Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria (Notre Dame Texts in Medieval Culture) [1 ed.] 9780268044268, 0268044260

Citation preview

The Life of Saint K atherine of Alexandria

Notre Dame Texts in Medieval Culture

The Life of

Saint Katherine of Alexandria

J o h n C a p g r av e Translated by Karen A. Winstead

u University of Notre Dame Press Notre Dame, Indiana

Copyright © 2011 by University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, Indiana 46556 www.undpress.nd.edu All Rights Reserved Manufactured in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Capgrave, John, 1393-1464.

  [Life of St. Katharine of Alexandria. English]

  The life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria / by John Capgrave ; translated by Karen A. Winstead.

    p. cm. — (Notre Dame texts in medieval culture)

  “The translation is based on the version of the life preserved in

Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson 118, which is generally considered the closest to Capgrave’s original”—Introd.

  This volume also includes an appendix with passages of Capgrave’s

original Middle English and literal translations into modern English.   Includes bibliographical references.

  ISBN-13: 978-0-268-04426-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)   ISBN-10: 0-268-04426-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)

  1. Catherine, of Alexandria, SaintÂLegends.  2. Christian poetry,

English (Middle)—Translations into English.  I. Winstead, Karen A. (Karen Anne), 1960–  II. Title.   PR1845.L49A38 2011  821'.2—dc22

2011025685

This book is printed on recycled paper.

For my mother-in-law Shirley Winstead and in memory of my father-in-law Wallace B. Winstead

Contents

Introduction 1

u Prologue The Discovery and Translation of Katherine’s Life

19

Book one Katherine’s Parentage, Upbringing, and Coronation 25 Book t wo The Marriage Parliament

45

Book three Katherine’s Conversion and Mystical Marriage

71

Book four Katherine’s Confrontation with Maxentius and Debate with Fifty Scholars

99

Book five Katherine’s Martyrdom

141

Notes to the Translation 177 Appendix 195

Introduction

John Capgrave expected his Life of Saint Katherine to raise eyebrows. His fifteenth-­ century readers would have known all about the fourth-­century virgin martyr, one of the best-­ loved saints of their day.1 Most everyone would have heard of ­Katherine’s exceptional learning, brilliantly displayed when she defended her faith in a debate against fifty pagan scholars. Many would have seen paintings of angels smashing the great spiked wheels that the emperor Maxentius built to destroy her. A few might have known of her mystical marriage to Christ, a Continental accretion to her legend that was just gaining currency in England. But Capgrave’s version of the scholar-­saint’s life was unlike anything they would have encountered before. Not only did it relay new information about Katherine’s forebears, upbringing, conversion, mystical marriage, and brief reign as queen of Alexandria, but it also offered a radically new take on Katherine herself. Indeed, Capgrave’s narrative is not so much a conventional saint’s life as the story of a girl’s coming of age and of the dreams, ­anxieties, frustrations, and failures that precede her ultimate triumph as a Christian martyr. Capgrave’s wayward heroine—selfish at first, albeit principled—learns more than theology and the seven l­ iberal arts; she learns compassion and responsibility to others. The story of her personal growth is woven into a tapestry of political turmoil and religious repression that, as Capgrave’s readers were bound to suspect, had everything to do with the England they inhabited and its recent past. Capgrave addresses the reader’s potential skepticism with an extended history of the source he claims to be translating. That history—a romance of sorts, featuring scholars-­errant questing for a long-­lost manuscript—was surely invented, one of the 1

2  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

“fables of origins” that many fifteenth-­century authors supplied to legitimize what was actually poetic license.2 The original life of Katherine, he claims, was composed by none other than the saint’s teacher, secretary, and eventual convert, Athanasius. Soon after Athanasius’s death, his eyewitness account dis­appeared, preserved by divine providence from book-­burning heretics. A century later, a scholar by the name of Arrek re­covered Athanasius’s work after a twelve-­year quest and translated it from Greek to Latin. Arrek’s translation was itself lost, then re­covered centuries later by an English priest who, like Arrek, had spent over a decade traversing distant lands searching for it. At the time of his death, the priest had completed a partial translation of Arrek’s Latin text, but his dialect was so obscure that it could only be read by a few people. Distressed that Katherine’s life was “known only by nine or ten Englishmen,” Capgrave under­ took to redo the priest’s translation in an English that could be understood by the general public and to supply the missing portions of Katherine’s life. Over half a millennium later, I am in a sense following in Capgrave’s footsteps, translating his Middle English narrative into modern English in the conviction that it does deserve to be known by more than a handful of academics. Capgrave’s Life of Saint Katherine is an extraordinary achievement, a bold literary experiment that transforms the genre of the saint’s life by infusing it with conventions and techniques more often associated with chronicles, mystery plays, fabliaux, and romances than with saints’ lives. What’s more: it’s a terrific story, with sharply drawn characters, a compelling plot, and a complex, unsettling moral. Literary Context

By Capgrave’s time, the saint’s life was an established and enormously popular genre, which formed part of a broader body of literature known as hagiography, or writings about the saints.3 Since late antiquity, authors had been celebrating the

Introduction 3

lives, deaths, and miracles of Christians whose exceptional holi­ ness was thought to have earned them a special rapport with God. Though these authors, also known as hagiographers, routinely insisted upon the authenticity of their accounts, accurately relaying biographical detail had always been subordinated to the moral imperative of edifying readers with stirring examples of Christian heroism modeled on the life of Christ. In fact, the lives of many of the most popular saints of the Middle Ages were invented centuries after those saints purportedly lived. Katherine is a case in point: though she is supposed to have died in the early fourth century, the earliest mention of her dates from the seventh century, and the first account of her martyrdom dates from the tenth century. Legendary saints like Katherine generally fall into distinct categories, and Katherine, a virgin martyr, belongs to one of the largest of them.4 In the typical virgin martyr legend, a beautiful Christian woman defies her family and refuses to marry, declaring that she is already betrothed to Christ. Her commitment to celibacy typically results in religious persecution, often initiated by her father or a disgruntled suitor. The significance of virgin martyr legends, which so often pit rebellious heroines against vicious sexual predators, has been hotly debated: do they indulge fantasies of violence against women or celebrate protofeminists defying the patriarchy? These, of course, are extreme interpretations, though not mutually exclusive. Many scholars have seen the genre’s capacity to convey divergent, often ambiguous, messages about gender and power as a major source of its ongoing appeal and influence.5 Virgin martyrs and other saints remained popular through the centuries because their stories were constantly being retold. In the process of retelling, they were tailored to the needs and interests of new audiences—not to mention the agendas, religious and otherwise, of their authors. Writers of saints’ lives seem to have been especially attracted to Katherine, perhaps because her learning appealed to the mostly clerical authors of saints’ lives, perhaps because her status as a queen made her appear more

4  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

glamorous than other virgin martyrs. In any case, representations of Katherine are more numerous and more varied than those of most other saints. She is one of the few martyrs to inspire stories about her life before her martyrdom. These stories, which center on her conversion and mystical marriage to Christ, can be found in art as well as in literature from the thirteenth century onward. Though no depictions of the mystical marriage survive in medieval English art, Capgrave’s is the most elaborate of five known narrations of the episode that were produced in England.6 As my discussion of the saint’s life as a genre may suggest, medieval readers would have expected a certain amount of variation among versions of a particular saint’s legend; however, they would not have expected the narration to stray far from the plot, and they would have expected a certain kind of characterization (for example, the saint is clearly right, her opponents clearly wrong). The extent, rather than the mere fact, of Capgrave’s modifications to both plot and character is what makes his Katherine so extraordinary. Capgrave’s Katherine

The Life of Saint Katherine is unlike anything Capgrave had written before.7 A Cambridge-­trained doctor of theology and member of the Augustinian order of friars, he had produced almost exclusively Latin biblical commentaries and had composed only one work in English, a life of Saint Norbert of Xanten, founder of the Premonstratensian order, that Capgrave translated circa 1440 at the request of his acquaintance John Wygenhale, head of the Premonstratensian abbey of West Dereham, Norfolk. Given the reluctance Capgrave professed for the assignment of translating Norbert—“Who can write anything these days,” he complained in his prologue to the translation, “without its being tossed and pulled like wool”8—it is surprising that he wrote anything further in English. But five years later he

Introduction 5

undertook the Life of Saint Katherine, and apparently on his own initiative, because he mentions no patron or dedicatee. In Norbert, Capgrave tried his hand at the “literary” approach to writing saints’ lives that Chaucer had inaugurated a generation earlier with his life of Saint Cecilia, best known as the Second Nun’s contribution to the Canterbury Tales. He used rhyme royal, a type of stanza made fashionable by Chaucer and later taken up by hagiographer and poet laureate John Lydgate as he continued Chaucer’s legacy into the fifteenth century. ­Katherine, however, was a more ambitious literary experiment than Norbert, appropriating not only a Chaucerian stanza but, among other literary devices, a Chaucerian narrator—bookish, opinionated, and intrusive.9 In contrast to the bland, dignified verse of Norbert, Katherine jangles with the tags and clichés of popular romance, often sounding more like Chaucer’s Sir ­Thopas than his Second Nun’s Tale!10 Certain moments are downright silly, as when Katherine’s swooning mother “dropped like a ball” at the end of book 2. To engage a popular audience of “man, maiden, and wife” (prologue), Capgrave alludes to matters of contemporary interest, such as trade, childrearing, ­pageantry, and fashion, and he treats political and religious issues that would have resonated with his audience. These issues are ­developed through the actions and dilemmas of a large cast of vividly realized characters.11 In this more expansive treatment of the saint’s life, Capgrave was surely inspired by Lydgate, whose lives of Saints Edmund and Alban unfolded in multiple books and were far more historically and psychologically oriented than Middle English saints’ lives had ever been; however, in rejecting Lydgate’s elevated rhetoric for an idiomatic English, Capgrave created a mode of narration that was distinctly his own. Most extraordinary of Capgrave’s characters is Katherine herself, the spoiled only child of an aging king and queen who had despaired of ever having offspring. Superbly educated but wholly undisciplined, Katherine grows up to be a reclusive, studious adolescent, unwilling to sacrifice her personal freedom to any other calling—not to the duties of government, and

6  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

certainly not to marriage and childbearing. When, after her father’s death, her mother and the lords of her realm press her to marry for the sake of her kingdom, she summons all her wit and learning to stymie her opponents, not hesitating to deploy slick rhetorical tricks in defense of a stance she knows full well is unreasonable (“How I wish I weren’t a queen, for I don’t know how to—nor am I able to—refute the wisdom of that wise man,” she thinks to herself when one of her barons implores her to marry; book 2, chapter 2). Readers can only sympathize with Katherine’s widowed mother, struggling to deal at once with political malcontents and a rebellious daughter. Capgrave also invites us to sympathize with Katherine’s subjects, dismayed by lawlessness and economic distress, who vainly warn that her failure to heed counsel will have dire consequences—as indeed it does when the emperor Maxentius takes over her realm and occupies her capital. Though Katherine might prove to be a heroic martyr, Capgrave does not downplay the earthly cost of her heavenly triumph, the political turmoil and the anguish of so many innocent people. His message—that otherworldliness, however laudable in a martyr, is ill-­advised in a monarch— must have struck a chord with fifteenth-­century readers, whose own king, Henry VI, was known for studiousness and excessive piety.12 Indeed, Henry’s political inattention and ineptitude would result in the outbreak of civil war in 1455 (less than a decade after Capgrave composed Katherine) and in Henry’s own “martyrdom” in 1471. Katherine’s headstrong personality makes it difficult for her to accept Christianity. She disdains the Virgin Mary’s chosen messenger as too shabby to be a great queen’s emissary, and she dismisses as gibberish his talk of a virgin mother and a tripartite God. Such frank skepticism of basic tenets of the Christian faith might seem surprising in a future saint (and, to my knowledge, it has no equivalent in other versions of Katherine’s legend), but it allows Capgrave to convey the message that truth withstands scrutiny and that knowledge produces faith, a faith one is willing to die for. That message had a particular urgency in fifteenth-­century England, when concerns about the Lollard

Introduction 7

heresy had prompted the Church to enact harsh censorship measures designed to curtail the spread of error by prohibiting the discussion of theology in English.13 Capgrave reaffirms his confidence in an informed, intellectualized Christianity in Katherine’s debate with the fifty pagan scholars, in which the saint defends Christian doctrine against spirited attack.14 Though the eyes of modern readers might glaze over at the extended discussions of arcane points of dogma, such as the theory of adoption, we must resist the temptation to dismiss them as the dull pieties one would expect to find in religious literature. Such long doctrinal disquisitions were in fact rare in saints’ lives. By including them, Capgrave is using the genre of the saint’s life to teach ordinary men and women some of the nuances of their faith, thus flouting the restrictions on vernacular theologizing favored by many within the Church ­hierarchy. Should he be taken to task for his doctrinal excursions, he could protest that he was merely translating the life of a time-­honored saint, using a source composed by none other than the venerable church father Saint Athanasius, whose orthodoxy nobody would dream of questioning. Capgrave promotes a Christianity that is both intellectually grounded and humane.15 The empress, whom Katherine eventually converts, is initially attracted to Christianity because of the simple piety and integrity of its practitioners: “These Christians don’t harm anybody,” she muses: “They pay for what they buy; and each and every day they sing anew a good song to their god. . . . They aren’t extravagant in their clothing, gluttonous, or drunkards—this way of life pleases me very much” (book 5, chapter 13). The empress has no desire to be a rebel, much less a martyr. Indeed, she hesitates to convert for fear of the gossip, not to mention the trouble she would be in should her husband find out! This modest and timid wife, who summons up the courage first to proclaim her faith and then to die for it, shows that saints and martyrs are not much different from the ordinary readers of Katherine’s story. In this, she is much like Katherine herself, who loves the privileges of her class but will “endure” poverty “if it comes” (book 5, chapter 10).

8  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

Like the characters of contemporary mystery plays, Capgrave’s protagonists are surprised by God’s intervention in their lives, and they are reluctant players in the grand dramas of salvation history. The hermit Adrian, who converts Katherine to Christianity, does not recognize the Virgin Mary when she suddenly appears in his remote desert retreat, even as the infirmities of old age, about which he has just been complaining, miraculously vanish. Readers might well smile when he invokes God’s blessing upon the Queen of Heaven, or when he protests that he cannot possibly go on an errand for her and her son because he has vowed his service to Christ and his mother. Even after Mary identifies herself and Adrian stammers his apologies, he is in no hurry to travel to Alexandria on her behalf: The city is big, he protests, and he doesn’t know the way; what’s more, he might die of fatigue or be killed by wild beasts along the way. No wonder Mary takes the precaution of (temporarily) blinding this down-­to-­earth priest when, much later in the story, she has Katherine undress for her baptism. In his practical-­mindedness, Adrian resembles the unnamed English priest of the prologue. After years of searching for Katherine’s long-­lost life, the priest receives a vision in which an otherworldly figure shows him a book and orders him to eat it— recalling Ezekiel 2:8–3:3, where the prophet is ordered to consume a scroll. Whereas Ezekiel immediately obeys, Capgrave’s priest protests that the book is too big for his mouth, and with its rotten cover and moldy pages, “this food isn’t likely to do me any good!” Capgrave’s portrayal of the English priest and Adrian reflects his general practice of deflating the dignity and insisting on the humanity of authority figures—saints, clergymen, and even (as we shall see) his own narrative voice—acknowledging their limitations without denigrating their worthiness. Capgrave’s villain, the emperor Maxentius, is as unusual as his protagonists. Unlike the conventional bellowing tyrants of martyr legends, Capgrave’s Maxentius seeks counsel and ­realizes that violence is not the best means to quell dissent; in book 4, chapter 13, he is even shown to participate productively in the affairs of his subjects. By recounting the degeneration of

Introduction 9

a ruler who once enjoyed the respect and support of his people, Capgrave conveys a more nuanced message about governance. Indeed, through the complementary examples of Maxentius and Katherine, he asserts that rulers can fail for very different reasons: Maxentius because he is all too determined to impose his will on others and Katherine because she has no royal will.16 Katherine’s story is told by a narrator whose presence is so conspicuous and whose personality is so vivid that he might be considered a character in his own right.17 Like the narrator of Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde, he dithers and descants, interrupting even the most solemn moments of Katherine’s mystical marriage (for example, when Christ slips a chalcedony wedding ring on Katherine’s finger in book 3, chapter 24, he lectures readers about the properties of chalcedony). More surprising than his obtrusiveness is his untrustworthiness, for his assertions of scholarly scrupulosity are at crucial moments undercut by inconsistencies. For example, in the prologue to book 3, he reminds readers who might “doubt” his unfamiliar account of Katherine’s marriage that he is translating a long-­lost source, “as I said earlier in the prologue”; yet in chapter 1 he begins reconstructing the story of Katherine’s conversion from various “old books.” With characteristic fussiness, he interrupts his account of Katherine’s reception in heaven to wonder where her escort, the hermit Adrian, is—“My author doesn’t say” (book 3, chapter 22), he complains—yet he declares Adrian the sole source of information about Katherine’s experience, “for how else would it have come to our ears? How would we have learned about it?” (book 3, chapter 23). By interpolating a narrator of dubious sincerity and competence between himself and his readers, Capgrave befogs the issue of responsibility, allowing him to risk startling, even offending, readers with his unusual narrative. After Katherine

In his later English writings—a chronicle, a pilgrim’s guide to Rome, and lives of Augustine of Hippo and Gilbert

10  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

of Sempringham—Capgrave further cultivated some of the themes he explored in Katherine. A fascination with women’s experience pervades his oeuvre, and he consistently stresses the importance of an informed, intellectual Christian faith. However, his later works are notably more conservative than Katherine, in both form and content: they are written in prose and usually stay closer to known sources; their characters are less quirky, their narrators less obtrusive; though they praise an intellectualized Christianity, they contain few extended discussions of doctrine. If Capgrave retreated to a more conservative approach to writing saints’ lives, it is not because readers did not appreciate Katherine. The text survives in four manuscripts produced shortly after its composition, suggesting that there was a demand for it. Capgrave’s fellow Augustinian friar Osbern Bokenham alludes to it in the prologue to his own verse life of Saint Katherine, composed about a year later.18 Capgrave’s Katherine may also have had an unacknowledged influence on other hagiographers who developed complex plots and characters, perhaps beginning with Bokenham. Though Bokenham’s life of ­Katherine seems to be a conservative reworking of Capgrave’s Katherine, with a vastly simplified debate with the fifty scholars and no account of Katherine’s conversion or mystical marriage, his verse life of Saint Barbara features a psychologically complex heroine and includes extended discussions of dogma; Bokenham also composed the only English life of Apollonia that presents the saint as a preacher.19 Bokenham’s Audrey and Winifred are torn between spiritual yearnings and familial responsibilities. George Barclay’s Life of Saint George (ca. 1516), an elaborate narrative much like Capgrave’s, contains an unusual discussion of spiritual baptism reminiscent of that found in Katherine, book 5, chapter 5. Regardless of Capgrave’s actual influence, his work deserves recognition by students of English literary, cultural, and religious history. With its complexity and bold transgression of generic conventions, it is truly a monument of hagiographical

Introduction 11

writing. Its subtle characterizations and its experimentation with narrative voice make it a masterpiece of medieval English literature. Katherine’s debate with her lords anticipates the arguments for and against female rule that would be made in Tudor England, when the ascensions of Mary I and then Elizabeth I made gynecocracy a political reality;20 Katherine’s debate with the fifty scholars is a daring exercise in vernacular theology that flouted attempts at censorship. The story of her fall is a minatory example to kings. Above all Capgrave’s Life of Saint Katherine is powerful testimony that creative intellectualism may thrive even amid political turmoil and repression. Note on the Translation

Capgrave wrote his Life of Saint Katherine in rhyme royal, that is, in seven-­line stanzas following an a-­b-­a-­b-­b-­c-­c rhyme scheme. To achieve a more accurate translation, and also for the sake of readability, I have translated his verse into prose. For those who wish to cross-­reference this translation with a verse edition, I have included Capgrave’s frequent and rather hap­ hazard chapter numbers, followed by the range of lines covered in each chapter and indicated in parentheses. The descriptive titles of each book, as well as the subheadings within books, are my additions, intended to help readers navigate the complicated narrative. The translation is based on the version of the life preserved in Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson 118, which is generally considered the closest to Capgrave’s original. In translating Capgrave’s verse into prose, I have occasionally dropped superfluous words and phrases whose only function is to pad the line. I have also regularized the tense where random shifts that would not have bothered medieval readers would jar us. Otherwise I have sought to preserve the cluttered style of his rambling narration, including the sometimes bewildering syntax, the odd grammatical lapses, and the jolting shifts in tone—features that medieval readers would have noticed. In

12  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

short, I have aimed to capture the reading experience, often fun, often frustrating, that Capgrave offered his original audience. For readers wishing to sample the original Middle English, the appendix presents two passages from Capgrave’s narrative with a more literal line-­by-­line translation into modern English on facing pages. N otes 1.  For more information on Katherine’s popularity in England, see Katherine J. Lewis, The Cult of St Katherine of Alexandria in Late Medieval England (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2000). For studies of facets of Katherine’s cult, see the essays in Jacqueline Jenkins and Katherine J. Lewis, eds., St Katherine of Alexandria: Texts and Contexts in Western Medieval Europe (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2003). For the cult’s origins and early development, see Christine Walsh, The Cult of St Katherine of Alexandria in Early Medieval Europe (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007). 2.  Seth Lerer discusses one such “fable”—the “fable of p ­ atronage”— in Chaucer and His Readers: Imagining the Author in Late-­Medieval En­ gland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 57–84. With his obviously fictional accounts of how he came to write his various framed fictions, Chaucer provided a precedent that may well have influenced Capgrave. Closest in spirit to Capgrave’s prologue, though, is the prologue to the Book of Margery Kempe. If Lynn Staley is right in reading the Book as largely fictional, the parallel with Capgrave is strong indeed. For Staley’s argument, see her Margery Kempe’s Dissenting Fictions (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994). 3.  For an excellent introduction to the multifaceted genre of hagiography, see the essays and bibliographies by Thomas Head in The Orb: On-­line Reference Book for Medieval Studies, http://www.the-­orb .net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/hagindex.html. A fine anthology of important texts in the hagiographical traditions, all translated into modern English, is Medieval Hagiography: An Anthology, ed. Thomas Head (New York: Garland, 2000). 4.  For an overview of the Middle English tradition of virgin martyr legends, see Karen A. Winstead, Virgin Martyrs: Legends of Sainthood in Late Medieval England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997). 5.  See, for example, Sarah Salih, Versions of Virginity in Late Medieval England (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2001); Catherine Sanok, Her

Introduction 13 Life Historical: Exemplarity and Female Saints’ Lives in Late Medieval England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Jocelyn Wogan-­Browne, Saints’ Lives and Women’s Literary Culture c. 1150–1300: Virginity and Its Authorizations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); and Winstead, Virgin Martyrs. 6.  An anonymous Middle English prose life of Katherine, composed circa 1420 and later incorporated into the 1438 Gilte Legende, is translated in Chaste Passions: Medieval English Virgin Martyr Legends, ed. Karen A. Winstead (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 115–63, 184–201. Another version in Middle English prose was incorporated into one manuscript of the South English Legendary, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 779. A mid-­fourteenth-­century life of Katherine in Anglo-­Norman French can be found in London, British Library, MS Addit. 40143. For a partial transcription and translation of a Latin life of Katherine of possible English provenance, see Auvo Kurvinen, “The Source of Capgrave’s Life of St Katherine,” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 61 (1960): 268–324. 7.  Accounts of Capgrave’s life and works include Jane C. Fredeman, “The Life of John Capgrave, O.E.S.A. (1393–1464),” Augustiniana 29 (1979): 197–237; Peter J. Lucas, From Author to Audience: John Capgrave and Medieval Publication (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 1997), 1–18; and Karen A. Winstead, John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 1–17. 8.  The Life of St. Norbert by John Capgrave, O.E.S.A. (1393–1464), ed. Cyril Lawrence Smetana (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1977), lines 8–9. 9.  For more on Katherine’s affinities with Chaucer, especially its Chaucerian narrator and its development of issues raised in Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde, see Karen A. Winstead, “John Capgrave and the Chaucer Tradition,” Chaucer Review 30 (1996): 389–400; and Mary-­ Ann Stouck, “Chaucer and Capgrave’s Life of St. Katharine,” American Benedictine Review 33 (1982): 276–91. 10.  On Capgrave’s use of romance conventions, see Derek Pearsall, “John Capgrave’s Life of St. Katharine and Popular Romance Style,” Medievalia et Humanistica, n.s., 6 (1975): 121–37. 11.  I discuss Capgrave’s characterizations in more detail in “Piety, Politics, and Social Commitment in Capgrave’s Life of St. Katherine,” Medievalia et Humanistica, n.s., 17 (1990): 59–80. 12.  On Capgrave’s Katherine as a political commentary on the reign of Henry VI, see Winstead, John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century, 137–61. For a famous contemporary account that emphasizes Henry’s piety, see John Blacman, Henry the Sixth, ed. M. R. James (Cambridge: Cambridge

14  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria University Press, 1919). Studies of the reign of Henry VI include R. A. Griffiths, The Reign of Henry VI (1981; reprint, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1998); and John Watts, Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 13. For influential treatments of the effects of Lollardy on English intellectual life, see Nicholas Watson, “Censorship and Cultural Change in Late-­Medieval England: Vernacular Theology, the Oxford Translation Debate, and Arundel’s Constitutions of 1409,” Speculum 70 (1995): 822–64; and Rita Copeland, Pedagogy, Intellectuals, and Dissent in the Later Middle Ages: Lollardy and Ideas of Learning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). Kathryn Kerby-­Fulton argues that religious and secular authorities were more tolerant of spiritually audacious writings in her Books under Suspicion: Censorship and Tolerance of Revelatory Writing in Late Medieval England (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2006). 14. For more on Capgrave’s participation in issues touching on Lollard controversy, see Sarah James, “‘Doctryne and Studie’: Female Learning and Religious Debate in Capgrave’s Life of Saint Katharine,” Leeds Studies in English, n.s., 37 (2005): 275–302; James Simpson, Reform and Cultural Revolution, 1350–1547, Oxford English Literary History 2 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 420–29; and Winstead, John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century, 51–87. 15. For more on this point, with particular reference to Capgrave’s characterizations, see Winstead, “Piety, Politics, and Social Commitment.” 16.  I discuss the politics of Katherine at greater length in John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century, 137–61. 17.  For more on Capgrave’s narrator, see Winstead, “John Capgrave and the Chaucer Tradition.” 18.  Osbern Bokenham, A Legend of Holy Women: A Translation of Osbern Bokenham’s Legends of Holy Women, trans. Sheila Delany (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), 126. 19.  These lives, along with the lives of Audrey and Winifred, are found in a newly discovered collection of saints’ lives by Bokenham. This collection is being edited by Simon Horobin for the Early English Text Society. For a discussion of it, see Horobin’s “Politics, Patronage, and Piety in the Work of Osbern Bokenham,” Speculum 82 (2007): 932–49. On the conservatism of Bokenham’s Katherine, see Paul Price, “Trumping Chaucer: Osbern Bokenham’s Katherine,” Chaucer Review 36 (2001): 158–83. 20.  See Winstead, “Capgrave’s Saint Katherine and the Perils of Gynecocracy,” Viator 25 (1994): 361–76.

Introduction 15

F urther R eading Capgrave’s Life of Saint Katherine Editions The Life of Saint Katherine. Edited by Karen A. Winstead. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1999. The Life of St. Katharine of Alexandria. Edited by Carl Horstmann, with forewords by F. J. Furnivall. EETS.OS 100. 1893. Reprint, Millwood, NY: Kraus, 1987.

Selected Studies Fredeman, Jane C. “Style and Characterization in John Capgrave’s Life of St. Katherine.” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 62 (1980): 346–87. Gayk, Shannon. “John Capgrave’s Material Memorials.” In Image, Text, and Religious Reform in Fifteenth-­Century England, 123–54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. James, Sarah. “‘Doctryne and Studie’: Female Learning and Religious Debate in Capgrave’s Life of St. Katharine.” Leeds Studies in English, n.s., 36 (2005): 275–302. Jenkins, Jacqueline. “Translation Anxiety in Capgrave’s Life of St. Katha­rine of Alexandria.” In The Medieval Translator 8, edited by Rosa­lynn Voaden, Teresa Sanchez Roura, and René Tixier, 137–48. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2003. Pearsall, Derek. “John Capgrave’s Life of St. Katharine and Popular Romance Style.” Medievalia et Humanistica, n.s., 6 (1975): 121–37. Price, Paul. “I Want to Be Alone: The Single Woman in Fifteenth-­ Century Legends of St. Katherine of Alexandria.” In The Single Woman in Medieval and Early Modern England: Her Life and Representation, edited by Laurel Amtower and Dorothea Kehler, 21–39. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2003. Simpson, James. Reform and Cultural Revolution, 1350–1547. Oxford English Literary History 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Stanbury, Sarah. “Knighton’s Lollards, Capgrave’s Katherine, and Walter Hilton’s ‘Merk Ymage.’” In The Visual Object of Desire in Late Medieval England, 33–75. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. Stouck, Mary-­A nn. “Chaucer and Capgrave’s Life of St. Katharine.” American Benedictine Review 33 (1982): 276–91.

16  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria Winstead, Karen A. “Capgrave’s Saint Katherine and the Perils of Gynecocracy.” Viator 25 (1994): 361–76. ———. “John Capgrave and the Chaucer Tradition.” Chaucer Review 30 (1996): 389–400. ———. John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. ———. “Piety, Politics, and Social Commitment in Capgrave’s Life of St. Katherine.” Medievalia et Humanistica, n.s., 17 (1990): 59–80. ———. Virgin Martyrs: Legends of Sainthood in Late Medieval England. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997.

Capgrave’s Life and Other Writings Editions and Translations Abbreuiacion of Chronicles. Edited by Peter J. Lucas. EETS.OS 285. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. The Book of the Illustrious Henries. Translated by Francis Charles Hinge­ ston. London: Longman, 1858. Liber de Illustribus Henricis. Edited by Francis Charles Hingeston. London: Longman, 1858. Life of Saint Augustine. Edited by Cyril Lawrence Smetana. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2001. The Life of St. Norbert. Edited by Cyril Lawrence Smetana. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1977. Lives of St. Augustine and St. Gilbert of Sempringham, and a Sermon. ­Edited by J. J. Munro. EETS.OS 140. 1910. Reprint, Millwood, NY: Kraus, 1987. Solace of Pilgrimes. Edited by C. A. Mills. London: Oxford University Press, 1911.

Biography and Criticism Colledge, Edmund. “John Capgrave’s Literary Vocation.” Analecta Augustiniana 40 (1977): 187–95. De Meijer, Alberic. “John Capgrave, O.E.S.A.” Parts 1, 2, and 3. Augustiniana 5 (1955): 400–440 and 7 (1957): 118–48, 531–75. Fredeman, Jane C. “The Life of John Capgrave, O.E.S.A. (1393–1464).” Augustiniana 29 (1979): 197–237. Lucas, Peter J. From Author to Audience: John Capgrave and Medieval Publication. Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 1997.

Introduction 17 Seymour, M. C. John Capgrave. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1996. Simpson, James. Reform and Cultural Revolution, 1350–1547. Oxford English Literary History 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Winstead, Karen A. John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.

Katherine of Alexandria Legend and Cult Jenkins, Jacqueline, and Katherine J. Lewis, eds. St. Katherine of Alexandria: Texts and Contexts in Western Medieval Europe. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2003. Lewis, Katherine J. The Cult of St Katherine of Alexandria in Late Medieval England. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell, 2000. Walsh, Christine. The Cult of St Katherine of Alexandria in Early Medieval Europe. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007.

Medieval English Saints’ Lives and Devotional Culture Editions and Translations Bokenham, Osbern. A Legend of Holy Women: A Translation of Osbern Bokenham’s Legends of Holy Women. Translated by Sheila Delany. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992. Chaste Passions: Medieval English Virgin Marytr Legends. Translated and edited by Karen A. Winstead. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000. Culture of Piety: Medieval English Devotional Literature in Translation. Edited by Anne Clark Bartlett and Thomas H. Bestul. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999. Middle English Legends of Women Saints. Edited by Sherry L. Reames. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2003. Saints’ Lives in Middle English Collections. Edited by E. Gordon Whatley. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2004. Virgin Lives and Holy Deaths: Two Exemplary Biographies for Anglo-­ Norman Women. Translated by Jocelyn Wogan-­Browne and Glyn S. Burgess. London: Everyman, 1996. Virgins and Scholars: A Fifteenth-­Century Compilation of the Lives of John the Baptist, John the Evangelist, Jerome, and Katherine of Alexandria. Edited and translated by Claire M. Waters. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2008.

18  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

Criticism Coletti, Theresa. Mary Magdalene and the Drama of Saints: Theater, Gender, and Religion in Late Medieval England. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. Delany, Sheila. Impolitic Bodies: Poetry, Saints, and Society in Fifteenth-­ Century England; The Work of Osbern Bokenham. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Duffy, Eamon. The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in En­ gland 1400–1580. 1992. 2nd ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005. Gibson, Gail McMurray. The Theater of Devotion: East Anglian Drama and Society in the Late Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. Salih, Sarah. Versions of Virginity in Late Medieval England. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2001. ———, ed. A Companion to Middle English Hagiography. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2006. Sanok, Catherine. Her Life Historical: Exemplarity and Female Saints’ Lives in Late Medieval England. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. Wogan-­Browne, Jocelyn. Saints’ Lives and Women’s Literary Culture c. 1150–1300: Virginity and Its Authorizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Historical Background Carpenter, Christine. The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437–1509. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Griffiths, R. A. The Reign of King Henry VI. 1981. Reprint, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1998. Jacob, E. F. The Fifteenth Century, 1399–1485. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961. Watts, John. Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Prologue

The Discovery and Translation of Katherine’s Life

Jesus Christ, crown of all maidens, a maiden gave birth to you and suckled you. According to our book, you lead the saints, those lilies that neither fade nor wilt. They look to you with all their hearts. Their love and pleasure are so firmly fixed on you, lord, that they can’t help following you. We know you lead the dance in an orderly fashion, followed by your mother, and then by others, according to their share of eternal joy.1 After the lady whose bliss exceeds all others’2 goes the virgin we call Katherine. We know this, lord, because you and yours have given her such an abundance of grace that all the privileges found in other saints are perfected in her, for she abounds in all of them. If we consider all the saints who inhabited this earth in one form or another, we’ll find their distinctions in this same Kathe­ rine.3 You gave John the great Evangelist, lord, the gift of your presence at his death; you were pleased to grant this maiden that very same presence at the end of her life. You made oil well from her grave, just as you did for Saint Nicholas. And for her purity you granted her the grace you gave Saint Paul: milk flowed from 19

20  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

his throat along with blood as a sign that martyrdom and virginity were conjoined in him. You, daughter of kings, enjoyed all these holy privileges fully. God sent his angels to deck out your grave, just as he once did for Saint Clement. And just as God granted Saint Margaret’s dying petition—that whatever man or woman devoutly asks a favor in her name will have it (provided he asks properly and that it’s in his best interest)—your beloved—that is, God—­ obtained that same grace for you, Katherine. Therefore, I will do my best to serve you by writing the story of your life, so that it will be more widely known by women and men. There was a priest, who had grown pale through the labor of his eighteen-­year search for the account of your life. At last he found it, much to his delight, buried deep in the ground, up in Greece. No Roman or Trojan knight was more delighted with a sword or a bright round helmet than this priest was with the life. He blessed you over and over again and said that all his hardship had turned to comfort, joy, and relief. He translated that account into English very well, but he died before he had fully completed it—he didn’t get to your passion, lady, and the part about the wheel;4 it still needs doing. And what he wrote is very hard to read on account of his obscure language.5 He’s dead now; you’ve given him his reward. Now, lady, with your help, I’ll write a clearer version of his work. Man, maiden, and wife will know what you’ve suffered, and also what you’ve achieved. Pray God, our lord, to unlock the door and inspire us with his special grace so that we are able to praise you and him. This priest whom I just mentioned spoke of his desires in his prologue, how he traveled through many lands to learn about this martyr’s birth, country, language, and parentage. He spent eighteen years seeking this information, praying and fasting, enduring cold and much discomfort. At last he had a revelation—misty, dark, and shrouded in clouds.6 In this vision, he thought he saw a worthy person clothed in fine vestments who kept calling loudly to him, “Behold, man, who I am, what I show, and why I came.” In his hand, he held a very old book, with rotten covers and dusty, torn

The Discovery and Translation of Katherine’s Life  21

pages. And he kept calling to the priest, “Look! This is what you’ve striven for—this is your goal! I know perfectly well what you’ve searched for. Open your mouth: you must eat this book; unless you do, you won’t achieve your desire.” “Mercy, lord,” the priest replied. “Spare me! How should I eat this book? Its covers are rotten, its pages dark and moldy; I can’t get them into my mouth! My mouth is small, and they’re so big, they’ll break my jaws and throat! This food isn’t likely to do me any good!” “Yes,” he said, “you must eat this book—you’ll be sorry if you don’t! Open wide and eat boldly—it has no clasp or hook. Let it slide down into your belly. It won’t hurt your back or sides. Though your mouth may find it bitter, your stomach will find it sweet: that’s what Ezekiel the prophet once found.” The priest then put it in his mouth. It seemed sweet as honey. The other man disappeared, much to the priest’s amazement. He felt new joy, new thoughts, and awoke feeling glad and joyful. He praised God for this dream many times afterward. Shortly thereafter, deep in a grassy, blossoming meadow, he dug up the book he’d seen in his sleep, just as I told. That was balm to his sufferings! It had been left there by a knight called Amilion fitz Amarak, this maiden’s most devoted Christian knight, who found it among treasures in Cyprus. All these things happened during King Peter’s time, according to the chronicles, and during the papacy of Urban V of Rome.7 There was a scholar with Katherine whose name is Athanasius in Latin. He taught her the laws of God, of joy, and of grace, such as he understood them. She taught him, too, for she converted him to Christ and to our faith. He was her ­g uardian, as the story says. He also wrote her life. He was with her at her death—saw her martyred—as he himself said. He might well remember her life, for he was a loyal servant. Why should I spend more time praising him? He was her secretary. He obtained teachers for her throughout great Greece, her father’s empire, to teach her in proper sequence the seven arts.8 This same Athanasius paid their wages; he was fully in charge of the court. He knew Katherine’s family and her advisors, her father,

22  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

her mother, and her entire lineage. He knew her holy life, her ­habits, and her pious ways. He stood by her during her martyrdom and saw the angels bear her body far up to Sinai and lay it down there.9 He also saw the vengeance wreaked on many thousands on account of her death. He witnessed Maxentius’s death, how he fell from the bridge into the river to die suddenly and painfully and be carted off to the fires of hell—angels carried her; devils bore his bier. See the different rewards for virtue and sin: one is in heaven, the other in hell. Long after Maxentius’s death, this same Athanasius was bishop of Alexandria, Katherine’s city, where he suffered much adversity. I don’t know whether he was the same Athanasius who composed the song we call the Creed, the one we often sing and read at prime.10 He died there, a holy confessor, and after his death scarcely anything was known—high or low—of the events of this sweet martyr Katherine’s life and of her great learning until a certain Arrek made them known again by translating the story of her holy life from Greek into Latin. This scholar Arrek had often heard tell of this maiden’s life and death, how she laid down her life for the sake of our dear spiritual spouse, our lord Christ. This made him determined to journey to her land and see if he could discover any further information. He lived there more than twelve years and learned the language and its rules with much diligence, time, and hardship. It was a long time before he saw the account Athanasius wrote of this maiden, but at last he found it, completely out of circulation, for heretics were burning as many books as they could find. Blessed be God, they didn’t find that book! God would not permit that the noble deeds of his own maiden should be forgotten. Arrek made this new work more than a hundred years after the time of Athanasius.11 He had been so long gone that he and his book were dead and forgotten by every man and woman in the land. This priest found and brought it to England, but it was known by only nine or ten Englishmen. It seldom came into anyone’s hand, and when it did, it was not understood on account (as

The Discovery and Translation of Katherine’s Life  23

I said before) of its obscure language. Thus your life, lady, was kept all locked up. Even so, this noble priest, this very good man, accomplished much: he led the way and unlocked the door so that we can follow in his footsteps all the better. Though he ran hard, we can overtake him with the help and grace that this lady will obtain for us. This good priest is now dead; he died at Lynn many years ago and has been forgotten by all. Yet they say that at his death, in his great pain, this lady appeared to him. She kindly told him to be glad, for she would reward his service. To judge from his speech and style, he seems to have come from the West. He was once a parson in the Church of Saint Pancras for quite a while. He is now far above us. He is a mediator between Katherine and us, and she is a mediator for us all to our lord Jesus. Continuing where he left off, I take it upon me to translate his story and tell it more clearly, trusting that the charity of others will help me in my composition. God send me a part of that heavenly rain that Apollos bore about, and also Saint Paul, that makes virtue grow in men’s souls.12 If you wish to know who I am, I come from Norfolk, from the town of Lynn. I left the world, much to my profit, to join the brotherhood to which I belong. God grant that I never cease following the footsteps of my fathers, who committed themselves to the Rule of Saint Augustine. Thus ends the prologue. You who read it, pray for those who either worked on this book or paid for it, so that, with grace, they might abandon sin and be ready when God calls them to eat and drink with him in heaven through the prayer of this maiden, Katherine.

Book 1

Katherine’s Parentage, Upbringing, and Coronation

Chapter 1: K ing Costus

(1/1–56) Historians tell us that there was once a great king in Greece, lord of both Syria and Cyprus. Everything was done as he wished under his firm governance. This king was called Costus, a respected and widely renowned lord. He was known as a lamb to the meek and a lion to the proud. He was so famous that everyone did him homage. King, duke, earl, baron, and squire sought him out for their own good, entreating his help whenever they needed anything. Many isles then belonged to his great realm, all humble in his service. He ruled all the great sea and governed all the harbors, both east and west, just as he pleased. Merchants and ­sailors alike were his subjects. This king reigned peacefully for many years, and because he was fair and strong, all his subjects loved him. They said he was a noble man on every occasion: honorable on the battlefield, a peacemaker at home, eloquent, generous, and eager to dispense with punishments. 25

26  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

No lord would dare harm him, for fear of his vengeance, which no pleas would avert. He attacked many a kingdom and razed many a castle that would not obey his laws.1 He was indeed a good man: meek as a maiden, manful when necessary, always stable and steadfast. Strong of hand, he was doughty of deed and a helper to those who needed him. He never perpetrated wrongs but was always compassionate and merciful, always placing peace above contention. His noble works were as suited to peace and love as an axe is suited to its handle. Among all the lords known to man, he was the worthiest and the wisest. He hated sin thoroughly, as well as obscenity and vice. It seems a great shame that such a true man should have been a heathen, but wise people rightly tell us that the fresh rose grows from thorny brambles: Our Lady came from Jews, Kathe­ rine from heathens. Chapter 2: Amaleck and Alexandria

(2/57–154) This king had two cities that were bigger and greater than all the others. One cost him a huge amount of gold to build, with its towers and walls; the other was built long before he was born, as the books all say. In that city, all kings were crowned. The first city was called Amaleck and is located in Cyprus.2 The other, called Alexandria, lies in Egypt. Cyprus is a land that lacks nothing. It has plenty of gold, silver, fruit, and people and is full of happiness. A great land surrounded by the sea, it lies off the northwest coast of Syria. Because of its location, this king established his city there to be a key to his entire kingdom. Whoever came to Syria must pass by there. No ship might avoid it, either in peace or in war. It had a huge and great harbor and a strong castle with fair towers that welcomed all merchants who wished to visit. Because its regulations were fair and generous, it was a popular destination for those from Christian and heathen lands alike. The king

Katherine’s Parentage, Upbringing, and Coronation  27

appointed a mayor there to enforce his laws and keep it well manned and provisioned. This lord could ride (by ship, I mean) from Alexandria to this great city of Amaleck without leaving his own realm. Because he was the overlord of all the countries between his two great cities, everything was done according to his command—in fields and towns, and on the sea. The other city, called Alexandria, stands fair at the edge of Egypt, a great and large city of high renown. People from Egypt had to pass through this city to go to Africa or Carthage, as did people from Africa who wished to trade in Egypt. Saint Mark the Evangelist was sent there by Saint Peter to preach the gospel of our lord Christ. His preaching converted them all from their heathenness and false beliefs; he made them believe in Christ. Whoever wants to know more about that can read Philo’s De vita theorica.3 There he’ll find that the entire city was filled with hermits, monks, priests, and other holy men—thirty here, twenty there, nine here, ten there. The surrounding country was full of such men, along with martyrs, confessors, maidens, widows, and chaste women. Even someone who could count all the fair flowers that blossom in a meadow after gentle showers could not count all those holy people. They were tested sorely there, those golden vessels (that is, martyrs). They were killed and burned with fire and iron, cleansed in furnaces of sorrow. No one could escape without dying or renouncing his faith. Alexandria was the site of the first school of divinity—a discipline that no fool can master—for one Pantaenus, our book says, studied there diligently.4 Clement took over the school after him, and then Origen succeeded that Clement (not ­Clement of Rome, but another Clement, who gave us many good commentaries and pious exhortations, especially in the book entitled Stromatum). This same Alexandria of which I’ve been speaking was large and rich and full of people drawn by its reputation. Every knight and merchant went there. They thought a king would be well enough endowed to be lord of this city alone. Because of the

28  The Life of Saint Katherine of Alexandria

city’s wealth, they called their king just that: “He is king of Alexandria, period,” they said. “He is a lord worthy of fame; may every tongue be dumb and every knee lame that neither loves nor dreads our noble lord; may those who honor him thrive!” This king lived 240 years after Christ’s birth. He lived in joy and great happiness and honored the gods of his religion. He was sorely tested in battle before he won his lands. But we will turn now to other things and tell our tale as the chronicles set it down. Chapters 3–4: Katherine’s Conception and Birth

(3/155–96) No matter what people hear or say, almighty God, who makes everything grow, does more marvels than we can imagine. Sometimes what we think should be last is first. Our intelligence is no more than a spark compared to his. When he wants something, it happens; his will alone must be done. He performs wonders as he wishes, when we would least expect them. Consider the prosperity and salvation of the children of Israel: not wishing to destroy them, God preserved them throughout the danger and misery they fell into because of their sins. He helped them when they might have perished. If he’d helped them sooner, they might have thought that they were saved by their own deeds rather than God’s power. He changed their disposition by not helping them until they needed it. When they were desperate and could do nothing, then he sent his relief. This is how Our Lord, our divine savior, works. Our Lord worked similarly in this instance. He wanted to send a peerless child to a couple of old people who thought they’d never have a child—especially the mother. The king would have preferred the fortune [of having a child] to a ton of gold! Zachary and Elizabeth were in this predicament, as were Abraham and his wife Sara—she didn’t conceive until she was elderly. Joachim and Anne—Mary’s parents—were in the same situation and received the same reward. God (bless him!) can

Katherine’s Parentage, Upbringing, and Coronation  29

make a raging torrent into a peaceful river.5 Katherine is not alone in this respect.6 Because God chose this maiden for his own spouse and wife, all Christians praise her, saying (I imagine): “God bless us through her prayers! She is closer to him than all but one person.7 She may, she can, and she will ask Our Lord to let us approach him.” (4/197–245) When our lord God wanted this fair lady to be born, he arranged that she should spring, like a rose from thorns, from two married people who had lost their passion. Everyone wondered how such an old woman could be pregnant. Many a man and woman laughed, some saying, “Impossible! The king is feeble and the queen old. Is she, at her age, going to groan and cry in childbirth? Not likely!” That’s what they all said, the ladies in the chamber and the lords in the hall. But the time came. She began to groan, cry, and wail, as all women do, for Mary alone was exempted from the pain of childbirth, as books written by holy men reveal. They named that fair young maiden Katherine. Her father was called King Costus, her mother, they said, was named Meliades, daughter of the king of Armenia. Her beauty distinguished her from all others, throughout the pagan lands. But I don’t want to spend more time praising her: her beauty and goodness are attested in her daughter, whose help people now seek in trouble and need. Three days after her birth, two worthy ladies were appointed to clothe, rock, and look after this child. And they were not alone—a bevy of other women was also there to carry and watch her, to wash and clothe her, to lift and lull her, to feed and bathe her, and to wipe and rock her as well. Their duties were assigned weekly. Thus the baby was tended so that she wouldn’t fall sick. The king took great comfort from her; the queen couldn’t take her eyes off her. Thus the noble, goodly child, this gracious lady, was nurtured until she could walk. Both meek and mild from birth, she suckled mercy, which lasted all her life. Whenever she cried, she was quickly satisfied. No wonder, since she was an only child!

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Chapters 5–7: Katherine’s Education

(5/246–301) This princess grew up quickly. When set to the books, she immediately began to learn her letters, for she was the best scholar who ever lived. Neither love nor fear could make her stop when she started to recognize the alphabet and learn how to spell words. She had wise scholars from distant lands to teach her rhetoric and grammar. Cases, numbers, modes, verbs, and other difficult subjects she learned effortlessly, along with forms and logic, declensions, moods, and tenses.8 Among those scholars was a wise and serious man, her chief administrator, whom people called Athanasius. He supervised everyone there and, as I said earlier, he paid their salary. He was a most distinguished scholar, thoroughly versed in the seven ­liberal arts. His chief duty was to see that this lady applied herself to her studies all day long—within reason, for some time was set aside for recreation. But sometimes she would defy her teacher: when he told her to play, she wanted to sit still, for all her will was fixed on study and virtue. She learned Greek and Latin and all the secrets of nature known to philosophers. She knew the effects of the planets. She accomplished all this through the diligence of the learned Athanasius, who set her to work and supervised her studies. According to our source, God, in his grace, wanted her alone to bring about his conquest and victory over the heretics that then reigned. Therefore, study hard, you young scholar of God: you will overcome heresy and blasphemy throughout Greece, throughout your realm! Augustine says that our faith was spread throughout the world for everyone to learn by twelve idiots (meaning the ­apostles, who were uneducated) because God did not want to win us over with wisdom and fear but rather with holy sim­ plicity. I think he did the same in Katherine’s case, for when his Church was in great need, he ordained a lady to take on the entire world; they will not overcome her, nor will their arguments

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do them any good.9 She will be so educated that their efforts will fail, despite all their knowledge and bravado, and she will prevail through the strength of the Holy Ghost. (6/302–64) This noble lady’s father built a large, royal p ­ alace in which his dear daughter could learn all these disciplines. Various attendants lived there to serve her (sometimes to make her rest, sometimes to rise), and many scholars were appointed to teach her new things. They applied all their energies to teaching this lady everything they knew. As you might imagine, as she matured in learning, ever greater scholars came. The rooms of her palace were intelligently furnished with desks and chairs and other equipment; they were well appointed and well lighted. Every discipline had its own space. The grammarians were put on the west side and the astronomers on the east, so that they could look on the heavens or on their books, as they wished. All the other disciplines were set between them, according to their age and prestige, so that everyone who passed by might know which was worthier and of higher degree. Her father the king seldom saw her: to avoid hindering her studies, he turned her over to these scholars as if he had abandoned her. She grew quickly and learned fervently, benefiting from exposure to different disciplines and different teachers. When one scholar went, another took his place. Nature loves variety: sometimes people study, sometimes they dance. The king made a walled palace on the south side for Kathe­ rine’s private use; her throne, which was like no other in the whole world, faced the sun. This private palace was made for Katherine to stay when she wanted to be alone to study. Most of her studying was done in the great garden, made to her own specifications, and far away from everyone. There she would sometimes rest, study, and write.10 It was full of ­exotic trees, among which she would sit and rise, stroll and amuse herself. How scholars love the solitary life! She alone had the key to this garden. When she entered, she locked it securely behind her. It was always well fastened when she came or went, for she hated interruptions. Study is incompatible with worldly

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occupations—the ancient philosophers say this, I assure you. The walls and towers were so high and carefully built with arches that only flying birds could enter. As I said, the gates were closed securely behind her, and she always carried the key. Thus, this lady lived in her study. (7/365–434) Thus she learned the seven liberal arts. Grammar, the first and most accessible, teaches people how to speak and write. Rhetoric, the second, teaches much the same thing but embellishes its subject matter with colors and terms. The third discipline, dialectic, teaches one to distinguish truth from falsehood—there’s no better teacher on that score. After dialectic comes arithmetic, from which you shall know all about numbers. Katherine’s teachers also taught her the science of music. She was well grounded in melody from an unparalleled teacher, who divided this discipline into three topics: meter, rhyme, and harmony. (Harmony has to do with voice or striking or blowing; symphony and euphony are related to it.) This lady also learned geometry from Euclid’s books with all their figures. Learning this discipline’s letters and figures requires much study. If I say more about it I’m bound to make mistakes—I know no more about it than a cartwright! This lady so excelled in astronomy that she knew the powers and positions of all the planets—which are benevolent, which malevolent, which will help, and which will ruin. All this she learned; no moss grew on her on account of idleness! She was so renowned for her learning that her father assembled great scholars from throughout the land to ascertain, as I understand, whether his daughter dared face so many wise men. Three hundred and ten were gathered in that place, each charged to display his cunning. Had he come across any esoteric knowledge during his life, he should speak of it and enhance his reputation. But nothing was said that young Katherine didn’t know and couldn’t discuss. She quickly solved all the problems they posed her. “Good lord!” these scholars said, “This maiden has learned more in her life than we thought possible, for she knows more than we do! We are amazed at how she can counter our arguments

Katherine’s Parentage, Upbringing, and Coronation  33

and drive home her conclusions. We can’t learn in five years what she learns in one!” So spoke these wise men, each in turn. They took their leave from the king to return to their own lands. “This maiden, your daughter, lord,” they said, “she will be a wonder woman—if she lives long enough. She has no need of us; we have nothing to do here. She knows what we know—and more.” I assure you, that’s what those wise men said.11 This noble king rewarded them all generously with great gifts and privileges, as lords did in those days. Scholars had every­ thing they owned from the generosity of openhanded lords. Thus rewarded, they returned home, leaving Katherine alone in her study. Chapter 8: The Death of Costus

(8/435–511) When she thought everything was well and secure, Death visited the house to do his duty. He soon made an end of all her joy, for he snatched her generous father from this world and brought him to the place he belonged. He dwells there with other lords of his family who died without faith, without Christianity.12 (Katherine is such a one, but she won’t be for long.) Great lords came from throughout Greece—if they didn’t they would have committed a great wrong, for they owed their honor to this noble king. Now he lay dead. They enclosed him in cloth and then in lead. They took him to the temple with ­solemnity (if you can call weeping and wailing solemn). All that could be heard in that city was “How awful! What shall we do? Our lord is gone—we no longer have him. Who shall wear the crown now that he’s dead? The only heir he left us is a young maid. What can she, a mere woman, do for us? If only she’d been married before her father’s passing, we would have been much happier and more secure. What’s there to say? Now we’re bound to be subject to other lands. We bound others once; now we must suffer bonds.”13

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The noble queen, Meliades, grieved so deeply that it’s a pity to hear, to tell, and to read about it. No solace could lighten her heart, but tears constantly fell wherever she went. The young lady Katherine changed her clothing. Now her color is very pale. But why dwell on her sorrow? The king was placed in a tomb made of gold and stones. As their king, he was appropriately anointed with balm so that neither flesh nor bones should rot or stink. That was the practice for burying lords at the time. Many other things were said and done, which aren’t necessary to rehearse.14 Some people might be the worse for hearing about such pagan practices and rites. As was customary, the lords, dukes, earls, bishops, and knights stayed thirty days. During that time, the assembled lords said that their king must have an everlasting memorial. They were unanimous about it. Because painting, writing, and engraving fade and deteriorate, rot and burn, they all agreed to change the name of the great city that their lord founded and to name it after him. No longer would it be called the great Amaleck: whoever comes with cart or sack must call the city Famagusta. They proclaimed that everyone in the Greek empire—east or west, north or south—must call it so. This was their rationale: “He founded this city and spent most of his time there. He had much happiness and joy there. He also died there. For these ­reasons it will bear his name. For as long as it stands, the city will be called Famagusta.” That’s what it’s called now, and that name will endure forever. A “g” stands instead of a “c.”15 The great and noble Famagusta that stands on the sea is known thus throughout every land. Many feet walk there, and many hands work there. Thus shall the reputation of worthy men spread; wretches will die nameless—that’s their reward. Chapters 9–13: Katherine’s Coronation and Ancestry

(9/512–60) Queen Meliades arranged a parliament at her own expense in the great city of Alexandria. She wanted every

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lord who did homage to her husband, Costus, to attend the parliament. Anyone who dared resist would be compelled. She summoned lords from far and near, and no one knew why. She had a reason for convening parliament in Alexandria, for, according to custom, all the kings of the realm had been solemnly crowned there. Such a longstanding custom could not be broken without upsetting many people; therefore, she held it there. Many a lord and lady attended. She had another reason, namely, that her own ancestors had founded and refounded that city. You’ll soon hear their lives and deeds—that is, if you’ll sit still and if everyone but me will be quiet. You won’t need to consult other chronicles or histories, because I will tell you the entire genealogy and describe all the lords according to their rank. There once was a lord who was sultan of Syria and Egypt; his name was Babel. He built Alexandria where it stands today and called it Babylon to preserve his fame forever. That was his will; and when it was at last fi ­ nished, it was indeed called Babylon—not just Babylon, though, but Babylon the Less, to distinguish it from the Babylon further east. Whoever wanted to go from Egypt to Africa would do best to pass through that city. This was another reason why the great celebration was held there, for her royal family, the greatest and the least, came from Babylon. The third reason, according to Athanasius—and the most compelling one, to my mind—was that Alexandria was located in Egypt, where another king also reigned, so he was called simply king of Alexandria, to distinguish him from the king of Egypt. I know this well from Athanasius’s account of the foundation of Alexandria, a city often nearly overcome by other nations, thanks to treason. But we’ll drop this matter now and speak of Babel and of other men who were of his line. (10/561–609) This same Babel was succeeded by a son called Madagdalus, who also reigned in Babylon for many years. And the same line continued to reign there, for Madagdalus had a son called Antiochus, according to the history (not Antiochus the Great, of whom Maccabees speaks, but an earlier one, as

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you will soon see).16 This Antiochus had a son called Gorgalus, a worthy man and ruler of Syria. He had a son called Antiochus, whose son Seleucus succeeded him to the empire and built a city right in a swamp, which people call Seleucia in memory of him.17 He also built Antioch in honor of his father. This is the first line that descended from this same Gorgalus, to whom we must return now. Gorgalus’s younger son was Mardemius, manly and fierce. Alexander the Great sprang from him as a stream flows from a well, for Mardemius was married to the noble maiden Melior, heir to Macedonia. Mardemius and Melior begat King Philip, Alexander the Great’s father. Thus our source describes the second line. We’ve digressed from Gorgalus’s first son to his younger son just briefly, for we wish to treat the marvelous deeds that Alexander undertook during his lifetime—his feats are still on every tongue! He conquered Darius, the king of Persia. He conquered Arabia and Phoenicia. Through his might, he even overcame his own cousin, Gorgalus’s son Antiochus, seizing Babylon from him with great cannons and catapults.18 Then the name of Babylon was discarded forever, for he gave the city his own name instead; he called it Alexandria because he conquered it. This lord founded ten cities and named them all Alexandria, after himself. He renamed two other cities Alexandria and kept them safe and secure. In twelve years, he conquered the world with his great might. On his deathbed, he divided the land he had once governed all by himself into twelve parts and entrusted them to his lords: he gave Syria, Alexandria, Phoenicia, and Palestine to Seleucus, a bold and mighty man and Alexander’s cousin, descended from Gorgalus, as I already said, through the first line. Now I must return to that line. As scholars say, everything cannot be said all at once. (11/610–44) Seleucus reigned there for thirty-­two years. He had an heir to succeed him, a noble man called Antiochus Soter. After ruling for exactly twenty years, he passed the crown, scepter, and mace to his son, Antiochus Theos. He reigned fifteen years and was succeeded by a man called

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Seleucus Callinicus. He reigned for twenty years, and then Seleucus Soter ruled for three years, and after him Antiochus the Great reigned thirty-­six years. Jews still curse him for the sorrow he brought upon them and their land when he robbed the temple at Jerusalem. The noble book of Maccabees records his deeds—his cruelty, his anger, his treason, and his feigned repentance.19 For his sins he earned sorrow; he asked in vain for mercy during his illness. His son, Seleucus Philopator, was much like him: lightning incinerated him for sinning unnaturally with his daughter. You can read about him in Apollonius of Tyre—how he killed lords by the dozen because they couldn’t solve his riddles.20 He reigned eleven years and was succeeded by his son Antiochus E ­ piphanes. His reign lasted eleven years and his son was Antiochus Eupator, who lasted two years. After him Demetrius ruled for three years, and then Antiochus Sedetes was king for nine years and was succeeded by another king called Demetrius Soter. (12/645–707) During the reign of Demetrius Soter, the ­Romans conquered much of his land, including that great city that he and his ancestors had held—Alexandria, I mean. The Romans made it their capital. Though Demetrius wanted to flee to Egypt, he stayed there, living in sorrow and fear. He lost all the lands his forebears won. The Romans ruled there eighty years, and the king reigned as their minion for twelve years. His son Alexander then reigned for nine years, and after him his brother Demetrius reigned for four years and was followed by Antiochus Grypus, who governed for twelve years. During the reigns of these four kings, my source says, the entire country was subject to the Romans. This state continued until Fortune turned her hand during the reign of the Roman emperor Helius Adrianus, who married his daughter to a man called Phalon. This Phalon was Demetrius’s son. Through him, Syria returned to its rightful lord and ceased being subject to Rome. Phalon married the maiden called Solaber. She was appropriately named; everyone who saw her said they’d seen no one like her. Solaber and Phalon had a fair son called Zozimus, who

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became king after his father. Archenon and Archibelon also reigned, followed by Antigonus and then Claudace; son succeeded father as monarch of that land. Then came Borus, and then Claudace the Second. Claudace was Costus’s father, and Costus was Katherine’s father. So you can see of what lineage this woman, this lady, this virgin, descended. Here her line is completely shown, just as I promised. My author and I disagree in this account, for he departs from ancient chronicles in many respects. Where he agrees with them, I follow him; where he departs in his account of the succession, I disregard him. I give more credit to the accounts of those who recorded the succession before me and my author. But people will perhaps protest, “What’s the point of this long rehearsal of lineage, this account of men, numbers, and years that don’t mean anything? It strikes us as rather absurd, for though they were great lords, a lineage of heathens does no honor to God.” To this I reply in the words of Saint Jerome: “Christ came from heathens for this reason—to correct sinners; this was his goal.”21 Many sinners and scoundrels can be found in Christ’s genealogy. The same applies to my lady Katherine. (13/708–77) Now let me get back to my story. The lords who were summoned arrived. In preparation for the parliament, the city was stocked with plenty of food and other necessities. Lodgers lacked nothing; they had plenty of everything. The city was provisioned so that nothing would run out. The royal lords, barons, and knights came to do their service. Bishops and priests came together. They’ll have the chance to show their wisdom before they leave! Some lords came to do homage, and many ladies came for the queen’s sake. This maiden was crowned with all the rites that were used in those days instead of the Mass. They prayed that Jupiter and all the other gods bless her; no deity was overlooked. The lords all swore to obey her and uphold her rights. Then the customary great feasts began. There was plenty for everyone there—lord, lady, and pauper alike—in fact, there were more delicacies than I can describe! Everyone had plenty,

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both in the halls and in the pavilions. Such order and efficiency prevailed that no one needed to call for service. No gate was closed to anyone; everyone was welcome, both day and night. The tables were tended, the food prepared; as soon as one course was finished, in came another. There were tons of silver vessels. The parlors and chambers were full of women and men. The great palace at Alexandria was full of people—no one went away without being properly honored. Thus the lords—nine here, ten there—upheld their dignity. The city was full of aristocrats, both inside and out. Lords and ladies that were her relatives—some on her ­father’s side, some on her mother’s—came to the feast and were royally lodged. They spoke of nothing but courtesy, gentility, and pleasure. Everyone spoke of suitable things—except those who spoke of love.22 The best knights jousted; some fared better, some fared worse. The great arena was always occupied—there was always fighting but never war. Many noble men who had come from afar were tested in that place, both in wrestling and in shot put. After the jousts and revels and feasts had begun to die down, all of them took their leave and headed home. But before setting out, each lord accompanied by a lady was given two horses (one black as coal, the other white as bone), along with saddles and bridles of gold and silk. There were many more parting gifts than I can enumerate. Some were given milk-­white mantles adorned with brooches and many other ornaments. So they rode homeward, saying, “Farewell, God be with you.” Thus the parliament ended. Chapter 14: Queen Katherine

(14/778–847) This lady, according to the story, stayed in her chamber and kept to herself.23 She still lived with her mother the queen. She couldn’t stay away from her books; whoever interrupted her did great wrong. What would you think of someone

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who offends his lady? No one at the time dared do that. Study was her only joy, her only pursuit, for her heart at that time was set on nothing else. She thereby acquired great distinction after­ ward. Both intelligence and wisdom poured from her heart, just as the stream runs from the spring. She found fair fruit in study with her naturally sharp mind. No one dared allude to any ill-­doing in her presence. If he did, he offended her greatly; he could not advance in her service, that’s for sure. She didn’t hate the person, but only the sin. She couldn’t stop speaking of virtue. No wrong was ever found in that maiden, so pure was her self-­governance, both inside and out. In every situation, this queen proved steadfast and stable. She was a veritable saint—I really believe it—even though she wasn’t baptized. Cornelius was the same way: his prayer was heard—so says Scripture—before he was baptized in our lord God.24 That’s why Peter was sent to teach him the articles of faith. He already had faith, but it was weak. He was made into a sturdy limb for Christ. His faith did not cause his good works, but his works caused faith, the scholars say. So it was with this lady: though she wasn’t baptized, she practiced holy works by the spirit’s stirring, which made her fear sin and love virtue day and night. Her soul needed virtue just as eyes need light, as everyone knows by experience. This is why her noble presence nourished virtue and quenched vice. When she spotted men or women acting foolishly, she would not stop for fear or love until they were wisely taught. “It cannot be so,” she would say. “It’s not right. Without self-­control, a person is no more than an animal. What were you thinking when you did wrong? Even if I don’t see you, there’s one above us who does, and he rejects our service if he sees us doing wrong. This is my claim—this is what I believe, no matter what the priests say. I know well that above Jupiter and all the other gods is an eternal sovereign ruler. Whatever happens in this world, he is always in bliss, and he will be a good lord to those who love virtue. As is proper, he may bless whomever he wishes.”

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In this manner, that dear noble lady would exhort her servants. She was as familiar with them as if she were their equal. She would comfort the fearful and sickly. She was merry and glad at every amusement and serious, too, when the occasion warranted. She was well spoken and generous. Chapters 15–17: Complaints

(15/848–924) What is a land that has no head? The laws aren’t kept, the land lies desolate, with hearts hanging heavy as lead and the commoners always complaining and quarreling. Laws aren’t kept; rank isn’t respected. So said people throughout Syria: “Our king is now dead; our light is out. Other lands ravage us without mercy. We can do nothing but suffer. Though we ask, call, and cry for help, nobody rushes to our aid. This is what we feared would happen. Without a king, how can a country remain strong? We have forever lost our reputation and our land. “We have a queen who has nothing to do with people—she loves only books and learning. Who cares if our enemies run through our land? She’s always studying, always alone. This will be our ruin! If only she had a husband, all might be well. “Oh blind Fortune, how you turn your wheel up and down; he who once was on top lies low in care and trouble; he who thought he’d won his beloved’s heart gets nowhere near her the entire next week!25 Sometimes we’re healthy, sometimes we’re sick. Oh uncertainty! Fickle and changing earthly life, you are forever unstable. “How shall this kingless land survive? Heathendom has never been left in a woman’s hand. This maiden must be wedded­— and quickly!—to some king. Our land cannot remain like this. Damn wealth unless it honors its owner—that’s what it’s made for! We will go the way of those misers who hide their gold and are always saving, with the result that they derive no happiness or benefit from their riches. We, too, will end up having useless

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wealth. God forbid that the royal blood of our noble king should cease with this maiden. We will demand that she marry!” The people said: “Instead of ruling by justice, lords run the shires, the sessions, and the assizes just as they please.26 Will prevails over reason. Such governance does us no honor. “And what if we have to go to war? Who will lead us? A woman was never able to rule such a great and vast kingdom; she could not flaunt the battle standard in the enemy’s face. If we choose one of us as a captain, we will be torn by envy and discord.” This was the complaint throughout the land: “Why has our queen lived so long without a king?” This was the concern of every­one, high or low. “Why is she unmarried, this pretty, young thing? She’s very wise and very pleasing; surely she could have a husband. She’d better have one, if she wants to save us!” To address this matter, with common assent, they held an unauthorized assembly. They sent for certain lords whom they trusted to safeguard the common profit. They decided to send a letter, composed most carefully, to the queen and to her mother, also their lady. In the letter, they would beg them, as merciful and meek ladies, to cease allowing the lords of Greece to overrun them. This wasn’t the way things used to be. The letter was written thus: (16/925–73) “Let it be known to our ladies, the elder and the younger, that throughout Syria people are saying that they were never so likely to be subject to other lands as they are now. Therefore, they all beseech you, ladies, to have mercy upon your people and upon your lords. They cannot live unless they are defended. You are so meek and merciful that you surely won’t let this matter go! What is a lord without subjects? What is a people without a lord? Consider any kingdom in this entire world: unless it has a bold, fighting man, it is subdued. Syria, Cyprus, and rich Crete, with its rough sea, were never kingless before. We swear to God that we can’t live peacefully under these circumstances for long. We’ll never stop clamoring and crying and beseeching you, our dear ladies, to be governed and ruled by

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counsel. Consider how dearly beloved you are to us, and allow us to help you somewhat through our service. Let some pity run from your hearts, and let your people have some of their desire. This was the sure downfall of the men of Tyre: without a king, they couldn’t prosper. When Apollonius was dead and gone, every man was his own master. God forbid that it should ever be so in Syria. It was never seen—it should never be seen—and if it were seen, farewell happiness! “In short, this is our wish and the wish of the entire land; this is the conclusion of our great deliberations: that our young lady must be married. Let her choose—she’s wise, we know. She has a choice, for many would have her. God save you: Act on this matter! “This is all we’ll say for now. We request a prompt reply. We pray that God (to whom we all must bow) dispose you in such a way that before you get out of bed and come into the hall tomorrow, you will desire just as we do now.” (17/974–1043) The queen responded in writing. She said, “This thing must surely be done. It is unheard of that any lady, at any time, lived alone in her studies.” She was determined that her daughter, queen of the empire, shall be married soon to some worthy lord. She wrote this in her letter: “The queen of Syria, of Cyprus that was burned,27 of Crete, too, whose lands extend many a mile, wife of the late Costus, says this to her people. She acknowledges their manliness and loyalty. She wishes, as they do (and has for a long time), that her daughter should be wedded to some king. She never denied this but always wanted it. Look wherever and whenever you wish for an appropriate husband, for that’s what she wants. She dearly wishes that this matter be concluded. It would have been done long ago, had it been in her power. She thinks what they say is perfectly reasonable: to have a king is a very good practice, for a woman can neither act nor speak like a man, there’s no denying it. “Ask her yourselves, for you are all wise men. My daughter, I believe, will agree with you. She was never asked yet—neither

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by you, nor by me, nor by anyone else. Thus, she has never said no. We have no cause to blame her, for she has done nothing but right by us—and intends to do nothing but right! We’ll soon raise this matter with her. If she consents, then everything’s settled. “Nevertheless, this matter touches us all; one or two people can’t decide it, but we must call together the entire realm. Unless we do, great misfortune may come. Those far away as well as those nearby must be involved. You know very well that her uncle, the Duke of Tyre, must be informed, and also the Duke of Antioch, her cousin. If we want a lord or king, they must consent, they must conclude the agreement. “Let’s not ignore this matter any longer. We will hastily summon everyone, in his best attire, to Alexandria, where we reside. They shall speak and listen all they want. I swear to God that nobody will be prevented from speaking.” This was the content of the queen’s letter. The people read it and were satisfied: “God save our lady!” they cried with one voice. So ends this book about the birth, kindred, and land of this pure virgin, told with her gracious help. Now we will honor her with a new book, as well as we can write, describing her great conflict with her lords during the parliament that was held ­royally in great Alexandria. Many a stout lord came boldly to that city. That tale will take a long time to tell, so let’s take a break right here.

Book 2

The Marriage Parliament

Prologue: Katherine’s Virtues

(1–70) When you see fair and bright sparks flicker in the air, you can reasonably infer that fire is near; experience tells you so. It’s obvious that sparks don’t fly to and fro unless there’s a fire. The same principle applies to this lady. Her holy words and deeds were signs that her heart was seeking her spiritual spouse; she didn’t stop until she found the blessed lord. She didn’t yet know him personally, as she would later, but she had God’s signs. She knew neither the road nor the rood.1 She didn’t yet know Christ, nor had she heard his laws, and yet the flames of charity and love burned in her so strongly that her heart was entirely set on the one who sits above. I think the dove that hovered over Christ when he was baptized had made his nest in her.2 At any rate, I know this for sure: she couldn’t stop talking about the great virtue we call virginity. Who could have imagined that she would so earnestly desire a way of life that was not practiced in that land. No one wanted her to be a maiden: “She has got to marry,” they said. As anyone can see, the more fuel is on hand the greater the fire; take away the firewood and the flame will die. The more this lady’s virtues lived, the greater they grew. Indeed, they 45

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turned like a circle, each virtue following right after the other. When one has come, it summons its fellow. They live together as sister and brother. Each pulls as hard as it can until all have arrived. Start again as soon as you are through. That’s the way they’ve cast their circular course. This is why she hated all fleshly lusts: she was so inscribed in the circle that she resolved never to fall from the wheel. Her heart was so tied to virtues that they were joined forever, securely bound together. It only stands to reason, in my opinion, that vices should have had no place in her. These Latin books agree, I believe. Her name, they say, is so full of grace that it can destroy sinful life. This is what it means, beyond any doubt: the Greek word “cata” means “over all” or “all” in English; “ryne” means “falling” in our language.3 Thus, one can conclude that all the turmoil of sin and shame was vanquished—it couldn’t approach her. These holy virtues were so dear to her that the whole flock of vices was locked out! Oh noble lady who lives in heaven, allow our tongues, however unworthy, to recount your life, your yearning, and your ­secret love, and to recount the sorrow and the struggle with your lords that you suffered as a scholar. We’ll apply ourselves to that task straightaway. Chapters 1–31: The Marriage Parliament

(1/71–154) There was nothing to do but ride, walk, and run. Messengers dashed out to summon all kinds of men to parliament, commanding that they come in their best attire. S ­ cholars must come, because they’re so wise, and lords, too, because they’re so strong. This gathering was not delayed long, for, as I read, within three weeks everyone had arrived—the Prince of Cappadocia with a great company, the Earl of Jaffa right by his side. People could clearly see whose horsemanship was best! The Prince of Paphos came there, too, and the Duke of Damascus, and many others. The royal Dukes of Salence and of

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Garacen were there, as well as the Earl of Limassol. These three royal lords had many noble lords with them. The powerful Admiral of Alexandria received them with due respect. The noble Duke of Tyre came, too. Finally, a worthy man, Katherine’s own close cousin, the Duke of Antioch, made his appearance. Everyone was sure that he would settle this matter, for he and Katherine were descended from the same line. He couldn’t fail to plant his will in her heart. The appointed day arrived. The lords were all assembled in a hall that was fully two hundred paces long. (Men who were there at the time measured it themselves—there aren’t many buildings like it in the world!) They chose a great lord from among themselves to speak for everyone. He was called the Speaker, though I don’t know his name. He calmly approached this meek lady, and then he said, “My sovereign lady, do not be displeased. I beg you to forgive me, for I must speak a truth you may not like. I am a servant, employed and paid by you, my lady, on many occasions. I have also been chosen to voice the needs of your realm, of your lords and others—of everyone, including your mother. She wishes, and they wish, that you, my dear lady—and my lord the Duke of Tyre, your uncle, also wishes; you can see him right over there—anyhow, why am I dithering? You need to leave your study and your books and take your pleasures by fields and brooks! “Think of your kindred! Think of your lineage! If you remain single, your noble line will end with you. No soothsayer, no philosopher here will deny that the gods would not be pleased if you do this. They would be better pleased—and so would your people—if you would consent to have a husband, a royal lord to defend us all. If we are to stay in the gods’ good graces, you must agree. Think of the good you would do your people. Don’t deny what cannot be denied, for this is an option that can’t be refused. “What lord alive could see you without wanting you? He’d want you all the more, I dare say, if he knew how wise you are. He’d desire you in every way, forsaking crown and kingdom

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rather than lose you. Whoever lays eyes on you wouldn’t want to part from you. “Therefore, lady, your servants have come to beseech you to hear our prayer. This is the only reason we are gathered here. You can give us pleasure or pain, as you please. Your answer, lady, will cause one or the other.” (2/155–231) Upon hearing his words, this lady was completely taken aback. “Oh noble God,” she thought, “how I wish I weren’t a queen, for I don’t know how to—nor am I able to— refute the wisdom of that wise man. I must reveal the commitment I’ve cherished so long, yet that seems wrong, for revealing my innermost perfection would be boasting, and when vainglory comes, virtue goes.4 Virtue is meant to please God alone and not the people, so I’ve read. But if I conceal my intent, everyone will be upset with me. If I refuse my people’s request without explaining why, they’ll lose faith in me. Whatever I do has risks! Yet I wonder that my heart is so firmly committed to something that violates the very laws I’ve sworn to uphold and defend. My mind is like a great ship on the waves: just as it seems to have escaped danger, the wave’s crest spills over it, then retreats. I’m afraid I’m in the same situation. “How I hoped to live in peace!5 Now, if I wish to please my mother, my relatives, and my people, I must abandon my ­studies and all my desires. I must leave my studies, chuck my book in the mud, dress fashionably, and ride out hunting. God, you know my innermost thoughts: I have made an entirely different resolution. If I can keep it, I will, God, I promise. Lord, should I change my ways and ride through the woods under the boughs? I never enjoyed it—how should I like it now?”6 These were the maiden’s private thoughts; she sighed softly and groaned. Then she spoke loudly, for everyone to hear: “I suppose you’re right. Yet, by God, since this thing must be done, won’t you have the courtesy to give me some time to d ­ eliberate on a matter that involves me so intimately? I’m not going to run away! It seems you’re in too much of a hurry, while I’m in no hurry at all. If I were proposing to rush into marriage, you’d say

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I’m still young and have plenty of time. Let’s drop this matter for a few years, until I’m older. In the meantime, I’ll be thinking of a suitable attachment. I don’t want people to say I’m hasty or foolish. Indeed, I won’t be rushed. To avoid misfortune and misjudgment, I promise I won’t marry without telling all of you. What more can I say? Time flies, and in waiting, people say, there’s hope. Thus we’ll both proceed carefully—that’s the best course, I think. Let the people grumble and gripe, as they usually do. The choice is mine; I must consent. Give me time to think, I ask. This is all I have to say for now.” (3/232–80) Then a man of great stature arose—they say he was a rich man, too. A scholar there had diligently taught him what to say, down to the last detail, because he didn’t feel competent to speak on his own. “My own lady,” he said, “this land is paying dearly for your father’s absence. I myself have lost a thousand pounds since he died, and so, I’m sure, have others. We came here to hear what you plan to do—and you ask us for time to think! You might have started thinking long ago, had you wished. There’s little profit in long delay. That is, you know, a bird in hand is worth three in the sky!7 ‘The gray horse may die of hunger waiting for his grass to grow,’ so the proverb goes. Every wise man knows as well as I that the sore may swell a long time before the herb grows and ripens—a great clerk of Viterbo said so once, and wrote it in his book. We need to provide for a king now who can rule us all, enforce the law, punish traitors, and lead lords into battle. You aren’t cut out for such leadership! You don’t have the stamina to see a man slain by your side, to see his bowels cut from his belly and burned before him while he’s still alive, to see a man carved like a lamb, his guts torn and cut and extracted.8 You could never witness that without fainting! Therefore, it’s best that you take a lord who can manage all this, who can watch men float or sink,9 have them punished when they do wrong and rewarded when they do well. This is what I mean, in short: Marry or we’ll just be more distressed.” (4/281–315) This lady replied to this lord, “I dare say my father’s absence hurts me more than it hurts you all. Still, even

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if he’d lived, he was only one man. Without followers, how could he accomplish more than a single man? Why do you make such a fuss about the loss of one man? While he was alive, you could defend yourselves, even if he didn’t go along with you. You struck dread in your enemies and kept them in line. When did my lord father last lead you into battle? Not for many years. Now that he’s gone, continue on as you did. During campaigns you appointed a general—you can do so now—someone that no lord would dare gainsay. Good sirs, tell me why you can’t do that now? Why do you need to grumble and curse so? You say that you’ve suffered great losses. I know as well as you that many thefts and great crimes were cunningly hidden from my father, and some were punished without his knowledge. He wanted it so. Can’t it be done the same way now? You have my permission to pursue your enemies, destroy their lands, and burn their houses. How have I prevented you from hanging traitors? Tell me! Be as fair to me as I am to you.” (5/316–78) Then a rich prince arose called Clarus, Prince of Cappadocia. Falling to his knees, he said, “Madam, your thoughts may be hidden, but your name, your knowledge, and your fame are known to everyone. Still, you can’t act or command like a man. Your father—God keep his soul—is dead and gone. Whatever people say, we’re likely to suffer care and woe because he is gone and you are left as our queen. We are perfectly happy to have you, but it’s still a great change—a woman (and a maiden, at that) instead of a man. We just can’t believe that you can save us. I’ll tell the truth, even if you think I’m raving: You’ll weep if you cut your finger! How can you expect us to believe that you can fix the wrongs that were just spoken of? It’s a king’s duty to protect his castles and defend his people. Now everything’s turned upside down! A woman hasn’t the strength to defend a realm—we’ll need to defend you! “Though you’re the fairest woman alive (that’s my opinion, and many others think so), it will suit you to become a wife, my lady, and (should you wish) to have one or two children. We’d be happy if you’d have twelve! It would please your mother and yourself.

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“What good does all your wealth do for us locked away in a chest when you could use it to make armor? The land of Cappadocia would pay well if you would consent to an honorable marriage. And even though you’re the wisest person in the world, you’ll have to agree that you lack one thing. Nature cannot—and will not—give strength to women. They lack it! Instead of strength, nature has given them beauty. Though you’re fair and wise, you lack the physical strength to quell the crimes that are now rife. You need to mete out death and vengeance— whether it be to man, maid, or wife. I’m telling you the truth. This is a king’s life—he has to work to maintain his position, often displeasing some of his people. You’re just not suited for this, we think. Therefore, we want you to consent to this course of ­action: don’t live alone—I mean, without a husband—as you have done up until now. Settle this matter; don’t leave us hanging. Then our effort and expense will be well rewarded.” (6/379–448) “My word, sir,” the queen replied, “your tenderness toward me shows that you love me well—you love my honor and want to save my lands. Thank you, sir. I’m not saying that you rave but rather that you’ve spoken wisely in everything. I’m indebted to you for your advice. “Still, it seems to me that if things were as bad as you say— God forbid!—you wouldn’t have any peace to plow your fields. Therefore, I think it can’t be so. As for conquest, lords, don’t think about that. Your lands were handed down to you before you could walk—before you were conceived! You’ve never had to fight for your towns or your lands. Where are your captives? There’s been no war since I was born, except on our borders— and that doesn’t concern you, since we, not you, provide for the soldiers (and I’m not suggesting that this change). “Take heart and don’t be afraid! You don’t need to arm yourselves unless we summon you. You live in peace, as many others do; don’t complain until you have something to complain about! “You say that I couldn’t stand to render judgments and exe­ cute felons properly. As a woman, I’m not capable of presiding

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over such carnage—my pitiful heart would sink like lead! Thus, you conclude, I should be hastily married. “Here’s my answer—and you must agree that I’m right: A king has such great power over his people that he can free or imprison whomever he wishes. He can spare those who are condemned to be hanged and drawn. He can do all that because he’s above the law. Thus I, instead of fainting away, can spare the unworthy. My father did so often. Look around—some of those he spared are right here! I’ll accept your arguments when they amount to anything. “I’m amazed that you don’t consider that a king has deputies to punish scoundrels precisely because his gentle heart cannot bear to see men bleed or hurt. I don’t need to give names. We have many such deputies, sir, to take care of precisely those matters. Whoever kills, fights, robs, or steals is put down by our officers— well, not exactly by them, but by the law that is terrible enough to slay wrongdoers. The officers are just servants of the law. As you know very well, they derive their power from me, just as they did from my father. Let them judge, let them condemn and save: That’s their duty. I don’t need to be involved in such conflicts, because they will condemn the man, maiden, or wife who does wrong. And I will be to those judges both king and queen.” (7/449–83) Then the Earl of Jaffa, Sir Ananias, stood up and made this reply to the lady: “It is very dangerous to be both a maiden and a queen, especially if any rising or schism were to arise, for there’s no doubt that people would be more afraid of a king than they are of you. The people are doing wrong: Don’t you see how many people, in every town throughout your land, carry on like maniacs? You can’t deny it: they fight, flee, rob, and steal. As far as I can see, you don’t take any of this seriously—it’s as if you don’t care! “By God, you set more store in an old book and take more pleasure from it than from war or jousts or love. People say your books will be the end of you. What good do they do you, anyhow? By God, they can save neither man nor beast; they dull a man’s mind, weaken his body, and make him blind!

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“May whoever first taught you be hanged—he’s certainly worthy of it, for he has brought you to such a state that you let joy and happiness slip away from you! You’re always sitting, kneeling, and lying about with your books. Oh madam, how you waste your time! I weep so hard I may no longer rhyme!10 For God’s love and your people’s sake, change your ways and set your book aside. Stop looking at those black letters, for, by my faith, study will be your ruin. Seize your chance at happiness and take a husband. Then your body will be healthier, your heart happier!” (8/484–567) “You say you want me married because people aren’t afraid of me. If any dissent arose in this country, I would probably not be able to resolve it because people don’t take me seriously. You would be more afraid of a man than you are of me. “Here’s my response: I know as well as you that a single man, no matter how wise and strong, can accomplish no more than I can. His people may be foolish and misguided; he can’t amend what’s wrong all by himself. His lords must help him govern, or else he can’t accomplish much. You do your part, and I’ll do mine! Be true to my crown and to me. This land will be in good shape, if you keep treason from your hearts. How happy we’d be then, oh noble God! “Do you want to hear how people often lead kings astray? I’ll prove it by an example: There was once a king who lived happily way out east, in Babylon. His name was Nebuchadnezzar, and his people made him do wrong. Nebuchadnezzar had a good, abstemious priest, a prophet—he could foretell famine and plague. The only thing wrong with him was that he didn’t worship our gods. His name was Daniel, and at the people’s insistence he was cast to two lions. That’s what the people wanted, and the king didn’t dare withstand them—willy-­nilly, he had to do it! He was certainly sorry afterward, for Daniel was saved through God’s grace.11 (If only I knew which God he served, the God who manifested his power so clearly in such lowly people.) There: You can see how people’s demands make kings err. The opinion of stupid men often makes a lord act badly; they incite him and unhinge him. Who cares for their silly demands!

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“You say, too, that in my best interest I must leave my books and abandon my learning. What harm, by God, have my books done you, sirs? Worldly governance would be worthless were it not for these books.12 They are essential to a person’s improvement: our minds are such that all knowledge slips away, but it can be regained through books. How should we know that the first man was called Adam and that his wife was Eve were it not for a book called Genesis? (I saw it once and read it in an evening. That book is not yet recognized by our faith; I think it should be because it records the deeds of our ancestors.) Who would know about the worthy conquests of our forebears if books did not record them? We can forget what we did this year! We need books to remind us of what we’ve forgotten. You must back down, sir, for I dare say that neither God’s law nor man’s would be known were it not for our books. Our priests eagerly consult them when they preach about Jupiter or his brother Neptune at a festival or on a holy day. Let’s change the subject. Don’t blame what is fully respectable. I’ll be angry if you curse my teacher. You’d do better to say your prayers. (I hate having to say that and only do so because of the oath I took to maintain everything that pertains to our gods and their sacrifice!)” (9/568–609) Then a lord called Sir Hercules, prince of the great country of Paphos, spoke up. Everyone hushed to hear him speak, for his authority was considerable, especially given his age. His words were consistent with his looks. So he began: “My dear lady, when something must be done, it is better to act at once than to live in uncertainty by waiting a year or two. Are you paying attention? Don’t you remember what Ovid wrote: ‘Correct wrongs right away, for medicine is too late when the ­patient is dead and borne by his friends to the grave’?13 Your lands, lady, are widespread. It’s many a mile from here to Famagusta. How would you and your company ride such a distance? And if you go by sea, the rough salt water will undoubtedly frighten you. What I say now is for your own good. The land of Cyprus, which I just journeyed through, is far away. Only a man can do what needs to be done—mentally and physically—riding

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and sailing all over to oversee the realm, sometimes here, sometimes in Famagusta. That’s how he’ll govern the land, the sea, and the strand. Then you can take up your books and study all you want—we won’t mind. I think that you would surely want this, that is, to have more leisure and spend your time as you wish. Many things that often bother you now would not bother you then. Therefore, if you want peace and quiet, follow our advice. It will be to your benefit in the future.” (10/610–65) “Thank you, sir, for your good advice,” said the queen. “If you’re the man you’ve always been, your power and wisdom will do us much good and, I predict, no one will challenge us. There will be no war on Paphos or Cyprus as long as you live—I’m not at all afraid! If only the entire land were like Cyprus, I could study and do all the things I can’t do now! You would please God if you would instill your knightly manners in the young men here. I would reward you well to give them jousting lessons! You would be well honored—even if you didn’t succeed in teaching them to hold their round shafts—by the god who rules all battles, Mars, I mean, whose knight you’ve been. I would praise you more if it weren’t inadvisable to praise men to their face. “I don’t see how the loss of my father has hurt your lands; his death hasn’t affected you greatly. If I were married, as you wish, how would your ills be eased? The man has never been born— no matter how wise, manly, strong, fierce, and fit—who can be in all those places you mentioned.14 Even if he were protected from all harm, carried safely within the walls of a strong ship, no matter how skillfully he rides, he cannot be in two places at once. Just as a stone at rest can only be found where it was set, one man cannot simultaneously be in different places. To say otherwise is condemned as heresy! Therefore, we conclude thus: every person at rest stays in a place determined by nature or the gods until he chooses to move. This is the soundest conclusion: whoever is here is here and nowhere else. For example, whoever is in great Alexandria is not in Famagusta. A man traveling along the coast must move himself and his men, eat at noon,

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and rest in the evening, as his journey demands. I can do that, too, though I’m a woman. Your argument doesn’t convince me.” (11/666–93) The Duke of Damask, angry with her answer, stood up and said, “In my youth I learned this: The people must obey the king, love him and fear him until their death, for they are bound to do so—and we accept that obligation. But a king is also bound to love his people, rich and poor, and to maintain right and truth among them so that they come to no harm. You’ve sworn to that, madam, and you know better than I what it is to break an oath. Reason cannot, and shall not, make you angry. This was your oath, if you recall: to provide for your land, for man and town, in such a way that all wrongs should be promptly addressed. You cannot fulfill this oath any other way than by marrying some worthy man, as we demand. ‘Where there is no lord, there is no law,’ people say. Now, by my faith, I can’t imagine that any woman, much less a maiden, could subdue us, should we start fighting with each other. You bear us down with your philosophy, but in the end you must surely yield.” (12/694–714) “Sir,” said the queen, “you seem to be claiming that I want to leave you without governance. That was never my intent! It wouldn’t be to anyone’s benefit—least of all mine. I am keeping the oath I made, and I will continue to do so until I die. You can babble and reason as much as you like, for all I care, but this much, sir, I will say: My father left you in peace, with no conflicts either occurring or likely to occur. If any conflict arises you can put it down yourselves, and unless you do so, you are being untrue not only to me but to the majesty of my throne and deserve to die. Think more carefully about what you’re saying!” (13/715–70) A great scholar then stood up. He was very clever, I believe, and he thought he’d pursue this matter more deeply. To that end, he said this to the queen: “These lords cannot comprehend your arguments, lady, or appreciate how cogently you hold your own. You are learned and they are not; it’s no wonder they’re stymied. And yet I wonder greatly that you set little store by that highest degree, that is, the crown. Who can be expected to honor it if you don’t? Given who you are, I

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would have thought that you would promote the crown more than any woman. What’s wrong with you? I’m tempted to think you’re not yourself. This matter cuts straight through to my heart. I think you’ve become intoxicated with poetry, especially the work of that Valerius, who seems to want no one to marry: that was his advice to Ruffinus, as you know.15 ‘Oh, what need is there for me to rehearse the sorrow and distress that adhere to the fickle wheel of matrimony,’ this old author Valerius writes in the book I just mentioned. But though poor people may find themselves in bad marriages, the nobles with whom we want you to ally yourself are another matter. “You are certainly being contrary. You just said that you would have someone to be our governor. Who should that be but a king? No man can govern this great realm unless he’s your husband. Because my lord your uncle cannot marry you, even in his dreams, he can’t wear the crown. It’s up to you to determine who will. You once agreed that we shall have a governor, and now you’re contradicting yourself, saying you’re not ready to marry. You tell me if you’re being consistent! I don’t think so— you change back and forth, now saying you will and now saying you won’t. How can we know your purpose when you’re so variable? Tell us plainly what you mean, lady. We’re your people. Remember that you’re our queen.” (14/771–833) “Sir,” said the queen, “you lords are many and wise. Why do you need to worry when you’re young, lusty, and healthy? Your lands aren’t lacking in crops, men, or prosperity. I am much more amazed about you, sir, than you claim to be amazed about me. You say that I’m deceiving my beloved lords with my words—don’t even think such a thing of me! I don’t deserve it. Deceivers are truly despicable. “You claim that I despise a king, that I trample the office of kingship underfoot.16 Though I am not inclined to grant your request that I marry, I have certainly come of royal stock, as everyone knows, both on my father’s side and on my mother’s. Do you think I despise that high estate, ordained by God and passed down to me by inheritance? God forbid that I be found

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guilty of such an offense! I know very well that a king is above his subjects, who both fear and love him, and that they are his buttresses. You know as well as I that, without their help, a king’s power amounts to little. “As for your claim, I’m arguing fairly: I’m not giving words any meanings but the ones they should have; my words are perfectly consistent. God help me, my purpose is set and will not waver. You complain that because I agreed to a governor I ­promised you a king, lord of town and tower. Abandon your sophism! You won’t succeed in making an ell from an inch! Let’s suppose a man gave you a beast; it doesn’t follow that he gave you an ox—he may equally well have chosen to give you a horse or a fox. Your arguments have come from Aristotle’s subtle Elenkes, designed to make those who learn them seem wise.17 What I granted you was to choose a duke to lead you—not one to govern me, for he must bow to my will. This is what I will permit you, and thus you’ll have your will and I’ll have mine. This is my answer, sir.” (15/834–61) “Madam,” said the Earl of Limassol, “all these lords are amazed at your impressive reasoning. They also complain about your cunning. Your words are sharp—they can bind and cut—but had you been as other women are, you would have done as other women do. Your learning will harm us—there’s no escaping it. We expected something great of you, but nothing has turned out as we thought. In many matters, a person can be too wise. Moderate your thinking, madam. For the love of God, who is our governor, accept our wits and rely somewhat less on yours. “It would be unheard of to do what you tell us, that is, to choose someone to lead us. He might wrest much of your land from your control into his own hands. Think carefully—this matter is very complicated. And however much we tried to please him, he wouldn’t please us so long as you lived; our hearts wouldn’t rest easy unless he were our lord, just as you are our lady. It would be impossible to submit willingly to one of our peers, and we can’t go on like this.”

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(16/862–75) Then that fair sweet maiden answered, “Sir earl,” she said, “there’s only one thing I refuse to do, and here’s why: I don’t want any man to wrest my virginity from me unless I know him better. I say now as I said before: I’ll wait until a better time comes, a year or two, when I’m older. I think it’s too soon for me to bow to your will and marry. If you don’t want one governor, then I’ll grant you two or three men, who will be able to govern without arousing envy.18 Whatever you argue, I’m being reasonable.” (17/876–910) Then the admiral of the great city of Alexandria said this: “Your friends think that your words don’t match your reputation for wisdom. Watch out that you don’t throw everything away and lose the good reputation that you could so greatly enhance. Look how you respect your own great position! Why do you scorn what every lady must have? Why do you despise the very thing that can save your lands and yourself ? If you weren’t my lady, I’d think you raved. If your ideas were sound, more people would have advanced them! People say, madam, that someone who departs from common practice is crazier and more wrongheaded than a shortsighted fool who doesn’t know the best from the worst. Take care not to keep erring; don’t set yourself or your land up for a fall. Consider the consequences now! You know that I’m the guardian of this great city. And in this city right now there are many different people; both Christian and heathen mingle freely. Sometimes I don’t know what to do. I live in such fear that I don’t know who will stand by me when I need a friend. “I see another danger, madam, if you will hear me out: every­one esteems and loves you, but you don’t consider anybody worthy of you. This aloofness won’t turn out well. Think of others who have waited for a long time and at last chose the wrong path.”19 (18/911–31) “Though they may have done so,” said this noble queen, “I will not, by the grace of God above. I’m not at all concerned with matters of lust or love. Who cares for those who are! Don’t worry about me. Don’t be afraid until you hear something

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more. As for the people you dwell among, don’t you have the power and authority to expel those who might harm our realm through malice or deceit? Since you can, why don’t you? Anyone who hinders you deserves to die! You are a large man with big bones: if your heart were as big as your body, you could do more good alone than three men put together. It’s a real shame that a man like you should fear any of his subjects when he can discipline them himself. I imagine you could subdue twelve men all by yourself!” (19/932–59) Another duke then approached. His name was Sir Clamadour, a worthy man and Duke of Antioch, the queen’s cousin and a very famous man. “Your teachers have a lot to answer for, in my opinion,” he said to the queen, “for you are so much smarter and more cunning than we are. What’s there to say? You fly above us like an eagle! But insofar as you are still a maiden and also a queen, it’s your duty to nurture those who fear and love you. Don’t despise them, though they’re dull—unlike you, who are full of wisdom, I suppose (and God knows you’re wise enough, in fact, too wise). Though we aren’t as wise as you are, you must at least admit that we mean well. If you don’t, people are bound to say that you disdain the humble and exaggerate your wisdom out of all proportion. Why don’t you believe us? We are your subjects and servants. We are your counselors, whom you shouldn’t spurn.20 You should trust us, for I think that a matter may turn out better the more wise heads are applied to it.” (20/960–1008) “Cousin,” she said, “you adamantly praise a king. But tell me why one man should govern many, ordering and commanding them and sending them far and near? Why does he have such sovereignty over all people that no one has over him? Why is he lord of land, body, and limb? In olden days, because of the strife and quarrels among the people, and in order to staunch envy and hate, people were compelled to choose a leader to govern them. This was why they chose a king—­otherwise they would have fought about many things, for when there are only peers, no one will do another’s will: one

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says, ‘here’; another says, ‘there.’ Conflict breaks out between brothers; sometimes the son fights with his mother. So kings were chosen for this reason: to set things right that had gone wrong. Some were chosen for their wisdom and cunning, some for strength, some for humanity. The chronicles will confirm what I say. So, a king’s authority puts him above his people, some of whom may be just as wise as he is. This servitude came out of freedom. The people were once free and had no lord; each man ruled himself. Thus they lost their liberty: by free election, ten or twelve of them were drawn away; they should no longer dig or do any other labor but rather rule the country. And they themselves must bow to their head.21 “If you want to know what I think, I’ll tell you plainly: no man, no matter how smart or strong he is, will win me—that is, marry me—unless he’s so strong that he can fight all his enemies on his own. That’s my decision. Let’s not speak of this matter any longer. So help me God, I will never break this vow. You can talk, argue, clatter, and creak: when all is said and done, this will be the upshot. Therefore, you should just forget about the issue.” (21/1009–29) Then there was plenty of sorrow and lamentation. They mourned and complained greatly when they saw where the matter had ended. Everyone was worried. Katherine’s mother the queen began to sigh and groan. She said, “Daughter, you aren’t acting in your best interest; don’t commit yourself to such a dangerous plan. I think you’ve lost your senses! What do you want? Do you know what you’re saying? There isn’t a man in Greece or Rome, or in the whole world, that can do what you want, namely, manage a land of this size on his own. What do you expect? You want the impossible! Take a day and think this over until you change your mind. Are you so deranged that you want the impossible? Damn those who brought you to this pass, determined to do what no one does. They’re scoundrels in every respect.” (22/1030–36) “Madam,” she said, “I don’t know who made me so determined to act this way, but I am so set that I may not abandon my purpose. My resolve is so fixed that I can’t slip

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away. Whether I walk, sit, kneel, or lie, I cannot forsake or shake this plan.” (23/1037–50) Then the queen wept bitterly and said to the lords, “All is lost! What shall we say or do? I regret the hour she was born: her heart is hard, and tough as a thorn. I can’t begin to reason with her—no one can! What do you say, cousin, lord and duke of Tyre? What will happen? Can you say anything more? As far as I’m concerned, the horse is stuck in the mud: I’m completely at a loss! She has stunned me: she won’t marry; she’ll remain a maiden! Worrying about her will send me to an early grave!” (24/1051–85) Then Katherine’s uncle, Gaufron, got up. He was her subject and Duke of Tyre. He had seen many things and survived many dangers. As her next of kin, he could speak his mind frankly. “Madam,” he said, “what makes such a wise young woman want something so irregular? It’s downright unnatural! What you are bound and determined to do baffles me: Are you really planning to keep your body from all men? What good was your birth if you won’t do as your mother and father did? You wouldn’t be here had your mother not brought you into this world with much care and fear. Follow the footsteps of those who went before you! If you don’t, you’re wronging all the children you would otherwise have borne. I don’t think you realize the harm you’re doing if you don’t drop your ­present plans and avoid the sin of being a king’s daughter and dying both maiden and queen. I advise you to abandon this affected chastity. Don’t overstep your bounds. Don’t wish for the impossible. Take my word for it: the woman isn’t born who can achieve what you aspire to!” (25/1086–113) “Uncle,” she said, “I’d hate to climb so high that I couldn’t get down. I expect that such an end would grieve us both, ruin our land, and destroy our crown. God forbid that we should come to such a pass! To your claim that I should be happy to have a lord to govern us all, I reply, no—it would only be a bother. If he happened to be loving and gentle and set his heart entirely on me, if he loved me and I loved him best of all,

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how bad do you think I’d feel if he died or were slain in battle and I were to lose what I love most? Besides, it might happen— though I know such things are rare—that we stop loving each other. How would that make me happy? I’ll avoid such risks to begin with! Are you really advising me to play a game that’s safe for neither commoners nor aristocrats? For all its joys, sorrow is everywhere; strife is always mixed with pleasure. I’ll despise a way of life that has no security and constant risk. I’ll cling to a manner of living and loving that’s always stable!” (26/1114–27) “Oh mercy, God!” said the great Baldak, who was lord and prince of Palestine at the time. “No one can deal with my lady. She’s so artful that we can’t persuade her. There’s not a philosopher or a prophet she respects. Her arguments are so clever, she dismisses anything we say! I’m telling you now, madam, as others have said before: we need a leader, if we’re to get anything done. Consider the situation: From Gorgalus’s time22 until your own birth more than three hundred years have passed, yet conditions were never such as they are now, madam, in any of your lands. Your joy will be our sorrow!” (27/1128–41) “What do you want?” said this noble queen, “Haven’t you entrusted both crown and land to me? I am your lady; you are all my subjects. I know very well what sovereignty requires. Every action requires two things: good counsel and execution. We shall take care of the counsel, sir—we shall tell you how things are to be done; 23 the work and labor are your responsibility. You aren’t entitled to hold your great lordship for nothing. The land of Palestine was passed down to you through your elders, who were entrusted with it in exchange for serving my crown. You are sworn to do the same!” (28/1142–69) Then the lord of Nicopolis spoke words that seemed very wise. His name was Sir Eugene. He spoke thus to the queen: “The crown is so valuable that no man can attain it without strength and wisdom. Therefore, I say that we must be ruled by one who has both the wisdom and the strength to obtain his desires, or the realm will be torn apart. Let us be ruled as other lands are. Let’s suppose that they are as wise as

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we, for, as the astronomer Ptolemy says, ‘Whoever will not do as his neighbor does and will not learn from the mistakes of others will be scorned by everyone: “Look at this man! It’s the one who won’t follow anyone’s example and will turn out to be an e­ xample for all! Everyone should learn from him, for they should see that his works are misguided.”’24 What more should I say, madam? I think we should follow the example of ten or twelve people rather than just one. That’s my argument.” (29/1170–97) The queen replied gravely to this lord: “I’d like all of you to tell me this—all you who agree that I must entrust myself to another against my will: What if the man I choose to be your lord has neither of these things, that is to say, neither wisdom nor strength? What do you say now? Who shall rule your far-­flung lands then? Neither the weakling nor the fool can do so. Then you’ll grieve and curse the day that you became subject to such a fool. You would have to rule him—to counsel and advise him so that he doesn’t make mistakes. This situation would honor neither me nor my family! And surely I have good reason not to marry, for I would pass from joy and happiness and make myself a slave; excuse me, for I certainly shall not do that! Since you say I’m so wise, then I have one thing that sovereignty requires. No one but a fool will deny that it’s better, when there’s no other alternative, to choose one thing than to lack both. Come now, and choose!” (30/1198–225) A great scholar, the duke of the city of ­Athens, also knelt before the queen. He had long been a teacher and was chosen duke by the people, who were then free to select whomever they wished as their leader. He began his speech by saying this: “We assumed up until now, lady, that you descended from the gentle blood of your mother and of your father. But our opinion is changed, for it seems you are no relation! If you were, you couldn’t help following the footsteps of your elders, just like a royal seed growing out of the ground. Nature would ensure you were like them, however much you protested. And according to our philosophy, the branch takes its flavor—sweet or sour—naturally from its root. Furthermore, our books say

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that like seeks like. For all these reasons, it seems that either you did not come rightly to this empire or else you do not want to be happy. I can’t say any more—I’m speaking rudely, but I’m so upset I can’t help it.” (31/1226–60) The queen answered the duke, saying, “Your argument seems sound, showing that you hale from Athens, seat of wisdom, where study and intelligence prevail. Anyone who wants to learn anything should go there. But though you are endowed with too much worldly wisdom and speak too plainly to be answered with sophistry, I will refute your reasoning with substance, if you will listen. If people pay attention, they may often see diverse fruit growing from a tree: the tree that once bore green fruit now bears various red or white fruit. This is what I mean by this example: My mother is a queen and so am I; we’re the same in this respect, but we differ in that I am a maiden—I can’t deny it. It seems that I am like a graft that God planted on an old stock of another kind and flavor. And if by some miracle it could, the old stump that has been split in four with many strokes would do better to follow the graft than the graft to follow it. Such is my relationship with my elders: they would do better to live alone like me than I would do to be like them. I certainly won’t follow their course, where joy is just like a dream. Farewell father, mother, and uncle: when their advice isn’t profitable, I’ll follow a course that I consider firm and stable.” Chapters 32–33: Parliament Adjourns and Reconvenes

(32/1261–372) When they had said everything they could, they adjourned for a while to reconsider their strategy, seeking to find some way of obtaining satisfaction from this maiden. On a designated day, they reassembled to hear her direct answer. They chose a wise and clever scholar as their spokesman. His face was pale from studying, which was all he loved. With everyone’s consent, he had composed a speech to give, if he had the chance. Unless she listened, all was lost.

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“There are four things within you, madam,” he said, “which should move you to marry. If you command, I will declare them now. The first is the great dignity of your royal blood. I believe that nobody in this entire world has such a lofty pedigree. The second is also obvious to everyone, namely, your beauty, may God save it! No one alive has seen anyone fairer—may your beauty last until you die. The blessed lady Minerva has given you the third, which is intelligence—it is laid on you too thickly to fall off! The fourth is your great wealth—I can’t tell how great it is; I doubt anyone could guess. Permit me, lady, to express my arguments in a way that pleases you and benefits your people. “First, consider your blood, the royal stock and line from which you were born. This should incline you to agree to our wishes. Don’t you realize what lords you descend from? King Alexander, who conquered the entire world, was your relative. So was the noble king who founded this city, Babel, I mean. And many of your other ancestors made a good showing while they lived. Consider this, madam, for God’s sake: since they were all married and each had a mate, you should do the same for your kindred’s sake! “Now let’s consider your radiant beauty. This is my opinion, and I’ll stand by it: nobody has ever set eyes on anyone like you. I’m not flattering you. I’m not a flatterer—flattery isn’t commended in any book I know of. This is what I’m saying: No one can paint better than Nature, for she shapes everything she ever does perfectly. She was appointed, by patent letter, to be God’s viceroy, to give people noses, eyes, and teeth as she pleases, and no one can reprove her. She has given you, lady, your bright complexion and fair figure as gifts to share. Unless you do, you may well be sorry, for she may surely take whatever she gives, as she routinely does from those who are ungrateful and fail to thank her for her high grace. Therefore, madam, please be careful. Don’t lose your assets. Be a meek and fair maiden, and then we’ll boast that all is well with you, exactly as we would want it. Furthermore, by God, I believe that if Nature has combined all her gifts in one person—as she can

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do if she wishes—I believe you have them all. For the sake of charity, then, take some man and let him share what you have. Such wonderful gifts should not remain hidden. If Nature were here, she would tell you the same!25 “The third point I commend in you is your wisdom and your great learning. You are so smart that no one can improve on your opinions. If you had a king, he could trust your intelligence, even if he weren’t as well endowed in that area as you. I don’t think you can save your soul unless you share this gift with others. It wasn’t given to you to hoard! The First Mover, as our books teach us, who sits on his throne above the stars, sometimes gives one person more wisdom than twenty others put together so that he shall share what God gave him with others.26 Take heed, therefore, of the danger you may fall into if you displease the Mover who sits above: he’ll withdraw his gifts from you. I’m speaking out of love, and, I think, for your own good. “The fourth and last point is your wealth. The world wonders at its extent. What will you do with it all alone? I say of this as I said of your intelligence: you were so well endowed so that you could share your wealth and property. You’ll do that best by taking a king. That’s my opinion and my request.” (33/1373–456) That gracious woman answered promptly: “If you speak truly, I should certainly aim to please the lord who was so generous with his gifts that he sent me graces other women lack. You said that since I am so fair and wise and rich, I must have an heir and choose a good and debonair husband. Think, sir, of what you have said. We won’t settle for less than you rated us. You have set us so high that we surpass all living women. On your own terms, I’d like to know, who deserves me? It’s your own contention that I am the worthiest of all women; in that case, I must have the worthiest of all men: it follows from your own assertions. Tell me, please, where does that man live who’s as wise and fair and rich and noble as we are? Unless you find such a one, believe me, I’ll have no one. Search diligently, now! The more you argue, the more you flounder!

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“Let me tell you what I want in a husband. He must be peerless, above all lords, able to kill or save whomever he wishes. He must be stable, never turning from a purpose he has decided on. Unless he is, he won’t be our husband. He must be so wise that he knows everything—how things may be set right before they go wrong. If he exists, we’ll take him. Otherwise, we’ll have none. Look hard and see if you can find him! “Furthermore, he must be so strong that he needs no one else’s help to exact justice. And his power should always be ­balanced with moderation. If you will assure me of such a one, I’ll have him—I’ll never say no. “Listen; I have more to say. I want him to be so rich that he doesn’t need others’ goods. I want him to be like no lord on earth. I also want him to be so rich and generous and manly that if anyone asks him for anything he’ll grant even more than he was asked for. He must also be handsome, this lord I desire, more fair and amiable than I, for since he will be my lord and sire, it is only fitting that he should outshine his servant and wife. “Furthermore, this lord must live forever—unless he does, the rest is worthless—for since you’ll be trying so hard to find him, what a waste it would be were he suddenly to die. Therefore, I stipulate that his health, his age, and his strength shall last forever. His passing would bring me such heartache that I would never take another lord but rather weep and mourn, decked out in black. Therefore, you’ll promise he’ll not die, this lord with whom you wish to ally me! “If you can do this, I’ll consent to your wishes—otherwise, not. Do you think that I’ll be like so many others and have the same sorrow, woe, and care that my mother had when she was parted from my father? No wonder I flee such a fate!”27 Chapter 34: Katherine Prevails

(34/1457–98) When she had spoken all these words and uttered her intent plainly to them all, there was not a person that

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could keep from weeping; tears gushed. Her mother dropped like a ball, swooning for sorrow, right there, for she saw the situation was hopeless. She was lifted up and comforted, and at last, when she had caught her breath, she said, “Oh no! Sorrow has nearly killed me! Where will we look? Where shall we find such a one? I believe my daughter has lost her mind! She’s so mad she doesn’t know what she says! How can this be? Where can the person she desires be found? By God, it isn’t possible; there’s no such person, and so she will have no one!” “Never die? Never sicken? He must be immortal! We can see clearly that she scorns us all! Let’s hurry away from here and leave her alone with her honor and wealth—she’ll lose them soon enough, and we won’t be to blame, for we have no control over her.” Thus the lords wailed as they sat together, cursing her teachers and all her books. “What a shame,” they said, “that any queen should be so disposed! Our honor is ruined. May God never send a realm a king that wears a caul!28 We pray that God never make a woman such a great scholar as she is, for our sake.” Thus with much sorrow and care and many complaints they part, each going to his own home. They walk, ride, or sail, as they please, all angry with the queen. She is now left alone to study, read, rehearse, and write. Thus the parliament concludes and everyone lives in fear and suspense, expecting change any moment. All their reasoning and expense have been wasted. Here ends this book, which covered the debate between the queen and all her liegemen. May she keep us in her prayers! Amen.

Book 3

Katherine’s Conversion and Mystical Marriage

Prologue

(1–42) Because nobody may do a good deed without being inspired by the Holy Ghost, who is freely sent to us from the omnipotent heavenly Father and from the Son, we think it best to commend our efforts to that Ghost, if we wish to succeed. I’ve already told you, as expeditiously as I could, about this maiden’s birth, family, and nobility, how the great debate with her lords began, and how she replied. I have plainly set this before you in my best rhyme.1 No labor or service done for this noble queen will be wasted! Now I will apply myself to telling how she was won to Christ, our savior, and how marvelously he entered her tower (by “he” I mean Brother Adrian, the monk who, according to this chronicle, introduced her to our faith). If you readers doubt whether this account is true, consider this: many well known things have happened that were not written down and never reached us; many things, too, are unknown to us because they happened in various distant lands. This account of Katherine’s life is one of those things, as I said earlier in 71

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the prologue, that was kept hidden and not brought forth. Now it will go farther than ever before to the praise and honor of this martyr Katherine. Her life, her faith, and her martyrdom will never die as long as I live. May her holy prayer be my medicine against the foul venom that the devil has spewed on my soul. I’ll get right down to work now. Blessed maiden, comfort me. Because you were so learned and such a scholar, scholars can’t help loving you—it stands to reason. Believe me, whoever wants to learn anything should trust in this maiden. I’ve believed that for a long time. Chapters 1–5: Adrian Receives a Visitor

(1/43–91) There was a hermit, old books tell, a distinguished monk, full of grace. They say he lived in a cell by the sea. His name, I read, was Adrian. Kneeling had nearly crippled him. He was also a priest, I find. He had a chapel in which he sang and dined, slept and walked, for he had no other house. This man was the first to know this maiden’s inner thoughts, for Athanasius, of whom we spoke much earlier, was not yet baptized, nor was he tested by God’s scourge, for he was converted by K ­ atherine, who was miraculously converted, as you shall now hear. This man was appointed by God to guide Katherine, just as Saint Joseph was appointed to lead and guide Our Lady into Egypt.2 This hermit was the bodily guide for the spiritual event, when Christ was to mark this noble maiden with his cross, to make her strong and stable against the flesh, against the abundance of worldly delight, and to make her able to be both his spouse and wife. This holy event was done so marvelously that living people could never imagine it. Therefore, I’m afraid to speak of it, knowing that I cannot understand it. Nevertheless, I hope that the prayers of her and Adrian will give me the strength to explore this holy matter, to tell of this man, how he lived and how he acquired food—for he never approached town but tilled his land, high on a rock. Sometimes he got food and

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drink from passing ships. He lived this way for sixty years, never leaving the shore. Partly through alms, partly through work, he lived b ­ lessedly in abstinence and prayer, this hermit or friar. (Friar was then the designation of all Christian men, I read, and hermits were called men who lived six or ten miles from town, regardless of whether they were hairy, bareheaded, or bald.3 Because they lived alone, some men called them monks, for “monk” means “solitary,” as we read.) (2/92–161) When this hermit was stooped with age and could no longer pray as he was accustomed to, he took long walks by the sea, treading on stones both sharp and blunt. He would always scold his body, saying, “What’s wrong with you? Why are you so quickly exhausted by holy prayer and pious works? God, who sits on high, forgive me for not doing as well as I used to. My body is the reason—not my soul. I can’t hold vigils or fast anymore; the fault is mine. If there’s any goodness in me, lord, it’s yours. Don’t judge me according to my feeble strength but according to my will, which always desires, through blessed works, to be allowed into your sight. Though my strength is gone, my soul is as stable as a rock and, if I have any say in the matter, will always be in awe of you and in your service.” He’d barely ended his prayer when he saw a marvel, for as he walked up and down along the shore he saw a blessed sight that he’d long desired: he saw a queen who in her appearance and stature surpassed any living being. Her array was entirely appropriate to her person—her crown was bright, as were her clothes—he didn’t know what to do. He was no longer feeble or sick. His cheeks became ruddy again, and his eyes sparkled. His body became young. The hermit approached this sight, this marvelous new thing. “Gracious!” he said, “I’m amazed that this fresh, fair, young lady has come here so suddenly this morning. I can’t see a ship or a boat—neither on land nor sailing on the sea.” He approached her cautiously, wavering between joy and dread, and it seemed to him that she was approaching him, too. She spoke first, very meekly. “Brother,” she said, “may the omnipotent lord who

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made the heavens, the seas, and the land save you and bless you with his hand.” The hermit then said to Our Lady, “Mercy, lady! May he also preserve you from all misfortune, so that you always live without fear or unhappiness. God grant that you live with him in heaven forever, where no joy or comfort is missing.” “Good sir,” she said, “I ask you to take a message from me to someone whom I love and trust. I wish you to speak to her—on behalf of my son, too—because of her righteous works. I’d like you to be our messenger, sir, to convey our wishes and words to this lady.” “Oh, dear God!” Adrian replied. “Do you want me to forsake my cell and abandon my vocation to be your man? I’ve vowed to stay here as long as I have breath, flesh, and skin, until Jesus, the Virgin’s son, fetches me. Don’t speak of it, for it can’t be done!” (3/162–238) Then that maiden replied, “Do you realize what you’ve just said to me? Late at night you prayed that God should not be angry at your age or with your infirmity. You also asked his mother—I heard you!—to be an intermediary between the two of you. I’m the one to whom you cried so pitiably day and night, begging me to relieve your sluggishness. Therefore, I want you to exert yourself to be my messenger and spiritual knight to that lady whom I love dearly, though she knows nothing about me. Get ready to go to Alexandria, the city formerly called Babylon the Great—pilgrims agree there’s no greater city in the entire world. What more should I say? You’ll find a regal queen there, and you’ll speak to her in person. Say this: ‘The lady who is both mother and maiden greets her well and kindly through me, for she has ordered and asked me to do this good service for her.’ You’ll say exactly what I tell you. She’ll be astonished, but don’t let that deter you. It’s only been a short time since many people tried hard to convince this lady to marry, but to no avail, for I myself have chosen a husband for her who will suit her in purity. “And to make you more willing to convey this message and undertake all this hardship, I’ll tell you plainly about the lineage,

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the honor, the virtue, and the habits of this sweet flower. I’ll let you know about her goodness, her learning, and her stature. First of all, know that she is a peerless queen—rich, royal, wise, and fair. She has no child, no heir—and if she believes and is drawn into my service and my son’s religion, she will prefer the hair shirt to any fine linen.4 She’s a great and subtle scholar of the seven sciences,5 as she showed well in the parliament, where great wealth and diligence and intelligence were used to make her marry—but without success. “A loftier lord, whom she doesn’t yet know, shall be her spouse. She must first give up much—by that I mean the wealth she now enjoys—and become as content with poverty as she ever was with riches or honor. I will comfort her in all her needs. When she fights against philosophical heresies, she will consider all their arguments trivial.6 Though they multiply their sophisms, she will attack them so mightily that they will lose their skills and she will draw them to God’s side. I tell you truly that after me there was never another living lady who could live perfectly without having an example.7 Therefore, you understand, she will have as glorious an end as any woman who ever lived.” (4/239–80) When Our Lady had said all this, the hermit fell flat on the ground, swooning in fear and awe. She meekly raised him, saying, “Don’t be afraid.” He said, “Mercy, madam, forgive me for not recognizing Christ’s dear mother. My answer was stupid, thoughtless, and blustering. You can see how addleheaded I am! Your arrival was so marvelous that I lost my senses when I saw my lord’s mother, my advocate, my Mary—and I’ve always been, and always intended to be, her servant! Oh dear, oh dear! I’m afraid this harsh adage applies to me: ‘Who will not acknowledge [God] will be forgotten.’ My sovereign lady, I worry that my recent foolishness will turn your love to hate! Therefore, I beg your grace with piteous voice to punish and rebuke me as you please. “I’m ready, from here on out, night and day, to obey your request and to deliver your message as best I can. But, truly, this great big city that you spoke of—I’m not familiar with it

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and don’t know the way there. I’ve heard very little about it. But I’ll do as you wish; my heart is eager to do your bidding. I’ll go there, even if I die of fatigue or if I’m killed! Yet I’m very worried about how I shall get there, for, I believe, there’s much wilderness on the way and many wild beasts! Nonetheless, I will prepare myself for a hasty departure. I’ll trust you—that you’ll at least see that I’m not stopped. May this voyage be done under your wing and with your protection.” (5/281–357) Then the lady replied, “You may well praise our redeemer for entrusting you with this royal matter. Be on your way: with such a guide, you can’t stumble or fall. When you come within those wide gates, don’t answer anyone who addresses you. I’ll tell you why: the unworthy might despise the lofty mystery you serve if they were to hear it. You yourself must spare your mouth and keep your words only for your mission. You’ll go through that great city until you come to the royal ­palace, which was constructed—moat and hill, dungeon, tower, and wall—by the noble King Costus. You’ll find many knights and squires guarding the gates. Don’t be afraid; my son will keep you from all their threats. Cross yourself in my son’s name and no man will be able to denounce you or to keep you from that lady. “Now let me tell you where she lives: You walk past all that company until you see fair and new walls. Go through the small gate in those walls; it will open easily at a tap. You shall enter and find that sweet maiden, much to her surprise, for she will wonder how any man might approach her in that private place. She’ll then set aside her book and her studies and look at you very gravely. Don’t fear her questions or her interrogation, for I’ll strengthen you so that you cannot fail to answer whatever she asks. My son said this to his twelve apostles: ‘When you stand all by yourselves,’ he said, ‘before the judgment of many tyrants, though they call you Lollard, witch, or elf, don’t be afraid—I will give you answers.’8 No human can teach you such language: you’ll speak so wonderfully that she’ll be astonished. Believe me, Christ will endow your feeble old age with marvelous eloquence that will surprise you, and surprise her all the

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more. She’ll listen carefully to your new teachings and scrutinize them. And that’s no wonder, for my son, truly, has chosen her above all living creatures for her virtue and for her great purity. He will soon marry her. Acting as my messenger, you’ll bring her here alone, with no one else to comfort her. This will be your sign to her if she asks who sent you: tell her the same lord whom she chose sitting at parliament, whose choice caused such an uproar among her lords—insofar as they dared! She chose the better and forsook the worse. So you will find her in her study. Don’t be afraid of her subtle learning: your answers won’t fail to satisfy her, despite her intelligence and education. “Hurry along now and bring her here soon. Get ready and tuck in your robe. Take your staff with you, and your cap, too.” Chapters 6–21: Adrian and Katherine

(6/358–413) So the hermit went on his way, trusting in his heavenly guides, for though he didn’t see or hear any angels, it must have been their guidance that brought him to the city long before evening—not on the evening of the same day he left, but after a very long while, when he had gone many a mile. Thus God will work with very unlikely material—by worldly standards. Sometimes he chooses the feeble and sick to carry out his lofty missions and discards the strong and wise—Paul says this best in his Epistles, whoever will read them.9 So God doubtless did in this case. This man was an unlikely messenger, but God in his goodness chose him. He set forth on his voyage­—past hills and meadows, fields and wilderness. At last, he arrived where this empress sat studying hard in her garden. Suddenly he found himself right in front of her. Both of them were astonished: the one marveled at her beauty; the other was dumbfounded to suddenly see a man kneeling before her in her private residence. Let me elaborate. The hermit was certainly astonished when he found her poring over a book, studying diligently and often

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gazing toward heaven. This man had never seen such beauty except in Our Lady—bless her!—so bright and shining was her fair countenance. “Ah marvelous God,” he thought to himself, “I never expected to see such a creature! I don’t believe there’s a woman alive so radiant and beautiful in every respect! Blessed be Jesus, that high heavenly king, who sent me to see this creature, for she surpasses all other women except Our Lady.” For her part, Katherine looked at him and wondered how such an old man could climb over the stone walls. It seemed even more unlikely that he might sneak through the gate, since she had the key with her and had securely locked it after her. As she marveled, the blood ran through her cheeks and forehead, making them fresher than before. If she were fair and radiant before, she was a hundred times more so now in his eyes. The hermit knelt down and said, “All hail, madam!”10 (7/414–41) She replied, “Good sir, tell me how you came to be here: we’re amazed to see you so suddenly in our ­presence all alone, without an escort. This is our first question, and we demand an answer. We want to know whether you are real or an illusion and who enabled you to climb our high walls. I think you must have come before us by enchantment or by necromancy! We also want to know, however sly you are, who made you so bold as to enter our quarters without our permission. Not one of all our lords and knights would ever dare enter into our private chambers like this unless we allowed it—unless he wanted to recklessly forfeit his life. Shame on you, at your age, for undertaking something so discreditable! Therefore, tell me right now, who put you up to this antic? You may be sure that we will know the cause and means of your boldness—you will reveal it before you leave, or else you’ll come to a sorry end.” (8/442–62) At this the hermit took heart, and speaking boldly and manfully, he replied: “If you wish to know, the lady who sent me is greater than any lady on earth, and the least of her personal attendants is nobler than a king or emperor. Further­more, though you think you’re awfully fair and rich, you cannot and never will approach her in beauty. Having seen you

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both, I can assure you that she surpasses you in every respect. Her power is so great and so widespread that she can do whatever she pleases—it was she who brought me through that gate, before I realized what had happened. If she is angry, no one will escape her fist. Therefore, be careful what you say, lady, for fear that my lady will turn away from you.” (9/463–504) The queen considered his words more marvelous than anything she’d ever heard in her life. Christ had made a place before this hermit came and laid his treasure securely in her heart. Though he sent the hermit as his messenger, before the hermit came, Christ himself was there. So it was when ­Gabriel was sent as a messenger to Our Lady. He went to Nazareth in the form of a handsome young man, but before he came to this maiden, Christ was there, as we read in books. He did the same in this instance, if we take heed. But God’s presence in her heart was as yet unknown to her. She therefore questioned this man sharply, saying, “How can your lady be as worthy and noble and wise as you say? We believe ourselves to be the worthiest of all women—we haven’t heard of a worthier one yet! Where is her land, pray tell? Who is her lord—or is she lordless? The things you tell us seem like lies! Is that lady married, or does she live alone, as we do now? If she’s married, she must often be frustrated, for she must bow to her husband on every occasion; and if she’s single, she’ll have much to complain about, thanks to her irritating lords—we know this well from experience! Therefore, good sir, satisfy our curiosity: Is this lady more often happy or distressed? Tell us and we’ll reward you richly.” (10/505–25) “Indeed, madam,” said this hermit, “my ­sovereign lady’s lordship extends over heaven and earth and sea. Her might is so great that no sun, no dew, no rain comes unless her son commands and she desires it. Her ladyship is so strong and secure that no one can do her any real harm—if they try, they’re just wasting their effort, for no force avails against her. Her lord and she live peacefully, with millions of people and a huge retinue. He is her lord and she, though a maiden, is his

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mother and nurse. He’s both lord and son—believe me and don’t be astonished—for she’s at once a mother and a virgin, as you’ll understand more fully later.” (11/526–39) “Sir,” said the queen, “this lady surprises me: you preach of her high degree and her superiority to any who live now or evermore; why, then, would she have sent us such a shabby and unprepossessing messenger? Given her status, it would have been appropriate to send more than one person, since she has so many at her command. Furthermore, it seems to me that the servants of such a great person should dress better, to uphold the honor of her house. Your clothes, sir, are not much to look at!” (12/540–609) “Madam,” he said, “if you’ll permit me, I’ll tell you frankly why this lady chose to make me her messenger. Though she has millions of attendants, she’s not proud—and her servants, if they love her, must be like her. With all your knowledge, you know very well, madam, that spiritual clothing far surpasses bodily costume, just as truth—scholars attest—is far fairer than Helen of Greece ever was.11 Therefore, that lady who sent me to you values inward, spiritual clothing far more than golden cloth spread over genteel bodies. Furthermore—I dare say this boldly—she has many thousands before her in her palace with faces brighter and more radiant than were ever seen on earth. She said to me, that lofty, noble queen, that my service pleased her so well that she would send me in my shabby clothing to relay her wishes to you. By this, you can understand that you must reject worldly delights if you wish to win this lady’s friendship; because my lady considers earthly riches worthless, her servants shall not have them. Those who love her must resolve to live devoutly to save their souls. The more they forsake on earth, the more they may ask for when they come to live in bliss in their lady’s lands. “But, lady, let’s get back to the matter at hand. This blessed queen gave me a token when she sent me to Your Reverence. She said, ‘I make you my messenger to that lady. She may not deny the token I entrust you with because it’s so deeply impressed

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upon her heart.’ This is the token: that you, sitting in parliament with princes, dukes, and earls, replied that you would have no lord or king unless he were peerless in strength and might, unless he were so fair and gentle that no man could compare with him, and unless he were wealthier than any man. This was what you wanted then, lady: that your husband should live forever, that he should never be drowned with water or burned with fire. You wanted to be with him forever. That was your wish, and it will be fulfilled. My lady sent me to tell you that you should follow me, for this same lord who is with my lady has everything you asked for, more than any person in the world can fathom. He is the very source of all virtues. “Come with me, home to my cell, and if you find that I’m lying, have your constable arrest me! You shall have her lord and son—a noble lineage that lacks nothing, a marvelous family, as you’ll see if you please. He’s her lord, she’s his mother; he’s her son, and she’s a maiden; he made her, and she bore him in her womb. This lamb cleanses all the sins of the world.”12 (13/610–44) Then this maiden blushed in shock, for she never felt anything like this before. She was so stunned that she didn’t know whether she stood or sat; she was in such a state that she didn’t know where she was. She’d just been set between two alternatives, forced to decide which to leave and which to take. Should she abandon the religion that all her lords accept and take a new one for a strange lord’s sake? She didn’t fully realize the stakes. The hermit’s talk of this lord’s bliss made her hope that she would obtain something she long desired. Her heart was so inflamed with love that she considered all her goods worthless and resolved never to be polluted by the world. Then she said to the hermit, “I’m receptive to everything you say, except for one point: you told me that this great lady bore a noble child without suffering and remained a maiden upon inspection.13 This is wholly unnatural! Do you think I’m so blind, sir, that I don’t understand the laws of procreation? Though I haven’t engaged in such activities—and never will, by that supreme judge you’ve just been telling me about—I still know very

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well, and everyone knows, that whoever wants a child must plant some seed!” (14/645–72) “God can make a man without seed or sin, lady, and he did so before now: if we begin with Adam or Eve, it’s easy to demonstrate. When Adam slept, Our Lord created Eve from his side. By this example, we can conclude that because he made a virgin from a man he is equally capable of making a man from a virgin—such are his powers, this gracious lord whom you chose as your mate in your parliament. Let me put it another way. No one, if we consider carefully, can demonstrate through reason how all things began—let’s speak of creatures and set aside the godhead. No one remembers how or when the bright sun and the pale moon were made. And because no one can explain the origin of these earthly things, it’s no wonder that we can’t justify things we take on faith, for faith is not provable, as scholars say. Therefore, we must be willing to believe things we cannot prove. Forget reasoning, for it will get us nowhere.” (15/673–79) “What possessed that almighty lord to clothe himself in our frail nature, thus leaving the better and taking the worse, or else, as he pleased, keeping both? Was he ever angry with mankind? Was he ever offended? We’re eager to know what you have to say on this topic.” (16/680–93) “This lord took up residence on lowly earth because of the misfortune that befell mankind when Adam ate the apple in paradise. He didn’t leave heaven but contrived to be both here and there in order to heal our souls. What I’m saying amazes you. That same lord, like a noble merchant, shed his blood on the cross for our sins. His death washed away all our misdeeds. This is the greatest article of our faith, lady: that Christ paid for all our sins with his blood; therefore, we speak of him as the best merchant of all.” (17/694–707) “How can you reconcile what you told me? First you say he’s lord of all—air, water, and land—living peacefully with his mother the virgin. Then you say that he’s so enslaved that he allowed himself to be killed by malefactors. How can you attribute to him both this great lordship and this cruel

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death? How can an eternal lord be the product of contradictions? You say his person resulted from the union of man and God, and you further say that he’s both eternal and temporal. You’re speaking heresy—I know that what you say defies natural philosophy!” (18/708–70) “My answer to these questions surpasses all the teachings of nature, for nature fails when we learn faith. Our faith stands apart from these deceitful arguments—it will have nothing to do with them. There’s no reward, except in faith. Learn this, lady, if you please. You shall do much better when you’ve grasped the basics, for I warn you of one thing: you can never ask your lord for grace, nor can you ever save your soul, unless you forsake forever things you once believed and believe what you cannot prove. “How did you know that King Costus was your father? And what evidence do you have that you were once swaddled—arms, body, back, legs, and knees—and laid in a cradle, as children are, by God? Since we can’t prove any of those things, we must humbly believe them. In the same way, we must believe what Our Lord commands us to, for when that same all-­powerful lord—our blessed God, our savior Jesus—tells us to do something, we must be obedient or else be lost. “You argue that this doctrine is contradictory because I said that this blessed, delectable lord—I mean Jesus, our most virtuous savior—is both God and man. Here’s how you can come to understand this doctrine. Since you doubt that Christ has two natures, as we Christians preach, I will prove it to you by your own feelings and you will teach yourself—I appoint you arbiter of your own speech and tongue. Within yourself, if you consider carefully, you have two contradictory natures, without any doubt. This is my proof: what one of those natures desires, the other does not want. They are thus contrary in will, desire, work, appetite, and thought. Our faith holds that our redeemer is also of two natures and wills, both contained in one person. “Now we will explain God’s eternity to Your Reverence. If you consider carefully, you will realize that the same doctrine is found in your books of metaphysics. They say this, if you recall:

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everything that is made must have a beginning. And in order to avoid the absurdity of positing two beginnings, they agreed upon one origin for everything and call him the First Mover, if I understand right, and from that Mover all other causes had their origin.14 Your own books teach this.” (19/771–833) When the hermit Adrian had answered these and many other questions for this lady, he at last said, “Madam, if you’ll go with me you’ll see this lord and speak with this lady. You’ll obtain houses there that will never collapse.” These words touched her so deeply that she set aside all her books. She was so astonished she didn’t know whether to call this hermit a man or an angel who had descended from on high. His apparel certainly didn’t suit his words: a hoary old man dressed in threadbare clothes, yet a wise man, well informed and prudent— a man who looked like a beggar but spoke like a theologian. He spoke sparingly and wisely (even though he didn’t look or dress like a wise man, as this lady had pointed out earlier). Therefore, nobody would prevent her from following his advice, for as soon as the hermit prepared to leave she followed him. All the lords and knights in the castle neither heard nor saw them, nor did anyone else see them. They made their way through the city as if they were invisible. Just so, our Bible says, the men of Sodom who surrounded Lot’s house could find ­neither doors nor gates.15 God struck them with a marvelous sickness called acrisia that makes people seem blind for a time and bewildered at not being able to see what’s before them. Thus the entire city was completely stunned by God’s providence. Let them curse now, let them complain and swear: no one knows where the queen is. So they go along, walking together, until they come to the shore where his—I mean this hermit’s, this marvelous man’s— house used to stand. But it’s gone. There’s no home; everything is wilderness. He wailed and searched and went back and forth; he surveyed the terrain. Unable to figure it out, he was anxious and depressed. “Good lord,” he said, “do what you will with me, but keep your promise and comfort my guest.”

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It’s hard to say how long, or how many days, it took them to make the trip from Alexandria to his cell; the way was so marvelous that we cannot concern ourselves with it. But he who led Habakkuk to the lion’s den strengthened them to undertake the journey.16 So the man mourned and turned this way and that. He searched the entire shore for his cell. He was suddenly filled with doubt and saddened for this lady’s sake: Where would she stay? He said to himself, “She’ll believe that I’m a false deceiver, an untrue messenger.” (20/834–75) The queen saw the hermit’s frustration in his face. “Good sir,” she said, “have we anything other than good news? I see by the color in your face that you’re worried. Tell me, what’s the matter? For better or worse, you only have me for advice.” “Madam,” he said, “I left my house here when I went to deliver my message to you, but now the terrain is completely unfamiliar. Everything’s gone, washed away or burned! I must find a new home, for my old one is gone. I’d never expected to change houses. Now I have to—and that will be strange.” Then the queen said to the man, “That lady who sent you to fetch me, if she’s as gentle and true as you say, she won’t allow us to be lost or devoured in this strange land. Let’s trust her and her gentleness, for sometimes security rests in faith.” “Bless you,” said the hermit, “for your confidence exceeds mine. Though you came to the faith recently, you’ll outdo ten or twelve in no time! Don’t be afraid of beast or elf, for that same lady whose son you chose will save us—I don’t doubt it! “But what about my cell? Must I rebuild it? Shall I have to dig a well now? I don’t have the strength for it! I never wanted to move. This is my complaint, lady, this is my concern. But bless you for your words of comfort.” God allowed this man to become confused to prevent his great vision of and interaction with Our Lady from making him overconfident. Our Lord often raises people from their humble stations, just as David was led from the sheep to the kingdom.17

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(21/876–915) The queen staunchly comforted this fearful old hermit. The sadder he was, the gladder she grew, and she continued to speak to him confidently: “Don’t be unhappy. Let what’s lost be lost. But truly, I say, I see something sublime ahead of us, up above. Don’t you see it? Its wondrous walls shine like the sun—such a thing was never made! It was never done on earth! The stones are bright—and the roofs! Look up and be glad, man: Don’t you see that sight? That castle over there that shines so brightly?” The hermit looked, but he saw nothing—neither wall nor gates. Then he grieved. “Lady,” he said, “this is truly a blessed time, when you were brought here to take your spouse. He has done more for your sake now than I have experienced in my entire life. You are worthier than I am, I realize.” Then he cried, and soon he saw the same vision. He was astonished to see his chapel transformed, for what had formerly been old and overgrown with grass was now brighter than glass. His old house had been little; this new one was large. Then he gravely told this maiden, “Madam, go to that castle—to that tower over there. Don’t trust my guidance any longer, for I’m not worthy to go on to that dwelling. God grant that I might follow you and come to that place sometime. If you may, I beg you, ask that favor for me.” Then the maiden continued on alone, greatly desiring to see this wonderful place. But Adrian followed when she was gone, taking comfort from her courage. Chapter 21 (cont.)–Chapter 22: Reception in Heaven

(21/916–1001) When they arrived at the wide gates, they were received on every side by people whose faces and clothes were indescribable—I don’t believe they told of them, for those who are elevated to such mysteries tell what they saw when they were brought there, but they cannot convey the feelings and thoughts they had when they were experiencing that joy. To do so would require another language.

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But these two people, like many others, were elevated in their souls to see such sights. Saint Paul was similarly ravished, though he was not sure whether his body participated in that mystery.18 But I have no doubt that the body of this maiden was in that temple, where she was adorned with holy baptism and anointed with holy chrism, as Our Lord wished. Indeed, nobody, young or old, may be baptized without a body—so say the ancient books we rely on. God may do whatever he likes and does many things that aren’t known. And so they were received in the outer entrance. But she was greeted by far better and worthier people when she came to the next entrance, which smelled like nard—no, much sweeter! There she met more than ten—hundreds, I mean—but she r­ecognized none of them. They were another kind of person than she had seen. But all together they said to her, “Welcome, sister, to this holy place! Welcome to Our Lord, who in his grace has chosen you to be his spouse. Welcome, very sweet rose of purity. We truly welcome you for your virginity.” Thus, they led her forward, these spiritual people in wonderful clothing, until they came to the temple. What a sight, with kings, emperors, and a retinue in clothes so bright that living people can’t describe their fresh, gay colors! She saw them, then, in their wonderful array; we live hoping to see them on another day.19 They then led her at a leisurely pace toward the entrance of the temple. This is how she was greeted there: “Welcome, our sister; welcome, our companion! We once were just like you, with flesh, skin, and bones, too!” They had certain emblems on their clothing. One had one emblem, another had a different one, according to the martyrdoms that they suffered here on earth.20 Thus they were identified by their emblems, which were put there to declare that they had been humans and had passed with great suffering from this earth to holiness. When this lady was brought to the temple door, she looked in and her guides all bowed. She heard a melody there, and she thought she’d never heard one like it. She fell down in a

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trance—there was never (nor will there ever be) a person whose body could stand such heavenly bliss, for in order to experience it fully one must first die. When she was wakened from her trance, she continued on to that noble place. There she saw Our Lord, who created all things, who had summoned her for such a privilege, sitting all regally—but she dared not look upon his face, she was so frightened when she first arrived. Then she knew well that she had sought more than a man and that now she had truly found it, for even after summoning all her faculties, she dared not look up but she continued to stand as if she were about to fall to the ground. Her body was to blame: it needed to be cleansed, and all its carnality fully purified, before she could experience such things.21 Thus, this maiden was left in sadness and despair, for the very lord who in his goodness desired to choose her for his special bride was now distant—she lacked the grace to come somewhat nearer and see his face. (22/1002–78) Then Our Lady came and quickly lifted her up, saying, “Take heart; your time of sorrow is over, and you have what you want. The sadness you’re feeling shall turn to joy now. I summoned you to this household so that you would have the privilege of being raised higher than all the other women here, of being right next to me. Therefore, come, for I will lead you directly to my son, to his majesty.” The maidens then walked on together. (But noble Adrian, where was he? My author doesn’t say, but you may be sure that he was given so much joy that he would be reluctant to leave!) Thus these ladies walked alone, without any other company, to the throne of our almighty lord. Others were not privileged to draw so near that majesty, so near to God’s face. Approaching him then was a privilege ordained especially for this occasion. Our Lady spoke when she arrived. “Son,” she said, “and maker of all things, I have respectfully brought a maiden here; I’ve brought you the spouse you love. She wants you to espouse her to yourself forever with a ring. This is what she wants and has wanted for a long time.”

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Our Lord replied with words that confused this maiden and made her very unhappy: “Mother,” he said, “you know very well that the sight of me fills this company with joy. Having that, they need nothing else. But those who may enjoy this gracious sight must be pure in body and soul, washed from all dark and foul sins. I have many such here—you see a great host, cleansed with my blood and marked with my sign. This was what I worked to accomplish when I was on earth to redeem mankind (which is so often ungrateful to me). Therefore, mother, this is my answer: This maiden may not immediately have the grace you ask for her, I mean, the sight of my face. Let her go cleanse herself, let her obtain holy baptism, and then she shall have my sign. Then bring her to me, and I shall mark her with a sign so special that no maiden but you had one like it. Let this be done. “You have a priest, a man, by God, both flesh and soul; let him do it. He shall perform this work with his two hands. I certainly won’t charge my angels with a task that is properly performed by humans. Though we have the high power to grant this privilege to angels, namely, to baptize people on earth, we don’t want them to be occupied with duties that belong (and will always most rightly belong) to humans. Go now and baptize that noble creature!” Then Our Lady comforted her: “Don’t be at all discouraged by my son’s words, for you must certainly do what he tells you and obey him graciously. It is truly a good practice that whoever marries a duke or a king should have a bath before the wedding to make herself sweet and clean so as not to displease him. By this I mean to say, do your duty; make every effort to please your lord. Let’s go to that chapel and have you baptized. After your bath, you’ll be very happy!” Chapter 23: Katherine’s Baptism

(23/1079–148) So the maiden and the queen walked to the chapel. As I understand, they found a font there, all ready with

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chrism in a wide vessel. Adrian was taken aside from the others to perform this holy service, just as Our Lady instructed. She said to him, “Go now and do this thing: making Christians is your business. Dress in these clothes that I myself am presenting to you. This maiden will be bathed for her love’s sake in this cold water, and she shall be Christian. My lord, my son, commanded this. I myself shall prepare her by undressing her and making her entirely naked. Her name will remain Katherine so that those who knew her, in her youth or as an adult, will see that she is the same person as she was before.22 Therefore, she shall retain her name, to confirm that everything we perform here is authentic. There’s no deceit, no collusion; we wouldn’t tolerate that.” Then Katherine was stripped, but the friar was blind both during her undressing and during her baptism. This was said during that solemn ritual: “I baptize you here in the blessed name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, in the presence and witness of our reverend lady, Christ’s mother, the greatest of all women, and your godmother—of that you may boast. “Take care that you believe what I tell you, daughter, that there is one God and three persons. Believe also in baptism and in Holy Church. Believe in the passion of our lord Jesus; believe that the miracles he performed were genuine and true. Believe that he was conceived in his humanity from an undefiled virgin­—for she is present and can testify to this.” Katherine answered to all these articles, “I believe them, sir, just as you say. Therefore, as I fall down on my knees in this same font that you can’t see, please baptize me, and make me pure, for this is what the sovereign lord above wants, and it’s what I want, too, for his love.” Thus she was baptized, and her name was confirmed [to be Katherine]. Our Lady herself was her servant. She undressed this sweet lady. All this time there was a film of blindness before the hermit’s eyes, for he saw nothing of all these doings. But soon after this sacrament was performed he recovered his sight. Words can’t describe his joy and pleasure, for he thought he’d

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never see again! Now he thanks God for giving him the grace to come to this holy place. Our Lady commanded Adrian to diligently record everything he heard and saw to the best of his ability, to write it plainly, when he had the chance. He certainly did as she commanded, this noble hermit, for how else would it have come to our ears? How would we have learned about it?23 Chapter 24: Katherine’s Mystical Marriage

(24/1149–309) Now Our Lady entered the temple again with this maiden. As she went, she said gently, “My daughter, Katherine, be glad and happy, for you shall certainly have your desire before you leave here—you can be sure of it.” So they spoke as they walked. Now the maiden and the queen arrived right before the throne of our lord God. Our Lady alone spoke. This is the gist of what she said, I think: “Bless you, oh king of kings! I’ve brought here this daughter in her purity, entreating you, lord, with all humility, to show your blessed face to your spouse, your creature. Just as you granted her the great grace to preserve her virginity, now allow her to see the grand portrait of your blessed face; then she and I will be greatly indebted to you.” Our Lord answered his mother very kindly: “Whatever you wish, mother, must be done; all heaven and earth must appeal to you for help when they need relief from their unhappiness. I grant your petition; it will be so.” Then the queen fell down flat on the ground and took off her round crown. Laying it before him, she said this: “Lord of all living creatures, through your grace I lack nothing that I ask. May you always be honored in heaven and on earth. I myself am your handiwork. Though I am your mother, I am your servant; I am grateful for your grace, and I cry out for your mercy!” Our Lord told her to rise, and she rose right away. She was crowned again before anyone knew it. By her example,

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people could see what any creature must do when coming before Christ’s throne. This example touched Katherine deeply. She fell down immediately, flat on the ground, still as a stone. She said this, to put it briefly and plainly: “I clearly see, lord, that you are the maker of earth, air, and rain—all obey your commands. I beg you for mercy, lord, to begin with. If I have your mercy, I want nothing more, for I’ve learned that the well of mercy is here.” She was lifted up by Our Lord himself. This is what he said to her: “Welcome, daughter.” Ten or twelve virgins stood about her, beautiful and splendidly clothed. Our Lady had summoned them to comfort and serve this maid. Then this lord, this high judge, spoke: “Ask what you wish of me, Katherine, and I shall grant it now, to welcome you. Because you forsook castles for my love and at my request, I will grant your heart’s desire, for I am the one you chose as your spouse in your parliament, against the wishes of all your lords and commons. What do you think? Will you have me now forevermore?” Upon hearing these sweet words, Katherine swooned flat on the ground before the good lord, but when he restored her to her senses, she said this to the king: “Oh sovereign, maker of all things—angel, man, beast, and tree—if I were worthy to be solemnly joined to your high presence, I would ask your excellence to forgive me all I’ve done wrong. Make me your servant, not your wife; I’m not worthy of such a high life!” Our Lord said, “My mother here wants me to marry you— and so do I, without a doubt. And so I need to ask what you want. If you consent to this marriage, I’ll give you much joy. Do you consent, Katherine? What do you say?”24 She said, “My wish is the same as yours, lord. For your love, lord, I forsake crown and land, castle and town, gold and silver, house and roof, brooches and rings, mantle and gown. Don’t allow me to succumb to the love of worldly things, lord. Keep me yourself, lord, king of all kings. All that I ever had came from you, lord; I know that very well. From whom else would I have it? My speech, my thought, my mind—everything—my

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bones, my body, my flesh, and my skin! You are the source of abundance. Never let me part from you. I don’t ever want to leave you.” Then Our Lord said this: “It was ordained long ago that you should enter our service. I want you to rise above everyone except my mother—to rhyme shortly!25 You will be joined to my presence on account of your chastity and your obedience. Though all maidens who keep themselves pure for my sake and my pleasure are my brides, a greater fortune awaits you. You shall precede them all in the dance,26 beside my mother, for this reason: because you forsook emperor, king, and duke, for my sake. I receive you, therefore, in a special way. I make you my wife forever because of your commitment to virginity. You will enter into a new conflict shortly for my sake, but don’t be afraid. Whoever offends you shall pay dearly for it!” Then Our Lady said this: “Since this wedding must be performed, I give you this same maiden, lord. A maiden gives a maiden; you did the same for me when you commended me to John when you were hanging on the bloody tree.27 Here is the ring, lord, and here is she.” Our Lord took the ring in his hand. He put it on this pure virgin’s finger. “This is a symbol,” he said, “of that bond by which you, as one of my creatures, freely give yourself to me. This token also clearly attests that here I take you for my wedded wife.” Certain people who had seen this ring, my author says, described it clearly. They said it was a fair thing, graven from a stone that they called chalcedony. Its color is like a rain cloud, or like water. Its virtues are many. Authorities say that it brings good luck to its wearer in any danger. Whoever wears it will have the fortune to win any argument or conflict in town or on the street. It also has the virtue of inspiring its wearers to keep their bodies both pure and chaste.28 Then a wonderful song resounded throughout heaven, the most splendid notes that anyone might hear, accompanied by the most fitting and devout words. The song they sang, if you’d like to know, was this same Sponsus amat sponsam that begins,

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“Salvator visitat illam.”29 It seems appropriate that this song was first sung by angels and saints in heavenly bliss. How appropriate, then, that it also be sung by humans, here in this vale of misery. The Church on earth must certainly, I guess, follow the Church above in every way possible. So ends the account of the wedding of this maiden. Chapters 25–27: Katherine’s Christian Education

(25/1310–79) Then Our Lord decided to leave his new spouse for a while. He raised the same hand that created all things and blessed this sweet one with his good grace. “Farewell,” he said, “my very dear wife. Don’t be frightened by adversity. Though you lose your land and wealth, bear in mind that what I give you is better. Though sickness may come instead of health, be constant and stay faithful. “Adrian, I make you my steward: you shall teach her how to speak of my incarnation. Also teach her the faith of the Trinity­— the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Teach her of the unity of the godhead. Teach her truly and without pride. I trust you more than anyone in this land. Therefore, follow my commandment faithfully—you’ll be sorry if you don’t! I want her to stay with you for eight days so that she can be thoroughly instructed. I’ll send my mother to her then to inform her of many other things pertaining to her and to me. “But Katherine, my wife, I’ll give you this honor above all living women: my angels shall honor you with a [liturgical] service as a sign that we are joined together in matrimony. There was never such a funereal office for any saint. I shall do this for your dear love. Farewell now, and think, ‘Not long.’ ” Then Our Lord departed with joy and song, along with all those fair and bright creatures. The temple, too, was gone. So was the chapel, the font, and the brightness—they saw none of those things any longer. All that remained was Adrian’s cell, where the two of them were left alone among the trees.

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Then it was a pity to see this sweet one, how she swooned and lay as if she were dead. Adrian ran to his well right away and anxiously brought water. “Awaken, madam,” he said. “I’m sorry you ever came to this place!” He rubbed her cheeks, her nose, and her face; he wept, he prayed, and he cried out until she awoke and sat up and spoke. Adrian said to her, “Lady, don’t pass out on me again—if you do I’ll leave! We don’t have the wherewithal here to care for you properly. So no more swooning, I tell you! Remember that even though your love has left you for a while he hasn’t forsaken you, lady, but asks you to act and think like a pilgrim.30 I know very well that you never cared much for worldly pleasure. It can never promote you as highly as that lord you just married. For God’s sake, take comfort and remember that someday you’ll be happy with him forever. So cheer up and look at your ring—it’ll remind you of your glorious wedding. (26/1380–428) “But now, my own dear lady, you must under­stand your faith, surely and clearly. Your sweet spouse commanded me to teach it to you—the one you just saw in the flesh that he was suckled and slain in. Now I shall faithfully tell you of his godhead, the foundation of everything. You must believe this—as you’ll recall, I went over it before, when you were baptized—and set your heart to learning it diligently: our lord God (truly, as I find written of him) is one in substance and nature and also three persons, I assure you. One God, one lord, one creator, one majesty: the Father and the Son and the Hoy Ghost are three persons in one godhead—thus you must believe—and none of those persons is smaller or greater than the others. All are equally powerful in every respect, for the plurality of persons does not diminish in any way the unity of the godhead. Yet the Father is not the Son, nor is the Son the Ghost, you may be sure. They have one will in everything they do: one might, one power, one light, one counsel. You must keep this lesson gravely in your heart, madam, for it is the foundation of our faith. Distinction in persons, unity in nature: this is our doctrine—we must accept it. The Father endows the Son—so

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we believe—with all the substance of deity without diminishing himself in the least. The Father begets the holy Son in bliss, and the Ghost, the third person, proceeds from the two of them, so we believe. Might belongs to the Father, wisdom to the Son, and goodness to the Ghost. So are they joined, I suppose, and yet we must say in every respect, one might, one wisdom, and one goodness. The Father is almighty, and so is the Son; though the Son has wisdom, so does the Ghost; all have goodness— know that well, madam.” These two engaged in such lofty discussions all eight days. Much more was said then—more than I can recount at this time. Let this lesson suffice, for all those holy words of sweet exhortation are better thought than spoken. Our sinful tongue cannot convey them.31 (27/1429–505) After the eight days had passed, Our Lady, as promised, descended from heaven, enveloped in light. Suddenly that house became brighter than lightning. Angels were there—more than six or seven—whose duty was to serve the empress of heaven, mother of the high judge. Many other l­adies came with the queen—with Mary, I mean—as did John the Baptist. There were also many virgins, I believe. John the Evangelist was there, too. Anyone who had been present would have rejoiced. Our Lady said these words to this blessed maiden: “My daughter, my son’s wife, my son greets you with his good blessing. As he promised you, I’ve come now to tell you how you shall die. A tyrant—a worse one never lived—will overthrow and kill you. Don’t recant or flee, but hold your ground and boldly oppose his tyranny. My son will honor you with a grace he has given to no other woman. But first you must endure humiliation and ill-­treatment, loss of your possessions, and, at last, death— this is the upshot. “I must return to my son now. You shall return to your own court. No one missed you during all this time, I dare say. Farewell my daughter, farewell fair one! While you were in the air with my son, a queen who looked just like you filled in for you:

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she ate and slept, spoke and commanded, judged and wrote— she did all this in your place. No one within the castle could tell that she wasn’t you, whether she sat or walked. My son arranged this for your sake. After you have been deposed and killed, you shall know how such mysterious things are done. There’s something else I must tell you: the queen your mother has died and passed on; she is laid on her bier. But don’t grieve—now I’ll be your mother, my son’s wife, by God. “You’ll live in your palace a little more than two years before this Maxentius comes to destroy your treasure—don’t be anxious to hold on to that wealth. Keep to your rooms and live virtuously, with prayer, fasting, and almsgiving. Give both food and clothing to the poor. In two years, he shall make an end of you, daughter, along with many others. Remember this lesson— now and forever, set it in your mind. Farewell, now. Let me kiss you before I return to my son, to everlasting bliss.” Our Lady suddenly departed from this queen, who found herself home in Alexandria—my author says so. Whoever wishes to read him may look it up. I don’t know whether it took her a day or a week to get there, but she’s there now. During all the time she was gone no one missed her, just as our sovereign lord ordained. With your permission, we will now conclude this book, which we have been about for such a long time. God send us all the will to please him above all people. Let’s all say together, Amen.

Book 4

Katherine’s Confrontation with Maxentius and Debate with Fifty Scholars

Prologue

(1–77) People are like worker bees and drones:1 some labor while others idle. There are different attitudes and ranks. The good laborers are like the worker bees, especially those who, alighting on the flowers, learn and teach (sucking and drawing from the various parts of God’s law) good examples set by holy predecessors—sweet ideas and renowned tastes. These bees bring home everything they’ve gathered. Others are good for nothing: they eat and drink, gorge and waste—the only labor they do is at the table; otherwise, they’re in no hurry to work. Fill up their bellies, give them a good meal, and they’ll sleep soundly with the best. All we can say is “drones like their rest.” Drones won’t undertake spiritual labor, because they take no pleasure in hearing God’s law. They don’t improve themselves because they won’t 99

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follow spiritual pursuits on anyone’s account. They’re happy with their full bellies and their rest. It seems to me that Holy Scripture is like a field arrayed with fair flowers, and Holy Church is a hive battered by many storms. With honey and wax, the virtuous bees have fashioned their diverse cells in this hive. If you’re interested, I’ll tell you what all this means: The work good people do by reading exemplary tales invigorates them. Thinking about virtuous and stable living renews their determination to fight with fresh and bold courage against the worldly deception and the negligence that lurks within the flesh. One of these bees was this same queen, the maiden Kathe­ rine, who diligently sucked the honey of great holiness from every fair flower, bore it to the hive, and prepared it for the service of both God and man. She gathered this same liquor, this honey, wondrously far and wide. She labored most in the law of nature, where she learned to set aside vices and choose virtues, to treat no one worse than she would want a person to treat her.2 Here’s how this lady harvested this field: She gathered much from the written law, keeping the Ten Commandments truly in mind. There she learned the marvelous origin of the world and also of humanity. She learned to foster and clothe the lame and the blind, both old and young. This was her labor, this was her harvest. She sucked even sweeter nourishment from the law of grace, that is, from the riper flowers of faith, hope, and ­charity. She bore them into this hive, into Holy Church’s inner recesses, where, believe me, they lie as treasures. Those who labor there may often wring more sweetness than any ship can bring. And we will proceed in the sweetness that this lady gathered while she was alive. May God send us a share of that sweetness when we need to persevere in virtuous living, and may he allow us to enter the heavenly land where she resides. Now, with her help, I will return directly to her story.

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Chapters 1–3: Imperial Politics

(1/78–161) In the time of Costus, our books say that there were three emperors in the city of Rome. The first was a very ruthless man called Maximinus Galerius; the second was called Maximian; the third, Diocletian, was the bane of many a Christian. The first emperor, Maximinus Galerius, stayed in Rome and kept the peace there; he was responsible for the judgments and the sacrifices. The other two men were sent out with great forces charged with burning, killing, seizing, and protecting what was seized. But those two grew weary and resigned their offices. They had a compelling excuse, indeed: they said that all their effort and all their fighting accomplished nothing, for the more they did, the more they had to do. Having made their decision, they resigned their rights to Maximinus Galerius, who appointed three emperors below him to sustain his empire as best they could through battles and attacks, winning cities, castles, towns, and towers. The first, our history says, was called Maximinus. He was assigned to govern the entire East. The second, called Severus, was assigned the government of Lombardy, Germany, and Tuscany, and my source says that many other countries in the region were his tributaries. In addition, Constantine was made lord of our land of Britain. This first emperor, Maximinus Galerius, was killed in a ­battle on account of his pride and wretchedness and sins—so the story says. Because he had defouled many a maiden and wife, he stank like carrion before he died—let him go walk on Salisbury Plain!3 Then the Romans took as their leader young Maxentius, son of Maximinus who ruled in the East. They crowned him royally and at great expense, with great solemnity and ceremony. The news spread widely that he was emperor and had forsaken his father. This, in short, made his father leave his conquests and come to Rome. But before he arrived, his pride was cast down:

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he died in Sicily—so I learned from the chronicles I consulted most recently. There he took his dying breath, and there he remains to await judgment, whether it be weeping or dancing.4 Then Severus, who was stationed in Lombardy, raised forces in Germany and consolidated his power. Envious of Maxentius’s election, he strove by whatever means, wrong or right, to destroy him in order to reign after his death. But en route to Rome, he was killed by his soldiers. There was nothing more to be done. Maxentius reigned all by himself. Every man was bound, on pain of death, to obey him. No one who didn’t would rest easy. And so Maxentius reigned alone in Rome. Nobody gainsaid him, no matter what he did.5 There wasn’t a maiden, wife, or matron who dared do anything but come to him when he summoned her to submit to his lust, whatever he wanted to do. Any husband who stood in the way would be dead, his head set on his gate. Maxentius overturned the law. His power reigned unchecked. The people cursed the womb that bore him. No one dared tell him plainly, “Lord, your law is ruined.” He scorned the Senate. He was so bloated with power that he demanded whatever he desired. (2/162–266) Then the Romans, by common consent, secretly and urgently wrote letters to Constantine in Britain. In those letters they beseeched him, by his knighthood, to help them fight against this tyrant. They would betray Maxentius, they said. Their message: “Come help us in our need!” Then Constantine gathered a great force, both in this land [Britain] and in France as well. He gathered his forces in every country he crossed. In Italy he raised much more support than Severus ever had precisely because of the tyranny and lechery of this false Maxentius. He arrived at Rome. The hosts met. Maxentius trusted the city, but he was deceived: the worried and frightened citizens deserted him and his household. From this example, the wise may learn about trusting the people, for they will fail in times

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of need, just as they deserted Maxentius for Constantine who came from Britain. And he fled, this same Maxentius, rightfully deceived by their treachery on account of his vicious living.6 He fled to Persia, and there he was victorious: he did great things and won many fortresses. And so, because he was a man, they crowned him as their lord and called him king of Persia. Constantine won the field that day. The other tyrant got the worst of it on the battlefield. All this, truly, is told to explain how Maxentius came to Alexandria with such a great company and presumed to seize and arrest this lady [Katherine]. For when he was thus exalted in Persia, honored in his father’s office, his morals grew worse and worse and more inclined to sin and to vice. He sent out letters to every justice, ordering them to seek out Christians and hang and draw them, for truly, he said, he would destroy that religion. These letters arrived in Syria and he soon followed. I consider it appropriate to provide a copy of them here in English: The lord of lords who dwells under the moon, peerless Maxentius, emperor of Persia, heartedly greets our lieges throughout our empire. We want you to know that our forefathers who honored the gods with the service entitled them were so protected by the wise gods that they were never vanquished or abandoned in ­battle. Therefore, as justice and priest in the religion of Saturn, we want you to turn away from all vain religions, particularly from Christ, who hanged on a tree—may no one be so bold as to name him! What kind of God is he, who gained notoriety by being so shamefully hanged on a tree? No one living in our land, neither free nor slave, shall be so bold as to name him or make his mark on their foreheads,7 as these Christians have the habit of doing. We prohibit all their ceremonies and pilgrimages—if they forget, they shall get their just wages, nor shall lordship or wealth save them. Therefore, anybody honoring gods other than ours will be seized by our officers and led to prison without delay. We will

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ordain for them such a punishment that they will never again make such presumptions in all their lives—that we guarantee.

This is the gist of the long letters that he sent throughout the East. He further commanded lords and strong knights to come in haste, both the greater and the lesser, to attend a great and lavish feast that he would hold on his birthday. The messengers went far and wide and bore these letters into various lands. The iron-­fisted emperor himself remained in great Alexandria, in the same city where this noble and dear queen [Katherine] lived prayerfully with her private retinue. Kings and queens came to this city and more lords than I can tell: the inns were as full as beehives. Buying and selling was going on everywhere, especially of food and drink. Thanks to the great merchants there, a well was never more abundantly filled with water than Alexandria was with food. When everyone who was expected had arrived, the emperor issued three nonnegotiable orders. He demanded everyone, regardless of rank or residence, to obey them on pain of damnation. (3/267–357) His first command was that all Christians leave their faith and the great honor they do to Christ, God’s son, whom they also call their savior: “Through their feigned miracles, his disciples have misled everyone who will pay attention to them. Therefore, we command them all to come into our presence and see and hear our decree. We intend to make our law perfectly clear to these witches, wherever they are. When all religions are considered, ours is the best.” His second command was this: He said that everyone would remember that not long ago he was the honored governor of Rome, but he was betrayed by troops from Britain and France, which a certain Constantine assembled against him, a great force and a formidable power. Thus this traitor, he said, this Constantine, had entered his land as a usurper and overtaken his cities with guns and mines, leaving neither wall nor tower standing. Surrounded by the lords who were with him at the

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time, Maxentius said he would ride as far as Rome to conquer what was his by right and to avenge himself on this tyrant, this Constantine. Therefore, he ordered the lords there to be ready with their bows and their siege engines, for he would reward them with good and fine gifts, with incomes, lands, castles, and towers. If they conquered Rome, they would not want for wealth. The third command that he issued as he sat in parliament was to renew all the service and proper tribute that had been ordained for the gods by common assent. The gods, he said, would be more generous if their ceremonies were revived. A bishop then stood up, with the miter and crosier they used in their religion. Everyone was ordered to be quiet and listen to his speech. After he drew his breath, he spoke as if he were giving a sermon: “I want you to know,” he said, “that Jupiter the high king has withdrawn his favor from our entire nation. This, in short, is why: we have forsaken him and fallen into idolatry. Many of us here, I’m afraid, are guilty of doing so. Therefore, almighty Jupiter and Saturn his father appeared privately in a dream and gave warning in a revelation. They declared that we should teach the people to renew the old ceremonies and the ancient rites of our ancestors—the ones practiced by many lords and knights. Who but Jupiter aids us in peace or in war? May he always thrive! He and his family deserve all honor and service! Nobody is as powerful as Jupiter is when he quakes in anger. The great thunder that he releases and the horrible lightning show us that whoever forsakes him is likely to be burned in vengeance. Return to him, so that you are not lost. Abandon these new ways and return to your old practices. “What! Shall Christ range himself among the gods? The shepherds and plowmen of the fields know perfectly well that it’s not possible for one person to purchase the salvation of the entire world, as these Christians maintain—for Christ, as their book says, removed all the sins from the world with his blood. He must be eternal to do things that will benefit each succeeding generation, for only a god endures forever. Reject Christianity,

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I charge you in the gods’ name! Save your souls and your bodies from blame.” That was the content of the bishop’s great sermon, and he also proclaimed that no one in the land should dare speak in any way against the gods or their service, unless he wanted to have his back broken on the rack. Chapter 4: Ma xentius’s Festival

(4/358–427) The great city of Alexandria was overflowing with lords and ladies. Barges packed the port. There were so many people and such dense crowds that anyone would be lucky to find accommodations. Nothing could be heard besides trumpet playing and singing, for it was the eve of Maxentius’s birthday. The emperor proclaimed that all the people should parade around the city in their best clothes, making noise and music. Anyone caught sleeping that night would be censured for not taking part in the festivities. Trumpets and people were noisy; even noisier were the beasts dying in their blood, for you can be sure that the butchers worked like madmen all night. The carcasses washed in the river made the water so bloody that it attested to the great murder of the slain beasts.8 They go to the temple early the next day, where the bishops have prepared to perform the service. There were no services— no matins or prime9—they had a different practice than what I’m familiar with. This much I can say: The emperor was seated upon high, so that he might see and judge everything, especially how the people honored the occasion. The people kneeled and cried with dazed devotion, as the emperor looked on with his somber eyes, for he had a nagging suspicion that some of the attendees were not going to sacrifice. The first god of all, who stood highest, was the bright sun with his horse and chariot so artfully carved. Next was the moon, known as Diana, with her nine springs and her ­maidens, too.10 Next was bitterly destructive Saturn, sickle in hand. Many

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resort to him only when they’re sick, believing their malady to be his vengeance, so cruel is the governance of his planet.11 The altar beside him was well arrayed, on which Jupiter stood on high with his wife Juno so well portrayed. Venus the fair stood next with her blind son. Those who serve him call him Cupid, I believe—but I’m not one of them; I detest idolatry.12 There was much more that I won’t bother describing, but I’ll say this: There were great offerings. They spared neither horse, nor ox, nor bear, nor cow, but just kept yelling, “Slay, slay!” The bishops and the priests did their thing; the minstrels didn’t fail to perform for their pay; people of all ages made the noise you’d expect of them. The old people said they’d never in their lives seen such sacrifices as this emperor had restored to their temple: “May all the great gods send him honor, a long and stable life, and success in battle!” Spirits were high among the young men as they nimbly and boisterously danced at the cele­ bration. The clamor was heard for a mile in every direction. So I’ll leave these bold lords to their mirth. They are very proud of what they’re doing. The emperor himself looked all around to see who was doing the greatest reverence to his gods. This filled the Christians with fear. Chapters 5–12: Katherine Confronts Ma xentius

(5/428–518) Our noble maiden, our holy, devout queen, to whom this story now returns, this holy virgin Katherine, I mean, was then sitting silently in her study, rapt in contemplation, away from her attendants. She had no use for worldly wealth since the time that Christ took her as his wife or spouse (read whichever you please). This maiden then heard this commotion. “Oh Jesus,” she said, “I wish I knew what all this racket is about.” Two or three of the knights who attended her were walking past. She said to them, “Whatever is this great noise, sirs?”13 “Truly, madam,” an old servant then said, “it’s the Emperor Maxentius’s birthday. He has commanded everyone—from the

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elderly to the infants—to renew the ancient rites and services that by tradition are owed to the gods. This is what has happened, if you really want to know. No person, poor or noble, dares disobey him. Anyone who dissents shall die. “Stay quietly in your quarters; there’s nothing more to say. We can’t stop him. Let him call, lady, let him cry and croak. Be content if you can live in peace. The man is most certainly a tyrant, for, believe me, he has made a strict decree that people of all religions shall convert to his religion. The child, as soon as he begins to crawl, shall be taught to call upon the gods—his parents shall teach him to do so upon pain of death. I heard the great bishop preach this today. “Therefore, madam, the hour has come that was feared by all your friends, when you would listen to no counselor no matter how earnestly you were entreated. I am very sorry, for now all those misfortunes are likely to befall that were predicted then. Consider carefully what you will do.” When this maiden had heard these words, she began to remember how Our Lady spoke of what was to come when she left her. She had said this: “I tell you, my maiden, that you shall be sorely attacked by an enemy of my son and me.” Our blessed lady Mary said these words to this queen when she left. “It’s quite clear, then,” Katherine thought, “that this is what she spoke of; it’s obvious through the audacity of the emperor who so boldly rises against our creator, whose wife I am and whose mother I serve.” Then she remembered the covenant she made when she was cleansed at her baptism, and then again at her wedding, when she solemnly vowed that she would never—for anything, even if she were thrown in a hot caldron of brass—forsake her chosen love. She blushed, fair as a rose, remembering that sweet wedding that she arrived at through Adrian’s guidance. The ­memory was so impressed on her heart that no fickle weathervane of worldly lusts would blow it away; neither Juno, nor Venus, nor Diana would eradicate this love from her heart.

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She paced up and down, uncertain of what to do. If she were to remain silent, she thought, she would not be keeping her promises. She then looked at the fair ring, somewhat blue, that was given to her at her recent wedding, and she said to herself: “Forget the world! Forget crown and throne! I shall keep the promise I made to my husband, even if I die. I shall then come to my creator all the sooner, for this life consists of nothing but sleeping and eating. It’s a disgrace that any lord or leader should compel people against all truth, against rightful law! Why does my husband permit these scoundrels to break into his churches and kill his servants? I can only think of one reason: that his servants here are not meant to prevail. Whoever loves the world will be destroyed by that love. Tribulation is ordained for his servants, who shall go directly to heaven from their biers.” (6/519–602) Then she walked through her palace, oblivious of everything. Her servants followed her—not many, but some—for they were going to the emperor. They didn’t know what she proposed to do by going; they all wavered between love and fear. It was so crowded at the temple gates that no one could enter. Katherine repeatedly said to the porters, “Let us in; we have business with the emperor. If he knew who we were, he wouldn’t let us stand outside. We will soon teach him to perform these rites better—not vainly or presumptuously, but to the honor of the one who made everything.” This was what she said at the time. Then she met lords of a foreign land who had finished performing their offerings and were preparing to return to their lodgings. The emperor’s son accompanied these lords. But when they saw such a lovely and radiant lady, they stopped and addressed her with great respect and solicitude: “Madam,” they said, “the huge crowd that you see has come from afar with great devotion. Don’t blame them for wanting to leave. But we shall, lady, escort you honorably to the temple. We’ll clear a path so that you may enter.”

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With mace and menace they cleared a way until she arrived at the high altar. Then she said such words as you shall hear. Addressing the emperor, she said: “Both nature and courtesy would have us honor your authority because of your kin and even more because of your rank. These should incite us to bless and honor you, were it not for your transgression against the great king, lord of all lords, Jesus Christ: you have taken from him the honor he is due and given it to idols, as is clearly seen, which may neither advance your causes nor alleviate your distress. But if you would abandon this cursed idolatry and recognize your God who sits on high, who made the sun, stars, and moon, then we would honor you with due service, kneel down to you and pledge the homage we owe you readily enough. But because you make people rise up against Christ and worship the devils of hell, I tell you truly, sir, that we are withdrawing our service for a time until you change your ways. Abandon this cursed and wicked religion! Recognize your almighty maker! Bow to his will, and you shall have more prosperity than you ever had before, believe me. “These Christians here, who are being dragged up to make offerings to your idols against their judgment, against all reason and law, you threaten them with torment and with death, you say you’ll make them drink molten pitch and lead. I feel sorry for them. They dare not resist; if they were faithful, they would not comply. Your gods are devils, and your priests are greedy deceivers of the people. They know as well as I do that however much these idols are entreated, they can’t sit or stand, eat or drink. Their mouths can’t speak, their feet can’t walk, and their hands can’t work. Therefore, turn your heart from this illusion; recognize your God, who made you and all things for you! Do not act against nature, against your creator, against the Trinity. Unless you reform, believe me, God shall send you great pains, and those pains shall never end.” (7/603–30) The emperor pondered her words and manner, wondering how she dared be so bold before these people, in his presence, and at his feast. No one would dare say what she

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said—unless he wished to die. He beheld her fair complexion, glowing red and white, astonished by her beauty (and partly by her passion). He folded his arms and said angrily: “Beware, good woman, of the terrible vengeance that our gods visit upon their enemies. They have toppled many a proud man. Were they not more merciful than just, you would have immediately fallen into the wretched pit that they have made to punish those who despise them—those who end up there are indeed unlucky. Beware, sister, that they don’t take vengeance on you for your blasphemy! You speak of hell and heaven, and they may grant whichever you deserve. Be quiet and stay alive. Were it not for your honorable lineage, I guarantee you wouldn’t sleep sound tonight. You are worthy to be hanged on a gibbet for your virulent preaching against our gods!” (8/631–51) Then the maiden gravely said, “How can these idols here be gods? Consult your book, check their lineage, and you’ll find that they were once mortals, just like us. Books tell us your Saturn was once king of Crete, by God! So was Jupiter, according to your poet.14 Because they couldn’t get along with each other in that land, Jupiter, the sun, made Saturn, his father, flee to Italy—that’s what your books say—during the reign of the double-­faced Janus (so called because he looks both to the old year and to the new). This is the truth: They were men, not immortals. How can they be gods when they were created? A god is supposed to be eternal! You deceive and comfort the people with lies. A god never dies or diminishes; a god makes everything from nothing. The one who made your gods is a god.” (9/652–79) The emperor then thought hard about how he would prove his religion to be true and how he would honor and uphold it with examples of [the gods’] power and nature. “Maiden,” he said, “I believe I’ll change your mind. Stop talking for a while, and I’ll demonstrate plainly that your so-­called Christian sect cannot withstand scrutiny; it crumbles under the impossibilities you attribute to it. Make sure that you take in everything I say. How can a maiden give birth and yet remain a virgin as she was before? This thing is obviously contrary to

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nature; it is impossible, whatever your schooling!15 Change your mind, for I assure you that through such an error you may fall so deeply that, however much you cry for mercy, we won’t be able to save you because our law will condemn you to be hanged and drawn. Change your belief and abandon opinions that everyone alive considers heretical. You claim that the blood of a child with five wounds16 washes away the sins of every man, woman, and child: this foolishness is wholly unreasonable!” (10/680–721) Unshaken by these apparently reasonable objections, the queen replied: “Sir emperor,” she said, “if time permitted, I would demonstrate thoroughly that your arguments are unfounded. You stupidly eat the rind that’s visible to the eye, never desiring the sweet fruit that lies within. Your age-­old customs are insane: you take the leaves and leave the fruit. Let me speak more plainly: Who looks for roses where they don’t grow? Who looks for grapes among briars? You can be sure that almighty God is not visible among us; rather he is far above us, living blissfully with all his servants. Though you ask these chunks of wood to send you grace, help, and relief, you will never obtain them, because you’ve forsaken your creator and worshipped and honored undeserving creatures. By this ­example, I prove that you bite and gnaw the rotten rind of visible things, while obstinately leaving the sweet fruit, the dear comfort, which should be the ultimate goal of your religion. As long as you stupidly continue to do so, you’ll never possess the truth, believe me. Repent and you’ll be able to receive the faith! This is the truth, no matter what anyone says.” (11/722–63) By the end of this speech, you might have seen many people looking quite different than they had before. Some frowned at the idols that Maxentius had set up. The threat of pain and death had frightened them into pretending to propitiate the gods, but this lady’s sweet words heartened them. Now they began to cry out, “Have mercy, Jesus, and save us from error and apostasy.” Those were their words. The emperor saw this with a heavy heart. His expression changed. “It was an evil hour,” he thought, “when I made the

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mistake of allowing this maiden to speak here. It seems that my own people are beginning to despise my gods and my rites. The others, the Christians, seem to have taken heart. It’s amazing, for they’ve suddenly abandoned their offerings right in my presence.” Thus this man thought deeply. Then he contemplated the maiden’s beauty, and he said to her: “Maiden, we have just begun to make a solemn sacrifice to our gods, and you have very irreverently spoken against our god the sun, whom everyone considers a god. Now I advise you to desist and stand aside until our services are over for the day. May Apollo not avenge your recent blasphemy! You know as well as I do that he may both damn and save you. If for no other reason than for your beauty alone, you should bow down and thank him! I think you’re the greatest of rebels.” (12/764–98) “Why should Apollo be considered a god?” said the maiden, whom everyone could hear. “He’s nothing but a servant to God’s majesty, with his sunbeams shining fair and clear. He doesn’t go anywhere except at the bidding of his creator on high, the only one we are bound to fear and love. I dare say that most of us are traitors, and yet he suspends his great vengeance. Consider this: You are a powerful lord; you have no equal between here and France.17 As I understand, your followers throughout the East call you an omnipotent king. Suppose that certain of your men rose treasonously against your sovereignty, defying your person, despite your rank.18 Wouldn’t you then, as a true judge, kill those traitors? If you didn’t, you’d regret it! So it goes with our creator, God of heaven, who made everything from nothing. You’re taking from him the honor that he’s entitled to, which he bought at great expense when he came to earth for our salvation. You give that same honor to representations of devils that you’ve set solemnly on platforms. Consider the treason you’ve fallen into: you’re traitors and shall burn as traitors—there’s no other word for you—until you recognize your lord. Abandon these vanities, good sir emperor, and turn to your lord! Then you and I shall quickly come to terms.”

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Chapters 13–14: Prelude to the Debate

(13/799–945) The emperor was flabbergasted. The ceremony was over and he was dismayed, for it was past noon and no one would bow to the sun, to Venus, or to the moon. Therefore, he thought to himself: “If I torture this lady—even if I slay, ­strangle, or burn her—I won’t stamp out her doctrine. Therefore, I’ll devise a slier plan that won’t serve her purpose. Since she argues against our gods and our law, we’ll put her down with reason—I think that’s the best remedy against her cleverness.” He hastily summoned a private meeting of his council to deliberate how best to eradicate this lady’s newfangled ideas— would it be best to proceed with pleasure or with pain?19 His council advised him to summon scholars of grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy, with such expertise that no one could answer them. They should destroy this lady’s heresy most expeditiously, they all said. Then the emperor summoned many messengers, for he would send letters throughout the lands of Cyprus and Syria, saying that any scholars who wish to increase their income must come to this arena, to the place where this conflict will be. The letters were written and sealed, every one of them. The messengers rushed off. To mark the occasion, the emperor himself sealed these letters with a precious and skillfully graven ring. If you’re interested, this was the content of the emperor’s letters: Maxentius, the greatest lord (except the sun and moon) ever on earth, three times consul in the distinguished city of Rome, ­father of the people, and close kin to Jupiter the king, sends love and health to all the scholars of Syria and Cyprus as well as those of all the other provinces that have recently fallen under his domain. We wish you to know that we are writing at this time to have the benefit of your wisdom. We are demanding neither labor nor taxes, but rather the salvation of our faith and our religion— for these Christians are making our people rave with their subtle

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arguments (their subtleties amaze even us). In particular, we have just seized a marvelously eloquent lady who has convinced many people to abandon our faith. Partly by cleverness, partly by magic, she is perverting our land in an amazing fashion. Therefore, we ask you who are wise to hasten to Alexandria to see if you can put down this lady, for I tell you shortly, unless she is overcome with your diligence, everyone shall be Christian. If you overcome her, you shall be rewarded with plenty of riches, believe me.

Thus the letters were written and sent. The emperor went to the palace, which was then splendidly decked out, with the maiden and many lords. He addressed her congenially and made many great promises, hoping to change her mind. He promised that if she would agree with him she would be more powerful than any lord in his parliament, for everyone would bow to her will. She would be queen, just as he was king. He would set her image up in the marketplace—an image that resembled her in body and face—and everyone would honor that image as a goddess; they would have no choice except to worship her.20 He promised that he would elevate her to such honor if only she would forsake her Christian faith and accept his. But this blessed lady disdained all these promises for Christ’s sake. She remembered what Our Lady herself had said to her: “God will forsake the proud and elevate the meek precisely because of their meekness.” Then she said gravely to the emperor, “I have forsaken this whole world forever for the love of my lord—Jesus, I mean. Neither fear nor love will part my heart from that great treasure; it shall lie there, well stored, until I die and give up my spirit to the lord I love most. If your gods are as powerful as you say, let them take vengeance upon me right now: if they can, let them destroy my body. Their might is nothing, and neither is their grace. Therefore I despise the whole lot of them, for I know perfectly well that they are fiends! “And sir, I will address another matter, and I want you to listen to me very carefully. It is not unknown throughout the East that by right of descent and by charter this city is my heritage

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to which you have made this pilgrimage. Since you are emperor and should uphold the law, why do you make such decrees in another’s land, compelling my subjects, though they weep bitterly, to go with their offerings in hand and to stand before you with trumpets and drums—without my leave, without my permission? You are wronging me and offending God! If your gods instructed you to do this sin, then they are being unjust. If you are acting against their command, then you are wronging them. No matter why you do this—and I’ll conclude quickly to avoid wearying you with long speeches—you are wronging me!” Then the emperor was most unhappy. He could no longer stand to have her in his presence. He commanded a nearby knight to lead her off to prison for her offense. He was to make sure that she did not escape, or else he would die a horrible death! She accompanied the knight happily, like a bride going to her wedding chamber for her lord’s love, not dismayed, not a bit angry. Thus can Our Lord test the patience of those who are chosen to dwell with him in heaven above. But I will leave her for now and go on with the story. (14/946–1015) While Katherine was thus incarcerated, the emperor rode off to tend to some business. His trip was thought to have been prompted by the breach of a certain agreement between two cities. As I understand, he rode out to mend the recent rift. Each of the cities had used many cannons on the other. Having made peace and accomplished his mission,21 he returned to Alexandria. The messengers that he had sent out also returned, bringing all those scholars to Alexandria. The emperor and the scholars met. The council of lords convened, along with the scholars, who were waiting to find out why the emperor sent for them. It was an impressive sight, to be sure, all those scholars from all parts of the East assembled for one reason: to conquer this lady by philosophy. My source says there were exactly fifty of them, men learned in art and arithmetic, in rhetoric, grammar, and all the seven sciences. There was nothing like it in the whole world: they had studied the entire foundation of music.

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The emperor was delighted with their knowledge. He said to them as they entered, “Scholars, this is why we have summoned you. We have a maiden here who obstinately repudiates our laws—she has fallen into that damned heresy called Christianity. In fact, she has plunged so deeply into that error that she calls all our gods devils. I assume that, being such learned men, you teach nothing but the truth. Because it seems a shame to slay such a young lady, I want you to convert her to our religion so that I won’t have to burn her. That’s why I sent for you. Go figure out the best way to proceed now, for she will be arriving shortly. Her answers are sly, her learning is great. I assure you that you won’t leave here until you’ve brought her to the same faith that her father the king followed all his life, and her mother, too: this is what I want done.” One answered for all of them, saying, “There’s such a company gathered here that one wouldn’t find three so wise or so well versed in philosophy in the whole world. But of all these scholars, Ariot is the worthiest. He shouldn’t waste his energies on a woman! He shall send his disciples, and if she out-­argues them by reason or authority, I will declare her a goddess, worthy to be set on the wheel of natural science. But I can’t imagine that any woman should manage that. I’ve never heard of any woman so accomplished.” After this discussion, the emperor commanded his knights to make his guests comfortable until the next day, to lead them to their lodgings, which were well furnished—especially with books and other equipment befitting scholars. Thus I leave them in their diligent study and Katherine, our maiden, in her prison cell. Chapters 15–16: Katherine and the Priv y Council

(15/1016–92) The next day, the emperor thought he’d see if he could win her over himself in a meeting with his privy council. (It will be no use, though, for our maiden can state her case

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so well that his arguments will fail him when he needs them most!) There were many lords present then, stately, manly, and generous. The king of Armenia was present when her faith was challenged, as was the good-­looking king of Medea,22 and the king of Macedonia, who remonstrated with this lady without changing her mind. The provost of Persia was also there, with the bishops and many other lords. They made their points, but they didn’t get anywhere. The emperor first said to this maiden: “My own sister, I’ve brought you here before my special friends to see if you will persist in your current religion or yield to us, renouncing that traitor Jesus and turning to Apollo, Venus, and Minerva. I imagine being imprisoned will cause you to change your ways; surely you wouldn’t want to die of starvation. You are the rose of all maidens, and it’s appropriate that all maidens follow advice. Let’s see what your intentions are.” She answered, “To tell the truth, sir, I have a love that pleases me so much that worldly delight just grieves me. Therefore, you can count on this: I’ll never change as long as I live—I’ll always be his true spouse and wife.” Then the emperor said, “In that case, it’s all for nothing that we’ve racked our brains to save you. Change your tune, and change your mind, too, or else you’ll be brought to an end that befits raving traitors. Choose between these two things: die or forsake your religion.” The great king of Armenia, Katherine’s uncle, I believe, said, “Kinswoman, leave this heresy. Think of your kin, both kings and queens. None of them would hold such beliefs. What a shame! Why do you despise Saturn, woman? If he wishes, he can turn you into a stone!” The king of Medea, who sat beside him, blamed our lord Jesus: “Your god Christ,” he said, “is widely known to be a sorcerer, and so was his mother—the greatest practitioners of sorcery, so it’s said. To hell with such wisdom! To hell with such faith! Everyone says so.” He reproved her on another account,

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pointing out that she stood all alone in this matter—no one but she believed in Christ. “Consider whether one person is worthier to be believed than all of us.23 Reason tells us that where there’s a multitude, you can’t fail to find truth.” The king of Macedonia, Sir Caspanus, said gravely to the lady, “Your God, your lord whom you call Jesus, was born of a maiden, you said, but why did he allow himself to be treated so badly by his own servants? A lord with any sense would have hanged them for the sake of justice!” The bishops agreed, and everyone remonstrated with this lady as persuasively as they could, diligently exhorting her to stop being foolish and to make her enemies her dear friends. Then this lady spoke, just as you shall hear: (16/1093–127) “Sir emperor,” she said, “I have already made it perfectly clear to Your Reverence why my lord Jesus would allow his servants to inflict all these pains on him, but you are so obstinate that you feel nothing for my faith. I therefore consider it a waste of time to argue with you. But I will say this much to every one of you: The false god you make such a fuss about won’t save you when you sink like a rock into torment. He can’t deliver himself from that torment, where he’s bound with many a chain. But my lord was never a sorcerer, nor was his blessed mother, the Virgin Mary. He was God and man, as books attest, and all his miracles, though vigorously challenged by his mortal enemies, were always found to be true. Therefore, stop ranting with your cursed tongues, you lords, I entreat you. Stop barking against that holy name, for the day will come when you’ll be called to account for your barking. What a shame that wretches should defame such a lofty and dignified lord! Everyone ought to kneel before him!” Then the provost of Persia spoke up: “Send for these s­ cholars, sir, and let them talk. They know our doctrine; they know what must be done. Let her believe them or die. She shall choose one; there’s no other way. We’re wasting time with all this chattering. They’ll combat her in another way.”

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Chapters 17–18: The Eve of the Debate

(17/1128–90) The scholars entered the council room. The emperor said, “Now we shall see if knowledge will avail. ­Scholars, do your work, for you must defend us from attacks on every side. Our faith depends on your success.” They scoffed at the idea that so many men should dispute a young maiden, for no living person, neither duke nor king, had ever dared contest their conclusions. There was a great commotion. “Bring her in,” they said, “let’s see her.” While they were busy arguing, a knight, a worthy officer, hurried to the prison to warn her of the emperor’s plans to test her. Why waste words? The lady welcomed the news—she said that nothing could have made her happier. Then she fell down flat in a trance, commending her cause directly to God alone: “Lord, grant me perseverance,” she said, “to serve your godhead enthroned on high, of which godhead your son, the second person, died on earth for the sins of all mankind, which he often found untrue to him. Lord, grant me today the eloquence to save your faith, as you best know how to. Don’t allow these scholars to withstand the doctrine which you, God and man, confirmed on earth with so many bruises. Lord, give me the spirit that can put down all earthly boasting, and as you granted to your apostles on earth—you told them that when they should stand before prince or king they should not worry about what to say, for you would fill their replies with a wisdom that no one could controvert, neither heathen nor heretic24 — grant the same to me, your servant here. Give me the strength to defend your cause and prove the Church’s faith with sharp and clear arguments. To amend our ways you came down from heaven to establish that faith. Inspire me, I beseech you, who are God and man, king and priest. You are my knowledge and my courage; I trust in you alone. No virtue comes except from your worthiness. Show your might today. You make all things, both the heat and the frost. Therefore, I pray, lord, that though I am a woman, you strengthen me so that I speak pleasing words for

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your honor. Just as you allowed Esther to please Ahasuerus,25 causing him to lay aside his stateliness and speak words of comfort to her, so grant me now, lord, your servant here, that I may please when I plead your cause. This, in short, is what I pray for.” (18/1191–253) When this lady had finished praying, an angel came gliding down from heaven accompanied by a marvelous sound. He shone like lightning, illuminating the entire prison, with its seven vaults, by his presence—even the dark corners. She was so ravished by the light that she swooned. “Don’t be afraid,” he said, “though I’m bright. I’m both your servant and God’s, and I came from heaven to comfort you. My lord, your spouse, has sent me to greet you on his behalf. Out of love for you he has sent this message: He commands you not to worry in the least about these scholars; you shall not be outdone. You shall understand them thoroughly, and they shall have no power to overcome your arguments. But your power shall be far greater, for you shall convince them with great authority. You shall lead them onto Peter’s barge, which stands for our faith, as the theologians say; what’s more, they shall be so devout that they shall die as martyrs for Christ. This prophecy has been determined above by God’s providence. These scholars shall despise all their books, in which they have been so confident.26 They will lose all the confidence they once had when they called upon their gods. Our Lord shall do this, lady, through your labor. “Rise up now and thank your savior. And you yourself, after their death, shall suffer many more things for his sake than I have time to tell right now. But I will tell you this: you shall make the queen forsake her king for Christ’s love and die in her blood; you shall be the cause of this good, lady. Believe me, for I am a true messenger and no false spirit.27 My name is Michael, the archangel of heaven who oversees all the souls who come to heaven; I weigh them all to determine whether they are heavy or light in goodness.28 This is my duty, lady, believe me. There is a seat ordained in heaven above for you, lady, after you have endured the sharp wheel for your spouse’s love.29 No maiden has

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ever attained such a seat in heaven except Mary, Christ’s dear mother. Farewell now, lady, and take heart.” Thus she was comforted that night in prison, left alone in sweet prayer. The sweetness remained, and some of the light, even after the angel had gone. He made her bold and firm as a rock. No pain shall now make her renounce her faith. Chapters 19–32: The Debate

(19/1254–316) Now the people of the city gathered noisily to see this maiden. Everyone said, “Now the time has come when great honor or great shame will fall on one party or another.” And because this lady was so famous, everyone strained to get close in order to hear and see everything. The emperor was seated, surrounded by his lords. The scholars were sitting in pairs. The maiden was also sitting, but alone. The emperor exhorted all these noble scholars from his high throne: “­Scholars, here is that female conjurer, the maiden we told you about. Here is the new prophet, the new Ulysses,30 the one who clings so stubbornly to her error that she will not abandon it! Test your arrows!” Then the maiden issued a very strange challenge31 to the emperor, saying, “As judge, you’ve promised a precious reward to these scholars here if they overcome me; you’ve promised me nothing. I’m asking you now to promise that if I succeed and convince them all, you shall abandon your idolatry immediately and recognize my lord Jesus as your God. Do so, and I’ll say that you are a just and true judge.” At these words the emperor colored. He said to her stoutly, “Just what has our reward got to do with you? Defend your faith as best you can; I expect little enough from you. Mind your own business, girl, and don’t complicate matters. We’ll soon see how smart you are!” Then the maiden addressed the scholars: “Since you’ve ­gathered against me here, to see if your arguments can drive

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from my heart and mind the Christian faith I’ve recently embraced, say what you have to say.” Then a very old scholar spoke, an honorable man named Amphos of Athens: “We’ve come,” he said, “at the emperor’s expense, on account of an eighteen-­year-­old maiden, he wrote—I gather that’s you. But we’re not sure why we’ve come. Only you can answer that. Since you’re the cause of these proceedings, state your beliefs and we shall respond to them before we leave. We’re resolved to return you to the faith you renounced through wicked counsel. Therefore, you should speak first and we shall answer.” (20/1317–1400) The maiden arose readily. She crossed her forehead, her mouth, and her breast. Then she said, as you shall hear: “It falls to me to speak first on this occasion, though I’m the least important and the most unworthy. Since the time I knew our lord Jesus—bless him!—I have given up all my old ­authors. I found no substance in them, only eloquence. My books are gone—given away or sold. Farewell Aristotle: My ­father paid a good price for and was very eager to teach me all your subtle books, which you called by various titles. I’ve left Homer, too, with his fair propositions in verse and prose: from dawn until night I sat learning his text and its commentary. I know that I’ve indeed chosen better. Farewell to you, too, Ovid, who loved blind Venus and Cupid all too well.32 I’ve also taken leave of Aesculapius and Galen and all their searching into nature’s secrets. I have a truer teaching that leads more directly to an understanding of creation. And Plato’s books, too, I assure you, I have finished with, never to encounter again, nor Philistion the philosopher and poet.33 You see, scholars, I have studied and diligently learned all these men’s works. They were taught to me by very clever teachers—there are no better today. And in these books I found nothing but vanity and transience. “I always thought that the best learning dealt with eternal things. That’s what I study now that I’ve turned to Jesus Christ. I’ve learned how God is lord of creatures; I’ve learned how he created the blue and white heavens, the water, the fire, and the

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earth before it became fertile—he made all this from nothing. This is what I’ve learned. “I also learned that he was born on earth to Mary, who was a virgin. He grew to manhood, to the age of thirty-­three, and then, of his own free will, as the prophets said, he was hanged upon a tree for mankind’s sin. He did many miracles while he was here on earth, I assure you. His dual nature was known in different ways. He showed that he was God through great deeds, for all the elements obeyed his commandments; that he was man is easily established—those around him saw and felt him. I’m telling you plainly that this is my teaching, this is my philosophy, this is the knowledge I trust shall never deceive me, this is my faith, this is my victory. “Whatever people say, we must have a sovereign lord and God above all earthly rulers, whose power may save all. Look at your gods: their power is so small that they tumble and totter whenever we brush against them. Wipe away the blindness that has obstructed your sight, for Christ said this when he sowed the Gospel: ‘Those who see shall be blind, and those who never knew my power will have me in their minds.’34 But let’s pull the fruit from the rind and tell you plainly what this means: You are the seeing men, for you can see everything natural by your book learning, but you don’t consider how you may be saved. Your brilliant learning makes you rave so that you can’t find everlasting truth. This error makes you blind. “But I shall prevail in the name of the one I now profess. If there were even more of you, nobody would be able to confound me. He can make dull, rude minds shine with the freshest knowledge; my lord Jesus often makes fools wise.” (21/1401–56) When this maiden had finished her fair speech, a haughty man (and an angry one, indeed) arose; they called him the learned Astenes. He was pale with fury. His loud voice filled the place. This is what he said: “I’m afraid you don’t have much to be proud of, you lords and citizens of Rome, you princes and nobles! Why should people call you wise and serious? If you were wise, you wouldn’t allow these Christians to denounce our gods

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so violently. Our emperor, the father and gracious guardian of this land, summoned us to combat a new error—which, by the way, is not new. I have burned many of these Christians for this reason: what they call faith, we call lunacy. “Our gods might well accuse us of being unnatural, for despite all the benefits they send us we allow a young woman to openly commend Christ and to defend his treason with rhetorical tricks. Worst of all, we allow her to call our gods devils. Therefore, sir, consider her offense and don’t allow her to continue speaking. With her spurious arguments, she’ll soon entrap these ignorant people who are listening silently and wrest them from their faith. They’ll never turn back, however much we entice them. It’s against our law to allow such preachers.35 “We came here to hear something new and she starts talking about Jesus of Nazareth, Christ, they call him, and prophet of Galilee. She calls him lord of wind, water, and land. We know this old error very well—I have myself condemned many of you, that is, of your sect. You should be ashamed to proclaim the great duplicity of Jesus! Some say that he had a mother who was a maiden even after she had suffered the distress of childbirth: every­one knows this has to be a lie—this silly doctrine is worthless! You say he’s so great because he rose from death to life, but I’ve heard Jews say for certain that two of his disciples went to the grave and stole the body secretly during a storm and then said their master was miraculously gone. Many others said the same.” (22/1457–91) In response to these blasphemies, this maiden graciously answered, “I began my disputation here by speaking of my lord of heaven. There is without any doubt a maker of this entire world, who existed before its creation. As I have proved, Jupiter was merely a man, as was Saturn, his father. Since they were men and had a beginning, we must go further to find the one who was reigning eternally in heaven before creation. He is the very God I’m preaching about now, the most sovereign and illustrious healer of all sins, the source of all that was created. Everything proceeds from him—day by day and week by week. He is the savior of all creatures. I began by speaking of him, for

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it wouldn’t be wise of me not to! Don’t compare your god and mine, for my God has made everything from nothing, while your gods aren’t as good as swine: they can’t even grunt when something bothers them! I’ve studied this matter as diligently as you have. When I found no truth, I fled from your views. I am surely led in truer ways.” This man was so disturbed by her compelling arguments that he trembled, both angry and afraid. Let other men address this matter, for he is through; he has sown his seeds. It could only be that God, a true help in great need, wanted him to be converted. We shall never fathom his marvelous ways. (23/1492–561) Another scholar then quickly rose and presented this argument to the maiden: “You haven’t wasted your breath; I understand your great eloquence perfectly well. This is your argument against our gods: you say their images, which we worship, have no feeling and wield no power. I know this well— they’re just figures representing something else. These images are signs of our gods, just like the fair, rich sepulchers whose appearance indicates that a king or duke is buried within. We honor them not for what they are but for what they signify: they represent those who are worthy of honor. Those who made them only meant to provide a means by which people should proceed to higher devotion.”36 The maiden replied, “Then show me which of all these gods is the worthiest. As they’re lined up in your temple, I can’t perceive any grades of divinity. Your Saturn, by God, was a false traitor while he lived, a cruel homicide, brawler, and robber. His wife was almost as vicious as he was—vengeful, mean, always complaining—an unstable and foolish character. Nobody could remain with her for long—she killed her own children! Jupiter castrated his father, Saturn, too, casting him from his land and forcing him to seek his home elsewhere. After banishing his father, Jupiter befouled his own sister. So these are the deeds of your gods! How can your religion prevail when it’s built on such a weak foundation? Pluto raped maidens; Venus was lecherous and violent. Vulcan was cruel and a cuckold. How can such

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persons be gods? Some are young, some old. Cupid promotes lust. Their iniquities can never be dissociated from them. Your god Mercury was noted for witchcraft, a master of charms and other such sorcery. Your god Apollo, when he was drunk from wine, would chatter as if he were prophesying; he would ‘reveal’ subtle lies to the ignorant. Sometimes he spoke truly, sometimes he lied. These are the gods you honor—their energies were entirely spent on vice. “Your offerings, too, are abominable: you offer swine’s dung to some gods, and no meat is brought before you at the dinner table before your god has been given the tongue. If all your foul deeds were recited you would be ashamed. Anyone with sense should run from this foolishness and fear God’s high justice.” Then the man stood, trembling, as if he’d taken leave of his senses. He couldn’t speak another word to her. Our blessed lord began to bind his heart to his service. So let him go sit down and rest, unhappily for the time being. This is how they hush when god says, “Quiet!” He can soon make an end to all “wisdom.” (24/1562–631) Another scholar thought he’d go into greater depth. He stood up and said this: “You expose the shameful deeds of our gods but say nothing of their wisdom. We have only a dim understanding of this matter, which may not be conveyed to everyone, but I will impart it to you, lady, as best I can, because you are yourself very sharp—and also for the sake of the lords who are present. These considerations move me to tell you our philosophy’s most abstruse secrets about the gods and their progeny. “Preeminent Saturn, whom you so disparage, we understand as time because he is old and, according to our belief, we hold him to be a god. Jupiter the king, truly, is understood as fire, and his wife Juno is taken for the air that gives us life. In this manner, our gods are allegorical representations of natural elements. Our faith is thus grounded not in lies but in what is eternal. My dear lady, you did not think carefully when you blasphemed our gods, one after another. I want everyone to know what I’m telling you.”

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The lady answered thoughtfully. She said she knew what he was talking about. The king of Thebes had sent her a book in which she found that argument, which she now considers deceitful.37 She will now disprove it through reason. As this man spoke, the emperor had taken heart. Trembling with joy, he boldly spoke: “Saturn keep you from harm, master! I trust that this lady will bear herself more demurely now. What do you say, girl, where’s your answer? If you know anything, let’s learn it.” The maiden replied promptly, “As usual, you’re eager to hide your shameful doctrine with rhetorical tricks and ornaments. But you must put these expositions aside. Aren’t these planets widely known? Can’t we see the sun and moon when they shine so brightly upon us? We know perfectly well that they aren’t people! Why then are they graven in stone and wood? This error is easy enough to expose: they aren’t men and never will be. You’re sadly deluded by appearances—these images have brought you to the perverse error of worshipping shadows and neglecting substance. “Even if the planets that shine above us will exist forever as they are now, you can’t prove with your books that they have always existed. If you were to look into the inner recesses of philosophy you would find that the planets were made. Consider the implications! If they’re made, then they’re created, and their creator alone is God. Drown all your confounded images of wood and stone, for they’re nothing. Cry out to the high God: if you beg him to send you repentance for your error you’ll surely attain truth.” (25/1632–94) They marveled at her answer, at her sharpness and eloquence. Those present had never before heard such wisdom­—she knew how to prove everything. A scholar then stood up and spoke to them all: “I would have thought,” he said, “that the sky should have fallen before a woman should master such learning. Colleagues, let us abandon our old learning and pay attention to this lady, for her knowledge is peerless. Our learning will only cause us grief unless we try our best to learn the everlasting truth. Therefore, let’s learn from this maiden

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about the God who created all things. I’ve long been frustrated on this subject, though it’s always been the object of our ­studies, because I could never make much progress through natural argumentation and study. I’ll now believe what this lady says.” The maiden was as glad to teach them as they were to learn. She spoke gravely to these men: “Since you’ve now adopted the attitude of students, you are all the readier to learn these ­mysteries. But we will set aside the godhead for a time and rhyme38 of God’s manhood for a while. “You should know first that there is one God in heaven, and we believe him to exist in three distinct persons: Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.39 These three persons make up one God. Our authorities say that if God were only one person, his blessedness wouldn’t be conveyed to others as perfectly, because no creature could comprehend it. Therefore, in his eternal wisdom and for the great benefit of humanity, he ordained—a great marvel to us—three persons alike in nature and power; each should take his substance from the others.40 This is what we believe. “Of these three persons, the second, who is the Son, came down here to earth. He assumed manhood, for man had lost all he had when he behaved so unnaturally to God by breaking God’s commandment among the trees in that delightful place that we call paradise in our books.41 And because no man on earth was able to reconcile God and man, the lord came to earth, took flesh and blood in a young woman, a pure virgin, and died to slay all our sins.42 This is the God upon whom we Christians call.” (26/1695–764) The principal scholar, who was acting that day as the spokesperson for them all, was glad to hear her doctrine, for God had ordained a new beginning for him. Our lord Jesus had purged him of his sin and disposed him to conversion. Yet he wondered greatly at this information and said politely to the lady, “There’s one thing in your teaching that I can’t yet understand clearly: God and man are so different, and yet you say that both natures are joined together in one person. Yet if he were God he must be eternal, and if he were man, then he is

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corruptible. To say that a nature or person that’s eternal is also transitory seems a great contradiction to me. You’ll have to explain this proposition, lady, for we can’t comprehend it.” The maiden responded, “You have to understand that we find in our holy books that these two natures were joined together in our lord Jesus Christ against ordinary nature.43 The very evidence of his great works is enough to settle this matter. He who raised Lazarus from the grave, where he had lain for four days, he who saved Peter from drowning and walked on the sea as one might on a field, he who commanded the sharp wind to cease blowing, he who so marvelously ascended into heaven, body and all, he who did all that was more than a man, for he performed these marvels through his godhead.44 “I could give you many more examples, but I’ll pass over them and focus on your objections. May God endow your hearts with the grace to see the truth. I’d hate to see you damned. All his extraordinary deeds clearly demonstrate that he was more than a man. When he met the Jews in the street, he showed his divinity; they dared not look at him but fell down at his knees.45 It stands to reason that no creature could do these works unless he were God, so our scholars demonstrate. And yet he ate, slept, and walked, spoke and drank, rested and was tired—this answers your original argument fully. “My answer to you, if you please, is that these two natures within him manifested themselves on different occasions while he was here. Your own authors could be cited on this point. Sibyl said wondrously, ‘That holy God is ever in bliss who shall be hanged like a thief on a tree and then laid on a bier.’ 46 What more shall I say? You can’t dispute this female authority, for she is acknowledged as an authority in your own religion and she plainly bears witness to our faith through her prophecy. As she says, he is blessed as God and his manhood hanged upon the tree—this authority comes from your own religion.” (27/1765–820) Another equally eloquent scholar, a courteous and seemly man, spoke respectfully to this lady. He said her intellect ran so far ahead of theirs that they could not overtake

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it.47 Still, he asked her to allow him to speak. He argued from nature, for nature, he said, was so established that it couldn’t fail. Everything that resists nature must yield. Without nature nothing may avail. Therefore, he asked her to demonstrate the things she preached by natural reason, for it is hard for a man to make himself believe something he cannot prove. Whoever believes something, good or ill, must have as the foundation of his belief true love or true trust. Therefore, this man desired that she openly prove her claims by means of nature. She said she would gladly do so, as best she could. Insofar as God in his grace had sent her knowledge, she would happily persuade this scholar, for she was determined to draw him from his religion to Christ. She put this example to him, asking him to consider the body and soul that everyone has, how they are joined together, the one hidden, the other visible. She said, “Many people wonder how the soul, which is the mover, entered the body—how and when it came to life—but it’s foolish to spend time trying to understand such secrets. You may believe that soul and body are joined together in any person you see walking by. But if you won’t take their conjunction simply on faith, you’ll still never know the time and manner of this mysterious joining. Your learning is too inferior to reveal it. You may boast and brag of your knowledge all you want, but you’ll still fail to solve that mystery—our lord God has hidden it from you. Since you can’t fully understand earthly creatures through nature, how can we enlighten you about heavenly matters? How should you know the lord that has power over all things? How shall you speculate about him when you can’t know far lesser things?” (28/1821–55) Upon hearing this answer, everyone there changed marvelously. Those Christians who had just rendered service to the idols now wailed out of deep repentance, judging that they deserved a severe penance. They remembered their most powerful God, and they were ashamed that a woman had preached constantly when they had forsaken him. “It’s wrong that the weaker sex should profess our faith so firmly, when

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those who are stronger remain silent and dare say nothing”: this was what the Christians said and thought. The others, the pagans, also saw her reasons and the evidence that astonished all the scholars present. This confused the people, for they realized that all they would gain from their effort and expense would be sorrow. There was much grumbling, and some began to leave. All this infuriated the emperor. He angrily cried to the scholars: “By arms, bones, and blood,48 it’s a shame and disgrace that such an assembly of scholars should be overcome so suddenly by a maiden! Cowards!” He said to them, “Take heart; don’t fail our religion! Don’t let our gods suffer this wrong—if you do, most of you shall soon be hanged by the neck! Speak men, for shame; there isn’t much time—time flies and we accomplish nothing. You’re standing there like fools!” (29/1856–90) Then a young scholar, Apollimas, stood up with a new argument. He was never in all his life so frightened of anything as he now was. But he said softly to the maiden, “In your declaration, lady, I thought you said two different things. If we consider them, we’ll soon find a contradiction. Your lord Jesus, who is very well known, you say he made this round world. He formed Adam and Eve from the earth, as well as all other bodily things. Everything was made, you say, by his commandment. I will respond in this way, proving that your defective faith contains untruth. I have made an infallible calculation based on our histories. According to our book, the birth of Jesus took place during the time of Octavian, in a lowly street of little Bethlehem. Your Jesus was born not fully three hundred years ago. How dare you say that he could have made the world? How could he create something that had existed for five thousand years before he was born? This is my objection. I’d like an answer in plain language. You’ve incited these simple people with your crafty circumlocution! If you can answer my objection concisely, I’ll say that you’re a maiden unlike any other.” (30/1891–932) The lady replied to the scholar, “The premises of your arguments, sir, to put it briefly, are based on one part and not the other; therefore the conclusions you have drawn from

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them are false. You count from his temporal birth as a man, not from his eternal birth. His temporal birth, as you just said, was not so many years ago—in comparison with that earlier date, it may be reckoned only a year or two. But I will illuminate the mystery that amazes you, to judge from your attack. “First, you must understand that from the beginning our Jesus has always been God, the maker and creator of all living things—thus he is called and so we believe. But recently, in his charity, he assumed our nature in order to redeem us, and in that nature he suffered his passion.49 Because man could not redeem and God could not die, he joined godhead and manhood together to atone for the offense to his father and to overcome the devil’s power. He undertook this battle in godhead and manhood, for manhood alone couldn’t avail. Thus, because his godhead has been eternal, we say that he made all things through it, including the body that was conceived of a young maiden and hanged on the cross, the body that was born in Bethlehem.” When she had spoken these glorious verses,50 the man was astounded. He couldn’t refute a thing she said, for her words completely exceeded his learning. Unable to argue against her, he exclaimed, “I believe as you believe, lady!” (31/1933–2058) Another scholar made this proposition: “You preach of Christ,” he said, “and of his death, how he freely gave up his life for mankind to bring him to that heavenly reward. His death, you say, took away all sin, and with his death that lord defeated the power of hell. Mightn’t that lord have used his royal power to overcome the devil and put him to flight? Mightn’t he have sent an angel or a messenger? Why did he himself wish to fight, to suffer such a passion? If he was so mighty, why did he suffer such wrong? Answer my objection! If he himself couldn’t redress this wrong, then it was foolish to undertake to do so, and if he were, as you say, so mighty a king, then no power could resist him. Your prophet said that he should beat and bind all his enemies with an iron rod.51 It seems to me that he was foolish to suffer so.”

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“Your proposition, sir,” said the noble queen, “seems plausible and yet I refute it thus: As I have learned in the books that I’ve seen, our lord Christ, our savior Jesus, wanted to fight and overcome the devil for us in the human nature he assumed. Since the sin of Adam could only be redressed by mankind, and because no man was able to do so (for in all the earth he might not find a man so pure, so perfect, and so worthy as Adam was while he was faithful in paradise, before he offended), Our Lord in his fleshly presence undertook this expedition and died on a tree, so that just as sin was brought about through a tree, he suffered death on a tree. It was appropriate that he should fight in this manner: the tree bore both joy and sorrow; sorrow through Satan, joy through our lord Jesus. A blessed fruit grew out of that tree!” Then a great scholar called Alfragan boldly rose, expecting to distinguish himself there. He began his interrogation thus: “Your Jesus Christ, you say he is both God and man, lady, but set that aside for a while—let that matter wait. You Christians consistently hold that there are no gods but one. But if your own book is examined, I believe that only one God shall not be found there. I read a Christian prophet not long ago—I don’t know what you call him—who says that you are all gods.52 Whom did he mean by this plurality if not the God whom you profess to be singular? These two views can’t be reconciled: your own books attest that there are gods aplenty—many more than one, be they greater or lesser. Let’s hear your answer! “You posited to us here that there is a great God of heaven who has a son you say is called Jesus. Yet in your books we actually find reference to another god, called Baal—I believe you know him. Three hundred grave and wise prophets were committed to his service.53 How can you then say that there is only one God? How can you reject our position? If your god reigns alone, as you claim, why do your books speak of such division? Since there are many gods, why can’t Jupiter be among them, along with Juno, his wife? Your arguments, lady, are worthless!” “You must understand, sir,” said the maiden, “that if you examine our Scripture you will find that its veiled language has

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many figures. Our lord God is sometimes called a doctor, sometimes an angry judge, sometimes a loving father. Such varied designations demonstrate his various capacities. If you’ll listen, sir, I’ll tell you a great truth about our faith. There are no gods and never were except one, who made earth and heaven, hail, rain, wind, thunder, and lightning. He is God by nature, reigning alone, but in his goodness he has chosen certain persons to dwell with him, whom he called gods, as I suppose.54 What I’m telling you is no false commentary but derives from Scripture: if you pay attention, after what you just read, ‘I say you are gods,’ there follows, ‘and sons of him that sits on high.’ This is an important distinction for us, sir, whether nature or adoption is best: one who is adopted, we say, is like a guest, for he is chosen freely; but one who reigns naturally has a greater entitlement. He cannot be ejected without being wronged, whereas he who is chosen enters by grace. I will curtail my answer and not draw it out. Examine this idea for yourself: that God reigns all alone and, in his goodness and good grace, he has called certain ones to his throne whom we call gods because they are in heaven. They are with him forever and see his face, reigning in everlasting joy. They are treated just like his children. This is the intent of that authority. As for Baal, that god, and all his servants: our Scripture relates that his prophets called him such. Read that book more attentively and you will find that those ignorant prophets were damned for their false beliefs, every last one of them.”55 (32/2059–121) The scholar considered and then exclaimed, “This maiden will always have the upper hand, sirs; despite our pride, we are caught in our arts! We have certainly gotten a new teacher; all our learning is nothing. Therefore, I say, for my part, I give up—this lady has drunk from a higher cup of more profound secrets than we could ever find: she surpasses Plato; she surpasses philosophy; she speaks of him that is the author of nature. I know very well that she doesn’t lie. Therefore, I wholeheartedly declare—I can do no more—I’ll turn to her faith and leave my old religion, no matter what anyone says. You should do the same, in my opinion, for I acknowledge one God and no

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other but him alone. I have always believed that, even though I didn’t say it. Let us therefore bow before his throne: I convert; I say, for my part, that I shall never again bark against the deity. What about you, sirs, what do you say?” They all concurred with a single voice. They confessed one God, whom they call Noos: what he commands must neces­ sarily be done.56 They would soon profess other things pertaining to this religion. There’s no need, I believe, to report what the people were saying at the time. They said, “What sort of life have these great and famous scholars led? They might as well have lain in bed as teach things that turn out to be useless!” The lords, too, disputed this matter from every angle: “Only one god?” they said, “What about Saturn?” Each whispered secretly to the other, “Rejecting these idols is for our own good—let’s despise them and kick them, for we’ve adhered to this falsehood too long.” This was what the people were saying. The emperor looked on. I believe he was angry: “Damn these weak knaves who ruin our religion like this!” That’s what he said; he was infuriated that any maiden should thus outsmart and convince scholars. That angered him, but as he was fuming a scholar stood up who said that he would prove by natural reason that much of what was said was wholly untrue: “One person, eternal and yet mortal: you adopted this doctrine very recently”—but here my source repeats the same arguments that others put forth, as he often does. I’ll skip over those pages—let others who love detail attend to them, for there are many other matters to deal with. I’ll first rehearse the great disputation this lady faithfully entered into with the learned Ariot, the most famous man of his day. We’ll rhyme of this matter now. Chapters 33–35: Katherine’s Victory

(33/2122–91) This Ariot was chosen to dispute with her by common consent, to see if he could destroy her faith and its

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foundation. They put the matter wholly in his hands: if he was convinced, they’d all yield; if he was victorious, then the reverse would happen, for his conquest would make them all victors. He stood up very solemnly, commending the lady as he saw fit. Then he said this to her: “Many things have been said here. I heard them all, yet held my peace. But now this matter is set for certain. It’s up to the two of us to settle everything; may God be with us: if it happens that I, with great arguments or authority, lead you from your faith and your false belief, then we’ve won; if you lead me, then we’re through, for you are the victor.” His first question, as I understand, concerned the two natures that we understand to be in Christ. Since we’ve covered that matter before, I think there’s no need to lengthen our book further with that prolix debate. Whoever wants to review it can turn back and read about it. This scholar then began to pursue another matter: how Christ was incarnate and born in Bethlehem. As I recall, my source already covered this matter, too. Therefore, I’ll skip over it, supposing, again, that prolixity will make people tired of reading. He addressed yet another issue to the maiden: Our Lady’s purity in her conception. Since humanity had inherited the sin of Adam, he wondered how she could possibly be a pure virgin, having come from corrupt seed. The maiden answered in this manner: “Our Lord can p ­ urify what’s dirty; his medicine cures all our ills. His wonderful deeds are hard to understand, but I believe that we can prove by example that God arranged this joining of a sinless virgin and a sinless child. He preserved this virgin from the corrupt seed of all mankind—it would have been very unnatural, had her soul not been arrayed with great virtues and without any trace of the vice of sin or villainy. Our Lord, who sits on high, accomplished this.57 Furthermore, when he came to that dwelling, 58 he was like the sun shining bright. Her womb was like glass: the sun shines upon it with its bright beams and goes through it, as we see, and yet the glass is not at all pierced.59 Our Lord did that when he came down here. Thus she was clean in her conception, thus she received the blessed godhead, and yet she was

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purer than ever in conceiving him, and she shall never lose that ­purity. You must believe this, sir, if you wish to be his. Then you’ll know what you never knew. You never found me untrue in my promises.” (34/2192–275) This man raised another question at that time, responding vigorously to her declaration. It’s hard to rhyme about such things, to speak plainly in our nation’s language about the mysteries pertaining to the Incarnation.60 But because my source undertook this task—and yet I barely understand his language—I will supplement him with other authors who spoke more clearly on this topic. This man argued against the birth and conception of our lord Jesus: “You bungle hopelessly in your opinion,” he said to this mild lady, “because you declare that God and his child, joined together in one person, constitute your Jesus, and yet you also acknowledge that he did not do this miracle all by himself but that it was done by all three. This is your faith—this is what you profess—that Father, Ghost, and Son brought about this Incarnation. Why shouldn’t we conclude from your words that the ­Father, Son, and Holy Ghost together—since they are all of one likeness—took flesh and blood here? Given that they are three different persons and one God, how can this make sense? Your points don’t follow: You say that one, and only one, was incarnate, and that was your lord Jesus. But you also say that the Father did this. How does this add up? Any student can see that if he did this, by your own account, he must have been a party to it.” The queen praised his argument highly. She said to him, “Sir, your soul lacks no virtue but faith. I pray that heaven’s king may touch you in some intimate way so that you may understand the truth. It’ll be a great shame if he doesn’t. Nature has taught you as much as she may—she could proceed no further. But learn and believe the wisdom of God that transcends nature. Insofar as I can, I’ll lead you meekly to our doctrine and expound this matter, if you will learn. This is what our books say: Power belongs to the Father, as we all believe, and wisdom to the Son. He made this round world and heaven above.

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Goodness belongs to the Ghost. This is our teaching, in short. Since the Father had made all things in his wisdom, it follows that the same wisdom should accomplish the great reformation of mankind, who had been ruined through sin. There: That was the plan. Faith and logic show that the Son was responsible for implementing the Incarnation, but the grace and providence that conveyed mercy through the Incarnation are attributable to the Trinity as a whole—one God existing in three persons, as we describe him. “We may use an analogy, sir, as our teachers do in their learned books, which were written with careful consideration. When David was very thirsty, he desired greatly to drink from the well located in Bethlehem, where he was born.61 He sent three princes through the army of the cruel Philistines. They risked much to bring this water to the king, one of them carry­ ing the water in a vessel. All of them worked equally hard to get the water, I suppose, and yet only one of them actually carried the vessel. Our scholars interpret this example to mean that though the Father and the Ghost had a part in this thing and ordained that it should be done, the burden was on our lord Jesus alone, that is, the Son, the second person.” (35/2276–345) After this, they had a long discussion, full of speeches, about the sin of Adam and about the serpent, but it seems to me that amplification is not appropriate here—it occupies nearly all the New Testament—whoever wishes can hear about it there.62 Therefore, I’ll speak plainly: I don’t relish a long tale, always dragging on, and so I’ll make an end of this book right here. It seems like a long time has passed since I first began to tax your ears and your minds with this book. Be assured, in the first place, that this noble queen overcame these scholars, particularly Ariot, for he could not reply—his wit was no match for hers. He stood amazed, no longer daring to speak a single word. Thus the good Ghost gathered to himself this entire host of scholars and made them believe as the maiden taught. Despite their learning, they were caught! There was nothing to do after they failed to perturb her when they spoke of the descent of

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Christ, whether there were two or one persons in the flesh, and of the emanation of the Holy Ghost. This Ariot stood as still as a stone, for she had proven the Holy Trinity through nature. He couldn’t refute her reasoning. He spoke loudly to his colleagues, “We have strayed until this day. Blessed be God and this holy maiden, who have taught us a true way. Say as you wish, I cannot deny it, for I believe in one God in heaven. I believe in Jesus, too, who is his son, and I believe in the Ghost, joined with the two of them. I believe that this Jesus died for my sake, washing away our sins. I commit my soul into his hands, praying that he defend me from the black fiend so that I not be damned: this is what I believe, colleagues, what do you say?” They all answered that they had now found what they had been seeking all their lives. They would adhere to this solid ground, for they had walked on many perilous paths, bickering like jays with their vain arguments. Now they would abandon all that and turn to Christ, no longer staying with Aristotle or Ovid but committing themselves to the mercy of our lord Jesus. They asked this maiden to be the means of obtaining pardon for having supported their false religion for so long. All these scholars together fell on their knees, crying long and with great devotion, “Oh Jesus Christ, on account of your sweet passion have mercy upon us and forgive us our trespasses. Don’t judge us, lord, by our misdeeds. Since you are merciful, grant us your grace; we have great need of your protection. We will do our best to learn your faith, to maintain it and sustain it with all our might—no one shall ever make us do otherwise.” And so they were converted. The council concluded. Our book is at an end, and we will begin a new one. It is fully appropriate that we should do so. May God and Saint Katherine keep us from sin and send us the high ways to earn the bliss of heaven, where we may reside and look on the face that delights everyone there.

Book 5

Katherine’s Martyrdom

Prologue: Katherine the Rose

(1–63) The time has now come—at last, after all our attention to other matters—to return and savor the sweetness of this pure virgin, of this delicious flower, which grew here on earth with five branches.1 You’ve seen the first, second, third, and fourth, if you’ve read everything so far. Now the fifth will be revealed to you, for now I want to call this lady a rose, richly sprung from five branches. The red that glowed within her was her martyrdom. The five green leaves signify her life, which divides into five parts, just as we have divided it into five books. Now, here’s the last. These five leaves are arranged on the stalk such that they cling together and protect the red flowers from the wind before they open; after they open, the leaves rest under the same sweet flowers—this indicates that her life was marked by martyrdom and by the sharp afflictions she suffered for Christ, for in various works I have often read that martyrdom has a sovereign dignity above all spiritual virtues. Thus this rose grew out of the thorny briar when this martyr was born of heathens. I will yet tell you, if you wish to hear, why these leaves cling so: three of them are fuzzy and two are naked, having neither points nor fuzz—thus they are accustomed to 141

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grow in our garden. These five leaves, as I just said, indicate the books that we have in hand: two of them cover the time during which this lady, as I understand, lived as a heathen, along with all the rest of her land. Therefore, they are naked in token of this lady’s living in blindness. I call her blind during that part of her life, for she was not baptized, nor did she have much ­curiosity about heavenly things—she hadn’t forsaken her old views. Christ awakened her from this blindness in our third book, as we said—there’s no need to rehearse it again now. The other three fuzzy leaves are what one might call leaves of virtue. They reveal to the entire world that she has an unfailing grace. Thus her leaves are endowed and ever shall be: they are green and will be always, reigning with Christ in felicity. In her honor I will now proceed to my fifth book, in which I will speak of her martyrdom, as the story dictates—how God broke the wheels in his cause and took great vengeance on the people. This will now be translated anew from the Latin, to honor God and Saint Katherine.2 Chapters 1–6: The Scholars’ Martyrdom

(1/64–98) When these scholars had thus acknowledged their error and their false belief, the emperor’s heart sank in sorrow. Now he alone was left to speak, for the company was entirely converted. Thus, with an angry face and scornful words, he said to them, “Damn your learning! We were sure that you could put everything right. Now all our expense and all our planning are wasted! You’ve robbed me of worldly happiness­— no, I misspoke, I mean spiritual, not worldly, happiness, for our faith is about spiritual joy. Don’t you hear what the people are saying now? They say a maiden has converted fifty peerless scholars here. They say they want to obtain that same faith— poor and rich alike! If only you’d been buried in a ditch when you came here, for now all’s lost: labor, knowledge, travel, and great expense. Renew your spirits so that you lose neither your

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knowledge nor your fame. Think of what I promised you— honor and money! Lift up your hearts, men, for shame. Don’t be afraid, for if you are, you’ll lose your reputation. Speak to this woman, bear her down with reason so that you’re worthy to wear the crown of knowledge. You stand there so lifelessly. Where’s your knowledge gone that a woman has stunned you like this? By holy S ­ aturn, I’d have thought that one of you might have dealt with nine of her! You act as if you’re tied up. How can you defend your learning when it comes to nothing when it’s needed?” (2/99–154) The greatest of them, and their leader also, the same Ariot of whom I spoke before, said this to the emperor: “We all came to your court to serve and restore service for your gods. And I doubt you’d find in all the East a company so distinguished in grammar, rhetoric, and the arts—and especially in natural philosophy. But we lacked training in the discipline called theology until this lady enlightened us—may she be forever blessed for her good instruction! Before now, no man, however subtle, who wished to debate us with reason and authorities could trap or ensnare us with his arguments; he’d be ensnared himself. He didn’t leave us without being humiliated­—that was what we did as victors, so enamored were we with vainglorious words! “Now our fortunes have changed, and so have our desires— I don’t know what happened. This maiden has mesmerized us. It seems our knowledge is exhausted. She speaks in spiritual terms of God, who was hanged and torn; this has nothing to do with natural science. Therefore, we cannot speak of this solemn subject, but she makes strong arguments. Her preaching surpasses all our worldly knowledge. When I first heard her speak of this mystery, I was stirred with shame because I couldn’t respond to her. Sir, we therefore refuse all the rewards you offered us. We renounce your gods and your religion for the love of our lord Jesus. If you have other arguments or evidence in favor of your gods, with their rough hands, bring them forward, for we will no longer remain in this error. We devoutly commend

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ourselves now to the mercy of Christ, God’s son, who bought mankind through his blessed suffering and death. Go ahead and slay us, flay us, burn us, or torture us: you’ll never instill another faith in our hearts. All we lack now is the holy sacrament of baptism. May the God who bought us have mercy on us.”3 His ­companions all spoke with a single voice: “There is no God but the one who sits on high; forget all these idols! We’d rather die than forsake the Christian faith that we’ve now accepted.” (3/155–89) Then the emperor nearly went crazy—his eyes rolled as if they would fall out. “Damn you, ungrateful wretches!” he said. “Now our faith is more discredited in the eyes of those around us than it ever was!” He then hastily commanded his men: “Here’s how I want you to put them to death. Build a fire right in the center of the great city. Spare no wood, for holy Saturn’s sake. Tie up those renegades you see over there and fry them in their fat, for by the divinity of sweet Apollo, I’ll ­neither eat nor drink until I see them burned and stinking. Put on rosin, pitch, and other stuff. Don’t spare any cost, for in doing this you’re serving the gods—don’t doubt it! Those who despise our gods will die. I’ll be there myself as judge to see this done. When you’ve finished, you’ll be well rewarded. “Bind them both hand and foot! Drag them forward like dogs. Make sure your bonds and shackles are strong—don’t spare their bodies, heads, or faces. God give such a dismal fate to everyone who forsakes our eternal gods! Don’t let a single one of them escape you by hiding. They’ll be burned to death, just as I said, burned to ashes—they’ll not be spared. Let them now call on this stubborn maiden who led them into this heresy! Enough talk: Do your job quickly; when it’s done, you’ll have your reward.” (4/190–231) The scholars were thus disgracefully dragged to their doom—they didn’t resist. One could see many a weeping eye there, but no one dared speak for fear. These men delighted in their punishment. The chief scholar cried: “God knows we are charged with neither sin nor crime but only with having true faith. Therefore, companions, take

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comfort in Christ. No matter what this tyrant does or says, thank Our Lord, for we are in the shelter of the one who leads us to that blessed comfort where grace gathers all the saints together in a heavenly, joyful, blessed place. “Our Lord has called us from our old error to this end. Let’s thank him in his goodness for restoring us to the beauty of his image. As for myself, I want nothing more in this world except that we should be baptized before we die. Then we’ll be ready to walk the good way, because baptism is a holy work: It causes and bestows grace and faith. It’s a true sign between God and man that whoever follows Christ’s footsteps renews his life when he washes away his sins with this water. Our Lord himself was washed in it for this very reason: that no one should scorn to do what he himself did. I’ll no longer conceal my opinion, for I’ve often thought about this matter. I refused this sacrament for many years. I repent that now and will always regret living without faith for such a long time. Therefore, my only care is this: since we shall and must die, let’s seek mercy for all our sins and trample all our faults. Then we can truly say that we are completely purged and purified—we must believe this, friends, one and all!”4 (5/232–80) He then turned to the maiden and said, “Lady, for the sake of God above and Christ’s suffering on the cross, pray for us to your love. You see that our life is nearly over. Pray that God will send his mercy to his servants and spare them. Allow us to be washed with holy baptism, so that we may better ascend to that place of great felicity. If this prayer doesn’t please him and he wishes instead that we lack this thing, we desire then that this blessed king exempt us, as he can. You say he loves all people and all nations equally—we count on that. If he exempts us from the sacrament, then we won’t be blamed for lacking it. Then our death will be just a game to us.” The maiden replied, “Don’t be afraid, even though you lack this thing. I’ll tell you what I know.5 People who love Christ and yet lack the holy bathing of baptism will go to heaven; angels will carry them—the devil’s power can’t stop them. Christ’s suffering serves instead of baptism—not only the blood he shed,

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but the deaths that others suffered to their great merit. Believe this doctrine faithfully. The great pain that has been decreed for you will serve instead of baptism. God can purge man’s sin with fire or water, as he chooses. Some people attain heaven by being baptized with the water you see in the font. Some are purged with blood, I believe—they die as martyrs, according to our doctrine. Some others whose faith is strong are baptized through God’s mercy and die without sin—our theologians call this baptism of the Holy Ghost. Therefore, you new knights of Christ, don’t be afraid to claim your heritage, but suffer pain meekly. If you do so, believe me, you are baptized.” (6/281–329) After the scholars had been comforted by this holy maiden, the officers came. They bound their hands, just as I said. They led them off, as fast as they could go, to a street paved with stone. Hooray for whoever brings a faggot to burn the scholars!6 The emperor was seated there on a platform to watch their end. The fire was made, the logs stacked. Faggots were spread among the logs. There was nothing to do but carry, run, and leap. Blow hard now, so the flames don’t sleep! The scholars’ feet were bound, and they were thrown in the fire, but they were glad and cheerful, thanking God who made all from nothing that they could die for such a lord’s sake. They prayed that, just as he bought them, he would now take their souls. What point is there in prolonging the story? Thus they died, and their souls went to bliss. Moreover, our blessed lord granted that neither their skin nor their flesh was burned—not their heads, not their clothing, not the hair of their beards or heads— they lay there dead, with their brows bent gently, with fair faces colored both white and red. Just as fire makes rusty lead bright and shiny, so it did with this company. Whoever knew them before could recognize them. In their torment, people said, they cried out, “Blessed be the God we never knew before! Blessed be Christ! Honor to our lord Jesus! We’re not afraid of this torment!” It was a marvelous lesson that they should rejoice in suffering. They committed their souls to God alone.

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This company died on November 13. After their death, they didn’t seem dead but lay as if they were sleeping. Their hands, bodies, legs, and heads looked fresh, lovely and ruddy. Upon seeing this, people wondered greatly. They praised God, then and evermore, for many people were converted to Christ by this miracle. And on account of their devotion to the scholars and the maiden, they prayerfully took the bodies and buried them on various estates, trusting that their presence would bring prosperity. So ends their martyrdom. Chapters 7–8: The Emperor’s Proposition

(7/330–420) Then the emperor said, “The only way to deal with this steadfast maiden is with fair words, which tempt women into doing things they shouldn’t do if they wish to be chaste.” Therefore, he flattered this maiden: “Katherine, no one ­imagines—not even you—that I want anything but good for you. This great ordeal I put you through—without shedding any blood!—was to drive you from that sickness you caught from misguided holiness, the sickness that caused you to abandon the rites our ancestors held and honored as sovereign laws. That’s why I distressed you so. But truly I love you better than any other person, with only one exception. And if you want to know why, I’ll tell you: because of your beauty and knowledge. Indeed, I love you so greatly that, if you agree to sacrifice to omnipotent Jupiter, you’ll be honored as no other woman. Oh sweet virgin, give your love to me! Oh vision of richest loveliness, oh woman most worthy of imperial status, oh true marvel, perfect delight, if only you knew how I care for you and what I have promised to do. “Why would you despise our immortal gods? Why do you call them such vicious names? Why do you say they’re infernal devils? Why do you slander their reputations? You are indeed to blame for this blasphemy: ‘Deceivers of the people,’ you said. Rethink those words, you noble, goodly maiden! And retract them quickly, for though the gods are longsuffering, they’ll at

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last strike and take stern vengeance. Change your thinking and stop maligning them: that’s the best way to assuage their anger! In short, make your offering and please them so that they’ll be your friends, and stop calling them fiends! “If you follow my advice, this will be your reward: you’ll be closer to us than anyone except the queen. Everyone will obey your commands. Whomever you wish to support will be favored in every way possible, and whomever you hate will live in dire distress. Be kind to yourself. Don’t scoff at good advice. Don’t make your friends grieve. Take my words to heart, and shun those that can’t help you. Within my kingdom, you’ll have this right: that all your wishes will be granted. If you exile a person, that person will be gone—there’ll be no recourse. I can’t give you anything more valuable than to give you everything you wish. I’ll never go back on this decree: whomever you wish by your grace to promote will spend his days in joy. The only difference between you and the queen will be that she is entitled to more satisfaction because of our marriage—the love between us, I believe, will never fail. But you shall have the right to govern our entire kingdom. People will have to do as you say. “Furthermore, I’ll set up in the marketplace the solemn image of an empress, with your face, as copied by an artist. Every­one, both great and humble, will honor that image diligently.7 When they pass by it, they’ll fall on their knees. This image will not be made merely of stone but of pure metal, gilded so that it’s all bright and shiny. Whoever passes by will know for sure that it’s the statue of a queen and that whoever doesn’t honor it will commit a grave crime. Whoever flees to the image will be forgiven any offense, in honor of you, maiden. Thus you can be deified, if you wish.” The emperor further promised to build her an expensive temple made entirely of marble. He believed that such deceitful flattery would shake the maiden’s perseverance. (8/421–525) Katherine laughed a little when she heard all this. Then she spoke cheerily: “I’m delighted that the emperor thinks highly enough of me to erect such a fabulous and

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expensive statue in my honor! Some would call me a fool for refusing it, for it will be entirely of gold, if I wish—or at least of silver—and so much will be needed that the money changers will have to work tirelessly to haul enough treasure from their vaults. All that to make a memorial to Katherine the virgin!” She continued, “And even if this image were merely made of gray marble, it’s enough that, in my eternal praise, everyone passing the corner where it stands must eagerly fall on both knees and do homage on pain of death! What do you expect them to say? ‘Hail image, made to commemorate a wise and prudent lady! Hail eternal statue! Hail sign made to commemorate Katherine’s great beauty!’ Won’t this please those who love this worldly dance? “But before we make this thing, I’d like to know what material my legs will be made of. What kind of worker would dare undertake to have them move and walk as they ought to? I’d also like to know about my hands, how they’ll be made to feel and what they’ll be made of. Also, will this statue’s eyes be able to see, just as I do? Who’s the craftsman who can carve such things? He’d be worthy of a great reward! I don’t believe this plan will work: no artist on earth could carry out a project of such subtlety. What about a tongue for this image, so that it can speak and cry? Who dares undertake that? He would be a miracle worker. But no man is clever enough to do it. Therefore, I conclude, in short, that even after you’ve invested all your cunning and money making this image, it will be insensible. It’ll stand like a stone, and birds flying around—and I suppose that huge flocks will come sometimes—will excrete right on its face. Just think: I can have a reward that people dread and birds defile! “But what about when death has taken us and memories of us have faded? I’m afraid this work won’t last—and so making it seems a terrible waste. To trust in fame and vainglory is to succumb to fickle flattery. And even if they make it as beautiful as they can, dogs will defile it every day. And though the adults will honor it, the small children passing by will make a mess of it. Should I forsake my God for this, and sever my soul

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from his friendship to worship devils standing in temples and kept like bears?8 Forget it! It’ll never happen! No joy or pain will entice me to leave my lord, to abandon happiness for apostasy. For shame—it won’t happen! Stop trying, sir; stop making ­promises: They’ll never make me do wrong. “Tell me, will such a statue make my life more comfortable? What good would it do my soul? I can’t imagine it would please any decent person, for even if it were delectable to the eyes, with bright, shining colors, it still wouldn’t increase our days or relieve our illnesses. It wouldn’t make our lives happier or comfort us when we die. It does no good whatsoever: so what does it have to do with happiness? If it could keep my flesh from rotting I wouldn’t reject it—I’d see some use for it then. “I have the promise of a greater lord—one of greater fame than I can express—and made in the presence of witnesses. He promised me a memorial of perfect stability, as many of you here will see. Abandon your obsession with me. Don’t try to win me to your side. It won’t happen; I’ll stay as I am. Your cunning and your resourcefulness won’t avail—my spouse is both God and man. I am his maiden and will do all I can for his love. He is my sweetness, my joy, my prince.” Chapters 9–12: Threats and Violence

(9/526–53) Then the emperor changed his words and manner and said this to the maiden: “The more graciously we treat you, the more perverse you seem to get. Here’s your choice, to put it bluntly: death or happiness, whichever you please. If you wish to live in comfort and peace, you’ll now sacrifice with utmost devotion to the majesty of great Apollo. As you well know, for it’s no secret, he repays the world for his worship with the warmth he spreads upon everyone.9 Obey then, maiden! There’s no choice—this must be done. Fair speech will gain you nothing. I wanted to persuade you pleasantly, but you discounted my promises. I think you’ll regret it. There’s the [sacrificial] fire.

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Be devout. Sacrifice with good will and you’ll gain grace and be pardoned for your sin all the sooner. If you refuse, you’ll soon be dead as an example to these people here. Their hearts are heavy as lead. One can see by their faces yours isn’t a transgression that can be treated lightly. It must be punished, lest it inspire imitators. I’d have to kill the culprit—even if he were my brother.” (10/554–602) “I welcome pain,” she said, “and I won’t flee death, either. You can strike, flay, slay, or banish me—it makes no difference, for I’ll endure any such hardships for his love. He bore much more misery for my sake while he lived here in this worldly wilderness. He suffered poverty meekly, though he might have had riches, had he wished. I never suffered that misfortune, but if it comes, I will endure it. That lord endured blasphemy in silence, giving us an example of patience; why should his servants resist the wicked people who threaten them? For his sake, I am ready to suffer any amount of scorn, pain, and reproach. I know it’s to my benefit: the greater my suffering here, the greater my joy elsewhere. “Christ offered himself to the Father of heaven, a pure sacrifice,10 undefiled by sin, and to please him I will offer my body, for it is his. Decide for yourselves when you want to begin, for I’m ready in body and spirit: Slay, flay, fry, or roast! “There’ll come a time when you’ll bitterly repent the cruel judgments you imposed. After you’re dead, you’ll rue the day you set such store in your power. You burned Christ’s servants in the fire—you’ll be punished for that in the future, when you’ll burn in hell with the fiends. “The more you threaten, the happier I am. The more you torture me, the happier I’ll be. When I leave you, I won’t go alone, for many of your household will follow me in death. I’ve asked this favor of Christ, my lord: that a large portion of your followers believe in him and forsake their idolatry. Just wait and see! Their souls will fly straight from pain to heaven, and you’ll burn in hell, I guarantee!” (11/603–72) The emperor was furious. He commanded the men around him to get slender wire rods. He chose strong men

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and said this to them: “Take this maiden and strip her stark naked! That’ll wake her up! Then beat her for her blasphemy as an example to those who believe her teachings. Don’t let her talk any more about Bethlehem or Galilee. I expect that pain will be more effective than promises in turning her to our side. Do your duty, even if you beat her senseless!” The tormenters took and stripped her. They beat her with iron rods as swiftly as they could. Blood gushed out of her. When those men were worn out, fresh ones took their place. Thus she was beaten for her spouse’s love. She relied on comfort from above. These were her words: “Lord, send me patience; make me strong enough to endure this penance. If I’ve ever displeased you, let this pain purge me. May you ever be thanked, lord, ­creator of man and beast. I, the least of your servants, thank you more for this beating than for the wealth you previously sent me. I realize that this torment is a great treasure. Farewell, world: Steal all my goods—I care neither for tower nor for cellar!” Amid this bitter torment, when blood was everywhere and the beaters were all worn out, the tyrant asked, “What do you say, maiden? Will you stand by the old heresy you’ve fallen into? If you’ll ask mercy of our gods, you’ll have it. Otherwise, it’s on to a new round. Before you leave, I expect you’ll be tame.” She answered, “You can be sure of this, sir: I’m stronger in body and spirit and more ready than ever to endure torment— frying, roasting, whatever! Do what you want, you shameful, boasting dog, for I’ll be stronger in my suffering than you in your cruelty. So you go and kill all Christians everywhere, whose only crime is in keeping God’s commandments—what’ll you accomplish? I’ll die and pass from this world’s sorrow, follow my lord and live with him in bliss, where nothing wrong is done or even thought of. I’ll live there in joy and comfort, while you yourself will be in agony. You’ll want grace then, but you’ll find none. Bound with the woeful chain of obstinacy, you’ll repent and say, ‘I wish I’d never tormented your blessed people!’ Thus you’ll wail when you see us in bliss while you are in eternal sorrow, enduring everlasting pain. You’ll find out, maybe soon.

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So go ahead and indulge your insane anger, and I’ll suffer for the love of God of heaven.” Thus the lady spoke boldly. (12/673–721) Then the emperor commanded his servants, “Take this maiden to prison. Put her in a deep stone dungeon, and let no man dare feed her. Let her have no food for the forty days I’ll be gone. That’ll take her down a step! Don’t let her have anything to drink, either—anyone who disobeys, by holy Jupiter, will be burned when I return home! Do my bidding right away, without delay. Let no one, whatever their family, be so bold as to give her food, drink, or light.” After issuing this cruel commandment against rightful law, the emperor rode off with his attendants to take care of the routine business of potentates.11 So the maiden is left alone in the dungeon, without any comfort or solace. But Christ has not forgotten his wife. He wouldn’t leave her wretched for forty days, but sent his servants down from heaven—his angels, I mean—to comfort the maiden. They said these words to her: “Our Lord commands you to be glad. Suffer this hardship patiently. You’ll have food like you’ve never had before. Our presence will be your light. The emperor is, in your case, doing a wrong he’ll come to regret.” Thus Katherine was comforted in her torment with heavenly light and food and with the presence of angels. Her captors could hear the noise and see the light as it crept through the cracks. They were so astounded they couldn’t sleep, but they said nothing to the king. Other people, of course, got word of how miserably this maiden was kept without light and food, just as I said, and of how the jailers were frightened by a certain light at the dungeon’s door. This news raced about the court. Chapters 13–15: Katherine’s Visitors

(13/722–805) The news reached the queen’s ear both about the cruel sentence and also about the light. She heard how the maiden had fearlessly answered the scholars the other week, how she had, with meek words, turned them to Christ, how

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they were burned, and how she was nearly killed in prison. The emperor was gone, as I said earlier, having ridden off into the country in haste. They told the queen that he commanded emphatically that Katherine taste neither food nor drink but waste away for hunger. These were his parting words: “Let no one give her food, drink, or light on pain of death.” This stirred the queen’s womanly pity to have compassion on those pains that the lady had suffered from the king’s cruelty. She paced the hall, thinking about this maiden. Then she said to herself, “These Christians don’t harm anybody. They pay for what they buy; and each and every day they sing anew a good song to their god, as people say. They aren’t extravagant in their clothing, gluttonous, or drunkards—this way of life pleases me very much. Indeed, I would already have become one of them had our law not forbidden it. If my attraction to them were observed, people would call me a fool. It might turn out very badly were my lord to know of this conversion. And yet my heart longs to seen this maiden. Oh dear! How shall I fulfill this desire?” Thus this lady thought and spoke to herself. Just as she was pondering, there happened to come, as though God had sent him, a noble knight—a wise man in every respect, a privileged counselor of the king, a governor and leader of knights, and a true father to young folk eager to learn. The histories call him Porphirius. He kneeled gravely before the queen. “I’m glad that you’re here, Porphirius,” she said, “You’re a man who can accomplish much. I’ll confide in you now. I’ve recently been troubled by the Christian religion. I can’t sleep. I can’t eat or drink. Every day, before dawn—and all night, too—I think about this matter. I believe I’ll die unless I have some relief!” Then she said, “Good Porphirius, I must see that maiden. Arrange some means, as you well know how to do—give the jailer enough gold and silver; and arrange for me to speak to this lady. I swear to God, no matter how angry my lord might be, I must speak to her or die, for my heart is heavy as lead.” Porphirius said, “Madam, it shall be done. I’ll make the arrangements, believe me. The doors shall be undone and no one

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will know but the three of us—that is, the jailor, you, and I. Never fear: You’ll have your way. This matter has also greatly disturbed me: I think it’s terribly wrong that this lady who has done no harm has been so horribly beaten and deprived of food and drink. She has made me think about her often since I heard her convince the scholars with her noble arguments. Therefore, madam, come what may, we’ll see her at our leisure and speak with her tomorrow night. I’ll give the jailer great gifts to be discreet and say nothing of this. Go to your chamber, and when I give the signal, come out alone and let your women sleep—be ready when I call.” (14/806–82) As they’d agreed, the queen and Porphirius went all by themselves to the prison while everyone slept, so says our source. When they arrived (the two of them and no others), they saw such a great light in the prison that they fell down, speechless and breathless. Because the brightness they saw was as wonderful and bright as lightning, they were struck down senseless, stammering for fear. There was a fragrance, too, with the light—they never experienced anything like it, the story says; that fragrance revived them. Then the maiden said this to them: “Rise up sister, rise up brother, both of you. Christ, who was born in the city of Bethlehem, has called you here to his service. Be glad and merry and rejoice; Our Lord has just summoned you to his grace—that’s why he sent you here.” They then looked at the kneeling maiden. They saw many angels surrounding her, anointing her gently with healing ointments. As they touched her, over and over, her flesh was healed, the wounds closed, and her skin was indeed lovelier than ever. This is how Our Lord can redress all suffering, from head to foot. He can heal our sores and comfort us in less than half an hour! These people there had a blissful sight, full of comfort and heavenly delight. Several very old men sat beside Katherine, comforting her. There were no more than nine or ten of them—I’m not sure of the exact number—sent there, I suppose, to comfort this woman

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in her afflictions with some heavenly grace. One of them held a fair and royal crown in his hand—we can’t describe it—and Katherine took it from his hand. She then spoke to the queen, saying: “Sister, try on this five-­branched crown. After your death it shall be your everlasting reward.” Then the maiden turned to the old men as she was placing the crown on the empress’s head, telling them meekly: “I prayed to my lord that these persons should be written in the book of life. Therefore, sirs, according to my entitlement as Christ’s wife, write these two names in that book forever. Cleanse their sins and don’t allow that evil being12 to separate them from my lord anymore. I pray to God that they never fall again after they receive the faith.” One of the eldest replied: “Oh precious spouse of God above, oh royal gem, shining in chastity, whatever you ask of Christ your love cannot be denied; he is so precious to you. Therefore, believe me: this lady shall attain great perfection; this knight shall also grow so much in virtue that through his good counsel more than two hundred shall abandon their false belief, turn to Christ, and bewail their sin and their false, untenable faith.” Then the queen and Porphirius took their leave of K ­ atherine, walking to their chamber with anxious hearts, keeping this matter silently to themselves. (15/883–945) This maiden was imprisoned, as you’ve just heard, with comfort. No living being dared send her comfort— not even a letter—for they were too frightened. She was kept there for forty days without food, but during every one of those days she had sweet tastes of heavenly food. For the same lord who fed the prophet Daniel in the lions’ den and carried Habakkuk so far out of Judea to bring him food could arrange for the maiden to be fed in prison.13 In various stories—two or three— that I read, a fair dove from heaven brought her food. It is hard to determine whether that food was bodily or spiritual, for, as Augustine, this very theologian, says, truly, of the seed that our fathers received in the wilderness, which served them then instead of bread, it is possible that such seeds should be nourished in the air, presumably in the lower part, which has some of the

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properties of the earth. This is what he says—whoever wishes may read it in his book on Scripture. I believe that the same thing was done here: the Holy Ghost fed this goodly maiden with heavenly things that had earthly attributes. That’s what I believe, but I don’t mean to compel anyone else to believe likewise. What we know for sure is that she was fed. Had God left her in such bitter suffering without comfort, it would have been a great pity. She lived in prison without weariness for forty days, but on the last day, as she eagerly called out to Christ in prayer, she saw a heavenly sight: Our Lord himself came down to her prison with many angels shining wondrously bright and many maidens of great renown—Katherine swooned for sheer joy! Our Lord comforted her kindly: “Daughter, look up and recognize your creator, for whom you have suffered all this discomfort. Continue to be patient—the more you suffer, the more you please me. Be constant and fearless. Think, ‘It won’t be long’; and don’t worry. I am with you, and I shall never forsake you. You shall prepare many hearts for my service before you leave this life; you shall convert many people—many a husband, maiden, widow, and wife—from their idolatry and lead them to rest in my faith.” Then Our Lord went up to heaven, as bright as lightning. She looked after him until she could see no more, then she ­continued to pray, as she did constantly. She treasured the idea that Jesus wished to make that pilgrimage to relieve her sorrow with his presence. May he be forever blessed, and may this maiden commend us to him! Chapters 16–21: Katherine and Ma xentius

(16/946–1001) When he had finished the business for which he’d left—Maxentius, I mean—he came home. Immediately he sent six knights for her. If her jailors had been false, it would soon be seen. They would regret it if it turned out that they’d given her food or drink! The entire city gathered to see the sight.

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A great crowd was there: some came out of cruelty, while some had great contempt for the emperor’s wickedness—they thought that the lady was being persecuted for no reason except her goodness. The emperor raged, “Go fetch this woman! Fetch this conjuress, this scold, this witch! Nobody can change her mind— she’s so set in her error that no one can make her abandon it. Unless she does, she’ll be awfully sore.” Then she was brought before him. He expected that deprivation would have brought her to the verge of death. She looked fresh, her color good. His heart pounded in anger, for she was fairer than she was when he commanded her to be put in prison. “Traitors,” he said, “every one of you will die unless you tell me right here and now who defied our commandment and fed this perverse wretch. I swear by omnipotent Jupiter to expose the culprit. No man for any reward will get away with doing something we forbade so strenuously.” He bound them in pairs with chains. Then the maiden defended them to the king: “You are a lord, and people call you an emperor. You were ordained to uphold the truth. Those who act or speak against your law should be punished, but not innocents; if you do that, you act against your throne. Those men who were charged with guarding me brought me neither food nor drink—understand it well. I was sustained in an entirely different manner by the lord that rules all, for he sent his messengers to give me all my sustenance. No door could hinder them, and you could never lock them out. Therefore, don’t torment these innocents. They don’t deserve it, sir king, and I’ll tell you why: my lord sent me food by holy angels­—no earthly creature was party to it—because he wouldn’t let me starve to death. He is my love; I am forever his. Neither joy nor sorrow shall part us.” (17/1002–36) The duplicitous tyrant then answered her kindly, so that the bystanders shouldn’t think him cruel. His angry heart was like poison concealed in a cloth. He spoke very politely: “I’m so sorry for you, good maiden. A king’s daughter, descended from king and queen, related to many lords that

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serve me: you are the highest born woman of this country, that’s you. And yet you are about to lose everything through the deception of certain witches—may they be forever damned—for you think of no joy other than Jesus Christ, Mary, Peter, and John, who were proved to be traitors by the senate and condemned to death for treason and heresy. Why will you abandon your honorable position for witchcraft and lies? You would have done better to have retained the knowledge that you first learned in school. This [Christian] learning will make a fool of you. Moreover, you maliciously decry the worship of our holy gods. With impious words and looks you despise them. This forces me, I tell you, however inclined I might be to have mercy on you, to punish your pride for the sake of my people who are standing all about. Therefore choose now whether you will suffer the sort of death that the law condemns you to or renounce your faith and receive mercy and honor. Come now, what will you do? Sacrifice to Jupiter, your omnipotent god, or have your tender body torn with iron.” (18/1037–113) The maiden replied to the emperor, “Although my life is very sweet to me, I would rather be slain with a sword than have my life in any way whatsoever offend the blessed ­majesty of my lord God. I tell you, Christ is my life. And even if I die by a blade, I consider it a great reward as long as I die in love and for his sake. Therefore, should death come to me at this hour, I’ll accept it meekly for his love; I’ll never in any way resist or grumble against my lord, my savior. “Death shall promote me with great benefits. Death is a changer who leads us from this present life to a better one. This is our belief: Death brings our corruptible, earthly bodies to rest and decay, as our Scripture says. After that period of rest, Our Lord can raise the bodies again in fairer form than they were ever seen.14 Therefore, you deceitful tyrant, do what you want: torture me or burn me with brands to assuage your anger. I want to offer to omnipotent Christ a pleasing offering, some delectable present. I renounce cows and calves or sheep and will present my own body as an offering. But because I can’t lawfully

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make this offering myself,15 your cruelty shall command ten or twelve of your vengeful servants to make an end of me. I offer my flesh, my blood, and my skin to the one who was offered on the tree of Calvary.16 “I assure you that you’ll later repent your cruelty—and not only in hell, where you’ll end up. Here on earth you’ll fail to attain your goals. On account of your sinful deeds, God shall raise a lord who will conquer all your lands and make you poor, take away your honor and your wealth. He shall slay you, as you deserve: he shall have that wicked head chopped off, and your blood shall be offered very solemnly to your gods, for spite. Mark my words—write them down: this man who shall put you to death shall be a Christian lord. Yet you may escape this great misfortune if you will convert and ask God’s mercy on your wickedness, if you repent and forsake the idols that stand on high!” This is what this lady said then to convert this man. But he took none of her words to heart. It seems that God rewarded this lady for her holiness while she was alive by making her a prophetess, telling things that were to come, for this Maxentius, as I understand, died exactly as she said he would. From stories that I have read about him, I know that he went to Rome to fight with the governor of that entire city, who also ruled Italy, Germany, England, Spain, and France, in all their power. His name was Constantine, who was baptized by Saint Sylvester through a special grace.17 This very Constantine defeated the said Maxentius in battle, for all his pomp and pride, as this lady had predicted in her unimpeachable prophecy. The news was spread far and wide, the day and time carefully noted by various people, who afterward knew very well that all she said was reliable and true. (19/1114–41) When the maiden had spoken these words, Maxentius was so alarmed he wasn’t sure what to do. He shouted to the people around him, “What’s wrong with you people who allow a woman to defame our high gods, their worship, and their reputation! How long shall we tolerate this witch? How

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long shall we endure this cursedness? It should be painful to all true believers to hear a woman rail with such audacity against everyone, great and small—seize her! Shame on you for standing around like cripples!” Thus the tyrant shouted, thus this dog barked against the heavenly name of Jesus who was hanged on the cross. He harried the men around him, saying, “Come on! Take this lady: Beat her and tear her with iron and rods of lead—don’t stop until she’s dead!” She was then beaten so pitilessly in his presence that it was a shame to see; many bystanders could not look at her for pity. The tyrant would never say, “Cease now,” but continued to shout, “Make an end of her, for if she lives she will destroy our people!” (20/1142–83) Then she was bound and led through the town. People followed her, crying, “Oh noble maiden, why won’t you fall down before the emperor and ask him for mercy? We’re so sorry that your lovely body is so broken, your skin so torn. Unless you ask for mercy, you’re doomed. What kind of woman are you to disregard your age, your body, your beauty? You could have honor, you could be set on a pedestal just like a goddess—what are you thinking? If the whole world were searched for beauty it would be found in you—one need look no further. Since you’re wise and held to be so meek, why won’t you obey the king? It’s better to bow than to be cruelly killed. Surely you learned this in your books. You can’t trample on that great dignity: it’s appropriate for you to obey your head.18 Since it’s right, why won’t you do it? We would, if you told us to. You lose the flower of your virginity, you lose what God generously gave you, you lose your heritage, you lose your rank, all because you won’t say what you’re obliged to say. We think you’re being too stubborn in ignoring counsel, especially when it’s to your advantage.” These were the words of the bystanders: “Bear in mind, maiden, what you’ll lose now on account of your obstinacy. Pretend to cooperate, since you have no choice—the beating will destroy your body and bones. At any time, you can avoid this through mercy. This is our advice; it may bring you happiness.

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You’re destroying your white skin that shines like the sun and making it pale and wan; it will darken from the beating. Your royal blood, higher than anyone can remember, will spill all over the ground. You’re being neither sane nor sound!” (21/1184–239) “What wicked counsel!” replied the maiden. “Go about your business and forget about me. Who cares about beauty that will soon be ruined by wind and rain! Even if I were to live, the fairness you regret so bitterly would fade with age. And don’t despair about my flesh, but believe this—it’s guaranteed: all your bodies, however fair, will die and rot in their wretchedness. Death comes to us all, the just punishment for our sin ordained by the providence and wisdom of our lord God. Why should we lament frail beauty that declines so quickly? Everyone must necessarily die and rot, except those who have received a special grace from the deity—for some through their purity have earned such a dispensation that in whatever place they are laid they shall never rot, flesh nor sinews, veins, shroud nor garments.19 This privilege is granted to those who keep their bodies from all uncleanness of lust and filth and from that impure love they call lechery, which I don’t consider love at all but rather a wild rage of madness. But, as I was saying, those who keep themselves pure have this dispensation, I believe. And if my lord, my love, will grant that after my death my flesh won’t rot, then I am bound and beholden to him more than ever, and I promise him that no one shall make me so foolish as to leave his love or his pleasure. Therefore, you people, stop following along and go home. You should be weeping for yourselves, not for me. My body shall die, but because I have the mark of Christ’s baptism I shall escape the great attack of the fiends who are so eager to get our souls into their prison, where they will beat them. I will escape this fate and rise again in a fairer form than you ever saw me—I believe and trust in this as a certainty. Therefore, you people, weep for yourselves, for the error that causes you to be in darkness. If you die in this error, your resurrection shall cause you great distress!” Many of those who heard her speak thus were converted to Christ, our savior. They privately broke the idols that they

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had so greatly honored, renounced sin, and bewailed their error. They did so privately, their souls heavy as lead, for they naturally feared death. Chapters 22–24: The “Katherine Wheel ”

(22/1240–302) At the time, there was a mayor of Alexandria, who punished all crimes and was greatly feared in the city. Vicious in his anger as any bear, spiteful, vengeful, and without discretion, he was known throughout the city as Cursates. Seeing the emperor so mad, he set him further aflame out of pure malice. “Oh emperor,” he said, “I suppose your wisdom makes you ashamed of this state of affairs—that a single wench should confound you so. You stand as stunned as if you were bound. Listen to my counsel for a while. This maiden Katherine has not yet seen any torment that would frighten her. Therefore, sir, this is my plan: we shall make something so horrible that it’ll be feared before it’s even used. As soon as she lays eyes on this thing that I’ll devise she’ll capitulate, I believe. Provide me with workmen. I shall direct their work, for I have devised a new cruelty—and I have designed it very carefully. I myself and no other will direct and oversee this project, and I will need ten or twelve workmen. “Here’s my plan: we’ll construct four great wheels, so sharp that they’ll shred whatever they come in contact with. All the spokes that come from the hub will have nails as sharp as knives fastened to the rims. Nobody, no matter how courageous, will come away from them without being torn to pieces; we’ll prove it by experience. Sharp saws, somewhat crooked, shall be nailed to the wheels on the outside. They shall be joined in such a way that each shall glide smoothly past the others: some will come up while others go down, and thus they’ll tear and destroy anything between them. Therefore, let these wheels be made quickly. Set the maiden between them when they’re done—she’ll be afraid before she experiences them. No living person has seen such wheels! This device shall please your lordship greatly,” said this

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Cursates. “You’ll thank me. We’ll make them right over there by the waterside.” The emperor quickly commanded that the wheels should be made immediately, just as Cursates devised them. Robin and John were called for the job, carpenters and smiths, as fast as they could go.20 They cut and hammered vigorously, believe me: the wheels had to be ready within three days. (23/1303–51) The third day arrived. The wheels were ready, all set up. The maiden Katherine was brought out and set between them. Two wheels went down—just as we said, by God!—and two tore upward. No one saw it without grinding his teeth in fear. Oh noble maiden, how will you escape this thing? This wrathful emperor isn’t your friend. The mayor has a cruel imagination, for he has set all his heart and mind to destroying your virginal body. There’s no comfort except from the court on high: Jesus, your love, will not fail you. Thus she was positioned [between the wheels] and likely to be torn. The servants started preparing the equipment. They took their time, hoping that sheer fear would change her mind. She raised her eyes and hands very meekly to heaven and prayed: “Lord God who made sun and moon, almighty lord in majesty, omniscient and omnipotent. Lord, you who never withhold your great pity from those who cry to you in their need, oh lord of lords, grant my prayer. I entreat you, lord, as earnestly as possible, to destroy this horrible new torment—send down your thunder and your lightning. Burn it and break it, I pray. Show your power. Open the heavens so that people may experience your lordship today. It’s so easy for you to arrange such an attack, and the people will find it so marvelous. “Good, blessed, gracious lord, I’m not asking for this because I fear death but for the sake of your people who are standing all about. Lord, it breaks my heart to hear them, with their proud and bold tongues and words, blaspheming your name and calling your true faith into doubt. This, in short, is my goal, lord: that they should trust your might and your power and honor

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your name and be turned away from the idols that they worship here to seek only the lord God. I pray this of you with a humble and meek heart. Grant me this in your omnipotence—don’t allow your servants to be deceived by idols.” (24/1352–400) When this lady had concluded her prayer, an angel was immediately sent down from heaven, accompanied by wind, thunder, and a horrible lightning. They say it had just turned seven o’clock, but before eight he had broken all these wheels with wind and fire—fragments flew here, there, and every­where. Some were hurt on their legs and knees, some on their hands and face; the pieces of wood flayed many. Many people got what was coming to them: those who blasphemed God with their cruel hearts could not escape his vengeance lightly. The lady sat safe and sound, feeling no pain and praying with great devotion. Thus Our Lord can provide for his followers and ordain their salvation. So he did once in Chaldea, when his servants were put in the oven: the fire was blocked through his power, and those in the oven were not burned at all, though the bystanders were harmed.21 This lady was like them in this ­present miracle: the fire flew about her, often resting in her bosom, but she was ­neither hot, nor hurt, nor harmed in any way, even though this fire was so horrible that it burned the wheels and flung them around and burned not a few men, too—indeed, our story says that four thousand died from the blast. One after the other, the heathen wretches died, villain by villain. The heralds counted them as best they could. The lady sat quietly in her holy nest, kneeling devoutly and praying solemnly. The angel and fire both returned from whence they came. People could hear them coming and going, they said. Many ­people would have died of fright, had this sweet maiden not comforted and encouraged them. That was the end of those expensive wheels. The heathens were distressed, the happy Christians, who escaped the fire, made the sign of the cross. Some could not move on account of the vengeance. Thus one side is in joy, the other in sorrow and care. Let everyone fear such vengeance.

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Chapters 25–26: The Martyrdom of the Empress

(25/1401–70) The emperor was crazed with anger, for every­ thing that should stand firm had crumbled and collapsed. He tore his clothes in rage. “Saturn,” he said, “why don’t you take up your own cause? It seems to me that this vengeance is an insult to your deity. Where’s your might? Where’s Jupiter, your son, who governs the Cyclops, those smiths who frighten the earth so much that it dances at the sound of their thunder? Unless you defend yourself, your offerings will be lean! Rise up, you gods, and don’t allow this wrong! It seems that you are amazingly patient.” During all this trouble, the empress stood watching from above, high in a tower. Until then, she had loved God almighty secretly in her heart. Now, come what may, she would reveal her heart plainly to him. She came down with all her servants into the presence of her lord. She said, “You wretched husband, what have you done? Why do you wrongly torment this good maiden? Why do you wrestle so against the great God? What madness makes you pursue God’s servants with care and sorrow, pain and death? Oh cruel beast, when you breathe your last, where will you send your wretched soul? You fight against the inevitable, for when you are highest and proudest, our lord God shall bind you. Leave your bestiality and think like a man! Recognize the power of your God above, who does such wondrous things for those who love him! Look at what the great mighty God of the Christians has done this very day: with a clap of thunder, he has killed ten of your lords—you yourself saw it—and four thousand commoners lie dead over there. Who shall raise them? If Apollo does it, I’ll praise him. He who can strike in such a way is truly a lord. Recognize him as your king. Forsake this false idolatry, I urge you. Turn to the lord who created everything. He’ll forgive us for the sins of our youth if we ask mercy—ask mercy of him and you shall have it!” When the tyrant heard what the queen said, he said, “Woman, do you know what you’re saying? You must have spoken with the

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maiden when I was gone the other day. Think again, or you’ll experience horrible pains. Neither your friends nor your kin will save you, for, by the high majesty of all the gods and by the providence of Jupiter the king, unless you abandon this foolishness— and quickly, lady—you shall have as foul an end as any woman ever did in your lifetime, old or young. Therefore, think carefully, for though your God has broken our wheel by witchcraft or necromancy, believe me: we shall find a means of destroying your false treachery. What has happened to you that you’re guided by that belief? You’ve lost your senses when you forsake the gods’ protection and, like a fool, accept the Christian illusion.” (26/1471–547) Then, in his anger, he ordered his servants to seize the queen and tear her teats immediately with slender lances made of iron wire. They would do it in his presence, for he wanted to see it—he wanted his wife to suffer for a long time. “Let’s see,” he said, “if Christ will save her now!” After this was done, he wanted them to take her and lead her to the fields where traitors get their desserts, tie her to a stake, strike off her head, and let it fall down and lie there for hungry dogs to devour in spite of Jesus.22 His men did as the tyrant commanded: they pulled her teats horribly right off her breasts. It was a shame to see the blood in her veins rise up and mingle with milk. Torn and ragged and bloody, she nonetheless fell on her knees before Katherine, praying sorrowfully and saying this: “Oh pillar of Christ, oh most holy maiden, pray for me now to your lord above that this pain that I suffer here for his honor, his faith, and his love, may sufficiently adorn my soul 23 when I come to that shining bliss that you promised me not long ago. Pray also that I may keep to the same good resolve that I have now, that this horrible pain doesn’t make me deny this holy life and return to sin. I’m so afraid that before I die my flesh, out of fear, shall say the contrary of this. Therefore, lady, I depend on you: pray to God that he may preserve me.” This maiden replied, “Oh blessed lady, you’ve forsaken crown and pleasure and everything else, thereby winning the

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love of Christ, our king; don’t doubt that he for whose love you now suffer this wrong shall make you strong. Suffer all this great discomfort courageously. It won’t last more than a little while. In doing so you’ll please Christ, your lord, who has granted through his special grace that this very day you shall see his face. A marvelous change it shall be, lady, when you come before the Trinity. Instead of a temporal land, you’ll have heavenly bliss; instead of your earthly husband, your spouse shall be he who may amend all wrongs—a lord that lives always in joy and never experiences adversity. These changes, lady, will be for the best, and I’ll soon be joining you.” Thus this noble Christian queen was comforted and supported mightily in our faith. Then she was led—by knights, I ­believe—as the emperor also struck their backs with blows, telling them to make an end of this woman. Then they tore her teats, as I said before, and after that great pain they struck off her head with a sharp sword. Our lord God gave her the strength to endure all this injustice patiently. Thus she passed away. Her soul is with that light we believe to be endless. Her martyrdom took place on the evening of November 23, on a Wednesday. Her dead body was left lying there, to spite Christianity, very white and also very red. No man dared wrap it in cloth or lead; the emperor had ensured that in his cruelty. Many people thought it a great pity that she lay like that. Chapters 27–29: The Martyrdom of Porphirius

(27/1548–96) Night fell and everyone went to bed. Porphirius thought it honorable and meritorious to take that body and bury it devoutly. Therefore, he summoned certain knights, and when it was very dark and dim (it being winter, around Saint Katherine’s Day), he came devoutly to the body and anointed it where it lay with very sweet and expensive ointment. Then he took it away, weeping, in prayer and sorrow. Thus they brought it to the sepulcher.

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The next day the big question was this: “Who buried the queen? Who was bold enough to commit the grievous crime of removing or burying that body?” Certain people, on the basis of suspicion alone, were arrested by the officers. Porphirius boldly and fearlessly went to the emperor and said, “Since you are a lord and should preserve justice, why have you tormented this holy maiden? You’ve struck off your own wife’s head—you ought to weep grievously for that! Now you’re intending to torment these innocents without any cause. Chase off your anger and stop doing wrong; abandon your obsessive inquisition. I tell you plainly, though you may hang me for it, that I am the one who devoutly buried your wife. I didn’t consider it treason but fully natural to bring her body to a sepulcher. Where have you seen such cruelty? The law permits the friends of even thieves and robbers to wrap them in shrouds and lead coffins, to comfort their neighbors with drink or bread. Your actions are unwise, unnatural, and sacrilegious! Where did you ever learn that beasts should eat the bodies of people, the highest of all creatures? Our authors say that it’s neither honorable nor honest for mankind to dirty its own nest. Sir emperor, I confess that I have done this deed. Don’t punish these innocents­—let them go!” (28/1597–638) Porphirius’s words wounded Maxentius. He cried out, lamenting so strongly and so loudly that the high hall resounded with the noise. Melancholy made him so mad he didn’t know what he said, but he roared words like this: “Oh me, most wretched of men alive, why did Nature give me life? Why would she give me such prosperity only to so wretchedly take my wife? She would have done better to have allowed me to be stabbed with a sharp knife in my cradle. Now I’m deprived of all my peace of mind, for Porphirius, whom I trusted most, Porphirius, my best friend, my Porphirius, my knight, is lost, so deceived by witchcraft that he raves. Even as the spokes of a wheel rest in their hub, all my comfort rested in his breast; I can never find another such friend. He deceived my wife, but she is dead; he has deceived himself, and that grieves me most. My

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spirit is so wounded that my heart grows heavy as lead. Oh, my Porphirius, I would have sworn that even if my entire kingdom forsook me, no one would ever make you betray my crown. “Even though you’ve done this great offense—deceived my wife and deceived yourself—you shall have another chance, despite your treason: I’ll grant you ten days—make it twelve. Leave this Christian company, forsake that elf Jesus of Nazareth­—he never did anyone good. For his sake, much noble blood has been spilled. If you’ll abandon this damned new sect, you’ll have mercy and not die. How has such a wise man been made such a fool? Who caused him so quickly to renounce the holy religion, the old true way that our fathers followed from time immemorial? Oh, man, confound it! You’re reasoning blindly!” (29/1639–701) The emperor thereupon summoned all the knights of the court, one by one. He then examined all of them as to how they thought this affair should turn out. He very sorrowfully lamented to them: “Look,” he said, “how my Por­ phirius has suddenly fallen into misery. I hope that, if you supported him, it was only through ignorance; but beware of that great vengeance that will surely befall renegades who lead other men from their true religion. What do you say?” All those who stood there said, “You should know now, sir emperor, that we will serve the God and lord that this man ­honors now, Jesus our savior, insofar as we may or can, whether you curse or condemn us or inflict exotic torments on us. Be assured that you will never change our minds. Neither fear of death nor love of sweet life will ever diminish our heartfelt love of Jesus Christ, the truest prophet that was ever sent from heaven above. Whatever pains that you afflict us with will only prove that we’re of one mind, committed to this same faith, as firm as a rock.” The emperor hastily commanded that they be led to their martyrdom, for he would be the judge of such renegades and avenge the wrong that was done to the gods, the sun and the moon. Thus they were led off to their deaths. They had no friend but Porphirius, who, mighty in his faith, pushed through to where the emperor stood to comfort them. He spoke: “People

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will believe that you are nearly mad to slay these people so promptly yet spare me, who led them all. I advise you, for the sake of your land, to take the head along with the members!” He said this, as I understand, to comfort them before their death, because their faces were heavy as lead; he was afraid that they’d fail if they had to go into this battle without him. He received his heart’s desire: he was bound and led away. They were not burned like heretics in a fire, but they were martyred in this way: the two hundred who were there (not one of whom fled) had their heads struck off at the emperor’s command. This was their end, to put it briefly. The bodies were left for dogs to eat, to spite the Christian faith. One of the authors of this legend sets the day of their very fair death as November 24, on the fifth day of the week. Chapters 30–34: Katherine’s Martyrdom

(30/1702–43) The very next day, Maxentius called this maiden before his tribunal. When she was present, he craftily revealed his evil intent: “Maiden,” he said, “you are responsible for the torments of Porphirius, my wife, and all my knights. You made them abandon their faith; you converted them with sorcery and wrongdoing. They could never return to common sense, but they did more for you than for father or ancestor. I could never understand the knots that you tied, but they are all dead and we aren’t sorry. Nevertheless, through mercy—if you accept it—you may yet live, notwithstanding your treason and your trespass. Therefore, this is my advice, fool: Give up your magic, weep and wail that you were so bold in your foolhardiness to give the queen or Porphirius such evil counsel. Let the water gush from your eyes down your cheeks. Flee your death, for though you are guilty of this deed—that is to say, you are responsible for the blood that was shed—you may make amends by devoutly offering to holy Saturn. We’ll all honor you, if only you follow this advice.

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“How long will you remain in this accursed state, beyond all reason, woman? I’m still willing to forgive your former treason. You’ll have, maiden, all those honors that I promised you. Delay no longer, for danger may come of it. Choose the better course, or else say ‘checkmate.’ Unless you sacrifice, the two of us are at odds, and you’ll die very quickly. This is the immediate death I will devise for you: I’ll have your head struck off with a blade sharpened on both sides that cannot fail. The smith who made it guarantees that it will slice whatever it strikes, be it flesh, bone, or mail. Therefore, maiden, give in, and repent of your error, I advise you.” (31/1744–806) Then the maiden meekly answered, “I’ve always said that I’m ready to die for the love of him who was hanged on the cross. Today, to put it briefly, the world will see a great spectacle: a queen forsaking land and castle and suffering misfortune and death. Some people believe that the death of us Christians is reprehensible or miserable. But our loss is perfectly tolerable, in my opinion: We lose an illusory, strife-­filled existence and gain the land of life. We exchange sickness for health, tears for laughter and joy. That place, truly, has eternal wealth and no troubles. It’s more secure than the fortress of Troy was from attack and treason.24 I shall go there when I die: Christ shall be my guide. I’ll no longer distract you with useless talk: Do as you planned. I despise your gods, your offerings, and your religion; your idols count for nothing in my eyes. I’ll go to the one who bought me dearly. I want to go to him. I yearn for the sight of his face. If you could only hear the angelic song that fills that place you’d be astounded. You have no grace to draw near such mysteries. Farewell my friends, farewell my attendants; farewell my castles that stand high on the cliff! My love will tap a new drink for me after my blood is spilled here on the ground. Farewell round world! I shall follow the lamb25 that washed away our bloody sins, wretched and unnatural, with his blood. I follow the meek and good lamb, whose steps innumerable virgins follow. Come on, tyrant, kill me—do your worst. I only await death to go to life; I dread no fire, water, sword, or knife!”

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Following these words, sentence was immediately pronounced: she would die in the manner stated before. She was led away. Men and women alike followed closely in wonder, weeping and wailing: “Oh holy maiden, why do you accept such a wretched and dishonorable death?” She replied, “Mothers and maidens, don’t weep for me. Don’t delay my martyrdom. Stop calling after me. If you ­really must cry over unhappiness and desolation, cry for your own sins—the ones you’ve committed and continue to commit. Cry for your error, which will bring you into the burning fire where your gods live. Though your priests read and sing to you of the gods’ holiness and say many things to you, I swear to you that they’re in hell and will be there forever. Unless you change your ways, you’ll be there, too.” (32/1807–55) After saying this, she arrived at the place where she was to die, and she asked the executioner to allow her, before her death, to say one or two words of private meditation to God above, her creator, her lord, and her love. The man agreed, and she kneeled down with eyes and hands raised to heaven. She prayed in this vein: “Oh mighty God whose name is so marvelous, maker of the seven planets,26 healer of all those who trust in your mercy, hope of all virgins who cry upon you for help, oh sweetest Jesus, who have numbered me among all your maidens, do with your servant as you wish in your benignity. Shield me with your mercy. Let me never fall into my enemy’s hands. Lord, I call to you. Grant me this grace in your high name, lord, that you grant the prayer of whoever remembers my martyrdom and devoutly and diligently asks for relief in sickness, persecution, affliction, or death. Do this, worthy lord, for my sake, as now I accept my death for your love. And let all those who remember my martyrdom never be grieved by pestilence, death, hunger, sores, and other miseries; nor let them suffer from foul miasmas, morning or evening, but rather give them temperate air and an abundant harvest; let their lands not lie desolate, but grant them plenty of grain. Love them because they love me. Look, lord, I must now die for your cause. Take and use what this butcher

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can never take: Take my soul, as only you can. Oh Jesus Christ, I now commend my soul into your hands. Please take it. Let your angels, who see your face, come down from heaven for your maiden’s sake. Let them come here now to lead my soul, lord, to your grace, to that fellowship that you promised me among your saints who shine so brightly with you.” (33/1856–83) She’d scarcely finished this prayer when suddenly a loud sound from heaven was heard, a sweet voice that cried, “My own spouse, my wife and holy maiden, come to me now, come now to your rest, for you have worked most excellently for my faith. The blessed gate of heaven is now open: that mansion is made ready for you; your faith, your charity, and your hope have earned my special blessing. Your people wait to welcome you to eternity, where you shall rejoice before the Trinity. Maidens are ready to bring you your crown; angels are already appointed to conduct your soul here. Cast off for a while your fleshly gown—you shall receive it in another place. Come quickly. Don’t worry about your petitions, for I grant them all: whoever calls upon you or honors your holy martyrdom in his heart, I’ll release him from whatever trouble he’s in, and pardon any past transgressions, if that person will abandon sin and begin a new life; for your sake I will forgive all petitioners and strengthen them so that they do not fall back into sin.” (34/1884–981) The maiden bared her fair white neck and said to the executioner, “I’m now called to the feast of God almighty. Do your duty, as the tyrant commanded you. Fulfill his commandment and then you may go without fear and sure of his mercy. I pray that God forgive your trespass.” The man was glad to carry out his lord’s commandment. He resolutely tried to spare this young and tender one somewhat, striking her head from her body with one mad and furious stroke. Two great miracles occurred. One signaled her virginal purity: milk rather than blood ran from her neck, attesting to her purity at the time. Nothing can run from the spout but what was originally in the container—I say this to allay your doubts:

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what was in her came out of her. It ran so abundantly that it soaked the ground all around her. Oh most marvelous well: here’s the head, surrounded by milk. What more should I say about this miracle? She ranks first in virginity, except for Mary, as confirmed by this sight I’ve just described, which may in no way be called an illusion. Another miracle was also seen: angels clothed very marvelously, in human form but with wings to fly, came down suddenly, authors say. They took her body and immediately bore it away to the mount where Moses received the commandments.27 Our book says this about this miracle: the hill on which God gave the written law to the Jews points to the perfection of Christ’s gospel and of his virtuous teachings, in which we find such sweet instruction. Paul says as much in his Epistles, making the following inference: he says it represents Jerusalem in servitude, with all her children on pilgrimage here.28 Therefore, since this hill is, as it were, a guide to the heavenly mount, it is appropriate for us to hasten after this maiden so that she may give us steadfast instructions for amending our sins. She will serve as an example to bring us to heaven after we are in our tombs. This mount, they say, is in Arabia, far from Alexandria—a twenty days’ journey, if I’m not lying. My author says that even with transportation, good guides, and great stamina, those would be days of hard labor. Few have attempted the journey.29 This martyrdom took place on a Friday, our story says, for this reason: because she fought so strongly for our faith, it’s appropriate that she should die for Jesus on the same day he passed out of this world. That’s what our author says. The great miracles that occur at her grave are nearly unknown because we are so far away, but we do know that it pours forth an abundance of oil, which quickly relieves all suffering from any sores. Some say that if one takes a stone from that grave, it will exude the same liquid wherever it is taken. So say pilgrims who have been there. Books made in honor of this sweet maiden, this virtuous flower, say that such liquid comes naturally from flowers.

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I also heard of other miracles, of lamps hanging before her sepulcher, filled with that oil that burns for a lifetime without dimming, even after fifteen years. I’ll confess my stance plainly in this matter: I may well believe that such marvels exist, but because I have no authority, I dare not list them here, for fear of poisoning all my work that’s gone before, lest people of my own nation should imagine that I, a scholar, might be misguided about such things. Therefore, I commit all these things to the judgment of those who hear them, for I will make no determination. But I fully believe that whoever might see that holy place would know things that we cannot prove.30 I will leave it at that. God, our lord, in his high mercy, grant us heaven after this misery. By Capgrave

Notes to the tr ansl ation

Prologue 1.  The joy of heaven is frequently described as a dance. See, for a similar use, The Book of Margery Kempe, trans. Lynn Staley (New York: Norton, 2001), 38–39. 2.  I.e., the Virgin Mary. 3. For the enumeration that follows, Capgrave is drawing upon the popular Legenda aurea of Jacobus de Voragine. See de Voragine, The Golden Legend, trans. William Granger Ryan, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 2:334. 4.  An allusion to the most famous episode of the Katherine legend, in which Maxentius attempts to have Katherine tortured on a machine consisting of revolving spiked wheels. See book 5, chapters 22–24. 5.  This story, told twice, of a life that must be rewritten because of its obscure language is reminiscent of the story of the composition of the Book of Margery Kempe. Kempe was Capgrave’s contemporary, and both lived in King’s Lynn. Given Kempe’s cultivation of members of religious orders, it seems likely that she and Capgrave knew each other; Capgrave might even have been familiar with Kempe’s Book, written about a decade earlier than his Katherine. 6.  This incident reenacts an episode from Ezekiel 2:8–3:3. See introduction, 8. 7.  In other words, during the 1360s: Urban V was pope from 1362 to 1370; Peter I ruled Cyprus from 1359 to 1369. 8. The seven liberal arts, a curriculum consisting of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic) and the quadrivium (music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy). Capgrave elaborates on Katherine’s education in the arts in book 1, chapters 5–7. 9.  A body said to be Katherine’s was discovered at Sinai in the late tenth century. Her shrine and the mount where angels supposedly deposited her body are described in several pilgrimage accounts, including the widely circulated Mandeville’s Travels. The late-­fifteenth-­century account by Felix Fabri forms the basis for Sheri Holman’s highly entertaining novel, A Stolen Tongue (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997). 177

178  Notes to the Translation, pages 22–30 10.  The fourth-­century theologian and bishop of Alexandria Athanasius, author of the Athanasian Creed, was traditionally thought to be the author of Katherine’s life. He “suffered much adversity” for his opposition to the Alexandrian priest Arius, whose views found favor with the emperors of the time. Prime is one of eight liturgical offices that were celebrated daily and consisted of a series of formal prayers and readings. Prime would have been conducted around 6 a.m. 11.  I.e., the late fifth century; Athanasius died in 373. 12.  In 1 Corinthians 3:5–9, Paul praises Apollos, a learned Alexandrian convert (Acts 18:24–28), for “watering” the newly sown Christian community at Corinth.

Book 1 Katherine’s Parentage, Upbringing, and Coronation   1.  Capgrave is establishing Costus as an ideal ruler, one who is feared as well as loved. The ultimate failures of both Katherine and Maxentius as rulers may be attributed at least in part to their failure to inspire both love and fear: Katherine is loved but not feared; Maxentius is feared but not loved. Katherine is overthrown by Maxentius, who in turn is conquered and killed by Constantine.   2.  Capgrave is referring to the modern city of Famagusta, on the east coast of Cyprus. He will later discuss the renaming of Amaleck to Famagusta (see chapter 8 below).  3. Capgrave is probably alluding to the De vita contemplativa (On the Contemplative Life) composed by the Jewish exegete Philo (20 BC–AD 50), which describes a large community of contemplatives inhabiting the desert outside Alexandria. In book 2 of his Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius claims that these contemplatives were the Apostle Mark’s Christian converts.   4.  Pantaenus was the first known head of an influential school of theology that flourished under Clement of Alexandria and Origen. ­Clement of Alexandria is the author of the Stromateis (Miscellaneous Studies). Capgrave uses the Latin singular, Stromatum.  5. In other words, God can do anything—make aged parents conceive, calm a torrent, etc.   6.  I.e., in being born of elderly parents.   7.  I.e., the Virgin Mary.  8. In the following chapters, Capgrave describes a program of study much like the one he and his educated contemporaries would have

Notes to the Translation, pages 31–33 179 pursued. The seven liberal arts, which he will discuss shortly, formed the basis of a liberal arts education in his day.  9. Capgrave is alluding to Katherine’s debate with fifty pagan scholars, which takes place in book 4. 10.  This is the only allusion to Katherine as a writer that I have come upon in medieval lives of Katherine. 11.  Katherine proves her mastery of the curriculum in the same way that a medieval university student would have done, namely, through academic disputation. Her debate with the scholars resembles the quodlibetal debates held in universities, in which anybody present could initiate a debate on any topic. This debate anticipates the two major debates to follow: Katherine’s debate with her barons on the subject of marriage (book 2) and her debate with the scholars summoned by the emperor Maxentius (book 4). 12.  The fate of the virtuous pagan who died without baptism was a matter of debate among medieval theologians, and Capgrave is probably being deliberately vague about where Costus “belonged.” There was general optimism about the salvation of good pagans who died before the birth of Christ or who lived where Christianity was unknown. But Costus lived centuries after Christ’s birth, and Christian hermits inhabited the deserts outside one of his major cities (as we find in book 3). Conservative theologians might have argued that Costus could have learned more about Christianity had he wished, and they would therefore have placed him in hell (the fourteenth-­century alliterative poem St. Erkenwald offers a popular expression of this conservative theology). More liberal thinkers, including John Wyclif and William Langland (in the Trajan episode of Piers Plowman), proposed that salvation might be possible even for such Christian-­era pagans. For a useful summary of the intricacies of the virtuous pagan problem, with special reference to St. Erkenwald, see Gordon Whatley, “Heathens and Saints: St. Erkenwald in Its Legendary Context,” Speculum 61 (1986): 330–63. Compare Capgrave’s vagueness about Costus with Osbern Bokenham’s certainty about the fate of Saint Margaret’s parents: “Her father and mother were born and raised in idolatry and ended their lives that way and miserably went to hell-­pain after their death.” A Legend of Holy Women: A Translation of Osbern Bokenham’s Legends of Holy Women, trans. Sheila Delany (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), 9. 13. As noted in the introduction, Capgrave may be using his Katherine to comment on the decline of England since the country passed from the hands of the warrior-­k ing Henry V to the decidedly “unmanly” Henry VI. He described the state of his own country in

180  Notes to the Translation, pages 34–41 language strikingly similar to that used by Katherine’s lords: “We, . . . who used to be the conquerors of all nations, are now being conquered by all nations.” The Book of the Illustrious Henries, trans. Francis Charles Hingeston (London: Longman, 1858), 156. For more on the political parallels between Katherine’s realm and Henry’s England, see Karen A. Winstead, John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 137–61. 14.  A possible jab at his contemporary John Lydgate, who at the end of book 3 of his Troy Book devotes almost three hundred lines to the shrine that King Priam constructs to display Hector’s body, giving a detailed description of the ingenious mechanism used to pipe embalming fluid throughout the slain warrior’s body to keep him looking “fresh as any new rose” (line 5660). 15.  Capgrave’s point is that if we mentally substitute a “c” for the “g” in Famagusta, we will see that the city’s name translates to “Fame of Costus.” 16.  Capgrave says more about Antiochus the Great in chapter 11 below. 17.  A city on the Tigris, about eighteen miles south of Baghdad. 18.  With “gune and engyne” Capgrave is probably referring generally to the equipment used against besieged cities. 19.  See 2 Maccabees 4:7–10:9. 20.  Because he did not wish to lose his daughter and lover, Seleucus put a riddle to all her suitors. Whoever solved the riddle would win her hand; those who failed would die. The Apollonius story, which was supposedly derived from a now lost Greek source, was popular throughout the Middle Ages. A well-known version of the story is told in book 8 of John Gower’s Confessio Amantis. 21.  Commentary on Matthew 1:1–17. 22.  Capgrave is perhaps slyly insinuating that earthly love is not “suitable” in the context of a virgin martyr legend. For another dig at love, see book 4, chapter 4, where Capgrave protests that he’s no servant of Cupid. 23.  In this paragraph and the following paragraph, Capgrave justifies the complaints Katherine’s lords will level against her—that she pays no attention to affairs of state and does not even know what is happening in her realm. This passage also explains how, in book 4, Maxentius is able to occupy Alexandria and issue laws without her knowledge. 24.  Acts 10. 25.  Fortune was commonly represented as a blindfolded lady turning a great wheel with all human beings ranged around its rim. People rose and fell according to her whim, not because of anything they did

Notes to the Translation, pages 42–48 181 wrong or right. See book 2 of Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy for an influential discussion of Fortune. 26.  In essence, Capgrave is saying that the great lords run the courts as they please—and the court system to which he alludes is the one that prevailed in his own day: assizes were held periodically in the counties and presided over by judges specially appointed to administer civil and criminal justice; shires were shire courts; “sessions” refers to the periodic sittings of justices of the peace. 27. By “burned,” Capgrave probably means “conquered,” but the precise reference is unclear.

Book 2 The Marriage Parliament   1.  Capgrave’s punning Middle English—“Sche knowyth not yet the rode”—does not translate well into modern English, because it relies on the double meaning of “rode” as road/way and Cross. Implicit in Capgrave’s pun is an allusion to John 14:6: “I am the way, the truth, and the life.”   2.  I.e., the Holy Spirit. See Matthew 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32.   3.  Capgrave is repeating the etymological derivation of the name Katherine that is found in Jacobus de Voragine’s popular thirteenth-­ century anthology of saints’ lives, the Legenda aurea, or Golden Legend. See The Golden Legend, trans. William Granger Ryan, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 2:334.   4.  Katherine’s interior monologue has analogues in other Middle English saints’ lives dating from about the same period. When, in a prose life of Edward the Confessor, a “council of the land” asks the king to choose a wife, “he didn’t know what to do or say, for if he refused outright he feared that his vow of virginity would be made public, and if he consented he feared that he would lose his virginity.” Supplementary Lives in Some Manuscripts of the “Gilte Legende,” ed. Richard Hamer and Vida Russell, EETS.OS 315 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 9; my translation. Similarly, Osbern Bokenham’s Audrey reflects: “How shall I continue to keep my commitment to virginity a secret? I must either reveal my secret intent or give in to my friends. If I say ‘no,’ they will be unhappy with me for not doing what they want; if I say ‘yes,’ I risk my virginity.” Abbotsford Legenda aurea, Abbotsford House, Melrose, Scotland, 118r; an edition of this recently discovered manuscript is being prepared by Simon Horobin for publication in the Early English

182  Notes to the Translation, pages 48–54 Text Society. The Christian Edward and Audrey agree to marry, trusting that God will protect their virginity; the pagan Katherine, by contrast, must rely on her own resourcefulness to escape marriage.   5.  Compare Katherine’s desire to live “in peace” with the desire of Chaucer’s Criseyde to live “at ease” without a husband to “check-­mate” her (Troilus and Criseyde, bk. 2, lines 750–54). One might argue that, as a political prisoner, Criseyde has no real chance to live freely. With Katherine, Capgrave might be exploring whether any woman, however powerful, can do as she pleases. On the other hand, rulers, male or female, are not free to reject the “thralldom” of marriage, as the examples of Edward the Confessor or Walter in Chaucer’s Clerk’s Tale demonstrate. See Karen A. Winstead, “John Capgrave and the Chaucer Tradition,” Chaucer Review 30 (1996): 389–400. On the Chaucerian quality of Katherine’s inner monologue, see also Mary-­A nn Stouck, “Chaucer and Capgrave’s Life of St. Katharine,” American Benedictine Review 33 (1982): 276–91.   6.  Capgrave’s contemporaries might have seen Katherine’s adamant aversion to hunting as evidence of her politically deleterious isolation, for hunts provided opportunities for rulers to bond with their nobles. See Christine Carpenter, The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437–1509 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 38. In contrast to Katherine, Lydgate’s Saint Edmund, who is represented as an effective and conscientious king, loves to hunt.   7.  This is the first known instance of the popular proverb, “A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.” See B. J. Whiting, Proverbs, Sentences, and Proverbial Phrases from English Writings Mainly before 1500 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), B.301.   8.  A reference to the method of executing traitors by hanging, drawing, and quartering.   9.  A reference to a form of judicial ordeal wherein the accused was thrown into the water: it was believed that the innocent sank, whereas the guilty floated. 10.  One of several odd moments, when Capgrave’s characters, in a manner reminiscent of Bertolt Brecht’s “epic theater,” rupture the illusion of reality created by the narrative by drawing attention to its verse form. 11.  For the biblical account of Daniel’s dealings with Nebuchad­ nezzar, see Daniel 1–4. According to Daniel 6, Darius rather than Nebuchadnezzar threw Daniel to the lions. 12.  Perhaps not surprisingly, the importance of writing to human endeavors was a common theme among medieval authors. Katherine’s defense of books echoes views expressed by the thirteenth-­century

Notes to the Translation, pages 54–63 183 bishop of Durham Richard de Bury in his Philobiblon, a treatise on the love of books that circulated widely in both England and the Continent. John Lydgate translated Richard’s sentiments into aureate Middle English when he began book 4 of his Fall of Princes with a 168-­line tribute to writing. Quoting the chronicler Ralph Higden, Capgrave avers, “the arts and the laws would go utterly to ruin, the examples of remarkable deeds would disappear, and modes and styles of speaking would entirely perish, had not the Divine compassion provided the use of letters for a remedy of human perfection.” The Book of Illustrious Henries, trans. Francis Charles Hingeston (London: Longman, 1858), 210. 13. Sir Hercules is paraphrasing sentiments found in part 2 of ­O vid’s popular The Remedies for Love. 14.  Katherine misrepresents the lord’s position so that she can easily refute it in what appears to be a travesty of debating tactics. 15. The Letter of Valerius to Ruffinus, Against Marriage, attributed to the classical author Valerius Maximus, was composed by Walter Map, circa 1180. Alcuin Blamires includes a translation in his Woman Defamed and Woman Defended: An Anthology of Medieval Texts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 103–14. 16.  A possible reference to the common representation of Kathe­ rine in late medieval art trampling the crowned emperor Maxentius. 17. Aristotle’s De sophisticis elenchis (On Sophistical Refutation) discusses the rhetorical ploys of the sophists; it was a standard textbook for students of dialectic in the later Middle Ages. 18. The power struggles that marked Henry VI’s long minority, when England was governed by council, would have made many of Capgrave’s contemporaries skeptical of this claim. Government by the King’s Council continued until at least 1437 and may have persisted into the 1440s. 19.  Katherine’s response below suggests that the admiral is referring to famous romance heroes like Troilus who, initially disdainful of love, were eventually drawn into disastrous and tragic affairs. 20.  That a monarch should heed counsel is a ubiquitous theme in the advice books for princes that were so popular in Capgrave’s day. 21.  Katherine’s disquisition on the origins of government derives from Aristotle’s Politics (see especially 3.14); similar views can be found in the writings of many late medieval political theorists, including Marsilius of Padua (Defensor pacis 1.8–9), Duns Scotus (Ordinatio 4.15.2), and Nicholas of Cusa (De Concordantia catholica 2.21–41, 3.4). 22.  Capgrave discusses Gorgalus in book 1, chapter 10. 23. Capgrave’s contemporaries would have recognized Kathe­ rine’s interpretation of what constitutes “counsel” as a perversion of the

184  Notes to the Translation, pages 64–75 common claim in guidebooks for princes that a ruler should consult with advisors. 24.  Chaucer has his Wife of Bath quote this proverb in her Prologue, lines 180–83. Riverside Chaucer, ed. Larry D. Benson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987). Though attributed to Ptolemy, it was apparently an invention of the twelfth century; see Benson’s note in Riverside Chaucer, 867. 25. For more on the medieval views of Nature that inform this speech, see Barbara Newman, God and the Goddesses (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003). 26. Aristotle, Natural Science, bk. 8; and Metaphysics, bk. 12. 27.  In the Middle English prose version of the legend, Katherine describes her ideal spouse in similar terms; however, in that version she truly believes that such a husband exists. See Chaste Passions: Medieval English Virgin Martyr Legends, ed. and trans. Karen A. Winstead (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 124. 28.  I.e., a woman’s headdress.

Book 3 Katherine’s Conversion and Mystical Marriage   1.  One of Capgrave’s many odd allusions to the fact that he is composing his saint’s life in verse.  2. Matthew 2:13–15.   3.  I.e., regardless of their religious order.   4.  Capgrave may have intended an off-­color pun here: the Middle English word he uses for “fine linen,” “reynes,” is also the word for the male sex organ. Such a pun would be in keeping with the pun he has just made on “heir” and “hair” (Middle English “ayre” and “hayre”), in saying, “sche hath non ayre . . . sche schall love bettyr the hayre”), that is, Katherine has no heir but will prefer the hair (shirt).   5.  I.e., the seven liberal arts.   6.  The Virgin Mary is alluding to Katherine’s debate against the fifty scholars, which Capgrave will recount in book 4. I have translated as “heresy” Capgrave’s “the heresye of philosophye.” It is not entirely clear what he means by this, but “heresye” was a charged term in fifteenth-­ century England, and the term would probably have invoked for his readers the ongoing concerns about the Lollards (see introduction).   7.  Capgrave similarly marvels at Katherine’s commitment to virginity in the absence of all models in his prologue to book 2.

Notes to the Translation, pages 76–90 185   8.  Jesus’s exhortation to the apostles (Matthew 10:17–20, Mark 13:9–11, Luke 12:11–12, 21:12–15) is given a contemporary spin by Capgrave’s use of the term “Lollard,” ostensibly a reference to a dissident sect inspired by the teachings of the Oxford theologian John Wyclif (d.  1384). For a discussion of the complex resonances that the word “Lollard” would have had for a late medieval audience, see Andrew Cole, Literacy and Heresy in the Age of Chaucer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).   9.  1 Corinthians 1:26–29. Conservative clergymen of Capgrave’s day would doubtless have looked askance at encouraging readers of a popular saint’s life to consult scripture. 10.  Capgrave deliberately echos the Annunciation. In chapter 9, he will explicitly compare Adrian to the Angel Gabriel. 11.  Helen, wife of King Menelaus of Greece, was renowned for her beauty; her abduction by the Trojan prince Paris caused the Trojan War. 12.  John 1:29. 13.  A possible allusion to the well-known legend that immediately after Christ’s birth, a midwife, Salome, tested Mary’s virginity. As punishment for her skepticism, her hand withered but was restored by the Christ child after she acknowledged her error. 14. Aristotle, Metaphysics 7 and 12.8. 15.  Genesis 19:11. 16.  See Daniel 14 of the Vulgate Bible, or Bel and the Dragon, vv. 33–39, in the Apocrypha of the Revised Standard Version. 17.  1 Samuel 16:11–13. 18.  2 Corinthians 12:1–7. 19.  I.e., when we die and go to heaven. 20.  Saints are usually identified by emblems associated with their lives or martyrdoms. Katherine, for example, is typically associated with a spiked wheel. Barbara, who was imprisoned in a tower, is associated with a tower. In some late medieval paintings, these emblems are embroidered on the saints’ clothing. The embroidered emblems may also be a reference to the practice among late medieval aristocrats of embroidering mottos or symbols on their garments. For more on this practice, see Susan Crane, The Performance of Self: Ritual, Clothing, and Identity During the Hundred Years War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 10–38. 21.  In other words, she needed to be baptized. 22.  Baptism was usually associated with taking a Christian name. For example, Theodora is named Christina after Christ, who personally baptized her. See Chaste Passions, trans. Karen A. Winstead (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 65–66.

186  Notes to the Translation, pages 91–102 23.  In an oddly Chaucerian move, Capgrave seems to be inviting readers to doubt the authenticity of his text, for he has described events that occurred when the man he insists is our sole source of knowledge for them was either not present (see chapter 22) or had lost his sight! 24. Capgrave is showing that Katherine’s mystical marriage adheres to the tenets of canon law, which required the consent of both parties. 25.  Another of Capgrave’s many odd allusions to the fact that he is composing his saint’s life in verse. 26.  On the significance of “the dance,” see prologue, note 1. 27.  John 19:26–27. 28. Elaborate descriptions of the special properties of various stones were common in the Middle Ages and could be found in books called lapidaries, which were devoted to the subject. 29.  Sponsus amat sponsam Salvator visitat illam (The Spouse loves his bride and visits her as a Savior) is a chant sung on the feast of Saint Katherine. 30.  An allusion to the pilgrimage of life, a common topos in medieval literature. 31.  It is not clear whether “our sinful tongue” refers to Middle English. If so, Capgrave may be making a concession to those conservative clergymen who felt that theological subjects should not be discussed in the vernacular. But he is not making much of a concession, for he has just discussed the Trinity, considered one of the most difficult subjects in Christian theology, and he will go on in book 4 to discuss at length not only the Trinity but other abstruse matters of theology in “our sinful tongue.”

Book 4 Katherine’s Confrontation with Ma xentius and Debate with Fifty Scholars   1.  Capgrave is drawing upon Virgil’s comparison of human society to a beehive, found in Georgics 4.3.   2.  An allusion to the Golden Rule, Matthew 7:12, Luke 6:31.   3.  Salisbury Plain is the location of Stonehenge, the legendary burial place of King Arthur’s father Uther Pendragon and other British nobles. The sense of the phrase is “To hell with him!”   4.  Compare Capgrave’s comment on the fate of the pagan King Costus’s soul (book 1, chapter 8). Though “dancing” would be an unlikely outcome for a man of Maximinus’s character and habits, Capgrave

Notes to the Translation, pages 102–112 187 seems to be allowing for the controversial possibility that the soul of a pagan is not necessarily damned.  5. Compare book 1, chapter 14, where people are reluctant to speak to young queen Katherine.  6. This passage captures Capgrave’s ambivalence toward “the people,” whom he sees as treacherous, however just their cause.   7.  I.e., the sign of the cross.   8.  Capgrave’s use of the morally charged word “murder” (Middle English “morder”) to describe the slaying of animals is unusual.   9.  A reference to the divine office—matins, lauds, prime, terce, sext, none, vespers, and compline—ritualized prayers and chants performed publicly in churches or privately by individuals at designated times of the day and night. 10. Diana, goddess of chastity and guardian of springs, was attended only by maidens. The nine springs may be the Enneakrounos, a nine-­spouted water source of ancient Athens described by the second-­ century travel writer Pausanias, whose works survive in fifteenth-­ century manuscripts, as being near a temple of Persephone and her mother Demeter. Persephone, Hecate, and Diana were often viewed (by Chaucer, among others) as aspects of a triple goddess. 11. Saturn was believed to have taught the Italians how to farm, hence his association with the sickle. Medieval medical theory identified him with melancholy, one of the four humors. His reputation for gloominess gives us the adjective “saturnine.” His association with vengeance and malevolence is vividly conveyed in part 3 of Chaucer’s Knight’s Tale. 12.  Compare book 1, chapter 13, where Capgrave indicates his disapproval of love. 13. It might seem odd that nobody has informed Katherine of Maxentius’s arrival, but see book 1, chapter 14, which describes Kathe­ rine’s reclusive ways and her aversion of being interrupted, especially with bad news. 14. Katherine may be referring to the Hierâ Anagraphe (ca. 300 BC), written by Euhemerus of Sicily. Euhemerus claimed that men were worshipped as gods after their deaths. Augustine of Hippo refers to his writings in his City of God. Most of Katherine’s criticisms of the gods can be found in The City of God, bks. 1–7. 15. Maxentius is voicing exactly the same skepticism Katherine ­expressed when Adrian first spoke of Mary as a virgin mother. See book 3, chapter 13. 16.  A reference to the five wounds that Christ received on the cross, that is, the wounds to both hands, both feet, and his side. Sometimes the Christ child was depicted with the five bleeding wounds.

188  Notes to the Translation, pages 113–121 17. This reference to France is odd, though “between here and France” would sound perfectly natural if the speaker were a fifteenth-­ century Englishperson! 18. Capgrave may be drawing attention to Maxentius’s forbearance here, for Katherine has just defied his rank, yet his first response is to reason with her rather than to kill her as a traitor. As it turns out, Maxen­tius does regret his leniency. 19.  As Capgrave has just indicated, Maxentius thinks that reason would be more effective than force. In his dealings with his council, he is acting according to medieval handbooks for rulers, which state that the best counsel is obtained when rulers consult their advisors without revealing their own predispositions. Maxentius’s tactics of consultation are further evidence that he is in certain respects a judicious ruler. 20.  Maxentius iterates his offer of a statue honoring Katherine in book 5, chapter 7. Though the offer is a standard ingredient in Katherine legends, Capgrave is the only author I know of to have the emperor make the offer twice. For a fascinating discussion of the statue’s significance, see Sarah Stanbury, “Knighton’s Lollards, Capgrave’s K ­ atherine, and Walter Hilton’s ‘Merk Ymage,’” in The Visual Object of Desire in Late Medieval England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 33–75. 21. Another of Cagprave’s indications that Maxentius is in certain respects an effective and responsible leader. The analogous passage in Capgrave’s probable source, the so-­called Vulgate Passio, reads, “It happened that Maxentius went away, for urgent reasons, to the uttermost bounds of the region.” The “reasons” are not disclosed. The author merely notes that the emperor returns to Alexandria “when the matters for which he had gone forth were accomplished.” “Passio sancta Katerine virginis: An English Translation of BHL 1663,” trans. Nancy Wilson Van Baak, in La festa et storia di Sancta Caterina: A Medieval Italian Religious Drama, ed. and trans. Anne Wilson Tordi (New York: Peter Lang, 1997), 274, 279. 22.  Medea, home of the Medes, was located in what is now northwestern Iran. 23.  The same argument is advanced in book 2, chapter 24. 24.  Matthew 10:17–20, Mark 13:9–11, Luke 12:11 and 21:12–15. 25.  Esther risked her life to save her people by interceding with her husband, King Ahasuerus. See Esther 4–5. 26. In leaving their books, they are reenacting Katherine’s own conversion. We are told in book 3, chapter 19 that Adrian’s “words touched her so deeply that she set aside all her books.”

Notes to the Translation, pages 121–126 189 27.  In several saints’ lives—the life of Juliana, for example—the devil appears in the guise of an angel to tempt the martyr. 28. In medieval iconography, the archangel Michael was commonly represented holding the scales alluded to here. 29. A reference to Maxentius’s attempt to break Katherine on a torture instrument consisting of revolving spiked wheels. See book 5, chapters 22–24. The famous Katherine Wheel became Katherine’s identifying emblem in medieval iconography. 30. Ulysses was commonly associated with eloquence and du­ plicity, in the tradition of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. 31.  Capgrave probably calls Katherine’s challenge “full straunge” because, as Maxentius’s prisoner, she is hardly in a position to be making deals. 32. Ovid’s Art of Love was widely known and influential during the Middle Ages. 33.  Philistion was a physician associated with the Sicilian school of medicine founded by Empedocles in the fifth century BC. 34.  John 9:39. 35.  Astenes is propounding an approach to heresy that prevailed in fifteenth-­century England. In 1401, the death penalty was instituted for heresy—hence Astenes’s earlier reference to burning Christians would have had a contemporary resonance. Stricter licensing for preachers was one of many measures taken to control the dissemination of “error.” By associating these measures with the persecutors of Christians, Capgrave may be voicing his own disapproval of the Church’s approach to religious dissent. 36.  The argument that statues of the gods are merely symbols of the actual gods and used as devotional aids resembles the argument that the Church of Capgrave’s day was using to counter those who associated devotional imagery with idolatry. The Lollard heretics were vehement in their denunciation of Church paintings and statuary, but there was also a long tradition of iconoclasm within orthodox Christianity and critics of devotional imagery in fifteenth-­century England were by no means only to be found among the heterodox. Studies of the controversy over images in late medieval England that make particular reference to Capgrave’s Katherine include Sarah Stanbury, “Knighton’s Lollards, Capgrave’s Katherine,” 33–75; Shannon Gayk, Image, Text, and Religious Reform in Fifteenth-­Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 123–54; Karen A. Winstead, John Capgrave’s Fifteenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 67–68; Kathleen Kamerick, Popular Piety and Art in the Late Middle Ages: Image

190  Notes to the Translation, pages 128–130 Worship and Idolatry in England, 1350–1500 (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 65–66; and Sarah James, “‘Doctryne and Studie’: Female Learning and Religious Debate in Capgrave’s Life of St. Katherine,” Leeds Studies in English, n.s., 30 (2005): 275–302. 37.  A possible reference to Marcus Terentius Varro, whose now-­ lost Antiquities is denounced by Augustine in his City of God (bks. 6–7) for its allegorization of the Roman gods. 38.  One of several odd self-­reflexive allusions to the verse form in which this narrative was composed. 39.  In his long treatment of the Trinity, Capgrave is expounding material that many of his clerical contemporaries considered too complex to write about in English. Making theological intricacies accessible to ordinary people might encourage error, some thought, but an informed laity might also be less trusting of clerical authority. Preserving ignorance was thus also in the self-­interest of the clergy, though a number of clergy, like Capgrave, put education above crass self-­interest. For a discussion of the doctrine of the Trinity and its development, see Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 172–225. See also Russell L. Friedman, Medieval Trinitarian Thought from Aquinas to Ockham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 40.  This discussion of the motivation for the Trinity is most unusual—unique, to my knowledge, in Middle English literature. Its probable source is chapter 3 of Augustine’s De fide et symbolo (On Faith and the Creed). 41.  Genesis 3. 42.  For a survey of the theology of the Incarnation, see Jaroslav Pelikan, The Growth of Medieval Theology (600–1300) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 106–57. 43.  On the theology that underlies this, and subsequent, discussion of Christ’s dual nature, see Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition, 226–77. 44.  For raising Lazarus, see John 11; for walking on the sea, Matthew 14:22–36, Mark 6:45–56, John 6:15–21; for calming the winds, see Matthew 8:23–27, Mark 4:35–41, Luke 8:22–25; for the Ascension, see Acts 1. 45.  Luke 24:36–43. 46.  The pronouncement of the so-­called Tiburtine Sibyl is quoted in Jacobus de Voragine’s popular Legenda aurea. See de Voragine, Golden Legend, trans. William Granger Ryan, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 2:170.

Notes to the Translation, pages 131–139 191 47.  This scholar echoes the sentiments of Sir Clamadour in book 2, chapter 19. 48. The emperor is, ironically, cursing by Christ. By [Christ’s] bones, blood, etc. were common medieval oaths, soundly denounced by moralists of the day. 49.  For more on the theology that underlies this discussion, and on the development of that theology, see Pelikan, The Growth of Medieval Theology, 106–57. 50.  Another of Capgrave’s allusions to the verse form of the life. 51.  Psalm 2:9. 52.  Psalm 82:6. 53.  A possible allusion to 1 Kings 18:19 and 22. The Phoenician god Baal was worshipped by the wayward Israelites, though these verses refer to 450 (rather than 300) prophets of Baal. 54.  On the understanding of the saints or faithful as adopted sons of God, and hence called “gods,” see Pelikan, The Growth of Medieval Theology, 55–56. To my knowledge, Capgrave’s discussion of adoption has no source or analogue in any life of Katherine. 55.  1 Kings 18:40. 56.  On the concept of noos (Greek, “mind”), see the Cosmogaphia of Bernardus Silvestris. 57.  Katherine is affirming, without exactly arguing for, the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, namely that the Virgin Mary was conceived without the original sin that became part of the human condition as a result of Adam and Eve’s fall. This doctrine was controversial but had been recently endorsed by the Council of Basle in 1439. 58.  I.e., Mary’s body. 59. Medieval poets and theologians commonly compared Mary’s conception of Jesus to the sun shining through glass. See Marina Warner, Alone of All Her Sex (New York: Knopf, 1976), 44; and Gail Mc­ Murray Gibson, The Theater of Devotion: East Anglian Drama and Society in the Late Middle Ages (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 146. 60.  A possible jab at those who felt that English was an inappropriate medium for discussing theological topics. Capgrave admits that it is hard to write about the mysteries of the faith in English—especially in verse!—but instead of curtailing his discussion of the Incarnation, as opponents of vernacular theology would have advocated, he supplements his source’s discussion of the topic. 61.  1 Chronicles 11:15–19. 62. The other three surviving manuscripts of Capgrave’s life of Katherine read, “Whoever wishes can argue [“plete” or “plod”] about it.”

192  Notes to the Translation, pages 141–148

Book 5 Katherine’s Martyrdom 1.  Five was a number charged with meaning for medieval audiences, associated, for example, with the five wounds of Christ, the five senses, the five fingers. The significances of five are elaborated in part 2 of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in the poet’s discussion of the five-­ pointed star, or pentangle, that decorates Gawain’s shield. 2.  As Capgrave explains in his prologue, the English priest died before he could complete his translation of Katherine’s life. 3.  Christ was often described as having bought humanity’s salvation through his passion. See, for example, 1 Corinthians 6:20, 2 Peter 2:1, 1 Corinthians 7:23, and 1 Peter 1:18–19. 4.  With this speech, Capgrave is asserting the importance of the sacrament of baptism, just as he had in his account of Katherine’s mystical marriage, where Christ refused to recognize the saint until she was baptized. I know of no other version of Katherine’s life that develops the issue of baptism at such length. The extended version of Katherine’s life in Middle English prose (ca. 1420) follows the widely circulated Latin “Vulgate” version in having one of the scholars say to his companions, “Shouldn’t we be renewed in the holy well of baptism before our death?”; thereupon they “all entreated the holy virgin that they might be baptized.” Chaste Passions: Medieval English Virgin Martyr Legends, ed. and trans. Karen A. Winstead (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 146. Capgrave’s extended treatment of baptism may have been intended to refute the claim, made by Lollard heretics, that the sacrament was unnecessary. 5.  In Katherine’s explanation of baptism we see that Capgrave was not merely relating a saint’s life but also instructing his readers in Christian doctrine. In the Middle English prose life of Katherine, which follows the Vulgate life, Katherine says only what is relevant to the narrative: “Don’t worry about baptism, for the shedding of your blood will count as a worthy baptism” (Chaste Passions, 146). Capgrave’s discussion of spiritual baptism, though perfectly orthodox, could have been mistaken as an endorsement of the Lollard view that faith alone was necessary. However, by including this discussion, Capgrave is actually affirming the richness and complexity of orthodox Christianity.   6.  Of course, Capgrave is not personally endorsing the burning of his protagonists but is trying to capture the spirit of euphoria that attended the prospect of a public execution.   7.  It’s interesting to speculate how readers of Capgrave’s day would have interpreted this passage. At the time, Lollards were decrying the

Notes to the Translation, pages 150–162 193 use of church statuary and other visual representations of Christ and the saints as tantamount to idolatry; that view also had a following among orthodox Catholics (including, most probably, Capgrave). Maxentius is essentially offering to make a devotional image of Katherine, and ­Katherine sneers at his offer. As Kathleen Kamerick aptly puts it, “Capgrave’s St. Katharine resoundingly rejects the standard defenses of holy images, and cleverly has a saint declaring her own image to be worthless.” Popular Piety and Art in the Late Middle Ages: Image Worship and Idolatry in England, 1350–1500 (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 6.   8.  According to Lisa Kiser, “Almost every court of any size in the Middle Ages had at least one bear in residence (and a lion, of course, too). Bears were kept chained to stakes, usually in a pit—and sometimes they were blinded so that they would be easier to care for. They were also muzzled. We have records for expenditures, at various courts, for chains and muzzles. Bears and lions were symbolic of courtly power and were often just displayed in parades to underscore aristocratic ‘specialness.’ Not every court bear was baited, but a good many of them were, especially if the owner took a liking for blood sports.” I thank Professor Kiser for this information.   9.  I.e., in his capacity as sun god. 10.  The Middle English reads “host,” which means not only “sacrifice” but the eucharistic bread. 11. Capgrave contrasts the emperor’s treatment of Katherine, “against rightful law,” with his attention to affairs of state—again under­scoring that the emperor is not altogether villainous. 12.  I.e., the devil. 13.  In Bel and the Dragon, which appears among the Apocrypha in the Revised Standard Version and as Daniel 14 in the Vulgate Bible, an angel flies the prophet Habakkuk, bearing food, to Daniel in the lions’ den. 14.  Caroline Walker Bynum discusses medieval views of bodily resurrection in her Resurrection of the Body in Western Christianity, 200–1336 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). 15.  I.e., suicide is a sin. 16.  I.e., Christ. 17.  Jacobus de Voragine recounts Constantine’s baptism and victory over Maxentius in his Golden Legend ’s account of the discovery of Christ’s cross. A popular Middle English version of the tale occurs in Gower’s Confessio Amantis (bk. 2, lines 3187–496). 18.  Anthony Black discusses the analogy between society and the body, with the king as head, in Political Thought in Europe, 1250–1450 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 14–18. 19.  A corpse’s failure to decay was considered a sign of sanctity.

194  Notes to the Translation, pages 164–176 20. Robin and John are generic names—the equivalent to the modern “Tom, Dick, and Harry.” 21.  Daniel 3. 22.  Tearing a saint’s breasts or nipples off is a common torture in virgin martyr legends. However, I know of no analogues, in saints’ legends or in other documents, for tying somebody to a pole and striking off their head—except in the Book of Margery Kempe (chap. 43), where Kempe says that it is the kind of martyrdom that she, being something of a coward, would be willing to suffer for Christ’s sake. 23.  Perhaps an allusion to her lack of baptism. 24. The fall of the city of Troy to the Greek army was relayed in classical and medieval epics. Some accounts attribute Troy’s fall to treason. 25.  I.e., Jesus, the “lamb of God.” 26.  Katherine is referring to the seven planets of astrology, or of the classical world: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury, the sun, and the moon. 27. On Katherine’s association with Mount Sinai, see prologue, note 9. 28.  Galatians 4:24–25. 29. For a fascinating account of one Westerner’s pilgrimage to Sinai, see The Wanderings of Felix Fabri, trans. Aubrey Stewart, 2 vols. (1887–89; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1971). Fabri’s adventures en route to Katherine’s shrine formed the basis for Sheri Holman’s novel A Stolen Tongue (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997). 30.  Capgrave’s disclaimer is unusual for a saint’s life. Indeed, the scribe of one of the four surviving manuscripts, British Library MS Arundel 20, replaced that disclaimer with a more conventional invocation of Katherine’s blessing on himself and his readers. The same scribe tidied up Capgrave’s text in other ways, too: he omitted the complex prologue and ended book 4 with the execution of the scholars rather than in the middle of the scholars episode.

Appendix

The following passages provide a sample of Capgrave’s Middle English, with literal, line-by-line translations into modern English on facing pages. These passages, from the major debates in The Life of Saint Katherine, illustrate two very different facets of Capgrave’s style. The first selection, from book 2, is Katherine’s final response in the marriage parliament, wherein she describes the only type of man she will marry. Such a description of the perfect spouse occurs in many lives of Katherine, but in other lives her declaration manifests her yearning for the yet unknown Christ. Capgrave’s Katherine, however, is a rhetorical prodigy who thinks to checkmate her opponents by turning their flattery into grounds for insisting on an impossibly splendid mate. She heaps stipulation upon extravagant stipulation, never dreaming that she is describing someone who actually exists. The second selection is part of Katherine’s debate with the fifty scholars in book 4. One scholar has just challenged Katherine to defend her monotheism in light of an Old Testament reference to gods. ­Katherine’s response illustrates Capgrave’s extraordinary willingness to tackle arcane points of doctrine in Middle English verse aimed at a ­general audience. To my knowledge, his discussion of the adoption of saints and faithful as “gods” has no source or analogue in any life of Katherine.

195

196  Appendix I. Book 2, Chapter 33, Lines 1373– 456 (See pp. 67–68) Than answerd sone that swete gracyous wyght, And to this mayster sche seyd thus ageyn: “Youre commendacyoun whech ye dyd endyth, If it be soth as ye sayd, plat and pleyn, Schall cause me, there is no more to seyn, To plese that lord with all hert and mynde, That in his gyftis hath be to me so kynde “And sent me graces whech othir women want. Ye seyd efte for that I am so fayre And eke so wys and rych as ye warant, Therfore me must purpos to have a ayre, To chese an husbond, good and debonayre. Avyse yow, syre, what that ye have sayde: We wyll not lyght lowere than ye us layde. “Ye have sett oure loos above so hye We pase all women that now formed are. And on youre grounde ageyn I thus replye: I wold know to me who that worthy ware. This is your argument, this is your owne lare, That I am worthyest lyvyng of all women; Than must I hafe the worthyest of all men. “It folowyth full evene ryght of your tale, If ye take heed. I pray yow, where dwellyth he, So wyse, so fayre, so rych, withouten bale, And of swech lynage born as we be? But if ye fynde swech on, ye may leve me, I wyll non haf; therfore, loke well aboute— The more ye plete, the more ye stand in doute. “But ye wyll wyte allgate what I desyre; I schall dyscryve myn husbond whom I wyll hafe. Above all lordes he must be withoute pere, Whom he wyll to spylle or elles to save; He must be stable and nevyr turn ne wave Fro noo purpos that he set him on. But he be swech, husbond schall he be none

Appendix 197

I. From Book 2. Conclusion of the Marriage Parliament Then that sweet, gracious person answered And replied to this scholar: “The commendation that you gave, If it is true, as you said, flat and plain, Will cause me, there’s no more to say, To please that lord with all heart and mind Who has been so kind in his gifts to me “And sent me graces that other women lack. You just said that because I am so fair, And also so wise and rich as you declare, I must therefore resolve to have an heir, To choose a husband, good and debonair. Consider, sir, what you have said: We will not settle lower than you placed us. “You have set our reputation so high We surpass all women that are formed now. And I answer you thus on your terms: I want to know who is worthy of me. This is your argument, this is your own pronouncement, That I am the worthiest woman alive; Then I must have the worthiest of all men. “It follows directly from your speech, If you notice. I ask you, where does he live, [The man] so wise, so fair, so rich, without flaw, And born of such a lineage as we are? Unless you find such a one, believe me, I will have no one; therefore, look around well— The more you argue, the more you stand in doubt. “But you will know, anyway, what I desire; I shall describe my husband whom I will have. Above all lords, he must be without peer, [Able to] destroy or else to save whomever he wishes; He must be stable and never turn nor waver From any purpose that he resolved on. Unless he is such a one, he shall be no husband

198  Appendix “As onto us, whom ye hafe so commended. He must be wyse alsoo that he knowe alle, Every thing, that it may be amendyd And reryd ageyn or it fully falle. If there be swech on, receyve him sone we schall, And ellys, sekyr, we wyll have husbond none. Loke well aboute if ye can fynd swych on! “Ferthermore, yet must he have swech might That him nedyth no help of no creature, But he himself be suffycyent to do the ryght; And evyr his myght demened with mesure. If that ye wyll swech on me ensure, I wyll him hafe; I schall nevyr sey nay. Herkenyth also more what I wyll say: “I wold eke that he schuld be so rych That him neded not of othir mennys goode. No lorde in erthe I wold have him lych. I desyre eke he schuld be so large of goode, Fre of hert, and manfull eke of moode That what man onys asked him any thing, schuld hem graunte more than her askyng. “He must be fayre also, he whom I desyre, So fayre and amyable that he must pase me, For syth he schall to me be lord and syre, It is good resoun that his schynyng ble Pase hir coloure whech schall his servaunt be And onto his lordchype bothe servaunt, spouse, and wyffe. Ferthermore, yet schall this lordes lyffe “Be eterne—elles all this is nowte, All that is sayd, but he have this— For syth he schall with so gret labour be sowte, As me semeth, the game went sore amys Whan all were well and all in joye and blys Sodenly to fayle and falle fro swech welth. Therfor, I tell yow, I dysyre that his helthe,

Appendix 199 “To us, whom you have so commended. He must be so wise also that he knows all, How to fix everything And raise it back up before it falls completely down. If there be such a one, we shall accept him quickly, And if not, certainly, we will have no husband. Look about well whether you can find such a one! “Furthermore, he must also have such might That he needs the help of no creature, But he himself must be sufficient to do right; Yet always his might [must be] employed in moderation. If you will assure me of such a one I will have him; I shall never say no. Listen to what else I will say: “I also want him to be so rich That he doesn’t need other people’s goods. I would have him be like no lord on earth. I desire that he be so rich in goods, Generous of heart, and manly of spirit That if anyone asks him for anything He will give them more than they ask for. “He must also be fair, he whom I desire, So fair and pleasing that he must surpass me, For since he shall be my lord and sire, It makes sense that his shining hue Should surpass the color of the one who shall be his servant And both servant, spouse, and wife unto his lordship. Furthermore, this lord’s life shall “Be eternal—or else all this is for nothing, All that is said, unless he has this— For since he shall be sought with such labor It seems to me that matters would go badly wrong When everything were well and all in joy and happiness Suddenly to fail and fall from such wealth. Therefore, I tell you, I want his health,

200  Appendix “His age, his strength, that all these fayl nevyr But evermore lest, for sorow that it wold make To me, whech tyme that we schuld dyssevyr, For other lord wold I nevyrmore take, But wepe and morne all in clothys blake. Therfor ye schull me warant he schall not deye, This lord to whom ye wold me newe alye. “And than consent I to all that evyr ye crave— Elles nowt. Wene ye that I wold fare As many other do, and have as thei have, Lych to my modyr, the sorow, the wo, the care, Whech sche had whan thei departed ware, My lord, my fadyr, and eke my lady, asundyr? That I fle this, me thinkyth it is no wondyr!”

II. Book 4, Chapter 31, Lines 2010–50 (See pp. 134–35) “Ye must conceyve, sere,” seyd the mayde, “That oure Scripture in his mysty speche Hath many figures, if thei be assayde. Oure lord God is sumtyme callyd a leche, Sumtyme a justise and full of wreche, Sumtyme a fader all ful of love. Swech sundry predicates1 in him wil prove

1. “Predicate” is a technical term in logic, meaning that which is asserted about a subject, that is, the Y in “X is a Y.” Here, God is X and “doctor,” “judge,” and “father” are the predicates. The Oxford English Dictionary cites this passage from Capgrave as the earliest known use of the term in English.

Appendix 201 “His age, his strength, all these things never to fail But to last forever, because of the sorrow that it would cause Me, at the time we would be parted, For I would never take another lord, But rather weep and mourn all [dressed] in black clothes. Therefore you shall guarantee that he shall not die, This lord to whom you would newly ally me. “Then I would consent to everything you ask— Otherwise, not. Do you think I want to do As many others do, and have, as they have, Like my mother, the sorrow, the woe, the care, Which she had when they were parted, My lord, my father, and my lady, from each other? I think it’s no wonder that I flee this!”

II. From Book 4. Katherine Interprets Scripture “You must understand, sir,” said the maiden, “That our Scripture, in its figurative language, Has many metaphors, if they be examined. Our lord God is sometimes called a doctor, Sometimes a judge full of wrath, Sometimes a father full of love. Such varied predicates are meant to establish

202  Appendix “The sundry effectis that in him be. Wherfor I telle you, ser, if ye wil here, Of oure feyth a ful grete verité. Ye may considre now and ye wil lere, Goddes are there non ne nevyr more were But on alone, whech made erde and hevene, Hayle, reyne, wynd, thundir, and levene. “And be nature is he God regnyng thus alone, But yet of his godnes he hath to him chose Certeyn personys to dwelle in his wone; Thoo calleth he goddes, as I suppose. This that I sey now is no fals glose But folowith of the texte, if ye take hede. For there that ye now on this wise gan rede: “‘I sey ye be goddis,’ there folowith thus, ‘And sones of him that syttith hyest.’ This is a grete distinction, ser, amongis us Of nature and adopcion, whech is the best: Adopcion we sey is but as a gest, For he is chose in rith be fre will; But naturall regnyng hath a hier skyll, “For who so regnyth naturaly in ony place, He may not be put oute but he have wrong, And he that chosyn is, he comth in be grace. Myn answere wil I bregge and make not longe, For catch now this conceyt and in youre wit it fong: That naturaly God regneth al alone Whech of his goodnesse hath called to his trone “Certeyn folkis rith of his good grace, Whech goddis we calle because thei have blys: Thus ar thei with him evyr and se his face, Regne ther in joy whech may nevyr mysse— There are thei tretyd rith as childirn his. This is the entent of that auctorité.

Appendix 203 “The various essences that are in him. Therefore I tell you, sir, if you will hear, A great truth about our faith. Consider now, and you will learn That there are not, and never were, any gods But one, who made earth and heaven, Hail, rain, wind, thunder, and lightning. “And he is by nature God reigning thus alone, But yet in his goodness he has chosen to himself Certain persons to dwell in his home; Those he calls gods, as I suppose. What I am saying now is no false interpretation But follows from the text, if you pay attention: For where you just started reading like this: “‘I say you are gods,’ it continues thus: ‘And sons of him who sits highest.’ This is a great distinction, sir, among us, Between nature and adoption, which is best: We say adoption is merely like [being] a guest Because one is chosen in fact freely; But natural lordship has a higher claim, “For whoever reigns naturally somewhere May not be ousted without doing him wrong, While he who is chosen comes in by permission. I will abridge my answer and not make it long. Seize this idea and grasp it in your mind: That God reigns naturally all alone Who in his goodness has called to his throne “Certain people by his good grace Whom we call gods because they are in bliss: They are with him always and see his face, Reign there in joy that may never end— There they are treated just as his children. This is the meaning of that authority.”