L’Apprentissage de la critique: Développer l’analyse critique en physique 9782759823833

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L’Apprentissage de la critique Développer l’analyse critique en physique

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L’Apprentissage de la critique Développer l’analyse critique en physique

Laurence Viennot Nicolas Décamp

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TABLE DES MATIÈRES

1. Pourquoi la critique ? Pourquoi la physique ?   7 'pYHORSSHUO¶DWWLWXGHFULWLTXHXQHWUDGLWLRQHWXQHXUJHQFH 8 3RXUTXRLXQGRPDLQHGHFRQQDLVVDQFHSDUWLFXOLHU" 10 3RXUTXRLODSK\VLTXH" 12 )RUPDWLRQGHVHQVHLJQDQWVjO¶DQDO\VHFULWLTXH 12 6WUXFWXUHGHO¶RXYUDJH 14

2. Failles avérées   17 /DFRQWUDGLFWLRQLQWHUQH /DFRQWUDGLFWLRQGLUHFWHG¶XQHORL /DFRQWUDGLFWLRQLQGLUHFWHG¶XQHORL /¶LQFRPSOpWXGHORJLTXHG¶XQHH[SOLFDWLRQ /DVDQFWLRQGHO¶H[SpULHQFHHWODJpQpUDOLVDWLRQDEXVLYH /¶LQFRPSDWLELOLWpG¶XQUDLVRQQHPHQWHWG¶XQHH[SpULHQFHGHSHQVpH 4XDQGO¶H[SpULHQFHDXUDLWG€rWUHIDLWH 'HVLQGLFHVFXPXODEOHVSRXUGHVPLVHVHQFDXVHXWLOHV

17 19 23 25 27 29 31 33

3. Facteurs de risque   37 'HX[FLUFRQVWDQFHVDJJUDYDQWHV /HVVLPSOL¿FDWLRQV /¶H[SOLFDWLRQUpFLWRX©OLQpDLUHFDXVDOHª 0HWWUHHQpYLGHQFHYLVXHOOHRXDQDORJLTXHQRQVDQVULVTXHV 0XOWLSOLFLWpGHVULVTXHVSRLQWVG¶DWWHQWLRQSRXUO¶DQDO\VHFULWLTXH

37 41 50 61 70

4. Mettre en œuvre une analyse critique : première approche   73 8QHJULOOHG¶DQDO\VH 8QGRFXPHQWVXUO¶RVPRVHXQFDVRODFULWLTXHHVWUHODWLYHPHQWDLVpH /¶DVFHQVLRQFDSLOODLUHSDVVLVLPSOH $XGHOjGXFODVVHPHQW

73 74 79 82

5. Maîtrise conceptuelle et attitude critique : des liens complexes   83 'HIXWXUVHQVHLJQDQWVUpDJLVVHQWVXUODGDWDWLRQDXFDUERQH 84 &ULWLTXHGLIIpUpHRXDQHVWKpVLHH[SHUWHXQHIDWDOLWp" 91

6. Activer la critique sans attendre   95 'HVFDVGHFULWLTXHSUpFRFH 95 /HVFRQGLWLRQVG¶XQHDFWLYDWLRQSUpFRFHGHODFULWLTXH 100

7. Former à l’analyse critique   105 %LHQSUR¿WHUG¶XQWH[WH 106 /¶DQDO\VHFULWLTXHXQHDFWLYLWpWRXMRXUVIUXFWXHXVH 109 8QHIRUPDWLRQGHIXWXUVHQVHLJQDQWV 115

8. La critique : vers plus de compréhension   121

Annexes A. Un point de vue épistémologique   129 B. Une séance de classe sur l’isolation thermique   135 C. La composition de l’atmosphère et la datation au carbone 14   139 D. Une explication simplifiée de l’effet Magnus   143 E. La bouteille percée et la portée des jets   147 F. Piles, électrolyseurs et sens du courant   151 G. L’ascension capillaire et la force qui « hisse » le liquide   157 H. De quel côté mettre la couverture de survie ?   167 I. La pression de l’eau et l’osmose   173 J. Banque de textes utilisables en formation   179 À propos des auteurs   191 Références bibliographiques   193

6

Chapitre 1

POURQUOI LA CRITIQUE ? POURQUOI LA PHYSIQUE ?

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8 Chap. 1 − Pourquoi la critique ? Pourquoi la physique ?

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10 Chap. 1 − Pourquoi la critique ? Pourquoi la physique ?

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Fig. 2.3 – Premières données sur la situation du cycliste vue par un rédacteur d’exercice.

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Fig. 2.4 – Le schéma qui semble attendu des élèves à propos de la situation de la figure 2.3 ; force vers l’arrière : force de frottement de l’air sur le vélo, force vers l’avant : « force qu’exerce le cycliste sur le vélo ».

23

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Fig. 2.5 – Les forces réciproques de celles représentées en figure 2.4 : celle représentée sur le cycliste le ferait tomber de son vélo.

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Fig. 2.6 – Schéma éclaté pour mettre en évidence la prise en compte des seconde et troisième lois de Newton dans la situation du cycliste. Les flèches sur le sol et sur les roues représentent deux interactions de frottement entre vélo et sol, l’une motrice (pour le vélo) sur la roue arrière, l’autre de freinage (pour le vélo) sur la roue avant. Le bilan de l’ensemble des forces qui s’exercent sur le système cycliste-vélo (forces représentées à l’intérieur de l’ovale en pointillé) est nul.

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Temps Fig. 2.7 – Évolution de la température intérieure d’une maison avec un système hors gel réglé plus (trait noir) ou moins (traits gris) haut : après un délai d’absence donné, la température intérieure n’est jamais plus haute dans le second cas que dans le premier et donc à chaque instant l’énergie transférée vers l’extérieur pendant l’absence des propriétaires est inférieure (régime permanent) ou égale (début et fin de la période d’absence) avec le réglage du système hors gel le plus bas.

30 Chap. 2 − Failles avérées

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31

De manière récurrente, on trouve des illustrations qui annoncent que le jet du bas a la plus grande portée. (a) Hibon (1996, p. 126) ; (b) Santamaria (2007, p. 17) ; (c) da Vinci (1828). Cela montrerait, selon ces auteurs, que la pression hydrostatique augmente avec la profondeur.

(a)

(b)

(c)

En fait, la vitesse d’éjection augmente bien avec la distance du trou à la surface de l’eau, mais la durée de chute, elle, augmente avec la distance de ce trou au support (dépendances non linéaires). C’est finalement le produit de ces deux distances qui détermine la portée des jets sur le support (plus précisément, le carré de la portée des jets sur le support est égal au produit de ces deux distances, voir annexe E).

(d)

Lorsque les valeurs de ces distances s’interchangent (trous symétriques par rapport au milieu), les portées sont égales, comme en témoigne la figure (d) (photo G. Planinšič). Fig. 2.8 – La portée des jets issus d’une bouteille d’eau percée.

32 Chap. 2 − Failles avérées

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33

+

Fig. 2.9 – Le champ dipolaire créé par les charges situées sur les pôles ne peut, à lui seul, rendre compte du mouvement des électrons dans les fils.

+++++

+ +++++ ++++ ++++ +++ +++ ++

+

++

+

Fig. 2.10 – Le champ dans les fils d’un circuit électrique en régime quasi stationnaire est associé au modèle des charges réparties sur les surfaces des fils. Non représentées ici, les charges au voisinage des courbes du circuit sont essentielles pour expliquer que les électrons ont partout une vitesse moyenne parallèle au fil. Voir notamment Chabay et Sherwood (2006).

34 Chap. 2 − Failles avérées

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35

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38 Chap. 3 − Facteurs de risque

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p0 p0 p0

p0

Les exercices classiques sur la montgolfière précisent que les pressions intérieure et extérieure sont égales à la pression atmosphérique p0. Questions qui se présentent alors : – Pourquoi l’enveloppe est-elle gonflée ? – Quelle force vers le haut équilibre le poids de la montgolfière ? En fait, une situation isobare annulerait par principe la poussée d’Archimède.

p Toute flottaison d’un corps dans un milieu extérieur fluide en présence de graviPression té suppose qu’il existe, dans interne pint ce milieu, une variation de Pression pression (p) avec l’altitude, externe pext c’est-à-dire un gradient de pression de composante verticale non nulle. Or un Haut de z Ouverture de tel gradient est présent dans l’enveloppe l’enveloppe tout fluide de masse volumique ρ en équilibre dans un champ de gravité g. Sa composante verticale est : dp = – ρg. dz À cause de la plus faible densité de l’air chaud, la pression interne diminue moins vite avec l’altitude z que la pression externe : la pression interne est supérieure à la pression externe, sauf à l’ouverture. Fig. 3.2 – Un rituel d’enseignement et son analyse critique.

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39

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42 Chap. 3 − Facteurs de risque

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(a) Faisceau de lumière verte sur un pigment noir

(b) Faisceau de lumière verte sur un pigment rouge

(c) Faisceau de lumière verte sur un pigment vert

Fig. 3.3 – Un faisceau laser vert (λ = 532 nanomètres) est dirigé sur des pigments de diverses couleurs. Contrairement à ce que prédisent les règles en tout ou rien (cas a, b : un pigment noir ou rouge absorberait totalement une lumière verte ; cas c : un pigment vert diffuserait totalement une lumière verte), la lumière incidente est plus ou moins absorbée/diffusée selon la couleur du pigment impacté. Noter que, par un effet de saturation, la lumière verte intense apparait blanche sur les photos.

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Fig. 3.4 – Une plateforme en béton flotte du fait qu’elle est évidée (cas 1) : la poussée d’Archimède est alors plus faible qu’avec une plateforme de même volume extérieur non évidée et reposant au fond de la mer (cas 2).

47

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3RLGVGHOD FRORQQHG HDX Fig. 3.5 – La situation d’une éprouvette retournée sur l’eau commentée par Marie Curie.

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Décalage latéral des flèches : pour faciliter la lecture. Eau dans la cuve

Terre Fig. 3.6 – Analyse de la situation de l’éprouvette retournée en schémas éclatés (les bilans ne sont complets que pour l’éprouvette et l’eau de la colonne).

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52 Chap. 3 − Facteurs de risque

UpGXLWHODGXUpHGHSURSDJDWLRQGHVLQWHUDFWLRQVGHFRQWDFWOHORQJGXV\VWqPH HVW WRXW j IDLW QpJOLJHDEOH GHYDQW OD GXUpH FDUDFWpULVWLTXH GH O¶H[WHQVLRQ GX V\VWqPH2QWUDGXLWFHODHQSK\VLTXHHQGLVDQWTXHFKDTXHpWDSHGHODWUDQVIRUPDWLRQDORUV©ௗTXDVLVWDWLTXHௗª HVWXQpWDWG¶pTXLOLEUHFHTXLDXWRULVHj XWLOLVHUOHVORLVDVVRFLpHV En physique quasi statique, plusieurs variables changent (presque) simultanément sous la contrainte de relations à validité permanente. Nous avons ainsi dans le cas des deux ressorts mis bout à bout : Fext(t) = T1 (même t) = T2 (même t) ∆ℓT (t) = ∆ℓ1 (même t) + ∆ℓ2 (même t) où Fext est la force exercée par l’expérimentateur sur l’extrémité inférieure ; T1, T2 sont les tensions de chaque ressort ; ∆ℓ1, ∆ℓ2 sont les extensions de chaque ressort ; ∆ℓT est l’extension totale. Pour ∆ℓT = 10 cm et les constantes de raideur k1 = 3 N/cm et k2 = 2 N/cm, la réponse attendue est ∆ℓ2 = 6 cm. Dans les explications-récits, des phénomènes simples (chacun correspondant à une seule variable, souvent localisés en un lieu unique) sont considérés séquentiellement (et donc) temporairement.

k2

k1

Un commentaire symptomatique est : « Le ressort du bas s’étire de 10 cm et, au bout d’un certain moment, le second aussi. » Le calcul correspondant est : Fext = k1 × ∆ℓ1 = 30 N T1 = T2 = Fext T On obtient : ∆ℓ2 = 2 = 15 cm. k2 Fig. 3.7 – Contraste entre l’analyse quasi statique et l’explication-récit (linéaire causale) : l’exemple des deux ressorts bout à bout.

53

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56 Chap. 3 − Facteurs de risque

B

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Fig. 3.9 – Schémas présentant l’évolution des porteurs (ici des électrons) dans un métal lorsqu’il est soumis à la fois à un champ électrique et à un champ d’induction magnétique ; (a) : en régime permanent les porteurs de charge suivent la même trajectoire qu’en l’absence de champ magnétique ; (b) : une image de Wikipedia (Peo, 2005, Effet Hall pour différents sens du courant et du champ magnétique, sous licence CC-BY-SA 3.0) suggérant un régime permanent qui garderait trace d’un régime transitoire.

(b)

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74 Chap. 4 − Mettre en œuvre une analyse critique : première approche

Membrane semi-perméable

Membrane semi-perméable

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Fig. 4.1 – Une représentation de l’évolution d’un état initial à une situation d’équilibre osmotique (fréquemment observée, notamment sur Wikipedia). Les petits cercles suggèrent la présence, en concentrations d’abord différentes puis égales, de part et d’autre de la membrane, de molécules de soluté dans le solvant (lequel ne figure pas en tant que tel, sinon par son niveau dans les branches du tube).

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76 Chap. 4 − Mettre en œuvre une analyse critique : première approche

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Membrane semi-perméable

Membrane semi-perméable (a)

(b) Fig. 4.3 – Deux situations d’équilibre, toutes deux possibles à en croire le texte considéré. L’une (a) est totalement symétrique et l’équilibre est évident ; l’autre (b) est conforme à la figure 4.1 dans l’état final : le même contenu dans le compartiment gauche serait en équilibre avec deux contenus très différents dans le compartiment droit.

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J’ai raison puisque le côté argenté renvoie mieux la chaleur vers moi.

J’ai raison puisque le côté argenté émet moins vers l’extérieur.

Fig. 6.1 – De quel côté doit-on mettre la couverture de survie pour se protéger du froid ? Dilemme !

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Membrane semi-perméable État initial

Membrane semi-perméable État final

Fig. 6.2 – (Cette figure est identique à la figure 4.1.) Un type de dessin fréquemment observé, notamment sur Wikipédia, pour introduire le phénomène d’osmose.

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γSG γLG

γSL θ

Fig. 6.3 – (Cette figure est identique à la figure 4.4.) Une figure d’emploi courant pour introduire la formule de Young. On a γLG cos θ = γSG – γSL, où γLG, γSG et γSL sont les coefficients de tension interfaciale (forces par unité de longueur) relatifs respectivement aux interfaces liquide/gaz, solide/gaz et solide/liquide, et θ est l’angle de contact.

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103

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Tab. 7.2(b) – Extrait d’un débat en classe à propos du document sur les extraterrestres (ET) (le professeur pose des questions sur les premières réactions des élèves, écrites ici en gras) (suite). Transcription du débat

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120 Chap. 7 − Former à l’analyse critique

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136 Annexe B − Une séance de classe sur l’isolation thermique

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137

Annexe C

LA COMPOSITION DE L’ATMOSPHÈRE ET LA DATATION AU CARBONE 14

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140 Annexe C − La composition de l’atmosphère et la datation au carbone 14

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141

142 Annexe C − La composition de l’atmosphère et la datation au carbone 14

Éléments de connaissance requis* et accessibles avant le baccalauréat

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Questions à se poser

Tab. C.1 – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance à propos de la datation au carbone 14 et niveau académique nécessaire a priori pour les exprimer, voire pour y répondre.

Annexe D

UNE EXPLICATION SIMPLIFIÉE DE L’EFFET MAGNUS

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Fig. D.1 – Effet Magnus, pour un fluide en déplacement relatif (ici de droite à gauche) par rapport à une balle en rotation : la partie de la balle au contact de tubes de courant plus étroits (sous la balle : vitesse relative plus grande) est soumise à des forces de pression moindres (qu’au-dessus de la balle) (Guyon, Hulin & Petit, 2012, p. 250-251).

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force de pression B

force de pression A Fig. D.2 – Une figure, dans un texte de vulgarisation, pour expliquer la dépendance mutuelle entre vitesse du fluide et pression.

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144 Annexe D − Une explication simplifiée de l’effet Magnus

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146 Annexe D − Une explication simplifiée de l’effet Magnus

Éléments de connaissance requis* et accessibles avant le baccalauréat

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Tab. D.1 – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance à propos du texte analysé et niveau nécessaire a priori pour les exprimer, voire pour y répondre.

Annexe E

LA BOUTEILLE PERCÉE ET LA PORTÉE DES JETS

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A

H

B

νh

h

Fig. E.1 – L’application du théorème de Bernoulli à deux points d’une ligne de courant pour l’écoulement de l’eau au sein de la bouteille.

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148 Annexe E − La bouteille percée et la portée des jets

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12

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149

150 Annexe E − La bouteille percée et la portée des jets

Éléments de connaissance requis* et accessibles avant le baccalauréat

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12

d (h) = 2 [ h(H − h)]

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Question à se poser

Tab. E.1 – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance à propos de documents sur la bouteille percée.

Annexe F

PILES, ÉLECTROLYSEURS ET SENS DU COURANT

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152 Annexe F − Piles, électrolyseurs et sens du courant

Électrode négative de l’électrolyseur

Électrode positive de l’électrolyseur

–

+

Électrode négative de la pile

Électrode positive de la pile

–

+

Anions (–)

Anions (–)

Anions (–)

Cations (+)

Cations (+)

Cations (+)

Fig. F.1 – On explique souvent la migration des ions dans un électrolyseur en indiquant que les cations (de charge positive) sont attirés par l’électrode négative de l’électrolyseur et que les anions (de charge négative) sont attirés par l’électrode positive de l’électrolyseur. Il est alors intrigant de constater que la migration des ions dans une pile se fait dans le sens opposé.

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+++++

+ +++++ ++++ ++++ +++ +++ ++

+

++

+

Fig. F.2 – (Cette figure est identique à la figure 2.10.) Évocation de la répartition des charges dans un circuit simple en régime quasi stationnaire. Des charges de surface sont représentées en différents points du circuit afin que le gradient de charge et le champ résultant soient explicites. Non représentées ici, les charges au voisinage des courbes du circuit sont essentielles pour expliquer que les électrons ont partout une vitesse moyenne parallèle au fil.

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153

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Générateur

–

+ +

B

Em

+

E

– –

Fig. F.3 – Figure illustrant le champ électrique (E) et le champ électromoteur (Em ) au sein d’un générateur.

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154 Annexe F − Piles, électrolyseurs et sens du courant

φ

j

«U»

∆φ+

∆φ–

Uchute ohmique (sol. aq. CuSO4) – Zn

Sol. aq. ZnSO4

Sol. aq. KNO3

Sol. aq. CuSO4

+ Cu

Fig. F.4 – Profil de potentiel dans une pile Daniell parcourue par un courant en fonctionnement générateur (d’après Lefrou, Fabry & Poignet, 2013, p. 75). U est la différence de potentiel entre les bornes de la pile, les termes Δφ– et Δφ+ représentent les chutes de potentiel entre chaque électrode et le liquide. Le vecteur j représente la densité de courant.

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155

156 Annexe F − Piles, électrolyseurs et sens du courant

Éléments de connaissance requis* et accessibles avant le baccalauréat

Éléments de connaissance supplémentaires requis* RXVLPSOHPHQWXWLOHVHWDFFHVVLEOHVDYDQWOD¿QGHODOLFHQFH

*Requis pour au moins poser la question, et éventuellement y répondre.

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'DQV TXHO VHQV HW SRXUTXRL • /HV FKDUJHV SRVLWLYHV VRQW DWWLUpHV SDU • EFKDPSpOHFWULTXH OHV FKDUJHV FLUFXOHQWHOOHV j OHV FKDUJHV QpJDWLYHV HW UpFLSURTXH- • VSRWHQWLHOpOHFWULTXH O¶LQWpULHXUG¶XQHSLOH" PHQW • (Q XQ SRLQW G¶XQ PLOLHX R UqJQH XQ FKDPS pOHFWULTXH E OHV FKDUJHVpOHFWULTXHVSRVLWLYHVUHVSHFWLYHPHQWQpJDWLYHV VRQWVRXPLVHVHQWUHDXWUHV jXQHIRUFHFROLQpDLUHUHVSHFWLYHPHQWRSSRVpH jFHFKDPS3RXUXQHFRQGXFWLYLWpσGXPLOLHXODGHQVLWpGH FRXUDQWHQFHSRLQWHVW j = σ E • /HORQJG¶XQHOLJQHGHFKDPSOHFKDPSpOHFWULTXHHVWGLULJpYHUV OHVSRWHQWLHOVGpFURLVVDQWV • 3RWHQWLHOG¶R[\GDWLRQ E ±grad V.

Question à se poser

Tab. F.1 – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance à propos des explications courantes des mouvements de charges dans une pile.

Annexe G

L’ASCENSION CAPILLAIRE ET LA FORCE QUI « HISSE » LE LIQUIDE

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164 Annexe G − L’ascension capillaire et la force qui « hisse » le liquide

165

Éléments de connaissance requis* et accessibles avant le baccalauréat

• %LODQGHIRUFHVV¶H[HUoDQWVXUXQV\VWqPH • 'HX[LqPHORLGH1HZWRQ • ,FLLOHVWSUREOpPDWLTXHG¶LQWHUSUpWHUFHVFKpPDFRPPHXQELODQ GHIRUFHVV¶H[HUoDQWVXUXQV\VWqPHPDVVLTXH  • /HWHUPHG¶©LQWHUIDFHªVXJJqUHXQHOLJQHLPPDWpULHOOHLOIDXGUDLW VSpFL¿HUTXHOOHVPROpFXOHVVRQWFRQFHUQpHVSDUOHELODQ

*Requis pour au moins poser la question, et éventuellement y répondre.

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6LOHVFKpPDGHOD¿JXUH* • %LODQGHIRUFHVV¶H[HUoDQWVXUXQV\VWqPH GHYDLW V¶LQWHUSUpWHU FRPPH • 'HX[LqPHORLGH1HZWRQ XQ ELODQ GH IRUFHV j O¶pTXL • ,FLLOQ¶HVWHQHIIHWSDVSRVVLEOHG¶LQWHUSUpWHUFHVFKpPDFRPPHXQ OLEUH SRXUTXRL FH ELODQ ELODQGHIRUFHVjO¶pTXLOLEUH Q¶HVWLO SDV pTXLOLEUp HQ GLUHFWLRQKRUL]RQWDOH"

Question à se poser (contexte : à température donnée)

Éléments de connaissance supplémentaires requis* ou simplement utiles, HWDFFHVVLEOHVDYDQWOD¿QGHODOLFHQFH

Tab. G.1(a) – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance à propos d’explications courantes de l’ascension capillaire.

166 Annexe G − L’ascension capillaire et la force qui « hisse » le liquide

Éléments de connaissance supplémentaires requis* ou simplement utiles, HWDFFHVVLEOHVDYDQWOD¿QGHODOLFHQFH

• %LODQGHIRUFHVV¶H[HUoDQWVXUXQV\VWqPH • 8QHIDoRQGHUpSRQGUHDX[TXHVWLRQVSRVpHV • 'HX[LqPHORLGH1HZWRQ HVWSURSRVpHHQ¿JXUH* • ,FLLOHVWSUREOpPDWLTXHG¶LQWHUSUpWHUO¶XQRXO¶DXWUHVFKpPDSRXU • /HVIRUFHVSDUXQLWpGHORQJXHXUGHODOLJQH MXVWL¿HUODSUpVHQFHGHODFRORQQHG¶HDXSXLVTX¶LOQ¶HVWSDVSUpGHFRQWDFWTXLVRQWPHQWLRQQpHVFRQFHUQHQW FLVpVXUTXHOV\VWqPHFHVIRUFHVV¶H[HUFHQW OHV PROpFXOHV GH FKDTXH FRUSV HQ LQWHUDF• 6LRQSDUWGHO¶K\SRWKqVHTXOHVIRUFHVVRQWFHQVpHVV¶H[HUFHUVXU WLRQVLWXpHVSUqVGHODVXUIDFHGHVpSDUDWLRQ O¶HDXDXQLYHDXGHVDVXUIDFHOLEUHRQREVHUYHTXH VXUXQHpSDLVVHXUGHTXHOTXHVPROpFXOHV ±OHVFKpPDGHOD¿JXUH* VHPEOHpTXLOLEUpHQGLUHFWLRQYHUWLFDOH PDLVQHPHQWLRQQHSDVOHSRLGVGHO¶HDXFRQFHUQpH ± OH VFKpPD GH OD ¿JXUH * QH FRPSRUWH SOXV TXH GHX[ IRUFHV SRXUTXRL"  HW SRXUUDLW VH FRPSUHQGUH VL TXHOTXH FKRVH WLUDLW O¶HDXYHUVOHKDXWLOVXI¿UDLWGHUDMRXWHUOHSRLGVGHODFRORQQH 2UXQFRUSVKRPRJqQHGHVXUIDFHOLVVHHWSODQHRXF\OLQGULTXHj JpQpUDWULFHYHUWLFDOHOHWXEH QHSHXWH[HUFHUVXUXQHPROpFXOH G¶HDXTX¶XQHIRUFHKRUL]RQWDOH

Éléments de connaissance requis* et accessibles avant le baccalauréat

*Requis pour au moins poser la question, et éventuellement y répondre.

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6LOHVFKpPDGHOD¿JXUH* RX GH OD ¿JXUH * GHYDLW V¶LQWHUSUpWHUFRPPHXQELODQ GHIRUFHVjO¶pTXLOLEUHFRP PHQW FHOD UHQGUDLWLO FRPSWH GHO¶H[LVWHQFHG¶XQHFRORQQH G¶HDXGDQVOHWXEH" &RPPHQW OH YHUUH F\OLQGUH KRPRJqQH OLVVH HW YHUWLFDO  SRXUUDLWLOH[HUFHUXQHIRUFH DXWUHTX¶KRUL]RQWDOH"

Question à se poser (contexte : à température donnée)

Tab. G.1(b) – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance à propos d’explications courantes de l’ascension capillaire (suite).

Annexe H

DE QUEL CÔTÉ METTRE LA COUVERTURE DE SURVIE ?

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∞

0

Ee (ν ) dν ODSXLVVDQFHDEVRUEpHSDUXQFRUSVSDUXQLWpGHVXUIDFH

SHUSHQGLFXODLUHDXUD\RQQHPHQWHVW ∞

∫a(ν ) Ee (ν )dν = ar Ee 0

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M e (T ) = ∫e (ν ) M eo (T ,ν ) dν = et M eo (T ) = et σ T 4 0

RıHVWODFRQVWDQWHGH6WHIDQM eo (T ,Q ) HVWO¶©H[LWDQFHpQHUJpWLTXHVSHFWUDOHªG¶XQFRUSV QRLU j OD WHPSpUDWXUH DEVROXH T /¶pPLVVLYLWp WRWDOH et HVW Gp¿QLH SDU OH UDSSRUW HQWUH OD SXLVVDQFHWRWDOHpPLVHSDUXQLWpGHVXUIDFHSDUOHFRUSVHWFHOOHG¶XQFRUSVQRLUjODPrPH WHPSpUDWXUH et HVW pJDOH j OD YDOHXU PR\HQQH SRQGpUpH SDU M eo (T ,Q ) GHV pPLVVLYLWpV VSHFWUDOHVeȞ UHODWLYHVjWRXWHVOHVIUpTXHQFHV 2QD aȞ  eȞ SRXUWRXWȞ FHVFRHI¿FLHQWV SHXYHQWYDULHUEHDXFRXSDYHFODIUpTXHQFH &RUSVQRLUaȞ  eȞ  SRXUWRXWȞet M eo (T ) = σ T 4 .

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168 Annexe H − De quel côté mettre la couverture de survie ?

±DLQVL$a$o ±SRXULQGLTXHUOHFDVROHF{WpDUJHQWUHVSHFWLYHPHQWRU  HVWWRXUQpYHUVO¶H[WpULHXU

Fig. H.1 – Pièces de différents matériaux collées sur une bouilloire métallique remplie d’eau bouillante : les températures affichées par un radiomètre 1 infrarouge du commerce signalent des émissivités très différentes (couverture de survie, côté argent : 27 °C ; ruban adhésif semi-transparent : 95 °C ; ruban adhésif noir : 96 °C ; couverture de survie, côté or : 38 °C). 

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RC Couverture

R'A

Air extérieur RA

Fig. H.2 – Analogie électrique pour les transferts d’énergie entre une personne à protéger et l’extérieur.

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169

8QHIDoRQGHOHIDLUHHVWGHV¶LQWpUHVVHUjOHXUGLIIpUHQFH ( C ′ + Ao ) ( C + Aa ) ( C ′ + Aa ) ( C + Ao ) Ga − Go = − C ′ + Ao + C + Aa C ′ + Aa + C + Ao =

( C − C ′) ( Ao − Aa ) C ′ + Ao + C + Aa

.

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J’ai raison par temps calme et sec.

Fig. H.3 – La meilleure décision pour se protéger du froid dépend de la météorologie.

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170 Annexe H − De quel côté mettre la couverture de survie ?

171

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Tab. H.2 – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance à propos d’explications courantes sur la couverture de survie.

Annexe I

LA PRESSION DE L’EAU ET L’OSMOSE

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Membrane semi-perméable

Membrane semi-perméable État initial

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Fig. I.2 – (Cette figure est identique à la figure 4.1.) Un type de dessin fréquemment observé (notamment sur Wikipedia) pour introduire le phénomène d’osmose, et qui suggère qu’à l’équilibre, la concentration en soluté est la même de part et d’autre de la membrane.

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174 Annexe I − La pression de l’eau et l’osmose

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176 Annexe I − La pression de l’eau et l’osmose

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Tab. I.1(a) – Éléments de questionnement et de connaissance utiles dans l’analyse d’explications courantes sur l’osmose.

178 Annexe I − La pression de l’eau et l’osmose

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Annexe J

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À PROPOS DES AUTEURS

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