinema. His

and made successful careers in film, Lau Zaam

memorable portraiture of his master and unique

left behind a rich legacy that resonates to the

blend of real martial arts and humour etched a

present day.

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Lau Zaam was part of the original Wong Fei Hung cast, playing the role of his real-life master Lam Sai Wing (top left and bottom). One of very few surviving photographs of Lau Zaam outside the film studio (top right).

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Lau Kar Leung was the first fight-scene choreographer to become a director in Hong Kong.

Second Generation Lau Family Hung Kuen Master: Lau Kar Leung (1934–2013)

L

au Kar Leung was a Hung Kuen master as well as an actor, filmmaker and

choreographer. Lau is best known for the films he made in the 1970s and 1980s for the Shaw Brothers Studio. Among his most famous works are The 36th Chamber of Shaolin starring Gordon Liu, and Drunken Master II (1994) which starred Jackie Chan. Following in the footsteps of his father, Lau Kar Leung brought “real kung fu” to cinema, and may be credited for popularizing traditional Chinese martial arts, and especially Hung Kuen, around the world. According to his disciple Mark Houghton, Lau Kar Leung ran a martial arts school in Macau between the ages of thirteen and sixteen, when he joined his father in the film industry in Hong Kong. Before shooting to fame, Lau worked as an extra and choreographer, making his first appearance in Brave Lad of Guangdong (1950). In the 1960s he became one of the Shaw Brothers’ main choreographers and forged a strong partnership with director Chang Cheh,

Lau Kar Leung began his film career as an extra (top), but soon established himself as a choreographer and actor (middle and bottom).

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Lau Kar Leung cast himself in many of the films he directed, including Legendary Weapons of China (1982).

Lau developed a unique style of choreography based on “real kung fu”. He also nurtured two of the most iconic kung fu actors of all time — Gordon Liu and Alexander Fu Sheng.

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

working on many of Chang’s films as fightscene choreographer (often alongside Tong Gaai) including The One-Armed Swordsman (1967), as well as other Shaw Brothers wuxia films, such as The Jade Bow (1966). After a split with Chang on the set of Marco Polo in 1974, Lau evolved into a director and made his directorial debut with The Spiritual Boxer the following year. He went on to make a series of highly successful kung fu classics including Challenge of the Masters (1976), The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (1977), Martial Club (1981), Martial Arts of Shaolin (1986), etc., which contributed to the golden age of kung fu cinema. After the Shaw Brothers collapsed in the late 1980s, Lau continued directing and choreographing films, among them Drunken Master II. Most recently, Lau performed acting and choreography work for Tsui Hark’s 2005 film Seven Swords. Lau

Kar

Leung

was

an

acclaimed

and

phenomenally successful filmmaker but he was also one of the most talented martial artists of his generation. While his involvement in film precluded his teaching martial arts in a more formal way, Lau Kar Leung nonetheless nurtured some of the best martial arts actors to grace the big screen, notably Gordon Liu and Alexander Fu Sheng. In addition, like Bruce Lee before him, Lau Kar Leung used cinema to express his ideals and philosophy in martial arts, giving his films a unique texture and authenticity.

Lau Kar Leung in one of his most iconic films, Mad Monkey (1979), which he directed, choreographed and starred in. Here, pictured with co-star Hsiao Ho, as they go through a series of “monkey boxing” movements.

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63

Lau Kar Leung Kung Fu Classics

D

uring his years with the Shaw Brothers, Master Lau Kar Leung produced a number of classics, among which the most famous

is The 36th Chamber of Shaolin. It was one of the ten most popular films in Hong Kong cinema in 1978 and the 24th Asian Film Festival’s Best Martial Arts award winner. While Master Lau was known for bringing a realistic fighting style to the big screen, a style upheld by Bruce Lee, he also added practical kung fu elements rooted in traditional martial arts to his films, thus highlighting the heritage of southern Chinese kung fu. His subsequent masterpieces, Martial Club, The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter and My Young Auntie not only shored up his position as a professional director, but also made him an inspiration for countless action directors. With devotion to the inheritance and distribution of these precious Hong Kong films, Celestial Pictures Limited (Celestial Pictures) acquired the Shaw Brothers Library in 2000, including 760 classics originally released from 1950s to 2000s. Besides those directed by Master Lau, the canon includes films by other famous directors as well, to name a few, The Five Venoms, One-Armed Swordsman and King Boxer. Since 2002, Celestial Pictures has restored Shaw Brothers films in succession for global distribution and produced new film content, both originals and remakes based on the Shaw Brothers library films. The company hopes to continue the endeavours of Sir Run Run Shaw to present stories of the Chinese people to Chinese film admirers around the world.

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

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Film: Challenge of the Masters Release date: 1976 Challenge of the Masters is among the earliest films Lau Kar Leung directed

and

choreographed. The

subject matter is the coming of age of legendary kung fu grandmaster, Wong Fei Hung, who created the Tiger and Crane style of Lingnan Hung Kuen. Inspired by a story that Wong Fei Hung learnt martial arts directly from the legendary master Luk Ah Choy, in this film Lau created a brand new image of Wong Fei Hung, young, bold

and

handsome,

completely

Challenge of the Masters official poster.

overturning Kwan Tak Hing’s earlier, more

66

It

and stylized stage sets, a dramatic story drawn from Hung

was a risky undertaking given the

mature,

Kuen’s rich lore and, of course, artistically crafted fight

enormous success of the earlier

scenes that are the perfect fusion of art and kung fu. Lau Kar

black-and-white Wong Fei Hung film

Leung’s fight scene with his protégé Gordon Liu showcases

franchise, which only came to a

his talent as a fight-scene choreographer and kung fu actor

close at the end of the 1960s, a few

at his best, and is arguably one of the most memorable

years earlier.

scenes in kung fu cinema.

Riding on Lau Kar Leung’s debut

Beyond its entertainment value, however, Challenge of the

directorial success with The Spiritual

Masters is also a statement of Lau’s martial arts thinking

Boxer (1975) a year earlier, Challenge

in that it contains ideas on both the physical as well as the

of the Masters has all the elements

mental-ethical sides of Chinese martial arts, which were to

of a classic Lau Kar Leung film, with

receive further elaboration in The 36th Chamber of Shaolin,

a visually engaging opening, intricate

Martial Club and other films.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

representation.

Lau Kar Leung experimented with innovative ways to showcase training in Chinese kung fu, which were further developed and in The 36th Chamber of Shaolin.

Opening credits.

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Film: The 36th Chamber of Shaolin Release date: 1978 The 36th Chamber of Shaolin, also known as The Master Killer and Shaolin Master Killer, was perhaps the most widely known of Director Lau Kar Leung’s many films. Its enduring popularity is owed to a number of factors including the film’s iconic training scenes, Gordon Liu’s convincing portraiture and roaring success as the Shaolin warrior monk San Te and, most importantly, Lau Kar Leung’s genius as director and fightscene choreographer. The training sequences, informed in equal measure by real martial arts training and Lau’s imagination, inspired

The 36th Chamber of Shaolin official poster.

a whole generation of practitioners, not only in Hong Kong but around the world. The wonderful action-packed

Kuen, which provided the substance for the choreography.

opening credits, which see Gordon Liu

From a martial arts point of view, plenty of the action is taken

going through various forms of training

directly from the rich repertoire of Lingnan Hung Kuen, with

and weapon practice, set the stage for

the fist and sabre chambers being particularly illustrative,

the rest of the film, which is a veritable

while other training scenes such as the pole chamber show

celebration of the physical culture of

Lau’s abundant imaginative capacity as choreographer.

Chinese martial arts. The success of The 36th Chamber of Shaolin led to a series of As with other of Lau’s films from this

Shaolin-inspired films, including Return to the 36th Chamber

period, the kung fu action is founded

(1980), Shaolin Temple (1982), Kids from Shaolin (1984), and

upon

Martial Arts of Shaolin (1986), which contributed significantly

his

profound

knowledge

of

traditional martial arts, particularly Hung

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

to the global fascination with Shaolin.

Gordon Liu played a memorable role as the Shaolin monk San Te. The training sequences in The 36th Chamber inspired a whole generation of martial arts enthusiasts.

The 36th Chamber is one of Lau Kar Leung’s masterpieces, certainly from a choreographic point of view, as he creatively adapted Hung Kuen to film. Pictured here working on the set with Gordon Liu (left), and in the “staff chamber” (right).

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Film: Martial Club Release date: 1981 Martial Club is one of Lau Kar Leung’s masterpieces. As with so many of his films, its compelling nature derives from a seamless combination of realism, nostalgia and make-believe. Set in the bygone days of late Qing Guangzhou, Martial Club evokes a golden era when intense, febrile interactions between northern and southern martial arts in the bustling commercial hub of Guangzhou city gave birth to many of the Lingnan kung fu styles we know today. The nostalgia for a “lost paradise” is given the grit and substance of reality, however, as Lau fleshed out the narrative with vignettes his father might have personally witnessed or

Martial Club official poster.

even taken part in, and handed down to Lau Kar Leung. invited to perform the lion dance, and they vied with each The elaborate lion dance scene in the

other in ever more creative routines and performances.

beginning of the film is directly taken

The opening sequence pays tribute to the famed stacked-

out of a chapter from Guangzhou’s

pyramid lion dance performance, which was regarded as

history.

Republican

the peak — unsurpassed since — of lion dance. This scene

period (1912–1949), the lion dance

may rightly be viewed as a cinematic reconstruction of a

in Guangzhou reached new heights,

legendary performance.

During

the

as rapid commercialization and rising

70

popularity of martial arts under the

The finale, a seven-minute boxing duel between Gordon

Nationalist government led to an

Liu and Johnny Wang (Wang Lung Wei) in a narrow alley, is

unprecedented growth of kung fu

often hailed as the greatest fight scene choreographed by

schools (or clubs) in the Pearl River

Lau Kar Leung, who truly elevated kung fu movements into

Delta. At temple festivals and shop

a rarefied art form. This scene continues to be a constant

openings,

source of reference and inspiration.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

different

schools

were

Martial Club showcases Cantonese lion dance at its best.

In the final fight scene Lau Kar Leung takes the viewer through Hung Kuen’s repertoire of techniques in an encyclopaedic manner.

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Film: The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter Release date: 1984 Marian Ang Lau Kar Leung was nominated for Best Action Choreography at the 1985 Hong Kong Film Awards for his work on this film, which was also released as The Invincible Pole Fighter outside of Hong Kong. This unusually dark film from Lau Kar Leung is based on the legend of the Song dynasty-era massacre of the Yang family by General Pan Mei, from which only two of the family’s males managed to escape. Production was overshadowed by the untimely death of martial arts star Alexander Fu Sheng — who played

The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter official poster.

the sixth son of the Yang family — and the film was subsequently

The Fifth Brother Eight Trigrams Pole techniques are a famous

adapted using footage already shot

pole-fighting form in Hung Kuen, and are demonstrated

to see him having completed the

throughout in magnificently choreographed scenes. The

journey home but tragically driven

pole-staff, one of the best-known martial arts weapons, is

insane by his experiences. The fifth

deployed as a symbol of Buddhist pacifist values. In one

son (Gordon Liu), initially seeking

key training sequence a wooden wolf is “de-fanged” by the

revenge, begs to join a monastery in

monks to demonstrate the importance of not killing one’s

order to improve his fighting skills.

enemies, a lesson which foreshadows the film’s infamous

Unable to practise his family’s spear

final fight scene. The brutality of the combat is offset by near-

technique within the monastery, he

balletic martial arts techniques and beautiful cinematography.

develops the unique Trigram pole-

72

fighting techniques. Having gradually

Lau Kar Leung (a world-class Hung Gar master himself)

grown to understand and accept the

makes a memorable appearance as a hunter in one scene,

monks’ teachings, he later comes

fighting against and alongside — and finally sacrificing

out of hiding to rescue his family.

himself for — Gordon Liu’s character.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Alexander Fu Sheng died tragically midway through production, while Gordon Liu reprised his role as warrior monk (top right and bottom).

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73

Lau Kar Leung’s Martial Arts Thinking

L

Men from the Monastery, and Five Shaolin Masters — draw heavily from Hung Kuen’s oral traditions, which become a creative spring for

au Kar Leung established his reputation

Lau Kar Leung after their break-up.

as action choreographer with One-Armed

Swordsman (1967), often hailed as the first

The new focus represents a radical departure

modern wuxia film, under director Chang Cheh.

from the “errant martial hero” or wuxia theme

Over the next seven years, he was involved with

that dominated most of Chang Cheh’s films.

over thirty films before branching out to direct

Lau Kar Leung’s influence is palpable. With

his own films. As martial arts choreographer, Lau

these films, he turned a page for Hong Kong

Kar Leung displayed impressive knowledge of

action cinema, inaugurating a new type of

Chinese martial arts, and was able to draw from a

kung fu film which has a different aesthetic and

staggering range of kung fu styles which not only

sensibility from the more highly romanticized

run the gamut of southern Chinese martial arts,

wuxia genre. At the same time, while these

but cover a fair extent of northern styles as well.

films rode in the wake of the kung fu frenzy created by Bruce Lee, Lau Kar Leung put a

Lau Kar Leung was an accomplished martial

unique stamp on them, as he set about creating

artist and a deep thinker. He was not content

a mythic world inhabited by “kung fu ancestors”,

merely to make films but made them an avenue

which is narrated in a new visual and physical

for expressing his martial arts thinking. Much has

language dominated by southern Chinese kung

been made of the fact Lau Kar Leung was the first

fu. Whereas Bruce Lee epitomized kung fu in

fight-scene choreographer to turn to directing.

its most exciting, modern guise, Lau Kar Leung

In my view, however, there was an inevitability

presented kung fu as a profound cultural legacy.

about this transition and, by default, his breach with director Chang Cheh, for only then was he

Given Lau Kar Leung’s own background, it is

able to step out of the latter’s shadow, to tell

perhaps surprising that he did not turn to Hung

stories in his own voice and represent martial

Kuen in a more sustained manner until 1974,

arts exactly according to his vision.

the year his long association with Chang Cheh came to an end. By then he was in his early

More than anyone else, Chang Cheh may stake a

forties and had reached the midpoint of his

claim for being the creator of the modern wuxia

career. Lau Kar Leung was reaching his peak

genre, as he pioneered a new form of action

as a martial artist; he had honed and perfected

cinema unique to Chinese film-makers, where

his craft in choreography and, through his

martial arts become vital visual as well as narrative

association with Chang Cheh, developed a

ingredients. But Lau Kar Leung wanted to go

profound understanding for cinematography

further. His vision was not only to use martial arts

and storytelling. To add to that, with Bruce

in the service of storytelling, but to make martial

Lee’s untimely death, the expectant audience

arts the driving force of the narrative.

demanded a new, more realistic form of kung fu film. The time was ripe for Lau Kar Leung to step

If we look at some of the films Lau Kar Leung

up and realize his own vision for kung fu cinema,

and Chang Cheh made together circa 1974, we

which had probably been brewing for some time.

can sense a creative tension bubbling beneath

74

the surface. Four of the films made during this

Mirroring Lau Kar Leung’s dual aspects as

period — Heroes Two, Shaolin Martial Arts,

storyteller and choreographer, the discussion

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Lau Kar Leung was a martial arts director, choreographer, and actor. More than these, he was a thinker who used film to re-envision Chinese martial arts.

The Shaolin temple was a favourite theme to which Lau turned repeatedly in his films.

below is divided into two parts. The first part,

Shaolin, portrayed as an origin-place for martial

“Visualizing the Legendary Past”, discusses

arts. This theme would occupy Lau Kar Leung

how Lau Kar Leung uses cinema to visualize

for the next decade.

kung fu’s mythic world, whereas in the second part, “Envisioning Hung Kuen”, we delve into

Shaolin held special significance for Lau Kar

his choreography and representations of Hung

Leung because of his Hung Kuen background.

Kuen.

After his break with Chang Cheh, his attention was riveted almost entirely by this topic, leading to a series of Shaolin-inspired films such as The

Visualizing the Legendary Past

L

36th Chamber of Shaolin (1977), Return to the 36th Chamber (1980), and Martial Arts of Shaolin

au Kar Leung’s cinematic foray into the

(1986). However, the Shaolin Lau Kar Leung

legendary past began with a series of four

was dealing with is not the Shaolin monastery

films including Heroes Two and Five Shaolin

of Mt. Song in Henan province, but the mythic

Masters, which were all released in the same

milieu and origin place of southern Chinese

year, 1974. The former is loosely based on

martial arts. To explain this, it is necessary to

fables of Hung Hei Goon and Fong Sai Yuk,

take a step back and look at the folklore of

two mythic characters often credited with

southern Chinese martial arts, particularly in

creating and popularizing Hung Kuen, while

the Lingnan region, which I present in a short

Five Shaolin Masters revolves around the story

excursus below.

of the burning of Shaolin Monastery, which lies at the core of Hung Kuen’s mythology. 4

In Guangdong province, there is a popular belief

An overarching motif for these films is that of

among martial artists that kung fu practice

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75

originated with the burning of a southern Shaolin monastery, which is said to have taken place some time during the Qing dynasty. Many variations of this legend exist, we need not go into detail. The interested reader may refer to a more in-depth discussion in Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen (2013). 5 What is important is that this narrative originated in the documents of Heaven and Earth Society, or Tiandihui, a secret society with a loose but extensive network of branches that covered much of south China from the midQing onwards.6 Much progress has been made in the study of Tiandihui since important archival materials became available to researchers in the 1980s.7 Researchers have since traced Tiandihui’s early history and established a fairly reliable pattern of development, which clearly shows a geographic shift in its activities from its original centre in Fujian and Taiwan to Guangdong from the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. The spread of Tiandihui to Guangdong was one of the main reasons for the sudden explosion and rapid growth of martial arts in the province. The close relationship between martial arts and secret societies also accounts for the southern origin of “Shaolin” martial arts. Furthermore, Tiandihui itself was often called “Hung Mun” (literally the “Hung gate” and sometimes translated into “League of Hung”). Therefore, “Hung

Kuen”

(or “Hung’s

boxing”)

was

merely a name for the martial arts practised by members of Hung Mun. This explains the widespread and disparate nature of early Hung Kuen in Guangdong. Lau Kar Leung was not the first to imagine and Lau envisioned Shaolin as a mythical martial arts milieu.

dramatize Shaolin as the origin place for martial arts. Even before the rise of cinema, Chinese novelists produced a significant amount of literature, from Wannianqing through to Louis

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77

were

a visually sumptuous recreation of Shaolin as

instrumental in making Shaolin the symbolic

the centre of the kung fu universe, the image

centre for Chinese martial arts in popular

of which has since lodged in the mind of kung

consciousness.  What Lau Kar Leung did,

fu enthusiasts around the world, thus ensuring

however, was to create a new visual landscape

The 36th Chamber of Shaolin’s cult status.

Cha’s

contemporary

novels,

which

8

for kung fu with Shaolin at its symbolic centre. Lau Kar Leung’s kung fu world was at once Before The 36th Chamber of Shaolin Lau

wondrous and credible, stretching the fine line

Kar Leung had made several films with

between the real world of kung fu practice and

the destruction of Shaolin temple in the

the imagined world of cinema. Through Lau Kar

background. In this film, however, he took a

Leung legends of the past come alive and, in

deep plunge beyond the inherited oral tradition

this process, he created a new style of kung

into the mythical past, to imagine Shaolin in its

fu cinema where martial arts transform from

full, unadulterated glory. Unlike previous films,

being merely decorative to becoming the true

Shaolin no longer lurks in the shadow as an idea,

substance and spirit of the film.

but takes centre stage and becomes the primary site for dramatic action. In particular, Lau Kar Leung’s creative imagining of kung fu training lay at the foundation of the various “chambers”, which are devoted to specific forms of training from empty-hand martial arts involving the use of fists (boxing) and legs (kicking) to weapontraining with sword, staff, etc. The result was

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Envisioning Hung Kuen

I

n important ways, it is Lau Kar Leung’s profound command of southern Chinese

martial arts as an embodied language that allowed

him

such

fluent

and

convincing

expressions in film. If we consider some of the iconic fight scenes he designed during this period, we see that even though the action is often dressed up for cinema, the choreography betrays a realism and authenticity — stemming from an acute sensitivity to fighting techniques and tactics — often missing in kung fu cinema. In Challenge of the Masters, for example, in one of the scenes the highwayman played by Lau Kar Leung duels with Wong Fei Hung (Gordon Liu) on a lonely path in the dead of night. The two first duel with hafted weapons, Lau Kar Leung using a spear while Wong Fei Hung (Liu) fights with a pole-staff. Then, after Lau Kar Leung’s character is dispossessed of his weapon, he retreats to the bushes, where a dense growth of bamboo nullifies his opponent’s advantage, forcing the young Wong Fei Hung eventually to give up the staff and fight with his bare arms. This scene is a perfect illustration of Lau Kar Leung’s tactical awareness as a martial artist — how to make the best use and adapt one’s combat methods to the surroundings. While Hung Kuen was never far from Lau Kar Leung’s choreography, it only started to take a more prominent role in 1974 in Heroes Two, Five Shaolin Masters, and other southern Shaolininspired films. But it was with Challenge of the Masters that Lau Kar Leung truly made his mark as a Hung Kuen choreographer. Its iconic and highly stylized opening sequence is a bold statement of intent. The martial artists-actors Gordon Liu and Chan Kuan Tai perform Hung Kuen against a plain white background with the lines “gong, yao, bik, zik, fun, ding, cun; tai, lau, wun, zai, ding, kin, kun” on the sides. The couplet is a key mnemonic rhyme for Tid Sin Kuen (Iron Wire Boxing), often regarded as the most esoteric boxing set in Hung Kuen. Then, as the camera zooms in to each of the characters, the actors perform movements

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Lau created a gigantic wooden dummy for Challenge of the Masters.

that correspond to their meaning, in turn

In another film, The 36th Chamber of Shaolin,

demonstrating techniques that best express

which followed shortly on the heels of

such concepts as gong (“hard”), yau (“soft”),

Challenge of the Masters, training sequences

bik (“press”), zik (“straight”), fun (“separate”),

were magnified and became arguably the

ding (“stable”), etc.

most important component of that film. The staggering variety of the training methods is

82

The opening credits leave the viewer in no

a marvel to behold, and while not all of them

doubt that he/she is in for a Hung Kuen feast. In

have direct bearing on martial arts training, a

this we are not disappointed. Challenge of the

significant portion is derived from real Hung

Masters may rightfully claim to be one of the

Kuen practice. As far as realism is concerned,

purest Hung Kuen films ever made. In addition

the training scenes in the boxing and sword

to Gordon Liu and Lau Kar Leung’s duel already

chambers have the most palpable relationship

discussed above, Challenge of the Masters

to actual practice. The martial arts sequence

also showcases imaginary new methods for

performed by the group of monks at the beginning

training, notably Lau Kar Leung’s invention of a

of the scene is taken directly from Gung Gee

gigantic wooden dummy with a spinning upper-

Fok Fu Kuen, Hung Kuen’s foundational boxing

body and movable limbs. When Lau Kar Leung’s

routine, with minimal change. The hand-drawn

student, Mark Houghton, later created a

illustrations even reference Lam Sai Wing’s

wooden dummy based on this vision, however,

original boxing manual from a stylistic viewpoint,

it showed that some of Lau’s “inventions” are

though keen observers might observe that the

based on practical considerations and may have

fist of the illustrated figure is erroneously drawn

real application for training.

and in reverse position!

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Similarly, the sabre routine performed by Gordon Liu is taken directly from one of the more dramatic sequences in Hung Kuen’s Pek Gwaa Daan Dou. The same sabre techniques feature in other of Lau Kar Leung’s films, including Challenge of the Masters. It is worth noting that Pek Gwaa Daan Dou was not part of the original Hung Kuen repertoire passed down by Lam Sai Wing, but choreographed by his nephew and successor Lam Cho, who was Lau Kar Leung’s “martial arts uncle” (“sibak”). This shows the close connection between the Lam and Lau families and the continuing relationship between Lingnan Hung Kuen’s two most important lineages. Lau Kar Leung’s “Hung Kuen choreography” peaked

with

Martial

Club

(1981),

A scene in Martial Club devoted entirely to footwork showcases Lau’s creative and unique style of adapting traditional martial arts to film.

where

every nuance of Hung Kuen translated into cinematic expression. Memorably, Lau Kar

who was a qinna 9 and kicking master, Wong Fei

Leung crafted an entire scene based on Hung

Hung (Gordon Liu) goes through Hung Kuen’s

Kuen’s stances and footwork. More than just

entire arsenal, from its signature middle-to-long

flaunting his skills and incredible imagination

range Arhat style striking techniques, to the

as choreographer, here was a master able to

five animal forms and, finally, the lesser known

interweave cinematography, stage design and

techniques of Iron Wire Boxing in an almost

choreography with ease, creating a visually

encyclopaedic manner. The contest is a chess

luscious and artistically charged tableau of

game between two highly accomplished and

movements, where martial arts sublimate into

evenly matched martial artists. They manoeuvre

the realm of fine art, all the while bearing Hung

within a narrow alley — which imposes

Kuen’s unmistakable hallmark.

significant constraints on movement — while constantly changing their fighting styles and

If Lau Kar Leung’s mature cinematic vision of

combat strategies in search for an advantage,

Hung Kuen began with the opening credits in

until both fighters exhaust their repertoire of

Challenge of the Masters, it was fully actualized

skills. At the same time, Lau Kar Leung left his

in the climatic final battle in Martial Club.

audience in little doubt where his sympathy lay,

Unlike some of his other films where the duel

as Johnny Wang’s character gives a running

assumes a life-or-death significance, the battle

commentary — accompanied by approving

between the characters played by Gordon Liu

nods — throughout the battle.

and Johnny Wang Lung Wei takes on a more rarefied form. At the end of the fight, the two

The finale in Martial Club is Lau Kar Leung’s

walk away unhurt and full of mutual admiration.

definitive statement on Hung Kuen. To this day,

The fight itself brims with fury and grace in

this fight scene remains the best and most

equal measure. Within the space of six and a

comprehensive representation of Hung Kuen in

half minutes, pitched against a northern master

cinema.

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

3

CHAPTER

THE PARADOXES OF TRADITION: LAU KAR LEUNG AT SHAW BROTHERS Richard Allen

L

au

Kar

Leung

(Liu

Jialiang)

choreography.1 For, in the late films, Chang

assumes a central authority in the

turned to an exploration of the myth and history

Lingnan martial arts tradition of

of Hung Kuen (Heroes Two, 1973; Men from the

Hung Kuen and its translation into cinema, for

Monastery, 1974); the different forms of Hung

there is a chain of master-disciple relationships

Kuen combat (Five Shaolin Masters, 1974); the

that can be traced from the legendary kung fu

significance of the master-pupil relationship in

master Wong Fei Hung through Lam Sai Wing

the transmission of tradition (Shaolin Martial

and Lau Zaam to Lau Kar Leung himself. He

Arts, 1974), and the corruption of tradition in

began his film career doing small parts in the

spiritual boxing (The Boxer Rebellion, 1975). All

black-and-white Wong Fei Hung films of the

these concerns are explored with depth and

1950s, but came to prominence as a martial

complexity in Lau’s own films.

arts choreographer for the prolific martial arts director Chang Cheh, and he worked on many of

Lau Kar Leung’s body of work as a film director is

Chang’s films from the mid-1960s onwards. As

substantial. This chapter will focus on his career

Tony Rayns has pointed out, there are significant

with the Shaw Brothers where he directed as

thematic continuities between Chang’s late

many as three films a year. Lau began directing

work and Lau’s own, which suggests either that

films for the Shaws in 1973 with the low-budget,

Lau learnt from Chang or, as Rayns maintains,

outdoor Breakout from Oppression, and over a

he contributed more to Chang’s work than fight

period of eleven years between 1975 and 1986,

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87

until the studio’s demise, he directed eighteen

there are many other actors who also regularly

films. Lau was not a flamboyant visual stylist in

worked with Lau during this period.

the manner of King Hu, he was a studio director who worked within the production constraints

In this chapter, I shall explore in some depth

of the Shaw Brothers’ regime. He shot most

the narrative form, themes, and visual style of

of his work under tight budgets and short,

Lau’s work. My assessment of Lau’s work is

four-month production schedules in the Shaw

intended to contribute, in the overall context of

Brothers’ back lots on the hills of Clearwater

this book, to a deeper understanding of Lau’s

Bay, Hong Kong. The constraints of studio

achievements as a film-maker as opposed

production enabled efficient productivity (three

to his skills as a martial artist and martial arts

films a year at his peak at the end of the 1970s),

choreographer, though admittedly, in the end,

and a high level of creativity within the norms of

these two achievements overlap and are

Hong Kong film-making and kung fu films.

combined in his work.

The quality and consistency of his achievement was supported by the fact that Lau, as director and

fight

choreographer,

worked

closely

with the same group of collaborators and performers. Screenwriter Ni Kuang worked on twelve Shaw films beginning with The Spiritual Boxer (1975). Ni was a seasoned writer and

The Southern Chinese Martial Arts Tradition

T

he character of Lau’s films cannot be divorced from the value system of the

martial arts tradition and training process which

was surely responsible for the relatively tight

he inherited from his teachers in the Lingnan

dramatic structure and thematic richness of his

kung fu tradition. The ethics of Hung Huen

films. Indeed, it might be more appropriate to

are founded upon wude (martial virtue), which

speak of Lau-Ni as the auteur (author) of these

cultivates respect, humility, trust, honour,

works. Assistant director, Huang Pa-Ching,

and moral character (temperance, prudence,

worked on fourteen films; art director, Johnson

courage and a sense of justice).2 The goal of

Tsao, on fifteen; editor, Li Yen Hai, on fourteen;

training is to achieve a state of wuwei (effortless

costume designer, Liu Chi-Yu, on fourteen;

action), a wholly natural and unaffected way of

Lai Yu in the prop department on ten; and

being, in which one achieves balance of the

cinematographer Arthur Wong on six. It is this

distribution of the forces of qi energy within

cohesive production team that is responsible for

the body, and a harmony between the yin and

the consistent structure and style of Lau’s films.

yang (female and male, passive and active, soft

In addition, Lau worked with a regular stable of

and hard, dark and light) aspects of the self. For

actors who established an identity or persona

Lau, the martial arts were not primarily a means

in his work. The most important are Liu Chia-

of attacking, defeating and killing an opponent

Hui (Gordon Liu) who starred in sixteen films;

but a form of self-defence, where self-defence

Hsiao Ho who starred in fifteen and was stunt

is understood as an active withholding of

director in eight; Ching Ho Wang who acted in

aggression. In an interview for Cahiers du

twelve; Wilson Tong who performed in ten; Hui

Cinema, Lau contrasts his approach to that of

Ying-hung (Kara Hui), his most important female

Bruce Lee:

star, worked in ten; Kwok Keung Chan acted in ten; and Lau Kar Leung himself assumed roles, large and small, in eleven films. However,

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

He only knew how to fight. He hit to hurt, for the pleasure of the strikes. He was

too much a Westerner. The traditional Chinese courtesy was alien to him. When you watch his movies, the violence and the power of his blows can’t be missed. For us, the principle is diandaojizhi (to stop when we hit the opponent, to know how to restrain yourself and slow down the strike at the very moment of the hit). Someone is really strong in kung fu only if he’s able to do that.3

to China, which began to reach fever pitch in the early ’80s, many of Lau’s films — informed by the myth of the Shaolin tradition — can be read as historical allegories, though this is not a critical path I will be taking here. At the same time, it should be noted that occasionally the northerners are not villains but heroes in Lau’s films, as Martial Club and Dirty Ho (1979) attest. The cultivation of the Hung Kuen fighter

For Lau, the point was to develop the ability

requires a high level of training. To some extent

to precisely, and effortlessly, calibrate one’s

this training is instrumental, that is, to learn to

actions at any given time, so that no action is

fight, but in a deeper sense training becomes

made in the heat of the moment, in response,

an end in itself, which is why Lau dwells so

say, to anger, but every action is done mindfully

extensively on the training process. Often the

as if it were second nature.

would-be disciple is portrayed as a callow youth with an undisciplined body, eager to learn, yet

The Hung Kuen tradition has its own myth of

awkward and uncontrolled. In Challenge of the

origin that is referred to in all Lau’s Shaolin

Masters (1976), Gordon Liu plays the legendary

films and forms the explicit subject matter of

Wong Fei Hung comically as a greenhorn.

Executioners from Shaolin (1976). The myth

In the comedy Mad Monkey Kung Fu (1979),

tells of a Shaolin monastery in Fujian that was

the would-be trainee played by Hsiao Ho is a

sacked by the Manchus of the Qing dynasty,

petty thief and clown with remarkable physical

the monks were defeated, martial arts were

dexterity and ability but untrained fighting

banned, and a resistance was formed in exile in

skills. In The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter (1983),

the south that was dedicated to the restoration

after witnessing the death of his father and

of the Ming (Han) dynasty, and was under

brother, the hero seethes with inchoate rage

constant harassment from Manchu warlords.4

that must be channelled and tamed. However,

This historical myth draws in turn on stories

in each case the bodily self of the young novice

of the alleged sacking of the northern Shaolin

must be moulded and tempered by the most

monastery in Henan and the dispersion of the

exacting training both in physical fitness and in

fighting tradition by the monks, as well as the

fighting skills. The goal is to find a harmony and

folk tales of freedom fighters of Water Margin

control which allows seamlessly swift action

in the north of China that inform the older

and reaction. The discovery is usually marked

wuxia tradition of swordplay romance films.

by an “ah-ha” moment of rebirth in which the

The legend of a southern Shaolin temple and

novice achieves effortless mastery of the task

its loss creates a distinctive myth of origin and

at hand and proves a match to the tutor who

dissemination for the southern Chinese tradition

has defeated him so easily before. This sets him

that links the moral righteousness of the Hung

up for the greater task of defeating the enemy.

Kuen fighter with a broader social rhetoric in defence of freedom that contrasts a repressive

As Leon Hunt points out in a generalization that

central authority with freedom fighters on the

is applicable to Lau’s work, there are four basic

margins. Given the growing political concern

types of training.5 The first consists in learning

about the future of Hong Kong’s relationship

from nature. The Lingnan kung fu tradition bases

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its fight moves upon the movements of animals

father acted in Cantonese opera, as did his

such as the Snake, Crane, Tiger, Leopard, and

grandmother and uncle. Therefore, from the

Dragon, though there are also northern styles

beginning of his own training, Lau was aware

like the Eagle Claw and the Praying Mantis

that martial arts were also a performance

that are also based on nature. Learning from

tradition, and formed part of the spectacle

nature is sometimes very literally portrayed in

of Cantonese opera. In some ways, this

Lau’s films as a path to innovation and renewal

approach to kung fu as a type of performance

of tradition, as when in Shaolin Mantis (1978),

is congruent with a strict emphasis on the

the hero, isolated in nature, innovates winning

mastery of technique as an end in itself. It leads

moves from observing the praying mantis. A

to a balletic appreciation of combat stance,

second option is to learn from a book of kung fu,

posture, movement and form in his work, and

as young Kang Yeh Cheng (Hsiao Ho) tries to do

a thematic emphasis on combat form and

in Executioners from Shaolin. A third option is to

training as opposed to violent fighting. It invites

use training technologies. These technologies

us, at times, to contemplate the medium of film

are something that Lau was obsessively

itself as a way of presenting and framing the

interested in. Every conceivable contraption

world, in a Shakespearian way, as a species of

is used to train the fighter, ranging from the

theatre where “all the world’s a stage and all

mechanical wolves in The Eight Diagram Pole

the men and women merely players.” Finally, it

Fighter to the bronze man with marbles that

also reminds us the extent to which Lau’s films

release from his head and move through his

are a documentation of the work of a troupe of

lines of qi energy in Executioners from Shaolin.

kung fu artists, led by the choreographer and

Lau seems to set himself the task of innovating

sometime actor, Lau Kar Leung himself.

a new kind of machine in every movie for the sake of novelty, though his emphasis on these machines also demonstrates the priority given in his films to training. The fourth training method lies in the direct teaching of the pupil by a master or shifu (sifu), and the other training methods are usually subservient to this. Lau’s

Plotting for the Fight

L

au was also a commercial film-maker and he worked squarely within the conventions

of popular melodrama. Lau’s characters are

reverence for the master-pupil relationship in

drawn with simple, sharply defined traits

kung fu training lies squarely within Confucian

that contrast the humble and heroic southern

ethics and the figure of Confucius is respectfully

folk with the villainous and deceitful Manchu

invoked in one of his early films, The 36th

warlords. His more serious works take the form

Chamber of Shaolin (1977) (fig. 32). However,

of revenge melodrama, the default plot of the

because of Lau’s affinity with the southern

kung fu film. This plot bestows upon his films a

tradition of Hung Kuen, and the links of that

three-act structure, which is common to most of

tradition with the common people, Lau also

the dramas and many of the comedies.6 In the

valorized the untutored, unorthodox, rebellious

first act, we witness the brutal oppression of

Cantonese spirit that resists traditional learning

the Manchus, which gives motive for revenge;

protocols, and is embodied in his films in the

in the second, long act, the hero is trained and

unruly characters played by Hsiao Ho.

disciplined in the techniques of Hung Kuen; in the short final act, he takes revenge. However,

90

A further aspect of Lau’s training in martial

there are important exceptions to the revenge

arts is critical to understanding his films. Lau’s

structure. For example, Dirty Ho (1979) lacks a

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

revenge motive. Unusually for Lau, its central

which parallels the handicap/disguise motif of

character, Wang Ching Chin (Gordon Liu) is an

the first act. In the third act, Wang fights with

imperial Manchu prince and kung fu master,

a real handicap, alongside and now dependent

who is travelling incognito as a connoisseur

upon the able-bodied Ho whose performance

of antiques because he is threatened with

he directs. There are two set-piece fights, an

disinheritance. In the first act, he teams up with

ambush by his brother’s army and a fight at the

a local Cantonese petty criminal, Dirty Ho. In the

imperial palace concludes the film.

second act, he staves off the threat posed by a series of assassins. In the third act, he fights

There

his way to Beijing, alongside Ho, to claim the

ethics and aesthetics of martial arts and the

is

decided

tension

between

the

throne.

melodramas in which martial arts are staged. As Lau himself acknowledged, he was concerned

In the comedies, the three-act structure often

with

becomes attenuated in favour of the “episodic

characters not only by their moral traits but

construction” that David Bordwell identifies as

also through their mastery of certain kung fu

characteristic of popular Hong Kong cinema.7

skills.8 This encourages the audience to watch

Individual plot segments of roughly ten minutes

the fight contest from the perspective of a fight

in length with local motivations are very loosely

connoisseur rather than as a fight between

connected within the overall arc of the revenge

good and evil, and either opponent may pause

plot. This episodic construction allows a variety

to admire the skills of the other. Such an equal

of fight situations to be staged throughout

showcasing of skills naturally lends itself more

the entire narrative. Dirty Ho illustrates how

to the comic mode. Some of his comedies,

thematically

three-act/

such as Challenge of the Masters and Martial

episodic narrative structure can be in hosting

Club (1981) are set in the period of Wong

and motivating combat sequences through

Fei Hung, and feature the conflicts between

the creation of rhymes and parallels between

rival martial arts fraternities. Revenge is the

different elements. The first act stages a mock

nominal motive, but fights are rarely fatal, and

combat in a brothel where Wang, maintaining

characters who might otherwise be villainous

his disguise which handicaps him in fighting,

can be readily admired for their combat skills.

comically outbids and outwits the low-born Ho

For example, in Martial Club, Master Shan

for the attention of the women; a comic street

(Wang Lung-Wei, who is usually a villain in Lau’s

fight between Ho and “the four handicapped

films), is a shady character from the north and a

devils” witnessed by Wang, which continues

master of the Eagle Claw. He teams up with the

the handicap/disguise theme in comic vein; and

club which is opposed to Wong Fei Hung and

a revenge “Ninja” attack by Ho on Wang, who

defeats Fei Hung’s friend Mai Chen-Hua (Hsiao

uses a courtesan as a “fight doll” to conceal his

Ho) in a fight. However, while he confronts

identity. It ends with Ho becoming his servant.

Wong Fei Hung at the denouement, the fight

The second act stages two set-piece attacks

is not antagonistic because he has renounced

on Wang by would-be assassins in which Wang

his erstwhile allies, and it is staged in a didactic

maintains his disguise but is wounded and now

fashion to showcase the different kinds of close

literally has a physical disability. Then when Ho

fighting skills.

complex

a

hybrid

demarcating

putatively

villainous

discovers that Wang is a kung fu master and becomes his pupil there is a comic fight between

Shaolin Mantis further illustrates the way

Ho and “the seven tigers of Tung Kong River,”

in which, for Lau, the staging of the fight,

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91

and the self-mastery and skill it serves to

are invited to dwell instead upon the ethics and

showcase, often seems more important than

art of the fighter and the fight.

the narrative context in which the fight takes place. In Shaolin Mantis, the hero, Wei Feng

A further tension emerges from the very role

(David Chiang) actually fights for the Qing

of the revenge narrative within the martial

imperial court (usually the enemy) against the

arts tradition. The vengeance narrative is a

Ming rebels (usually the heroes). The tyrannical

convention of the kung fu film in general

Emperor holds Wei Feng to task by enacting a

because it provides the motive for the hero

three-fold constraint on his actions. After three

to perfect and perform his martial arts skills.

months his father will be stripped of his titles;

However, there is a conflict between the blood

after six months, his family will be imprisoned;

lust of the kung fu revenge movie, with a hero

and after a year they will be killed. Faced with

motivated by righteous indignation, hell-bent

these alarming deadlines, Wei Feng insinuates

on violent revenge, and the ascetic ideal of

himself into the rebel family and works to

harmony, restraint, and mind-body equilibrium

defeat them, learning along the way the martial

that characterizes the mature martial artist. Or

art of the Praying Mantis, only to discover

to put it another way, there is a tension between

at the end that his father has actually been

the spectacle of violence or “kicking ass” that

plotting to overthrow the imperial court and

the kung fu genre needs in order to sell tickets,

views him as a traitor. After his father dies of

which rage driven revenge serves to justify, and

the poison which he has also administered to

the kind of “disinterested” control manifest by

his son, Wei Feng lunges towards the emperor,

the fighter whose combat stance, like that of a

fighting off his body guards, at which point the

monk, is “purely defensive.”

frame freezes. Lau certainly celebrates the monastic ethic

92

The reversal of the customary plot, and then

of

the final reversal of the plot reversal in Shaolin

Shaolin films are constructed as revenge

Mantis, seem to expose the moral machinery

narratives, they dwell extensively on the hero’s

of melodrama and the more abstract concept of

development of mental fortitude and bodily

justice it serves that clearly delineates the villain

self-discipline, rather than on the revenge itself

from the hero, as merely a plot convention.

which occupies the final reel. In Challenge of

Wei Feng acts to defeat the party who would

the Masters, Wong Fei Hung refrains from going

normally be the good guys but they seem to

in for the kill and, in a gesture of forbearance

possess many of the traits of the bad. An uncle

and forgiveness restores the status of his

fights with excessive rage and the grandfather’s

opponent. When revenge is enacted it provides

patriarchal honour code requires him to murder

no respite for the soul. In The Eight Diagram

his granddaughter rather than to allow her

Pole Fighter, the hero, Yang Wu-Lang (Gordon

to escape with her husband. Once the plot

Liu), having seen his family slaughtered, is hell-

reverses, are we to conclude, retrospectively,

bent on revenge. He enters the monastery in a

that the grandfather’s brutal killing of his

volatile uncontrollable rage which is channeled

daughter is merely “collateral damage” for the

but not superseded by his training as a monk.

leader of a fight for freedom cannot be swayed

He is taught that the righteous way is to de-

by the heart? Probably not; the act still seems

fang his opponents not to kill them. When his

appalling. However, the larger causes for which

warrior sister is captured by the enemy, with

the hero fights begin to seem arbitrary, and we

the blessing of the Abbot, he leaves to seek his

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

restraint

and

control.

Although

Lau’s

revenge and, with the monks at his side, he rips

However,

out the teeth from the heads of his opponents

authenticity in this context means different

in the very bloody, though not essentially

things. Hunt usefully draws a distinction

deadly, final battle. Yet revenge does not bring

between three kinds of authenticity in kung fu

solace to Yang. When victory is achieved, he

films, all of which are applicable to Lau’s work.12

abandons his sister to wander, as Bordwell

The first kind is “archival authenticity” where

suggests, like Ethan Edwards in John Ford’s

martial arts moves are based on historical

film The Searchers.

fact and tradition. Lau builds his films around

9

we

should

be

mindful

that

showcasing the southern style of kung fu and Drunken Monkey, as well as certain northern

Staging the Fight

K

styles such as Praying Mantis and Eagle Claw. The second kind is what he calls “cinematic been

authenticity” which is simply the eschewal of

compared to musicals in the manner in

editing. Lau’s films are characterized by rapid

which the story is periodically interrupted by

editing (four to five seconds per shot),13 but he

the fight scenes. The comparison is limited.

takes the time to represent characters fighting

Fight sequences are much easier to motivate

in unedited sequences that represent ten to

than people bursting into song, and they

twenty fight moves in order to showcase their

rarely carry the metaphoric and expressive

skills, especially their speed. The third kind of

weight of song sequences. The comparison

authenticity is “corporeal authenticity.” This

is justified however, if we consider the way in

refers to the fighter performing his fight moves

which both the musical and the kung fu film

rather than a stunt double. Jackie Chan built

choreograph movements of the human body. It

his persona out of this kind of authenticity in

is also contextually supported by the historical

part because his films are full of stunts which

relationship between the kung fu film and

he himself performs. Grounded in archival

Chinese opera where gesture and movement

authenticity, stunts are less prominent in Lau’s

are governed by percussive instrumentation

work, but his films are, nonetheless, built

and vocalization.

around showcasing the skill sets of the various

ung

Fu

movies

10

have

often

As Hector Rodriguez points

out, Lau’s contemporary, King Hu, explicitly

performers including himself.

conceived the choreography of kung fu as a form of dance: “I’ve always taken the action

It is also misleading to simply oppose refined

part of my films as dancing…to emphasize

and rhythmic choreography with authenticity

rhythm and tempo instead of making them

since, as I have already suggested, kung fu

more authentic and realistic.”11 In Hu’s films

choreography is deeply entwined with the

the rhythm of bodily movement in the frame

performance tradition which, as we shall see, Lau

is augmented by the balletic movement of

comments upon in his work. It thus all depends

his characters who fly through the air. He also

on the nature of the choreography involved.

deploys a radically “constructivist” approach

One might say that, in general, in Lau’s work

to editing in which space is imaginatively

fight choreography is constrained by archival

created out of short, discreet, shots, which are

authenticity and representational realism, but

orchestrated to create a precise, rhythmic or

those constraints are always tempered by an

percussive effect. By comparison, Lau’s work

awareness that a “show” is being staged, and

seems more “authentic,” focused as it often is

also partly modulated by generic concerns. The

on the precise choreography of kung fu action.

Shaolin historical films that lie closer to tradition,

T H E PA R A D OX E S O F T R A D I T I O N : L AU K A R L E U N G AT S H A W B R O T H E R S

93

Figure 1.

94

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

Figure 7.

Figure 8.

Figure 9.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Figure 10.

like The 36th Chamber of Shaolin, afford a

bosses who are exploiting his friends. He does

certain licence for a fantastic escape from the

so with the help of an all-too-evident wire

constraints of space and time. Monks can fly

support that allows him to fly! More generally,

through the air at will and effectively execute

comedy affords latitude within the aesthetic of

their kung fu moves “at a distance” through

authenticity. It is no accident that Hsiao Ho also

the mind alone. In this context, Lau sparingly

functions as Lau’s stunt coordinator. His kung

uses constructivist editing to choreograph

fu style is unorthodox and improvisational. He

movement, as in the elegant eight-shot slow

has the air of a circus performer in the way he

motion sequence (figs. 1–9) that depicts San

twists his body into unlikely postures and poses.

Te (Gordon Liu) finally mastering a seamless

In films like Mad Monkey Kung Fu, his mad

control of movement as he leaps from one side

monkey improvisations are part improvisation,

of a stream whose crossing he has struggled

part circus art, which allow him for example to

to master. The transition from fig. 8 to fig. 9 is

somersault from a standing position over his

marked by a quick zoom from the boot to a full

opponent’s head and land on their shoulders.

frame that punctuates the landing.

Comedy here gives license for stunt kung fu to escape the boundaries of verisimilitude.

One may note, too, the way in which the monk, who looms as a larger than life figure,

Elsewhere, however, there is still a level of

“magically” appears through a cheat cut at

authenticity (at all three levels) in Lau’s depiction

the end of the sequence in the space behind

of fight moves, as is illustrated in the previously

the wall to bestow his blessing on San Te’s

mentioned fight sequence that concludes

achievement (fig. 10).

Martial Club. The subject of Martial Club is the rivalry between kung fu groups in the age of

This kung fu aesthetic using wires is wittily

Wong Fei Hung, the modern father of Hung

lampooned by Lau in Return to the 36th Chamber

Kuen, who is played by Gordon Liu. This context

(1980). Gordon Liu plays likeable con man,

helps motivates an “authentic” approach to

Chou Jen Chieh, who poses as the legendary

the depiction of kung fu, at least in selective

San Te (his prior role) in order to frighten the

scenes. In the final scene, Lau showcases the

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95

contrast between the northern leg-based, and

of “pause/burst/pause” is often underscored,

wide-stance fighting style and the southern fist-

as Bordwell points out, by deft use of rapid

based, narrow-stance fighting style represented

zooming in on a detail before the cut, and then

by fighters Master Shan (Wang Lung-wei) and

out again to capture the whole.16

Wong Fei Hung respectively. The fight takes place in a narrow Guangdong alleyway which

There are actually two levels of rhythm at work

favours the southern style, and as the fight

in the fight scenes. There is the overall rhythm

progresses the width of the alley gets narrower:

of movement and pause underscored by the

six feet, then four feet, then three. As Hunt

camerawork that Bordwell describes, but there

observes, while there is no clear winner, Shan

are also the rhythmic beats of the fight action

is forced to adapt his kicking-based northern

itself with each parried attack and counter thrust.

technique to the increasingly confined space

These beats of the action are supported by the

ending with his leg fully extended on the wall

noises on the soundtrack which, by convention,

whereas, Wong Fei Hung’s southern style is

are amplified and create a musicality of their

readily adapted to close fighting.14

own, especially since each fight scene usually contains sounds with different tones and

Lau’s typical fight scene is shot in a style which

timbres. These sounds are broadly:

Bordwell identifies as segment shooting. That is, rather than shoot a scene in Hollywood style with a covering long shot and cutting in on the action, “each fight was worked out on the set,

• The expressive swoosh of arms, legs or weapons which underscore the swiftness and power of the action;

with the shooting proceeding in continuity…

• The dull smack of fist or weapon on flesh;

[E]ach camera position was adjusted to the

• The clash of metal weapons;

exact bit of business that the shot would

• The dull thud of metal on wood or wood

highlight.”15 Furthermore, action proceeds in a

on wood;

manner that is discontinuous where action is

• The expressive grunts of the combatants;

paused before then again proceeding, either at

• The continuous and low-key patter and

a moment when an attacking move is blocked

shuffle of feet.

by the opponent, or when the fighters pause at a distance to size each other up in order to

These noises occur severally together in any

identify the opponent’s skill set which is often

one sequence and create a complex percussive

directly and didactically named. The result is a

tempo of their own.

“pause/burst/pause” pattern, which creates

96

what Bordwell describes as a “percussive”

In later and lesser films such as Disciples of

rhythm. Editing contributes both to the flow and

the 36th Chamber (1984), made under the

the pause of action. The cut on action functions,

pressure of a folding studio, Lau will also speed

as in the filming of a musical number, to maintain

up the action for facile expressive impact, but

the flow of the choreography by reframing the

in his best work he resists such gimmicks

angle from which the actors are viewed. This is

unless, as in the comedy Spiritual Boxer II

augmented by panning and tilting the camera to

(1979) which features animated corpses, he

follow the action. On the other hand, the locked

is aiming for a precise comic effect. Normally,

position, which marks a pause in the action, is

action will be filmed at eye level, though he will

typically underscored by a cut to a close-up of

sometimes have recourse to overhead shots

sword against staff, or locked arms. The rhythm

to give a sense of the overall choreography.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

In the fight scene that concludes Martial Club

hero Hung Hsi Kuan/Hung Hei Goon (Chen

the overhead shot is extensively deployed as

Kuan-Tai), who seeks to rescue the Shaolin

an innovative solution to the limited options at

temple from the evil monk Bak Mei who now

ground level.

governs it, fails to pass on his mastery of martial arts to his son, Wen Ting (Hsiao Ho), who is forced to reconstruct and improvise

Master and Disciple: The Precarious Tradition

L

his father’s skills from a tattered manual. In Mad Monkey Kung Fu, Master Chen, played by Lau Kar Leung himself has, because of his

au obsessively explores the master-pupil

weakness for the bottle, carelessly given away

relationship in a way that suggests he is

his knowledge of Monkey kung fu to a brutal

troubled by its incipient breakdown, perhaps

kingpin who maims his hands and enslaves his

because he is aware of the precarious family

sister as his concubine. Living as a shadow of

lineages through which knowledge of Hung

his former self with a performing monkey, he

Kuen is transmitted, and the burden of his own

encounters an orphan boy (Hsiao Ho), naturally

responsibility as a mentor and master. As both

endowed with the skills of the monkey fighter,

Roger Garcia and Tony Rayns have argued,

who reawakens his own dormant, crippled

Lau’s films consistently question the capacity

skills. They train side by side and the boy

of the shifu (sifu), the mature man of wisdom,

supports his handicapped master in the final

to pass down the knowledge of kung fu and to

fight against the villains. In this way, it is

preserve tradition.17 In The Spiritual Boxer, the

consistently the willing pupil, not the master,

little master is a con artist who invokes spirits

who stimulates the conservation of tradition,

and fakes possession by the gods in return for

and in Mad Monkey Kung Fu, the lineage, is, as

payment and to scare would-be fight opponents

it were, retrospectively reconstituted.

into submission. We later learn that the father of little master once taught Hung Kuen, but two

Perhaps Lau’s most complex and ambivalent

of his pupils turned outlaw. He is now too drunk

exploration of the master-pupil relationship is the

even to practise as a spiritual boxer. When the

highly inventive Dirty Ho where the relationship

two outlaws return, the little master’s fake

between Wang, the imperial prince, and Ho

skills are exposed and he is shamed, but his

is quite perverse. In the opening sequence

drunken father, whom it turns out, has trained

in the brothel, Ho is consistently outwitted

the villagers in kung fu, arrives to support his

and outsmarted by the imperious Wang who

son, and he invokes the God of the Tiger, Snake,

controls the action behind the scenes. Wang

Crane, as real kung fu moves, to enable his son

subsequently poisons Ho and forces Ho to

to defeat the villains.

accept him as master in return for administering the antidote which only he possesses. Indeed,

In Challenge of the Masters, the reason that

Ho initially agrees to be Wang’s servant and not

the young Wong Fei Hung is untrained and

even his student because it is only later that he

struggles to find a martial arts teacher is

discovers that Wang is a martial arts master.

because his own father has lost the will to

Wang then accepts him as a pupil because

mentor him. It is finally, his sigung, his father’s

he sees how useful Ho might be to him. After

teacher, Luk A Choy (Chen Kuan-Tai) who

Wang is injured, they fight together. Wang still

accedes to his pestering and finally agrees to

orchestrates the action, first in a wheelchair and

teach him. In Executioners from Shaolin, the

then on crutches, but now he is dependent on

T H E PA R A D OX E S O F T R A D I T I O N : L AU K A R L E U N G AT S H A W B R O T H E R S

97

the mobility and energy of Ho. However, once they arrive at the imperial palace and Wang has achieved his goal he pushes Ho out the door. The relationship is a perverse one of control, manipulation, and dependency, which does

Male Sexuality

M

artial arts training in Lau’s dramas is linked to abstinence from social or

sexual interaction with women. As Wang says

irresistibly suggest an allegory of north-south

to Ho in Dirty Ho when he believes that a

relations in Chinese politics.

group of women are calling at the door of the abandoned temple where they are training:

The role of women also challenges tradition and

“You must stay away from women while you

lineage in Lau’s work. If the master-pupil tradition

are practising.” And in many of Lau’s films there

is patriarchal and patrilineal, what happens

is a sharp contrast drawn between the world

when the tradition begins to depend on women

of women, a world of indulgence, excess and

to sustain it? In My Young Auntie (1980) an

dissipation of energy that is often signified by

elderly patriarch asks his young female protégé

the brothel (as in Dirty Ho, Martial Club, or The

and kung fu master, Cheng Tai-Nan (Kara Hui), to

Lady is the Boss), and the homo-social world of

marry him before his death, and take the deeds

kung fu training. Training usually occurs in an

of his estate to his younger brother Yu Cheng-

isolated place in nature, a monastery, cave or

Chuan (Lau Kar Leung) in Guangzhou in order

hermitage, away from the distractions of city,

to keep them out of the hands of the evil Yu

women, and modern life, and the relationship

Wei (Wang Lung Wei). Clearly Tai-Nan not only

between teacher and pupil is one of close

represents the best hope for the family fortune

physical and emotional proximity.

but for the tradition of kung fu to be preserved.

98

The ageing Yu Cheng-Chuan has essentially

In the regime of training, always willingly

retired and is focused on fine arts, antiques, and

undertaken, the novitiate often submits to a

tending to the family mausoleum, and Tai-Nan

ritual of verbal and physical abuse. Repeatedly

must mobilize Yu and his moribund brothers

in Lau’s work we see the spectacle of the

to defend his estate against the invasion of

naked male body, subject to humiliation, stress,

Yung-Sheng. Furthermore, she must confront

bruising, and suffering, yet rising again, ready

his young son Yu Tao (Hsiao Ho) who has come

to stand tall, and to fight again to overcome

back with newfangled Western-influenced kung

the obstacles before it. These obstacles often

fu ideas from Hong Kong, a Western name,

take the form of physical objects, training

Charlie Tao, and a reckless attitude to tradition

tools of the most extraordinary that look from

(he carelessly destroys the family mausoleum).

the outside like devices of torture, designed

Furthermore,

Tai-Nan’s

to test each element of the novice’s skill until

composure as he appeals to the young woman

breaking point. In The 36th Chamber of Shaolin,

beneath the “Auntie disguise.” Ultimately, they

San Te has burning rods placed at his temples

join forces to fight their opponents as a new

to test his eye movements (fig.11), he heaves

look kung fu army, but Yu’s skills are limited

buckets of water on his shoulders with blades

and, Tai-Nan encountering the brute force of a

underneath his arms that will cut into his body

muscled man who is impervious to her sword,

if he falters (fig.12), he must control the circular

is disappointingly captured. It is left to Yu Tao

movement of a long pole with precision to avoid

to recruit the aged band of brothers to rescue

his arms getting cut with sharp spikes (fig.13),

her, as once again, tradition is retroactively

and he is beaten when he fails to smack his

resuscitated by the “dad’s army.”

head against heavy sandbags. This suffering is

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Yu

Tao

threatens

Figure 11 (top); figure 12 (middle); figure 13 (bottom).

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99

shared by others, but often the novice trains

so you really want a man? All the men here?

in isolation. In Challenge of the Masters, Wong

Can you take men? Monkey says that of course

Fei Hung’s master uses a long bamboo pole to

he can, including the boss. Ah Choi responds

beat whichever part of his body needs to be

that the boss isn’t interested. Instead, he calls

positioned correctly until Fei Hung breaks down

over one man whom Monkey immediately

under duress. In Dirty Ho, Ho is forced by his

flattens with a smack into a bent, prostrate,

mentor, Wang, to kick his leg over a square of

posture. Two more men walk up, then three,

burning candles while he balances burning wax

and finally four. They all get the same treatment.

on his shoulder blades. Tony Rayns describes

“This fellow likes men!” exclaims Ah Choi, as if

these regimes of training as “sado-masochistic”

Monkey has just engaged in a sexual act with

although they are free of all sexual connotations

them, until he finally recognizes who Monkey

because the boundaries of propriety and

really is.

decorum that govern the relationship between master and pupil are very carefully drawn.18

Although

Nonetheless, in Lau’s comedies, the sexual

homophobic, the relationship between sadistic

the

comedy

is

uncomfortably

subtext that underlies these scenarios of

male violence and displaced homosexual desire

discipline, submission, and violence is made

or the threat of effeminacy is made evident.

strikingly explicit.

In Dirty Ho, the training of Ho by Wang is interrupted by a knock on the door and a high-

100

In Mad Monkey Kung Fu, as I have noted, in

pitched female voice announcing that a group of

many ways master and pupil are equals, yet

women, “the seven tigers of Tung Kong River,”

there remains a palpable hierarchy of dominance

have arrived. Even though he is warned by

and submission between them. Master Chen

Wang not to let them in, he does so. A group

and Monkey form a strange kind of couple, in

of comic misfits and grotesques enter led by

which Monkey seems more than willing to act

Suku, a eunuch, who has been recruited by a

the role of the real-life “pet monkey” to replace

villager to lead the capture of Wang: “We are all

the animal that Chen lost, as he lopes beside

very skilled,” he says, “but I am the gentle one…

him in the final freeze frame. At the conclusion

You want to beat someone up.” Wang fights in

of the film, Monkey confronts the kingpin,

turn a fat man, good for punching, a man who

Tuen (Lo Lieh), whose gang has harassed them

slaps, a man who bites, and one who pours

throughout and who has killed Chen’s sister.

bitter tea upon him as if he is peeing on Wang’s

Tuen lives in a brothel run by a decadent and

body and face. He is increasingly caught up in

effete eunuch, Ah Choi, whose perversity is

a play of mimicry, as if by fighting with them,

indicated by a gigantic tuft of hair growing out

he is “contaminated” by them. Suku’s voice

of a facial wart and an extremely thin opium

becomes a voiceover as she/he is absent from

pipe with a red tassel that, when Monkey

the screen: “After you have tasted our bitter tea

jumps upon him, droops like a wilted phallus.

you’ll change.” And, sure enough, he transforms

Monkey enters the brothel, bent on revenge,

into an “effeminate” man pictured in a soft-focus

disguised as a rich, decadent client with a fan

halo with a pouty mouth and a fey manner, who

and approaches Ah Choi. Ah Choi tells him that

is all too willing to join the team: “Whatever you

he has a girl of every size. “But I want you,”

say dear.” Then, coming to his senses, he refuses

says monkey. “I see, so you are a pervert,” says

Suku’s request to team up with him with a show

Ah Choi, and admonishes Monkey not to be so

of his muscles. Suku strokes them seductively:

horny as he bites his finger. Ah Choi continues,

“I have seen bigger… but not so muscular.” As

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

he is about to begin again to fight the fat man —

of the Tiger Fist, roams the southern margins

there is a circularity to this game of seduction

with his band of brothers and falls in love with

and aggression — Wang calls him inside.

Fang Yung Chun (Lily Li), who is master of the Crane style. The Tiger and Crane style are

In Lau’s films, as elsewhere in Hong Kong

associated in kung fu with the male and female

cinema, comedy, often of a broad and “gross

principles, one attacking and aggressive, the

out” kind, functions to release inhibitions and

other graceful and defensive. On the wedding

to express what is unsaid in the scenarios of

night Hung’s friends tease him that he will have

bodily discipline and control that inform the

to forcibly part the legs of Fang Yung Chun in

dominant narrative of martial arts. The comic

order to have sex with her. When he enters

figure of the effeminate eunuch articulates the

the bedroom, she uses her mastery of the

(heterosexual) male fear of losing potency, to

goat’s stance to keep her legs tightly shut and

which the antidote is violence. However, the

challenges him to forcibly open them in order to

role of sexuality in Lau’s work cannot simply

enter her.20 The first night he fails and it is only

be reduced to the assertion of male potency

when, upon advice from her uncle, he tricks her

in the face of homosexual panic, because

by locating the pressure points on her thighs,

of the importance in Hung Kuen philosophy

that he is successful. Again here, though more

and practice of the balance of yin and yang,

playfully, violence is a displaced expression

or of female and male elements in kung fu.

of the fear of sexual impotence, and even

This forms the subject of Lau’s extraordinary

though he is eventually successful, something

historical narrative, Executioners from Shaolin,

is lacking in Hung Hsi Kuan, “undercutting,” as

where the symbol of yin and yang presides over

Roger Garcia argues, “the masculinity of the

both the temple and the film. The film opens

legend.”21 The lesson instilled by his now dutiful

in a red mist that is the setting for a mythical

wife is that Bak Mei will only be defeated if

fight between Zi Sin, a Shaolin monk, and Bak

Hung learns the Crane style, but he refuses to

Mei who defeats Zi Sin by trapping his leg

do so. In his final battle with Bak Mei his leg

within his crotch where “a kind of sexual black

is trapped in the deadly crotch, he is dragged

hole” replaces his genitals.19 Bak Mei is either

along the ground and his legs are broken in an

a eunuch or he has mastered the art of internal

act of symbolic castration.

kung fu and can retract his genitalia. Either way,



Bak Mei is a perverse, asexual figure with a

However, in the meantime, their night of

piercing deathly gaze, who defies both the logic

passion has produced a son, who has grown to

of age — he sports grey hair and a grey beard,

be a man. Weng’s mother has not only tutored

but he is smooth-faced and supremely agile

him in the Crane style, strikingly, she has

— and the logic of gender, he is a male but he

bestowed upon him womanly characteristics:

has a hole where his genitals should be. He is

he dresses like a girl with twin buns in bows

neither male nor female but asexual, and this

and a multicoloured patchwork tunic that, in

endows him with supernatural fighting abilities.

this context, as Rayns suggests, indicates an

He presides as a sinister god-like presence over

authentic bisexuality in contrast to the eunuch’s

the temple where the Buddha’s face is now

perverse asexuality.22 When in a play fight his

cloaked with a black beard.

father beats him, Wen Ting leaps on his father’s shoulders in an act of playful retaliation and his

The heroic antagonist to Bak Mei, Hung Hsi

father cannot shake him off, showing that he

Kuan (Chen Kuan Tai), defined by his mastery

has developed his mother’s powerful “female”

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101

goat’s stance that can beat the very best Tiger

who, while they as women challenge the

Claw. When his father does not return, Wen Ting

patriarchal tradition also, at the same time help

resolves to fight Bak Mei, but his mother tells

preserve and renew it, as we have seen in the

him he cannot win through Crane style alone.

case of My Young Auntie.

He resolves to teach himself Tiger Claw with his father’s manual, but with the book in tatters and

Lau’s films demonstrate a complex ambivalence

unsure how to use the dummy, he is forced to

towards the possibility of female agency, which

improvise and innovates his own hybrid, bisexual

they nonetheless enjoin. The cause of this

style, that goes beyond anything he could have

ambivalence, of course, lies in the spectacle

been trained. Entering the monastery, he fights

of female sexuality and the extent to which

Bak Mei with a combination of Crane and

women are defined by it. Female sexuality

improvised Tiger Claw. As Bak Mei is about to

renders women in public spaces vulnerable to

trap his extended foot in a death grip, Wen Ting

harassment and predation as the Young Auntie

enacts a remarkable pivot and leaps on the back

experiences as she steps off the boat from the

of Bai Mei locking his legs around his head in

country in the city. The film sympathetically

a vice like goat’s grip and piercing his deathly,

represents her swift and forceful response to

staring eyes with his crane move.

the hoodlums with one arm kung fu. However, the film handles Yu Tao’s interaction with her with less certainty. With his innocent, yet

Female Agency

T

aggressive young male sexuality (he ogles TaiNan as she undresses in a scene played for

his celebration of an affirmative bisexuality

laughs), Yu Tao sees all too readily through her

is an antidote to the portrayal of effeminacy

brittle, prim authority, and seeks to liberate

as at best comic and at worse perverse, and

her from her dowdy ways. He escorts her to

always subject to the threat of punishment

the city where she dresses in an alluring split-

by male violence. It is linked to the broader

to-the-thigh cheongsam, but when she again

recognition in his films of the role of women in

faces harassment, she cannot fight in the

preserving and enhancing kung fu. The role of

dress and her legs are humiliatingly exposed.

the female hero has a long lineage in the wuxia

Most unsettling is a scene in which Yu Tao has

tradition where the female hero takes on an

resolved to punish Tai-Nan who has scolded him

almost mythic power. Their role in Lau’s films

for wrecking the family shrine by humiliating her

is more down to earth. Women may function

at a party. Dressed in a ballgown, which she

as mothers of young male kung fu fighters who

initially finds appealing, she is thrown from a

train them quietly at home, out of the limelight.

waltz into a tango dance and then a jive as she

I have already noted the role of the female

is passed from man to man and swung around

lead in Executioners from Shaolin who trains

like a doll until she is dizzy. It is only after a new

her unruly son in kung fu. In Disciples of the

guest cuts her dress and another hits her that

36th Chamber, the young Fong Sai Yuk (again

Yu Tao realizes that the party has been infiltrated

played by Hsiao Ho), though entirely unruly and

by Yung-Shen’s henchmen. Yu Tao and his friends

undisciplined (he has to be tied by restraints

then join Tai-Nan in the fight, though again she is

at school), has learned sophisticated martial

compromised by her too feminine garment.

arts skills on account of his mother’s indulgent

102

devotion. More significantly however, women in

The Lady is the Boss (1983), written by Lau

Lau’s film also function as independent agents

Kar Leung himself, reworks My Young Auntie

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

in a manner that makes explicit the way that

and restore the authority of tradition. At the

modernity, now firmly associated with the

conclusion, Mei Ling leaves Hong Kong’s Kai

figure of a woman, poses a threat to patriarchal

Tak airport in traditional dress while Huang

tradition. Lau Kar Leung plays a contemporary

turns up in a tuxedo. The jury is out on whether

kung fu master, Huang Hsien Yin, whose five

“feminization” and “Westernization” will be a

students (including characters played by Gordon

success.

23

Liu and Hsiao Ho) must relocate when their studio is slated for demolition and await the

One way that women in Lau’s films can escape

arrival of a new instructor for the facility. She

being defined by their sexuality is to cross-

turns out to be a Hong Konger from America,

dress as men. This frees them from the burden

Mei Ling (Kara Hui), with a sexy vibe, and very

of objectification by the “male gaze” and

liberal views of kung fu fighting and training.

allows them to move around freely in public

She represents the promise/horror of the future:

space unimpeded by harassment, interference

kung fu as a global brand. Comically, Mei Ling

and negative judgement, which even the

will go to any lengths, including encouraging

conservatively dressed heroine of My Young

betting on children’s fights and exploiting a

Auntie suffers. In The Spiritual Boxer, the orphan,

traffic accident, to advertise the merits of the

Hsiao Chien (Wang Yu) who has spent the first

brand and extend the clientele for the sport.

half of the film seducing the general population

Huang, the traditionalist, is understandably

with his fake spirit invocation, encounters a girl,

appalled, but his young protégés are intrigued

Yu Chin-lien (Lin Chen-chi), disguised as a boy,

and transfixed by the forceful, charismatic, and

who has taken refuge in a haystack. He quickly

alluring Mei Ling. Dressing up the five boys in a

finds out she is a girl by accidently touching her

parody of the pop group, The Village People(!),

breasts. Playing the “thunder palm” trick on

they enter the local disco on a recruitment

his pursuers, he discovers to his amazement it

drive. Yuan bursts in on a motley assortment

actually works, and he subsequently finds out

of hookers, homosexuals, and drag queens.

that this is because Yu fired gunpowder from

As the camera pans the group following his

her slingshot. So Yu teams up with Hsiao as

gaze he is appalled by the freak show before

his assistant and keeps her identity in disguise,

him. Back at the school the five boys struggle

while at the same time they form a kind of

helplessly to turn limp-wristed drag queens into

secret family as she mothers the street urchins,

kung fu artists, but Mei Ling, through sympathy

patching his clothes, and tending his fight

and patience, successfully teaches self-defence

wounds. When she finally appears as a girl at

to the hookers which they use against their

the end, Hsiao Chien doesn’t recognize her!

prospective clients in a powerful show of female rebellion, though they are beaten up by

In Legendary Weapons of China (1982), again

their triad bosses. She enterprisingly attacks

written by Lau Kar Leung, Fang Shao Hsing

the triad gang with a group of BMX bikers who

(Kara Hui), plays a martial arts expert who is

ingeniously wield their bikes as fight props. In

one of a number of secret agents in search of

the end, however, Mei Ling’s stubborn over-

the renegade master Lei Kung (Lau Kar Leung).

confidence and lack of local knowledge get

Lei is being hunted down because he has

the better of her and she is captured by the

renounced the secret society of the Boxers. He

triads. Gordon Liu fighting as San Te in The

knows the belief that they are impervious to

36th Chamber of Shaolin, and Hsiao Ho using

bullets is false and only a way for the empress

his Mad Monkey kung fu, come to the rescue

to save money on firearms. Fang encounters

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103

young Tieh Hou (Hsiao Ho) on the way with

with the body narcissism of Bruce Lee, and our

whom she fights. Not only does she display

contemporary muscle-bound action heroes.

formidable martial arts skills in close combat,

Indeed, the Teflon body of the Bond-style villain

she shows more maturity and poise than Tieh

who temporarily defeats Tai-Nan in My Young

Hou, who is in thrall to the magic of master Lei

Auntie is lampooned, as are the action hero

Yung (Lau Kar Wing), and falls seriously ill when

antics of the various ninjas, with their highly

he hides in polluted water under a public latrine.

developed bodies, in Heroes of the East.

Fang, in contrast, recognizes the man they have befriended, Uncle Yu, is really Lei Kung in

The different combat skills that are valorized and

disguise. She informs him he is being hunted

displayed, the Monkey Fist, the Tiger Claw, the

down, affirms that she supports his course,

Crane style, and so on, require the differential

and persuades him that he must renounce

use of different parts of the body (just like the

his disguise as a woodcutter and defeat his

mastery of different kinds of weapons and their

enemies, and supports him in his training. When

use). Partly this is a question of body type — the

Tieh Hou recovers and discovers who Uncle Yu

squat build may excel at low leg techniques, the

really is she disempowers him. It is only at that

graceful and lithe body at the Crane style. Partly it

moment that Fang Shao Hsing’s identity as a

is a question of training. Honing these skills also

girl is revealed. Subsequently, her role is rather

requires selective attention to different muscles

diminished because Lei Kung’s powers are now

and limbs, thus, as we have seen, various forms

restored, but she fights alongside Lei Kung to

of demanding handicaps are embraced. Partly

defeat his enemies.

it is a question, in the performance of kung fu, of display skills. Finally, it is also to create innovation and variety in the kung fu numbers

Disability and Differential Ability

S

in the course of a ninety-minute film. Handicaps are sometimes voluntarily embraced by the

ince Lau’s films are so focused on the

fighter. The narcissistic villain in Challenge of the

perfection of seamless human action and

Masters, Chen Erh Hu, played by Lau Kar Leung,

reflexes and a capacity for endurance, they

carries around a bird in a cage, covered with a

are also preoccupied with the limits of human

black shroud, at all times and defeats the young

capacities. Disability is sometimes faked as a

Wong Fei Hung while holding it in one hand. The

ruse or lampooned as the butt of the joke in Lau’s

birdcage is partly an identity disguise, partly a

films. Yet at the same time, for many reasons,

ruse, but most of all a vain affectation, as if to

the idea of selective ability or being differently

say: “I can defeat you with one arm tied behind

abled plays a pivotal role in his conception of

my back.”

the philosophy and practice of kung fu. In Lau’s

104

films the kind of combat skills you display are

However, the idea of selective ability cannot be

relative to the kind of body you have. Witness

adequately comprehended simply in terms of

the contrast between the drunken master and

the perfection and tuning of bodily skills. Lau

monkey skills of the squat Lau Kar Leung, the

also recognized that differences in character and

taut, lightning speed of the beady-eyed Gordon

temperament due to biology, gender, upbringing,

Liu, the lithe contortions of Hsiao Ho, and the

background, and class, are fundamental to kung

muscularity of Wang Lung-wei. There is, in this

fu training. In Mad Monkey Kung Fu, Chen is

sense, no perfect body shape or type in Lau’s

susceptible to alcohol. It is a character flaw that

world, and in this way, his films sharply contrast

is severely punished, but it is also in part what

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

makes the character so attuned to the drunken

Tao in Heroes of the East (1978) is wounded by

monkey technique. Lau had previously made a

his wife during one of her ninja routines and he

cameo role as an alcoholic master of the drunken

is admonished by his supervisor for engaging

monkey technique in Challenge of the Masters.

in too much fighting. When injuries do occur,

The character of Monkey himself is also significant

the key issue is how the individual reacts to it.

in this context. Dirt poor, a petty thief, and living

In Mad Monkey Kung Fu, after Chen has been

on his wits, these attributes conspire together to

beaten on his hands and maimed he gives up

create a character who is attuned to outwitting

fighting altogether. By meeting a man who is

his opponents. Chen, his mentor, recognizes

in some ways his younger double, he effects

in him the capacity to develop a powerful and

a rebirth and rediscovers his fighting abilities.

unorthodox fighting technique. Far from trying to

However, he must embrace and accept his

flatten these aspects of his character, Chen seeks

limitations and this involves accepting and

to direct them to a socially purposeful end.

trusting the skills of his pupil when they enjoin the final battle. Similarly, in Dirty Ho, when

In Return to the 36th Chamber (1980), Gordon Liu

Wang has been crippled by a sword he trains

is Chou Jen Chieh, a humble, good-natured con

Ho to be an accomplice in battle and they must

artist who is the brother of the foreman in a dye

fight in tandem in order to succeed.

factory that is taken over by brutal Manchurian overseers who impose a pay cut. Jen Chieh lives

However, in Dirty Ho, while disability is a

off his instincts by pretending to be a Shaolin

limitation it is also a ruse and a strategy. Wang

monk. The workers beg him to fake a kung fu fight

initially pretends to be unable to fight. This

with them to impress the Manchurians with his

handicap requires him to use other people’s

fighting skills and thereby compel them to restore

bodies and objects as props to disguise his skills

the workers’ pay, but their ruse is exposed and,

and simultaneously as weapons in the fight. The

ashamed of himself, he resolves to seek training.

“four handicapped devils” pretend disability

He tricks his way into the Shaolin monastery,

to foreground fighting skills which test Ho’s

where the monks, recognizing his limited

abilities, as a blind man uses the Buddha palm,

concentration span which will prevent success

a one-legged fighter uses a pole, a hunchback

in orthodox training, send him to build a scaffold

uses his arched back and a bench, and a one-

around the compound. He is able to watch the

armed fighter uses a stick. The appearance of

trainees and instinctively adopt their methods as

“the seven sisters of Tung Kong River” links

he makes the scaffold. Forced by the monks to

disability to effeminacy as a ruse which again

leave when he has completed the task, it takes

almost overpowers Ho as he is temporarily

his friends back home to point out to him that he

transformed into an effeminate man and, it is

has actually learned kung fu while he has been

implied, rendered impotent in the fight. In the

away. He successfully defeats the Manchurians

final act, Wang, now actually disabled, orders

with what he calls his “scaffolding kung fu”

a wheelchair, lots of umbrellas and a strong

technique in which, during the fight, he binds the

walking stick as the props that enable him to

antagonist’s arms and legs with bamboo poles

fight. Pushed in a wheelchair Wang seems very

and renders them helpless.

vulnerable to attack, but actually the wheelchair functions as a ruse, a defensive fortress around

Lau’s films also explore the fact and reality of

which they erect, rather implausibly, a barrage

injury, which is an ever-present danger not simply

of umbrellas that use up all the enemy arrows.

in fiction, but, no doubt, on the film set too. Ho

The seated (and partially protected) Wang fights

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105

Figure 14.

106

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

from the seat as Ho fights standing above him. The stick, too, is partially a ruse. In the final battle Wang transforms from a crippled onlooker supported by a bent stick to a master pole fighter supported by Ho. Through comedy, Dirty Ho is a profound meditation upon kung fu as an art whose authenticity in fact resides in masquerade.

Theatricality and Artifice

A

s I have noted, Lau Kar Leung was brought up in a Cantonese opera family,

and this informs his approach to kung fu as a performance spectacle, his understanding of the history of kung fu, and no doubt his very embrace of the movies as a medium in which kung fu could be staged and displayed. Ideas of theatricality, artifice, and performance inform the plots, the set-piece fight scenes, and the style of his films and are thus arguably their single most defining and unifying element. In Executioners from Shaolin the scattered rebels infiltrate the heartland disguised as Chinese opera entertainers. Whether reality or myth, the film proposes a deep historical affinity between opera and Hung Kuen whereby it is within the context of opera that the Hung Kuen tradition was protected and nurtured. In the context of the Qing dynasty when kung fu was banned, the opera was a place where skills could be preserved and practised as an open secret, as it were. It was also a place where the myths and legends of southern resistance could be carried forward, such as the story in Executioners from Shaolin of how General Yue fought the Jin dynasty and defeated the Tartars. As we have seen, Martial Club and Challenge of the Masters propose a different kind of history that draws on the more proximate mythology of Wong Fei Hung and the martial arts revival he led in Canton in the second half

T H E PA R A D OX E S O F T R A D I T I O N : L AU K A R L E U N G AT S H A W B R O T H E R S

107

Figure 15 (top); figure 16 (bottom).

108

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

of the nineteenth century. In this context, Lau

is performed as if on a stage (fig.17), and the

re-imagines not only the late nineteenth-century

death scenes of General Yang and his son are

kung fu club and training, but a whole southern

highly stylized, each standing erect with a pin

cultural life informed by lion dance festivals

cushion of arrows penetrating their bodies (fig.

and competitive games. Here, Lau is engaged

18). In an added touch, before his death, the

in the reconstruction of traditions which have

old patriarch who is shot through with arrows

disappeared, like the elaborate three-storey

flies through the air and bangs his head on the

line dance which opens Martial Club (fig. 14), or

stele in a final, suicidal, act of defiance, before

which only tenuously remain in the local village

landing beside it.

cultures and traditions of Hong Kong.24 In the rest of the film the studio setting and Theatrical spectacle not only has an archival

the sense of a proscenium or fourth wall are

purpose,

the

not so overt. Nonetheless, there is a pervasive

relationship between life and art and between

sense of theatricality and artifice in The Eight

kung fu, theatre and film. All of them begin with

Diagram Pole Fighter that goes beyond the title

an extended pre-credit/credit sequence which

sequence.

Lau’s

films

comment

on

contains a scene that typifies or summarizes the events that are to enfold in the drama. What

This

is striking about these scenes is their self-

motivation that is absent from the opening

theatricality

has

in

part

a

realistic

evidently theatrical quality. There is no effort to

sequence. Like other works in the historical

embed them in a realistic setting or space, the

genre, Lau’s films dwell upon the ritual and

studio wall is sometimes visible in the scene,

pageantry of court and clan in contrast to the

and the fights are highly stylized. Of course,

simplicity of the folk. Often, they are partly set

this is partly motivated by the convention that

in a monastery which is a place with its own

affords the pre-credit or credit sequence a

ordered set of rituals and performances. Also,

degree of stylistic experimentation, since it

since Lau emphasizes the performative aspects

is separated from the main film. However, in

of the kung fu tradition, fights themselves,

Lau’s film the elements of artifice that inform

even when they are incipiently deadly, often

the pre-credit or credit sequence are just an

have a ritualistic quality; that is, the sense of

exaggerated version of the stylized set pieces

a learned action that is performed in the right

that inform the work as a whole.

way for its own sake. However, these elements are enhanced by Lau’s sense of staging and

The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter opens with a

design, his characteristic use of the wide-angle

fight between the Manchu army and the Yang

long shot with staging in depth (fig. 19), and by

brothers. The theatrical “frontality” of the stage

his choreography not simply of individual action,

design and the choreographed nature of the

but of the group. Group movement is finely

battle is plainly evident, as is the fact that the

synchronized and orchestrated in a manner that

actors are positioned in a studio (figs. 15 and 16).

has little to do with realistic fight staging but

Lau’s characteristic deployment of the long shot

creates the impression of dance or ballet which

with a wide-angled lens to present the full scope

is choreographed for its form (fig. 20). The

of the action only enhances this sense of artifice.

spaces in which the action takes place assume the appearance of a stage set, whether it is a

The intervention of the empress, who signals

monastery (fig. 19), the family mansion, here

the soldiers to kill one of the Yang brothers

shown in a shot/reverse-shot (figs. 21 and 22),

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109

Figure 17 (top); figure 18 (middle); figure 19 (bottom).

110

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Figure 20 (top left); figure 21 (top right); figure 22 (bottom left); figure 23 (bottom right).

or an inn where a grand finale is staged upon

us seamlessly into the world of the film where,

coffins (fig. 23).

as the credits role, a lion is balanced on top of a three-tiered human pyramid (fig.14) surrounded

In Lau’s historical comedies about Wong Fei

by appreciative spectators on several floors

Hung, the sense of theatre is motivated by the

of the adjacent buildings which form a kind

activities of the kung fu fighters themselves

of theatre in the round. From overhead we

who are engaged in one-upmanship in the

watch the whole ensemble move into a

performance of their skills. In the two-minute

courtyard as the performance commences. The

opening pre-credit sequence of Martial Club,

sequence lasts over five minutes before the

Lau Kar Leung, performing as himself in what

first consequential narrative action begins: the

is evidently studio space, gives a comic-didactic

black lion of a rival group led by Master Lu (Chu

lecture facing the camera about the dos and

Tieh Hu) and his son Lu Shan Hao (Ching Chu)

don‘ts of the lion dance (fig. 24). The lion is a

enters the courtyard. Lau clearly signals here an

dignified animal and as such it represents the

appreciation of the ritual of the lion dance and

standing of the school. There are rules to follow:

the performance skills of its participants for its

one lion should not smell the butt of another;

own sake.

when close, no blinking is permitted; and one lion cannot approach another with a raised foot!

As if to underscore the connection between

However, when we enter the film we still remain

kung fu and Cantonese theatre, the main fight

in the space of theatre, though now no longer

in Martial Club between the rival groups takes

restricted to the proscenium arch. As Lau dons

place in the setting of a Cantonese opera. This

the lion’s head costume, a cut on action takes

scene is inspired by a real incident known as

T H E PA R A D OX E S O F T R A D I T I O N : L AU K A R L E U N G AT S H A W B R O T H E R S

111

Figure 24.

112

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

the Lok Sin Theatre Incident that involved Lam Sai Wing and a handful of students, who were ambushed inside a theatre, grossly outnumbered by assailants.25 The group led by Master Lu oppose the school of Master Cheng (Wilson Tong) to whom Wong Fei Hung (Gordon Liu) is affiliated. Lu seeks to frame Cheng’s group by inviting them to a Cantonese opera without tickets and then confronting them with the fact that they have entered unpaid. Master Cheng’s group, including Wong Fei Hung, enter the theatre and occupy front row seats. As the curtain falls, Lu’s men lock the doors and confront them with not paying. A raucous and bloody fight ensures. Outnumbered, Wong Fei Hung leaps through the air to smash the lights and plunge the hall into darkness (as if his fantastic fight skills are justified by the context in which he finds himself), whereupon the yellow curtain of the stage suddenly takes on the appearance of an illuminated backdrop, a shadow play, like that of cinema itself as “electric shadows” (fig. 25). Suddenly we pass behind the curtain and the action itself erupts onto the stage as Wong Fei Hung and his friends seek a way out of the theatre. The fighters get caught up with the performers themselves, the actual fight takes place against the stage backdrop (fig. 26), and fighting spills into the dressing room where the bad guys are no match for the actors themselves in the skills of kung fu. Finally, the yellow curtain dramatically rises to reveal the police who now confront the two groups of fighters as if they are actors on the stage (figs. 27 and 28). Lau creates an articulate and entertaining commentary on the relationship between his own fight choreography and the theatre, and indeed, the world of the film itself as a shadow-play. This is less to expose the world of the film as just a fiction than to suggest that in the world that is enframed in the

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113

Figure 25 (top left); figure 26 (top right); figure 27 (bottom left); figure 28 (bottom right).

film, everyone is playing a role, including the

other corpses for a good part of the film, until

policemen who turn up at the end. Of course,

his beady eyes, and the fact that he is caught

Lau also employs the trope of the fight

peeing (!) give him away. However, the link

spilling into the world of the theatre simply

between Hung Kuen, deception and disguise

as a pretext for augmenting the excitement

also reflects the nature of kung fu itself in

of the fight with the chaotic movement of the

which deception of the opponent is an integral

theatre performers and the bright colours and

part of strategy, whether it is the apparently

sharp lines of costume and set packed into a

random and erratic posture of the Drunken

tightly confined space.

Monkey (Mad Monkey Kung Fu) or the use of

.

the red tassel on the spear which distracts the As we have seen, deception, duplicity, and

opponent’s eye (Heroes of the East).

disguise are key features of Lau’s universe. This

114

is, in part, a reflection of the history of a practice

Lau’s films distinguish between authentic and

that was banned under the Qing dynasty and

mendacious use of artifice and deceit on the

was forced to migrate underground. The Hung

grounds of the ends for which it is used and

Kuen hero or heroine is often an outsider facing

the goal that is being served. So, for example,

a powerful opponent from the centre of power,

the melodramatic villain, Chen Erh Hu, in

and therefore must operate incognito or in

Challenge of the Masters is a murderous killer,

disguise in order to be successful. Thus, in The

who fights with blades hidden in his shoes,

Spiritual Boxer, Gordon Liu plays a fugitive from

disguised as a benign animal loving “Uncle”. He

the imperial soldiers, who travels incognito as

is a cheat, and cheating is in theory a cardinal

an animated corpse and jumps around with the

sin in Lau’s universe because it is against the

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

honour code of Hung Kuen. Yet, in practice the distinction becomes hard to maintain. Thus, in Heroes of the East, the ninja ideal is criticized not only for its excessive flamboyance, but for its trickery and deceit, for example, through the

Visual Style

C

onsideration of theatricality and artifice leads us to contemplate Lau’s visual style.

The self-conscious artifice that informs Lau’s

use of explosives. Yet when it comes down to

approach to the orchestration and choreography

the final battle, Ho Tao (Gordon Liu) wins the

of the fight within scenes that are often

fight by outwitting Takeno (Yasuaki Kurata), his

evidently occurring in the space of a studio

ninja opponent by pretending to be dead. So,

is complemented by a contemplative, even

in fact, deception is not only legitimate if it is

classical sense of framing, which gives an

used by your opponent, the Hung Kuen expert

air of precise control and orchestration, even

is actually better trained in the art of deception

when the scene is one of incipient chaos, and

than his would-be antagonist.

bestows a pictorial quality upon the image. As Bordwell points out, while Lau’s average shot

Dirty Ho brilliantly showcases kung fu as an art

length is rapid in an era before digital film-

of deception. When Ho seeks to fight Wang, the

making, his editing never seems rushed or

Manchurian master conceals his skill by making

disorienting because there is such a careful and

it seem that Ho falls from his own clumsiness.

rigorous approach to screen composition.27 The

When Ho bursts in on him as a ninja, seeking

choreographer, who so precisely orchestrates

revenge, he uses the courtesan Tsui Hung

and controls the movement of the fighter’s

(Kara Hui) as a kind of fight doll, defending and

body, is also a director who has a very precise

striking by manipulating her movements. This

sense of mise-en-scene, framing, and colour

is a form of sight gag labelled by Noel Carroll

design.

“The Mutual Interference Gag.”26 The spectator is able to perceive both sides of the situation,

The theatrical quality of Lau’s mise-en-scene is

whereas Ho only sees one side. Pursued by

evident in his approach to closed rather than

his enemies, this deception is wrought several

open framing, that is he created spaces in

times over. One fight is disguised as a wine

which, even when the scene is an exterior shot,

tasting and Wang leaves his defeated opponents

one senses a self-enclosed world, a microcosm,

saying they are both drunk though actually

whether it is that of the monastery, an inn, a

they have been beaten unconscious. A second

dying factory (as in the opening of Return to the

fight is disguised as antique connoisseurship.

36th Chamber), the family mansion, an alleyway

As Ho stands outside peering in through

for close quarter fighting, or a clearing in the

screens, he perceives only an art sale going

woods where a fight takes place. This sense of

on, until finally he realizes and joins the fight.

an enclosed microcosm is underscored by the

This ruse is actually radically under-motivated in

use of a very wide-angle lens whose curvature

narrative terms. For why on earth would Wang’s

allows for the inclusion of walls, floors, and

supposedly villainous opponents be complicit in

even ceilings in the image as well as affording

the ruse when they know who he is? And once

a dramatic sense of spatial depth (fig. 22).

Wang becomes Ho’s master, what would be his

Framing within the frame can allow action to

motivation to continue to conceal from him his

take place in several planes of the image, and

mastery of the discipline? The point, in the end,

can be used to stage the entrance and exit

is the performance, the magic show, and the

of powerful characters from deep within the

mastery of technique it displays.

recesses of home and palace. However, given

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Figure 29 (top); figure 30 (middle); figure 31 (bottom).

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Lau’s fondness for frontal long shots and the

the monastery in The 36th Chamber of Shaolin

relative lack of camera movement in his films,

which compares San Te, now engaged in the

these shots also bestow on Lau’s framing a

humble activity of cleaning with the other

pictorial quality.

novices, to the Buddha (fig. 37). Contrast this scene with the scene of conflict from earlier in

Often Lau introduces a locale with a high angle

the film where General Tien’s army is attacking

shot which allows the audience to perceive the

the villagers (fig. 38). The composition is

geometry and design of the whole and grasp

unbalanced by the clash between the vertical

the sense of a self-contained world such as the

and the diagonal which graphically inscribes

monastery in The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (fig.

the incipient violence within the scene. There

29) (note the red costume of the chief abbot

is a clash of geometry between circles and

at the centre of the image); the Pau festival in

squares. The dominant colours are black and

Challenge of the Masters (fig. 30); or the inn

red. The space is messy and cluttered and the

which is the setting for the final showdown in

profile of the actors overlap the edges of the

The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter (fig. 31).

frame on all four sides. Admittedly this frame is drawn from a short series and freezes a

Underscoring

the

pictorial

composition,

Lau

often

nature

of

references

his

rapidly evolving action but the impression

and

of (carefully organized) chaos is maintained

associates characters and scenes within the

throughout.

frame with pictures or Chinese calligraphy that serve to comment upon the character or

Lau’s strategy in crowd scenes involved using

scene. Thus in The 36th Chamber of Shaolin, the

extras and crowds to create an overall colour

teacher who ends up taking his life rather than

design. Typically, the common man or woman

be captured is compared to Confucius (fig. 32).

will be dressed in simple grey tops and

The chief abbot appears before and seems to

trousers, contrasting different tones of grey or

form part of the Chinese character of Buddha

black and grey to denote opposing factions. The

(fig. 33), and another abbot appears in front of

costume of heroes or villains will sometimes be

the ship of buddhas and bodhisattvas (fig. 34).

differentiated against this background through the use of vivid primary colours. The red and

Similarly, in The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter,

yellow costumes of the monks in the Shaolin

the treacherous General Pan Mei appears with

films are particularly striking (fig. 39), in contrast

the empress in front the image of a northern

to the simple grey clothes of the novices and

dragon preying on a southern monkey (fig. 35),

the grey flagstones, slate roofs, and beige walls

whereas the mother of the dead Yang warriors

of the monastery, all set against the greens that

is compared with the Goddess of Mercy, Guan

situate the monastery in ordered nature.

Yin (fig. 36). Lau differentiates armies from the common Also, like all directors who seek precise

man by the primary colour accents on their

control over the medium, Lau has an exacting

costumes, and their deployment across the

and rigorous approach to graphic and colour

image is used to create a pictorial effect or a

design, which is central to conveying a sense of

sense of pageantry as in the studio fight that

balance in his works. Verticals and horizontals

opens The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter (figs. 15

in the composition and neutral colours signify

and 16) and the grand entrance of General Tien

a sense of harmony as in a morning scene from

Ta in The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (fig. 40).

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Figure 32 (top); figure 33 (middle); figure 34 (bottom).

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Figure 35 (top); figure 36 (middle); figure 37 (bottom).

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Figure 38 (top); figure 39 (bottom left); figure 40 (bottom right).

120

Colour is also used to contrast opposing

Lau also contrasts the presence of colour in all its

factions. This approach to pictorial composition

variety with its absence, often to suggest spaces

through contrast is dramatically illustrated in the

of emotional license or intensity that contrast with

scene of confrontation between the Manchu

the world of the street. This is particularly striking

soldiers and the women of the Yang household

in the brothel scenes, for example, in Martial Club,

in The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter (figs. 21 and

where the busy mise-en-scene is complemented

22). Passive, cool, and “feminine” whites and

by a riot of colour that is matched only by the

blue of the calm and simply attired female

theatre (fig. 41). An excess of colour, too, informs

household members confront the red, purple,

the spaces of the wealthy and powerful, but in

black, silver, and gold livery of the aggressive

this context, it underscores a stifling sense of

male invaders.

wealth that is corrupting and decadent.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Figure 41.

I called this paper “The Paradoxes of Tradition”.

training. Lau’s work is praised for its authenticity

Taken as a whole, Lau Kar Leung’s work

and Lau himself rails against the degeneration

occupies a complex position vis-a-vis both the

of authentic kung fu in popular cinema, yet

legacy of kung fu and the cinematic tradition.

he also embraces the entertainment idioms

His films preserve the tradition and legacy

of popular cinema, including wire kung fu. He

of southern Chinese kung fu as it is passed

celebrates the demonstrative and performative

down in the master-disciple relationship, yet he

nature of kung fu fighting and, in many ways, he

subjects that relationship to profound scrutiny

seems most at home in the genre of comedy

and questioning, and realizes that it cannot

with the license it affords to break the rules

be sustained unchanged in the modern world.

and poke your nose at authority. He appears at

They celebrate the perfection of technique and

once as a classicist, a defender of tradition, in

fighting skills, which are documented at times in

a film like The 36th Chamber of Shaolin, and a

an archival way, yet their emotional allegiance is

“deconstructive” modernist in a work like Dirty

often with the untutored, rebellious fighter who

Ho. Both films are masterpieces of the kung fu

does not abide by the rules, and whose native

film, and together they articulate the extremes

skills are at best channelled and controlled by

of his achievement.

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Invincible Pool Fighter, Francisco, 162.6 cm × 109.2 cm. LINGNAN HUNG KUEN:

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4

CHAPTER

THE GOLDEN AGE OF HAND-PAINTED MOVIE POSTERS FROM GHANA, WEST AFRICA MID 1980s–1999 Ernie Wolfe III

here there is gold, there is art!

W

the entrance of otherwise common technologies,

Ghana was previously known,

such as large-scale offset printing into Ghana. The

before its independence from

best and brightest “sign writers” and other self-

Britain in 1957, as the “Gold Coast” . For centuries

taught artists of a generation competed fiercely

the rich gold deposits found in Ghana became

and directly in the public eye for this exciting

the basis of several African empires, including

new work, being careful to inscribe their names

the Ashante, the Fante, and the Ga, as well as

and date the great majority of these paintings.

European colonial interests.

Their hand-made artistry stood its ground against the inevitable tide of printing technology that

Starting in about 1985 and continuing until just

globalization inexorably thrust upon them, and for

before the millennium (2000), there existed,

this short while, carved out a small oasis in time

unique in all of Africa, a golden age of hand-

where man actually won out over machines!

painted imagination-driven movie posters in Ghana. This was a time when market forces from

In the mid 1980s, with the help of bus-riding road-

abroad were minimal and these unique and exotic

warrior entrepreneurs, a mobile cinema tradition

visual narrative paintings were created solely

was born, and world cinema was brought to the

for the local Ghanaian movie viewing audience,

back roads and byways of Ghana. During the early

without thought of being sold abroad. Until the

years, a big city film distributor or his aide would

late 1990s, restrictive import laws had prevented

roll into a town or village with newly arrived PAL

T H E G O L D E N A G E O F H A N D - PA I N T E D M O V I E P O S T E R S F R O M G H A N A , W E ST A F R I CA M I D 19 8 0 s – 19 9 9

123

tapes, a portable gas-powered generator, a 20-

Not uncommonly, these golden age posters were

inch TV monitor, speakers, a VCR, and stunning

filled with fantastical images that went far beyond

hand-painted movie posters, and thus began this

anything actually depicted in the movie itself. The

very local version of a movie marathon. By day

imagination of the artist became paramount in the

this would generally occur within the confines of

creation of these movie poster paintings.

a family home or possibly some small communal meeting centre, by night in the open air. Later on

In fact, many of the golden age artists thought

these movies might be seen in the context of a

it unnecessary to see a particular film before

video club.

creating their imagination-driven, idiosyncratic images. Sometimes they were inspired solely

These posters were painted on cotton canvas,

by the artists’ accumulated knowledge of the

often utilizing recycled, locally woven 50 kg flour

leading actor, or by their own interpretation of

sacks. By conjoining horizontally two of these

the subject of the film, or even just by its vibe.

flour sacks, the so-called “two-bag” format

These colourful, highly stylized poster paintings

(approximately 45” x 68”) was born. This larger

were known locally as “crowd-pullers”. The faces

format became most common and associated

of Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, Gordon Liu and Jet Li,

with poster paintings from the coast, whereas

among many other international movie stars, had

the “one-bag”, smaller format became much more

already become famous and iconic.

popular and emblematic of these paintings in central Ghana. Flour sacks were chosen in large

The reign of this group of golden age artists

part because of their tight non-porous weave that

ended quite precipitously in the late 1990s, when

proved to be a good medium for paint application,

their hand-painted poster monopoly was finally

as well as for durability, especially considering the

overwhelmed by competing technologies brought

harsh seasonal weather in west Africa. They were

to Ghana in the wake of increasing globalization. It

often rolled up on an attached hewn dowel or stick

did not take long for the proliferation of ephemera

for ease of transportation and as a counterweight

in the form of cheaper, smaller, offset printed

when unfurled at the roadside. These golden age

paper posters, and ultimately computer-generated

hand-painted movie posters are the last physical

images, to replace them. Once these golden age

vestige of this now obsolete advertising art

“crowd-puller” movie posters had established

tradition — art created for high visibility, durability,

a moviegoing culture in largely literate Ghana,

and mobility. Their display as “crowd-pullers”,

even chalk boards, those low-tech assassins/

attached by nails to roadside walls or on stretcher

competitors, added to this unique tradition’s then

frames, ultimately gave them their unique wear

inevitable demise. People were eager to go to

patterns that suggested both their use in the

the movies and ultimately an absolute minimum

outdoors and their age.

of visual agitation was necessary to lure them in. The Ghanaian public would gladly see nearly any

One might consider these golden age movie

movie rather than the alternative, which might be

posters to be the visual equivalent of neon

just another night watching the sunset through

signage, but without the benefit of electricity.

the mango trees.

Whether viewed from the window of a passing

124

bus through the swirling dust at 40 mph, or

There

studied from a distance of 5 feet on the side of the

conversation generated by these images of Hong

road in Ghana, and now, in a museum setting, the

Kong films that were painted exclusively for the

imagery in these posters is undeniably arresting.

local Ghanaian audiences by the Ghanaian artists.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

is

a

very

interesting

cross-cultural

It is highly unlikely that the Hong Kong filmmakers

and unexpected intercontinental convergence

ever intended or imagined that their films would be

between China and Africa, Hong Kong and Ghana

seen in Ghana; or that these artists in Ghana ever

was created. These poster paintings have become

considered that their artwork would have a chance

cross-cultural ambassadors and, in this way, remind

to be seen in the land where the movies that so

us of the many commonalities that exist between

inspired them were produced. Thusly this beautiful

our seemingly disparate worlds.

Shaolin and Wu Tang, Babs, 165.1 cm × 106.7 cm.

T H E G O L D E N A G E O F H A N D - PA I N T E D M O V I E P O S T E R S F R O M G H A N A , W E ST A F R I CA M I D 19 8 0 s – 19 9 9

125

Invincible Shaolin, Heavy J, 180.3 cm × 111.8 cm.

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Drunken Master 2, Leonardo, 152 cm × 110 cm.

T H E G O L D E N A G E O F H A N D - PA I N T E D M O V I E P O S T E R S F R O M G H A N A , W E ST A F R I CA M I D 19 8 0 s – 19 9 9

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Half a Loaf of Kung Fu, Samuel, 175.3 cm × 119.4 cm.

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Return to the 36th Chamber of Shaolin, Muslim, 190.5 cm × 111.7 cm.

T H E G O L D E N A G E O F H A N D - PA I N T E D M O V I E P O S T E R S F R O M G H A N A , W E ST A F R I CA M I D 19 8 0 s – 19 9 9

129

Exit the Dragon, Death Is Wonder, 167.6 cm × 114.3 cm.

130

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Operation Condor, Joe Mensah, 162.6 cm × 101.6 cm.

T H E G O L D E N A G E O F H A N D - PA I N T E D M O V I E P O S T E R S F R O M G H A N A , W E ST A F R I CA M I D 19 8 0 s – 19 9 9

131

Shaolin Drunken Monk, Kwaku, 154 cm × 98 cm.

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The Fearless Hyena, Adam’s Art, 108 cm × 82 cm.

T H E G O L D E N A G E O F H A N D - PA I N T E D M O V I E P O S T E R S F R O M G H A N A , W E ST A F R I CA M I D 19 8 0 s – 19 9 9

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Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century exhibition poster. LINGNAN HUNG KUEN:

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KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

5

CHAPTER

THE MUSEOLOGICAL RE-ENACTMENT OF LINGNAN HUNG KUEN Jeffrey Shaw & Sarah Kenderdine

S

ince the 1950s and the ascent of the

The exhibition programme follows the parallel

kung fu film industry, the depiction

history of two of the most influential martial arts

of Chinese martial arts in motion

families and Hung Kuen masters in Hong Kong.

pictures has become an international icon of

Firstly, Lam Sai Wing and his descendants,

Chinese culture. Playing a critical role in forging

who played a pivotal role in modernizing and

the transnational fascination with Chinese

systematizing traditional martial arts in south

martial arts, Hong Kong is the historical capital

China, and who together built one of the

of kung fu film, as well as a crucial epicentre

first truly globalized kung fu systems; and

of kung fu tradition. Lingnan Hung Kuen Across

secondly, Lau Zaam (also Lau Cham, student

the Century: Kung Fu Narratives in Cinema and

of Lam Sai Wing) and his son, celebrated actor,

Community traces the origins and development

choreographer and director Lau Kar Leung —

of Hung Kuen culture and practice through

whose contributions and impact on kung fu

interactions between community martial arts

cinema remain unparalleled to this day.

practice and the martial arts film industry in Hong Kong. The exhibition draws visitors into

This essay explores three installations from

the historical narrative of Hung Kuen, utilizing

Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century that

advanced digital rendering techniques to bring

utilize cutting edge motion capture and digital

bygone masters back to life in the museum.

re-rendering technologies to bring historical

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Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century, City University Hong Kong, 9th December, 2017–11th February, 2018.

Hung Kuen to life. The exhibition is multimodal,

from The 36th Chamber of Shaolin, one of Lau

employing a range of media to tell the historical

Kar Leung’s seminal contributions to kung fu

narrative of Hung Kuen in the Lingnan region.

film history; a digital reconstruction and re-

The installations discussed here not only

enactment of Lam Sai Wing’s Iron Wire Boxing;

augment this narrative by providing perceptual

and “Perspectives of Hung Kuen in Motion”

immersion in Hung Kuen practice and film

performed by Oscar Lam.

culture, but also provide unprecedented potential for documenting and transmitting traditional practices to new generations. Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century presents a number of classic kung fu film excerpts in the context of the history of Hung Kuen and martial arts cinema masters. Three key installations are discussed here: a 3D adaptation of an excerpt

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Revivifying Kung Fu Classics: Immersive Cinema

A

s one of the most prominent directors and fight choreographers of the golden age of

kung fu cinema in the 1970s–80s, Lau Kar Leung and his films played a critical role in popularizing

traditional Chinese martial arts around the world. His first film focusing primarily on Hung Kuen was Challenge of the Masters (1976), made shortly after his 1975 directorial debut. Whereas Lau had incorporated Hung Kuen principles into the visual language of some of the earlier films he had choreographed for, Challenge of the Masters featured both Hung Kuen inspired choreography and a narrative inspired by Hung Kuen folklore. This seminal film marked a watershed moment in Lau’s career and introduced a new style of kung fu cinema wherein traditional martial arts culture — as opposed to just the practice itself — was woven into every aspect of the film. The exhibition features four of Lau’s popular

3D viewing room at City University of Hong Kong Gallery.

Shaw Brothers Studio films: Challenge of the Masters (1976), The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (1977), Martial Club (1981) and The Eight

to the viewer’s mind while they immerse

1 Diagram Pole Fighter (1983).  Gordon Liu’s

themselves in the scenario and are brought into

powerful performance in The 36th Chamber of

perceptual contact with the somatic tradition

Shaolin’s training sequences is iconic in kung

of Hung Kuen. Bringing 2D classic cinema into

fu film history. For the exhibition, one of Liu’s

3D enlivens the past and highlights its continual

scenes was reproduced by Salon Films using

activation and contribution to Chinese and

recent advancements in digital 3D rendering

martial arts’ histories.

that allow automated 2D-to-3D video conversion — a significant technological advancement for

In the context of the exhibition and the

creative approaches to the display of historical

presentation

cultural heritage. Whereas the most common

perceptual

approach to the generation of 3D film involves

conversion technology provides unprecedented

stereoscopic motion capture, the conversion

opportunities for preserving, displaying and

approach dispenses with the need for the

transmitting cultural heritage. Contemporary

material to have been shot with two cameras —

curatorial and museological practice has been

thus allowing for single camera capture material

rigorously involved in developing innovative

to be recreated in three dimensions.

platforms

of

intangible

immersion

for

engagement.

instigated

interactive As

heritage,

and

museums

by

the 3D

immersive

continue

to

The re-rendering of the 36th Chamber training

incorporate new modalities of display and opt

scene can be viewed simultaneously by several

for more large-scale, interactive and spectacular

visitors wearing 3D glasses. Seeing an excerpt

cinematic platforms, visitors today have come to

from this kung fu classic in 3D brings into focus

expect interaction with new media displays that

the dual significance of filmic representations

enlist the senses. As Intel CEO Brian Krzanich

of Chinese kung fu. The selection of this iconic

announced in 2014, “We are in the midst of a

scene calls the popular representation of the

transformation, from a world of screens and

practice and of Chinese culture more broadly

devices to a world of immersive experiences.” 2

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143

The use of immersive systems mobilizes the viewer and stimulates embodied cognition, offering critical opportunities for engaging the visitors with representations that emphasize the corporeality of bodily traditions and cultures.3 A further challenge pertinent to the curation of Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century is to respond to the need for successive generations to rediscover and reinvent the past, to maintain cultural heritage as a “live” presence. The practices of embodied museography enable audiences to translate the digital record into living narratives that exist beyond static images and the limitations of past technologies.

Bringing Hung Kuen to Life: Re-animating Lam Sai Wing

L

am Sai Wing (1860–1943) was among the most important martial artists and

masters of Hung Kuen in Guangdong in the early twentieth century. His performance of Tiger and Crane Boxing in 1922 at a fundraiser for an orphanage in Canton won plaudits from Sun Yat Sen, the founding father of the Republic of China who addressed Lam as “Mr. Fu-Hok” (Mr. Tigerand-Crane). Later, Lam became family teacher and military martial arts instructor for Governor Chen Jitang (1890–1954). In the 1930s, Lam and his family moved to Hong Kong and established the Nam Mou Athletic Association which brought together southern and northern martial arts masters and laid the foundation for the development of modern Guoshu in Hong Kong. Purpose-built for this exhibition by Waterproof Studios using modelling techniques originally developed for Hollywood films, the animated reconstruction of Lam Sai Wing’s Iron Wire Boxing can be positioned as a milestone in the development of notational systems for

Early twentieth century studio portrait of Lam Sai Wing (courtesy of Lam Sai Wing Hung Kuen Research Society).

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

Chinese martial arts. The earliest extant Chinese boxing manual is the Boxing Treatise written by

General Qi Jiguang, an admiral responsible for suppressing Japanese pirates during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in the sixteenth century. The full form contains thirty-two empty-hand techniques which Qi Jiguang describes verbally in detail, with complementary hand-drawn illustrations. Most of the Chinese boxing manuals were produced in either handwritten or printed form during the subsequent Qing dynasty (1644– 1912) or the Republic of China (1912–1949). In general, the Qing manuals mainly follow the Boxing Treatise’s format, while authors during the Republic of China started to develop techniques similar to more contemporary notational systems. Such innovations were made, in particular, by

Excerpt with illustrations from Qi Jiguang’s Boxing Treatise.

Chin Woo Athletic Association (established in 1910), who heavily referenced illustrated sports textbooks from the West. However, Republic

photographs with detailed textual descriptions.

period manuals were not radically different from

Lam and his students used photographs and

Qing manuals. Instead, they were in many ways

hand-drawn illustrations mainly to refer to key

a continuation of the established convention, but

positions (shi), while the hermeneutic aspects

rather contained more detailed annotations for

were left to textual description.

movements and made use of new technologies such as photography. Later, in an effort to further

In the 2010s, Master Lam Chun Fai and the curator

elucidate movement, a new notational method

of Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century, Hing

— of drawing lines on illustrations of the body

Chao, updated this approach by firstly expanding

to indicate the general trend of movements

the number of illustrations so that students

— appeared. By varying the style in which the

of the practice can follow movements more

lines are drawn — straight or curved, solid or

easily due to the additional “frames”. To clarify

dotted — these authors developed a simple but

transitions between stances and movements,

effective strategy to annotate complex martial

these were accompanied with more precise

art movements. The problem with this approach

textual instructions and interpretations of the

was that while the illustrated figures are fairly

movements. Secondly, the manual is separated

effective in conveying the general gist of motion,

into sections that deal with different aspects

they are imprecise in their descriptions of

of the practice: basics, routine (choreographed

concepts and more subtle nuances that have

performance of movements), and applications.

this been largely lost over time. Notational systems are critical elements of martial Lam Sai Wing by and large followed established

arts practice and culture, providing important

practices of the late Qing and Republic periods,

pedagogical resources. More recently, video

while adding his own flourishes to a notational

capture provides another form of documentation.

system

Cinematographic documentations of Chinese

that

combined

illustrations

and

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145

Illustration from Lam Sai Wing Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Manual (1936) (courtesy of Lam Sai Wing Hung Kuen Research Society).

Sequence of movements with annotations from Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen (2013).

martial arts date back to the Republic of China,

of codification as physical movement of real

but they are rare and were mainly made by foreign

bodies is translated into other forms. Intangible

observers. These representations did not start to

culture such as kung fu, however, can return

gain strong currency among practitioners until

cultural practice to its corporeal ontological

the mid-twentieth century with the rapid rise of

status by allowing for the restoration of codified

Hong Kong martial arts filmmakers.4 Systematic

customs to their embodied forms in the absence

use of videography by kung fu associations and

of a continuing tradition.5 Kung fu traditions are

the community to document Chinese martial

a significant aspect of Chinese heritage, yet are

arts followed somewhat later, particularly as the

subject to the impact of rapid socioeconomic

domestic video camera started to become more

and cultural transformations that have severely

widely available in the 1970s. Even so, while video

altered the conditions under which students are

documentation of styles and practice sessions

to undertake the physical, mental and temporal

can be used to preserve and transmit the work

commitment of learning kung fu,6 putting further

of

notation

stress on the survival of this intangible cultural

remains the sole form of access for traditions and

current

practitioners,

graphical

heritage. In the motion capture studio at City

masters long gone — that is, where they exist in

University of Hong Kong, researchers have been

somewhat complete formats.

building new methodologies for documenting movement and augmenting graphical notational

Notational

146

of

techniques, and have applied these contemporary

documentation involve a transformative process

forms of notation and documentation to the task

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

systems

and

other

forms

1970s Hung Kuen Video featuring Lam Chun Fai and Lam Chun Hin (courtesy of Lam Chun Fai).

of enlivening the corporeal tradition of Hong

also been given new expression in museum

Kong kung fu. In the exhibition context, the re-

educational contexts.8

enactment of Lam Sai Wing’s Iron Wire Boxing joins the body of historical material in the Hung

The Lam model re-enactment of Iron Wire

Kuen narrative to bring what is lost back to life for

Boxing draws on Hung Kuen texts and research

future generations.

into Lam’s style, and features the movements of contemporary student of Lam Sai Wing’s

Motion capture (hereafter, “mocap”) is the

school, Oscar Lam (Oscar). The model of Lam

process of recording the movement of objects

was created by Waterproof Studios in Vancouver,

or people. In filmmaking and video game

Canada — a company with extensive experience

development it refers to recording actions of

building virtual actors for Hollywood films.

human actors and using that information to

Fortunately for the purposes of the exhibit, there

animate digital character models for 2D or

is a significant body of photographic portraits

3D computer animation. Motion capture is

of Lam taken at the height of his fame, set in

a “prosthetic” technology where numerous

professional studios showing the master in

infrared cameras track reflective markers that are

various kung fu poses from different angles.

attached to the performer’s body so that in post-

Starting with a base model, Waterproof Studios

production a digital facsimile of that person’s

created the facial features in a similar fashion

embodied performance can be reconstructed.

to the making of a real sculpture, except it was

Mocap provides a unique capacity for translating

done digitally with 3D software (see p. 152).

physical action into transferrable knowledge

Deployed as an alternative to prosthetics in high-

when paired with appropriate visualization

budget film projects, this technique allows for

platforms that can help aid transmission. For

extreme levels of minute detail—including skin

example, the Hong Kong Martial Arts Living

texture and sweat. Models of similar age were

Archive is a comprehensive and ongoing

also used as reference points.

approach to sustaining the life of these cultural practices.7 Initiated by Hing Chao and Sarah

The next challenge was to bring the model to

Kenderdine, to date over 130 performances by

life. Oscar Lam, the great-grand-nephew of

kung fu masters have been recorded in City

Lam Sai Wing and fourth generation master of

University of Hong Kong’s motion capture studio.

the Lam family school, came to City University

Some of these motion capture recordings have

of Hong Kong’s motion capture studio to

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Oscar Lam in the motion capture studio at City University Hong Kong.

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perform and record Tid Sin Kuen (Iron Wire Boxing). After some post-production work this dataset was provided to special effects specialists vfxNova to be mapped to the model created by Waterproof Studios. To ensure the greatest fidelity to the actual performance, and in order to fully capture its nuances including fabric movements and changes in skin texture, an additional video shoot was made with Oscar Lam wearing clothes similar to those worn by Lam Sai Wing in original photos. To achieve an optimum result, vfxNova recorded the ongoing positioning of more than seventy points on Oscar’s body in order to generate the action sequence, which included posture, gesture and facial expression. Oscar Lam’s voice was also recorded, as this boxing set involves significant vocalization. It later became evident that Oscar’s voice sounded too youthful, so kung fu practitioner, researcher and exhibition curator Hing Chao made new recordings that were then processed and synchronized with the virtual performance in the post-production. During the first phase of rendering the focus was on body structure and movement using a low-resolution version of the model. While the

animated

figure

embodied

Lam

Sai

Wing’s appearance, its movements were still unmistakably those of Oscar Lam’s. Oscar has

inherited

Lam

Sai

Wing’s

principles

and techniques through two generations of family

transmission,

yet

personal

features

of his performance were pronounced. As a consequence, more references needed to be brought to bear on vfxNova’s simulation. This included video and photos of Lam Chun Fai (Oscar’s father and the highest authority of Hung Kuen today) as well as information provided by Hing Chao in the form of video and commentary. Animating Lam became an intensive and iterative

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Original studio portraits of Lam Sai Wing in various Iron Wire Boxing postures (courtesy of Lam Sai Wing Hung Kuen Research Society).

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Left to right: Mesh model; full body render; full colour model (images courtesy of Waterproof Studios).

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Wire mesh modelling process stills. Images courtesy of vfxNova.

Left: Oscar Lam performs Iron Wire Boxing; centre: matching the performance to the model; right: digital reconstruction of Lam Sai Wing. Images courtesy of vfxNova.

exercise of fine-tuning the body structure, key

martial arts hubs in Hong Kong, with the Lam

positions and movements of the model.9

family school in Blue House at its heart. In the exhibition, the Blue House is represented by

To emphasize the cultural significance of

a 1:1 scale photograph of its doorway through

the recreation and its connection to kung fu

which visitors can pass as they move through

pedagogy, the Lam Sai Wing installation is

the gallery (pp. 154–5). In a dark room beyond

exhibited inside a reconstruction of the façade of

this doorway, the re-animation of Lam Sai Wing

the famous Blue House. Built in the early 1920s

is presented on a large vertical LCD screen, as a

the Blue House is a heritage building located on

means of evoking in the visitor the experience of

Stone Nullah Lane in Hong Kong’s old Wanchai

entering the Blue House and encountering the

district. The building became famous after the

living memory of the Lam Family Hung Kuen.

film House of 72 Tenants (1973), which used it as film set, and was the locus of Lam Family

This

Hung Kuen after the Second World War. Post-

that fostering a culture of reproduction and

project

proceeded

from

the

notion

war Wanchai was one of the most important

reconstruction of corporeal cultural practices as

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Blue House façade reconstruction at the exhibition, City University Hong Kong.

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Stills from recording session with Oscar Lam, City University Hong Kong.

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heritage can help to sustain the fecundity of such

sector. Contemporary modes of display such as

traditions, and evidence the ability of the digital to

interactive and immersive virtual and augmented

evoke continuing engagement with living heritage.

reality platforms provide unique potential for the

The Iron Wire Boxing installation for Lingnan Hung

interpretation of these digital datasets, which now

Kuen Across the Century pushes the boundaries

include advanced digital documentation strategies

of what can be done with current digital imaging

through, for example, laser scanning, stereographic

technologies so as to create an unprecedented

photography and photogrammetry. At the same

screen-based “hyper-real” recovery of this past

time, more conventional documentary techniques

master’s achievement. The result is not only a

of cinematography and videography continue to be

cultural reclamation, but also the reinstatement of

highly effective resources, especially as their digital

an invaluable teaching and learning tool for current

incarnations now enable unprecedented capabilities

and future generations of kung fu practitioners.

such

as

ultra-high

resolution,

high

speeds

and dynamic range. New lens designs enable 360-degree panoramic and 720-degree spherical

Studied Immersion: Surround Cinema and Its Potential

M

imageries, light-field recording puts everything into focus, and the multiplication and mobilization of cameras provides remarkable new angles of view.

otion capture projects such as the Lam Sai Wing installation are made possible by recent

Lingnan Hung Kuen Across the Century leverages

advancements in digital documentation strategies

new technology and accompanying concepts

led by research in the heritage and archaeology

of display and engagement to further analytical

“Perspectives of Hung Kuen in Motion”, City University Hong Kong iteration.

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insight into kung fu performances for both research

the re-emergence of the panoramic scheme is

and educational purposes. “Perspectives of Hung

based on the desire to create spaces and places

Kuen in Motion” features multiple points of view

of virtual representation that can be inhabited

of Oscar Lam as he performs Gung Gee Fok Fu

by the viewer. The resulting amplification of the

Kuen (Taming the Tiger in I-Character Boxing)

sense of immersion, presence, and embodied

and Fu Hok Seung Ying Kuen (Tiger and Crane

engagement brings us back to concepts of

Paired Forms Boxing) which, together with Tid

museological engagement through immersive

Sin Kuen (Iron Wire Boxing) are considered Hung

cinema discussed at the beginning of this chapter.

Kuen’s pillar forms. The significance of Tiger and Crane is further enhanced by its iconic status in relation to Lam Sai Wing’s historical performance (see above), as well as its enduring influence on contemporary Cantonese martial arts. Six identical synchronized video cameras were

Conclusion

T

he

analytical and artistic formulations

embodied

in

the

three

installations

described in this chapter are representative

set up 60-degrees apart in a circle around

of a new museology that both enables and

Oscar while he performed. In the exhibition,

stimulates the viewer’s engagement with the

five of the resulting recordings were presented

embodied knowledge of kung fu. They offer

in a semicircle of large vertically mounted 4K

digital re-presentations of kung fu master’s

LCD screens, so as to construct a panoptic

performances that allow new knowledge to

virtual environment within which the kung fu

emerge in our enjoyment and appreciation of

master’s motion captured performances were

these martial arts traditions. Crucially, this is an

re-enacted from five different viewpoints. Given

operational and aesthetic strategy that sets out to

that the reflective surfaces of these five screens

enliven vital cultural practices and overcome the

also create a mirroring effect that immerses

relegation of such traditions to a position of past-

viewers in a multiplied array of images, the

ness that suspends the possibility of continued

semantic and aesthetic trajectories of the kung

enculturation. By providing the circumstances for

fu performance unfold as a seemingly endless

embodied knowledge research and transmission,

set of permutations. In an exhibition variation

these works create a space in which digital

of this installation that was presented at City

strategies

University of Hong Kong, a sixth “screen” that

heritage despite the difficulties associated with

was actually a mirror completed the hexagonal

documenting the ephemeral, codifying the

arrangement, so that the visitor via his/her own

tacit, and mediating the embodied. As a result,

reflection became a participant in the panoptic

the unique insights into the gestural and bodily

dramatization of Oscar Lam’s performance.

aspects of kung fu provided in this exhibition can

can

help

to

sustain

intangible

enact a knowledge resource that addresses a This particular installation can be located in the

broad public and current and future generations

context of current media art practices where

of practitioners.

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ENDNOTES Statement on Hong Kong Martial Arts Living Archive 1 China has registered far more intangible cultural heritage traditions, cultures and practices with UNESCO than any other nation (see http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/lists).

Chapter 1 1 According to some oral sources, Chung Hung San is said to have been a master of the Buddhist Fist or Fut Gar. 2 Lam Sai Wing, “Autobiography”, Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Book. Original Chinese text:「林世榮…從遊於黃 飛鴻門下二十餘載得其衣缽至四十五歲在廣州市設立林館…」 3 ibid. In the same abridged biography, it is said that Lam Sai Wing was forced to flee to Guangxi after the Lok Sin Theatre Incident, and that a prize of five thousand yuan was put on Lam Sai Wing, without explaining the circumstances that led to the fight. According to oral tradition, however, Lok Sin Theatre was originally under Lam Sai Wing’s protection, but one day, after Lam Sai Wing returned from a sojourn in Ping Zhou, one of his students was refused entry to the theatre. Lam Sai Wing went to the theatre to investigate the matter bringing only a handful of followers, and was immediately ambushed upon entering the building. (Oral transmission from Lam Chun Fai) A further account is found in Biography of the Late Master Lam Sai Wing written by Wong Man Kai, in an undated commemorative book probably published some time after Lam Sai Wing’s death. This somewhat dramatized account largely corroborates Lam Chun Fai’s version, adding that Lam Sai Wing remained in hideout until the overthrow of the Qing. 4 For a more detailed discussion see Ma, Lianzhen, “On the Pros and Cons of Modern Chinese Wushu Transformation and Competitive Wushu”, Journal of Physical Education, vol. 19 no. 3, May 2012. 5 Mr. Lam Sai Wing’s Abridged Biography and Biography of the Late Master Lam Sai Wing provide the only textual clues of Lam Sai Wing’s association with Lee Fook Lam, who became the commander of Sun Yat Sen’s presidential guards after 1917. Lee became the mayor of Guangzhou in 1924. It is said that after the Lok Sin Theatre Incident, Lam Sai Wing was only able to return to Guangzhou with Lee Fook Lam’s support, who engaged him as martial arts instructor for his troops. If we rely on the information provided in the Abridged Biography, Lam Sai Wing probably returned to Guangzhou in or soon after 1917, after Lee Fook Lam’s private army was legitimized. 6 Lam Sai Wing had a public fallout with Gu Ruzhang, which is said to have led to the latter’s departure from Guangzhou. The exact circumstances that led to their conflict is unknown, but according to oral sources probably owed to some malicious gossip-mongering. 7 Fifth Brother Eight Trigrams Pole Methods derive from the Eight Trigrams Pole (Bagua Pole), which is one of the most common and important pole-fighting techniques in Guangdong province. Lam Sai Wing’s Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Book contains a short text on “Eight Trigrams Pole Methods” in the appendix, according to which this pole form was passed down from the legendary Fifth Brother of the legendary Yang family during the Song dynasty. This kind of legendary attribution is commonplace in Chinese martial arts but is unlikely to be true. What is noteworthy, however, is that Lam Family’s Bagua Pole Methods

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were rechoreographed by Lam Sai Wing, who fused into the original Bagua Pole form Six-and-a-HalfPoints Pole (Luk Dim Bun Gwan), another famous pole form in Guangdong. 8 Once again, the Abridged Biography is the only source that offers reliable clue on this. According to WaiSiuBaak, the author of the Abridged Biography, Lam Sai Wing received an invitation from Wong Kam Yuen, the president of Hong Kong Butchers’ Association, to teach martial arts to its members after Lee Fook Lam, Lam Sai Wing’s erstwhile patron in Guangzhou, took part in the Northern Expedition (1926– 28). 9 Op. cit., Lam Sai Wing, “Autobiography”, Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Book, 1936. Original Chinese text: “熟以 生巧，千拳如一度，萬法亦歸宗” 10 Nam Mou School was established in 1901 and later moved to Hoi Tung Monastery, changing its name to Nam Mou Public Education Society. In 1905 it became the first co-educational school in Guangzhou. The school played a prominent role in modernizing education in Guangzhou, and when Guangzhou fell into Japanese occupation in 1938, a number of school directors reopened the school in Hong Kong (1939) at an old school premise in Sham Shui Po. The school was forced to shut down when Hong Kong was occupied two years later in 1941. 11 Source: oral transmission from Wong Chun Man, who is a senior Hung Kuen practitioner. 12 For a full summary of Lam Cho’s reform and contributions to Hung Kuen, see Lam, Chun Fai, (ed.) Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen, 2013, Chapter Three: Lam Cho & Lam Gar Hung Kuen. 13 Ibid., Chapter Three. See also 「林家洪拳三代」in《香港武林》, particularly pp. 93–7, 2014.

Chapter 2 1 There is some dispute as to whether Lau Kar Leung was born in 1934 or 1937. His official date of birth is 1937, but according to the information he joined the film industry at the age of sixteen, that would make 1934 the correct year (Brave Lad of Guangdong, in which he made his first film appearance, was made in 1950). 2 Altogether Bruce Lee starred in five films, Big Boss (1971), Fist of Fury (1972), Way of the Dragon (1972), Enter the Dragon (1973), and Game of Death (1978). However, he died midway through the production of Game of Death in 1978. The film was eventually completed using a body double and was not released until 1978, five years after his death. 3 See “Grandmaster Lau Kar-leung the real deal”, by Vivienne Chow, SCMP, 27th June, 2013. 4 See Lam and Chao (ed.), Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen, (Hong Kong: International Guoshu Association, 2013). 5 See ibid, Chapter One pp. 13–24. 6 Two of the best studies on the history of Tiandihui in the English language are The Origins of the Tiandihui: The Chinese Triads in Legend and History by Dian Murray (Stanford: 1994), and Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in Early and Mid-Qing China: The Formation of a Tradition by David Ownby (Stanford: 1996). 7 Dian Murray and Qin Baoqi’s studies of secret societies in late imperial China, which made extensive use of archival materials in the First Historical Archives, brought about a completely new understanding of the subject. According to Murray, they began their collaboration in 1986. Murray’s work, cited above, is a result of this collaboration. 8 Wannianqing is a popular novel written in the late Qing, while Louis Cha is one of the leading figures in the new wuxia literary movement, and arguably the most important contemporary mythologizer of Chinese martial arts. Most of his works were written between 1955 and 1972, and were originally published serially in newspapers. Much of contemporary discourse on Chinese martial arts is influenced by Louis Cha, while Wannianqing also continues to colour discussions and popular imaginations of Southern Shaolin, particularly within martial arts circles.

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9 Qinna, literally meaning to “seize” and “hold”, is a specialized form of Chinese martial arts that focuses on grappling and, in particular, joint manipulation and submission techniques.

Chapter 3 1 Tony Rayns, “Resilience: The Cinema and Liu Jialing” in Li Cheuk-to ed. A Study of Hong Kong Cinema in the Seventies (Hong Kong: Hong Kong International Film/Urban Council, 1984), p. 51. 2 For a detailed overview of kung fu see David Chow and Richard Spangler, Kung Fu: History, Philosophy and Technique (Burbank: Unique Publications, 1982). 3 Interview with Lau Kar Leung: The Last Shaolin by Olivier Assayas and Charles Tesson, in collaboration with Elizabeth Cazer and Tony Rayns, conducted on April 26, 1984. Translated from Mandarin-Cantonese into French by CaiKejian. Translated from French into English by Yves Gendron. http://www.stickgrappler. net/2013/07/interview-with-lau-kar-leung-last.html, accessed 25/2/18. Original French version published in Cahiers du Cinema 362/363 (September 1984), pp. 26–30. 4 On the Shaolin myth and its role in kung fu see Leon Hunt, Kung Fu Cult Masters: From Bruce Lee to Crouching Tiger (London: Wallflower Press, 2003), pp. 48–75. 5 Hunt, Kung Fu Cult Masters, p. 60. 6 Here I am generalizing an observation made by Hunt, Kung Fu Cult Masters, p. 61. 7 David Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art of Entertainment (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp.178–191. 8 Interview with Lau Kar Leung. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=39RhkD4zwrc. Accessed 25/2/18. 9 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong, p. 253. 10 ibid, p. 224. 11 Quoted in Hector Rodriguez, “Questions of Chinese Aesthetics: Film Form and Narrative Space in the Cinema of King Hu”. Cinema Journal 38:1 (1998), p. 81. 12 Hunt, op. cit., pp. 29–41. 13 David Bordwell, “Lion, Dancing: Lau Kar Leung.” http://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/category/directorslau-kar-leung/. Accessed 25/2/18. 14 Hunt, op. cit., p. 33. 15 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong, p. 221. 16 David Bordwell, quoted in Grady Hendrix, “Kaiju Shakedown: Lau Kar Leung.” https://www.filmcomment. com/blog/kaiju-shakedown-lau-kar-leung. Accessed 25/2/18. 17 Roger Garcia, “The Autarkic World of Liu Chia-Liang,” in Lau Shing-hon ed. A Study of the Hong Kong Martial Arts Film. Hong Kong: Hong Kong International Film Festival/Urban Council, 1980, pp. 121–123; and Rayns, op. cit., pp. 52–55. 18 Rayns, op cit., p. 52. 19 Ibid, p. 55. 20 Gina Marchetti, “Martial Arts, North and South: Lia Jialing’s vision of Hung Gar in Shaw Brothers Films,” Entertext 6:1 (2006), p. 86. 21 Garcia, op. cit., p.127. 22 Rayns, op. cit., p.55. 23 See Hunt, Kung Fu Cult Masters (London: Wallflower Press, 2003), pp 128–130; and Marchetti, “Marital Arts: North and South,” pp. 95–106, for further discussion of this film. 24 See Hing Chao’s contribution to this volume in Chapter Two.

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25 Thanks to Hing Chao. 26 Noël Carroll, “Notes on the Sight Gag,” in Andrew Horton ed. Comedy/Cinema/Theory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 28–30. 27 David Bordwell, quoted in Grady Hendrix, “Kaiju Shakedown: Lau Kar Leung.” https://www.filmcomment. com/blog/kaiju-shakedown-lau-kar-leung. Accessed 25/2/18.

Chapter 5 1 Until the early 2000s, much of the Shaw Brothers classic Chinese catalogue of films was unavailable to the public. Celestial Pictures released many of their films for global distribution, while in 2018 the American Genre Film Archive is set to re-release thirty restorations of Shaw Brothers films—including The 36th Chamber of Shaolin. 2 Quoted in Brier Dudley, “CES 2014: Intel goes ultra mobile, wearable”, The Seattle Times, January 6, 2014, http://blogs.seattletimes.com/brierdudley/2014/01/06/ces-2014-intel-goes-ultra-mobile-wearable/ 3 See “embodied learning”; and also Sarah Kenderdine, “Embodiment, Entanglement, and Immersion in Digital Cultural Heritage”, in S. Schriebman, R. Siemens and J. Unsworth, eds., A New Companion to Digital Humanities (Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons, 2015) Chapter 2; Sarah Kenderdine and Jeffrey Shaw, “A Cultural Heritage Panorama: Trajectories in Embodied Museography”, in H. Din and S. Wu, eds., Digital Heritage and Culture: Strategy and Implementation (World Scientific, 2014), pp. 197–218. 4 Although numerous martial arts films were produced in the 1920s and 30s in China based on folk literature, the familiar Hong Kong style action film style did not emerge until the 1950s. 5 See for detailed analysis: Sarah Kenderdine, “Archives in Motion”, in O. Grau, W. Coones and V. Ruhse eds., Museum and Archive on the Move: Changing Cultural Institutions in the Digital Era (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017), pp. 211–233. 6 Patrick Daly, “Fighting Modernity: Traditional Chinese Martial Arts and the Transmission of Intangible Cultural Heritage,” in P. Daly and T. Winter eds., Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (Taylor and Francis, 2012) pp. 350–63. 7 See http://www.acim.cityu.edu.hk/news/hkmala-ceremony/ 8 As in the exhibition of the Living Archive, 300 Years of Hakka Kung Fu: Digital Vision of Its Legacy and Future (2016). 9 Corrections were applied mainly to do with the structure of the body: muscles in the thighs and the buttocks are tensed throughout the performance (except for transitional movements), while the thighs turn slightly inwards in order to strengthen the structure of the stance; the pelvis needs to be relaxed to achieve the “sinking” of the body, which again serves to make the stance more solid; at the same time, the body had to be kept straight, with the spine aligned with the neck and head throughout most of the movements; the upper body should observe the principles of “sinking and tucking in the elbows”, the tips of one’s fingers to be level with one’s shoulders in certain key positions, while the chest should not overextend but remain in a (almost invisible) concave position.

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Chinese Language 趙式慶，《林家洪拳三代》，《香港武林》，香港︰明報周刊，2014. Chao, Hing, “Lam Family Hung Kuen — Three Generations”, Hong Kong Martial Arts Community, Hong Kong: Ming Pao Weekly, 2014. 張鑣浣，《先師林世榮先生史略》，朱愚齋重訂，《林世榮遺技鐵綫拳》，香港︰1957，陳湘記書局再版.

Cheung, BiuWun, “Brief History of the Late Master Lam Sai Wing”, Chu, Yu Zai edited, Lam Sai Wing’s Tit Sin Kuen, first edition in 1957, reprinted by Chan Sheung Kee Bookstore, Hong Kong. 朱愚齋，《鐵線拳》，香港︰陳湘記書局再版， 1957.

Chu, Yu Zai, Iron Wire Boxing, Hong Kong: Chan Sheung Kee Bookstore, 1957. 林世榮，《虎鶴雙形拳》，香港︰1923.

Lam, Sai Wing, Tiger and Crane Boxing, Hong Kong: 1923. 林世榮，《自序》，《林世榮工字伏虎拳書》，香港，1936.

Lam, Sai Wing, “Autobiography”, Lam Sai Wing Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Manual, Hong Kong: 1936. 林世榮，《林世榮工字伏虎拳書》，香港，1936.

Lam, Sai Wing, Lam Sai Wing Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Manual, Hong Kong: 1936. 韋少伯，《林世榮先生略歷》，《林世榮工字伏虎拳書》，香港，1936.

Wai, SiuBaak, “Mr. Lam Sai Wing’s Abridged Biography”, Lam Sai Wing Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Manual, Hong Kong: 1936. 馬廉禎，《論中國武術的現代轉型與競技武術的得失》，《體育學刊》第19卷第3期，2012年5月.

Ma, Lianzhen, “On the Pros and Cons of Modern Chinese Wushu Transformation and Competitive Wushu”, Journal of Physical Education, vol. 19 no. 3, May 2012. 黃文啟，《先師林世榮傳》，《林世榮工字伏虎拳書》，香港，1936. Wong Man Kai, “Biography of the Late Master Lam Sai Wing”, Lam Sai Wing Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen Manual, Hong Kong: 1936.

English Language Bordwell, David, “Lion, dancing: Lau Kar-Leung” http://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/category/directors-lau-kar-leung/. Accessed 25/2/18. Bordwell, David, quoted in Grady Hendrix, “Kaiju Shakedown: Lau Kar Leung” https://www.filmcomment.com/blog/kaiju-shakedown-lau-kar-leung. Accessed 25/2/18. Bordwell, David, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art of Entertainment, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000. Carroll, Noël, “Notes on the Sight Gag”, Comedy/Cinema/Theory, edited by A. Horton, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

167

Chow, David and Spangler, Richard, Kung Fu: History, Philosophy and Technique, Burbank: Unique Publications, 1982. Chow, Vivienne, “Grandmaster Lau Kar-leung the real deal”, SCMP, 27June, 2013. Daly, Patrick, “Fighting Modernity: Traditional Chinese Martial Arts and the Transmission of Intangible Cultural Heritage”, in P. Daly and T. Winter, eds., Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia, New York: Taylor and Francis, 2012. Dudley, Brier, “CES 2014: Intel goes ultra mobile, wearable”, The Seattle Times, 6 January, 2014. http://blogs.seattletimes.com/brierdudley/2014/01/06/ces-2014-intel-goes-ultra-mobile-wearable/. 19/3/18.

Accessed

Garcia, Roger, “The Autarkic World of Liu Chia-Liang”, A Study of the Hong Kong Martial Arts Film, edited by S. Lau, Hong Kong: Hong Kong International Film Festival/Urban Council, 1980. Hunt, Leon, Kung Fu Cult Masters: From Bruce Lee to Crouching Tiger, London: Wallflower Press, 2003. Kenderdine, Sarah and Shaw, Jeffrey, “A Cultural Heritage Panorama: Trajectories in Embodied Museography”, in H. Din and S. Wu, eds., Digital Heritage and Culture: Strategy and Implementation, 197–218. World Scientific, 2014. Kenderdine, Sarah, “Archives in Motion”, in O. Grau with W. Coones and V. Rühse, eds.,Museum and Archive on the Move: Changing Cultural Institutions in the Digital Era, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017. Kenderdine, Sarah, “Embodiment, Entanglement, and Immersion in Digital Cultural Heritage”, in S. Schreibman, R. Siemens and J. Unsworth, eds., A New Companion to Digital Humanities, UK, Chichester: Wiley & Sons, 2015. Lam, Chun Fai and Chao, Hing, Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung Gee Fok Fu Kuen, Hong Kong: International Guoshu Association Limited, 2013. Lam, Chun Fai and Chao, Hing, Hung Kuen Training: Chin Cheung and Fok Fu Kuen Deui Chak, Hong Kong: International Guoshu Association Limited, 2014. Lam, Chun Fai, Iron Wire Fist, Italy: Lam Chun Fai Hung Kuen Academy Ltd., 2017. Marchetti, Gina, “Martial Arts, North and South: Liu Jialing’s vision of Hung Gar in Shaw Brothers Films”, Entertext 6:1, 2006. Murray, Dian, The Origins of the Tiandihui: The Chinese Triads in Legend and History, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994. Ownby, David, Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in Early and Mid-Qing China: The Formation of a Tradition, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996. Rayns, Tony, “Resilience: The Cinema and Liu Chia-Liang”, in C. Li, ed., A Study of Hong Kong Cinema in the Seventies, Hong Kong: Hong Kong International Film/Urban Council, 1984. Rodriguez, Hector, “Questions of Chinese Aesthetics: Film Form and Narrative Space in the Cinema of King Hu”, Cinema Journal 38:1, 1998.

Interviews Interview with Lau Kar Leung: The Last Shaolin by Olivier Assayas and Charles Tesson, in collaboration with Elizabeth Cazer and Tony Rayns, conducted on April 26, 1984. Translated from Mandarin-Cantonese into French by CaiKejian. Translated from French into English by Yves Gendron. http://www.stickgrappler.net/2013/07/interview-with-lau-kar-leung-last.html, accessed 25/2/18. Original French version published in Cahiers du Cinema 362/363 (September 1984). Interview with Lau Kar Leung. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=39RhkD4zwrc. Accessed 25/2/18.

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LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Richard Allen is Dean and Professor of Film and

Kung Fu Motion (2017), and Lingnan Hung Kuen

Media Art at the School of Creative Media, City

Across the Century: Kung Fu Narratives in Hong

University of Hong Kong. He is a film scholar

Kong Cinema and Community (2017), which he

who writes on film theory and aesthetics. His

produced and co-curated. He is the author of

first book, Projecting Illusion (1997), defended an

several martial arts books including《香港武

illusion theory of representation. He edited, with

林》(Hong Kong Martial Arts Community, 2014)

Murray Smith, the first anthology of analytic film

and, together with his teacher Lam Chun Fai,

theory, Film Theory and Philosophy (1999) and

authored Hung Kuen Fundamentals: Gung Gee

co-edited, with Malcolm Turvey, Wittgenstein,

Fok Fu Kuen (2013) and Hung Kuen Training: Chin

Theory, and the Arts (2001). He is the author

Cheung and Fok Fu Kuen Deui Chak (2014). His

of Hitchcock’s Romantic Irony (2007), which

most recent work on Chinese martial arts is 300

examines the relationship between sexuality and

Years of Hakka Kung Fu (2016), which he co-

style in Hitchcock’s work and until recently he

edited with Jeffrey Shaw and Kenderdine.

was an editor of the Hitchcock Annual (Columbia University Press). He is currently writing a book called Bollywood Poetics and recently published

Sarah Kenderdine researches at the forefront

on “The Passion of Christ and the Melodramatic

of interactive and immersive experiences for

Imagination”.

galleries, libraries, archives and museums. In widely exhibited installation works, she has amalgamated cultural heritage with new

Hing Chao is the executive director of the

media art practice, especially in the realms

International Guoshu Association, a leading

of interactive cinema, augmented reality and

independent research organization for Chinese

embodied narrative. She is considered a pioneer

martial studies. Since 2008 he has been the

in the fields of digital heritage, digital museology,

driving force in the research, documentation,

digital humanities and data visualization and

and promotion of traditional Chinese martial arts

is a regular keynote speaker at related forums

in Hong Kong. He was the executive editor of

internationally. In addition to her exhibition work

Journal of Chinese Martial Studies (JOCMS) from

she conceives and designs large-scale immersive

2009 to 2012, and has been its deputy editor

visualization systems for public audiences,

since it became a Chinese language publication

industry and researchers. Since 1991 Sarah has

in 2015. He co-founded Hong Kong Martial Arts

authored numerous scholarly articles and six

Living Archive with Sarah Kenderdine in 2013,

books. She has produced eighty exhibitions and

which has since spawned three major kung

installations for museums worldwide, including

fu exhibitions — 300 Years of Hakka Kung Fu:

a museum complex in India, and received a

Digital Vision of Its Legacy and Future (2016),

number of major international awards for this

L I ST O F CO N T R I B U TO R S

169

work. In 2017, Sarah was appointed Professor

Electronic Golden Nica for Visionary Pioneer

of Digital Museology at the École polytechnique

of Media Art. Currently he is Endowed Chair

fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland, where

Professor and Director of the CityU Center for

she has built a new laboratory for experimental

Applied Computing and Interactive Media in

museology (eM+), exploring the convergence of

Hong Kong and Chengdu. He is also Visiting

aesthetic practice, visual analytics and cultural

Professor at the Central Academy of Fine Arts,

data. She is also director and lead curator of

Beijing, University Distinguished Professor at

EPFL’s new art/science initiative, inaugurated in

UNSW Australia and Honorary Professor at the

2016 as ArtLab.

University of Donau, Austria. http://www.jeffreyshawcompendium.com

Jeffrey Shaw has been a leading figure in new

170

media art since the 1960s. In a prolific oeuvre of

Ernie Wolfe III has made nearly fifty trips to

widely exhibited and critically acclaimed works

Africa since 1973. He is a lifer in the world of

he has pioneered and set benchmarks for the

African art, culture, and adventure, establishing

creative use of digital media technologies in the

his gallery in west Los Angeles in 1981, where he

fields of virtual and augmented reality, immersive

specializes in juxtaposition exhibitions between

visualization environments, navigable cinematic

African painting and sculpture and the work of

systems and interactive narrative. Shaw was the

acclaimed contemporary American artists. He

founding director of the ZKM Institute for Visual

has authored four books on various African art

Media Karlsruhe (1991–2002), and in 2003 he

phenomena ranging from the traditional material

was awarded an Australian Research Council

culture of Kenya (An Introduction to the Arts of

Federation Fellowship to co-found and direct the

Kenya, Smithsonian Institution, 1979) to more

UNSW iCinema Centre for Interactive Cinema

modern topics, including hand-painted movie

Research. In 2009 he was appointed Dean of

posters from Ghana (Extreme Canvas 1, 2000,

the School of Creative Media at City University

and Extreme Canvas 2, 2012). Ernie is a graduate

in Hong Kong and in 2015 was awarded the Ars

of Williams College, USA.

LINGNAN HUNG KUEN: KUNG FU IN CINEMA AND COMMUNITY