Learning Human Anatomy: A Laboratory Text and Workbook [5 ed.] 0137352247, 9780137352241

Citation preview

Julia F. Guy • Jennifer M. Burgoon

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Learning Human Anatomy

A Laboratory Text and Workbook Fifth Edition

Taken from: Learning Human Anatomy: A Laboratory Text and Workbook, Fourth Edition by Julia F. Guy

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Cover art: CLIPAREA l Custom media,123rf.com, decade3d - anatomy online/Shutterstock. Taken from: Learning Human Anatomy: A Laboratory Text and Workbook, Fourth Edition by Julia F. Guy Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. New York, New York 10013

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Copyright © 2021 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Pearson Custom Edition.

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This copyright covers material written expressly for this volume by the editor/s as well as the compilation itself. It does not cover the individual selections herein that first appeared elsewhere. Permission to reprint these has been obtained by Pearson Education, Inc. for this edition only. Further reproduction by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, must be arranged with the individual copyright holders noted. All trademarks, service marks, registered trademarks, and registered service marks are the property of their respective owners and are used herein for identific tion purposes only. Pearson Education, Inc., 330 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10013 A Pearson Education Company www.pearsoned.com Printed in the United States of America

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ISBN 10: 0-137-35224-7 ISBN 13: 978-0-137-35224-1

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Contents Preface Acknowledgments

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 1. Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System  2. Osteology: The Study of Bone  3. Arthrology: The Study of Joints  4. Myology: The Study of Muscles  5. Introduction to the Nervous System  6. Introduction to the Cardiovascular System  7. Review of Unit I

2 13 21 27 33 41 47

UNIT II

49

 8.  9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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OVERVIEW OF BODY SYSTEMS

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UNIT I

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Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Arthrology of the Lower Limb Muscles of the Hip and Thigh Muscles of the Leg and Foot Nerves of the Lower Limb Blood Vessels of the Lower Limb Special Areas of the Lower Limb Review of Unit II

UNIT III 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

50 61 67 81 93 103 111 119

THE BACK AND THE UPPER LIMB

123

The Axial Skeleton Muscles of the Axial Skeleton Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Arthrology of the Upper Limb Muscles of the Shoulder and Arm Muscles of the Forearm and Hand Nerves of the Upper Limb Blood Vessels of the Upper Limb Special Areas of the Upper Limb Review of Unit III

124 133 137 145 149 163 173 179 185 191

UNIT IV

THE HEAD AND NECK

The Skull The Brain Functions of the Cerebrum Meninges and Circulation of the Brain Spinal Cord and Tracts Organs of Special Sense

195

196 209 219 225 233 243

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26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

THE LOWER LIMB

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Contents

32. Cranial Nerves 33. Muscles and Vessels of the Head and Neck 34. Review of Unit IV

251 261 271

UNIT V

277

The Autonomic Nervous System Muscles of the Abdomen and Pelvis Digestive System and Peritoneum Vessels and Nerves of the Abdomen and Pelvis The Urinary System The Male Reproductive System The Female Reproductive System The Endocrine System The Thorax The Respiratory System The Heart Fetal Circulation The Lymphatic System Review of Unit V

Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Index Notes

A. B. C. D. E. F. G.

278 287 291 305 315 323 331 339 342 349 361 369 372 377

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35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

THE ABDOMEN, PELVIS, AND THORAX

Answers to Exercises and Student Activities Lower Limb Muscle Tables Upper Limb Muscle Tables Cranial Nerves Table Spinal Cord with Spinal Nerves Image Worksheets Anatomical Images

383 419 425 433 437 439 469

483 492

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Preface

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The fifth edition of Learning Human Anatomy: A Laboratory Text and Workbook continues to be a unique resource for introductory human anatomy courses/labs that use human cadavers and human organs (or models) as demonstration tools. The book has been written in an outline format and is designed to help students organize the anatomical material and find information quickly. Much of the text is included within the illustration keys so the visual image of the structure, its name, and its purpose in an anatomical position can be related. The illustrations continue to emphasize the anatomy that is vital for a one-term, introductory course or for general review. A reference text will still be required by students who need great amounts of detailed information. The idea for this book was conceived from a need for a gross anatomy guide for undergraduates; therefore, its treatment of embryology and histology is minimal. Some basic understanding of biology (cell organization and function) is assumed, but not necessary. Because anatomy is a visual science, the lab experience is vital in understanding three-dimensional relationships. For this reason, the more time spent looking at the structures, relating them to the living body, and forming mental images, the more easily the student will learn the material. Further, it aids the student in understanding the relationships and organization of the major structures within a given body region. To further the understanding of relationships within body regions, this book presents a combined regional and systemic approach to human anatomy. The book is divided into five units: • Overview of Body Systems • Lower Limb • Back and Upper Limb • Head and Neck • Abdomen, Pelvis, and Thorax

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Activities and exercises are designed to reinforce each lesson and help students form the mental images and the understanding of positions on their own bodies, which will help in remembering the information. The illustrations are designed to be actively integrated into the student’s study, and instructions are noted to direct students to make their own colored illustrations. Clinical comments make selected information more clinically relevant. In this fifth edition, there is a new photographic atlas section by Dr. Claudia F. Mosley of the Division of Anatomy at The Ohio State University. There are also new worksheets, as well as new tables—one of which the student completes. When the course is completed and this book is used as designed, the student will own a customized review book, created in part by the student.

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Acknowledgments We wish to express our appreciation for the positive comments and suggestions of the many students who have used this book.

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Unit 1

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Overview of Body Systems

With Detailed Introductions to: • • • • •

Integumentary System Skeletal System Muscular System Nervous System Cardiovascular System

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Lesson

1

Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System

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The language of anatomy must be learned in order to understand the discipline. You will be exposed to new terminology throughout the course so we can communicate accurately as we discuss anatomical structures. n Objectives

1. State the meaning of the important anatomical terms listed. 2. Use the terms of position in describing anatomical structures. 3. Describe the planes that are used in cutting anatomical material. 4. Define the regions of the body. n MethOds

1. Study the list of words below. Use your own body to locate body parts and terms of position. 2. Listen for these new terms when they are used by the instructor; practice using them yourself. 3. Complete the Lesson 1 activities and Exercise 1.

A. GENERAL TERMINOLOGY

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 1. Gross Anatomy: the study of large (gross) structures that can be seen with the naked eye.  2. histology: microscopic study of cells and tissues.  3. tissue: groups of cells that are similar in structure and that function together. The four primary tissues are: a. epithelial—forms the linings and coverings of free surfaces of the body. b. connective—supportive and binding tissue found throughout the body. Examples: bone, tendons, cartilage. c. muscle—contractile tissue for movement. d. nerve—communication cells capable of sending impulses.  4. Organ: groups of tissues that work together to perform a common function. Examples: heart, lungs, kidneys, liver.  5. system: a group of organs working together to perform a common function. Examples: circulatory, respiratory, urinary.  6. Neuroanatomy: study of the structural components of the nervous system.  7. embryology: study of the developing organism from the time of fertilization to birth.

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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System

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 8. Germ cell layers: the three layers of embryonic tissue from which all body tissues are derived. a. endoderm—innermost of three germ cell layers. It will form most of the linings of tubular structures of the body. b. ectoderm—outer germ cell layer. Derivatives: skin and the nervous system. c. mesoderm—layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm. Derivatives: muscles and connective tissues.  9. Fascia: compact layers of connective tissue that form a fibrous membrane. It invests the whole body, supporting and separating muscles and organs. 10. collagen: the major protein of the fibers in connective tissue structures. 11. Ligaments: thickened connective tissue (collagen fibers), which serves to hold bones together. 12. tendons: thickened, dense connective tissue that holds muscle to bone. 13. Aponeurosis: a broad, flat tendon. 14. Regional study: all the structures in an area are studied together. Example: lower extremity includes bones, muscles, nerves, and vessels. 15. systematic (systemic) study: studying a complete system independent of region. Example: learning all the bones of the body. 16. Anatomic position: the body is standing erect, face toward observer, with feet parallel and flat on the floor, the arms at the sides and palms directed forward.

B. DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLOGY

See Figure 1–1A and B (Anterior and Lateral Views). FIGURE 1–1A ANTERIOR VIEW—ANATOMICAL POSITION

1. Anterior (ventral): refers to the front surface of the body.

2. Posterior (dorsal): refers to the back surface of the body. 3. Superior (cranial): nearer the head end, line A.

4. Inferior (caudal): farther from head end, line B. 5. Superficial (external): nearer the surface. 6. Deep (internal): farther from the surface.

7. Medial: nearer the mid-plane of the body (C).

8. Lateral: farther from the mid-plane of the body (D). 9. Proximal: nearest the point of origin. If used with extremities, closer to the attachment. 10. Distal: farthest from point of origin. If used with extremities, further from the attachment.

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Learning Human Anatomy

Student Activities Using the terms “proximal” and “distal,” fill in the blanks to compare the relative positions of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist in Figure 1–1B. n

FIGURE 1–1B LATERAL VIEW

__________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

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1. a is

b is

2. c is

3. c is

a is

to a. to b; to c.

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to b;

to a;

to c.

C. PLANES, REGIONS, AND CAVITIES OF THE BODY

To study anatomical material it is often advantageous to look at internal structures by making cuts in specific planes. For instance, a coronal plane would be used in some areas, but a transverse section (cross section) provides a better view of muscles around a bone in the limbs.

FIGURE 1–2 PLANES OF THE BODY

1

3

1. Median (midsagittal) plane: a vertical plane that divides the body into equal right and left halves. (Color it yellow.) 2. Parasagittal plane: (not illustrated) a vertical plane that divides the body into unequal right and left portions.

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3. Coronal (frontal) plane: a vertical plane at right angles to the median plane. It divides the body into anterior and posterior portions. (Color it light blue.)

4. Transverse plane: a horizontal plane at right angles to both the median and frontal planes. It cuts the body into superior and inferior portions.

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Note: Cross sections (or sections in other planes) will occasionally be used to familiarize the student with that method of viewing anatomical material. Sectional anatomy may be important to many students because current clinical techniques (CAT scans, MRIs, etc.) look at the body in that way.

Courtesy of Blamb/Shutterstock.

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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System

FIGURE 1–3 REGIONS OF THE BODY 1. Head and neck 2. Upper limb 3. Thorax 4. Abdomen 5. Pelvis

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6. Lower limb

FIGURE 1–4 BODY CAVITIES

Many organs of the body are located in body cavities. Ventrally, a large cavity is subdivided by the diaphragm. Above the diaphragm, the thoracic cavity houses the lungs and the heart; below the diaphragm, the abdominopelvic cavity contains the major organs of digestion, reproduction, and the urinary system. The cranial cavity houses the brain; the spinal cavity houses the spinal cord.

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Label the cavities in Figure 1–4.

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Learning Human Anatomy

D. OVERVIEW OF BODY SYSTEMS In order for the body to work as a unified whole, many systems must work together. The anatomy of most systems will be illustrated as we encounter them in the various regions of the body. Figures 1–5 to 1–13 introduce the systems that will be included in more detail later in the book.

FIGURE 1–5 SKELETAL SYSTEM

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Structural Components: • Skeletal muscle • Cardiac muscle (heart) • Smooth muscle (walls of hollow organs)

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Structural Components: • Bones • Cartilage • Tendons • Ligaments • Joints

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Functions: • Support • Protection (organs) • Leverage in movement • Production of blood cells (hematopoiesis) • Storage of minerals

Functions: • Movement • Heat production

FIGURE 1–6 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Components: • Heart • Blood vessels • Blood

Functions: • Transports oxygen and nutrients to the cells, and transports carbon dioxide and wastes away. • Carries hormones and other substances to areas of the body where they are needed.

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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System

FIGURE 1–7 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Components: • Lymph vessels and nodes • Spleen • Thymus gland • Tonsils (With red bone marrow, these are structures of the immune system, a functional system.)

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Functions: • Returns lymph (formerly interstitial fluid) to the cardiovascular system. • Filters blood and lymph. • Produces white blood cells to protect the body from disease.

FIGURE 1–8 NERVOUS SYSTEM

Components: • Brain • Spinal cord • Nerves • Sense organs: eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and sensory receptors in the skin Function: • Communication system that detects changes in internal and external body environment and, by way of a nerve impulse, responds by producing some effect in muscle or gland. • Helps maintain homeostasis by regulating body activities through mediator molecules called neurotransmitters.

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Learning Human Anatomy

FIGURE 1–9 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Components: • Hormone-producing structures: • Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands • Ovaries, testes, and pancreas

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Functions: • Communications system that uses hormones as chemical messengers. • Helps maintain homeostasis by regulating body activities.

FIGURE 1–10 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Components: • Nasal cavity • Pharynx • Larynx • Trachea • Bronchi • Lungs

Functions: • Supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. • Helps regulate acid–base balance.

FIGURE 1–11 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Components: • Mouth • Salivary glands • Gastrointestinal (GI) tract • Liver and gall bladder • Pancreas

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Functions: • Physical and chemical breakdown of food into nutrients for use by the cells of the body. • Removes solid waste.

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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System

FIGURE 1–12 URINARY SYSTEM Components: • Kidneys • Ureters • Urinary bladder • Urethra

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Functions: • Filters blood to eliminate waste and excess fluid. • Helps maintain acid–base balance in the body.

FIGURE 1–13 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Components: • Male: testes, penis, duct system, glands • Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia. Accessory organs: mammary gland

Functions: • Hormone production. • Production of germ cells for reproduction of the organism. • Houses developing fetus (female).

2. THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

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The integumentary system, an extensive covering of the whole body, provides protection from loss of fluids and from environmental elements such as sunlight, chemicals, and microorganisms. It is composed of the skin, which is a cutaneous membrane, with its accessory structures: sebaceous (oil) and sweat glands, hair, and nails. The hair and nails are formed from the strong, dead, structural protein, keratin. This brief study is important since the skin is what we see first and changes seen here can often be the first indications of pathological conditions within the body. It is also important as a sensory organ; nerve endings here are sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature change. And, in the presence of sun, skin is involved in the production of Vitamin D3, which is necessary for maintaining optimal levels of calcium and phosphates in the body.

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FIGURE 1–14 A MICROSCOPIC SECTION OF SKIN

Sweat pore

Sweat duct 4 5 6 7

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1

2

Subcutaneous fatty tissue Muscle fibers

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Courtesy of Evan Oto/Science Source.

1. Epidermis: the outermost layer of the skin. It lacks blood vessels. It is composed of cells that are continuously pushed towards the surface, where they are shed. It is typically composed of four layers or strata (listed deep to superficial): • Stratum basale (germinativum) – deepest layer of cells; where mitosis occurs to provide new cells; melanocytes are found here and produce melanin, the substance that determines skin color. • Stratum spinosum – where cells differentiate.

• Stratum granulosum – where cells begin the process of keratinization and begin to die.

• Stratum corneum – most superficial layer of cells; consists of dead, keratinized cells that are shed.

2. Dermis: deep to the stratum basale of the epidermis. The dermis is well supplied with blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels. Sebaceous (oil) glands, sudoriferous (sweat) glands, and hair follicles are also located here. 3. Sudoriferous (sweat) gland: secretes onto the epidermis via ducts and pores. Helps in excretion of nitrogenous wastes and salt. Evaporation of sweat helps cool the body. 4. Arrector pili muscle: smooth muscle tissue that attaches to the hair follicles. When arrector pili muscles contract, hairs stand erect. We see the “goose bumps.” 5. Sebaceous (oil) gland: empties sebum (oil) into hair follicles.

6. Capillary network: found in the dermis. Provides oxygen and nutrients to the epidermis by diffusion. Dilation of these vessels helps cool the body.

n CLINICAL COMMENTS Nails are modifications of the epidermis and made of heavily cornified cells. The nail bed is highly vascular, so this is an excellent place to check patients for poorly oxygenated blood. Poorly oxygenated blood is dark red and gives a bluish tint, cyanosis, to nails and skin.

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7. Hair follicle: responsible for the production of hair.

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Exercise One Name _________________________________________________________ 1. Label each figure with the appropriate description from the following list:

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• Anterior view • Medial side of left lower limb

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• Proximal upper limb (right) • Superficial chest

• Deep abdomen • Lateral view

• Distal lower limb (left)

• Lateral side of left thigh

a. __________

b. __________

2. Write a sentence to demonstrate an understanding of each of the relative pairs. (Example: The knee is distal to the hip.)

______________________________________________ b. (superficial, deep) ______________________________________________ c. (medial, lateral) ________________________________________________ d. (proximal, distal) _______________________________________________ a. (superior, inferior)

3. Complete the following sentences with the correct directional term. a. The wrist is __________________ to the elbow. b. The neck is

__________________ to the abdomen.

c. To separate the thorax from the abdomen, a cut in the __________________  plane would be the most appropriate.

__________________ to bone. e. Dermis is __________________ to the epidermis. 4. New hair growth occurs in the __________________. d. The skin is

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Lesson

2

Osteology: The Study of Bone

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The bones of the body provide a vertical axis, the axial skeleton, from which the bones of the upper and lower limbs, the appendicular skeleton, extend. We will study each bone of the skeleton and its major markings. There are some general terms and functions that should be understood before specific bones are introduced. n OBjEcTivEs

1. List the functions of the skeleton. 2. Recognize different types of bones. 3. Identify the regions of a long bone and the kinds of bony material of which it is composed. 4. Define the microscopic unit, osteon, of compact bone. 5. Identify all the bones of the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. 6. List and define the articular and non-articular bone markings. n METhOds

1. Observe examples of cut and broken bones. 2. Using the long bone x-rays provided, identify both developing bone and adult bone. 3. Follow the directions as you study this lesson.

A. FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON

1. support—for the soft tissues of the body. 2. movement—bones serve as levers and joints as fulcra. 3. protection—to vital organs. 4. storage of minerals—calcium and phosphorus. 5. production of blood cells (hematopoiesis).

B. TYPES OF BONES

Examples

1. long bones

femur, tibia, metatarsals, phalanges

2. short bones

carpals, metatarsals

3. flat bones 4. irregular bones

ribs, bones of the skull, sternum vertebrae, os coxae

5. sesamoid bones (“seed-like” bones that develop in certain tendons)

patella

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Types of Bones

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Learning Human Anatomy

C. GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE

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The bones you study in the laboratory are hard and dry, but remember, in the living body they contain living cells and require blood and nerves. While the inorganic salts (of calcium and phosphorus) are hard, the organic material (collagen fibers) allows some flexibility, and the living cells are actively remodeling. Osteocytes are mature bone cells, osteoclasts are cells that tear down bone, and osteoblasts build new bone. The strength of bone, as well as sites of certain bone functions, remain apparent in the material available in the lab. Using these bones, find each of the parts labeled in Figure 2–1. The marrow and arteries will not be seen.

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FIGURE 2–1 LONG BONE

In this illustration, a posterior section of the proximal end of the bone has been removed. 1. Diaphysis or shaft.

2. Epiphysis—found at both proximal and distal ends of long bones. 3. Epiphyseal line—where the epiphysis and the diaphysis fuse after the cartilaginous epiphyseal plate is no longer needed to increase bone length.

4. Spongy (cancellous) bone in proximal epiphysis—found also in distal epiphysis; composed of bone spicules called trabeculae; red bone marrow located between trabeculae; the blood cell producing red bone marrow is also found in spongy bone of flat bones. 5. Compact bone—the external coat of solid bone.

6. Periosteum—fascial covering found on the external surface of all bones. 7. Yellow bone marrow—mostly fat. It is seen here in the medullary cavity, a space lined with endosteum; some osteoclasts are found here. Red bone marrow may also be found in the medullary cavity. 8. Nutrient artery entering nutrient foramen.

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Lesson 2 Osteology: The Study of Bone

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D. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE Microscopic structures will not be seen in the gross bone, but you should be familiar with the terminology. (See Figure 2–2.)

FIGURE 2–2 COMPACT BONE AND OSTEON

Osteon Periosteum

Haversian (central) canal

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Diagram of a small section of bone (see inset from Figure 2–1) magnified to show osteons. Trabeculae of the spongy bone are shown toward the medullary cavity. The osteon (Haversian system) is the structural unit of most compact bone. Each osteon is composed of the following:

• Haversian (central) canal—for passage

Spongy bone

of blood vessels and nerves.

• Lamellae—concentric layers of bony tissue.

• Lacunae—spaces containing osteocytes. • Osteocytes—mature bone cells. • Canaliculi—connections between lacunae, containing cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes.

Osteocyte in lacuna

Osteoblast

Osteoclast

Nerve

Haversian (central) canal

OSTEON

Artery

Lymphatic vessel

Vein

Lamellae

Courtesy of designua/123RF.

Osteoporosis is a condition in which bone resorption occurs faster than bone deposition. This results in thinner compact bone and fewer trabeculae (interconnecting pieces of bone) in spongy bone. Because the bone is weaker, fractures are more likely to occur. Compression fractures of the spine and fractures of the neck of the femur are most frequent. Postmenopausal women and anyone who is immobile are at risk. Exercise and calcium are needed to keep bones strong.

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E. BONE MARKINGS Bone markings are features of bone that serve specific functions. Study this list to help you understand the specific markings on each of the bones. Sites for Tendon and Ligament Attachments: Crest: a prominent narrow ridge of bone that may be roughened. Epicondyle: a projection superior to a condyle (see below). Line: a slightly raised elongated ridge of bone. Process: any bony prominence. Ramus: an arm-like extension of bone; pleural is rami. Spine: a sharp, slender projection of bone. Trochanter: a very large, blunt type of process found only on the femur. Tubercle: a small, blunt or rounded process. Tuberosity: a large, blunt or rounded process.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Depressions: 10. Fossa: a shallow depression. 11. Sulcus: a narrow groove for a tendon, nerve or blood vessel. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Passageways for Blood Vessels and Nerves: Canal: a passageway through bone. Fissure: a narrow slit in bone. Foramen: a rounded hole in a bone; size is extremely variable; pleural is foramina. Meatus: a tube-like opening into a canal.

Sites Where Joints Form: 16. Condyle: a smooth, rounded articulating structure. 17. Facet: a smooth flat surface that is slightly concave or convex for articulation. 18. Head: a rounded articular surface joined to the shaft of the bone by a constriction known as the neck. Note: Items 16–18 are also known as articular markings. Articular refers to a joint, so these indicate where bones are joined.

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Lesson 2 Osteology: The Study of Bone

Figure 2–3 can be used as a reference in each section of the book. It is a good illustration to photocopy and use to draw muscles, vessels, and nerves as you learn both the lower and the upper limbs. You may want to enlarge upper and lower limbs when appropriate. The articulated skeleton is shown in both anterior and posterior views. Use a light color to shade the bones of the axial skeleton. These include: skull, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs.

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FIGURE 2–3 ARTICULATED SKELETON

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2

Exercise Two Name _________________________________________________________ 1. Using the skeleton at the right, follow the directions below:

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a. The skeleton pictured is a (an) ____________________ view. b. Color the most proximal long bone of the right lower limb. c. On the left lower limb, color the leg bone in the lateral position between the knee and the ankle. Remember: When describing anatomical structures, we use left and right according to the position on the body being studied. So, it may be on the right side or the left side of the picture.

2. Choose the appropriate word from the group below and write it beside its definition. Diaphysis

Osteon

Epiphyseal plate

Osteoblast

Yellow bone marrow

Periosteum

Red bone marrow

Endosteum

______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

a. A structure not found in an adult.

b. A covering found on the exterior surface of bones. c. Another name for the shaft of a long bone. d. Name of a bone-forming cell.

e. A covering found on the interior surface of bones.

______________ f. Major unit of compact bone.

______________ g. Site of blood-cell formation.

______________ h. Fat found in the cavity of the diaphysis.

3. Choose the appropriate word from the group below and write it beside its definition. Fossa

Foramen

Condyle

Trochanter

Ramus

Crest

a. An arm-like extension of bone.

b. A smooth, rounded articulating structure.

c. A very large, blunt type of process found only on the femur. d. A shallow depression in bone.

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______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

e. A prominent narrow ridge of bone. f. A rounded hole in bone. 19

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Lesson

3

Arthrology: The Study of Joints

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This brief section on joints should familiarize you with joint terminology and introduce you to the articulations—places where bones attach to bone. The detailed anatomy of specific joints is not included in this text. OBJECTIVES

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■

1. List and define the major classifications of joints. 2. Describe a synovial joint and list the types. ■

METHODS

1. Observe joint models on display.

A. CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

A joint can be classified based on the tissue between the bones (i.e., structure) and on the freedom of movement allowed at the joint (i.e., function). Based on structure, there are three categories of joints:

Synarthrosis—An immoveable joint; pleural is synarthroses. Amphiarthrosis—A slightly moveable joint; pleural is amphiarthroses. Diarthrosis—A freely moveable joint; pleural is diarthroses.

Table 3-1 summarizes the major types of joints and gives examples of each. Figures 3-1 through 3-3 illustrate them. TABLE 3–1. MAJOR TYPES OF JOINTS Type of Joint

Fibrous Joints: Suture (very short fibers holding bones together)

Movement Permitted

Examples

Sutures of the skull

Syndesmosis (slightly longer fibers holding bones together)

Synarthrotic or Amphiarthrotic

Distal articulation of the tibia and fibula

Gomphosis

Synarthrotic

Teeth in maxillae and mandible

Synarthrotic

1st costal cartilage to sternum

Amphiarthrotic

Pubic bones; intervertebral discs

Diarthrotic—articulating surfaces glide on each other (translation)

Facets of vertebrae

Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondrosis (hyaline cartilage between articulating bones) Symphysis (fibrocartilage between articulating bones) Synovial Joints: Plane

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Synarthrotic

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TABLE 3–1. (CONT.) Type of Joint

Movement Permitted

Examples

Diarthrotic—movement in one plane

Knee

Pivot

Diarthrotic—rotation

First cervical vertebra on second cervical vertebra

Condyloid

Diarthrotic—movement in two planes

Wrist

Saddle

Diarthrotic—movement in two planes

Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb

Diarthrotic—multiaxial movement

Hip; shoulder

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Hinge

Ball and socket

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B. ILLUSTRATIONS TO DESCRIBE EACH TYPE OF JOINT

FIGURE 3–1 FIBROUS—SYNDESMOSIS

Fibrous connective tissue (ligaments) holds two bones together. This joint is known as the distal tibiofibular joint.

FIGURE 3–2 CARTILAGINOUS—SYMPHYSIS

A cartilaginous disc connects the two bones anteriorly. This example is a joint with slight give (amphiarthrosis).

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Lesson 3 Arthrology: The Study of Joints

FIGURE 3–3 SYNOVIAL JOINT

Periosteum

This is the most complicated and most common type of joint. Hyaline cartilage covers the ends of the bones, which are separated by an articular cavity. Synovial joints are involved in muscle actions throughout this course. Descriptions of the important parts of these joints are described and illustrated here:

Synovial cavity Articular cartilage

• Synovial (joint) cavity—contains synovial fluid that reduces the

Articular capsule

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friction of movement.

• Articular cartilage (a form of hyaline cartilage)—provides

Synovial membrane

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protection for the ends of bones during movement. • Articular (joint) capsule—double layered; the outer fibrous layer strengthens the joint, while the inner synovial membrane lines the cavity and produces synovial fluid.

Bone

Courtesy of Tefi/Shutterstock.

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3

Exercise Three

Name ________________________________________________________________________________

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1. Answer the following questions: a. What term describes a freely moveable joint?

______________ ______________

c. What type of synovial joint allows multiaxial movement?

______________

e. What is the name of the hyaline cartilage found cushioning the end of bones?

b. What is the name of a cartilaginous joint that contains fibrocartilage?

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______________ ______________

d. What is found within the synovial cavity?

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Lesson

4

Myology: The Study of Muscles

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Before you begin to learn specific muscles of the muscular system, a brief introduction to muscle tissue and body movements is important. Our major emphasis will be on skeletal muscle.

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■ Objectives

1. State the general functions of muscle tissue. 2. Describe the connective tissue elements that connect muscle cells to other body structures. 3. List the types of muscle tissue. 4. List the actions and possible roles skeletal muscles can assume in movement. ■ MethOds

1. Study the text and illustrations included in this section. 2. Use the skeletons to see how the bones relate to each other when performing the actions described. 3. Complete the student activities for Lesson 4.

A. MUSCLE FUNCTION

Muscle tissue, which makes up almost half the total body weight, has the unique ability to contract or become shorter. This characteristic allows muscle tissue to serve three major functions:

1. Production of movement such as the large muscle action required in walking, as well as less obvious motion such as that involved in changing the size of blood vessels or the pupil of the eye. 2. Production of heat as the result of the mechanical contraction. This heat is necessary in the maintenance of the body temperature. 3. Maintenance of posture or ability to hold the body in stationary positions. This is possible because skeletal muscles are always in a state of partial contraction, called tonus (muscle tone).

B. TYPES OF MUSCLE

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1. cardiac muscle is found exclusively in the heart. This tissue is characterized by its involuntary action and striated appearance when seen under a microscope. 2. visceral (smooth) muscle is associated with internal structures such as blood vessels and the digestive tube. It is also involuntary, but it does not have the striated appearance. 3. skeletal muscle is the muscle type that attaches to the bones of the skeleton. It is usually voluntary and is striated.

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C. SKELETAL MUSCLE Because this is the muscle type encountered in the study of the gross anatomy of the lower and upper limbs, it is described in some detail here.

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1. Parts of a muscle a. Muscle belly—this is the fleshy or contracting part of the muscle located between the tendons of origin and insertion. b. Origin (usually more proximal)—the tendon or muscle attachment that is located on the body part that is less movable. c. insertion (usually more distal)—the tendon or muscle attachment that is located on the body part that is more movable.

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Note: The general terms proximal attachment and distal attachment are often preferable to origin and insertion, because the movable part and the stationary part are interchangeable in some cases. 2. connective tissue elements The connective tissue fibers (collagen) are continuous from the endomysium, which surrounds the individual muscle fiber (cell), through the perimysium, which packages the cells into fascicles, and the epimysium, which is the fascia surrounding the entire muscle. The connective tissue fibers are then continuous with those of the tendon holding the muscle to bone. It is this continuity of connective tissue fibers that lends great strength to muscle attachments, since the connective tissue elements continue into the bone itself. (See Figures 4–1 and 4–2.)

FIGURE 4–1 CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE 1. Endomysium—surrounds an individual muscle fiber.

2. Perimysium—surrounds a bundle of muscle fibers called a fascicle. 3. Epimysium—surrounds the whole muscle belly.

FIGURE 4–2 MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY

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The striated appearance of a skeletal muscle is due to the arrangement of thick and thin myofilaments (protein structures) within the cells. The thick filaments consist mainly of the protein myosin, and the thin filaments are mainly the protein actin. These filaments can be seen as darker and lighter bands because of their organized arrangement. This arrangement divides muscle fibers into units called sarcomeres. When the biochemistry of the cell causes the myofilaments within a sarcomere to slide over each other, the fiber and thus the muscle shortens or contracts.

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Lesson 4 Myology: The Study of Muscles

■

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3. Roles of skeletal muscle in action During any activity many muscles are involved in production of smooth movements. Although we will learn the major actions a muscle or muscle group can perform, that muscle or group may also be involved in many movements in which it is not producing the major activity. Under different conditions it may assume any of the following roles: a. Prime mover (agonist)—major agent that initiates and maintains a particular action. b. Antagonist—opposes the movement of the prime mover or initiates and maintains the converse of the prime movement. c. synergist—steadies or eliminates unwanted movement when a muscle crosses two joints. Example: When you make a fist, flexors bend the fingers. But to keep the fist from flexing toward the forearm, extensors (synergists) on the posterior forearm contract to stabilize wrist position. d. Fixator—maintains the position of a body part not actually involved in movement. Example: Certain upper limb muscles hold your arms and forearm steady while your fingers type. 4. Actions produced by skeletal muscle The lower limb will be used to illustrate these actions. Refer to Figure 4–3 when studying Lesson 10. a. Flexion—decrease of angle between two body parts. b. extension—increase of angle between two parts (opposite of flexion). c. Abduction—moving laterally or away from the midline of the body. d. Adduction —moving medially or toward the midline. e. Rotation—movement around the long axis of the bone. f. circumduction—circumscribing a cone with the joint as its apex. It is a combination of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction.

Student Activities 1. Fill in the blanks in Figure 4–3 identifying the illustrated action. 2. Refer to Figure 4–4. Label and answer the questions.

FIGURE 4–3

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Fo ■ CLINICAL COMMENTS

Several muscular diseases cause a weakening of muscles. Myasthenia gravis, an immune disease, usually starts with a weakness of the muscles of the eye and then moves down the body. Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease in which muscle tissue does not develop normally.

Muscle testing is important in understanding the site of muscular problems, and knowing the muscles and their actions is an important part of testing. An electromyogram (EMG) is a recording of the electrical activity in skeletal muscle and can be used to help determine the cause of muscular weakness.

FIGURE 4–4

Referring to the illustration below, complete the following:

__________________ a. Label all structures indicated. __________________ b. How many muscle fibers are in the fascicle that you just labeled?

__________________ c. Can you tell if the tendon shown is of the origin or the insertion?

__________________ d. What is the outer covering of bone with which the fibers of the tendon are continuous?

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4

Exercise Four Name _______________ 1. Perform with your own lower limb all actions illustrated in this lesson.

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2. Answer the following questions:

__________________ a. What is the term for the state of partial contraction of a muscle?

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__________________ b. What muscle type is voluntary and striated? __________________ c. Give the name of a bundle of muscle fibers. __________________ d. What connective tissue element surrounds the whole muscle belly?

__________________ e. Name the connective tissue structure that attaches muscle to bone.

__________________ f. If you dissect a muscle, which connective tissue would you find as the deepest layer?

__________________ g. Which muscle type moves your leg? __________________ h. Would you expect any muscle type other than skeletal to be found in the lower limb?

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Lesson

5

Introduction to the Nervous System

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The nervous system, the major communication system of the body, will be studied in great detail later in this course. However, it is important that you have a basic understanding of what the nerve cell processes are and where they originate before we discuss the nerves of the lower limb. Because the nerve cells are microscopic, they will be represented schematically.

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■ Objectives

1. Define general terms related to the nervous system. 2. List the structures of the central nervous system and those of the peripheral nervous system. 3. Describe the principal parts of a neuron. 4. State the locations of both motor and sensory nerve cell bodies that are involved in the innervation of the limbs. ■ MethOds

1. Study the information presented, then complete Lesson 5 student activities.

A. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISIONS

These divisions are the central nervous system (cNs) composed only of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNs), which includes all other nervous structures. cNs structures brain—the major control structure. It is contained in, and protected by, the skull. spinal cord—a direct extension of the brain. It is contained in, and protected by, the bones of the spinal column.

PNs structures cranial nerves—originate from the brain structures. spinal nerves—originate at the spinal cord. Ganglia—groups of nerve cell bodies in the periphery. Plexuses—intermingling of nerve cell processes to create new nerves.

B. HISTOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. THE NEURON

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The neuron is the nerve cell, the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It is composed of a body, which is always found either in the central nervous system or in a ganglion, and of one or more nerve cell processes.

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Structural Characteristics The number of processes determine the following neuron types: a. Multipolar = many processes (motor cells, association cells) b. Bipolar = two processes (sensory cells for special senses) c. Unipolar = one process (general sensory cells)

FIGURE 5–1 MULTIPOLAR NEURON

Dendrites

Illustrations of these microscopic cells are schematic.

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Multipolar Neuron (Figure 5–1) This is the most common type of neuron. It has many dendrites, which are short processes that extend from the nerve cell body and take information toward the cell body. It has only one axon, which is the process that takes information away from the nerve cell body. Included among multipolar cells are those that carry motor information to the periphery. The cell bodies of the motor neurons for the skeletal muscles of the limbs are in the ventral horn of gray matter in the spinal cord. Because this information is on its way from the CNS to the periphery, these processes are also called efferent. It is interesting to note here that the nerve cell bodies are in the spinal cord, and the nerve impulse must reach as far as the intrinsic foot muscles. That means some of the processes are several feet long. If the information traveling in the processes of these motor neurons is interrupted proximal to the muscle, the muscle is paralyzed. Also included among mutipolar cells are association neurons (interneurons). These association neurons are found within the CNS and are important for carrying out the integrative functions of the CNS.

Axon

Unipolar Neuron (Figure 5–2) This is a sensory neuron with only one process; the process probably originated as one dendrite and one axon. Sensory cells, also known as afferent cells, bring general information from the periphery into the central nervous system. If the afferent processes are interrupted, anesthesia, or absence of sensation, results.

FIGURE 5–2 UNIPOLAR NEURON

Axon

Axon

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The cell bodies of these sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglia. (See Figure 5–5.)

(Dendritic pole)

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Lesson 5 Introduction to the Nervous System

Bipolar Neuron (Figure 5–3) These neurons with one axon and one dendrite are found only in cranial nerves relating to the special senses and will be discussed later.

FIGURE 5–3 BIPOLAR NEURON

Axon

Dendrite

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Functional Characteristics Neurons are functional because of the following characteristics:

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a. irritability: The capacity to respond to a stimulation by changing cell activity. b. conductivity: The change in the cell activity is transmitted along the cell process (specifically the axon) as a nerve impulse or action potential. The impulse is conducted to the structure that is to receive the message, such as a muscle in the case of a motor neuron. Some “effect” will then result from the original stimulus. In the case of sensory information, the effect might be in the conscious awareness of the stimulus. When a nerve impulse is transmitted from one nerve cell to another, the site of the membrane-to-membrane contact is called a synapse. A chemical neurotransmitter is usually involved in the transmission.

2. GLIAL CELLS

Glial cells, also known as neuroglia, are the supporting cells found in both the CNS and PNS. These numerous cells are necessary for the proper functioning of the neurons. The four kinds of neuroglia in the CNS are:

a. Microglia—found throughout the gray and white matter. These small cells are phagocytic, and thus they serve to remove foreign material and dead cells. b. Oligodendrocytes—the cells that produce myelin, a fatty insulating material that aids in the conduction of nerve impulses, the electrochemical changes that are transmitted along the membranes of nerve fibers (i.e., axons). c. Astrocytes—cells thought to help in the repair process and in the transfer of nutrients from blood vessels to nerve cells. These cells have many processes. d. ependymal cells—ciliated cells that line cavities in the brain and spinal cord. These cells assist in the production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

FIGURE 5–4 MULTIPOLAR NEURON WITH SCHWANN CELLS

The two kinds of neuroglia in the PNS are:

Axon

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a. satellite cells—cells found clustered around neuronal cell bodies. These cells protect and regulate neuronal cell bodies. b. schwann cells—these cells produce a myelin coating on the nerve fibers (i.e., axons) within peripheral nerves. In Figure 5-4, these cells can be seen wrapping around a nerve process. The space between adjacent Schwann cells is referred to as the node of Ranvier.

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C. SPINAL CORD AND PERIPHERAL NERVES These are the structures needed to understand the innervation of the upper and lower limbs. The brain and cranial nerves will be discussed in Unit III.

1. A NERVE

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This is a bundle of many nerve cell processes (i.e., axons) enclosed in a fascial sheath called the epineurium. Spinal nerves are those that contain both afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) processes, and that leave the region of the spinal cord at a specific level indicated by the number of the vertebra either above or below its exit. For instance, the third lumbar spinal nerve, L3, leaves the bony spinal column just below the third lumbar vertebra. The sensory (afferent) fibers that are a part of this nerve will bring peripheral information (e.g., touch, pressure, temperature, pain, position sense) from the limbs to the nerve cell bodies located in the dorsal root ganglion. The motor (efferent) fibers, whose cell bodies are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, will leave the cord as the ventral root. (See Figure 5–5.) Spinal nerves are mixed nerves, those that have both efferent (motor) and afferent (sensory) processes.

2. THE SPINAL CORD AND ITS FUNCTIONS

The spinal cord contains the nerve cell processes that communicate information between the brain and the periphery. Reflex actions (spinal reflexes) occur without input from the brain due to the ability of the spinal cord to process some sensory information in a limited way. Neurons within the spinal cord (gray matter) assist in the transfer of information. The spinal cord is contained within the vertebral canal of the vertebral column; the spinal nerves leave this enclosure via the intervertebral foramina. In order to understand the innervation of the upper and lower limbs, the parts of the spinal cord should be learned at this time.

■ CLINICAL COMMENTS

Most brain tumors develop from glial cells; usually they are astrocytomas. These tumors occur in different regions of the brain and may grow as large as two inches in diameter in a year. They are difficult to remove because they infiltrate the surrounding brain tissue.

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Lesson 5 Introduction to the Nervous System

FIGURE 5–5 SPINAL CORD SEGMENT (TRANSVERSE SECTION)

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4. Dorsal root ganglion—the nerve cell bodies of the unipolar, sensory neurons form this enlarged structure.

5. Ventral root—nerve cell processes of efferent fibers on their way to muscles. The bodies of the motor neurons are located in the ventral horn of the gray matter. 6. Spinal nerve—a mixture of the incoming sensory processes and the outgoing motor processes. There are 31 pairs of these spinal nerves; they divide to form ventral and dorsal rami. 7. Dorsal ramus—the mixture of sensory and motor fibers that branch posteriorly.

5. Ventral ramus—the mixture of sensory and motor fibers that branch anteriorly. These are the processes that will be involved in the formation of nerve plexuses.

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■ Student Activities Using Figure 5–5, with a red pencil, put a nerve cell body in the ventral horn of gray matter and draw the efferent nerve cell process from that body out through the ventral root, the spinal nerve, and the ventral ramus. With a blue pencil, put a nerve cell body in the dorsal root ganglion. Draw its afferent process out through the spinal nerve and the ventral ramus. Now, extend its unipolar process into the dorsal horn of gray matter via the dorsal root. You can now see that spinal nerves are “mixed” nerves; they have both sensory and motor fibers. It is the mixed ventral rami that will intermingle to form the plexuses and the nerves of the limbs.

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5

Exercise Five

Name _________________________________________________________

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1. Using the illustration below: a. Label all indicated structures on the corresponding label line. b. With a red pencil: 1. Draw the nerve cell body of a motor neuron. 2. Draw the path the process would take to become a part of a lower-limb nerve. 3. Indicate with arrows the direction of the impulse. c. With a green pencil: 1. Draw a lower-limb sensory nerve cell body in its correct position. 2. Draw the nerve cell process entering the appropriate ramus and continuing into the spinal cord. 3. Use arrows to indicate the direction of the impulse.

2. Fill in the blanks below with: cNs (Central Nervous System), PNs (Peripheral Nervous System), or both. brain

ganglia neuron

femoral nerve cranial nerves

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__________________ a. __________________ b. __________________ c. __________________ d. __________________ e. __________________ f.

spinal cord

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Lesson

6

Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

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A distribution system is necessary to supply all body tissues with nutrients and oxygen and to take the waste products of cell metabolism from the cells to the excretory organs. The blood vessels and heart provide this service. The heart, a thoracic structure to be studied in detail with that region, serves as a double pump to move the blood through the vessels. The right side of the heart receives blood that has been depleted of its oxygen supply. It pumps this blood, containing high levels of carbon dioxide, through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. Here the carbon dioxide is exchanged for a new supply of oxygen. The blood returns to the left side of the heart by way of pulmonary veins and is distributed to the body systems by way of the large arterial structure, the aorta. ■ Objectives

1. State the purpose of the cardiovascular system. 2. Define the types of vascular structures through which blood travels. 3. Describe the basic histology of blood vessels. 4. List general characteristics of vessels. ■ MethOds

1. Study the following pages, completing activities described.

■ CLINICAL COMMENTS

Atherosclerosis is one of the most common conditions that threatens the blood supply to different areas of the body. Due to a variety of reasons (smoking, high-fat diet, excess weight, lack of exercise, high blood pressure), fatty plaque and hypertrophied smooth muscle build up in the lumen of the vessels. This leads to arteriosclerosis, occlusion and hardening of the vessels, which often results in death.

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FIGURE 6–1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE ENCLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Draw arrows beside each blood vessel to indicate the direction of blood flow: (1) Into the right side of the heart and out to the lungs. (2) Into the left side of the heart and out to the body systems.

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Student Activities Color red the vessels containing blood with high levels of oxygen; color blue the vessels with blood containing high levels of carbon dioxide. The right atrium and ventricle should be colored blue; the left atrium and ventricle should be colored red.

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Lesson 6 Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

A. HISTOLOGY OF BLOOD VESSELS (VASCULAR STRUCTURES) A typical blood vessel has three layers. The thickness of each layer will vary depending on the blood vessel type (Figure 6–4). • tunica (coat) intima or interna: composed largely of a smooth, thin endothelial lining and a basement membrane. In large vessels there is also a thin layer of connective tissue. • tunica media: the relatively thick intermediate layer containing varying amounts of elastic fibers and smooth muscle fibers. • tunica externa or adventitia: an outer connective tissue layer.

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B. TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS

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1. ARTERIES

These are vessels that take blood away from the heart. In the systemic circulation this blood has a high concentration of oxygen. In pulmonary and fetal circulation the arterial blood has a high concentration of carbon dioxide.

a. elastic or conducting arteries. The pulmonary trunk and the aorta and its main branches are examples of these arteries, which have a great number of elastic fibers in their tunica media. When the ventricles pump blood through these vessels they expand; when the ventricles relax, the elastic fibers recoil, sending the blood through the arterial system in an uninterrupted flow. b. Muscular or distributing arteries make up the majority of the named arteries. These vessels have a thick muscular tunica media, which helps withstand the blood pressure and helps control the amount of blood being delivered to a specific body region. For instance, more blood goes to muscles during exercise. c. Arterioles are the barely visible branches whose small size provides the resistance to blood flow largely responsible for blood pressure. Because of the small diameter of their lumen (inner cavity), the contraction of muscle cells in their tunica media cause constriction (decrease in diameter of lumen) to control the amount of blood that enters the capillary beds.

2. CAPILLARIES

Capillaries are the connection between arterioles and veins, consisting of only the inner, endothelial lining layer. It is across these thin vessel walls that oxygen, nutrients, and wastes are interchanged between the blood and tissue fluid. During this process some fluid leaks into spaces between cells of the body tissues. This fluid is called interstitial or intercellular fluid, and it will be discussed later with the lymphatic system.

FIGURE 6–2 CAPILLARIES

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A. A highly magnified illustration of the simple histology of a capillary. B. A capillary bed illustrating the arrangement of anastomosing (branching and joining) capillaries as they connect the arterial system (color it red) with the venous system (color it blue).

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3. VEINS Veins are vascular structures formed when small venules join; venules are formed when the capillaries merge. Veins return the blood to the heart. In systemic circulation the venous blood has a high concentration of carbon dioxide; in pulmonary and fetal circulation it has a high oxygen concentration. Special characteristics of veins include the following:

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a. thin walls. While possessing the same three coats as arteries, the tunica media is much thinner because the veins are not exposed to the blood pressure. Therefore, the thicker walls maintain the lumen of arteries, but when empty, veins collapse. b. Larger diameter and more numerous than arteries. The blood moves more slowly and so more is contained in veins. This is to compensate for rate of return so both sides of the heart have the same blood volume. c. valves. Because blood is so far from the heart there is not enough pressure to move the blood, and one-way valves help to prevent backflow (illustrated in Figure 6–3). d. More numerous anastomoses, branching and joining of vessels, are found in veins than in arteries. Anastomoses are necessary in helping provide collateral circulation. Collateral circulation refers to more than one source of blood to a specific body part. FIGURE 6–3 VALVES OF A VEIN

Arrows indicate that the valves are forced open by pressure from below and shut by pressure from above. This allows blood to move only toward the heart.

FIGURE 6–4 COMPARISON OF ARTERY AND VEIN

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In this illustration of a mediumsized vein (left) and its accompanying muscular artery (right), notice the much thinner wall but larger lumen of the vein. A small segment of the artery is shown in greater detail. The tunica externa blends with the surrounding connective tissue. Notice the three layers: intima, media, and externa. Color the media pink in both.

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6

Exercise Six Name ________________________________________________________ 1. Describe the histological characteristic that permits capillaries to perform their function: ____________________________________________________

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2. List the types of vascular structures through which the blood must flow to get from the left ventricle to the right atrium. d. __________________

b. __________________

e. __________________

c. __________________

f. __________________

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a. __________________

3. Define:

a. artery: ____________________________________________________ b. vein: _____________________________________________________

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Exercise

7

Review of Unit I

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This exercise is designed to be used after you feel fairly confident of the material you have studied. Review all student activities and lab reports; then, without using references, go through this exercise to determine your level of competence. If you have trouble, try to concentrate on the area of concern, then come back to these pages and try again.

1. Define the following subdivision of anatomy: gross, histology, embryology, and neuroanatomy. 2. Name the four primary tissues of the body. 3. Define anatomic position. 4. Complete the following relative pairs and describe the meaning of each superior — _____________________________ deep — _____________________________ medial — _____________________________ distal — _____________________________ 5. Name and describe the three planes through which anatomical material is cut. 6. List the five functions of the skeleton. 7. Explain the difference between diaphysis and epiphysis. 8. What is the fascial covering located on the external surface of bones? 9. What is the name of a mature bone cell? Bone-developing cell? 10. Name the structural unit of compact bone and list its components. 11. Describe the following bone markings: process, spine, foramen, crest, fossa, condyle, and facet. 12. Name the three major joint types and one example of each. 13. Name three functions of muscle tissue. 14. Name three types of muscle tissue. 15. List the connective tissue coverings that surround muscle. Start with the deepest tissue. 16. Define and perform each of the hip actions that follow: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction. 17. What term would you use to name a muscle that performs the action opposing the prime mover? 18. What is a neuron? 19. Where are the motor nerve cell bodies for the lower limb muscles found? Sensory nerve cell bodies? 20. What are the structures of the central nervous system? 21. What is a nerve? What does the term “mixed nerve” mean? 22. What is the purpose of the cardiovascular system? 23. What is meant by describing the heart as a double pump? 24. Name the layers of a typical blood vessel. 25. Describe the major differences in arteries and veins. 26. The posterior tibial artery would be an example of what type of artery?

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Answer the following questions. They may be answered orally or on paper.

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27. Describe the structure and function of a capillary. 28. What is meant by the term anastomosis? Collateral circulation? 29. In what type blood vessel would the greatest volume of blood be found? 30. What is the collective name of the top four layers of skin? 31. Name a vitamin produced by the cutaneous membrane. 32. Sebaceous glands produce what substance? 33. Name two ways in which the integumentary system helps the body cool.

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Appendix A Answers to Exercises and Student Activities

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UNIT 1

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STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 4 1. a. is distal to b; b. is proximal to a.

2. c. is proximal to b; b. is distal to c. 3. c. is proximal to a; a. is distal to c.

EXERCISE 1

1. a. Lateral view b. Anterior view 3. a. b. c. d. e.

distal superior transverse superficial deep

4. hair follicle

EXERCISE 2

1. a. Posterior b. Right femur should be colored. c. Left fibula should be colored.

3. a. Ramus b. Condyle c. Trochanter d. Fossa e. Crest f. Foramen

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2. a. Epiphyseal plate b. Periosteum c. Diaphysis d. Osteoblast e. Endosteum f. Osteon g. Red bone marrow h. Yellow bone marrow

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EXERCISE 3 1. a. b. c. d. e.

diarthrosis symphysis ball and socket synovial fluid articular cartilage

STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 29 Extension of hip (thigh) Abduction of hip (thigh) Adduction of hip (thigh) Rotation of hip (thigh) Circumduction of hip Flexion of knee (leg) Extension of knee (leg) eight No Periosteum

EXERCISE 4 2. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Tonus Skeletal Fascicle Epimysium Tendon Endomysium Skeletal Yes, the smooth muscle of vessels.

EXERCISE 5 2. a. b. c. d. e. f.

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1. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 2. b. c. d.

CNS PNS Both PNS PNS CNS

EXERCISE 6

EXERCISE 7

REVIEW OF UNIT I

1. Gross anatomy—the study of large structures that can be seen with the naked eye Histology—microscopic study of cells and tissues

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1. Walls are one cell thick. 2. a. Elastic conducting a. b. Muscular distributing a. c. Arterioles d. Capillaries e. Venules f. Veins 3. a. An artery is a vascular structure that takes blood away from the heart. b. A vein is a vascular structure that takes blood toward the heart.

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Appendix A

2. 3. 4.

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Embryology—study of the developing organism from the time of fertilization to birth Neuroanatomy—study of the structure of the nervous system Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue The body is standing erect, face toward observer, with feet together and parallel, the arms at the sides and the palms directed forward inferior—superior is nearer the head end than that which is inferior. superficial—deep structures are not as near the surface of the body as those which are more superficial. lateral—medial structures are nearer the midline than those which are lateral. proximal—distal structures are farther from the attached end or origin than those which are more proximal. Sagittal—a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left portions Coronal—a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions Transverse—a horizontal plane that cuts the body into superior and inferior portions The skeleton provides support, protection, leverage in movement, production of blood cells, and storage for minerals. The diaphysis is the long shaft of the bone; the epiphysis is the end of the bone. Periosteum Osteocyte; osteoblast Osteon—composed of Haversian canal, lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi Process—rough bony prominence Example: tibial tuberosity Spine—pointed projection of bone Example: ischial spine Foramen—a hole in a bone Example: obturator foramen Crest—a prominent border, which may be rough Example: iliac crest Fossa—a saucer-like depression Example: iliac fossa Condyle—a smooth, concave or convex structure for articulation with other bone Example: medial condyle of femur Facet—a smooth surface for articulation Example: fibular facet on tibia Synarthrosis—distal tibia to fibula Amphiarthrosis—pubic symphysis Diarthrosis—knee Production of movement, production of heat, maintenance of posture Cardiac, smooth (visceral), skeletal Endomysium, perimysium, epimysium See “Actions Produced by Skeletal Muscle” and Figure 4–3. Antagonist A neuron is a functional nerve cell. Motor—anterior horn of gray matter in the spinal cord Sensory—dorsal root ganglion Brain, spinal cord A nerve is a bundle of nerve cell processes held together in a fascial sheath. A mixed nerve contains both motor and sensory processes. The cardiovascular system is the transportation system delivering nutrients and removing wastes from all body tissues. The right side of the heart receives poorly oxygenated blood and pumps it to the lungs—the pulmonary pump. The left side of the heart receives welloxygenated blood and pumps it to the entire body—the systemic pump. From superficial to deep: tunica externa, tunica media, tunica intima Arteries have thicker walls, smaller diameter, and no valves. Veins are more numerous, have a greater number of anastomoses, and contain valves. Muscular or distributing artery Typically one cell thick, the capillary provides the thin wall needed for exchange of nutrients and wastes between the circulatory system and the body cells.

5.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

26. 27.

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24. 25.

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28. Anastomoses occur when structures open into each other by connecting channels. In collateral circulation, there is more than one source of blood to the same area. 29. Veins 30. Epidermis 31. Vitamin D3 32. Sebum (oil) 33. a. evaporation of sweat b. dilation of blood vessels

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UNIT II

EXERCISE 8

EXERCISE 9 1. a. b. c. d. e.

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1. a. ischium b. ilium c. tibia; medial d. Femur 3. Right 4. a. P, femur b. P, tibia c. M, tibia d. P, femur e. P, femur f. L, fibula g. A, femur h. A, tibia

hip femur and tibia metatarsal and phalanx diarthrosis viewing instrument

FIGURE 10–2

1. Gluteus medius 2. Gluteus maximus

FIGURE 10–4. SEE EXERCISE 10. FIGURE 10–9. SEE EXERCISE 10. EXERCISE 10

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3. Figure 10–4: a. Major action extends knee Innervation femoral n. b. Major action adducts hip Innervation obturator n. c. Major action extends hip and flexes knee Innervation tibial n.

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Appendix A

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Figure 10–9: 1. Gluteus medius 2. Gluteus maximus 3. Iliotibial tract 5. 1. f 2. j 3. h 4. b, h 5. i 6. d 7. g 8. a 9. e 10. c 6. a. Adductor magnus or gracilis b. Iliopsoas c. Biceps femoris d. Flexed e. Quadriceps femoris f. Gluteus maximus or posterior femorals g. Extends hip

EXERCISE 11 6. a. b. c. d. e. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Intrinsic Calcaneal tendon Eversion of foot Lateral Flexion of the knee (leg) Gastrocnemius, medial head Gastrocnemius, lateral head Soleus m. Calcaneal tendon Tibialis anterior m. Peroneus longus m. Gastrocnemius, medial head Extensor digitorum longus m. Extensor hallucis longus m. (Superior) extensor retinaculum

FIGURE 12–1

1. Femoral n. L2, 3, 4 2. Obturator n. L2, 3, 4 5. Sciatic n. L4, 5, S1, 2, 3

FIGURE 12–2

Gluteus medius Gluteus minimus Gluteus maximus Piriformis

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1. 2. 3. 4.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 98 Muscle Group (Position) Anterior Hip Muscles 1. iliacus 2. Psoas major

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Anterior Femoral Muscles 1. Sartorius 2. Quadriceps Femoris a. Rectus femoris b. Vastus medialis c. Vastus lateralis d. Vastus intermedius

Major Group Innervation

Flexes hip (trunk or thigh)

Femoral n.

Extends leg (knee)

Femoral n.

Adducts hip (thigh)

Obturator n.

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Medial Femoral Muscles 1. Pectineus 2. Gracilis 3. Adductor longus 4. Adductor brevis 5. Adductor magnus

Major Group Action

Posterior Femoral Muscles 1. Biceps femoris 2. Semitendinosus 3. Semimembranosus

Extends hip; flexes knee

Tibial n. (some common peroneal n.)

Anterior Crural Muscles 1. Extensor 2. Tibialis anterior digitorum longus 4. Fibularis (peroneus) 3. Extensor hallucis tertius llongus

Inverts and dorsiflexes ankle; extends digits

Deep fibular (peroneal) n.

Lateral Crural Muscles 1. Fibularis (peroneus) 2. Fibularis (peroneus) longus brevis

Everts ankle (foot)

Superficial fibular (peroneal) n.

Flexes knee; plantar flexes foot (ankle)

Tibial n.

Plantar flexes foot; inverts foot (ankle)

Tibial n.

Posterior Crural Muscles 1. Gastrocnemius 2. Plantaris 3. Soleus

Posterior Crural Muscles (Deep) 1. Tibialis posterior 2. Flexor digitorum 3. Flexor hallucis longus longus 4. Popliteus

.

EXERCISE 12

d a f b e c Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. Superior gluteal n. Sciatic n.

EXERCISE 13 1. a. b. c. d.

Deep fibular (peroneal) n. Tibial n. Superior gluteal n. Obturator n.

d. Deep fibular (peroneal) n. or common fibular (peroneal) n. e. Obturator n. f. Femoral n. 3. a. deep fibular (peroneal) n. b. femoral n. c. obturator n. d. sciatic n. e. tibial n.

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1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 2. a. b. c.

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Appendix A

Common iliac a. External iliac artery Femoral a. Popliteal a. Anterior tibial a. Anterior tibial venae comitantes Popliteal v. Femoral v. External iliac v. Common iliac v. Deep femoral a. Anterior tibial a. Popliteal a. Femoral a. Peroneal a.

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2. c. d. e. f. g. i. j. k. l. m. 3. a. b. c. d. e.

STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 115

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

External iliac a. Femoral n. Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. Deep fibular (peroneal) n. Femoral a. Obturator n. Anterior tibial a. Dorsalis pedis a. Popliteal a. Tibial n.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Fibular (peroneal) a. Posterior tibial a. Tibial n. Medial plantar a. Sciatic n. Common fibular (peroneal) n. Deep fibular (peroneal) n. Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. Lateral plantar n.

EXERCISE 14

a. Popliteal fossa b. Femoral triangle

EXERCISE 15 I.

Psoas major m. Iliopsoas m. Pectineus m. Sartorius m. Gracilis m. Vastus lateralis m. Tibialis anterior m. Extensor digitorum longus m. Soleus m. Extensor hallucis longus m. Extensor digitorum brevis m. Iliacus m. Tensor fasciae latae m. Adductor longus m. Adductor magnus m. Rectus femoris m. Vastus medialis m. Gastrocnemius m. Fibularis (peroneus) longus m.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Extensor digitorum longus m. Fibularis (peroneus) brevis m. Extensor retinaculum Gluteus medius m. Adductor magnus m. Semitendinosus m. Iliotibial tract Semimembranosus m. Plantaris m. Gastrocnemius m. Soleus m. Gluteus maximus m. Biceps femoris m. Semimembranosus m. Gracilis m. Gastrocnemius m. Plantaris tendon Calcaneal tendon

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

REVIEW OF UNIT II

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II. Asterisks indicate the most important muscles; parentheses indicate the least important muscles. Muscles that act on the hip to: Extend 1. Gluteus maximus* 2. Semimembranosus* 3. Semitendinosus* 4. Biceps femoris—long head* (Gluteus medius) (Adductor magnus)

Abduct 1. Gluteus minimus* 2. Gluteus medius* 3. Tensor fasciae latae 4. Obturator internus (Gemelli)

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Flex 1. Psoas major* 2. Iliacus* 3. Sartorius* 4. Rectus femoris* 5. Tensor fasciae latae (Adductor longus) (Adductor brevis) (Pectineus) Adduct 1. Pectineus 2. Gracilis 3. Adductor longus 4. Adductor brevis 5. Adductor magnus

Medially rotate 1. Tensor fasciae latae 2. Gluteus medius 3. Gluteus minimus (Adductor magnus) (Adductor longus)

Laterally rotate 1. Gluteus maximus* 2. Piriformis 3. Sartoris 4. Quadratus femoris 5. Gemelli 6. Obturator internus and externus (Adductor longus) (Adductor magnus and brevis)

Muscles that act on the knee to: Flex 1. Biceps femoris* 2. Semitendinosus* 3. Semimembranosus* 4. Gastrocnemius* 5. Plantaris 6. Sartorius 7. Gracilis 8. Popliteus

Extend 1. Rectus femoris 2. Vastus lateralis 3. Vastus intermedius 4. Vastus medialis

Muscles that act on the ankle and intertarsal joints to: Dorsiflex 1. Tibialis anterior 2. Extensor digitorum longus 3. Extensor hallucis longus (Fibularis tertius)

Invert 1. Tibialis anterior* 2. Tibialis posterior* 3. Flexor hallucis longus

y;

Plantar flex 1. Gastrocnemius* 2. Soleus* 3. Plantaris 4. Tibialis posterior 5. Flexor hallucis longus 6. Flexor digitorum longus 7. Fibularis (peroneus) longus 8. Fibularis (peroneus) brevis

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Appendix A

Evert 1. Fibularis (peroneus) longus* 2. Fibularis (peroneus) brevis* (Fibularis tertius)

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Fo

Muscles that act on the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints to: Flex digits Extend digits Abduct digits 1. Flexor hallucis 1. Extensor hallucis 1. Abductor hallucis longus longus 2. Abductor digiti minimi 2. Flexor hallucis 2. Extensor digitorum 3. Dorsal interossei brevis longus 3. Flexor digitorum 3. Extensor digitorum longus brevis 4. Flexor digitorum brevis Adduct digits 1. Adductor hallucis 2. Plantar interossei

III. Answers to questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

12.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

y;

13.

Sacrum Ilium, ischium, pubis See Figure 8–4 (lateral view). The false pelvic cavity is bounded by the flared portion of the iliac bones; the true pelvic cavity is inferior to the false and is surrounded by pelvic bones. The pelvic brim separates these regions. See Figure 8–6. Patella—It is located within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscles and on the anterior aspect of the knee. It serves as a fulcrum for the quadriceps muscles and helps protect the knee joint. Fibula, tibia Crest of tibia, calcaneal tendon, medial malleolus, lateral malleolus, plantar aspect of foot femur: proximal = os coxae; distal = tibia and patella tibia: proximal = femur and fibula; distal = fibula and talus fibula: proximal = tibia; distal = tibia and talus Cuboid a. Extension of hip, flexion of knee b. Extension of knee c. Plantar flexion of ankle, flexion of knee d. Abduction of hip a. Inguinal ligament b. Sacrospinous ligament c. Inguinal ligament Fascia lata is the deep fascia that invests the thigh. The iliotibial tract is a thickened strip of fascia lata on the lateral thigh. Adductor magnus m.; vastus lateralis (or tensor fascia lata if superior) Gluteus maximus Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius Biceps femoris Extensor digitorum longus and flexor digitorum longus

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19. Intrinsic foot muscles include extensor digitorum brevis and any from Table 11–6. Extrinsic foot muscles include all those muscles with bellies on the leg and tendons to the foot. See Tables 11–1, 11–2, 11–3, and 11–4. 20. Two 21. A retinaculum is a strip of fascia with a greater collagen fiber density than the crural fascia. This band holds tendons close to the joint. 22. Tibialis anterior; gastrocnemius 23. Interosseous membrane 24. Gastrocnemius and soleus 25. Medial: tendons of tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, posterior tibial artery, tibial nerve, tendon of flexor hallucis longus Lateral: tendons of fibularis (peroneus) brevis then tendon of fibularis (peroneus) longus 26. Extensor digitorum brevis m. 27. Interosseous muscles between the metatarsal bones 28. A nerve plexus is an intermingling of the nerve cell processes of spinal nerves from different cord levels of origin. The lower limb plexuses are the lumbar and sacral. 29. Lumbar plexus = T12, L1, 2, 3, 4 Sacral plexus = L4, 5 and S1, 2, 3, 4 30. Femoral n. and obturator n. 31. Sacral only 32. Common fibular (peroneal) n. Inability to dorsiflex the ankle; eversion of the foot would also be almost totally eliminated. 33. Sciatic n., superior and inferior gluteal nerves (plus other sacral plexus nerves to the posterior gluteal m.) 34. Nerves that are sensory to the skin (no motor fibers); dorsal root ganglia 35. Aorta, common iliac a., external iliac a., femoral a., popliteal a., anterior tibial a., dorsalis pedis a. Aorta, common iliac a., external iliac a., femoral a., popliteal a., posterior tibial a., medial plantar a. 36. Inguinal ligament; adductor hiatus; ankle 37. Deep fibular (peroneal) n.; tibial n.; obturator n. 38. medial 39. popliteal surface; popliteal muscle 40. An opening in the tendon of adductor magnus muscle 41. The muscles—and their deep fascia 42. The greater saphenous vein arises on the medial side of the foot, ascends on the medial leg and thigh to move antero-laterally and empty into the femoral vein at the femoral triangle. The lesser saphanous vein arises on the lateral side of the foot and ascends on the posterior leg to enter the popliteal fossa and empty into the popliteal vein. 43. Sartorius 44. Soleus 45. Forked—having two branches 46. Two veins accompanying one artery They are found largely in the leg and forearm.

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Appendix A

47. Completed chart Innervation

Muscle (or group)

Bone Marking (attachment)

Artery that supplies blood

Femoral n.

Quadriceps femoris

tibial tuberosity

femoral a.

8–8

medial femoral m.

medial pelvis [pubis]

obturator a.

8–1 or 8–4

gluteus medius & minimus

greater trochanter

Inferior gluteal n.

gluteus maximus

gluteal tuberosity

Tibial div. of sciatic (above split)

posterior femoral m.

ischial tuberosity

Tibial n. (below split)

posterior crural m.

calcaneus and bones of foot

Obturator n.

Fo

Superior gluteal n.

Figure # of marking used

(distal)

(proximal)

8–6

inferior gluteal a.

8–6

deep femoral a.

8–4 or 8–5

(distal)

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superior gluteal a.

(distal)

(proximal)

posterior tibial a.

(distal)

Femoral n.

UNIT III

Ant. hip muscle

lesser trochanter (distal)

external iliac and femoral a. [some common and internal iliac]

8–6

FIGURE 16–6

See Figure 8–2

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 129 FIGURE 16–4:

3. Intervertebral foramen 6. Intervertebral disc 7. Vertebral body

FIGURE 16–5:

4. Vertebral body

EXERCISE 16

Scoliosis Lordosis Kyphosis Axis Lumbar vertebra Cervical vertebra Atlas

y;

1. a. b. c. 2. a. b. c. d.

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3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

e c d a g h b f

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 134

Fo

2. Scapula, clavicle (humerus, os coxae)

EXERCISE 17

rc

axial three dorsal rami of spinal nerves extension and rotation of vertebral column and head

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1. a. b. c. d.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 141

2. humerus, ulna, scaphoid, lunate

FIGURE 18–6 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

capitulum head of radius medial epicondyle trochlea lateral epicondyle olecranon process head of radius anterior posterior

FIGURE 18–7

2. Middle phalanx of 5th digit 3. Proximal phalanx of 5th digit

EXERCISE 18

y;

1. a. scapula b. ulna c. radius scaphoid lunate d. humerus e. radius 3. 1. L, humerus 2. P, humerus 3. A, humerus 4. A, ulna 5. A, scapula 6. M, humerus 7. P, humerus 8. M, ulna or L, radius

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Appendix A

STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 145 diarthroses

EXERCISE 19 1. a. b. c. d.

glenohumeral (shoulder) joint humerus, ulna, and radius sternoclavicular joint synovial (hinge)

Fo

FIGURE 20–4 2. Serratus anterior

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FIGURE 20–6

1. Supraspinatus m. 2. Infraspinatus m. 3. Teres minor m.

FIGURE 20–10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Supraspinatus m. Infraspinatus m. Teres minor m. Teres major m. Deltoid m. (cut)

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 159 3. medial head

EXERCISE 20

Trapezius and latissimus dorsi Levator scapulae and rhomboids Subscapularis Pectoralis minor, short head biceps, and coracobrachialis Brachialis f, b c, i e a, h (g, f) a, h, j (f) g c (f) d (f) Trapezius Deltoid Pectoralis major Serratus anterior Biceps brachii Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres major Deltoid (cut) Teres minor

y;

1. a. b. c. d. e. 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 3. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

395

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EXERCISE 21

Fo

2. medial epicondyle 4. Opponens pollicis, opponens digiti minimi, and adductor pollicis 5. a. Brachioradialis—radial n.—flexes elbow b. Flexor retinaculum c. Medial epicondyle d. Pronator teres—median n.—pronator of hand e. Palmar aponeurosis 6. a. Extend digits b. Abduct digits c. Pronation d. Supination

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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TEXT, P 175

Radial n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6, C7, C8, T1 Axillary n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6 Musculocutaneous n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6, C7 Median n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6, C7, C8, T1 Ulnar n. (spinal cord levels) C8, T1

EXERCISE 22

CN XI, accessory n. Axillary n. Medial and lateral pectoral nerves Long thoracic n. Musculocutaneous n.

y;

2. a. b. c. d. e.

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Appendix A

3. Completed chart: Name

Muscle Innervated

Origin

1. Deltoid 2. Teres minor m.

Posterior cord

Radial n.

1. (group) All posterior arm 2. (group) All posterior forearm

Posterior cord

Musculocutaneous n.

1. Coracobracialis 2. Biceps brachii 3. Brachialis

Lateral cord

Median

1. (group) Anterior forearm 2. (group) Thenar eminence

Medial and lateral cord

rc

1. (group) Most hand m.

Medial cord

Fo

Axillary n.

4. a. b. c. d. e. 6. a. e.

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Ulnar

radial n. musculocutaneous and radial nerves median n. ulnar n. CN, XI, accessory n. supraspinatus b. infraspinatus c. teres minor d. deltoid axillary n., just above the labeled posterior circumflex humeral a.

EXERCISE 23 5. 1. 2. 3. 6. a. b.

Right brachiocephalic vein Left brachiocephalic vein Superior vena cava radial a. brachial a.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 187

2. Circumflex scapular a.; posterior circumflex humeral a. and axillary n.

EXERCISE 24

FIGURE 24–4 A & B

axillary a. axillary n. anterior circumflex humeral a. musculocutaneous n. radial n. deep brachial a. radial a. deep palmar arterial arch ulnar n. brachial a. median n. ulnar a.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

ulnar n. superficial palmar arterial arch medial cord ulnar n. upper trunk lateral cord posterior cord axillary n. radial n. deep brachial a. radial n. posterior interosseous a.

y;

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

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EXERCISE 25

REVIEW OF UNIT III

I. Deltoid m. Latissimus dorsi m. Biceps brachii m. Brachialis m. Pronator teres m. Brachioradialis m. Flexor retinaculum Thenar eminence mm.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Fo

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Pectoralis major m. Serratus anterior m. Hypothenar eminence mm. Trapezius m. Latissimus dorsi m. Deltoid m. Triceps brachii m. Extensor retinaculum

II. Asterisks indicate the most important muscles; parentheses indicate the least important muscles.

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Muscles that act on the shoulder (glenohumeral) joint to: Flex the arm 1. Deltoid* (anterior fibers) 2. Coracobrachialis* 3. Biceps brachii

Extend the arm 1. Latissimus dorsi* 2. Deltoid (posterior fibers) 3. Teres major 4. Triceps brachii

Abduct the arm 1. Supraspinatus 2. Deltoid

Adduct the arm 1. Pectoralis major* 2. Latissimus dorsi* 3. Teres major 4. Coracobrachialis

Medially rotate arm 1. Pectoralis major* 2. Latissimus dorsi* 3. Deltoid (anterior fibers) 4. Subscapularis 5. Teres major

Laterally rotate arm 1. Deltoid (posterior fibers) 2. Infraspinatus 3. Teres minor

Muscles that act on the elbow to: Flex forearm 1. Biceps brachii* 2. Brachialis* 3. Brachioradialis* (Pronator teres)

Extend forearm 1. Triceps brachii* (Anconeus)

Supinate

Pronate 1. Pronator teres 2. Pronator quadratus (Flexor carpi radialis)

1. Biceps brachii 2. Supinator

Muscles that act on the wrist to:

Extend 1. Extensor 2. Extensor 3. Extensor 4. Extensor 5. Extensor 6. Extensor

carpi radialis longus carpi radialis brevis digitorum communis carpi ulnaris digiti minimi indicis

y;

Flex 1. Flexor carpi radialis 2. Palmaris longus 3. Flexor carpi ulnaris 4. Flexor digiti superficialis 5. Flexor digiti profundis 6. Flexor pollicis longus

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Abduct 1. Flexor carpi radialis 2. Extensor carpi radialis longus 3. Extensor carpi radialis brevis 4. Abductor pollicis longus (Extensor pollicis brevis) (Extensor pollicis longus)

Adduct 1. Flexor carpi ulnaris 2. Extensor carpi ulnaris

Fo

Muscles that act on the metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joint to:

Abduct digits 1. Abductor pollicis longus 2. Abductor pollicis brevis 3. Abductor digiti minimi 4. Dorsal interossei III.

Extend digits 1. Extensor digitorum [communis] 2. Extensor digiti minimi 3. Extensor pollicis brevis 4. Extensor pollicis longus 5. Extensor indicis 6. Lumbricals [interphalangeal]

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Flex digits 1. Flexor digitorum superficialis 2. Flexor digitorum profundis 3. Flexor pollicis longus 4. Flexor pollicis brevis 5. Flexor digit minimi 6. Lumbricales [metacarpophalangeal]

Adduct digits 1. Adductor pollicis 2. Palmar interossei

Name of Nerve

1. Musculocutaneous a. Coracobrachialis m. b. Biceps brachii m. c. Brachialis m.

3. Ulnar

4. Radial

5. Axillary

a. Pronator teres m. b. Pronator quadratus m. c. All other anterior forearm m. except flexor carpi ulnaris and ulnar 1/2 flexor digitorum profundus d. Thenar eminence (3) m. and lumbricals 1 and 2

a. Flexor carpi ulnaris m. b. Ulnar half, flexor digitorum profundus c. Hypothenar eminence m. d. All hand m. except thenar eminence and lumbricals 1 and 2

a. Triceps brachii m. b. Brachioradialis m. c. Supinator m. d. All posterior forearm muscles

a. Deltoid m. b. Teres minor

y;

2. Median

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IV. Answers to Questions 1–46. 1. See Table 16–1, p 126 2. Primary—thoracic and sacrococcygeal Secondary—cervical and lumbar 3. Scoliosis 4. They do not attach to anything anteriorly. 5. Just lateral to the spines of the vertebrae They are the major extensors of the vertebral column and are innervated by dorsal rami of spinal nerves. 6. Sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular, and glenohumeral 7. See Figure 18–2, pp 138 and 139 8. Thirty 9. See Figure 18–3, p 140 10. Medial—Ulna, Proximal = humerus and radius distal = radius Lateral—Radius, proximal = humerus and ulna distal = ulna, scaphoid, and lunate 11. Radius 12. Sternoclavicular joint 13. Supraspinatus and deltoid; anconeus and triceps brachii 14. Extension of the elbow; radial n. 15. Pronation of the hand 16. Trapezius; levator scapulae 17. Winged scapula 18. Trapezius, infraspinatus, subscapularis, serratus anterior 19. Trapezius, rhomboids (major and minor) 20. Subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor As a group, they help hold the humerus into the glenoid fossa and help prevent dislocation of the shoulder joint. 21. Long head of biceps brachii 22. Median n. and ulnar n. 23. Radial n. 24. Thenar eminence; hypothenar eminence 25. Biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis Two nerves—musculocutaneous and radial 26. In the radial (spiral) groove They are between the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii. 27. In the medial, anterior forearm 28. Radial a. 29. Brachial a.; brachial a.; brachial a. 30. Brachioradialis 31. Extension of wrist and fingers 32. Flexion of the thumb 33. Median n. and ulnar n.; median nerve 34. Median n. and radial n. 35. Deep anterior forearm and deep posterior forearm m. 36. Lumbricals 37. The brachiocephalic trunk exists on the right only. The blood to the left side branches directly off the arch of the aorta. 38. Superior vena cava 39. Cephalic vein 40. Radial a. 41. Combine Figures 23–2 and 22–1. (Check with Figures 24–4A and B.)

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UNIT IV

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42. Flexor pollicis longus, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus, abductor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis, flexor pollicis brevis, adductor pollicis 43. a. Behind the medial epicondyle of the humerus b. In the cubital fossa c. In the cubital fossa d. Over the cervical vertebrae 44. Because it is important in extension, adduction, and medial rotation of the arm, all actions are used in swimming. 45. Trapezius, CN XI 46. See Exercise 22, p 177 47. a. lateral cord b. musculocutaneous n. c. biceps brachii d. axillary artery e. medial cord f. ulnar nerve g. median nerve h. brachial artery i. radial nerve j. axillary nerve k. brachial artery i. deep brachial a.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 205 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Cribriform foramina of cribriform plate Optic foramen/canal Superior orbital fissure Foramen rotundum Foramen ovale Foramen spinosum Foramen lacerum Jugular foramen Internal acoustic meatus Stylomastoid foramen Hypoglossal canal Foramen magnum Carotid canal

EXERCISE 26 2.

c j i d a h b f g e

y;

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

401

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EXERCISE 27

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Fo

2. Check your own labels using Figure 27–3. 3. 1. g 2. j 3. a 4. h 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. f 9. i 10. e 4. 1. V 2. M 3. M 4. M 5. V 6. M 7. D 8. L 9. L 10. V 5. a. nuclei b. cerebral cortex 6. a. Third b. Fourth c. Lateral 7. Lobes 1. Frontal 2. Parietal 3. Occipital 4. Temporal

Gyri 1. Precentral 2. Postcentral

Fissures and sulci 1. Longitudinal 2. Central 3. Calcarine 4. Lateral

8. frontal; parietal 9. A group of nerve cell bodies in the central nervous system

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 221

1. Paracentral lobule; parietal lobe (postcentral gyrus) 2. 3,1,2

EXERCISE 28

1. Paracentral lobule 2. Frontal lobe, precentral gyrus

2. pons

EXERCISE 29 1. a. b. c. d.

Sight Left upper limb and face; same Right lower limb More nerve fibers are involved for more sensitivity of touch and for fine motor control.

y;

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 230

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Appendix A

middle cerebral a. posterior cerebral a. anterior cerebral a. Posterior communicating a. Anterior cerebral a. Middle cerebral a. Anterior communicating a. Posterior cerebral a. f d h a g b c e lateral ventricles interventricular foramen third ventricle cerebral aqueduct fourth ventricle median (1) Optic foramen/canal or lateral (2) apertures subarachnoid space arachnoid villi(granulations) superior sagittal sinus

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3. a. b. c. 4. a. b. c. d. e. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 8. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

FIGURE 30–1

1. Ventral horn 2. Dorsal horn 3. Dorsal root 4. Dorsal root ganglion 5. Ventral root 6. Spinal nerve 7. Dorsal ramus 8. Ventral ramus

FIGURE 30–3 4. 5. 6. 7.

Dorsal root ganglion Ventral root Subarachnoid space Ventral horn of gray matter

FIGURE 30–8

1. Longitudinal fissure 4. Thalamus

1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Dorsal ramus Dorsal root Dorsal horn Denticulate ligament Dorsal root ganglion Spinal nerve

y;

EXERCISE 30

403

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Learning Human Anatomy

3.

5.

TEXT, P 243

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4.

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Fo

7. Ventral horn 8. Ventral root 9. Ventral ramus 1. c 2. e 3. g 4. h 5. b 6. a 7. d 8. f a. Lateral spinothalamic; pain and temperature b. fasciculus cuneatus c. fasciculus gracilis a. On left side of body b. Left lower extremity Flaccid paralysis

A. CN I; cribriform plate; ethmoid B. optic n.; optic foramen

EXERCISE 31

1. Nerves that carry a special sense, the sensations they control, the foramen through which they pass, and, where indicated, the lobe of the brain involved. Nerve

a. Olfactory b. Optic c. Facial d. Vestibular e. Cochlear f. Glossopharyngeal

Sensation

Foramen

Brain Structure

Smell Sight Taste Equilibrium Hearing Taste

Cribriform foramina Optic foramen/canal Internal acoustic meatus Internal acoustic meatus Internal acoustic meatus Jugular foramen

— Occipital lobe — — Temporal lobe —

y;

2. a. CN XII b. CN IV c. CN XII d. CN III e. CN VI f. CN XII 3. Malleus, incus, stapes 4. Four; trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, hypoglossal 5. 1. g 2. c 3. f 4. d 5. a 6. h 7. e 8. b

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Appendix A

STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 252 Sensory 1. CN I 2. CN II 3. CN VIII

Motor 1. III 2. IV 3. VI 4. XI 5. XII

Mixed 1. V 2. VII 3. IX 4. X

EXERCISE 32

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2. a. Ophthalmic n. (CN V1) b. Maxillary n. (CN V2) c. Mandibular n. (CN V3) 4. CN VII, facial n. 5. a. CN V3 b. CN I c. CN VII d. CN II e. CN VIII 6. In the order of occurrence, from top of illustration to bottom: CN I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XII, and XI.

FIGURE 33–5

3. Right subclavian a. 4. Right common carotid a.

EXERCISE 33

Occipitalis Frontalis Orbicularis oculi Orbicularis oris Buccinator Platysma Temporalis Masseter Medial pterygoid Lateral pterygoid Trapezius Sternocleidomastoid Mylohyoid Digastric Stylohyoid Geniohyoid Sternohyoid Omohyoid Sternothyroid Thyrohyoid Temporalis Masseter Frontalis, VII Orbicularis oculi, VII

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2. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. 3. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 4. a. b. 7. a. b.

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c. d. e. f. g. h. 8. a. b. c. d.

Buccinator, VII Orbicularis oris, VII Platysma, VII Masseter, V3 Occipitalis, VII Temporalis, V3 Heart Aorta Brachiocepalic trunk Right common carotid a.

Masseter muscle Maxillary v. External jugular v. Subclavian v. Brachiocephalic v. Superior vena cava Right atrium text: “B. Carotid Sinus and Carotid Body.”

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a. b. c. d. e. f. g. 9. See Figure 33–6 and the subsequent

EXERCISE 34

REVIEW OF UNIT IV

I. The eight bones of the cranial vault: frontal occipital parietal (2) temporal (2) ethmoid sphenoid

II. See Figures 26–1 and 26–2, pp 197 and 198 III. The Cranial Nerves

Number I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX

X XI

Abducens Facial

Motor Mixed

Vestibulocochlear Glossopharyngeal

Sensory

Mixed

Tongue (posterior 1/3) Muscles of pharynx

Vagus

Mixed

Accessory

Motor

Hypoglossal

Motor

Viscera of thorax, abdomen; larynx Larynx, pharynx, sternocleidomastoid m., and trapezius m. Tongue

Distribution Nasal mucosa Eye (retina) Eye muscles Superior oblique m. Face, head, tongue Muscles of mastication Lateral rectus m. Anterior 2/3 tongue Muscles facial expression Ear

IV. See Figures 27–2 and 27–3 in Lesson 27 to check your answers. V. See Figures 33–1, 33–2, and 33–3 to check your answers. VI. Answers to questions:

Sensation Smell Sight None None General None Taste

Equilibrium Hearing Taste and general sensations General sensations None

None

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Name Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal

Mixed, Motor, Sensory Sensory Sensory Motor Motor Mixed

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Appendix A

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1. Ascending aorta; brachiocephalic trunk; common carotid artery; external carotid artery; facial artery 2. Orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, buccinator 3. Temporalis, masseter, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid 4. choroid plexus 5. See section entitled “Ventricles of the Brain” preceding Figure 27–7. 6. Interventricular foramen, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle, median (1) or lateral (2) aperture, subarachnoid space, arachnoid granulations (villi) 7. A suture is the line of fusion between two cranial bones. Coronal, squamosal, lambdoidal, and sagittal are four sutures. 8. Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater 9. Falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli 10. They provide reservoirs to collect venous blood from the brain and take it toward the jugular foramen. 11. Internal jugular vein 12. Paranasal sinuses are the cavities within bones of the skull. They contain air unless the mucous membrane lining has produced mucus. Ethnoid, sphenoid, maxillary, and frontal 13. No. It innervates only the muscles of mastication; you smile with muscles of facial expression. 14. Difficulty chewing because the mandibular nerve is injured 15. Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone, vomer bone 16. Carotid canal; foramen lacerum 17. Mandible; temporomandibular joint 18. frontal lobe temporal lobe cerebellum 19. CN VII, facial n. 20. Elevation and depression, retraction and protraction of the hyoid bone Talking and swallowing are made possible. 21. Trapezius and sternocleidomastoid accessory CN XI 22. The carotid body detects oxygen content in blood. Carotid sinus is sensitive to blood pressure. They are both near the bifurcation of the common carotid a. 23. Maxillary a. 24. You will need to include the internal and external jugular veins to provide a pathway from the internal and external head. See Figure 33–7. 25. See Figure 29–6. vertebral arteries and internal carotid arteries 26. Functional areas of the brain were assigned numbers by a neurologist named Brodmann. He assigned the number 4 to the primary motor cortex located on the precentral gyrus and 3,1,2 to the primary sensory area on the postcentral gyrus. 27. A homunculus is a small complete body representation such as that drawn on the precentral and postcentral gyri, to indicate body distribution of nerve cells. 28. Postcentral; middle cerebral artery 29. The right lower limb 30. Lateral corticospinal 31. Pain and temperature; left 32. Commissural; projection 33. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body. 34. In the cerebral cortex and in nuclei In the central gray matter

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UNIT V

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35. At about the level of the first lumbar vertebra Conus medullaris The extension of the pia mater, innermost meningeal layer 36. The upper motor neuron cell body is in the brain; the lower motor neuron cell body is located in the spinal cord. 37. The ciliary muscles are in the ciliary body surrounding the lens of the eye and contract to change the shape of the lens for accommodation. The muscles of the iris of the eye change the size of the pupil to admit differing amounts of light. 38. See Figures 31–1 and 31–6. VII. See Figure 31–4. b. Superior rectus m. VIII. a. Superior oblique m. d. Inferior rectus m. c. Lateral rectus m. f. Anterior horn of gray matter e. Inferior oblique m. h. Dorsal column of white matter g. Filaments of ventral root j. Dorsal root ganglion i. Filaments of dorsal root

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 283

1. Splanchnic 3. III, VII, and IX; X 4. 1. Sympathetic trunk 2. Rami communicantes 3. Sympathetic ganglion 4. Lateral horn (of gray matter)

EXERCISE 35 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

b,i c,g,i c,h b,i a

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

g b,i a b,h a,b,i

2. See Table 35–1. 3. a ganglion

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 290

6. a. T7–L2 b. Somatic c. external abdominal oblique m., internal abdominal oblique m., and transverse abdominus d. Anterior rectus sheath, rectus abdominis m., and posterior rectus sheath

FIGURE 37–1

Liver (mostly) Gall bladder Hepatic flexure Spleen Splenic flexure Stomach (mostly) Pancreas (mostly)

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Appendix A

3. a. Cecum b. Vermiform appendix 4. a. Sigmoid colon

FIGURE 37–12 2. Common bile duct

EXERCISE 37

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1. a. Liver b. Gall bladder c. Vermiform appendix d. Esophagus e. Stomach f. Spleen g. Pancreas h. Small intestine 2. 1. g 2. i 3. c 4. e 5. a 6. j 7. b 8. d 9. h 10. f 3. a. Epiploic (omental) appendages b. Haustra coli c. Tenia coli 4. a. Mesentery proper b. Visceral peritoneum c. Greater omentum d. Falciform ligament e. Lesser omentum f. Mesocolon g. Parietal peritoneum h. Coronary ligament 5. Ligamentum teres hepatis; obliterated umbilical v. 6. a. Mouth b. Esophagus c. Stomach d. Small intestine e. Large intestine f. Mouth g. Stomach h. Mouth i. Stomach j. Small intestine k. Small intestine l. Anus 7. See pg. 287 8. See top pg. 288 9. pubis (anterior) coccyx (posterior) 10. Quadratus lumborum

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TABLE 38–1 TABLE 38–1. BLOOD SUPPLY AND INNERVATION OF THE ABDOMEN Parietal supply

Vessels

Nerves

Visceral supply Single midline trunks: celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric a. Bilateral arteries: renal, gonadal

Ventral rami T7–L2

Autonomics: sympathetic splanchnics parasympathetic–vagus and S2-4

RETURN to PORTAL vein and IVC

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Anterior–superior and inferior epigastic arteries Posterior–lumbar, inferior phrenic, median sacral arteries Return to IVC

FIGURE 38–5 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

subclavian v. brachiocephalic v. right gonadal v. external iliac v. femoral v. internal jugular v. external jugular v. superior vena cava internal iliac v.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 312 5. Aorta Superior mesenteric a. Capillaries Superior mesenteric v. Portal v. Capillaries Hepatic v. Inferior vena cava Right atrium

EXERCISE 38

j g h i b f a d e c 1. Splenic v. 2. Superior mesenteric v. 3. Inferior mesenteric v. 4. Left gastric v. b. Products of digestion must be taken to the liver.

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Appendix A

3. Sympathetic a. Celiac ganglion b. Superior mesenteric c. Inferior mesenteric d. Superior mesenteric e. Celiac f. Celiac g. Inferior mesenteric h. Superior and inferior mesenteric

Parasympathetic Vagus Vagus S2–4 Vagus Vagus Vagus S2–4 Vagus and S2–4

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 319 2. Renal pelvis/ureter Renal vein

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rc EXERCISE 39 1. a. b. c. 2. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. 3. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. 4. a. b.

Glomerulus Bowman’s capsule renal corpuscle Urinary bladder Ureter Renal pyramid Urethra Nephron Renal pelvis Hilus Kidney Inferior vena cava Urethra Renal v. Ureter Urinary bladder Minor calyx Major calyx Renal cortex Renal pyramid Renal pelvis Ureter Sinusoids Glomerulus

FIGURE 40–5 3. 8. 9. 10.

Symphysis pubis Epididymis Testis Seminal vesicle

2. a. Prostatic urethra b. Membranous urethra c. Penile urethra

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 328

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EXERCISE 40

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1. a. Ductus deferens b. Duct of seminal vesicle 2. Testis 3. a. Seminal vesicle b. Prostate gland c. Bulbourethral gland 4. a. Production of sperm b. Production of testosterone 5. a. Seminiferous tubules b. Efferent ductules c. Epipidymus d. Ductus deferens e. Ejaculatory duct f. Prostatic urethra g. Membranous urethra h. Penile urethra 6. 1. g 2. j 3. e 4. f 5. a 6. i 7. b 8. c 9. h 10. d

FIGURE 41–3

2. Ovary 3. Ovarian ligament 4. Broad ligament

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 336

1. Peritoneal Structures a. Suspensory ligament of ovary b. Broad ligament 2. a. Peritoneal sac b. Infundibulum of uterine tube c. Ampulla of the uterine tube d. Isthmus of uterine tube e. Uterus f. Cervix g. Vagina

1. 1. 2. 3. 4.

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EXERCISE 41

Solid Cords a. Round ligament of uterus b. Ovarian ligament

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5. c 6. d 7. i 8. b 9. g 10. h 2. Scrotum—Labia majora Testis—Ovary Penis—Clitoris 3. a. Perimetrium b. Myometrium c. Endometrium 4. a. Infundibulum b. Fimbriae c. Ampulla d. Isthmus

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 341

1. Pancreas 2. a. Ovary b. Testis

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 348 4. 5. 6. 7.

Trachea Posterior Heart Inferior vena cava

FIGURE 44–4 1. 2. 3. 7. 8. 14.

Frontal sinus Crista galli Middle nasal concha Genioglossus m. Geniohyoid m. Sphenoid sinus

FIGURE 44–6

1. Thyroid cartilage 2. Cricoid cartilage

EXERCISE 44

A S I I I I S A or S S S Nasopharynx Oropharynx

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e. f. g. h. i. j. k. 3. a. g.

Larynx Trachea Primary bronchus Secondary bronchus Tertiary bronchus Bronchiole Respiratory bronchiole inferior view of thoracic diaphragm cannot be identified

Fo

EXERCISE 45

TEXT, P 308

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2. You should have an X in front of the following: a, b, d, e, g, h, i, and l. 3. a. Pericardium b. Myocardium c. Endocardium 4. a. Tricuspid b. Bicuspid (mitral) 5. a. Aortic semilunar b. Pulmonary semilunar 6. a. right atrium b. right ventricle c. pulmonary trunk d. pulmonary arteries e. pulmonary capillaries f. pulmonary veins g. left atrium h. left ventricle i. aorta j. left coronary a. k. anterior interventricular a. (LAD) l. great cardiac v. m.coronary sinus n. right atrium 7. j, k, l, and m 8. a. 72 b. sinuatrial node c. parasympathetic nerve, CN X d. sympathetic nerves

The other system in which the arteries have high levels of carbon dioxide is the pulmonary system.

STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 374 2. Lymph vessels

1. a. pituitary gland, endocrine b. pineal gland, endocrine c. thyroid gland, endocrine d. parathyroid glands, endocrine e. thymus, lymphatic

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EXERCISE 47

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2. 3. 4.

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f. adrenal gland, endocrine g. pancreas, endocrine and digestive h. testis, endocrine and male reproductive i. ovaries, endocrine and female reproductive Endocrine are ductless; exocrine have ducts. The fetus cannot breathe or eat, needs must be met by the mother’s blood. 1. e 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. b & c a. return intercellular fluid to heart b. help prevent and fight infection a. thoracic duct b. right lymphatic duct c. tonsils d. subclavian veins e. spleen popliteal fossa, inguinal region, neck, along the aorta, axillary region

5. 6.

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EXERCISE 48 I. II. III. IV. V. VI.

REVIEW OF UNIT V

CNs III, VII, IX, and X Sympathetic and parasympathetic See Table 35–1. Hypothalamus and medulla oblongata See Figures 37–2, 39–1, and 42–1. Respiratory, digestive, cardiovascular, endocrine, urinary, female reproductive, male reproductive, lymphatic VII. a. Inguinal ligament b. Inferior epigastric a. c. Quadratus lumborum d. Esophagus VIII. See Figures 13–1, 13–3, 38–2, and 38–5 to check your answers. u. Inferior vena cava v. portal vein w. aorta IX. Answers to questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Spermatic cord; round ligament of the uterus Visceral peritoneum (not on esophagus), muscularis, submucosa, mucosa Duodenum Liver, gall bladder, pancreas Minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, (bladder), urethra Glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule Stomach, gall bladder, urinary bladder Coronary ligament Falciform ligament 9. Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, superior mesenteric vein, portal vein, liver sinusoids (capillaries), hepatic vein, inferior vena cava, right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary artery, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary veins, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, renal artery, interlobar a., arcuate a., interlobular a., afferent arteriole, glomerulus, nephron, collecting duct, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra Three body systems must be involved. They are: digestive, cardiovascular, urinary

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10. Diaphragm; phrenic n. 11. Nephron; produces urine 12. P C C P P C P C 13. Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal 14. Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary bronchus, lung (secondary bronchus, tertiary bronchus, bronchiole, respiratory bronchiole, alveoli) 15. Pleura—thorax; pericardium—thorax; peritoneum—abdomen 16. Left ventricle, aorta, superior mesenteric a., capillaries, superior mesenteric vein, hepatic portal vein, liver sinusoids (capillaries), hepatic vein, inferior vena cava, right atrium 17. Production of hormones and germ cells 18. kidney testis gall bladder kidney liver heart lung spleen ovary intestines 19. Skin, fascia, external abdominal oblique muscle, internal abdominal oblique muscle, transverse abdominis muscle, parietal peritoneum, visceral peritoneum, intestine 20. Yes. The sperm could enter the vaginal canal, the cervix, the uterine body, and the uterine tube, then exit the infundibulum to enter the peritoneal sac and then move to the region between the uterus and rectum. 21. See Exercise 40. 22. See Figure 38–6. Blood containing digested food products must be taken to the liver to be metabolized, stored, and/or converted into usable products to be taken to the body cells. 23. See answer to question 9, beginning with left ventricle. 24. Left ventricle, aorta, celiac trunk, splenic artery 25. Common iliac, lumbar, renal, hepatic, gonadal, inferior phrenic, and median sacral veins 26. Ascending colon: sympathetic fibers, which synapsed in the superior mesenteric ganglia, and parasympathetic fibers from the vagus nerve Descending colon: sympathetic fibers, which synapsed in the inferior mesenteric ganglion, and parasympathetic fibers from the sacral level (S2-4) parasympathetics 27. Stimulates muscle contraction, for peristalsis, and elaboration of mucus by the mucous membrane 28. Inhibition of the functions listed in answer 27, above 29. Bones: thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum Muscles: external and internal intercostal muscles and diaphragm 30. Anterior source: anterior intercostal arteries from the internal thoracic a. Posterior source: posterior intercostal arteries largely from the thoracic aorta. Diaphragm: musculophrenic artery, superior and inferior phrenic arteries Major venous structure: azygos vein 31. Intercostal nerves 1–11—or ventral rami T1-T11 32. Anterior—sternum; inferior—diaphragm; lateral—pleural sacs; posterior— thoracic vertebrae; superior—root of neck 33. Lungs and pleura 34. A serous sac that covers the lungs 35. Esophagus, inferior vena cava, aorta

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36. Phrenic nerve; C3, 4, 5 37. See answer to 30, above. 38. Because they lie in the costal grooves and are between ribs T12 is the subcostal nerve because there is no rib below T12 39. Exchange of waste gases (mainly carbon dioxide) for a fresh supply of oxygen in the blood 40. The alveoli of the respiratory system are in contact with the capillaries of the pulmonary arteries of the circulatory system. 41. Bronchial vessels supply the bronchial tree with oxygen and nutrients and remove the waste products of metabolism within the cells of the lung; pulmonary vessels are taking the systemic blood to the alveoli of the lungs for a fresh supply of oxygen that will be taken directly to the heart 42. See the answer to question 14. 43. The pharynx is a posteriorly positioned fibromuscular tube that is used in both respiration and digestion; it continues as the esophagus. 44. The larynx is a cartilaginous box located between the pharynx and the trachea. Four main cartilages are: epiglottis, thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid. 45. The larynx is for passage of air and production of the voice. 46. Posterior to the trachea 47. Into the middle ear 48. Epiglottis 49. False folds are superior to the true folds. 50. It receives “used blood” and pumps it to the lungs. 51. Yes. In fetal circulation the lungs are not functional and there is no need for the blood to be sent there. The foramen ovale is an opening in the interatrial septum that allows the blood going directly to the left side of the heart to be pumped to the systems. 52. Coronary arteries; cardiac veins and coronary sinus 53. Transportation of nutrients and oxygen to all body cells Removal of waste products from the cells 54. 1st heart sound: closing of the atrioventricular valves 2nd heart sound: closing of the semilunar valves 55. Pericardium; pleura 56. Pulmonary and fetal circulation 57. The fetal lungs and digestive systems are not functional. 58. Return of interstitial fluid to the cardiovascular system; helps the immune system fight infections 59. Lymph nodes: along the path of lymph vessels—particularly in areas such as popliteal fossa, inguinal region, along the anterior aorta, axilla, neck Tonsils: found in the pharynx, at the base of the tongue Thymus gland: found anterior to the trachea and behind the sternum Spleen: in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen 60. Spleen 61. Parietal innervation is by way of regular somatic nerves Visceral innervation is by way of autonomic nerves X. See Figures 37–3 and 37–4. XI. See Figure 42–1. a. Descending aorta b. Esophagus c. Azygos vein d. Thoracic duct e. Thoracic vertebrae f. Sympathetic trunk

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g

h

b a e

j

d

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XII. See Figure 45–3. XIII. Use the appropriate letter to label each of the listed structures. a. ovary b. uterus c. urinary bladder d. round ligament of the uterus e. infundibulum of the uterine tube f. mons pubis g. rectum h. tenia coli i. labium majus j. deep inguinal ring k. superficial inguinal ring

Courtesy of SPL/Science Source.

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Appendix F Worksheets

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Worksheet #1 – Anatomical Directions and Body Planes Name _________________________________________________________

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Directions: Choose a directional term from the column on the right that BEST completes the statement regarding humans on the left. (Remember, when describing the position of one body structure in relation to another, use the anatomical position as the initial reference point.) Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

A. Anterior (Ventral)

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1. In the anatomical position, the gluteal region is found on the ____________ surface of the body. 2. In the anatomical position, the palms and face are on the ____________ surface of the body. 3. The ears are ____________ to the eyes.

4. The hips are ____________ to the shoulders.

5. The epidermis of the skin is ____________ to the dermis of the skin. 6. The heart is ____________ to the lungs.

7. The lungs are ____________ to the ribs.

8. The arm (brachium) is ____________ to the forearm (antebrachium). 9. The mouth is ____________ to the chin.

10. The right eye is ____________ to the left ear. 11. The leg is ____________ to the thigh.

B. Contralateral

C. Deep

D. Distal

E. Inferior

F. Ipsilateral

G. Lateral

H. Medial

I. Posterior (Dorsal)

J. Proximal

K. Superficial L. Superior

Directions: Choose a body plane from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

____________ 1. Divides the human body or body part into equal right and left parts.

A. Frontal (Coronal)

____________ 2. Divides the human body or body part into anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) parts.

B. Midsagittal

____________ 3. Divides the human body or body part into unequal right and left parts.

C. Parasagittal

____________ 4. Divides the human body or body part into superior and inferior parts.

D. Transverse (Horizontal)

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Worksheet #2 – Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

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A. Acetabulum

____________ 2. Lateral leg bone.

B. Calcaneus

____________ 3. Known as the “heel” bone.

C. Femur

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____________ 1. Bone formed from the fusion of five sacral vertebrae.

____________ 4. Articulates with the head of the femur to form the hip joint. ____________ 5. The bony process you sit on.

D. Fibula

E. Iliac crest

____________ 6. Its anterior border is commonly referred to as the “shin”.

____________ 7. The distal ends of these bones articulate with the proximal phalanges. ____________ 8. Joint between the appendicular and axial skeletons. ____________ 9. Anterior articulation between the hip bones.

F. Ilium

G. Ischial spine

H. Ischial tuberosity

____________ 10. Location where the patellar ligament attaches.

I. Ischium

____________ 11. Bones of your digits.

J. Metatarsals

____________ 12. The bones of the ankle region; include the calcaneus, navicular, and talus.

K. Patella

____________ 13. Forms the ankle joint with the tibia and fibula.

L. Phalanges

____________ 14. The lateral malleolus is found at its distal end.

____________ 15. Separates the greater sciatic notch from the lesser sciatic notch. ____________ 16. The weight-bearing bone of the leg.

M. Pubic symphysis N. Pubis

O. Sacroiliac joint

____________ 17. Superior edge of hip bone. ____________ 18. Bone of the thigh.

____________ 19. A sesamoid bone.

P. Sacrum

Q. Talus

____________ 20. Bones found in the hallux.

R. Tarsals

____________ ____________ 21. Bones forming knee joint that allows for flexion and extension.

S. Tibia

____________ ____________ ____________ 22. Bones that fuse together to form the hip bone.

T. Tibial tuberosity

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Worksheet #3 – Muscles, Nerves, and Blood Vessels of the Lower Limb Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the nerve from the column on the right that typically innervates the muscles in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

____________ 1. Anterior thigh/femoral muscles

B. Deep fibular/peroneal n.

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____________ 2. Superficial and deep posterior leg/crural muscles

A. Common fibular/peroneal n.

____________ 3. Short head of the biceps femoris m.

____________ 4. Abductor hallucis m. and flexor digitorum brevis m. ____________ 5. Lateral leg/crural muscles

C. Femoral n.

D. Inferior gluteal n.

____________ 6. Medial thigh/femoral muscles (except pectineus m.) ____________ 7. Iliacus m.

E. Lateral plantar n.

____________ 8. Gluteus maximus m.

F. Medial plantar n.

____________ 9. Anterior leg/crural muscles

____________ 10. Extensor digitorum brevis m.

____________ 11. Gluteus medius m., gluteus minimus m., and tensor fasciae latae m.

G. Obturator n.

H. Superficial fibular/peroneal n.

____________ 12. Posterior thigh/femoral muscles (except short head of the biceps femoris m.) ____________ 13. Pectineus m.

____________ 14. Abductor digiti minimi m.

I. Superior gluteal n.

J. Tibial n.

Directions: Choose the artery from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

____________ 1. Non-terminal branch of the femoral a. that supplies the posterior thigh/femoral muscles.

A. Anterior tibial a.

____________ 2. The name of the external iliac a. once it passes deep to the inguinal ligament.

B. Deep femoral a.

____________ 3. This artery becomes the dorsalis pedis a. at the ankle.

____________ 4. The name of the femoral a. once it passes through the adductor hiatus.

____________ 6. Supplies the muscles of the anterior compartment of the leg. ____________ 7. Found in the adductor canal.

y;

____________ 5. Found just medial to the femoral nerve in the femoral triangle.

C. Femoral a.

D. Fibular/peroneal a. E. Popliteal a.

____________ 8. A lateral non-terminal branch of the posterior tibial a. ____________ ____________ 9. Terminal branches of the popliteal a.

F. Posterior tibial a.

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Worksheet #4 – Vertebrae and the Vertebral Column Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

A. Cervical curvature

____________ 2. A posteriorly exaggerated thoracic curvature; abnormal.

B. Kyphosis

____________ ____________ 3. Convex posteriorly; primary curvatures.

C. Lordosis

____________ 4. Develops as the infant begins to holds head upright.

D. Lumbar curvature

____________ 5. An anteriorly exaggerated lumbar curvature; abnormal.

E. Sacral curvature

____________ 6. Develops as the infant begins to sit up, stand, and walk.

F. Scoliosis

____________ 7. A lateral curvature of the vertebral column; abnormal.

G. Thoracic curvature

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_______ ____________ 1. Convex anteriorly; secondary curvatures.

Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all. ____________ 1. Composed of five vertebrae fused together; articulates with hip bones.

A. Cervical vertebrae - typical

____________ 2. Vertebral column contains twelve of these. ____________ 3. Vertebrae of the neck.

B. Coccyx

____________ 3. Massive, kidney shaped bodies; weight-bearing. ____________ 4. Spinous processes are bifid.

____________ 5. Bear facets for articulation with ribs.

C. Lumbar vertebrae

____________ 6. Transverse processes contain transverse foramina.

____________ 7. Spinous processes are long and are directed inferiorly.

D. Sacrum

____________ 8. “Tailbone”; composed of four vertebrae fused together. ____________ 9. Spinous processes are short and blunt.

E. Thoracic vertebrae

Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all. A. Altas

____________ 2. Articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull. ____________ 3. Also known as C2. ____________ 4. Features the dens or odontoid process. ____________ 5. Has no body and no spinous process.

B. Axis

y;

____________ 1. Also known as C1.

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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Then, using the figure below of a superior view of a typical vertebra and the terms found in the right column below, identify the structures indicated by the lines. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

A. Articular process

____________ 2. Encloses the vertebral foramen laterally and posteriorly; composed of two pedicles and two laminae.

B. Body

____________ 3. Projects laterally from the vertebral arch; attachment point for muscles and ligaments.

C. Intervertebral foramen

____________ 4. Lateral openings between adjacent vertebrae; allow for the passage of spinal nerves.

D. Spinous process

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Fo

____________ 1. Found anteriorly; weight-bearing region.

____________ 5. Project posteriorly from the vertebral arch; attachment point for muscles and ligaments.

E. Transverse process

____________ 6. Opening enclosed by the body and vertebral arch; allows for passage of spinal cord.

F. Vertebral arch

____________ 7. Project either superiorly or inferiorly; has a facet for articulation with another vertebra.

G. Vertebral foramen

Anterior

Courtesy of woodoo007/123RF.

Posterior

y;

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Worksheet #5 – Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

A. Capitulum B. Carpals

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____________ 1. Its medial end articulates with the sternum, while its lateral end articulates with the scapula.

____________ 2. Depression on the posterior surface of humeral shaft; marks path of radial nerve and deep brachial artery.

C. Clavicle

____________ 3. Forms the point of the elbow.

____________ 4. Depression on the lateral side of ulna; where ulna articulates with head of radius.

____________ 5. Attachment site for the short head of the biceps brachii, the coracobrachialis, and the pectoralis minor muscles. ____________ 6. Articulate with carpals proximally and with phalanges distally.

D. Coracoid process E. Coronoid fossa F. Humerus

G. Metacarpals

____________ 7. Bone of the arm (brachium).

____________ 8. Receives the coronoid process of ulna when elbow is flexed.

____________ 9. Frequently broken; S-shaped bone; commonly known as the “collarbone”. ____________ 10. Receives head of radius when elbow is flexed.

H. Olecranon

I. Olecranon fossa

J. Phalanges

____________ 11. Bones of the wrist region. ____________ 12. Lies medial to the radius.

____________ 13. Heads of these bones are the “knuckles”.

____________ 14. Part of the humerus that articulates with head of radius.

K. Radius

L. Radial fossa

M. Radial notch

____________ 15. Its head articulates with the glenoid cavity.

____________ 16. Medial articular process on distal end of humerus; articulates with the ulna. ____________ 17. Receives the olecranon in elbow extension.

____________ 18. Attachment site for the biceps brachii muscle.

N. Radial tuberosity O. Scapula

P. Spiral groove

____________ 19. Bones of the digits.

____________ ____________ 20. Bones of the forearm (antebrachium). ____________ ____________ 21. Bones of the pectoral girdle.

Q. Trochlea R. Ulna

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Worksheet #6 – Muscles, Nerves, and Blood Vessels of the Upper Limb Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the nerve from the column on the right that typically innervates the muscles in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

____________ 1. Latissimus dorsi m.

A. Accessory n. (CNXI)

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____________ 2. Anterior arm muscles

____________ 3. Superficial and deep posterior forearm muscles

B. Axillary n.

____________ 4. Deltoid m.

____________ 5. Lumbricals 1 and 2

C. Long thoracic n.

____________ 6. Serratus anterior m.

____________ 7. Flexor carpi ulnaris m. and medial half of flexor digitorum profundus m.

D. Median n.

____________ 8. Thenar eminence muscles ____________ 9. Teres minor m.

E. Musculocutaneous n.

____________ 10. Trapezius m.

____________ 11. Lumbricals 3 and 4

F. Radial n.

____________ 12. Posterior arm muscles

____________ 13. Superficial and deep anterior forearm muscles (except flexor carpi ulnaris m. and medial half of flexor digitorum profundus m.)

G. Suprascapular n.

____________ 14. Hypothenar eminence muscles ____________ 15. Supraspinatus m.

H. Thoracodorsal n.

____________ 16. Palmar and dorsal interossei m.

I. Ulnar n.

y;

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Directions: Choose the artery from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all. ____________ 1. Non-terminal branch of the brachial a. that travels with the radial n. in the spiral groove. ____________ 2. Found deep to the brachioradialis m.; commonly used for taking pulse rate at the wrist.

A. Axillary a.

B. Brachial a.

____________ 3. Has a number of non-terminal branches including the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral a.

Fo

____________ 4. The direct continuation of the axillary artery into the arm.

C. Deep brachial a.

D. Radial a.

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____________ 5. On the right, it branches off the brachiocephalic trunk; on the left, it branches off the arch of the aorta.

____________ 6. Begins at the lateral border of the first rib and ends at the inferior border of the teres major muscle. ____________ 7. Travels through and supplies the medial aspect of the forearm. ____________ 8. Found in the cubital fossa just lateral to the median nerve.

E. Subclavian a.

____________ 9. Surrounded by the cords of the brachial plexus.

____________ ____________ 10. Terminal branches of the brachial a.

F. Ulnar a.

y;

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Worksheet #7 – The Skull Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the bone(s) from the column on the right that BEST matches each description and/or structure in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

____________ 1. Mastoid process, styloid process, external acoustic meatus, and internal acoustic meatus.

____________ 2. Its condyles articulate with C1 (atlas).

B. Frontal

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____________ 3. Infraorbital foramen.

A. Ethmoid

____________ 4. Form the anterior part of hard palate.

____________ 5. This bone articulates with the condylar (condyloid) process of mandible.

C. Lacrimals

____________ 6. Bone of the lower jaw.

____________ 7. Form the bridge of the nose.

D. Mandible

____________ 8. Cribriform plate and crista galli.

____________ 9. Superior orbital fissure, optic foramen, foramen rotundum, foramen ovale, and foramen spinosum.

E. Maxillae

____________ 10. Contribute to the superior and lateral surfaces of the cranium. ____________ 11. Bone of the forehead; supraorbital foramen or notch.

F. Nasals

____________ 12. Its petrous part contains the middle ear and inner ear. ____________ 13. Hypophyseal fossa within the sella turcica.

G. Occipital

____________ 14. Mental foramen.

____________ 15. Middle and superior nasal conchae.

H. Palatines

____________ 16. Pterygoid process and its associated plates.

____________ 17. Very small; associated with entrance into nasolacrimal canal.

I. Parietals

____________ 18. Foramen magnum and hypoglossal canal. ____________ 19. Form the posterior part of hard palate.

J. Sphenoid

____________ 20. Bone of the upper jaw.

____________ 21. Bone composed of a horizontal body and two ascending rami. _________ _________ 22. Two bones that help to form the nasal septum.

K. Temporals

_________ _________ 23. Two bones whose processes form the zygomatic arch.

_________ _________ _________ _________ 24. Four bones containing paranasal sinuses.

L. Vomer

_________ _________ _________ _________ 25. Seven bones that form the orbit.

M. Zygomatic

y;

_________ _________ _________

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Worksheet #8 – The Brain Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the structure from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

____________ 1. Develops from the mesencephalon.

A. Cerebrum

____________ 2. Contains the crossover point of the corticospinal tracts, called the decussation of the pyramids.

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____________ 3. Provides error correcting feedback for movements, as well as precise timing and patterns of muscle contraction for skilled movements.

____________ 4. Largest part of the brain in terms of mass.

B. Cerebellum

____________ 5. Cerebral peduncles found on its ventral surface.

____________ 6. Contains areas involved with sensory perception (i.e. sensory areas), control of movement (i.e. motor areas), and more complex integrative functions (i.e. association areas); allows for conscious thinking. ____________ 7. Surrounds the third ventricle.

C. Diencephalon

____________ 8. The cerebral aqueduct runs through this structure. ____________ 9. Contain the basal nuclei.

____________ 10. Important role in maintain homeostasis, as it is an autonomic reflex center housing important visceral motor nuclei (ex. cardiovascular and respiratory centers).

D. Midbrain

____________ 11. Consists primarily of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.

____________ 12. Name means “bridge”; important for connecting different parts of the brain. ____________ 13. Develops from the myelencephalon.

____________ 14. The lateral ventricles are found deep within this structure.

____________ 15. Superior colliculi and inferior colliculi found on its dorsal surface.

E. Medulla oblongata

____________ 16. Develops from the telencephalon.

_________ _________ 17. Develops from the metencephalon.

_________ _________ 18. Composed of two hemispheres; cortex present.

_________ _________ _________ 19. The parts of the brainstem from superior to inferior.

F. Pons

y;

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Directions: Using the following diagram of the lateral view of the human brain, match the structures indicated on the diagram with the list of terms. Each letter may only be used once.

____________ 1. Central sulcus

____________ 8. Parietal lobe

____________ 2. Cerebellum

____________ 9. Pons

____________ 3. Foramen magnum

____________ 10. Postcentral gyrus

____________ 4. Frontal lobe

____________ 11. Precentral gyrus

____________ 5. Lateral fissure/sulcus

____________ 12. Spinal cord

Fo

____________ 6. Medulla oblongata

____________ 13. Temporal lobe

____________ 7. Occipital lobe

____________ 14. Transverse fissure

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A

C

B

N

D

M

E F

L

K

G

J

I

H

Lateral View of the Human Brain

y;

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Directions: Using the following diagram of a sagittal section of the human brain, match the structures indicated on the diagram with the list of terms. Each letter may only be used once. ____________ 1. Central canal of the spinal cord

____________ 9. Midbrain

____________ 2. Cerebellum

____________ 10. Occipital lobe

____________ 3. Cerebral aqueduct

____________ 11. Parietal lobe

____________ 4. Corpus callosum ____________ 12. Pineal gland

____________ 5. Fourth ventricle

Fo

____________ 13. Pituitary gland

____________ 6. Frontal lobe

____________ 14. Pons

____________ 8. Medulla oblongata

____________ 15. Superior colliculus

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____________ 7. Inferior colliculus

A

O

B

N

C L

M

E

I

D

F

J

K

H

G

Sagittal Section of the Human Brain

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Worksheet #9 – The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Place the meninges and associated spaces in order from most SUPERFICIAL to DEEPEST: 4. epidural space

2. pia mater

5. arachnoid mater

3. dura mater

6. subdural space

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Fo

1. subarachnoid space

_____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____

Directions: Choose the structure from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

____________ 1. Area of the spinal cord from which nerves to/from the upper limbs originate.

A. Cauda equina

____________ 2. Gray matter in the spinal cord that contains the cell bodies of motor neurons responsible for innervating skeletal muscle.

B. Cervical enlargement

____________ 3. Anterior branch of a spinal nerve that can form intercostal nerves or nerve plexuses.

C. Conus medullaris

____________ 4. An inferior extension of the pia mater that helps to anchor the spinal cord to the coccyx.

D. Dorsal/posterior horn

____________ 5. Gray matter in the spinal cord that contains the cell bodies of multipolar interneurons/association neurons. (Hint: Sensory axons synapse with these interneurons/association neurons.)

E. Dorsal ramus F. Dorsal root

____________ 6. Contains the cell bodies of unipolar sensory neurons.

____________ 7. Contains the axons of only motor neurons; considered ‘motor only’.

____________ 8. Posterior branch of a spinal nerve that contains sensory and motor fibers responsible for the innervation of the skin and deep muscles of the back, respectively.

G. Dorsal root ganglion H. Filum terminale

I. Lumbar enlargement

____________ 9. Formed from the union of a dorsal root and ventral root.

____________ 10. Area of the spinal cord from which nerves to/from the lower limbs originate.

____________ 11. The bundle of spinal nerve roots found in the vertebral canal inferior to the L1/L2 level.

____________ 13. The tapering end of the spinal cord.

K. Ventral/anterior horn L. Ventral ramus

y;

____________ 12. Contains the axons of only sensory neurons; considered ‘sensory’ only.

J. Spinal nerve

M. Ventral root

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Worksheet #10 – The Eye and The Ear Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

____________ 1. Contains smooth muscle cells that control the shape of the lens.

A. Aqueous humor

____________ 2. Allows light to pass through the iris. ____________ 3. Opaque portion of the fibrous tunic; the “white of the eye”.

B. Choroid

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C. Ciliary body

____________ 5. Clear gel-like substance found in the posterior chamber; supports the posterior surface of the lens.

D. Conjunctiva

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____________ 4. Inner layer of the eye; contains rods and cones (i.e. photoreceptor cells).

____________ 6. The colored part of the eye; most anterior portion of vascular tunic.

E. Cornea

____________ 7. Posterior portion of vascular tunic; contains lots of blood vessels; also contains brown pigment that absorbs light preventing it from scattering within the eye.

F. Iris

____________ 8. Attaches lens to the ciliary body.

G. Lens

____________ 9. Anterior part of fibrous tunic; allows light to enter eye.

____________ 10. Contains smooth muscle cells that control the diameter of the pupil. ____________ 11. Can change shape; transparent; focuses light onto retina.

H. Pupil

I. Retina

____________ 12. The extrinsic eye muscles attach here.

____________ 13. Fluid found in the anterior cavity; helps to nourish lens and cornea.

J. Sclera

____________ 14. Accessory structure of eye; transparent membrane that covers inner surface of eyelids and anterior surface of eye.

K. Suspensory ligaments

____________ ____________ 15. Contain the intrinsic eye muscles.

L. Vitreous humor

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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

____________ 1. Vibrates as sound waves hit it; vibrations transmitted to the ossicles.

A. Auricle or pinna

____________ 2. Allows pressure in the middle ear to be equalized with atmospheric pressure, which permits the tympanic membrane to vibrate freely.

B. Cochlea

____________ 3. The stapes fits in here; allows for the transmission of vibrations from the stapes to the fluid of the inner ear.

C. External auditory canal D. Incus E. Malleus

____________ 5. Contains modified sweat glands called ceruminous glands that produce and secrete cerumen.

F. Oval window

____________ 6. Connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx.

G. Pharyngotympanic tube or auditory tube

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Fo

____________ 4. Contains the spiral organ of Corti, the receptor organ for hearing.

____________ 7. Separates the outer ear from the middle ear.

_________ _________ 8. Contain the receptors for equilibrium.

H. Round window

I. Semicircular canals

_________ _________ 9. Parts of the outer ear.

_________ _________ _________ 10. Parts of the inner ear.

_________ _________ _________ 11. The auditory ossicles; transmit vibratory motion across the middle ear.

J. Stapes

K. Tympanic membrane L. Vestibule

y;

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Worksheet #11 – The Heart and The Respiratory System Name _________________________________________________________

Fo

Directions: List (in order) the structures that blood would pass through beginning with the superior vena cava (or inferior vena cava or coronary sinus) and ending with the ascending aorta. Some information has been provided, but you must fill in the chambers and the valves. BE AS SPECIFIC AS POSSIBLE. 1. Superior vena cava or inferior vena cava or coronary sinus

rc

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2. _______________________________________ (chamber) 3. _______________________________________ (valve)

4. _______________________________________ (chamber) 5. _______________________________________ (valve) 6. Pulmonary trunk

7. Pulmonary arteries 8. Lung

9. Pulmonary veins

10. _______________________________________ (chamber) 11. _______________________________________ (valve)

12. _______________________________________ (chamber) 13. _______________________________________ (valve) 14. Ascending aorta

Directions: Using arrows (red for oxygenated blood and blue for deoxygenated blood), indicate the direction of blood flow through the heart.

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Courtesy of Blamb/Shutterstock.

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Directions: The items in the column on the left are parts of the intrinsic conduction system of the heart. Place the items in the correct order an impulse would travel through the intrinsic conduction system of the heart.

A. Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His) B. Atrioventricular (AV) node C. Left and right bundle branches

_____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____

D. Purkinje fibers E. Sinoatrial (SA) node

Fo

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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

____________ 1. Air passageway commonly referred to as the “windpipe”; held open by C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage. ____________ 2. First portion of respiratory division; first area that allows for gas exchange. ____________ 3. Air passageway that enters a bronchopulmonary segment of a lung. ____________ 4. Covers the surface of the lung.

A. Alveoli

B. Conchae

C. Choanae

D. Cricoid cartilage

____________ 5. Made of elastic cartilage; blocks food and liquids from entering the larynx.

____________ 6. Also known as the internal nares; passageway between the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx.

E. Epiglottis

F. Parietal pleura

____________ 7. Largest laryngeal cartilage; its laryngeal prominence is commonly referred to as the “Adam’s apple”.

G. Primary (main) bronchus

____________ 8. Scrolls of bone that project from the lateral walls of nasal cavities; causes turbulence of inspired air allowing for warming and cleaning.

H. Respiratory bronchioles

____________ 9. Air passageway that enters a lobe of a lung.

I. Secondary (lobar) bronchus

____________ 10. Smallest bronchiole still part of conducting division.

J. Terminal bronchioles

____________ 11. Lines the wall of the pleural cavities.

____________ 12. Blind, thin-walled pockets that are the termination of the bronchial tree; permit gas exchange. ____________ 13. Air passageway that enters a lung.

____________ 14. Ring of hyaline cartilage that is larger dorsally; its inferior margin marks the border between the larynx and the trachea.

K. Tertiary (segmental) bronchus L. Thyroid cartilage

M. Trachea

N. Visceral pleura

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Worksheet #12 – The Digestive System Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

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____________ 1. Attaches the small intestine to the posterior abdominal wall. ____________ 2. Segment of GI tract that receives bile and pancreatic juice.

A. Esophagus B. Gallbladder C. Greater omentum

____________ 4. Common passageway for liquids, food, and air.

D. Haustra

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____________ 3. The permanent transverse folds of the small intestine’s lining that increase the surface area available for absorption.

____________ 5. Functions include water absorption and feces formation.

E. Ileocecal valve

____________ 6. Reflection of peritoneum that hangs from the greater curvature of the stomach. ____________ 7. Temporary folds of the stomach wall that flatten as the stomach fills.

F. Large intestine

____________ 8. Pouches of the large intestine wall.

G. Lesser omentum

____________ 9. Blind sac attached to the cecum.

H. Liver

____________ 10. Valve controlling movement of chyme from stomach into duodenum. ____________ 11. Produces bile.

____________ 12. Reflection of peritoneum found between the lesser curvature of the stomach and the liver.

I. Mesentery proper

J. Oral cavity

K. Pancreas

____________ 13. Has four gross anatomical parts, namely the fundus, body, cardia, and pylorus. ____________ 14. Valve found between small intestine and large intestine.

L. Parietal peritoneum

____________ 15. Organ responsible for the majority (i.e. 90%) of GI tract absorption.

M. Pharynx

____________ 16. Stores and concentrates bile.

N. Plicae circulares

____________ 17. An endocrine and exocrine gland with a head, body, and tail.

____________ 18. Transports foods and liquids from pharynx to stomach; has no role in digestion or absorption. ____________ 19. Serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity wall.

O. Pyloric Sphincter P. Rugae

Q. Small intestine

____________ 20. Segment of GI tract that receives chyme from the stomach.

____________ 21. Serous membrane that is the outermost layer of the GI tract wall in most (but not all) areas; also known as the “serosa”.

____________ ____________ 22. Two regions of the GI tract extensively involved in the physical breakdown of food.

R. Stomach

S. Vermiform appendix T. Visceral peritoneum

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Worksheet #13 – The Urinary and Reproductive Systems Name _________________________________________________________ Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

Fo

____________ 1. Hollow muscular organ where urine is stored.

A. Kidneys

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____________ 2. Produces urine

____________ 3. Much shorter in females than in males.

B. Urethra

____________ 4. In males can be divided into prostatic, membranous, and spongy (penile) parts. ____________ 5. Muscular tube that propels urine towards the urinary bladder.

C. Ureter

____________ 6. Drains urine from urinary bladder to the body’s exterior. ____________ 7. Besides urine, also transports sperm in males.

D. Urinary bladder

Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

____________ 1. Small, rounded gland that surrounds the urethra just inferior to the urinary bladder; produces and secretes a milky fluid.

A. Bulbourethral glands

____________ 2. The passageway that connects the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

B. Ductus deferens or vas deferens

____________ 3. Tubular maturation and storage site for sperm; found along the posterolateral aspect of the testes.

C. Epididymis

____________ 4. Leydig cells in this structure produce testosterone.

D. Penis

____________ 5. Produce approximately 60% of the seminal fluid; lie on the posterior wall of the urinary bladder.

E. Prostate

____________ 6. Male copulatory organ; delivers semen to the female reproductive tract. ____________ 7. Pouch of skin where the testes are housed.

F. Seminal vesicles

____________ 8. Pea-sized, paired glands found on either side of the membranous urethra; produce lubricating mucus that washes out any residual urine from the urethra.

G. Scrotum

____________ 9. Produce the male gamete (i.e. sperm).

H. Testes

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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.

____________ 1. Produce the female gamete (i.e. ovum or egg).

A. Fimbriae

____________ 2. Houses the developing fetus. ____________ 3. Site of estrogens and progesterone production.

B. Ovaries

____________ 4. Fingerlike extensions of uterine (fallopian) tube; motion help to draw ovum into uterine (fallopian) tube.

C. Uterine tube or fallopian tube

Fo

____________ 5. Location where fertilization usually takes place. ____________ 6. Female copulatory organ; receives the penis during sexual intercourse.

D. Uterus

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____________ 7. Duct for the passage of the ovum from the peritoneal cavity to the uterus. ____________ 8. Passageway for the elimination of menstrual fluids and for childbirth.

E. Vaginal canal or vagina

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