Leviticus-Numbers 1573128147, 9781573128148

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leviticusnumbers

Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary: Leviticus-Numbers Publication Staff President & CEO Cecil P. Staton Publisher & Executive Vice-President David Cassady Vice-President, Editorial Lex Horton Senior Editor Mark K. McElroy Book Editor P. Keith Gammons Art Director Barclay Burns Assistant Editors Kelley Land Leslie Andres

Smyth & Helwys Publishing, Inc. 6316 Peake Road Macon, Georgia 31210-3960 1-800-747-3016 © 2005 by Smyth & Helwys Publishing All rights reserved. ISBN 978-1-57312-814-8

SMYTH & HELWYS BIBLE COMMENTARY

leviticusnumbers Lloyd R. Bailey

PROJECT EDITOR R. SCOTT NASH Mercer University Macon, Georgia

OLD TESTAMENT GENERAL EDITOR SAMUEL E. BALENTINE Union Theological Seminary and Presbyterian School of Christian Education

NEW TESTAMENT GENERAL EDITOR R. ALAN CULPEPPER McAfee School of Theology Mercer University Atlanta, Georgia

Richmond, Virginia

OLD TESTAMENT EDITORS MARK E. BIDDLE Baptist Theological Seminary at Richmond, Virginia

AREA NEW TESTAMENT EDITORS R. SCOTT NASH Mercer University Macon, Georgia

KANDY QUEEN-SUTHERLAND Stetson University Deland, Florida

RICHARD B. VINSON Baptist Theological Seminary at Richmond, Virginia

AREA

KENNETH G. HOGLUND Wake Forest University Winston-Salem, North Carolina ART EDITOR FRED WHITEHURST Georgia State University Atlanta, Georgia

advance praise In his volume on Leviticus and Numbers, Lloyd Bailey reacquaints the reader with a powerful, yet often ignored, theological voice within the biblical canon. Bailey moves deftly through the contributions of contemporary research incorporating the information necessary for a well-reasoned reading of the biblical text. Perhaps more significant, however, is Bailey's theological sensitivity to the text and the issues raised therein. For those yearning to read the biblical text in all of its richness, I heartily recommend this volume. W. Dennis Tucker, Jr. Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies Truett Theological Seminary Baylor University Leviticus and Numbers are part of the Torah, the most sacred scriptures in Jewish religious life. And yet they are virtually neglected in Christian life, viewed as books full of archaic "rules and regulations"—and, well okay, a few good stories in Numbers. But nothing is farther from the truth. In this new Smyth & Helwys commentary, Lloyd Bailey demonstrates in an engaging way the relevance of these books for today's Christian community. He reminds us that the heart of the book of Leviticus is how to live as God's holy people and that the essence of the book of Numbers is how to live as God's holy people in the journey to which we are called. Bailey's commentary will make a valuable contribution to the church's understanding of these formative books. Nancy L. deClaissé-Walford Associate Professor of Old Testament and Biblical Languages McAfee School of Theology at Mercer University

Lloyd R. Bailey delivers an outstanding commentary on the biblical materials of Leviticus and Numbers for the new Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary series. Bailey’s acute writing style combined with the breadth of his scholarship make this volume a fine addition for any theological library. For those with limited resources regarding the purchasing of books, this volume provides an excellent source of information. For those with greater resources, this volume adds a wealth of insight and knowledge for the serious student of the Bible. Bailey’s vast experience in the field of biblical studies shines through on every page including his knowledge of early Israelite Religion and early Judaism. This volume is a treasure. H. Wayne Ballard, Jr. Associate Professor of Religion/Hebrew Language Carson-Newman College For those who love Leviticus and Numbers and for those who look right past these gems of Hebrew scripture, Bailey’s commentary is a welcome volume. Unlike many Baptist pastors, I have enjoyed preaching and teaching from these books. Finding commentaries, however, which are faithful to Judaic tradition and concurrently relevant for Christian application has been difficult. Bailey succeeds! Bailey does not create a metaphorical metamorphosis of the text – finding Jesus behind every verse. Rather, he shows great respect for the Jewish nature of these documents and credibly allows them to speak to modern faith contexts including Christianity. Scholars, preachers and casual readers, who just want to know more about these oft ignored texts, will not be disappointed. Bailey’s commentary is readable, usable, insightful and deserves a place on every Bible student's bookshelf. James Dant Pastor, Highland Hills Baptist Church Macon, Georgia

Contents

Leviticus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

INTRODUCTION Guidelines for the Nonscheduled Sacrifices: An Overview Instructions to the Laity Concerning Spontaneous Sacrifice Instructions to the Laity Concerning Mandatory, But Nonscheduled, Sacrifices Supplementary Instructions Directed (Mostly) to the Priests Final Thoughts on Interpreting Leviticus 1–7 Inauguration of the Sanctuary Service Guidelines Concerning “Impurity”: An Overview Problematic Animals Regulations Concerning Childbirth Surface Irregularities Regulations Concerning Genital Secretions Regulations Concerning Purgation of the Temple From Priestly Code to Holiness Code: An Overview Slaughter of Food-animals and Consumption of Blood Distinctiveness from the Canaanites Guidelines for Priestly Holiness Scheduled (Calendric) Convocations Miscellaneous Guidelines Sabbatical and Jubilee Years Concluding Exhortation on Obedience Gifts to the Sanctuary APPENDIX A: ANIMAL SACRIFICE APPENDIX B: READING LEVITICUS IN THE PRESENT

Lev 1:1–7:38 Lev 1:1–3:17 Lev 4:1–6:7 Lev 6:8–7:38 Lev 1–7 Lev 8:1–10:20 Lev 11:1–16:34 Lev 11:1-47 Lev 12:1-8 Lev 13:1–14:57 Lev 15:1-33 Lev 16:1-34 Lev 17:1–26:46 Lev 17:1-16 Lev 18:1–20:27 Lev 21:1–22:33 Lev 23:1-44 Lev 24:1-23 Lev 25:1-55 Lev 26:1-46 Lev 27:1-34

1 39 43 67 83 93 101 123 129 155 165 179 191 197 207 217 267 277 289 299 311 319 327 335

Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

INTRODUCTION Preparation for the March to Canaan: An Overview Universal Military Conscription: Census of Soldiery in Case of Military Opposition Marching Orders: Geographical Arrangement of the Camp “The Chaplaincy”: Priestly and Levitical Duties Cultic Readiness of the Camp Provision for Initiation of Cultic Service Final Preparation for Departure The Journey from Sinai to the Borders of the “Promised Land”: An Overview Getting Under Way Complaints and Strife along the Way Reconnaissance in the Land of Canaan Cultic Supplements and Reminders A Rebellion Co-opted Review of Duties for Priests and Levites Difficulties in the Wilderness of Zin From Kadesh to the Plains of Moab Events at the Border of the “Promised Land”: An Overview Premonitions of Success: The Oracles of Balaam One Last Fling in the Wilderness Like the Stars of Heaven Succession in Property and Leadership An Annual Liturgical Calendar Regulations Concerning Vows, and Especially by Women The War with Midian A Squabble about Tribal Allocation A Review of the Wilderness Itinerary Final Regulations Concerning Allocation of Land BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR

LEVITICUS-NUMBERS

LEVITICUS-NUMBERS LEVITICUS INDEX OF SIDEBARS FOR NUMBERS INDEX OF SCRIPTURES FOR LEVITICUS INDEX OF SCRIPTURES FOR NUMBERS INDEX OF TOPICS FOR LEVITICUS-NUMBERS INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS FOR INDEX OF SIDEBARS FOR

Num 1:1–10:10 Num 1:1-54

349 375 377

Num 2:1-34 Num 3:1–4:49 Num 5:1–6:27 Num 7:1–8:26 Num 9:1–10:10 Num 10:11–22:1

395 401 413 429 437 443

Num 10:11-36 Num 11:1–12:16 Num 13:1–14:45 Num 15:1-41 Num 16:1–17:13 Num 18:1–19:22 Num 20:1-21 Num 20:22–22:1 Num 22:2–36:13 Num 22:1–24:25 Num 25:1-18 Num 26:1-65 Num 27:1-11 Num 28:1–29:40 Num 30:1-16 Num 31:1-54 Num 32:1-42 Num 33:1-56 Num 34:1–36:13

449 457 465 473 479 489 497 505 521 523 535 547 553 561 573 579 587 595 601 615 623 627 631 633 637 645

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS COMMENTARY Books of the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testament are generally abbreviated in the Sidebars, parenthetical references, and notes according to the following system. The Old Testament Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1–2 Samuel 1–2 Kings 1–2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Job Psalm (Psalms) Proverbs Ecclesiastes or Qoheleth Song of Solomon or Song of Songs or Canticles Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah

Gen Exod Lev Num Deut Josh Judg Ruth 1–2 Sam 1–2 Kgs 1–2 Chr Ezra Neh Esth Job Ps (Pss) Prov Eccl Qoh Song Song Cant Isa Jer Lam Ezek Dan Hos Joel Amos Obad Jonah Mic Nah Hab Zeph Hag Zech

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Abbreviations Malachi

Mal

The Apocrypha 1–2 Esdras Tobit Judith Additions to Esther Wisdom of Solomon Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach Baruch Epistle (or Letter) of Jeremiah Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Daniel and Susanna Daniel, Bel, and the Dragon Prayer of Manasseh 1–4 Maccabees

1–2 Esdr Tob Jdt Add Esth Wis Sir Bar Ep Jer Pr Azar Sus Bel Pr Man 1–4 Macc

The New Testament Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Romans 1–2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1–2 Thessalonians 1–2 Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James 1–2 Peter 1–2–3 John Jude Revelation

Matt Mark Luke John Acts Rom 1–2 Cor Gal Eph Phil Col 1–2 Thess 1–2 Tim Titus Phlm Heb Jas 1–2 Pet 1–2–3 John Jude Rev

Other commonly used abbreviations include: AD Anno Domini (“in the year of the Lord”) (also commonly referred to as CE = the Common Era)

Abbreviations BC Before Christ (also commonly referred to as BCE = Before the Common Era) C. century c. circa (around “that time”) cf. confer (compare) ch. chapter chs. chapters d. died ed. edition or edited by or editor eds. editors e.g. exempli gratia (for example) et al. et alii (and others) f./ff. and the following one(s) gen. ed. general editor ibid. ibidem (in the same place) i.e. id est (that is) lit. literally n.d. no date rev. and exp. ed. revised and expanded edition sg. singular trans. translated by or translator(s) vol(s). volume(s) v. verse vv. verses

Selected additional works cited by abbreviations include: AB ANEP ANET ASTI BA CBQ CHB D E ErIsr H Hev HUCA IB IDB IDBSup Int

Anchor Bible The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 2nd Edition. Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute Biblical Archaeologist Catholic Biblical Quarterly The Cambridge History of the Bible Deuteronomist (Pentateuchal Source) Elohist (Pentateuchal Source) Eretz-Israel Holiness Code (Pentateuchal Source) Nahal Hever Hebrew Union College Annual Interpreter’s Bible Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume Interpretation

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Abbreviations IO-VCB J JAAR JAOS JB JBL JEA JPS JSOT JSS JSSR KJV LXX MT Mur NEB NIB NJB NJV NovT NRSV NTS Or P PEQ Q RB RR RSV Se SP TEV VT ZAW ZLThK

The Interpreter’s One-volume Commentary on the Bible Yahwist (Pentateuchal Source) Journal of the American Academy of Religion Journal of the American Oriental Society Jerusalem Bible Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Jewish Publication Society Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal of Semitic Studies Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion King James Version Septuagint Masoretic Text Wadi Murabba’at New English Bible The New Interpreter’s Bible New Jerusalem Bible New Jewish Version Novum Testamentum New Revised Standard Version New Testament Studies Orientalia (NS) Priestly Qumran (Pentateuchal Source) Palestine Exploration Quarterly Qumran Revue biblique Review of Religion Revised Standard Version Nahal Se’elim Samaritan Pentateuch Today’s English Version Vetus Testamentum Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Lutherische Theologie und Kirche

Author’s Preface I have not presumed that the average reader of this volume will have ready access to scholarly volumes and technical journals. Consequently, reference to them is kept to a minimum. Therefore, footnotes and other suggestions have usually directed the reader to such aids as may be found in public and church libraries (and to The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible and its Supplementary Volume in particular). Unlike the usual commentary that expresses contemporizations in general and abstract terms, those in the present volume (entitled “Connections”) are often personal and derived from the author’s life and observations concerning self, human beings in general, and Protestant Christians in particular. The portrait is not always a flattering one. Gratitude is hereby expressed to several grants that, long ago, helped to make my education possible: the Edward John Noble Fellowship (1958-61, Duke Divinity School), the Lefkowitz Interfaith Fellowship (1962-65, Hebrew Union College–Jewish Institute of Religion), the Clarence Workum Interfaith Fellowship (1966-67, HUC–JIR), and the National Defense Foreign Language Fellowship, Arabic (1965-66, Hebrew University, Jerusalem). This volume is dedicated to the memory of the best example of Christianity that I have ever known (my grandfather, Ancil Bailey), to the memory of my blameless father (Glen Bailey), and to the memory of my grandson, Wesley John Bailey, who died at the age of two months. Mention should also be made of the great blessing that has been bestowed upon me in the person of my wife, Judith Ann Long. Lloyd R. Bailey Easter, 2005

SERIES PREFACE The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is a visually stimulating and user-friendly series that is as close to multimedia in print as possible. Written by accomplished scholars with all students of Scripture in mind, the primary goal of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is to make available serious, credible biblical scholarship in an accessible and less intimidating format. Far too many Bible commentaries fall short of bridging the gap between the insights of biblical scholars and the needs of students of God’s written word. In an unprecedented way, the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary brings insightful commentary to bear on the lives of contemporary Christians. Using a multimedia format, the volumes employ a stunning array of art, photographs, maps, and drawings to illustrate the truths of the Bible for a visual generation of believers. The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is built upon the idea that meaningful Bible study can occur when the insights of contemporary biblical scholars blend with sensitivity to the needs of lifelong students of Scripture. Some persons within local faith communities, however, struggle with potentially informative biblical scholarship for several reasons. Oftentimes, such scholarship is cast in technical language easily grasped by other scholars, but not by the general reader. For example, lengthy, technical discussions on every detail of a particular scriptural text can hinder the quest for a clear grasp of the whole. Also, the format for presenting scholarly insights has often been confusing to the general reader, rendering the work less than helpful. Unfortunately, responses to the hurdles of reading extensive commentaries have led some publishers to produce works for a general readership that merely skim the surface of the rich resources of biblical scholarship. This commentary series incorporates works of fine art in an accurate and scholarly manner, yet the format remains “user-friendly.” An important facet is the presentation and explanation of images of art, which interpret the biblical material or illustrate how the biblical material has been understood and interpreted in the past. A visual generation of believers deserves a commentary series that contains not only the all-important textual commentary on Scripture, but images, photographs, maps, works of fine art, and drawings that bring the text to life.

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The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary makes serious, credible biblical scholarship more accessible to a wider audience. Writers and editors alike present information in ways that encourage readers to gain a better understanding of the Bible. The editorial board has worked to develop a format that is useful and usable, informative and pleasing to the eye. Our writers are reputable scholars who participate in the community of faith and sense a calling to communicate the results of their scholarship to their faith community. The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary addresses Christians and the larger church. While both respect for and sensitivity to the needs and contributions of other faith communities are reflected in the work of the series authors, the authors speak primarily to Christians. Thus the reader can note a confessional tone throughout the volumes. No particular “confession of faith” guides the authors, and diverse perspectives are observed in the various volumes. Each writer, though, brings to the biblical text the best scholarly tools available and expresses the results of their studies in commentary and visuals that assist readers seeking a word from the Lord for the church. To accomplish this goal, writers in this series have drawn from numerous streams in the rich tradition of biblical interpretation. The basic focus is the biblical text itself, and considerable attention is given to the wording and structure of texts. Each particular text, however, is also considered in the light of the entire canon of Christian Scriptures. Beyond this, attention is given to the cultural context of the biblical writings. Information from archaeology, ancient history, geography, comparative literature, history of religions, politics, sociology, and even economics is used to illuminate the culture of the people who produced the Bible. In addition, the writers have drawn from the history of interpretation, not only as it is found in traditional commentary on the Bible but also in literature, theater, church history, and the visual arts. Finally, the Commentary on Scripture is joined with Connections to the world of the contemporary church. Here again, the writers draw on scholarship in many fields as well as relevant issues in the popular culture. This wealth of information might easily overwhelm a reader if not presented in a “user-friendly” format. Thus the heavier discussions of detail and the treatments of other helpful topics are presented in special-interest boxes, or Sidebars, clearly connected to the passages under discussion so as not to interrupt the flow of the basic interpretation. The result is a commentary on Scripture that

Series Preface

focuses on the theological significance of a text while also offering the reader a rich array of additional information related to the text and its interpretation. An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching and research tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are all reproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing a text version with a digital resource is a distinctive feature of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary. Combining credible biblical scholarship, user-friendly study features, and sensitivity to the needs of a visually oriented generation of believers creates a unique and unprecedented type of commentary series. With insight from many of today’s finest biblical scholars and a stunning visual format, it is our hope that the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary will be a welcome addition to the personal libraries of all students of Scripture. The Editors

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HOW TO USE THIS COMMENTARY The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is written by accomplished biblical scholars with a wide array of readers in mind. Whether engaged in the study of Scripture in a church setting or in a college or seminary classroom, all students of the Bible will find a number of useful features throughout the commentary that are helpful for interpreting the Bible. Basic Design of the Volumes

Each volume features an Introduction to a particular book of the Bible, providing a brief guide to information that is necessary for reading and interpreting the text: the historical setting, literary design, and theological significance. Each Introduction also includes a comprehensive outline of the particular book under study. Each chapter of the commentary investigates the text according to logical divisions in a particular book of the Bible. Sometimes these divisions follow the traditional chapter segmentation, while at other times the textual units consist of sections of chapters or portions of more than one chapter. The divisions reflect the literary structure of a book and offer a guide for selecting passages that are useful in preaching and teaching. An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching and research tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are all reproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing a text version with a digital resource also allows unprecedented flexibility and freedom for the reader. Carry the text version to locations you most enjoy doing research while knowing that the CD offers a portable alternative for travel from the office, church, classroom, and your home. Commentary and Connections

As each chapter explores a textual unit, the discussion centers around two basic sections: Commentary and Connections. The analysis of a passage, including the details of its language, the history reflected in the text, and the literary forms found in the text, are the main focus

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of the Commentary section. The primary concern of the Commentary section is to explore the theological issues presented by the Scripture passage. Connections presents potential applications of the insights provided in the Commentary section. The Connections portion of each chapter considers what issues are relevant for teaching and suggests useful methods and resources. Connections also identifies themes suitable for sermon planning and suggests helpful approaches for preaching on the Scripture text. Sidebars

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary provides a unique hyperlink format that quickly guides the reader to additional insights. Since other more technical or supplementary information is vital for understanding a text and its implications, the volumes feature distinctive Sidebars, or special-interest boxes, that provide a wealth of information on such matters as: • Historical information (such as chronological charts, lists of kings or rulers, maps, descriptions of monetary systems, descriptions of special groups, descriptions of archaeological sites or geographical settings). • Graphic outlines of literary structure (including such items as poetry, chiasm, repetition, epistolary form). • Definition or brief discussions of technical or theological terms and issues. • Insightful quotations that are not integrated into the running text but are relevant to the passage under discussion. • Notes on the history of interpretation (Augustine on the Good Samaritan, Luther on James, Stendahl on Romans, etc.). • Line drawings, photographs, and other illustrations relevant for understanding the historical context or interpretive significance of the text. • Presentation and discussion of works of fine art that have interpreted a Scripture passage.

How to Use This Commentary

Each Sidebar is printed in color and is referenced at the appropriate place in the Commentary or Connections section with a color-coded title that directs the reader to the relevant Sidebar. In addition, helpful icons appear in the Sidebars, which provide the reader with visual cues to the type of material that is explained in each Sidebar. Throughout the commentary, these four distinct hyperlinks provide useful links in an easily recognizable design.

Alpha & Omega Language

This icon identifies the information as a language-based tool that offers further exploration of the Scripture selection. This could include syntactical information, word studies, popular or additional uses of the word(s) in question, additional contexts in which the term appears, and the history of the term’s translation. All nonEnglish terms are transliterated into the appropriate English characters.

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This icon introduces further comment on contextual or cultural details that shed light on the Scripture selection. Describing the place and time to which a Scripture passage refers is often vital to the task of biblical interpretation. Sidebar items introduced with this icon could include geographical, historical, political, social, topographical, or economic information. Here, the reader may find an excerpt of an ancient text or inscription that sheds light on the text. Or one may find a description of some element of ancient religion such as Baalism in Canaan or the Hero cult in the Mystery Religions of the Greco-Roman world.

Interpretation

Sidebars that appear under this icon serve a general interpretive function in terms of both historical and contemporary renderings. Under this heading, the reader might find a selection from classic or contemporary literature that illuminates the Scripture text or a significant quotation from a famous sermon that addresses the passage. Insights are drawn from various sources, including literature, worship, theater, church history, and sociology.

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Additional Resources Study

Here, the reader finds a convenient list of useful resources for further investigation of the selected Scripture text, including books, journals, websites, special collections, organizations, and societies. Specialized discussions of works not often associated with biblical studies may also appear here. Additional Features

Each volume also includes a basic Bibliography on the biblical book under study. Other bibliographies on selected issues are often included that point the reader to other helpful resources. Notes at the end of each chapter provide full documentation of sources used and contain additional discussions of related matters. Abbreviations used in each volume are explained in a list of abbreviations found after the Table of Contents. Readers of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary can regularly visit the Internet support site for news, information, updates, and enhancements to the series at . Several thorough indexes enable the reader to locate information quickly. These indexes include: • An Index of Sidebars groups content from the special-interest boxes by category (maps, fine art, photographs, drawings, etc.). • An Index of Scriptures lists citations to particular biblical texts. • An Index of Topics lists alphabetically the major subjects, names, topics, and locations referenced or discussed in the volume. • An Index of Modern Authors organizes contemporary authors whose works are cited in the volume.

leviticus

Introduction “LEVITICUS: Why bother with it? No one reads this stuff anyway!” Thus wrote one of my research assistants on the introductory card of my “Leviticus File” as he prepared a Scripture index to periodical literature for me. The remark was made in jest, given the student’s knowledge of my appreciation for the book of Leviticus.1 Nonetheless, his remark reflects a common attitude toward this book in the modern church. The contrast in appreciation of Leviticus by the synagogue on the one hand, and by the church on the other, is little short of astonishing. The former has considered it Allegory crucial to an understanding of God and of Allegorical interpretation proposes that the nature of the “chosen people” (Israel). the basic elements of a text are symbols The latter has, at best, usually reduced it of a deeper lesson. For example, Pope Gregory to allegory [Allegory], and has at worst the Great (AD 590–604), speaking of the requiresometimes regarded it as irrelevant and ment that even the sacrificial animal’s tail be included (Lev 3:9), is of the opinion that this misguided, or as a mere historical record reminds the reader that the perfect offering to of Israelite religion that paved the way for God is one which “carries out the sacrifice of a the “true” faith. good work to its due completion” (Homily 25, as The political and religious tensions that quoted in Joseph T. Lienhard [ed.], Ancient arose between these two branches of the Christian Commentary on Scripture 3, Old biblical faith (synagogue and church), Testament [Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2001], 166). beginning in the first century of the common era, contributed to the mentality that the two entities were not only separate but also irreconcilable.2 The break, everywhere complete by the fourth century, has remained to the present day. Leviticus: A Christian Perspective

On the one hand, the early followers of Jesus sought to distinguish themselves from the synagogue, at least in part, for political reasons: the Roman State in the first two centuries (AD) seethed with hatred of the Jews because the latter group had twice engaged in bloody military revolts against it. In the Gospels of Mark and Luke, written during and shortly after the First Revolt (around AD 70), one can already see the beginning of the claim that the followers of Jesus need not share Jewish antipathy to Rome. Conversely, implies Luke, the

2

Introduction

Romans should not conclude that Christians present a danger to the Empire. On the other hand, the increasing Gentile membership of the early church (i.e., consisting more and more of Hebrew Bible former Greek and Roman “pagans”) usually The author of the present commentary will tend to use the title “Hebrew Bible” found many of the requirements of the Jewish for what Christians usually refer to as “the Old Bible to be either unreasonable or intolerable, Testament.” This I do for two reasons: (1) The traand (in any case) not at the center of the ditional Christian designation, rather than making Hebrew Bible’s [Hebrew Bible] proclamation of a chronological distinction (the “older” of the two God’s “good news” for humanity. This memberTestaments), sometimes intends a negative evalship found support for this perspective in the uation (the “inferior” part of the canon); and (2) respect for Jewish readers of the present volume. writings of St. Paul (and more so than in the two aforementioned Gospels). It is not surprising, then, that as early as the end of the first century, Christians in the Johannine Community perceived Jesus to have given a blanket-denunciation of those Jews who opposed him as being “of your father the devil” (John 8:44). By the fourth century, the cleric John Chrysostom argued that the Jews, as Christ-killers, have been rejected by God and thus all Jewish observances (in which some Christians still wanted to participate, if for no other reason than because Jesus, as a Jew, had done so) were manifestations of sin. He goes on to compare the synagogue with a den of thieves and calls it the habitat of demons.3 It is a continuation of this dislike (although accompanied by factors in his own time4) when Martin Luther, the sixteenth–century Protestant Reformer, wrote a volume the frontpiece of which depicted a Jew with the horns of the Devil. Luther therein calls for the destruction of synagogues and the burning of Jewish sacred literature. At the center of the biblical Title-page of Luther’s book, Von den Jüden und Iren Lügen. An English version, The Jews and Their Lies, was published by materials that early Christians Christian Nationalist Crusade (Los Angeles, 1948). At the bottom is a might evaluate differently than representation of a Jew with demonic horns. members of the synagogue was the (Illustration: Barclay Burns) collection of books that the church

Introduction

3

Pentateuch The term Pentateuch, commonly used for the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the earliest part to become “scripture,” is derived from two Greek nouns: pente (“five,” as in a five-sided geometric figure, a pentagon) plus teuchos (“ceramic jar”). The use of such sturdy containers for storing inscribed documents (e.g., scrolls) is illustrated from the fact that the Dead Sea Scrolls had been stored in them.

Scroll Jars A representation of two ceramic jars in which scrolls have been stored in Qumran Cave I. Fragments indicate there may once have been as many as fifty such containers in the cave. (Illustration: Barclay Burns)

had come to designate as the “Pentateuch.” [Pentateuch] This term means “the five scrolls (of Moses),” namely, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. This was especially true of the book of Leviticus, with its meticulous concern for the proper forms of worship and with its demanding ethical regulations that were to govern many aspects of everyday life. It is hardly surprising, then, that some of the early Fathers of the church rejected a Levitical approach to life. Likewise, most modern Protestants will never have heard an appreciative sermon based upon the spiritual values of Leviticus. It must be pointed out, however, that there are exceptions to the church’s usual rejection of the “ceremonial” regulations that are found in the Old Testament. That is, when the initial wave of “theological anti-Judaism” had passed and the separation of church from synagogue was complete (fourth century, at the latest), the conflict between the values of the church and those of the surrounding world (Greek, Roman, “pagan”) led to the need to re-institute many of the “Jewish” regulations and restrictions. Christian readers of the present commentary, therefore, will be surprised to find mention of continuation, in the church, of regulations concerning (among others): rites of ordination (Lev 8); mould that is not to be tolerated on certain holy objects (Lev 14); genital secretions (Lev 15); consumption of blood of an animal that has died a natural death (Lev 17); marriage restrictions (Lev 18); witchcraft (Lev 19, 20); and lighting of the sanctuary (Lev 24). (For a more detailed list, see Appendix B.)

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Introduction

The dietary restrictions (Lev 11) were usually not carried over in the church since Jesus had discussed that matter directly and had declared that “‘. . . there is nothing outside a person that by going in can defile, but the things that come out are what defile.’ . . . Thus he declared all foods clean” (Mark 7:15, 20). Leviticus: A Jewish Perspective

That wisdom and instruction of divine origin, in whatever form it might exist, ought to be studied diligently was a concern in Israel from earliest times downward. Parents were assigned the responsibility to instruct the young in these matters. By the time of the Jewish historian Josephus [Josephus], i.e., at the time of the beginnings of Christianity, education in Scripture was an established practice even for those of earliest age. [A Jewish Education] He reports that . . . for our people, if anybody do but ask any one of them about our laws, he will more readily tell them all than he will tell his own name, and this in consequence of our having learned them immediately as soon as ever we became sensible of anything, and of our having them, as it were, engraved on our souls. (Against Apion, II.19; see also II.25; William Whiston’s translation)

Josephus Flavius Josephus, born around AD 37, commanded troops from Galilee during the First Revolt. After being captured by the Romans, he urged his countrymen to surrender, became friends with the Roman commander (later Emperor) Vespasian (from whom Josephus borrowed the name Flavius), and wrote voluminous works in order to help his captors understand the Jewish people. The two most important for reconstructing Jewish history and thought are: The Jewish War and The History [Antiquities] of the Jews. A standard English translation of Josephus’s works is by William Whiston (1867).

Medieval print of the historian Josephus carrying a copy of his book, The Jewish War. It describes Jewish history from the Maccabean Revolt (167–164 BC) to the destruction of the temple by the Romans (AD 70) Flavius Josephus presenting his book to Vespasian and Titus. End of 11th C. Miniature from Manuscript of Moissac. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France (Credit: Snark / Art Resource, NY)

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A Jewish Education It has traditionally been claimed In Josephus’s time, with what curriculum did the educain Judaism that Scripture (the tion of children begin? From a modern Christian point of Hebrew Bible) contained 613 view, it was with the most surprising of material, centering as it did guidelines for the religious life.5 on the book that the church has traditionally considered to have While that total was not derived by little that is spiritually relevant: actual count but rather by a techWhy do young children commence [their study] with the nique known as gematria [Gematria], Priest’s manual [that is, the book of Leviticus] and not [at the approximately forty percent of the beginning] with [the book of] Genesis? Surely, it is because actual guidelines (247 in number) young children are pure and sacrifices [offered to God] are are derived from Leviticus. pure; so let the pure come and engage in the study of the Roughly the same percentage of pure. (Leviticus Rabbah 7:2) material in the Talmud, central to post-biblical Jewish life, is a discussion of Levitical guidelines. So revered was an ancient Jewish commentary on Leviticus that it was given the unique designation, Sipra (pronounced as if it were “Sifra”). The title means “The Book.” The present commentary will attempt to illuminate, for Christians, at least part of the profound meaning that both ancient Israel and the subsequent synagogue have perceived to reside in Leviticus.

The Title of the Book

Documents in the ancient Near East (including Israel) were not given a “made up” title based upon their contents. Rather, they were identified and designated by their opening word (or words). This would be comparable, in the modern United States, to referring to our founding document by the initial words “We the people . . .” rather than by the familiar title, The Constitution of the United States. Just so, the third book of the Bible (which the church has designated by the title “Leviticus”) begins (in English translation) with the words, “And the LORD called . . .” (or, in Hebrew word order, “And he called . . .”). In the original language (Hebrew), this is a single word (wayyiqrå< 6) and that is the way that this book/scroll was cited in ancient Israel and so it is continued to this day in the modern synagogue. It was the ancient Greeks who departed from this ancient way of identifying texts and turned, instead, to “titles.” Thus the earliest translation of the Bible (into Greek), commonly known as the Septuagint, provided the title leuitikon (“concerning the Levites”). When the text was then translated into Latin, this became Liber Leviticus (“Book Concerning Levitical Matters”). [Leuitikon]

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Introduction Gematria In ancient Israel and among its neighbors, enumeration could be done both with numbers (as in 1, 2, 3, 4) and with letters of the alphabet (as in a, b, c, d). Sometimes it was supposed that by totaling the numerical value of the spelling of a word a hidden significance could be discovered. This technique, known as gematria (related to the modern word “geometry”), allowed for exercises in cleverness. In the case of the Bible, under the assumption of divine inspiration, it was sometimes assumed that nothing in sacred texts was superfluous: the smallest detail, including such numerical totals, could be laden with significance. Could such a technique be used to determine the number of guidelines in the Pentateuch? Perhaps the numerical total of the consonants of that word (t-o-r-h) is indicative, thought the rabbis. If so: t = 400; o (actually written by the consonant “w”) = 6; r = 200; h = 5, for a total of 611, to which one adds the first two of the Ten Commandments (as especially important) for a grant total of 613! For the possible uses of gematria in connection with census data, see the discussion of Numbers chapter 1. Examples of this technique may be found in the article “Generation, Seventh,” in IDBSup, ed. Keith Crim (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1976), 354-56, and (of special interest) the article “Six Hundred And Sixty-Six,” in vol. 4 of IDB, ed. George Arthur Buttrick (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1962), 381-82. The Hebrew Alphabet, including numerical values

Introduction Leuitikon This title that the Greek Bible assigned to the third book of the Bible (“Leviticus”) is understandable, although it is not strictly accurate. It resulted from the fact that when this book was being translated into Greek, the term “Levite” (from which “Levitical” is derived) was a general one for “priest.” Indeed, in other biblical books (e.g., Deuteronomy), the word “Levite” is used in just that fashion for Israel’s entire priesthood. One may be surprised to note that amidst all the discussion of priestly duties in this book, the Levites are mentioned but once and even that is in a noncultic context (Lev 25:32-34). Furthermore, it is not clear that the term “priests” in our book even refers to Levites in general. In fact, a subdivision of the Levites, namely those descended from Aaron (a great-grandson of Levi) had by now laid claim to special priestly duties and status, and thus it is they who come to be referred to as “the priests” (see Exod 28–30; 39:1-30).

More accurate as a formal title for this third book of the Bible is the rabbinic one, “Priestly Guidelines” or “The Manual for Priests” (Heb.: tôrat-køh≠nîm). [Torah] The Syriac translation, used by a large community in the early church, designates it as “The Book of the Priests.” Even this more accurate designation has its limitations. While the book does focus upon priestly obligations, only a few of its regulations govern their behavior alone. Most of its guidelines are intended for Israelite society as a whole. The following formula of address from God to Moses is typical for the book: “Speak to (all of ) the people of Israel, and say to them . . .” (1:2). Thus Leviticus is, in a very real sense, not so much “the priests’ book” as it is “the people’s book.”

Torah The word “Torah,” found with slight variation in the rabbinic title for Leviticus (tôrat-køh≠nîm) is, in effect, the Hebrew Bible’s name for itself. Its meaning is far removed from the common and misleading English translation, “law.” The word may be used to refer to the following related literary entities: (a) foremost, for the scrolls containing Genesis-Deuteronomy (i.e., the Pentateuch), and thus the document that a rabbi removes from a sacred enclosure in the synagogue from which to read the scripture-lesson is a “Torah Scroll”; (b) for the entire Hebrew Bible; (c) for ancient and revered rabbinic interpretations of the Bible (e.g., Midrash and Talmud); and (d) for inspiring and inspired insights into the sacred tradition (thus one might say, of a contemporary insight, “That’s Torah!”). It is a term impossible to render into English by a single equivalent. In fact, it has three essential facets: (1) “story” (by which is meant “the story,” in which God is the central actor); (2) “revelation” (by which is meant that the material is not ultimately of human origin); and (3) “ethical guidelines” (which the hearer/reader in Israel is to follow in gratitude as a consequence of having heard the story of God’s redemptive activity). Hence we might say that “Torah is the sacred story that reveals God’s initiatives in history and teaches us the proper response.” See J. A, Sanders, “Torah,” in IDBSup, ed. Keith Crim (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1976), 909-11.

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Introduction Why English Translations Differ

Readers of the present commentary may wonder why it is that English translations of the Bible differ from one another at given places. The reasons are many and illustrations of some of them will be given (among other places) in the discussion of 10:18; 11:23-24; 15:2; 18:28; 19:26; and 19:31. Modern English Bibles, with rare exception, are not based upon a single ancient manuscript. Indeed, there may never have been a single original text of books of the Bible. Consequently, translators, ancient and modern, have consulted a vast number of manuscript sources that have been preserved in libraries and museums around the world. While there is general agreement among the manuscripts as to the order of books and chapters and in grammar and vocabulary, differences are to be found at tens of thousands of places. Only two of the major sources of such variation will be discussed here. The Dead Sea Scrolls From a series of caves on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea has come a trove of documents of the greatest importance for biblical studies. Collectively, they have come to be called “The Dead Sea Scrolls” or “The Qumran Scrolls.” This latter designation is derived from the modern name for an ancient ruin [Khirbet Qumran] near where the caves were located on the shore of the Dead Sea. Since a few scrolls were found at other nearby locations (e.g., Massada), the larger designation for them has come to be “Scrolls from the Judean Desert.” These scrolls have been topically arranged by modern researchers into the following categories: (1) biblical books (at least one each of the books of the Hebrew Bible, save for the very late book of Esther), (2) commentaries7 on various of the biblical books (mostly “prophetic” books that were thought to anticipate the time of the Qumran Community), (3) texts of some of the extra-biblical books that Protestants know as Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha,8 and (4) “sectarian” writings (concerned with the inner workings and beliefs of the Community). [Cataloging the Scrolls] As for the book of Leviticus, a variety of scrolls have been found.9 Illustrative readings from some of these scrolls will be mentioned, among other places, at the discussion of Leviticus 3:1-11; 11:26; 17:3; 22:22; 26:2-16. While there is no separate commentary on the book of Leviticus among the Scrolls from the Judean Desert, there are numerous

Introduction

Khirbet Qumran From eleven caves near Qumran, hundreds of scrolls were discovered in 1947 and afterward. A few were complete but most were fragmentary. Most of them seem to have been penned between the second century BC and the first century AD, although a few are earlier. The inhabitants of the nearby community had apparently stashed them in nearby caves, for safety, at the approach of a Roman army in the first century AD. The inhabitants of the community have traditionally been identified as an ascetic group, the Essenes, occasionally mentioned in records from around the time of Jesus. Recent opinion is increasingly questioning that identification, however, in favor of a priestly group that withdrew from Jerusalem in protest against events/ideas there and founded a new community in the wilderness. They stored their sacred scrolls in caves when the Roman army approached and never recovered them. (Credit: Tony W. Cartledge)

discussions of Levitical regulations in the “sectarian” scrolls (especially in the so-called Temple Scroll from Cave 11 [11QT]). The conclusions reached by the Qumran group were sometimes at variance with and sometimes more strict than those of the rabbis who taught and presided in the synagogue.10 The former tended to be more literal in their interpretations, and at the same time, they

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Introduction Cataloging the Scrolls Two systems have evolved for identifying a particular scroll. In the older system, reference was by the location of discovery, cave number (if more than one at a given site), the book being cataloged, and the particular scroll of that book (if more than one was discovered at a single location). Thus, the notation 4QSamb would mean: from Qumran, Cave 4, scroll “b” of the book of Samuel. In a more recent system, each scroll from a given cave is assigned an individual number. Thus 4QLevb (old system) has become 4Q24.

demonstrated an adeptness in deriving new rulings from the biblical materials. The Septuagint While Palestine was the homeland, it was by no means the only place of Israelite and Jewish residence during the period of the Bible. Indeed, because of successive waves of invaders (Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians and Greeks), massive elements of the local population had fled southward into Egypt where many of them then became permanent residents. Yet others were taken into exile by the Babylonians in the sixth century where many of their descendants remained (refusing the later opportunity to Image Not Available return) for well over 1,000 years. due to lack of digital rights. Please view the published In the process of adjustment to commentary or perform an Internet these new cultures, facility in the search using the credit below. language of the homeland (Hebrew) began to fade. Then, following the conquests of Alexander the Great (in the fourth century), the language of international conversation became Greek. As early as the third century (BC), therefore, Jews felt a need to have their sacred texts available in the language that was more First page of the book of Leviticus in LXX Codex Vaticanus easily and widely understood. Reproduced from a photocopy with the permission of the Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library of Duke University. Consequently, the central books,

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The Septuagint The origin of the this ancient translation of the Hebrew Bible is related in the so-called Legend of Aristeas. It reports that King Ptolemy of Egypt, in the 3rd century BC, desired a copy of every book in the world for his famous library in the city of Alexandria. This would include, of course, the canonical literature of the Jews, the Pentateuch (Genesis–Deuteronomy). He thus summoned a team of translators, seventydue to lack of digital rights. two in number, with each to work in Please view the published isolation from the others. commentary or perform an Internet The legend continues that the work was search using the credit below. finished in seventy-two days and that comparison revealed that the translations were identical. The number was subsequently shortened to seventy, which in Greek is septuaginta, from which the English title “Septuagint” is derived. The title is usually abbreviated using the Latin numeral “70” (that is, LXX). In actuality, the need for the translation Pharaoh Ptolemy I likely arose from the need for GreekTetradrachm of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter. Around 300 BC. Israel Museum (IDAM), Jerusalem, Israel. speaking Jews in Egypt to have a copy of (Credit: Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY) their canon that they could more easily read than in the original Hebrew. In order to defend its authority, especially in view of its numerous divergences from the Hebrew text, they likely “spun out” the Legend of Aristeas in order to suggest that the translation could only have taken place under strict divine inspiration. The original number (seventy-two) likely was derived from positing six translators from each of the twelve tribes of Israel. Shortening to seventy would be in accordance with that more usual “round number” in the Bible, in keeping with the number of Elders who had accompanied Moses in his journey up the sacred mountain (Exod 24:1, 9; see also Num 11:16). This Greek totality, translated into Latin (and commonly known as The Vulgate), became the Bible of Western Christianity. For Eastern (Orthodox) Christianity, however, the Septuagint remained the authoritative translation. Introductory discussions of the Septuagint may be found in standard Bible dictionaries.

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the Pentateuch, were translated into a Greek version known as the Septuagint (LXX). Later, it was expanded to include the remainder of the books that had become part of the finalized Old Testament. [The Septuagint]

Since early Christianity quickly spread throughout the Near East where the language of international conversation was Greek, the Septuagint became the Bible of the early church. Indeed, it remains so for the Orthodox branches to this day. In Western Europe, however, the entire Bible was soon translated into Latin (into a version known as the Vulgate). Instances of difference between the traditional Hebrew text and the LXX in Leviticus will be noted in the discussion of 3:1, 2; 4:14;

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6:21 [Hebrew 6:14]; 7:3; 8:31; 9:7; 11:13-19; 15:25-27, 31; 16:8; 21:2-4, 5; and 24:16. Most of them have resulted from attempts by the translators of the LXX to clarify and harmonize the Hebrew text from which they have translated. Ancient (Jewish) Commentaries on Leviticus

The role that Leviticus has played in Jewish life, as well as articulations of the meaning of the Bible that may be both illuminating and edifying to the Christian reader, are to be found in a series of legal compilations, commentaries, and edifying stories that originated around the time of the emergence of Christianity and in the next few centuries. They include: (1) The Mishnah (also known as the Oral Torah) and its expansion into the Talmud.11 See citations of interpretation from it below at Leviticus 12:1-8; 15:19; 19:5-8; 22:25-55; 23; 27:8; 27 (and the New Testament); Numbers 6:22-27; 28–29 (and the New Testament); 30 (and the New Testament). (2) Sipra (“The Book”; also known as tôrat-køh≠nîm and meaning, “The Manual for Priests”). See citation of interpretations from it at below at Leviticus 19:16; 19:30; 20:21; 20:26; 21:2-4; 21:18. (3) Leviticus Rabbah (Heb.: wayyiqrå< rabbâ). See citations of interpretations from it below at Leviticus 6:26 [Hebrew 6:19] and 14:2. Leviticus as Part of a Larger Story

God’s regulations concerning Israel’s worship and daily life, comprising the entirety of the book of Leviticus, do not stand in detached isolation from the surrounding books. That is, Leviticus is not one item among many in a random collection of unrelated essays that an editor has thrown together with no discernable order or purpose. Rather, Leviticus is a crucial segment of a larger integrated narrative that presents a sequence of historical events.12 It may be helpful to the modern reader, therefore, before turning to a study of the regulations in Leviticus, briefly to review the story-line that brought the narrative to this point. It has concluded with the construction of a portable sanctuary (“the Tabernacle”) in the Sinai Peninsula, between Egypt and the land of Canaan (Exod 40). [The Story Line]

The sequel, in Leviticus, is concerned with making the sanctuary operational. The story moves from anticipation of worship

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(Exodus) to its actual implementation (Leviticus). Once that is accomplished, preparation for the resumption of the journey toward the “promised land” is narrated (Num 1–9) and the people move out of the camp (Num 10). The implementation of the Levitical regulations is depicted as a historical necessity: the “chosen people” will not be able to survive the temptations and stresses of future life, amidst an alien Canaanite population, in the absence of such regimentation as is now presented. There must be self-conscious reflection about the attainable state of holiness that the book now proposes. The anticipated stresses, culture conflicts, competing values and human frailties were not, of course, exhausted by the settlement of Israel in the land of Canaan. To the extent that those realities continued (and do so even to the present day), it may be argued that Leviticus possesses an ongoing, timeless importance for the religious life of both Jews and Christians. It is just this human reality, this perpetual relevance, that started the Levitical materials on their way to becoming a part of Scripture.

The Story Line God has created an idyllic world, but the rebellious nature of the human creature has brought it to the edge of destruction (Gen 1–11). God’s ultimate response to this situation is an inexplicable act of graciousness: the choice of a couple (Abraham and Sarah) through whose descendants all the world will find blessing (Gen 12:1-3). Despite moments of uncertainty (primarily the barrenness of the patriarchal wives), the family begins to multiply in keeping with divine promises (Gen 12–36). Ultimate success, however, is then called into question by a severe famine that causes the family to abandon their “promised land” and Mount Sinai settle in the land of Egypt (Gen 37–50). There, Aerial view of the upper reaches of the mountain that has traditionally they become slaves to the Pharaoh for generabeen identified with the biblical Mount Sinai (Jebel Musa, in the tions, only to be delivered through the Deity’s southern Sinai Peninsula). At its base, before the Tent of Meeting, chosen leader, Moses, after a series of devasMoses conveyed to priesthood and congregation the guidelines that tating plagues (Exod 1–15). Thereafter, they he had received (Lev 1:1). chart a course through the wilderness to a (Photo credit: James M. Pitts) sacred mountain (named Sinai/Horeb) at which the Deity affirms and shapes their identity as “the People of God” (Exod 16–19). This is done by giving them the detailed liturgical and ethical guidance that will be necessary to maintain their role as a “holy people,” preparatory to which a priesthood must be ordained and a portable sanctuary constructed (Exod 20–40). Those events having been completed, the grand disclosure of Levitical material, both cultic and ethical, can begin (Lev 1:1).

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Leviticus as part of the Priestly narrative On the one hand, the distinctive concerns, vocabulary, and style of writing contained in Leviticus are not limited to the confines of this single book. (For details of its literary and religious distinctiveness, see below, “Leviticus As Literature” and “Leviticus as Theology.”) It is important to note that these distinctive characteristics are to be found at many other places in the Pentateuch (namely, in the books of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers). On the other hand, Leviticus (and the aforementioned materials elsewhere in the Pentateuch that are similar to it) may be sharply distinguished from the concerns, vocabulary, and style of writing of the remainder of Genesis-Exodus-Numbers and from those of the book of Deuteronomy in its totality. A plausible conclusion may be drawn from these two realities. Leviticus, rather than being a totally independent and self-standing book, is part of a larger strand of material that has come to us from a distinct school of tradition-gatherers and editors. Four pentateuchal sources (“The Documentary Hypothesis”) There is good reason to believe that four collections of early sacred traditions have been combined to produce the present pentateuchal account. The activity of these four groups (“schools”) of collectors may span a period of as much as five hundred years. Leviticus is part of one of those collections. It has come to be called the Priestly source (or Priestly Code, or Priestly writer, sometimes designated as “P”). This proposed collection of materials, arranged in a meaningful chronological story line, begins with a creation-story (Gen 1:1–2:4a), skips to chapter 5, and then occurs intermittently thereafter through the books of Genesis and Exodus, then the entirety of Leviticus, and finally most of Numbers. “P” has preserved some of the most memorable literature and profound theological thinking that is to be found in the Hebrew Bible. Without its guidelines, one may doubt that Israel/Judah would have survived the great crises during which the material emerged. The other proposed pentateuchal sources are: (1) “J,” or “the Yahwist”; (2) “E,” or the “Elohist”; and (3) “D,” or the “Deuteronomist.” The sources J, E, and D do not occur in Leviticus, but J and E will surface sporadically in the book of Numbers. The source D is largely limited to Deuteronomy. Those who desire detail should consult the commentary below on the book of Numbers.

Introduction

The near consensus of modern critical scholarship has been that the four pentateuchal sources developed in the order J, E, D, and P,13 with a few interpreters preferring the sequence J, E, P, and D.14 As to the date of the last of these compilations of tradition, the classical position has been that P “came into existence in the exile, i.e., in the fifth or perhaps already in the sixth century”15 (emphasis mine). Presumably, this refers to the time of its composition (roughly, a combination of dates 3-6 as outlined below, “Leviticus in its historical context.”) It is doubtful, however, that the appearance of “P” was that abrupt or its contents so quickly completed. Rather, its origin and developments were likely more complex and gradual, along the following lines: Date 1: When an event that is narrated actually happened. For example, there is little reason to doubt the basic historicity of Israel’s escape from Egypt, amidst the unfolding of which story the books of Leviticus and Numbers are situated. This journey to freedom likely took place in the thirteenth century BC. This does not necessarily mean, however, that every “event” that is narrated in those books reflects pure “happenedness” or that these two books took their shape at that early time. Date 2: The date of a particular literary description. For example, some stories in Leviticus reflect a pre-exilic time of composition (i.e., prior to 587 BC). They betray knowledge of vocabulary and institutions that flourished in the pre-exilic age but are seldom mentioned thereafter. For instance, the common Priestly term “congregation” (>∑dâ ) is seldom used after the ninth century. It is replaced in D (Deuteronomy, seventh century), for example, by “assembly” (qåhål ).16 That King David would be thought to allow an act of incest (2 Sam 13:1-14), an open violation of Lev 18:9, suggests that this restriction is not from the age of Moses (thirteenth century BC) but from a time later than the reign of David (i.e., tenth century or later). Again, emphasis upon the centrality of the Sabbath, a minor celebration in the pre-exilic period, plausibly suggests that a Priestly passage such as Gen 1:1–2:4a was formulated during the exile (sixth century BC). Date 3: A sustained editorial effort to produce a continuous narrative from once-independent units of tradition. For example, the Levitical protest against “idols” (using the particular term