Learning Japanese for Real - A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World

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しE R R N I N G JR P R N E S e f o r R e a し A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres o f the Nihongo World

S E N K O

K.

M R V M R R

Learning Japanese for Real

Learning Japanese for Real A Guide to Gram m ar, Use, and Genres o f the N ihongo W orld

Senko K. Maynard

University of Hawai‘i Press Honolulu

© 2011 University of Hawai‘i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 16 15 14 13 12 11

6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Maynard, Senko K. Learning Japanese for re a l: a guide to grammar, use, and genres of the Nihongo world / Senko K. Maynard. p.

cm.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-0-8248-3482-1 (hard cover : alk. paper)— ISBN 978-0-8248-3540-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1.Japanese language—Study and teaching—English speakers— Handbooks, manuals, etc.

I. Title.

PL519.M33 2011 495.6'82421—dc22 2010033493 University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources. Designed by Wanda China Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc.

C ontents

P re fa c e

PART I

PRELIMINARIES 3 1 ±0 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 ± 1 ± ± ± ±

2.1. Nihongo: The Japanese Language 2.2. The Country Called Japan 2.3. Social Concepts 2.4. Popular Culture

8

Chapter 2 Background

6

Learning N ih on g o for Real as a Foreign Language Organization of This Book How to Use This Book Notes on Transcription

N ih on g o

4

1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5.

3

Chapter 1 Introduction

8

Nihongo 3.1. Variations in Language 3.2. More Assertive “Masculine” and Less Assertive “Feminine” Styles 3.3. Gender-Associated Styles in Transition 3.4. Generation and Variation 3.5. Youth Language 3.6. Regional Variations 3.7. New Dialects 3.8. Stylistic Variations 3.9. Written, Spoken, and Speech-like Written N ihon go 3.10. Digital Communication 3.11. Meanings of Variation 3.12. Language Change and Learning N ih on go

Chapter 3 Variation and Change in

o o 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 7

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

vi

Contents

PART II

SOUNDS AND SCRIPTS

29

Chapter 4 The Nihongo Sound System

31 31 31 32 32 32 34 34 35 35 36

4.1. Overview 4.2. Morae 4.3. The Sound “N” as One Mora 4.4. Vowels 4.5. Consonant + Vowel 4.6. Consonant + Y + Vowel (Contracted Sounds) 4.7. Long Vowels (Duplication of Vowels) 4.8. Double Consonants 4.9. Word Accentuation 4.10. Sound Changes for Emphasis Chapter 5

Scripts

5.1. Overview 5.2. History 5.3. K a n ji 5.4. H ira g a n a 5.5. K a ta k a n a

5.6. Learning the Japanese Scripts 5.7. Fonts 5.8. Punctuation 5.9. Vertical and Horizontal Writing 5.10. Calligraphy as Language Art

37 37 38 38 39 40 41 42 42 43 45

PART III WORDS

49

Chapter 6

51 51 53 55 56 58 60 62 63 64

6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. 6.9.

Kinds of Words

and Kwango Loan Words Made-in-Japan “Foreign” Words Numerals and the Number System Counters Time-Related Expressions Family Terminology Personal Names and Vocatives Onomatopoeia and Mimesis W ago

Chapter 7

Words in Grammar

7.1. Nouns 7.2. Pronouns 7.3. Noun Prefixes and Suffixes 7.4. /-Adjectives 7.5. 術 -Adjectives

67 67 68 70 71 72

Contents

vii

7.6. Nominal Modification 7.7. Modification Phrases 7.8. Adverbs 7.9. Demonstratives 7.10. Particles 7.11. Verbs 7.12. Verb Conjugation 7.13. Adjective Conjugation PART IV GRAMMAR Chapter 8

Simple Sentences—Essential

8.1. Not Saying the Obvious 8.2. Be-Verb Sentences 8.3. Verb Sentences—Non-Past 8.4. Verb Sentences—Past 8.5. Adjective Sentences 8.6. Basic Case Markers 8.7. Existential Sentences 8.8. Basic Interactional Particles 8.9. Questions 8.10. Question Words 8.11. Topic and Comment 8.12. Negation 8.13. Negative Questions 8.14. Preferred Word Order Chapter 9

Simple Sentences—Enhanced

9.1. Progressive Forms 9.2. Verbs of Giving and Receiving 9.3. Giving and Receiving Actions 9.4. Expressions of Desire 9.5. Potential and Ability 9.6. Modal Verbs 9.7. Prohibition and Obligation 9.8. Modal Suffixes 9.9. Passives 9.10. Causatives and Permissives 9.11. Volitional Forms 9.12. N o D a Sentences 9.13. Order of Sentence-Final Elements Chapter 10 Complex Sentences

10.1. Conjunctions 10.2. Connecting Clauses

73 74 75 76 78 79 80 86 89 91 91 92 94 95 97 98 102 102 104 106 107 112 114 116 118 118 120 122 124 126 128 132 135 136 139 141 143 146 148 148 150

vill

Contents

10.3. 10.4. 10.5. 10.6. 10.7.

Conditionals Clausal Modification Clausal Explanation K oto and N o Clauses Quotation

Chapter 11

Emotive Expressions

11.1. Interactional Particles N e and Yo 11.2. Primary Feelings 11.3. Exclamatory Phrases 11.4. Attitudinal Adverbs 11.5. Interactional Particles and Markers 11.6. Emphatic Markers 11.7. Repetition 11.8. Interjections for Surprise, Disbelief, and Relief 11.9. Whispered Confession and Comment 11.10. Interjectional Sound Effects 11.11. Exclamations 11.12. Rhetorical Questions PART V

USE

Chapter 12 Interaction Strategies

12.1. Choosing Formal and Informal Styles 12.2. Politeness and Honorifics 12.3. Masculine and Feminine Speech 12.4. Youth Language 12.5. Borrowing N ih on g o Varieties 12.6. Greetings and Introductions 12.7. Making Requests 12.8. Asking for and Granting Permission 12.9. Apologizing 12.10. Expressing Gratitude 12.11. Offering Advice and Suggestions 12.12. Giving Orders and Commands 12.13. Inviting and Responding to Invitations 12.14. Being Serious and Nervous 12.15. Fighting and Cursing 12.16. Teasing 12.17. Leave-Taking and Parting Chapter 13 Conversation Management

13.1. Conversational N ih on go 13.2. Taking Speaking Turns and Designing Utterances

154 157 159 161 164 167 167 170 172 173 175 177 180 181 183 185 187 188 191 193 193 196 199 200 203 204 206 209 212 213 214 216 218 220 221 225 225 229 229 230

Contents

ix

13.3. Openers and Fillers 13.4. Prefacing and Alerting 13.5. Being Artfully Vague 13.6. Utterance-Final Strategies 13.7. Commenting on One’s Own Speech 13.8. Sharing Thoughts as Feelings 13.9. Action-Accompanying Phrases 13.10. Postposing 13.11. Listener Responses 13.12. Clarifying Trouble Spots 13.13. Echo Questions and Responses Chapter 14

14.1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. 14.5.

Chapter 15

15.1. 15.2. 15.3. 15.4. 15.5. 15.6.

Rhetorical Figures of Speech

Metaphors Tautology Humor and Puns Irony and Sarcasm Idioms and Proverbs Yojoo, the Lingering Effect

Chapter 16

16.1. 16.2. 16.3. 16.4. 16.5. 16.6.

Gestures and Signals

Gestures and Hand Signals Bowing and Postures Special Hand Movements Eye Contact Head Nods and Shakes

Discourse Organization

Three-Part Organization &Shoo-Ten-Ketsu, the Four-Part Organization Paragraph Organization Topic Structure and Staging Topic Chaining and Thread of Discourse Discourse Markers

232 233 236 237 239 240 241 243 245 246 248 250 250 253 254 254 255 256 256 258 260 262 264 266 268 268 269 271 272 274 277

PART VI

GENRES

279

Chapter 17

Genre Appreciation

281 281 283

17.1. Genre Categories 17.2. Mixing Genres Chapter 18

Selected Popular Culture Genres

18.1. Comics マンガ 18.2. Television Variety Show バ ラ エ テ ィ 番 組 18.3. Television Drama テレビドラマ

286 286 294 298

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Preface

Welcome to the world of N ih o n g o , the Japanese language. So you have decided to learn N ih o n g o as a foreign language. The project you are about to launch is challenging. But it will also be, I trust, an exciting, eye-opening, and rewarding experience. I wrote this book with one aim in mind: to help you learn the essentials of the Japanese language. You may be a high school or college student planning to take Ni­ hongo courses. You may be a professional having contact with Japan or someone out there genuinely interested in Japanese language and culture. Or maybe you are currently taking N ih o n g o courses. Perhaps you are studying on your own. Regardless of your situa­ tion, you will find L^e^arnin^g Japan^es^Jbr R e a l useful. It will help you chart this new territory of your mental and emotional adventure. Learning Japanese Jor Real provides a concise and simplified overview of the information helpful for your learning. Sure, a single book such as this may not capture the complete universe of knowl­ edge related to Nihongo. But short of completeness, I am confident Learning JapaneseJor Real will become your go-to source for learn­ ing Japanese. I have kept each entry section and chapter as short and as simple as possible. The accumulation of each entry will gradually construct the overall structure of your task. Gaining a bird’s-eye view of what it takes to acquire N ih o n g o gives you a clearer goal. Instead of randomly learning a few words and blindly understand­ ing some grammatical features, knowing the complete picture will help you organize necessary information, giving you perspective. Once you understand the core knowledge structure, you can al­ ways build upon that foundation as you advance. The materials covered in L e a r n in g J a p a n e s e J o r R e a l range from elementary to intermediate to advanced N ih o n g o courses. To read xi

xii

Preface

authentic text samples introduced in Chapter 18, a knowledge of advanced-level Japanese is required. Above all, this is a guidebook that you will refer to many times throughout your three-to-four year project. If you have already studied Japanese for a few years, this book will be useful as a comprehensive review. It will help you deepen your understanding of Nihongo in a renewed sense and perhaps from a different perspective. I must confess that if you are interested in picking up a few expressions to use when greeting Japanese people or visiting Japa­ nese restaurants, this book is out of your league. However, if you are a serious student of Japanese, this book will prove useiul. To really speak your mind in Japanese, you need to generate sentences from scratch. In meaningfully interacting with Japanese-language speakers, you must know the grammar and how to (and how not to) use the sentences you create. And to understand those sentences in social and cultural context, you must learn about the genres of the N ih o n g o world. This book offers precisely such information. Le^arnin^g J a p a n ^ es e jb r1Rea,i is written with English speakers in mind. English may not be your native language, but it is a world language through which I can reach many readers. As a result, the explanations and characterizations of the Japanese language are presented in contrast with the English language. I am personally involved in the project you are about to launch in two ways. First, I was born and educated in Japan through col­ lege and learned English as a foreign language. The fact that I am a native speaker of Japanese will never change, and my personal experience of learning English continues to make me think about language education in general. Second, I was trained as a linguist and have spent many years conducting research on the Japanese language. I have taught Jap­ anese as a foreign language to college students at several institu­ tions. My years of experience in research and teaching have result­ ed in the publication of seventeen books and eighty or so articles. I believe what I have learned can offer constructive guidance. As you probably know already, information about the Japa­ nese language is available in printed form and elsewhere, espe­ cially on the Internet. Directions, suggestions, advice, and various tools abound. But they are often unorganized, randomly selected, and may become unavailable unexpectedly. This information over­ load can be confusing, and you can waste your time reading scat­

Preface

xiii

tered tidbits of information. Worse yet, some of this information may be wrong or useless. Searching for information crucial to learning Japanese is frus­ trating when you realize you are simply going around in circles. This book, on the other hand, gives it to you straight. It leads you to the essentials quickly and systematically. Once you gain the basic knowledge, you can make use of information available in various media. Part VII of this book guides you in how to make the most use of available resources. Because this book is virtually an anthology of grammar, use, and genres of the Nih^on^go world, Japanese teachers may also find it a useful reference. However, given the necessary conciseness of the content, I want to remind teachers that broader and more de­ tailed information is available in many of my other works, listed at the end of this volume. For many years, I have enjoyed teaching Japanese language and linguistics at various institutions. While I was a graduate student, I taught at the University of Iowa, the University of Illinois at Chica­ go, and Northwestern University. Then I went on to teach at other universities (in chronological order, the University of Hawai‘i, Con­ necticut College, Harvard University, and Princeton University), and currently I teach at Rutgers University. I thank the students and colleagues I have met at various locales for their friendship, inspiration, and encouragement. This book is dedicated to past, present, and future students of the Japanese language at Rutgers University. It is also dedicated to students learning Japanese on their own or at many institutions worldwide. I would like to express my gratitude to the following for grant­ ing permission to duplicate the visual images: Ten?ya Yabuno and Shogakukan for In a z u m a Ire b u n , w h ic h appeared in K o r o k o ro K^omikku (September 2008 issue, pp. 446-448), and Q. P. Corpo­ ration and Orenji Peeji for Chuuka Suupu no Moto advertising, which appeared in OrangePage (December 2, 2007, p. 202). I would like to thank Patricia Crosby, executive editor at the University of Hawai‘i Press, for her continuing faith in me and her warm support throughout this project. And Michael, thank you, as always, for your support and cheerleading. SKM “On the Banks of the Old Raritan”

PART I

Prelim inaries

CH A PTER 1

Introduction

1.1. Learning Nihongo for Real I titled this book with specific reasons in mind. By “for real” in the title, I mean the real N ih o n g o , the Japanese language, used by na­ tive speakers. Examples used in this book are similar to authentic Japanese, and they can be used for real communication. Although the necessity of presenting only simple expressions early on made it difficult to be totally natural, I have made every effort to create sentences as close as possible to real Japanese. I also emphasize the importance of learning for real, that is, learning not just a few happenstance words, but acquiring knowl­ edge necessary to achieve real and meaningful communication. The chapters and entry sections selected for this book cover a wide range of topics necessary to realize that goal. Unlike grammar books explaining grammatical rules only, un­ like conversation books giving conversation samples and strate­ gies only, and unlike advanced reading books primarily introduc­ ing written texts only, this book provides critical information for you to be comfortable in the N ih o n g o world. We need to learn real Japanese, the kind actually used in real human communication. Now, what do we mean by N ih o n g o ? Does it refer to idealized ex­ pressions that often appear in textbooks? Overly emotional speech you find in comic magazines? Headlines you access on newspaper Web sites? Unfamiliar words listed in an elaborate sushi menu? Whatever examples you encounter, it is important to understand that they represent only a part of the whole. In this book, I strive to represent the kind of widely and ordinarily used N ih o n g o in every­ day communication. We must make such real Japanese the target of our study. This leads to the issue of language variation. The Japanese 3

4

PRELIMINARIES

language comes in various styles and varieties. Depending on your social and personal needs and depending on a particular situation, you are expected to speak in a certain way. As in any language, but more clearly in Japanese, it is critical to choose and shift among appropriate styles and varieties. As if that wasn?t enough of a chal­ lenge, these styles and varieties are constantly changing, and so is the significance of the factors motivating such changes. Because of this fluidity in language, we must remain flexible and resourceful when learning N ih o n g o . This book is based on the most current use of N ih o n g o , but soon new expressions will evolve while some old ones will fade. I will address this issue later, but at this point, we must bear in mind that language is never static, and we must keep up with what constitutes the real Japanese language. Although language is in perpetual flux, the fundamental fea­ tures remain fairly constant. What you learn in this book will serve as a core on which you can build your accrued knowledge. You can add more subtle aspects of current and future N ih o n g o to these fundamentals.

1.2. Nihongo as a Foreign Language LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT

Learning Nihongo is rewarding in itself, but how is it related to the way we think and feel? T o answer this question, we must first con­ sider the relationship between language and thought. The relationship between language and thought has been ex­ tensively discussed in academia. The most reasonable conclusion is that language does not necessarily control one’s thought but that language as a whole (not just a vocabulary item or a certain grammatical structure) encourages certain ways of viewing the world. After all, we gain knowledge through our native language. We interpret our life experiences through human interaction en­ abled by that very language. We cannot ignore the characteristics of a medium through which we actualize our daily lives. It is reasonable to assume that certain ways of thinking are encouraged in the N ih o n g o world while certain others are not. This does not mean that a Japanese speaker is imprisoned by certain ways of thinking. Rather, certain thoughts are easier to access in Japanese, which may or may not be different from the way of thinking in other languages.

Introduction

5

Another way to understand the relationship between language and thought is to pay attention to how we develop our mental ca­ pacities. Our native language is internalized, and it functions as a means to facilitate our psychological and social development. We acquire language through early interaction with those close to us. The very way we socially interact with them is internalized. Think of the constant question-answer interactions that take place be­ tween a child and a parent. Such social experience is internal­ ized to organize, form, and promote higher mental functions such as the problem-solving process and cause-effect reasoning. In this sense, one cannot deny that our native language deeply influences how our minds work. In addition, the ways we interact with people in our language are linked to the kinds of emotions we feel. Think of a situation where you witness two people parting. You may be moved by the scene, but if a friend describes it in words, you are likely to be moved even more. You may personally recall a situation where your emotions became clear when you labeled them with words. When a Japanese expression of emotion is used, the kind of emotion specifically associated with it comes alive. Although emo­ tion is personal, because you feel it through language, it is social as well. In this way, language is undeniably tied to our deep emo­ tions and feelings. THE MEANINGS OF LEARNING NIHONGO

Given the close association between our native language and our way of living, learning a foreign language becomes an all-inclusive experience. It reaches your mind and heart. Learning Japanese will open new ways of looking at things, thinking about issues, solv­ ing problems, socializing with others, and experiencing emotions. Learning a foreign language makes you a new person. Unchained from a mono-language universe, you will live in multiple worlds. As is by now clear, language functions in various ways. It con­ veys information, expresses emotion, and connects to others. But more fundamentally, language helps define our identity. In the process, the foreign language learner creates a kind of self unat­ tainable otherwise. This is why learning N ih o n g o challenges you deep in your sense of self. It is a “real” experience that echoes through your soul. You may have concrete reasons for learning N ih o n g o —finding a job in or related to Japan, communicating with Japanese friends or

6

PRELIMINARIES

relatives, being interested in the traditional and current culture of Japan, and so on. You may be a speaker of multiple languages and simply wish to add Japanese to your repertoire. All these practical reasons are important. But in addition, you will find special and privileged meanings unavailable in a world absent of the N ih o n g o experience. In many ways, the world of N ih o n g o is similar to the world you know. But it is also filled with different ways of expressing yourself, understanding people, appreciating nature, and identifying your­ self. Just as with learning any foreign language, learning Japanese will increase your level of self-awareness and sensitivity to different kinds of human life. YOU'RE NOT ALONE

According to a 2006 worldwide survey conducted by the Japan Foundation, around thirteen thousand institutions employing over forty-four thousand teachers are offering Japanese language in­ struction. Worldwide, nearly three million students are studying Japanese as a foreign language. You are not alone, indeed. Throughout Japan’s bubble economy of the 1980s and despite the prolonged economic recession since the 1990s, the number of students learning Japanese as a foreign language has steadily increased. Over the past thirty years, it has increased tenfold. The majority of students are native speakers of Korean and Chinese. Australians studying Japanese constitute approximately 12 per­ cent of the total, followed by students in Indonesia, Taiwan, and the United States. In the United States in 2006, over 117,000 stu­ dents were studying Japanese at various institutions.

1.3. Organization of This Book This book is divided into seven parts. Part I, “Preliminaries,” gives introductory information about the Japanese language and its background. Part II, “Sounds and Scripts,” explains the sound system and scripts, including h ira g a n a , k a ta k a n a , and k a n ji. It is particularly important that you pay close attention to Chapter 5, where you will be expected to learn h ira g a n a and k a ta k a n a . From that point on, I will assume you can read h ira g a n a and k a ta k a n a without difficulty. Part III, “Words,” is divided into two chapters. Chapter 6 dis­ cusses the characteristics of various word types, including loan

Introduction

7

words and onomatopoeic words. Chapter 7 looks at words from a grammatical perspective and presents grammatical categories such as Japanese nouns, adverbs, and adjectives (which func­ tion differently from their English counterparts). The words in this chapter are mostly content words (except particles). Other word categories (i.e., function words), such as conjunctions and modal verbs, appear later, when they are introduced in separate entry sections. This chapter also provides verb and adjective conjuga­ tions, to which you will be referring throughout your study. Part IV, “Grammar,” gives a bird?s-eye view of Japanese gram­ mar. I have divided this part into four chapters. Chapters 8 and 9 introduce simple sentences, while Chapter 10 discusses complex sentences. These chapters cover essential grammar such as verb sentences, questions, grammatical particles, preferred word order, negation, conditionals, clausal modification, and quotation. In ad­ dition, Chapter 11 takes a look at grammar in terms of how it expresses emotion. Here you will find entries such as attitudinal adverbs, exclamatory phrases, interjections, and rhetorical ques­ tions, all of which carry emotive meanings. Part V, “Use,” goes beyond grammar and discusses how N ih^on^go is used in interaction. When engaging in Japanese commu­ nication, how should you behave? What expressions should you choose or avoid? What level of formality and politeness should you maintain? Communication strategies such as requesting, apologiz­ ing, and inviting are discussed in Chapter 12. Chapter 13 illus­ trates how to interact when you participate in Japanese conversa­ tion. This chapter introduces you to such strategies as prefacing your utterances, sending listener responses, and repairing your utterances. In Parts III, IV, and V, each chapter contains many entries. Each entry comes with Key Expressions, Explanations, and an optional Graffiti section. I have purposely arranged entries from simple to complex, using easy to understand examples. However, especially with the initial entry sections, some things have not yet been explained. But as you proceed, it will all make more sense to you. We all know that gestures carry important messages in com­ munication. Chapter 14 offers a quick overview of Japanese ges­ tures such as hand signals, bowing, and head nods. Chapter 15 returns to language itself and introduces representative rhetorical figures of speech in Japanese. Metaphor and tautology are uni­

8

PRELIMINARIES

versal rhetorical figures, while the frequent use of puns and the lingering effect of y o jo o are specific to Japanese. In Chapter 16, the final chapter under Part V, I discuss how Japanese discourse is organized. Here we study how multiple sen­ tences are tied together to create coherent and cohesive discourse units. Particularly significant is the four-part organizational prin­ ciple known as ki-sh^oo-t^e^n^-k^et^su. Also important are the concept of topic structure and the staging effect associated with the use of w a and other topic markers. Part VI, “Genres,” first introduces the world of N ih o n g o in terms of genre categories. In Chapter 18 I present popular culture dis­ course samples taken from a comic strip, variety show, television drama, print advertising, magazine essay, and cell-phone novel. You are exposed to the authentic language and discourse created and consumed in today’s Japan. Each sample discourse comes with an English translation and specific features to be noted. Finally, in Part VII, “Learning N ih o n g o Z ， I discuss concrete methods and tools for learning Japanese. The information in this part is useful when you need practical ideas. Chapters 19 and 20 contain information on learning tools, but it is limited. You are encouraged to search for additional up-to-date information on the Internet and elsewhere. At the end of the volume, you will find a list of my works, some in English and others in Japanese. If you are interested in the field of Japanese linguistics, specifically the areas of conversation anal­ ysis, discourse analysis, linguistic emotivity, and linguistic creativ­ ity, you may find some of my work helpful.

1.4. How to Use This Book is a guidebook for your Japanese learn­ ing project. It is best used as a supplement to your textbooks in elementary to advanced courses. You may read from the beginning to the end, but it is more likely you will seek specific entries as you prepare for or review certain points. Because this book contains words you may not be familiar with, you should have access to a Japanese-English dictionary (see Chapter 20, section 20.2). This is particularly true if you are study­ ing on your own or if you are a beginning student. I must also warn you that early on in the book, grammatical features may appear that have not yet been introduced. In those cases, please return to L^ea^rning Japa^n^esejb^ R e a l

Introduction

9

them after you have covered the basics introduced in Chapters 8, 9, and 10. At various critical points I have so noted or have sug­ gested that you refer to the relevant entry sections (for example, see section 10.1). It is best to study Parts I through IV in order. When you are in­ terested in Japanese conversation, Chapters 12 and 13 will be par­ ticularly useful. When you write or read Japanese, refer especially to Chapters 15 and 16. And, as mentioned earlier, Chapters 19 and 20 offer basic learning strategies that you can always update with information obtainable on the Internet. Having a supplementary reference book such as this one by your side offers comfort and excitement. As you take Japanese lan­ guage courses, when you feel you need help for certain aspects, you can consult specific entries. When you feel you are ahead of the class and need to be challenged, you can jump ahead. In the process, you will grasp the total picture of what it takes to be pro­ ficient in the Japanese language. Because L e a r n in g J a p a n e s e f o r R e a l contains a critical mass of information, it is ideal for review­ ing your overall knowledge about Japanese. Those of you who have studied Japanese for a couple of years will find the latter half of the volume particularly useful. Instructors can use this book as a required or recommended reference that guides students in their studies outside the class­ room. Students may be asked to read certain sections in prepara­ tion for planned classroom activities. Because the book is written in English, students can, on their own, become familiar with the grammar and proper use of the Japanese language. This will save precious classroom time, and instructors can insist on speaking in Japanese with the knowledge that students already have the nec­ essary background information. Certain chapters may be assigned to students for review purposes. Chapter 18 contains authentic popular culture samples and can be studied in the classroom. Particularly in advanced Japanese courses, the authentic sources introduced here offer inroads to encourage students to explore ad­ ditional “real” Japanese, an essential step toward being truly pro­ ficient in N ih o n g o . Because this book contains many entry sections and each section is purposely brief, I want to remind the reader that more detailed information is readily available elsewhere, as suggested in Chapter 20. Three of my own books— A n In tr o d u c tio n to J a p a ­ n e s e G r a m m a r a n d C o m m u n ic a tio n S tra te g ie s , P r in c ip le s o f J a p a ­

10

PRELIMINARIES

n e s e D is c o u rs e : A H a n d b o o k ， a n d E x p r e s s iv e J a p a n e s e : A R e fe r ­ e n c e G u id e to S h a r in g E m o tio n a n d E m p a th y —offer fuller accounts of Japanese grammar, discourse organization, and interpersonal communication. I hope Learning Japanese for Real will serve students and in­ structors alike as a useful guide in learning Nihongo as a foreign language. And it is my hope that this book will inspire the reader to continue learning N ih o n g o well beyond its covers.

1.5. Notes on Transcription Japanese expressions are presented in the normal script, combin­ ing hiragana，katakana，and kan/i. Sometimes the same phrase may appear in different scripts. This variation is conventionalized in the Japanese print media, and accordingly I have used varied scripts. Almost all Japanese examples are transcribed by using Romanization (room^aji,)， that is, the English alphabet. Romanization follows the Hepburn style but features the following slight varia­ tions: (1 )long voxels are represented by double vowels; (2) the glot­ tal stop is represented by t instead of a double consonant (itch i instead of i^chi^); and (3) the syllabic n ， when followed by a vowel, is presented as nJ(ren’ai). Also, note that the glottal stop tsu at the word-final position is spelled tt. Based on these principles, Tokyo is spelled “Tookyoo” in roomaji，although the conventional spelling of Tokyo is used in the English translation. I will use this room aj^ presentation throughout unless conventionalized otherwise. Once Japanese scripts are introduced in Chapter 5, kan/i char­ acters are accompanied by hi^a^gan^a readings either in parentheses or in a separate column. When Japanese sentences are presented separately, each sentence is given in Japanese orthography, fol­ lowed by the ro o m a ji transcription and an English translation. All English translations are mine. When translating into English, I fol­ lowed the original Japanese as closely as possible, but my transla­ tion is not the only acceptable rendition. The English translations are given for reference purposes only to help clarify the meaning. Throughout the book, some Japanese terms appear in ro o m a ji ， mainly to avoid confusion. When offering explanations, for purposes of contrast I use some examples that are ungrammatical or inappropriate. These expressions appear with an asterisk (*), and you should pay special attention to them so that you will know to carefully avoid them.

CH A PTER 2

Background

2.1. Nihongo: The Japanese Language WHO SPEAKS NIHONGO ?

is the national language of Japan, and it is spoken by approximately 127 million people. As a rule, Japanese nationals speak Japanese, and conversely, speakers of Japanese are Japa­ nese nationals. In Japan, a substantial number of foreigners speak Japanese with varying proficiency levels. Japanese is also spoken in Japanese emigrant communities around the world, most promi­ nently in Hawai‘i and Brazil. It is also spoken by Japanese nation­ als who temporarily reside in major cities throughout the world. In addition, it is estimated that a few million people speak Japanese as a second or a foreign language. Still, unlike the English lan­ guage spoken by multiple nationals, Japanese is very much the language of a single national entity. N ih o n g o

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF NIHONGO

Although a genetic relationship remains obscure, Japanese is sug­ gested to be distantly related to Korean and therefore to the Altaic languages. Japanese is classified as an agglutinating language, one that combines many separable elements, such as particles and modal suffixes. Bits of meaningful units are strung together to form a larger structural unit. For example, ta b e s a s e r a r e ta is a combina­ tion of ^a^beru 4to eat?, sa^ se^ (causative), ra re ru (passive), and ta (past tense). The combined meaning is something like ‘was forced to eat’. Japanese takes the basic SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word 11

12

PRELIMINARIES

order, whereas in English the word order is SVO (Subject-VerbObject). For example, compare the following two sentences. (a) Joo ga manga o yonda. (b) Joe read a comic book. In (a), the object manga ‘a comic book’ appears before yonda ‘read5. In (b), English puts re a d before a c o m ic book . Overall, Japanese is a topic-comment prominent language, where a topic (i.e., something being talked about, not necessarily a grammatical subject) plays a significant role. It includes particles that express not only grammatical cases but also personal emotion and attitude. Non-specification of topics, subjects, objects, and particles is common. Japanese has a rich system of formality and politeness levels. Depending on the formality of a situation, formal (i.e., d e s u / m a s u ) or informal (i.e., da) styles are chosen. Politeness is achieved not only by choosing the appropriate formal styles but also by choos­ ing appropriate expressions such as respectful and humble forms. This said, as you can easily imagine, Japanese speakers do not always use polite forms. Conflicts are a part of life, and under cer­ tain circumstances, blunt forms, emotive interjections, and curses are abundantly used. Although Japanese is known for its indirect­ ness in communication, when necessary, speakers express them­ selves directly through various emotion-revealing means. It should be noted in passing that familiarity plays a more important role than formality among younger speakers. As a result, young people often use familiar informal styles mixed in with formal styles to express their desire for emotional closeness. List of Basic Features

The list that follows summarizes the basic characteristics of the Japanese language.*1 2 1 .

2.

Verb in final position The basic rule for ordering elements in a sentence is to place the verb (optionally followed by suffixes and particles) at the final position. Adjectives as predicates The i-adjective (a type of adjective ending with i ) behaves like a verb. It can constitute a predicate by itself.

Background

3.

13

Topic-comment prominence The notion of topic plays a vital role in organizing infor­ mation. Topic is marked by a number of topic-marking parti­ cles, and if it appears, it usually does so at the sentence- and discourse-initial positions. 4. Not saying the obvious Not verbally speci^ing the elements obvious to the com­ munication partners is frequent. 5. Varied styles Japanese uses different devices to mark formality and politeness levels. 6. Rich variations Different varieties of language are used, often associated with demographics (age, gender, region, etc.). In addition, dif­ ferent varieties and their mixtures may be borrowed for mark­ ing social identity. Speakers may choose styles for personal, emotional, and creative reasons. 7. Modifier preceding the modified The basic word order for modification is that the modi­ fiers (e.g., adjectives and clausal modifiers) come before the modified (e.g., nouns). 8. Postpositional particles Particles mark grammatical relations (grammatical parti­ cles) as well as interpersonal feelings and attitudes in inter­ action (interactional particles), and they are placed after the element whose relation is defined. 9. Verb and adjective conjugation Verbs and adjectives are conjugated and change forms based on tense. They also change forms depending on the speaker's views and attitudes but not on those of the gram­ matical person (i.e., first, second, or third person). 10. Nouns and counters Japanese does not mark a distinction between the singu­ lar and plural forms of a noun. There is no device comparable to the English plural marker -s. When specifying quantity, Japanese employs a set of counters. 1 1 . Not specifying the agent Japanese tends to describe the world as a natural state or a change brought about by some force. Specification of a subject or agent (i.e., the person performing an act) is not as prominent a factor as it is in English.

14

PRELIMINARIES

2.2. The Country Called Japan GEOGRAPHY

Japan (Nippon, Nihon) is an island country lying at the eastern pe­ riphery of Asia. The four main islands extend in northeast and southwest di­ rections, forming an arc. These four main islands are, from the northeast, Hokkaido (Hokk^ai^d^oo), Honshu (H o n s h u u ), Shikoku, and Kyushu (K y u u s h u u ). In terms of size, Japan is slightly larger than Germany and somewhat smaller than California. It is approx­ imately one-twenty-fifth of the United States. The Japanese climate is temperate, with a rainy season in June (except in Hokkaido) followed by a hot and humid summer. The variation in temperature between northern and southern Japan is considerable. The four seasons are distinct, and the Japanese have traditionally been highly sensitive to and appreciative of the distinctions among the seasons. The country is not exempt from frequent natural disasters, including earthquakes and volcanic ac­ tivity. Annual typhoons strike the country in the fall. Modern Japan is a highly industrialized and urbanized society, and its major cities are concentrated along the seaboard of Honshu, facing the Pacific. These are cities such as Sendai, Tokyo (T o o k y o o ), Yokohama, and Nagoya. Osaka (Oosaka) and Kobe (Koobe) are lo­ cated along the Inland Sea (between Honshu and the Shikoku Is­ lands). Other major cities include Fukuoka in Kyushu, Sapporo in Hokkaido, and the ancient city of Kyoto (K y o o to ) near Osaka. Although modernized, communities in the countryside generally maintain traditional customs. SOCIETY

Many observers characterize Japan as a society that emphasizes so­ cial hierarchy and group membership. Although the “group” orienta­ tion exists, it is also true that Japanese society praises individualism. The desire to belong to a group and the wish to remain inde­ pendent as an individual occur in all societies. These two forces pull us toward opposing directions, it seems. More broadly, we can understand this phenomenon through the concept of self and soci­ ety, which shape all other sociocultural concepts. What is critical is the way we relate to society and the way we define our selves in re­ lation to others. Characterizing the Japanese view toward self and society in contrast with that of the traditional American culture, in my earlier work I introduced the concept of “relationality.”

Background

15

Relationality refers to the reciprocal influence exerted by two different elements that are reflexively characterized by each other. In other words, it refers to the mutual relationship of self and society. The starting point for the Japanese lies in society, while the starting point for traditional Americans lies in the concept of self. Here the “starting point” means the primary and deep-rooted self­ concept with which one is encouraged to identic early in life. In Japan, social accommodation, responsiveness, and cooperation are the dominant, although not the only, training one receives in the socialization process. The relationship one identifies as one’s psychological foundation is based on, anchored to, and defined in relation to society. The Japanese, however, express individuality more as they mature and achieve comfort within society. The direc­ tion of opposing forces between society and self in Japan is fromsociety-to-self, that is, society-relational. For many Americans, the concept of self is fundamental.Socialization is important, and each person is expected to be on friendly terms with others, but more important is exercising indi­ viduality. Being on one’s own and speaking up for one’s interest are more important than learning to accommodate others. However, after a certain degree of individuality is learned, many Americans find solace in family and group. This tendency can be labeled fromself-to-society, that is, self-relational. Of course, we are creatures of contradiction, and we find our­ selves simultaneously pulled toward self and society. A Japanese person often finds balance between self and society by moving from “social dependence” toward “psychological independence.” An American tends to find such balance by moving from “social inde­ pendence” toward “psychological dependence.” Cultural forces in Japan and the United States tend to encourage opposing direc­ tions in the relationality of self and society. Depending on your native language and society, you will find your own view of self and society more or less similar to that of the Japanese. The comparison will reveal your sense of self and the characteristic of your native country in an interesting way.

2.3. Social Concepts Among the concepts known to characterize the Japanese society, four approaches are worth mentioning:( 1 ) a m a e , (2) m e u e and m^^shi^a^, (3) u c h i and soto, and (4) ta te m a e and h o n n e .

16

PRELIMINARIES

AMAE

refers to the psychological and emotional sense of depen­ dence, and it is considered a concept that explains certain aspects of the Japanese people’s psychological and social behavior. Amae is etymologically related to a m a i 4sweet? and refers to sweet, ten­ der, and all-forgiving love, similar to parental love, particularly a mother’s love. Am^a^e is the warm, all-accepting, and dependent re­ lationship Japanese people enjoy among intimates. It is enjoyed by people not only during their childhood but, more important, throughout their lives. Amae, above all, involves the desire to be passively cared for by another. When the a m a e relationship is es­ tablished, one can be selfishly dependent and still be accepted and forgiven. For the amae relationship to work, at least two persons must be involved, one to seek the other’s dependence and the other to accept it. Once such a relationship is recognized by both parties, the manner of interaction changes. For example, interactional par­ ticles are frequently used, familiar and friendly vocatives appear, and a self-centered mode of communication is, in general, likely to be accepted. Am^a^e

MEUE AND MESHITA

The word meue literally means ‘above eye level’.A meue person is someone who is socially higher in status. In contrast, m e s h ita liter­ ally means ‘below eye level’ and refers to someone who is socially lower in status. A number of factors determine whether your status is higher or lower in relation to a person with whom you interact or a person you mention. Some comparisons are listed below. M eue

M e s h ita

Boss at work Older person Male Doctor Lawyer Teacher Upper class at school Person with prestigious job Person offering a favor Buyer, customer

Younger worker, with lower rank Younger person Female Patient Client Student Lower class at school Person with less prestigious job Recipient of the favor Seller, salesperson

Background

17

Identifying social status is critical in Japanese communication because you must choose the appropriate speech style based on such awareness. UCHI AND SOTO U c h i 4in, insider, internal, private, hidden5and s o to 'out, outside, external, public, exposed’ refer to social and psychological spaces identified among Japanese. People belonging to a specific group (such as a workplace, association, or other social circle) usually consider themselves u c h i members. Japanese speakers refer to an affiliation by using the very phrase, as in u c h i n o k a is h a 4our com­ pany’. Also, as a self-referencing term, u c h ir a 4we, the members of a group’ is used, implying the significance of a group unity. U ch i members share a sense of a,m^a,e, and they are likely to use expres­ sions that would enhance and strengthen the feeling of a m a e. It should be added that depending on the occasion, u c h i and so^o worlds shift. For example, at a party held for university alum­ ni, every graduate considers himself or herself an u c h i member. But just as there are groups within groups, an inner u c h i group (e.g., members of the ski club) would consider other alumni to be part of the s o to world. Depending on these in-group/out-group re­ lationships, the style and manner in which you communicate will shift. The sense of being u c h i or s o to plays a significant part in social scenes. Even when a person is m eu e , if he or she is considered an uchi member, less polite and more frank expressions are used. In Japanese society, u c h i and s o to are the most powerful elements controlling one’s social behavior. Although social contexts such as u c h i and s o to offer frame­ works within which we select our communication styles, the styles themselves also function to define the context of which they are a part. In other words, by choosing styles permitted to u c h i members (to the extent it is allowed), the a m a e relationship is nurtured. In addition, by strategically choosing a less polite and therefore a less distant style, you may encourage familiarity and intimacy. In this sense, communication styles are used to create the social context as well.

TATEMAE AND HONNE

A Japanese person is known to distinguish between ta te m a e 'prin­ ciple, public face’ and honn^e 'private true thoughts and feelings’.

18

PRELIMINARIES

should be followed based on one?s principles and social expectations. Honne, on the other hand, is what a person truly thinks and feels. For Japanese, it is important to maintain ta te m a e in many public situations, but at the same time, it is important to share honn^e with people who share the a m a e relationship. In general, Japanese expressions used to show h o n n e are di­ rect and self-revealing, although people select formal and distanc­ ing styles when maintaining ta te m a e . T a te m a e

2.4. Popular Culture For years, Japanese popular culture has attracted worldwide at­ tention. Most popular are m^an^ga (comic books) and anime (anima­ tion games, TV programs, and movies). The art of m a n g a and anime can be traced to the works of Osamu Tezuka (1928-1989). Tezuka was a manga artist and animator whose works include Astro Boy (T e^ su w a n A ^om u ) and P h o e n ix (H i n o Tori). More recently, a series of anime movies by Hayao Miyazaki, including N a u s ic c a o f th e V a l­ le y o f th e W in d (K a z e n o T a n i n o N a u s h ik a ), S p irite d A w a y (S e n to C h ih iro n o K a m ik a k u s h i), a n d P o n y o o n th e C l i f f b y th e S e a (G a k e no

ue no Ponyo), have gained popularity abroad. Japanese comic magazines and comic books continue to occu­ py a significant part of printed media. Many of the comic stories are produced as anime, television dramas, and special movies released in theaters. Some representative series include M e ita n te i K o n a n , K in d a ic h i S h o o n e n n o J ik e n b o ,

N o d a m e K a n ta a b ire , a n d N a n a .

There are literally thousands of m a n g a , and information is avail­ able not only through thousands of books but also on the Internet. In addition, Japanese television dramas, movies, music (J-pop), and electronic games are popular in Asia and elsewhere. Japanese cooking and pop art have produced some world-recognized chefs (e.g., Masaharu Morimoto) and pop artists (e.g., Takashi Muraka­ mi). Japanese architects (e.g., Tadao Ando) and fashion designers (e.g., Kenzo Takada, Rei Kawakubo, and Junya Watanabe) are also recognized worldwide. Various images of Japan have been created through consumer culture as well. The phenomenon of Cos-play (k o s u p u re ), or cos­ tume play, at Akihabara in Tokyo is well known. Some coffee shops and eating places feature service staff wearing “maid” costumes. Some characters (such as Sanrio^s Hello Kitty) personi^ “cute­ ness,” a recognized value in Japanese culture. Cuteness (k a w a is a )

Background

19

and cute (k a w a ii) are ubiquitous, and they are easily spotted in the trends of popular culture, the entertainment business, fash­ ion, snacks, and toys. Although a preference for k a w a ii may be considered childish and immature, it is widely used in marketing a variety of commodities and remains a familiar value in Japanese culture. The familiarity of Japanese popular culture has brought the Japanese language to the world stage. The Japanese language used in some of these media bears distinct characteristics and features. M a n g a contain extensive onomatopoeic and action-enhancing ex­ pressions. J-pop uses many English and other foreign loan words and foreign-sounding expressions. Nih^on^go in these consumer venues differs from ordinary natu­ ral speech. However, it is in this context that you are often ex­ posed to Japanese, and Japanese popular culture provides useful resource for students. Still, it is important to know that the vari­ eties depicted in the mass media resemble the naturally occur­ ring Nihongo only in varying degrees. In Chapter 18, we will study the Japanese language representing some of the popular culture genres.

CH A PTER 3

Variation and Change in Nihongo

3.1. Variations in Language When we refer to “the Japanese language,” we tend to assume there is one language. In reality, however, the Japanese we speak repre­ sents one variety among many, all of which belong to the Japanese language. A Nih^on^go student should be aware of the functions of differ­ ent varieties. Choosing the wrong form at the wrong time can be awkward. Youth language addressed to an audience of seniors, for example, would be not only rude but also silly, and such usage would be considered characteristic of a jo o s h ik i s h ira z u , a person who lacks social grace. There are at least three major factors associated with linguistic variation: ⑴ the traditional concept of gender, (2) the speaker’s age and generation, and (3) the speaker’s regional background. This chapter offers a general overview on the nature of variation. Details on different varieties will be given in Chapter 12.

3.2. More Assertive “Masculine” and Less Assertive “Feminine” Styles Traditionally some Japanese speakers have made a clear distinc­ tion between masculine speech (or men’s language) and feminine speech (or women’s language). Although a clear distinction between these varieties has largely faded and speakers use both styles for expressive purposes, it is necessary to understand their character­ istics. Moreover, older speakers tend to retain the distinctions, so it is unwise to use gender-associated varieties carelessly without understanding the possible social consequences. Differences between masculine and feminine speech styles are 20

Variation and Change in Nihongo

21

not so prominent in formal Japanese as in casual speech. In casual speech, the gender differences appear more significantly, partly be­ cause the speaker feels less constrained to express feelings and partly because differences may be used to emphasize one’s gender identity in intimate relationships. In general, feminine speech is more gentle, and masculine speech, more blunt. The overall impression of gentleness or blunt­ ness can be achieved through a number of linguistic and other means. It is important to realize that female speakers sometimes choose a rather blunt style, and male speakers, a gentle style. In reality, feminine and masculine speech should be viewed as tendencies, as a matter of degree. Masculine and feminine speech styles are not mutually exclusive, and Japanese speakers may use both styles across genders.

3.3. Gender-Associated Styles in Transition Traditionally feminine speech was considered the kind of language women should use. Numerous books are available to tell women how to talk. However, such discourse itself reflects an ideology that discriminates against women. It makes more sense to understand feminine speech as an option available for all speakers. In fact, Japanese women’s speech is becoming more like men’s speech, and gender differences in language use, particularly among youth, are becoming something of a myth. Women are viewed as being more aggressive than once thought, particularly in private and casual situations. The language used by young women and for young women in the media also has taken on features traditionally considered restrictively masculine.

3.4. Generation and Variation Variations in Nihongo are observed among different age groups. Naturally we speak differently and use different vocabulary as we age. In Japanese, a young male speaker may always use b o k u 4I’ in childhood, but later in his life he is expected to identify himself as boku, ore, watashi, or jibun depending on the context. The formal style followed by the particle n a a, as in S a m u i d^^su n^a^a 4It is cold, isn’t it?’, is considered o jis a n -k o to b a 'middleaged men’s language’. It is not normally used when the speaker

22

PRELIMINARIES

is young. In other words, certain expressions are used at differ­ ent stages of one?s life. Age-sensitive variations convey different messages about the speaker’s identity. In this way, generational differences in speech style communicate both personal and social meanings.

3.5. Youth Language Among generational variations, youth language is often noted in the media for its newness, cleverness, and peculiarity. Youth lan­ guage is the language spoken by teens and those in their twen­ ties under certain circumstances (see section 12.4). Some features of the so-called youth language, however, cross over generations. Some youth expressions have taken root in the speech style of peo­ ple in their thirties and even in their forties. The following are some of the known characteristics of youth language. 1.

2.

3.

4.

Shortening of existing phrases K im o i instead of k im o c h i g a w a r u i 'feeling (physically) sick’ is used. Kimoi is used in a more restricted sense; it is used only when feeling emotionally bad. Change of meanings Y a b a i (or y a b e e ), which originally meant ‘in danger, risky’, is also used to mean ‘extremely and/or surprisingly good, overwhelmingly excellent’. For example, when eating something very delicious, a young speaker may say, “K o r e y a b a i” 'This is too delicious’. Emphatic expressions Choo, mecha, metcha, and mutcha are used. For example, c h o o ya^sui 'unbelievably inexpensive’ and m e c h a k a w a ii ‘super cute’. Objectifying and self-alienating expressions The speaker describes one’s own behavior as if objectively observed by someone else. For example, K e s a , o k ita ra a ta m a m o ita i shi, m e tch a , b u ru u h a itte ru m ita in a ‘T h is m o r n in g

when I got up, I had a headache, and I was under the impres­ sion that I was really depressed’. This and other objectifying and self-alienating expressions give the impression that the speaker is being solicitous of and considerate to his or her partner.

Variation and Change in Nihongo

23

3.6. Regional Variations Although there are many regional variations in Japan, the major dialect divisions are between the Ryukyuan dialects (of Okinawa) and the mainland dialects. The mainland dialects are customarily divided into three large groups: eastern Japan, western Japan, and Kyushu. There are, however, major differences between the east­ ern group, on the one hand, and the western (K a n s a i) and Kyushu group on the other. The language of the Kansai area is called the “Kansai dialect” (K^an^sai^-ben^) and, more restrictively, the “Osaka dialect” (O o s a k a ben^). It shows some contrast with the dialect of the Kanto area, or Tokyo speech. The principal differences are in some vocabulary, in certain word formations, and in the tone system. For example, the verb form M o o h^ar^att^a 4I already paid5in the T okyo speech is M o o h a roota in the Kansai dialect. Adverbs also differ. T a k a k u n a tta 4It became expensive5in the Tokyo speech is T a k o o n a tta in the Kansai dialect. For the negative n^ai in the Tokyo speech, the Kansai dialect uses n or h^en^, as in K y o o w a ik a -n a i ‘I won?t go today5versus K y o o w a ik a -n o r K y o o w a ik a -h e n .

The tone system difference between the two varieties is also quite noticeable. For example, ko-ko-ro ‘heart’ is pronounced in T okyo with low-high-low tone but with high-low-low tone in Osaka. Regional variations show differences in conversational style as well. Tokyo speakers express personal opinions and views while soliciting those of others’. In contrast, Osaka speakers are known to involve everyone in the conversation, creating an intensely col­ laborative discourse. The majority of Japanese people are exposed to a number of varieties on a daily basis, with the dominant variety being Tokyo speech. In fact, depending on the situation, most Japanese speak­ ers shift between their local speech and the common or standard variety (ky oo^ su u go), that is, the media-supported Tokyo speech. Most of the media follow Tokyo speech, except in certain entertain­ ment industries where the Kansai dialect appears frequently. In an u c h i situation, it is more likely that the local speech will be chosen, although in a formal so^o situation, k y o o ts u u g o is likely to be used. In the past, regional dialects were considered inferior to k y o o tsuugo. However, in recent years, particularly among youth, re­ gional dialects have been taken as something curious and even

24

PRELIMINARIES

fun. Select phrases from different dialects are introduced in the mass media for entertainment purposes as well. The value of dia­ lects has increased in general, although in formal occasions people choose k y o o ts u u g o . Among Japanese, the ideal speech is the kind that broadcast­ ers in the NHK (Nih^on, H o o s o o K y o o k a i, the public broadcasting system in Japan) use in reading the daily news. It is a good idea to listen to their Japanese as a model for the most acceptable accent, speed, and tone.

3.7. New Dialects Particularly interesting among dialects is the new dialect, called shin-hoogen. A new dialect emerges in three ways. First， changes occur within a dialect, and new forms gradually take over. For ex­ ample, in the northeastern regional dialect (T o o h o k u -b e n ), among seniors yokan be is dominant, although young speakers prefer ii be 'it’s good’. Second, new expressions particular to certain speech varia­ tions emerge. For example, in Tokyo, instead of m ita i, m ita k u 'like’ is used. Instead of n^anigen^aku, n a n ig e n i 'without intention’ is pre­ ferred. These new forms are not necessarily restricted to youth, and they appear somewhat consistently in ordinary speech. Third, an expression may migrate from its original place to another re­ gion. For example, j a n 'isn’t it?’, originally spoken in Yamanashi, was introduced into Shizuoka, then to T okyo. Once it has become popular in Tokyo, particularly due to its use in media, the expres­ sion spreads throughout Japan. This is considered a new dialect, although it seems to be on its way to becoming a part of k y o o ts u u g o . Whatever happens to the specific newly created expression, the new dialect is expected to thrive as long as speakers are inter­ ested in using it. These expressions are often used for fun and for enhancing a sense of camaraderie among speakers.

3.8. Stylistic Variations Two of the most prominent speech styles in Japanese are formal and informal. They are marked by the verb form, either formal desu/masu or informal da. Desu is a formal style of the be-verb da, and m^a^su is a formality marker for other verbs and adjectives. For example, ik u 4to go’ is informal, while ik im a s u 4to go’ is formal.

Variation and Change in Nihongo

25

You use formal style unless there are reasons to do otherwise. It is the style of choice in public and official situations. In general, the formal style is chosen on all occasions where you interact with partners to whom you want to be polite and from whom you want to maintain a distance. Using the formal style is an important part of expressing politeness. Informal style is used in private situations, though also in pub­ lic situations if interpersonal familiarity and intimacy are already established. You choose the informal style when the situation does not require formality and when you sense that a familiar and ca­ sual attitude is either tolerated or appreciated. Blunt style is another speech variation. You use it when it is not necessary to pay attention to how you should speak or when you are overtaken by raw emotions such as anger and frustration. Because the blunt style is straightforward and closes the psycho­ logical distance between you and your partner, in certain circum­ stances it can also convey intimacy and closeness. Some blunt expressions are slangy and vulgar and are limited to very casual situations. In this book, the formal and informal styles appear without markings. When the speech style requires special attention, it is noted in square brackets, that is, [blunt style]. When styles are discussed in the text and they are self-evident, such markings do not appear. In association with politeness, Japanese can be either polite or supra-polite. Polite expressions use formal forms as well as other moderately polite vocabulary and strategies. Supra-polite expres­ sions use formal style, respectful and humble verb forms, the pre­ fixes g o - and o-, and other very polite strategies. When necessary, the supra-polite style is marked as such, again in square brackets.

3.9. Written, Spoken, and Speech-like Written Nihongo Depending on the methods of communication, three different styles are recognized in N ih o n ^ g o : ( 1 ) spoken, (2) written, and (3) speech-like written. Spoken style includes official speech, speech exchanged in formal meetings and business conversations, and ca­ sual personal and intimate conversations, among others. Written style is used in letters, documents, novels, print media such as newspapers and magazines, and so on. The speech-like written style is a recent development and

26

PRELIMINARIES

requires some explanation. In the early 1980s, a style bearing straightforward and unconventional speech characteristics was in­ troduced by a limited number of writers. In the 1990s the speech­ like written style (called shin^-genbun^-itchit^aV) began to rise as a stylistic trend. This style was originally used by youth in commu­ nications on the Internet, in magazines targeted at youth, and in many romance novels for girls. Although the Japanese is written, it is written as if one were talking to a friend. It frequently uses interjections, particles (such as ne, sa, and y o ), sound changes (e.g., s u g g o k u 'extremely5instead of s u g o k u ; n a a n to n a k u 'somehow5 instead of nantonaku). Because of its spontaneity, speech-like writ­ ten style tends to be simple, sporadic, and emotion-filled. Currently the speech-like written style is widely used in pub­ lications addressed to adult readers, including some magazine ar­ ticles, essays, and novels. Japanese is becoming increasingly more casual in style, and the speech-like style is spreading across genres.

3.10. Digital Communication Digital communication on the Internet or on the cell phone (k e e ta i) has encouraged a new kind of language use. Some Japanese ex­ pressions are used almost exclusively in text messaging on the cell phone (e.g., the final particle p y o o n ). Text messaging encourages short sentences and a spoken style. Often in digital communication, visual signs are used. They basically come in two types: k a o m o ji and emoj[i. K a o m o ji, also called emoticons or smilies, use different keys to form facial expressions. These appear in e-mails and other communications through com­ puter terminals. Many of them are common across languages. Emoji ‘picture characters’ are a visual presentation of messag­ es and feelings and are mostly used in cell-phone text messaging. Depending on the cell-phone service with which you contract, dif­ ferent e m o ji icons are available. The use of e m o ji in cell-phone text messaging is prevalent in Japan, particularly among young female users. These picture icons accompany verbal messages to convey overall friendliness and to share feelings. Messages without e m o ji are thought to be too direct. In a ^ay, e m o ji are used like the wrap­ ping paper for a gift, making the communication more pleasing. The k e e ta i culture has produced a popular literary field called keetai shoosetsu (cell-phone novels). Certain keetai novelists are very popular, and some of the novels are later published as printed

Variation and Change in Nihongo

27

books and produced as television dramas and movies. The lan­ guage used in k e e ta i s h o o s e ts u is short, conversational, and youthoriented. We will examine one such example in Chapter 18.

3.11. Meanings of Variation On one hand, technological advancements in communication and the saturation of the media have contributed to the decline of tra­ ditional differences among varieties of language usage. On the other hand, social and psychological motivations have led to lin­ guistic variability. Think of the language variety shared by closely connected group members. A certain dialect may be used away from the region where it is normally spoken. For example, people from Osaka may carry on a conversation in Osaka dialect in Tokyo to strengthen their sense of unity. A certain speech style may be shared among high school clique members to mark group identity. A specific variety, because it differs from other varieties, functions as a source for emotional bonding that enhances group identity and the sense of group belongingness. It is important to note that the choice of a certain variety is not based on one’s biological or social factors alone. A person in T okyo may use the speech variety of his or her friend (outside of T okyo) for expressing intimacy. A female student may use a blunt masculine variety to play with gender identity unexpected in soci­ ety. Although we choose language varieties on the basis of social conventions, they also function as tools for creating and realizing our identity. Curiously these varieties, because they are associated with biological and social factors, may be used against those very assumptions and expectations.

3.12. Language Change and Learning Nihongo Language constantly undergoes changes, and so do its varieties. As in the case of a new dialect, changes may occur in a single va­ riety. Certain expressions may be transformed by another dialect’s influence, or new phrases may be created within a dialect, influ­ enced by the media-supported Tokyo speech. Changes may be brought about by the media, where certain dialects are used for entertainment purposes. The K a n s a i-b e n used by teen idols in television variety shows becomes more acceptable in ordinary communication, for example.

28

PRELIMINARIES

It is customary that the mature adult population tends to be frustrated by rapid changes in language. But language is in con­ stant flux, and there is no way of stopping it. It is interesting that sometimes similar language changes are observed across time. In 2007, a group of Japanese phrases using strings of letters was introduced as a part of the youth language. A prominent example is KY, made up of the first letters of the two words k u u k i y o m e n a i ‘cannot understand the social and situational atmosphere5. But fifty years earlier, a similar mechanism was at work, and MMK was used to refer to motete motete komaru ‘being extremely popular among the opposite sex’. The relative importance among the three factors associated with variations (i.e., gender, age, and location) may also shift. Today the age factor seems strongest, and the differences based on location and gender are somewhat declining. These changes influ­ ence how Japanese varieties morph through time. We must recognize that language is always undergoing chang­ es, and a book such as this one can capture only a certain moment in time. Consequently it is important for the student to remain vigilant of constant changes. Publications that comment on new popular expressions, including youth language, are available (e.g., Shuueisha’s Imi^d^a^s and Asahi Shinbunsha’s C h ie z o o , published on a yearly basis, some available free on the Internet). Japanese Internet sites also provide information related to youth language (若者言葉、わかものことば w a k a m o n o k o to b a ). Use key words such as 流行語 ry u u k o o g o popular phrases’ and 新 語 shingo ‘new words’ to search for additional information about changes and shifts in Nihongo. Most current language changes won’t be found in old textbooks, so it is important to remain sensi­ tive to the changes that occur in “real” Japanese.

PART II

Sounds and Scripts

CH A PTER 4

The Nihongo Sound System

4.1. Overview A precise description of the sounds of a language is difficult, and you can fully master Japanese sounds only by imitating what you hear. However, your efforts will be better directed if you are familiar with the system and are aware of predictable problems. Keep in mind that students of any foreign language must be exposed to the natural flow of the spoken words of the target lan­ guage. It is important to pay close attention to native speakers’ speech in person or through the media. For those of you who are not taking courses and have little access to classroom Japanese, CDs, DVDs, and other audio and visual materials are available. Some sites on the Internet provide Japanese sounds for the words you type in. (These resources are discussed in Part VII.) Two basic points should be noted about the Japanese pronun­ ciation system, especially relevant to English speakers. The first is making a distinction between short and long vowels, and the sec­ ond is avoiding the English-style stress. For example, you are famil­ iar with the capital of Japan, Tokyo. How would you pronounce it? The way English speakers normally pronounce “Tokyo,” it consists of two short syllables with the accent placed on the first, that is, To-kyo. The accurate pronunciation consists of four units, to -o -k y o -o , where to and kyo are short, but they are both elongated with the duplicated vowel o. No stress is placed on to.

4.2. Morae Before we begin, we must familiarize ourselves with the word “mora” (and its plural form, “morae”). A “mora” refers to a unit of 31

32

S O UN D S A ND S CR I P T S

time, particularly the duration of a sound. In N ih o n g o , each mora is of approximately the same length, and it carries about the same weight. Instead of syllables, Japanese is supported by mora. (Tokyo is To-o-kyo-o, a four-mora word.) The word N ih o n g o consists of four morae, ni-ho-n-go, pronounced with four rhythmical units of sound. Japanese morae are presented below. Morae are accompanied with hiragana (to be introduced shortly) for convenience. Basic morae take the form of ⑴ the sound “n,” （ 2) vowel,(3) consonant + vowel, and (4) consonant + y + vowel.

4.3. The Sound “N” as One Mora Special attention must be paid to the sound “n.” N ( ん ） is one mora, and accordingly it occupies the same length of time as other morae. The n in n^h^on carries the same weight as n i and ho. に ほん

Ni-ho-n sa-n-po ko-n-ba-n-wa

Japan walk good evening

さんぽ こんばんは

4.4. Vowels There are five vowels in Japanese: a あ

i い

u う

e

o

え

お

Special attention should be paid to the sound “u.” Unlike in English, it is pronounced without rounding or protruding the lips.

4.5. Consonant + Vowel The consonant + vowel combination forms the primary sound sys­ tem in Japanese, as listed below. k/g

s/z

ka

ki

ku

ke

か

き

く

け

sa

shi

su

se

さ

し

す

せ

ko こ

so そ

ga

gi

gu

ge

go

が

ぎ

ぐ

げ

za

ji

zu

ze

zo

ざ

じ

ず

ぜ

ぞ

ご

The Nihongo Sound System

t/d n

h/b/p

ta

chi

tsu

te

to

da

ji

zu

de

do

た

ち

つ

て

と

だ

ぢ

づ

で

ど

na

ni

nu

ne

no

に

ぬ

ね

の

ha

は

m

33

ma

h

fu

ひ ふ

mi

he

ho

ba

^へ ほ ば

mu

bi

bu

び

ぶ ベ

me

mo

be

bo p a

pi

pu

ぼ

ぴ

ぷ ぺ

ぱ

pe

po

ぽ

み

y

r

ya

yu

yo

や

ゆ

よ

ra

ri

ru

re

ro

ら

り

る

れ

ろ

A couple of points regarding Japanese consonants follow. First, the Japanese “r” differs from the English “r ” and “l,” both of which are absent in Japanese. It is produced by the tongue tip flicking the hard gum ridge slightly behind the upper teeth, in a forward and downward movement. Note, in contrast, that the English “r” (as in run) is pronounced without touching the palate. Actually, the Japanese “r^? is closer to the English “d.” Japanese native speak­ ers find the English phonemic distinction between “l” and “r” dif­ ficult. Japanese students of English are often warned that ric e and lice are two different things, but in many cases they come out the same. Second, note that the “th” and “f^? sounds are absent in N ih o n ­ go. Use the “s” and “z” sounds for “th.” “Smith,” for example, is pro­ nounced su-mi-su^, and “mother,” m a -z a -a . When pronouncing “fu,” instead of the “f^? sound, use “h” as in w h o. F u ru ta , for example, is pronounced h u -ru -ta .

34

S O UN D S A ND S CR I P T S

4.6. Consonant + Y + Vowel (Contracted Sounds) A group of sounds is contracted by inserting a “y,” creating the fol­ lowing combinations. Note that for the combinations of sy, zy, and ty, we are using “sh,” “j,” and “ch.”

〇

kya

kyu

kyo

gya

gyu

gy

きゃ

きゅ

きょ

ぎゃ

ぎゆ

ぎょ

sy /zy

sha しゃ

shu しゅ

sho しょ

ja じや

ju じゆ

jo じょ

ty

cha ちゃ

chu ちゅ

cho ちょ

ny

nya にゃ

nyu にゅ

nyo にょ

ky /gy

hya hyu ひやひゆ

hy/by/py

hyo ひょ

my

mya みや

myu みゆ

myo みょ

ry

rya りや

ryu りゆ

ryo りょ

bya びや

byu びゆ

byo pya びよぴや

pyu ぴゆ

pyo ぴょ

4.7. Long Vowels (Duplication of Vowels) Japanese long vowels are duplicated short vowels, as shown below. aa ああ

ii いい

uu うう

ee ええ

oo おお

They are used in expressions such as the following: aa iie uun ee

ああ いいえ ううん ええ

yes no no yes

[casual speechi [casual speechi

The Nihongo Sound System

35

4.8. Double Consonants The consonants k, s, t, and p commonly occur in a duplicated form (i.e., kk, ss, tt, and p p ). For example, k is duplicated in s a k k i 4a while ago’. This consonant also constitutes a mora, and it is spelled with small tsu in hiragana. So sa-k-ki has three morae. zasshi yottsu rippa

ざっし

magazine four fine

よ っつ りっぱ

4.9. Word Accentuation Beyond vowels and consonants, Japanese sound is characterized by accentuation. As a general tendency, Japanese accentuation is mainly a matter of pitch (high versus low), while English ac­ centuation involves more of a stress (or loudness). Under normal circumstances, accentuation in Japanese is lighter than in Eng­ lish, devoid of a clear distinction between strong and weak sounds. However, some words are strongly and clearly pronounced for em­ phatic effect. Although accentuation differs among different regional dia­ lects, here we will focus on Tokyo speech, which makes use of two levels of relative pitch with two basic principles. First, the first two morae in a word are always at different pitch levels. Second, there can be no more than a single drop of pitch within a word. It should be noted parenthetically that the first principle is not always fol­ lowed in Tokyo speech today; instead, flat pitch is spreading. In the examples to follow, - marks a change from higher to lower pitch, and □ marks a change from lower to higher pitch. ha-shi haOshi taObako taOma-go

はし はし タノバコ たまご

chopsticks bridge cigarette egg

Additionally, a notable contour change occurs when combining words. For example, note the words to r i 'bird’ and s h im a 'island’. Although these words share identical pitch, when they occur in a sentence, they trigger a different sound contour in the consequent

36

S O UN D S A ND S CR I P T S

sound. In the case of to ri o m iru 4to look at a bird5, a high pitch is sustained at the sound of o, while in the case of s h im a o m iru 4to look at an island’， o takes a lower pitch. toDri shiDma toDri o mi-ru shiDma-o mi-ru

とり しま とりをみる しまをみる

bird island to look at a bird to look at an island

As you can see, the pitch assignment in Japanese is rather complex. The best way to learn is to imitate the natural speech. It is a good idea to be sensitive to the pitch and to train yourself so that you can imitate a sound as closely as possible.

4.10. Sound Changes for Emphasis Japanese sounds are expressively used for emphatic and stylistic effect. Usually an increase in volume and length indicates an em­ phasis in meaning. The elongation of vowels brings an emphatic effect, for example, y o o k u 'really well’, instead of y o k u 'well’. The elongation is usually transcribed with a bar (一 ). (a) Hai hai, yooku wakarimashita. はいはい、 よ一くわかりました。

Yes, sure, I understand it well. Another sound change is the insertion of a glottal stop (a sound represented as a sm all つ and ツ）， which creates a more emphatic or more emotive effect. For example, the emphatic z e n ttz e n ぜ ん っ せ ん ‘absolutely not’ occurs instead of zenzen ぜ ん せ ん ‘not at all’. The glottal stop can be added at the end of an utterance when the speaker wants to make an extraordinarily strong assertion. (b) Ikunatt. 行くなっ。

Don’t go, ever!

CH A PTER 5

Scripts

5.1. Overview T h e J a p a n e s e writing s y s t e m is k n o w n to b e complex. T h e m o s t n o ­ table feature is its c o m b i n a t i o n of a f e w distinct scripts. T h e three basic scripts are hiragana, katakana, a n d kan/i. While a n d k a t a k a n a are b a s e d o n s o u n d units, is u s e d o n the basis of m e a n i n g . In addition, the Latin alphabet (ro o m a ji) a n d Arabic n u m e r a l s are used. T o see s o m e J a p a n e s e writing samples, visit the W e b sites of the m a j o r J a p a n e s e n e w s p a p e r s s u c h a s A s a h i S h in b u n , M a in ic h i S h in b u ^ , a n d Y o m iu ri Shin^bun^, a n d click o n the J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e icon. O r take a look at J a p a n e s e m a g a z i n e s a n d b o o k s if y o u h a v e access to t h e m . A n d obviously y o u r J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e textbooks will contain s o m e writing samples. A typical online n e w s p a p e r site is likely to contain writing s a m ­ ples s u c h a s the following. Y O M I U R I O N L I N E 読売新聞 スポ'— ツ サッカーW 杯 予 選 に 代 表 2 5 人

Note the different scripts: ro o m a ji h ira g a n a k a ta k a n a k a n ji

Arabic n u m e r a l s

Y O M I U R I ONLINE, W に （ g r a m m a t i c a l particle) スポーツ‘ sports'，サ ツ カ ー ‘ soccer’ 読 売 新 聞 'Yomiuri W e 川spape〆 ，杯 ‘ c u p ',予 選 'preliminary m a t c h e s ’ ，代 表 ‘ representa­ tives’ ，人 （ counter for people) 2 5

37

38

S O UN D S A ND S CR I P T S

Notice W 杯 ‘ World C u p ’ ，a c o m b i n a t i o n of the Latin alphabet “ W ”a n d k^anji for the w o r d “ cup.”T h e three lines p r esented a b o v e s h o w i n g the n a m e of the n e w s p a p e r a n d the headline roughly m e a n the following: Y o m iu ri O nline Y o m iu ri N e w s p a p e r Sports Twenty-five representatives c h o s e n for the W o r l d C u p soccer preliminary m a t c h e s

5.2. History T h e ^ a n ji u s e d in J a p a n tod a y is the J a p a n e s e adoption of the C h i n e s e character script. C h i n e s e characters w e r e the first f o r m of writing introduced to J a p a n a r o u n d the fifth century. B e c a u s e the g r a m m a t i c a l structures of the t w o l a n g u a g e s differ，writing strictly in ^ a n ji p r o v e d to b e problematic. J a p a n e s e h a s conjugations a n d particles，for w h i c h C h i n e s e characters w e r e n ot suitable. T h e solution w a s to develop rn ra g a n a a n d k a ta k a n a . H ir a g a n a w a s created t h r o u g h the cursive style of writing certain k a n ji, a n d k a t a k a n a b y taking parts of s o m e kan/i. For e x a m p l e ，the cursive style for the character 宇 w a s u s e d for the h i r agana う，a n d the top part of the 宇 ，to create the k a t a k a n a ウ . Hi’ r a g a n a w a s originally u s e d b y f emale writers ，b u t it b e c a m e w i d e s p r e a d b y the tenth century.

5.3. Kanji Y o u u s e ^ a n ji w h e n writing i n d e p e n d e n t p h r a s e s (especially n o u n s a n d parts of verbs)，except for w a g o (indigenous J a p a n e s e words) a n d loan words. U s i n g k^anji is particularly i m p o r t a n t for w o r d s that are distinguished b y ^ a n ji characters. For e x a m p l e ，y o u c a n write miru in t w o w a y s : (1)b y u s i n g k a j ...見 る ‘ to see，to look at ’ ， a n d (2) b y avoiding kanji: み る ‘ to try a n d see’ .T h e w o r d kiku c a n b e written u s i n g different kanji characters，a m o n g t h e m 聞 く ‘ to h e a r ’ a n d 効く ‘ to b e effective，to take effect’ . A l o n g w i t h C h i n e s e characters，the J a p a n e s e b o r r o w e d vast n u m b e r s of C h i n e s e words. T h e s e w o r d s w e r e written b y u s i n g their original C h i n e s e characters. T h e C h i n e s e w o r d for “ water， ”水 ， w a s b o r r o w e d a s s u i f r o m Chinese. T h i s reading is called o n -read­ ing. A t the s a m e t i m e ，the J a p a n e s e e x t e n d e d the u s e of k a n ji to

Scripts

39

represent native J a p a n e s e w o r d s a s well . 水 w a s u s e d to represent the w o r d m i z u ‘ (cold) w a t e r ’ . T h i s reading is called kun-reading. In this w a y , J a p a n e s e ^ a n ji typically acquired t w o readings, o n a n d kun^, n o r m a l l y w i t h closely related m e a n i n g s . on-reading kun-reading

ryuu-sui koori-mizu

流水 氷水

r u n n i n g wat e r ice w a ter

Currently 1,945 ^ a n ji characters are u s e d a s jo o y o o k a n ji (k a n ji for general use), of w h i c h 1,006 m u s t b e learned in the first six years of c o m p u l s o r y education. In addition, nearly o n e t h o u s a n d kanji characters are authorized for u s e in personal n a m e s . B o t h native a n d non-native learners m u s t m a s t e r m o r e t h a n t w o t h o u ­ s a n d basic k a n ji characters to r e a d the J a p a n e s e print media. T h e m a g n i t u d e of this task a c c o u n t s for the length of time required to attain a reasonable reading proficiency in J a panese.

5.4. Hiragana H i r a g a n a is the first script m o s t students (and J a p a n e s e children) learn. M a stering h i r agana is absolutely n ecessary w h e n learning Jap a n e s e . T h e readings of k^anji are often given b y small h ira g a n a characters (called rubi ) placed to the right side or the top of e a c h kan ji.

Y o u u s e h i r agana for native J a p a n e s e words, w o r d s without kanji representation, a n d particles a n d to s h o w the conjugated parts of verbs. T h e h ira g a n a s y s t e m contains forty-six basic s y m ­ bols a n d a n additional twenty-five variations. Basic s y m b o l s い i あ a うu か k a きki く ku し shi す s u さ sa た ta ち chi つ tsu な n a に ni ぬ n u は h a ひ hi ふ fu ま ma

お o

け ke せ se

こ ko そ so

て te ね ne ^へ h e

と to の no ほ ho

み mi

む m u ゆ yu

め me

もmo よ yo

り ri

れ re る ru を (w)o ん n

ろ ro

や ya ら ra わ wa

Additional s y m b o l s

えe

が ga

ぎ gi ぐ g u ざ z a じ ji ず z u だ d a ぢ ji づ z u

ご go げ ge ぜ ze ぞ zo で de

ど do

ば b a び bi ぶ b u

ベ be ぼ bo

ぱ p a ぴ pi ぷ p u

pe ぽ po

40

S O UN D S A ND S CR I P T S

Note the following exceptions: 1 . T h e particle ⑴a is spelled は ，the particle e a s へ ，a n d the particle o a s を . 2. T h e verb y u u 4to s a y ’is spelled V ヽう. 3. O o is n o r m a l l y represented a s おう with a f e w exceptions: おおきい とおい とおる こおる

4.

5.

6.

ookii tooi tooru kooru

big far to g o t h r o u g h to freeze

T h e s o u n d z u is transcribed in t w o ways. T h e general rule is to spell it a s ず .T h e alternative is つ ，a n d it is u s e d w h e r e the s o u n d z u c o r r e s p o n d s to つ in a related word. For example, AizuKu ‘ to notice’is transcribed きつく b e c a u s e it is related to t s uAu oi さ が つ く ‘ to notice’ . Also, w h e n the preceding hfrag a n a is つ ，つ is used, a s in つつく ‘ to c o n tinue’ . A similar p h e n o m e n o n exists for the s o u n d ji. A l t h o u g h g e n ­ erally じ is u s e d ，in rare c a ses ，ぢ is u s e d w h e r e the s o u n d c o r r e s p o n d s to ち in a related word. For e x a m p l e ，はなぢ ‘ n o s e b l e e d ’is transcribed w i t h ぢ b e c a u s e it is associated with the w o r d ち ‘ blood’ . T h e continuation of ちぢ o ccurs in ち ち む ‘ to s h r i n k ’ . In s o m e casual writing styles，long v o w e l s m a y b e m a r k e d b y the elongation m a r k e r ，一 .お は よ 一 m a y b e u s e d instead of お は よ う ，a n d ね 一 instead o f ね え .

5.5. Katakana Y o u u s e K a t a K a n a primarily w h e n writing W e s t e r n loan w o r d s a n d s o m e plant a n d a n i m a l n a m e s a n d for e m p h a t i c a n d expressive effect. In addition，s o m e J a p a n e s e w o r d s are frequently written in KataKana, a s in マ ン ‘ serious(ly)’ . M o r e recently，w i t h increased frequency k a ta k a n a w o r d s h a v e b e e n app e a r i n g for stylistic reasons. W o r d s written in k a ta k a n a c o n n o t e a n a u r a of being “ in， ”pointing out w h a t is n e w ，or just c o m m u n i c a t i n g specialness. For e x a m p l e ， the J a p a n e s e M a j o r L e a g u e Baseball player Ichiroo S u z u k i spells his n a m e a s イチロ 一 .T h i s K a t a K a n a representation is considered fashionable，a n d it a d d s to his status a s a celebrity. T h e K a t a K a n a s y s t e m contains the f0110w i n g symbols.

Scripts Basic ァ a 力 ka サ sa 夕 ta ナ na

41

symbols ィ i クu キ ki ク k u シ shi ス s u チ chi ツ tsu ^二ni ヌ n u

Additional s y m b o l s エ e ケ ke セ se

才 o コ ko ソ so

テ te

卜 to

ネ ne

ノ no

ノヽh a

ヒ hi

フ fu

へ he

ホ ho

マ ma

ミmi

ムm u ユ yu

メme

ヤ ya ラ ra

モ mo ョ yo

リ ri

ル ru

レ re ン (w)o n ヲ

口 ro

ワwa

ガ ga ザ za

ギ gi

グ g u ゲ ge ズ z u ゼ ze

ゴ go ゾ zo

ジ ji ダ d a チ'ji ツ'z u —一? d e ド d o ノバb a ビ b e ブ b u ベ b e ボ b o パ p a ピ pi プ p u ぺ p e ポ p o

For long vowels, 一 is u s e d in k a ta k a n a script. Y o u m a y notice a similarity b e t w e e n ソ a n d ン ，a s well a s ツ a n d シ . W h e n writing ソ a n d ン ，w a t c h o ut for the direction of the s e c o n d stroke. K a t a k a n a ン requires a n u p w a r d stroke similar to h i r agana ん . A g o o d w a y to r e m e m b e r the difference b e t w e e n ツ a n d シ is that they follow the basic stroke direction of their ^irag a n a counterparts つ a n d し. G i v e n that loan w o r d s carry s o u n d s a b s e n t in J a p a n e s e ，the transcription process h a s resulted in the u s e of special s o u n d c o m ­ binations. T h e following are established cases. テ ィ ti

デ ィ di

シ エ she

ジ ェ je フ イ fi

フ ァ fa

チ ェ che フ ェ fe

フ オ fo

5.6. Learning the Japanese Scripts T h e best w a y to learn the J a p a n e s e scripts is to witness h o w y o u r teacher writes t h e m . Alternatively，get access to s o m e of the h ira g a n a a n d k a t a k a n a learning W e b sites. Usually the sites s p o n ­ sored b y J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e textbook publishers or a c a d e m i c insti­ tutions are the m o s t trustworthy. S o m e sites offer m o v i n g i m a g e s that follow correct stroke orders. In writing J a p a n e s e scripts，it is particularly i m p o r t a n t to follow the correct stroke order. O n e warning: the h i r agana も is written w i t h the central line (resembling し）first，followed b y the t w o cross lines. I h a v e s e e n m a n y cases w h e r e b o t h students a n d teachers m a k e m i s t a k e s in this stroke order.

42

S O UN D S A ND S CR I P T S

T h e m o s t effective w a y to m e m o r i z e the scripts is to write the s y m b o l s time a n d time again. Y o u c a n also m a k e flash cards a n d test yourself. Y o u s h o u l d m a s t e r b o t h the reading a n d writing of hir^a^gan^a, a n d k^a^ak^an^a^. M o s t important, y o u m u s t b e able to in­ stantly recognize the s o u n d s assigned to the characters. F r o m this point on, w h e n k a n ji characters a p p e a r in i n d e p e n ­ d e n t p h r a s e s in the text or w h e n they a p p e a r in lists, I will provide the h i r agana reading, s o m e t i m e s in parentheses. Note that only the first occurrence of the ^ a n ji within e a c h entry section will c o m e w i t h the h i r agana reading. It is particularly imp o r t a n t to carefully s t u d y the K e y E x p r essions that are provided b e c a u s e those words, w h e n they a p p e a r again within a n entry, will n o t b e provided with hi^a^gan^a^. For sentences containing k a n ji, I provide a ro o m a ji tran­ scription i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r n e a t h .

5.7. Fonts A s s o o n a s y o u observe J a p a n e s e writing, y o u will notice that a v a ­ riety of fonts are used. F o n t s in the ゴ シ ッ ク ，明朝 （ みんちよう） ，a n d 楷書 （ か い し よ ）styles are r e p r o d u c e d below.

ゴシック体 明朝体

漢字 漢字

ひらがな ひらがな

カタカナ カタカナ

楷書体

漢字

ひらがな

カタカナ

The ゴ シ ッ ク （ Gothic) style is widely u s e d in advertisements, a n n o u n c e m e n t s , a n d multiple print media. 明朝 is the s t a n d a r d font u s e d in b o o k s a n d magazines. I personally like the 楷 書 font for students of J a panese. This style m i m i c s the calligraphy b r u s h strokes m o r e accurately t h a n the other two. In 楷 書 ，y o u c a n appreciate h o w e a c h stroke is bal­ a n c e d in the character space, a n d y o u c a n also observe the differ­ e n c e s b e t w e e n the fixed a n d released strokes. However, following the conventions of the print media, this b o o k will u s e the 明朝 style.

5.8. Punctuation P e r h a p s the m o s t surprising thing a b o u t J a p a n e s e writing to E n g ­ lish s p e a k e r s is the lack of w o r d separation. A n entire sentence m a y a p p e a r with o u t a n e m p t y space. Also, there is n o distinction c o r r e sponding to English capitals a n d lower cases.

Scripts

43

Basic p u n c t u a t i o n m a r k s include 句 点 （く て ん 。）a n d 読 点 （と う て ん 、） . T h e s e are called 句 読 点 （くとうてん)，a n d they roughly c o r r e s p o n d to the period a n d c o m m a . A raised dot functions to separate closely linked e l e m e n t s of the s a m e type a s well a s the iirst a n d last parts oi a foreign n a m e ，a s in / タム•スミス . Q u o t a ­ tion m a r k s are called かさカツコ，a n d they a p p e a r a s single quotat i o n s 「 」a s well a s d o u b l e q u o t a t i o n s 『 』 . P a r a g r a p h division is indicated b y o n e e m p t y character s p ace at the beginning of the first sentence of the paragraph.

5.9. Vertical and Horizontal Writing A l t h o u g h the text in this b o o k is p resented horizontally，J a p a n e s e c a n b e written vertically. In fact，traditional writing c o m e s a l m o s t exclusively in the vertical style. J a p a n e s e readers face b o t h verti­ cal a n d horizontal writing o n a daily basis. Horizontal writing is u s e d in scientific publications ，a s well a s in other cases that m a y include horizontal foreign l a n g u a g e s a n d n u m b e r s . Printed n e w s ­ p a p e r s m a i n t a i n the vertical style，a l t h o u g h online n e w s p a p e r s fol­ l o w the horizontal style. M o r e recently，a preference h a s developed t o w a r d horizontal writing. In 2 0 0 8 for the first t i m e ，s o m e classic novels w e r e p u b ­ lished in the horizontal style. Cell-phone novels are also p u blished in the horizontal style，following h o w they w e r e first p r o d u c e d as cell-phone text m e s s a g e s . Y o u n g people generally prefer horizon­ tal writing，b u t older people prefer vertical writing. O n e d r a w b a c k of horizontal writing is the impossibility of connecting characters ， especially in hir^a^gan^a^. In traditional writing，connecting a f e w h ira gan^a characters (called renm^ent^ai) is conventionalized，b u t this is possible only w h e n writing vertically. It is particularly imp o r t a n t to k n o w that p u n c t u a t i o n takes dif­ ferent f o r m s a n d positions in vertical a n d horizontal writing. P a r a g r a p h s A a n d B are identical in content ，b u t they are writ­ ten in the horizontal a n d vertical styles respectively. Note the dif­ ferences in the direction of the elongation b ar ，the w a y quotation m a r k s are u s e d ，a n d the positions of 句読点 (くとうてん). P a ra g ra p h A

今、 日本のポップカルチャーは世界の若者の注目を集めている。先 日、アメリカの若者に「日本について何か知っていますか」 とたずねて みたが、 「 アニメやマンガ」 という答えが返ってきた。

44

SOUNDS AND SCRIPTS

日本語を勉強する動機には、 このようなポップカルチャーへの興味 がある。それはそれですばらしいことだが、 日本の伝統的な文化も大い に楽しんでもらいたいものである。 P a ra g r a p h B

今、 日本のポップカルチャーは世界の若者の注目を集めている。 先

日、 ア メ リ カ の 若 者 に 「日 本 に つ い て 何 か 知 っ て い ま す か 」 と た ず ね

てみたが、 「 アニメやマンガ」といぅ答えが返ってきた。

日本語を勉強する動機には、 このよぅなポップカルチャーへの興味

がある。 そ れ は そ れ で す ば ら し い こ と だが、 日本の伝統的な文化も大 いに楽しんでもらいたいものである。

T h e h ira g a n a readings for the k a n ji u s e d in P a r a g r a p h s A a n d B are as follows:

今 い 日本 世界

ま にほん せかい

Scripts

若者 注目 集めて 先日 何か 知って 答え 返って 日本語 勉強 動機 興味 伝統的 文化 大いに 楽しんで

45

わかもの ちゅうもく あつめて せんじつ なにか しって こたえ かえって にほんこ べんきょう どうき きょうみ でんとうてき ぶんか おおいに たのしんで

H e r e is the English translation: Currently，J a p a n e s e p o p u l a r culture is attracting y o u n g people’ s attention f r o m all over the world. T h e other day, I a s k e d a n A m e r i ­ c a n youth, “ D o y o u k n o w a n y thing a b o u t J a p a n ? ”a n d the a n s w e r “ A n i m e a n d m a n g a ”c a m e back. T h e r e a s o n for studying J a p a n e s e is s u p p o r t e d b y this k i n d of interest in p o p u l a r culture. T h a t in itself is a w o n d e r f u l thing，b u t it w o u l d b e nice if they fully enjoyed traditional J a p a n e s e culture a s well.

5.10. Calligraphy as Language Art A l t h o u g h h a n d w r i t i n g h a s b e c o m e rare，it is still u s e d for special functions s u c h a s traditional a n n o u n c e m e n t s ，a very personal let­ ter，or special seasonal greetings. H a n d w r i t i n g is also the essential part of the J a p a n e s e art of calligraphy. B o t h lay a n d professional calligraphers learn to write various styles of J a p a n e s e (and s o m e Chinese) scripts w i t h b a m b o o brushes. Su^mi ink a n d various types a n d sizes of rice p a p e r are u s e d for this purpose. Calligraphy lovers practice intensively a n d participate in contests. Various local，regional，a n d national exhi­ bitions of calligraphy are held t h r o u g h o u t the year.

46

SOUNDS AND SCRIPTS

M a n y private calligraphy studios, called 書道教室 （しょどうきょ うしつ）o r 書 道 塾 （しょどうじゆく） ，offer courses for everyone f r o m schoolchildren to seniors. Novice students start at the lowest r a n k a n d w o r k t h r o u g h over a d o z e n levels before they are conferred the highest r a n k of master. Calligraphy training offers a n excellent opportunity for learning J a p a n e s e writing. B u t m o r e t h a n that，J a p a n e s e calligra­ p h y is called 書道 （しょとぅ）‘ the w a y of writing ’ ，a n d it offers a kind of spiritual training as well. In calligraphy，three styles for 漢 字 （ かんじ）are best k n o w n : 楷 書 （ かいしょ） ，行 書 （ ぎょうしょ） ，a n d 草 書 （ そうしょ） . T h e s e w e r e all developed in C h i n a ，a n d e a c h h a s classic representative w o r k s p r o ­ d u c e d b y m a s t e r calligraphers. 楷書 is created with s h a r p strokes; 行書，with cursive strokes; a n d 草書 is the m o s t cursive of all. S ee m y calligraphy (Figure 1 ) for the character 風 （ かぜ）‘ w i n d ’in three styles. F r o m top to b o t t o m ，the character 風 a p p e a r s in 措書 ，行書， a n d 草書. F or writing hfragana, there are t w o styles: 仮 名 （ かな）a n d ひ らがな. W h e n 仮名 w e r e developed d uring the H e i a n period，e a c h s o u n d w a s represented b y several different 仮名 . T h e s e classic 仮 名 are k n o w n as hentof g a n a (変体仮名へんたいがな )，a n d they are u s e d only in calligraphy. In ordinary writing，y o u u s e ひらがな c o n ­ sistently. See m y calligraphy (Figure 2) for a n e x a m p l e of 変体仮名.

Figure 1 . The character kaze ‘wind’ in kaisho, gyoosho, and soosho.

47

Scripts

Figure 2. Writing sample of hentaigana.

T h e vertical writing in Figure 2, written horizontally in c o n t e m ­ porary script, follows.

春の光の照るところ h a r u n o hikari n o teru tokoro the place w h e r e spring light shines o n

PART III

Words

CH A PTER 6

Kinds of Words

6.1. Wago and Kango Key Expressions 貧 （ まず ）しさ 貧困（ ひんこん） 旅 （ たび） 旅 行 （り ょ こ う ） 入学試験（ にゅうがくしけん) 入試（ にゅうし）

poverty poverty travel travel entrance e x a m i n a t i o n entrance e x a m i n a t i o n

Explanation WAGO (NATIVE WORDS) Indige n o u s J a p a n e s e w o r d s are called ⑴a g o (和 語 わ ご ) . 和 語 in­ clude native J a p a n e s e v o c a b u l a r y ，particles, a n d conjugation suf­ fixes. T h e s e are n o r m a l l y written (1)in ひ ら が な (and occasionally i n カ タ カ ナ )，（ 2) in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h 漢 字 （ か ん じ )，a s i n 貧 し さ ，a n d (3) in 漢 字 w i t h A:un-reading，a s in 旅 . KANGO (CHINESE-DERIVED WORDS) T h r o u g h o u t history，the J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e h a s b o r r o w e d m a n y w o r d s f r o m foreign countries，the m o s t imp o r t a n t f r o m C h i n a ，as early a s the N a r a period ( 7 1 0 - 7 9 4 AD). D u r i n g the H e i a n a n d E d o periods (ninth t h r o u g h nineteenth centuries)，C h i n e s e w o r d s c o n ­ tinued to enter into the l a n g u a g e ，a n d m a n y w e r e integrated to the extent that they are n o longer considered foreign “ loan”words. W o r d s b o r r o w e d f r o m C h i n e s e or coined in J a p a n o n the basis of classical C h i n e s e are called A a n g o (漢 語 か ん ご ）or C h i n e s e - d e ­ rived w o r d s (or S i n o - J a p a n e s e words). M o r e t h a n half of the total

51

52

WORDS

J a p a n e s e vocab u l a r y is t h o u g h t to b e influenced b y 漢語 . S e e the e x a m p l e s in the K e y E x p r e s s i o n s : 貧困 a n d 旅行，w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d to 貧しさ a n d 旅 respectively. 漢語 typically contain t w o m e a n i n g f u l units ， u s i n g t w o 漢 字 characters. For e x a m p l e ，b y c o m b i n i n g 学 ‘ learning ’ ，生 ‘ living things’ ，a n d 校 ‘ place for learning’ ，c o m p o u n d s s u c h a s 学 生 （ がくせ い）‘ s t u d e n t ’a n d 学 校 （ がっこう）‘ school’are formed. W h e n there are four consecutive 漢字，they are often s h ortened b y taking the first a n d the third characters，a s in 人試 instead of 人 学試験‘ entrance e x a m i n a t i o n ’ . USEFULNESS OF KANJI

It is imp o r t a n t to u s e 漢字 w h e n u s i n g 漢語 .T h i s is b e c a u s e m a n y h o m o p h o n e s (different w o r d s that s o u n d alike) exist in N ih o n g o , a n d it is t h r o u g h the a s s i g n m e n t of correct 漢字 that w e c a n tell the s e m a n t i c differences.

せんたく さいきん

選 択 selection 最近 recently，lately

洗濯washing 糸田菌bacteria，g e r m

FORMING ADJECTIVES AND VERBS WITH KANGO

漢語 are categorized a s n o u n s . T h e y f o r m な adjectives a n d する verbs.

便利な 新鮮な 勉強する 出発する

べんりな しんせんな べんきようする しゅっぱつする

convenient fresh to s t u d y to depart

G raffiti

H a n d w r i t t e n 漢字 is b e c o m i n g rare a m o n g Japa n e s e . H o w e v e r ，it is crucial to recognize correct 漢字.W h e n a w o r d processor is u s e d ，ひ らがな input is c h a n g e d into different 漢字 c o m b i n a t i o n s ，a n d y o u m u s t b e able to c h o o s e the correct one. I e n c o u r a g e y o u to learn a s m a n y 漢字 a s possible. Minimally y o u s h o u l d learn h o w to read t h em.

Kinds o f Words

53

6.2. Loan Words K e y E xp re ssio n s コ -ーヒ1 一 チョコレート メルアド セクハラ プロ野球（ やきゅう） デパ地下（ ちか）

ネット検索（ けんさく） ゲットする トラブる ショッキングな

coffee chocolate mailing a d d r e s s (e-mail a n d cell p h one) sexual h a r a s s m e n t professional baseball d e p a r t m e n t store’ s b a s e m e n t floor (where food items are usually sold) Internet s earch to get (obtain) s o m e t h i n g to get into trouble shocking

Exp la n a tio n

HISTORY

A r o u n d 1 6 0 0 A D , the J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e b e g a n to b o r r o w m a n y W e s t e r n words, particularly f r o m P o r t u g u e s e a n d D u t c h (during the E d o period, 1 6 0 3 - 1 8 6 8 AD). Additionally, G e r m a n , French, a n d m o s t of all English loan w o r d s h a v e b e e n introduced since the b e ginning of the Meiji era (18 68 AD). PRONUNCIATION

W e s t e r n loan w o r d s are written in カ タ カ ナ a n d are p r o n o u n c e d according to J a p a n e s e phonological rules, m o s t l y in the f o r m of available J a p a n e s e m o r a e . T h e s o u n d s y o u h e a r for English w o r d s in J a p a n e s e m a y b e very different f r o m the original English a n d m a y in fact b e incomprehensible. H o w d o コ ー ヒ ー a n d チ ョ コ レ ー 卜 s o u n d to y o u ? SHORTENED FORMS

L o n g loan w o r d s are often r e d u c e d to four m o r a e , a s in メル/ド for メールアドレス 'mailing a d d r e s s ’ ，a n d セクハラ f o r セクシャルハラス メント 'sexual h a r a s s m e n t ’ .

54 マスコミ スタメン ノパソコン インカレ

WORDS

m a s s communication starting m e m b e r (of a baseball team, for example) personal c o m p u t e r intercollegiate

FORMING WORDS WITH LOAN WORDS

A loan w o r d c a n b e c o m b i n e d w i t h J a p a n e s e or other foreign w o r d s to p r o d u c e a c o m p o u n d n o u n . The word パ ン ‘ b r e a d ’(from P o r t u g u e s e p d o ) ，for example, is c o m b i n e d w i t h several m e a n i n g f u l units to f o r m the following: 食 （しよく）パ ン フランスパン ライ麦（ む ぎ ）パ ン むしパン

loaf of b r e a d French bread rye b r e a d steamed bread

A m o n g the K e y E x p r essions presented a b o v e ，プ ロ 野 球 ‘ pro­ fessional baseball’a n d ア パ 地 下 ‘ d e p a r t m e n t store’ s basement floor’are w o r t h y of o u r attention. H e r e the shor t e n e d loan w o r d s (from pro/essfonaZ a n d ttepartmeni s 丈 ore) a n d J a p a n e s e w o r d s (野球 ‘ baseball’a n d 地 下 ‘ basement’ ) are c o m b i n e d . ネ ッ ト 検 索 is another e x a m p l e ，a c o m b i n a t i o n of (Inter)net a n d 検 索 ‘ search’ . OTHER GRAMMATICAL MANIPULATIONS

C o m b i n i n g loan w o r d s a n d す る ‘ to d o ’p r o d u c e s a g r o u p of ver b s ， including ゲ ッ ト す る ‘ to get (obtain) s o m e t h i n g ’ . A d d i n g る also p r o ­ d u c e s a g r o u p of v e rbs ，including ト ラ ブ る ‘ to get into trouble’ . L o a n w o r d s are u s e d a s い adjectives a s well a s な adjectives ， a s in the case of the K e y E x p r e s s i o n シ ョ ッ キ ン グ な . Additional e x ­ a m p l e s follow. エロい ユニークな

erotic unique

G raffiti

C a n y o u u n d e r s t a n d the following loan-word-filled expressions? T h e Nih^ongo u s e d for m a r k e t i n g p u r p o s e s ，a s in (a)，often e m p l o y s m a n y l o a n w o r d s ，to the extent that they are s o m e t i m e s i n c o m p r e ­ hensible to the older generation.

Kinds o f Words

55

㈨ キッチンを私色にデザインしよう！ 柿 色 、 白、 シ ル バ ー の コ ン ト ラ ス ト が モ ダ ン 。

Kitchin o watashiiro ni dezainshiyoo! Kakuro, shiro, s h i r u b a a n o k o n torasuto g a m o d a n . W h y not design y o u r kitchen in y o u r o w n favorite color! T h e contrast a m o n g p e r s i m m o n , white, a n d silver a d d s a m o d e r n touch. Note the following loan w o r d s contained in these sentences. kitchen design silver contrast modern

キッチン デザイン シルノバ'一 コ ン トラスト モダン

6.3. Made-in-Japan “Foreign” Words K e y E xp re ssio n s

ナイター サービス ペットボトル リ アルタイム

baseball night g a m e s free of charge plastic bottle live, concurrently h a p p e n i n g events

Exp la n a tio n

T h e r e are p s e u d o - l o a n w o r d s m a d e in J a p a n . T h e s e are foreigns o u n d i n g words, b u t they are created b y J a p a n e s e with m e a n i n g s different f r o m (or nonexistent in) the original language. For e x a m ­ ple, ナ イ タ ー ，m a d e u p of the English w o r d nigh! a n d followed b y the suffix -er, m e a n s baseball night g a m e s . サ ー ビ ス is related to service, b u t in J a p a n e s e サ ー ビ ス m e a n s s o m e t h i n g free of charge. ペ ッ ト ボ ト ル is a c o m b i n a t i o n of a n a c r o n y m , P E T (polyethylene terephthalate), plus the English w o r d bottle, a n d リ ア ル タ イ ム c o m e s f r o m re a l tim e. A n o t h e r m a d e - i n - J a p a n w o r d is ク ー ル ビ ズ ，related to the w o r d s cool a n d b u s i n e s s . ク ー ル ビ ズ is n ot really a loan w o r d but w a s created to refer to a cool b u s i n e s s outfit w o r n at the office in

56

WORDS

the s u m m e r to conserve energy. A n e x a m p l e of “ cool busin e s s ”at­ tire is the J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s m a n w o r k i n g wit h o u t a tie. A n interesting d e v e l o p m e n t in w o r d creation is f o u n d in イケメ ン，a c o m b i n a t i o n of イケてる ‘ cool’a n d メン ‘ men’ . イケメン refers to nice-looking m e n . Y o u m a y b e interested in k n o w i n g that メン is a p u n o n the J a p a n e s e p h r a s e 面 （ めん）‘ face’ . A similar c o m b i n a ­ tion is u s e d for ドタキャン‘ last m i n u t e cancellation’ .T h i s is f o r m e d b y u s i n g the first t w o m o r a e of the w o r d s どたんばで ‘ at the last m i n u t e ’a n d キャンセル ‘ cancellation’ . NAMES AND BRAND NAMES

P h r a s e s written in カタカナ a n d roomq/Y, ロ ー マ 字 （じ)，give the i m p r e s s i o n that they are loan words. W i t h that “ with-it”effect in a n d b r a n d n a m e s are created. T h e y are so ubiquitous in J a p a n that they n o longer s o u n d foreign.

セブンスター Shiseido Elixir D im e

SMAP KAT-TUN

cigarette b r a n d cosmetic line m a g a z i n e title idol g r o u p n a m e idol g r o u p n a m e

G raffiti

S o m e m a d e - i n - J a p a n p s e u d o - l o a n - w o r d p r o d u c t n a m e s m a y raise eyebrows. A s i n c o n g r u o u s a s they are, all are very p o p u l a r b r a n d s in J a p a n .

ポカリスエット （ Pokari Sweat) (sweat?) カルピス （ Calpis) ( s o u n d s like c o w piss?) クリープ (Creap) (creep? creepy?)

sports drink soft drink coffee c r e a m e r

6.4. Numerals and the Number System K e y E xp re ssio n s

一（ いち） 十 （じゅう） 白（ ひやく）

one ten o n e hu n d r e d

Kinds o f Words

57

Exp la n a tio n

T W O N U MBER SYSTEMS T h e r e are t w o n u m b e r s y s t e m s u p to n u m b e r 1 0 : ( 1 ) n u m b e r s of J a p a n e s e origin (和語わご )，a n d (2) n u m b e r s of C h i n e s e origin (漢 語かんご ). T h e 和語 n u m b e r s y s t e m is limited in use. Y o u u s e it for c o u n t ­ ing objects wit h o u t counters a n d for describing ages u p to ten years old. Y o u also u s e it for dates u p to the tenth of the m o n t h a n d for a f e w other combinations. T h e 漢語 n u m b e r s y s t e m is m o r e extensively used. Y o u u s e it for m a t h e m a t i c a l calculations, for c o m b i n a t i o n s that m a k e higher n u m b e r s , a n d in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h various counters.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

和語 ひとつ ふたつ みっつ よっつ いつつ むっつ ななっ やっつ ここのつ とお

漢語 いち に さん し （ よん） y

、

ろく しち（ なな） はち き ゅ う （く） じゅう

UNITS OF N U M B E R S 100,000,000,000 10, 0 0 0, 0 0 0,0 0 0 1,000,000,000 100,000,000 10, 0 0 0, 0 0 0 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 0

一千億いっせんおく ひゃくおく 百億 じゅうおく 十億 いちおく 一億 一 千 万 いっせんまん 百万 ひゃくまん 十万 じゅうまん いちまん 一万 せん 千 ひゃく 百 じゅう 十 一 いち 零 ，◦ れい，ぜろ，ゼロ

o n e h u n d r e d billion ten billion o n e billion o n e h u n d r e d million ten million o n e million one h u n d r e d thousand ten t h o u s a n d one thousand one h u n d r e d ten one zero

58

WORDS

SOM E SAMPLE N U M B E R S 48 105 136 3,792

四 十 八

よ ん じ ゆ う は ち

百 五

ひ や く ご

百 二 十 六

ひ や く さ ん じ ゅ う ろ く

三 千 七 百 九 十 二

さ ん ぜ ん な な ひ や く き ゆ う じ ゅ う に

PHONE NUMBERS For p h o n e n u m b e r s , just a s in English, e a c h n u m b e r is r e a d a s a single digit. For example, 0 3 - 3 8 3 2 - 5 6 0 1 will b e r e a d ぜ ろ さ ん 、 さ ん は ち さ ん に 、 ご ろ く ぜ ろ い ち . T h e particle の m a y b e a d d e d at the hyphen.

6.5.

Counters

K e y E xp re ssio n s 五 本 （ ご ほ ん ） 三 匹 （ さ ん び き ） 七 千 円 （ な な せ ん え ん ）

five long cylindrical items three small a n i m a l s seven t h o u s a n d y e n

Exp la n a tio n

USING C O U N T E R S C o u n t e r s are u s e d ior a set g r o u p of items, a n d they are attached i m m e d i a t e l y following the n u m b e r . T h e u s e of counters is obliga­ tory, a n d u s i n g n u m b e r s only s h o u l d b e avoided. People 一 人

ひとり

二 人

ふたり

三 人

さ ん に ん

四 人

よ に ん

五 人

ご に ん

六 人

ろ く に ん

七 人

し ち に ん 、 な な に ん

八 人

は ち に ん

九 人

き ゆ う に ん 、 く に ん

十 人

じ ゆ う に ん

十 一 人

じ ゆ う い ち に ん

Kinds o f Words

59

Objects

個 （こ) 冊 （さつ） 本 （ほん） 枚 （まい）

for a b r o a d category oi small a n d c o m p a c t obiects, including r o u n d fruit, balls, a n d b o x e s for b o u n d obiects s u c h a s books, notebooks, a n d magazines for long cylindrical objects, including trees, sticks, pens, b a n a n a s , a n d fingers for flat, thin obiects, including paper, dishes, stam p s , blankets, a n d b o a r d s

Animals

匹（ ひき） 頭 （とう） 羽（ わ)

for insects, fish, a n d small a n i m a l s s u c h a s cats a n d dogs for large a n i m a l s s u c h a s horses, bears, a n d deer for birds

Currency

円 （えん） セント ドル ユーロ

yen cent dollar Euro

Measuring Units

キロ グラム センチ メートノレ リットル

u s e d for b o t h kilometers a n d kilograms gram centimeter meter liter

SOME SOUND CHANGES S o m e counters c a u s e s o u n d changes. For e x a m p l e , 本 u n d e r g o e s the following changes.

一本 二本 三本 四本 五本 六本 七本

いっぽん にほん さんぼん よんほん こほん ろっぽん ななほん

60

WORDS

はっぽん きゅうほん じゅっぽん、 じっぽん

八本 九本 十本

G raffiti

If y o u w e r e to c o u n t people b y 匹 ，that w o u l d b e a joke. T h i s w o u l d m e a n that y o u w e r e treating people a s animals! Y o u c a n m a k e m i s ­ takes b y u s i n g the w r o n g counters, b u t s o m e t i m e s errors or in­ tended “ wrong^? u s e c a n b e h u m o r o u s (or offensive). W h e n y o u are uncertain a b o u t count e r s ，u s e 和 語 （ わご）n u m ­ bers u p to ten ，a n d after that ，u s e 個 ，w h i c h is the m o s t widely a p ­ plicable counter.

6.6. Time-Related Expressions K e y E xp re ssio n s

春（ はる） 月 曜 日 （げつようび） 九時半 （くじはん）

spring Monday nine thirty

Exp la n a tio n

FOUR SEASONS

春 夏 秋 冬

はる なつ あき ふゆ

spring summer fall winter

DAY S OF T H E W E E K

月曜日 火曜日 水曜日 木曜日 金曜日 土曜日 日曜日

げつようび かようび すいようび もくようび きんようび どようび にちようび

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

DATE OF THE MONTH

U s e the 10110w i n g for the iirst to the tenth oi the m o n t h . For dates b e y o n d the tenth，a d d the n u m b e r a n d 日（ にり)，ior e x a m p l e ，十

Kinds o f Words

61

五日（じゆうごにち） ‘ fifteenth’ ，二 十 三 日 （ にじゆうさんにち） ‘ twentythird’ . Exceptions are 十四日 （じゆうよつか）‘ fourteenth ’ ，二十日 （ は つか）‘ twentieth’ ，a n d 二十四日 （ にじゆうよつか）‘ twenty-fourth’ . For ‘ w h i c h date’ ，u s e 何 日 （ なんにち). 一日 二日 三日 四日 五日 六日 七日 八日 九日 十日

ついたち ふつか みっか よつか いつか むいか なのか ようか ここのか とおか

MONTHS For m o n t h s of the year, a d d 月（ かつ）to the 漢 語 （ かんご）n u m b e r s u p to twelve. For ‘ which m o n t h ’ ，u s e 何 月 （ なんがつ).

一月 二月 三月 四月 五月 六月 七月 八月 九月 十月 十一月 十二月

いちがつ にがつ さんがつ しがつ ごがつ ろくがつ しちがつ はちがつ くがつ じゅうがつ じゆういちがつ じゆうにがつ

TIME

秒 分 時 時間 半

びょう ふん じ じかん はん

seconds minutes hours duration of h o u r s thirty m i n u t e s

62

WORDS

For 分 ，s o u n d c h a n g e s occ u r a s s h o w n below: 一分

レヽっふん

三分

さんぷん

六分

ろっぷん

八分

はっぷん

十分

じ ゅ っ ぷ ん 、 じっぷん

one minute three m i n u t e s six m i n u t e s eight m i n u t e s ten m i n u t e s

6.7. Family Terminology K e y E xp re ssio n s

母 （ はは） 弟 （ おとうと） お母（ か あ ）さん 弟 （ お と う と ）さん

m y mother m y y o u n g e r brother ( s o m e o n e else’ s) m o t h e r ( s o m e o n e else’ s) y o u n g e r brother

Exp la n a tio n

UCHI-SOTO DISTINCTIONS O n e i m p o r t a n t feature in J a p a n e s e family terminology s h o w s a striking contrast with English. N ih o n g o provides t w o distinct sets of t e r m s d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r y o u are referring to u ch t or s o to p e r ­ sons. T h e y also differ d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r y o u are u s i n g t h e m for referential p u r p o s e s or a s t e r m s of address. (In the list that follows ， F N s t a n d s for first n ame.) SOME BASIC FAMILY TERMS

Referential t e r m s Your o w n Another’ s

T e r m s of a d d r e s s Your o w n Another’ s

Grandfather Grandmother Father

祖父 （ そふ）

おじいさん

おじいさん

おじいさま

祖母 （ そぼ）

おばあさん

おばあさん

おばあさま

父 （ ちち）

お父 (とう ) さん

(お )父 さ ん / パ

お父さま

Mother

母 (は は )

お 母 (か あ )

(お ）母 さ ん /

お母さま

さん

Elder brother

兄 （ あに）

ママ

お兄（ にい ） (お ) 兄 さ ん さん

F N + さん

Kinds o f Words

63

Elder sister

姉 （ あね ）

お姉（ ね え ） (お ）姉 さ ん

F N + さん

Younger brother Younger sister Uncle Aunt Son Daughter Husband

弟 （ おとうと）

弟さん

FN

F N + さん

妹 （ いもうと）

妹さん

FN

F N + さん

おじ

おじさん

おじさん

おじさま

おば

おばさん

おばさん

おばさま

息子（ むすこ）

息子さん

娘 （ むすめ） 主 人 （しゅじ

娘さん

FN FN

F N + さん F N + さん

ご主人

あなた

ご 主 人さま

おまえ

奥さま

さん

ん ）o r 夫 （ お っと）

Wife

家内（ かない） 奥 （ おく） or妻 （ つま） さん

M a l e s p e a k e r s often refer to their o w n family m e m b e r s b y usi n g おやじ‘ m y father ’ ，お ふ く ろ ‘ m y mother’ ，姉 貴 （ あ ね き ）‘ m y elder sis-

ter’ ，a n d 兄 貴 （ あ に き ）‘ m y elder brother’ .

G raffiti

W h e n talking to a child，a n adult female m a y refer to herself a s お 衣市さん.T h e s p e a k e r identifies herself in t e r m s of h o w the child m a y place h er relationally. S o to refer to oneself a s お 姉 さ ん ，お ば さ ん ，or お ば ぁ さ ん b e c o m e s a sensitive issue. T h e t e r m お ば さ ん a n d its intimate version ，お ば ち や ん ，are s o m e t i m e s u s e d to represent m i d d l e - a g e d w o m e n ，m o s t l y in d e ­ rogatory terms. For e x a m p l e ，お ば ち や ん の 団 体 （ だ ん た い ）‘ a group of m i d d l e - a g e d w o m e n ’refers to a g r o u p of m i d d l e - a g e d w o m e n stereotyped a s p u s h y ，insensitive，a n d inconsiderate. A w o m a n la­ beled ぉ ば ち や ん is t h o u g h t to b e s o m e o n e w h o s p e a k s in a loud voice a n d is p r o n e to ignore s o m e of the social rules.

6.8. Personal Names and Vocatives K e y E xp re ssio n s

河井保奈美（ かわいほなみ） 松本弘人（ まつもとひろと）

64

WORDS

Exp la n a tio n

LAST NAMES AND FIRST NAMES

T h e J a p a n e s e last n a m e c o m e s first, a n d the first n a m e , second. In the k e y expressions ，河 井 a n d 松 本 are last n a m e s . In formal situa­ tions ，w h e n calling o ut a p e r s o n ’ s n a m e , [last n a m e + さん ] is used. A s the degree of familiarity a n d casua l n e s s increases, [first n a m e + さん ] a n d first n a m e only are used. Calling a p e r s o n b y his or h er first n a m e only is w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g y o u n g e r speakers, especially a m o n g intimate u c h i m e m b e r s . INTIMATE VOCATIVES

W h e n the intimacy increases, first n a m e s m a y b e f0110w e d b y ちや ん . In addition, a variety of vocatives a n d reference f o r m s are used, a s s h o w n below. 保奈美さん 保 奈 美 ち や ん [intimate style] ホナミ（ m o r e stylish i n カ タ カ ナ ） ほ な み つ ち [intimate style] 弘人さん 弘人クン 弘人 ヒロト ヒロ（ s h o r t e n e d f o r m s a d d i n g to familiarity a n d friendliness)

Hiroto

6.9. Onomatopoeia and Mimesis K e y E xp re ssio n s

しとしと ザーザー降（ ぶ）り

b o w w o w , d o g barking rain steadily falling raining cats a n d d o g s

ポカホ刀陽気（ よつき）

sunshiny, b almy, w a r m w e a t h e r

ワンワン

Exp la n a tio n

J a p a n e s e h a s a rich s y s t e m of w o r d s that directly a n d vividly d e ­ scribe s o u n d s or actions. T h e r e are t w o categories. T h e first is o n o ­ m a t o p o e i a (擬 声 語 ぎ せ い ご )，that is, sound-imitating words, a s in

Kinds o f Words

65

ワンワン ‘ b o w w o w 5. T h e s e c o n d is m i m e s i s (擬態語ぎたいご )，that is, action-imitating w o r d s ，a s in しとしと ‘ rain steadily falling’ . FOUR-MORA WORDS

擬尸—語 a n d 擬態語 m o s t l y c o m e a s f o u r - m o r a w o r d s ，consisting of t w o t w o - m o r a segments. A r e m a r k a b l e n u m b e r of these w o r d s o c cur in the J a p a n e s e vocabulary. Dictionaries are available specializmg in 擬尸語 a n d 擬態語，s o m e of w h i c h are available o n the Internet. USES OF ONOMATOPOEIA AND MIMESIS

A l t h o u g h in English the u s e of o n o m a t o p o e i c w o r d s m a y c o n n o t e childishness，in J a p a n e s e 擬尸語 a n d 擬態語 are frequently u s e d b y great writers，a n d their u s e is n ot considered childish in the least. Y o u c a n also find m a n y u s e s of these w o r d s in マンガ. 擬尸語 a n d 擬態語 are m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d a s a d v e r b s ，as s h o w n in the following examples. (a)

雨がしとしと降る。 A m e g a shistoshito furu. T h e rain falls quietly a n d steadily.

( b ) 水をがぶがぶ飲む。 Mizu o gabugabu nomu. [He/She] drinks w a t e r thirstily in big gulps. (c)

星がきらきら輝いている。 H o s h i g a kirakira kagayaiteiru. T h e stars are shining a n d glittering.

( d ) 川の水がさらさら流れる。 K a w a n o m i z u g a sarasara nagareru. T h e river [water] flows smoothly.

擬尸語 a n d 擬態語 are also u s e d a s modifying p h r a s e s ，creating w o r d s s u c h a s ザーザー降り a n d ポカポカ陽気，a s given in the K e y Expressions. EXPRESSIONS RELATED TO WALKING

W a l k i n g m a y b e described in English b y different verbs. In N ih o n g o , b o t h 擬声語 a n d 擬態語 are attached a s a d v e r b s in order to describe the various m a n n e r s of 歩 （ める）く ‘ to w a l k ’ .

66 ぶらぶら歩く ちよこちよこ歩く どたどた歩く のろのろ歩く すたすた歩く とぼとぼ歩く よちよち歩く よろよろ歩く

WORDS

to to to to to to to to

loiter, to r o a m , to stroll trot, to w a d d l e s tomp, to t r a m p loiter slowly hurry trudge toddle stagger

CH A PTER 7

Words in Grammar

7.1. Nouns K e y E xp re ssio n s

人々（ ひとびと） 買物（ かいもの） バス代（ だい） 紙袋（ かみぶくろ)

people shopping b u s iare paper bag

Exp la n a tio n

NO PLURAL FORMS

A s alluded to already, in Nih^on^go there is n o g r a m m a t i c a l plural f o r m m a r k e r . ペ ン refers to b o t h p e n a n d pens. C o u n t e r s m a r k quantity, b u t the n o u n s t h e m s e l v e s r e m a i n constant. S o w e h a v e ペンー本（ い っ ぽ ん ）o r — 本 の ペ ン for o n e p e n a n d ペ ン 五 本 （ご ほ ん ) o r 五 本 の ペ ン for five pens. NOUN COMPOUNDS

N o u n s are f o r m e d b y c o m b i n a t i o n s of various sorts, s o m e of w h i c h are listed here. 1 . Repetition of n o u n s for indicating plurality T h e character 々 is u s e d to repeat the preceding 漢 子 （ か ん じ ). 人々 日々

2.

ひ とびと ひび

people days

[N + 代 （ だ い )]‘ fare’ ，‘ expense’ バス代

バスだい

本代

ほんだい

b u s fare b o o k expense

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3 . 漢字 c o m pounds T h e s e w o r d s are created b y c o m b i n i n g t w o i n d e p e n d e n t 漢 字 words, a n d they take the ^un-reading. C o m b i n a t i o n of 紙 （ か み ）‘ p a p e r ’a n d 袋 （ ふ く ろ ）‘ sack’ ： 紙袋

かみぶくろ

paper sack

C o m b i n a t i o n of 本 （ ほん）‘ b o o k ’a n d 棚 （ た な ）‘ shelf: 本棚

ほんだな

b o o k shelf

NOUN FORMATION

N o u n s are f o r m e d b y c o m b i n i n g verbs a s well. (The s t e m of the verb is introduced later in this chapter.) 1 . [ S t e m of the verb + 物 （ もの )]‘ thing’

2.

買物

かいもの

食べ物

たべもの

読み物

よみもの

shopping (from買 う ‘ to b u y ’ ） food ( f r o m 食 べ る "to eat ’ ） things to r e a d ( f r o m 読 む ‘ to r e a d ’ ）

[stem of the verb + 方 （ か た )]‘ the w a y of d o i n g ’ 歩き方

あるきかた

泳き方

およぎかた

w a y of w a l k i n g ( f r o m 歩 く ‘ to w a l k ’ ） w a y of s w i m m i n g ( f r o m 泳 ぐ ‘ to s w i m ’ )

7.2. Pronouns K e y E xp re ssio n s

俺 （ おれ） 私 （ わたし） 君 （ き み ）たち

I [masculine speech] I y o u people

Exp la n a tio n

LIMITED USE

T h e r e are J a p a n e s e p h r a s e s similar to English p r o n o u n s , a n d d e ­ p e n d i n g o n the s p e e c h style, different f o r m s are chosen. Overall, the u s e of personal p r o n o u n s is m o r e restricted t h a n in English. However, p r o n o u n s a p p e a r a s vocatives a n d for special self-identi­ fication purposes.

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PERSONAL PRONOUNS

First-person T Very わたくし formal Formal 私（ わたし） あたくし [feminine speech] Casual 僕（ ぼく）[masculine speech] あたし [feminine speech] 俺（ おれ）[masculine speech] あんた [blunt style]

Second-person ‘ you5

あなた 君 （きみ） お ま え [masculine speech]

USE OF THIRD-PERSON SINGULAR

For the third p e r s o n , 彼 （ かれ）‘ h e ’a n d 彼 女 （ かのじよ）‘ s h e ’are u s e d in a limited way. M o r e frequently u s e d for the third p e r s o n is あのひ と‘ that p e r s o n ’ , m e a n i n g either ‘ h e ’or ‘ she’ . 彼 also refers to a b o y ­ friend or m a l e lover, a n d 彼女，a girlfriend or female lover. E x - b o y ­ friend a n d ex-girliriend are 兀 （もと）カレ a n d 兀カノ respectively. AVOIDING PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Learn i n g h o w to u s e J a p a n e s e personal p r o n o u n s is important, b u t k n o w i n g h o w n ot to u s e t h e m is m o r e important. First, there is n o n e e d to u s e p r o n o u n s w h e n the p e r s o n s involved are i d e n ­ tifiable. Second, あなた s h o u l d b e avoided w h e n addressing y o u r m^eue person. N o r m a l l y it is safer to a d d r e s s the partner b y n a m e . W i v e s a d d r e s s their h u s b a n d s b y their first n a m e s followed by さん，first n a m e only, or あなた. H u s b a n d s often a d d r e s s their wives b y their first n a m e s or b y おまえ. T h e p r o n o m i n a l a d d r e s s t e r m s c h o s e n b y h u s b a n d s a n d wives are not necessarily reciprocal. PLURAL FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

For plural forms, u s e the suffixes たち，が た （ formal) a n d ら （ casual) for the following p r o n o u n s .

たち

がた

私たち 俺たち あなたたち 君たち おまえたち あなたがた

we we, you you you you

m a l e people [masculine speech] people people [toward m e s h ita ] people [toward m e s h ita ] people [formal]

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ら

WORDS

私ら 俺ら おまえら

w e [casual speech] we, m a l e people [masculine speech] y o u g u y s [blunt, masculine, t o w a r d m e s h ita ]

Additional plural f o r m s include こどもたち ‘ children’a n d 山田 (やまだ）さんたち. 山田さんたち refers not to a g r o u p of people with the s a m e last n a m e , Y a m a d a , b u t to ' Y a m a d a a n d others’ . For the English the 从 u s e あのひとたち.

G raffiti

T h e w o r d おたく a s a s e c o n d - p e r s o n p r o n o u n h a s e x t e n d e d m e a n ­ ings. おたく or オタク w a s introduced b y the essayist 中森明夫 （ な かもりあきお）in the 1 9 8 0 s a n d h a s b e c o m e the w o r d to capture a n aspect of (youth) culture. オタク refers to a devoted fan or a p e r s o n a b s o r b e d (to a m a n i a c degree) in a particular t h e m e , topic, or a c ­ tivity. A l t h o u g h the w o r d c a n b e applied to a n y t h i n g , アニメオタク (a fan of anime) a n d マンガオタク (a fan of comics) are c o m m o n l y used. オタク often carries a negative connotation that the p e r s o n in question is overly involved a n d that h e or s h e lacks c o m m o n sense a n d g o o d j u d g m e n t . S o m e u s e the t e r m オタク to describe t h e m ­ selves a n d their friends in positive a n d h u m o r o u s w a y s a s well.

7.3. Noun Prefixes and Suffixes K e y E xp re ssio n s

お金（ かね） ご飯（ はん） 長 （なが）さ か、 なしみ

money meal length sadness

Exp la n a tio n

POLITENESS PREFIXES

In polite speech, the respectful preiixes お a n d ご are u s e d for cer­ tain words. A s a rule, ぉ is a d d e d to 和語 （ わご)，a n d こ is a d d e d to 漢 語 （ かんご). Note, however, that お a n d ご are not productive. Their u s e is limited to select n o u n s only, so y o u m u s t n o t freely a d d t h e m to other n o u n s . T h e basic function of these respectful prefixes is to s h o w p o ­

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liteness a n d respect to the a ddressee or to the p e r s o n referred to. T h e s e f o r m s t e n d to b e u s e d m o r e frequently in feminine speech. Note that respectful prefixes are attached to n o u n s associated with y o u r m e u e person. Y o u m u s t not u s e t h e m in reference to actions related to yourself or to y o u r u c h i m e m b e r s .

、百

萄

名話仕卒結旅

おおおごごご

Examples

_

剣 广

v

おなまえ おはなし おしごと ごそつぎょう ごけっこん ごりよこう

name talk work graduation marri a g e travel

ぃ ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES

A d d i n g さ a n d み to い adjectives creates n o u n s . 1.

さ creates a n o u n referring to the quality or the degree. 美しさ 高さ

2 .

うつくしさ たかさ

f r o m 美しぃ f r o m 高ぃ

beauty height

みt e n d s to express m o r e emotive ieelings t h a n the さ sufiix. 楽しみたのしみ 深み ふかみ

fun, pleasure depth

f r o m 楽しい f r o m 深ぃ

7.4. I-Adjectives K e y E xp re ssio n s

暑 （あつ）い。 暑 （あつ）い日（ ひ）

It’ s hot. h ot d a y

Exp la n a tio n ぃ ADJECTIVE PLUS NOUN

J a p a n e s e adjectives are either い-type or な-type, a n d they precede the n o u n s they modify. A l l い adjectives e n d w i t h い，but all w o r d s e n d i n g w i t h い are not necessarily adjectives. 暑 い ‘ h o t ’e n d s with い，a n d it is a n e x a m p l e of a n い adjective. It is u s e d a s in 暑い日 ‘ hot d a y ’ .

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WORDS

し 〗 A D JE C T IV E AS PR ED ICATE い adjectives m a y also b e u s e d a s predicates. 暑い c a n m e a n ‘ it’ s hot’ . It m a y b e followed b y です，w h i c h m a k e s the s t a t e m e n t f ormal ， that is, 暑いです. For further c h a n g e s of form, refer to section 7.13, w h e r e adjective conjugation is discussed at the e n d of this chapter. COMMONLY USED し 〉 A D JE C T IV E S

新しい 忙しい 寂しい 大きい 小さい 近い 遠い 良い 悪い

あたらしい いそがしい さびしい おおきい ちいさい ちかい とおい よい わるい

new busy lonely large small near distant good bad

G raffiti

Adjectives u n d e r g o changes, particularly a m o n g y o u n g speakers. For e x a m p l e , おいしい originally m e a n t delicious’ ，b u t it h a s e x ­ t e n d e d its m e a n i n g , a n d it also refers to ‘ good, great, excellent’ . N ot o n l y おいしいチヨコレート ‘ delicious chocolate’b u t a l s o おいしい話 ‘ a delicious (i.e., great) deal’is used. A similar m e a n i n g c h a n g e o c ­ curs in 寒 （さむ）い. Originally u s e d strictly to m e a n ‘ cold’ , it is n o w u s e d to m e a n ‘ bad, disastrous’ . A n o t h e r interesting c h a n g e is occurring. Adjectives are being treated like n o u n s . For e x a m p l e , おいしいがいっぱい ‘ filled with deliciousness’o r かわいいを強調 （ きょうちょう）す る ‘ to e m p h a s i z e cuteness’ . T h i s use, prevalent in w o m e n ’ s magazines, gives a fash­ ionable a n d friendly impression.

7.5. Wa-Adjectives K e y E xp re ssio n s

好（ す）きな人 （ ひと） 静 （しず）かですね。

p e r s o n Ilike It’ s quiet, isn’ t it?

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Exp la n a tio n な ADJECTIVE PLUS NOUN

な adjectives are m a r k e d b y な w h e n directly modifying n o u n s . All な adjectives e n d w i t h な ，b u t not all w o r d s e n d i n g with な are な

adjectives . な adjectives are s o m e t i m e s called n o m i n a l adjectives b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h they function a s adjectives，g rammatically they b e h a v e similarly to n o u n s . な ADJECTIVE AND PREDICATE

Unlike い adjectives ，な adjectives c a n n o t b e u s e d a s they are as predicates. W h e n u s e d a s predicates，they are obligatorily followed b y either 7こ or で す .な adjectives follow the conjugation of the verb た . S e e section 7.13 for the conjugation. COMMONLY USED な ADJECTIVES 暖 （ あ た た ）かな 危険（ き け ん ）な 簡単（ か ん た ん ）な 便利（ べ ん り ）な いじわるな い やな きらいな きれいな 好 （ す ）きな

warm dangerous s imple ，easy convenient mean disagreeable ，offensive disliked，h a t e d pretty ，clean preferred ，favorite

7.6. Nominal Modification K e y E xp re ssio n s

東 京 （と う き ょ う ）の 夜 （ よる） 日本（ に ほ ん ）の 友 達 （と も だ ち ）

Tokyo’ s night，the night of T o k y o J a p a n e s e friend’ s home

の家（ いえ） 妹 （ い も う と ）の アキ

m v y o u n g e r sister，A k i

Exp la n a tio n

B y placing の b e t w e e n n o u n s ，y o u c a n create c o m p l e x n o u n s . H e r e ， の is a particle that links t w o n o u n s ，with the first m o difying the second. Y o u c a n repeat this process multiple times. It is imp o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r that in N i h o n g o the order of n o u n s is the reverse of

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the English [ n o u n + of + n o u n ] structure. Contrast b e t w e e n “ the night of T o k y o ”a n d 東京の夜 [lit. ‘ Tokyo’ s night’ ]. APPOSITIONAL USE

Y o u m a y u s e the t w o n o u n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h の to express apposi­ tion. In a n expression s u c h a s 妹のアキ，“ m y y o u n g e r sister”a n d “ A ki”are appositional, m e a n i n g ' m y y o u n g e r sister, A k i ’ . RESTRICTIONS

1 . T h e r e are s o m e c o m p l e x n o u n s w h e r e the linking の c a n n o t b e used.

入学試験 社会主義 2.

にゅうがくしけん (but n ot *入学の試験） しやかいしゅぎ (but n ot *社会の主義）

entrance e x a m i n a t i o n socialism

In s o m e cases，n o u n s linked b v の a n d n o u n s wit h o u t の dif­ fer in m e a n i n g .

東京大学 東京の大学

とうきょうだいがく とうきょうのだいがく

the University of T o k y o universities in T o k y o

7.7. Modification Phrases K e y E xp re ssio n s

日本的 （にほんてき） ビジュアル系（けい） 若者（ わかもの）っぽい

Japan-like，J a p a n e s e visually attractive youth-like

Exp la n a tio n

CREATING MODIFICATION PHRASES B v a d d i n g a sufiix to a n o u n ，a n entire p h r a s e b e c o m e s a modifi­

cation phrase. For e x a m p l e ， 日本 + 的 ‘ Japan-like ’ ，ビジュアル + 系 'visually attractive’ ，a n d 若者 + っぽい ‘ youth-like’ . Examples ( a ) 日本的な美しさ nih o n t e k i n a u t s u k u s h i s a Japan-like b e a u t y

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(b) 健 康 的 な 生 活 k e n k o o t e k i n a seikatsu healthy life style (c)

ビジュアル系のタレント

bijuarukei n o tarento a visually attractive talent (d)

ジャニーズ系の男の子

Janiizukei n o otoko n o k o a pretty boy, like those b o y s a n d y o u n g m e n represented b y the talent a g e n c y J o h n n y & Associates, Inc., in Tokyo ( e ) 男っぽい人 otokoppoi hito m a n l y person

7.8. Adverbs K e y E xp re ssio n s

すぐ いつも 詳 （くわ）しく 簡単（ かんたん)

right a w a y always in detail simply

Exp la n a tio n

COMMON ADVERBS

A d v e r b s usually a p p e a r before verbs that they m o d i f y ，for example, すぐ帰（ か え ）る ‘ I’ ll return right a w a y ’ ，い つ も 忘 （ わ す ）れ る ‘ H e al­ w a y s forgets’ . S o m e c o m m o n adv e r b s are と き ど き ‘ sometimes’ ，よ く‘ frequently, well ’ ，なんとなく ‘ somehow’ ,and き っ と ‘ certainly, for sure’ . と ADVERBS

S o m e a d v e r b s expressing m a n n e r s of action optionally take と, as in ゆっくりと ‘ slowly, leisurely’ . O t h e r e x a m p l e s include は っきりと ‘ clearly’a n d き っ ち り と ‘ exactly’ .

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FORMING ADVERBS J u s t a s s o m e a d v e r b s in English m a y b e f o r m e d b y a d d i n g the suf­ fix -ly to s o m e adjectives (h a p p y -h a p p ily ), J a p a n e s e is e q u i p p e d w i t h t w o s u c h processes. O n e is to generate a d v e r b s f r o m い adjec­ tives b y c h a n g i n g the final い to く. T h e other m e t h o d is to f o r m a d v e r b s f r o m な adjectives b y c h a n g i n g the final な to に. (a) F r o m 新 （ あたら）しぃ ‘ new5

新しく建てられたビル atarashiku taterareta biru n e w l y built building (b) F r o m 楽 （らく）な ‘ easy'

楽に読める本 rakuni y o m e r u h o n a b o o k y o u c a n r e a d easily

7.9. Demonstratives K e y E xp re ssio n s

この本 （ほん） あの人 （ ひと） どの店 （ みせ）

this b o o k that p e r s o n w h i c h store

Exp la n a tio n

J a p a n e s e demonstratives a n d p r o n o u n s are m a r k e d b y the p re­ fixes こ，そ，あ，a n d ど. D e p e n d i n g o n h o w y o u are viewing a n item, that is, f r o m a physical, psychological, or emotional distance, dif­ ferent t e r m s are selected. U S I N G こそあど IN T H E P H Y S I C A L W O R L D

こ そ あ ど

to refer to a n item close to y o u to refer to a n i t e m close to y o u r partner to identify i t e m s that are at a distance f r o m b o t h participants w h e n m a k i n g question w o r d s

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USING こ そ あ ど IN A STORY

T h e こ そ あ ど s y s t e m is useful w h e n distinguishing items in a n i m a g i n e d world, for example, w h e n telling a story a n d explaining w h e r e things are. W h e n a n e w item is introduced within a f r a m e of reference a n d w h e n it is again referred to, u s e そ . T h u s , if y o u introduce ルカ first in a story (or in conversation) a n d t h e n refer b a c k to her, y o u w o u l d u s e そ の ひ と . O n the other h a n d , if the referent is a s s u m e d to b e k n o w n b y b o t h participants a n d c a n b e recalled into the current f r a m e of discourse, c h o o s e あ . If y o u k n o w that y o u r partner already k n o w s a b o u t ル カ ，u s e あ の ひ と . B y u s i n g あ の ひ と ，y o u c o m m u n i c a t e that y o u are a s s u m i n g a k n o w l e d g e or experience in c o m m o n with y o u r partner. T h i s strategy c a n create e m p a t h y . EXTENDED USE OF こ そ あ ど こ そ あ ど are a d d e d to f o r m various n o u n s a n d p r o n o u n s a s s h o w n

below. 1 . Demonstratives この その あの どの

2.

P r o n o u n s u s e d independently これ それ あれ どれ

3.

this (close to the speaker) that (close to the listener) that ( a w a y f r o m b u t identified b y b o t h speakers) which

this o n e that o n e that o n e over there w h i c h one

Locative n o u n s ここ そこ あそこ どこ

this place that place that place over there w h i c h place, w h e r e

78 4.

WORDS

Directional n o u n s

こちら そちら あちら どちら

this w a y that w a y direction t o w a r d that w a y over there w h i c h way, w h i c h one

USINGそ こ A N D あ そ こ

T h e u s e of あそこ differs f r o m the English there. For example, in a scenario w h e r e y o u tell y o u r partner that y o u w e n t to S h i b u y a a n d m e t y o u r friend “ there,”そこ is appropriate, b u t n ot あそこ. H o w ­ ever, if y o u a n d y o u r friend are familiar w i t h the caf6 that y o u w e n t t o , あそこ is appropriate. (Reminder: s t u d y these e x a m p l e s again after y o u finish C h a p t e r 9.) ( a ) 渋谷に行った。 S h i b u y a ni itta. I w e n t to Shibuya.

そこで友達に会った。 S o k o d e t o m o d a c h i ni atta. There, I m e t m y friend. (b) 〈conversation 〉 A : 渋谷の例のカフェに行った。 S h i b u y a n o rei n o kafe ni itta. I w e n t to that cafe in S h i b u y a (I k n o w that y o u k n o w a b o u t it). B : ふ一ん、あそこいつも混んでるよね。 F u u n , a s o k o i t s u m o k o n d e r u y o ne. I see. It’ s a l w a y s c r o w d e d there, isn’ t it?

7.10. Particles Exp la n a tio n

J a p a n e s e particles c o m e in three different t y p e s : (1)g r a m m a t i c a l particles, (2)interactional particles, a n d (3) topic markers. G r a m ­ matical particles m a r k case relations. For example, for a sentence m e a n i n g J o h n d r a n k coffee’ ，が m a r k s the subject a n d を m a r k s the object. ( a ) ジョン （ J o h n ) がコーヒー （ coffee) を飲んだ （ drank)。

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Interactional particles express personal feelings a n d interper­ sonal attitudes ，the m o s t representative o n e s being ね a n d よ . For example, u s e d interactionally, よ c o n v e y s n e w information, while ね see k s confirmation. ジ ョ ン が コ ー ヒ ー を 飲 ん た ょ m e a n s s o m e ­ thing like ‘ Y o u m a y not k n o w that, b u t J o h n d r a n k cofiee.5 Additionally, a n u m b e r oi topic m a r k e r s operate a s particles, は being the m o s t frequently u s e d one. S o (b) is a sentence m a r k i n g J o h n a s the topic, that is, s o m e t h i n g that y o u are talking about. (b)ジョン（ John)は忙しいです（ is b u s y )。 W e will return to particles later (particularly in sections 8.6, 8.11,11.1,11.5, a n d 16.4), b u t for n o w , it is sufficient to recognize the very basics of the particles が ，を，ね ，よ ，a n d は .

7.11. Verbs Exp la n a tio n

KINDS OF JAPANESE VERBS

J a p a n e s e verbs c a n b e divided into three t y p e s : (1)c o m m o n v e r b s ， (2) be-verb，a n d 13) existential verbs. T h e verb c o m p a r a b l e to E n g ­ lish b e is だ ，a n d its formal counterpart is で す . T h e verbs c o m p a ­ rable to English existential expressions (th e re is, th e r e a re ) are あ る a n d い る . T h e s e verbs conjugate in special ways. Refer to the conjugation list p r esented in the next section. Common Verbs C o m m o n verbs are verbs excluding the be-verb a n d existential verbs. All verbs (except だ ）in J a p a n e s e e n d with the v o w e l -u, that is，either with う or a c o m b i n a t i o n of c o n s o n a n t plus -u,. for e x a m p l e ，く，む ， a n d る. （ Needless to s a y ，not all w o r d s that e n d with u are verbs.)

買う 行く 飲む 食べる

kau i ku nomu taberu

to to to to

buy go drink eat

Stative or Dynamic Action Verbs J a p a n e s e verbs are further categorized b a s e d o n their t e n d e n c y to describe either a state of being or a d y n a m i c action. T h e typical

80

WORDS

stative verbs are the existential verbs ある a n d いる. Typical active verbs a r e 買う，行く ，飲む ，a n d 食べる. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs T h e transitive v e r s u s intransitive contrast in J a p a n e s e verbs d o e s not m a t c h perfectly w i t h English. H o w e v e r ，w e c a n basically u n d e r ­ s t a n d that transitive verbs require objects (on w h i c h the verbs o p ­ erate) in the s e n t e n c e ，while intransitive verbs d o not. For e x a m p l e ， 買う ‘ to b u y ’is transitive，while 行く ‘ to g o ’is intransitive. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of transitive-intransitive verb pairs. T h i s is similar to English，w h e r e the verb o p e n c a n b e transitive (as I o p e n th^e door) a s well a s intransitive (T h e d o o r op e n s ). Transitive (a) ドアを開ける。 D o a o akeru. I o p e n the door.

Intransitive D o a g a aku. T h e d o o r opens.

( b ) お金を集める。 O k a n e o atsumeru. I collect m o n e y .

O k a n e g a atsumaru. T h e m o n e y is collected.

ドアが開く。

お金が集まる。

( c ) 名前を変えた。 N a m a e o kaeta. T h e y c h a n g e d the n a m e .

名前が変わった。

N a m a e g a kawatta. T h e n a m e changed.

7.12. Verb Conjugation Exp la n a tio n

VERB FORMS

J a p a n e s e verbs c h a n g e f o r m according to features associated with t h e m . V e r b e n d i n g s c h a n g e to indicate formality levels，tense，a n d n e g ation ，w h i c h are covered in this entry. In addition ，verbs c h a n g e f o r m d e p e n d i n g o n the m e a n i n g s a d d e d to t h e m . T h e s e include potential ，passive ，causative ，voli­ tional，conditional，a n d c o m m a n d forms. A l t h o u g h these m a y not be “ conjugations”in the n a r r o w s e nse of the w o r d ，I refer to t h e m a s such. I will introduce these conjugations w h e n specific f o r m s are discussed. V e r b s are categorized into three types b a s e d o n the e n d i n g s of the basic or dictionary form. T h e basic f o r m is the o n e listed in the dictionary ，a n d it is the informal ，n o n - p a s t affirmative f o r m of the

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verb. T h e three types are U-verbs, RU-verbs, a n d irregular verbs. T h e s e verbs conjugate differently, a s s h o w n b e l o w a n d t h r o u g h o u t the book. T h e be-verb だ a n d existential verbs (ある a n d い る ）will b e introduced in sections 8.2 a n d 8.7 respectively. In addition, i m p o r t a n t verb f o r m s include the gerundive て f o r m a n d the s t e m of the verb, to be m e n t i o n e d later in this entry. V e r b conjugation is o n e area in w h i c h ロ ー マ 字 （じ）is useful. T h i s w a y , w e c a n see h o w a c o n s o n a n t a n d a v o w e l f o r m a n e w m o r a , a s in a s o b -im a s u f r o m a s o b -u . U-VERBS

U - v e r b s are all verbs that are neither R U - n o r irregular verbs. asobu odoroku kau kiku warau

遊ぶ 驚く 買う 聞く 笑う

to to to to to

play b e surprised buy hear laugh

RU-VERBS

R U - v e r b s e n d w i t h -iru a n d -e ru in their basic forms. 1.

- i r u e n d i n g verbs

落ちる 起きる 着る できる 見る

2.

ochiru okiru kiru dekiru miru

to to to to to

d r o p (intransitive) get u p wear b e able to d o see

to to to to to

p o u r in teach answer throw away sleep, to g o to b e d

-er u e n d i n g verbs 入れる 教 える 答 える 捨 てる 寝る

ireru oshieru kotaeru suteru neru

Exceptions

T h e r e are a f e w exceptions to this basic verb categorization. T h e following verbs, a l t h o u g h e n d i n g w i t h -iru a n d -eru , are U-verbs a n d are conjugated a s such.

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WORDS

入る 切る 減る 帰る しやべる す べる

hairu kiru heru kaeru shaberu suberu

to to to to to to

enter cut decrease return chat slide, to slip

IRREGULAR VERBS

A m o n g c o m m o n l y u s e d verbs, there are only t w o irregular v e r b s : す る ‘ to d o ’a n d 来 る ‘ to c o m e ’ . T h e irregular verb する is very productive. It is c o m b i n e d with n o u n s of C h i n e s e origin to m a k e n o u n s into verbs (see section 6.1). Additionally, foreign loan w o r d s b e c o m e verbs b y a d d i n g する to t h e m (see section 6.2). 研究する 旅行する フォーカスする シヤンプーする

kenkyuusuru rvokoosuru iookasusuru shanpuusuru

to to to to

c o n d u c t research travel focus shampoo

NON-PAST TENSE (AFFIRMATIVE) FORMS

Verbs in J a p a n e s e are divided into past a n d n o n - p a s t tenses. T h e word “ n o n - p a s t ”is u s e d since it expresses English equivalents of b o t h present a n d iuture tenses. T h e basic iunction of the n o n - p a s t tense is to c o n v e y that the action or the state referred to h a s not yet occurred. T h e r e is n o c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a m o n g the p e r s o n (the first, second, or third person), the n u m b e r (singular or plural), a n d the verb form. For deriving the formal f o r m f r o m the basic form, the following rules apply. U-ve r b s RU-verbs Irregular verbs

Replace the final -u w i t h -im a su . Replace the final -ru with -m a su . す る c h a n g e s t o します 来 る （く）る c h a n g e s t o 来 （ き）ます

pAST TENSE (AFFIRMATIVE) FORMS

T h e past tense c o n v e y s that a n action or state referred to h a s al­ r e a d y occurred. T o derive the formal version f r o m the basic form, c h a n g e ます

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to ました. T o derive informal past tense f o r m s ，the following rules apply. U -v e rb s

Verbs Verbs Verbs Verbs Verbs

ending ending ending ending ending

with with with with with

-k u -gu -u, -tsu, a n d -ru -nu, -bu, a n d -m u -su

Replace Replace Replace Replace Replace

-k u w i t h -ita -g u w i t h -id a e n d i n g s w i t h -tta e n d i n g s w i t h -n d a -s u w i t h -s h ita

R U -v e rb s

Replace the final- ru w i t h -ta Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

す る c h a n g e s t o した 来 （く）る c h a n g e s t o 来 （き）た L IS T OF VERB CO N JU G ATIO N S (AFFIRM A TIV E FORMS) Formal non-past

Basic

Informal past

F o r m a l past

U -v e rb s

書く

to write

kaku

書きます

書いた

書きました

kakimasu

kaita

kakimashita

食べます

食べた

食べました

tabemasu

tabeta

tabemashita

R U -v e rb s

食べる

to eat

taberu Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

する

to d o

suru

来る

to c o m e

kuru Be-v^er*b

だ

to b e

da

します

した

しました

shimasu

shita

shimashita

来ます

来た

来ました

kimasu

kita

kimashita

です

だった

でした

desu

datta

deshita

E x is te n tia l v e rb s

ある

there is/are

aru

いる iru

there is/are

あります

あった

ありました

arimasu

atta

arimashita

います

いた

いました

imasu

ita

imashita

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WORDS

VERB STEM S T o obtain the s t e m of a v e r b ，delete ます f r o m the ま す form. For example, the s t e m of the verb 書く is 書 き .

N EG ATIVE FORMS Negation in N i h o n g o is s o m e w h a t similar to the English process of a d d i n g negative prefixes，a s in discourage a n d uncover，except that in J a p a n e s e ，the e n d i n g s of the verbs are c h a n g e d to f o r m the negative. Negative verb f o r m s are f o r m e d a s s h o w n below. U -v e rb s

Informal n o n - p a s t Replace the final v o w e l -u w i t h -anai (For U - v e r b s e n d i n g in a [vo^el + -u]，replace -u w i t h -w a n a i ) F o r m a l non-past Replace -m a s u (of -m a s u form) with -m a s e n

Informal past F o r m a l past

Replace -n a i (of -a n a i form) w i t h -n a k a tta A d d -deshita to - m a s e n f o r m

R U -v e rb s

Informal n o n - p a s t F o r m a l non-past Informal past F o r m a l past

Replace the final-ru w i t h -n a i Replace -m a s u (of -m a s u form) with -m a s e n Replace -n a i (of -n a i form) with -n a k a tta A d d -d e s h ita i m m e d i a t e l y after -m a s e n

List of Verb Conjugations (Negative Forms) Basic

Formal non-past

Informal past

F o r m a l past

書きません

書かなかった

書きませんで

kakimasen

kakanakatta kakimasendeshita

食べません

食べなかった

食べませんで

tabemasen

t a b e nakatta

tabemasendeshita

U -v e rb s

書く

to write

した

kaku

R U -v erb s

食べ

to eat

した

taberu

85

W ords in G ra m m a r Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

する

to d o

suru 来る

to c o m e

kuru

しません

しな かった

しませんでした

shimasen

shinakatta

shimasendeshita

来ません

来なかった

来ませんでした

kimasen

konakatta

kimasendeshita

B e -v e rb

だ

to b e

ではありません ではなかった

ではありません でした

da

dewa arimasen

dewa nakatta

d e w a arimasendeshita

じやありません

じやなかった

じやありません でした

ja a r i m a s e n

ja n a k a t t a

ja a rimasendeshita

ありません

なかった

ありませんで

arimasen

nakatta

a rimasendeshita

E x is te n tia l v e rb s

ある

there is/are

した

aru V 、る iru

there is/are

いません

いなかった

いませんでした

imasen

inakatta

imasendeshita

T h e negative formal f o r m m a y also b e e x pressed a s な い で す . T h i s f o r m takes です i m m e d i a t e l y after the negative informal f o r m a n d is less formal t h a n the ま せ ん form. O n e reminder: the verb ‘ to s a y ’is written a s 言 う （ い う ，fu)，b u t it is p r o n o u n c e d a s y u u . T h i s verb conjugates b a s e d o n iu, p r o d u c ­ ing itta , iwan^ai, iw a n a k a tta , a n d so on. Note that alternative negative f o r m s (for the informal past) are also available，that is，a d d で す to the informal past. W e h a v e 書 か な か っ た で す ，食 べ な か っ た で す ，で は な か っ た で す ，a n d so o n . なかっ た で す is considered less formal t h a n ま せ ん で し た . GERUNDIVE て FORMS T h e gerundive f o r m of a verb takes て （ or で）e n d i n g s ，a n d therefore it is called the て form. T o obtain the て f o r m ，replace the final た of the informal past

86

WORDS

tense of a verb w i t h て ，a n d だ w i t h で . For the negative gerundive て form, for all verbs except the b e -v e r b a n d existential verbs, a d d で to the informal n o n - p a s t negative forms. S e e the list b e l o w for all forms. List of Gerundive て Forms 行く 泳ぐ 食 べる する 来る だ ある いる

iku oyogu taberu suru kuru da aru iru

to to to to to to to to

go swim eat do come be exist be/exist

て form

Negative て f o r m

行って

行かないで

泳いで

泳がないで

食べて

食べないで

して

しないで

来 (き )て

来 （ こ）な い で

で

で な く て ，じ やなくて

あって

なくて

いて

いなくて

7.13. Adjective Conjugation Exp la n a tio n

Adjectives conjugate according to formality levels a n d tense. (Refer to the a p p e n d i x for the conjugation lists. ) な adjectives follow the conjugation of the be-verb 7こ. S o for 危 険 （ き け ん ）な ‘ d a n g e r o u s ’w e h a v e 危 険 だ ，危 険 で し た ，危 険 じ や な い ，き け ん で は あ り ま せ ん ，a n d so forth. レヽ adjectives 10110w specific coniugation rules. Negative i o r m s are particularly c o m p l e x a n d s h o u l d b e learned w i t h care. CONJUGATION RULES FOR し〉 ADJECTIVES

F r o m the basic/dictionary f o r m (i.e.，the affirmative informal n o n ­ past) to obtain: Affirmative formal n o n - p a s t Affirmative informal past Affirmative formal past Negative informal n o n - p a s t Negative formal n o n - p a s t Negative informal past Negative formal past

A d d です Replace い Replace い Replace い Replace い Replace い Replace い Replace い Replace い

with with with with with with with with

かった かったです くない くないです くありません くなかった くなかったです くありませんでした

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L IS T OF A D JE C T IV E CO N JUG ATIO N S Basic/dictionary f o r m Affirmative informal n o n - p a s t Affirmative formal n o n - p a s t Affirmative informal past Affirmative formal past Negative informal n o n - p a s t Negative formal n o n - p a s t Negative informal past Negative formal past

おいしい おいしい おいしいです おいしかった おいしかったです おいしくない おいしくないです おいしくありません おいしくなかった おいしくなかったです おいしくありませんでした

A D JE C T IV E STEM S A n adiective s t e m is obtained b y deleting the final い f r o m い adjec­ tives a n d the final な f r o m な adiecuves; t h u s w e h a v e お い し （ of お いしい）a n d べん り （ o f べんりな). Irregular Conjugation Note the irregular conjugation for the adjective いい ‘ g o o d 5. Basic/dictionary f o r m Affirmative informal n o n - p a s t Affirmative formal n o n - p a s t Affirmative informal past Affirmative formal past Negative informal n o n - p a s t Negative f ormal n o n - p a s t Negative informal past Negative f ormal past

V ヽい or m o r e f o r m a l よV ヽ V ヽい or m o r e f o r m a l よV ヽ

いいです よかった よかったです よくない よくないです よくありません よくなかった よくなかったです よくありませんでした

PART IV

G ram m ar

CH A PTER 9

Simple Sentences—Enhanced

9.1. Progressive Forms K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

歌を歌っています。 U ta o u ta tte im a su . (He) is s in g in g a so n g.

KE2

電車が止まっている。 D e n sh a g a to m a tte iru . T h e tr a in is sto p p ed .

KE3

川上さん、結婚してる？ K a w a k a m i-sa n , k e k k o n sh ite ru ? K a w a k a m i, is h e m a rrie d ?

Exp la n a tio n

R e c a ll th e g e ru n d iv e て fo rm o f th e ve rb d is c u s s e d in se ctio n 7 .1 2 . T h e [て fo rm + いる] co m b in a tio n o ffe rs th e p ro g re ssiv e ている fo rm . T h is is so m e w h at s im ila r to th e E n g lis h p ro g re ssiv e te n se , th e co m ­ b in a tio n o f th e oe -verb a n d th e ve rb g e ru n d iv e (-in g ) fo rm . In c a s u a l sp e e ch , ている is c o n tra cte d to てる. FU N CTIO N S OF てし、 る 1 . F or a ctiv e d u ra tiv e v e r b s , ている e x p re sse s th e p ro g re ssio n o f a n a ctio n . K E 1 is s u c h a n e xa m p le . ( a ) スージーは今バーでワインを飲んでいる。 S u u jii w a im a b a a de w a in o n o n d e iru . S u s ie is n o w d rin k in g w in e a t th e bar. 118

Simple Sentences—Enhanced

119

( b ) 和 也 ？今、テレビ見てるよ。 K a zu y a ? Im a , te re b i m ite ru yo. K a zu y a ? H e ’s w a tc h in g te le v isio n now . 2.

F o r a ctiv e n o n -d u ra tiv e v e rb s , ている re fe rs to th e c o n tin u a ­ tio n o f a p re se n t sta te r e s u ltin g fro m a n a lre a d y co m p lete d a ctio n , a s in K E 2 a n d K E 3 . F o r e xa m p le , th e ve rb 結婚する ‘to ge t m a rrie d ’ d e sc rib e s n o n -d u ra tiv e a c tio n (g e ttin g m a rrie d is a ch ie v e d in a n in s ta n t ).結婚している m e a n s ‘to be m a rrie d ’ (a s th e r e s u lt o f g e ttin g m a rrie d ). T h e n e g a tio n o f t h is ている p o in ts o u t a n u n a c h ie v e d re su lt. ( c ) まだ結婚していません。 M ad a k e k k o n sh ite im a se n . S h e is n ’t m a rrie d yet. ( d ) 私、それ、聞いてないよ。 W a ta sh i, so re , k iite n a i yo. I h a v e n ’t h e a rd th a t. (N obody to ld m e a b o u t th a t.)

3.

F o r som e a ctiv e v e rb s , ている re fe rs to a n a c tio n rep e ated fo r a c e rta in d u ra tio n o f tim e. W h e n u s in g (e), y o u m e a n th e h a ­ b itu a l, re p e a te d a ctio n o f co m m u tin g , n o t th a t y o u a re in th e m id d le o f co m m u tin g . ( e ) 姉は大学に通っています。 A n e w a d a ig a k u n i k a y o tte im a su . M y (elder) s is te r co m m u te s to th e u n iv e rsity .

4.

F o r a sta tiv e v e rb ，ている d e sc rib e s a c o n tin u in g sta te . In th e c a se o f th e b e -ve rb , でいる is p o ssib le . ( f ) いい子でいます。 Ii k o de im a su . I c o n tin u e to be a good k id .

G raffiti

T h e re are tw o a d d itio n a l e xte n d ed u s e s o f ている. 1 . R eferen ce to a n e xp e rie n ce (g )

あの人はよく外国へ行っている。 A n o h ito w a y o k u g a ik o k u e itte iru . H e h a s tra v e le d to fo re ig n c o u n trie s often.

120 2.

GRAMMAR

P ro g re ssiv e fo rm o n ly v e rb s C e rta in v e rb s a re u se d o n ly in th e ている fo rm ， a n d th e y m e re ly d e scrib e th e sta te or q u a lity o f th in g s. ( h ) 目の前に高い山がそびえていた。 Me n o m ae n i ta k a i y a m a g a so b ie te ita . In fro n t o f m y e ye s， th e t a ll m o u n ta in ro se .

9.2. Verbs of Giving and Receiving K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

これは友達にもらいました。 K o re w a to m o d a ch i n i m o ra im a srn ta . I re ce ive d t h is fro m m y frie n d .

KE2

これ、あげるよ。 K o re ， a g e ru yo. l g iv e t h is to y o u . (Yo u c a n ta k e it.)

KE3

先生が弟に本をくださった。 S e n s e i g a otooto n i h o n o k u d a sa tta . T h e te a ch e r gave m y y o u n g e r b ro th e r a b o ok.

KE4

たくさんの方から励ましの言葉をいただきました。 T a k u s a n n o k a t a k a r a h a g e m a sh i no k o to b a o ita d a k im a s h ita . I re ce ive d w o rd s o f e n co u ra ge m e n t iro m m a n y people.

Exp la n a tio n

C o n sid e r th a t th e tra n sfe re n ce o f a n o b je ct or se rv ice c a n be de­ sc rib e d in tw o w a ys. We c a n s a y th a t A “g iv e s” it to B . T h e sam e in c id e n t c a n be rep o rte d fro m th e re ce iv e r’s p o in t o f vie w ， th a t is ， B “re ce iv e s” so m e th in g fro m A . B u t in N ih o n g o , th e re is a n a d d itio n a l d im e n sio n . THE UCHI AND SOTO RELATIONSHIP

Ja p a n e s e v e rb s o f g iv in g a n d re c e iv in g in v o lv e a th ird d im e n sio n ， a n a sp e ct n o t n e c e s s a rily s ig n ific a n t in E n g lis h . D e p e n d in g o n w ho re c e iv e s ，tw o d iffe re n t ty p e s o f v e rb s o f g iv in g a re u se d . I f th e re ­ ce ive r is y o u or som eon e in y o u r u ch i g ro u p ， y o u ch o o se くれる. Som eon e くれる ‘g iv e s ’ so m e th in g to y o u o r to a m em b er o f y o u r

Simple Sentences—Enhanced

121

u c h i group. If y o u or a m e m b e r of y o u r g r o u p are not the receiver,

y o u c h o o s e あげる，s o m e o n e ‘ gives’s o m e t h i n g to s o m e o n e . For the verb of receiving, u s e もらう regardless of w h e t h e r y o u or s o m e o n e else receives.

S O C IA L STATU S D e p e n d i n g o n the relative social status of the participants a n d the p e r s o n s described in the giving-receiving event，y o u m u s t c h o o s e different verb forms. D e p e n d i n g o n m e u e or m e s h ita relationships ， e a c h of the くれる，あげる，a n d もらう take the f0110w i n g additional forms. Verb

Social status of the giver a n d receiver

くれる くださる くれる くれる

giver is m e u e giver is equal giver is m e s h ita

あげる さしあげる あげる やる

giver is m e s h ita giver is equal giver is m e u e

もらう いただく もらう もらう

receiver is m e s h ita receiver is equal receiver is m e u e

CASE M ARKERS A SSO C IA T E D W ITH G IVIN G AND R EC E IV IN G For describing the giver (G)，receiver (R)，a n d things e x c h a n g e d (T)， the following case m a r k e r s are used. [ G が R にT を [ G が R にT を [ R が G に/ か ら 丁を

くださる/ くれる] さしあげる/ あげる/ やる] いただく/ もらう]

T h e particle に is preierred w h e n the receiver h a s direct p e r ­ sonal contact with the giver，w h e r e a s the particle から is preferred w h e n the s o urce is s o m e w h a t impersonal. S e e the particles u s e d in the K e y E x p r e s s i o n s ，that is，もら う in K E 1 ，くださる in K E 3 , a n d いただく in K E 4 .

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9.3. Giving and Receiving Actions K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

友達が来てくれた。 T o m o d a c h i g a k ite -k u re ta . M y frie n d (k in d ly ) cam e fo r a v is it.

KE2

あとで電話してくれない？ A tode d e n w a sh ite -k u re n a i? W ill y o u p le a se c a ll m e la te r?

KE3

2 0 分待ってもらいました。 N iju p p u n m a tte -m o ra im a sh ita . I h a d h im w a it fo r m e fo r tw en ty m in u te s.

KE4

これ貸してあげるよ。 K o re k a s h ite -a g e ru yo. I ’ll le n d t h is to yo u .

KE5

先生にお話していただきました。 S e n s e i n i o h a n a s h is h ite -ita d a k im a s h ita . We h a d th e te a ch e r g iv e a ta lk .

Exp la n a tio n

W h e n a c tio n s a re p e rfo rm e d fo r th e b e n e fit o f som eone (or o cca ­ s io n a lly to d am age som eon e), y o u m u st co m m u n ica te th e b e n e fit (or dam age) b y u s in g th e v e rb s o f g iv in g a n d re ce iv in g . F o r th is p a tte rn , u se th e て fo rm o f th e ve rb in co m b in a tio n w ith くれる，あ げる，a n d もらう. F o r e xa m p le ，来てくれる m e a n s som eon e cam e a n d th a t a c ­ tio n w a s fa v o ra b ly re ce ive d . If y o u s im p ly d e scrib e it a s 来る，th e d e sc rip tio n re m a in s n e u tra l. T h e sp e c ific ve rb of g iv in g o r re c e iv in g c h o se n fo r t h is stru c tu re d e p e n d s on th e re la tiv e s o c ia l s ta tu s o f th e g iv e r a n d th e receiver. T h e a p p ro p ria te ve rb sh o u ld be ch o se n fro m th e g ro u p w e le a rn e d in se ctio n 9 .2 . M EANINGS OF てくれる A s in K E 1 ，てくれる d e sc rib e s a b e n e fic ia l a ctio n ta k e n fo r (th u s g iv e n to) y o u or a m em b er o f y o u r u c h i g ro u p . K E 1 e x p re sse s th e fe e lin g o f g ra titu d e (for th e frie n d ’s k in d v is it).

Simple Sentences—Enhanced

123

H ow ever ，てくれる o c c a s io n a lly re fe rs to a n u n fa v o ra b le or d a m a g in g a ctio n . It e x p re sse s a fe e lin g o f re g re t a s in (a): ( a ) 弱ったなあ、また、あいつ、 ミスしてくれた。 Y o w a tta n a a , m a ta , a its u , m isu s h ite -k u re ta . W h a t a b o th er, h e m ad e a m ista k e a g a in . M EANINGS O F てあげる A s in K E 4 , u se てあげる to d e scrib e a n a c tio n th a t y o u or som eone ta ke (s) (th u s give [s]) to b e n e fit th e receiver. It a lso d e sc rib e s y o u r stro n g w ill a s in (b). A s a n e xte n d e d u se , y o u c a n a lso e x p re ss a fe e lin g o f a b a n d o n m e n t, a s in (c). ( b ) いつかきっとピアノのコンクールで一等をとってやる。 It s u k a k itto p ia n o n o k o n k u u ru de ittoo o to tte -y a ru . Som e d a y I w ill w in th e fir s t p rize in th e p ia n o co n te st. ( c ) 結婚を許してくれない。死んでやる！ K e k k o n o y u ru s h ite -k u re n a i. S h in d e -y a ru ! T h e y d o n ’t a p p ro ve o f m y m a rria g e . I ’m g o in g to die! A VO ID IN G てあげる Q U ESTIO N S S p e c ia l c o n sid e ra tio n is re q u ire d w h e n u s in g てあげる. W h e n v o u m a ke a n offer, th e q u e stio n , s u c h a s in (d), m a y m a ke y o u r p a rt­ n e r feel re se n tfu l. It g iv e s a n im p re ssio n th a t sin c e y o u r p a rtn e r is h e lp le ss, h e o r sh e m u st re ce ive c h a rity fro m y o u . A th o u g h tfu l sp e a k e r w ill u se (e) or (f) in ste a d . (d )

あ、それ、持ってあげましょうか。 A , so re , m o tte -a ge m a sh o o k a . S h a ll I c a rry (it) fo r yo u ?

(e )

あ、それ、持ちましょうか。 A , so re , m o ch im a sh o o k a . S h a ll I c a rry (it)?

( f )

あ、それ、持ちます。 A , so re m o c h im a su . Le t m e c a rry (it).

M EANINGS O F てもらう A s in K E 3 , てもりう d e sc rib e s a b e n e fic ia l a ctio n y o u o r a n o th e r receive. T h is a ctio n is u s u a lly so m e th in g d e sire d o r s p e c ific a lly re ­

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q u e sted . K E 5 d e sc rib e s th e b e n e fic ia l a c tio n o f th e te a ch e r (m e u e p e rso n ) g iv in g a ta lk . A c c o rd in g ly ， th e w o rd ていただく is ch o se n .

G raffiti

てもらう a p p e a rs i n てもらって（ も）いいですか a s a n e x p re ssio n o f re q u e st. T h is fo rm is w id e ly u se d (not a m o n g se n io rs) a s a p o lite re q u e st， b u t y o u sh o u ld a v o id it to w a rd y o u r m e u e p e rso n . In s te a d ， u s e ていただけませんでしようか. (g )

ここに書いてもらって（ も）いいですか。 K o ko n i k a ite -m o ra tte (mo) ii d e su k a . C a n y o u w rite it h ere?

( h ) 写真とってもらって（ も）いいですか。 S h a s h in to tte -m o ra tte im o) ii d e su k a ? C a n y o u ta k e o u r p ic tu re ?

9.4. Expressions of Desire K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

お金が欲しいなあ。 O k a n e g a h o s h ii n a a . I w a n t m oney.

KE2

もうちょっと食べたい！ Moo ch o tto tab etai! I w a n t to e at a b it m ore!

KE3

あの人、新しいデジカメを欲しがっていたよ。 A n o h ito , a ta ra s h ii d e jik a m e o h o sh ig a tte ita yo. H e w a n ts a n e w d ig ita l cam e ra .

KE4

彼、渋谷のカラオケボックスに行きたがってた。 K a re ，S h ib u y a no k a ra o k e b o k k u s u n i ik ita g a tte ta . He w a n te d to go to th e k a ra o k e b a r in S h ib u y a .

Exp la n a tio n

欲しいA N D たい Tw o p a tte rn s are u se d fo r e x p re s sin g d e sire . If w h a t y o u d e sire ta k e s a g ra m m a tic a l n o u n , u se 欲 し い ‘to w a n t, to d e sire ’， a s in

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125

K E 1 . If y o u w a n t s o m e action p e r f o r m e d a n d it is e x pressed b y a v e r b ，u s e the [stem of the verb + たい] structure，a s in K E 2 . W h e n the verb is だ，y o u m u s t u s e である or でいる.T h e verbs u s e d in this pattern are limited to those expressing controllable actions only.

YOUR OWN OR SOMEONE E L S E 'S D E SIR E Note that 欲しい a n d たい are u s e d only for the first p e r s o n a n d in question f o r m s for the s e c o n d person. For describing third-person desire，y o u m u s t u s e がっている，w h i c h m a r k s that the desire is s o m e o n e else’ s. U s e がる attached to the s t e m s of adjectives 欲しい a n d たい. W e h a v e 欲しがっている ‘ s o m e o n e w a n t s s o m e t h i n g ’a n d 会 （あ）いたがっている ‘ s o m e o n e w a n t s to m e e t ’ . T h i s shift is required in N ih o n g o b e c a u s e a distinction is m a d e b e t w e e n w h a t a p e r s o n directly experiences or feels a n d i n f o r m a ­ tion to w h i c h a p e r s o n h a s only indirect access.

P A R T IC LE S IN VO LVED IN E X P R E S S IO N S OF D E SIR E T h e object of desire is the s ource that c a u s e s s o m e o n e to desire. In reference to the e l e m e n t of p r i m a r y predicate focus (see section 8.6)，w e u n d e r s t a n d that the source c a u s i n g desire is the i n f o r m a ­ tion of central focus. S o w h e n u s i n g 欲しい，a s in K E 1 ，m a r k the object of desire b y が. W h e n it constitutes a topic，m a r k it b y は or other topic markers. W h e n たい is u s e d ，y o u m a r k the object of desire b y が or を， a s in (a) or (b): (a)

ワインが飲みたい。 W a i n g a nomitai. I w a n t to drink wine.

(b)

ワインを飲みたい。 W a i n o nimitai. I w a n t to drink wine.

W h e n y o u u s e 欲しがっている （ a s in K E 3 ) a n d たがっている，the object of desire is m a r k e d b y を. Needless to m e n t i o n ，a s in K E 4 , certain case m a r k e r s d o not take を. For e x a m p l e ，in the case of 馬 尺 (えき）へ 行 （ い）く ‘ to g o to the station ’ ，へ r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d .

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9.5. Potential and Ability K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

日本語を話すことができます。 N ih o n go o h a n a s u ko to g a d e k im a su . I c a n sp e a k Ja p a n e se .

KE2

日本語が少し話せます。 N ih o n go g a s u k o s h i h a n a se m a su . I c a n sp e a k Ja p a n e s e a little .

KE3

— 時間以内にそっちに行ける。 Ic h ijik a n in a i n i so tc h i n i ik e ru . I c a n ge t th e re w ith in a n h o u r.

KE4

こんなもの、食べられないよ。 K o n n a m on o , ta b e ra re n a i yo. T h is k in d o f th in g , I c a n ’t e at it.

KE5

あなたにうそはつけない。 A n a ta n i u so w a tsu k e n a i. I c a n ’t lie to yo u .

Exp la n a tio n

TWO WAYS TO E X P R E S S A B IL IT Y T h e re a re tw o w a y s to e x p re ss p o te n tia l a n d a b ility , th a t is , こと ができる， a s in K E 1 , a n d th e p o te n tia l fo rm o f th e ve rb , a s in K E 2 th ro u g h K E 5 . ことができる

T h e ことができる p a tte rn is a tta ch e d im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e b a s ic fo rm o f th e ve rb . If y o u a re n e g a tin g , u se ことはできない， a s g iv e n in (a). ( a ) 今すぐ出かけることはできないよ。 Im a s u g u d e k a k e ru ko to w a d e k in a i yo. I c a n ’t leave rig h t aw ay. Potential Forms

P o te n tia l ve rb e n d in g s a re fo rm e d a s sh o w n below .

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127

U^verbs: Replace the final -u with -e ru .

kaku asobu

書く 遊ぶ

to write to play

書ける 遊べる

R U -^ e rb s : Replace the final -r u with -ra re ru .

食べる 起きる

taberu okiru

to eat to get u p

食べられる

to d o to c o m e

できる

起きられる

Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

する 来る

suru kuru

来 （ こ）ら れ る 、 来 （ こ）れる

P A R T IC LE S A SSO C IA T E D W ITH TH E P O TEN TIA L FORM W h e n u s i n g a potential expression, a s in K E 2 , the particle が m a r k s the object of w h a t a p e r s o n c a n do. For こ と が で き る ，u s e を to m a r k w h a t a p e r s o n c a n do. If the thing that a p e r s o n c a n d o is a topic，the topic m a r k e r takes over，a s in K E 5 . ( b ) 難しい漢字が読めますか。 M u z u k a s h i i kanji g a y o m e m a s u ka. C a n y o u r e a d difficult k a n ji (characters)? ( c ) 難しい漢字を読むことができますか。 M u z u k a s h i i kanji o y o m u koto g a d e k i m a s u ka. C a n y o u r e a d difficult k a n ji (characters)? ( d ) 簡単な漢字は読めます。 K a n t a n n a kanji w a y o m e m a s u . S i m p l e ^ a n ji (characters)，I c a n r e a d t h em. ( e ) 簡単な漢字は読むことができます。 K a n t a n n a kanji w a y o m u koto g a d e k i m a s u . S i m p l e ^ a n ji (characters)，I c a n r e a d t h em.

SH O R TER PO TEN TIA L FORM T h e r e is a n alternative shorter potential f o r m for RU-verbs. Replace the final-rareru w i t h -reru. T h i s is called ら 抜 き こ と ば （ら-deletion version)，a n d it is often t h o u g h t to b e irregular or incorrect. H o w ­ ever ，in casual s p e e c h ，especially a m o n g y o u t h ，食 べ れ る is u s e d wit h o u t a w k w a r d n e s s . 食 べ る t aberu 捨 て る suteru

to eat to t h r o w a w a y

食べれる 捨てれる

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( f ) 何でも食べれる。 N a n dem o ta b e re ru . I c a n e at a n y th in g . (g )

こんなもの、食べれないよ。 K o n n a m ono, ta b e re n a i yo. T h is k in d o f th in g , I c a n ?t eat it.

( h ) なかなか、物が捨てれなくてね。 N a k a n a k a , m ono g a su te re n a k u te ne. I c a n ’t th ro w a w a y th in g s e a sily .

G raffiti

A lth o u g h w e h a ve tra n sla te d Ja p a n e s e p o te n tia l e x p re s sio n s in to E n g lis h ‘c a n ’, y o u m u s t a vo id e q u a tin g c a n w ith Ja p a n e s e p o te n tia l fo rm s. C a n is u se d n o t o n ly fo r p o te n tia l e x p re s sio n s b u t a lso fo r m a n y o th er p u rp o se s, s u c h a s e x p re s sin g p e rm issio n a n d p o s s ib il­ ity . E x p re s s io n s s u c h a s C a n I b o rr o w t h is ? or I t c a n h a p p e n ca n n o t be tra n sla te d in to th e Ja p a n e s e p o te n tia l fo rm s stu d ie d h ere.

9.6. Modal Verbs Exp la n a tio n

A w id e ra n g e o f m o d a l v e rb s is a v a ila b le . T h e y fo llo w d iffe re n t ve rb a n d a d je ctiv e fo rm s. 1 . T o co n ve y d o u b t; u se d w h e n y o u e x p re ss u n c e rta in ty , ‘p e r­ h a p s w ill’ [verb in fo rm a l fo rm + だ ろ う （or でしよう） ] [n o u n + だ ろ う （ o r でしよう） ] [い a d je ctiv e in fo rm a l fo rm + た ろ う （or でしよう） ] [な a d je ctiv e ste m (i.e., d elete th e f in a l な） + だろ う （or でしよ う)] (a )

あしたは雨が降るだろう。 A s h ita w a am e g a fu ru daroo. P e rh a p s it w ill r a in tom orrow .

( b ) 子供たちは五人ぐらい来るでしよう。 K o d o m o ta ch i w a g o n in g u r a i k u r u deshoo. M aybe a o o u t five c h ild re n w ill com e.

Simple Sentences—Enhanced (c)

129

それはちょっと、無理でしよう。 Sore w a chotto m u r i deshoo. P e r h a p s that w o u l d b e difficult.

2.

T o g u e s s with doubt; u s e d w h e n y o u d o n ’ t k n o w all the facts b u t m a y c o n c l u d e w i t h reasonable likelihood that s o m e t h i n g is so, ‘ m a y be so’ [verb informal f o r m + かもしれない （ o r かもしれません)] [ n o u n + かもしれない （ o r かもしれません)] [い adjective informal f o r m + かもしれない （ o r かもしれません)] [な adjective s t e m + かもしれない （ o r かもしれません)] In casual speech, this expression c a n b e s h o r t e n e d to かも. (d)

あしたは雨が降るかもしれないなあ。 Ashita w a a m e g a iuru k a m o s h i r e n a i naa. T o m o r r o w it m a y rain.

( e ) そこは危険かもしれません。 S o k o w a kiken kamoshiremasen. T h a t place m a y b e dangerous. (f)

3.

〈conversation 〉 A : あした行けないかも。 Ashita ikenai k a m o . I m a y n ot b e able to g o tom o r r o w . B : えっ？ Ett? What? A : ちょっと用事があって。 C hotto yooji g a atte. I h a v e s o m e chores.

T o c o n v e y social responsibility; u s e d w h e n pointing out that a certain action is a n obligation that s h o u l d b e followed a s a rule a n d that it is naturally expected of a person, ‘ o u g h t to’ [verb informal n o n - p a s t f o r m + べ き だ （ or べきです)] ( g ) 大事な行事には参加するべきだ。 Daijina gyooji ni w a s a n k a s u r u beki da. O n e o u g h t to participate in i m p o r t a n t events.

4.

T o express a natural course of events; u s e d w h e n expect­ ing a n d anticipating events a n d facts a s a natural o u t c o m e ; b a s e d o n the objective conditions to w h i c h y o u h a v e direct

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access, y o u h a v e every r e a s o n to believe that things will t u r n o ut just a s expected, ‘ is s u p p o s e d to? [verb informal f o r m + はずだ （ or はずです)] [ n o u n + のはずだ （ o r のはずです)] [い adjective informal f o r m + はずだ （ or はずです)] [な adjective modifying f o r m + はずだ （ or はずです)] ( h ) あの人は、もう来ているはずです。 A n o hito wa, m o o kiteiru h a z u desu. S h e s h o u l d b e here already. ( i ) 新鮮なくだものはおいしいはずです。 S h i n s e n n a k u d a m o n o w a oishii h a z u desu. F r e s h iruit s h o u l d b e delicious. ( j ) それは簡単なはず。 Sore w a k a n t a n n a hazu. T h a t s h o u l d b e simple. 5.

T o speculate; u s e d w h e n conveying a likeliness of s o m e t h i n g being so, b u t little c o m m i t m e n t is m a d e a s to w h e t h e r y o u b e ­ lieve its certainty; speculation b a s e d o n information primarily obtained f r o m sources other t h a n yourself, ‘ seem’ [verb informal f o r m + らしい （ o r らしいです)] [ n o u n + らしい （ o r らしいです)] [い adjective informal f o r m + らしい （ or らしいです)] [な adjective s t e m + らしい （ o r らしいです)] ( k ) あの人は、大阪へ行ったらしいです。 A n o hito wa, O o s a k a e itta rashii desu. H e s e e m s to h a v e g o n e to O s a k a . ( l ) そこはちょっと危険らしいよ。 S o k o w a chotto k i k e n rashii yo. T h a t place s e e m s to b e a little dangerous.

6.

T o c o n v e y likelihood; u s e d w h e n pointing o ut likelihood b a s e d o n a r e s e m b l a n c e of things a n d situations, ‘ b e likely, b e u n d e r the impression, s e e m ’ [verb informal f o r m + ようだ （ or ようです)] [ n o u n + のようだ （ o r のようです)] [い adjective informal f o r m + ようだ （ or ようです)] [な adjective modifying f o r m + ようだ （ or ようです)]

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( m ) あの人は、大阪へ行ったようです。 A n o hito wa, O o s a k a e itta y o o desu. It is likely that h e w e n t to O s a k a . ( n ) 彼は学生のようだ。 K a r e w a g a k u s e i n o y o o da. I’ m u n d e r the i m p r e s s i o n that h e is a student. ( o ) 最近彼は元気になったようだ。 Saikin k a r e w a genkini natta y o o da. I’ m u n d e r the i m p r e s s i o n that recently h e h a s gotten well. 7.

T o g u e s s with confidence; u s e d w h e n y o u are quite certain of y o u r a s s u m p t i o n s , conveying m o r e confidence t h a n だろう a n d かもしれない，‘ must’ [verb informal f o r m + にちがいない （ o r にちがいありません)] [ n o u n + にちがいない （ o r にちがいありません)] [い adjective informal f o r m + にちがいない （ o r にちがいありませ

ん)] [な adjective s t e m + にちがいない （ o r にちがいありません)] ( p ) あの絵は値段も高いにちがいありません。 A n o e w a n e d a n m o takai ni chigaiarimasen. T h e price of that painting m u s t b e high. ( q ) 犯人はあいつにちがいない。 H a n n i n w a aitsu ni chigainai. T h e perpetrator m u s t b e that guy. 8.

T o m a k e a n eyewitness conjecture; u s e d w h e n conjecturing the likelihood of a future event or the current condition of something, b a s e d o n w h a t y o u h a v e personally perceived, ‘ it looks (as if)’ [verb s t e m + そうだ （ o r そうです)] [い adjective s t e m (i.e.，delete the final い)+ そう だ （ or そうで す)] [な adjective s t e m + そうだ （ o r そうです)] ( r ) あしたは、雨になりそうだ。 Ashita w a a m e ni narisoo da. It looks like it will rain tom o r r o w . ( s ) そのくだもの、おいしそうですね。 S o n o k u d a m o n o , oishisoo d e s u ne. T h a t fruit looks delicious.

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⑴ こ の セ ー タ ー 、暖かそう。 K o n o seetaa, atatakasoo. T h i s sweater looks w a r m .

NEGATION USING MODAL V E R B S W h e n u s i n g m o d a l verbs, y o u m u s t negate the verb a n d the adjec­ tive preceding the m o d a l verb. For e x a m p l e , あしたは、雨は降らない たろう ‘ It w o n ’ t rain t o m o r r o w ’ . ( u ) あの人には会えないかもしれないなあ。 A n o hito ni w a aenai k a m o s h i r e n a i naa. I m a y n ot b e able to see him. ( v ) ユキは、試験だから、パーティーには来ないはずだけど。 Y u k i wa, s h i k e n d a kara, paatii ni w a k o n a i h a z u d a kedo. B e c a u s e there is a n e x a m , Y u k i s h o u l d n ot b e c o m i n g to the party. ( w ) きのうから、何も食べていないらしい。 K i n o o kara, n a n i m o tateteinai rashii. It s e e m s that h e h a s n ’ t eaten a n y t h i n g since yesterday. ( x ) それはあまり簡単じやないでしよう。 Sore w a a m a r i k a n t a n janai deshoo. Probably that isn’ t so simple.

9.7. Prohibition and Obligation K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

授業中は英語を話してはいけません。 J u g y o o c h u u w a eigo o han a s h i t e w a ike m a s e n . Y o u m u s t not s p e a k English d uring the class.

KE2

そんなにお酒飲んじやだめよ。 S o n n a n i o s a k e n o n j a d a m e yo. Y o u shouldn’ t drink that m u c h sake.

KE3

あしたまでにこの本を読まなければなりません。 Ashita m a d e ni k o n o h o n o y o m a n a k e r e b a n a r i m a s e n . I m u s t r e a d this b o o k b y t o m o r r o w .

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Exp la n a tio n

In a d d itio n to th e m o d a l v e rb s w e stu d ie d in se ctio n 9 .6 , w e sh o u ld p a y sp e c ia l a tte n tio n to th e u se o f tw o m o d a l e x p re s sio n s th a t sh o w p ro h ib itio n a n d o b lig a tio n . PR O H IB ITIO N T o e x p re ss p ro h ib itio n or a stro n g n e g a tiv e co m m an d , [v /a d j て + は + いけない] is a v a ila b le , a s in K E 1 . ては a n d では u se d in p ro h i­ b itio n e x p re s sio n s are c o n tra cte d to ちや a n d じや re sp e c tiv e ly in c a s u a l sp e e ch . T h is a n d a d d itio n a l fo rm s u se d fo r t h is p u rp o se are lis te d below . K E 2 is a n e xa m p le o f じやだめ.

てはいけない ては困る てはだめだ

てはいけません ては困ります てはだめです

（ いけない lit. ‘it is w ro n g ’ ） （ 困る lit. ‘it is p ro b le m a tic ’) （ だめだ lit ノit is b a d ’ ）

A ll th e se a re tra n sla te d in to th e E n g lis h ‘m u st n o t’ o r ‘sh o u ld n o t’.

ここで大声をあげては困ります。

(a )

K o ko de oogoe o agete w a k o m a rim a su . Y o u m u st n o t sp e a k lo u d ly h e re [lit. ‘S p e a k in g lo u d ly h e re is p ro b le m a tic ’]. ( b ) あそこで遊んじやだめ！ A so k o de a so n j a dam e! Y o u m u st n o t p la y over th ere. T o w a rd y o u r m^eue p e rso n , th e p ro h ib itio n e x p re s sio n s in tro ­ d u ce d h e re sh o u ld be avo id ed . In ste a d , n e g a tiv e re q u e st io rm s s u c h a s ないでくださいませんか or ないでいただけませんか are reco m m en d ed . O BLIG ATIO N D u ty a n d o b lig a tio n a re e xp re sse d in d ire c tly b y u s in g th e n e ga tive ば c o n d itio n a l, th a t i s , なければ. なければ is th e n fo llo w ed b y ならな い o r いけない. See K E 3 fo r a n e xa m p le o f なければならない. T h e se e x p re s sio n s m e a n ‘i f y o u do n o t do th is , it is n o t go o d ’ (or ‘it b o th e rs m e’), a n d th e y a re n o rm a lly tra n sla te d w ith th e E n g lis h a u x ilia r y ve rb ‘m u s t’. なければならない d e sc rib e s a b so lu te o b lig a tio n .

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GRAMMAR

(c )

この建物に入るには、許可を得なければならない。 K o n o tatem o n o n i h a iru n i w a k y o k a o e n a k e re b a n a ra n a i. Y o u m u st o b ta in p e rm issio n to e n te r t h is b u ild in g .

(d) いっしょうけんめい働かなければなりません。 Issh o o k e n m e i h a ta ra k a n a k e re b a n a rim a se n . I m u st w o rk h a rd . ( e ) 八時までに東京駅へ行かなければなりません。 H a c h iji m ad e n i To o kyo o -e ki e ik a n a k e re b a n a rim a se n . I m u st ge t to th e T o k y o s ta tio n b y e ig h t o’c lo c k .

なければいけない is often u se d to offer a d vice to, g iv e o rd e rs to, or m a ke a n e m p h a tic re q u e st o f y o u r m e s h ita p e rso n . It is a d ­ d re sse d d ire c tly to th e liste n e r. (f)

〈c o n v e rsa tio n 〉 A : 大切な手紙だから字をきちんと書かなければいけませんよ。 T a is e ts u n a te g a m i d a k a ra j i o k ic h in to k a k a n a k e re b a ik e m a se n yo. S in c e t h is is a n im p o rta n t lette r, y o u m u st w rite th e c h a ra c te rs n e a tly . B : はい、わかりました。 H a i, w a k a rim a sh ita . Y e s, I w ill.

T h e o b lig a tio n p a tte rn m a y a lso ta k e だめだ. ( g ) 早く起きなければだめよ。 H a y a k u o k in a k e re b a dam e yo. Y o u m u st ge t u p e a rly.

なければ c a n be c o n tra cte d t o なけりや a n d なきや. ( h ) すぐ帰ってこなけりやだめよ。 S u g u k a e tte -k o n a k e ry a dam e yo. Y o u m u st com e b a c k rig h t aw ay. ( i ) 勉強しなきやだめよ。 B e n k y o o sh in a k y a dam e yo. Y o u m u st stu d y .

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9.8. Modal Suffixes K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

パーティーの準備ですか。 もうしてありますよ。 Paatii n o j u nbi d e s u ka. M o o shite-arimasu yo. T h e preparations for the party? They^re already completed.

KE2

ビールもたくさん買っておぃたよ。 Biiru m o t a k u s a n katte-oita yo. I b o u g h t a lot of beer (for future use).

KE3

そんな昔のこと、もう忘れてしまったなあ。 S o n n a m u k a s h i n o koto, m o o w a s u r e t e - s h i m a t t a naa. I h a d forgotten, it w a s so long ago.

KE4

えっ、私の分も食べちやったの？ Ett, w a t a s h i n o b u n m o tabe-chatta n o ? W h a t , y o u ate u p m y portion, did y o u ?

Exp la n a tio n

A m o n g J a p a n e s e m o d a l suffixes, the following three f o r m s are m o s t useful. T h e y all take the て f o r m of the verb.

てある E XP R ESSIO N T h e てある structure indicates that a certain state w a s created a s a result of s o m e o n e ’ s special action. U s e it w h e n y o u are conscious of s o m e o n e h a v i n g d o n e something, a n d its result is useful for the next step. K E 1 is s u c h a n example. T h e v e rbs appe a r i n g in this a n d the n e x t pattern are volitional in nature. W h a t y o u c a n n o t control c a n n o t b e p e r f o r m e d w i t h a specific intent. Let’ s a s s u m e that y o u specifically b o u g h t s o m e nice w i n e for a party. N o w y o u w a n t to describe the current situation resulting f r o m that w i n e purchase. Y o u w o u l d s ay s o m e t h i n g like おいしいワ インが貝ってあるよ ‘ Delicious w i n e is already b o u g h t ’ . T h e negation of the てある expression p r o d u c e s ワインは買って ない ‘ T h e w i n e is n ot b o u g h t yet’ , pointing out that s o m e t h i n g is yet to b e completed.

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GRAMMAR

ておく E XP R ESSIO N T h e ておく stru c tu re d e sc rib e s a sta te a ch ie v e d in te n tio n a lly fo r som e fu tu re p u rp o se ， a s in K E 2 . U n lik e てめる，ておく fo c u se s m ore o n th e a ctio n itse lf. F o r e xa m p le , y o u b o u g h t d e lic io u s w in e io r th e p a rty ， a n d y o u w a n t to re fe r to th e a c tio n itse lf. You a re n k e lv to sa y so m e th in g l i k e おいしいワインを買っておいたよ ‘I b o u g h t d e lic io u s w in e ’ . ておく is c o n tra cte d to とく in c a s u a l sp e e ch a s in おいしV ヽ ワイン買っといたよ.

てしまうE XP RESSIO N てしまう in d ic a te s co m p le tio n a n d fin a lity . A s in K E 3 a n d K E 4 , y o u e m p h a size th a t th e a c tio n is com p lete a n d irre v o ca b le . It a d d s a n o te oi fa ta lis m in th a t w h a t h a s b een done on ce ca n n o t be u n ­ done. It is s im ila r to th e E n g lis h e n d u p d o in g a n d f i n i s h d o in g . て しまう is c o n tra cte d to ちやう in c a s u a l sp e e ch .

G raffiti

てしまう m a y so m e tim e s in d ic a te p o sitiv e n e ss a s w e ll， a s sh o w n in (a): ( a ) 彼にプレゼントもらっちやった。 K a re n i p u re ze n to m o ra t-c h a tta . I re ce iv e d a g ift fro m m y b o yfrie n d .

9.9.

Passives

K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

この家は、 1 9 3 0 年代に建てられました。 K o n o ie w a ， s e n k y u u h y a k u s a n ju u n e n d a i n i ta te ra re m a sh ita . T h is h o u se w a s b u ilt in th e 1 9 30s.

KE2

この雑誌には、おもしろい記事がたくさん掲載されている。 K o n o za s s rn n i w a ， o m o sh iro i k iji g a ta k u s a n k e is a is a re te iru . In t h is m a g a zin e ，m a n y in te re s tin g a rtic le s are p re se n te d .

Simple Sentences—Enhanced KE3

137

へんな男に追いかけられた。 H e n n a otoko ni oikakerareta. I w a s c h a s e d b y a creepy guy.

KE4

雨に降られちやってねえ。 A m e ni furare-chatte nee. I got c a u g h t in the rain.

Exp la n a tio n

T h e passive in A i h o n a o takes the れる a n d られる i o r m s of the verb. T h e particle に m a r k s the e l e m e n t that c a u s e s the action in question.

P A SSIV E CONJUGATION U^verbs an^d R U ^ verb s: Replace the final -u w i t h -a re ru .

書く 食べる

kaku taberu

to write to eat

書かれる 食べられる

to d o to c o m e

される 来 （こ）られる

to exist

いられる

Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

する 来る

suru kuru

E x is te n tia l v e rb

いる

iru

FU N CTIO N S OF THE P A SSIV E T h e r e are t w o p r i m a r y motivations for u s i n g the passive. 1 . W h e n the n e e d to refer to the agent of a n action is w e a k or nonexistent. G o o d e x a m p l e s are K E 1 a n d K E 2 . T h i s u s e is similar to English, w h e r e passives are u s e d wit h o u t the agent indicated w i t h the b y phrase, a s in H is b o o k w a s p u b lis h e d . 2. W h e n pointing out inconveniences a n d suffering. T h i s f u n c ­ tion is i m p o r t a n t in Jap a n e s e , and, a s in K E 3 , it indicates that the s p e a k e r is suffering f r o m s o m e o n e else’ s action or is experiencing s o m e t h i n g unpleasant. For this pattern, b o t h transitive a n d intransitive verbs m a y b e used. For e x a m p l e , 降 る is intransitive, b u t it c a n b e u s e d to c o n v e y inconvenience, a s in K E 4 . Here, the passive c o n v e y s negative c o n s e q u e n c e s similar to the English expression I g o t c a u g h t in th e rain.

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GRAMMAR

D IR E C T AND IN D IR E C T P A S S IV E S In t e r m s of g r a m m a t i c a l structure, there are t w o types of passives, that is, direct a n d indirect. In direct passives, the object of the related active sentence is the subject of the passive sentence. In indirect passives, y o u d o n ot find s u c h a correlation. 1 . Direct passive

2.

Active

( a ) 佐々木さんは山田さんをだました。 Sasak i - s a n w a Y a m a d a - s a n o damashita. M s. S asaki deceived M s. Y a m a d a .

Passive

( b ) 山田さんは佐々木さんにだまされた。 Y a m a d a - s a n w a S a s a k i - s a n ni d a m a sareta. M s. Y a m a d a w a s deceived b y M s. Sasaki.

Indirect passive Active

Passive

Active

Passive

( c ) 妹が私のケータイを使った。 I m o o t o g a w a t a s h i n o keetai o tsukatta. M y y o u n g e r sister u s e d m y cell p hone. ( d ) 妹に私のケータイを使われた。 I m o o t o ni w a t a s h i n o keetai o tsukawareta. M y y o u n g e r sister u s e d m y cell p h o n e (and I suffered f r o m the consequence). ( e ) ペットの犬が死んだ。 Petto n o i n u g a shinda. M y pet d o g died. ( f ) ペットの犬に死なれた。 Petto n o i n u ni shinareta. M y pet d o g died o n m e .

It s h o u l d b e a d d e d that s o m e t i m e s indirect passives i m p l y a positive influence, b u t o v e r w h e l m i n g l y the implication is negative. In fact w h e n positive indirectness is stressed, n o r m a l l y the verbs of giving a n d receiving are used.

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9.10. Causatives and Permissives K e y E xp re ssio n s

K E 1 弟をコンビニに行かせた。 Otooto o konbini ni ikaseta. I m a d e m y (younger) brother g o to the conv e n i e n c e store. KE2

カラオケで最初に私に歌わせてくれた。

K a r a o k e d e saishoni w a t a s h i ni utawasete-kureta. T h e y kindly let m e sing first at karaoke. KE3

そんなこと、 あの人にさせられないよ。

S o n n a koto, a n o hito ni saserarenai yo. I can’ t m a k e h i m d o s u c h a thing. KE4

強いカクテル、あんまり飲ませないで。

T s u y o i kakuteru, a n m a r i n o m a s e n a i d e . Don’ t m a k e m e drink a strong cocktail.

Exp la n a tio n

C A U SA T IV ES T h e causative expresses the idea that s o m e o n e or s o m e t h i n g causes, influences, or allows s o m e o n e else to d o something. C a u s ­ ative expressions n o r m a l l y d o n ot u s e stative verbs, the existential verb あ る ，or the be-verb. T o u s e causatives, y o u m u s t u s e せる a n d させる f o r m s a s given below.

CA U SA TIV E CO N JUG ATIO N S U^verbs: Replace the final -u with -a s e ru . W h e n the final -u is

not p r e c e d e d b y a consonant, replace - u w i t h -w a s e r u ) kaku to write 書かせる 買う kau to b u y 買わせる

書く

R U ^ verbs: Replace the final -r u with -s a s e ru .

食べる

t aberu

to eat

Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

する 来る

suru kuru

to d o to c o m e

させる 来 (こ ) させる

to stay

いさせる

E x is te n tia l v e rb

いる

iru

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GRAMMAR

C A U SA T IV E S AS P E R M IS S IV E S C a u sa tiv e fo rm s a re u se d a s p e rm issiv e s w h e n th e ca u se e d o es n o t op pose th e a c tio n a n d h e or sh e is lik e ly to w illin g ly en gage in th e a ctio n , a s in K E 2 . SH O R TER C A U SATIV E AND P E R M ISSIV E FORMS C a u s a tiv e s a n d p e rm issiv e s h a ve a lte rn a tiv e sh o rte r fo rm s. T h e y a re o b ta in e d b y c h a n g in g th e f in a l せる to す . T h e sh o rte n e d fo rm s te n d to e x p re ss m ore d ire c t a n d fo rc e fu l c a u s a tio n th a n th e s ta n ­ d a rd fo rm s.

書く 買う 食べる

書かせる 買わせる 食べさせる

書かす 買わす 食べさす

P A R T IC LE S FOR C A U SA T IV E S AND P E R M ISSIV E S M a rk th e ca u se e b y を， a s in K E 1 , or b y に， a s in K E 2 a n d K E 3 . F o r th e se le c tio n o f e ith e r を o r に， fo llo w th e g u id e lin e g iv e n below . 1 . W h e n th e ve rb is tra n s itiv e a n d th e d ire c t o b je ct m a rk e r を a p p e a rs ，in o rd e r to a vo id it s d o u b le a p p e a ra n ce ，u se に to m a rk th e ca u se e . ( a ) 弟に部屋をそうじさせた。 O tooto n i h e y a o so o jisa se ta . I m ad e m y (yo u n ger) b ro th e r c le a n th e room . 2.

W h e n th e ve rb e xp re sse s in s ta n t ch a n g e a n d re sp o n se ，u se を. ( b ) お客さんを怒らせてしまった。 O k y a k u s a n o o k o ra se te -sh im a tta . I c a u se d th e cu sto m e r to ge t a n g ry.

3.

W h e n th e c a u s a tiv e e x p re ssio n co n v e ys th a t th e c a u s e r is re sp o n sib le fo r th e e ven t th a t h a p p e n s or h a s h a p p e n e d ，u se o n ly を. ( c ) 息子を交通事故で死なせたんです。 （ See se ctio n 9 .1 2 f o r んで す .) M u su k o o k o o ts u u jik o de s h in a s e ta n d e su . (I am to be b la m e d th a t) I c a u se d m v so n ’s d e a th d u e to a tra ffic a ccid e n t.

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141

CA U SA TIV E P A S S IV E S C a u s a tiv e s m a y be co m b in e d w ith p a s s iv e s to fo rm c a u s a tiv e p a s ­ siv e s. T h e c a u s a tiv e e n d in g せる go e s th ro u g h th e p a ssiv e e n d in g c h a n g e s . 書かせる t a k e s 書かせられる ‘to be fo rce d to w rite ’ a n d 食べ させる ta k e s 食べさせられる ‘to be fo rce d to e a t’. T h e irre g u la r v e rb s す る a n d 来 る t a k e させられるa n d 来させられる. F o r U -v e rb s, sh o rte n e d c a u s a tiv e p a ssiv e e n d in g s are a lso a v a ila b le . F o r e xa m p le , 書かす ta k e s 書かされる， a s in (f). ( d ) 子供たちはきらいな食べものを食べさせられた。 K o d o m o ta ch i w a k ir a in a tab em o n o o ta b e sa se ra re ta . T h e c h ild re n w ere fo rce d to e at th e food th e y d islik e d . ( e ) 長い間いやな仕事をさせられました。 N a g a i a id a iy a n a sh ig o to o sa se ra re m a sh ita . F o r a lo n g tim e I w a s fo rce d to do a jo b I h a te d . ( f ) たくさん漢字を書かされました。 T a k u s a n k a n ji o k a k a s a re m a sh ita . I w a s fo rce d to w rite m a n y k a n ji.

9.11. Volitional Forms K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

今日は、一生懸命仕事をしよう。 K yo o w a ， issh o o k e n m e i sh ig o to o sh iyo o . I ’m g o in g to w o rk h a rd to d ay.

KE2

今は、何も考えないでいよう。 Im a w a ， n a n im o k a n g a e n a id e iyoo. I w o n ’t t h in k a b o u t a n y th in g fo r now .

KE3

パーティー、行こうよ。 P a a tii， iko o yo. L e t’s go to th e p a rty .

KE4

いっしょに暮らそう。ね、そうしようよ。 Is s h o n i k u ra so o . N e， soo sh iy o o yo. L e t’s liv e together. L e t’s do th a t.

KE5

これからは、遅刻しないようにしましょうね。 K o re k a ra w a ， c h ik o k u s h in a i y o o n i sh im a sh o o ne. L e t’s m a ke su re n o t to be la te fro m n o w on.

142

GRAMMAR

Exp la n a tio n

Volitional f o r m s c o m m u n i c a t e o n e ?s volition, a s in K E 1 a n d K E 2 . Y o u also u s e t h e m w h e n m a k i n g invitations a n d suggestions, a s in K E 3 , K E 4 , a n d K E 5 . Volitional f o r m s are available for only those verbs describing h u m a n l y controllable actions.

V O LIT IO N A L CONJUGATION For formal volitional forms, c h a n g e ます of the formal n o n - p a s t verb f o r m to ま し よ う . For informal volitional forms, the following rules apply. U^verbs: Replace the final -u with -o o .

kaku kau

書く 買う

to write to b u y

書こう 買おう

R U -v e rb s : Replace the final -る w i t h -よう .

食べる 考 える

taberu kangaeru

to eat to think

食べよう

to d o to c o m e

しよう 来 (こ ) よう

to stay

いよう

考えよう

Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

suru kuru

する 来る

E x is te n tia l v e rb

レヽる

iru

E X P R E SSIN G YO UR OWN V O LIT IO N W h e n the subject of the volitional f o r m s is the first-person singular, it expresses the speaker’ s will a n d intention. U s e this expression in the informal f o r m only. It often appe a r s with the f o r m ようと思つ[lit. ‘ to think to d o ’ ], or ようと思っている[lit. ‘ to b e thinking a b o u t doing’ ]. ( a ) いやなことは忘れようと思う。 I y a n a koto w a w a s u r e y o o to o m o u . I think I’ ll forget those u n p l e a s a n t things. (b)

自分の気持ちをはっきり伝えようと思っている。 J i b u n n o k i m o c h i o hakkiri tsutaeyoo to omotteiru. I’ m thinking a b o u t clearly c o m m u n i c a t i n g m y feelings.

V O LIT IO N A L FORMS FOR IN V IT A T IO N S Invitations b y volitional f o r m s are direct, a n d y o u s h o u l d n o t u s e t h e m t o w a r d y o u r m^eue person. Inviting a n d suggesting b y usi n g

Simple Sentences—Enhanced

143

volitional f o r m s is similar to the English expressions of l e t 's . . . or le t ’s n o t ___Y o u m a y also u s e volitional f o r m s w i t h the interrogative particle か ，a s s h o w n below. ( c ) じや、 そ ろ そ ろ 出 か け よ う か 。 J a ，sorosoro d e k a k e y o o ka. Shall w e g o o ut n o w ? ( d ) どうですか、 コーヒーでも飲みましようか。（ Se e section 12.13 for で も . ） D o o d e s u k a ，koohii d e m o n o m i m a s h o o ka. H o w a b o u t ...shall w e h a v e coffee or s o m e t h i n g ?

9.12. No Da Sentences Key Expressions KE1

銀行へ行ってきたのです。

G i n k o o e itte-kita n o desu. (It’ s that) I w e n t to the b a nk. KE2

だから行ったんです。

D a k a r a itta n desu. That’ s w h y I went. KE3

〈conversation 〉

A : すみません。今日はお休みなんですけど。 S u m i m a s e n . K y o o w a o y a s u m i n a n d e s u kedo. Sorry ，w e are closed today. B : そうなんですか。 S o o n a n d e s u ka. Is that right? I see. KE4

俺 行 く 。 ど う し て も 行 く ん だ ！[masculine speech]

O r e iku. D o o s h i t e m o i ku n da! I’ m going. N o m atter w h a t ，I’ m going! KE5

いつ旅行から帰ってきたんですか。

Itsu r y o k o o k a r a kaette-kita n d e s u ka. W h e n w a s it that y o u r e t urned f r o m y o u r trip? KE6

やっぱり行くの？

Y a p p a r i iku n o ? A r e y o u going a n y w a y ?

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Exp la n a tio n

のだ SE N TE N C ES E n d in g a se n te n ce w ith のだ o ffe rs a n e x p la n a tio n a s to w h y a s it u ­ a tio n is th e w a y it is , a s in K E 1 . It is a fre q u e n tly u se d c la u s e - a n d se n te n c e -fin a l fo rm . In c a s u a l sp e e ch ， in ste a d o f のだ，んだ is u s e d ， a s in K E 2 a n d K E 3 . Y o u c a n sh o rte n のだ a s の， a s w e ll. U s in g の is m ore p re v a le n t in fe m in in e sp e e ch . S in c e th e re is a lre a d y a m a in v e rb ， a d d in g th e se p h ra s e s e x­ te n d s th e p re d ic a te ， a n d th e y a re s im ila r to E n g lis h it is (th e ca se ) th a t o r it is f o r th e re a s o n th a t. FU N CTIO N S OF のだ T h e b a s ic fu n c tio n o f のだ a n d ん 7こ is to a p p e a l to th e a ssu m e d co m m o n u n d e rs ta n d in g or kn o w le d ge betw een y o u a n d y o u r p a rt­ ner. W h e n s u c h com m on kn o w le d ge d o es n o t e x is t ，のだ is u se d to d e scrib e th e in fo rm a tio n a s if th e kn o w le d ge w ere sh a re d . It e n co u ra g e s e m p a th y. T h e re a re a t le a s t five re la te d b u t d is tin c t fu n c tio n s o f のだ， a s lis te d below . 1.

T o s ig n a l th a t w h a t p re ce d e s のだ o ffe rs th e re a so n or c a u se re la te d to th e is s u e a t h a n d ，a s in K E 2 (a )

ごめん、時間がなかったんだ。 G o m e n ， jik a n g a n a k a tta n da. S o rry ，it ’s th a t I d id n ’t h a ve tim e.

2.

T o e m p h a size w h a t p re ce d e s のこ， a s in K E 4 (b )

どうしてもあなたのことが忘れられないんです。 D o o sh ite m o a n a ta no ko to g a w a su re ra re n a i n d e su . No m a tte r w h a t， I ca n n o t fo rge t yo u .

3.

T o p re se n t in fo rm a tio n or to m a ke a re q u e st in a m ild e r to n e ， a s in A ’s u tte ra n ce in K E 3 ( c ) お聞きしたいことがあるんですが。 O k ik is h it a i ko to g a a ru n d e su ga. I h a ve so m e th in g I w o u ld lik e to a s k yo u .

4.

T o offer c o n firm a to ry re c o g n itio n o f in fo rm a tio n ， a s in B ’s u t­ te ra n ce in K E 3

Simple Sentences—Enhanced

145

( d ) それで行つたんだ。 So re d e itta n da. I see; t h a f s w h y sh e w ent. ( e ) そうなんだ。 Soo n a n da. I see, th a t’s w h a t it is . (O fte n u se d a s a liste n e r re sp o n se w h e n y o u are co n v in ce d o f w h a t is b e in g sa id .) 5.

T o co m m u n ica te on e’s d isco v e ry ( f )

こんなところにあつたんだ。 K o n n a to ko ro n i a tta n da. It w a s h ere. (I fo u n d it.)

のだ USED FOR A SSER TIO N A s in K E 4 , y o u m a y d e m o n stra te firm d e te rm in a tio n b y u s in g のだ fo r a sse rtio n . ( g ) 絶対、試験に合格するんだ。 Z e tta i, s h ik e n n i g o o k a k u s u ru n da. No m a tte r w h a t, I ’m g o in g to p a s s th e e xa m in a tio n . T h e a sse rtiv e のだ m a y a lso be u se d w h e n y o u stro n g ly de­ m a n d th a t y o u r p a rtn e r do so m e th in g . ( h ) すぐ行くんだ！ S u g u ik u n da! (You) go rig h t aw ay.

のだ IN Q U ESTIO N S W h e n y o u a s k a q u e stio n u s in g のですか （or んですか)， ra th e r th a n th e in fo rm a tio n itse lf, y o u fo c u s o n y o u r w ill a n d fe e lin g s a s s o c i­ a ted w ith th e co n te n t o f th e の c la u se . A s in K E 5 , w h e n a d d in g ので すか, y o u a ssu m e th a t w h a t is b e in g q u e stio n e d is a lre a d y sh a re d a m o n g th e p a rtic ip a n ts , m ore so th a n q u e stio n s w ith o u t のですか. のですか m a y a p p e a r w ith の o n ly , a s sh o w n in K E 6 in co n v e rsa tio n . W h e n y o u a s k a q u e stio n u s in g のだ， a s i n どこへ行けばいい の ？ （in ste a d o f どこへ行けばいい？ ） ， y o u are a s k in g fo r m ore th a n in fo rm a tio n . Y o u a re c o m m u n ic a tin g v o u r d e sire to a p p e a l to y o u r p a rtn e r, so m e th in g a lo n g th e lin e s o f “I re a lly w a n t to k n o w w here to go .” T h e se co n d se n te n ce in (i) co n v e ys s u c h u rg e n cy .

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GRAMMAR

( i ) どうすればいい？どうすればいいの？ D oo su re b a ii? D oo s u re b a ii n o? W h a t sh o u ld I do? W h a t sh o u ld I re a lly do? U BIQ U ITO U S のだ O b se rve h o w m a n y tim e s のた is u se d in (j). (j)

〈c o n v e rsa tio n 〉 : これどうしたの？

A

K o re doo s h ita n o? H o w d id y o u ge t th is? B : 弟にもらつたんだ。 O tooto n i m o ra tta n da. I go t it fro m m y (yo u n ger) b ro th e r. A : へえ、弟さんいるんだ。 H ee, o to o to -sa n ir u n da. I see; y o u h a ve a (yo u n ger) b ro th e r.

9.13. Order of Sentence-Final Elements Exp la n a tio n

S e n te n c e -fin a l e le m e n ts in c lu d e v e rb s, v a rio u s ty p e s o f v e rb e n d ­ in g s , m o d a l v e rb s, m o d a l s u ffix e s , a n d fin a l p a rtic le s . T h e g e n e ra l p rin c ip le is th a t th e m ore p e rs o n a l a n d e m o tio n a l th e sta te m e n t, th e m ore lik e ly th o se e le m e n ts w ill a p p e a r to w a rd th e v e ry end. T h u s s ta rtin g w ith th e v e rb th a t c a rrie s th e re fe re n tia l m e a n ­ in g , o th e r e le m e n ts s u c h a s c a u s a tiv e s , p a s s iv e s , a n d n e g a tiv e fo rm s fo llo w , a n d in te ra c tio n a l p a rtic le s a re a tta ch e d a t th e fin a l p o sitio n . L IS T OF S E N T E N C E -F IN A L ELEM ENTS H ere is a lis t sp e c ify in g th e o rd e r o f se n te n c e -fin a l e le m e n ts. O b v i­ o u sly , n o t a ll e le m e n ts are re q u ire d . V e rb s C a u s a tiv e s P a ss iv e s N egative fo rm M od al v e rb s M od al s u ffix e s

Simple Sentences—Enhanced P a st te n se In te ra c tio n a l p a rtic le s Examples

(a )

なんか変なことをさせられそう。 N a n k a h e n n a ko to o sa se ra re so o . I ?m a b o u t to be fo rce d to do so m e th in g stra n g e .

( b ) 行きたくないらしいです。 Ik it a k u n a i ra s h u d e su . It se e m s th a t he d o e sn ’t w a n t to go. ( c ) なぐられたようだね。 N a g u ra re ta yoo d a ne. It se e m s lik e y o u w ere b eaten . ( d ) 難しそうだったそうですよ。 M u zu k a sh iso o d a tta soo d e su yo. I h e a r th a t it lo o ke d d iffic u lt.

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CHA PTER 10

Complex Sentences

10.1. Conjunctions K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

映画を見た。それから食事をした。 E ig a o m ita . S o re k a ra s h o k u ji o sh ita . We sa w a m ovie. A n d th e n we h a d d in n e r.

KE2

早く行った。だから、欲しいものが買えた。 H a y a k u itta . D a k a ra , h o s h ii m ono g a k a e ta . I w en t e a rly. So I c o u ld b u y w h a t I w an ted .

KE3

何度も本を読みました。 けれどもわかりませんでした。 N an d o m o h o n o y o m im a sh ita . Keredom o w a ra rim a se n d e sh ita . I re a d th e b o o k m a n y tim e s. B u t I d id n ’t u n d e rs ta n d it.

Exp la n a tio n

CO N N ECTIN G SE N T E N C E S AND C LA U SES Ja p a n e s e c o n ju n c tio n s a re u se d to co n n e ct b o th se n te n ce s a n d c la u s e s . T h is se ctio n in tro d u c e s b a s ic c o n ju n c tio n s a s g iv e n below . 1.

A d d itio n

そして a n d それから， am o n g o th e rs, to a d d a re la te d sta te ­ 2.

m e n t to th e fir s t se n te n ce E x p a n s io n それで a n d だから， am o n g o th e rs， to a d d a n e x p a n sio n to th e fir s t se n te n ce 148

Complex Sentences 3.

149

O p p o sitio n

しかし，でも， a n d けれども， am o n g o th e rs， w h e n th e se c ­ o n d se n te n ce e x p re sse s a v ie w o p p o sin g th e fir s t Som e o f th e se b a s ic c o n ju n c tio n s a lso co n n e ct c la u s e s , b u t th e y do so u n d e r c e rta in re s tric tio n s . F o r から，[て fo rm o f th e ve rb + から] m e a n s ‘a fte r’， a n d th e [verb + から] m e a n s ‘b e ca u se ’. S tu d y (a) a n d (b) fo r th e se e xa m p le s. In a d d itio n ，けれども c a n co n n e ct c la u s e s ，a s g iv e n in (c )，to m e a n ‘a lth o u g h ’. (a )

映画を見てから、食事をした。 E ig a o m ite k a r a ， s h o k u ji o sh ita . A fte r w e sa w th e m o vie ， w e h a d d in n e r.

( b ) 早く行ったから、欲しいものが買えた。 H a y a k u itta k a r a ， h o s h ii m ono g a k a e ta . B e c a u se I w en t e a rly ， I c o u ld b u y w h a t I w an ted . ( c ) 何度も本を読んだけれども、わかりませんでした。 N an d o m o h o n o y o n d a kere d o m o , w a k a rim a se n d e sh ita . A lth o u g h I re a d th e b o o k m a n y tim e s ，I d id n ’t u n d e rs ta n d it. Note th a t a lth o u g h けれども c a n co n n e ct c la u s e s ，しかし a n d でも ca n n o t. See th e n e x t se ctio n fo r a v a rie ty o f co n n e ctin g fo rm s u se d in co m p le x se n te n ce s.

G raffiti

In c a s u a l sp e e ch ，で m a y a p p e a r in ste a d o f それで.で c a n e n c o u r­ age th e c o n tin u a tio n o f t a lk ，a s sh o w n below . (d)

くc o n v e rsa tio n 〉 A : デートしたんだ。駅前で会ってね。 D e e to sh ita n d a. E k im a e de atte ne. We h a d a d ate. We m et in fro n t o f th e sta tio n . B : で？ D e? And? A : で、近くのカフェに入つたんだけど。 （ See se ctio n 13.6 fo r けど.) D e ，c h ik a k u no k a fe n i h a itta n d a ke d o . A n d we w en t in to a c a ie n e a rb y.

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GRAMMAR

10.2. Connecting Clauses K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

用事ができて行けませんでした。 Y o o ji g a d e kite ik e m a se n d e sh ita . I c o u ld n ’t go b e ca u se I h a d a ch ore.

KE2

あなたが好きな物だから、買ってきたんですけど。 A n a ta g a s u k in a m ono d a k a ra , k a tte -k ita n d e su ked o. B e c a u se t h is is so m e th in g y o u n ke , I b o u g h t it.

KE3

朝から何も食べてないんで、お腹がすいちやってね。 A s a k a ra n a n i m o ta b e te n a i n d e , o n a k a g a s u i-c h a tte ne. S in c e I h a v e n ’t e ate n a n y th in g t h is m o rn in g , I ’m h u n g ry .

KE4

春になると桜が咲く。 H a ru n i n a ru to s a k u r a g a s a k u . W h e n s p rin g co m es, c h e rry b lo sso m s bloom .

KE5

このカード、使うとき注意しなきや。 K o n o k a a d o , t s u k a u to k i c h u u is h in a k y a . I m u st be c a re fu l w h e n I u se t h is ca rd .

KE6

忙しいんだ。試験があるし。 Is o g a s h i n d a. S h ik e n g a a ru s h i. I ’m b u sy . I h a ve a n e xa m , s o ___

Exp la n a tio n

て FORM AS A CONNECTOR T h e m o st b a s ic w a y to co n n e ct c la u s e s is to u se th e て fo rm o f v e rb s a n d a d je ctiv e s. T h e se m a n tic re la tio n s h ip betw een th e tw o co n n e cte d c la u s e s d e p e n d s o n th e sp e c ific co n te xt. In K E 1 , 用事が できて o ffe rs a re a so n o r c a u se fo r 行けませんでした. ( a ) 今朝は早く起きて犬の散歩に行った。 K e s a w a h a y a k u o k ite in u n o sa n p o n i itta . I go t u p e a rly a n d to o k m y dog fo r a w a lk . ( b ) 傘を持たないで出かけてしまった。 K a s a o m o ta n a id e d e k a k e te -sh im a tta . N ot ta k in g a n u m b re lla , h e w en t ou t.

Complex Sentences (c )

151

この魚安くておいしいね。 K o n o s a k a n a y a s u k u te o is h ii ne. T h is fis h is in e x p e n siv e a n d d e lic io u s , is n ?t it?

から A N D ので 力、り a n d ので are fre q u e n tly u se d to co n n e ct a c a u se o r re a so n a n d th e r e s u ltin g effect, a s in K E 2 a n d K E 3 . B e w a rn e d th a t th e o rd e r o f c la u s e s is th e re v e rse o f E n g lis h . J u s t lik e p a rtic le s , y o u a tta c h c o n ju n c tio n s to th e c la u s e -fin a l p o sitio n w h o se c la u s e is co n jo in e d w ith a n o th e r . から a n d ので a re a tta ch e d to b o th fo rm a l a n d in ­ fo rm a l fo rm s. T h e re is one e xce p tio n . W h e n y o u u se ので a fte r 7こ， ch a n g e it to な to p ro d u ce なので. (d )

これは便利なので、よく売れます。 K o re w a b e n rin a n o d e, y o k u u re m a su . B e c a u se t h is is co n ve n ie n t, it s e lls w ell.

It sh o u ld be n o te d th a t in c a s u a l s p e e c h , の で is sh o rte n e d to んで， a s in K E 3 . S T Y LE IN SU BO RD IN ATE C LA U SES W h e n tw o c la u s e s a re co n n e cte d , th e p re d ica te in th e su b o rd in a te c la u s e n o rm a lly , b u t n o t e x c lu siv e ly , ta k e s th e in fo rm a l sty le . A s a b a s ic ru le , th e sty le o f th e se n te n ce a p p e a rs in th e m a in ve rb . W h e n y o u u se a fo rm a l e n d in g in a su b o rd in a te c la u s e a lo n g w ith th e fo rm a l e n d in g in th e m a in c la u s e , th e u tte ra n ce b e co m e s s u p r a -p o lit e (e .g ., これは便利ですので、よく売れますね). C H O O S IN G から O R ので A s in K E 2 , から fo c u se s m ore o n th e re a so n or c a u se , w h ile , a s in K E 3 , ので fo c u se s stro n g ly o n th e re s u ltin g effect. T h e か、ら c la u se p ro v id e s a p e rs o n a lly in te rp re te d c a u se or re a so n . W h e n y o u e x­ p re s s a p e rso n a l ju d g m e n t s u c h a s sp e c u la tio n , o p in io n , in te n tio n , co m m an d , su g g e stio n , q u e stio n , o r re q u e st, y o u sh o u ld u se から . U se ので w h e n p re se n tin g th e c a u se m ore o b je ctiv e ly w ith o u t p ro ­ je c tin g th e sp e a k e r’s o p in io n . A n in d e p e n d e n t から c la u s e is often u se d a s a n a n sw e r to a q u e stio n .

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(e)

〈c o n v e rsa tio n 〉 A : どうして買わないの？ D o o sh ite k a w a n a i n o? W h y d o n ’t y o u b u y (it)? B : お金がないから。 O k a n e g a n a i k a ra . B e c a u se I d o n ’t h a ve a n y m on ey.

A n o th e r m a r k e r , もの（ もん in c a s u a l sp e e ch ), is u se d in a s im i­ la r w a y, e sp e c ia lly in fe m in in e a n d c h ild re n ’s sp e e ch . F o r e xa m p le , お金がないもん. CO N N ECTIN G W ITH と T h e c o n ju n c tio n と ‘w h e n e ve r’ c o n n e cts c la u s e s in th e fo llo w in g situ a tio n s . U se th e b a sic fo rm s o f v e rb s before と. 1 . W h e n one a c tio n trig g e rs a n o th e r ( f ) おまえ、酒を飲むと陽気になるよなあ。 [m a sc u lin e sp e ech ] O m ae, sa k e o n o m u to y o o k in i n a ru yo n a a . W h e n [w henever] y o u d rin k , y o u becom e ch e e rfu l. 2.

W h e n re p o rtin g th e n a tu ra l a n d o b v io u s co n se q u e n ce o f a n a c tio n or p ro ce d u re , a s in K E 4 (g)

3.

3 と 5 を足すと8 になる。 S a n to go o ta s u to h a c h i n i n a ru . W h e n y o u a d d th re e a n d five , y o u ge t e igh t.

W h e n re p o rtin g th e im m e d ia te re a c tio n to a n a ctio n (h )

ドアが開くと子犬が飛び出してきた。

D o a g a a k u to k o in u g a to b id a s h ite -k ita . W h e n th e door op ened, a p u p p y ju m p e d ou t. CO N N ECTIN G W ITH とき A s in K E 5 , y o u c a n u se th e te m p o ra l p h ra se とき to co n n e ct c la u s ­ es. If th e te n se o f th e ve rb in th e とき c la u s e is p a st, th e a ctio n re fe rre d to is a lre a d y com p leted . ( i ) 買い物をするとき注意しましょう。 K a im o n o o s u r u to k i c h u u ish im a s h o o . W h e n (before) w e sh o p , le t’s be c a re fu l.

Complex Sentences

153

( j ) 買い物をしたとき注意しましょう。 K a im o n o o s h ita to k i c h u u ish im a s h o o . A fte r w e’ve b o u g h t so m e th in g ，le t’s be ca re fu l. CO N N ECTIN G W ITH し U se し w h e n co n n e ctin g a se rie s o i a c ts or sta te s th a t to g e th e r le a d to a su m m a ry ju d g m e n t o r c o n c lu sio n . (k)

ロンドンへ行ったし、パリへ行ったし、今年の夏は楽しかっ た。 R o n d o n e itta s h i， P a ri e itta s h i， k o to sh i n o n a ts u w a ta n o s h ik a tta . I w en t to Lo n d o n a n d a lso to P a ris; t h is su m m e r w a s re ­ a lly fu n .

( l)

この辺は寒いし、暗いし、危険だし、ちょっとねえ。 K o n o h e n w a s a m u i s h i， k u r a i s h i， k ik e n d a s h i， ch otto nee. T h is a re a is c o ld ，d a rk ， a n d d a n g e ro u s， a n d I w o n d er a b o u t it.

G raffiti

Y o u m a y u se th e て fo rm a n d し to w e a ke n a sta te m e n t or to ob­ sc u re th e c a u se o r re a so n ，e sp e c ia lly in c o n v e rsa tio n . T h e y often a p p e a r a t th e u tte ra n c e -iin a l p o sitio n ， le a v in g th e im p re ssio n th a t th e sta te m e n t is in co m p le te a n d th u s le s s im p o sin g . K E 6 is s u c h a n e xam p le. ( m ) 今週はちょっと忙しいんですよ。出張があるし。 K o n s h u u w a ch o tto is o g a s h ii n d e su yo . S h u tc h o o g a a ru sh i. T h is w eek I ’m a b it b u sy . T h e re is a b u s in e s s t r ip ，so . . . . ( n ) 会えなかった。忙しくて。 A e n a k a tta . Iso g a sh ik u te . I c o u ld n ’t see h im . I w a s b u sy .

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10.3. Conditionals K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

これを読めばわかりますよ。 K o re o yo m e b a w a k a rim a su yo. If y o u re a d th is , y o u w ill u n d e rsta n d .

KE2

時間があれば行きます。 J ik a n g a a re b a ik im a s u . If I h a ve tim e , I ’ll go.

KE3

お金持ってるなら少し貸して。 O k a n e m o tte ru n a ra s u k o s h i k a sh ite . If y o u h a ve m on ey, w ill y o u le n d m e som e?

KE4

あなたも日本人ならわかるでしょ。 A n a ta m o n ih o n jin n a ra w a k a ru d esh o . If y o u a re Ja p a n e s e , y o u sh o u ld u n d e rs ta n d it.

KE5

時間があったら、おみやげ買ってくるね。 J ik a n g a a tta ra , o m iyage k a tte -k u ru ne. If I h a ve tim e , I ’l l b u y y o u a so u ve n ir.

Exp la n a tio n

ば C O N D ITIO N A L T h e ば c o n d itio n a l is th e m o st stra ig h tfo rw a rd c o n d itio n a l e xp re s­ s io n in Ja p a n e s e . A s in K E 1 a n d K E 2 above, in th e ば c o n d itio n a l, th e c o n d itio n sp e cifie d in th e c la u s e m u st be s a tisfie d firs t; th e n on th a t co n d itio n , th e even t d e scrib e d in th e m a in c la u s e is exp ected to o ccu r.

ば C O N D ITIO N A L CONJUGATION F o r a ll v e rb s e xce p t th e b e -ve rb , re p la ce th e f in a l -u w ith -e b a . kaku to w rite 書けば 書く ta b e ru to eat 食べれば 食べる k u ru to com e 来れば 来る いれば いる ir u to sta y F o r th e b e -ve rb , re p la ce th e ve rb w ith なら. なら m a y be fo llo w ed b y ば， a lth o u g h ば is fre q u e n tly deleted. だ da to be なら（ ば）

Complex Sentences

155

F o r い a d je ctiv e s, re p la ce th e f in a l い w ith ければ. おいしい o is h ii d e lic io u s おいしければ F o r な a d je ctiv e s, ch a n g e な to な ら （ ば). 便利な b e n rin a co n v e n ie n t

便利なら（ ば）

なら CO N D ITIO N A L T h e なら c o n d itio n a l is u se d w h e n th e c o n d itio n is b a se d o n in fo r­ m a tio n tra ce d n o t to th e sp e a k e r b u t to som eone e lse , often to th e sp e a k e r’s p a rtn e r. K E 3 is s u c h a n e xa m p le . In K E 3 , th e sp e a k e r’s p a rtn e r gave th e im p re ssio n th a t he h a d m oney. B a se d o n th a t in ­ fo rm a tio n , th e sp e a k e r p re se n ts th e co n d itio n , th a t is , “if y o u h ave m o n e y.” なら

Conditional Conjugation

T o fo rm th e なら c o n d itio n a l, a tta c h なら to ve rb in fo rm a l fo rm s. 書くなら kaku to w rite 書く ta b e ru to eat 食べるなら 食べる k u ru to com e 来るなら 来る ir u to be いる いるなら F o r th e b e -ve rb a n d a d je ctiv e なら fo rm s, th e o ccu r. da to be だ おいしい o is h ii d e lic io u s 便利な b e n rin a co n ve n ie n t

fo llo w in g c h a n g e s

なら ( ば) おいしいなら（ ば） 便利なら ( ば)

CHO O SIN G ば OR なら A s sta te d e a rlie r, w h ile th e ば c o n d itio n a l o rig in a te s w ith th e sp e a k ­ er, th e なら c o n d itio n a l is p re fe rre d w h e n th e c o n d itio n is su g g e st­ ed b y th e p a rtn e r. S tu d y th e fo llo w in g se n te n ce s. ( a ) お金があれば、それ買うんだけど。 O k a n e g a a re b a , so re k a u n d a ked o. If I h a ve m o n e y, I ’ll b u y th a t. ( b ) お金持ってるなら少し貸して。 O k a n e m o tte ru n a ra s u k o s h i k a sh ite . If (yo u sa y th a t) y o u h a ve m on ey, lo a n m e som e.

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たら CO N D ITIO N A L たら fu n c tio n s a s b o th te m p o ra l a n d c o n d it io n a l.K E 5 ta k e s th e c o n d itio n a l re a d in g . T o fo rm th e たら c o n d itio n a l, a tta c h ら to th e ve rb a n d a d je c ­ tive in fo rm a l p a s t te n se fo rm . Y o u h a ve fo rm s s u c h a s 書いたら，食 ベたら，来 （ き）たら，いたら，だったら，おいしかったら， a n d べんりだ ったら. Meanings of the たら Conditional

T h e たら c o n d itio n a l o ffe rs se v e ra l in te rp re ta tio n s， d e p e n d in g o n th e typ e a n d te n se o f th e ve rb . 1 . W h e n th e s itu a tio n e xp re sse d in th e たら c la u s e is c e rta in to o c c u r ，th e te m p o ra l in te rp re ta tio n is a p p ro p ria te . ( c ) 六時になったら帰りましょう。 R o k u ji n i n a tta ra k a e rim a sh o o . W h e n s ix o’c lo c k co m e s ，le t’s go b a ck . 2.

W h e n th e s itu a tio n e xp re sse d in th e たら c la u s e is u n c e rta in ， th e c o n d itio n a l in te rp re ta tio n is a p p ro p ria te . ( d ) 時間があったら飲みに行きません？ J ik a n g a a tta ra n o m i n i ik im a s e n ? If y o u h a ve tim e ，le t’s go o u t a rin k in g .

3.

W h e n th e a ctio n in th e m a in c la u s e re fe rs to so m e th in g th a t h a s a lre a d y h a p p e n e d ，th e te m p o ra l re a d in g is a p p ro p ria te . ( e ) 家についたらすぐ友達が来た。 U c h i n i ts u ita r a s u g u to m o d a ch i g a k ita . W h e n I a rriv e d h o m e ， m y frie n d so o n cam e fo r a v is it.

4.

W h e n th e ve rb in th e たら c la u s e is sta tiv e o r たら o c c u rs w ith a n a d je c tiv e ，o n ly th e c o n d itio n a l re a d in g is a p p ro p ria te . ( f ) いい本があったら、買う。 Ii h o n g a a tta ra ，k a u . If th e re is a go od b o o k ，I ’ll b u y it. ( g ) 高かったら買わない。 T a k a k a tta ra k a w a n a i. If it is e xp e n siv e ， I w o n ’t b u y it.

Complex Sentences

たら

157

for Expressing Desire

T h e たら c o n d itio n a l c a n be u se d in d e p e n d e n tly to e x p re ss de­ sire . It d e sc rib e s a s itu a tio n c o n tra ry to th e fa c ts (i.e., su b ju n c tiv e ). ( h ) あの人に会えたらなあ。 A n o h ito n i a e ta ra n a a . I w is h I c o u ld see her. CHO O SIN G たら OR ば T h e 7こら c o n d itio n a l a n d ば c o n d itio n a l d iffe r in th e d egree o f lik e li­ h o o d th a t th e c o n d itio n w ill becom e re a lity . In (i), th e sp e a k e r fe e ls th a t th e c o n d itio n (o f H ik a r u ’s re tu rn in g ) is lik e ly to be m et. In (j), th e sp e a k e r is le s s co m m itte d a n d c o m m u n ica te s th e d o u b t (i.e., w h e th e r H ik a ru w ill com e h e re a t a ll). It e x p re sse s a g re a te r se n se o f d o u b t. (i)

光君が帰ってきたら知らせてください。 （See se ctio n 12.7 fo r てください.） H ik a r u -k u n g a k a e tte -k ita ra s h ira s e te -k u d a s a i. If a n d w h e n H ik a ru re tu rn s , p le a se le t m e kn o w .

( j ) 光君が来ればはっきりするんですが。 H ik a r u -k u n g a k u re b a h a k k ir i s u r u n d e su ga . If H ik a ru co m e s h e re , th in g s w ill be c la rifie d , b u t. . . .

10.4. Clausal Modification K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

きのう買ったケータイ、すごいよ。 K in o o k a tta k e e ta i, su g o i yo. T h e c e ll p h o n e I b o u g h t y e ste rd a y is aw esom e.

KE2

友だちにあげるプレゼントを忘れてしまった。 T o m o d a c h i n i a g e ru p u re ze n to o w a su re te -sh im a tta . I fo rgo t th e p re se n t I w a s g o in g to g iv e to m y frie n d .

Exp la n a tio n

C la u s a l m o d ific a tio n is a stru c tu re w h ere m o d ific a tio n is a ch ie ve d n o t b y a n a d je ctiv e b u t b y a c la u s e . U n lik e in E n g lis h , in N ih o n g o

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GRAMMAR

the clausal modifier prece d e s the n o u n modified. T h e modifying clause n o r m a l l y takes informal forms, a s in K E 1 a n d K E 2 . T h e r e are n o relative p r o n o u n s c o m p a r a b l e to w h a t, w h ich , or th a t (as in th e c e ll p h o n e [th a t] I b o u g h t).

TWO T Y P E S OF C LA U SA L M O D IFIERS T h e r e are t w o types of clausal modifiers. W i t h the first, the basic, the modified n o u n constitutes a part of the propositional content of the modifying clause. S e e きのう買ったケータイ ‘ the cell p h o n e I b o u g h t yesterday’in K E 1 . W i t h the second, the clausal explanation, the modified n o u n is semantically associated with the modifying clause b u t the n o u n itself d o e s not constitute a g r a m m a t i c a l e l e m e n t within it. T h i n k of the e x a m p l e ガフスを害ij (わ)る音 （ おと）‘ the s o u n d of s o m e o n e b r e a k ­ ing glass’a s a case of clausal explanation. O f these t w o types, only the first functions similarly to the socalled clausal modifiers (with relative p r o n o u n s ) in English. H e r e w e will focus o n the first basic type. W e will s t u d y the s e c o n d type in the n e x t section.

T O P IC MARKER AND M ODIFYING CLAU SE B e c a u s e the modifying clause is a subordinate clause a n d since topic identifies the topic of the w h o l e sentence, avoid u s i n g topic marker は （ a n d other topic markers) within the modifying clause. Rather, u s e w h a t e v e r case m a r k e r is appropriate within the m o d i ­ fying clause. However, this d o e s not apply w h e n は c o n v e y s strong contrast.

の IN ST E A D OF が が in the modifying clause is often c h a n g e a b l e with の，a s in (b). (a)

雨が降る日はうっとうしい。 A m e g a furu hi w a uttooshii. R a i n y d a y s are annoying.

(b)

雨の降る日はうっとうしい。 A m e n o furu hi w a uttooshii. R a i n y d a y s are annoying.

の e m p h a s i z e s modification (rather t h a n being a subject), a n d a s a result, w h e n the modified e l e m e n t is less concrete, の b e ­

Complex Sentences

159

co m e s in a p p r o p r ia t e . 私たちが毎日食べているようなもの ‘th e k in d s o f th in g s we e at e very d a y ’ is p re fe rre d to *私たちの毎日食べている ようなもの.

G raffiti

C la u s a l m o d ific a tio n is u se d to g iv e co n te xt to th e m o d ifie d n o u n . F o r e xa m p le , if y o u t h in k y o u r p a rtn e r m a y n o t rem e m b e r y o u , y o u m ig h t re m in d h im or h e r b v s a v in g th a t y o u h a ve m et before. ( c ) この前、 ピクニックでいっしょだった佐久間です。 K o n o m ae, p ik u n ik k u de is s h o d a tta S a k u m a d e su . I ’m S a k u m a , w ho m et y o u a t th e p ic n ic th e o th er d ay.

10.5. Clausal Explanation K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

あれ、 どこかでガラスを割る音がするよ。 A re , d o k o k a de g a ra s u o w a ru oto g a s u r u yo. Liste n ! I h e a r th e so u n d o f som eon e b re a k in g g la s s som ew here.

KE2

泣ける映画が見たいなあ。 N a k e ru e ig a g a m ita i n a a . I w a n t to see a m ovie th a t w o u ld m a ke m e cry.

KE3

D V D を買ったおつりはここに置きますよ。 D iiv iid ii o k a tta o ts u ri w a k o k o n i o k im a su yo. I'm le a v in g h e re th e ch a n g e I go t w h e n I b o u g h t th e DVD.

KE4

佐々木さんが結婚したっていううわさ聞いた？ S a s a k i-s a n g a k e k k o n srn ta tte y u u u w a sa k iita ? D id y o u h e a r th e ru m o r th a t M s. S a s a k i go t m a rrie d ?

Exp la n a tio n

C la u s a l e x p la n a tio n p ro v id e s a g e n e ra l e xp la n a tio n a b o u t a n o u n th a t d o es n o t c o n stitu te a g ra m m a tic a l e lem en t w ith in th e c la u se . T o u n d e rs ta n d th e c la u s a l e x p la n a tio n , y o u m u st c o n sid e r a n e x­ te n d e d m e a n in g . S o m e tim e s y o u m u st a d d a p p ro p ria te p h ra se s. C o m p a re th e tw o e x p re s sio n s below .

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GRAMMAR

(a )

きのう買ったケータイ k in o o k a tta k e e ta i th e c e ll p h o n e I b o u g h t y e ste rd a y

( b ) ガラスを割る音 g a ra s u o w a ru oto th e so u n d o f som eon e b re a k in g g la s s A s e xp la in e d in s e c t i o n 10.4, i n きのう買ったケータイ、ケータ イ c o n stitu te s th e g ra m m a tic a l o b je ct, a n e sse n tia l elem en t o f th e c la u s e ケータイを貝った. In th e g la s s -b re a k in g e xa m p le , th e so u n d is so m e th in g c lo se ly a sso cia te d w ith th e b re a k in g o f th e g la s s , b u t it is n o t a p a rt o f th e ガラスを割る c la u se . S tu d y K E 2 a n d K E 3 , w h ere E n g lis h tra n s la tio n s w ith ad d ed p h ra s e s e x p la in th e c irc u m sta n c e s. C LA U SA L EXPLAN ATIO N AND という Som e c la u s a l e x p la n a tio n s m u st ta k e th e q u o ta tio n p h ra se とV ヽ う w h ile fo r o th e rs it is o p tio n a l. F o llo w th e g u id e lin e g iv e n below . Note th a t, a s in K E 4 , in c a s u a l sp e e ch ってヽヽう is u se d , a lth o u g h w h e n it is p re ce d e d b y ん，ていう a p p e a rs in ste a d . 1.

F o r th e c la u s a l e x p la n a tio n s e m a n tic a lly a sso c ia te d w ith re ­ p o rtin g or re p re se n tin g , y o u m u st u se という. ( c ) 台風が東北地方を襲ったというニュースが流れた。 T a ifu u g a to o h o k u ch ih o o o o so tta to y u u n y u u s u g a n a g a re ta . T h e n e w s th a t a typ h o o n a tta ck e d n o rth e a ste rn J a p a n w a s rep o rted .

2.

F o r a c la u s e th a t d ire c tly e x p la in s se n so ry in fo rm a tio n , y o u c a n n o t u se という . ( d ) その時、誰かが助けを求める声が聞こえた。 So n o to k i, d a re k a g a ta su k e o m o to m e ru k o e g a k ik o e ta . I h e a rd th e n th e v o ice o f som eon e se e k in g h e lp . (*助けを

求めるという声） 3.

W h e n という is u se d b u t is o p tio n a l, th e sp e a k e r c re a te s a so m e w h a t a b s tra c t o r d is ta n t im p re ssio n .

Complex Sentences

161

( e ) 風邪が治る薬が欲しい。 K a ze g a n a o ru k u s u r i g a h o sh ii. I w a n t som e m e d icin e th a t w o u ld c u re a co ld .

風邪が二日で治るという薬を試してみたんだけど。

(f)

K a ze g a fu ts u k a de n a o ru to y u u k u s u r i o ta m e sh ite -m ita n d a ked o. I trie d t h is m e d icin e , w h ic h th e y sa y sh o u ld c u re m y co ld in tw o d a ys.

10.6. Koto and No Clauses K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

約束は守ることが大切です。 Y a k u s o k u w a m a m o ru ko to g a ta ise ts u -d e su . It is im p o rta n t to ke e p p ro m ise s.

KE2

いつも笑顔でいることはむずかしい。 Itsu m o egao de ir u koto w a m u z u k a s h ii. It is d iffic u lt to be s m ilin g a ll th e tim e.

KE3

安田さんが手を振っているのが見えます。 Y a s u d a -s a n g a te o fu tte iru n o g a m ie m a su . I c a n see Y a s u d a w a vin g .

KE4

勉強するのもしないのも君次第。 B e n k y o o su ru n o m o s h in a i n o m o k im i sh id a i. W h e th er y o u stu d y or n o t is u p to yo u .

Exp la n a tio n

こと AND の A S N O M IN A LIZERS こと a n d の a re n o m in a liz e rs th a t m a ke c la u s e s in to n o u n p h ra s ­ es. E n g lis h is p ro v id e d w ith th re e w a y s o f m a k in g a c la u s e in to a g ra m m a tic a l n o u n . T h e fir s t is to u se th a t in fo rm in g a c la u s e , a s in th^at I k^e^ep pr^om ises. T h e se co n d is to a tta c h to to a ve rb , a s in to keep p ro m ise s. T h e th ird is to m a ke a ve rb in to a g e ru n d iv e fo rm , a s in k e e p in g p ro m is e s . こと

Nominalizer

こと n o m in a liz e s a c la u s e th a t re fe rs to a c tio n s or e ve n ts in a b ­ stra c t, in d ire c t, o r g e n e ra l w a ys. Y o u u se th e こと c la u s e to e xp re ss

162

GRAMMAR

a fo rm a l a n d m ore d is ta n t fe e lin g , p o in tin g o u t fa c ts re a ch e d a fter som e th o u g h t. S tu d y K E 1 a n d K E 2 . の

Nominalizer

U se の fo r n o m in a liz in g co n cre te a c tio n s or e ven ts. Y o u u se th e の c la u s e to p o in t o u t d ire c tly a n d im m e d ia te ly p e rce iv e d fa c ts. If th e m a in ve rb re q u ire s co n cre te , im m e d ia te a c tio n s u c h a s 見 え る ‘to be se e n ’， o r 聞こえる ‘to be h e a rd ’， y o u m u st u se の. K E 3 is s u c h a n e xam p le. CHO O SIN G こと OR の A s m e n tio n e d ab o ve , こと d e sc rib e s a g e n e ra l fa ct, w h ile の re fe rs to a s p e c ific a c tio n o r b e h avio r. In K E 4 , 勉強するの a n d しないの refe r to s p e c ific a ctio n s. T o c la rify t h is p o in t fu rth e r, c o n tra st (a) a n d (b) b e lo w . 見る の re fe rs to th e sp e c ific b e h a v io r o f som eon e v ie w in g , w h ile 見るこ と re fe rs to th e g e n e ra l m e a n in g o f v ie w in g . こと is often u se d w ith v e rb s co n n o tin g a d e d u ctiv e o r a b s tra c t th in k in g p ro ce ss. ( a ) テレビで野球を見るのが好きだ。 T e re o i de y a k y u u o m iru no g a s u k i da. I lik e to w a tch b a se b a ll g a m e s o n te le v isio n . ( b ) テレビで野球を見ることはあまりない。 T e re o i de y a k v u u o m iru ko to w a a m a ri n a i. I ra re ly do th in g s s u c h a s w a tc h in g b a se b a ll g a m e s on te le v isio n . USE OF TH E こと CLAU SE T h e ve rb in fo rm a l fo rm fo llo w ed b y ことがある c a n fu n c tio n in tw o w a ys. T h e [verb in fo rm a l n o n -p a st + ことがある] p a tte rn re fe rs to th e o c c a s io n a l o ccu rre n ce o f a n event. T h e [verb in fo rm a l p a s t + こ とかある] p a tte rn d e sc rib e s a p a s t e xp e rie n ce . (c )

日本へ行くことがある。 N ih o n e ik u ko to g a a ru . I o c c a s io n a lly go to Ja p a n .

(d )

日本へ行ったことがある。 N ih o n e itta ko to g a a ru . I h a ve b e en to Ja p a n .

Complex Sentences

163

A n o th e r p a tte rn , [verb in fo rm a l n o n -p a st + ことになる]，de­ s c rib e s a n even t a s so m e th in g th a t h a p p e n s b e yo n d y o u r c o n tro l， a s in (e). ( e ) 日本へ行くことになりました。 N ih o n e ik u ko to n i n a rim a sh ita . It h a s b e en d e cid e d [lit. ‘it h a s beco m e’] th a t I w o u ld go to Ja p a n . USE OF こと A S A NOUN

こと m a y be u se d a s a re g u la r n o u n to m e a n (in ta n g ib le ) th in g s or fa cts. ( f ) 君が言ったことは、忘れないよ。 K im i g a itta ko to w a ， w a su re n a i yo. I w o n ’t fo rge t w h a t y o u sa id . ( g ) 言いたいことがあるんなら、言えば？ lit a i ko to g a a ru n n a ra ，ie b a ? If y o u h a ve so m e th in g y o u w a n t to s a y ，w h y d o n ’t y o u sa y it? ( h ) いやなことは忘れちやった。 Iy a n a ko to w a w a su re -c h a tta . I fo rgo t th o se u n p le a s a n t th in g s.

G raffiti

A d d in g こと to a n o u n re n d e rs th e n o u n m ore a b stra c t. A s a re s u lt ， th e sta te m e n t b e co m e s le s s d ire c t. W hen re fe rrin g to fe e lin g s a n d a ttitu d e s a b o u t エリカ，u s e エリカのこと in ste a d o f エリカ. In th a t w a y th e sta te m e n t b e co m e s m ore g e n e ra l a n d a d d s th e fe e lin g th a t it is n o t ju s t E r ik a b u t th in g s a b o u t E rik a . ( i ) エリカのことが好き。 E r ik a no ko to g a s u k i. I lik e (th in g s ab o u t) E rik a . ( j ) 私のこと、 どう思う？ W a ta sh i n o koto , doo om ou? W h a t do y o u t h in k a b o u t (th in g s ab o u t) m e?

164

GRAMMAR

10.7. Quotation K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

鈴 木 さ ん は 「ごめんなさい」 と言いました。 S u z u k i-s a n w a “G o m e n n a sa i” to iim a s h ita . M s. S u z u k i s a id , “I ?m so rry .”

KE2

高橋さんも行くって言ってたよ。 T a k a h a s h i-s a n m o ik u tte itte ta yo. Mr. T a k a h a s h i a lso s a id th a t h e w a s g o in g .

KE3

あした、彼といっしょに、 ドライブ行く、みたいな。 A s h ita , k a re to is s h o n i, d o ra ib u ik u , m ita in a . To m o rro w , I ’m g o in g d riv in g w ith h im , lik e ___

KE4

もう、結婚しちやおうかな、なんてね。 Moo, k e k k o n sh i-c h a o o k a n a , n a n te ne. I ’ll ge t m a rrie d ; I s h o u ld n ’t s a y so , b u t___

Exp la n a tio n

QUOTATION M ARKERS T h e q u o ted p o rtio n o f d ire c t q u o ta tio n s is g ra p h o lo g ic a lly m a rk e d b y q u o ta tio n m a r k s 「 」 ， a s in K E 1 . T h e re a re c a s e s w h e re d i­ re c t q u o ta tio n s a re n o t m a rk e d in w ritte n Ja p a n e s e , how ever. T h e u se o f q u o ta tio n m a rk s is le s s o rd e rly in c o m p a riso n to th a t o f E n g lis h . In sp o k e n Ja p a n e s e , th e q u o ted p o rtio n is m a rk e d b y in to n a ­ tio n a n d v o ice q u a lity . Q UOTATIVE と D ire c t q u o ta tio n re fle cts th e sty le o f th e q u o ted p e rso n a n d c a rrie s fe a tu re s s im ila r to sp o k e n Ja p a n e se . A tta c h と a fte r th e qu o ted p o rtio n , a n d a d d th e ve rb 言う . In th e c a s u a l sty le と c h a n g e s to っ て, a s in K E 2 . Note th a t って c h a n g e s to て w h e n it is p re ce d e d b y ん. T h is a p p lie s to a ll c a s e s o f って w h e n it is lin k e d to a q u o ta tio n .

ように言う FOR QUOTING COMMAND W h e n q u o ted sp e e ch is in co m m a n d fo rm , y o u c a n u se ように言う fo r in d ire c t q u o ta tio n .

Complex Sentences (a )

165

よく注意するように言われた。 Y o k u c h u u is u r u y o o n i iw a re ta . I w a s to ld to be v e ry ca re fu l.

WHEN A SKIN G FOR JAPA N ESE W ORDS A q u o tative e x p re ssio n m a y be p a rtic u la rly u s e iu l w h e n y o u w a n t to le a rn th e e q u iv a le n ts o f fo re ig n w o rd s. (b) 〈c o n v e rsa tio n 〉 A: 「 a d v e rtis in g 」は日本語で何と言いますか。 A d v e rtisin g w a n ih o n g o de n a n to iim a s u k a . H o w do y o u s a y “a d v e rtisin g ” in Ja p a n e se ? B: 「 広告」 と言います。 K o o k o k u to iim a s u . It is “k o o k o k u .” In s te a d o f と言う， y o u m a y u se th e b e -ve rb ， a s i n 「 a d v e rtis in g 」 は日本語で何ですか. H E A R S A Y という T h e e x p re ssio n h e a rsa y . (c )

という c a n a lso e n d a n u tte ra n ce to in d ic a te

山奥のその村には今でも熊が出るという。 Y a m a o k u n o so n o m u ra n i w a im a dem o k u m a g a d e ru to yuu. T h e y sa y th a t in th a t v illa g e deep in th e m o u n ta in s ，b e a rs a p p e a r even now .

と MARKING V A R IO U S Q UOTATIVE E X P R E S S IO N S A n u m b e r o f v e rb s m a y ta k e th e q u o ta tiv e と. 1 . と書（ か） く ‘to w rite ’ ( d ) その手紙には、母が入院したと書いてありました。 So n o te g a m i n i w a ， h a h a g a n y u u in s h ita to k a ite -a rim a s h ita . In th e le tte r it w a s w ritte n th a t m y m o th e r w a s h o sp ita lize d . 2 3 4

. . .

と 考 （ かんが）え る ‘to t h in k ， to c o n sid e r’ と 思 （ おも） う ‘to t h in k ’ と 聞 （ き） く ‘to h e a r’

166

GRAMMAR

(e)

エリックって、ニューヨークへ帰ったつて聞いたけど。 E r ik k u tte, N y u u Y o o k u e k a e tta tte k u ta ked o. A b o u t E r ic , I h e a rd th a t h e w en t b a c k to N ew Y o rk .

みたぃな A s a k in d o f q u o ta tio n , y o u m a y a d d みたいな a t th e u tte ra n c e -fin a l p o sitio n , a s in K E 3 . T h is is often u se d in c a s u a l co n v e rsa tio n , a n d it a d d s a d is ta n c in g a n d so fte n in g effect. B y a d d in g みたぃな， y o u a vo id a stro n g co m m itm e n t to w h a t y o u a re sa y in g . S in c e みたぃな d e sc rib e s som eon e e lse ’s sta te , it g iv e s th e im p re ssio n th a t y o u are re v e a lin g y o u r ow n th o u g h ts a s if th e y w ere o b se rve d a s som eone e lse ’s. W h a t p re ce d e s th e みたぃな u tte ra n c e m a y ta k e a r is in g in ­ to n a tio n (□), in c re a s in g th e n o n -co m m itta l se n se . ( f )

あの人のこと、愛してる（ □ ) 、みたぃな。 A n o h ito n o koto, a is h ite ru , m ita in a . I love h im , lik e ___

なんてA N D なんちやって Q u o ta tio n in co n v e rsa tio n m a y be m a rk e d b y なんて in ste a d o f と， a s in K E 4 . A lso v o u m a v u se なんちやって， a sh o rte n e d v e rsio n o f な んて言ってしまって ‘to h a ve s a id s u c h a th in g ’. U se th e se q u o tative e x p re s sio n s to q u a lify w h a t y o u ju s t s a id , often w ith a so fte n in g effect, to d im in is h th e im p a c t o f th e sta te m e n t. ( g ) 俺が一番、なんちやって。 O re g a ic h ib a n , n a n ch a tte . I ’m th e b e st; u h , I s h o u ld n ’t s a y so , b u t___ G raffiti

S o m e tim e s y o u m a y re v e a l y o u r h o n n e , y o u r tru e th o u g h ts a n d fe e lin g s. B u t th e n y o u m ig h t re g re t it im m e d ia te ly a fte rw a rd . T h is is p a rtic u la rly so w h e n y o u re a lize y o u h a ve re ve a le d too m u c h a n d it se e m s a b it d iffic u lt fo r th e p a rtn e r to ta k e . E x p re s s io n s s u c h a s なんて，なんて言ってしまって，なんて言っちやって，a n d なんちやって a re u se fu l, s in c e y o u c a n a d d th e m to m a ke lig h t o f y o u r re m a rk s. It is a s if y o u s a id so m e th in g in q u o ta tio n a n d q u a lifie d it a fte r­ w a rd . T h is k in d of se lf-a u o ta tio n m a k e s u se of tw o d iffe re n t v o ice s a n d a ttitu d e s co m in g fro m th e sa m e p e rso n .

CHA PTER 11

Emotive Expressions

11.1. Interactional Particles Ne and Yo Key Expressions KE1

向こうに着いたらね、電話して。すぐにね。 M ukoo n i ts u ita r a n e, d e n w a sh ite . S u g u n i ne. W h e n y o u ge t th e re , p le a se c a ll m e, w ill y o u ? R ig h t aw ay.

KE2

残念ですねえ。 Z a n n e n d e su nee. To o b a d , is n ’t it?

KE3

行きますよ、行けばいいんでしょ。 Ik im a s u yo , ik e b a ii n d e sh o . I ’m g o in g , a n d th a t’s w h a t y o u w a n t, rig h t?

KE4

会いたい、会いたいよ。 A ita i, a ita i yo. I w a n t to, I r e a lly w a n t to see yo u .

KE5

もう終りかよ。 Moo o w a ri k a y o . I s it over a lre a d y , re a lly ?

Explanation In sp o k e n N ihongo, in te ra c tio n a l p a rtic le s fre q u e n tly a p p ear. T h e y a re im p o rta n t fo r m a k in g a co n v e rsa tio n go sm o o th ly a n d co m fo rt­ a b ly . We stu d ie d th e b a s ic s o f ね a n d よ in se c tio n s 7.10 a n d 8 .8. H ere we w ill fo c u s o n a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n c r it ic a l to th e ir effec­ tive u se . 167

168

GRAMMAR

ね FOR EMPATHY AND F R IE N D L IN E S S W h e n th e sp e a k e r u s e s ね to g ive in fo rm a tio n th e p a rtn e r d o es n o t k n o w ， iro n ic a lly b e ca u se ね a ssu m e s th e p a rtn e r’s kn o w le d ge , it a d d s to th e se n se o f e m p a th y a n d in tim a c y . F o r e xa m p le ， w h e n a sk e d a q u e stio n th a t re q u ire s som e th o u g h t， y o u m a y a n sw e r そう

ですねえ。やっぱり子供（ こども）の頃 （ ころ）が一番（ いちばん）なつかし いですねぇ ‘Le t m e th in k . A fte r a ll， to m e ， c h ild h o o d is th e sw eetest tim e o f a ll’. ね is a lso u se d sim p ly to a d d a ton e o f frie n d lin e s s ，b o th at p h ra s e -fin a l a n d se n te n c e -fin a l p o sitio n s. Som e u tte ra n c e s m a y be a cco m p a n ie d w ith m u ltip le ね，でね，or ですね，th e la s t o f w h ic h a d d s a ton e o f fo rm a lity . T h e h ig h fre q u e n cy o f ね is g e n e ra lly a s ig n o f fa m ilia rity a n d frie n d lin e s s . W h e n y o u a re b e in g re se rve d or w h e n y o u a re ta lk in g im p e rso n a lly (in a p u b lic sp e e ch ， fo r e xa m p le )， y o u se ld o m u se ね .

ねぇ A lo n g ねえ u tte re d slo w ly a t th e e n d o f a se n te n ce e m p h a size s th e sp e a k e r’s co m m itm e n t to deep th o u g h ts ，in c lu d in g h ig h e st a d ­ m ira tio n a n d m o st m o v in g fe e lin g s. It a lso co n v e ys sy m p a th y ， a s in K E 2 . Y o u m a y u se th e u tt e r a n c e -in it ia l ねえ to a ttra c t a tte n tio n from som eon e in a n e m p a th y -so lic itin g w a y ， fo r e xa m p le ，ねぇ、お父さ ん ‘S a y ，D a d ’. A T T E N T IO N -G E T T IN G ょ

よ m a rk s in fo rm a tio n d ire c tly a d d re sse d to th e p a rtn e r. F o r e xa m p le ， y o u c a n c a tc h th e a tte n tio n o f a p a sse rb y w ho h a s a c c id e n ­ ta lly d ro p p e d so m e th in g b y s a y in g なにか落（ お）としましたよ ‘Y o u d ro p p e d so m e th in g ’. P a rtly b e ca u se o f t h is re q u e st fo r a tte n tio n ，よ often e lic its a h ig h ly e m o tio n a l a p p e a l. O b v io u s ly ， one c a n e x p re ss fe e lin g s w ith ­ o u t よ. B u t w h e n a d d e d ，よ co n v e ys u rg e n cy a n d e x p re sse s th e fe e lin g o f “I ’m te llin g yo u ; c a n ’t y o u u n d e rsta n d ? ” or “I ’m te llin g yo u ; p le a se u n d e rs ta n d m e.” If y o u re sp o n d to a re q u e st b y s a y in g 行 （ い）さますよ ‘I ’m g o in g ’ ， it c a n m e a n a stro n g u n d e rs ta n d in g -se e k in g re p ly ，b o rd e rin g o n a d e fia n t a ttitu d e ，th a t is ，“I ’m g o in g ; d o n ’t y o u ge t it? ” S tu d y k e y e x­ p re s sio n K E 3 , w h ere よ co n v e ys s u c h a n a ttitu d e . F o r t h is re a so n ， よ m a y be u se d to p a s s ju d g m e n t a n d to stro n g ly ve n t o n e ’s o p in io n o n so m e is s u e .

Emotive Expressions

169

よ W ITH STRONG AND WEAK S T R E S S It is im p o rta n t to n o te th e stro n g v e rs u s w e a k s tre s s a cc o m p a n y in g よ. T h e stro n g ly p ro n o u n ce d よ （a cco m p a n ie d b y h ig h ton e), be­ c a u se it fo c u se s o n in fo rm a tio n , m a y im p ly a n e xc e ssiv e e a g e rn e ss a n d a se n se o f a d m o n ish m e n t. F o r e x a m p le , 気 （ さ）を 付 （ つ）けて運 転 （うんてん）してよ （w ith stre ss) ‘P le a se d rive c a re fu lly , O K ? ’ b o r­ d e rs o n g iv in g a n o rd e r w ith a d m o n ish m e n t. よ p ro n o u n ce d w ith ­ o u t s tre s s d o es n o t a d d t h is se n se o f a d m o n ish m e n t, a s in そろてろ 帰（ かえ）りましようよ‘L e t’s go b a c k so o n ’.

会（ あ）いたい。会いたいよ。 よ a lso s ig n a ls a stro n g d e sire to re a c h th e p a rtn e r’s h e a rt. In t h is c a se よ is in te rp re te d w ith a ie e lrn g o f “P le a se u n d e rs ta n d m e; p le a se u n d e rs ta n d h o w I fe el.” T h is is p a rtic u la rly so w h e n tw o s im ila r u tte ra n c e s a re rep e ated , o n ce w ith o u t a n d on ce w ith よ, a s illu s tra te d in K E 4 . B y fir s t s a y in g 会いたい ‘I w a n t to see y o u ’ a n d re p e a tin g 会いたいよ ‘I re a lly w a n t to see y o u ’， th e sp e a k e r e x p re ss­ e s a d e sp e ra te d e sire to e m o tio n a lly re a c h th e p a rtn e r. W h e n th e ta lk c o n s is ts o f m u ltip le s e n t e n c e s , よ is a d d e d to th o se se n te n ce s c o n ta in in g th e m a in p o in ts. よ se n te n ce s a im to d ire c tly a p p e a l to th e p a rtn e r, a n d th a t in te n tio n is n o rm a lly a s ­ so cia te d w ith se n te n ce s th a t c a rry th e m a in p o in ts. O b v io u sly , y o u sh o u ld n o t o ve ru se よ, a n d a vo id ta c k in g it onto e ve ry th in g . R E S T R IC T IO N S ON ね AND よ W h e n y o u h a ve e x c lu siv e in fo rm a tio n , so m e th in g th e p a rtn e r d o es n o t kn o w , y o u ca n n o t u se ね . F o r e xa m p le , *頭 （ めたま）がいたいで す ね ‘I h a ve a h e a d a ch e , rig h t? ’ is in a p p ro p ria te . B e c a u se よ d e m a n d s a tte n tio n , y o u sh o u ld a vo id u s in g it to ­ w a rd y o u r m eue p e rso n . T o a ssu m e a la c k o f kn o w le d ge o n th e p a rt o f y o u r m eue p e rso n is d isre sp e c tfu l. It is im p o rta n t to re m in d y o u r b o ss b y s a y in g ミーティング、二時からですね ‘T h e m e e tin g is from tw o o’c lo c k , is n ’t it? ’， in ste a d o f ミーティング、二時からですよ ‘T h e m e e tin g is fro m tw o o ’c lo c k , O K ? ’

よね T h e co m b in a tio n o i よ a n d ね e x is ts a s よね b u t n o t *ねよ. A s a g e n e ra l ru le , th e c lo se r th e e x p re ssio n is p la ce d to th e e n d o f a se n te n ce , th e le s s is it s fo c u s o n in fo rm a tio n . S in c e よ h a s m ore to do w ith in fo rm a tio n th a n ね, よ a p p e a rs before ね. T h e re ve rse is in a p p ro p ria te . T h e m e a n in g o f よね is a co m b in a tio n o f ( 1 ) a fo cu s

170

GRAMMAR

o n th e co n te n t o f w h a t y o u a re s a y in g (in fo rm a tio n ), a n d (2) y o u r o v e rrid in g co n c e rn to w a rd th e p a rtn e r’s th o u g h ts a n d fe e lin g s.

かよ T h e かよ c o m b in a tio n is u se d in c a s u a l sp e e ch to e x p re ss s u rp ris e , d o u b t, a n d d isa p p o in tm e n t, a s in K E 5 . C o n sid e r a s itu a tio n w here y o u a re s u rp ris e d th a t y o u r p a rtn e r le ft th e re s ta u ra n t w ith o u t p a y in g fo r th e m e a l. T h e n y o u m ig h t sa y to y o u rs e lf 食い逃げかよ ‘J u s t e a tin g a n d r u n n in g a w a y, is h e ? ’

11.2. Primary Feelings K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

わあ、 うれしい！ W aa, u re sh ii! W ow, I ’m h ap p y!

KE2

やっ た 一 ！ Y a tta a ! Y e s, I d id it!

KE3

それ、ひどいよ。 So re , h id o i yo. T h a t’s ju s t a w fu l.

KE4

なんだか、寂しい。 N a n d a k a , s a b is h ii. So m eh o w I fe e l lon eso m e.

Exp la n a tio n

E X P R E SSIN G YO UR F E E LIN G S Ja p a n e s e sp e a k e rs sh o w th e ir e m o tio n s q u ite re a d ily , e sp e c ia lly a m o n g uchi, m e m b e rs in c a s u a l a n d in tim a te s itu a tio n s . W h e n e x­ p re s s in g y o u r ow n e m o tio n s, y o u h a ve d e scrip tiv e a d je c tiv e s a s w e ll a s a v a rie ty o f o th er e x p re s sio n s a t y o u r d isp o sa l. S in c e em o­ tio n is fre q u e n tly e xp re sse d stra ig h tfo rw a rd ly w ith o u t re g a rd to th e sp e e ch sty le , a n in fo rm a l sty le is w id e ly u se d . j 〇Y AND H A PPIN ESS

うれしい！ ラッキー！ やっ た 一 ！

W ow, I ’m d e lig h te d . Lu cky! S u c c e s s . I d id it!

Emotive Expressions

171

( a ) すてきなクリスマスプレゼントもらつちやった。ラ ッ キ ー ！ S u te k in a K u ris u m a s u p u re ze n to m o ra t-c h a tta . R a k k ii! I go t a w o n d e rfu l C h ris tm a s p re se n t. L u c k y me! SA D N ESS, PAIN, AND D IF F IC U L T IE S

悲（ かな）しい つらい ひどレヽ

（ I ’m ) sa d . (u n b e a ra b ly) p a in fu l a n d d iffic u lt n a sty , h u rtfu l, a w fu l, d e stru ctiv e , d e v a sta tin g

( b ) 彼女にフラれた。マジ悲しいよ。 K a n o jo n i fu ra re ta . M a ji k a n a s h ii yo. S h e d u m p e d m e. I ’m re a lly sa d . LO N E LIN E SS

寂（ さび）しい ひとりぼっち

lo n e ly fe e lin g to ta lly a lo n e

( c ) ひとりで旅行したんだけど、寂しかった。 H ito ri de ry o k o o sh ita n d a ked o , s a b is h ik a tta . I tra v e le d a lo n e , b u t I w a s lo n e ly. D IS L IK E AND HATRED

いやな にくらしV ヽ (d )

d isa g re e a b le , o ffe n sive , n a s ty h a te fu l, d e te sta b le

あいつは人の悪口を言うにくらしいヤツなんだ。 A its u w a h ito n o w a ru g u c h i o y u u n ik u r a s h ii y a ts u n a n da. H e sp e a k s ill o f o th e rs, a d e te sta b le g u y .

ANGER AND FRU STRATIO N

腹（ はら）が 立 （ た）つ ムカつく 頭（ あたま）にくる (e )

to ge t a n g ry , to be fu rio u s to ge t d isg u s te d ly m a d to ge t re a lly m a d , to lo se on e’s coo l

あいつの態度ムカつく。 A its u n o ta id o m u k a ts u k u . H is a ttitu d e is re a lly d isg u s tin g .

( f ) 頭にくるようなことばかりでいやになる。 A ta m a n i k u r u y o o n a ko to b a k a ri de iy a n i n a ru . I h a te it; I h a ve to fa ce so m a n y th in g s th a t m a ke m e re ­ a lly m ad .

172

GRAMMAR

D E S C R IB IN G SOMEONE E L S E 'S EM OTIONS W h e n d e sc rib in g som eon e e lse ’s e m o tio n s, a d iffe re n t stra te g y m u st be u se d . T h is is b e ca u se som eon e e lse ?s e m o tio n s a re o n ly in d ire c tly d e scrib a b le . Y o u h a ve a c c e s s to so m eon e’s in te rn a l fe el­ in g s o n ly th ro u g h o u tw a rd s ig n s . Y o u o n ly in d ire c tly re co g n ize th a t som eon e is a c tu a lly fe e lin g a n em o tion . W h e n s u c h s ig n s a re e vi­ d e n t, y o u m a y u se そ う だ ‘seem , lo o k lik e ’ o r th e がる stru c tu re .

となりの林さんは奥さんをなくして寂しそうだ。

(g )

T o n a ri n o H a y a s h i-s a n w a o k u s a n o n a k u s h ite sa b ish iso o da. Mr. H a y a s h i, m y n e ig h b o r, se e m s lo n e ly sin c e h is w ife p a sse d aw ay. ( h ) 妹さんはとても悲しがっていますよ。 Im o o to -sa n w a totem o k a n a sh ig a tte im a s u yo. H is s is te r is v e ry sa d . [lit. H is s is te r sh o w s th a t sh e is v e ry sa d .i

11.3. Exclamatory Phrases K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

きれいな空！ K ire in a sora! (W hat a) b e a u tifu l sky!

KE2

いやなヤツ。 Iy a n a y a ts u . (W hat a) n a s ty gu y!

KE3

見上げると、美しい満月。 M ia ge ru to, u t s u k u s h ii m a n g e tsu . L o o k in g u p , (I see) th e b e a u tifu l fu ll m oon.

KE4

一回で成功！ Ik k a i de seikoo! S u c c e s s in one try!

Exp la n a tio n

T h e [a d je ctive + n o u n ] stru c tu re m a y be u se d a s it is . T h e se in d e ­ p e n d e n t p h ra s e s a re u tte re d to id e n tify th e so u rc e o f a n em o tion , a s in K E 1 a n d K E 2 .

Emotive Expressions

173

S e n te n c e s w ith o u t p re d ic a te s re s u lt in K E 3 a n d K E 4 . We c a n a ssu m e th a t が見えた is deleted fro m K E 3 , a n d in K E 4 , した is de­ leted . A v o id in g a fu ll-se n te n c e d e sc rip tio n a d d s to th e im m e d ia cy a n d d ra m a tic effect. T h e se in d e p e n d e n t e x p re s sio n s fu n c tio n a s e xcla m a to ry p h ra se s. SH ARIN G FE ELIN G S T h e em otive m e a n in g s th a t in d e p e n d e n t e xcla m a to ry p h ra se s e x p re ss o rig in a te in th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l su p p o rt sh a re d by p a r tic i­ p a n ts. S p e c ific a lly , b y p re se n tin g th e o b je ct b y w h ic h y o u a re deep­ ly m oved, y o u e xp e ct y o u r p a rtn e r to sh a re th e sa m e fe e lin g to w ard th e ob je ct. B y s h a rin g a n id e n tic a l p e rsp e ctive to w a rd th e sam e o b je ct a n d b y a p p re c ia tin g th a t y o u a n d y o u r p a rtn e r a re s h a rin g t h is in tim a te e xp e rie n ce , y o u tw o fe el e m p a th y to w a rd e a ch other.

11.4. Attitudinal Adverbs K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

どうせ間に合わないだろう。 D o ose m a n ia w a n a i d aroo . Y o u w o n ’t be in tim e a n yw a y.

KE2

やっぱり、無理だった。 Y a p p a ri, m u ri d a tta . A s e xp e cte d , it w a s im p o ssib le .

KE3

せめて声だけでも、聞きたい。 Sem ete ko e d a k e dem o, k ik it a i. A t le a st h is vo ice I w a n t to h ear.

KE4

まさか、あの人が万引きするなんてね。 M a sa k a , a n o h ito g a m a n b ik is u ru n a n te ne. Im p o ssib le to b e lie ve th a t he sh o p lifte d .

KE5

< co n v e rsa tio n > A: 神崎が自殺した。 K a n z a k i g a jis a t s u s h it a . K a n z a k i co m m itte d su ic id e . B: まさか。 M a sa ka . No w ay. Im p o ssib le .

174

GRAMMAR

Exp la n a tio n A n u m b e r of attitudinal a d v e r b s (or sentential adverbs) express

the speaker's emotional attitude. T h e s e a d v e r b s differ f r o m ordi­ n a r y a d v e r b s that qualify the verb, for e x a m p l e , 速 （ はや） く ‘ fast’ ， qualifying the verb 走 （ はし）る ‘ to r u n ’ . Instead, they reveal h o w the s p e a k e r feels.

どうせ とつせ expresses y o u r it-can’ t - h a p p e n - a n y w a y attitude of resigna­ tion t o w a r d a certain state or event, a s in K E 1 . Regardless of h o w y o u tackle the situation, it s e e m s that the conclusion is predeter­ m i n e d a n d is inevitable. W h e n u s i n g とつせ，y o u are a b a n d o n i n g the idea that y o u c a n personally m a k e a difference. とつせ c a n c o m m u n i c a t e a negative attitude, a s s h o w n below. (a) 〈conversation 〉 A : その人仕事やってるの？ S o n o hito shigoto yatteru n o ? D o e s h e h a v e a job? B : どうせマイナーな仕事でしょ。 D o o s e m a i n a a n a shigoto desho. It’ s p r o b a b l y a d e a d - e n d job at best.

ゃっぱり やっ ぱ り （ or f o r m a l やはり or very c a s u a l やっぱ）is u s e d w h e n a n action t u r n s out to b e a s y o u expected, a s in K E 2 . T h e expectation c a n b e s o m e t h i n g personal. For example, y o u see s o m e o n e in the distance, a n d s h e looks like y o u r m e n d . W h e n s h e c o m e s closer, it t u r n s o ut y o u w e r e right. Y o u m a y s a y to yourself やっぱり男貴 （ ゆ うき）くんだ ‘ It’ s Yuuki, a s I t h o u g h t ’ . C o m p a r e (b) a n d (c). (b)

どうせっまんないよ、そんなパーティー。 D o o s e t s u m a n n a i vo, s o n n a paatii. You w o n ’ t enjoy s u c h a party a n y w a y .

(c)

あのパーティーさ、やっぱりっまんなかった。 A n o paatii sa, yappari t s u m a n n a k a t t a . T h a t party w a s n ’ t f u n after all.

Emotive Expressions

175

せめて せめて e x p re sse s th e a ttitu d e th a t a lth o u g h th e id e a l r e s u lt ca n n o t be a ch ie ve d , a t le a st so m e r e s u lts are exp e cte d . S e n te n ce K E 3 is s u c h a n e xa m p le . A s a n o th e r e xa m p le , y o u m a y s a y せめて日曜日 ( にちようび）はゆっくりしたい ‘A t le a st o n S u n d a y s I w a n t to r e la x ’ ， w ith a se n se th a t y o u h a ve g iv e n u p a n y ho p e o n re la x in g o n o th er d a ys.

せっかく せっかく e x p re sse s y o u r a ttitu d e th a t a lth o u g h a n in te n d e d re s u lt is n o t a ch ie ve d , so m e th in g h a s p u rp o se ly been done a n yw a y. F o r e xa m p le , y o u p u rc h a s e d so m e w in e a n d ch ee se fo r a p a rty o n ly to le a rn th a t th e p a rty w a s ca n ce le d . Y o u m ig h t sa y so m e th in g n ke せっかくワインとチーズ買ったのに‘I b o u g h t w in e a n d ch ee se esp e­ c ia lly fo r th e p a rty , b u t’.

まさか まさか is a stro n g n e g a tiv e re sp o n se , e m p h a tic a lly re je c tin g a p ro p ­ o sitio n . F o r e xa m p le , if we k n o w th a t th e m a n in q u e stio n is v ir tu ­ o u s, th e n we k n o w th a t it is im p o ssib le fo r h im to sh o p lift. K E 4 co n v e ys s u c h a fe e lin g. In K E 5 , sp e a k e r B k n o w s th a t K a n z a k i w o u ld n e ve r co m m it s u ic id e , a n d he c o n fe sse s th a t a ttitu d e b y まさか. T h is se n tim e n t c a n be e xp re sse d in a fu ll s e n te n c e まさかあの人がそんなことするは ず は な い ‘A b so lu te ly , n o w a y (to believe) th a t h e w o u ld do s u c h a th in g !’

11.5. Interactional Particles and Markers K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

おまえ、バカだな。 O m ae, b a k a d a n a . Y o u ’re a re a l fool.

KE2

がんばろうぜ。 G a n b a ro o ze. L e t’s do o u r b e st.

KE3

そろそろ行くぞ。 S o ro so ro ik u zo. We a re le a v in g now .

176

GRAMMAR

KE4

そんなことするわけないじやん。 S o n n a ko to s u r u w a ke n a i ja n . There^s no w a y I w o u ld do s u c h a th in g .

KE5

< co n v e rsa tio n > A: 行きたい？ Ik ita i? W an t to go? B: 行きたいッス。 Ik it a i s s u . I w a n t to go.

Exp la n a tio n

な な se e k s c o n firm a tio n , in c lu d in g se lf-c o n firm a tio n , a s in K E 1 . U se t h is in c a s u a l s itu a tio n s o n ly , a n d m o stly in m a s c u lin e sp e e ch , to w a rd y o u r m e s h ita p e rso n .

ぜ ぜ e x p re sse s stro n g in s is te n c e , m o stly in m a sc u lin e sp e e ch am o n g u ch i m em b e rs. K E 2 is s u c h a n e xam p le.

ぞ ぞ is u se d p rim a rily in m a s c u lin e sp e e ch , a n d it co m m u n ica te s th e sp e a k e r’s stro n g w ill. ぜ a n d ぞ o c c u r a lm o st e x c lu s iv e ly w ith in fo rm a l ve rb fo rm s. じやん じやん is a d d e d a t th e e n d o f a n u tte ra n ce in a w a y s im ila r to ね， b u t it s u se is re stric te d to c a s u a l sp e e ch . It c a rrie s w ith it a stro n g c a s u a l a ttitu d e a n d is m ore fre q u e n tly u se d in y o u th sp e e ch . K E 4 is a go od e xa m p le . ッス In s te a d o f u s in g th e fo rm a l e n d in g , a d d in g ツス to th e ve rb a n d a d ­ je c tiv e in fo rm a l fo rm (excep t th e oe-verb) m a k e s th e sp e e ch se m i­ fo rm a l. F o r th e b e -ve rb , delete it to ta lly a n d a d d ツス， a s in (a). T h is sty le m a in ta in s fo rm a lity w h ile it a t th e sa m e tim e co n v e ys a c a s u a l tone. T h is sty le , fre q u e n tly w ritte n in カタカナ， is u se d b y y o u th , p rim a rily in m a sc u lin e sp e e ch (e sp e c ia lly a m o n g m e m b e rs o f a th le tic a sso c ia tio n s ).

Emotive Expressions (a)

177

〈c o n v e rsa tio n 〉 A : 今日、何時まで？ K yo o n a n ji m ad e? T o d a y , u n t il w h a t tim e (are y o u h ere)? B : 三時までッス. S a n ji m ad e s s u . U n til th re e o’c lo c k .

11.6. Emphatic Markers K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

あの映画、すごく感動した。 A n o e ig a , su g o k u k a n d o o sh ita . T h a t m o vie, I w a s re a lly m oved by it.

KE2

俺ら、メチヤクメチヤ怒られたよ。 [m a sc u lin e sp eech ] O re ra , m e c h a k u c h a o k o ra re ta yo. We w ere sco ld e d lik e c ra zy .

KE3

めちやかわいい！ M e ch a ka w a ii! C r a z ily cute!

KE4

あ、使い方、超かんたんだよ。 A , t s u k a i k a ta , choo k a n ta n d a yo. O h , th e w a y to u se t h is is su p e r sim p le .

KE5

えつ、 1 2 0 0 円？ 超安いじやん。買つちやおう。買つちや おう。 E tt, se n n ih y a k u -e n ? C h o o y a s u i ja n . K a t-ch a o o . K a t-ch a o o . W h a t? It ’s o n ly tw elve h u n d re d y e n ? S u p e r ch e a p . I ’m g o in g to b u y t h is fo r su re .

KE6

はいはい、よ一くわかりました。 H a i h a i, y o o k u w a k a rim a sh ita . Y e s, su re , I re a lly go t it.

KE7

そんなこと言うなつ。 [b lu n t style ] S o n n a ko to y u u n a tt. D o n ’t ever s a y s u c h a th in g .

178

GRAMMAR

Exp la n a tio n

すごく W h e n e m p h a sizin g y o u r v ie w s a n d fe e lin g s, u se e m p h a tic a d v e rb s s u c h a s すごく a n d とても. In c a s u a l c o n v e r s a t io n , すごい m a y fu n c tio n a s a n a d ve rb , fo r e x a m p le , すごい感動した ‘I w a s re a lly m o ved ’. In b lu n t m a sc u lin e sp e e ch , y o u are lik e ly to u se スゲー，め ちや，メチャクチャ a n d th e lik e . In c a s u a l s itu a tio n s , y o u m a y u se メチャクチャ fo r e m p h a sis, a s in K E 2 . めちや， a sh o rte n e d v e rsio n o f メチャクチャ， c a n be a f­ fix e d to a ll p a rts o f sp e e ch , a lth o u g h m o st fre q u e n tly y o u u se it w ith a d v e rb s a n d a d je ctiv e s. F o r e xa m p le , a s in K E 3 , めちやかわい い m e a n s ‘c ra z ily c u te ’. O th e r v a ria tio n s in c lu d e メッチヤ，ムチヤ， a n d メナヤメチヤ. E m p h a tic めちや a n d o th er s im ila r e x p re ssio n s a re often w ritte n in カタカナ. M atu re a d u lt sp e a k e rs u se th e se e x p re s sio n s le s s fre q u e n tly.

超 超（ ちょう）‘su p e r, e xtre m e ly, e xc e e d in g ly ’ c a n be a ffixe d to a ll p a rts o f sp e e ch , m a k in g it q u ite v e rsa tile . F o r e x a m p le , 超カツコいい ‘e x­ tre m e ly co o l’ ，a n d 超勉強 （ ちょうべんきょう）す る ‘to s tu d y re a lly h a rd ’. S tu d y K E 4 a n d K E 5 , w h ere 超 is a ffixe d to a d je ctiv e s. A lth o u g h o rig in a lly lim ite d to y o u th , th e se e m p h a tic p re fix e s h a ve sp re a d to th e g e n e ra l p u b lic , a t le a st in c a s u a l c o n v e rsa tio n . メチャクチャ，めちや， a n d 超 o b v io u sly c a rry a c a s u a l to n e, a n d y o u sh o u ld a vo id th e m in fo rm a l s itu a tio n s . SOUND CHAN GES Y o u e x p re ss e m o tio n n o t o n ly th ro u g h p h ra s in g a n d se n te n ce s tru c tu re b u t a lso b y so u n d . A s d is c u s s e d e a rlie r in se ctio n 4 .1 0 , u s u a lly a n in c re a se in vo lu m e a n d le n g th in d ic a te s e m p h a sis. T h e e lo n g a tio n o f vo w e ls b rin g s a n e m p h a tic e ffe c t . よ一く， in ste a d o f よ く ‘w e ll’， m e a n s ‘re a lly w e ll’， a s sh o w n in K E 6 . A s y o u m a y re c a ll, a n o th e r so u n d ch a n g e is th e in s e rtio n o f a g lo tta l sto p . A g lo tta l sto p is th e so u n d u s u a lly tra n sc rib e d a s a s m a ll つ，w h ic h c re a te s a m ore e m p h a tic em otive effect. F o r e xam p le , ぜんっぜん， in ste a d o f ぜんぜん ‘(not) a t a ll’， m e a n s ‘a b so lu te ly n o t’. A s in K E 7 , th e g lo tta l sto p m a y a p p e a r a t th e e n d o f a n u tte r­ a n ce . It e x p re sse s a n e x tra o rd in a rily stro n g a sse rtiv e a ttitu d e .

Emotive Expressions (a )

179

うれしぃっ！ U re sh iitt! I ’m so glad !

( b ) ぃっただっきま一す！ Itta d a k k im a a su ! T h a n k y o u fo r th e m e a l (I’m g o in g to e at now ).

G raffiti

O th e r e m p h a tic e x p re s sio n s m a y p rove u se fu l. T h e a ffix e s ど，ノ、力， a n d ま a re n o n -p ro d u ctiv e . D o n o t a d d th e se a ffix e s ire e ly to w o rd s u n le s s y o u c h e c k w ith a d ic tio n a ry . 1.

と is a ffixe d to n o u n s, a d d in g th e m e a n in g o f ‘in th e m id d le or ce n te r of’. ど真（ ま）ん 中 （ なか） と素人（ しろぅと）

2. 3. 4.

sm a c k in th e m id d le com p lete la y p e rso n

ノノカうま， c o n s is tin g o f th e w o rd バ カ ‘fo o l’ a n d うまい ‘d e li­ c io u s ’ ，m e a n s ‘e x tra o rd in a rily d e lic io u s ’. ま is a d d ed to a lim ite d n u m b e r o f a d je c tiv e s， a s in まっ黒（ く ろ） ‘p u re b la c k ’ a n d まっ白（ しろ） ‘p u re w h ite ’. Y o u m a y be fa m ilia r w ith マンガ Ja p a n e s e ， w h ere a n o th e r k in d o f e m p h a tic stra te g y is o b serve d . I ’m re fe rrin g to th e u se o f u n u s u a l 濁 点 （ だくてん） a d d e d to h i_ rn g an a .濁点 re fe rs to tw o sid e s tro k e s a d d ed to た to p ro d u ce だ. W h e n 濁点 are a d d e d to v o w e ls ，th e y s ig n a l e x tra o rd in a ry sc re a m -lik e c rie s. Y o u r N iho ngo te a ch e r is lik e ly to m a rk th e se w ro n g ， b u t I ’ve fo u n d som e e xa m p le s in マンガ， sh o rt sto rie s ， a n d n o ve ls. I h a ve fo u n d th e fo llo w in g e xa m p le s ，a ll o f w h ic h a re u se d fo r in te rje c tio n a l c rie s o f s h o c k a n d s u rp ris e . W h ile it is d iffic u lt to p ro n o u n ce th e se s o u n d s ，e a ch co n v e ys e m p h a sis. ぅ” え （in ste a d o f th e u s u a l うえ） あ” 一 （in ste a d o f th e u s u a l あ一） ぇ ’ 一 （in ste a d o f th e u s u a l え一）

180

GRAMMAR

11.7. Repetition K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

会いたくて、会いたくて、もうほんとに会いたくて。 A ita k u te , a ita k u te , m oo h o n to n i a ita k u te . W an t to see h im , w a n t to see h im , I re a lly w a n t to see h im .

KE2

さあ、すわって、すわって。 S a a , su w a tte , su w a tte . H ere, s it, s it h ere.

KE3

< co n v e rsa tio n > A: お祭り行く？ O m a ts u ri ik u ? W an t to go to th e fe stiv a l? B: 行く、行く。 Ik u , ik u . Y e s, I ’ll go , I ’ll go.

KE4

やろう、やろう。今すぐやろう。 Y a ro o , ya ro o . Im a s u g u yaro o . L e t’s do it, le t’s do it. L e t’s do it rig h t aw ay.

Exp la n a tio n

R EP E T IT IO N FOR EM PHASIS W h e n y o u a re overw h elm ed , re p e titio n o ffe rs a m e a n s to co n ve y th a t em o tion . Y o u r e m o tio n a l sta te c a n be co n ve ye d b y re p e a tin g a p h ra se tw ice , th re e tim e s, or even m ore. A lth o u g h t h is is a ch ie ve d in E n g lis h a s ^ e ll, re p e titio n o c c u rs ra th e r fre q u e n tly in N ih o n g o . S tu d y a ll th e K e y E x p re s s io n s w h ere v e rb s are re p e a te d m u ltip le tim e s. R e p e titio n m a y a lso o c c u r a c ro s s sp e a k e rs. Y o u r p a rtn e r m a y re p e a t y o u r v e ry w o rd s, w h ic h e n h a n ce s e m p a th y. See B ’s u tte r­ a n ce in K E 3 . R EP E T IT IO N FOR RHYTHM T h e re p e titio n o f sh o rt p h ra s e s c re a te s a n d m a in ta in s a rh y th m . T h e re p e titio n in B ’s u tte ra n c e in K E 3 a n d in K E 4 a re s u c h e xa m p le s. Y o u m a y h e a r a Ja p a n e s e sp e a k e r s a y そうそう ‘rig h t, rig h t’, or even そぅそぅそぅそぅてう ‘rig h t, rig h t, rig h t, rig h t, rig h t’.

Emotive Expressions

181

11.8. Interjections for Surprise, Disbelief, and Relief K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ええっ、五万円？ E e tt, g o m a n -e n ? W h a t? F ifty th o u sa n d ye n ?

KE2

うそ！そんなことないでしよ。 U so! S o n n a ko to n a i d e sh o . Y o u ’re k id d in g ! T h a t c a n ’t be.

KE3

うそだあ。それ絶対うそ。 U so d a a . S o re ze tta i u so . T h a t’s a lie . A b so lu te ly , th a t’s a lie .

KE4

ほんと？ H o n to ? R e a lly ?

KE5

へえ。 Hee. R e a lly , I see.

KE6

なにそれ。 N a n i so re. W h a t (the h e ck) is th at! W h a t do y o u m e a n b y that!

KE7

やだ、そんなことも知らないの？ Y a d a , so n n a ko to m o s h ir a n a i n o ? O h n o , y o u d o n ’t even k n o w th a t?

KE8

なんだ、そんなこと？大事件かと思っちやった。 N a n d a , so n n a ko to ? D a ijik e n k a to o m o t-ch a tta . W h a t a re lie f; th a t’s it? I th o u g h t it w a s a m a jo r d isa ste r.

Exp la n a tio n

えつ A N D うそ S u rp ris e a n d d is b e lie f a re e xp re sse d th ro u g h in te rje c tio n s s u c h a s えっ，ええっ， a n d うそ！Y o u u se えっ w h e n y o u a re sim p ly s u r ­ p rise d a t y o u r p a rtn e r’s u n e xp e cte d com m en t. U se うそ！a s a c h a l­ le n g e to th e v e ra c ity o f w h a t y o u a re h e a rin g . Y o u m a y a lso h e a r p eople sc re a m うっそう一！ ‘No k id d in g !’ a s a n e m o tio n a l v e rsio n o f うそ.

182

GRAMMAR

ほんと？A N D へえ Y o u c a n a lso u s e ほんと？ ‘R e a lly ? ’ （o r 本 当 （ ほんとう）ですか？） to co m m u n ica te a se n se o f d o u b t. A c e rta in u se o f な に （or なん） a lso co n v e ys d isb e lie f. Y o u m a y u tte r なんだって？ （o r なんですって？） in re sp o n se to a s u r p r is in g p iece o f in fo rm a tio n . へえ co n v e ys a se n se o i b e in g re lu c ta n tly p e rsu a d e d . N ew in ­ fo rm a tio n is b e g in n in g to co n v in ce y o u , b u t y o u a re n o t co m p le te ly c o n v in ce d a s y e t . へえ s ig n a ls a c a s u a l ton e, so y o u sh o u ld a vo id it w h e n ta lk in g to y o u r m^eue p e rso n . In ste a d , ch o o se a n e x p re ssio n s u c h a s そうなんですか、知りませんでした ‘Is th a t rig h t? I d id n ’t k n o w ’.

なにそれ A n o th e r co m m o n ly u se d e x p re ssio n is なにそれ， w h ic h is n o t re ­ a lly a q u e stio n b u t a n e x p re ssio n o f d isb e lie f. T h is is often sp o k e n in a ton e o f d is g u s t. In c e rta in co n te xts, t h is e x p re ssio n co n ve ys th e sp e a k e r’s c ritic is m . T h e b lu n t v e rsio n , なんだそれ, is u se d in a s im ila r w ay. A lth o u g h a n o rd in a ry q u e stio n ta k e s th e fo rm それなに？or そ れはなんですか？， in th e d is b e lie f e xcla m a tio n , th e o rd e r is u s u a lly in v e rte d a s above. It a lso ta k e s o n a r is in g in to n a tio n o n th e w ord なに， a s sh o w n in (b). ( a ) それ、なに。 So re , n a -n i. W h a t is it? (b )

なに、それ。 N a D n i, so re. W h a t is that!

し 、 やだ AND なんだ A S IN T E R JE C T IO N S い や だ （or c a s u a l やだ）e xp re sse s, a s in K E 7 , s u rp ris e w h e n y o u d isco v e r y o u r p a rtn e r d o es n o t liv e u p to w h a t y o u t h in k is a p p ro ­ p ria te . Y o u s a y なんだ w h e n y o u a re re lie ve d a t so m e n e w s, a s in K E 8 . Y o u e xp e cte d w o rse , b u t th in g s tu rn e d o u t to be le s s se rio u s. いや7こ，やだ， a n d なんだ are in te rje c tio n s a n d o c c u r o n ly in th e in ­ fo rm a l sty le .

Emotive Expressions

183

G raffiti

W h e n y o u a re s u rp ris e d or u p se t, re p e titio n o f th e in it ia l m o ra m a y o ccu r. In fa ct, t h is stu tte rin g sh o w s u p in マンガ a s a m e a n s to il ­ lu s tra te th e e xcite m e n t. (c)

〈c o n v e rsa tio n 〉 A : いくら？ Ik u ra ? H o w m u c h is it? B : 五千円。 G o se n -e n . F iv e th o u sa n d ye n . A : ご、五千円？ G o , g o se n -e n ? F i-fiv e th o u sa n d ye n ?

(d) < co n v e rsa tio n > A : ご、ごめん。おれ、バカだよな。 G o , go m en . O re , b a k a d a yo n a . S o -so rry . I ’m a fool, a re n ’t I? B : うん、知ってる。 U n , sh itte ru . Y e s, I kn o w .

11.9. Whispered Confession and Comment Exp la n a tio n

In c e rta in g e n re s, y o u m a y fin d th e sp e a k e r’s in n e r d ia lo g u e a n d a th ird -p e rs o n ’s co m m e n ts e x p lic itly p re se n te d . A lth o u g h th e se a re n o t a c tu a lly u tte re d b y a n yo n e , th e y p re se n t e m o tio n -rich c o m m u n ica tio n . C O N FE SSIO N A L W H ISPER E x a m p le (a) illu s tr a te s a c a se w h ere th e sp e a k e r re v e a ls h e r in n e r th o u g h ts. T h is re p re se n ts a sce n e fa m ilia r in マンガ. B ’s e xp re s­ s io n s in p a re n th e se s a re c o n fe ssio n a l w h isp e rs a n d a re n o t a c tu ­ a lly sp o k e n . S t ill , マンガ c re a to rs p re se n t th e se p se u d o -u tte ra n ce s to m a ke th e m a v a ila b le to th e re a d e r. T h e y often a p p e a r in d iffe re n t fo n ts (often h a n d w ritte n sc rip ts ) a n d s iz e s th a t se p a ra te th e m fro m th e d ia lo g u e p re se n te d in sp e e ch b a llo o n s.

184

GRAMMAR

(a)

くc o n v e rsa tio n in マンガ> A : 新入生？ S h in n y u u s e i? A n e w stu d e n t? B : はい。上田です。よろしくお願いします。 H a i. U e d a d e su . Y o ro s h ik u o n e g a ish im a su . Y e s. I ’m U ed a. H o w do y o u do? A : かわいいね。 K a w a ii ne. C u te . ( B : かわいいって言われた。） K a w a ii tte iw a re ta . B o y , h e s a id I am cu te . A : その帽子。 So n o b o o sh i. T h a t h a t o f y o u rs. ( B : なんだ、帽子か。） N a n d a , b o o sh i k a . W oops, h e m e a n s m y h a t. A : あ、君も。 A , k im i m o. O h , y o u , too. B : えっ？ E tt? W h at?

T h e w h isp e rs in p a re n th e se s e x p re ss B ’s in n e r fe e lin g s. T h e y re v e a l B ’s honn^e a n d e xp o se h e r o th e rw ise p riv a te ly h e ld th o u g h ts. TH IR D -P E R SO N COMMENT In s te a d o f a w h isp e re d c o n fe ssio n a l, so m e tim e s a th ird -p a rty co m ­ m e n ta ry is offered. O fte n th e se co m m e n ts g u id e th e re a d e r to w ard th e p e rsp e ctive e n d o rse d b y th e th ird -p a rty p a rtic ip a n t. In マンガ， so m e tim e s th e co m m en t a c tu a lly c a rrie s th e n a rra to r’s vo ice . In a te le v isio n v a rie ty sh o w , so m e tim e s th e p ro d u c e r’s co m ­ m e n ts pop u p on th e scre e n . (b) < co n v e rsa tio n o n a v a rie ty sh o w > A : あの人、若いから。 A n o h ito , w a k a i k a ra . H e is y o u n g , s o ___

Emotive Expressions

185

B : や、一番年長だけど。 Y a ,ic h ib a n n e n ch o o d a ked o. A c tu a lly , h e is th e o ld e st one. A : 年長だけど、若いみたいな。 N en ch o o d a ked o , w a k a i m ita i n a . W ell, h e is th e o ld e st, b u t he is y o u n g , lik e ___ P o p -u p ca p tio n (適 当 ！？） T e kito o !? J u s t g o in g alo n g!? T o m a ke th e m e a sie r to co m p re h e n d , Ja p a n e s e te le v isio n v a r i­ e ty sh o w s often c o n ta in c a p tio n s (or su b title s) o f k e y p h ra s e s a n d p o p -u p co m m e n ta ry. T h e co m m e n ta ry p ro v id e s c lu e s a s to h o w th e vie w er sh o u ld u n d e rs ta n d th e v e rb a l e xch a n g e s. H ere, th e co m m en t 適 当 ！？ ju s t g o in g a lo n g ’ g u id e s th e view er to ta k e A ’s sta te m e n t 年長だけど、若いみたいな w ith a g ra in o f sa lt.

11.10. Interjectional Sound Effects K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ジヤーン、私が焼いたクッキーです！ J a a n , w a ta sh i g a y a ita k u k k ii desu! H ere th e y are! C o o k ie s I baked!

KE2

ブー、そんなのダメ、ダメ。 B u u , so n n a n o d am e, dam e. B oo, th a t’s no good, a t a ll.

KE3

ガーン。 ショック！ G aan. Shokku! G a a n . W h a t a sh o ck!

Exp la n a tio n

SOUND E F FE C T S WHEN TA LKIN G T o e ffe ctive ly co m m u n ica te e m o tio n , Ja p a n e s e sp e a k e rs (p rim a r­ ily y o u n g sp e a k e rs) so m e tim e s u se so u n d e ffe cts. T h e se so u n d ef­ fe cts, s im ila r to th e p h ra s e s u se d in マンガ， are p ro d u ce d b y th e sp e a k e rs th e m se lve s. It h a s b e en p o in te d o u t th a t t h is te n d e n cy in c a s u a l sp e e ch is in flu e n c e d b y マンガ， w h ic h a m a jo rity o f J a p a ­ n e se p eople e n jo y re a d in g .

186

GRAMMAR

B e c a u se in te rje c tio n a l s o u n d s a re d ire c t e x p re s sio n s o f y o u r­ s e lf a n d a re m ad e in in fo rm a l s itu a tio n s o n ly , y o u sh o u ld a vo id th e m in fo rm a l situ a tio n s . K IN D S OF SOUND E F FE C T S 1 . W h e n s u rp ris e d , im ita tin g th e E n g lis h in te rje c tio n w o w

ワオ、ス ゲ ー ！

(a )

W ao, sugee! W ow, th a t’s te rrific . 2.

W h e n p re se n tin g so m e th in g in a d ra m a tic flo u ris h , a s in K E 1 ( b ) ジヤーン！私の新しいケータイです。 Ja a n ! W a ta sh i no a ta ra sh u k e e ta i d e su . H ere it is! T h is is m y n e w c e ll p h o n e.

3.

W h e n d isa g re e in g a n d d isa p p ro v in g , a s in K E 2 ; re la te d to th e E n g lis h w o rd b o o in g ( c ) プー。そんなのうまくいくはずない。反対、反対。 B u u . S o n n a n o u m a k u ik u h a z u n a i. H a n ta i. H a n ta i. No. T h e re ’s n o w a y th a t w o u ld w o rk. I ’m o p p o se d to it.

4.

W h e n d isg u ste d , w ith a se n se of su rp ris e ( d ) ゲッ、ちょっときびしくない？ G e tt, ch o tto k ib is h ik u n a i? W hat! Is n ’t th a t a b it too severe?

5.

W h e n sh o ck e d a t h e a rin g b a d n e w s, a s in K E 3 (e)

〈c o n v e rsa tio n 〉 : どうしたの？

A

D oo s h ita n o? W h a t’s w ro n g? B : 彼、彼女いたんだ。 K a re , k a n o jo ita n da. H e h a s a g irlfrie n d . A : えっ。 E tt. W hat! B : ガーン。 もうだめ。 G a a n . Moo dam e. G a a n . It ’s over.

Emotive Expressions

187

11.11. Exclamations K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

なんとあの人が来るとは！

N a n t o a n o hito g a k u r u to wa! Boy, w h a t a surprise that h e c a me! KE2

なんてやさしい人！

N a n t e yasashii hito! W h a t a k i n d person! KE3

なんて素晴らしいんだろう。

N a n t e s u b a r a s h u n daroo. H o w w o n d e r f u l it is! KE4

あの事件からずっと、 どれほど苦しんだことか。

A n o jiken k a r a zutto, d o r e h o d o k u r u s h i n d a koto ka. Since that incident, h o w m u c h I’ ve suffered!

Exp la n a tio n

なんと T h e interjection なんと is a n emotive p h r a s e a d d e d a s a preface to a n exclamative expression of surprise. It is similar to English expressions s u c h a s S u rp ris e !, B e lie v e it o r n ot!, or G u e s s w h a t! Y o u u s e なんと w h e n you, in a m a z e m e n t , b r e a k u n e x p e c t e d a n d extraordinary new s . In turn, y o u r partner anticipates surpris­ ing n e w s to follow. T h i s w a y , y o u successfully c o m m u n i c a t e y o u r a m a z e m e n t while inviting y o u r partner’ s curiosity.

なんて な んて a p p e a r s in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a d v e r b s a n d adjectives to c o n ­ v ey extraordinariness. It is often followed b y た ，7ころう，の だ ，ん 7こ， の だ ろ う ，o r ん だ ろ う . S t u d y K E 2 a n d K E 3 .

こと EXCLAM ATION It is also possible to express a n e x c lamatory attitude b y m a k i n g a n o m i n a l p h r a s e w i t h こ と . For e x a m p l e , ま あ 、 が ん ば る こ と ！‘ Wow, h o w h a r d h e tries!’ T h e こと n o m i n a l exclamative is stereotypically associated w i t h feminine speech. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that this e x ­ pression is rarely u s e d a m o n g youth.

188

GRAMMAR

どれほどA N D どんなに In w ritte n sty le , a n o th e r k in d o f e x c la m a tio n is u se d . H ere y o u u se th e degree w o rd s どれほど ‘to w h a t e xte n t’ o r どんなに ‘h o w m u c h ’. A tta c h th e se p h ra s e s before v e rb s a n d a d je c tiv e s, fo llo w ed b y こと か. K E 4 is a go od e xam p le.

どれほどうれしかったことか。

(a )

D o reh od o u re s h ik a tta ko to k a . H ow p le a se d I w as!

どんなに勉強したことか。

(b )

D o n n a n i b e n k y o o sh ita ko to k a . H ow m u c h h e h a s stu d ie d !

11.12. Rhetorical Questions K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

そんなことできる？できるわけないでしよ。 S o n n a ko to d e k iru ? D e k iru w a ke n a i d e sh o . H ow c a n I do s u c h a th in g ? No w ay.

KE2

なにやってんだ！[b lu n t style ] N a n i ya tte n da! W h a t (in th e w orld) a re y o u doing!

KE3

なに言ってんの！ N a n i itte n no! W h a t are y o u ta lk in g about!

KE4

君になにができる！ K im i n i n a n i g a d e kiru ! W h a t c a n y o u do!

KE5

そんなところに行けるものか。 S o n n a to ko ro n i ik e r u m ono k a . H ow c a n I go to s u c h a p lace!

Exp la n a tio n

R h e to ric a l q u e stio n s a re q u e stio n s in fo rm o n ly. A lth o u g h q u e s­ tio n s s u c h a s そんなことできる？ ta k e th e io rm o f a q u e stio n , v o u a re n o t e xp e ctin g a n an sw e r. B y p o sin g th e se u n a n sw e ra b le q u e s­

Emotive Expressions

189

tio n s , y o u are co n v e y in g e xtrem e em o tion . R h e to ric a l q u e stio n s are in te rp re te d a s a stro n g n e g a tio n o f w h a t h a s b een sta te d . No one w o u ld s u p p ly a n a n sw e r to a rh e to ric a l q u e stio n s u c h a s “W h a t k in d o f fo o l do y o u t h in k I am ?”

なに R H E TO R IC A L Q U ESTIO N S R h e to ric a l q u e stio n s often a p p e a r w ith q u e stio n w o rd s, m o st often w ith なに， a s in K E 2 , K E 3 , a n d K E 4 . なに rh e to ric a l q u e stio n s often e n d w ith th e のだ or んだ fo rm .

ものか R H E TO R IC A L Q U ESTIO N S A n o th e r stra te g y often u se d in rh e to ric a l q u e stio n s is th e u tte ra n c e -fin a l ものか （or c a s u a l もんか)， a s sh o w n in K E 5 . A g a in ， a n o n ­ lite ra l in te rp re ta tio n is re q u ire d . F o r e xa m p le ，a s a stro n g n e ga tive re sp o n se to a re q u e st， y o u m a y a n s w e r そんなことができるものか， m e a n in g '(O f c o u rse n o t.) H ow c a n I do s u c h a th in g !’

PART V

Use

CH A PTER 12

Interaction Strategies

12.1. Choosing Formal and Informal Styles K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

行きます。行く。 Ik im a s u . Ik u . I ’m g o in g .

KE2

かわいいです。かわいい。 K a w a ii d e su . K a w au . It ’s cu te.

KE3

鎌倉に着く時間をおしえていただきたいんですが。 K a m a k u ra n i t s u k u jik a n o o s h ie te -ita d a k ita i n d e su ga . I ’d lik e y o u to te ll m e th e tim e y o u a rriv e a t K a m a k u ra .

Exp la n a tio n

F o r th e se le c tio n o i sp e e ch sty le s, a n u m b e r o f s itu a tio n a l, p e r­ so n a l, a n d lin g u is t ic fa c to rs p la y a role. SIT U A T IO N A L FACTO RS 1 . F a m ilia rity T h e degree o f in fo rm a l sty le in c re a s e s w ith th e degree o f fa m ilia rity y o u h a ve w ith y o u r p a rtn e r. W h e n sp e a k in g to a c h ild , even w h e n y o u d o n ’t k n o w th e c h ild , c a s u a l a n d frie n d ­ ly sp e e ch is a p p ro p ria te . 2. R e la tiv e s o c ia l s ta tu s T o w a rd y o u r m^eue p e rso n , it is b e st to m a in ta in a fo rm a l sty le , so m e tim e s w ith su p ra -p o lite e x p re s sio n s (see th e n e xt se ctio n ). T o w a rd y o u r m eshzYa p e rso n , th e re is le s s re a so n to 193

194

3.

4.

5.

6.

USE

u se a fo rm a l sty le , a lth o u g h fo rm a lity a n d p o lite n e ss are often m a in ta in e d fo r e x p re s sin g c o u rte sy a n d d ista n ce . S itu a tio n C o m m u n ica tio n s itu a tio n s c a n be d iv id e d in to p u b lic a n d p riv a te . P u b lic s itu a tio n s in c lu d e o ffic ia l, p ro fe ssio n a l, or r it u a lis t ic e ve n ts, ty p ic a lly ta k in g p la ce in p u b lic in s titu tio n s , h o s p ita ls , sto re s, b a n k s , lib ra rie s , e d u c a tio n a l fa c ilitie s , a n d so on. A p u b lic s itu a tio n c a n be e ith e r w ith a n a u d ie n ce (a s in fo rm a l b u s in e s s m e e tin gs) or w ith o u t a n a u d ie n ce (a s in in fo r­ m a l tw o -p e rso n ta lk s ). In p u b lic s itu a tio n s w ith a n a u d ie n ce , th e fo rm a l sp e e ch sty le is u se d u n le s s th e re are re a so n s to do o th e rw ise . In p u b lic s itu a tio n s w ith o u t a n a u d ie n ce , a c e rta in le v e l o f fo rm a lity is su s ta in e d , a lth o u g h if th e re la tio n s h ip is b a se d o n fa m ilia rity a n d a m a e , th e re is a te n d e n cy to u se th e in fo rm a l sty le . A lso , if a p e rso n a l re la tio n s h ip is e sta b lish e d , a c a s u a l a n d fra n k c o m m u n ica tio n sty le is p re fe rre d . It sh o u ld be n o ted th a t a n e d u ca tio n a l co n te xt often ta k e s o n a n in fo r­ m a l a tm o sp h e re . In g ra d e sc h o o ls a n d ju n io r h ig h sc h o o ls, sc h o o lc h ild re n te n d to u se th e c a s u a l sty le to w ard th e te a c h ­ er. In m a n y c a se s, in tim a c y is e m p h a size d over fo rm a lity . P riv a te s itu a tio n s in c lu d e in te ra c tio n s w ith fa m ily m em ­ b e rs, in fo rm a l g a th e rin g s , a n d u n o ffic ia l m e e tin g s. In p riv a te s itu a tio n s , th e re is m ore o f a te n d e n cy to ch o o se th e c a s u a l o r b lu n t sty le s, a lth o u g h o th e r fa c to rs c a n p la y a s ig n ific a n t ro le in d e te rm in in g th e a p p ro p ria te sp e e ch sty le . M ethod o f c o m m u n ica tio n In d ire c t co m m u n ica tio n (e.g., le tte rs) te n d s to ta k e o n fo r­ m a lity . D ire c t co m m u n ica tio n (e.g., fa ce -to -fa ce co n ve rsa tio n ) te n d s to re fle ct th e sp e a k e r-p a rtn e r re la tio n s h ip m ore im m e ­ d ia te ly . T h e sty le u se d in e -m a il te n d s to be c a s u a l in g e n e ra l, a lth o u g h fo rm a l le tte rs c a n be tra n sfe rre d e le c tro n ic a lly . C e ll­ p h o n e te xt m e ssa g in g re q u ire s sh o rt a n d sim p le se n te n ce s, a n d th e in fo rm a l sty le is d o m in a n t. T y p e o f e n co u n te r P re a rra n g e d p u rp o se fu l e n co u n te rs te n d to ta k e o n fo r­ m a l a n d p o lite fe a tu re s. O rd in a ry c a s u a l e n co u n te rs te n d to be le s s fo rm a l. T o p ic o f c o n v e rsa tio n A te c h n ic a l to p ic te n d s to ta k e o n th e fo rm a l sty le , w h e re ­ a s a p e rso n a l to p ic e n co u ra g e s c a s u a l sp e e ch .

Interaction Strategies

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PERSO N A L FACTO RS T h e sp e a k e r's p e rso n a l fe e lin g s in flu e n c e th e u ltim a te ou tco m e. M ix in g fo rm a l a n d in fo rm a l s ty le s o ffe rs a m e a n s fo r y o u a n d y o u r p a rtn e r to c o n sta n tly a d ju s t th e se n se o f d ista n c e o r clo se n e ss. If y o u r frie n d su d d e n ly u s e s a n u n u s u a lly p o lite e x p re ssio n , y o u sh o u ld p a y a tte n tio n . H e or sh e is lik e ly to be u p se t a n d w a n ts to in s is t o n a n d m a in ta in a n e m o tio n a l d ista n c e . B y in s e rtin g th e fo r­ m a l sty le , y o u co m m u n ica te d ista n c e . B y d o w n sh iftin g th e fo rm a l e n d in g to th e in fo rm a l a n d a d d in g frie n d ly fe a tu re s, y o u e x p re ss a d e sire to be c lo se r to y o u r p a rtn e r. FA M ILIA R IT Y AND FO RM ALITY A s h ift fro m fo rm a lity to fa m ilia rity o c c u rs w h e n th e in te rp e rso n a l re la tio n s h ip ch a n g e s. F o r e xa m p le , a y o u n g m a n w ho is in love w ith h is fe m a le b o ss m a y s h ift fro m fo rm a l to in fo rm a l sty le a s th e ir in tim a c y in c re a se s . W h e n tw o p eop le are ro m a n tic a lly in ­ vo lve d , e m o tio n a l c lo se n e ss o v e rrid e s e xp e cte d fo rm a lity . In re ce n t y e a rs, Ja p a n e s e sp e a k e rs h a ve te n d ed to p la ce m ore im p o rta n ce o n fa m ilia rity th a n fo rm a lity . F o r e xa m p le , a t a sto re , in ste a d o f m a in ta in in g th e fo rm a l sty le th ro u g h o u t, a sa le sp e rso n m a y in c lu d e in fo rm a l sp e e ch . D o in g so , th e sa le sp e rso n co n ve ys w a rm th a n d su p p o rt. H ere is a n o th e r e xa m p le . W h e n co lle ge stu d e n ts t a lk to p ro fe s­ so rs , if th e y a re in tim a te , th e c a s u a l sty le is to le ra te d a n d p e rh a p s even w elcom ed . A m a le stu d e n t m a y s a y so m e th in g lik e 先生、メシ 食いに行きませんか ‘P ro fe sso r, w o n 't y o u go o u t fo r su p p e r w ith u s ? ' T h is frie n d ly in v ita tio n is p re fe rre d to th e m ore fo rm a l (a n d d ista n t) e x p re ssio n u s in g h o n o rific s s u c h a s 先生、お食事ご一緒にいかがで すか ‘P ro fe sso r, w o u ld y o u lik e to h a ve su p p e r w ith u s ? ' It is n o t th a t th e stu d e n t is in c a p a b le o f u s in g h o n o rific s. R a th e r, e m p h a siz­ in g fa m ilia rity a n d c lo se n e ss tru m p s th e r it u a l o f m a in ta in in g fo r­ m a lity . In g e n e ra l, p a r tic u la r ly in co m m u n ica tio n in v o lv in g y o u n g peop le, fa m ilia rity is b e co m in g m o re p re v a le n t th a n fo rm a lity . L IN G U IS T IC FACTO RS W h e n y o u a d d re ss y o u r p a rtn e r, s t y lis t ic fe a tu re s p rim a rily a cco m ­ p a n y th e m a in c la u s e o n ly . W h ile th e ch o ice betw een fo rm a l a n d in fo rm a l is b a se d o n s itu a tio n a l a n d p e rso n a l fa c to rs, th e lin g u is t ic fa cto r d isc o u ra g e s s t y lis t ic m a rk in g fo r su b o rd in a te c la u s e s. L ik e w ise , in a d isc o u rse , am o n g m u ltip le se n te n ce s, y o u w o u ld

196

USE

m a rk m a in se n te n ce s w ith th e a p p ro p ria te sty le . So if y o u u se th e fo rm a l sty le , se n te n ce s c o n v e yin g k e y in fo rm a tio n a re th e o n es m a rk e d a c c o rd in g ly , w h ile se n te n ce s o ffe rin g su p p le m e n ta ry in fo r­ m a tio n m a y ta k e th e in fo rm a l sty le .

12.2. Politeness and Honorifics K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

先生はもうお帰りになりました。 S e n se i w a m oo o k a e rin in a rim a s h ita . T h e p ro fe sso r h a s a lre a d y go n e hom e.

KE2

お客さまは帰られましたが。 O k y a k u s a m a w a k a e ra re m a sh ita ga. T h e g u e st h a s a lre a d y le ft.

KE3

すぐお電話いたしますので。 S u g u o d e n w a ita sh im a su node. I w ill c a ll rig h t aw ay.

KE4

父は今外出しておりますが。 C h ic h i w a im a g a is h u ts u s h ite o rim a s u ga. M y fa th e r is n ’t h e re n o w [lit. ‘h a s go n e o u t’].

Exp la n a tio n

P O LIT E N E S S A ll u tte ra n c e s in A m o n g。 a p p e a r w ith a c e rta in le v e l o f p o lite n e ss. P o lite n e ss is e xp re sse d th ro u g h a v a rie ty o f lin g u is t ic d e v ice s a n d re la te d stra te g ie s. We re co g n ize tw o le v e ls o f p o lite n e ss, th a t is , p o ­ lite a n d su p ra -p o lite . T h e in fo rm a l sty le is n o t “p o lite ” in t h is n a r ­ ro w se n se . (H ow ever, rem e m b e r th a t th e in fo rm a l sty le is p e rfe ctly p o lite w h e n it is a p p ro p ria te . E x c e s s fo rm a lity c a n be “im p o lite .”) T h e p o lite sty le u s e s fo rm a l ve rb fo rm s a n d o th er p o lite e xp re s­ s io n s. S u p ra -p o lite e x p re s sio n s in c lu d e fo rm a l ve rb fo rm s p lu s re ­ sp e c tfu l a n d h u m b le fo rm s. T h e p re fix e s ご a n d お （see se ctio n 7.3) a n d o th er v e ry p o lite stra te g ie s a re a p a rt o f th e su p ra -p o lite sty le . H O N O R IFIC S (R E S P E C T F U L AND HUMBLE FORMS) H o n o rific s re fe r to re sp e c tfu l a n d h u m b le fo rm s th a t ge n erate c le a rly m a rk e d p o lite n e ss le v e ls.

Interaction Strategies

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Y o u u se re sp e c tfu l fo rm s w h e n a d d re ss in g or ta lk in g a b o u t y o u r m e u e p e rso n . E x a m p le s a re K E 1 a n d K E 2 . In th e sa m e s itu a ­ tio n , h u m b le fo rm s a re u se d in re fe re n ce to y o u r ow n or y o u r u c h i m em b e r’s a ctio n or sta te , a s in K E 3 a n d K E 4 . B y h u m b lin g y o u r or y o u r u ch i m em b e r’s a ctio n , y o u s ig n a l s o c ia l d iffe re n tia tio n . T h e u se o f re sp e c tfu l a n d h u m b le fo rm s is n o t o p tio n a l. A p p ro p ria te fo rm s m u st be ch o se n in e a ch s o c ia l situ a tio n , e xce p t w h e n s o c ia l e q u a ls in te ra c t or w h e n th e u c h i re la tio n s h ip is firm ly e sta b lish e d . Two Types of Respectful Forms

T h e re a re tw o d is tin c t re sp e c tfu l fo rm s. F ir s t is th e u se o f th e re ­ sp e c tfu l fo rm o f th e ve rb . R e sp e ctfu l fo rm s are id e n tic a l to p a ssiv e fo rm s. T h e re fo re , 書 （ か) く ta k e s 書かれる， a n d 起 （ お）きる ta k e s 起 きられる. Irre g u la r v e rb s t a k e される a n d 来 （ こ）られる. K E 2 t a k e s 帰 られる a s a re sp e c tfu l fo rm o f 帰る. T h e se co n d is th e p a tte rn [お + ste m o f th e ve rb + になる]， a s lig h tly m ore fo rm a l typ e th a n th e firs t. T h e p re fix お is n o rm a lly a tta ch e d to 和 語 （ わこ)， a s in K E 1 . S im ila r ly , こ is a tta ch e d to 漢語 ( かんご） in th e [ ご + n o u n + になる] p a tte rn . Humble Forms

H u m b le fo rm s are g e n e ra te d b y th e p a tte rn [お + ste m o f th e ve rb + する]， a s sh o w n in K E 3 . If y o u are te llin g y o u r b o ss th a t y o u w ill ‘d e liv e r’ 届 （ とど）ける th e file la te r, y o u sh o u ld s a y お届けします. Note th a t する ta k e s いたす a s a h u m b le fo rm (see th e c h a rt below ). お届けいたします is u se d fo r a v e ry h u m b le sty le . A g a in , th e p re fix お is n o rm a lly a tta ch e d to 和 語 （ わご)， a s in K E 3 . こ is a tta ch e d to 漢語 (かんご) in th e [ ご + n o u n + する] or th e [ ご + n o u n + いたす] stru c tu re . Y o u c a n u se a ll h u m b le a n d re sp e c tfu l fo rm s in tro d u c e d here in e ith e r th e in fo rm a l or fo rm a l sty le . It d e p e n d s o n th e s itu a tio n , a lth o u g h it is m ore lik e ly th a t y o u w o u ld ch o o se th e fo rm a l sty le . Special Forms

T h e v e rb s lis te d below h a ve sp e c ia l re sp e c tfu l a n d h u m b le fo rm s. T h e se fo rm s m u s t be le a rn e d one b y one. K E 4 u s e s th e h u m b le fo rm おる in th e [て fo rm + いる] stru c tu re .

198

USE

会う いる 行く する 食べる 飲む 見る 言う

au ir u ik u s u ru ta b e ru nom u m iru yuu

to to to to to to to to

m eet be go do eat d r in k see sa y

R e s p e c tfu l

H u m b le

お会 ( あ) いになる いらっしゃる いらっしゃる なさる めしあがる めしあがる ごらんになる おっしゃる

お目（ め）にかかる おる 参（ まい）る いたす いただく いただく 拝見（ はいけん)する 申（ もう）す

Examples

( a ) 先生いらつしやいますか。 [re sp e ctfu l form ] S e n s e i ira s s h a im a s u k a . Is th e p ro fe sso r in ? ( b ) お手紙拝見いたしました。 [h u m b le form ] O te ga m i h a ik e n ’ita s h im a s h ita . I re a d y o u r letter. (c )

あしたいらつしやる？[re sp e ctfu l form ] A s h ita ira s s h a ru ? A re y o u g o in g tom orrow ?

( d ) では、ご訪問になりますか。 [re sp e ctfu l form ] D ew a, go h o o m o n n i n a rim a s u k a . W ell th e n , w ill y o u be v is itin g ? (e )

ご返送いたします。 [h u m b le form ] G o h e n so o ita sh im a su . I am se n d in g t h is b a c k .

お AND ご A S NOUN P R E F IX E S A s w e stu d ie d in se ctio n 7 . 3 , お a n d ご a re p re fix e s a tta ch e d to lim ite d n o u n s to m a rk p o lite n e ss. U se お fo r c e rta in 和語 a n d ご fo r c e rta in 漢語. ( f ) お買い物ですか。 O k a im o n o d e su k a . A re y o u g o in g sh o p p in g ? (g )

ご出発はいつですか。 G o sh u p p a tsu w a it s u d e su k a . W h e n are y o u le a v in g ?

Interaction Strategies

199

12.3. Masculine and Feminine Speech K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

うまい飯、食いてえな。 [m a sc u lin e sp eech ] U m a i m e sh i, k u ite e n a . I w a n t to e at a d e lic io u s m eal.

KE2

おいしいもの、食べたいね。 O is h ii m ono, ta b e ta i ne. I w a n t to e at so m e th in g d e lic io u s.

Exp la n a tio n

A s we stu d ie d e a rlie r in se c tio n s 3 .2 a n d 3 .3 , w e m u st kee p in m in d th a t m a sc u lin e a n d fe m in in e sp e e ch s ty le s a re n o t m u tu a lly e x c lu ­ siv e , a n d Ja p a n e s e sp e a k e rs m a y u se b o th s ty le s a c ro s s g e n d e rs. It is d is c rim in a to ry to a sso cia te c e rta in fe a tu re s o f fe m in in e sp e e ch a s b e in g e ss e n tia lly a re fle ctio n o f b io lo g ic a l gender. G e n d e r d iffe re n ce s in la n g u a g e are in d e clin e , a n d o n ly lim ite d c a s e s of b lu n t sp e e ch e x h ib it a m a rk e d m a sc u lin e fe atu re . D IF FE R E N C E S T h e fo llo w in g lis t s su m m a rize th e p rim a ry d iffe re n ce s betw een m a sc u lin e a n d fe m in in e sp e ech . Masculine Speech

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

7ころ（う） is fre q u e n tly p re fe rre d . A b ru p t n e g a tiv e co m m a n d s a re u se d , a s in す る な ‘D o n ’t do th a t’. C e rta in e x p re s sio n s a re stro n g ly a sso c ia te d w ith m a sc u lin e sp e e ch (e.g., th e p a rtic le s ぞ，ぜ ， a n d な， c e rta in s la n g a n d c u rs in g w o rd s, a n d so on). T h e p re fix e s お a n d ご a re u se d b u t n o t a s e xte n siv e ly a s in fe m in in e sp e e ch . C e rta in p h ra s e s are co n sid e re d m a sc u lin e , s u c h a s めしを食ぅ (in fe m in in e s p e e c h , ごはんを食べる).

Feminine Speech

1. 2.

でしよ（ぅ） is fre q u e n tly p re fe rre d . A b ru p t n e g a tiv e co m m a n d s a re avo id ed . In s t e a d , しないで（ く ださい） ‘P le a se d o n ’t do th a t’ is p refe rre d .

200 3.

4. 5. 6.

USE

C e rta in e x p re s sio n s a re lim ite d to fe m in in e sp e e ch (e.g., th e in te rje c tio n あらまあ ‘w oW , s e n te n c e -fin a l わ [p ro n o u n ce d in a h ig h e r tone] a n d かしら ‘I w o n d e r’， th e p e rso n a l p ro n o u n s あ たし a n d あたくし ‘I ’， a n d so on). T h e se e x p re s sio n s are u se d a m o n g o ld e r w om en in a lim ite d w a y, a n d th e y are d is a p ­ p e a rin g fro m th e o rd in a ry sp e e ch o f th e m a jo rity o f Ja p a n e s e sp e a k e rs. T h e p re fix e s お a n d ご a re m ore e xte n siv e ly u se d . C e rta in p h ra s e s are co n sid e re d fe m in in e , s u c h a s すてき ‘n ic e ’. In g e n e ra l, o ld e r w om en te n d to sp e a k p o lite ly , so m e tim e s e xtre m e ly p o lite ly.

SIT U A T IO N A L FACTO RS A lth o u g h b lu n t m a sc u lin e sp e e ch is p rim a rily u se d am o n g m a le frie n d s , it is so m e tim e s u se d to w a rd fa m ilia r a n d in tim a te fe m a le s. F o r e xa m p le , a m a n m a y h ig h lig h t th e m a sc u lin e sp e e ch sty le a n d sp e a k in a b lu n t sty le w h e n h e w a n ts to e m p h a size h is in tim a c y th ro u g h m a s c u lin e id e n tity (e.g., to w a rd h is g irlfrie n d ). T h e sam e sp e a k e r w o u ld a vo id b lu n t sp e e ch to w a rd a n o th e r w om an . L ik e ­ w ise , a w om an m a y ch o o se a fe m in in e sty le to e x p re ss fe m in in ­ ity to w a rd a sp e c ific p e rso n or u n d e r c e rta in c irc u m s ta n c e s (e.g., w h e n fe m in in ity is fa v o ra b ly e va lu ate d ). T h e sa m e sp e a k e r m a y a vo id fe m in in e sp e e ch w h e n h e r p ro fe ssio n a l a u th o rity is a t sta k e . PERSO N A L FACTO RS T h e u se o f fe m in in e a n d m a s c u lin e s ty le s m a y be m o tiva te d b y p la y in g o u t c e rta in p e rso n a l c h a ra c te ris tic s or b y ro le p la y in g . T h e fe m in in e sp e e ch sty le m a y be u se d b y a m a le w ho e m p h a size s fe m in in ity , o r th e m a s c u lin e sp e e ch sty le m a y be p re fe rre d w h en a b o y ish g ir l sp e a k s. G iv e n th a t sp e e ch sty le is c lo se ly a sso cia te d w ith o u r se n se o f se lf-id e n tity re g a rd le s s o f b io lo g ic a l ge n d er, th e sp e a k e r m a k e s u se o f g e n d e r-re la te d s ty le s to h is or h e r a d va n ta ge .

12.4. Youth Language K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

メッチヤかわいい。 M e tch a k a w a ii. S u p e r cu te .

Interaction Strategies

201

KE2

< co n v e rsa tio n > A: テストの勉強、俺、もうバッチリ。 T e su to no b e n kyo o , ore, m oo b a tc h iri. S tu d y in g fo r th e e xam , I ?ve done p e rfe ctly. B: えっ。 あ、忘れてた。チーン。 E tt. A , w a su re te ta . C h iin . W h a t? O h , I forgot.

KE3

もうどうでもいい、みたいな。 Moo doo de m o ii, m ita in a . N o th in g m a tte rs a n y m ore, lik e ___

Exp la n a tio n

WHEN AND WHEN NOT TO USE YOUTH LANGUAGE Y o u n g p eople te n d to u se y o u th la n g u a g e am o n g th e m se lv e s m ore fre q u e n tly th a n to w a rd p eople o f o th e r g e n e ra tio n s. P a rtic u la rly in fo rm a l s itu a tio n s , y o u n g people a re e xp e cte d to sp e a k in a v a rie ty o f th e d o m in a n t a d u lt sp e e ch . U n d e r s u c h c irc u m sta n c e s, sp e a k ­ in g in y o u th la n g u a g e re fle c ts a la c k o f e d u ca tio n , h u m b le n e ss, or gra ce . C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S OF YOUTH LANGUAGE 1 . S h o rte n in g o f e x is tin g p h ra se s

あけおめ ‘H a p p y N ew Y e a r’ （f r o m 明 （ あ）けましておめでとうござ います） メリクリ ‘M erry C h ris tm a s ’ （fro m メリークリスマス） 2.

C h a n g e o f m e a n in g s

ヤハ イ ‘e xtre m e ly good, o v e rw h e lm in g ly e x c e lle n t’ （fro m th e o rig in a l m e a n in g o f ‘in d a n ge r, r is k y ’) 3.

E m p h a tic e x p re s sio n s A v a rie ty o f e m p h a tic w o rd s h a s o rig in a te d a m o n g y o u n g people. Som e o f th e m a re n o w in u se am o n g th e g e n e ra l p u b ­ lic a s w e ll (see se ctio n 11.6). (a)

メッチャむずかしい。 M e tch a m u z u k a s h ii. S u p e r d iffic u lt.

( b ) 超元気だよ。 C h o o g e n k i d a yo. I ’m e xtre m e ly w ell.

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(c )

マジむかつく。 M a ji m u k a ts u k u . It re a lly m a k e s m e m ad .

4.

O n o m a to p o eic w o rd s in se rte d in c o n v e rsa tio n In flu e n c e d b y c o m ics, y o u n g sp e a k e rs m a y u se on o ­ m a to p o e ic a n d in te rje c tio n a l w o rd s fo u n d in c o m ics (see se c tio n s 6 .9 a n d 丄1.10). T h e y v o ice th o se so u n d effect w o rd s th e m se lve s. ( d ) 彼女、彼氏いたんだ。ガーン。 K a n o jo , k a re s h i it a n d a. G a a n . It tu rn e d o u t th a t sh e h a s a b o yfrie n d .

5.

In v e n tio n a n d u se o f ru -ko to b a (new v e rb s cre a te d b y a d d in g ru to n o u n s)

コタる ‘to c o n fe ss (love)’ （fr o m 告 白 （ こくはく）する） コビる ‘to go to co n ve n ie n ce sto re s’ （fro m コンビニに行（ い） く） O B JE C T IF Y IN G AND S E L F -A L IE N A T IN G E X P R E S S IO N S A s to u ch e d u p o n in se ctio n 3 .5 , o b je ctify in g a n d s e lf-a lie n a tin g e x­ p re s s io n s g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t y o u a re b e in g s o lic ito u s o f a n d co n sid e ra te to y o u r p a rtn e r. T h e y a lso w o rk a s a stra te g y to d e fle ct p o te n tia l d isa g re e m e n t or p o ssib le c ritic is m . O v e ra ll, th e se e xp re s­ s io n s g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t th e sp e e ch h a s b e en “so fte n e d .” T h e so fte n in g stra te g y fu n c tio n s to le s s e n th e p o te n tia lly n e g a tiv e im ­ p a c t a sta te m e n t m a y m a ke . 1 . S e lf-a lie n a tin g e x p re s sio n s ( e ) 私って、ホントは、結構飲めたりして........... W a ta sh i tte, h o n to w a, k e k k o o n o m e ta ri s h ite ___ B u t, in tru th , m a yb e I c a n d r in k a lo t? 2.

O b je ctifie d e x p re s sio n s ( f ) 今朝、起きたら頭も痛いし、もう人生どうでもいいや、みたい

な。 K e sa , o k ita ra a ta m a m o it a i s h i, m oo jin s e i doo dem o ii y a , m ita in a . T h is m o rn in g w h e n I go t u p , I h a d a h e a d a ch e a n d fe lt lik e I d id n ’t ca re a b o u t m y life a n y m ore, lik e ___

Interaction Strategies 3.

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O v e rly s e lf-c o n s c io u s e x p re ssio n s ( g ) あたしって意外とシャイなんです。 A ta s h i tte ig a ito s h a i n a n d e su . (Yo u m a y n o t t h in k so , b u t) s u rp ris in g ly , I am sh y .

WHY YOUTH LANGUAGE? T h e re a re a n u m b e r o i re a so n s fo r s p e a k in g in y o u th la n g u a g e , th e fo llo w in g a m o n g o th e rs. 1 . T o re lis h a se n se o f ca m a ra d e rie 2. T o co n ve y h u m o r a n d m e n d lin e s s 3. T o fra n k ly co m m u n ica te y o u r fe e lin g s 4. T o co m m u n ica te fe e lin g s a s fe lt th ro u g h y o u r se n se s 5. T o be p la y fu l a n d e n te rta in in g

12.5. Borrowing Nihongo Varieties Explanation B o rro w in g th e v a ria tio n or sty le ty p ic a lly a sso c ia te d w ith som eone e lse is a cre a tiv e tool. H ere w e fo c u s o n b o rro w in g ge n d e re d s ty le s a n d g e n e ra tio n a l sty le s. BORROW ING G ENDERED S T Y L E S T a k in g a d va n ta g e o f th e fe a tu re s a sso cia te d w ith m a sc u lin e a n d fe m in in e sp e e ch , y o u m ig h t b o rro w th e sty le a ty p ic a l o f y o u r ow n. F o r e xa m p le , su p p o se y o u a re a m a le sp e a k e r co m m e n tin g o n a w o m an w ho is w o n d e rin g a b o u t a ch e a p (a c tu a lly fake) ge m sto n e . A lth o u g h y o u y o u rs e lf are n o t u k e ly to s a y これほんものかしら ‘is t h is re a l? 5, b y im ita tin g ste re o ty p ic a l fe m in in e sp e e ch , y o u v iv id ly e x p re ss w h a t y o u w a n t to sa y . Y o u m a y in co rp o ra te t h is sp e e ch in th e fo llo w in g e xp re ssio n . ( a ) これほんものかしら、な、バカさが、かわいい。 K o re h o n m o n o k a s h ir a , n a , b a k a s a g a , k a w a ii. S h e is cu te in h e r fo o lish n e ss to even t h in k “Is t h is re a l? ” BORROW ING G EN ERA TIO N A L S T Y L E S A n o th e r b o rro w in g o c c u rs w h e n a sp e a k e r b o rro w s fro m a v a ria ­ tio n a sso c ia te d w ith a c e rta in g e n e ra tio n . O n e v a ria tio n is c a lle d 才

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USE

'ノサン言葉（ ことば)， a sty le u se d b y m a le sp e a k e rs over fifty y e a rs o ld or so . It fe a tu re s なあ p la ce d a fte r th e fo rm a l s ty le ， p ro d u c in g ですなあ a n d ますなあ。If a fe m ale sp e a k e r a ll o f a su d d e n u s e s th is sty le , it g iv e s th e a ir o f a m id d le -a g e d m a n m a k in g co m m e n ts a n d g iv in g a d vice . F o r e xa m p le , b y s a y in g そついうことですなあ ‘I th in k th a t is th e c a se ’ in ste a d o f てついつことです， y o u a d d th a t a u th o ri­ ta tiv e a ttitu d e a sso c ia te d w ith m a tu re m a le sp e a k e rs. BORROW ING V O IC E S C R E A TIV E LY O b v io u s ly ， w h a te ve r y o u sa y is y o u r ow n. E v e n w h e n y o u “b o r­ row ” som eon e e lse ’s s ty le ，y o u are th e one w ho b o rrow ed it. In t h is se n se , it is y o u r c re a tiv ity th a t m a k e s b o rro w in g h a p p e n . B y in tro d u c in g s ty le s ste re o ty p ic a lly a sso c ia te d w ith som eone e lse ， y o u in tro d u c e d iffe re n t v o ice s in to y o u r sp e e ch . T h is stra te g y b e co m e s u s e fu l w h e n y o u w a n t to s a y so m e th in g a g a in s t s o c ia l e xp e cta tio n s. B re a k in g th e ru le s a n d o v e rrid in g th e e xp e cte d are to o ls fo r y o u r lin g u is t ic c re a tiv ity . O n e w a y to in co rp o ra te a s o c ia lly u n a c ce p ta b le sty le in to y o u r sp e e ch is to u se q u o ta tio n s， a s sh o w n below . (b)

「 ふざけんな、バカ」 とか思っちやった。 “F u z a k e n n a ，b a k a ” to k a o m o t-ch a tta . I th o u g h t， “C u t it o u t， y o u id io t.”

12.6. Greetings and Introductions K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

おはようございます。 O h ayo o g o za im a su . G o od m o rn in g .

KE2

こんにちは。 K o n n ic h iw a . G o od afte rn o o n .

KE3

こんばんは。 Konbanw a. G o od e ve n in g.

KE4

はじめまして。岡田美佐です。 H a jim e m a sh ite . O k a d a M isa d e su . H ow do y o u do? I ’m M isa O k a d a .

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Exp la n a tio n

G R EE T IN G S

ございます m a k e s おはよう fo rm a l a n d p o lite . U se t h is w h e n gre e t­ in g y o u r m eue p e rso n . W h e n u s in g こんにちは，rem e m b e r th a t ん is one m o ra , a n d th e p h ra se c o n ta in s five m o rae, p ro n o u n ce d a s k o -n -n i-c h i-w a . D o n ’t fo rge t th a t は in こんにちは a n d こんばんは is re a d “w a .” Responding to Greetings

A s in E n g lis h , w h e n gree ted w ith th e se e x p re ssio n s, re sp o n d in g in k in d w ith th e sa m e p h ra se w ill su ffic e . If y o u b ow (even slig h tly ) w h e n a n sw e rin g , y o u a re a d d in g a g re a te r degree o f p o lite n e ss. A fte r th e g re e tin g , in n o c u o u s co m m e n ts o n th e w ea th e r (sm a ll ta lk ) offer a u s e fu l stra te g y fo r e s ta b lis h in g ra p p o rt. When to Greet

A lth o u g h a t le a st in so m e p a rts o f th e U n ite d S ta te s it is co m m o n to a ckn o w le d ge o r gre e t com p lete s tra n g e rs in a n e le va to r or e lse ­ w h ere, s u c h e x c h a n g e s a re n o t c u sto m a ry in Ja p a n . Restrictions on Greetings

こんにちは a n d こんばんは a re n o t u se d a m o n g fa m ily m em b e rs. Lik e w ise , w h e n fa m ilia r co m p a n y e m p lo ye es m eet e a ch o th e r a t th e co m p a n y, in ste a d o f こんにちは，th e y u se o th e r b rie f g re e tin g s s u c h a s あ、 とうも， o r n o d to a ckn o w le d ge e a ch other. R e g a rd le ss o f th e tim e o f d a y, w h e n p eop le a re s im p ly a ck n o w l­ e d g in g e a ch oth er, とうも （or th e c a s u a l とも）is su ffic ie n t. In c a s u a l m a sc u lin e s p e e c h , おいツス a n d おつ are a lso u se d . M an y A m e ric a n s gre e t e a ch o th er b y s a y in g H o w a re y o u ? A l­ th o u g h it is p o ssib le to lite ra lly tra n sla te t h is p h ra se in to いかがで す か ‘h o w a re y o u ? ’， t h is e x p re ssio n is n o t n o rm a lly u se d u n le s s y o u a re s p e c ific a lly co n ce rn e d a b o u t th e p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n o f y o u r p a rtn e r. O n ly w h e n y o u m eet y o u r frie n d a fte r a n a b se n ce o f som e tim e , a n d y o u are co n ce rn e d a b o u t how he or sh e h a s b een , do y o u u se お 兀 気 （ げんさ）ですか a n d o th er e x p re s sio n s in d iffe re n t fo rm a lity le v e ls, s u c h a s 兀気ですか a n d 兀気？ IN T R O D U C TIO N S W h e n in tro d u c in g y o u rse lf, fir s t u se はじめまして ‘h o w do y o u do', fo llo w ed b y y o u r n a m e, a s in K E 4 . T h e n a d d とうぞよろしく o r よろ

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しく [lit. ‘p lea se be g o o d to m e ’]， som eth in g sim ilar to th e E n glish I 'm p le a s e d to m e e t y o u . Y ou are exp ected to b o w as y o u u tter these

phrases. (a)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : はじめまして。 田中健と申します。 どうぞよろしく。 H ajim em ash ite. T a n a k a K en to m oosh im asu . D oozo yoroshik u . H o w do y o u do? I ’m K en Tan ak a. N ice to m e et you. B : 堤です。 こちらこそよろしく。 T s u ts u m i desu. K och ira k oso yoroshik u . I’m T su tsu m i. N ice to m eet y o u ，too.

(b)

〈con versa tio n 〉 お母さん、 こちら美恵さん。

Aya:

O k a a sa n ， k oc h ira M ie-san. M oth er， th is is Mie. Mie:

はじめまして。美恵です。 H ajim em ash ite. M ie desu. H ow do y o u do? I ’m Mie.

M o t h e r : はじめまして。娘がお世話になってます。 よろしく

ね。 H ajim em ash ite. M u su m e g a o sew a n i nattem asu . Y orosh ik u ne. H o w do you do? T h a n k s io r being k in d to m y daughter. N ice to m eet you.

12.7. Making Requests K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

じゃ、電話してください。 J a ，denw asrnte-kudasai. C a ll m e ，then.

KE2

何ですか。 ちゃんと言ってくださいよ。 N a n d esu ka. C h an to itte-k u d a sa i yo. W h a t is it? P lease g ive it to m e straight.

KE3

お願いだからすぐ来て。 O n eg a i d a k a ra su gu kite. P lea se， p lea se com e righ t away!

Interaction Strategies KE4

207

オレの気持ちもわかってくれよ。 [m ascu lin e speech] O re n o k im o ch i m o w a k a tte-k u re yo. Y ou sh ou ld u n d ersta n d m y feelings.

KE5

結果がわかったら、知らせてくれない？ K ek k a g a w akattara, sh irasete-k u ren ai? W ill yo u p lea se let m e k n o w th e resu lt w h e n y o u find out?

KE6

お電話していただけませんでしょうか。 O d en w a sh ite-ita d a k em a sen d esh oo ka. W ou ld yo u p lea se ca ll m e?

KE7

電話してもらっていいですか。 D en w ash ite-m oratte ii desu ka. W ill y o u call m e?

KE8

A:

ねえ。 Nee. S a y ___

B:

何？ N ani? W h a t is it?

A:

ひとつだけお願いしてもいい？ H itotsu dake on ega ish ite m o ii? C a n I m a ke ju s t one requ est?

Exp la n a tio n

T h e re are severa l w a y s to m a k e req u ests in J ap an ese, all o f w h ic h in volve v erb s o f g ivin g an d receiving. W h en m a k in g a requ est, use th e て form o f th e verb follo w ed b y く7こさい， as in KE1 an d KE2, w ith a casu al altern a tive u sin g th e て fo rm only, as in KE3. A b lu n t v ersio n ta k es てくれ， as in KE4. KE5 offers a soften in g effect b y the u se o f てくれない？ U se th ese exp ression s on ly tow a rd y o u r social equ a ls or m e s h ita persons. W h e n m a k in g a req u est to y o u r m e u e person, u se th e suprap olite version , su ch a s ていただけませんでしょうか， as in KE6.

てもらっていいですか， as in KE7, is freq u en tly used, p a rticu ­ la rly am on g you th , as a form a l req u est (see section 9.3). However, am on g older s p e a k e r s , ていただけませんでしょうかis preferred.

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DEGREES OF POLITENESS H ere is a list o f d ifferen t k in d s o f req u est fo rm s for th e v erb 書( か)

く ‘to w r ite ’， arran ged fro m th e m o s t d irect to th e m ost polite. 書いてくれ。 W rite this. 書いてください。 P lease w rite this. 書いてくれますか。 C ou ld y o u w rite this? 書いてくれませんか。 C o u ld n ’t y o u w rite this? 書いてもらっていいですか。 W ou ld y o u w rite th is for m e? 書いてもらってもいいでしょうか。 W ou ld y o u p lea se w rite th is for m e?

書いていただけますか。 C ou ld y o u k in d ly w rite this? 書いていただけませんか。 C ou ld y o u p lea se k in d ly w rite this? In form a l versio n s are u sefu l as well.

書いてくれる？ W ill y o u w rite this? 書いてくれない？ W on ’t y o u w rite this? 書いてもらっていい？ C a n y o u w rite th is for m e? 書いていただける？ W ill y o u k in d ly w rite this? URGENT PLEAS W h en y o u m a ke an u rgen t p le a ，お 願 （ ねが）いだから ‘I’m p lea d in g w ith y o u ’ m a y be a d d ed p rior to y o u r requ est. T h is is a requ est ad d ressed to a m a e p artners. Y ou sh ou ld avoid u sin g it tow a rd a p artn er w ith w h o m y o u s h o w y o u r resp ect or m a in ta in distance. RESPONDING TO REQUESTS 1 . Gr a nt ing requ ests (a )

はい。 Hai. Y e s ，I will.

( b ) オッケー。 Okkee. Okay. ( c ) はい、承知しました。 H a i ，shoocrnshim ashita. Y e s ，certainly.

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( d ) はい、わかりました。 Hai, w akarim ash ita. Yes, I’ll take care o f it.

了解。

(e)

R yookai. A ll right. 2.

R efu sin g requ ests ( f ) そう言われましてもねえ......... Soo iw a rem ash ite m o n e e ___ W ell, m y apologies, but I c a n n o t___

ごめん。ちょっとむずかしいなあ、それは。

(g )

G om en. C h otto m u zu k a sh ii naa, sore wa. Sorry. It’s a b it d ifficu lt, I ’m afraid. (h)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : お願いします。 O n egaishim asu . Please, please, I beg you. B : 悪いけど無理だよ。 W aru i k edo m u ri d a yo. Sorry, b u t it’s im possible. A

: なんとかお願いします。 N a n to k a on egaish im asu . W ill y o u please, I b eg you.

B : 勘弁してくれよ。 K an b en sh ite-k u re yo. Stop it, w ill you ?

12.8. Asking for and Granting Permission K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

〈con versa tio n 〉 部屋に入ってもいいですか。

A:

H eya n i h aitte m o ii desu ka. M ay I en ter th e room ? B:

ええ、 どうぞ。 Ee. Doozo. Yes, please.

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KE2

A:

ねえ、今日、君の車借りていい？ Nee, kyoo, k im i n o k u ru m a karite ii? C a n I b o rro w y o u r car tod ay?

B:

いや、ちょっと。 Iya, chotto. Uh, th a t’s a b it o f a problem .

Exp la n a tio n

ASKING FOR PERMISSION U se th e て form o f th e v erb s an d ad jectives follow ed by ( も） いいです か to ask for p erm ission , as in A ’s u tteran ce in KE1. In th e casu al s t y l e , ていい？ su ffices, as in A ’s u tteran ce in KE2. T h e n eg ative form s are also used, eith er as なくて or th e m ore c a s u a l ないで. ( a ) 急いでいるんで、片付けなくてもいいですか。 Isoid eiru n d e k ata zu k en ak u te m o ii d esu ka. B ecau se I’m in a ru sh, is it ok a y n o t to p u t th in gs b a ck in th eir p rop er place? (b )

これ、食べないでいいよね。 Kore, ta b en aid e ii yo ne. It’s all righ t n o t to eat this, righ t?

GRANTING PERMISSION (c )

はい、いいです。 Hai, ii desu. Yes, it is fine.

(d )

ええ、かまいません。 Ee, k am aim asen . Yes, th a t’s no trou b le a t all.

( e ) はい、 どうぞ。 Hai, doozo. Yes, go ahead. (f)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : 確認したいと思いますが、よろしいでしょうか。 K ak u n in sh itai to om oim asu ga, y o ro s h ii desh oo ka. J u s t to con firm , is it all righ t?

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B : はい、お願いします。 Hai, onegaishim asu . Sure, please. NOT GRANTING PERMISSION 1 . P roh ib ition (g)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : 食べてもいいですか。 T a b ete m o ii desu ka. M ay I eat now ? B : ( まだ食べては）だめですよ。 M ad a ta bete w a dam e d esu yo. No, n o t yet.

(h)

〈con versa tio n 〉 : これ買っていい？

A

K ore k atte ii? C a n I b u y th is? B:

だめよ。 D am e yo. No, y o u m a y not.

2.

S ofter den ial o f p erm issio n Y ou sh ou ld u se softer stra tegies w h en ad d ressin g yo u r m e u e person. (i)

〈con versa tio n 〉 : ここでお酒を飲んでもいいですか。

A

K oko de osake o n on d e m o ii desu ka. C a n w e d rin k sak e h ere? B : いやあ、ちょっと。 Iyaa, chotto. W e ll ... I’m afra id not. (j)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : もう、帰ってもいいですか。 M oo, k a e tte m o ii desu ka. M ay I le a v e n ow ? B : ああ、それが、すみませんが、もう少し待ってくださいま

せんか。 Aa, sore ga, su m im a sen ga, m oo su k osh i m atte-ku d asaim a sen ka. Sorry, b u t cou ld y o u w a it a b it lon ger?

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12.9. Apologizing K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

すみません、ちょっと先約があるので。 S u m im asen , chotto sen^yaku g a aru node. I?m sorry, b u t I h ave an oth er appointm ent.

KE2

ごめんなさい。 G om ennasai. Pm sorry.

KE3

A:

ごめん、何だっけ？ G om en, n a n dakke? Sorry, w h a t w a s it?

B:

えつ？覚えてないの？ Ett? O b oeten ai no? W h a t? You d on ’t rem em ber?

Exp la n a tio n

FREQUENT APOLOGIZING T y p ic a lly Jap an ese sp eak ers ap ologize far m ore freq u en tly th an A m erican s. A p o lo gies con vey th a t y o u recogn ize y o u r failu re to m eet oth ers’ expectations. T h is in tu rn n eg ates p la cin g th e b lam e on oth ­ ers an d th u s sh ow s y o u r th ou ghtfu ln ess. A p o lo gizin g is con sidered a virtu e in Japan. W h en y o u apologize an d s h o w rem orse, J a p a ­ n ese are often em otion ally m oved an d are m ore w illin g to forgive. EXPRESSIONS OF APOLOGY AND POLITENESS H ere are exa m p les o f exp ression s o f ap ology fro m less to m ore polite.

ワリー。 [blunt] Sorry. わるい。 Sorry. [lit. ‘I w a s b a d .’] コメン。 Sorry, excu se me. ごめんなさい。 I’m sorry. P lease excu se me. 失礼（ しつれい）。 Sorry, excu se m e. [frequ en tly u sed in m a scu lin e speech]

ごめんなさい。 I’m sorry, p lea se forgive me. すみません。 I ’m sorry.

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申（ もう）しわけありません。 I’m sorry. 申しわけございません。 I’m very sorry. [supra-polite] APOLOGY OR GRATITUDE

す み ま せ ん a n d 申しわけありません， u n d er d iscu ssion h e r e ， are u sed to exp ress gra titu d e as w e ll (see th e n ex t section). D epen din g on th e c ircu m sta n ces， it is im p o rta n t to in terp ret som e o f th ese as exp ression s o f gra titu d e an d n o t as apologies. BOWING FOR APOLOGY W h en a p ologizin g， it is im p orta n t to bow . T h e m ore d eep ly felt y o u r a p o lo gy， th e m ore slow ly an d d eeply y o u bow. D u rin g th e a p o lo g y ， y o u are n o rm a lly exp ected to cast y o u r eyes d ow n w ard an d as­ su m e an ap ologetic an d h u m b le stance.

12.10. Expressing Gratitude K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ありがと。 Arigato. T h a n k you.

KE2

サンキュ。 Sankyu. T h a n k you.

KE3

どうもありがとうございます。 D oom o arigatoo gozaim asu . T h a n k y o u very m uch.

KE4

どうもすみませんでした。 D oom o su m im asen deshita. Than ks.

Exp la n a tio n

V aried styles for sayin g th a n k s are available.

ありがとう。 Than ks. ありがとうございます。 T h a n k you. ありがとうございました。 T h a n k you. (often after th e favor is done) ど う も （どうも）。 Than ks.

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USE

どうもすみません。 T h a n k y o u for y o u r trouble. どうもすみませんでした。 T h a n k you. (after th e favor is done) サンキユでした。 Than ks. (after th e fa vor is done) SPECIAL THANKS T h e exp ression お 世 話 （ せわ）になりました [lit. ‘th a n k s for ta k in g care o f m e ’] is u sed w h en y o u p a rt from som eon e w h o took care o f you. For exam ple, w h en p a rtin g from a h o st fam ily (for good), use th is exp ression to m ea n ‘th a n k y o u for ta k in g care o f m e .’ It is a d ­ visa b le to b o w as th ese w o rd s are uttered. RESPONDING TO THANKS W h en y o u are thanked, a p p rop ria te resp on ses in clu de th e follow ing: V、 いえ、 とういたしまして。 Y ou are w elcom e; it ’s m y pleasu re. いいえ。 W elcom e.

Later Thanks In Jap an , it is cu stom a ry for a p erso n w h o received a favor earlier to a g a in exp ress gra titu d e th e n ex t tim e th e g iver an d recip ien t m eet. Let’s assu m e th a t yo u r teach er took y o u an d yo u r m e n d ou t for coffee a w e e k ago. W h a t follow s is a ty p ica l in tera ction w h en y o u ru n in to th e teach er again. ( a ) 先生、 この間はどうもありがとうございました。 Sensei, k on o a id a w a doom o arigatoo gozaim ash ita. T h a n k y o u v e ry m u ch for [your favor] th e oth er day.

12.11. Offering Advice and Suggestions K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

すぐあやまる方がいいんじやない？ S u gu a yam a ru h oo g a ii n ja n a i? W ou ld n ’t it b e b etter to ap ologize righ t aw ay?

KE2

もっと早く行った方がいいでしょう。 M otto h aya k u itta h oo g a ii deshoo. It w o u ld be b etter i f y o u w e n t a b it earlier.

KE3

そろそろ始めたらどうでしょう。 S orosoro h a jim eta ra doo deshoo. H o w ab ou t startin g soon?

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そんなバカなこと、もういいかげんにしたら？

KE4

S on n a b a k a n a koto, m oo iik a gen n i shitara? W h y d on ?t y o u stop su ch a foo lish th in g already?

Exp la n a tio n

方（ ほう）がいい T h e 方がいい p a ttern ta k es in fo rm a l en d in gs o f th e v erb s and a d ­ jectives. A s in KE2, th e p a st ten se g ives a sligh tly p oliter im p res­ sion. T h e u se o f 方がいい is gen era lly for y o u r m eshita p erso n or close friends.

たら T h e たら con dition al, follow ed b y th e op tion a l form u la ic clau ses o f

とぅ，とぅたろう， a n d とぅでしょう， p ro vid es an oth er stra tegy for offerin g ad vice an d su ggestions. KE3 is su ch a n exam ple, an d KE4 is a sh orten ed v ersio n u sin g on ly たら. SUGGESTIONS TOWARD SOCIAL SUPERIORS W h en su ggestin g an d ad visin g y o u r m e u e p erson or th ose to w h om y o u w is h to exten d p oliten ess， y o u m u st u se a p oliter version. O ne op tion is to u se resp ectfu l fo rm s an d 方がいい. In stead o f いい， y o u can also u se よろしい to m a ke th e statem en t form al. E n d in gs su ch as かと an d かと存（ ぞん）しますが in crea se th e level o f politeness. ( a ) もう少し早くいらっしやった方がよろしいかと。[su pra-polite style] M oo su k osh i h aya k u ira ss h a tta hoo g a y o ro s h ii k a to. I w o n d er i f it is b etter for y o u to go a b it earlier. o t h e r e x p r e s s i o n s for a d v i c e a n d s u g g e s t i o n s

T h e follo w in g exp ression s are listed from th e m ost d irect to the m ost indirect. A s y o u can s ee ， in g e n era l， th e m ore elab orate th e ex­ p res s io n ，th e m ore p olite it b ec o m es ， w h ic h is also tru e in English.

行（ い）け。 Go now! 行きなさい。 Go. 行 くほうがいい（ です）。 Y ou sh ou ld go. 行ったほうがいい（ です）。 I th in k y o u sh ou ld go. キラったほうがいいでしょう。 Perh aps it ’s b etter i f y o u go. 行ったらどうですか。 H o w ab ou t goin g?

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行ったほうがよろしいかと思いますが。

I th in k it ’s b etter for y o u to

g〇 .

いらっしゃったら？ W on ’t y o u go? いらっしゃった方がよろしいんじゃないかと思いますが。

I w o n d er if

it is better for v o u to go.

いらっしゃった方がよろしいんじゃないかと存じますが。

I w o n d er if

it w o u ld be b etter io r v o u to go.

12.12. Giving Orders and Commands K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

勉強しなさい！ B en kyooshin asai! S tu d y now!

KE2

気を付けなさいよ。 K iotsu k en asai yo. Y ou better b e careful.

KE3

黙 れ ！[blunt style] Dam are! S h u t up!

KE4

おれの話を聞け！[blu n t m ascu lin e style] O re n o h a n a sh i o kike! Hey, listen to m y story.

KE5

来 る な ！[blu n t style] K u ru na! D on ’t com e!

Exp la n a tio n

なさい For g iv in g orders, [stem o f th e verb + なさい] a n d th e ab ru p t com ­ m a n d form o f th e v erb are available. S tu dy KE1 an d KE2. T h ese are u sed strictly b y a m^ev^e p erso n tow a rd a m e s h ita person. T h e reverse, a com m an d to w a rd y o u r m e v e , is con sid ered extrem ely rude.

なさいA N D てください Y ou m a y u se tw o levels o f com m an d form s w h e n ad d ressin g y o u r m eshita person. T h e [stem o f th e verb + なさい] f or m is u sed in b oth

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m a s c u l i n e a n d feminine speech, a n d the a b r u p t c o m m a n d f o r m is u s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y in m a s c u l i n e speech. U s e the [stem of the verb + な さ い ] w h e n addressing children or subordinates. In g e n ­ eral, however, e v e n w h e n a m eue p e r s o n issues a c o m m a n d , if it is a d d r e s s e d to a n adult, the [て f o r m of the verb + く だ さ い ] pattern is r e c o m m e n d e d . It s h o w s consideration for others a n d is m o r e pleasantly accepted. ABRUPT C O M M A N D FORMS U^verbs: Replace the final- u with -e .

kaku

書く

to write

書け

尺U-verbs: Replace the final るwith ろ . 食べる

t aberu

to eat

食べろ

suru kuru

to d o to c o m e

来 （ こ）レ

da

to be, to stay

でいろ

Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

する 来る

しろ

B e -v e rb

だ

NEGATIVE ABRU P T C O M M A N D F O R M S A d d i n g な to the basic f o r m of the verb results in a negative a b r u p t c o m m a n d form. 書く 起きる 来る

kaku okiru kuru

to write to get u p to c o m e

書くな 起きるな 来るな

(a) 帰 っ て く れ 。 迷 惑 な ん だ 。 Kaette-kure. M e i w a k u n a n da. Leave. Y o u ’ re being a bother. (b) 〈conversation 〉 A: お い 、 こ れ 持 て よ 。 [blunt style] Oi, kore m o t e yo. Hey, carry this. B : えつ。 Ett. What? A : 俺 だ け に 荷 物 持 た せ る な よ 。 [masculine speech] O r e d a k e ni n i m o t s u m o t a s e r u n a yo. Don’ t m a k e only m e carry the luggage.

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(c)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : あんまり悪いことすんなよ。 A n m a ri w a ru i koto su n n a yo. D on ’t do b ad things. B : わかってるよ。 W ak atteru yo. I know , I know.

12.13.

Inviting and Responding to Invitations K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

コーヒーでもいかがですか。 K ooh ii dem o ik a g a desu ka. H o w a b ou t som e coffee?

KE2

冷たい飲み物とかどう？ T su m eta i n om im on o to k a doo? H o w a b ou t som eth in g cold to drink?

KE3

あした映画行かない？ A s h ita eiga ik an ai? W an t to go see a m ovie tom orrow ?

KE4

〈c on versa tio n 〉 A: 今日の夜とか会わない？ K yoo no y o ru to k a aw an ai? C a n w e g e t togeth er ton igh t? B

: うん。会いたい。 どこがいい？ Un. Aitai. D oko g a ii? Yes. I w a n t to see you. W h ere?

Exp la n a tio n

いかがですかA N D どう？ いかがですか ‘h o w ab ou t it’ or its in fo rm a l v ersio n ど う （ ですか） are u sefu l for m a k in g su ggestion s an d offerin g in vita tio n s b y sp e­ cifyin g item s, as giv en in KE1. Y ou can also u se いかがでしようか， a p oliter version , for p eop le to w a rd w h o m y o u m u st be polite. In ca ­ su al situ ations, th e sh orten ed exp ression とう is used, a s in KE2. U S I N G でも O R とか W h en su ggestin g or in vitin g, th e item s y o u sp ecify are often fo l­ low ed b y でも or とか，as in KE1 an d KE2 respectively. B oth でも

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an d とか su ggest oth er ch o ices， sim ilar to E n glish or something. T h is m a k es th e su ggestion less specific an d th erefore less d em a n d ­ in g (see section 13.5). A s w e stu d ied in section 8.13, th e n egative n o n -p a st a d d ressed to y o u r p a rtn er fu n ction s as in vitation , as in KE3 an d A ?s u tteran ce in KE4. RESPONDING TO INVITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1 . Positive

ええ、いいですねえ。 Yes, th a t w ill be nice. うん、そうしよう。 Yes, le t’s do so. はい、よろこんで。 W ith pleasu re. ええ、ぜひ。 Yes, b y all m eans. では、お 願 （ ねが）いします。 Yes, th a n k you. 2.

N egative

そうですねえ。 ちょっと。 Let m e see. U h h ___ 今夜（ こんや）はちょっと。 T o n ig h t is n ’t th e b est tim e. いえ、結 構 （ けっこう）です。 No, th a n k you. 無理（ むり） 。 Im possible. 3.

U n d ecid ed

そうですねえ......... W e ll.... そうだなあ......... W e ll....

G raffiti

A m on g you th , w h e n refu sin g an offer, th e exp ression 大 丈 夫 （ たい

じようぶ）（ です） is u s e d . 大 丈 夫 （ です） litera lly m ea n s ‘I’m fine as I a m ’ an d su ggests th a t y o u are fin e w ith ou t accep tin g th e offer. T h is is a w a y o f sayin g th a t th ere is n o n eed for w h a t is b ein g offered. A lth ou gh th is refu sa l is a facad e o f in directn ess, it fu n ction s as a d irect refu sal. (a)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : 上がってコーヒーでも飲んでって。 A g a tte k o o h ii d em o nondette. C om e in an d h ave som e coffee. B : あ、ボク、大丈夫ですから。 [m ascu lin e speech] A, boku, d aijoobu desu kara. No thanks.

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12.14. Being Serious and Nervous K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

マジですか？ M aji d esu ka. A re y o u seriou s?

KE2

まじめな話。 M ajim en a hanashi. It’s serious.

KE3

ほんとマジごめん。 H onto m a ji gom en. Really, seriou sly, I’m sorry.

KE4

すみません。緊張しちやって。 Sum im asen. K inch oosh i-ch atte. Sorry. I’m nervous.

Exp la n a tio n

まじ A N D マジ T h e freq u en cy an d v a rio u s w a y s まじ is u sed deserve ou r sp e­ cial attention. まじ，often w ritten in カタカナ， is a sh orten ed casu al form o f まじめな a n d まじめに. U s e まじですか A r e y o u s erio u s?’ as a form a l version.

まじ an d まじで？ are freq u en tly u sed in casu al con versa tion as a device to con firm y o u r p a rtn e r’s seriou sn ess an d g en u in e in ­ tentions. It is sim ilar to D o y o u r e a lly m e a n it ? T h e s e p h ra ses are also u sed as in terjection s to m ea n som eth in g lik e R e a lly ? T h e y s h o w y o u are su rp rised or are in a state o f d is b e lie f. マ ジ is p a r ­ ticu la rly p reva len t in yo u th s p eech ，alth ou gh its u se h a s exten d ed to sp eak ers in th eir th irties an d forties. INTERACTION USING マジ AND マジで (a)

〈con versa tio n 〉 : あの人、結婚するんだってよ、来月。

A

A n o hito, k ek k on su ru n d atte yo, raigetsu . I h ea r sh e’s ge ttin g m a rried n ext m onth. B

: うそ。マ ジ ？ Uso. M aji? No kidding. Seriou sly?

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: うん、マジで。 うちの会社の人と。 Un, m a ji de. U ch i n o k a is h a no hito to. Yeah, seriou sly. T o a m a n in our com pany.

マジ AS EMPHATIC MARKER マ ジ is u sed a s an em ph atic adverb, a s in K3. T h is u se is gen era lly restricted to y o u th speech.

マジダサい。 R eally n o t cool マジこわい。 R eally scary. マジうるせえ。 R eally b oth ersom e, [blunt style] マジ狂（ くる）ってる。R eally crazy. 超マジごめん。I’m really, re a lly sorry. WHEN NERVOUS W h en nervou s, y o u m a y describe y o u r s e lf as 緊張す A .T h is c o n fe s sion -lik e expression , as in KE4, often d isa rm s y o u r partner, and th u s y o u m a y receive w a rm su p port a s well.

G raffiti

W h en d ou b tin g th e seriou sn ess o f y o u r partner, y o u can also use (b) or (c). T h e u tteran ce in (b) stron gly ch a llen ges th e tru th fu ln ess o f y o u r p a rtn er’s feelings, an d (c) stron gly tells y o u r p artn er to be serious. ( b ) それ本気で言ってます？ Sore h on k i de ittem asu ? A re y o u sayin g th a t to re a lly m ea n it? ( c ) ふざけないで。 F u zak en ai de. D on ’t be silly. B e serious.

12.15. Fighting and Cursing K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

なんだと！ N an d a to! W h a t (are y o u ta lk in g about)!

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USE

なに！

KE2

Nani! W hat!

ばか。

KE3

Baka. Y ou fool. KE4

くそ！ Kuso! Shit!

KE5

ちくしょう！ C hikushoo! Hell. Dam n! Fuck! [lit. ‘b e a s t’]

Exp la n a tio n

In gen eral, w o rd s for figh tin g an d cu rsin g are u sed freq u en tly in th e m ore assertive m a scu lin e style, b u t fem a le sp eak ers u se th em i f th e situ a tion n ecessita tes or allow s for them . T h e s e stra ig h tfo r­ w a rd exp ression s are b lu n t an d m ore lik ely to b e tolerated am on g uchi m em bers. A s expected, cu rse or sw ear w o rd s are gen era lly forb id d en in fo rm a l situ ations, an d u sin g th em w o u ld resu lt in alm ost an ir r e ­ voca b ly u n p lea sa n t an d con fron ta tion a l relationship. FIGHTING WITH なに T h e in terjectio n なに， a ssociated w ith th e w o rd 何 （ なに）‘w h a t’，app ea rs in con flict situ ations. It sign als th e s p ea k er’s an ger and re ­ sentm ent. I f y o u u se them , p ron ou n ce th em clea rly an d strongly, to s h o w stron g opposition. な に ！(as a con flict in terjection ) is often p ron ou n ced as n aO n i w ith th e h igh er ton e p la ced on に in stea d o f on th e qu estion w o rd n a -n i, w h ic h ta k es th e h igh er ton e on な. NO ANSWERS EXPECTED A lth ou gh なに is a qu estion w ord , u n d er th is circu m stan ce, y o u do n o t exp ect a n an sw er from yo u r partner. In terjection s su ch a s なん

だ と ！ ‘w h a t (are y o u ta lk in g a b o u t)!’ an d な に を ！ ‘W h a t (the h ell)!’ con vey accu satory, challen gin g, defiant, an d figh tin g attitudes. Y ou r p artn er m a y offer n o resp on se or m a y figh t b a ck w ith oth er d efian t exp ression s, in clu d in g なに expressions.

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〈con versa tio n 〉 A : いい加減にしろよ。 Ii k a gen n i shiro yo. B eh ave you rself. B : なんだと！ N an d a to! W h a t are y o u ta lk in g about! A : なに！ Nani! W h a t are Y O U saying!

CURSE AND SWEAR WORDS 1 . ばか

ばか [lit. ‘fool'] is a n in terjectio n th a t exp resses th e sp eak ­ er's an ger an d fru stration . W h en u sed w ith a specific p ron ou n or a n a m e , のばか is added, as i n 隼 人 （ はやと）のばか ‘H ayato, y o u i d io t '. ばかやろっ， m ore d eroga tory th a n ばか， com bin es

ばか an d やろう ‘id iot' (in d eroga tory speech) an d exp resses a m a d d en in g h a tred an d anger. 2.

くそ くそ [lit. ‘shit'] is u ttered as a cu rse w o rd w h e n th e sp eak ­ er is v e ry u p set an d fru strated. くそ is also u sed in com b 卜 n a tion w ith oth er p h rases, su ch as くそむずかしい [lit. ‘shit d ifficu lt']. A lso available is くそったれ ‘shithead, sh itty one'. In all cases, くそ sign als th e sp eak er's d eroga tory attitu d e com ­ b in ed w ith anger, stron g dislike, an d frustration.

3 .

ちくしょう ちく しょつ refers to b ea sts in a d eroga tory w ay, and w h en u sed as a cu rse w ord, it em p h a sizes th a t som eon e or som e­ th in g is b elow h u m a n dignity.

MORE FIGHTING WORDS Y ou m a y n o t en cou n ter too m a n y occasion s to u se fig h tin g w ords, b u t it is im p o rta n t th a t y o u k n o w w h a t th ey m ean. A n d y o u ou gh t to h ave som e ab ility to figh t b ack verbally. T h e follo w in g exam p les are possible. ( b ) 死ねっ！ Shinett! Die, y o u die!

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ほっとけ。 [blu n t style] Hottoke. Leave m e alone.

( d ) 知らねえよ。 [blunt style] Sh iran ee yo. I d o n ’t g ive a dam n. BEING DEFIANT W h en b ein g defiant, y o u can m a ke u se o f a n u m b er o f interjectio n a l sounds. A fe w o f th e m ore freq u en tly u sed in terjection s are th e follow ing: 1 . I n d efian ce ( e ) ふん、生意気な。 Fun, n a m a ik i na. H um ph, y o u ’ve g o t a lo t o f nerve. 2.

In d isgu st ( f ) ちえっ，ケチだなあ。 Chett, k ech i d a naa. Ugh, boy, are y o u stingy.

3.

W h e n d ism issivelv criticizin g ( g ) なにさ、子供のくせに。 N ani sa, kod om o no kuseni. W h a t th e hell, y o u ’re lu st a child.

G raffiti

A lth ou gh th ese figh tin g an d cu rse w o rd s ra rely ap p ea r in you r J ap a n ese lan gu age textb ook s, th ey are an im p orta n t p a rt o f y o u r M h on go project. I f y o u are a m anga fan, y o u w ill fin d th ese w o rd s freq u en tly in va rio u s figh t scen es an d con flict situations. M ore im ­ portan t, even i f y o u m a y n o t u se th ese expression s, y o u sh ou ld at lea st b e fam iliar w ith them . It is critical th a t y o u k n o w w h e n som e­ one is u p set an d is re a d y to figh t you. Y ou m u st u n d ersta n d w h a t con fron ts y o u so th a t y o u can d efen d y o u r s e lf appropriately.

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12.16. Teasing K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ばかじやない？ B a k a ja n a i? You foo lish thing!

KE2

ば一か。 Baaka. You fool!

KE3

憎いねえ、人 気 者 ！ N iku i nee, n inkim ono! I cou ld h ate y o u (for it), Mr. Popular!

Exp la n a tio n

GOOD-NATURED TEASING AND CONTEXT G ood -n atu red tea sin g sign als intim acy. E ven figh tin g w o rd s are u sed for th e p u rp ose o f teasing. B ecau se tea sin g an d th e resp on se to tea sin g in volve seem in gly d eroga tory term s, it b eco m es critical to u n d erstan d th e context. A s im p o rta n t are th e accom p a n y in g cues. F acial exp ression s an d ton e o f voice are key. T h e y com m u n icate an iron ic m eaning, sign alin g th a t yo u are sim ply en joyin g a g o o d -n a tu red teasing.

ばか AS TEASING W h en som eon e says ば か ！‘S illy th in g !’ in a flirta tio u s w ay, ob vi­ ou sly it is an exp ression o f love. E ven a ph rase su ch as 憎 （ にく）

らしいひと！ [lit. ‘h a tefu l p ers o n ’] can be u sed as a tease, o n ly to s h o w stron g affection. W e m u st rem in d o u rselves th a t th e litera l in terp reta tion is h a rd ly en ou gh w h e n ap p reciatin g th e m ea n in g o f “real” N ih o n g o .

12.17. Leave-Taking and Parting K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

じゃあ、また。 Jaa, m ata. W ell then.

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USE

さよなら。

KE2

Sayonara. G ood-bye.

バイバイ。

KE3

B ai bai. Bye, bye.

失礼します。

KE4

S h itsu reish im asu . I’m lea vin g now.

Exp la n a tio n

RESTRICTIONS FOR USING さよなら A lth ou gh さよなら （or th e m ore f o r m a l さようなら） is b est k n ow n as a g re e tin g for farew ell, it is im p orta n t to k n o w th a t a m on g u c h i m em b ers, one says さよなら on ly w h e n th e sep ara tion is for an exten d ed period. S ayin g さよなら often im p lies th a t y o u m a y n ever see th e p erson again. It w o u ld be qu ite u p settin g for Jap a n ese p aren ts to h ea r th eir son or d au gh ter leave th e h ou se sa yin g さよなら in th e m orning. T h e p a ren ts w o u ld th in k th eir ch ild w a s ru n n in g aw ay from h om e or even rea d y to com m it suicide! I f y o u sta y w ith a J ap a n ese fam ily, for exam ple, th e on ly tim e y o u sh ou ld u se さようなら to th e fam ily m em b ers is w h e n lea vin g th em for good. S ch oolch ild ren do u se さ

ようなら to tea ch ers at th e en d o f th e day, how ever, even w h e n th ey w ill m eet th e tea ch er th e n ex t day. LEAVE-TAKING EXPRESSIONS 1 . W h e n lea vin g th e hou se ( a ) 行ってきます。 Itte-kim asu . G ood-bye. [lit. ‘I w ill go an d re tu rn .’] 2.

W h en sa yin g good -b ye to som eon e y o u m eet every d ay or freq u en tly (b )

じゃあ、あした。 Jaa, ashita. See y o u tom orrow .

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それではまた。

(c )

S ored ew a m ata. W ell then, see y o u again. 3.

W h e n lea vin g th e w ork p la ce b efore oth ers ( d ) お先に失礼します。 O sak i n i shitsu reish im asu . G ood-bye. [lit. ‘E xcu se m e for lea vin g e a rly .’]

4.

W h e n lea vin g for a lon g tim e

さようなら。

(e )

Sayoonara. G ood-bye. ( f ) お元気で。 O gen ki de. T ake care o f yourself. NEGOTIATING LEAVE-TAKING W h en ta k in g leave, u s u a lly a fe w sp eak in g tu rn s are exchanged, as sh ow n below. (g)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : そろそろ帰らなきや。 S orosoro k aeran akya. I m u st be going. B : えっ、そんなあ、もうちょっといてよ。 Ett, sonnaa, m oo chotto ite yo. W hat! S tay a b it longer, w o n ’t you ?

(h)

〈con versa tio n 〉 : あ、もうこんな時間。帰らなきや。

A

A, m oo k o n n a jik an . K aeranakya. Oh, it’s alrea d y late. I m u st go. B : まだいい7ころ。 [m ascu lin e speech] M ad a ii daro. Y ou can stay, c a n ’t you ? A

: もう遅いから。 M oo oso i kara. It’s late.

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USE

B : そう？ Soo? M aybe so. A : 失礼します。 Srntsureishim asu. I’m lea vin g now. B

: うん、 じや、また。 Un, ja , m ata. O kay, w e ll then.

A

: じや。 Ja. See you.

RESPONDING TO LEAVE-TAKING GREETINGS W h en a fa m ily m em b er leaves h om e sayin g 行ってきます， th e re ­ m a in in g m em b ers resp on d w ith 行っていらっしやい [lit. ‘Go an d re ­ tu rn .’] W h en a co-w orker lea ves th e o ffice b y sayin g お先に失礼しま

す， th e rem a in in g co-w ork ers w ill resp on d w ith お 疲 （ つか）れさまで した [lit. ‘T h a n k y o u for y o u r e ffo rt.’]. However, i f y o u r m eue p erson lea ves b y sayin g お先に， y o u sh ou ld resp o n d w ith ああとうも and n o t w ith お疲れさまでした u n less th a t p erso n is con sid ered a m e m ­ b er o f y o u r im m ed iate w o rk grou p.

G raffiti

A n on -verba l sign for p a rtin g is w a vin g le ft to rig h t w ith y o u r p alm fa cin g the partner. T h e h an d gestu re o f fla p p in g y o u r fin g ers w ith y o u r p alm fa c in g th e partner, a g estu re accom p a n y in g farew ells in A m erica, is, on th e contrary, a sign a sk in g som eon e to com e tow a rd yo u in Japan. (See C h ap ter 14 for a d d ition al d iscu ssion on g estu res an d h an d signals.)

CHA PTER 13

Conversation Management

13.1. Conversational Nihongo Explanation P articip atin g in casu al con versa tion in N ih o n g o is essen tial in a d ­ va n cin g yo u r stu d y o f Jap an ese. First, h ea rin g an d u n d erstan d in g w h a t th e Jap a n ese speak er is sayin g is a challenge. A n d w h en re ­ sp on d in g in Jap an ese, h o w sh ou ld y o u b eh ave verb a lly an d o th e r­ w ise? T h is ch a p ter offers gu id a n ce for th ese m u st-do con versa tion activities. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONVERSATIONAL N IH O N G O C on versa tion a l N ihongo con tain s th e follo w in g features. 1 . Short u tteran ces, w ith ea sy-to-u n d erstan d voca b u la ry 2.

F requ en t d eletion s, an d as a resu lt, g ra m m a tica lly in com p lete

3.

A rela tively free w o rd order, w ith som e in version s

sen ten ces 4.

E xp ression s sen sitive to th e situ ation, in clu d in g sh iftin g styles to m eet in terp erson a l an d p erson a l n e e d s w ith ap p ro ­ p riate p oliten ess levels an d h on orifics

5.

S p ea k er’s feelin gs exp ressed th ro u gh d evices su ch as のだ， exclam ation s, an d in tera ctio n a l p articles

6.

Lan gu age va ria tion s u sed for social an d exp ressive p u rp oses

VOCABULARY In speech, u se 和 語 （ わご） m ore frequ en tly, avoid in g 漢 語 （ かんご) vocabu lary. In casu al con versation , for e x a m p le , 苦 （ くる）しむ is m ore lik ely to b e used, in stea d o f 苦 悩 （ くのう）する.

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苦（ くる）しむ 答（ こた）える 組（ く）み 立 （ た）てる

苦悩（ くのう）する 返答（ へんとう）する 構成（ こうせい）する

to su ffer to an sw er to stru ctu re

13.2. Taking Speaking Turns and Designing Utterances K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

A:

で、そのあとどうしたの？ De, sono ato doo sh ita no? So w h a t did y o u do after that?

B:

だから、それから友だちのところへ行ったんだよ。 D akara, sorek a ra tom o d a ch i n o tok oro e itta n d a y 〇. So after th a t I w e n t to m y frie n d ’s place.

KE2

あのう、すみません。時間があったらこれを読んでおいてい ただけませんか。 Anoo, su m im asen. J ik a n g a a tta ra k ore o yon d e-oiteita d a k em a sen ka. Uhh, excu se m e, b u t i f y o u h ave tim e, cou ld you read th is [ior fu tu re p u rp oses]?

Exp la n a tio n

TAKING SPEAKING TURNS T o carry on a con versation , w e m u st ta k e sp eak in g tu rn s, m a in tain them , a n d th e n y ie ld them . A t th e sam e tim e w e m u st be g o o d lis­ teners. H o w do w e fin d th e correct tim in g to ta k e tu rn s? 1.

A s a rule, y o u sh ou ld n o t ta k e a tu rn (or attem p t to ta k e a tu rn ) w h ile th e oth er p erso n is speaking. T ry in g to get a w o rd in edgew ise is n o t g en era lly a go o d id e a in J a p a n ese (or an y oth er lan gu age). T a k in g over y o u r m e u e p a rtn e r’s tu rn is es ­ p ecia lly rude.

2.

I f t ^ o sp eak ers sim u lta n eou sly start to speak, th e m e s h tta p artn er sh ou ld y ie ld th e tu rn b y stop p in g sp eak in g im m ediately.

3.

W h e n y o u r p a rtn er stop s sp eak in g a p p aren tly due to som e trou b le in sp eech p rodu ction , a llo w su fficien t tim e an d assist in som e w a y to a vo id p oten tia l em barrassm ent.

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W h e n y o u r sp eak in g tu rn is overtly assigned, as w h en yo u are a sk ed a d irect qu estion, it is d esirab le to ta ke th e turn. Y ou h ave v a rio u s w a y s to avoid a n sw erin g stra igh tforw a rd ly i f y o u d on ’t w a n t to do so. T o ta l silen ce is n o t con sid ered p olite in th is circu m stan ce, esp ecially tow a rd yo u r m e u e partner.

5.

W h e n y o u r p a rtn er stop s at a gra m m a tica lly com plete p oin t su ch as th e en d o f a sen ten ce stru ctu re often en d in g w ith in tera ctio n a l p articles, an d w h e n h e or she lo o k s at you , th e floo r is op en to you. Y ou are exp ected to ta ke y o u r turn.

YIELDING SPEAKING TURNS H ere are som e stra tegies y o u can u se w h e n y ie ld in g yo u r turn. 1 . Y ou can overtly y ie ld yo u r tu rn b y a sk in g a question. 2.

Pause after y o u fin ish an u tteran ce w ith listen er-a p p ea lin g d evices su ch as in tera ction a l particles.

3.

O vertly solicit yo u r p a rtn er’s opinion.

4.

M ake con clu sive rem ark s i f y o u r tu rn is lo n g an d extensive.

5.

M ake eye con tact w ith yo u r p artn er at th e en d o f y o u r turn.

6.

U se a h ea d n od to m a rk th e end o f y o u r turn.

DESIGNING UTTERANCES H o w sh ou ld ou r u ttera n ces b e d esign ed ? C on versation a l u tteran ces sh ou ld ta ke a fo rm th a t fits com fortab ly into th e o n goin g activities. 1 . A t th e b egin n in g o f an u tteran ce, u se o p en ers to in fo rm yo u r p a rtn er th a t y o u are ta k in g a s p ea k in g tu rn. T h e s e create a b u ffe r zon e w h ere tw o p eop le m eet in teraction ally. You can also u se th is m o m en t to p rep are y o u r u tteran ce (see section 13.3). 2.

U se p refa cin g exp ression s (see section 13.4) to w a rn yo u r p a rtn er a b ou t w h a t is c om in g next.

3.

In b etw een u tteran ces, u se fille rs to sign al y o u r in ten tio n to continu e. F illers also s h o w h esitation , w h ich h elp s create rapport.

4.

E nd u ttera n ces softly to m in im ize an y p ossib le n eg ative im ­ p a ct (see section 13.6).

OTHER INTERACTIONAL STRATEGIES In ad d ition to th e d esign stra tegies m en tion ed above, th e freq u en t u se o f ap ology for sym p ath y-seek in g p u rp oses is a plus. A lso h elp ­

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fu l are d egree w ords, su ch as ちょっと ‘a b it’. T h ese exp ression s m a ke a con versa tion m ore pleasant. A s a listener, sen d in g freq u en t listen er resp on ses com m u n icates y o u r enth u siastic and su p p ort­ ive attitu d e (see section 13.11).

13.3. Openers and Fillers K e y E xp re ssio n s

それで so まあuh あの uh, w e ll

Exp la n a tio n

O p en ers are b r ie f exp ression s b y w h ich y o u claim y o u r sp eak in g tu rn and alert oth ers th a t y o u are ab ou t to say som ething. S peak ­ ers also u se fillers, w h ic h are equ ivalen t to u h h an d lik e in E nglish conversation. C on versa tion a l fillers m a y sim ply fill in a p au se or signal th e s p ea k er’s h esita tion or trou b le spots. O p en ers an d fillers are u sefu l b ecau se th ey a llo w y o u to h old on to y o u r sp eak in g turn. KINDS OF OPENERS 1 . M ark in g a n e w top ic ( それ) で so 2.

S ign alin g th a t w h a t y o u are g o in g to say is o ff th e top ic

ところで b y th e w a y ちなみに b y th e w a y 話（ はなし）変 （ か）わるけど to ch a n ge th e su b ject 3.

A d d in g to th e cu rren t top ic

たとえば for exam ple PHRASES USED AS OPENERS AND FILLERS 1 . Hesitation in terjection s

あのう Uh, well. まあ、そうですね。 Oh, I g u ess so. ええと W ell, le t’s s e e ___ まあ W ell, s a y ___ なんか U h h ___

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E xp ression s u sed w h ile y o u are th in k in g ( a ) 何と言えばいいのか。言葉が見つからない。 N an to ie b a ii no ka. K otob a g a m itsu karan ai. Uh, w h a t sh ou ld I s a y ___ I c a n ?t fin d th e w o rd s to d e­ scrib e it. ( b ) う一ん、むずかしい質問ですね。 Uun, m u zu k a sh ii sh itsu m on desu ne. Indeed, it’s a d ifficu lt qu estion to answer.

G raffiti

W h en you u se o p en ers an d fillers, avoid th e overu se of th e sam e expression. It is a g o o d id e a to com bin e several sh ort fillers to fill in th e p a u ses ( e . g . , あのう，まあ， an d ええと） . Y ou w ill fin d n ative sp eak ers u sin g th ese fillers qu ite frequently. A d u lt speech, m o stly in fo rm a l m a scu lin e speech, is ch a ra c te r­ ized b y a n in h aled h issin g sound. T h e sou n d fu n ction s as b oth an open er an d a filler. O b serve m ascu lin e sp eech w h e n y o u h ave ac­ cess to n ative speakers. T h ere is no n eed to im ita te it.

13.4. Prefacing and Alerting K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ていうか、やめない、今日の買い物。 T e y u u ka, ya m en a i, k yoo no kaim ono. T o tell th e truth, y o u w a n t to cancel our sh op p in g tod ay?

KE2

正直言って、絶対君は悪くない。 S h oojik i itte, zetta i k im i w a w aru ku n ai. T o be h onest, y o u a b solu tely a ren ’t w rong.

KE3

言いたくないけど、その髪型、変。 Iita k u n a i kedo, son o k am igata, hen. I d o n ’t w a n t to say this, b u t yo u r h airstyle is w eird.

KE4

こう言っちやなんだけど、湯川先生、今日ちょっと変だよ。 K oo itc h a n an d a kedo, Y u k a w a sensei, k yoo chotto h en d a yo. I s h o u ld n ’t be sayin g this, b u t P rofessor Y u k a w a is a b it stran ge today.

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KE5

実は、妙なうわさを聞ぃたんですが。 Jitsu w a, m y o o n a u w a sa o k iita n d esu ga. In fact, I h ea rd som e stran ge rum or.

ぶっちやけ、俺、あいつ信じてねえし。[blu n t m ascu lin e

KE6

style] B u tchake, ore, aitsu shin jiten ee shi. T o be frank, I d on ’t tru st him . KE7

ぃきなりなんだけど、明日ひま？ Ik in a ri n a n d a kedo, a s h ita him a? It’s ra th er sudden, but are y o u free tom orrow ?

KE8

私、思うんだけど、きっと会ぃたかったんだよ。 W atashi, om ou n d a kedo, kitto aita k a tta n d a yo. I ’m th in king, y o u know , h e w a n ted to see y o u for sure.

Exp la n a tio n

Y ou u se p reia cin g b eiore m a k in g an im p orta n t a n n ou n cem en t or sign ifican t com m ent. T h ere are a n u m b er o f form u la ic exp ression s for alertin g yo u r p a rtn er to forth co m in g b ad new s. P h rases a ssoci­ ated w ith th e verb 言 ( い) う ‘to s a y ’ are u sefu l for th is purpose. P sych ologically, alertin g is m otiva ted b y a n e e d to b ridge the g u lf b etw een ta tem ae an d honne (see section 2.3). PREFACING ASSOCIATED WITH 言ぅ 1 . ていうか O n e o f th e m ost freq u en tly u sed p refa ces to y o u r speech is ていうか. It is a p rea m b le to b ein g frank, p a rticu la rly to te ll­ in g th e truth. ていうか ap p ea rs in v a ria tio n s su ch as てか，つ

か， an d ちゆか an d is u sed m o stly in casu al s p e e c h . ていうか is also u sed at th e u ttera n ce-fin a l p ositio n (see section 13.6). 2 .

正直言（ しようじきい）って 正直言って ‘to b e h o n e s t’ is often u sed a s a p reface th a t th e sp eak er is g o in g to say som eth in g h o n estly w ith ou t a lte r­ in g its content. It is also u sefu l in a con text w h ere y o u re ve a l som eth in g con tra ry to w h a t y o u r p artn er is expecting.

3 .

言（ ぃ）ぃたくなぃけど 言ぃたくなぃけど [lit. ‘I d o n ’t w a n t to be sa yin g this, b u t’] in KE3 is u sed to show y o u r h esita n cy in re ve a lin g som e­ thing. T h is exp ression is ritu alized, how ever, and con seq u en t­ ly th e h esita tion m a y on ly be in disguise.

Conversation Management 4.

235

こう言つちやなんだけど こう言つちやなんだけど‘p erh a p s I s h o u ld n ’t be sayin g th is ，b u t’ p refa ces w o rd s th a t y o u are qu ite su re w ill b e u p ­ s ettin g ，as sh ow n in KE4.

ADDITIONAL PREFACING 1 . 実（ じつ）は 実 は [lit. ‘in fa c t， as a m a tter o f fa c t’] is u sed in fo rm a l sit­ u a tio n s ，p a rticu la rly w h e n y o u sen se th a t th e tim in g is righ t for revea lin g som eth in g， as sh ow n in K E 5 . 実は is u sefu l as a p refa ce for d iscu ssin g b u sin ess or for an n ou n cin g th e m a in p oin t or issue. Y ou m a y u se 実は as a p reface to a req u est as well. 2 .

ぶつちやけ ぶつちやけ in KE6 is a casu al an d som ew h a t b lu n t ex­ p ression m ea n in g ‘to tell everyth in g w ith ou t h id in g ’. T h is is u sed am on g y o u th ，esp ecia lly in very in fo rm a l and fam iliar situ ations. It sh ou ld b e avoided in form a l speech.

3 .

いきなりなんだけど A n o th er stra tegy for com m u n icatin g an ou t-of-con text su rp rise is to p reface it w ith いきなりなんだけど ‘it’s rath er s u d d en ，b u t’. A s sh ow n in KE7, y o u u se th is w h e n w h a t fo l­ lo w s h as little to do w ith w h a t p reced es an d p erh a p s w h a t follo w s becom es a sen sitive issue.

4 .

思、うんだけど W h en y o u w a n t to share y o u r th o u g h ts ，思うんだけど p refa ces su ch a d esire， as in KE8. It w a rn s yo u r p artn er th at w h a t follow s are y o u r p erson a l thoughts.

G raffiti

W h en y o u are ab ou t to say s om eth in g u n certa in and y o u are a b it h es ita n t ，ひょっとして ‘p o ssib ly ’ an d もしかして ‘c on ceiva b ly’ are u sed as prefacin g. T h e s e o ffer a soften in g effect. ( a ) ひょっとして花火大会行った？ H yotto shite h a n a b i ta ik a i itta? D id yo u p o ssib ly go to see th e firew orks? (b )

もしかして、高いとこ、こわいの？ M osh ik a s h ite ， ta k a i toko, k ow a i no? C ou ld it be th a t y o u ’re a fra id o f h eights?

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13.5. Being Artfully Vague K e y E xp re ssio n s

お昼とか、いっしょに食べる？

KE1

O h iru toka, issh on i taberu ? W an t to eat lu n ch togeth er?

時間があるから、ちょっと散歩でもしますか。

KE2

J ik a n g a aru kara, ch otto san po dem o sh im asu ka. Since w e h ave tim e, sh ou ld w e go for a w alk?

では、改めて、事務所の方におうかがいいたしま す。 [su p ra-p olite style]

KE3

Dewa, aratam ete, lim u sh o n o h oo ni ou k agai-itash im asu . W ell then, I w ill visit y o u at yo u r ofnce n ex t tim e.

なんか寂しい。やっぱりあの人がいないとね。

KE4

N a n k a sabishii. Y a p p ari ano hito g a in a i to ne. I’m som eh o w lonely, after all, w ith ou t her.

もう少し早い方がいいと思いますが。

KE5

M oo su k osh i h a y a i h oo g a ii to om oim asu ga. I th in k p erh a p s it sh ou ld b e a b it earlier. . . .

Exp la n a tio n

B ein g va gu e d oes n o t m ea n th a t y o u are insincere. A certain v a gu en ess h elp s m a ke p eop le fee l com fortable. A rtfu l va gu en ess com es in to p la y w h en th e in fo rm a tio n is p resen ted a s i f it w ere unclear, on ly to avoid overly fran k an d stra igh tforw ard o p in ion s or new s. T h is w ay, y o u can avoid sh ock in g or offen d in g y o u r p artn er unn ecessarily. Y ou sh ou ld k eep in m in d th a t w h e n y o u w a n t to be vagu e and h esitan t, y o u m u st speak in a voice th a t m atches. H esitan t m u m ­ b lin g is expected, ra th er th a n sp eak in g in a clear, proud, en th u si­ astic voice. OFFERING ALTERNATIVES 1.

とか とか is a p article ad d ed to in d icate altern atives, an d as a resu lt, it soften s an u tteran ce, as sh ow n in K E 1 . とか is fre ­ q u en tly u sed am on g y o u n g speakers.

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2 . でも

でも， com pa rab le to th e E nglish orsom ethin g, is freq u en t­ ly u sed w h e n m a k in g su ggestion s an d offers. でも，as sh ow n in KE2, giv es th e im p ressio n th a t y o u are offerin g options, an d a c c ord in gly， th e p artn er can choose w h a t h e or she lik es am on g several possibilities. UNSPECIFYING INFORMATION 1 . の方（ ほう） の方 [lit. ‘th e d irection of,] ad d s vagu en ess. In stead oi sim p ly s a y in g 事 務 所 （ じむしょ）‘o ffic e ’， th e p h r a s e 事務所の

方 [lit. ‘th e d irection o f th e o ffic e ’] in KE3 ad d s va gu en ess b y u n sp ecifyin g th e referent.

なんか

2 .

W h en revea lin g in n er feelin g s， one m a y exp erien ce a sligh t em barrassm ent. U se なんか， as in KE4, to ad d th e m ea n in g o f som eho ⑴ an d som ew hat. Y ou can u se なんか as a con versa tion filler as well. USING QUOTATION と思（ おも）う You can m a ke y o u r a ssertion s less b la ta n t or offen sive b y ad d in g

と思ぅ ‘I th in k ’ at th e end. B ecau se と思ぅ q u otes w h a t one th in k s ， it adds in d irec tn e ss ，g ivin g a m ore re served and less assertive im p res s io n ， a s sh ow n in KE5.

13.6. Utterance-Final Strategies K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ちょっと時期的には早いと思いますが。 C hotto jik ite k i n i w a h a y a i to om oim asu ga. I w onder. I th in k it m a y b e a b it too ea rly ，but. . . .

KE2

神谷先輩、 ミーティング始まりますけど。 K am iya sen p a i， m iitin gu h ajim a rim a su kedo. Mr. K a m iya ， th e m eetin g is g o in g to start.

KE3

ほんとだよね。いい迷惑っていうかあ。 H onto d a yo ne. Ii m eiw a k u tte y u u kaa. Really. It is m ore or less a nuisance.

KE4

すみません、忙しくて。 S u m im asen ，isogashiku te. I’m sorry ，I ’v e b een busy.

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USE

KE5

〈 con versa tio n 〉 A:

バナナ、 どうして食べないの？ B anana, d oosh ite ta b en a i no? W h y d o n ?t y o u eat th e ban an a?

B:

だって、太るし。 Datte, futoru shi. B ecau se I’ll g e t fat.

Exp la n a tio n

DANGLING CONNECTIVES W h en exp ressin g y o u r opinion, it is ad visable to add, at th e end o f y o u r th ou ght, p h ra ses th a t w o u ld m in im ize a p ossib le n eg ative im ­ pact. O ne stra tegy is to ad d con n ectives. A d d in g con n ectives su ch as が or けど， a s in KE1 an d KE2, giv es th e im p ressio n th a t th e u t­ tera n ce is in com p lete or u n fin ish ed. U n fin ish ed sen ten ces ad d to a sen se o f o n e ’s b ein g op en to oth er options. B y avoid in g finality, th ese d an glin g con n ectives ren d er statem en ts less offensive.

ていうかAND THE LIKE A n o th er stra tegy is to ad d p h ra ses su ch a s ていうか， as sh ow n in KE3. T h e u t te r a n c e -fin a l ていうか carries a ton e o f yo u n g p eo ­ p le ’s con versa tion al style, b u t its u se h a s sp read am on g th e g e n ­ eral p o p u la tio n . ていうか ap p ea rs in v a ried colloq u ia l form s, su ch as ちゅか an d つうか.ていうか a void s a clear p resen ta tion o f y o u r th ou ghts, an d th erefore y o u soften th e im p a c t o f y o u r statem ent. ENDING W I T H て A N D たりして A s sh ow n in KE4, y o u m a y u se th e て fo rm to leave th e statem en t vagu e. B y n o t com p letin g th e sentence, th e m ea n in g is in d irectly suggested.

たりして p oin ts ou t one a ction re la ted to th e verb b u t w ith an im p lica tion th a t th ere are oth er options. T h is ad d s to th e v a g u e ­ n ess and to th e overa ll soften in g o f th e im pact. たりして is used, p a rticu la rly in y o u n g p eo p le ’s casu al speech, w h en th e op in ion ex­ p ressed cou ld be som eth in g u n exp ected or u n com fortab le to the partner. ending w ith

enumerative

し

し ap p ea rs as an u ttera n ce-fin a l expression, a s sh ow n in B ’s u t­ tera n ce in KE5. し is g ra m m a tica lly u sed w h e n com b in in g tw o or

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m ore clau ses to create a n enu m erative list (see section 10.2). B u t it can b e u sed sin g u larly at th e en d o f an u tteran ce, im p lyin g th at som e oth er in fo rm a tio n follow s. T h is in tu rn giv es th e im p ression th a t th e u tteran ce lin gers on. T h e u tteran ce b eco m es less fin a l and m ore a ccom m od a tin g to y o u r p a rtn er’s feelings.

13.7. Commenting on One's Own Speech K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

だから、明日持ってくるって言ってんだろ。 [blu n t style] D akara, a s h ita m otte-k u ru tte itte n daro. So I’m tellin g y o u th a t I’ll b rin g it tom orrow .

KE2

もう何度も同じことを申し上げております。 M oo n an d o m o on a ji k oto o m oosh iagete-orim asu . I ’ve told y o u th e sam e th in g m a n y tim es already.

KE3

うるさいなあ、わかってるって。 U ru sai naa, w a k a tteru tte. Y ou are g ettin g on m y nerves. I k n o w that, I’m tellin g you.

KE4

だからできないんだってば。 D a k a ra d ek in ai n d a tte ba. I ’m te llin g you , I c a n ’t do it.

KE5

あんな人に頼んだって、夕' メだっつうの！[blu n t style] A n n a h ito n i ta n on d a tte, dam e d a ttsu u no! I ’m te llin g you. T h e re ’s n o u se a sk in g him.

Exp la n a tio n

B v callin g atten tion to v o u r ow n w ord s, y o u q u alify y o u r speech. T h e effect m a y be em p h a sis or hesitation. H ere w e w ill focu s on the em ph a tic effect sim ilar to th e E n glish I 'm te llin g y o u ! an d T h a t's ⑴ hat /’m s a y in g ! U se th e u t t e r a n c e - fin a l ていうか in tro d u ced in section 13.6 for hesitation.

て言つてるだろ て言ってる7ころ‘I’m sayin g s o ’ an d th e m ore c o llo q u ia l て言ってんだ ろ are b lu n t expression s. S im ilar exp ression s are availa ble reflect­ in g v a rio u s p oliten ess levels, for exam ple, って言ってるんです，と申 し上げているんです， a n d と申し上げております.

240

USE

T h e s e p h ra ses com m u n icate in no u n certa in te rm s th a t y o u h ave a lrea d y m a de y o u r point. A s in KE1 an d KE2, th ey ad d em ­ p h a sis to y o u r w ords.

つて，つてば，A N D つつうの A s in KE3 an d KE4, in casu al situ ations, y o u n g sp ea k ers in p a r ­ ticu la r u se th e qu otation m a rk er って，op tion a lly ってば. T h e qu o­ ta tio n p h rase っつうの is also u sed at th e en d o f an u tteran ce, as in KE5. T o m a rk th e em ph a tic e ffe c t， y o u p ron ou n ce th ese p h rases clea rly an d strongly. N ote th a t th ese exp ression s ap p ear a s て，て

ば'， an d つうの im m ed ia tely follo w in g ん.

13.8. Sharing Thoughts as Feelings K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

〈c on versa tio n 〉 ミカって、彼のフアン？

A:

M ik a tte ， k are n o fan? M ik a ， are y o u h is fan? B

: そう。 もう結婚してって感じ。 Soo. M oo k ek k on sh ite tte kanji. T h a t’s right. I fee l lik e ， p lease m a rry me.

KE2

〈c on versa tio n 〉 A: ねえ、東京の大学ってどんな感じなの？ N ee ， T oo k y o o n o d aiga ku tte d on n a k a n ji n a n o? S a v， h o w do y o u feel? I m ea n ab ou t u n iversities in T okyo. B:

どんな感じって。別にフツウだよ。 D o n n a k a n ji tte. B etsu n i fu tu u d a yo. N oth in g in particular. T h e y ’re ordinary.

KE3

〈c on versa tio n 〉 A: でも、その計画、なんか、無理のような気がする。 D em o ，sono k eik a k u ， n a n k a ，m u ri n o y o o n a kigasuru . B u t th a t p ro je c t ，I fee l lik e it is im possible. B:

そうかなあ。 Soo k a naa. I w o n d er a b ou t that.

Conversation Management A:

241

絶望的って感じ。 Z etsu b ootek i tte kanji. It’s like, th ere is n o hope.

Exp la n a tio n

B y exp ressin g y o u r th ou g h ts as feelings, y o u solicit em pathy. B y m a k in g th em sou n d lik e y o u r feelings, th e u tteran ce b ecom es soft an d em otional. A s in B ’s u ttera n ces in KE1 an d in KE2, y o u m ay u se th e w o rd 感 （ かん）じ ‘feelin g s’ for th is p u r p o s e . 感じがする is an oth er strategy.

ような気がする A s in A ’s first u tteran ce in K E 3 , ような気がする ‘fee l like, I g e t the feelin g lik e ’ （or a casu al v e r s io n , みたいな気がする） can b e u sed to exp ress o n e’s th ou ghts. R ath er th a n u sin g 思 （ おも）う ‘th in k ’, w h en u sin g ような気がする， y o u exp ress th e th ou g h t w ith less com m it­ m ent, ap p ea lin g m ore to sh a red feelings. ような気がする is som e­ tim es u sed in a litera l sense. B u t even then, it su stain s th e sense o f an in d irec t em otion a l appeal.

13.9. Action-Accompanying Phrases K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

おじやまします。 O jam ashim asu . E xcu se me.

KE2

よいしょ。 Yoisho. H ere w e go.

KE3

ハイ、 どうぞ。 Hai, doozo. H ere it is.

KE4

何もかも、言ってしまおうよ。ハイ。 N ani m o kam o, itte-sh im aoo yo. Hai. T e ll m e everything. C om e now.

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USE

〈con versa tio n 〉 A: 誰から？

KE5

D are kara? W h o is g o in g to start? B:

オレ、行きます。 [m ascu lin e speech] Ore, ikim asu. I’n do it now.

Exp la n a tio n

WHEN VISITING SOMEONE T h e follo w in g exp ression s are som e o f th e m ore com m on p h rases y o u are lik ely to u se w h en v isitin g a Jap a n ese fam ily. 1 . A t th e door G u e s t : ごめんください。Hello, [lit. ‘E xcu se m e .’] Host: 2.

A s yo u en ter th e room Host: G uest:

3.

いらつしやい。 W elcom e.

こちらへどうぞ。 T h is w ay, please. おじやまします。 E xcu se m e. [said w ith a sligh t bow ]

W h e n y o u p resen t a g ift

つまらないものですが。 H ere’s som eth in g for you. 4.

W h e n d rin k in g or eatin g Host:

どうぞめしあがってください。 P lease h elp you rself.

G u e s t : ( では）いただきます。 [lit. ‘T h a n k you , I’ll h elp m y s e lf.’] 5.

W h en th in k in g a b ou t leavin g

そろ そ ろ 失 礼 （ しつれい）しますので。 I g u ess it ’s ab ou t tim e, I sh ou ld be leaving. 6.

W h e n y o u leave th e h o s t’s h om e

おじやましました。 E xcu se m e ___ UTTERING ACTION-ACCOMPANYING PHRASES

よいしよ in KE2 is said w h e n y o u do som eth in g p h y sica lly d em a n d ­ ing. You u se はい a s an a ffirm a tive answer. B u t in m a n y cases, は

い fu n ction s as a w o rd th a t p u n ctu a tes actions. For exam ple, w h en

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h a n d in g som eth in g over， y o u m igh t say ハイ、 どうぞ ‘H ere it is ’， as in KE3. ENCOURAGING YOUR PARTNER

はい also en cou ra ges th e con seq u en t a ctio n ， as in KE4. I f y o u are en cou ra gin g y o u r m e n d s to start c lea n in g， y o u m igh t say ハイ、そ うじ、はじめてください ‘C om e n o w ， start c lea n in g’. ANNOUNCING YOUR ACTION T h e verb 行く is u s e d ， as sh ow n in B ’s tu rn in KE5, w h e n d eclarin g y o u are ab ou t to ta k e an action. For exa m p le， w h e n y o u are abou t to ta k e y o u r tu rn in a g a m e ， y o u m a y say いい？行くよ ‘R eady? H ere I g o ’.

G raffiti

T w o exclam atory p h ra ses accom p a n y y o u r resp on se to w h a t is h a p p en in g ， th a t is ， th e specia l u se o f き た [lit. ‘it c a m e ’] an d でた [lit. ‘it a p p ea red ’]. For exa m p le， i f y o u ju s t took a sip o f b eer an d it is sh ock in gly g o o d ， y o u m igh t say このビール、きたーッて感じ ‘B o y ， th is b eer ，it’s g re a t’ [lit. ‘T h is b eer feels lik e it c a m e ’ ].きたーッ is an exa ggerated resp on se to an on com in g happening. I f y o u an d y o u r com p a n io n w ere ta lk in g a b ou t b aseb all an d i f h e b egin s h is favorite ta lk a b ou t イチロー， th en y o u m igh t com m en t

出たよ、イチローの話 ‘ H ere it com es， h is story ab ou t Ich iro ’ [lit. ‘It a p p ea red ，h is ta lk ab ou t Ich iro ’]. T h is exp ression ack n ow led ges y o u r p a rtn e r’s a ctio n as a n a ccep ta b le ，p red icta b le ，an d tolerab le action. B oth きた an d でた u sed in th is w a y are p rim a rily u sed by y o u th in casu al speech.

13.10. Postposing K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

行きますか、あしたの講演。 Ik im asu k a ，a s h ita no kooen. A re y o u g o in g ， to to m o rro w ’s lectu re?

KE2

似合ってるね、そのドレス。 N ia tteru n e ， son o doresu. Y ou look g o o d in it， th a t dress.

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USE

KE3

気をつけて、その、そこの花瓶。 K iotsu kete, sono, soko no kabin. B e carefu l, w ith th . . . th a t vase.

KE4

いやだなあ、そんなこと言って。 Iy a d a naa, s on n a koto itte. It?s em b a rra ssin g th a t y o u w o u ld say su ch a thing.

KE5

A:

悪かったね、突然来て。 W aru k a tta ne, totsu zen kite. Sorry, I cam e w ith ou t an appointm ent.

B:

大 歓 迎 ！ちょっと退屈してたし。 D aikangei! C h otto ta ik u tsu sh iteta shi. W elcom e! I w a s a b it b ored anyw ay, s o ___

KE6

うれしいです。あなたに会えて。 U resh ii desu. A n a ta n i aete. A m I glad. To see you.

Exp la n a tio n

FUNCTIONS OF POSTPOSING R ecall th e p referred ord er o f elem en ts in a sen ten ce (see section 8.14). T h a t ord er m a y b e in verted, an d certa in elem en ts m a y be p ostp osed for th e follo w in g reasons. 1 . T o ad d som eth in g afterw ard, p erh a p s re a lizin g th ere is a need to p rovid e ad d ition al in fo rm a tio n in th e p ostp osed phrase, as in KE1 an d KE2. 2.

W h e n th e p ostp osed p h rase is p ron ou n ced w ith p h on ologica l p rom in en ce, to focu s on th e p ostp osed elem ent, as in KE3.

PRIORITIZING ELEMENTS A n o th er w a y o f lo o k in g at p ostp o sin g is th e p rio ritizin g o f som e ele­ m en ts a t th e sen ten ce-in itia l position. W h en th is in version is used, u s u a lly it con veys a sen se o f u rgen cy in th a t th e elem en t p laced in th e in itia l p ositio n is urgent. For exam ple, w h e n th e sp eak er is em otion a l or excited, th e feelin gs com e first, an d th en la ter w h a t th e feelin gs are ab ou t is added, as in KE4 an d KE5. A s in KE6, y o u m a y d ela y th e m en tio n o f certa in in fo rm a tio n so th a t y o u r p artn er m a y focu s on th e p ostp o sed elem en t w ith a sen se o f suspense.

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INVERSION AS A NORM In som e cases, th e in version is th e norm . O ne g o o d exam p le is なに

そ れ ‘W h a t (the heck) is th a t!’， an exp ression o f surprise, criticism , an d often d isgu st (see section 11.8). A lth ou g h th is exp ression re ­ su lts fro m th e in version o f それはなに，なに is m ore im m ediate, and con seq u en tly th e in verted ord er h a s b ecom e th e norm .

13.11. Listener Responses K e y E xp re ssio n s

はい。 Yeah. U h-huh, I see. うん。 U h-huh. なるほど。 I see.

Exp la n a tio n

WHAT TO DO AS A LISTENER A s listeners, Jap a n ese d isp la y a g re a t d ea l o f feedback. J ap an ese listen ers sen d freq u en t h ea d n o d s an d m u ch en co u ra gin g b r ie f ch a tter called あいつち. Sending freq u en t あいづち is th ou g h t to be g o o d m anners. In gen eral, Jap a n ese listen ers sen d m ore th an tw ice as m a n y listen er resp on ses as A m erican s. WHEN TO S E N D あいづち Y ou r p a rtn er solicits あいづち b y u sin g fin a l p articles su ch as ね， exp ression s su ch as でしょ？， an d b r ie f qu estion s su ch as そ ぅ 思 （

おも）わない？ ‘d o n ’t y o u th in k s o ? ’ Y ou r p artn er m a y end h is or h er sp eak in g tu rn w ith a nod. T h a t is a g o o d m om en t to sen d y o u r あ

いづち. KINDS O F あし、 づち 1 . Conve yi ng con firm a tion

そうですか。 I see. そうですね。 T h a t’s right. やっぱり。 T h a t’s w h a t I thought. なるほど。 I see.

246 2.

USE

Showing one’ s attention うん。 U h - h u h . ふ 一 ん 。 I see. そ う 。 Right. は い 。 Yeah. え え 。 Yes.

3.

Expres s i n g reservations or d o u b t さあ。 Well.... (ま あ ）た ぶ ん 。 P e r h a p s ___ そ う で す か ね え ..... Well,I a m n ot s u r e ____ そ う ？ Really? そ う か な あ ..... I w o n d e r ____

4.

S h o w i n g surprise ええっ？What? ほ ん と ？ Really? う そ ！Y o u ’ re kidding! ま さ か ！ It c a n ’ t be. N o nsense!

13.12. Clarifying Trouble Spots K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ええ？ Ee? What?

KE2

はあ？ Haa? Uh?

KE3

あした八時に•••？ Ashita hachiji ni ...? T o m o r r o w at eight o ’ clock ...?

KE4

人事課って？ Jinjika tte? W h a t d o y o u m e a n b y jin jik a ?

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Exp la n a tio n

I DIDN'T QUITE HEAR YOU Y ou can u se ええ or はあ， w ith risin g in ton ation , to con vey th at y o u did n o t h ea r w h a t w a s ju s t said. T h e s e exp ression s give the im p ressio n th a t th e en u n cia tion on th e p a rt o f th e speak er w a s unclear, an d th erefore th e speak er is to blam e. U n less it is obviou s th a t th e p rob lem is o f p h y sical sou n d qu ality, th ese sh ort exp res­ sion s are to be avoided, esp ecially tow a rd y o u r m e u e person. ASKING FOR HELP Y ou can h ea r y o u r p a rtn e r’s speech, b u t y o u d o n ’t qu ite g e t it. T h e re are a fe w w a y s to ask y o u r p a rtn er to clarify. R epeat th e part y o u u n d ersta n d an d tra il off, as in KE3. A fa cia l exp ression sh ow ­ in g con fu sion w o u ld help. I f y o u are ab le to p in p oin t th e w o rd y o u did n ot u n derstan d, u se an exp ression su ch a s KE4. ASKING FOR REPETITION A s a la s t resort, i f y o u are u n a ble to u n d ersta n d at all, ask y o u r p artn er to speak slow ly or to rep ea t th e u tteran ce one m o re tim e. ( a ) すみません、もう少しゆっくりお願いします。 Sum im asen, m oo su k osh i y u k k u ri on egaish im asu . Sorry, b u t cou ld y o u sp eak a little m ore slow ly? ( b ) すみません、もう一度お願いします。 Sum im asen, m oo ich id o on egaish im asu . Sorry, b u t cou ld y o u rep ea t it one m ore tim e? REPAIRING YOUR SPEECH S om etim es y o u rea lize y o u ju s t m a d e a m ista k e in y o u r speech. H ere are som e w a y s to rep a ir th e errors. ( c ) 三本、あ、 じやなくて四本です。 Sanbon, a, ja n a k u te y o n h o n desu. T hree, I m ea n four, please. (d )

あ、ごめん。そういうんじやなくて。 A, gom en. Soo y u u n ja n a k u te. Sorry. T h a t’s n o t w h a t I m ean.

248

USE ( e ) ごめんなさい。私が言いたかったのは、中止するんじやなく

て、延期したらってことなんです。 G om enn asai. W atash i g a iita k a tta no w a, ch u u sh isu ru n ja n a k u te, e n k ish ita ra tte k oto n a n desu. I’m sorry. W h a t I w a n ted to say w a s n o t to ca n cel it b u t to p ostp on e it.

G raffiti

S om etim es y o u m a y n o t u n d ersta n d th e con ten t o f y o u r p a rtn e r’s speech, alth ou gh y o u fu lly u n d ersta n d Jap an ese. U se (f) to con ­ v ey th a t y o u d o n ’t re a lly u n d ersta n d w h a t y o u r p artn er is ta lk in g about. ( f ) 話、ぜんぜん見えないんですけど。 H anashi, zen zen m ien a i n desu kedo. I d on ’t h ave a clue w h a t y o u are ta lk in g about. T h e u tteran ce はい？（or はあ？） can be u sed to exp ress y o u r d isb elie f (except to w a rd y o u r m e u e person). In th is case y o u u n ­ d ersta n d w h a t y o u r p a rtn er said, b u t y o u are cau gh t u n prepared. (g)

〈con versa tio n 〉 : じゃあ、あしたもよろしくね。

A

Jaa, a sh ita m o yo ro sh ik u ne. T h e n I w ill see y o u a g a in tom orrow . B : はい？あしたって聞いてませんけど。 H ai? A s h ita tte k iitem a sen kedo. W h a t? I h a v en ’t h ea rd an yth in g a b ou t tom orrow .

13.13. Echo Questions and Responses K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

( 子供が走ってる。） 子供が走ってる？ (K odom o g a h ash itteru .) K odom o g a h ash itteru ? (A ch ild is ru nn in g.) D id yo u say, “A ch ild is ru n n in g ” ？

KE2

( なんで？ ） なんでって？ (N ande?) N ande tte? (W hy?) You say w hy, b u t___ (w h at do y o u m ean?)

Conversation Management KE3

249

( あきらめろよ。） あきらめろって........... (A k iram ero vo.) A k ira m ero tte ___ (G ive it up.) Y ou tell m e to give u p ___

KE4

( えっ？） えっじやないよ。 (Ett?) Ett ja n a i yo. (W hat?) D o n ?t say “W h a t.” Stop th a t nonsense!

Exp la n a tio n

ECHOING YOUR PARTNER'S UTTERANCE C om m en tin g on y o u r p a rtn e r’s sp eech b eco m es n ecessa ry for a va riety o f reasons. S im p ly rep ea t th e p artn er's u tteran ce w ith a ris­ in g tone, as in KE1. Y ou u se th is “echo qu estion ” w h en requ estin g cla rifica tion or con firm ation . ECHO QUESTIONS WITH と Echo qu estion s m a y also accom p a n y a qu otation m a rk er と，って， or て. Q u otation offers an im p o rta n t fu n ction here. For exam ple, as in KE2, b y sayin g なんでって？ ‘Y ou say なんで，b u t’， y o u ra ise the issu e o f y o u r p artn er ask in g なんで ‘W h y ’. A s in K E 3 ，an echo qu estion m a y fu n ctio n m e re ly as a n echo response. Y ou ta k e on a ph rase m en tion ed in yo u r p a rtn e r’s u tte r­ ance as y o u digest th e in form ation . O r y o u m a y rep ea t th e phrase as a p oten tia l top ic for w h ic h y o u m a y ad d fu rth er com m ent. In th is c a se， u se a fa llin g tone. RESPONDING WITH じゃなし、 A s in K E 4 ，w h en you disapprove o f w h a t you r partner says or does ， y o u can use じやない to deny it. In response to えっ？ ‘W h a t?’， for exam ple， you m ay ye ll out えっじやないよ ‘D on’t say “W hat” ’. It is a strong disapproval. You w ou ld use th is in angry resp on se to som eone else’s nonsensical utterance or behavior. H ere is another situation. (a)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : だって。 Datte. But. B : だって、 じゃねえよ。ちゃんと説明しろよ。 [blu n t style] D a tte， ja n e e yo. C h an to setsu m eish iro yo. D on ’t say “b u t.” E xp lain it to me.

CHA PTER 14

Gestures and Signals

In real-life com m u n ication , v erb a l sign s are in term in gled w ith m a n y n o n -verb a l signs. Som e o f th e n on -verb a l sign s carry specific m ean in gs, an d it is im p o rta n t to k n o w w h a t th ey m ean. In gen eral, w h e n th ere is a con flict o f in fo rm a tio n b etw een v erb a l an d n o n ­ v erb a l signs, w e take th e n on -verb a l sign m ore seriously. T h in k o f a situ a tion w h ere y o u are sayin g y o u are sorry. B u t inside, y o u are an gry an d b la m in g som eon e else. Y ou r ap ology w ill n o t com e across as sincere, even w h e n y o u rep ea t すみません an d ご

めんなさい m a n y tim es, u n less y o u r p ostu re is su bm issive. B ow in g an d castin g yo u r eye g a ze d ow n w ard are critical in th is situation. T h is ch apter exp lain s a fe w rep resen tative g estu res an d h an d sign als u sed in Jap a n ese com m u n ication . I p rovid e exp lan a tion s on ly here, b u t y o u sh ou ld p a y atten tion to th e v isu a l sign s ob serv­ able in m a n y sou rces (in clu din g In tern et W eb sites fea tu rin g J a p a ­ n ese g estu res an d h an d signals).

14.1. Gestures and Hand Signals 1 . No good C ross yo u r a rm s to fo rm an “X .” X refers to バツ， a sign in d ica tin g th a t som eth in g is bad, n o t good, u n accep tab le, n ot p erm itted , etc. 2.

No, th a t’s n o t it W ave y o u r h an d righ t an d left in fro n t o f y o u r face.

3.

G o aw ay Place y o u r h an d at th e tw o o ’clock p ositio n w ith th e b ack o f th e h an d fa c in g ou tw ard an d shake y o u r h an d o u tw ard in a qu ick m ovem en t, a s i f b ru sh in g som eon e off.

250

Gestures and Signals 4.

251

C om e over h ere W ith th e b a ck o f y o u r h an d fa c in g u p w ard , h o ld yo u r h a n d to th e level o f y o u r eye. T h e n shake y o u r h an d d ow n ­ w a rd tow a rd y o u r s e lf a fe w tim es.

5.

E xcu se m e for p a ssin g in fro n t o f y o u R ou n d yo u r b ack sligh tly as i f bow ing, m ove in fro n t o f th e p erso n apologetically. W h ile y o u do this, p u t one h an d u p in fro n t o f y o u (ab ou t th e le ve l o f y o u r w aist), w ith yo u r fin g ers togeth er an d th e th u m b up, an d g e n tly m ove it as if ch op p in g som ething.

6.

T o eat P reten d to h o ld a rice b ow l w ith yo u r left hand. B rin g y o u r righ t h an d to y o u r m o u th as y o u u se th e in d ex and m id d le fin g ers to form a p air o f chopsticks. M ove y o u r fin gers severa l tim es, im ita tin g th e m otion o f b rin gin g foo d to yo u r m outh.

7.

W ait, I refu se (to h ea r w h a t y o u ’re saying) R aise y o u r a rm in fro n t o f you , sligh tly b en d in g it, and sh ow th e p alm o f y o u r h an d to y o u r partner. T h e p a lm sh ou ld b e in th e u p righ t p osition , as i f stop p in g som eone.

8.

Y ou Poin t to y o u r p a rtn er w ith yo u r in d ex finger. A lth ou gh th is is con sid ered ru d e in th e U n ited States, gen era lly it is n ot in Japan. However, it is b est n o t to p oin t to y o u r m e u e p erson w ith yo u r in dex finger.

9.

Please, th is w a y Show th e p a lm o f y o u r h an d to th e oth er p erso n an d m o ­ tio n w ith it in th e d irection y o u w a n t to indicate.

10. A p p le polish in g, b u tterin g som eon e up R otate one fist on top o f th e op en p alm o f th e oth er hand. T h is m o tio n is u sed as y o u describe som eon e ( e . g . , あいつ、こ

れ だ ろ ‘You know , h e ’s this, an apple p olis h er’). 1 1 . Lovers For a fem a le lover (girlfriend, m istress), p oin t yo u r little fin g er u p w a rd (refer to [a] o f Figu re 3). For a m a le lover, pu t y o u r th u m b u p righ t (refer to [b] o f F igu re 3). T h e s e h an d g e s ­ tu res are n o t u su a lly u sed b y fem a le speakers. 12. M on ey M ake a circle w ith yo u r th u m b an d in dex finger, sim ilar to “okay” in A m erica, an d h o ld it h o rizo n ta lly (refer to [c] o f F igu re 3).

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USE

Figure 3.

Examples of hand gestures.

13. H o w ab ou t d rin kin g? E xten d y o u r th u m b an d in d ex finger, form in g a “C” (refer to [d] o f F igu re 3). P reten d yo u are h old in g a sm all sak e cup ( ちよこ) ， an d th en gestu re to d rin k from it. T h is is p rim a rily u sed b y m a le speak ers to in vite oth er m ale frien d s to g o ou t drinking. 14. I’m sorry Put b oth y o u r h a n d s fla tly togeth er in fro n t o f y o u r face. S om etim es y o u close y o u r eyes an d pose for a m o m e n t， often s a y i n g ごめんなさいo r お 願 （ ねが）い ！You u se th is gestu re w h e n eith er ap ologizin g or m a k in g a seriou s request. 15. Peace (strik in g a p ose w h e n ta k in g pictu res) T h e p ea ce sign is m a d e w ith th e in d ex an d m id d le fin gers sh a p ed as a “V ” an d fa cin g aw ay from you. U se th is sign n ot in th e litera l sen se b u t w h en strik in g a p ose for a photograph. Do n o t u se th is w h e n a fo rm a l p h otog ra p h is taken.

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253

14.2. Bowing and Postures 1 . B ow in g B ow in g ( おじぎ） is th e m ost com m on ly observed b od y p ostu re in Japan. From a sim ple qu ick b o w to a s low an d d eep one, b ow in g is u sed for m u ltip le purposes. Y ou m a y b o w for p u rp oses o f greetin g, th ankin g, an d apologizing. T h e d eeper b o w req u ires th e u p p er b od y to le a n forw a rd as lo w as 90 d egrees or even m ore (d ep en d in g on h o w d eeply yo u w a n t to s h o w resp ect), an d a qu ick b o w m a y be a sim ple n od-lik e acknow ledgm en t. W h en y o u b o w to y o u r m e u e p erson in form a l situations, y o u sh ou ld n o t ra ise y o u r h ea d too qu ickly, esp ecia lly n o t b efore th e m e u e p erso n does. B ow in g u sed for p a rtin g u s u a lly ta k es longer, an d yo u m igh t k eep on b ow in g i f y o u r m e u e p erso n ta k es leave b efore 2.

you. S ittin g on th e floor

正座（ せいざ） 正/坐 is th e fo rm a l w a y o f sittin g on th e floor. Sit on y o u r k n ees w ith yo u r legs tu ck ed u n d er you. T h is is th e p roper w a y o f sittin g in a たたみ room . O ften yo u w ill be sittin g on a

座（ ざ）ぶとん cu sh ion in stea d o f th e たたみ itself. S ittin g in th e 正座 p ositio n for h ou rs is p ain fu l even for m a n y Jap an ese. T h e legs fall asleep an d y o u m a y n o t be able to stan d u p w ith ou t help. K n ow in g this, often th e h ost w ill say, “ P lease p u t y o u r s e lf at ease.” T y p ic a lly th e h ost w ill use

足（ あし）をくずしてくださいo r 楽 （ らく）になさってください. T h a n k in g th e host, i f y o u are a m ale, assu m e th e In d ian -style p ositio n called あぐら （see below ). I f y o u are a fem ale, sit dow n w ith legs lo o sely fold ed to one side.

あぐら あぐら is a rela xed w a y o f sittin g on th e floor. Sit dow n w ith legs crossed, assu m in g an In d ian sittin g p ositio n (or sim ilar to th e lotu s p ositio n in Yoga). あぐら is n o t reco m ­ m en d ed for w om en. 3.

B ow in g on th e floor T h e m ost su b servien t p ostu re a J ap a n ese p erso n w ou ld m a ke is 土下座（ どげざ) . Kneel w ith th e u p p er b od y b en t over th e knees. Place b oth yo u r h a n d s on th e floo r in fron t o f you.

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USE

Low er y o u r h ea d u n til it is alm ost to u ch in g th e floor. T h is is a p ostu re to s h o w deep resp ect or th e m ost seriou s apology. It exp resses th e d eepest rem orse. Y ou p erfo rm 土下座 w h e n the d eep est b o w is n o t satisfactory. U su a lly yo u are exp ected to p u t y o u r h ea d to th e g ro u n d an d k eep it th ere u n til th e other p erso n tells yo u to raise it.

14.3. Special Hand Movements 1 .

じゃんけん W h en ra n d o m ly selectin g a p erso n for som e p u r p o s e , じ ゃんけん is th e m ost freq u en tly u sed m ethod. A lth ou gh じゃ んけん is k n ow n in m a n y cou n tries, its freq u en t u se am on g Jap a n ese is som eth in g to b e noted. B y form in g rock, scissors, an d p a p er w ith yo u r hand, y o u s h o w y o u r h an d at th e sou n d o f ぽん. U su a lly th e sequ ence starts w ith 最 初 （ さいしょ）はグー ‘L et’s start w ith a ro c k ’， an d th en everyon e calls ou t じゃんけ

んぽん。 R ock w in s over scissors b ecau se it can cru sh them . S cissors cu t paper, so th ey w in over paper. B u t p ap er w in s over rock b ecau se it can cover it.

グー チョキ ノパー

ro ck (fist) scissors (form a “V ” w ith in d ex an d m id d le fingers) p ap er (open hand)

2 . 指 （ ゆび）きり 指きり is an action p erfo rm e d togeth er b y tw o p eople m a k in g p ro m ises an d vow s. B y h o ok in g o n e ’s little fin g er to th e p a rtn er’s little finger, th e tw o con n ect to each oth er and p ro m ise to h on or w h a tever th e y vow . T h e tw o m a y sin g a son g th a t g o e s 指きりげんまん、 うそ言（ い）つたら、針 千 本 （ はりせん

ぼん）飲 （ の）ま す ‘W e are m a k in g p rom ises; i f y o u b rea k them , I w ill m a ke y o u sw a llow one th o u sa n d n e e d le s ’.

14.4. Eye Contact J ap a n ese do n o t n o rm a lly fix a d irect ga ze on th e eyes o f th e p erson to w h o m th ey are talking. A lth ou g h y o u are exp ected to look into y o u r p a rtn e r’s eyes from tim e to tim e, su stain ed eye con tact is an exp ression o f con fron tation or suspicion. A vo id lo o k in g con sta n tly in to th e eyes o f yo u r Jap a n ese listener. A s a listener, y o u shou ld

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255

also avoid too m u ch eye contact. E sp ecially i f th e speak er is y o u r social superior, starin g in to h is or h er eyes con sisten tly is con sid ­ ered rude. Look to w a rd th e speak er an d cast y o u r eyes in th e g e n ­ eral a rea o f th e speak er's n eck an d sh ou ld ers as y o u lo o k in to h is or h er eyes from tim e to tim e. O f cou rse, n ot lo o k in g in to th e p a rtn er’s eyes at all is n o t a g o o d idea. I f y o u con sta n tly avert y o u r eyes from y o u r p a rtn e r’s an d n ever look in to them , y o u g ive th e im p ressio n th a t y o u are restless an d p erh a p s u n w orth y o f trust. Y ou m igh t reca ll th e Jap a n ese w o rd s for social su p eriors (i.e., m^eue [lit. ‘ab ove eye le v e l’]) an d social su b ord in ates (i.e., m e s h ita

[lit. ‘b e lo w eye le ve l’]). T h e d irection o f o n e ’s ga ze reflects social status: from th e low er p ositio n lo o k in g u p tow a rd m e u e an d from th e h igh er p ositio n lo o k in g d ow n to w a rd m e s h ita . T h e righ t to gaze freely is g ra n ted to socia l superiors. A con tin u ou s g a ze is m ore p e r ­ m issib le from h igh er to low er eye level (i.e., from m e u e to m e s h ita ) b u t n o t v ice versa.

14.5. Head Nods and Shakes A s y o u en cou n ter Jap a n ese speakers, y o u w ill n ote th eir freq u en t h ea d bobbing. Y ou w ill w itn ess Jap a n ese p eop le ta lk in g on th e cell p h on e w h ile n o d d in g frequ en tly. H ead n od s h ave b ecom e so n a tu ­ ra l th a t Jap a n ese a ren ’t even aw are th ey are n odd in g. In gen eral, J ap a n ese sp eak ers and lis te n e rs n o d alm ost th ree tim es m ore th an th eir A m erica n cou nterparts. H ead n o d s from y o u r lis te n in g p artn er fu n ctio n a s lis te n e r re ­ sponses, gen era lly in d ica tin g th a t he or she is listening. T h e y can m ea n “y e s ” i f u sed in a con text w h ere su ch an an sw er is an option. N ods are freq u en tly u sed b y sp eak ers as w e ll (ab ou t on e-th ird o f h ea d n o d s observed in casu al con versa tion are m a de b y sp eak ­ ers). M ost freq u en tly su ch n od s are u sed for em p h a sis or to in d i­ cate th e en d o f o n e ’s u tteran ce or (and th is is im portant) th e en d o f on e’s sp eak in g turn. M ost in teresting in the Japan ese head n od d in g phen om en on is the jo in t an d synchronic n od s o f the speaker and the listener. T h ey are often repeated tw o to three tim es, as i f the tw o are p erform in g a h ead-bobbin g dance together. T h ese jo in t an d rhythm ical n o d s en­ h ance the em path y an d togeth ern ess betw een conversation partners. In gen eral, h ea d sh a k es are u sed to con vey d en ials an d n e g a ­ tive answ ers.

CHA PTER 15

Rhetorical Figures of Speech

15.1. Metaphors K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

男は狼だ。 O toko w a ooka m i da. M an is a wolf.

KE2

人生の花。 J in sei no hana. Flow er o f life.

KE3

氷のように冷ややか。 K oori n o y o o n i hiyayaka. C old a s ice.

KE4

シャボン玉のように消えた恋。 S h ab on d am a no y o o n i k ieta koi. Love th a t en d ed lik e bubbles.

Exp la n a tio n

UNIVERSAL METAPHORS Som e m eta p h ors are u n iversa l across la n gu a ges an d cultures. For exam ple, cold a s ice is ea sily u n d erstood a cross m a n y cultures. T h e re are tw o typ es o f m eta p h oric exp ression s in J apan ese. T h e sim ile u ses m arkers, su ch as ような ‘it is lik e ’，まる で ‘it is as if, an d み た い ‘it resem b les’. M etaphor, in a tech n ica l sense, is a stra igh tforw ard lin k in g w ith ou t th ese m arkers. H ere w e u se the te rm “m eta ph or” in a b ro a d sense.

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Rhetorical Figures o f Speech

257

FLOWER METAPHORS Perh aps one o f th e m o s t cu ltu rally specific m eta p h ors in J ap an ese is 花 （ はな）‘flo w er’， th e ch erry b lossom in particular. M etaphoric id iom s an d exp ression s in clu d e th e follow ing. ( a ) 高嶺の花。 T a k a n e no hana. Flow er on a h igh peek. (u n realizab le desire, an u n ob tain a b le object) ( b ) 花に嵐。 H an a n i arashi. B lossom s b rin g storm s. (the tra n sien t n atu re o f glory, as sym b olized b y ch erry b lossom s b low n to th e gro u n d b y sp rin g storm s) ( c ) 花より団子。 H an a y o ri dango. S w eets are p referred to flow ers. (com ica lly cap tu rin g h u m a n nature: alth ou gh ch erry b lossom s are b eau tifu l, p eop le p refer food) ( d ) 人生に花を咲かせる。 J in sei n i h a n a o sakaseru. T o b rin g b lossom s (glory, success) to o n e ’s life. ( e ) 花を持たせる。 H an a o m otaseru . T o let som eon e h ave flow ers (i.e., glory). In a ll th ese exa m p les , イ 匕sym b olizes som eth in g great, b ea u ti­ ful, gloriou s, an d spectacular. Flow ers, esp ecially ch erry blossom s, sym b olize th e tra n sien t n a tu re o f beauty, glory, an d life itself. MORE OR LESS POPULAR METAPHORS Som e m eta p h ors ap p ea r freq u en tly an d b ecom e overu sed cliches. T h e y b ecom e p a rt o f th e v oca b u la ry an d are n o lo n g er con sidered m eta p h oric expression s. B ecau se o f th e u b iq u itou s n a tu re o f the m etaphor, it is im p o rta n t th a t y o u b ecom e fa m ilia r w ith som e m et­ ap h ors th a t Jap a n ese sp eak ers like. In creative w ritin g, it is u p to y o u to com e u p w ith som e in n ova tive m etaphors.

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15.2. Tautology K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

勝ちは勝ち。 K achi w a kachi. V icto ry is victory.

KE2

仕方ないさ。子供は子供だから。 S h ik a ta n ai sa. K odom o w a kod om o d a kara. W h a t can y o u do? C h ild ren are children.

Exp la n a tio n

T au tology is an oth er rh etorical stra tegy u sed across langu ages. W h en a sen ten ce is con stru cted as [A is A], b ecau se it p oin ts ou t som eth in g too obvious, its seem in g m ea n in glessn ess d em a n d s a sp ecia l in terp retation . I f [A is A] is ob viou sly th e case, w h y is the speak er sayin g so? T a u to lo g y is a device to em ph asize that, no m a tter w hat, the fa ct is [A is A]. For e x a m p le , 勝 （ か）ちは勝ち ‘V icto ry is v ic to ry ’ d e­ n ie s th e p o ssib ility th a t a victory m a y be con sid ered an yth in g else an d d ecla res th a t n o m a tter w h a t p eop le think, n o m a tter w h a t the situ a tion m a y be, th e victory can n ot be denied. FUNCTIONS OF TAUTOLOGY In con versation , b ecau se ta u tology is u sed to em ph asize th e fact th a t A is n o th in g bu t A, y o u are often shu t o ff from con tin u in g on th e sam e topic. T h e stron g ton e o f fin a lity com m u n icates th a t the speak er refu ses to rep ea t th e p oin ts alrea d y m ade. W ith th is u n ­ d en iab le assertive force, ta u tolo gy o ffers th is effect o f finalization. (a)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A: あいつ、反貝lj しただろ。 [m ascu lin e speech] A itsu , h a n sok u sh ita daro. He b rok e th e rules. B : まあな。 [m ascu lin e speech] M aa na. I guess. A

: きたねえな。 [blu n t style] K itan ee na. T h a t’s unfair.

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B : でも、勝ちは勝ち。オレの負け。 [m ascu lin e speech] D em o, k a ch i w a kachi. O re n o m ake. B u t v icto ry is victory. I lost. A : そうだけどさ。 Soo d a k edo sa. T h a t’s so, but. B : 負けは負け。人生ってそんなもんだよ。 M ake w a m ake. J in sei tte s on n a m o n d a yo. D efeat is defeat. Life is lik e that. EXTENDED PATTERNS In ad d ition to [A is A], th e follo w in g v a ria tio n s are u sed for tautology. ( b ) 好きだから好き。 Suki d a k a ra suki. I love h er b eca u se I love her. ( c ) やるときはやる。 Y a ru to k i w a yaru. W h en I do it, I do it w ith d eterm ination . ( d ) いいものはいい。 Ii m on o w a ii. G ood th in gs are good, n o m a tter what. TAUTOLOGY AS A SILENCING STRATEGY B ecau se o f its u n d en ia b le assertive force, ta u tolo gy m a y b e u sed to sh u n fu rth er discu ssion. For exam ple, w h e n yo u r p artn er m en ­ tion s th a t v a rio u s th in gs are in volved, y o u m a y ask w h a t th ose v a r ­ iou s th in gs are, as in いろいろって？ ‘W h a t do y o u m ea n b y va riou s th in g s ? ’ Y ou r p artn er m a y an sw er いろいろはいろいろたよ ‘V ariou s th in gs are v a rio u s th in g s ’. A lth ou gh th is is n ’t a n answer, it fu n c­ tion s as an answ er, s to p p in g fu rth er discussion. CREATIVE USES OF TAUTOLOGY T a u to lo g y m a y be crea tively used. If y o u h ea r an exp ression such as 風 （ かぜ）は 風 ‘w in d is w in d ’, for exam ple, at first it m a y n o t m ake sense. B u t it is n o t d ifficu lt to th in k o f a situ a tion w h ere a state­ m en t lik e th is d oes m a ke sense. If y o u are try in g to fly a k ite an d realize th a t y o u can n ot con trol th e w in d, th en y o u m igh t say, “Well, w in d is w in d .” It em p h a sizes th e u n con trollab le n a tu re o f wind.

260

USE

15.3. Humor and Puns K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

冬休みは、南半球へ。 レッツ豪。 F u yu yasu m i w a, m in a m i h a n k yu u e. R ettsu goo. T o th e S ou th ern H em isp h ere d u rin g w in ter vacation. L et’s go to Au stralia.

KE2

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : きみ、教養あるねえ。いつから？ Kim i, k yooyoo aru nee. Itsu kara? Y ou are w ell-ed u cated, a ren ’t yo u ? Since w h en ? B:

今日よ。 Kyoo yo. Since today.

Exp la n a tio n

A s in m a n y oth er cu ltu res, h u m or is im p o rta n t in N ih o n g o for en ­ h a n cin g frien d lin ess an d intim acy. Hum or, how ever, is one o f the m ost d ifficu lt th in gs to le a rn in a foreign langu age. T h e stu d en t o f a foreign lan gu age m u st n o t on ly u n d ersta n d th e con ten t o f a m essage, b u t also, m o re im portant, ap p reciate th e cu ltu ral an d lin gu istic b ack grou n d b efore a p p reciatin g its hum or. I f y o u can la u g h sim u ltan eou sly w ith n a tive sp eak ers w h e n som eon e m a k es a h u m o ro u s statem ent, it is a sign th a t y o u h ave lea rn ed th e la n ­ gu age well. THE WONDER OF HOMOPHONES T y p ic a l Jap a n ese h u m or com es from しやれ ‘p u n s ’. P u n s are m ade w ith h om oph on es, w o rd s th a t h ave th e sam e sound. B ecau se J a p ­ an ese is rich in h om oph on es, th ere are en d less p u n s th a t y o u can com e u p with. O f cou rse, w h e n y o u tran sla te p u n s in to English, th ey n o lo n ­ g er function. H ere are exp lan a tion s o f th e p u n s giv en in th e Key E xpressions. 1 . 冬休みは、南半球へ。 レッツ豪。 T h is is a p u n b etw een th e E n glish exp ression le t !s go, p a rt o f w h ich is w ritte n in カタカナ， an d th e sou n d o f ゴー，

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w h ic h is a p a rt o f th e A:a^/i com p ou n d 豪 州 （ ごつしゅう）‘A u s ­ tr a lia ’. It is a h ea d lin e th a t a d vertises A u stra lia n tou rism . 2 . きみ、教養あるねえ。いつから？今日よ。 T h is is a p u n on th e w o rd 教 養 （ きょうよつ）‘w e ll-ed u ca te d ’ an d 今 日 （ きよう）よ ‘it ’s to d a y ’， w h ic h sou n d alike. ANOTHER PUN H o w ab ou t one m ore pu n? (a)

〈con versa tio n 〉 A : このぼうし、どいつんだ。 K ono b o o s h i， d oitsu n da. W h ose h at is this? B : おらんだ。 O ra n da. It’s m ine.

どいつ an d おらんた. T hese p h ra ses h ave d ou ble m ea n in g s ，どいつ（ドイツ） m ea n in g ‘w h o s e ’ an d ‘G e rm a n y ’， an d おらんだ（ オフンダ） m ea n in g ‘m in e ’ an d ‘H ollan d ’. N ote th e h om op h on e b etw een

Y ou can create p u n s lik e th is one an d see i f n ative J ap an ese sp eak ers w ill g e t them . USING PROVERBS AND OTHER EXPRESSIONS AS SOURCES Som e p u n s u se p roverb s an d com m on id iom s as th eir source. For exa m p le， com pa re (b) an d (c). ( b ) 茶で食う飯も好き好き。 C h a de k u u m esrn m o su k i zuki. T h ere is no accou n tin g fo r th e k in d o f g re e n -tea -o ver-rice d ish p eop le prefer. ( c ) 蓼食う虫も好き好き。 （ proverb) T a d e k u u m u sh i m o su k i zuki. T h e re ’s n o accou n tin g fo r tastes. Som e p refer nettles. B eca u se (b) sou n d s very sim ilar to th e w ell-k n o w n p roverb (c )， a ty p ica l Jap a n ese p a rtn er w o u ld k n o w th a t (b) is a p u n b ased on (c). It in co rp o ra tes th e m ea n in g o f th e origin al p ro ve rb ，b u t (b) sp ecifies th a t p eop le lik e (or dislike) v a rio u s k in d s o f おちやづけ， a b ow l o f rice con sistin g o f d ifferen t con d im en ts and g reen tea.

262

USE

FOUR-LINE RIDDLES AND PUNS T h e re is a fo u r-lin e rid dle th a t p la ys on th e pun. T h is p a ttern takes on th e q u estion -an sw er in tera ction b etw een tw o people. T h e p u n in (d)

w o rk s b etw een あき ‘tired n es s ’ an d 秋 ‘fa ll s ea so n ’， w h ich sou n d

th e sam e excep t for a d ifferen t pitch. (d)

くcon versa tio n 〉 : あたらしいブーケの香、とかけて何と解く？

A

A ta ra sh ii b u u k e no k a o ri， to k ak ete n an to toku? W h a t p u n can y o u com e up w ith for “n e w fragran ce o f flow ers ” ？ B : 常夏の島、ハワイと解く。 T ok o n a ts u no sh im a ， h a w a i to toku. I’ll go w ith “etern a l-s u m m e r-is la n d ，H aw ai‘i.” A : その心は？ Sono k ok oro w a? H ow so? B : あきが来ない。 A k i g a konai. Y ou n ever g e t tired o f th e fragran ce (as th e fa ll season n ev e r com es to H a w a i‘i).

15.4. Irony and Sarcasm K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

お偉方 oeraga ta th e so-called g re a t p eop le [lit. ‘g re a t an d resp ected p eo p le ’]

KE2

ご立派 g o rip p a n o t so g re a t [lit. ‘e xtrem ely fin e ’]

KE3

俺の顔に泥を塗ってくれて、ありがとうよ。 [m ascu line speech] O re n o kao n i doro o n u tte-k u rete， arigatoo yo. Thanks for d ish on orin g me! [lit. ‘T h a n k s for p ain tin g m y face w ith m u d .’]

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Exp la n a tio n

T h e iron ic (or sarcastic) u se o f lan gu age is universal. In each la n ­ gu age, certain exp ression s an d stra tegies are u sed as sign als for sarcastic in terpretation . Iron y an d sarcasm are in ten d ed to d en y litera l m ea n in g in a colo rfu l way. U ltim a tely th e speak er con veys another, often op p o­ site, m ea n in g an d attitude. IRONY AND SARCASM IN CONTEXT In ord er to con vey iron ic (or sarcastic) intent, th e sp eak er m u st sen d sign als th a t w o u ld con trad ict th e lite ra l m ea n in g o f w h a t he or she is saying. For exam ple, a lth ou gh on th e su rface one m a y be sayin g ありがとう ‘th a n k s ’， th e ton e o f voice an d fa cia l exp ression m a y n ot in d icate g en u in e thanks. A s im p o rta n t is th e con text in w h ich ありがとぅ is uttered. I f a situ a tion d oes n o t call for it an d in fa ct th e situ a tion calls for an opp osite reaction , a sp eech is lik ely to be in ten d ed as sarcasm . KE3 is su ch a case. T h in k o f a situ a tion w h ere y o u an d y o u r date en d u p ta k in g care o f a d ru n k iriend. Y ou m igh t engage in a sarcastic conversation. (a)

〈con versa tio n 〉 : よっぱらいの面倒見て、終わっちやった。すご一く印象的 なデートだったね。

A

Y op p a ra i no m en doo m ite, ow at-chatta. S u gook u insh o o tek in a deeto d a tta ne. T a k in g care o f th e drunk, an d ou r date w a s over. It w a s a re a lly im p ressive date, righ t? B : 超ロマンチックだった！ C hoo ro m a n ch ik k u datta! It w a s su p er rom antic! MARKERS FOR IRONY AND SARCASM A m o n g d evices th a t sign al iron y, exa ggeration is th e m o s t p ro m i­ nent. You m a y use extra ord in a rily exa ggerated vocab u la ry, exa g­ g era ted in ton ation , le n g th en e d vow els, an d repetition, w h ich are n o rm a lly unnecessary. In E nglish, in d eed is often iron ic as in (c). (b)

It’s a lo ve ly d ay for a picnic.

(c)

It’s a lo ve ly d ay for a picnic, indeed.

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USE

In J ap an ese, excessively p olite style fu n ction s as a sign al for irony. P h rases su ch as お偉方 an d ご立派， giv en as KE1 an d KE2, are ty p ica lly u sed for iro n ica l expression. (d)

くcon versa tio n 〉 A : また、お偉方が何人か見学に来るらしいよ。 M a ta ， o era ga ta g a n an n in k a k en ga k u n i k u ru ra sh ii y 〇. A g a in ， th ose “g re a t an d resp ected ” on es are com in g to observe us. B : いやになつちやうね。難しい実験の最中なのにさ。 Iy a n i n at-ch au ne. M u zu ka sh ii jik k e n n o saich u u n a n o n i sa. O h ，b o y ，th a t’s too bad. W e are in th e m id dle o f d if­ ficu lt exp erim en ts ， y o u know.

N ote th a t in th e case o f iro n y or s a rca sm ， p ositive exa ggeration resu lts in n eg ative m eaning. T h is con tra sts w ith th e case o f tea s­ in g ， w h ere often exp ression s con vey in g n eg ative m ea n in gs tu rn out to b e p ositive in nature. For exa m p le， th in k o f お偉方， u sed as s a r ­ ca s m ，an d ハ カ ‘a fo o l ’ ，u sed as a tease. UNCONTESTABLE INTERACTION Iron ic com m en ts m a k e it d ifficu lt to com e u p w ith a cou n tera rg u ­ m ent. For exa m p le， y o u r boss at w o rk p oin ts ou t th a t a form y o u

しょる filled in h a s m a n y m istakes. I f h e p oin ts it ou t b y この書類（ い) 、 ミスたらけだねえ‘T h is form h a s m a n y m ista k es’， y o u m a y offer som e excuse. B u t i f y o u r b oss s a y s この書類、本 当 （ ほんとう）にミ

スがないねえ ‘B o v ， th is form h a s a b solu tely n o m ista k es ，in d e e d ’ ， y o u w o u ld p ro b a b ly o ffer n o excuse. Iron ic exp ression s fu n ctio n to n u llify an y retort.

15.5. Idioms and Proverbs K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

ごますり。 G om asuri. S esam e grinding. (a p p le-p o lish in g， b u tterin g som eon e u p ， overtly flatterin g ，su ck in g up to on e’s superiors)

Rhetorical Figures o f Speech KE2

265

草分け。 K usaw ake. P artin g th e grass. (lead in g th e w ay, g o in g w h ere n o one h a s gon e before, pion eering)

KE3

井の中の蛙、大海を知らず。 I n o n a k a no kaw azu , ta ik a i o shirazu. A fro g in th e w e ll d oesn ’t k n o w th e sea. (a p rovin cial, one w h o h a s n ever seen th e w orld)

KE4

寄らば大樹の陰。 Y o ra b a ta iju no kage. S eek shelter in th e shade o f a b ig tree. (secu rin g solid p rotection , h a v in g frien d s in h igh places)

Exp la n a tio n

Id iom s an d p ro verb s are closely a ssociated w ith cu ltu ral values. B ecau se th ey are u b iq u itou s in speech an d w ritin g, it is im p orta n t th a t y o u fam iliarize y o u r s e lf w ith a fe w exam ples. ( a ) あいつ仕事はまったくできない。ごますりだけで出世した.やつ

なんだ。（R efer to th e h an d sign a l m en tion ed in section 14.1.) A itsu shigoto w a m a tta k u dekinai. G om asu ri dake de sh u ssesh ita y a ts u n a n da. He c a n ’t re a lly ach ieve an yth in g at h is job . He g o t ah ead on ly b y apple-polishing. ( b ) あの先生は、 日本語教育では草分け的な方ですよ。 A n o sen sei w a, n ih on go k y o o ik u de w a k u sa w a k etek in a k a ta desu yo. T h a t teacher, sh e is a p ion eer in J ap a n ese lan gu age pedagogy. ( c ) 自分の意見を持たずに、寄らば大樹の陰で周囲に合わせてばか

りいる。 J ib u n n o ik en o m ota zu n i,y o r a b a ta iiu n o k age de shu u i n i aw asete b a k a ri iru. He h a s n o op in ion o f h is ow n, an d he g o e s a lon g w ith p eop le in h ig h places, a lw ays p rio ritizin g (his) security.

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USE

USING WELL-KNOWN PHRASES In ad d ition to id iom s an d p roverb s, u n iversa lly recogn iza b le ex­ p ression s ap p ea r in everyd ay speech. B y qu otin g th e w o rd s v e r ­ b atim or b y ch a n gin g som e ju s t en ou gh to m a ke th em in teresting, y o u can ach ieve a sp ecia l effect. For exam ple, d raw in g from th e ex­ p ression T o be, o r n,ot ^o b ^ : t h a t is th e q u e s tio n from Shakespeare^s H a m le t, y o u m igh t u se th e follow ing.

( d ) 言うべきか、言わざるべきか、それがね。 Y u u b ek i ka, iw a za ru b ek i ka, sore g a ne. S h ou ld I say, or sh ou ld I not; th a t’s th e issue. ( e ) 買うべきか、買わざるべきか。迷っちやってね。 K au b ek i ka, k a w a za ru beki ka. M ayot-ch atte ne. S h ou ld I buy, or sh ou ld I not. I ju s t c a n ’t m a ke up m y m ind.

15.6. Yojoo, the Lingering Effect Key Expressions KE1

私は降りしきる雨の中に立っていた。止みそうもない雨の中 に。 W atash i w a fu rish ik iru am e no n a k a n i tatteita. Y a m isoo m o n a i am e n o n a k a ni. I w a s stan d in g in th e h ea vy rain. In th e ra in th a t d id n ’t seem to stop.

KE2

あの人は、帰ってくると言った。 私は、その言葉を信じている。 帰ってくる。 どんなことがあっても。 きっと帰ってくる、と......... A n o h ito wa, k a ette-k u ru to itta. W atash i w a, son o k o to b a o shm iiteiru. K aette-kuru . D o n n a koto g a atte mo. K itto k aette-k u ru , to ___ H e said h e w o u ld com e back. I b elieve in th ose w ords. H e ’ll com e back. No m a tter what. H e ’ll su rely com e b a c k ___

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Exp la n a tio n

余情（ よじよう） 余情 is a k in d o f rh etorical effect often ack n ow led ged an d d iscu ssed in J a p a n ese literature. A lth ou gh th e 余情 effect is u su a lly lim ited to th e k in d o f w ritin gs th a t w o u ld aim for a classic litera ry tone, its im p orta n ce ca n n ot b e ignored.

余 情 litera lly m ea n s a rem ain in g, lin gerin g, or su stain ed fee l­ ing. It is y o u r em otion al exp erien ce triggered b y im a ges created th ro u gh rea d in g certain k in d s oi in direct, often im plicit, w ritin gs. S tu dy th e la st sen ten ces in KE1 an d KE2. INTERPRETING 余情 W h en in terp retin g 余情， th e f0110w in g asp ects are involved. 1 . Sustained visu a l im a ges 2.

E m p a th y tow a rd th e w o rld crea ted b y th e w ritin g

3.

Im a ges a ssociated w ith ch a racters an d th eir feelin gs

4.

E m p a th y tow a rd th e w rite r’s th ou g h ts an d p h ilosop h y

EXPRESSIONS USED FOR 余情 For th e 余情 effect, y o u u se th e f0110w in g strategies. 1 . P ostp osin g 2.

G ra p h ologica l m a rk s su ch a s lin es w ith ellip ses or d ash es

3.

Past ten se

4.

M etap h or an d sim ile

5.

S im ple an d ap p rop ria tely sh ort sen ten ces

6.

D etached, d istan ced w ritin g style

CHA PTER 16

Discourse Organization

16.1. Three-Part Organization K e y E xp re ssio n s

KE1

はじめ • なか•おわり hajim e, naka, ow ari b egin n in g, m iddle, end

KE2

序 論 • 本論•結論 jo ro n , honron, k etsu ron in trod u ction , m a in point, con clu sion

Exp la n a tio n

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ORGANIZATION W h en yo u com bin e m u ltip le sen ten ces, y o u create discourse. M u l­ tip le sen ten ces are tied togeth er to com m u n icate a m ean in gfu l com m en t or argu m en t, an d th ey are con n ected b y v a rio u s m eans. T h e y are u su a lly stru ctu ra lly orga n ized to form a coh esive w hole. T h e basic an d u n iversa l p rin cip le o f orga n ization is th e threep art stru ctu re, th a t is, a b egin n in g, m iddle, an d end. In logical term s, th ey are th e in trod u ction , th e m a in point, an d th e conclusion. O bviou sly, n o t all d iscou rse is orga n ized th is w ay, b u t it is u sefu l to th in k o f d iscou rse in th ese th ree p a rts an d to u n d erstan d d iscou rse in te rm s o f th is structure. N ote th a t th e con clu sion ap p ea rs at th e end. In J ap a n ese w rit­ ing, m o re often th a n not, th e b egin n in g does n o t su ggest w h a t the con clu sion m igh t be. T h is sh ow s a sharp con trast w ith E nglish w ritin g, w h e re in m a n y cases th e con clu sion is m e n tio n ed or su g­ g ested a t th e v e ry beginning. W h en readin g, alw ays lo o k for the im p o rta n t p oin t to w a rd th e en d o f th e discourse.

268

Discourse Organization

269

SAMPLE DISCOURSE W h a t follo w s con sists o f th ree sen ten ces rep resen tin g each o f the th ree elem ents. (はじめ b egin n in g ( a ) 仕事が忙しいとき、休憩をとらないとミスが多くなる。 Shigoto g a isog ash ii toki, k y u u k ei o to ra n a i to m isu g a ooku naru. W h en y o u are busy, i f y o u d on ’t ta k e a break, y o u ’ll m ake m ore m istakes.

な か m id dle ( b ) そんなときこそ、ゆっくりお茶を飲むとよい。 S on n a to k i koso, y u k k u ri o ch a o n om u to yoi. T h a t’s th e tim e y o u sh ou ld ta k e it easy an d d rin k te a slowly.

おわり end ほんの数分の気分転換が、心身をリラックスさせてくれる。

(c )

H onno su u h u n n o k ib u n ten k a n ga, sh in sh in o rirakk u su sasete-ku reru . C h an gin g vo u r attitu d e for a fe w m in u tes rela x es yo u r b od y an d m ind.

16.2. Ki-Shoo-Ten-Ketsu, the Four-Part Organization Explanation 起承転結（ きしょうてんけつ）is a fo u r-p a rt orga n ization a l p rin cip le in Japan ese. It origin ates in fou r-lin e C h in ese p oetry an d is fre­ qu en tly referred to in J a p a n ese as a m o d el rh etorical stru ctu re o f exp ository (and other) w riting. ORGANIZATION

起（ き） T o p ic p resentation : P resen tin g th e top ic a t th e b egin n in g o f o n e ’s argu m en t

承（ しょう） T o p ic d evelopm ent: F ollow in g 起， d evelop in g th e top ic fu rth er

転（ てん） S u rprise turn: A fter th e d evelop m en t o f th e top ic in 承，

270

USE i n t r o d u c in g s u r p r is e e le m e n t s in d ir e c t ly r e le v a n t to , r e la t e d to , o r c o n n e c t e d w i t h

結（ けつ）C o n c lu s io n :

起

T y i n g a ll o f t h e e le m e n t s t o g e t h e r a n d r e a c h ­

i n g a c o n c lu s io n

Example

起 忙しくて人生を楽しむ余裕がない人が増えている。 I s o g a s h ik u t e j i n s e i o t a n o s h im u y o y u u n o n a i h it o g a fu e t e ir u . P e o p le w h o a r e t o o b u s y t o e n jo y lif e a r e o n t h e r is e .

承 確かに現代人は朝から晚まで走りまわっている。 T a s h i k a n i g e n d a ijin w a a s a k a r a b a n m a d e h a s h ir i- m a w a t t e ir u . It is t r u e t h a t p e o p le t o d a y a r e o n t h e g o fr o m m o r n i n g t i l l n ig h t .

転 ところで、車で動きまわると、歩くのと違って、周りの景色を味わう とができない。 T o k o r o d e , k u r u m a d e u g o k im a w a r u to , a r u k u n o t o c h ig a t t e , m a w a r i n o k e s h ik i o a n w a u k o t o g a d e k in a i. B y t h e w a y , ii y o u d r iv e a r o u n d , a s o p p o s e d t o w a lk in g , y o u c a n ­ n o t e n jo y t h e s u r r o u n d in g s c e n e r y .

結 人生もそれと同じで、時間をかけないと、本当に大切なものを見逃して しまう。 J i n s e i m o s o r e to o n a ji d e , j i k a n o k a k e n a i to , h o n t o o n i t a is e t s u n a m o n o o m in o g a s h it e - s h im a u . L ife is t h e s a m e ; u n le s s y o u t a k e t h e t im e , y o u w i ll m is s t h e t r u ly im p o r t a n t t h in g s . I n t h i s e x a m p l e ,転 o f f e r s a s u r p r is e t u r n , s o m e t h in g u n r e la t e d t o p e o p l e ’s b u s y l i v e s . 転 in t r o d u c e s t h e t o p ic o f d r iv in g a ca r. B u t w h en w e rea d

結， w e

r e a liz e t h a t d r iv in g a c a r i s a n a n a lo g y le a d in g

t o t h e c o n c lu s io n . T o o b u s y a life , s im ila r t o t h e c a s e o f d r iv in g a c a r a n d n o t w a lk in g , w o u ld r e s u lt in m is s in g t h e i m p o r t a n t t h in g s . C O N C L U S I O N AT THE END S t r u c t u r in g t h e c o n c lu s io n t o a p p e a r t o w a r d t h e e n d o f t h e d is ­ c o u r s e e x h ib it s a s t r ik in g c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e E n g lis h d e d u c t iv e w r i t ­

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ing style. Deductive writing presents its thesis s t a t e m e n t (or c o n ­ clusion, opinion, or view) in the initial position. In J a p a n e s e discourse often the conclusion is only suggested at the b e ginning a n d t h e n p r esented m o r e clearly at the very end. Y o u m u s t b e patient w h e n reading J a p a n e s e writing. O f course, y o u c a n a l w a y s j u m p a h e a d to the very e n d to find the conclusion.

16.3. Paragraph Organization Exp la n a tio n

段落（ だんらく）

IN JAPANESE

The 段 落 ‘ p a r a g r a p h ’in J a p a n e s e is similar to a n English p a r a ­ g r a p h b u t differs in s o m e i m p o r t a n t ways. In English, the topic sentence (placed at the initial position of the paragraph) is expect­ e d to specify the topic. It is expected to contain the writer^s opinion or position, a n d it often provides a clue for c o m p r e h e n d i n g the entire paragraph. T h e conc e p t of 段 落 in J a p a n e s e r e m a i n s less clear. A l t h o u g h the idea of a topic sentence is a d v o c a t e d in education, in reality, 段 落 m a y b e in f o r m only. T h e topic sentence m a y be nonexistent or m a y only suggest the overall m e s s a g e . Y o u m a y find d a n r a k u -n k e short c h u n k s wit h o u t a significant m e s s a g e . T h e s e are called 形 式 段 落 （ けいしきだんらく） ，p a r a g r a p h s in f o r m only, a n d a p p e a r fre­ quently in essays. J a p a n e s e 段 落 is graphologically m a r k e d b y a line c h a n g e a n d a n indention of o n e character space. T Y P E S OF

段落

D e p e n d i n g o n h o w a specific 段 落 contributes to the overall m e a n ­ ing of a discourse, the following types are recognized. 1 . Introductory 段 落 （ introduces the p u r p o s e or the topic of the discourse or expresses the point of v i e w or position of the writer) 2. B a c k g r o u n d 段 落 （ provides b a c k g r o u n d for points m a d e elsewhere) 3. E x a m p l e 段 落 （ offers e x a m p l e s a n d cases related to the m a i n point) 4. M a i n 段 落 （ discusses the m a i n point of the discourse) 5. C o n n e c t i n g 段 落 （ c o n n e c t s o n e 段 落 to ano t h e r 段 落 s m o o t h l y b y offering transitions)

272

6.

USE

S u p p le m e n t a r y

段 落 （a d d s

BASES FOR

段落

or a d d s a

DIVISION

W h e n s h o u ld y o u s t a r t a n e w

1 . Start a n e w

段落 段落）

to t h e p r e c e d in g

s lig h t ly d if f e r e n t a n g le to t h e p r e c e d in g

段落 w h e n

段落？H e r e

a r e s o m e s u g g e s t io n s .

s w it c h in g t o p ic s .

I n f o r m a t io n r e la t e d t o s p e c ific t h e m e o r t o p ic D e s c r ip t io n o f t h e t im e , p la c e , e v e n t , c h a r a c t e r s , o r a c t io n s P e r s o n s b e in g q u o t e d 2.

S ta rt a n e w

段落 w h e n

s w it c h in g t h e p o in t o f v i e w t o w a r d t h e

t o p ic s . N e w i s s u e s (e .g ., q u e s t io n s r a is e d ) N e w c la im s o r p o in t s o f v i e w D i ff e r e n t p o s it io n s a n d v i e w s (e .g ., o p p o s it io n , c r it ic is m ) T r a n s i t i o n t o a n e w s t a g e o f a r g u m e n t (e .g ., e v id e n c e , s u p ­ p o r tin g a rg u m e n t)

16.4. Topic Structure and Staging Exp la n a tio n M u lt ip le s e n t e n c e s w it h t o p ic s o p e r a t e t o g e t h e r a n d o r g a n iz e a h i ­ e r a r c h ic a l n e t w o r k o f t o p ic s in d is c o u r s e . I n a t o p i c a l n e t w o r k , t h e m a in d is c o u r s e t o p ic o p e r a t e s a s a p iv o t a l p o in t o f r e f e r e n c e , p r o ­ v i d i n g t h e s t a r t in g p o in t fo r t h e r e la t e d t o p ic s . A s a r e a d e r , o n e s t r a t e g y y o u c a n u s e i s t o t r a c e p h r a s e s m a r k e d b y t o p ic m a r k e r s su ch as

は a n d も （a m o n g

o t h e r s ).

T O P I C S CR E A T I N G H I E R A R C H I C A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N I n t h e d is c o u r s e b e lo w , y o u c a n s e e h o w t o p ic - m a r k e d p h r a s e s c o n s t r u c t a h ie r a r c h ic a l o r g a n iz a t io n . B y t r a c in g t h o s e t o p ic s , y o u c a n s e e h o w t h e o v e r a ll in f o r m a t io n is o r g a n iz e d .

(a) ( a 1 ) 色はいろいろな感情を呼び起こす。（ a 2 ) 赤は情熱。（ a3)

白 は清らかさ。（ a 4 ) ブルーは落ち着き。（ a 5 ) それぞれの色の特徴を生 かして利用することができる。

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( a 6 ) また、色の組み合わせも利用できる。（ a 7 ) 黒と黄色は、は

っきり目につく。（ a 8 ) そのため、道路標識に使われる。 ( a 9 ) このように色は私たちの生活に役立っている。 Ir o w a ir o i r o n a k a n jo o o y o b i- o k o s u . A k a w a jo o n e t s u . S rn ro w a k iv o r a k a s a . B u r u u w a o c r n ts u k i. S o r e z o r e n o ir o n o t o k u c h o o o ik a s h it e r iy o o s u r u k o t o g a d e k ir u . M a t a , ir o n o k u m ia w a s e m o r iy o o d e k ir u . K u r o t o k iir o w a , h a k k ir i m e n i t s u k u . S o n o t a m e , d o o r o h y o o s h ik i n i ts u k a w a re ru . K o n o y o o n i ir o w a w a t a s h it a c h i n o s e ik a t s u n i y a k u d a t t e ir u . C o lo r e v o k e s v a r i o u s fe e lin g s . R e d is p a s s io n . W h it e is p u r it y , a n d b lu e is c a lm n e s s . W e c a n t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f e a c h c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f c o lo r . W e c a n u s e c o m b in a t io n s o f c o lo r s a s w e ll. B la c k a n d y e l ­ l o w c a t c h o n e 's a t t e n t io n . B e c a u s e o f t h a t , t h e y a r e u s e d fo r t r a f f ic s ig n s . I n t h is w a y c o lo r i s u s e f u l t o o u r liv e s .

I n t h i s p ie c e o f w r it in g , t h e f o l l o w i n g p h r a s e s a r e m a r k e d a s t o p ic s . A n d t h e y f o r m t o p ic a l h ie r a r c h y a s s p e c ifie d b e lo w .

色（ いろ）は in

(a 1 ) (o v e r a ll t o p ic , c o lo r )

(in d iv id u a l c o lo r s )

赤（ あか）は in (a 2 ) (s u b - t o p ic , r e d ) 白（ しろ）は in (a 3 ) (s u b - t o p ic , w h it e ) ブル'— は i n (a 4 ) (s u b - t o p ic , b lu e ) ( c o m b in a t io n o f c o lo r s ) i n (a 6 )

黒（ くろ）

and黄色（ きいろ） i n (a 7 ) (s u b - t o p ic , b la c k a n d

y e llo w )

色は

in (a 9 ) (o v e r a ll t o p ic , c o lo r )

S E L E C T I N G T O P I C S A ND S T A G I N G G e n e r a lly , in f o r m a t io n

a lr e a d y k n o w n

and

s h a r e d b e tw e e n th e

c o m m u n ic a t io n p a r t n e r s i s l ik e ly t o b e c o m e t o p ic s . H o w e v e r , n o t a ll s h a r e d it e m s b e c o m e t o p ic s . T h e c h o ic e i s b a s e d o n t h e w r it e r 's a n d s p e a k e r 's “ s t a g in g s t r a t e g y .” I u s e th e te rm

“ s t a g in g s t r a t e g y ” m e t a p h o r ic a lly t o m e a n a

d ir e c t o r 's d e c is io n o n h o w t o p r e s e n t c h a r a c t e r s o n a t h e a t r ic a l s t a g e . S im ila r t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e a s s ig n e d t o d if f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r s o n

274

USE

a s t a g e , t h e d e c is io n t o m a k e c e r t a in it e m s t o p ic s o r n o n - t o p ic s o f­ fe r s f o r e g r o u n d in g (a n d t h r e a d - s u s t a in in g ) o r b a c k g r o u n d in g (n o n ­ t h r e a d - s u s t a in in g ) e ffe c t s . T h e it e m s m a r k e d w i t h t o p ic m a r k e r s o f f e r in f o r m a t io n t h a t s u s t a in s t h e t h r e a d , a s d o m a in c h a r a c t e r s a n d im p o r t a n t is s u e s . I n t h e f o llo w in g e x a m p le , b o t h in f o r m a t io n . B u t o n ly m ark er

は

サヤ

サヤ

and

ヒロ

c o n s t it u t e s h a r e d

c o n t in u e s t o b e m a r k e d w it h t h e t o p ic

a n d b e c o m e s t h e d is c o u r s e t o p i c .

c h a r a c t e r s u s t a in in g t h e p l o t .

ヒロ

サヤ

fu n c t io n s a s a

is a n im p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r b u t

d o e s n o t s u s t a in t h e t o p ic a l t h r e a d . M e t a p h o r ic a lly ，サヤ r e m a in s o n s ta g e th ro u g h o u t b u t

ヒロ

is s p o t lig h t e d o n ly w h e n in t r o d u c e d .

(b )

サヤとヒロはクラスメート。サヤはいつも明るい。 ヒロが時 々、いじわるをする。でもサヤはあまり気にしない。 サヤはひそかにヒロに恋している。今日もヒロがサヤをからか う。でも、サヤはそれを楽しんでいるのだ。 S a y a t o H ir o w a k u r a s u m e e t o . S a v a w a it s u m o a k a r u i. H ir o g a t o k id o k i, ijiw a r u o s u r u . D e m o S a y a w a a m a r i k in is h in a i. S a y a w a h is o k a n i h ir o n i k o is h it e ir u . K y o o m o H ir o g a S a y a o k a r a k a u . D e m o , S a y a w a s o r e o t a n o s h in d e ir u n o d a . S a y a a n d H ir o a r e c la s s m a t e s . S a y a is a lw a y s c h e e r ­ fu l. S o m e t im e s H ir o g e t s n a s t y t o w a r d h e r. B u t S a y a d o e s n ’t m in d . S a y a i s s e c r e t ly i n lo v e w i t h H ir o . T o d a y a g a in , H ir o t e a s e s S a y a . B u t S a y a i s a c t u a lly e n jo y in g it.

16.5. Topic Chaining and Thread of Discourse Exp la n a tio n C H A I N I N G SE NT EN C ES TO CREATE THE T HR EA D T o p i c m a r k e r s o f fe r o v e r t c lu e s a s t o h o w t h e n a r r a t iv e p lo t o r t h e t h r e a d o f a d is c o u r s e d e v e lo p s . T o p i c s m a y c o n s is t o f t h e a g e n t (t h e p e r s o n in v o lv e d ) o r t h e n o n - a g e n t (t h e is s u e in v o lv e d ). A n id e n t i­ c a l i n i t i a l s e n t e n c e c a n b e d e v e lo p e d t h r o u g h d if fe r e n t t h r e a d s a s s h o w n b e lo w .

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275

A G E N T - T O P I C THR EA D E x a m p le (a ) s e le c t s “ m y fr ie n d ” a s a t o p ic . T h e t o p ic m a r k s t h e it e m s t h a t s u s t a in t h e t h r e a d o f d is c o u r s e . N o t e and

彼女

私の友達

i n (a 1 )

in (a 4 ). A ls o t o b e n o t e d is t h e d e le t io n o f t o p ic in (a 2 ) a n d

(a 3 ). (a) ( a 1 ) 私の友達は、 うそをつく。 (a 2 )

しかも、重大なことに関してうそをつく。

( a 3 ) 別に悪いことだとは思っていないらしい。 ( a 4 ) 彼女は、反省も後悔もしない。 W a ta s h i n o t o m o d a c h i w a , u s o o ts u k u . S h ik a m o , j u u d a i n a k o t o n i k a n s h it e u s o o t s u k u . B e t s u n i w a r u i k o t o d a to w a o m o t t e in a i r a s h ii. K a n o jo w a , h a n s e i m o k o o k a i m o s h in a i. M y fr ie n d lie s . B e s id e s , s h e li e s a b o u t im p o r t a n t t h in g s . It s e e m s s h e d o e s n ’t t h i n k i t ’s b a d . S h e d o e s n ’t r e p e n t o r r e g r e t it.

N O N - A G E N T - T O P I C T HREAD I n t h e f o llo w in g d is c o u r s e , “ t e l l i n g lie s ” is s e le c t e d a s a t o p ic , a n d it m a in t a in s t h e t h r e a d o f d is c o u r s e . P a y a t t e n t io n t o

そをつくの in

(b 2 ), a n d

うそ in

うそ in

(b 1 ),ぅ

(b 4 ).

(b )

私の友達は、 うそをつく。 2 ) うそをつくのは、間違っている。 3 ) なるべく避けるべきだ。 4 ) しかし、時と場合によっては、 うそは不必要な争いを避 けるのに役立つ。

( b i ) (b (b (b

W a ta s h i n o t o m o d a c h i w a , u s o o ts u k u . U s o o t s u k u n o w a , m a c h ig a t t e ir u . N a ru b e k u s a k e ru b e k i da. S h ik a s h i, t o k i t o b a a i n i y o t t e w a , u s o w a fu h it s u y o o n a a ra s o i o s a k e r u n o n i y a k u d a ts u .

276

USE M y fr ie n d lie s . T e l l i n g lie s i s w r o n g . O n e s h o u ld a v o id it a s m u c h a s p o s s ib le . H o w e v e r , d e p e n d in g o n t h e t im e a n d s it u a t io n , lie s a r e u s e f u l t o a v o id u n n e c e s s a r y c o n flic t .

Sample Poem B y u s in g t o p ic c h a in in g , I w r o t e t h e f o llo w in g p o e m . Y o u c a n f o l l o w h o w th e c o n c e p t of

追（ みち）‘r o a d ’

i s t h e t h r e a d fo r t h e f l o w o f t h e

p o e m . E a c h lin e is c h a in e d to t h e n e x t b y t h e s h a r e d t o p ic , w h ic h f o r m s t h e o v e r a ll d is c o u r s e t o p ic .

(c)

道 地平線までまっすぐ伸びた一本道。 道の先には何があるのか。 道の先は、また道かもしれない。 ただ、ここから見えるこの道は 大きな空に届いている。 確かにこの道の先は、無限の可能性を秘めた 遠いどこかに続いている。 M ic h i C h ih e is e n m a d e m a s s u g u n o b i t a ip p o n m ic h i. M ic h i n o s a k i n i w a n a n i g a a r u n o k a . M ic h i n o s a k i w a , m a t a m ic h i k a m o s h ir e n a i. T a d a , k o k o k a r a m ie r u k o n o m ic h i w a o o k in a s o r a n i t o d o it e ir u . T a s h ik a n i k o n o m ic h i n o s a k i w a , m u g e n n o k a n o o s e i o h im e t a t o o i d o k o k a n i t s u z u it e ir u .

Road A s t r a ig h t s in g le r o a d r e a c h in g t h e h o r iz o n . W h a t lie s a h e a d fo r t h is r o a d ? It m a y c o n t in u e o n b e y o n d . E x c e p t th is r o a d I c a n s e e fr o m h e re r e a c h e s to th e e x p a n s e o f th e sk y. F o r s u r e , t h e e n d o f t h i s r o a d e x t e n d s s o m e w h e r e fa r t o w h e r e l i m it le s s p o s s ib ilit ie s lie .

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16.6. Discourse Markers Exp la n a tio n D is c o u r s e m a r k e r s a r e p a r t ic le s , c o n n e c t iv e s , a d v e r b s , a n d i d io m ­ a t ic p h r a s e s t h a t o v e r t ly s p e c ify d is c o u r s e o r g a n iz a t io n . A t le a s t f iv e d if fe r e n t k in d s o f o r g a n iz a t io n a l m a r k e r s a r e a v a ila b le , a s l is t ­ e d b e lo w .

1 . T o p i c m a r k in g (a )

和食といえば、やはりすしですかね。 W a s h o k u t o ie b a , y a h a r i s u s h i d e s u k a n e . S p e a k in g o f J a p a n e s e c u is in e , a s e x p e c t e d , s u s h i i s t h e b e s t.

( b )

自殺は現在の日本では、深刻な問題となっている。 J is a t s u w a g e n z a i n o n i h o n d e w a , s h in k o k u n a m o n d a i to n a t t e ir u . S u ic id e h a s b e c o m e a g r a v e is s u e in t o d a y ’s J a p a n .

2.

T o p i c d e v e lo p m e n t ( c )

それでは、次の点にしぼって考えましょう。 S o r e d e w a , t s u g i n o t e n n i s h ib o t t e k a n g a e m a s h o o . N o w l e t ’s f o c u s o n t h e f o llo w in g p o in ts .

(d )

次に、みなさんのご意見をお聞きしたいと思います。

[s u p r a -

p o lit e s t y le ] T s u g in i, m in a s a n n o g o i k e n o o k ik is h it a i t o o m o im a s u . N e x t, I w o u ld lik e t o h e a r y o u r o p in io n . 3.

T o p i c s h ift in g ( e )

ところで、大阪に行った上田さんのことですが。 T o k o ro d e , O o s a k a n i itta U e d a -s a n n o k o to d e s u ga. B y t h e w a y , a b o u t M r. U e d a , w h o w e n t t o O s a k a .

( f )

さて、本題に入りたいと思います。 S a te , h o n d a i n i h a ir it a i t o o m o im a s u . N o w I w o u l d lik e t o g e t t o t h e m a in p o in t.

4.

S e q u e n c in g ( g )

まず、問題のありかをはっきりさせよう。 次に、いくつか解決の可能性を考えよう。 最後に、一番いい解決策を決めよう。

278

USE M a z u ， m o n d a i n o a r i k a o h a k k ir i s a s e y o o . T s u g in i, i k u t s u k a k a ik e t s u n o k a n o o s e i o k a n g a e y o o . S a ig o n i, ic h i b a n i i k a ik e t s u s a k u o k im e y o o . F ir s t , l e t ’s fin d o u t w h e r e t h e p r o b le m lie s . N e x t, l e t ’s t h i n k o f a f e w p o s s ib le s o lu t io n s . F in a lly ， l e t ’s d e c id e o n t h e b e s t s o lu t io n .

5.

G e n e r a l c o n c lu s io n (h )

本当に勉強するつもりで大学に来る者は少ない。つまり、多く の学生たちは勉強以外の目的で、来ているのである。 H o n t o o n i b e n k y o o s u r u t s u m o r i d e d a ig a k u n i k u r u m o n o w a s u k u n a i. T s u m a r i, o o k u n o g a k u s e i- t a c h i w a b e n k y o o ig a i n o m o k u t e k i d e , k i t e ir u n o d e a r u . O n ly a f e w s t u d e n t s c o m e t o t h e u n iv e r s it y t o s t u d y . In o t h e r w o r d s , m a n y s t u d e n t s c o m e t o t h e u n iv e r s it y w i t h a p u r p o s e o t h e r t h a n s t u d y in g .

PART VI

Genres

CHA PTER 17

Genre Appreciation

17.1. Genre Categories W r it t e n d is c o u r s e in t h e Nih^ongo w o r l d is c a t e g o r iz e d in t o a n u m ­ b e r o f g e n r e s . F ir s t , I w i ll d iv id e g e n r e s b a s e d o n t h e ir p u r p o s e , t h a t i s , ( 1 ) t o c o n v e y in f o r m a t io n , (2 ) t o p e r s u a d e , a n d (3 ) t o s t ir t h e e m o t io n s .

1 . T o c o n v e y in fo rm a tio n

報道文

ほうどうぶん

n e w s p a p e r a r t ic le s , m a g a z in e a r t ic le s , r e p o r t s

記録文

きろくぶん

r e p o r t s b a s e d o n o b s e r v a t io n (e .g ., o f e x p e r im e n t s , n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a , d is a s t e r s )

案内文

あんないぶん

in v it a t io n s , a n n o u n c e m e n t s , a n d

通信文

つうしんぶん

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , le t t e r s , e - m a il,

b u lle t in s

t e x t m e s s a g in g

報告文

ほうこくぶん

r e p o r t s o f f ie ld r e s e a r c h o r

公用文

こうようぶん

o f fic ia l d o c u m e n t s , fo r m s , le t t e r s ,

o b s e r v a t io n

a n d d o c u m e n t s u s e d fo r o f fic ia l p u rp o s e s b y th e g o v e rn m e n t

日記文

にっきぶん

d ia r ie s , r e c o r d s o i a p e r s o n ’s liie (m a y fa ll in t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f l it e r a r y w o r k s w h e n t a k in g t h e f o r m o f e s s a y s o r n o v e ls )

紀行文

きこうぶん

t r a v e lo g u e s , t r a v e l d ia r ie s , w r it in g s o f t r a v e l e x p e r ie n c e s (m a y b e c o n s id e r e d l i t e r a r y w o r k s )

281

282

GENRES

2. To p e rs u a d e

論文

ろんぶん

a c a d e m ic t h e s e s , s c h o la r ly

評論文 書評 解説文 意見文 広告文 論説文

ひょうろんぶん しよひよう かいせつぶん いけんぶん こうこくぶん ろんせつぶん

c r it ic is m s

a r t ic le s

b o o k r e v ie w s c o m m e n t a r y , a n a ly s is o p in io n p ie c e s a d v e r t is in g e d it o r ia ls

3. T o s n r th e e m o tio n s

詩歌 随筆 戯曲 童話 民話 小説 短編小説 推理小説

しいか ずいひつ ぎきょく どうわ みんわ しょうせつ たんぺんしょうせつ すいりしょうせつ

p o e t r y , w a A :a (o r t a n k a ) ，hafA:u essays p la y s n u r s e r y s t o r ie s , f a i r y t a le s fo lk t a le s n o v e ls s h o r t s t o r ie s m y s te r y n o v e ls

I n t h e p u b lis h in g i n d u s t r y g e n r e s a r e o f t e n d iv id e d in t o t h r e e d if f e r e n t g r o u p s : ( 1 ) b o o k s , (2 ) m a g a z in e s , a n d (3 ) c o m ic s . I lis t s o m e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e c a t e g o r ie s . J .本

（ ほん）S ooA :s F ic t io n

じゅんぶんがく 純文学 歴史小説 れきししようせつ たいしゆうしようせつ 大衆小説 ミステリー•サスペンス ロマンス エッセー•随筆 ずいひつ

l i t e r a r y n o v e ls h is t o r ic a l n o v e l s c o m m e r c ia l n o v e l s m y s te ry , s u s p e n s e r o m a n c e n o v e ls essays

N o n - fic tio n

人文•思想

じんぶん•しそう

h u m a n it ie s ,

社会•政治 歴史 •地 理 ビジネス•経済

しやかい•せいじ れきし•ちり けいざい

s o c ie t y , p o lit ic s h is t o r y , g e o g r a p h y

語学•辞書

ごがく•じしょ

la n g u a g e ,

th o u g h t

b u s in e s s , e c o n o m ic s

d ic t io n a r ie s

Genre Appreciation

283

2 .雑誌（ さっし） M a g a z in e s

求人•キャリア きゅうじん 女性ファッション•ライじょせい フスタイル 男性ファッション•ライだんせい フスタイル 健康情報 けんこうじょうほう 出産•子育て しゅっさん•こそだて

e m p lo y m e n t , c a r e e r w o m e n ’s fa s h io n a n d lif e s t y le s m e n ’s ia s h i o n a n d lif e s t y le s h e a lt h in f o r m a t io n c h ild b e a r in g a n d r e a r in g

料理•グルメ

りょうり

c o o k in g , g o u r m e t

音楽•映画 テレビ•芸能

おんがく•えいが げいのう

m u s ic , m o v ie s

e a t in g

t e le v is io n , e n t e r t a in m e n t

3 . コ ミ ッ ク C o m ic s B a s e d o n th e re a d e r

少年コミック 少女コミック レディースコミック 成人向けマンガ

しょうねん しょうじよ

b o y s ’ c o m ic s g i r l s ’ c o m ic s l a d i e s ’ c o m ic s

せいじんむけ

a d u lt c o m ic s

B a s e d o n th e th e m e

スポーツマンガ ファンタジーマンガ ホラーマンガ

f a n t a s y c o m ic s

S F

s c ie n c e f i c t i o n

s p o r t s c o m ic s

h o r r o r c o m ic s

c o m ic s

学園マンガ 恋愛マンガ 歴史マンガ

がくえん れんあい れきし

s c h o o l c o m ic s lo v e c o m ic s h is t o r y c o m ic s

17.2. Mixing Genres A lt h o u g h I in t r o d u c e d s p e c ific g e n r e s in t h e p r e c e d in g s e c t io n , d if­ f e r e n t g e n r e s a r e o f t e n j u x t a p o s e d a n d in t e g r a t e d . I n fa c t , i f y o u c a r e f u lly s t u d y J a p a n e s e d is c o u r s e , y o u w i ll fin d t h a t i t m o s t ly c o m b in e s m u lt ip le g e n r e s . M ix in g g e n r e s i s o n e o f t h e m a n y r h e t o r ic a l a n d e x p r e s s iv e m e a n s a v a ila b le i n a n y la n g u a g e . B y in t r o d u c i n g d if f e r e n t g e n r e s in t o d is c o u r s e , y o u a r e a b le t o e x p lo it t h e m fo r m a x im u m e ffe c t . F o r e x a m p le , o b s e r v e t h e f o llo w in g d is c o u r s e , in w h i c h s t o r y ­ t e l l i n g a n d d e s c r ip t iv e w r i t i n g a r e m ix e d .

284

GENRES

㈨

むかしむかし、あるところに、7 0 歳を過ぎてもみんな健康 で、野良仕事をする村があったそうな。 この村とは、長野県の小さな村。そしてそこは、 日本一そばが おいしいことで知られる村である。村民は、そば粉だけからつくら れた真っ黒のそばを一日に一度は必ず食べるのだ。 M u k a s h i m u k a s h i , a r u t o k o r o n i , n a n a j u s s a i o s u g it e m o m i n n a k e n k o o d e , n o r a s h ig o t o o s u r u m u r a g a a t t a s o o n a . K o n o m u r a to w a ， N a g a n o k e n n o c h iis a n a m u r a . S o s h it e s o k o w a , n i h o n ’ic h i s o b a g a o is h ii k o t o d e s h ir a r e r u m u r a d e a r u . S o n m in w a , s o b a k o d a k e k a r a t s u k u r a r e t a m a k k u r o n o s o b a o ic h in ic h i n i i c h i d o w a k a n a r a z u t a b e r u n o d a . T h e y s a y t h a t o n c e u p o n a t im e , s o m e w h e r e , t h e r e w a s a v illa g e w h e r e p e o p le o v e r s e v e n t y w e r e a ll h e a lt h y a n d w o r k e d o n t h e la n d . T h i s v illa g e i s a s m a ll p la c e in N a g a n o P r e fe c t u r e . A n d it i s k n o w n a s t h e p la c e t h a t p r o d u c e s t h e m o s t d e lic io u s s o b a i n J a p a n . O n c e a d a y w it h o u t ia il, t h e v illa g e r s e a t t h e s e b l a c k n o o d le s , m a d e o n ly fr o m p u r e s o b a flo u r .

I n (a ), t h e fir s t s e n t e n c e c o n s t r u c t s a n a r r a t iv e m o d e . T h e s t o ­ r y t e llin g m o d e i s p a r t ic u la r ly e v id e n t i n t h e i n i t i a l p h r a s e s

むかし、あるところに

むかし

‘o n c e u p o n a t im e , s o m e w h e r e ’. A s y o u k n o w ,

fo lk t a le s t y p ic a lly b e g i n t h i s w a y . T h e h e a r s a y m a r k e r

そぅな

ap­

p e a r in g a t t h e e n d o f t h i s s e n t e n c e i s u s e d e x c lu s iv e ly w h e n n a r ­ r a t in g a s t o r y . T h e s e c o n d

段落（ /こんらく）

s w it c h e s t o a d e s c r ip t iv e

s ty le . I n t r o d u c in g t h e d is c o u r s e a s i f i t w e r e a f o lk t a le c r e a t e s a c o n ­ t e x t s u it a b le to w h a t fo llo w s . It p r o v id e s a n a u r a o f “ o ld ” J a p a n , w h e r e t r a d it io n s s t ill t h r iv e . Y o u c a n u s e t h i s s t o r y t e llin g m o d e i n o r d in a r y c o n v e r s a t io n a s w e ll.

(b )

〈c o n v e r s a t io n 〉 : 新しいアパート、 どんな感じ？ B : むかしむかし、ある一匹の野良猫が、やっと住めるところ を見つけました。隣近所がどんな感じか全然わからす、 とまどっていました。でも少しずつ、友達もできてきま した。ってな感じかな。 A : なに、それ。 B : だから、少しずつだけど、住みやすく感じてるってコト。 A

Genre Appreciation

285

A:

A t a r a s h i i a p a a t o , d o n n a k a n ji?

B:

M u k a s h i m u k a s h i, a r u ip p ik i n o n o r a n e k o g a y a t t o s u m e r u t o k o r o o m it s u k e m a s h it a . T o n a r i k in jo g a d o n n a k a n ji k a z e n z e n w a k a r a z u , t o m a d o t t e im a s h it a . D e m o , s u k o s h i z u t s u , t o m o d a c h i m o d e k it e - k im a s h it a . T t e n a k a n ji k a n a .

A:

N a n i, s o r e .

B:

D a k a r a , s u k o s h iz u t s u d a k e d o , s u m i- y a s u k u k a n j i t e r u t t e k o to .

A:

H o w is y o u r n e w a p a r t m e n t ?

B:

O n c e u p o n a t im e , a s t r a y c a t a t la s t f o u n d a p la c e to liv e . S h e d i d n ’t k n o w a b o u t t h e n e ig h b o r h o o d a n d w a s c o n fu s e d . B u t g r a d u a lly s h e b e g a n t o m a k e fr ie n d s . T h a t ’s h o w I fe e l.

A:

W h a t do y o u m ean ?

B:

D o n ’t y o u s e e ? I m e a n t h a t I ’m g e t t in g u s e d t o i t lit t le b y lit tle .

O b s e r v e B ’s a n s w e r to t h e in it ia l q u e s tio n . In s t e a d o f r e s p o n d in g i n o r d in a r y c o n v e r s a t io n a l s p e e c h , B t e lls a s t o r y a b o u t a s t r a y ca t. N o te th e u s e o f

むかしむかし a n d

fo r m a l p a s t t e n s e fo r m s o f t h e v e r b s .

B y in t r o d u c in g h e r a n s w e r a s a s t o r y a n d b y r e p e a t in g t h e p a s t t e n s e i n t h r e e c o n s e c u t iv e s e n t e n c e s , B c o n s t r u c t s a n a r r a t iv e w o r ld . T h i s s t o r y t e llin g m o d e c r e a t e s a d is t a n c in g e ffe c t . It i s a s i f B w e r e t e l l i n g h e r s t o r y a b o u t s o m e o n e e ls e . B u t o f c o u r s e , i t t u r n s o u t to b e a b o u t h e r s e lf. B y t a k in g a n a r r a t iv e p e r s p e c t iv e c o m p le t e ­ l y a p a r t f r o m t h e c o n v e r s a t io n - in - p r o g r e s s , s h e m a k e s h e r a n s w e r t h a t m u c h m o r e in t e r e s t in g . It a llo w s B t o r e v e a l h e r i n n e r f e e lin g s w i t h a d r a m a t ic b u t s o m e w h a t d is t a n c in g e ffe c t . T o a p p r e c ia t e t h e g e n r e m ix in g d e p ic t e d i n (a ) a n d (b ), y o u m u s t b e a b le t o id e n t if y t h e b a s ic s t y le s o f d if f e r e n t g e n r e s . It is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s b o o k t o d is c u s s t h e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f g e n r e s . A s a s t u d e n t o f N ih o n g o , y o u m ig h t t r y t o e x p o s e y o u r s e l f t o a s m a n y c a t e g o r ie s o f g e n r e s a s p o s s ib le . I n r e a l Nih^on^go d is c o u r s e , g e n r e m ix in g o c c u r s m o r e f r e q u e n t ­ l y t h a n w e n o r m a l l y t h in k . C o n s id e r a p ie c e o f w r i t i n g w h e r e t h e w r it e r i n s e r t s t a n k a in a n e s s a y . Y o u w i ll f i n d J a p a n e s e a d v e r t is ­ i n g d is c o u r s e t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e s s o n g s , c o n v e r s a t io n s , a n d p o e t r y . W r it in g t h a t m ix e s t h e p e r s o n a l e s s a y g e n r e a n d a n o p in io n p ie c e i s c o m m o n a s w e ll. A n d o f c o u r s e in

マンガ，

y o u fin d c o m m e n ta r y ,

h is t o r ic a l a c c o u n t s , fo lk t a le s , a n d o t h e r g e n r e s m ix e d i n t o t h e p lo t d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s in g le s to r y .

CH A PTER 18

Selected Popular Culture Genres

T h i s c h a p t e r c o n t a in s e x a m p le s d r a w n fr o m a u t h e n t ic J a p a n e s e d is c o u r s e . T o a p p r e c ia t e t h e s e e x a m p le s , y o u w i l l n e e d to u s e a d ic t io n a r y fo r u n fa m ilia r v o c a b u la r y it e m s . U s e t h e

ローマ字（ じ）

p r e s e n t a t io n a n d E n g lis h t r a n s la t io n p r o v id e d a s y o u r g u id e . I h a v e s e le c t e d t h e f o llo w in g it e m s b e c a u s e i n c o r p o r a t in g “ r e a l” J a p a n e s e i n y o u r s t u d y i s c r it ic a l. O n ly t h r o u g h e x p o s u r e t o t h e a c t u a l e v e r y d a y d is c o u r s e o f J a p a n e s e p e o p le c a n y o u b e g i n to l e a r n J a p a n e s e “ fo r r e a l. ” T h e e x a m p le s a r e t a k e n fr o m t h e k in d o f d is c o u r s e i n w h i c h y o u , a s a s t u d e n t o f J a p a n e s e (a s a fo r e ig n l a n ­ g u a g e ), a r e lik e ly t o b e in t e r e s t e d . T h e y r e p r e s e n t to d a y ^ s p o p u la r c u lt u r e d is c o u r s e a n d t h e k in d o f w o r ld t o w h i c h J a p a n e s e y o u n g a d u lt s a r e fr e q u e n t ly e x p o s e d . I h a v e a ls o c h o s e n t h e k in d o f d is ­ c o u r s e r e s e m b lin g o r d in a r y n a t u r a l s p e e c h , a v o id in g s o m e s t y liz e d p o p u la r c u lt u r e v a r ia t io n s . S o m e r e a d in g s a r e a c c o m p a n ie d w i t h v i s u a l p r e s e n t a t io n s a s w e ll. I h o p e t h e y w i l l h e lp y o u f e e l t h a t y o u a r e e x p e r ie n c in g t h e w o r l d o f r e a l N ih o n g o . I s h o u ld a ls o r e m in d y o u t h a t a d d it io n a l (v i­ s u a l) i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a ila b le o n t h e I n t e r n e t . U s e t h e t it le s o f e a c h s a m p le a s s e a r c h k e y s .

18丄 Com ics マンカ' やぶのてんや『 イナズマイレブン』 『コ□ コ□ コミック』 「 円堂が祝われる ！

『イナズマイレブン』w a s

September 2008, ？ J pp. 446-44S 小学館

o r ig in a lly s o ld a s a v id e o (R P G ) g a m e (A u ­

g u s t 2 0 0 8 ). It w a s d e v e lo p e d b v

レベルフアイブ

t o b e p la v e d o n t h e

N in t e n d o D S . T h e c o m ic v e r s i o n w a s d e v e lo p e d b y

やふのてんや a n d 『コロコロ

s t a r t e d i t s s e r ie s i n t h e J u n e is s u e o f a c o m ic m a g a z in e ,

コミック』

. （T h e t e le v is e d a n im e v e r s i o n i s a v a ila b le ; it s o f f ic ia l W e b

s it e i s h t t p : / / w w w . t v - t o k y o . c o . jp / a n im e / in a z u m a / .)

286

Figure 4. End。 。 ga AToro…arem o/Jnazum_a Trebun, by Ten’ya Yabuno, in Korokoro Komikku (September 2008), published by Shogakukan.

Figure 4. (continued)

Figure 4. (continued)

290

GENRES

『イナズマイレブン』

[lit.

‘T h e

L ig h t n in g

E le v e n ’] i s

a b o u t a lu m o r h i g h s c h o o l s o c c e r t e a m w h o s e c a p t a in i s

んとつ） .

a

s to ry

円堂（ ぇ

It d e m c t s t h e t e a m ’s fo r m a t io n , t r a i n i n g ， a n d t h e u lt im a t e

c h a lle n g e o i w i n n i n g a c h a m p io n s h ip . W h a t f o llo w s is a n e p is o d e title d

「 円堂が呪（ のろ）わ れ る ！

？ 」

"E n d o i s c u r s e d !? ’

I n t h e n e x t e x a m p l e ， s p e e c h b a llo o n s a r e m a r k e d w i t h < >. O t h e r p h r a s e s a p p e a r in g i n t h e m a n g a a r e p r e s e n t e d in p a r e n t h e s e s . *

*

*

( あっはっは•••）

円堂：

くいや一、昨 日 は ま い っ た よ 。〉 く 山 で 特 訓 し て た ら ハ チ に 襲 わ れ ち や っ て さ ~ 。〉 ( はっはっはっはっはっ）

くそれにしても豪炎寺のおとろきようったらなかっ た せ ！〉 小暮：

〈へ□□っ豪炎寺さんもおどろくことが 一 ’>

豪炎寺：

〈あ の カ オ は だ れ で も お ど ろ く 。〉

あるんですね

〇

( あははははは）

円堂：

〈も し か し て 幽 霊 と か 苦 手 な ん じ や ね 一 の ？〉

豪炎寺：

〈オ レ は そ う い う の は 信 じ な い ！！〉 〈だい た い 円堂 おま え いっ た いあ そ こで 。〉

木野：

なにをして-

〈み ん な 大 変 ！！〉 ( バンッ） ( マネージャ1 ------- 。）

円堂：

〈ど う し た ま た 雷 門 夏 未 が 廃 部 と か 言 い出したのか！ ？〉

木野：

〈ちがうの！！〉 〈う ち の 部 に 練 習 試 合 の 申 し 込 み が す ご い の よ ！！〉

部員：

豪炎寺：

〈え っ ！？〉 (

ど一ん）

(

こりやすげえ！！）

〈おそらく だ。〉

帝国学園に勝ったうわさが

( なるほど）

ひろまったん

Selected Popular Culture Genres

291

染岡：

〈 帝国に勝ったおれたちに勝って地位をあげたいんだ な。〉

円堂：

〈で も こ れ で 実 践 練 習 が ガ ン ガ ン で き る ぞ ！！〉

小暮：

〈 今 ま で 相 手 探 す の に 苦 労 し ま し た も ん ね . 一。〉 ( ゴゴゴゴ•••） ( な…

、

なんだこれ？）

( の • • • 、呪いの手紙！？） ( ゴゴゴ ゴゴゴ ゴ ^

(A t t h a t t h a tt ) E ndoo:

I y a a ， k in o o w a m a i t t a y o . Y a m a d e t o k k u n s h it e - it a r a h a c h i n i o s o w a r e - c h a t t e saa. (H a t t h a t t h a t t h a t t h a tt ) S o r e n is h it e m o G o o e n ji n o o d o r o k iy o o t t a r a n a k a t t a ze!

K o gu re:

H e e e e t t . G o o e n ji- s a n m o o d o r o k u k o t o g a a r u n d e s u n ee.

G o o e n ji:

A n o k a o w a d a re d em o od orok u .

E ndoo:

M o s h ik a s h it e y u u r e i t o k a n ig a t e n a n j a n e e n o ?

G o o e n ji:

O r e w a s o o y u u n o w a s h in jin a i!! D a it a i E n d o o o m a e i t t a i a s o k o d e n a n i o s h i t e ___

K in o :

M in n a t a ih e n !! (B a n tt )

K o gu re:

( M a n e e ja a ___ )

E ndoo:

D o o s h ita . M a t a R a im o n N a t s u m i g a h a ib u t o k a iid a s h it a n o k a !?

K in o :

C h ig a u n o !! U c h i n o b u n i r e n s h u u j i a i n o m o o s h ik o m i g a s u g o i n o y o !!

B u in :

E t t !? (D o o n ) (K o r y a s u g e e !!)

G o o e n ji:

O s o r a k u T e ik o k u G a k u e n n i k a t t a u w a s a g a h ir o m a t t a n da. (N a r u h o d o )

Som eoka:

T e i k o k u n i k a t t a o r e t a c h i n i k a t t e c h ii o a g e t a i n d a n a .

292

GENRES

E ndoo:

D e m o k o r e d e j i s s e n r e n s h u u g a g a n g a n d e k ir u z o !?

K o gu re:

I m a m a d e a it e s a g a s u n o n i k u r o o s h im a s h it a m o n ne. . . . (G o g o g o g o . . . .) (N a … ， n a n d a k o r e ? ) (N o . . . , n o r o i n o t e g a m i!? ) (G o g o g o g o g o g o g o ) (L a u g h t e r )

E ndoo:

W e ll， y e s t e r d a y w a s t e r r ib le ! A t o u r s p e c ia l t r a in in g i n t h e m o u n t a i n s ， w e g o t a t ­ ta c k e d b y b ees. (L a u g h t e r ) A n d I c o u ld n ’t b e lie v e it. G o o e n ji l o s t h is c o o l.

K ogu re:

S o G o o e n ji d o e s g e t s c a r e d n o w a n d t h e n ， I s e e .

G o o e n ji:

T h a t fa c e w e s a w . E v e r y o n e w o u l d b e s c a r e d o i it. (L a u g h t e r )

E ndoo:

M a y b e y o u c a n ’t h a n d le g h o s t s ?

G o o e n ji:

I d o n ’t b e lie v e i n t h o s e t h in g s !! E n d o o , w h a t i n t h e w o r ld w e r e y o u d o in g t h e r e anyw ay?

K in o :

H ey， everyon e， w e g o t t r o u b le !! (K in o ， th e m a n a g e r， m a k e s a d r a m a t ic e n t r y o n t o t h e s c e n e .) (M a n a g e r ___ )

E ndoo:

W h a t h a p p e n e d ? D id N a t s u m i R a im o n s a y s o m e t h in g a b o u t a b o lis h in g o u r t e a m ?

K in o :

N o. W ro n g ! W e ’r e g e t t i n g s w a m p e d . S o m a n y r e q u e s t s fo r s o c c e r m a t c h e s c o m in g fr o m o t h e r s c h o o ls .

T e a m m em b ers:

W h a t?

(L o o k . H e r e t h e y a r e .) (W o w ， t h i s i s s o m e t h in g !!) G o o e n ji:

P e r h a p s t h e r u m o r h a s s p r e a d . W e b e a t T e ik o k u G a k u e n S c h o o l. (M a k e s s e n s e .)

Selected Popular Culture Genres Som eoka:

293

T h e y w a n t t o g a i n a h ig h e r r a n k in g b y b e a t in g u s ， w h o b e a t T e ik o k u .

Endoo:

B u t t h i s w a y ， w e c a n t e s t o u r s e lv e s in p r a c t ic e m a t c h e s !!

K ogu re:

W e h a d a h a r d t im e f i n d i n g t e a m s t o p la y a g a in s t. ( R e v e r b e r a t in g s o u n d ) ( W h a ___ W h a t ’s t h is ? ) (A h a u n t e d le t t e r !? ) ( R e v e r b e r a t in g s o u n d )

FEATURES TO BE NOTED 1

. I n t e r a c t io n a l p a r t ic le s C o m ic s o f t e n c o n t a in fr e q u e n t in t e r a c t io n a l p a r t i c l e s ， a n d t h i s s e c t io n is n o e x c e p t io n . T h e f o llo w in g l is t r e v e a ls t h e ir u b iq u it o u s n a t u r e . S e e s e c t io n s 7 .1 0 , 8 . 8 ，1 1 .1 ， a n d 1 1 .5 fo r i n f o r m a t i o n o n in t e r a c t io n a l p a r t ic le s .

まいったよ 襲われちやってさ~ なかったぜ あるんですね一 苦手なんじやねえの すごいのよ 地位をあげたいんだな ガンガンできるぞ 苦労しましたもんね 2.

S o u n d e f fe c t s S o u n d e f fe c t s a r e u s e d t h r o u g h o u t ， a s l i s t e d b e lo w . S e e s e c t io n s 6 .9 a n d 1 1 .1 0 .

あつはつは はつはっ ノバンッ

s o u n d o f la u g h t e r

ど一ん

s o u n d e f f e c t w h e n a l a r g e o b je c t m a k e s a

s o u n d o f la u g h t e r s o u n d m a d e w h e n a d o o r is s l a m m e d s u d ­ d e n ly a n d d r a m a t ic a lly

d r a m a t ic a p p e a r a n c e

ゴゴゴゴ

r e v e r b e r a t in g s o u n d o f s o m e t h in g la r g e b e in g m o v e d a ro u n d

294 3.

GENRES E x p r e s s io n s o f s u r p r is e N o t e t h e r e p e t it io n o f t h e i n it ia l m o r a i n

れ ？ a n d の • • • 、呪いの手紙！？ T h i s

な•••、なんだこ

r e p e t it io n e x p r e s s e s t h e

s p e a k e r ’s o u t - o f - o n e ’s - c o n t r o l s u r p r is e (s e e s e c t io n 1 1 .7 ). 4.

U s e o f カタカナ W e fin d fo u r w o r d s u s in g

カタカナ （s e e

ノヽチ‘b e e ’ (in s e c t n a m e ) カ オ ‘f a c e ’ a n d オレ T ( 和 語 （ わご）

s e c t io n 5 .5 ).

in A:atoA:ana, fo r c o llo q u ia l

a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y e ffe c t )

ノバンツ！‘d o o r s la m ’ (o n o m a t o p o e ia ) マネージャー ‘m a n a g e r ’ （l o a n w o r d ) ガンガン ‘in t e n s e l y ’ (m im e s is ) ココココ ‘r e v e r b e r a t in g s o u n d ’ （ o n o m a t o p o e ia ) O f p a r t ic u la r in t e r e s t a r e t e n in

顔

and

俺.

In

カオ a n d ォレ， w h i c h c a n b e w r i t ­ マンガ，t h e u s e o f カタカナ is w i d e ­

s p r e a d . T h e y a d d t o t h e c o llo q u ia l a n d w it h - it a t m o s p h e r e . 5.

F o r t h e f o llo w in g e x p r e s s io n s ， r e f e r t o t h e s e c t io n s lis t e d .

襲われちやつて （s e c t io n 9 . 6 ， M o d a l V e r b s ) おどろく ことがある （s e c t io n 1 0 .6 , K o t o a n d Wo C la u s e s ) もしかして （s e c t io n 1 3 .4 ， P r e fa c in g a n d A le r t in g ) 苦手なんじやね一の （s e c t io n 8 .1 3 , N e g a t iv e Q u e s t io n s )

18.2.

Television Variety Show パ'ラエテイ番組

『 さんタク』，ル>ed on January 3,

2008,フジテレビ

『さんタク』 i s a t a lk s h o w b e t w e e n 明石家（ あかしや）さんま a n d 木 村拓也（ きむらたくや) . A k a s h i y a ( b . 1 9 5 5 ， p o p u la r ly k n o w n a s さん ま） is a c o m e d ia n / a c t o r / e n t e r t a in e r ， a n d K im u r a ( d . 1 9 7 2 ，n ic k ­ n a m e d キムタク） is a s in g e r / a c t o r a n d m e m b e r o f a s o n g - a n d d a n c e g r o u p c a lle d S M A P . D u r in g t h e N e w Y e a r ’s h o l i d a y ， fo r t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s S a n m a a n d K im u r a h a v e a p p e a r e d i n a t w o - h o u r s p e c ia l v a r i e t y p r o g r a m . T h e p r o g r a m is t i t l e d

さんタク.

I n t h i s p r o g r a m ， S a n m a a n d K im u r a t a lk i n t h e s t u d io w h ile v a r io u s p r e p r o d u c e d s e g m e n t s a r e in s e r t e d h e r e a n d t h e r e . T h e y e n g a g e i n d if fe r e n t a c t iv it ie s ，s u c h a s v i s i t i n g c e r t a in w e ll- k n o w n p l a c e s ，t a lk in g w i t h c e le b r it ie s ，a n d p a r t ic ip a t in g in c o m p e t it iv e s p o r t s a n d g a m e s . T h e s e a r e in c o r p o r a t e d in t o t h e t a lk - in - p r o g r e s s . W h a t f o llo w s i s a s h o r t c o n v e r s a t io n t h a t t o o k p la c e w h e n

Selected Popular Culture Genres

295

K im u r a p e r s u a d e d S a n m a t o d y e h i s h a ir a t a h a i r - c o l o r i n g s a lo n in T o k y o . *

*

*

カラリングのお店で スタッフ：

うちのお店、あの、シミュレーションがあって（ は い）写真をとらせていただいて（ はい） あのう、お顔 が、ガメラ、カ メ ラ （ 笑い）に出ます。

木村：

ガメラ。

さんま：

オレ、火を吹くのか。 ( スタッフと木村、 さんまの冗談に、少し笑う）

木村：

いちいちいいから。やろう。

スタッフ：

ぜひ。

木村：

火を吹くのかって。 ( 略）

スタッフ：

お着替えを、お願いします。

さんま：

お着替え？

スタッフ：

はい。

木村：

着替えるんですか。

スタッフ：

はい。

さんま：

着替えるの？

スタッフ：

はい、こちらのガウンに。

さんま： スタッフ：

なんでや。 ルラックスしていただくために。

木村：

リラックス。

スタッフ：

リラックスをしていただけるために。

K a r a n n a u n o o m is e d e S u t a fiu :

U c h i n o o m is e , a n o , s h im y u r e e s h o n g a a t t e (h a i) s h a s h in o t o r a s e t e - it a d a it e (h a i) a n o o , o k a o g a , g a m e r a , k a m e r a (w a r a i) n i d e m a s u .

K im u r a :

G a m e ra .

Sanm a:

O r e , h i o fu k u n o k a . (S u t a ff u t o K im u r a , S a n m a n o j o o d a n n i, s u k o s h i w a r a u .)

K im u r a :

I c h iic h i i i k a r a . Y a r o o .

296

GENRES

S u t a ffu :

Z e h i.

K im u r a :

H i o f u k u n o k a tte . (r y a k u )

S u t a ffu :

O k ig a e o , o n e g a is h im a s u .

Sanm a:

O k ig a e ?

S u t a ffu :

H a i.

K im u r a :

K ig a e r u n d e s u k a ?

S u t a ffu :

H a i.

Sanm a:

K ig a e r u n o ?

S u t a ffu :

H a i, k o c h ir a n o g a u n n i.

Sanm a:

N an de ya.

S u t a ffu :

R ir a k k u s u s h it e - it a d a k u t a m e n i.

K im u r a :

R ir a k k u s u .

S u t a ffu :

R ir a k k u s u o s h it e - it a d a k e r u t a m e n i.

A t a h a ir-c o lo r in g s a lo n S ta ff m em b er:

A t o u r s t o r e , w e h a v e t h is s im u la t io n p r o c e d u r e (u h h u h ), s o w e w o u l d lik e to t a k e y o u r p ic t u r e i f w e c o u ld (u h - h u h ). Y o u r fa c e w i ll a p p e a r i n t h e g a m e r a , (la u g h in g ) I m e a n c a m e r a .

K im u r a :

G a m e ra .

Sanm a:

A m I s u p p o s e d t o s p e w o u t f ir e fr o m m y m o u t h ? ( S t a f f m e m b e r a n d K im u r a la u g h a t S a n m a ’s jo k e . )

K im u r a :

D o n ’t b o t h e r w i t h s illy t h in g s . L e t ’s d o it.

S ta ff m em b er:

Y e s , p le a s e .

K im u r a :

W h a t a t h i n g to s a y ___ G o in g t o s p e w o u t fir e . (. . .)

S ta ff m em b er:

P le a s e c h a n g e in t o th is .

Sanm a:

C h a n g e c lo t h e s ?

S ta ff m em b er:

Yes.

K im u r a :

I s h e s u p p o s e d t o c h a n g e h is c lo t h e s ?

S ta ff m em b er:

Yes.

Sanm a:

D o I n e e d to c h a n g e in t o s o m e t h in g e ls e ?

Selected Popular Culture Genres

297

S ta ff m em b er:

Y e s , in t o t h i s g o w n .

Sanm a:

W h y ’s t h a t ?

S ta ff m em b er:

S o t h a t y o u c a n r e la x .

K im u r a :

R e la x , y o u s a y .

S ta ff m em b er:

S o t h a t w e c a n m a k e y o u fe e l r e la x e d .

FEATURES TO BE NOTED 1

. E x p r e s s io n s fo r c o n v e r s a t io n a l i n t e r a c t io n T h e i n it ia l u t t e r a n c e b y t h e s t a f f m e m b e r c o n t a in s f e a ­ t u r e s t y p ic a l o f c o n v e r s a t io n a l in t e r a c t io n . F ir s t , n o t e S a n m a ’s

あいづち，

p r e s e n t e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s . A t t h e p o in t w h e r e

t h e s t a f f m e m b e r u s e s t h e c o n ju n c t iv e pau ses, S an m a sen ds

あいづち. T h i s

て and

m o m e n t a r ily

b e h a v io r h e l p s c r e a t e a n

e n g a g in g a n d f r ie n d ly a t m o s p h e r e (s e e s e c t io n 1 3 .1 1 ). S e c o n d , n o t e t h e s t a f f m e m b e r ’s f ille r s a s c o n v e r s a t io n s t r a t e g ie s . T h e s t a f f m e m b e r u s e s

あの

and

あのう

as sh e co n ­

t in u e s . B y f illin g in t h e p a u s e , s h e k e e p s h e r s p e a k in g t u r n . T h ir d , t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e s t a f f m e m b e r r e a liz e s s h e m a d e a m is t a k e , a ll t h r e e p a r t ic ip a n t s la u g h . T h i s j o i n t a c t io n r e f le c t s t h a t t h e y a r e a ll o n t h e s a m e w a v e le n g t h , s o t o s p e a k . 2.

E c h o q u e s t io n s a n d r e s p o n s e s O v e r a ll, a s y o u f i n d in trn s s h o r t s e g m e n t , o r d in a r y c o n ­ v e r s a t i o n i s fille d w it h s h o r t p h r a s e s , in t e r a c t io n - r e la t e d b r i e f u t t e r a n c e s , a n d r e p e t it io n . R e p e t it io n o f t e n o c c u r s a c r o s s s p e a k e r s a s e c h o q u e s t io n s a n d e c h o r e s p o n s e s (s e e s e c t io n 1 3 .1 3 ). F o r e x a m p le , S a n m a ’s a n d K im u r a ’s

3.

火を吹くのかって

ぉ着替ぇ？ i s

a n e c h o q u e s t io n ,

is a n e c h o r e s p o n s e .

H u m o r a n d la u g h t e r T h i s v a r i e t y p r o g r a m i s a s h o w c a s e fo r S a n m a t o d is p la y h i s t a le n t fo r m a k in g p u n s a n d j o k e s (a s h is p r o f e s s io n c a lls fo r ). K im u r a p la y s t h e p a r t o f t h e s t r a ig h t m a n w h o o f t e n t o le r a t e s (s o m e t im e s r e lu c t a n t ly , b u t m o s t ly a d m ir in g ly ) S a n m a ’s w i ld a n d c r a z y w a y s . T h e jo k e h e re is b a s e d o n a w o r d th e s t a ff m e m b e r h a s m is p r o n o u n c e d . I n s t e a d o f

フ.ガメフ

カメフ，

th e s t a ff m e m b e r s a y s

ガメ

s o u n d s lik e a d in o s a u r o r a m o n s te r . It c o u ld b e a

c a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r t h a t m ig h t s p e w f ir e f r o m i t s m o u t h . S a n m a ’s j o k e is b a s e d o n

しやれ （s e e

s e c t io n 1 5 .3 ).

298 4.

GENRES S p e e c h s t y le s a n d v a r ia t io n s G iv e n t h a t S a n m a i s o ld e r a n d s o m e o n e K im u r a a d m ir e s , t h e r e la t io n s h ip is s u c h t h a t S a n m a i s m e u e t o K im u r a . In d e a lin g w i t h t h e s t a f f a t t h e h a i r - c o l o r i n g s a lo n , K im u r a m a k e s s u r e t o s p e a k in a fo r m a l s t y le (s e e s e c t io n 1 2 .1 ). S a n m a , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s p e a k s in t h e i n f o r m a l s t y le a n d a ls o i n t h e O s a k a d ia le c t . C o n t r a s t K im u r a ’s a n d S a n m a ’s

着替ぇるんですか

着替えるの.

T h e s t a f f m e m b e r a lw a y s u s e s p o lit e a n d s u p r a - p o lit e s p e e c h . C u s t o m e r s a r e a lw a y s m e u e (s e e s e c t io n 2 .3 ). N o t e th e u s e o f お a tta c h e d t o

和語（ わご） i n お顔がカメラに出ます お着替えをお願いします. A ls o s t u d y t h e h o n o r if ic s a p p e a r ­ i n g i n t h e s t a f f m e m b e r ’s s p e e c h , a s in リラックスしていただく ために a n d リラックスをしていただけるために. and

S a n m a p la y s t h e r o le o f a n u n c o n t r o lla b le j o k e - t e l l i n g t a l ­ e n t. H e r e g u la r ly m ix e s i n h i s O s a k a d ia le c t w i t h h i s s p e e c h (s e e s e c t io n 3 .6 ). S a n m a ’s q u e s t io n

なんでや

is a p e r fe c t

e x a m p le . T h e O s a k a d ia le c t r e m in d s v ie w e r s t h a t S a n m a is a c o m e d ia n fr o m O s a k a , a d d in g t e x t u r e t o h i s c h a r a c t e r .

18.3.

Television Drama

『 ガリレオ』，ル>ed on

「 ガリレオ」i s

テレビドラマ

Wovemfeer 5, 2007,フジテレビ

a t e le v is io n d r a m a s e r ie s a ir e d o n F u ji T e le v is io n ,

O c to b e r-D e c e m b e r

2007

(o f fic ia l

W eb

s ite :

h t t p :/ / f u jit v .c o .jp /

g a lile o / in d e x . h t m l). T h e t e n - e p is o d e s e r ie s is b a s e d o n d e t e c t iv e

東野圭吾（ ひがしのけいご，b . 1 9 5 8 ), s p e c ific a lly h i s 『探偵 『予 知 夢 （ よちむ) 』 . T h e m a in c h a r a c t e r s a r e 湯 川 学 （ ゆかわまなぶ) ， a p h y s ic s p r o ­ fe s s o r w h o in s is t s o n t h e lo g ic a l n a t u r e o f t h in g s , a n d 内海薰 （ つつ みかおる) ， a y o u n g f e m a le d e t e c t iv e w h o s e e k s h e lp f r o m D r. Y u k a ­ s t o r ie s b y

( たんてい）ガリレオ』 a n d

w a . D r. Y u k a w a is n ic k n a m e d G a lile o ; h e n c e t h e t it le o f t h e s e r ie s . W h a t f o llo w s is a s h o r t e x c h a n g e (t a k e n fr o m e p is o d e 4 ) b e t w e e n

海 薰 a n d 栗林 宏 美 （ くりばやしひろみ) ，

内

a n a s s is t a n t i n D r. Y u k a w a ’s

p h y s i c s la b . T h e = in t h is e x a m p le in d ic a t e s t h e t a k e o v e r o f t h e s p e a k in g t u r n b y t h e l i s t e n e r im m e d ia t e ly a ft e r t h e p a r t n e r ’s s p e e c h .

栗林：

あ、 しまった！

内海：

なに、やってんですか。

Selected Popular Culture Genres

299

栗林：

実験用のセパレーター作ってんだよ、湯川先生に頼まれ て。

内海：

へえ、そういうこともやるんですね、助手って。 ( 栗林、助手と言われて不愉快そうに内海を睨みっけ る）

半田ごての使い方ぐらい慣れなきや。 栗林：

半田ごてじやありません。 これはプラスチックウエルダ 一って言うんです。超音波でくっつけるんです。

内海：

超音波？

栗林：

中学の工作とは違うんだよ。だいたいなんであんたここ で油うってんだ？

内海：

だから、湯川先生に=

栗林：

=

内海： 栗林：

他殺説の根拠をはっきりさせてもらわないことには= = 今日は帰ってこないなあ、きっと。

内海：

栗林さんってどうしていつも非協力的なの！

栗林：

だって、俺、関係ないもん=

内海：

=

栗林：

俺だって 2

だからどこ行ったか知らないって。

もう、ただでさえイライラしてるのにもう。 0

年ストレスためっぱなしだよ！

( ポ'ース' の後）

内海：

かわいそうに。

栗林：

かわいそう言うな！

K u r ib a y a s h i ： A t t , s h m a t ta ! U ts u m i：

N a n i, y a t t e n d e s u k a .

K u r ib a y a s h i ： J ik k e n y o o n o s e p a r e e t a a t s u k u t t e n d a y o , Y u k a w a -s e n s e i n i ta n o m a rete. U ts u m i：

H e e , s o o y u u k o t o m o y a r u n d e s u n e , i o s h u tte . (K u r ib a y a s h i, j o s h u t o iw a r e t e fu y u k a is o o n i U t s u ­ m i o n ir a m it s u k e r u . ) H a n d a g o t e n o t s u k a ik a t a g u r a i n a r e n a k y a .

K u r ib a y a s h i ： H a n d a g o t e ja a r im a s e n . K o r e w a p u r a s u c h ik k u w e r u d a a tte y u u n d esu . C h o o o n p a d e k u tts u k e ru n desu . U ts u m i： K u r ib a y a s h i:

C hooonpa? C h u u g a k u n o k o o s a k u t o w a c h ig a u n d a y o . D a it a i n a n d e a n ta k o k o d e a b u ra u tte n d a ?

300

GENRES

U ts u m i:

D a k a r a , Y u k a w a - s e n s e i n i=

K u r ib a y a s h i:

= D a k a r a d o k o i t t a k a s h ir a n a i tte .

U ts u m i:

T a s a t s u s e t s u n o k o n k y o o h a k k ir is a s e t e - m o r a w a n a i k o to n i w a =

K u r ib a y a s h i: U ts u m i:

= K y o o w a k a e t t e - k o n a i n a a , k it t o . K u r ib a y a s h i- s a n t t e d o o s h it e it s u m o h ik y o o r y o k u te k i n a no!

K u r ib a y a s h i:

D a tt e , o r e k a n k e i n a i m o n =

U ts u m i:

= M o o , t a d a d e s a e ir a ir a s h it e r u n o n i m o o .

K u r ib a y a s h i:

O r e d a t t e n iju u n e n s u t o r e s u t a m e p p a n a s h i d a y o ! (P o o z u n o a to )

U ts u m i:

K a w a is o o n i.

K u r ib a y a s h i:

K a w a is o o y u u n a .

K u r ib a y a s h i:

O h n o , I d id it a g a in !

U ts u m i:

W h a t a r e y o u d o in g ?

K u r ib a y a s h i:

I ’m m a k in g a s e p a r a t o r fo r t h e e x p e r im e n t . D r. Y u ­ k a w a a s k e d m e (to m a k e it).

U ts u m i:

I s e e . S u c h t h in g s y o u d o , I m e a n , b e i n g a n a s s is t a n t . (K u r ib a y a s h i, u p s e t a t t h e p h r a s e “a s s is t a n t ,” s t a r e s a t U t s u m i) Y o u m u s t g e t u s e d t o t h e s o ld e r in g ir o n , y o u k n o w .

K u r ib a y a s h i:

N o t a s o ld e r in g ir o n . T h i s i s c a lle d a p l a s t ic w e ld e r . J o in in g p a r t s w i t h a s u p e r s o n ic w a v e .

U ts u m i:

S u p e r s o n ic w a v e ?

K u r ib a y a s h i:

I t ’s d if f e r e n t f r o m j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l c r a ft c la s s . (C o m e t o t h i n k o f it) i n t h e f ir s t p la c e , w h a t a r e y o u h a n g in g a r o u n d h e r e fo r ?

U ts u m i:

S o , I w a n t e d t o s e e D r. Y u k a w a =

K u r ib a y a s h i:

= I ’m t e llin g y o u , I d o n ’t k n o w w h e r e h e w e n t .

U ts u m i:

I m u s t h a v e h im c la r ify h is t h e o r y t h a t t h e v ic t im w a s m u rd ered =

K u r ib a y a s h i:

= H e w o n ’t b e b a c k t o d a y , fo r s u r e .

U ts u m i:

W h y a r e y o u , M r. K u r ib a y a s h i, a lw a y s s o u n h e lp fu l!

K u r ib a y a s h i:

I h a v e n o t h i n g t o d o w it h y o u r b u s in e s s =

Selected Popular Culture Genres U t s u m i:

301

= I ?m s t r e s s e d o u t a lr e a d y a n d o n t o p o f t h a t , n o w y o u (m a k e m e m o r e u p s e t ).

K u r ib a y a s h i:

I ’m s t r e s s e d o u t t o o , a ft e r t w e n t y y e a r s o f p e n t - u p p ressu re! (a ft e r a p a u s e )

U t s u m i:

P o o r t h in g .

K u r ib a y a s h i:

N e v e r s a y “ P o o r t h in g .”

FEATURES TO BE NOTED 1

. C o n f lic t s it u a t io n T h i s s e g m e n t illu s t r a t e s a c o n flic t s it u a t io n b e t w e e n t w o p e o p le , U t s u m i a n d K u r ib a y a s h i, w h o k n o w e a c h o t h e r fa ir ly w e ll. U t s u m i, b e in g y o u n g e r a n d a g u e s t , m a in t a in s a f o r m a l s t y le a lm o s t a lw a y s . K u r ib a y a s h i m ix e s fo r m a l a n d in f o r m a l s t y le s . T h e c o n flic t s t a r t s w h e n K u r ib a y a s h i’s f r u s t r a t i o n p e a k s . H e a s k s だいたいなんであんたここで油（ あぶら）うってん

だ' ?

u s in g t h e i n f o r m a l s t y le . T h e u s e o f

あんた

a n d t h e c r it ic a l

t o n e o f t h e u t t e r a n c e a d d s t o t h e b lu n t n e s s . U t s u m i a n s w e r s b y s t a r t in g h e r u t t e r a n c e w it h

だから，

w i t h a d o n ’t - y o u - g e t - it a tt itu d e . B e f o r e s h e fin is h e s h e r t u r n , K u r ib a y a s h i in t e r r u p t s b y s t a r t in g h is u t t e r a n c e w it h

だから .

T h e s e a n d o t h e r t u r n - t a k i n g m is h a p s in t h i s s e g m e n t illu s ­ t r a t e t h a t t w o p e o p le a r e i n c o n flic t (s e e s e c t io n 1 3 .2 ). T h e y e x ­ c h a n g e s o m e h a r s h w o r d s . T h e u lt im a t e is w h e n a ft e r a p a u s e U ts u m i s a y s

かわいそうに.

K u r ib a y a s h i r e f u s e s t h is c h a r a c ­

t e r iz a t io n . H e r e s p o n d s w i t h a n a b r u p t c o m m a n d

言うな！（s e e

かわいそう

s e c t io n 1 2 .1 2 ). S y m p a t h y c o m in g fr o m a y o u n g

d e t e c t iv e is s o m e t h in g K u r ib a y a s h i s im p ly w i ll n o t t o le r a t e . U t s u m i a n d K u r ib a y a s h i c a n fi g h t li k e t h i s b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w th a t th e s e v e r b a l s p a ts a re n o t g o in g to c a u s e p e r m a ­ n e n t d a m a g e t o t h e ir r e la t io n s h ip . T h e y a r e b o t h r e le a s in g s t r e s s b y s n ip in g a t e a c h o th e r . 2.

E c h o q u e s t io n s W h e n K u r ib a y a s h i e x p la in s t h a t h e w a s m a k in g a s e p a ­ r a t o r u s in g a p l a s t ic w e ld e r , U t s u m i r e p e a t s t h e q u e s t io n b y e c h o in g K u r ib a y a s h i’s w o r d (s e e s e c t i o n 1 3 .1 3 ).

栗林： 内海：

超音波でくっっけるんです。 超音波？

302

GENRES E c h o q u e s t io n s o f t e n fu n c t io n t o e s t a b lis h a t o p ic . A l ­ t h o u g h t h e a t m o s p h e r e is u n fr ie n d ly , a t le a s t t h e y c a r r y o n a n e n g a g e d c o n v e r s a t io n a t t h i s p o in t.

3.

P o s t p o s e d e le m e n t s T h i s s e g m e n t c o n t a in s t h e f o llo w in g p o s t p o s e d e le m e n t s (s e e s e c t io n 1 3 .1 0 ).

栗 林 ：実験用のセパレーター作ってんだよ、湯川先生に頼まれ て。 ) 内 海 ：へえ、そういうこともやるんですね、助手って。 ) 栗林： 今日は帰ってこないなあ、きっと。

(a )

(b ( c

W h e n p r o n o u n c e d w i t h s t r e s s a s in t h e e x a m p le s a b o v e , p o s t p o s in g c o m m u n ic a t e s t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e e le m e n t s i n q u e s ­ t io n . I n (a ), K u r ib a y a s h i’s in s is t e n c e o n t h e f a c t t h a t h e w a s a s k e d b y D r. Y u k a w a is s ig n ific a n t . I n (b ), U t s u m i e m p h a s iz e s t h a t K u r ib a y a s h i is a n a s s is t a n t (h e h a s b e e n a n a s s is t a n t t o o lo n g ). I n (c ), K u r ib a y a s h i in s is t s t h a t D r. Y u k a w a “ fo r s u r e ” w o n ’t b e b a c k . 4.

N o d a se n te n c e s T h i s s e g m e n t c o n t a in s t h e f o llo w in g n o d a e x p r e s s io n s (s e e s e c t io n 9 .1 2 ). S o m e o f t h e m a p p e a r in c a s u a l んた， in q u e s t io n s e n t e n c e s , a n d i n s h o r t e n e d

の.

やってんですか （q u e s t io n o n s h a r e d in f o r m a t io n ) 作ってんだよ (e x p la n a t io n ) やるんですね（ e m p h a s is ) 言うんです（ e m p h a s is ) くっつけるんです（ e x p la n a t io n ) 違うんだよ（ e m p h a s is ) 油うってんだ (q u e s t io n o n s h a r e d i n f o r m a t io n ) 非協力的なの （q u e s t io n o n s h a r e d in f o r m a t io n ) T h e b a s ic fu n c t io n o f

のだ

and

んだ i s

to a p p e a l to th e

a s s u m e d c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d in g o r k n o w le d g e b e t w e e n y o u a n d y o u r p a r tn e r . T h e y o ffe r r e a s o n o r c a u s e , e x p r e s s e m p h a ­ s is , a n d a s k q u e s t io n s b a s e d o n s h a r e d in f o r m a t io n . 5.

D e le t io n o f g r a m m a t ic a l p a r t ic le s G iv e n t h a t t h i s s e g m e n t is a p a r t o f c a s u a l c o n v e r s a t io n , w e fin d s o m e d e le t io n o f g r a m m a t ic a l p a r t ic le s .

なに（ を）やってんですか セパレーター（ を）作ってんだ なんであんた（ は）ここで油うってんだ

Selected Popular Culture Genres

303

どこ（ へ）行ったか知らない だって俺（ は）関係ないもん ストレス（ を）ためっぱなし かわいそう（ と）言うな

18.4. Print Advertising A

広告

キユーピー株式会社「 中華スープの素」 『 オレンジページ』

（^ecemher 2,

2 0 0 7 , p .2 0 2 ) , オレンジページ T h i s p r in t a d v e r t is in g a p p e a r s in

『オレンンヘーン』

[lit. ‘O r a n g e

P a g e 5], a m o n t h ly m a g a z in e t a r g e t e d a t h o u s e w iv e s . T h e m a g a z in e f e a t u r e s a r t ic le s o n c o o k in g a n d o t h e r d o m e s t ic m a t t e r s . T h e f o l ­ lo w in g a d v e r t is e m e n t a d d r e s s e s r e a d e r s w h o m a y b e in t h e m a r k e t fo r a s o u p m ix .

1. 2. 3.

台所の 野菜を ゆでる。 スープの 素を 加える。 弱火で 3 分 ！

にんじん、ねぎ、 しいたけなど、お家にある野菜をゆで、そこに 3 分クッキングの中華スープの素を入れるだけ！弱火で 3 分加熱すれ ば、 とてもおいしい中華スープが手軽に作れます。和風スープ、チ ャウダー、 ミネストローネもあります。おいしいスープで野菜をた っぷり召しあがってくたさい。 1 . D a id o k o r o n o y a s a i o y u d e r u . 2.

S u u p u n o m o to o k u w a eru .

3.

Y o w a b i d e san p u n !

N in jin , n e g i, s h iit a k e n a d o , o u c h i n i a r u y a s a i o y u d e , s o k o n i s a n p u n k u k k in g u n o c h u u k a s u u p u n o m o t o o ir e r u d a k e ! Y o w a b i d e s a n p u n k a n e t s u s u r e b a , t o t e m o o is h ii c h u u k a s u u p u g a t e g a r u n i t s u k u r e m a s u . W a fu u s u u p u , c h a u d a a , m in e s u t o r o o n e m o a r im a s u . O is h ii s u u p u d e y a s a i o t a p p u r i m e s h ia g a t t e - k u d a s a i. 1 . B o il v e g e t a b l e s y o u c a n fin d i n y o u r k it c h e n . 2.

A d d t h e s o u p m ix .

3.

C o o k a t l o w h e a t fo r t h r e e m in u t e s .

B o il v e g e t a b le s y o u h a v e i n y o u r h o m e , s u c h a s c a r r o t s , o n io n s , s h iit a k e m u s h r o o m s , a n d s o o n , a n d a ll y o u n e e d to d o is t o a d d t h e t h r e e - m in u t e C h in e s e s o u p m ix . C o o k i t fo r t h r e e m in u t e s a t l o w h e a t , a n d y o u w i l l h a v e e a s ily p r e p a r e d

愛は食卓にある： ：キューピ

3 弱加素ネゆ野台 分火又を ? 菜所 で る る◦をの

に ん じ ん 、ね ぎ 、 し い た け な ど 、 お 家 に

「 キ ユ ー ピ ー 3 分 ク ッ キ ン グ 」は 、 「 簡 単 手 作 り 」の 代 名 詞 で す 。

あ る 野 菜 を ゆ で 、そ こ に 3 分 ク ツ キ ン ク の 中華スープの素 を 入 れ る だ け ！弱 火 で

3分 加 熱 す れ ば 、 とてもおいしし、

中華ス-プの素

中 華 ス ー プ が 手 軽 に 作 れ ま す 。和風 ス ー プ 、 チ ヤ ウ ダ ー 、ミ ネ ス ト ロ ー ネ もあります。おいしいスープで野菜 をたっぶり召しあがってくださし、

Figure 5. Advertising for Chuuka Suupu no Moto (by Q. P. Corporation), in Orange Page (December 2, 2007), published by Orenji Peeji.

Selected Popular Culture Genres

305

a d e lic io u s C h in e s e s o u p . A ls o a v a ila b le a r e a J a p a n e s e s o u p m ix , a c h o w d e r m ix , a n d a m in e s t r o n e s o u p m ix . E n jo y e a t in g a lo t o f v e g e t a b le s s e r v e d in d e lic io u s s o u p s . *

*

*

FEATURES TO BE NOTED 1 . l oan w ord s T h i s a d v e r t is in g c o n t a in s m a n y l o a n w o r d s , a s lis t e d b e l o w (s e e s e c t io n 6 .2 ).

スープ クッキング チャウター ミネストローネ

sou p c o o k in g ch ow der m in e s t r o n e

I n a d d it io n , t h e b r a n d n a m e i s a l o a n w o r d f r o m C u p id (i . e . ，キューピー) . T h e t it le o f t h e m a g a z in e i t s e l f is c o in e d fr o m t h e E n g lis h w o r d s “ o r a n g e ” a n d “ p a g e ” (i.e .,

オレンジページ).

T h e s e f o r e ig n - s o u n d in g p h r a s e s g iv e a f a s h io n a b le im p r e s s io n a n d a r e w i d e l y u s e d (s e e s e c t io n 6 .3 ). 2.

In fo r m a l n o n -p a s t N o t e t h e u s e o f t h e n o n - p a s t t e n s e fo r p r o c e d u r a l d e s c r ip ­ t i o n s (s e e s e c t io n 8 .3 ). T h e n u m b e r e d d ir e c t io n s a p p e a r in g a s h e a d lin e s a r e g i v e n a s i f t h e y w e r e a p a r t o f a c o o k in g r e c ip e .

3.

A d d r e s s in g th e c o n s u m e r T h e m a in b o d y o f t h e c o p y t a k e s o n a fr ie n d ly b u t fo r m a l s t y le t o a d d r e s s t h e c o n s u m e r . T h e l a s t s e n t e n c e u s e s t h e h o n o r if ic s (r e s p e c t f u l f o r m s ) 召しあがってください， a d d in g to t h e o v e r a ll le v e l o f p o lit e n e s s (s e e s e c t io n s 1 2 .2 a n d 1 2 .7 ).

4.

E x c la m a t o r y p h r a s e s A d v e r t is in g c o p y o f t e n u s e s s h o r t s e n t e n c e s a n d p h r a s e s . E x c la m a t o r y p h r a s e s a p p e a r fr e q u e n t ly . T h e y a r e c o n c is e , e m p h a s iz e o n ly c r it ic a l in f o r m a t io n , a n d c a r r y w i t h t h e m d r a ­ m a t ic a n d e m o t io n a l e f f e c t s (s e e s e c t io n 1 1 .3 ).

弱火で 3 分 ！a n d にんじん、ねぎ、 しいたけなど、お家にあ る野菜をゆで、そこに 3 分クッキングの中華スープの素を入れるだ け ！a r e s u c h e x a m p le s . W e c a n a s s u m e t h a t でできます a n d です，r e s p e c t iv e ly , a r e d e le t e d fr o m t h e f u ll s t a t e m e n t s . T h e s e s e n t e n c e s w i t h o u t p r e d ic a t e s a d d to t h e i m m e d ia c y a n d d r a ­ m a t ic e f f e c t o f t h e c o p y . 5.

F o r t h e f o llo w in g e x p r e s s io n s , r e f e r t o t h e s e c t io n s lis t e d .

306

GENRES

お 家 （s e c t io n 1 2 .2 ， P o lit e n e s s a n d H o n o r ific s ) 里 f 菜をゆで （s e c t io n 1 0 .2 , C o n n e c t in g C la u s e s ) 加熱すれば （s e c t io n 1 0 .3 , C o n d it io n a ls ) 作れます （s e c t io n 9 .5 , P o t e n t ia l a n d A b ilit y ) 召しあがる （s e c t io n 1 2 .2 , P o lit e n e s s a n d H o n o r ific s ) 召しあがってください （s e c t io n 1 2 .7 , M a k in g R e q u e s t s )

a

政府広報

「 飲酒運転は、止めなかったあなたも同罪です。」 『 M£WS N O N -N O 』

（ F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 8 , p . 1 11 ),集 英 社

T h i s is a c a m p a ig n a g a in s t d r u n k d r iv in g s p o n s o r e d b y t h e J a p a ­ n e s e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e a d v e r t is e m e n t s t r o n g ly c o m m u n ic a t e s t h e m e s s a g e t h r o u g h it s h e a d lin e a n d c o p y .

飲酒運転は、止めなかったあなたも同罪です。 酒を飲み、運転しなければ起こらない犯罪。 それが、飲酒運転による事故です。 止めなかった人も罪は同じ。懲役や罰金が科せられます。 取り返しのつかない悲劇を、もう起こさないでください。 絶対にしない。絶対にさせない。飲酒運転は犯罪です。 In s h u u n te n w a , to m e n a k a tta a n a ta m o d o o z a i d esu . S a k e o n o m i, u n t e n s h in a k e r e b a o k o r a n a i h a n z a i. S o r e g a , in s h u u n t e n n i v o r u j i k o d e s u . T o m e n a k a t t a h it o m o t s u m i w a o n a ii. C h o o e k i y a b a k k in g a k aserarem a su . T o r i k a e s h i n o t s u k a n a i h ig e k i o, m o o o k o s a n a id e - k u d a s a i. Z a t t a i n i s h in a i. Z e t t a i n i s a s e n a i. I n s h u u n t e n w a h a n z a i d e s u . A s fo r d r u n k d r iv in g , i f y o u h a v e n ’t s t o p p e d t h e d r iv e r , y o u a r e g u i l t y o f c o m m it t in g t h e s a m e c r im e . A c r im e t h a t d o e s n o t h a p p e n u n le s s y o u d r in k a n d d r iv e . T h a t is t h e a c c id e n t c a u s e d b y d r iv in g w h ile in t o x ic a t e d . T h e p e r s o n w h o d o e s n ’t s t o p it i s c o m m it t in g t h e s a m e c r im e . A n d w i l l b e im p r is o n e d a n d fin e d . D o n o t re p e a t a tra g e d y y o u c a n n e v e r m en d . N e v e r d o it. N e v e r le t o t h e r s d o it. D r u n k d r iv in g is a c r im e .

Selected Popular Culture Genres

307

FEATURES TO BE NOTED

1 . Clausal modification a n d clausal explanation T h i s advertisement notably takes o n a c o m p l e x s e n ­ tence structure of clausal modification (see section 10.4) a n d clausal explanation (see section 10.5). E x a m p l e s of clausal modification are [止 め な か っ た ]あ な た a n d [止 め な か っ た ] 人 . E x a m p l e s of clausal explanation are [酒 を 飲 み 、運 転 し な け れ ば 起 こ ら な い ] 犯 罪 ，[飲 酒 運 転 に よ る ]事 故 ，a n d [取 り 返 し の つ か な い ] 悲 劇 .T h e portion that is b r a c k ­ eted modifies or explains the n o u n i m m e d i a t e l y following it. Clausal modification a n d clausal explanation m a k e it possible to p a c k rich m i o r m a t i o n into a relatively small n u m b e r of p h r a s e s ，a useful strategy for advertising headlines a n d copy. 2. Passives a n d causatives A l t h o u g h J a p a n e s e passives a n d causatives are u s e d in a limited w a y ，the e x a m p l e s appe a r i n g in this text are quite ef­ fective. S e e sections 9.9 a n d 9.10 for passives a n d causatives. 懲 役 や 罰 金 が 科 せ ら れ ま す c o m m u n i c a t e s the negative i m p a c t of being p u n i s h e d ，a n d 起 こ さ な い で く 7こさい c o m ­ m u n i c a t e s the p o w e r the driver h a s ，that is，n o t to c a u s e a n accident. A n interesting contrast is obser v e d in the pair of sent e n c e s 絶 対 に し な い a n d 絶 対 に さ せ な い . H e r e ，d r u n k driving is s o m e t h i n g that o n e w o u ld n o t d o a n d w o u ld n o t le t o th e rs do. T h e difference b e t w e e n しない a n d させ な い is significant，a n d that is realized b y simple verb conjugation. 3. Topic chaining T h e headline a n d the c o p y of this advertisement illustrate h o w a topic c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d b y chaining relevant w o r d s (see section 16.5). M o r e specifically，the writer u s e s repeti­ tion ，p a r a p h r a s i n g ，a n d a 漢 字 （ か ん じ ）connection for topic chaining. First，note the repetition. T h e p h r a s e 飲 酒 運 転 a p p e a r s three times. G i v e n that w e are e x p o s e d to 飲 酒 運 転 は at the very begi n n i n g ，w e s e nse that the text is a b o u t 飲 酒 運 転 . A n d the overall topic is sustained partly w i t h the repetition of the identical phrase. P a r a p h r a s i n g is a useful w a y to m a i n t a i n c o h esion w i t h ­ o ut excessive repetition. T h e expression 酒 を 飲 み 運 転 p a r a ­ p h r a s e s 飲 酒 運 転 . O b s e r v e the interesting repeated u s e of 漢

308

GENRES

字（ i . e .， 罪) . T h e

w ord s

c h a in e d to t h e i d e a o f

同罪，犯罪， c r im e ( 罪).

and

罪

a re u s e d a s th e y a re

18.5. Magazine Essay 雑誌エッセー 中丸雄一「 理想はお互いに尊敬し合えるオシヤレな関係」 『 明星』 (J a n u a r y 2 0 0 8 , p . 3 3 ) , '集英社 T h i s is a s h o r t e s s a y a p p e a r in g i n a n e n t e r t a in m e n t m a g a z in e . T h e e s s a y i s c r e d it e d t o

中丸雄一（ なかまるゆういち）（ b . 1983),

a m em ber

o i a s o n g - a n d - d a n c e id o l g r o u p , K A T - T U N . T h e m a g a z in e c o n t a in s m a n y p h o t o g r a p h s o i t e e n id o ls , t a l e n t s ， a n d e n t e r t a in e r s .

The

p h o t o g r a p h s a r e a c c o m p a n ie d b y e s s a y - lik e p ie c e s t h a t “c o n fe s s ” h o w t h o s e c e le b r it ie s fe e l. O b v io u s ly ， t h e s e p ie c e s a r e p r o d u c e d fo r t h e f a n s 5 c o n s u m p t io n ， a n d t h e y c o n t a in f u n n y ，p l e a s a n t ，u n c o n tr o v e r s ia l， f r i e n d l y ， a n d n o t - s o - s e r io u s c o m m e n t s . *

*

*

ま~ 寒くなってきたから、なんとなく人肌恋しい季節ではあります ね、 うん。で、なんでしたっけ？ あぁ恋？ 恋ね。いちばん語るの苦 手な分野だ • • • 。 あんまり恋に積極的なほうでもないんでね。無理 ! ! っ て思うことのほうが多いんでね。本当に好きな人の前に出ると、すご一 く不自然になってしまったり• • • 。気になってる人がいても、俺じや申 し訳ない気がして、逃げ腰になっちやったり。そうなると、会話なんて もってのほか、 目も見られずに、一方的な恋で終わってしまうわけです よ。たとえ、がんばって話して、少し仲よくなっても、それ以上はビビ ッてしまうとかね。 自分でもどうしてこうなのかよくわかんないけどホ ントに不器用だなって思う。 M a a ， s a m u k u n a t t e - k i t a k a r a ， n a n t o n a k u r n t o h a d a k o is h ii k is e t s u d e w a a r im a s u n e ，u n . D e ， n a n d e s h it a k k e ? A a k o i? K o i n e . I c h ib a n k a t a r u n o n i g a t e n a b u n ’y a d a ___ A n m a r i k o i n i s e k k y o k u t e k in a h o o d e m o n a i n d e n e . M u r i!! t t e o m o u k o t o n o h o o g a o o i n d e n e . H o n t o o n i s u k in a h it o n o m a e n i d e r u t o ， s u g o o k u f u s h iz e n n i n a t t e - s h im a t t a r i ___ K in in a t t e r u h it o g a it e m o ， o r e j a m o o s h iw a k e n a i k i g a s h i t e ， n ig e g o s h i n i n a t - c h a t t a r i. S o o n a r u to , k a i w a n a n t e m o t t e n o h o k a ， m e m o m ir a r e z u n i ， i p p o o t e k in a k o i d e o w a t t e - s r n m a u w a k e d e s u y o . T a t o e , g a n b a t t e h a n a s h it e , s u k o s h i n a k a y o k u n a t t e m o , s o r e ijo o w a b ib it t e - s h im a u t o k a n e . J ib u n d e m o d o o s h it e k o o n a n o k a y o k u w a k a n n a i k e d o h o n t o n i b u k iy o o d a n a tte om ou . W e ll, i t ?s g e t t i n g c o ld e r , a n d it i s a s e a s o n w h e n y o u m i s s s o m e ­ o n e c lo s e to y o u . R ig h t. A n d w h a t w a s it ? A h , lo v e ? L o v e , i s n ?t it?

Selected Popular Culture Genres

309

T h e k in d o f t h in g I a m a t m y w o r s t t a lk in g a b o u t ___ I ’m n o t t o o a g g r e s s iv e a b o u t lo v e . I m p o s s ib le ! T o o m a n y t im e s , I h a v e fe lt t h a t w a y . W h e n I fa c e s o m e o n e w h o m I t r u ly lik e , I b e c o m e v e r y a w k ­ w a r d ___ E v e n w h e n I h a v e s o m e o n e I ’m a b it a t t r a c t e d to , I f e e l I ’m n o t g o o d e n o u g h , a n d I t e n d t o w i t h d r a w fr o m h e r, lik e . I n t h a t s it u a t io n , n o t t o m e n t io n t a lk in g w i t h h e r, b u t e v e n lo o k i n g a t h e r e y e t o e y e b e c o m e i m p o s s ib le , a n d t h e l o v e e n d s a s o n e - s id e d lo v e , a s y o u s e e . E v e n w h e n I d a r e to t a lk a n d w e b e c o m e a b it c lo s e , I ’m t o o a fr a id to g o fu r t h e r , r e a lly . I d o n ’t u n d e r s t a n d w h y I ’m t h is w a y , a n d I r e a liz e h o w a w k w a r d I a m .

FEATURES TO BE NOTED 1 . S p e e c h - l i k e w r it in g T h e s t y le u s e d i n t h i s e s s a y i s

いっちたい) ，

新言文一致体（ しんげんぶん

w h e r e f o r m a l a n d in f o r m a l f o r m s a r e m ix e d . T h e

e n t ir e t e x t c a r r ie s w i t h it a fr ie n d ly , s p e e c h - lik e q u a lit y (s e e s e c t io n 3 .9 ). T h e o v e r a ll f r ie n d lin e s s e x p r e s s e d in t h e w r i t i n g i s s u p ­ p o r t e d b y t h e s o u n d c h a n g e s l i s t e d b e lo w .

ないんでね 多いんでね すご一く 俺じや なつちやったり わかんない って思う

in s t e a d o f ないのでね in s t e a d o f 多いのでね in s te a d o f

すごく

in s t e a d o f 俺では in s t e a d o f なってしまったり in s t e a d o f わからない in s t e a d o f

と思う

I n a d d it io n , n o t e t h e u s e o f f i n a l p a r t ic le s

人肌恋しい季節ではありますね 恋ね 積極的なほうでもないんでね 思うことのほうが多いんでね 終わってしまうわけですよ それ以上はビビッてしまうとかね 2.

M ix in g s t y le s T h e w r it e r m ix e s f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s t y le s (s e e s e c t io n 1 2 .1 ). T h e fo r m a l s t y le s ( ありますね，なんでしたつけ？ a n d

ですよ）

わけ

a d d r e s s t h e r e a d e r d ir e c t ly . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s e n ­

t e n c e s t h a t w h is p e r h i s i n n e r r e s p o n s e a p p e a r i n t h e i n f o r m a l

310

GENRES s t y le ( 分野だa n d

思う） .

B y m ix in g s t y l e s ， t h e w r it e r p r e s e n t s

i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h d if f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f s ig n ific a n c e . T h i s s t r a t ­ e g y c o m m u n ic a t e s t h e o v e r a ll s t r u c t u r e o f t h e d is c o u r s e a s w e ll. 3.

C o n v e r s a t io n i n w r i t i n g A n o t h e r f e a t u r e s u p p o r t in g

新言文一致体

is t o in c o r p o r a t e

c o n v e r s a t io n w i t h i n t h e w r i t t e n t e x t . N o t e t h e i n it ia l p o r t io n .

ま~ 寒くなってきたから、なんとなく人肌恋しい季節ではあります ね、 うん。で、なんでしたっけ？ あぁ恋？ 恋ね。 H e r e ， th e s e n te n c e s ta r ts w ith w ith

ぅん，

ま~ ，

an op en er， a n d en d s

a m a r k e r fo r t h e e n d o f a s p e a k in g t u r n . T h e n t h e

w r it e r c a r r ie s o n a p s e u d o c o n v e r s a t io n ，で、なんでしたっけ？

あぁ恋？恋ね. T h i s

o n e - s id e d c o n v e r s a t io n a s s u m e s t h a t t h e

r e a d e r h a s c o m e u p w ith th e a n s w e r

恋.

In r e s p o n s e to th e

i m a g in e d a n s w e r ，恋 b e c o m e s t h e t o p ic . 4.

U n fin is h e d s e n t e n c e s T h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s t a k e t h e k i n d o f f i n a l e x p r e s s io n s t h a t le a v e t h e m u n f in is h e d (s e e s e c t io n 1 3 .6 ). N o t e t h e u s e o f e l lip s e s ， th e u s e o f

で a n d たり . T h e y

a ll c o n t r ib u t e to t h e

o v e r a ll i m p r e s s io n o f c o n v e r s a t io n a l w r it in g .

いちばん語るの苦手な分野だ•••。 積極的なほうでもないんでね 思うことのほうが多いんでね すご一く不自然になってしまったり•••。 逃げ腰になっちやったり てしまぅ

5.

e x p r e s s io n s

N o t ic e t h e fr e q u e n t u s e o f

てしまぅ

e x p r e s s io n s . T h e s e e x ­

p r e s s io n s c o n v e y t h a t t h e a c t io n w a s c o m p le t e d w it h a s e n s e o f re g re t， a p p e a lin g t o t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h in g s h a v e o c c u r r e d b e y o n d t h e w r i t e r ’s c o n t r o l (s e e s e c t io n 9 .8 ).

すご一く不自然になってしまったり 逃げ腰になっちやったり 終わってしまう ビビツてしまう 6

.

カタカナ

a n d y o u t h la n g u a g e

T h e t e x t a ls o u s e s カタカナ， a s i n w r it e r c h o o s e s

カタカつ- t o

w i t h - i t a t t it u d e .

ビビる a n

d

ホントに. T h e

a d d to t h e t e x t a v o u t h - o r i e n t e d ，

Selected Popular Culture Genres

311

18.6. Cell-Phone Novel ケータイ小説 美嘉『 恋空』f 上 2006,

p. 274)，スターツ出版

ケータイ小説（ しようせつ）‘c e ll- p h o n e n o v e l s ’ b e g a n t o ケ ー タ イ ‘c e ll p h o n e s ’ b e c a m e w id e s p r e a d

2 0 0 1 ,when

a p p e a r in m Japan,

p a r t ic u la r ly a m o n g t h e y o u t h . B e c a u s e t e x t m e s s a g in g is r e s t r ic t e d i n c h a r a c t e r s p a c e , ケータイ小説 u s e s h o r t a n d s im p le s e n t e n c e s , w it h o u t t r a d i t i o n a l 段 落 （ 7こんらく） d iv is io n s . U n lik e t r a d it io n a l n o v ­

ケータイ小説

e ls ,

a r e p r e s e n t e d h o r iz o n t a lly . E v e n w h e n t h e y a r e

p u b lis h e d a s b o o k s , t h e y f o l l o w t h e h o r iz o n t a l fo r m a t .

ケータイ小説 d if fe r fr o m o n lin e n o v e ls i n t h e ir c o n v e n ie n c e . B e ­ ケータイ小説 c a n b e r e a d a n y w h e r e (e .g ., w h ile w a i t i n g fo r a

cau se

b u s o r s it t in g o n a p a r k b e n c h ), t h e y a r e e v e n m o r e a c c e s s ib le t h a n o n lin e n o v e ls . M a n y

ケータイ小説

a r e a c c e s s ib le o n t h e I n t e r n e t a s

w e ll. T h e p o p u la r it y o f t h e

ケータイ小説i s

s u p p o r t e d b y t h e ir t h e m e .

T h e y a r e u s u a lly a s s u m e d t o b e b a s e d o n t h e w r i t e r ’s p e r s o n a l e x ­ p e r ie n c e . T h e y a r e n a r r a t e d f r o m a f ir s t - p e r s o n p e r s p e c t iv e . W r it ­ e r s (m o s t ly fe m a le ) a r e t h o u g h t t o b e in t h e ir t e e n s o r e a r ly t w e n ­ t ie s . T h e y h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h s o m e o f t h e t y p ic a l life e x p e r ie n c e s o f y o u t h , s u c h a s lo v e r e la t io n s h ip s , b r e a k u p s , p r e g n a n c ie s , d o ­ m e s t ic v io le n c e , j u v e n i l e d e lin q u e n c y , s c h o o l b u lly in g , a n d s u ic id e . M o r e r e c e n t l y , ケータイ小説 h a v e b e c o m e m o r e d iv e r s e a n d n o w in c lu d e s c ie n c e f i c t i o n a n d fa n t a s y . A fte r s o m e

ケータイ小説 b e c a m e

v e r y p o p u la r , p u b lis h e r s b e g a n

t o t a k e n o t ic e . T h e e a r lie s t n o v e l t h a t b e c a m e w e ll k n o w n b e y o n d it s c e ll- p h o n e r e a d e r s w a s “ D e e p L o v e ” b y Y o s h i.

『恋空』， b y 美嘉， w a s a v a ila b le a t a c e ll- p h o n e う）の i らんど] i n 2 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 4 . It b e c a m e s o p o p u la r

s it e [魔 法 （ まほ t h a t i n 2 0 0 6 it

w a s p u b lis h e d i n t w o v o lu m e s a s a h a r d c o v e r b o o k . F o llo w in g t h e t e x t m e s s a g i n g f o r m a t , t h e b o o k s t o o k o n t h e h o r iz o n t a l w r i t i n g s t y le , a s t y le u n u s u a l f o r J a p a n e s e n o v e ls .

『 恋空』w a s

a ls o p r o ­

d u c e d a s a t e le v is io n d r a m a s e r ie s a n d a m o v ie i n 2 0 0 7 . T h e s t o r y t r a c e s t h e s e v e n y e a r s o f a lo v e - b r e a k u p - lo v e r e l a ­ t io n s h ip b e t w e e n M ik a (t h e w r it e r ) a n d H ir o , w h o m e e t i n t h e ir fir s t y e a r o f h i g h s c h o o l. *

*

*

新しい涙の味 もうすぐ高校二年生も終わる。 テストもギリギリでクリアし、補習もまぬがれて今回は難無く三学 期を終える事ができた。

312

GENRES

「 明日から春休みだけど怠けないで勉強しろよ」 先生の言葉に生徒達は歓声をあげ、一斉に教室を出る。 美嘉は友達に別れを告げるといそいそと靴を履き替え、小走りで学 校を出た。 • • • 高校生活もあと一年か。 天気いいなあ~ ! ! ラララぁ）」 こんな気分のいい時は自然に歌を口ずさんでしまう。 バス停の前に到着し、時間を確認しようとポケットに手を入れた が、携帯電話がない。 •••あ!！ そう言えば机の中に入れておいたままだ。 歩いてきた道を戻り、再び学校へ歩き始めると、前方から仲のよさ げなカップルが歩いてきた。 そのカップルとちょうどすれ違った瞬間- … 「 美嘉ちやんだよね？」 美嘉はカップルの女の方に声をかけられて振り返った。 • • • この顔、忘れられるはずもない。 咲。 ヒロの元カノの咲だ。 A t a r a s h i i n a m i a a n o a ji M o o s u g u k o o k o o n in e n s e i m o o w a r u . T e s u t o m o g i r i g i r i d e k u r ia s h i, h o s h u u m o m a n u g a r e t e k o n k a i w a n a n n a k u s a n g a k k i o o e r u k o t o g a d e k it a . “A s h i t a k a r a h a r u y a s u m i d a k e d o n a m a k e n a id e b e n k y o o s h ir o y o .” S e n s e i n o k o t o b a n i s e it o - t a c h i w a k a n s e i o a g e , is s e in i k y o o s h it s u o d e r u . M ik a w a t o m o d a c h i n i w a k a r e o t s u g e r u to is o is o t o k u t s u o h a k ik a e , k o b a s h ir i d e g a k k o o o d e ta . ___ K o o k o o s e ik a t s u m o a t o ic h in e n k a . “ T e n k i ii n a a !! R a , r a , r a a □ ” K o n n a k i b u n n o i i t o k i w a s h iz e n n i u t a o k u c h iz u s a n d e - s h im a u . B a s u t e i n o m a e n i t o o c h a k u s h i, j i k a n o k a k u n in s h iy o o t o p o k e t t o n i t e o i r e t a g a , k e it a i d e n w a g a n a i. ___ A !! S o o i e b a t s u k u e n o n a k a n i i r e t e - o i t a m a m a d a . A r u i t e - k i t a m ic h i o m o d o r i, f u t a t a b i g a k k o o e a r u k i- h a jim e r u to , z e n p o o k a r a n a k a n o y o s a g e n a k a p p u r u g a a r u it e - k it a . S o n o k a p p u r u t o c h o o d o s u r e c h ig a t t a s h u n k a n ___ “ M ik a - c h a n d a y o n e ? ” M ik a w a k a p p u r u n o o n n a n o h o o n i k o e o k a k e r a r e t e fu r ik a e t t a . ___ K o n o k a o w a s u r e r u h a z u m o n a i. S a k i. H ir o n o m o t o k a n o n o S a k i d a .

Selected Popular Culture Genres

313

T h e ta s te o f n e w tea rs . S o o n , m y j u n i o r y e a r o f h ig h s c h o o l w i l l e n d . B a r e ly , b u t I p a s s e d e x a m s , a n d I w a s n 't fo r c e d in t o e x t r a r e ­ v i e w c la s s e s ; t h i s t im e I c o u ld e n d t h e t h i r d s e m e s t e r s a fe ly . “ F r o m t o m o r r o w , t h e s p r in g b r e a k s t a r t s . D o n 't fo r g e t t o s t u d y h a r d .” S t u d e n t s s c r e a m e d w i t h j o y a s t h e t e a c h e r s a id t h a t , a n d e v ­ e r y o n e l e f t t h e c la s s r o o m a t t h e s a m e t im e . I s a id m y g o o d - b y e s t o fr ie n d s , c h a n g e d s h o e s , a n d l e f t s c h o o l a lm o s t r u n n in g . ___ O n e m o r e y e a r a s a h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t. “ W h a t n ic e w e a t h e r . L a , la , la .” O n s u c h a p le a s a n t d a y , I e n d u p s in g in g a s o n g . I a r r iv e d a t t h e b u s s t o p , a n d I p u t m y h a n d in m y p o c k e t to c h e c k t h e t im e , b u t I c o u ld n 't fin d m y c e ll p h o n e . ___ N o !! T h a t 's r ig h t , I l e f t i t in s id e m y d e s k d r a w e r . I t r a c e d b a c k a lo n g t h e r o a d I h a d c o m e , a n d a s I b e g a n w a lk in g a g a in t o w a r d t h e s c h o o l, I n o t ic e d a n i n t im a t e c o u p le a p p r o a c h in g . T h e m o m e n t w h e n I p a s s e d b y t h a t c o u p le , . . . “ Y o u 'r e M ik a , a r e n 't y o u ? ” s a id t h e w o m a n o f t h e c o u p le , a n d s o I t u r n e d m y h e a d t o w a r d h e r. ___ T h i s fa c e , it i s i m p o s s ib le t o fo r g e t. It w a s S a k i. S a k i, H ir o 's e x - g ir lfr ie n d .

FEATURES TO BE NOTED 1 . N arrativ e ten se A s y o u h a v e p r o b a b ly n o t ic e d , t h i s s e g m e n t c o n t a in s b o t h p a s t a n d n o n - p a s t t e n s e s (s e e s e c t io n s 8 .3 a n d 8 .4 ). B e lo w t h e m a i n p r e d ic a t e v e r b s a r e c a t e g o r iz e d in t o t h e t w o t e n s e s . N o n - p a s t : 終わる，出る，口ずさんでしまう，ない，ままだ，ない，咲

だ P a s t : できた，出た， 歩いてきた，振り返った N o n - p a s t t e n s e s e n t e n c e s d e s c r ib e w h a t i s h a p p e n in g “ n o w .” T h e y m a y r e f e r t o a n e v e n t h a p p e n in g “ n o w ” o r t h e f e e l i n g s a n d t h o u g h t s o f t h e w r it e r (fo llo w in g t h e f i r s t - p e r s o n p e r s p e c t iv e ). I n n e r - t h o u g h t s e n t e n c e s in c lu d e t h e fo llo w in g . • • • 高校生活もあと一年か。

•••あ!！ そう言えば机の中に入れておいたままだ。 • • • この顔、忘れられるはずもない。

314

GENRES P a s t t e n s e s e n t e n c e s d e s c r ib e w h a t h a p p e n e d fr o m t h e w r i t e r ’s p e r s p e c t iv e . U n lik e E n g lis h ， w h e r e n a r r a t iv e n o r m a lly t a k e s t h e p a s t t e n s e , i n N ih o n g o , t h e t e n s e s h ift is r e la t iv e ly fr e e .

2.

E x c la m a t o r y p h r a s e s T o d r a m a t iz e t h e s t o r y , n o u n p h r a s e s w it h o u t p r e d ic a t e s ap p ear, a s i n

そのカップルとちょうどすれ違った瞬間…

and

咲

(s e e s e c t io n 1 1 .3 ). 3

.

カタカナ a n d y o u t h la n g u a g e カタカつ- a p p e a r i o r w o r d s t h a t

a r e t y p ic a lly a s s o c ia t e d

w i t h y o u t h la n g u a g e . T h e e f f e c t s a r e m u lt ip le , in c lu d in g lo a n w o r d s , s o u n d e ffe c t s , f ir s t n a m e s , a n d s p e c ia l w o r d s (s e e s e c ­ t i o n s 5 .5 a n d 6 .2 ).

クリアする フフフあ

t o c le a r (i.e ., to p a s s ) , クリアa s a l o a n w o r d

ヒロ

弘樹（ ひろさ） b u t is c a lle d ヒロ e x - g ir lm e n d , a c o m b in a t io n o f 兀 （ もと） a n d 彼 o f 彼女（ かのじょ）‘g i r l f r i e n d ’， w r i t t e n w i t h カタカナ

s o u n d - b a s e d p h r a s e , r h y t h m - t a k in g , e x p r e s s in g h a p p in e s s n ic k n a m e ; t h e h e r o is

H ir o , w h i c h is t r a n s c r ib e d a s

兀カノ

T h e e x p r e s s i o n テストもギリギリでクリアするis y o u t h l a n ­ g u a g e , a n d so is th e p h ra s e th e u s e

oi

兀カノ，

仲のよさげなカップル.

N o t e a ls o

a p h r a s e f r e q u e n t ly u s e d a m o n g y o u t h .

4.

N o t e t h e u s e o f □ (s e e s e c t io n 3 .1 0 ).

5.

F o r t h e f o llo w in g e x p r e s s io n s , r e f e r t o t h e e n t r y s e c t io n s lis t e d .

事ができた （s e c t io n 9 .5 , P o t e n t ia l a n d A b ilit y ) 勉強しろ （s e c t io n 1 2 .1 2 , G iv in g O r d e r s a n d C o m m a n d s ) 另1Jれを告げると （s e c t io n 1 0 .2 , C o n n e c t in g C la u s e s ) 歩き始めると （s e c t io n 1 0 .2 , C o n n e c t in g C la u s e s ) 声をかけられて （s e c t io n 9 .9 , P a s s iv e s ) 忘れられる （s e c t io n 9 .5 , P o t e n t ia l a n d A b ilit y ) はずもない （s e c t io n 9 .6 , M o d a l V e r b s )

PART VII

Learning Nihongo

CH A PTER 19

Methods

19.1. Taking Classes I f i t i s a t a ll p o s s ib le t o t a k e s t r u c t u r e d c o u r s e s in t h e J a p a n e s e la n g u a g e , y o u s h o u ld d o s o . L e a r n in g in a c la s s r o o m o f f e r s t h e k in d o f e x p e r ie n c e d if fic u lt to d u p lic a t e o t h e r w is e . Y o u w i ll m e e t a t e a c h ­ e r w h o is a n a t iv e o r n e a r - n a t iv e J a p a n e s e s p e a k e r . Y o u w i ll g e t a c ­ q u a in t e d w i t h p e o p le w h o s h a r e y o u r i n t e r e s t in le a r n in g N ih o n g o . T a k i n g c la s s e s c a n o f f e r t h e fo llo w in g .

1 . A s y s t e m a t ic in t r o d u c t io n t o a n d t h e l e a r n i n g o f s o u n d s , s c r ip t s , a n d g r a m m a r 2.

E n a c t e d in t e r a c t io n p r a c t ic e s f o c u s in g o n c o m m u n ic a t io n s t r a t e g ie s

3. 4.

C u lt u r a l i n f o r m a t io n r e la t e d t o t o p ic s c o v e r e d in t h e le s s o n s U p - t o - d a t e a u d io a n d v id e o m a t e r ia ls d e v e lo p e d fo r la n g u a g e ­ le a r n in g p u r p o s e s

5.

G r o u p a c t iv it ie s s u c h a s d is c u s s io n s , s k it s , a n d i n t e r v ie w s

6.

D r ills , e x e r c is e s , c r e a t iv e a s s ig n m e n t s , a n d c la s s r o o m p a r t ic i­ p a t io n t o e n h a n c e y o u r p e r f o r m a n c e

7. 8.

Q u iz z e s a n d e x a m in a t io n s t o a s s e s s y o u r a b ilit y D ir e c t a c c e s s t o in s t r u c t o r s w h o c a n o f f e r a s s is t a n c e a n d a d v ic e

H ig h s c h o o ls , c o lle g e s , a n d p r iv a t e la n g u a g e s c h o o ls o f f e r v a r i ­ o u s c la s s e s , c o v e r in g t h e b e g i n n i n g t o t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d le v e ls . T h e y s o m e t im e s o f fe r c o u r s e s fo r s p e c ific p u r p o s e s , s u c h a s w r i t ­ in g , c o n v e r s a t io n , a n d b u s in e s s J a p a n e s e . It is a d v is a b le t o t a k e t h e b a s ic la n g u a g e c o u r s e s f i r s t a n d f o l l o w t h e p r o g r a m s t h r o u g h t o m a k e s u r e y o u r k n o w le d g e a n d e x p e r ie n c e a r e c o n s t r u c t iv e ly a c c u m u la t iv e .

317

318

LEARNING N I H O N G O

Y ou m a y h ave access to J a p a n ese cou rses offered as d istan ce­ le a rn in g classes or on th e Internet. A lth ou gh lim ited, th ese cou rses w ill p rove usefu l, n oneth eless.

19.2. Learning on Your Own I f y o u h ave n o available J a p a n ese cou rses n ea r y o u an d y o u are on y o u r own, th ere is n o n eed to despair. Y ou can p u rch ase textb ook s as w e ll a s au dio and v isu a l m aterials. You can e n roll in online cou rses and m a k e u se o f in fo rm a tio n available on th e Internet. G ooglin g “le a rn in g J a p a n ese” w ill lead y o u to an array o f u sefu l sou rces. O nce y o u h ave fam ilia rized y o u r s e lf w ith th e core k n o w l­ edge o f J a p a n ese la n gu a ge learn in g, y o u can sort ou t u sefu l and n o t-so-u sefu l in form ation . Y ou are n ever com p letely alon e w h e n le a rn in g J apan ese. A l­ th ou g h it ta k es d eterm in a tion , it is p ossib le to le a rn b asic J a p a ­ n ese on y o u r own. S u ch an exp erien ce w ill te s t you , b u t it is p o s ­ sible to b ecom e p ro ficien t in J a p a n ese even w h en y o u stu d y it on y o u r own. W h eth er y o u are ta k in g a cou rse or not, w h a t is im p orta n t is to rea ch ou t for v a rio u s resou rces. B y a ccessin g p ed a gogica l reso u rc­ es, y o u w ill le a rn v a rio u s m ethods. L earn in g is a creative process. B y exp erim en tin g w ith d ifferen t m eth ods, y o u w ill fin d th e righ t com b in ation m ost a greeab le an d su ited to you. K eep in m in d th a t as in everyth in g else in life, u n less y o u tru ly w a n t to le a rn Japan ese, y o u w ill n ot succeed. A n d u n less y o u enjoy th e p rocess, y o u w ill n o t last. I f y o u k n o w w h a t y o u tru ly w a n t to do and i f y o u r desire is to le a rn J ap an ese, y o u h ave alrea d y ta ken th e first critical step.

19.3. Language Skills Lan gu age stu d en ts are exp ected to m a ster readin g, w ritin g, sp eak ­ ing, an d listening. T h ese fou r b asic skills are n o t com p letely iso ­ lated. In fact, rea d in g an d w ritin g are b ased on sim ilar k now ledge, an d sp eak in g an d listen in g are synergistic. In addition, giv en the p rom in en ce o f visu a l im a g es in com m u n ication , le a rn in g h o w to read th em is also essential. A lth ou gh certain p rogra m s tend to em ­ p h a size specific skills, it h a s b ee n m y exp erien ce th a t u n less y o u d evelop each o f th ese skills, y o u w ill n o t com e ou t p ro ficien t in N ih o n g o .

Methods

319

19.4. Reading W h a t to R ead

A s a ge n era l rule, ch oose m a teria ls th a t cover th e to p ics p erson a lly in terestin g to you. W h a t y o u alrea d y k n o w ab ou t a top ic w ill serve as b a ck grou n d k now led ge w h e n rea d in g a J ap a n ese text. Y ou r p rior k now led ge w ill be a b ig h elp w h e n y o u g e t stuck. O bviou sly, w h a t y o u can read d ep en d s on y o u r p roficien cy level. W ith m a teria l too d ifficu lt for y o u r level, y o u m a y sim ply be overw helm ed. B e k in d to you rself. D ifferen t rea d in g m a teria ls sp e­ cifically p rep a red for stu d en ts o f Jap a n ese as a foreign lan gu age are available. I f y o u w a n t to read au th en tic m aterial, ch oose sim ple texts first (su ch as th ose ta rgeted a t ju n io r h ig h sch ool an d h igh sch ool students). I do n o t reco m m en d c h ild ren ’s b oo k s for ad u lt stu d ents o f Jap an ese. A lth ou g h th ey seem d ecep tively easy, b a b y w o rd s an d c h ild ren ’s vo ca b u la ry d iffer fro m ad u lt la n g u a g e an d are often u se­ le s s to ad u lt learn ers. I f possible, it w o u ld b e a g o o d id e a to seek ad vice from y o u r la n gu a ge tea ch er as to w h a t specific b oo k s are m ost appropriate. I u s u a lly reco m m en d sh ort stories b y 星 新 一 （ ほししんいち） for h is short, sim ple, an d stra igh tforw ard w r itin g style. I f y o u are a m ystery n o vel fan, p erh a p s w o rk s b y 赤川次郎（ あかかわじろつ） are m ore accessib le th a n others. Som e o f th e cu rren t w o rk s o f 東野圭吾 ( ひかしのけいご） m a y also in terest you. I f yo u h ave access to lib ra rie s w ith a J a p a n ese la n gu a ge col­ lection, ch eck ou t w h a t th ey have. M ost lib ra ries h old collection s o f m o d ern litera tu re p u b lish ed b y m a jor J ap a n ese publishers. Y ou w ill recogn ize th e n a m es o f som e authors. A m o n g th e w orks, choose sh ort fictio n w ith rela tively sh ort sen ten ces an d sim ple sen ­ ten ce stru ctures. Lib raries m a y also su b scrib e to m a jor J ap a n ese jo u rn a ls an d m agazines. Look th ro u g h th em an d re a d sim ple articles, essays, advertisin g, an d so on. T h e m a gazin e in d u stry in J a p a n p rod u ces a n array o f w e e k ly an d m o n th ly m a gazin es for specific readers. M aga zin es for yo u th ca rry articles in colloq u ia l lan gu age w ith cu rren t vocabu lary. R ead th ese m a gazin es to k eep up w ith th e m ost cu rren t lan gu age. M aga­ zin es often carry con cise articles w ith con crete exam ples. T h e w rit­ in g style is d irect an d clear. Y ou m a y fin d th is k in d o f w ritin g u se­ fu l for y o u r study.

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I f y o u h ave access to b rick -an d -m orta r J ap a n ese b ook stores (in clu d in g secon d -h an d b ook stores), b row se th ro u gh them . You w ill be am azed at th e v a s t va rie ty o f p u b lica tion s available. You m a y ask th e sales s ta ff to recom m en d som eth in g for you. O f course, b ook stores on th e In tern et (e.g., http: / /w w w .a m a zo n . co.jp/ an d h ttp://w w w .k in oku n iya.co.jp/) p rovid e a w ea lth o f in ­ form ation. You have access to p ractically every p ossible p u b lica­ tion in Japan. In form ation is available in English, bu t to take full advan tage o f w h a fs ou t there, y o u m u st alrea d y b e p roficien t in Japanese. Still, su ch sites o ffer an opp ortu n ity to b row se th rou gh th e en d less lists o f p u b lication s in Japanese. Jap a n ese n ew sp ap er com p a n ies o ffer J a p a n ese lan gu age W eb sites. Look for th e W eb sites o f m a jor n ew sp a p ers as listed below.

朝日新聞（ あさひしんぶん）h ttp://w w w .asah i.com / 毎日新聞（ まいにちしんぶん）h ttp://w w w .m ain ich i.jp/ 読売新聞（ よみうりしんぶん）h ttp://w w w .yom iu ri.co.jp/ O n ce y o u re a c h th ese sites, y o u w ill have access to d ifferen t ty p es o f w ritin gs, n ew s, editorials, essays, sp orts articles, pop u lar cu ltu re item s, in terview s, sp ecia l ieatu res, an d so on. M ajor p u b lish in g h o u ses regu la rly p u b lish n e w titles in estab ­ lish ed series called 新書 （ しんしよ） ，w ith en d less titles o f n on -fiction p ap erbacks. For exam ple, Iw an am i S h oten p u b lish es 岩 波 新 書 （ い

わなみしんしょ)， an d S h in ch oosh a p u b lish es (新潮新書しんちょうし んしょ) . T h e 新書 series cover everyth in g fro m p h ilosop h y an d re ­ ligion to m u sic an d art. E ach b ook (reason a b ly priced) is w ritten b y a n exp ert in th e fie ld an d u su a lly p rovid es releva n t in form a tion in plain, n on -tech n ica l Japan ese. B v selectin g u p -to-d ate p u b lica ­ tion s in th ese series, y o u w ill access w h a t is top ical in th e con tem ­ p orary J a p a n ese p u b lish in g world. In th e litera ry m arket, after a cou ple o f y e a rs as h ard cover p u b lication s, n o vels are p u b lish ed as rea son a b ly p riced p a p e r­ b ack s called 文 庫 （ ぶんこ) . Here again, m a jor p u b lish in g h ou ses p u b lish series; for exam ple, K a d ok a w a S h oten p u b lish es 角川文庫 ( かどかわぶんこ) ， an d B u n g ei S h u n ju u sh a p u b lis h e s 文春文庫（ ぶん

しゅんぶんこ). A lso available are electron ic v ersio n s o f som e litera ry w ork s, ac­ cessib le th ro u gh th e W eb site 青 空 文 庫 （ あおぞらぶんこ）at http:// w w w .a o z o ra .g r jp ハ

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D ep en d in g on th e p u rpose, y o u r rea d in g stra tegies m a y differ. H ere I assu m e yo u are rea d in g as a p a rt o f y o u r lan gu age ed u ca tion an d p erh a p s for in fo rm a tio n as w e ll as for enjoym ent. W h e n rea d in g s om eth in g new^, ga u ge th e entire ta sk b efore a t­ ta ck in g th e first sentence. C on sid er th e genre. B ook in fo rm a tio n is availa ble on b oo k se lle rs ’ W eb sites. H avin g a ge n era l id e a o f w h a t y o u are rea d in g is a g re a t help. W h en readin g, y o u m u st use a ll k in d s o f k n ow led ge ab ou t the J ap a n ese langu age. B y th is I m ea n th a t y o u m u st k n o w th e w ords, gram m ar, rhetoric, and d iscou rse orga n ization u sed in a text. F o r­ tu nately, y o u h ave a lrea d y g a in ed k n ow led ge in all th ese areas. A lth ou gh th is b oo k con tain s on ly th e m ost b asic (and sim plified) in form ation , y o u w ill fin d in fo rm a tio n rela ted to re a d in g in C h ap ­ ters 6 th ro u gh 13, as w e ll as C h ap ters 15 an d 16. Perh aps I sh ou ld m en tion tw o im p o rta n t clu es for reading. First, fin d th e top ic o f a d iscou rse b y o b servin g p h ra ses m a rk ed b y top ic m a rk ers an d repetition. T h ese are k ey w o rd s arou n d w h ic h a p articu lar p a ra gra p h or d iscou rse develops. Second, alw ays p ay a tten tion to w h a t is stated at th e end. W h eth er it is th e end o f the para grap h or th e end o f an entire piece, th e con clu sion is lik e ly to be p resen ted or rep ea ted there. R ega rd in g th e p h y sica l a ctivity o f readin g, som etim es re a d ou t loud. T h in k o f th e m ea n in g as y o u read. T h is w ill h elp y o u read b etter an d ap p reciate th e m ea n in g at th e sam e tim e. A fter rea d in g J ap a n ese w ork s, a lw ays w rite som eth in g d ow n a b ou t them . T h is p ro cess w ill fo rce y o u to fu lly u n d erstan d w h a t y o u h ave ju s t read an d help y o u to m a ke it y o u r own. T h is w ay, y o u w ill be re a d in g the tex t “for real.” It w ill o ffer an op p ortu n ity to re v ie w th e voca b u la ry as well.

19.5. Writing S c rip ts

P racticin g Jap a n ese scrip ts is a ctu ally qu ite enjoyable. For th ose o f y o u w h o h ave b een exp osed to n oth in g b u t th e L atin alphabet, th e Jap a n ese w ritin g system w ill o ffer a n e w w a y o f u n d erstan d in g w h a t w r itin g is. W h e n le a rn in g scripts, d o n ’t ju s t look at them . A lw a y s w rite

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th em b y hand, an d rep ea t w ritin g them . F ollow th e correct stroke ord er an d th e m eth od o f fixin g an d relea sin g y o u r strokes. You m u st le a rn Jap a n ese scrip ts th ro u g h y o u r body, n o t ju s t th rou gh y o u r m ind. T h ro u g h rep ea ted practice, J ap a n ese scrip ts w ill b e­ com e secon d nature. T h e m o re tim e y o u sp en d practicin g, th e b et­ ter y o u w ill becom e. I recom m en d th a t y o u le a rn h a n d w ritin g first an d th en start w ritin g electronically.

W ritin g Practice

Y ou r w ritin g p ractice sh ou ld start w ith sen ten ces, p ara grap h s con ­ sistin g o f a fe w sentences, an d sim ple m em os. K eepin g a sim ple jo u rn a l in Jap a n ese w ill h elp y o u w rite som eth in g on a regu la r basis. Later, w h en y o u b eg in w ritin g com p osition s or essays, con ­ stru ct each sen ten ce accord in g to th e w o rd an d gra m m a r ru les y o u le a rn e d in C h ap ters 7 th ro u gh 1 1 .T h e n u se d evices to con n ect sen ten ces ap p ropriately, as d iscu ssed in C h ap ter 10. Y ou shou ld also fo llo w one o f th e overa ll d iscou rse orga n ization s p resen ted in C h ap ter 16. O nce y o u h ave fin ish ed w ritin g, y o u sh ou ld edit w h a t y o u w rote, p refera b ly several tim es. I f y o u h ave som eon e w h o can c o r ­ rect y o u r w ritin g, m a ke u se o f su ch an opportu nity. Y ou w ill b en ­ efit from on e-to-on e in stru ction w h e n le a rn in g h o w to say w h a t y o u w a n t to say. W ritin g is gen era lly m ore ch a llen gin g th a n reading. U nlike readin g, w ritin g req u ires y o u to create som eth in g fro m nothing. I f it is too d ifficu lt at first, y o u m igh t im ita te som e w ritten texts. B y ch a n gin g certain parts, y o u can gra d u a lly p ro ceed to y o u r ow n w ritin g. T h ro u g h th is exercise, y o u w ill b u ild con fiden ce, an d y o u w ill b e able to w rite som eth in g n e w on y o u r own.

19.6. Speaking and Listening S peak in g correctly in vo lves n o t on ly a k n ow led ge o f J ap an ese gra m m a r b u t also its use. T a k e ad van ta ge o f th e stra tegies y o u le a rn ed in C h ap ters 12 th ro u gh 14. I f y o u are to p articip ate in con versation , p rep a rin g som eth in g to say b eforeh a n d is a g o o d strategy. A t th e early stage o f le a rn ­ ing, it is extrem ely d ifficu lt to create som eth in g in J ap a n ese on the spot. A n on goin g con versa tion ch a n ges from one m om en t to the

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next, an d it is d ifficu lt to catch u p w ith w h a t oth ers are saying. A t first, m a k in g y o u r ow n com m en ts w ill seem alm ost im possible. By th e tim e y o u h ave com e u p w ith som eth in g to say, th e top ic w ill h ave m o ved on, an d w h a t y o u h ave ju s t p rep a red w ill no lon ger be relevant. P rep aration m a y n ot w o rk all th e tim e, b u t w ith ou t it, y o u w ill b e less successful. T o p articip ate in con versation , y o u m u st be ab le to com p re­ h en d w h a t y o u r p artn er is saying. Do n ot be a fra id to ask qu estion s i f y o u d o n ’t u n d ersta n d (see section 13.12). A t first y o u m a y n ot be able to p in p oin t w h a t y o u d on ’t u nderstand. B u t it is a lw ays b etter to clarify u n certa in p oin ts a s soon as possible. I h ave exp erien ced a w k w ard m om en ts in E n glish con versa tion w h en I d id n ’t qu ite get som eth in g b u t w a s forced to p reten d as i f I did. E ven w h e n y o u r J a p a n ese is n ot perfect, it is b est to say som e­ th in g— an yth in g y o u can com e up with. M ake yo u r p a rtn er w a it for w h a t y o u c a n produ ce. B ein g sh y an d k ee p in g q u iet w ill n o t m ake y o u a com p eten t J a p a n ese speaker. T h e re are in tera ctive au dio an d visu a l la n g u a g e m aterials, som e availa b le on th e Internet. M ake u se o f th ese reso u rces so th a t y o u b ecom e fam iliar w ith th e sp eed an d ton e o f con versa tion al J apan ese. F orm a con versa tion gro u p w h ere y o u ga th er w ith oth er stu ­ d en ts le a rn in g Japan ese. I f y o u k n o w p eop le w h o speak Jap an ese, in vite them . A rra n ge som e sort o f exch an ge so th a t th e J ap an ese sp eak ers m a y b en efit from w h a t y o u offer in retu rn. T o p ractice listenin g, i f y o u have op p ortu n ities to atten d (or view ) le ctu res g iv en in Japan ese, go an d take n o tes an d w rite sum m aries. O verall, it is alw ays a go o d id e a to com bin e d ifferen t p ractices so th a t y o u engage in m u ltip le skills in N ih o n g o .

19.7. Memorization O ne o f th e m eth od s o f le a rn in g an yth in g is m im ick in g an d m em o ­ rization. A lth ou gh th ese tw o asp ects are som etim es ta k en to be too ru d im en ta ry an d boring, a certa in am ou n t o f m em oriza tion is n ecessa ry in la n gu a ge learn in g. T o ach ieve this, th e b est w a y is to a p p ea l to b oth th e sh o rt-term and th e lo n g -te rm m em ory. T h e m ore yo u rep ea t w h a t y o u learn , th e clea rer th e stored in fo rm a tio n w ill be an d th e lon ger it w ill stay stored. W h en y o u are lea rn in g a fo reig n lan gu age, y o u sh ou ld sp en d som e tim e every d ay review in g old th in gs w h ile le a rn in g n e w things.

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I f y o u are a n ative speak er o f a W estern lan gu age, N ih o n g o v o ­ cab u lary w ill n o t be cogn ate to y o u r n ative langu age. T h is m ean s th a t y o u w ill n o t b e able to g u ess a t a m ea n in g too easily. For exam ple, i f y o u are fam iliar w ith Spanish, le a rn in g Ita lia n v o c a b u ­ la r y is easier b eca u se th ere are so m a n y cognates. W h en le a rn in g J ap a n ese w ords, y o u w ill h ave to m em orize w o rd b y w o rd (except p erh a p s for a fe w lo a n w ords). M ak in g v o ca b u la ry card s is a g o o d idea. M em orizin g b a sic sen ­ ten ces is an oth er w ork ab le strategy. Y ou can u se th ese b asic sen ­ ten ces as g u id es for crea tin g n e w ones. T h e con ju gation o f verb s an d a d jectives m u st b e m em orized. A lth ou gh J ap a n ese con ju ga ­ tion s are n o t as com p lex as th ose o f th e R om an ce lan gu ages, le a rn ­ in g th em to th e level th a t y o u can im m ed ia tely com e up w ith c o r ­ re c t fo r m s is a form id a b le task. M em orization is a lw ays h elp ed w h e n y o u a ctu ally access m e m ­ ory. T h e m ore y o u retrieve w h a t is stored in y o u r m em ory, th e m ore accu rate an d lo n g -la s tin g yo u r m em o ry w ill becom e. W h en yo u try to m em orize, do n ot ju s t lo o k at w o rd s to m em o ­ rize. S ay th ose w ord s, w rite them , an d th e n u se th em in sentences. R ep eat th ose sen ten ces ou t loud. T h is way, y o u w ill stim u late y o u r m a n y senses.

19.8. Creative Practice C reative p ractice is th e m ost fu n p a rt o f lan gu age learn in g. W h y n o t w rite a sh ort story in J a p an ese? H a i k u an d t a n k a ? H ow ab ou t m a k in g a short sp eech in J a p an ese? H o w a b ou t w ritin g a J ap an ese son g (to a m elod y y o u are fa m ilia r w ith )? I f y o u are atten d in g a class, crea tin g a skit or a p la y w ill o ffer som e en joya ble an d m em o ­ ra b le experiences. O n e o f th e th in gs I d id as a stu d en t o f E n glish (w h ile I w a s stu d yin g E nglish in Japan) w a s to d escribe everyth in g I s a w in English. T h is tu rn ed ou t to b e qu ite d ifficu lt, b u t I w a s tryin g to live life as an E n glish speaker. People arou n d y o u m a y w on d er ab ou t y o u r m en ta l h ea lth w h e n y o u g o a b ou t m u m b lin g th in gs in Jap an ese. B u t th a t is n ot y o u r concern. Y ou are carry in g on an im p o rta n t m ission. Y ou m a y also th in k o f p a rticip a tin g in In tern et sites w h ere som e o f w h a t y o u p ractice m a y b e sh a red w ith others. For exam ple, a W eb site w h ere stu d en ts (both J a p a n ese and foreign ) p ost th eir com p osition s m a y p rovid e y o u w ith an op p ortu n ity to sh are y o u r

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w ritin g and to com p ete w ith oth er stu d en ts (e.g .， W eb site さくぶん at h ttp :/ / w w w .sa k u b u n .org/ ).

19.9. Exposure to Japanese Language and Culture E xp osu re to th e Nih^ongo w o rld an d cu ltu re w ill stim u late y o u in m a n y w ays. It is rew a rd in g to k n o w th a t th e J ap a n ese scrip ts y o u le a rn ed a ctu ally ap p ea r in a Jap a n ese a d vertisem en t， for exam ple. I f y o u live n ea r a m a jor college lib ra ry ， y o u h ave access to b ook s an d m a ga zin es w ritte n in Jap an ese. I f y o u live in or n ea r m a jor c ities， th ere are J a p a n ese b ook stores (e.g . ，K in ok u n iya ，Sanseido, an d Book-off). T h e re are A m erica n p u b lish ers focu sin g on J ap a n ese and A s ia n b ook s (e.g.， th e U n iversity o f H aw ai‘i Press) an d d istribu tors loca ted in A m eric a (e.g.， K od an sh a A m eric a ，Inc.). A n d o f cou rse， y o u can u se th e Jap a n ese sea rch en gin e (http:// w w w .goo.n e.jp / ) to look for a n en d less am ou n t oi in fo rm a tio n p re ­ sen ted in J a p a n e s e ，in clu d in g visu a l m aterials. V isitin g m u seu m s an d art exh ib its rela ted to J ap a n ese cu ltu re is alw ays an excitin g experience. J a p a n ese m o vies w ill revea l in te r­ estin g social an d cu ltu ral asp ects o f Japan. Som e cable television n etw o rk s o ffer J a p a n ese lan gu age p ro ­ g ra m s w orld w id e. T h e s e p ro gra m s w ill g iv e y o u o p p ortu n ities to listen to v a rio u s styles an d stra tegies u sed in m a n y d ifferen t J a p a ­ n es e genres.

19.10. Interaction with Native Speakers In tera ctin g w ith n a tive or n ea r-n a tive sp eak ers o f th e J ap an ese lan gu age is a m u st in lan gu age learn in g. U ltim a tely， y o u m u st feel com fortab le com m u n icatin g w ith th ese people. I f y o u are in a u n iversity ， lo o k for o rga n ization s associated w ith J ap a n ese students. Y ou can arran ge le a rn in g exchanges. You can le a rn J a p a n ese from th e J a p a n ese s tu d en t ，an d in tu r n ，y o u can tea ch E n glish (or oth er subjects). W h en yo u b ecom e p ro ficien t in J a p a n e s e ，In tern et ch at room s w ill be a g o o d p lace to go to test y o u r Jap a n ese in re a l-life ，i f n o t v irtu a l ，com m u n ication . C orresp on d in g th ro u gh e-m ail w ith a J a p ­ an ese e-frien d can p rovid e a real-life com m u n ication op p ortu n ity w ith ou t y o u r h a vin g le ft y o u r room . A c cess to n a tive sp eak ers from ab road is p ossib le th ro u gh rea son a b ly p riced in tern a tion a l p hon e

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calls (som e v ia th e In tern et) or th ro u g h vid eo p h on e services. In te r­ a ction w ith n ative sp eak ers in a rea l sen se ad d s excitem en t to y o u r le a rn in g process. A lw a y s rem em ber, how ever, th a t n ative sp eak ers are n o t n ec­ essa rily g o o d lan gu age teachers. K n o w th a t alth ou gh th ey h ave fu ll com m an d o f th e lan gu age, th ey are n o t tra in ed to look at J ap an ese from a foreign speak er's p erspective. I h ave w itn essed m a n y situ a­ tion s w h ere n ative Jap a n ese sp eak ers m a k e u p w ro n g g ra m m a tica l ru les an d in sist on u n realistic social custom s. T a k e y o u r n ative sp ea k ers’ ad vice w ith a g ra in o f salt. E ven then, y o u h ave a lo t to le a rn from them . A lw a y s rem em b er th a t a lth ou gh th e v a rieties o f la n g u a g e n a ­ tive sp eak ers u se m a y n o t be th e stan d ard T ok y o speech, th ey are n o t “w ron g.” W h a tever th ey say, as lon g as th ey com m u n icate, th ey are correct, in th e sense th a t th eir lan gu age is fu n ctional. W h en I first le a rn e d E nglish, I w itn essed an A m erica n b oy p oin tin g to a b icycle an d callin g it a bike. M y E n glish tea ch er in J a p a n w ou ld n o t a llo w m e to u se th e w o rd “b ik e.” B u t I lea rn ed qu ick ly th at w h a tever th e little b o y said w a s “real.” N on -n ative sp eak ers h ave a lo t to le a rn fro m n a tive speakers, indeed.

19.11. Thinking and Feeling in Nihongo Y ou r u ltim ate g o a l in a cqu irin g J a p a n ese is n ot on ly to m a ster the la n g u a g e per se, b u t also to th in k an d feel in J apanese. T h a t m ean s y o u r cognitive an d em otion a l p ro cesses m u st evolve in J apan ese. T h is is d ifficu lt to ach ieve u n less yo u are in an en viron m en t w h ere J ap a n ese is sp ok en on a d aily basis. T h is m a y be p ossib le i f y o u are en rolled in an im m ersion p ro ­ gram , a n en viron m en t w h ere y o u are forced to speak J ap an ese 2 4-7. A n d i f y o u go an d live in J a p a n an d y o u su rrou n d y o u r ­ s e lf n o t w ith foreign ers b u t w ith Jap a n ese speakers, y o u can enjoy su ch an environm ent. W h en y o u liv e in a J a p a n ese-sp ea k in g environ m ent, y o u w ill b eg in to “b rea th e” in Japanese. You w ill lite ra lly liv e lik e a J a p a ­ n es e person, g o in g th ro u gh every asp ect o f life in Japan ese. A n d th a t exp erien ce w ill chan ge you. It w ill ch a n ge y o u n o t in th e sense th a t y o u are a tota lly d ifferen t person, b u t in th e sense th a t y o u are n o lo n g er a m o n o lin g u a l person. M asterin g a foreign lan gu age rea ch es to th e core o f y o u r being. For b etter or w orse, it is a life ­ ch a n gin g experience.

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T o le a rn Jap a n ese for real, b eyon d th e m eth od s su ggested so far, y o u m u st re m a in creative. Y ou r desire to le a rn som eth in g n ew every d ay is th e m ost im p o rta n t m otivation. T r y to g a in k n ow led ge th a t y o u d id n ’t h ave tw en ty-fou r h ou rs earlier. A s lon g as y o u are com m itted, y o u w ill even tu a lly m a ster J ap a n ese to su ch a level th a t y o u w ill be a m azed at you rself!

CH A PTER 20

Tools and Resources

G iven th e flu id n atu re o f in fo rm a tio n on Ja p a n ese-la n g u a g e le a rn ­ ing, I w ill to u ch on on ly a fe w tools an d resou rces. S ea rch for up-tod ate detailed in fo rm a tio n on th e Internet. I f p ossible, it is alw ays a g o o d id e a to ask y o u r in stru ctor ab ou t th e re lia b ility o f in form a tion on th e Internet. In m ost cases, reliab le sites are th ose spon sored by textb ook pu b lish ers, J a p a n ese-la n g u a g e p rogra m s at colleges and u n iversities, an d J a p a n ese-la n g u a g e an d cu ltu ral association s and organizations.

20.1. Textbooks A lth ou gh th ere are a n u m b er o f J a p a n ese-la n g u a g e textb ook s available, b e lo w I list a fe w elem en ta ry ones. M an y o f th e textb ook s com e w ith w o rk b oo k s an d CDs, as w e ll as th eir ow n W eb sites for a d d ition al in form ation , tools, an d exercises.

S e c o n d a ry sch o o l Japan^ese f o r Young Peopl^e I, II, III. Association for J a p a n e s e - L a n g u a g e

Teaching. K o d a n s h a International, 1998, 1999, 2001. Yook^oso. Yasu-Hiko Tohsa k u . McGraw-Hill, 1994, 2004, 2006.

College

Genki I, II. Eri B a n n o , Y u t a k a O h n o , Y o k o Sakane, Chicako Shinagawa, a n d K y o k o Tokashiki. J a p a n Times, 1999. Nak^am^a I, II. Seiichi Makino, Yukiko A b e Hatasa, a n d K a z u m i Hatasa. H o u g h t o n Mifflin, 1998, 2000.

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G e n e ra l/A d u lt Japan^ese f o r B u sy P e o p le I, II, III. Association for J a p a n e s e - L a n g u a g e

Teaching. Revised 3rd edition. K o d a n s h a International,2007, 2008.

20.2. Dictionaries D iction aries com e in th ree d ifferen t form s: print, electron ic, and online. H ere are som e rep resen tative ones.

D ictio n a rie s in P rin t K o d a n s h a ’s C om m u n ica tive E n g lis h -J a p a n e s e D ictiona ry . K od an sha

International, 2006. K o d a n s h a ’s F u rig a n a J a p a n e s e -E n g lis h D ictiona ry . K od a n sh a In te rn a ­

tional, 2001. K o d a n s h a ’s F u rig a n a E n g lis h -J a p a n e s e D ictiona ry . K od a n sh a In te rn a ­

tional, 2001. 〇xf>rd Starter J a p a n e s e Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2006.

E le ctro n ic D ictio n a rie s

E lectron ic d iction a ries are easy to carry an d o ffer fea tu res th at are qu ite helpful. B ra n d -n am e com p a n ies su ch a s C anon, Casio, Seiko, an d S harp p rod u ce electron ic lan gu age devices. T h e s e p ro d ­ u cts com e w ith several d ifferen t k in d s o f d iction a ries a lrea d y in ­ stalled. O n e fea tu re th a t y o u m igh t look for is h a n d w ritin g reco gn i­ tion. T h is is qu ite h a n d y b ecau se oth erw ise y o u m u st look for the

漢字（ かんじ） rea d in g first (by u sin g ra d ica ls an d strok e n u m bers), w h ich can be extrem ely tim e-consu m ing. W ith th e h a n d w ritin g recogn ition featu re, y o u sim ply cop y th e 漢字 y o u d on ’t k n o w by hand, an d th e d iction a ry w ill recogn ize it. C asio E X -w ord D A T A P LU S 4 X D -S P 6 60 0 C a n on W ord T an k G70 S h arp PW -N 8100 Seiko S R -G 9000 N in ten do DS (Jap an ese d iction a ries available)

•ss3Jj

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•ssuitj^u-ed-ep :oA^oj^ 'uummuj-r) sssundup p a o u m p y Jo furmoi^oiQ y '800S '--------

•ssuitj^U-ed-Bp :oA^oj^ •uz>mmz>u{) asauudup s^mpdiiud^uj/〇 fLmuoi^oyj y '5661 '-------•ssuitj^ u-ed-ep :oA^oj^ •uz>mmz)U{) assu -udup o is u q Jo furmoi^〇KJ y '9861 'Tns^nsj^ otl[〇t]A[ pu-e 'Ti{〇n3s ' out^-b ]^

•SS3JJ TJ'BM'BH J° ^ s-!9A^un :rqrqou 〇H ソ ^^也 似 〇 asai/i9(iD尸/os/r^uau/npi/ry •8〇〇乙 .p^ri人 ‘uosui{ 〇p .si^urerugg u i{ 〇p :urepj9)SLUv .asaui9(iD尸 .乙〇〇乙 .jLpj〇L[s ‘pfBSRMj

•SS3JJ TJ'BM'BH J° ^ s-!9A^un :njnjou 〇H 'sm djqouj uommoQ v[6n〇Jii^ spin f) uz>djQ y uz)mmvu{) 尸/O

-J?l〇

i0L/p/29jY .乙〇〇乙 .0u_eu;rBH 〇刁OHS PU_B ‘0： >L「 I3Z ‘ sTjc^G) 'inH-MmO°lA[ :^JOA -^9N 3Sduz>dz>p/〇 auij つS .〇〇〇乙 . O^JUI O丄 piTB UZ>Z[Q 3S3U

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•SS3JJ A；TSJ3ATUn sSpuqLU-BQ tsSpuqLU-BQ 'uudup Jo S96un6uuq &i[x '0661 msoA^s-e]^ 'TU-B^-eqTus •ssa ij 人:^sj9A^un 9§p^iqurB3 :9§p^iqurB3 y..0g0iii9(3i9尸 :^\J〇X

'^ S^P £dW

.〇〇〇乙 .

.腦 -細 *1CPW 'sm oipi asauudup i 〇i '^ 〇〇Z '---------

'inH-M^J0°lA[ :PN ' uavo; s; l[§ th 'Sdszfjiu uz>jndoj v[6 nouzi^ sjniinQ pun 3 6 z>n6 uz>q asauudup 6 uipuz>^sudpuf2 :sm oipj

3 Sduz>dz)p 101 .C66I .pj^eu人它]^ .q p'BLpj]^ pire ‘ .>j cqu9s ‘pxeu 人它]^ •SSUITJ^ U-ed-Bp ： 〇A^OJ^ •pSSTAS^I 'S31631VJ.^ UO}l -uorunmmoQ pun uz>mmz)U{) asauudup 〇i uoi^onpou^uj u y 'Q〇〇Z '-------•ss3Jj J° A^SJ9A^un ： njnjou 〇H 'fi^r>dm ^ pun uoi^ -om 丑 6ujuuh[s 3P}nO 3DUdJdf d^I V :3S3UVdvp dn}ss3udx丑 .£ qq 乙 ’--------UTB3

ICC

•SS3JJ A；TSJ3ATUn sSpuqLU-BQ ： 3§puq *3/ooqpi/Dff y ：dsunoosyj asauudup Jo sdjdiouuj .8661 .-------saounosa^ puv sjo 〇x

332

LEARNING N I H O N G O

h ttp :/ / w w w .fu jisa n k ei.com ). F u jisa n k ei airs J ap an ese-lan g u ag e n ew s an d oth er p rogra m s from its N ew Y ork h ea d q u a rters to an A m erica n au dience. O th er a u d iovisu a l m a teria ls in J a p a n ese are w id e ly available on sites su ch as h ttp :/ / w w w :y ou tu b e.co m . T h ro u g h In tern et radio y o u can access N H K ra dio new s, u p ­ d ated d aily a t h ttp :/ / w w w .n h k .o r.jp / r-n ew s /，and 文ィ匕放送 （ ぶん

カバほうそう）radio p rogram s at h ttp :/ / w w w .jo q r/ b b q r/ in d et.p h p / . A u d io b ook s are availa ble on th e In tern et as w e ll， for exa m p le ， at h ttp :/ / w w w .e-k oto b a .co m . T h e au d iovisu al p resen ta tion o f Jap a n ese son gs (on television an d som e on th e In tern et) is often accom p a n ied w ith w o rd s at the b ottom o f th e screen. H ow ever， d ep en d in g on th e son gs an d sin g­ e rs ，th e sou n d s m a y b e overly stylized. Y ou w ill fin d som e good sam p les am on g folk son gs (n ot stylized tra d itio n a l songs) an d pop m u sic (i.e. ，J-pop). Jap a n ese television va riety s h o w s ，som e available on http:// w w w .y o u tu b e.co m ， com e in v a rio u s fo rm s ， an d m a n y are cap tion ed in J a p a n ese scripts. T h e s e cap tion s are esp ecially u sefu l w h en y o u d o n ’t qu ite u n d erstan d or catch th e w o rd s sp ok en in rea l tim e. Jap a n ese m o v ies ，a n im e， an d T V p rogra m s can b e p u rch ased (on DVDs) from Jap a n ese vid eo sto re s ， som e loca ted w ith in the U n ited States. T h e y are also available th ro u gh th e Internet. Som e m ovies are su ita ble for J a p a n ese learn ers. T h e y con tain con tem ­ p ora ry speech styles rep resen tin g d ifferen t d em ogra p h ics in n e a r­ n a tu ra l social situations. R ecen t u sefu l m ovies in clu de th e fo l­ low ing: H E 尺O (2 0 0 7 )， CZosed No 化 ク ロ ー ズ ド •ノ ー ト （ 200 8 )，恋空 (K oizora) (2 0 0 8 )， an d K ID S (2008). R ecen t television d ram a s in clu de th e f 0110w i n g : たったひとつの恋 （T a tta H がoteu no K o i) (2 00 6 )，有閑俱

楽部（ yu u A an K u rab u ) (2007 )，ガリレオ（ 2 0 0 7 )， C H A N G E (2 0 0 8 )， an d 流星のI 半（ 尺yu u sei no K izu n a) (2008). O n ce y o u h ave access to th ese a u diovisu al m a teria ls ，v iew th em re p e a ted ly ，p a u s in g an d rep la y in g w h erever n ecessary. U se in fo rm a tio n available on th e In tern et ab ou t a sp ecific m ovie or tele­ v isio n series. M an y o f th ese are p rod u ced from n o vels an d com ic books. I f y o u refer to th ese origin al w o rk s ， y o u w ill b etter u n d e r­ stan d th e content. I f y o u are in terested in listen in g p ractice ，J ap an ese sou n ds are created on th e In tern et at sites su ch as h ttp :/ / w w w .n eosp eech .com .

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20.6. Japanese Language Organizations T h e re are local, region al, n ation al, an d in tern a tion a l orga n ization s rela ted to J a p a n ese-la n g u a g e edu cation. T h e follow in g are w ell know n.

A sso cia tio n o f Teachers o f Ja p a n e s e (A T J )

h ttp://w w w .colorad o.edu /ealld/ atj/ A n acad em ic a ssociation o f tea ch ers o f J apan ese. M em b ers are m o stly from th e U n ited States, b u t m em b ersh ip is op en to stu d ents an d sch olars w orld w id e. T h e orga n ization p u b lish es th e academ ic jo u rn a l J a p a n e s e L a n g u a g e an d Literature (I serve on th e E ditorial A d v iso ry B oard) an d h old s its an n u a l con feren ce in con ju n ction w ith th e A ssocia tio n o f A s ia n S tu dies a n n u al con feren ce. It is c u r­ ren tly h o u sed a t th e U n iversity o f C olorad o (279 U C B H u m an ities 240, Boulder, C O 8 0 3 0 9 -0279). V isit its W eb site for a va rie ty o f u p -to-d ate v e ry u sefu l in fo rm a tio n re la ted to J ap an ese-lan g u ag e learn in g. T h is W eb site m ostly offers in fo rm a tio n for teach ers, bu t som e in fo rm a tio n is u sefu l for students.

N a tio n a l C o u n cil o f Ja p a n e s e L a n g u a g e Teachers (N C J L T )

h ttp :/ / w w w .n cjlt.org A p ro fessio n a l association o f Jap a n ese teachers. A ctive p rom otion o f th e teach in g an d le a rn in g o f th e J a p a n ese lan gu age in K -1 6 in th e U n ited States. Partner orga n ization o f ATJ. N C JLT P.O. B ox 3719 Boulder, C O 8 03 0 7 -3 7 1 9

J a p a n F o u n d a tio n

h ttp ://w w w .jp f.go.jp T h e J a p a n F ou n d ation ( 国際交流基金こくさいこうりゆうききん） is a J a p a n ese g o vern m en t en tity (an in d ep en d en t in stitu tio n u n d er th e ju ris d ic tio n o f th e F oreign M in istry o f Japan) th a t u n d ertak es th e in tern a tion a l d issem in a tion o f Jap a n ese culture. It p rom otes

334

LEARNING N I H O N G O

cu ltu ral exchanges, oversea s J a p a n ese-la n g u a g e edu cation , an d in tellectu a l exchanges. T h e J a p a n F ou n d ation m a in ta in s overseas b ra n ch es in n ea rly tw en ty cou n tries, an d it h a s its ow n lo ca l W eb sites. For stu d en ts o f Jap an ese, th e fou n d a tion 's N ih o n g o K y o ik u Tsushin n ew sletter m a y b e o f in terest (h ttp://w w w .jpg.go.jp/jY jap a n ese/ su rvey/ tsu sh in / in d ex/ h tm l). O n th e J a p a n Fou n d ation site, y o u w ill also fin d u sefu l con ten t su ch as E r in 's C h a lle n g e ! I C a n S p e a k Ja p a n e s e .

20.7 Contests and Scholarships Speech C onte sts

J a p a n ese-la n g u a g e speech con tests are h eld in m a n y cities w o rld ­ wide. T h e y are sp on sored th rou gh th e J a p a n Fou ndation, loca l bu sinesses, an d cu ltu ral organization s. S earch on th e In tern et for th e con tests n ea r you , an d fin d ou t h o w y o u can p articipate. Som e con tests o ffer su b sta n tia l prizes, su ch as a rou n d -trip tick et b e­ tw een th e U n ited S tates an d Japan.

B rid g in g S ch o la rsh ip s

h ttp :/ / w w w .colora d o.ed u / ea le/ a t/ B rid gin g/ sch ola rsh ip s.h tm l T h e U .S .-Ja p a n B rid gin g Fou n d ation p rovid es sch olarsh ips th rou gh th e A ssocia tio n o f T ea ch e rs o f J a p a n ese to a ssist stu d en ts to stu dy in Japan. T h e fou n d a tion aw a rd s a p p roxim ately tw en ty s ch o la r­ sh ip s a y e a r to m eet th e tra vel an d liv in g exp en ses o f stu d ents w h ile th ey are in Japan. T h e re are tw o ap p lica tion d ea d lin es p er y e a r (fall an d spring).

20.8. Placement and Proficiency Tests O nce y o u learn som e Japanese, y o u w ill n ee d to be p laced at the righ t level to continu e studying. For th is purpose, form a l or in form al p lacem en t tests an d in terview s are condu cted at variou s institu tions.

Ja p a n e s e L a n g u a g e P ro fic ie n c y Test

T h e Jap a n ese Lan gu age P roficien cy T e s t (JLPT) is a w o rld w id e test su p p orted b y th e J a p a n Fou ndation, w ith its o fficia l W eb site at h ttp :/ / w w w .jfla lc.org.

Tools and Resources

335

T h e J L P T is a stan d ard ized test to evalu ate an d certify the lan gu age p ro fic ien c y o f n on -n a tive Jap a n ese speakers. T h e test is h eld on ce a y e a r (in D ecem ber) an d h a s five levels, b egin n in g at le ve l 5 an d p ro gressin g to l e v e l 1 . T h e J L P T is a d m in istered b y J a p a n E d u ca tion al E xch an ges an d S ervices in Japan. O verseas it is co-sp on sored b y th e J a p a n F ou n d ation an d lo ca l cu ltu ral ex­ ch a n ge an d ed u ca tion al in stitu tion s. In th e U n ited S tates con tact th e J L P T A d m in istra tio n C om m ittee at th e J a p a n Fou ndation, Los Angeles.

A P Ja p a n e se

Som e h igh sch ool stu d en ts w h o h ave stu d ied J ap a n ese m a y take th e A d va n ced P lacem en t J a p a n ese Lan gu age and C u ltu re E xam con d u cted b y th e E du ca tion al T es tin g Service. T h e A P J ap an ese exam assesses s tu d en ts’ in terp erso n a l com m u n ication skills, th eir a b ilities to p resen t an d in terp ret lan gu age in sp ok en an d w rit­ te n form s, an d th eir fu n ctio n a l fa m ilia rity w ith J a p a n ese culture. S tu d en ts are tested th ro u gh In tern et access on listenin g, reading, w ritin g, an d sp eak in g skills. In form a tion on con ten t an d p ossible cred it tra n sfers is availa b le at th e C ollege B oard W eb site (http:// w w w .c o lle g e b o a r d .c o m / s tu d e n t/ te s tin g / a p / s u b _ ja p a n e s e la n g . htm l). D ep en d in g on th e p olicies o f specific u n iversities, som e cred its can b e tran sferred. In m a n y cases a score o f 4 is a p p roxim ately equ ivalen t to th e com p letion o f elem en ta ry Japan ese, an d a score o f 5 p o ssib ly equ a tes w ith th e com p letion o f a p a rt o f in term ed ia te Jap an ese. R ega rd less o f th e A P test resu lts, m ost college p rogram s requ ire a p la cem en t test. It is u n w ise to take cou rses low er th a n th e level a t w h ich y o u are placed. N ot on ly is it d em oralizin g, bu t y o u w ill also n o t receive credit.

20.9. Study and Work in Japan H ig h S c h o o l S tu d y A b ro a d P ro g ra m s

For h igh sch ool stu dents, th ere are p rogra m s u n d er th e R otary Club, A m erica n F ield Service, an d Y ou th for U n derstan din g. A d ­ d ition al fin a n cia l assistan ce to stu d y in J a p a n m a y b e available th ro u gh lo ca l com m u n ities and J a p a n ese com panies. S ea rch on th e In tern et fo r u p -to-d ate in form ation .

336

LEARNING N I H O N G O

C ollege E x c h a n g e P ro g ra m s

UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE PROGRAMS T h e re are a n u m b er o f exch an ge p rogra m s b etw een U.S. colleges an d J a p a n ese un iversities. T h e college y o u atten d is lik ely to have som e stu d y ab road p ro gra m o ffe red in Japan. CONSORTIUM OF COLLEGES I f yo u r college d oes n o t h ave a stu d y ab ro a d p rogram , look for a con sortiu m o f colleges th a t accep ts stu d en ts from n on -m em b er colleges. C h oose a sem ester, a year, or su m m er to su it y o u r need. T h e In ter-U n iversity C en ter for Jap a n ese Lan gu age Stu dies (h ttp :/ / w w w .sta n ford .ed u / d ep t/ IU C ) is a con sortiu m o f A m erica n u n iversities th a t sp on sors stu d y ab road in Y okoh am a. It is p o s ­ sible for stu d en ts from n on -m em b er in stitu tion s to ap p ly for the program . JAPANESE UNIVERSITIES J ap a n ese u n iversities offer J a p a n ese-la n g u a g e p rogra m s for stu ­ d en ts from abroad. T h e y in clu de th e follow ing: K an sa i G aidai, In ­ te rn a tio n a l C h ristian U n iversity, N a n zan U niversity, R itsu m eika n U n iversity, S en sh u U n iversity, S op h ia U niversity, an d W ased a U niversity. A c cess th eir W eb sites for u p -to-d ate in form ation .

J a p a n E x c h a n g e a n d Te ach in g P ro g ra m ( J E T P ro g ra m )

h ttp :/ / w w w .u s.em b -ja p a n .go.jp / J E T P rog ram A lth ou gh y o u m a y fin d o p p ortu n ities to w o rk in J a p a n th ro u gh oth er m eans, th e J E T P rogram is p ro b a b ly one o f th e m ost re ­ w arding. It is a J a p a n ese go v ern m e n t in itia tive th a t b rin gs college g ra d u a tes (m ostly n ative sp eak ers o f E nglish) to w o rk in J ap an ese elem en tary, ju n io r high, an d h igh schools. T h e re are th ree k in d s o f p articipan ts: A ssista n t Lan gu age T ea ch e r (ALT), C oord in a tor for In tern ation a l R ela tion s (CIR), an d S ports E xch an ge A d viser (SEA). P articip an ts com e fro m forty-som e cou n tries, m ost p rom in en tly from th e U n ited States, w h ere th ree th ou san d p articip a n ts a y e a r are recruited. T h e m a jority o f J E T p a rticip a n ts tea ch E n glish at ju n io r h igh or h igh sch ools in v a rio u s ru ral a rea s o f Japan. T h e on e-year con tract is renew able.

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C a ree r O p p o rtu n itie s

O n ce a year, a career forum , a jo b fair for b ilin g u a l can did ates (u su a lly Jap a n ese an d E nglish), is h eld in Los A n g e le s an d Boston. In form a tion is availa b le at h ttp :/ / w w w .ca reerforu m .n et. T o th e Reader, C o n g ra tu la tio n s ! Y ou h a v e ta k e n a s ig n ific a n t f ir s t s te p in le a rn in g N ih o n g o b y r e a d in g th is b ook . O b v io u s ly ， y o u h a v e n o t re a d th is b o o k in o n e s ittin g o r e v e n in o n e m on th . B u t b y now , y o u h a v e g a in e d a s ig n ific a n t a m o u n t o f k n o w le d g e . L e a r n in g s o m e th in g n e w is a p r e c io u s g ift g iv e n to u s all. B u t， a m o n g a ll th in g s ， le a r n in g a f o r e ig n la n g u a g e w ill re w a rd y o u in s p e c ia l w a y s . W h a te v e r y o u d o w

仕 h your

life ， th is e x p e r ie n c e w ill g u id e y o u o n b o th p e r s o n a l a n d

p r o fe s s io n a l lev e ls. S o le t m e s e n d y o u o f f w ith th e s e u b iq u ito u s

words.• がんばってください！

A ppendixes

Appendix 1 VERB CONJUGATION

U -V e r b s

R U -V e r b s

書く 書いた 書かない 書かなかった

食べる 食べた 食べない 食べなかった

書きます 書きました 書きません 書きませんでした 書いて 書けば 書こう 書かれる 書かせる 書け

食べます 食べました 食べません 食べませんでした 食べて 食べれば 食べよう 食べられる 食べさせる 食べろ

来 来 来 来

（ く）る （ き）た （ こ）ない （ こ）なかった

する した しない しなかった

来 来 来 来

( き) ます

します しました しません しませんでした

In form al N on -pa st (basic) Past N on -pa st n egative Past n egative F orm a l N on -past Past N on -pa st n egative Past n egative

て form C on dition a l V olition al Passive C au sative A b ru p t com m an d Ir r e g u la r v e rb s

In form al N on -pa st (basic) Past N on -pa st n eg a tive Past n eg a tive F orm a l N on -pa st (basic) Past N on -pa st n eg a tive Past n eg a tive

( き) ました ( き) ません

（ き）ませんでした 339

340

て form C on dition a l V olition al Passive C au sative A b ru p t com m an d

Appendixes U -V e rb s

R U -V e rb s

来 来 来 来 来 来

して すれば しよう される させる しろ

（ き）て （ く）れば （ こ）よう （ こ）られる （ こ）させる に ）い

B e -v e rb

In form al N on -past Past N on -pa st n egative Past n egative

だ だった ではない ではなかった

じやない じやなかった

F orm a l N on -past Past N on -pa st n eg a tive Past n eg a tive

て form C on dition a l V olition al A b ru p t com m an d

です でした ではありません ではありませんでした で なら（ ば） でいよう でいろ

じやありません じやありませんでした

E x is te n tia l v e rb s

In form al N on -pa st (basicj Past N on -pa st n eg a tive Past n eg a tive

ある あった ない あった

いる いた いない いなかった

あります ありました ありません ありませんでした あって あれば

います いました いません いませんでした いて いれば いよう いろ

F orm a l N on -past Past N on -pa st n eg a tive Past n eg a tive

て form C on dition a l V olition al A b ru p t com m an d

Appendix 2 ADJECTIVE CONJUGATION

い

a d je c tiv e

な a d je c tiv e

In form al

N on -pa st n egative

新しい 新しかった 新しくない

Past n egative

新しくなかった

N on -pa st (basic) Past

便利な 便利だった 便利ではない 便利じゃない 便利ではなかった 便利じゃなかった

F orm a l N on -past Past N on -pa st n egative

新しいです 新しかったです 新しくないです 新しくありません

Past n egative

新しくなかったです 新しくありませんで した

て form C on dition a l

新しくて 新しければ

341

便利です 便利でした 便利ではないです 便利じゃないです 便利ではありません 便利じゃありません 便利ではなかったです 便利じゃなかったです 便利ではありませんで した 便利じゃありませんで した 便利で 便利なら（ ば）

Aooenaix 3 PREDICATES FOR “ REACTIVE” DESCRIPTION

Natural Phenomena

降る 吹く

雨が降る。 風が吹く。

R ain falls. W in d blow s.

Sense/Perception/Physical Condition

する かわく

においがする。 のどがかわく。

It sm ells. I’m thirsty.

Existence/Possession

ある いる

大きい建物がある。 お金がたくさんある。 子供がいる。

T h e re is a la r g e building. He h a s a l o t o f m oney. T h e re is a child.

Emotional Response

好きな 欲しい

あの人のことが好きだ。 I l i k e th a t person. お金が欲しい。 I w a n t m oney. Spontaneous Occurrence

見える 聞こえる

海が見える。 音楽が聞こえる。

T h e ocean can b e seen. T h e m u sic is heard.

Potential

できる わかる かかる

テニスができる。

I can p la y tennis.

日本語がわかる。 時間がかかる。

I can u n d ersta n d J apan ese. It ta k es tim e.

342

Ci 7C

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cd 〇z>u /o fi^Ljz>u^udQ :fi^Lai^.om^ orisin6m q

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•SS3JJ A；TSJ3ATUn sSpuqLU-BQ tsSpuqLU-BQ *3/ooqpiiD/f y :dsunoosyj asmiudup Jo sdjdiouuj

.8661

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•Z66I

'sasm i/j uz>jndoj v[6 nouzi^ sun^jriQ

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pun sGunGuuq ssduz>dz>p 6 uipuz>^sudpuf2 :sm oipj sssundup \q \

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•suTLU-erusg uqop ： LU-Bpj3； siLiv 'd6 z>n6 uz>q asaii -udup 3vn ui 3010/[ pun uoi^orn^ cfip.ari〇dfqns! ifimupo]/^ ssunoosyj

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•xsjqv T N 'p 〇〇AU〇|\[ ^udiud6z>uz)]^[ jvuoi^oz)Ud^uj pun 3J.ni -oru^s y fin oim uoi^z>^Ljz)npcd^uo^)-/idS! :uoi^z)sudau〇Q ssduz>dz>p i|Sj|6uB uj u3)； u m s>|〇 og

羊允/ •>! •士沓 p u v u f iv ^ [ ^

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344

List o f Author’s Works Books Written in Japanese

1993. 1997. 2000.

『情 意 の 言 語 学 ： 「 場 交 渉 論 」 と 日 本 語 表 現 の パ ト ス 』 くろしお出

2001.

版 『恋 す る ふ た り の 「 感 情 こ と ば 」 ：ド ラ マ 表 現 の 分 析 と 日 本 語 論 』

2004.

くろしお出版 『談 話 言 語 学 ：日 本 語 の デ イ ス コ ー ス を 創 造 す る 構 成 •レ ト リ ッ

2005.

ク . ス ト ラ テ ジ ー の 研 究 』 くろしお出版 『日 本 語 教 育 の 現 場 で 使 え る 談 話 表 現 ハ ン ド ブ ッ ク 』 くろしお出

2008.

版 『マ ル チ ジ ャ ン ル 談 話 論 ：間 ジ ャ ン ル 性 と 意 味 の 創 造 』 くろしお出

2009.

版 『て い う か 、や っ ぱ り 日 本 語 だ よ ね ：会 話 に 潜 む 日 本 人 の 気 持 ち 』

『会 話 分 析 』 くろしお出版 『談 話 分 析 の 可 能 性 ：理 論 • 方 法 • 日本語の表現性』 くろしお出版

大修館書店

Dissertation

1980.

“Discourse Functions oi the J a p a n e s e T h e m e M a r k e r W a . ” Northwestern University.

Articles, etc., Written in English

1981. 1981.

“ T h e G i v e n / N e w Distinction a n d the Analysis of the J a p a n e s e Particles W a a n d G !a.”P a p ers in L in g u istics 1 4 , 1 , 10 9- 1 30. “ Teaching Wa from a Discourse Perspective.”P ro ce e d in g s o f th e S ix th H a w a ii C on feren ce o n J a p a n e s e L in g u istics an d L a n ­ g u a g e Teaching, 8 9 -9 8 .

1982.

1982. 1982. 1983.

“Hiroshima Folktales: Text-Typology from the Perspective of Structure a n d Discourse Modality.”TE X T: A n In terd iscip lin a ry J o u rn a l f o r th e S tud y o f D is co u rs e 2, 375-393. “ T h e m e in J a p a n e s e a n d Topic in English: A Functional C o m ­ parison.”F o ^ m L in g u is ticu m 5, 235-261. “ Analysis of Cohesion: A S t u d y of the J a p a n e s e Narrative.” J o u rn a l o f L ite ra ry S em a n tics 11,19-34. “ Flow of Discourse a n d Linguistic Manipulation: Functions a n d Constraints of the J a p a n e s e a n d English Relative Clause in D is c o u rs e .” P ro ce e d in g s o f th e T h irteen th In tern a tion a l C on­

gress of Linguists. Ed. Shiro Hattori a n d K a z u k o Inoue, 1 0 2 8 ­ 1031. Tokyo: T o k y o Press.

List o f Author’s Works 1984. 1985.

1985.

345

“Functions of To a n d K o to -o in S p e e c h a n d T h o u g h t Represen­ tation in Japanese.”L in g u a 64,1-24. “ Choice of Predicate a n d Narrative Manipulation: Functions of D e a r u a n d D a in M o d e r n J a p a n e s e Fiction.”P o etics 14, 369-385. “ Contrast between J a p a n e s e a n d English Participant Identifi­ cation: Its Implications for L a n g u a g e Teaching.”In tern a tion a l R e v ie w o f A p p lie d L in g u is tics 23, 2 1 7 -2 2 9 .

1985. 1986.

1986.

Review of Ellipsi^s in Japa^n^ese, b y J o h n Hinds. J o u rn a l o f P ra g ­ m atics 9, 847-851. “ T h e Particle - O a n d Content-Oriented Indirect S p e e c h in J a p a n e s e Written Discourse.”In D ire c t a n d In d ire c t Speech, Trend s in L in guistics, S tu d ies an d M on ogra p h s. Vo\. 3 1 . Ed. Florian C o u lmas, 179-200. Berlin: M o u t o n de Gruyter. “ Interactional Aspects of T h e m a t i c Progression in English C a ­ sual Conversation.”TE X T: A n In terd is cip lin a ry J o u rn a l f o r the S tu d y o f D is co u rs e 6, 7 3 -1 0 5 .

1986. 1986. 1987.

“ O n B a c k - C h a n n e l Behavior in J a p a n e s e a n d English Casual Conversation.”L in g u istics 2 4 , 1 0 7 9 - 1 1 0 8 . Review of Ja p a n e s e W o m en ’s L angua ge, b y Janet Shibamoto. J o u rn a l o f A s ia n S tud ies 45, 860-862. “ Thematization as a Staging Device in J a p a n e s e Narrative.”In P ers p ectiv e s o n Top ica liza tion : The C a se o f Ja p a n e s e Wa. Ed.

1987.

1987. 1987.

1987.

J o h n Hinds, S e n k o K. M a y nard, a n d Shoichi Iwasaki, 57-82. A m s t e r d a m : J o h n Benjamins. “ Interactional Functions of a Nonverbal Sign: H e a d M o v e m e n t in J a p a n e s e Dyadic Casual Conversation.”J o u rn a l o f P ra g m a t­ ics 11,589-606. “ Review of Japan^ese,'”b y J o h n Hinds. L in gu istics 25,1192-1196. “ Variability in Conversation M a n a g e m e n t : Fragmentation of Discourse a n d B a c k - C h a n n e l Expressions in J a p a n e s e a n d English.”Microfiche, E D 2 8 3 407. Educational Resources In­ formation Center (ERIC), U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Education, Office of Educational Research a n d Improvement. “Pragmatics of Interactional Signs: A C a s e of U h - h u h ’ s a n d the Like in J a p a n e s e Conversation.”F o u rte e n th L A C U S (Lin gu istic A s s o c ia tio n o f C a n a d a an d th e United S ta tes) Forum , 6 7-76.

1989.

1990.

“ Functions of the Discourse M a r k e r D a k a ra in J a p a n e s e C o n ­ versation.”TE X T: A n In terd is cip lin a ry J o u rn a l f o r th e S tu d y o f Discourse 9, 389-414. “ Understanding Interactive C o m p e t e n c e in L 1 / L 2 Contras­

346

1990.

1990.

List o f Author’s Works tive Context: A C a s e of B a c k - C h a n n e l Behavior in J a p a n e s e a n d English.”In L a n g u a g e Proficien cy , D efining, Teaching, and Testing. Ed. Louis A. Arena, 41-52. N e w York a n d London: P l e n u m Press. “ Conversation M a n a g e m e n t in Contrast: Listener R e s p o n s e in J a p a n e s e a n d A m e r i c a n English.”J o u rn a l o f P ra g m a tics 14, 397-412. “ T E X T : A n O p e n F o r u m for International Scholarship.”T E X T S p ecia l 1 0 th A n n iv e rs a ry Issue,

L oo k in g A h e a d : D is co u rs e

A n a ly s is in th e 1990s 10, 6 1 -6 2 .

1990.

1991. 1991. 1991. 1992. 1992.

1992.

1992. 1992.

1993.

1993.

“Expression of Appeal in the Utterance Design of J a p a n e s e Conversational Language.”J o u rn a l o f Ja p a n e s e L in g u istics 12, 87-114. “Pragmatics of Discourse Modality: A C a s e of the J a p a n e s e Emotional A d v e r b D oose.n P ra g m a tics 1,371-392. “Pragmatics of Discourse Modality: A C a s e of D a a n d D esu/ M a su F o r m s in Japanese.”J o u rn a l o f P ra g m a tics 15, 551-582. “Discourse a n d Interactional Functions of the J a p a n e s e M o d a l A d v e r b Y a h a ^ / Y a p p a ^ .n L a n g u a g e S cien ces 13, 39-57. “S p e e c h Act Declaration in Conversation: Functions of the J a p a n e s e Connective D a tte .n S tud ies in L a n g u a g e 16, 63-89. “ Cognitive a n d Pragmatic M e s s a g e s of a Syntactic Choice: A C a s e of the J a p a n e s e C o m m e n t a r y Predicate N (o) D a .n TEXT: A n In terd is cip lin a ry J o u rn a l f o r th e S tud y o f D is co u rs e 12, 563-613. Review of A s p e cts o f Ja p a n e s e W o m en ’s Langua ge, edited by Sachiko Ide a n d N a o m i H a n a o k a McGloin. D is co u rs e & S ociety 3, 519-522. “ W h e r e Textual Voices Proliferate: A C a s e of To Yuu ClauseN o u n Com b i n a t i o n in Japanese.”P o etics 21 , 16 9 - 1 8 9 . “ T o w a r d the Pedagogy of Style: C h o osing betw e e n A b r u p t a n d F o r m a l Verb F o r m s in Japanese.”In Ja p a n e s e -L a n g u a g e E d u cati^on Aroun^d th e Gl^obe. Vol.2. Ed. J a p a n Foundation J a p a ­ nese L a n g u a g e Institute, 27-43. Urawa, Japan: J a p a n F o u n ­ dation J a p a n e s e L a n g u a g e Institute. “ Interactional Functions of Formulaicity: A C a s e of UtteranceFinal F o r m s in Japanese.”P roceed in g s o f th e F ifte e n th In te r­ n a tion a l Con^g^ess o f Lingui^sts. V o l . 3, 225-228. Q u e b e c City: Laval University Press. “Declaring S p e e c h Act in Conversation: A S t u d y of J a p a n e s e Connective D a tte . ”P ro ce e d in g s o f th e F ifte e n th In tern a tion a l

List o f Author’s Works

1993.

1994.

1994. 1994.

1994. 1995.

C on gress o f Lin guists. Vol.1,355-357. Q u e b e c City: Laval U n i ­ versity Press. “ T h e M e a n i n g of Teaching J a p a n e s e in the United States.”The B^eez^e (Japan Foundation L a n g u a g e Center Newsletter), S e p ­ tember, 3-4. (Abstract) “ I mages of Involvement a n d Integrity: Rhetorical Style of a J a p a n e s e Politician.”The A s s o c ia tio n f o r A s ia n Studi^es, A^st^a,c1:s o f th e 1994 A n n u a l M eetin g. A n n Arbor: Associa­ tion for Asian Studies, 127. “ I mages of Involvement a n d Integrity: Rhetorical Style of a J a p ­ anese Politician.”D is co u rs e & S ociety 5, 233-261. “ T h e m a t i c S uspension a n d S p e e c h Act Qualification: Rhetori­ cal Effects of Stray Interrogative Clauses in J a p a n e s e Text.” P o etics 22, 473-496. “ T h e Centrality of T h e m a t i c Relations in J a p a n e s e Text.”F u n c­ tion s o f L a n g u a g e 1,229-260. “‘ A s s u m e d Quotation5 in Japanese.”G engo H e n }y oo ni ok eru Ta ik eitek i K en kyuu , o y o b i sono N ih on g o K y o o ik u e no

1995. 1995.

347

〇 oyoo.

Ed. Misato T o k u n a g a , 163-175. Tokyo: K a n d a G a i k o k u g o Daigaku. “ C o m m e n t a r y Questions in Japanese: Cognitive Sources a n d Pragmatic Resources.”S tud ies in L a n g u a g e 19, 4 4 7-487. “ Interrogatives T h a t Seek N o Answers: Exploring the Expres­ siveness of Rhetorical Interrogatives in Japanese.”L in g u istics 33, 501-530.

1995.

Review o f S itu a ted M ea n in g : In s id e an d O u tsid e in J a p a n e s e

1995.

Sel/ Society, a n d Language, edited b y J a n e M. B a c h n i k a n d Charles J. Quinn, Jr. L a n g u a g e in S ociety 24, 611-614. “ J a p a n e s e Discourse, a N e w Journal.”Ja p a n e s e D iscou rse: A n In tern a tion a l J o u rn a l f o r th e S tu d y o f Ja p a n e s e T ext an d Talk

1995.

1, 1-5. “ Conversation Analysis a n d the Essence of Language.”J a p a ­ nese D s c o u r s e : A n In tern a tion a l J o u rn a l f o r th e S tud y o f J a p a n^ese Text a n d T alk 1,47-52.

1996.

1996.

“ Contrastive Rhetoric: A C a s e of Nominalization in J a p a n e s e a n d English Discourse.”In C o n tra stive S em a n tics an d P ra g ­ matics. Ed. Katarzyna Jaszczolt a n d K e n Turner, 933-946. O x ­ ford: Elsevier Science. “Multivoicedness in S p e e c h a n d T h o u g h t Representation: T h e C a s e of Self-Quotation in Japanese.”J o u rn a l o j P ra g m a tics 25, 207-226.

348 1996.

1997.

List o f Author’s Works “Presentation of O n e ’ s V i e w in J a p a n e s e N e w s p a p e r C o l u m n s : C o m m e n t a ^ Strategies a n d Sequencing.”TE X T: A n In terd is ci­ p lin a ry J o u rn a l f o r th e S tu d y o f D is co u rs e 16, 391-421. “Manipulating S p e e c h Styles in Japanese: Context, Genre, a n d Id eolog y .” P ro ce e d in g s o f th e F ifth P rin ceto n Ja p a n e s e P e d a g o ­

1997.

g y Workshop, 1-24. Ed. Seiichi Makino. “ Analyzing Interactional M a n a g e m e n t in Native/Non-native English Conversation: A C a s e of Listener Response.”In tern a ­

1997.

37-60. “Synergistic Structures in G r a m m a r : A C a s e of Nominalization a n d C o m m e n t a ^ Predicate in Japanese.”W ord: J o u rn a l o f the

tio n a l R e v ie w o f A p p lie d L in g u istics an d L a n g u a g e Teaching 35,

In tern a tion a l L in g u is tic A s s o c ia tio n 4 8 ,1 5 -4 0 .

1997.

1997.

1997.

1997.

“Meta-Quotation: T h e m a t i c a n d Interactional Significance of Tte in J a p a n e s e Girls’Comics.”F u n ctio n s o f L a n g u a g e 4, 23-46. “ Textual Ventriloquism: Quotation a n d the A s s u m e d C o m ­ m u n i t y Voice in J a p a n e s e N e w s p a p e r C o l u m n s . ”P o etics 24, 379-392. “Shifting Contexts: T h e Sociolinguistic Significance of Nominalization in J a p a n e s e Television N e w s . ”L a n g u a g e in S ociety 26, 381-399. “Rhetorical Sequencing a n d the Force of the T o p i c - C o m m e n t Relationship in J a p a n e s e Discourse: A C a s e of M in i-J ih y o o N e w s p a p e r Articles.” Ja p a n e s e D is co u rs e : A n In tern a tion a l J o u rn a l f o r th e S tud y o f J a p a n e s e T ext an d T a lk 2, 4 3 -6 4 .

1998.

“ Understanding a n d Teaching J a p a n e s e Discourse Principles: A C a s e of N e w s p a p e r C o l u m n s . ”In J a p a n e s e -L a n g u a g e E d u ca ­ tio n Abound th e Gl^obe. Vol.8. Ed. J a p a n Foundation J a p a n e s e L a n g u a g e Institute, 67-86. Urawa, Japan: J a p a n Foundation J a p a n e s e L a n g u a g e Institute. 1998. “ Ventrioloquism in Text a n d Talk: Functions of Self- a n d O t h ­ er-Quotation in J a p a n e s e Discourse.”(Keynote Speech.) J a p a n e s e / K o r e a n Linguistics. V o l . 7 , 1 7 - 3 7 . Ed. Noriko A k a t s u k a et al.Stanford, CA: Center for the Stu d y of L a n g u a g e a n d Information. 1998. Review of L^ove, H a te an d E very th in g in B etw een , b y M a m i k o M u r a k a m i . J o u rn a l o f th e A s s o c ia tio n o f T ea ch ers o f J a p a n ese 32, 2, 69-71. 1999 . “Discourse Analysis a n d Pragmatics.”In The H a n d b o o k o f J a p ­

List o f Author’s Works

349

a n e se L in guistics. Ed. N a t s u k o Tsujimura, 425-443. London: Blackwell. 1999 . “O n Rhetorical Ricochet: Expressivity of Nominalization a n d D^a in J a p a n e s e Discourse.”D is co u rs e S tud ies 1,57-81. 1999 . “ A Poetics of G r a m m a r : Playing with Narrative Perspectives a n d Voices in J a p a n e s e a n d Translation Texts.”P o etics 26, 115-141. 1999 . “G r a m m a r , With Attitude: O n the Expressivity of Certain D a S e n te n ces in Japanese.”L in g u istics 37, 215-250. 2000. “Speaking for the Unspeakable: Expressive Functions of N a n (i) in J a p a n e s e Discourse.”J o u rn a l o f P ra g m a tics 3 2 , 1 2 0 9 - 1 2 3 9 . 2000. “Expressivity in Discourse: Cas e s of Vocatives a n d T h e m e s in Japanese.”L a n g u a g e S cien ces 23, 679-705. 2001. “Sources of E m o t i o n in J a p a n e s e Comics: Da, N an(i), a n d the Rhetoric of Futaku^.n In E xp lo rin g J a p a n esen ess: O n J a p a n e s e Ena.ctm.ents o f C^liu^e an d C on sciou sness. Ed. R a y T. D o n a ­ hue, 225-240. Westport, CT: Ablex. 2001. “Mitigation in Disguise: T e-y u u-k a as Preface to Self-Revelation in J a p a n e s e Dramatic Discourse.”P o etics 29, 317-329. 2001. “Falling in Love with Style: Expressive Functions of Stylistic Shifts in a J a p a n e s e Television D r a m a Series.”F u n ctio n s o f L a n g u a g e 8 , 1-39. 2001. “ In the N a m e of a Vessel: Emotive Perspectives in the Reporting of the E h i m e Maru-Greeneville Collision in a J a p a n e s e N e w s p a ­ per.”Journal of Linguistics 40, 1047-1086. 2004. “Poetics of Style Mixture: Emotivity, Identity, a n d Creativity in J a p a n e s e Writings.”P o etics 32, 387-409. 2005. “ Thematization as a Staging Device in the J a p a n e s e Narrative.” Reprinted in Japan^^se L in g u is tics: P ragm a tics, S ociolin gu istics an d L angua ge. Ed. N a t s u k o Tsujimura, 143-164. London: Routledge. 2005. “ Another Conversation: Expressivity of M ita in a a n d Inserted S p e e c h in J a p a n e s e Discourse.” J o u rn a l o f P ra g m a tics 37, 837-869. 2008. “Playing with Multiple Voices: Emotivity a n d Creativity in J a p ­ anese Style Mixture.”In S ty le S h ijtin g in Ja panese. Ed. K i m ­ berly Jon e s a n d Tsuyoshi Ono, 91-129. A m s t e r d a m : J o h n Benjamins.

350

List o f Author’s Works Articles, etc. Written in Japanese

1987. 「日 米 会 話におけるあいづちの表現」 『言 語 』 11 月 号 88-92. 1991•「 文 体 の 意 味 ：ダ 体 と デ ス . マ ス 体 の 混 用 に つ い て 」 『言 語 』 2 月号 75-80. 1993. 「ア メ リ カ 英 語 」 『日 本 語 学 』 特 集 『世 界 の 女 性 語 、 日 本 の 女 性 語 』 13-19. 1994. 「『と い う 』 表 現 の 機 能 ：話 者 の 発 想 . 発 話 態 度 の 標 識 と し て 」 『言 語 』 1 1 月 号 80-85. 1997. 「ア メ リ カ 英 語 」 『女 性 語 の 世 界 』 井 出 祥 子 編 集 明 治 書 院 130-140. 1998. 「 パ ト ス と し て の 言 語 」 『言 語 』 6 月 号 34-41. 2001.「 心 の 変 化 と 話 し 言 葉 の ス タ イ ル シ フ ト 」 『言 語 』 6 月 号 38-45. 2 0 0 1 . 「日 本 語 文 法 と 感 情 の 接 点 ：テ レ ビ ド ラ マ に 会 話 分 析 を 応 用 し て 」 『日本語文法』 1,90-110. 2003. 「 談 話 分 析 の 対 照 研 究 」 『朝 倉 日 本 語 講 座 』 Vol.7 0 『文 章 、談 話 』 佐 久 間 ま ゆ み 編 集 朝 倉 書 店 227-249. 2005. 「 会 話 導 入 文 ：話 す 『声 』 が 聞 こ え る 類 似 引 用 の 表 現 性 」 『言 語 教 育 の 新 展 開 ：牧 野 成 一 教 授 古 希 記 念 論 文 集 鎌 田 修 他 編 集 ひ つ じ 書 房 61-76.

2 0 0 5 . 『新 日 本 語 教 育 事 典 』 担 当 事 項 会 話 の し く み （ 3 3 7 - 3 3 8 )、 レトリ ック（ 3 6 1 - 3 6 2 ) 、命 題 （ 58 4- 585 ) 、モ ダ リ テ イ の 研 究 （ 5 8 5 - 5 8 6 )、 トピック. コ メ ン ト （ 5 8 1 - 5 8 2 ) 水 谷 修 他 編 集 、 日本語教育学会編 2006.

大修館書店. 「 指 示 表 現 の 情 意 ：語 り 手 の 視 点 ス ト ラ テ ジ ー と し て 」 『日本語科 学 』 19, 55-74.

2 0 0 6 . プログ） ( 「 言 語 に つ い て の 誤 解 と 正 解 」言語学出 版 社 フ オ ラ ム http://www.gengosf.com/air_x/modules-wordpress/mdex. p hp?p=16. 2 0 0 7 . 「言 語 学 と 日 本 語 教 育 学 ：知 の 受 容 か ら 知 の 創 造 へ 」 『日 本 語 教 育 』 132 23-32.

S ubject In d e x (E nglish)

A ability, 126-128 abrupt command, 217 action-accompanying phrases, 241-243 adjectives, 7,12,13, 86-87, 97; iadjectives, 71-72; na-adjectives, 72-73 adverbs, 7, 75-76, 173-175 advertising, 8, 303-308 advice, 214-216 aizuchi^, 245-246 amae, 15-16 apologizing, 7, 212-213 attitudinal adverbs, 7, 173-175 audio materials for learning, 331-332

B be-verb, 79, 92-94 borrowing varieties, 206-204 bowing, 7, 253

C calligraphy, 45-47 case markers, 98-101,121 causative passives, 141 causatives, 139-141,307 cell-phone novels, 8, 311-314 clausal explanation, 159-161,307 clausal modification, 7,157-159, 307 comics, 8, 286-294 commands, giving, 216-218 comment,12,13,107-112 commenting on one’s own speech, 239-240 conditional, 7,154-157; ba-conditiona l , 154-155, 157; nara-conditional, 155; tara-conditionai, 156-157 conjunctions, 7, 148-149

connecting clauses, 150-153 consonants, 32-34, 35 contest, 334 contracted sounds, 34,136 conversational Japanese, 229-230 counters, 13, 54-60 cursing, 12, 223

D defiant, being, 224 demonstratives, 76-78 designing utterances, 231-232 desire, expressing, 124-125 dialects, 23-24; Kansai, 23; Osaka, 23, 298 digital communication, 26 discourse markers, 277-278

E echo questions, 248-249, 297, 301 echo responses, 248-249, 297 elements of primary focus, 99 emoji, 26 emoticon, 26 emotion, expressing, 167-189 emphasis, 22, 177-179 exclamation, 187-188 exclamatory phrases, 7, 172-173, 305, 314 existential sentences, 102 existential verbs, 79,102 eye contact, 254-255

F family terms, 62-63 feelings, sharing thoughts as, 240-241 feminine speech, 20-21, 199-200 fighting, 221-224

351

Subject Index (English)

352 fillers, 232-233 formal style,12, 25,193-196 four-part organization, 269-271

G genre, 8, 281-285 gestures, 7, 250-255 giving, verbs of, 120-124 grammatical particles, 98-101 gratitude, 211-212 greetings, 204-206

H hand signals, 7, 250-254 head nods, 7, 255 head shakes, 255 hentaigana, 37 hiragana, 6,10, 39-40, 46-47 homophones, 52 honne,15,17-18 honorifics, 196-198 humble forms, 12, 25 humor, 260-262, 297

i-adjectives, 71-72 idioms, 264-266 informal style,12, 25,193-196 interactional markers, 175-177 interactional particles, 102-104, 175-177, 293, 309 interjection, 7,12,181-183 interjectionai sound effects, 185-186 introducing, 204-206 inviting, 7, 218-219 irony, 262-264 irregular verbs, 82-86

J Japanese-language organizations, 333-334

K kango, 51-52, 57, 61,70-71,198 kanji, 6,10, 37, 38-39, 52; kun-reading, 38-39; on-reading, 38-39

Kansai-ben, 24, 27 kaomoji, 26 katakana, 6,10, 37, 40-41, 294, 310, 314 ki^-shoo-ten-ketsu, 8, 269-271 kyootsuugo, 23-24

L leave-taking, 225-228 lingering effect, 266-267 listener responses, 7, 245-246 listening, 322-323 loan words, 6-7, 38, 53-55, 305

M magazine essay, 308-310 masculine speech, 20-21, 199-200 meshita, 15-17 metaphors, 7, 256-257 methods for learning, 8, 317-327 meue,15,16-17 mimesis, 64-66 modal suffixes, 135-136 modal verbs, 7, 128-132 mora, 31-32

N na-adjectives, 72-73 ne,103-104, 168-170 negation, 7,112-114 negation w ords,113 negative questions, 114-116 nervous, when being, 220-221 new dialect, 24 no da sentences, 143-146, 302 nominal modification, 73-74 non-past tense, 94-95, 305, 313-314 noun compounds, 67-68 noun formation, 68 nouns, 7, 13, 67-68 number system, 56-58 numerals, 56-58

O objectifying expressions, 22, 202-203 obligation, 132, 133-134 ojisan-kotoba, 21-22 onomatopoeia, 7, 64-66 Oosaka-ben, 23, 298 openers, 232-233 orders, giving, 216-218

P paragraph organization, 271-272 particles, 7,12,13, 78-79, 102-104, 125, 129; grammatical,7, 78-79; interactional, 102-104 passives, 136-139, 307 past tense, 95-96, 313-314

Subject Index (English) permission, 209-211 permissives, 139, 140-141 personal names, 63-64 personal pronouns, 69- 70 politeness, 7,12, 25, 70-71, 115, 196-199, 305 popular culture, 8,18-19, 286 possession, 102 postposing, 243-245, 302 potential, 126-128 prefacing, 233-235 prefixes, 25, 70-71,76 proficiency tests, 334-335 progressive, 118-120 prohibition, 132-133 pronouns, 68-70 proverbs, 264-266 pseudo-loan words, 55-56 punctuation, 42-43 puns, 260-262, 297

Q questions, answering,105 question w ords,106 quotation, 7,164-166

R reading, 319-321 receiving, verbs of, 120-124 repairing speech, 7, 247-248 repetition, 180, 307-308 requesting, 206-209 respectful forms, 12, 25 rhetorical figures of speech, 7, 256-267 rhetorical questions, 7, 188-189 riddles, four-line, 262 roomaji^,10, 37-38 RU-verbs, 81

S sarcasm, 262-264 scholarship, 234 self-alienating expressions, 22, 202 sentence-final elements, 146-147 serious, when being, 220-221 shin-genbun-ltchltal, 25-26, 309, 310 signals, hand, 250-254 soto,15,17, 62,120-121 sound changes, 36 sound system, 31-36 speaking, 322-323 speaking turns, 230-231

353 speech-like written style, 25-26, 309, 310 spoken style, 25 staging, 8, 273-274 styles, 193-196; blu n t,12, 25,115; form al,12,193-196; inform al,12, 193-196; polite, 25,196; suprapolite, 25, 298 suffix, 71 suggestions, 214-216 swearing, 223

T

tatemae,15,17-18 tautology, 7, 258-259 teasing, 225 television drama, 8, 298-303 television variety show, 294-298 thread of discourse, 274-276 three-part organization, 268-269 Tokyo speech, 23, 27 tools for learning, 8, 328-332 top ic,12,13,107-112, 272-276 topic chaining, 274-276, 307 topic-comment,12,13,107-112 topic structure, 8, 272-274 trouble-spots, clarifying, 246-248 turns, 230-231 U

uchl,15,17,

62,120-121 urgent plea, 208 utterance-final strategies, 237-239 utterances, designing, 231 U-verbs, 81

V vague, being artificially, 236-237 variations, 13, 20 varieties, 20-25; dialects, 23-24; feminine speech, 20-21; masculine speech, 20-21; youth language, 22 verb-final,12,116-117 verb s,13, 79-86; active, 79-80; be-, 92-94; existential, 83-86; intransi­ tive, 80-86; irregular, 82-86; RU-, 8 1 ;stative, 79-80; transitive, 80-86; U-, 81 visual materials for learning, 331-332 vocatives, 63-64 volitional, 141-143 vowels, 32, 34

354

Subject Index (English)

W

Y

wago, 38,

yo,103-104, 168-170 yojoo, 8, 266-267

51,57, 70-71, 198, 298 whispered confession, 183-185 word accentuation, 35-36 word order, 7,116-117 writing, 43-47, 121-122; horizontal, 43-45; vertical, 43-45 written style, 25

youth language, 22, 28, 200-203, 310

S ubject In d e x and Key Phrases (Japanese)

(Listed according to the あいうえお order)

（listener responses)，245-246 ぐ ら （sitting on the floor in the lotus position)， 253 げ る ‘to give’， 120-121 の ‘uh, well’， 232

あ ぃ づ ち あ

あ あ

い い

（quotation marks), 43 6 ， 10，37, 4 0 4 1 ， 294, 310, 314 か も し れ な い （modal verb ),129 かsよ （interactional particles),170 か、ら （ conjunction), 149， 151 か ら ‘from’， 100 漢 語 ‘Chinese-derived words’，51-52 ， 57, 61 ，70-71， 198 漢 字 （ fcanji), 6,10, 37, 38-39, 52 か ぎ カ ッ コ

あ

adjectives, 71-72

言 ぃ た く な ぃ け ど （ prefacing), い か が

234

カ タ カ ナ （ fcatafcana),

‘how’， 106

ぃ き な り な ん だ け ど （ prefacing),

235

‘how many’， 106 ぃ く ら ‘how much’ （ co st),106 い た だ く to receive’， 121 い や だ （ interjection),182 ぃ く つ

き

（discourse organization), 269-271 書 （cursive style), 46 張 す る ‘to be nervous’， 221

起 承 転 結

行 緊

く

う う そ （ interjection),181 う ん

（listener response), 246

くそ

句 点 え

句 読

え っ （ interjection),181

く れ

お

(cursing), 223 to give’， 121 ‘period’， 43 点 ‘punctuation marks’, 43 る ‘to give’， 120-121

くださる

け

お （ prefix),

ケ ー タ イ 小 説

お じ

グ ッ

思 う お わ

71 ぎ ‘bowing’， 253 ん だ け ど （ prefacing), 235 り （discourse organization), 369

ご （ prefix),

か か か が が ガ 楷 棺

結 論

‘cell-phone novels’， 311 （interjectionai sound effect),186 （discourse organization), 268

‘or’， 100 (question m arker),105 (for elements oi primary focus), 99 (subject marker), 98 ー ン （inteijectional sound effect),186 書 （script with sharp strokes), 46 書 体 （Kaisho font), 42

71

こ う 言 つ ち や な ん だ け ど （ prefacing),

‘advertising’， 165, 303 シ ッ ク 体 （Gothic font), 42 そ あ ど （ demonstratives), 76-78 と （ exclamation), 187-188 と （nominal clause), 161-163 と が で き る （ ability), 126-127

広 告 ゴ こ こ こ こ

355

235

356

Subject Index and Key Phrases (Japanese)

さ

次 に

（discourse marker), 277 さ し あ げ る ‘to give’， 121 雑 誌 エ ッ セ ー magazine essay’， 308 さ て （discourse marker), 277

つ て

最 後 に

（discourse marker), 277 （topic m arker),110

て

(utterance-final strategy), 153 form (connector), 150-151 で ‘by’, 100 で (conjunction), 149 で ‘in, at’， 100 て あ げ る 如 give’， 123 て あ る (modal suffix), 135 で あ る ‘to be’, 93 て い う か （ prefacing), 234 て い う か （ utterance-final strategy), 238 て 言 っ て る だ ろ (commenting on one’s own speech), 230-231 て お く （modal su ffix),136 てくだ さ い ers), 201 て く れ る ‘to give’， 122-123 て し ま う （modal suffix), 136, 310 て ば （commenting on one’s own speech), 240 で も （alternative listing), 237 て も ら う ‘to receive’， 123 テ レ ビ ド ラ マ ‘television drama’， 298 て

て

し

(connecting clauses),153 strategy), 237­ 239 実 は （ prefacing), 235 じ や ん （interactional particle),176 ン ヤ ー ン （interjectionai sound effect), 186 正 直 言 っ て （ prefacing),134 序 論 （discourse organization), 268 し

し （ utterance-final

す ツ ス

（interactional m arker),176 （emphatic m arker),178

す こ く

せ ぜ

（interactional particle),176 (formal sitting on the floor), 253 っ か く （attitudinal adverb),175 め て （attitudinal adverb),175

正 座 せ せ

と と

そ 草 書 そ う そ れ そ れ

（very cursive style), 46 だ （modal su ffix),131 で ‘so’， 232 で は （discourse marker), 277

た だ （ be-verb),

79, 92-94 ‘to want, to desire’， 124-125 た が っ て い る ‘to want, to desire’， 125 た ら conditional, 156-157 誰 ‘who’， 106 だ ろ う （modal verb), 128-129 段 落 ‘paragraph’ ，271-272 たい

ち

（defiant interjection), 224 （modal verb ),131 く し よ う （ cursing), 223 （emphatic m arker),178

ち え っ

ち が い な い ち 超

‘and’， 100

と （ conjunction),152

（quotation marker), 164-166 ‘with’， 100 と い う (for clausal explanation), 160-161 と い う (hearsay), 165 と い え ば （topic marker), 277 ど う ‘how’， 106 ど う せ （attitudinal adverb),174 読 点 ‘comma’, 43 と か （alternative listing), 236 と き （ conjunction), 152-153 土 下 座 （kneeling down with your head almost touching the floor), 253-254 ど こ ‘where’， 106 と こ ろ で （discourse marker), 277 ど れ ‘which one’， 106 ど れ ほ ど （ exclamation),188 ど ん な に (exclamation), 188 と

と

な つ

つ

っ

(interactional particle), 176 adjectives, 72-73 な か (discourse organization), 369 な さ い （giving orders), 216-217 な け れ ば い け な い （modal verb), 133-134 な け れ ば な ら な い （modal verb), 133-134 な

つ う か （ prefacing),

234 つ う か （commenting on one’s own speech), 239-240 つ う の （commenting on one’s own speech), 239-240

な

Subject Index and Key Phrases (Japanese) ‘why’， 106 What’， 106 な に （ fighting), 224 な に （rhetorical question), 188-189 な に さ （defiant interjection), 224 な に も ‘not anything’， 113 な ら conditional,155 な る ほ ど （listener response), 245 な ん だ （ interjection),182 な ん だ と ！（ fighting), 221-223 な ん ち や っ て （ quotation),166 な ん て （ exclamation),187 な ん て （ quotation),166 な ん と （ exclamation),187

357

な ぜ

ほ

何

（offering advice and sugges­ tions), 215 欲 し い ‘to want’， 124,125 ほ ん と (interjection), 182 本 論 （discourse organization), 268

に に に に

方 が い い

ま

‘uh’， 232 (attitudinal adverb), 175 マ ジ ‘serious’， 40 ま ず (discourse marker), 277 ま で ‘till, up to, to’， 101 マ ン ガ ‘comics’， 286 ま あ

まさか

み

‘at’ （location marker), 99 ‘from’, 100 ‘in, at’ （temporal marker), 99

み た い な （ quotation), 明 朝 体

166, 202 （Mnchoo font), 42

め

ね

(emphatic marker), 177-178 （emphatic marker), 177-178

めちや

ね

(interactional particle), 103-104, 168-170

メ チ ャ ク チ ャ

の

も

（in subordinate clause),158 の (nominal clause), 161-162 の だ sentences, 143-146, 302 の で （ conjunction),151

（topic marker), 110-111 235 も の か (rhetorical question), 189 も ら う 如 receive’， 121

は

や

の

は ば は ば ば は は バ

（topic marker), 107-112, 272-276 conditional, 154-155,157 い (listener response), 245-246 か （ fighting), 223 か （ teasing), 225 じ め （discourse organization), 269 ず だ （modal verb), 129-130 ラ エ テ ィ 番 組 Variety program’， 294

も

も し か し て （ prefacing),

（attitudinal adverb),174 ‘to give’， 121

や っ ぱ り や る

よ よ

よ 余 よ

（interactional particle), 103-104, 168-170 う だ （modal verb), 130-131 情 （lingering effect), 266-267 ね （interactional particles), 160-161

ひ ひ ら が な （ h^ragana),

6,10, 39-40,

46-47 ひ よ っ と し て （ prefacing),

ら らしい

(modal verb), 130

235 わ

（interjectionai sound effect),186 ‘indigenous Japanese words’，51, 57

ワ オ

ふ ブー ぶ っ ふん

(interjectional sound effect), 186 ち や け （defiant interjection), 235 (interjection), 224

和 語

を へ へ へ べ

を

‘to, toward’， 100 え （ interjection),182 き だ （modal verb ),129

(grammatical particle), 78

A b o u t th e A u th o r

S e n k o K. M a y n a r d w a s b o r n a n d e d u c a t e d in J a p a n , g r a d u a t i n g w i t h a B.A. f r o m T o k y o G a i k o k u g o D a i g a k u ( T o k y o University of F o r e i g n Studies). S h e s p e n t h e r h i g h s c h o o l senior y e a r in t h e U n i t ­ e d States a s a n A m e r i c a n Field Service S c h o l a r s h i p recipient, a n d later c o n t i n u e d h e r e d u c a t i o n in t h e U n i t e d States a s a g r a d u a t e student. After receiving a doctorate in linguistics f r o m N o r t h w e s t ­ e r n University, s h e t a u g h t J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e a n d linguistics at t h e University of H a w a i ‘ i, C o n n e c t i c u t College, H a r v a r d University, a n d P r i n c e t o n University. S h e is currently Professor II of J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e a n d linguistics at R u t g e r s University. Professor M a y n a r d h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n eighty articles a n d r e v i e w s in A m e r i c a n , J a p a n e s e , a n d international journals, a n d is t h e a u t h o r of s e v e n ­ t e e n b o o k s in E n g l i s h a n d J a p a n e s e . R e c e n t b o o k s i n c l u d e E x p r e s ­ s iv e J a p a n e s e : A R e fe re n c e G u id e to S h a r in g E m o t io n a n d E m p a t h y

(University of H a w a i ‘ i Press, 2005); L in g u is t ic C r e a t iv it y in J a p a ­ n e s e D is c o u rs e : E x p lo r in g th e M u ltip lic it y o f Self, P e rs p e c tive , a n d V o i^e ( J o h n B e n j a m i n s , 2007); M a r u c h J a n r u D a n w a r o n : K a n ja n r ^ s e i to Im i n^o S o o zo o ( K u r o s h i o S h u p p a n , 2008); a n d T e Y u u ka, Y a p p a r i N ih o n g o D a y o n e : K a i w a n i H is o m u N ih o n jin n o K im o c h i

( T a i s h u k a n S h o t e n , 2009).

Production Notes for Maynard / Learning Japanesefor Real Cover design by Julie Matsuo-Chun Interior design and composition by Wanda China with display type in Meiryo and text in Bookman Old Style Printing and binding by Sheridan Books, Inc. Printed on 50# House Opaque, 606 ppi