Language Teacher Leadership: Insights from Research and Practice (New Language Learning and Teaching Environments) 3031428706, 9783031428708

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NEW LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING ENVIRONMENTS

Language Teacher Leadership Insights from Research and Practice Edited by Hayo Reinders

New Language Learning and Teaching Environments

Series Editor Hayo Reinders Department of Education; Department of Languages Anaheim University; King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi Anaheim; Bangkok, USA

New Language Learning and Teaching Environments is an exciting new book series edited by Hayo Reinders, dedicated to recent developments in learner-centred approaches and the impact of technology on learning and teaching inside and outside the language classroom. The series aims to: • Publish cutting-edge research into current developments and innovation in language learning and teaching practice. • Publish applied accounts of the ways in which these developments impact on current and future language education. • Encourage dissemination and cross-fertilisation of policies and practice relating to learner-centred pedagogies for language learning and teaching in new learning environments. • Disseminate research and best practice in out-of-class and informal language learning. The series is a multidisciplinary forum for the very latest developments in language education, taking a pedagogic approach with a clear focus on the learner, and with clear implications for both researchers and language practitioners. It is the first such series to provide an outlet for researchers to publish their work, and the first stop for teachers interested in this area.

Hayo Reinders Editor

Language Teacher Leadership Insights from Research and Practice

Editor Hayo Reinders Bangkok, Thailand

ISSN 2946-2932     ISSN 2946-2940 (electronic) New Language Learning and Teaching Environments ISBN 978-3-031-42870-8    ISBN 978-3-031-42871-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover credit line: akinbostanci / Getty images This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Foreword

Sometimes we describe a person as a born leader, referring to one who has the innate capacity to be able to set goals for others, to inspire them to follow the leader’s vision, and who can manage others to realize collective goals. The goal of an organization from this perspective is to find people with these skills and to promote them to positions of leadership. An alternative understanding of leadership is reflected in this book. This describes the nature of leadership in schools that function as communities of practice. These are places where teachers collaborate to set goals, find creative solutions to problems, and recognize and support the potential and development of others. The goal of the school is to develop a culture that recognizes and nurtures the role of teachers as leaders and understands the role this can play both in teachers’ career development and in developing the quality of the school. This means establishing a school culture where individual responsibility and agency for teaching and learning are shared among teachers and students, teachers and colleagues, and teachers and administrators. For many teachers, goals for professional development often reflect an aspirational identity as a leader and one whose leadership abilities are recognized and supported. The teacher’s future self may be envisaged as a course-coordinator, a mentor, a curriculum specialist, a workshop leader, or head of department. The teacher may look for opportunities to draw on and develop their leadership potential, to make use of their v

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interpersonal skills and their ability to establish collaboration and teamwork with others. But as teachers transition to leadership roles they may discover that there can also be a negative side to leadership. Issues may arise relating to power, roles, and identity that can be both rewarding and challenging. Institutional leadership often involves unwelcome administrative tasks such as managing meetings, planning budgets, and giving performance appraisals. It may also involve supporting teachers who may be having difficulty with their teaching or with their students or colleagues resulting in stress, frustration, and other emotional issues. Graduate teacher education programs for language teachers such as the MA TESOL degree often neither acknowledge how being a leader is a core dimension of teacher professional identity and practice nor address the nature of the knowledge, awareness, interpersonal and social skills needed to succeed in leadership responsibilities and decision-making in one’s career as a language teaching professional. The challenges teachers face as they transition to roles that require leadership potential are often underreported, as well as how teachers can be supported along this journey. This book is therefore a welcome addition to the nature of leadership in language teaching. Contributors describe their own leadership stories providing engaging examples of the challenges they experienced and the avenues of support they made use of in their professional journeys. The collection raises important questions both for teachers and for teacher educators. For teachers these include: What does leadership mean to me and in what ways do I experience issues related to leadership in my class and school? Where and how have I developed my understanding of the nature of leadership? Which of the activities I am regularly involved in as a teacher, call upon specific qualities or dimensions of leadership? What are potential benefits and challenges for me of further developing my knowledge and experience of leadership?

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For teacher educators, questions include: What would a leadership program for ESL teachers look like and what would it seek to achieve? How can teachers become involved in exploring the nature and functions of leadership in their own teaching contexts? What can schools and institutions do to provide opportunities for teachers to recognize, develop, and apply their leadership potential? This timely collection is hence an invaluable resource for deepening our understanding of the nature and role of leadership in language teaching. It also provides fascinating accounts of how leadership is addressed in a wide and representative range of language teaching and second language teacher education contexts. Victoria University  Wellington, New Zealand, Sydney University Sydney, NSW, Australia

Jack C. Richards

Praise for Language Teacher Leadership “This edited collection on Language Teacher Leadership, comprised of 13 chapters on three broad areas of leadership is an essential addition to any language teacher leader’s professional library. The volume editor, Hayo Reinders, has brought together chapters related to personal, organizational and professional leadership and given voice to authors within the global context of ELT on language teacher leadership and program administration. A must read!” —Dr Christine Coombe, Associate Professor, Dubai Men’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology, UAE, TESOL International Association President (2011-2012)

Contents

 Willingness to Lead: A Framework for Language Teacher Leadership Development  1 Hayo Reinders  ‘Teacher You Are Stupid!’ Cultivating and Nurturing a Reflective Disposition in Leaders 19 Thomas S. C. Farrell Diverse Pathways into Leadership in World Language Education 39 Caleb Powers and Kathleen M. Bailey  Filling in the Blanks: Syncing Teacher and Student Perspectives Within Educational Partnerships 75 Ewen MacDonald, Daniel Hooper, and Tim Murphey P  ersonal Leadership for Wellbeing103 Tammy Gregersen and Hayo Reinders

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 The Role of Teacher Leadership in Interdisciplinary Collaborations: A Case Study of Discipline-Specific Writing in the Philippines125 Marella Therese Tiongson  Peer Mentoring and Coaching as Tools for Leadership Development and Learning153 Denise E. Murray and MaryAnn Christison  When Visible Minorities Lead Visible Majorities181 Andy Curtis, Okon Effiong, and Mary Romney  Developing Language Teacher Identity and Leadership Skills in Intercultural Learning Environments209 Katharina von Elbwart and Dagmar Keatinge  Teacher Leadership as the Missing Link Between TBLT Research and Pedagogical Practice229 William Dunn, Xavier Gutiérrez, and Leila Ranta  Building Leadership Capacity: The Impact of Language Teacher Leadership Programs255 William S. Davis and Brianna Janssen Sánchez  “Womentoring” as Leadership Development in the Field of TESOL283 Laura Baecher, Araceli Salas, Luciana C. de Oliveira, Jennifer D. Pendergrass, Lenora Haranaka, and Hind Elyas I ndex309

Notes on Contributors

Laura Baecher  is a professor at the Hunter College School of Education, City University of New York, where she also serves as a faculty fellow in the Academic Center for Excellence in Research and Teaching. Her interests relate to teacher/faculty learning, observation and coaching, and professional development. Recent books include Study Abroad in Teacher Education: Transformative Learning for Pre- and In-Service Teachers and Global Perspectives on the Practicum in TESOL. She is the professional development blog author for TESOL (2021-2022), has served as TESOL’s Teacher Education Interest Section Chair, as an English Language Specialist for the US Department of State, and as president of the New York State TESOL affiliate. The winner of multiple awards for teaching and service, she is committed to advancing the professional knowledge base of educators in ways that build community, inspire growth, and support reflection. Kathleen M. Bailey  is Professor Emerita of Applied Linguistics at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies. She is a former president of TESOL, AAAL, and TIRF (The International Research Foundation for English Language Education). Her interests include language assessment, teaching speaking and listening, leadership studies, and qualitative research methods. xiii

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MaryAnn Christison  is Distinguished Professor of Linguistics in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Utah and was founding director of the International Program and English Training Center at Snow College for 20 years prior to her university appointment. She has authored, co-authored, and co-edited 24 books and written 185 articles and chapters on applied linguistics and English language teaching. Three of her co-edited books were specifically on leadership and management (with F. L. Stoller) and one was on leadership (with D. E. Murray). Christison has also served as president of TESOL International Association. Andy Curtis  is a professor in the Anaheim University Graduate School of Education. From 2015 to 2016, he served as the 50th president of TESOL International Association. In 2016, he received one of the Association’s 50-at-50 Awards, when he was voted one of the fifty most influential figures in the field, over the first 50 years of the Association. Curtis has (co)authored and (co)edited 200 articles, book chapters, and books, presented to 50,000 language educators in 100 countries, and his work has been read by 100,000 language educators in 150 countries. He is based in Ontario, Canada, from where he works with language education organizations worldwide. William S. Davis  is Assistant Professor of World Languages Education in the Department of Instructional Leadership and Academic Curriculum at the University of Oklahoma, USA. His research interests include multilingual teacher agency, world languages education, and critical pedagogy in teacher education. Luciana C. de Oliveira,  PhD, is associate dean for Academic Affairs and professor in the School of Education at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, VA, USA. Her research focuses on issues related to teaching multilingual learners at the K-12 level, including the role of language in learning the content areas and teacher education. She has authored or edited 24 books and has over 200 publications in various outlets. She served as president (2018–2019) of TESOL International Association and was a member of the Board of Directors (2013–2016). She was the first Latina to ever serve as president of TESOL.

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William Dunn  is Professor of Second Language Education and Graduate Program Coordinator in the Faculty of Education at the University of Alberta. His areas of interest include teacher education, second language education, task-­based language teaching (TBLT), and addressing language, literacy, and culture across the curriculum. He has investigated these areas within the context of blended learning as well as connections between teacher education, language learning, and social inclusivity. Okon Effiong teaches English in the Foundation Program, Qatar University. Before Qatar, Okon taught in Nigeria, the UK, and Japan. He is a member of the Board of Directors, TESOL International Association, and was the chair of the Diversity & Inclusion Committee, chair-elect of EFL Interest Section, and a member of Nominating Committee of TESOL International Association. He is the founder and past president of Africa TESOL and was the president of Qatar TESOL (2014/15). He holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics from University of Southampton, UK. He also has an MSc in Applied Genetics, MA TESOL, and a PG Diploma in Management and Information Technology. Hind Elyas  works as an English instructor at the Leading National Academy LNA, Niagara College in Saudi Arabia. She is the incoming chair of the TESOL International Professional Development Professional Council and the Executive Secretary at Africa ELTA. Hind is also a founding member at the English Language Testing Society (ELTS) and her main areas of interest include testing, curriculum development, and student engagement. Hind was selected as a 2021 TESOL International Leadership Mentoring Program Award recipient and a TESOL International Convention Ambassador. Thomas S. C. Farrell is Professor of Applied Linguistics at Brock University Canada. Tammy Gregersen,  a professor of TESOL at the American University of Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates, received her MA in Education and PhD in Linguistics in Chile, where she also began her academic career. She is co-­author, with Peter MacIntyre, of Capitalizing on Language Learner Individuality and Optimizing Language Learners’ Nonverbal Communication in the Language Classroom. She is also a co-editor, with

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Peter and Sarah Mercer, of Positive Psychology in SLA and Innovations in Language Teacher Education. She also co-­edited Peacebuilding in Language Education: Innovations in Theory and Practice with Rebecca Oxford, Matilde Olivero, and Melinda Harrison and Research-­Driven Pedagogy with Nihat Polat and Peter MacIntyre. Her latest two books, Teacher Wellbeing and the Routledge Handbook of the Psychology of Language Learning and Teaching, were written in collaboration with Sarah Mercer. She has written extensively in peer-reviewed journals and contributed numerous chapters in applied linguistics anthologies on individual differences, teacher education, language teaching methodology, positive psychology, and nonverbal communication in language classrooms. She is passionate about exploring other cultures and has enjoyed the opportunities that participation in international conferences around the world and Fulbright scholar grants to Chile and Costa Rica have provided. Xavier Gutiérrez is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics and Spanish and the coordinator of the Spanish Language Program in the Department of Modern Languages and Cultural Studies at the University of Alberta, Canada. His research interests include language program evaluation, with a specific focus on teachers and learners’ perceptions, the impact of teacher education, professional development and teacher leadership on the diffusion of pedagogical innovations, task-based language teaching (TBLT), and student retention in bilingual programs. Lenora Haranaka  has been working in the educational field since 1998. She works at Cultura Inglesa São Paulo as a Remote Teaching Branch Manager, responsible for 41 amazing teachers, 4500 learners, and 10 sales people. A DELTA holder, she has presented in ABCI and Braz-Tesol conferences. Her professional interests are Leadership, Remote Teaching and Learning, and Design Thinking for Educators and Management. Daniel Hooper  is an associate professor in the Department of English Communication at Tokyo Kasei University. He has been teaching in Japan for 17 years in a variety of contexts including primary/secondary schools, English conversation schools, and universities. His research interests include teacher and learner identity, reflective practice, selfaccess learning communities, and communities of practice.

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Dagmar Keatinge  is a lecturer in the English department at Paderborn University and has previously worked as an English language instructor in continuing education. Her research interests include the use of language corpora in teaching, language learning and assessment, and the development of teacher identities and language attitudes at different stages of teacher education. In her research project, she investigates influences on language development and assessment competencies of language teachers in secondary schools. Ewen MacDonald  is a senior lecturer in the English Language Institute at Kanda University of International Studies where he also gained his MA TESOL degree. He has worked in a variety of educational contexts in New Zealand, China, and Japan since 2011. His research interests include pragmatics, teacher cognition, learner autonomy, and student reflection on learning. Tim Murphey  has studied and taught for 15 years in Europe and 30 years in Asia. He most recently retired to a horse ranch in Oregon, “River Quest”, to study equine therapy and our reconnections with nature. Denise E. Murray  is professor emerita at Macquarie University, Sydney, and San José State University, California. She was founding chair of the Department of Linguistics and Language Development at San José. Subsequently she was executive director of the AMEP Research Centre and the National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research at Macquarie University. She served on TESOL International’s Board of Directors for seven years, including as president (1996–1997). Her research interests include the intersection of language, society, and technology, and leadership in language education. Her extensive publication record includes the co-edited volume Leadership in English Language Education. Jennifer D. Pendergrass is the president of Georgia TESOL (GATESOL). She served two years as GATESOL Regional Liaison for Regions 1 & 2. She also served as secretary in 2018 and second vice president in 2019 on the Executive Board of GATESOL. Jennifer is an elementary ESOL teacher and Coordinator of ESOL Professional Learning for Floyd County Schools. She holds a bachelor’s degree in deaf educa-

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tion from Ball State University, her master’s degree in curriculum and instruction from University of Phoenix, her ESOL endorsement from Northwest Georgia RESA, and her doctorate in teacher leadership from Walden University. Her doctoral thesis, “Increasing the Vocabulary Acquisition Rate for Third Grade English Learners” has been published in 2017. GATESOL In Action published her manuscript, “Cultivating Respectful Classroom Discourse in Trump’s America,” in 2017 as well. She was selected by the Conferences Professional Council of TESOL International to be the Poster Sessions Team Leader for the 2019 TESOL International Convention & English Language Expo. Caleb Powers  is a World Languages Educator who holds an MA in Teaching French as a Foreign Language with a Specialization in Language Program Administration from the Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey in 2021. Cal enjoys conducting and publishing research in burnout prevention and teacher leadership. He works at Immerse teaching English as a second language in virtual reality. Leila Ranta  is an associate professor in the Teaching English as a Second Language program in the Faculty of Education at the University of Alberta, Canada. Her graduate training in applied linguistics was at Concordia University in Montreal where she was involved in several large-scale classroom research projects. Her work as an ESL teacher educator is informed by her research on a range of topics including formfocused instruction, corrective feedback, L2 aptitude, oral fluency, the measurement of naturalistic language exposure, and L2 pragmatics. Hayo Reinders (www.innovationinteaching.org) is TESOL Professor and Director of the doctoral program at Anaheim University in the USA and Professor of Applied Linguistics at KMUTT in Thailand. He has authored 26 books and over 150 academic articles. He is the editor of the journal Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching and edited a book series on “New Language Learning and Teaching Environments”. He founded the Institute for Teacher Leadership. Mary Romney-Schaab  is a professional in the field of the teaching of English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). Although her work with the TESOL International Association is still a major part of her

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professional activity, she has also recently written “An Afro-Caribbean in the Nazi Era,” a book on a completely different area. The book chronicles the wartime experiences of Lionel Romney, an Afro-Caribbean civilian, who, by chance, was caught in the deadly violence of the Nazi concentration camp system. Based on the oral history recorded by his daughter, Mary Romney-Schaab, the book is part history, part memoir, and part oral history. Araceli Salas  has a PhD in Language Science and an MA in ELT. Salas is a professor/researcher in the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP), México. She has been a speaker in local and international events and written several academic articles and chapters in the field. Salas serves as the editor-in-­chief of Lenguas en Contexto (BUAP) and an associate editor of the TESOL and MEXTESOL journals. She is involved in TESOL and is the past chair of the EFL-IS as well as a member of the Awards Professional Council. Her research interests include teacher education, ESP, Discourse Analysis, and Leadership in ELT. Brianna Janssen Sánchez is Assistant Professor of World Language Education in the School of Education and the School of Languages and Linguistics at Southern Illinois University, USA. Her research interests include collaborative practitioner inquiry, communities of practice and teacher identities, and teacher learning and implementation of advanced pedagogical and technology-enhanced practices in K-16 world languages pre-service and in-service teacher education. Marella Therese Tiongson  is an assistant professor in the Department of English and Comparative Literature, University of the Philippines Diliman, where she handles courses on English teaching, language studies, and academic and professional writing. She holds a Master of Education in TESOL Leadership (with distinction) from Massey University in New Zealand and a Bachelor of Secondary Education (magna cum laude) from the University of the Philippines Diliman. Her research interests include writing in the disciplines, interdisciplinary collaboration, and critical pedagogy in English teaching.

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Katharina Von Elbwart  works as a post doc (Akademische Rätin) at Paderborn University, Germany. She received her PhD in English Linguistics from Essen University in 2019 and uses her background in linguistics for her teaching and current research in teacher education. Her areas of interest include s­ociolinguistics and dialectology (in multilingual migrant communities) and language attitudes. More recently, her research has focused on the development of language teacher identity and language use in pre-service teacher education.

List of Figures

Willingness to Lead: A Framework for Language Teacher Leadership Development Fig. 1

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 2011)

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 iverse Pathways into Leadership in World Language D Education Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Leadership awareness timeline (n = 216/228) Spectrum of motivation

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Filling in the Blanks: Syncing Teacher and Student Perspectives Within Educational Partnerships Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Autonomy-supportive teaching principles. (Adapted from Reeve et al. (2022)) Example of a completed action log (Murphey, 2021) Example of a class newsletter Ewen’s action log template

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Peer Mentoring and Coaching as Tools for Leadership Development and Learning Fig. 1

Components of emotional and social competence

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List of Figures

Building Leadership Capacity: The Impact of Language Teacher Leadership Programs Fig. 1

“Spheres of Influence” framework from the LILL program

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List of Tables

Diverse Pathways into Leadership in World Language Education Table 1 Administrative roles in the academic sector Table 2 Combinations of structure and interaction levels of external input

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Developing Language Teacher Identity and Leadership Skills in Intercultural Learning Environments Table 1 Length of responses 217 Table 2 Number of coded segments per category—first data collection 219 Table 3 Number of coded segments per category—second data collection221

“Womentoring” as Leadership Development in the Field of TESOL Table 1 Approaches to women’s leadership development in TESOL

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Willingness to Lead: A Framework for Language Teacher Leadership Development Hayo Reinders

I don’t know who to pick for the team! Just pick any of ‘em and act like you’re sure. That’s called leadership. —From Batman Lego 2

The Importance of Teacher Leadership Perspectives on leadership have developed significantly over the years. Especially in education it is now recognised that all teachers benefit from developing leadership skills and that the most successful and sustainable teams are those where responsibilities are distributed among teacher leaders, rather than centralised at the top. Previous models often placed considerable emphasis on a single leader and the qualities and behaviours needed to be successful in a leadership role. Over the years, leadership has come instead to be seen more as a process in which multiple actors play a

H. Reinders (*) King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thonburi, Thailand © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_1

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role and leadership emerges as a result of what happens between people, the relationships they have and the context they work within. We have also seen a shift away from a focus on technical processes, outcomes and resources to one that places people at the centre (also referred to as a move from a ‘things to people’ paradigm). Most importantly this shift has resulted in a greater emphasis being placed on developing teachers’ leadership or ‘the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influence their colleagues, principals, and other members of school communities to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increased student learning and achievement’ (York-Barr & Duke, 2004, p. 288). This shift has been noticeable in the field of language education too, with a number of influential publications covering the topic in recent years (Coombe et  al., 2008; Christison & Murray, 2009; Curtis, 2022; Knight & Candlin, 2015). Language teacher leadership is important for many reasons. Laura Baecher, one of the contributors to this volume, summarised these in her 2012 article (p. 317–318) where she writes that engaging in leadership: (1) improves teacher quality, and hence student learning, as accomplished teachers serve as models of practice for colleagues (York-Barr & Duke, 2004); (2) supports reform efforts, by guiding colleagues through implementation of new practices; (3) encourages the retention and recruitment of teachers through providing avenues for motivation and recognition; (4) provides opportunities for teacher leaders’ ongoing professional growth; (5) creates a more democratic school environment; (6) increases the sense of professionalism among teachers; (7) extends teachers’ influence beyond the school and into the district; and (8) extends principal capacity by reducing principals’ workload.

One can add to this from the general education literature that there are important relationships between teachers engaging in leadership and academic achievement of their schools, as shown by a recent meta-analysis (Shen et al., 2020a, b). However, as shown by a recent scoping review of the teacher leadership literature in language education there is almost no empirical research on whether teachers (want to) engage in leadership

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activities and how they could be better encouraged to do so. This chapter will explore this issue by drawing on the Theory of Planned Behavior and the contributions to this volume to develop a framework of Teacher Willingness to Lead (WTL) to better understand the factors that inhibit or facilitate teachers assuming leadership roles.

Theory of Planned Behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was developed by Ajzen in the 1980s to explain why people do or do not engage in particular behaviours over which they have control (Ajzen, 2011, 2020). As shown in the model below background factors engagement in an activity is influenced by our attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. TPB has been used in hundreds of studies in fields ranging from healthcare (smoking, breastfeeding), to consumer attitudes and behaviours (decisions to buy ‘green’ products), and—relatively sparingly—education (in particular in predicting technology adoption; Lee et al., 2010; Chu & Chen, 2016). None as far as I am aware have been carried out in the area of teacher leadership (Fig. 1). In detail, background factors mediate propensities for and practical constraints on certain behaviours through a person’s beliefs. Behavioural beliefs are the subjective probability that the behaviour will produce a given outcome or experience. For example, a teacher may believe that assuming leadership responsibilities will lead to greater teacher agency. Attitude towards a behaviour is the degree to which performance of the behaviour is positively or negatively valued. Someone who thrives on having greater freedom with regards to the curriculum may be more positively inclined towards assuming leadership than someone who lacks confidence. Normative beliefs reflect the perceived pressure to engage in a certain behaviour. The greater the pressure and the stronger the connection with those who exert the pressure (e.g. a direct manager versus a colleague), the greater the perceived social pressure or subjective norm to engage or not to engage in a behaviour. Control beliefs refer to the perceived presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of a behaviour (e.g. whether time is given to engage in leadership activities).

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Fig. 1  Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 2011)

Perceived behavioural control refers to people’s perceptions of their ability to perform a given behaviour (impacted by, for example, prior experiences with leadership, self-beliefs and so on). These six variables determine a person’s intention, or a person’s readiness to perform a given behaviour. TPB is not without criticism. The most frequently levelled is that it does not give sufficient weight to affect and emotions (see, e.g., Wolff et al., 2011). Ajzen (2020) has countered that emotions and affect underpin and drive the components of the framework, such as attitudes and subjective norms. A limitation in the context of understanding teachers’ leadership, however, is that TPB is not intended to identify the origins or drivers of the various beliefs and attitudes (and their antecedent affective causes). Its purpose is instead primarily to identify likely engagement in certain behaviours. In cases where the background variables and their impact are well-known this is not a major impediment. For example, in the case of smoking, a decades-long literature exists that has identified the many variables that create conditions in which smoking is more likely to be taken up. In the context of language teacher leadership, however, much less is known about such behaviours and the conditions under which they emerge, and therefore, for a framework to be useful at a practical level (as well as source for theoretically driven research), it needs to combine the predictive value of the TPB model with a better

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understanding of teachers (in particular the ‘background variables’ in the model) and the contexts in which they work (in particular the ‘control beliefs’). Specifically, I have argued for a recognition of teacher leadership as being situated at three levels: at the personal level (involving beliefs, attitudes, propensities, etc.), at the organisational level (the immediate context with all of its real-life obstacles and opportunities for leadership) and the professional level (involving for example the pre- and in-service training and support teachers have access to). In the next sections of this chapter I will review what we know from previous literature on the relevant variables on teacher leadership at these three levels and combine this with the insights from the chapters in this volume. Together, these then form the basis of a pragmatic framework for understanding and supporting teachers’ willingness to lead (WTL).

 he Personal Component T of Teacher Leadership For all its social and relational characteristics, teacher leadership is at its core a personal, values-driven commitment to advancement. For this reason, appointing people as leaders, without the prerequisite self-awareness and personal investment, is unlikely to lead to satisfactory outcomes, especially in the long term (Fullan, 2002). Teachers’ personal goals and aspirations need to align with those of the wider context. Whether teachers are able to assess the potential alignment or not depends on a range of factors, in particular personally held beliefs and attitudes about leadership. Prior experiences, misconceptions on the nature of teacher leadership (such as equating leadership exclusively with managerial and administrative duties), the belief that teachers cannot have a significant impact beyond their own classroom or that leadership necessitates assuming a highly public role can all have a negative impact (and are very common, in my own experience in facilitating teacher leadership courses). Equally important are the beliefs teachers hold about their own abilities and practices. Greenier and Whitehead (2016) found little awareness among the 56 teachers in South Korea of their own leadership,

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something echoed by Baecher regarding teacher leaders in New  York: ‘While 22 of the 24 teachers surveyed for this paper participated in many activities considered teacher leadership, less than one half of them recognized these activities as such’. This is a common phenomenon, with many teachers showing low levels of confidence in their leadership abilities (Muijs & Harris, 2003). Clearly, there is room for constructively challenging teachers’ beliefs (see below). Propensity for leadership is another component, something that TPB does not take into account (it focuses on intent, not the ability to carry out the intended behaviour). Greenier and Whitehead (2016) found that teachers thought ‘the primary attributes of language teacher leaders […] were passion, and a predisposition towards collaboration and involvement. An underlying passion for languages, language teaching, and language learning was described by all of the teacher leaders […]’. Assessment tools exist that will give teachers insight into what is involved in leadership and their readiness for it. The Centre for Strengthening the Teaching Profession, for example, has created ‘Teacher Leader Self-Assessment’ (https://cstp-­wa.org/), covering six areas, including: Working with adult learners Communication: including ‘building relationships’ and ‘technical skills’ Collaboration: including ‘collaborative skills’ and ‘organisational skills’ Knowledge of content and pedagogy Systems thinking: this includes the headings ‘working within a system’ and ‘skills of advocacy’ Equity lens: including the headings ‘self and identity’, ‘understand race, power and privilege’, ‘facilitate’ and ‘Applies Culturally Relevant and Responsive Practices’.

For all their usefulness, such studies and tools describe what successful teacher leadership looks like, not necessarily how to achieve it, or how to avoid the inevitable obstacles on the path to its development. For that we must turn to some additional sources of information, including the chapters in this book. Starting at perhaps the most personal of all leadership planes, Tammy Gregersen and Hayo Reinders argue for the importance of wellbeing in

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the development of teacher leadership. They identify eight ‘mature mental mechanisms’ that impact teachers’ effectiveness in the long term: Affiliation (confronting emotional adversities by looking to others for assistance or support) Altruism (the dedication to fulfilling the needs of others), anticipation (considering possible emotional reactions to future problem) Humour (seeing the lighter side of things) Self-assertion (frankly expressing your feelings and thoughts to achieve goals) Self-observation (reflecting on your own thoughts, feelings, motivation and behaviour) Sublimation (channelling emotions into socially acceptable behaviour rather than expressing potentially unprofessional or ‘unacceptable’ feelings or impulses) Suppression (deliberately choosing not to indulge in conscious thought, feeling or action, but instead focusing on more urgent matters without being distracted by every impulse that arises)

Although focusing on teachers’ self-care, and recognising that this would have to constitute a prerequisite for (sustainable) leadership, Gregersen and Reinders remind us that ‘teachers cannot do it alone. They need systematic institutional support (including social, cultural, and political) that prioritizes their wellbeing in all of the components of the education system’. In addition, the development of the above attributes and attitudes can be positively impacted by supportive colleagues, explicit instruction and guided practice and by integrating topics of self-care and personal wellbeing into teacher education. Linking back to the Theory of Planned Practice, all of these influence teachers’ long-term attitudes towards leadership, their ability to negotiate social norms and regulate perceived behavioural control. The ability to maintain wellbeing is particularly important when teachers face a range of obstacles in the form of normative beliefs and control beliefs that can impede their willingness and ability to assume leadership. Investigating these and how they uniquely impact subjective norms and perceived behavioural control differ for teachers of different backgrounds is an important first step in better understanding WTL. Laura Baecher, Araceli Salas, Luciana de Oliveira, Jennifer Pendergrass, Lenora Haranaka

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and Hind Elyas offer an impressive example of this that involved using collaborative autoethnography to ‘explore how women in the field of English language teaching worldwide navigate their professional advancement’. By drawing on ‘personal narratives as a source of understanding the complexities of leadership development’ they were able to identify and develop a ‘range of suggestions for the creation of empowering practices in which women in the ELT field can experience leader development and so have their voices heard, shared and amplified’, such as the use of mentoring, networking and coaching, to name a few. This is an excellent example of leadership development at the personal level but obviously also something that could be encouraged and supported in the workplace and embedded in the profession through initial and ongoing teacher development. Either way, I would contend such practices are a key factor in enhancing WTL. Continuing with factors operating at the personal level Andy Curtis, Okon Effiong and Mary Romney used reflective interviews to provide insight for the experiences of ‘visible minorities’ as leaders in language education, whose voices ‘appeared to be few and far between, if present at all’ in the existing literature. The personal accounts show the delicate balancing of conflicting aspirations and burdens that such leaders face. It also shows the importance of critical self-reflection and a deep understanding of the various assumptions, experiences and expectations that impact them. Such reflection could be included into the professional discourse, whether in the context of initial teacher training or beyond it, in order to impact control beliefs, or perceived ability to achieve desired long-term outcomes. Curtis and colleagues offer a number of practical suggestions for addressing such issues that, I would argue, can enhance perceived behavioural control. Together, these chapters and the existing research literature point towards a number of facilitative actions that can be taken to support WTL.  These have been included in the framework introduced further down. But first we must look at the role of leadership and its development at the organisational level.

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 he Organisational Component T of Teacher Leadership The educational context (school, university, centre) presents a complex web of interrelated affordances and obstacles for leadership to emerge. A number of such organisational conditions have been suggested (although often not based on empirical research). For example, the Institute of Educational Leadership offers a checklist (2008) that distinguishes between structural, interpersonal and social/cultural conditions. The former include access to resources (such as time). Many teachers already experience high levels of stress due to increasing workloads (Clandinin et al., 2015) and although assuming leadership roles has been shown to positively impact teachers’ job satisfaction and wellbeing (Torres, 2019), there is an initial investment on the part of both the individual and the organisation, which requires adequate resourcing. Interpersonal conditions deal with the presence of positive relationships between teacher leaders and others, and the presence of effective teamwork between colleagues. Social/cultural conditions include the establishment of school standards and expectations for leadership; whether teachers are made aware of leadership activities; are encouraged to participate in and initiate leadership activities; whether there is a school-wide focus on learning and reflection; whether teachers are valued and respected; the presence of supportive principals/school leaders who model teacher leadership. This and other similar tools (see the ‘school orientation to school renewal’ instrument, for example: Shen et al., 2020a, b) and checklists can be fruitfully used as a starting point for schools to consider where improvements might be made. Investigating leadership at the organisational level, Xavier Gutiérrez, Leila Ranta and William Dunn provide an interesting example of a research-practice partnership that was set up to enhance collaboration between the university and the language teaching community using an online community of practice. This became a ‘hub for developing teachers’ leadership qualities and leveraging those qualities in support of pedagogical improvement, innovation and change’. One recommendation from their study is ‘to devote greater attention to the concerns of

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practicing teachers and their classroom realities’, so as to enhance teacher agency. Without such active involvement changes are likely to continue to be perceived as top-down impositions rather than opportunities for genuine collaboration and growth. The way in which organisations encourage and support such collaborations is clearly a key factor in teachers’ norm beliefs and social norms, each of which impacts WTL. Marella Tiongson’s chapter deals with the specific case of interdisciplinary collaborations in the context of ESP writing classes offered by subject matter and language teachers in a Philippine university. It describes how in this and other contexts language goals often ‘become subordinate to content goals, resulting in a lack of parity between language and content teachers, thereby relegating the language teacher to a lower position in the partnership’. She argues that one of the reasons why such disparities are hard to overcome is because of the academic insularity that exists, with different norms and epistemologies. In addition, deeper partnerships are difficult to achieve because ‘teachers are not explicitly taught how to collaborate’ and lack clarity on what the university’s policies and expectations are. The variables Tiongson identifies are likely to negatively affect behaviour beliefs and norm beliefs and are likely to reduce WTL. Clearly, there are many ways in which organisational conditions and actions can positively and negatively WTL. The framework introduced in the final section includes recommendations for leadership-supportive mechanisms that can be implemented. However, first we look at the final level of teacher leadership, the profession.

 he Professional Component T of Teacher Leadership The wider profession (and beyond that society as a whole) has a major impact on WTL. Initial and ongoing teacher training, the setting of standards and the general discourse within the discipline (e.g. at conferences, in journals and in informal (online) teachers’ community spaces) are some examples of the ways in which leadership is inculcated into

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teachers’ awareness. As Smylie and Eckert (2018) and others have argued, teacher leadership is not sufficiently systematically developed in pre-­ service training and Curtis (2022) found the same for in-service teacher, considering it ‘one of the most commonly recurring themes’ in the cases he analysed (2022, p. 108). Underpinning much of the above is teachers’ ability to recognise, reflect on, challenge and develop their multiple identities as well as the language ideologies around them. Elbwart and Keating’s study in this volume concluded that ‘critical reflection can lead to a change of attitudes and thus a (re-)construction of LTI in different learning environments which aim at providing a multifaceted perspective on language teaching’, thus providing an avenue for teacher leadership development. Another such avenue is offered through critical reflection, or ‘the process of critical examination of experiences, a process that can lead to a better understanding of one’s practices and routines’ (Richards & Farrell, p.  7). Thomas Farrell, building on the concepts of John Dewey (1939), argues that ‘the reflection itself must also be accompanied by a set of three essential attitudes to make it profound for the teacher or the leader’. These are open-mindedness (‘a desire to listen to more than one side of an issue so that we can give attention to possible alternative views’), whole-­heartedness (‘overcoming fears and uncertainties to continuously review their practice’) and responsibility (‘careful consideration of the consequences to which an action leads; in other words, what the impact of our reflection is, as well as who is impacted by our reflection’). Clearly such attributes and the ability to engage in critical reflection do not develop overnight. They have the dual characteristic of being both a prerequisite for developing one’s own leadership and benefitting from others’ leadership in encouraging and supporting in the professional context, in particular in pre-service and in-service teacher development. At the level of structured teacher preparation for leadership, William Davis and Brianna Janssen Sánchez argue that ‘a stronger understanding is needed regarding the pathways—both semiformal spaces and formal programs—through which language teachers’ leadership capacity can be developed to prepare them to address the needs of their specific contexts’. Especially with regards to formal programmes, more insight into their rationale and structures is needed, ‘including how those programs

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conceptualize language teacher leadership, the components of the program, and how the program is experienced by those involved’. Davis and Sanchez identify a number of ways in which teacher leadership can be fostered. For one, ‘through a combination of programmatic and community support, teachers can begin to understand that leadership is already part of their identity and work’. This involves challenging of preconceptions of what leadership (and management) entails and welcoming the diversity of experiences goals and needs of potential leaders. They offer a number of practical suggestions for leadership programmes, such as drawing on previous participants as facilitators, modelling relational and distributed forms of leadership and facilitating communities of leaders, all of which will significantly impact teachers’ control beliefs and perceived behavioural control. Casting the net wider, Caleb Powers and Kathleen Bailey surveyed 223 teacher leaders of world languages in the United States of America to identify their leadership journeys, or ‘the sequence, timing, and setting of experiences and influences that culminate in teaching professionals acquiring leadership responsibilities and (usually) gaining awareness of their potential to carry out those roles’. They identified six characteristics of leadership pathways: ‘the timing and sequence of experiences; any catalysts that caused individuals to first act on their leadership potential; the locality, or context, in which the work took place; any external influences the leaders received; the leaders’ motivations regarding their current responsibilities and/or future roles; and the individuals’ overall perception of their pathways’. Their findings have important implications for the profession. For example, awareness of leadership was less likely to happen during university if it had not already developed earlier in teachers’ lives. This means that professional programmes can probably do more to incorporate leadership awareness building and that future employers cannot assume that new teachers are clear on their potential on arrival into a new organisation. Another finding was that only a minority of respondents had had access to leadership training of any type and that informal resources such as role-models and mentoring were much more prevalent. This has implications for the types of support that organisations can offer and the ways in which teachers may be motivated to engage in leadership.

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The Framework Integrating the three situational domains (personal, organisational and professional) and combining these with the six components of the model for Planned Behaviour yield a 3 × 6 grid. Combining the insights from the chapters in this volume with the general literature on the drivers of WTL affords the drawing up of a framework for actions that can be employed by individuals, their schools and the wider community to support a move towards teacher leadership. Each of these presents a lever that can be adjusted, and is illustrated in the suggestions in each of the 18 cells that make up the framework.

Behaviour beliefs

Personal

Organisational

Professional

Guided or self-­ reflection on prior experiences of leadership Understanding personal values and aspirations Shadowing of (teacher) leaders

Modelling distributed, instructional and other forms of teacher-oriented forms of leadership Sharing and celebrating of teachers’ successes Identifying and supporting emerging teacher leaders Using assessment tools to review the conditions for teacher leadership Measuring and sharing the impact of (teacher) leadership

Introducing the wide range of ways in which teacher leadership can be manifested Evidence from studies on the impact teacher leaders have had, teachers’ experiences and so on

(continued)

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(continued) Personal Attitudes towards the behaviour

Normative beliefs

Subjective norms

Organisational

Providing the necessary resources for leadership responsibilities Offering leadership pathways and training for teachers Explicitly recognising the wide range of leaders and leadership practices in the organisation Providing venues for teachers to share concerns about leadership and potential/perceived lack of parity Learning about the Offering choice through a range of types of leadership (optional) and the ways they leadership options. can be put in Recognising the wide practice diversity of needs, experiences and goals among the teachers Critically Aligning external investigating demands with internal aspirations existing leadership expectations and Employing self-care practices Focusing on teacher wellbeing

Sharing of experiences of language teacher leadership Identifying role models Developing a willingness to challenge one’s assumptions and step out of one’s comfort zone Wellbeing practices

Professional Challenging ideas about leadership Encouraging risk-tasking Identity work Preparing teachers for self-care and personal wellbeing

Inviting teachers to explore how leadership practices can help them to achieve their personal aspirations

Focusing on teacher wellbeing

(continued)

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(continued) Personal

Organisational

Clarity on leadership expectations Provision of resources such as time and recognition for leadership activities Teacher leadership development courses and support Providing opportunities for networking Evaluations from teachers of their leadership experiences (leading and being led) in order to identify inhibiting and facilitating factors Mentoring Personal SWOT Perceived programmes behavioural analysis (strengths, Coaching weakness, control programmes opportunities and Experiential learning threats) opportunities, such Teacher leader as co-teaching or self-assessment leadership Confidence building shadowing Informal mentoring Informal coaching Participating in supportive networks Wellbeing practices

Control beliefs

Identifying inhibiting and facilitative factors and reflecting on how they can be overcome and who can be enlisted for support with this Networking Connecting with professional communities outside the organisation itself

Professional Giving teachers tools to identify the opportunities for and obstacles to leadership Setting standards Developing resources Guidance on ways of dealing with obstacles Guidance on ways to enlist support

Constructive feedback Experiential learning opportunities during preservice training Developing critical reflection

Behaviour beliefs: The subjective probability that the behaviour will produce a given outcome or experience. Attitude towards the behaviour: The degree to which performance of the behaviour is positively or negatively valued. Normative beliefs: The perceived pressure to engage in a certain behaviour. Subjective norms: The perceived social pressure to engage or not to engage in a behaviour. Control beliefs: The perceived presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of a behaviour. Perceived behavioural control: People’s perceptions of their ability to perform a given behaviour.

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Looking Ahead Three major caveats are in order. Theoretically, TPB assumes a well-­ defined domain with a clear understanding of relevant background variables and contextual drivers. We do not yet in the field of teacher leadership have such a knowledge base. A great deal more research is needed to identify and understand the interrelationships between the myriad background and situational variables that impact teachers. Pragmatically, the framework attempts to explain intention and behaviour (and mediating variables therein), not predict outcomes. Just because someone is willing to lead does not make them a good leader. Although many of the mediating variables that impact WTL (training, support) are likely to improve the chances of successful leadership behaviour, this is not guaranteed. In other words, there is practical merit in considering the use of evaluative tools, such as the Teacher Self-Assessment Tool developed by the Center on Great Teachers & Leaders (https://gtlcenter.org/ sites/default/files/TeacherLeadership_TeacherSelf-­Assessment.pdf ) to (self-)identify likely success. Additionally, the framework does not list all of the component parts that make up leadership itself, but rather the mechanisms by which WTL may be impacted. For example, ‘mentoring’ and ‘coaching’ are included, but what skills might be developed through such activities is not detailed. This happens during implementation. Practically, the framework is in its first iteration. For one, gaps, overlaps (some of the borders between individual cells are porous) and inaccuracies will have to be addressed. It can be made more useful by linking to various resources that could be used for each of the activities, for example by linking from ‘setting standards‘(under Control Beliefs at the Professional level) to illustrations of such standards from different organisations and countries. This is planned for the next version of the framework. On the other hand, a potential benefit is that the framework can reveal potential gaps in our understanding and a need for more research. The contributions to this chapter both individually and collectively highlight the importance of teacher leadership and the significant need for greater support for teachers in its development and the necessary research to underpin this. I am grateful to the authors for placing teacher

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leadership more firmly on the map and it is my hope that this chapter and the subsequent ones will inspire a new generation of researchers and practitioners to help us better understand teacher leadership and its development.

Reflection Questions 1 . What are your beliefs about leadership? Where do they come from? 2. What factors mentioned in this chapter influence your WTL (Willingness to Lead)? 3. What resources (internal or external) do you have to help you overcome any challenges to your WTL?

References Ajzen, I. (2011). The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections. Psychology & Health, 26(9), 1113–1127. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044 6.2011.613995 Ajzen, I. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(4), 314–324. Christison, M., & Murray, D. (Eds.). (2009). Leadership in English language education: Theoretical foundations and practical skills for changing times. Routledge. Chu, T. H., & Chen, Y. Y. (2016). With good we become good: Understanding e-learning adoption by theory of planned behavior and group influences. Computers & Education, 92, 37–52. Clandinin, D. J., Long, J., Schaefer, L., Downey, C. A., Steeves, P., Pinnegar, E., et al. (2015). Early career teacher attrition: Intentions of teachers beginning. Teaching Education, 26(1), 1–16. Coombe, C., McCloskey, M.  L., Stephenson, L., & Anderson, N. (Eds.). (2008). Leadership in English language teaching and learning. University of Michigan Press. Curtis, A. (Ed.). (2022). Reflecting on leadership in language education. Equinox. Fullan, M. (2002). The change. Educational leadership, 59(8), 16–20.

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Greenier, V. T., & Whitehead, G. E. (2016). Towards a model of teacher leadership in ELT: Authentic leadership in classroom practice. RELC Journal, 47(1), 79–95. Knight, K., & Candlin, C. (2015). Leadership discourse as basis and means for developing L2 students into future leaders. In P. N. Shrestha (Ed.), Current developments in English for academic and specific purposes: Local innovations and global perspectives (pp. 27–49). Garnet Publishing. Lee, J., Cerreto, F. A., & Lee, J. (2010). Theory of planned behavior and teachers’ decisions regarding use of educational technology. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 13(1), 152–164. Muijs, D., & Harris, A. (2003). Teacher leadership—Improvement through empowerment? An overview of the literature. Educational Management & Administration, 31(4), 437–448. Shen, J., Wu, H., Reeves, P., Zheng, Y., Ryan, L., & Anderson, D. (2020a). The association between teacher leadership and student achievement: A meta-­ analysis. Educational Research Review, 31(100), 357. Shen, J., Ma, X., Mansberger, N., Gao, X., Bierlein Palmer, L., Burt, W., Leneway, R., Mccrumb, D., Poppink, S., Reeves, P., & Whitten, E. (2020b). Testing the predictive power of an instrument titled “Orientation to School Renewal”. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 31(4), 505–528. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2020.1749087 Smylie, M.  A., & Eckert, J. (2018). Beyond superheroes and advocacy: The pathway of teacher leadership development. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 46(4), 556–577. Torres, D.  G. (2019). Distributed leadership, professional collaboration, and teachers’ job satisfaction in US schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 79, 111–123. Wolff, K., Nordin, K., Brun, W., Berglund, G., & Kvale, G. (2011). Affective and cognitive attitudes, uncertainty avoidance and intention to obtain genetic testing: An extension of the theory of planned behaviour. Psychology & Health, 26(9), 1143–1155. York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255–316.

‘Teacher You Are Stupid!’ Cultivating and Nurturing a Reflective Disposition in Leaders Thomas S. C. Farrell

Introduction There is a longstanding recognition in the field of language education that teachers must continually (re)shape their knowledge of teaching and learning throughout their careers (Farrell, 2015). Much of a teacher’s pedagogical and content knowledge is developed initially in teacher education programs, and then added to through their many teaching experiences and reflections on those experiences throughout their careers. Notice I place emphasis on the necessity to reflect on their experiences because these teaching experiences by themselves are not enough to foster development without such consciously (Farrell, 2007, 2015, 2018b). As Richards and Farrell (2005) point out, reflection is “the process of critical examination of experiences, a process that can lead to a better understanding of one’s practices and routines” (p. 7). This reflection is also true

T. S. C. Farrell (*) Applied Linguistics, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_2

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for leaders in any field, but especially in the field of language education because most (if not all) of the current leaders in positions of administration or the like were once teachers themselves. Indeed, engaging in reflective practice is considered an indicator of professional competence across many professions in recent times because it offers practitioners a way to articulate those aspects of practice that make up part of that knowledge base of their profession. But what is reflective practice? Reflective practice generally means that language teachers and leaders systematically examine their beliefs and practices about their work throughout their careers. In order to engage in reflective practice, language teachers must systematically collect information or evidence about their classroom teaching and learning. This information or evidence can be collected in many ways such as by either recording the lessons, and later transcribing and analyzing and evaluating this by themselves or with others, and/or engaging in classroom observations with others and/or also dialoging with other teachers through writing or discussion about their practices. Leaders can also engage in such evidence-based reflections by gathering as much information about their practices in whatever mode suits them (e.g., discussing with other leaders and teachers, and/or recording and transcribing the discussions with permission of course, and/or writing about their practices, reading literature about leadership, and so on). The main idea here is that both teachers and leaders will be able to make more informed decisions about their practice so that they can consider if these practices need to be changed or improved. This views reflective practice more in terms of a product, where both teachers and leaders can develop knowledge about their practices as well as knowledge about the methods and strategies of reflection (e.g., dialogue, writing, observation, etc.). While reflection as a product is important and I have recently written in great detail about the methods of reflection (Farrell, 2022b), the process of reflection has not gained as much attention in the literature. It is very well to know about the methods and strategies involved in reflective practice, but as Dewey (1933a, b) said long ago, for any meaningful reflection to take place it must be accompanied by particular attitudes to make the process of reflection meaningful. It is this latter aspect of the process of reflection that I focus on in this chapter on how teachers and leaders can cultivate and nurture particular dispositions to make

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their reflections as meaningful as possible. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of reflective practice followed by a detailed discussion of how teachers and leaders can cultivate and nurture three different dispositions, traits, or habits of the mind that are essential in any meaningful reflections by teachers and leaders: open-mindedness, responsibility, and whole-heartedness, and how these three attitudes apply to TESOL and my own experiences as a teacher educator for over 40 years.

Reflective Practice One day a young girl was watching her mother cooking a roast of beef. Just before the mother put the roast in the pot, she cut a slice off the end. The ever-observant daughter asked her mother why she had done that, and the mother responded that her grandmother had always done it. Later that same afternoon, the mother was curious, so she called her mother and asked her the same question. Her mother, the child’s grandmother, said that in her day she had to trim the roasts because they were usually too big for a regular pot. (from Farrell, 2018b)

I have told the above story many times, at many different conferences, in many different countries, and each time I ask the audience the same question: “are we cutting the slice off in our classrooms without knowing it?” In other words, are we following routine in the way we teach our classes without really knowing this? Yes, a certain amount of routine is useful not only for teachers when teaching, but also for students to be able to follow what is expected from them. However, without any reflection on our experience, such as the non-reflecting child’s mother in the opening story above, we may end up ‘cutting the slice off the roast’ each time without realizing this, and more importantly, without considering the consequences of our actions. In fact, years of teaching experience is not enough to achieve expertise as an effective teacher (i.e., we can become an experienced non-expert), for we do not learn much from the experience itself as we learn from reflecting on that experience. That said, many may now wonder what exactly we mean by reflective practice in the field of language teaching.

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Some early discussions of the term ‘reflection’ in the field of language teaching distinguished between a ‘weak’ form and a ‘strong’ form of reflective practice. In its weakest version, reflection was said to be no more than ‘thoughtful’ practice where language teachers sometimes, as Wallace (1996) has suggested, “informally evaluate various aspects of their professional expertise” (p. 292). However, as Wallace also pointed out, this type of ‘informal reflection’ does not really lead to improved teaching and can even lead to more “unpleasant emotions without suggesting any way forward” (p. 13). Thus, a second ‘stronger’ form of reflection emerged that proposed language teachers should systematically collect information or data about their teaching, and then use this information/data to make informed decisions about their teaching (Richards & Lockhard, 1994). In fact, this evidence-based view of reflection reiterates what Dewey (1933a, b) noted about reflection when he said that “data (facts) and ideas (suggestions, possible solutions) thus form the two indispensable and correlative factors of all reflective activity” (p.  104). More recently, Walsh and Mann (2015) have also called for data-based reflective practice so that teachers can make more insightful analysis and gain a fuller sense of their own teaching. Thus, through evidence-based reflective practice, teachers can make more informed decisions about their practice because they have a deeper knowledge and understanding of their who they are, what they do, how they do it, why they do it, and where they do it (Farrell, 2018a, b, 2019, 2021). My own interest in the concept of reflective practice is long standing (e.g., Farrell, 1999a, b, 2001, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2013a, b, 2014, 2016, 2018a, b, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022a, b). Most of my work on reflective practice has been influenced by two American scholars, John Dewey and Donald Schön, and more especially when I recently developed a holistic framework for how language teachers can operationalize reflection in their everyday lives (Farrell, 2015). I am happy to report that this framework has been received well in recent reviews (e.g., Sarab & Mardian, 2022) and research conducted with the framework (e.g., Farrell & Kennedy, 2019; Farrell & Avejic, 2020; Farrell & Macapinlac, 2021; Farrell, 2022a, b). However, it is not my intention in this chapter to outline this framework in detail as I have already written about it in great

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detail and interested teachers and leaders can read the articles above when they have some time. Instead, I focus more on the neglected, yet necessary aspect of the process of reflective practice where it much be accompanied with a disposition to reflect so that meaningful reflection can take place.

Reflective Disposition It is true that the term ‘disposition’ can mean different things to different people. For example, some may think it a particular habit, or an attitude, an outlook, or a particular temperament, or trait, or even in terms of a person’s personality. Misco and Shiveley (2007) maintain that a disposition is a personal virtue that also can include one’s educational values. Dottin (2009) suggests that a disposition within an educational setting should be a habit of mind that can be nurtured and transferred to the classroom for teachers and the school and community for leaders. In addition, Dewey (1933a, b) has pointed out that intelligent behavior can be considered as the “body of habits of active dispositions which makes a man do what he does” (p. 44). Dewey (1933a, b) points out the cognitive dimension of dispositions where habits of mind are connected to reflective thinking or being mindful and thoughtful. As Dewey (1910) noted, “Reflective thinking is always more or less troublesome because it involves overcoming the inertia that inclines one to accept suggestions at their face value; it involves willingness to endure a condition of mental unrest and disturbance” (p. 13). Dewey (1910) then maintains that the essence of reflective thinking is the suspension of judgment but that this “suspense is likely to be somewhat painful” but that the [m]ost important factor in the training of good mental habits consists in acquiring the attitude of suspended conclusion, and in mastering the various methods of searching for new materials to corroborate or to refute the first suggestions that occur. To maintain the state of doubt and to carry on systematic and protracted inquiry—these are the essentials of thinking. (p. 13)

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Thus, reflection entails that the practitioner not only has knowledge of the methods and strategies of reflective practice, but also cultivates a reflective disposition to be able to carry out the process of reflection and be able to make more informed decisions based on reflective intelligence where dispositions are cultivated and nurtured as habits of the mind (Osterman & Kottkamp, 2004).

Cultivating and Nurturing a Reflective Disposition Dewey (1933a, b) has maintained that knowledge of the strategies and methods of reflective practice although good is not enough for effective and meaningful reflection to take place because he noted that “there must be the desire, the will, to employ them. This is an affair of personal disposition” (p. 30). In other words, knowledge about reflection is not enough because the practitioner must also have the necessary disposition or attitude to engage in reflective practice. Indeed, Dewey (1933a, b) suggests that “there must be understanding of the forms and techniques that are the channels through which these attitudes operate to best advantage” (p. 30). Dewey (1933a, b) continues to state: No matter how much an individual knows as a matter of hearsay and information, if he has not attitudes and habits of this sort, he is not intellectually educated. He lacks the rudiments of mental discipline. And since these habits are not a gift of nature (no matter how strong the aptitude for acquiring them); since, moreover, the casual circumstances of the natural and social environment are not enough to compel their acquisition, the main office of education is to supply conditions that make for their cultivation. The formation of these habits is the Training of Mind. (p. 28)

So how does one cultivate and nurture such a reflective disposition? Dewey (1933a, b) pointed out that there is a duality attached to reflection; yes, it is a cognitive act as noted above, but the reflection itself must also be accompanied by a set of three essential attitudes to make it profound for the teacher or the leader; these three are

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open-mindedness, whole-heartedness, and responsibility. For the purposes of this chapter, I broadly define open-mindedness to mean a desire to listen to more than one side of an issue so that we can give attention to possible alternative views. Responsibility means careful consideration of the consequences to which an action leads; in other words, what the impact of our reflection is, as well as who is impacted by our reflection. Whole-heartedness implies that teachers can overcome fears and uncertainties to continuously review their practice. Dewey (1933a, b) has noted that all three of these attitudes are not only important in “order that the habit of thinking in a reflective way may be developed … they are traits of personal character that have to be cultivated” (p. 139). I will now discuss these three essential dispositions or attitudes in detail in terms of their implications for language education using examples from my own teaching career.

Open-mindedness Dewey (1933a, b) defined the disposition or attitude of open-­mindedness as “freedom from prejudice, partisanship, and such other habits as close the mind and make it unwilling to consider new problems and entertain new ideas” (p. 136). However, he noted that open-mindedness is not the same as ‘empty-mindedness’, which he likens to some hanging out a sign saying, “come right in; there is no one at home” because he noted this is not the equivalent of hospitality (Dewey, 1933a, b). Rather he continued there is a “willingness to let experiences accumulate and sink in and ripen, which is an essential of development” (p. 183). Thus, Dewey (1933a, b) maintains that to be truly open-minded one must have an “active desire to listen to more sides than one; to give heed to facts from whatever source they come; to give full attention to alternative possibilities; to recognize the possibility of error even in the beliefs that are dearest to us” (p. 136). So how does all this impact language teaching and why should teachers and leaders remain open-minded? After all, as Dewey (1933a, b) pointed out, all of this “requires troublesome work to undertake the alteration of old beliefs” (p. 136). Regardless of the number of years of experience we

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have as a teacher or a leader, we must admit to ourselves that in fact we may be wrong about some of our long held beliefs of our practice and as such, may need to re-examine some (or all!) of our beliefs and practices; or in other words we may need to “admit that a belief to which we have once committed ourselves is wrong” (Dewey, 1933a, b, p. 136). How can we in language education implement this first open-minded attitude that Dewey so passionately argued is essential for reflective practice by teachers and leaders to be meaningful? This is not easy to do. I have given talks and workshops all over the world over the past few years, and when I ask teachers if they are open-minded to consider that their current beliefs may be wrong and may need some readjustment, most suggest that they are very open-minded and are eager to examine and re-­ evaluate their beliefs. However, when I begin to discuss the details of such intensive reflections of actual beliefs and practices, many become somewhat uncomfortable, and resistant to such detailed reflections. One of the questions I ask in such workshops concerning the idea of remaining open-minded that can cause such discomfort is: • Do I consider why I teach my lesson(s) in a particular way or am I faking it? Indeed, this reflection can be somewhat of a shock for some teachers because the idea of ‘faking’ teaching is rather insulting to many. Yet, this was my own beginning as an English as a second language (ESL) teacher in Korea when after five years of teaching the same way (group discussions in most classes regardless of the students’ level really), I began to wonder what was really happening in my own lessons. My classes and lessons seemed to be going ‘well’, and the students seemed happy with them. However, I often felt some unease, but I could not point to what exactly it was until one day I wondered what was really happening in my English lessons. In fact, I still visually remember the particular class I was teaching when I allowed myself to ask whether the students were really learning English or just practicing their mistakes. I wondered if the lesson was successful, why was it successful and many more such questions. It was at that moment after that class that I realized, somewhat painfully, that I would have to remain open-minded about my approach to my

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teaching from this day on because I felt like I was somewhat faking it up to that point. The word ‘faking’ seems very strong (see Hobbs, 2007) for an interesting account of the real possibility of faking in reflective practice, but I now consider that I think I was not as genuine a teacher as I should have been (or the best that I can be) because I was not fully aware of what was really happening in my lessons, but I was too scared to examine my teaching. I have continued to ask myself that question because it serves as a continual reminder to myself that I should always be alert to what is really happening in my classes. I have also continued to ask this question in my workshops and a few years back one teacher said that she realized that she too has felt uneasy about her lessons the past ten years as an ESL teacher but was too scared to admit it. She felt that she did not know what her students were learning and wrote me the following short note after taking one of my workshops: “Before I always felt like there was something missing and I almost felt like I was faking it. And now, I know after reflection that there still are things to be learned, but I know that I won’t be faking it anymore.” Although the particular lesson that I mentioned above was my first real introduction to conscious reflection on my practice, I was actually exposed to reflection in my first year as a teacher in Ireland in 1977 when I experienced a critical incident that was to change me forever as a teacher and teacher-educator; I just did not know it then.

Teacher You Are Stupid! One morning in 1977 while on my teaching practice assignment in a high school in Dublin, Ireland, I was teaching a business English class to junior high school students and a student suddenly shouted from the back of the room: “Teacher you are stupid!” Needless to say, I was astonished as I had no idea at that moment how to respond. Although shocked, I remember that I said to the boy that he could and should not say this to me, his teacher or any teacher, and that he should write a letter of apology to me before I would let him back to my class. I then asked him to leave the remainder of that lesson. Just before class on the following day he handed me a letter which he said he wrote an apology. In that letter (of

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which I still have today) he wrote the following reason for saying what he had the previous day: “Teacher, I called you stupid because you were stupid because you gave us the same homework the day before and that is why you are stupid” (n.p.). When I read that note, I realized that he was correct as I had mistakenly given the class the same homework before the previous class. I also realized that even though we may think that our students may not be listening to their teachers, in fact, they are. I have never forgotten this ‘critical incident’ and now after many years working within the topic of reflective practice, I realize it was my first introduction to Schön’s (1983) reflection-in-action (my immediate response to the student’s statement) and reflecting-on-action (my later responses). Over the years, I have had many more occasions where I have experienced both reflection-in-action moments and reflection-on-action examples in different classrooms, contexts, and countries. However, it was that early classroom example that has stayed with me for many years although I had no real understanding of its true meaning until I began to read Schön’s (1983) seminal work on reflective practice (see below for more on these concepts). As a result, I now ask the following difficult question in my workshops related to this incident and focused on the attitude or disposition of open-mindedness is: • Do I actively seek student input into how and what I teach?

Responsibility For Dewey (1933a, b) a responsible attitude is one where people “consider the consequences of a projected step; it means to be willing to adopt these consequences when they follow reasonably from any position already taken” (p. 138). However, he says that it is not uncommon to see people continue to hold onto false beliefs, and Dewey (1933a, b) notes, “They profess certain beliefs but are unwilling to commit themselves to the consequences that flow from them. The result is mental confusion” (p. 138). As Dewey (1933a, b) mentioned, to complete one must have the attitude of responsibility to complete any project.

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If we look closely at the attitude of responsibility, we can see that it concerns the impact of our reflections on ourselves, our students, the community in which we teach, and the greater society of which we are members. So, the main question I ask at my workshops related to the attitude of responsibility is: • What is the impact of what you do and your reflections on what you do at the descriptive, conceptual, and critical levels? This question coincides with Christopher Day’s (1993) notion of teachers acting within three different hierarchical levels of reflection: the first is where teachers focus their reflections on behavioral actions (descriptive reflection), the second is where teachers also include justifications of these reflections based on current theories of teaching (conceptual reflection), while at the third level teachers include the first two and look beyond theories and practices to examine their meaning within ethical, moral, and social ramifications (critical reflection). Descriptive reflection is where teachers reflect at the level of classroom actions, and this means teachers systematically collect information or data about what they do rather than suggesting what they think they do because what teachers think they do in their lessons can be a lot different from what they actually do. This evidence-based approach to reflection (also mentioned above) encourages teachers to avoid making instructional decisions based on impulse or routine; rather, teachers are now encouraged to use the data they have obtained so that they can make more informed decisions about their practice. Richards and Lockhart’s (1994) definition summarizes this evidence-based reflective approach as they encourage teachers to “collect data about their teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and teaching practices, and use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection about teaching” (p. 1). I ask questions related to helping teachers reflect at this level of reflection in my workshops such as: • What do you do in your lessons? How do you do it?

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The level of conceptual reflection encourages teachers to consider the different reasons they do what they do. At this level of reflection, teachers conceptualize their practice and ideally, they can compare what they do to what their immediate colleagues do. These conceptualizations can also be compared either to what they read about in a literature review of particular topics of interest. I ask questions related to helping teachers reflect at this level of reflection in my workshops such as: • Why do you do it? What is the result? Critical reflection, as Brookfield (1995) has noted, has two purposes: “(1) to understand how considerations of power undergird, frame and distort educational processes and interactions. (2) To question assumptions and practices that seem to make our teaching lives easier but actually work against or own best long-term interests” (p. 8). Although largely ignored within TESOL until very recently, scholars such as Graham Crooks have called for a more critical second language pedagogy that includes “teaching for social justice, in ways that support the development of active, engaged citizens who…will be prepared to seek out solution to the problems they define and encounter, and take action accordingly” (Crooks, 2013, p.  8). I ask questions related to helping teachers reflect at this level of reflection in my workshops such as: or a willingness to actively challenge our comfortable and for many taken for granted parts of our professional lives and undergo the trouble of searching while at the same time enduring a state of suspense as we do not know what we will find • What is the impact of what you do at the political, moral, and ethical levels? • Whose interests are being served by my teaching and the school I teach in?

Whole-heartedness When a reflective practitioner has a whole-hearted attitude, he or she takes up a project with a whole heart, and “throws himself into it” (Dewey, 1933a, b, p. 137). Dewey (1933a, b) goes on to say that “There

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is no greater enemy of effective thinking than divided interest… [but] when a person is absorbed, the subject carries him on” (p. 137). Thus, a teacher is excited to look at his or her practice and does so in an undivided manner as “questions occur to him spontaneously; a flood of suggestions pour in on him; further inquiries and readings are indicated and followed” (Dewey, 1933a, b, p. 137). In other words, a reflective teacher who has a whole-hearted attitude will reflect-in-action, onaction, and for-action throughout his or her career. As Stanley (1998) has noted, all three levels of reflection include what “reflective practitioners do when they look at their work in the moment (reflect-in-action) or in retrospect (reflect-on-action) in order to examine the reasons and beliefs underlying their actions and generate alternative actions for the future” (p. 585). There are said to be three major types (or moments) of reflective practice where teachers can undertake reflection. The first moment happens during the event, such as classroom teaching, and is called reflection-in-­action. The second moment is thinking about the event after it has happened, which is called reflection-on-action. The third moment occurs when teachers think about future actions and is called reflection-for-action. Reflection-in-action  The first type of reflection-in-action (Schön, 1983, 1987) occurs when teachers take their tacit knowledge of teaching for granted because many of their actions have become routine. In order for teachers to carry out these routine actions, they must employ a kind of knowing-in-action (Schön, 1983). According to Schön (1983), knowing-­ in-­action is crucial for teachers because they cannot constantly question every action or reaction while they teach; otherwise, they would not be able to get through a class. For this reason, a teacher’s knowing-in-action works similar to when we recognize a face in a crowd, but do not list or try to consciously piece together each separate facial feature that makes a person recognizable to us. We do not consciously think, “Could that be…?”—we just know. In addition, if you were asked to describe the features that prompted this recognition, it might be difficult because, as Schön (1983) has pointed out, that type of information usually remains at the subconscious level of our thoughts. However, when a new situation

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or event occurs and our established routines do not work for us, then according to Schön (1983), teachers use reflection-in-action to cope. There is a sequence of moments in a process of reflection-in-action:  A situation develops which triggers spontaneous, routine responses (such as in knowing-in-action). For example, a student cannot answer a question about a topic he or she has explained in great detail during the previous class, such as identifying a grammar structure. • Routine responses by the teacher (i.e., what the teacher has always done) do not produce a routine response and instead produce a surprise for the teacher: The teacher starts to explain how the student had already explained this grammar structure in the previous class and that this current silence is troubling for the teacher. Suddenly the student begins to cry. • This surprise response gets the teacher’s attention and leads to reflection within an action: The teacher reacts quickly to try to find out why the student is suddenly crying by questioning the student or asking the student’s classmates why they think the student is crying. • Reflection now gives rise to on-the-spot experimentation by the teacher: The student may or may not explain why he or she is crying. The teacher will take some measures (depending on the reaction or non reaction) to help solve the problem and either ignore the situation, empathize with the student, help the student answer the question by modeling answers, and so forth. According to Schön (1983), these sequences of moments are all present and lead to reflection-in-action. Reflection-in-action helps teachers become aware of what is actually happening in the present, as one teaches rather than forgetting these details after the class. This type of reflection also allows teachers to take action during a lesson, rather than waiting until after. Experienced teachers can use their repertoire of teaching routines to experiment in order to solve the dilemma, but novice teachers may have a problem reflecting-in-action because they have not built-up such an advanced schema of teaching routines. Some questions I give teachers in workshops about reflection-in-action that leaders can consider include:

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• • • •

Are my instructions clear? Are the activities going as planned? Are the activities too easy or too difficult for the students? Do I need to increase student involvement or are some students over involved in the lesson? • How many and what kind of questions am I asking? • Do I wait long enough after asking? Reflection-on-action  The second type of reflection is called reflection-­ on-­action and involves thinking back on what was done to discover how knowing-in-action (see above) may have contributed to an unexpected action. Here, teachers reflect on their classes after they have finished in order to explore the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson so that they can begin to decide the future direction of their lessons. Reflection-on-­ action focuses on the cognitive processes of teaching that depends on retrospection for analysis. So, reflection-on-action would come to mean some kind of metacognitive action, while reflection-in-action is the ability to frame problems based on past experiences, a type of conversation that takes place between the practitioner and an uncertain situation at the time of the occurrence of that situation. Some questions I get teachers in workshops to reflect-on-action include: • What did the students learn and how do I know? • Do I need to re-teach any part of the lesson? • Will I teach this lesson differently next time? Reflection-for-action  The third type of reflection is called reflection-for-­ action. Reflection-for-action is different from the previous types of reflection in that it is proactive in nature. Teachers can prepare for the future by using knowledge from what happened during class and what they reflected on after class. Some questions I give teachers in workshops to reflect-for-action are: • What do I want my students to learn from this lesson? • How well do I understand the content of the lesson I am about to teach? • How will I organize the lesson?

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• What activities will I include? • How will I check for student understanding?

Final Reflections Reflective practice can benefit language teachers and leaders in language education in the following ways: • • • • • •

It frees the leader from routine and impulsive action. It helps leaders become more confident in their actions and decisions. It provides information for leaders to make informed decisions. It helps leader to critically reflect on all aspects of their work. It helps leader to develop strategies for intervention and change. It recognizes leader as professionals.

As a final reflection I would like to invite readers to again examine Dewey’s (1933a, b) three dispositions for meaningful reflection as outlined above and see what degree of each you possess. Please remember that all the questions posed above for each of the three dispositions although focused on teachers and teaching, they also can be adjusted to leadership and leaders may tweak them to their own contexts and specifications. Open-minded (a desire to listen to more sides than one) • • • •

Are you open-minded? If yes, how do you know? How open-minded should a teacher be? Can you give an account of an example of how you are open-minded as a teacher? Responsible (careful consideration of the consequences of actions)

• Are you responsible? • If yes, how do you know? • Can you give an account of an example of how you are responsible as a teacher?

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Whole-hearted (seek every opportunity to learn) • Are you whole-hearted? • If yes, how do you know? • Can you give an account of an example of how you are whole-hearted as a teacher? • What levels of these characteristics do you possess as a teacher now (high, medium, low)? • Which of these characteristics do you need to develop more as you continue as a teacher and a leader? • Can you think of other desirable characteristics a reflective practitioner should possess?

Conclusion Reflective practice as a mark of professional competence has taken hold across many professions in recent times (e.g., science, law, medicine, nursing, and education). Teacher reflection, as outlined in this chapter, involves much more than taking a few minutes to think about how to keep students on task. Reflective language teaching involves teachers not only systematically gathering data about their teaching and using this information to make informed decisions about their practice, but also involves the cultivation of a particular reflective disposition. This disposition comprises of three essential attitudes of open-mindedness, responsibility, and whole-heartedness, all of which can make reflection meaningful for the practitioner. Such an approach to reflection for teachers and leaders means that they must show a willingness to actively challenge their comfortable and, for many, taken-for-granted parts of their professional lives and undergo the trouble of searching while at the same time enduring a state of suspense given they do not know what we will find as a result. Viewing reflection as a process that includes the cultivation and nurturing of these three vital dispositions or habits of the mind will ensure that reflection implies a dynamic way of being both inside and outside the classroom for teachers and leaders within the field of language teaching and beyond.

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Reflective Questions • Are you open-minded? • Are you responsible? • Are you whole-hearted?

References Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. Jossey Bass. Crooks, G. (2013). Critical ELT in action: Foundations, promises, praxis. Routledge. Day, C. (1993). Reflection: A necessary but not sufficient condition for teacher development. British Educational Research Journal, 19(83), 93. Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. D.C. Heath & Co. Dewey, J. (1933a). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process (2nd ed.). Houghton-Mifflin. Dewey, J. (1933b). How we think. In J. A. Boydston (Ed.), John Dewey: The later works (Vol. 8, 2nd ed., pp. 107–352). Southern Illinois University Press. Dottin, E. S. (2009). Professional judgement and dispositions in teacher education. Teaching & Teacher Education, 25(1), 83–88. Farrell, T.  S. C. (1999a). The reflective assignment: Unlocking pre-service English teachers’ beliefs on grammar teaching. RELC Journal, 30, 1–17. Farrell, T.  S. C. (1999b). Reflective practice in an EFL teacher development group. System, 27(2), 157–172. Farrell, T.  S. C. (2001). Tailoring reflection to individual needs. Journal of Education for Teaching, 27(1), 23–38. Farrell, T. S. C. (2004). Reflective practice in action. Corwin Press. Farrell, T. S. C. (2006). Reflective practice in action: A case study of a writing teacher’s reflections on practice. TESL Canada Journal, 23(2), 77–90. Farrell, T. S. C. (2007). Reflective practice for language teachers: From research to practice. Continuum Press. Farrell, T. S. C. (2008). Novice language teachers: Insights and perspectives for the first year. Equinox. Farrell, T. S. C. (2013a). Reflective practice in ESL teacher development groups: From practices to principles. Palgrave Macmillan.

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Farrell, T.  S. C. (2013b). Reflective writing for language teachers. Equinox Publishing Ltd. Farrell, T.  S. C. (2014). Reflective practice in ESL teacher development groups: From practices to principles. Palgrave Macmillan. Farrell, T. S. C. (2015). Promoting teacher reflection in second language education: A framework for TESOL professionals. Routledge. Farrell, T. S. C. (2016). From trainee to teacher: Reflective practice for novice teachers. Equinox. Farrell, T. S. C. (2018a). Research on reflective practice in TESOL. Routledge. Farrell, T. S. C. (2018b). Reflective language teaching: Practical applications for TESOL teachers (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. Farrell, T. S. C. (2019). Reflective practice in ELT. Equinox. Farrell, T. S. C. (2020). Reflective teaching (Revised ed). TESOL International publications. Farrell, T.  S. C. (2021). TESOL teacher education: A reflective approach. Edinburgh University Press. Farrell, T. S. C. (2022a). Reflective language teaching. Cambridge University Press. Farrell, T. S. C. (2022b). Doing reflective practice in English language teaching: 120 activities for effective classroom management, lesson planning, and professional development. Routledge. Farrell, T. S. C., & Avejic, V. (2020). “Students are my life”: Reflections of one novice EFL teacher in Central America. TESL Canada Journal, 37(3), 47–63. Farrell, T.  S. C., & Kennedy, B. (2019). Reflective practice framework for TESOL teachers: One teacher’s reflective journey. Reflective Practice, 20, 1–12. Farrell, T. S. C., & Macapinlac, M. (2021). Professional development through reflective practice: A framework for TESOL teachers. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 24(1), 1–25. Hobbs, V. (2007). Faking it or hating it: Can reflective practice be forced? Reflective Practice, 8, 405–417. Misco, T., & Shiveley, J. (2007). Making sense of dispositions in teacher education: Arriving at democratic aims and experiences. Journal of Educational Controversy, 2(2), Article 8. https://cedar.wwu.edu/jec/vol2/iss2/8/l. Accessed 16 Dec 2022. Osterman, K.  F., & Kottkamp, R.  B. (2004). Reflective practice for educators: Professional development to improve student learning (2nd ed.). Corwin Press. Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Professional development for language teachers. Cambridge University Press.

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Richards, J.  C., & Lockhard, C. (1994). Reflective teaching. Cambridge University Press. Sarab, M. R. A., & Mardian, F. (2022). Reflective practice in second language teacher education: A scoping review. Journal of Education for Teaching, online first November, 2, 2022. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Stanley, C. (1998). A framework for teacher reflectivity. TESOL Quarterly, 32(584), 591. Wallace, M. (1996). Structured reflection: The role of the professional project in training ESL teachers. In D. Freeman and Jack C. Richards (Eds.), Teacher learning in language teaching (pp. 281–294). New York: Cambridge University Press. Walsh, S., & Mann, S. (2015). Doing reflective practice: a data-led way forward. ELT Journal, 69(4), 1–12.

Diverse Pathways into Leadership in World Language Education Caleb Powers and Kathleen M. Bailey

“It seemed like there was no pathway for classroom teachers to leadership.” ––R226

Introduction Since you are reading this chapter, it is likely that you are––or aspire to be––a language teacher, and that you have an interest in leadership. In this chapter we share what we learned by conducting a survey about how world language teachers in the United States became leaders beyond their classroom contexts. We became motivated to investigate the leadership pathways of world language educators for a very practical reason––in fact, a teaching reason. In August of 2020, we were preparing a new seminar intended to help the students (all of whom are current or future language teachers) develop their own leadership potential. In choosing the seminar readings, we found that the majority of the published literature in our field had been

C. Powers (*) • K. M. Bailey Middlebury Institute of International Studies, Monterey, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_3

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written by leaders in TESOL for and about leadership in English language teaching––in both EFL and ESL contexts. For example, the books by Benegas and Stolpestad (2020), Christison and Murray (2009b), Coombe et al. (2008, 2020), and Knight (2022) all focus on leadership in English teaching. More recently, Curtis (2022) explored the careers of ten leaders in English language education. These books were influential for this project, but the seminar students comprised (future) teachers of many languages––not just English. The available literature did not represent the students or community at large, so we investigated how US-based leaders in world language education had become leaders. In conceptualizing our study, we began to see that becoming a leader is a kind of journey, which suggested the image of various paths to leadership. Adopting the metaphor of pathways as an heuristic device helped us to examine the various dimensions of becoming a leader. By the term leadership pathway, we mean the sequence, timing, and setting of experiences and influences that culminate in teaching professionals acquiring leadership responsibilities and (usually) gaining awareness of their potential to carry out those roles. We understand that the many responsibilities of teachers often necessitate leadership qualities and that teachers can make an impact in their classrooms without holding any official leadership titles. We believe most teachers must take on leadership roles at some point(s) in their careers, with or without specific preparation. We concur with Christison and Murray’s (2009a) view that teacher leadership, “the concept of teachers as leaders, has become not so much an innovation in education, but a necessity for effectively improving and sustaining current school leadership” (p. 11). These authors also note that “very few educators receive formal training in leadership development before they take on leadership roles” (p. 8). Curtis notes that people must often move “from language teaching into leadership roles … with little or no training of the extensive kind they were required to complete successfully before being allowed to teach” (2022, p. 4). We note that effective teachers are leaders to their own students and with their own colleagues: This is demonstrated by the fact that teachers are responsible for planning at both the micro and the macro levels, keeping in mind the overall scope

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and sequence of a given unit of study while also considering where students are headed next. (Benegas & Stolpestad, 2020, p. 9)

In the K-12 context, “program leadership is an important component of the school system that has largely been omitted in world language educational research” (Ritz & Sherf, 2022, pp. 1025–1026). Indeed, “the knowledge base shows a dearth of research on teacher leadership […] and remains vaguely defined to scholars and practitioners” (Beachum & Dentith, 2004, p. 277). In that vein, we agree with Curtis (2022), who said, “Those writings [on the lived experiences of leaders in language education] may score few, if any, scholarly points on the hierarchical scoreboard of academia, but they could be of great value to the next generation of leaders in our field” (p. 172). That “next generation” is the primary audience we wish to reach with this chapter to encourage those new professionals to consider taking on leadership responsibilities.

Research Methods To better understand the complex set of issues about how language teachers become leaders, we posed two broad questions, each with sub-questions: 1. When did our respondents start serving as leaders? A. When and how did they become aware of their leadership potential? B. When did they first act on their leadership potential? C. What was the catalyst, if any, that caused them to first gain awareness of their leadership potential? 2. What are the diverse pathways into leadership in world language education? A. What are the characteristics of the respondents’ experiences of becoming leaders in L2 education? B. What external influences and/or support, if any, have the respondents had throughout their experiences of becoming leaders?

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C. What were the respondents’ motivations, if any, behind taking on leadership responsibilities? D. How did the respondents view their leadership experiences after the fact? We posed these questions for three main reasons. First, the available literature focuses largely on the principles of leadership, the characteristics of successful leaders, and various approaches to leadership. Second, we wondered whether the literature related to leadership in English language education appropriately addresses the concerns of leaders in other language education contexts. Third, given the teachers in our seminar, we wanted examples of leadership development in languages other than English.

Data Collection Instrument To begin, we developed an online questionnaire with 61 items (15 open-­ ended and 43 closed-format items). For the items that elicited ratings of agreement/disagreement, we used a seven-point scale to allow the respondents sufficient room to make fine-grained distinctions in rating their attitudes and experiences. The respondents were asked to consider the points on the scale to be equidistant.

Data Collection Procedures We developed a two-part study. The initial phase involved collecting questionnaire data while the second phase involved interviewing a sample of the respondents. In this chapter, we report on the first phase. To solicit responses, we used a multi-pronged, convenience sampling approach by sharing our online survey via email. We started by contacting our personal networks, writing to individuals whom we knew to be serving as leaders in L2 education. Then, we reached out to professional associations to locate leaders working at the national level, such as former

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presidents of ACTFL (the American Council of Teachers of Foreign Language). Next, we identified leaders representing each of the fifty US states by contacting public school districts, universities and colleges, and state professional associations. We identified which states were underrepresented in the data and then solicited more input from those groups. In the survey, we shared this definition of leadership: A leader is one or more people who selects, equips, trains, and influences one or more follower(s) who have diverse gifts, abilities, and skills and focuses the follower(s) to the organization’s mission and objectives causing the follower(s) to willingly and enthusiastically expend spiritual, emotional, and physical energy in a concerted coordinated effort to achieve the organizational mission and objectives. (Winston & Patterson, 2006, p. 7)

The questionnaire asked if respondents were currently working or had ever worked in language education in the US in contexts involving a language or languages other than English. We stated that in using the term language education, we were referring broadly to the profession— including teaching, research, policy, teacher education, and other non-­ classroom roles.

Data Analysis Procedures The responses on the closed-ended items were analyzed either as frequency data in charts or by calculating descriptive statistics. The qualitative data were analyzed through open coding, an iterative process of combining responses and naming-related themes. We did not have a priori categories. Instead, we categorized the responses according to the patterns that arose. We then used the constant comparison technique as new data arose, in which data that are “conceptually similar but not necessarily a repeat of the same action or incident are grouped together under the same conceptual heading” (Corbin & Strauss, 2015, p. 7). This process generated some new categories but also affirmed existing groupings.

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Respondents Our respondents included both professionals working entirely in administrative roles and professionals who have leadership responsibilities added to their typical teaching responsibilities. We also considered leadership roles both in volunteer contexts and in paid positions. We focused on leaders in language education in the United States (rather than internationally), because class sizes and resources vary considerably around the world. By focusing on the US context, we were partly able to constrain the number of factors influencing leadership issues. We received 228 valid responses. In some analyses below, the N is less than 228 in cases where respondents failed to address the items. In some instances, we will report data from subgroups of the total sample. The data allowed us to characterize the respondents in terms of age, level of education, linguistic backgrounds, the languages they have taught, the languages they have studied, and the years they have worked in L2 education. While the majority of our respondents currently work in (or have retired from) higher education contexts (86.8%), others worked in K-12 contexts (45.6%), intensive language programs (4.8%), federal language programs (1.8%), and various other settings. (These figures total more than 100% since some respondents had worked in more than one context.) About 7% of the respondents reported they were retired. The average age of respondents was 53 years old, ranging from 30 to 80 years old. The majority of respondents (61%) had earned a doctorate, while 33.8% reported having earned a master’s degree, 2.2% had earned a bachelor’s degree, and the rest had a teaching credential or certification, a Candidate Philosphae, or an Education Specialist degree. The majority (98.7%) indicated their native language(s) are of European origin, while 8.8% have Asian native language(s) and 3.5% have Middle Eastern native language(s). The majority (74.3%) teach or have taught languages that were European, 12.4% were Asian, 5.2% were Middle Eastern, 2.5% were North American Indigenous, 0.2% were African, and 5.2% gave other responses (e.g., “linguistics”). Which languages the respondents had studied returned the most diverse data:

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75.7% European, 10.2% Asian, 7.3% Eurasian, 4.1% Middle Eastern, 1.4% American Indigenous, and 0.4% African. Some respondents supervise and make decisions that impact many different language departments, whether they speak the language or not, while others only supervise the instruction of languages that they teach or speak. The respondents’ average years of experience in language education was 23.61 years, spanning from two to 69 years. However, interpreting these data is not straightforward since some leaders have held concurrent leadership roles (e.g., a 65-year-old respondent reported “39 years teaching French, 30 years of leadership experience in non-teaching roles”).

Findings and Discussion Characteristics of Pathways Based on the qualitative data, we identified six characteristics of leadership pathways: the timing and sequence of experiences; any catalysts that caused individuals to first act on their leadership potential; the locality, or context, in which the work took place; any external influences the leaders received; the leaders’ motivations regarding their current responsibilities and/or future roles; and the individuals’ overall perception of their pathways. Each characteristic is multifaceted, complex, and dynamic, as we discuss below.

Timing We wanted to understand the timing of the respondents’ pathway events (i.e., the experiences that took place throughout their careers) that contributed to their leadership awareness and/or responsibilities. We asked when they first gained leadership awareness (i.e., individuals’ initial realization of their own potential to perform successfully in leadership responsibilities). The majority of respondents (94.7%) reported gaining leadership awareness during a period in their lives, as shown in the four main time zones in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1  Leadership awareness timeline (n = 216/228)

Forty-five respondents (19.7%) gained awareness when they were around 18 years old or younger (Time Zone A). An additional 15.4% specified a more precise pre-adolescent age (up to 12 years old, subsection Time Zone E). Four of those respondents (1.8% of all respondents) said they “always knew” they were leaders. In total, 35.1% acknowledged gaining leadership awareness before graduating from high school. The other three time zones overlap as their boundaries are based on life events which may happen at different ages. Time Zone B represents post-­ secondary education, which may start directly after completing high school (around age 18) or later, and may finish around age 30. Fifty respondents (21.9%) gained leadership awareness at this stage. Figure 1 shows that 57% of the respondents became aware of their leadership potential during childhood or education (see zones A, B, and E). Twenty-eight respondents (12.3%) gained awareness during the first five years after completing post-secondary studies (Time Zone C). The percentages of zones B or C vary slightly as some responses (2.2%) could

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not be uniquely labeled. Finally, 58 respondents (25.4%) reported gaining leadership awareness in their established professional years (i.e., five or more years after joining the L2 workforce, Time Zone D). Aside from the 94.7% of respondents represented in Fig. 1, 12 respondents (5.3%) gave answers that were not specific enough to code, like R107 (“when I moved to the US”), or R70 (“Maybe as I started completing this survey”). Nearly two-thirds of the respondents (64.9%) reported taking on leadership roles after graduating from university. Meanwhile, 21.9% started their leadership roles before graduating from high school, and 13.2% began during their postsecondary studies. Other leadership pathway timing considerations involve the sequence of events affecting perceived value or the duration of leadership responsibilities having long-term effects (e.g., feelings of stability, understanding of contextual factors). R45 illustrated the complexity of timing and how it is influenced by available time: I think one of the largest hurdles is time. Most leaders in the field are full-­ time teachers, really have to be careful with work/life balance, and that time has to come from somewhere. I think it is very difficult because people that want things from the leader don’t see them as a volunteer with a full-time job teaching.

This point is important, since the average teacher’s workload is already challenging. Our data clearly show that these respondents began their L2 leadership work at a wide range of periods.

Awareness Catalyst We sought to understand our respondents’ leadership awareness catalysts, or the culmination of instigating factors that substantially contribute to an individual’s leadership awareness. Such awareness often triggers the motivation for and/or initiation of leadership responsibilities, though not always immediately. Using our pathway metaphor, asking about an awareness catalyst is like asking, “What made you realize you might enjoy hiking?”

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Here, we are primarily referring to the macro awareness catalyst, or the event leaders identify as being the defining moment to their gaining awareness. Analyzing these catalysts is complex, as oftentimes a catalyst is not a clearly defined singular occurrence, but rather an accumulation of multiple influences that take place before a leader fully gains awareness. We refer to these incremental influences as micro awareness catalysts. They may eventually reach a tipping point, causing individuals to fully gain awareness of their potential. Some leaders develop an awareness of the interconnected influences that take place throughout their careers. Other leaders focus on a single crucial catalyst, and still others may be largely unaware of such influences. This complexity is mirrored in Curtis (2022): “As we know, (almost) nobody wakes up one morning to find themselves transformed … from a teacher into a leader…That transitional journey takes time, making the precise pin-pointing of when we first became leaders unfeasible” (p. 11). The respondents described four groups of catalysts: self-generated catalysts, other-generated catalysts, experiential catalysts, and a mixture of catalysts. Some other respondents didn’t or couldn’t identify a catalyst. Self-generated Awareness Catalysts  Ninety-seven respondents (42.3%) exhibited the self-generated catalyst: an instigating idea, trait, or experience originating from within the individual that ignites or contributes to leadership awareness. For example, 16.3% attributed their leadership awareness to personal qualities, such as persuasiveness, organization, motivation, and vision, as shown in this quote from R209: I quickly understood that if something had to get done, there had to be someone reliable in charge to see it through, whether it was being in charge of cleaning class pet cages, or caring for other children, producing graphics for a school newspaper or acolyting.

Sixteen respondents (7%) mentioned they were interested in or experienced satisfaction while engaging in leadership responsibilities. R38 wrote about “the need to lead, progress, and sometimes change for the better good.” Fifteen respondents (6.6%) mentioned their self-awareness or selfreflection, while 3.9% said they always knew they wanted to be leaders.

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Other-generated Awareness Catalysts  Despite these self-generated catalytic elements, some leaders need a push. The other-generated awareness catalyst is an influence outside the individual that triggers or contributes to leadership awareness. In total, 44.7% of the responses were other-­ generated. The clearest example was gaining awareness by being delegated leadership responsibilities without being asked (5.7%). Some reported being given responsibilities, while others described being “thrown into” or “thrust into” leadership. Fifty responses (22%) indicated that leadership awareness was gained via encouraging feedback (e.g., from employers, teachers, mentors, colleagues, friends, family). However, most respondents (93%) reported having been encouraged to take on a leadership position. That is, more respondents reported having been encouraged to assume leadership responsibilities than the number who reported encouragement as being their leadership awareness catalyst. Encouragement may have been provided, but contextual factors may have impeded the successful attainment of leadership responsibilities. Such was the case for R76, who became aware of their leadership potential in grade school, but only began leading much later: “My parents and teachers told me I was a leader––I didn’t understand what that meant.” Thirty-three respondents (14.5%) reported gaining leadership awareness by being asked, nominated, or recommended to take on a role. However, 91.7% of the respondents said they had been nominated for leadership positions. In other words, more language professionals reported having been nominated for a leadership position than the number of those who reported nomination as their leadership awareness catalyst. They may have been nominated for leadership roles but may have resisted accepting due to contextual factors. R74 reported: I was asked to fill the role of Senior Patrol Leader, something I was reluctant to do because it meant less free time to engage in various adventures, but I did it to make my leaders and my father happy.

We can see that sometimes gaining leadership awareness did not result in assuming leadership roles––at least not immediately. Conversely, sometimes assuming leadership roles provided the leadership awareness catalyst.

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As leadership is contextually situated, we are not suggesting that teachers begin leading immediately after gaining awareness, nor should they accept all nominations. It is essential that leaders find a community they can best serve while also considering power dynamics at play. Regarding indigenous and/or marginalized communities, R55 noted: It is crucial for out-group members to be passive supporters. While some might nominate you to be a leader, not everyone in the community may support that decision, so it is important to find ways to help and support those who need it without taking on authority in contexts where it might not be appropriate.

There are many self- and other-generated influences that can affect professionals’ choices, but there are also contextual factors to consider when approaching leadership roles. Experiential Awareness Catalysts  The majority of responses (91.7%) were experiential awareness catalysts, processes, or time periods in which an individual gains leadership awareness. Specifically, 59.6% reported gaining awareness through professional activities such as teaching, managing, or serving in leadership roles, such as program director or president of a professional organization. Nineteen individuals found a need or thought they could do better than the established leadership. Many respondents said they only gained leadership awareness by serving as leaders. For example, R35 replied, “From doing it, I suppose,” and R231 commented, “It came through experiences and more responsibilities that I discovered my best attributes.” Twenty-three respondents (10.1%) gained awareness when stepping into a new position at work. Another 9.2% said seeing positive results from their work contributed to them gaining leadership awareness. In contrast, 46.7% reported awareness-­raising experiences unrelated to language education, such as club activities and experiences at school (e.g., Student Council, YMCA, scouts, class elections, sororities, marching band, and theater). In fact, 61 (26.8% of all respondents) mentioned gaining awareness during school experiences, such as participating in sports, study abroad, group work, and the school newspaper.

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Mixed Leadership Awareness Catalysts  Some catalysts were complex and could not be uniquely labeled. Four combinations of mixed catalysts arose from the data: self- and other-generated, experiential and self-­ generated, experiential and other-generated, and self-generated, other-­ generated, and experiential. The first combination of self-generated and other-generated influences was found in five responses. The self-­generated components involved a sense of self-awareness or personal qualities, such as being the “voice of reason” or adopting a “sense of service.” The other-­generated components included recurrent feedback from others (e.g., “people accepted me as an honest broker,” and “schoolmates relied on me”). In fact, R71 experienced repeated influences: “People came to me for advice and ideas for innovative new directions—I experienced this many times before I even realized I was being seen as a leader.” The second and third types of mixed catalysts are both primarily experiential, but differ in secondary influence. Sixty-one respondents (26.8%) reported experiential catalysts with self-generated influences, like a sense of passion or confidence, while working for organizations or with colleagues. Of these respondents, 36 had a mixture of self-generated influences and experiences unrelated to language education in school or childhood contexts, like organizing neighborhood sports at age five and family productions at age eight. A complex example of a mixed leadership awareness catalyst would be volunteerism. The attitude of volunteerism, the idea that teachers should contribute unpaid time to their communities, is a self-generated aspect, while the influence of volunteering on a person’s leadership awareness would be considered an experiential catalyst. Volunteerism emerged in the leadership awareness catalysts of 14% of the sample. For instance, R5 wrote, “I volunteered for many organizations and had ideas to improve them.” The responses included volunteering on a larger scale, such as working in nonprofits or professional organizations, as well as on a smaller scale, such as speaking up in team meetings or advocating for teachers to administrators. In contrast, 32.5% of the respondents reported experiential awareness catalysts combined with other-generated influences. Thirty-four respondents (14.9%) reported experiencing encouragement from others to take

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on leadership responsibilities. R206 gained awareness when their high school track coach asked them to be team captain, and R29 experienced professional encouragement in the workplace: “My administrator told me that she saw the potential in me.” Additional types of other-generated influences include being asked, nominated, pressured, or delegated to assume leadership responsibilities. The last combination is experiential combined with both self-­generated and other-generated influences, appearing in 10.1% of the responses. R132 provided a perfect example: I stepped into a leadership position (World Language Department Chair) because no one else wanted to do it. I saw that if I wanted to make a change, I would have to do a fair share of the work. People must have recognized my contributions and vision, because multiple people that I greatly respect told me that I should run for union president. I did not necessarily want the position, and I would not have been upset if I did not get it; however, I ran against the sitting VP and won. I will happily serve as president as long as folks think I should, as a leader’s potential is only as strong as their support base.

Seven responses were situations where individuals found a need or thought they could do better than the established leadership (e.g., experiencing the poor leadership of others). For example, R36 wrote, “I saw that I could make a difference in supporting the work of others and helping them grow as leaders.” For these respondents, the experience of seeing the impact of their actions and having self-generated awareness of their potential contributed to their leadership awareness. No Identifiable Leadership Awareness Catalyst  Around 6.6% of the respondents currently serve in leadership roles but did not identify a catalyst that sparked their leadership awareness, had not thought of their leadership awareness, or were unsure if they had experienced a catalyst. Despite holding leadership positions, some leaders, like R136, didn’t identify themselves as leaders: “I didn’t think of myself as [a leader] but it is what I was.” R173 asserted that “most people have ‘leadership potential,’ but there are not good incentives to realize this potential.”

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Locality By locality, we are referring to both the geographic region where leaders work as well as their specific roles in the broader profession. In our pathway metaphor, the locality is both the hiking trail an individual is exploring, as well as where in the world that trail is physically located. Physical Locality  We received responses from 49 of the 50 US states, where the response rates were mostly aligned with state population size. In total, 71.5% of the respondents work in only one state while 28.5% indicated having worked in two or more states. The impact that leaders have may vary tremendously depending on their working context(s). For example, a leader in a large, state-wide organization could influence all world language educators in an entire state, while a leader working in a rural independent school district probably influences a much smaller area. By analyzing our physical localities and the people we influence, we can better understand how our professional localities impact our work. Professional Locality  After analyzing the leadership positions respondents have held, we identified nine professional locality sectors: academic, associational, committee, conference, teacher education, research, publishing, governmental, and private. The largest is the academic sector, which includes a breadth of leadership responsibilities within schools, universities, academies, and learning centers. The data in the academic sector revealed diverse titles for positions with similar responsibilities. In fact, R218 commented, “Nationwide, statewide, there is great variety to the organization for K-12 World Languages education. For some, there is a dedicated specialist. For others, World Languages is included with ESOL.” We also received responses that were similar but could be coded in different or multiple contexts (e.g., language center director, summer program director, camp director). However, we should recall, as R75 recommended, “Aspiring leaders should think about a difference between leadership and leadership as a position,” recalling our earlier point on teachers as leaders. In other words, people can be leaders without having formal titles identifying them as such (Table 1).

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Table 1  Administrative roles in the academic sector Academic sector K-12 Administrative roles

State level District level School level Departmental level Other Post-secondary education Administrative Institutional levels roles Program level (e.g., director, developer, coordinator) Department level (e.g., chair, section head, coordinator) Other

208 (91.2%) 112 16 21 16 74 3 163 13 94 86 40

R52 noted that “senior administrators are not necessarily leaders. They may be effective administrators just by complying with processes and procedures, but they may not have any leadership traits.” Anderson (2008) echoed this point in noting that “if leadership is defined by behavior of leaders, then there could be some people with title and position who are not leaders because their behaviors are inconsistent with the characteristics of effective leaders” (p. 111). Other responsibilities in the academic sector included teacher positions (23.7%) (e.g., lead teacher, faculty development leader), curricular positions (17.1%) (e.g., curriculum director, assessment coordinator, instructional specialist), and student-related positions (20.2%) (e.g., TA supervisor, academic advisor, club advisor). The second largest group, the association sector, involves professional organizations, such as state and national language education associations, workers’ unions, and special interest groups. In total, 54.8% of the respondents reported working in the association sector in major administrative positions (e.g., board member, president, officer) or in smaller groups (e.g., task forces, unions, special interest groups). Localities can overlap when a role concerns two or more sectors. The committee sector, represented in 30.7% of the responses, includes committees in the academic sector (e.g., academic governance committee,

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assessment committee, MA supervisory committee) as well as the associational sector (e.g., special interest group committees, executive committees). Around half of those individuals (48.6% of this group) served as the chair of their respective committees. Similarly, the conference sector, found in 25% of the total sample, can be organized by a school district or university (academic) or by an independent organization (associational). Fifty-one of those individuals served as the organizing chair, while the others presented or gave keynote speeches. Involving both initial teacher preparation programs and the other types of development that occur throughout a professional’s career, the teacher education sector overlaps with other sectors (e.g., preparation courses at universities are academic, webinars hosted by professional language associations are associational, trainings by freelance consultants are private, etc.). Twenty-eight respondents (12.3%) reported having held leadership positions in this sector (e.g., head of a teacher preparation program, director of professional development, teacher trainer, teaching assistant supervisor, professional learning community chair). Seventeen respondents (7.5%) reported working in the research sector as research center directors, primary investigators on grants, and research team members. Nineteen respondents (8.33%) have worked in academic publishing (e.g., editor for an associational or university journal, production manager or textbook contributor for a private company, test developer). Another 7.5% have served in governmental agencies (e.g., the Foreign Service Institute, the Ministry of Education), military language schools (e.g., the Defense Language Institute), or departments of education. Another 7.9% worked in the private sector in for-profit businesses, corporations, or organizations within or outside the field of language education (e.g., director of pedagogy at a language education company). Ninety-three individuals (40.8%) reported currently working in more than one context and 66.2% reported having worked in various contexts previously. The data show that 80.7% have worked in more than one sector. One respondent had even worked in all nine, while others responded “all of the above” or “just about everything.” Thus, it seems common for leaders in world language education to work in multiple sectors. As

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Christel Broady (Curtis, 2022) noted, she was privileged to “acquire a keen understanding of the different domains of professional practices in distinctly different areas of government, private industry, academia, and a professional association” (p. 76). As R126 illustrates, locality is dynamic and can change for many reasons: My attempts to lead at one institution were rebuffed, and I was utterly disrespected and undervalued in that role; However, that experience allowed me to apply for a new position at a different institution with increased leadership opportunities and an immense amount of support and respect from colleagues.

Positionality within the administrative hierarchies in an institution must also be considered. As noted by Leo Mercado, a contributor in Curtis (2022), leaders may “emerge and flourish at all levels of the organization, from teachers who become mentors, presenters at academic events, and protagonists in their professional learning communities to academic coordinators and directors” (p. 44). By discussing the varied positions our respondents have held, future leaders may discover pathways they would like to explore, of which they had previously been unaware.

External Influence We analyzed our respondents’ external influences, or the support available to leaders during their careers. We found that such influences can be more or less structured and may arise serendipitously through interaction. Structured Influences  Some leaders experience influences that provide them with a glimpse at the metaphorical map of possible leadership pathways. A structured influence is initiated to provide leadership information, skills training, and/or guidance in an organized, goal-oriented, possibly time-bound way, and often requires preparation and motivation. Examples include participating in leadership courses, workshops, or conferences, and pursuing certifications.

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The majority (82%) reported having taken at least one leadershiprelated workshop and 56% said they had taken four or more workshops. These often-collaborative workshops provide varied approaches to L2 leaders’ professional development, including management theories, leadership exercises, and training in specific skills (e.g., budgeting, strategic planning, etc.). The most formalized approach to leadership development received the lowest response rate; only 35% reported having taken an academic course on leadership, and over half of this particular group reported taking four or more courses. This finding aligns with the data showing that most respondents started their leadership roles after completing their post-­ secondary education. R96 commented, “While I think leaders can benefit from the research literature, workshops and courses, I don’t know that a future leader has to do those BEFORE taking on a leadership role.” Other self-selected and/or individual influences can be less structured (e.g., reading articles and books on leadership) as reported by 73% of the respondents. R231 summarized the relevance of structured and unstructured influence: “Should a person take an academic class, read books, etc.? That is up to each person’s experiences and preferences. It is a blend of inputs that leads to a solid leader.” Interactional Influence  Some influences arise out of interaction rather than through structured opportunities. Interactional influences are reciprocal interactions with other individuals, often unplanned and possibly not goal oriented, that contribute to leadership development. Such often-­ serendipitous influences include hierarchical support systems, such as mentorships, as well as informal collegial support, such as casual conversations with colleagues. Indeed, 65% of our respondents reported they had had a leadership mentor. Mentorship can evolve naturally and ­without structure, but it can also be structured if an organization implements a mentoring program. R5 commented, “I think mentoring is of paramount importance in cultivating leaders. I was mentored and I mentor others.” Relationships and collaboration with peers also constitute interactional influences. For example, R207 valued the wisdom of other leaders:

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When I first started, I reached out to other district coordinators in similar urban settings and found that others were very eager to help me and share resources. It was invaluable to me to tap into their expertise as I navigated uncharted waters in my district.

Such relationships, like having a role model, may be unidirectional or even unknown to the role model. In fact, 87% reported having leadership role models. These relationships and interactions can greatly influence a person’s intentions to pursue leadership responsibilities. The majority (92%) reported having been nominated for leadership roles and 93% reported having been encouraged to take on leadership roles. Over half of the respondents (53%) said they had not been pressured to take on leadership responsibilities, while only 32% said they had been pressured and 15% responded neutrally. R63 commented, “Encouragement by colleagues and superiors was a huge factor in all the leadership steps I’ve taken.” The importance of interactional influence is also expressed in published accounts of leadership. Rosa Aronson, a case contributor in Curtis (2022), recognized that “leaders have blind spots. We can’t always understand how we affect others, so feedback from external sources is essential to reach an accurate understanding of our practice” (p. 54). Neil Anderson (another case contributor) also commented about the influence of others: “Along our leadership path, we are going to have encounters with colleagues, family members, and friends who can provide inputs and perhaps new perspectives on our assumptions” (Curtis, 2022, p. 150). Whether the influence is encouraging or pressuring, these types of interactional influences can have an impact on potential leaders. As displayed in Table 2, there are (at least) four combinations of structure and interaction levels. We are not suggesting that any influence is superior to another as leadership development should suit individuals’ needs, resources, and/or assets (e.g., funding for professional development, technological support). We must also consider constraints (e.g., workload, limited or dated teaching materials, lack of funding, poor internet connections).

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Table 2  Combinations of structure and interaction levels of external input Low structure

High structure

High Talking informally with other Participating in interactive interaction teachers and/or leaders about workshops or seminars issues in leadership about leadership issues Low Selecting and using books, articles, Listening to podcasts or interaction or online resources about lectures to meet a leadership recommended by requirement for a course or leadership gurus for certification

Consulting mentors or colleagues can often alleviate some stresses and provide access to resources for sustained leadership development. Contextual Factors  We must also consider contextual factors, the intricacies that influence professionals’ use of available resources. Joyce (2010) noted that “many failures in leadership may be linked with misperceptions on the part of the staff and the failure of the leader to recognize the context within which actions will be understood” (p. 423). An individual can be influenced by internal factors (e.g., perceived benefits, current professional motivations, desired workload) as well as external factors (e.g., administrator approval, ongoing workload, status of the profession). For example, contextual factors such as a global pandemic or being rejected by administrators can profoundly alter a leader’s planned course of action. R119 described their lack of a positive environment: “In the L2 contexts in which I have worked, I feel that my leadership potential has been underutilized and underdeveloped.” R226 emphasized the drive to lead despite negative experiential factors: It took me a long time, since for most of my career the teachers were women and the leaders were men. It seemed like there was no pathway for classroom teachers to leadership. It is still very limited. If I would have waited quietly for someone to recognize my potential, I would still be in the classroom. So I had to see it in myself. Now I am a successful leader who has won national awards and gained the respect of my stakeholders.

Without this attitude, this teacher may never have been motivated to exercise their leadership skills. We can conclude that contextual factors

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can either promote or postpone engaging in leadership. Structured influences and interactional influences are important in getting teachers started on leadership pathways. As noted by R43, “The training and the mentorship are both key.”

Motivations Regardless of the external influences leaders experience, the intention to lead remains largely the individual’s responsibility. By motivations, we are referring to an individual’s desires or plans to pursue or accept leadership responsibilities. Motivation entails three aspects: “the choice of a particular action,” “the persistence with it,” and “the effort expended upon it” (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2013, p.  4). Motivation is thus complex and dynamic, and can be influenced by internal or external factors. We have identified a five-level spectrum of motivation: purposeful, tentative, unexpected, instigated, or lack of motivation (see Fig. 2). Purposeful Motivation  The first level is purposeful motivation, wherein the professionals intentionally seek leadership responsibilities. For example, R6 was motivated “to change the language profession, the world, attitudes, programming, access to language education, etc.” R94 also expressed purposeful motivation: “Serving in official and volunteer roles interested me and I sought them out.” In total, 88.6% of the respondents reported having volunteered for leadership positions, compared to the 14% who gained leadership awareness by volunteering. Although volunteering is not a common leadership awareness catalyst, a sense of volunteerism is associated with purposeful motivation.

Fig. 2  Spectrum of motivation

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Thirteen respondents (5.7%) reported having a sense of fulfillment, satisfaction, or interest, exemplifying purposeful motivation. As R25 reported, “I knew I wanted to be a leader and I would strive to become a good one.” R46 commented, I am a born leader and have sought out leadership opportunities. I am humbled and thankful for these opportunities and for the supporters and mentors that helped me and continue to help me. I strive to be that person for my students and my colleagues.

Purposeful motivation may be a characteristic of archetypal leaders. However, other levels of motivation must also be considered. Tentative Motivation The next level is tentative motivation, wherein individuals have some interest in leadership, but require the validation or support of their peers, colleagues, employers, or mentors before taking on leadership responsibilities. R209 commented, “Anyone who wants to improve their efficacy needs to find the occasion to take small steps, [find] role models [and] verbal persuasion of trusted others.…Finding the right mentors can be tricky!” R226 added, “Ask for feedback and take it.” Support might include asking for validation of a prior intention or seeking external input to make a decision. However, the weight of external influences may vary. For example, a classmate’s encouragement may carry less weight than an employer’s validation. Some decisions to take on leadership roles may involve impromptu queries (e.g., asking a classmate if you should run for class president), while others may be purposeful (e.g., asking a mentor for advice on a career decision). Either way, it is worthwhile for potential leaders to seek out encouragement. Unexpected Motivation Individuals considering accepting leadership responsibilities they had not previously intended to pursue can be described as having unexpected motivation. Upon learning about a leadership opportunity, this unexpected motivation could become tentative or even quite purposeful. However, this point on the spectrum can be visu-

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alized as a fulcrum; that is, the person might be positive, extremely hesitant, or even negative about taking on the unforeseen leadership opportunity. Depending on the contextual factors, pursuing unexpected motivation involves risk-taking. A few respondents mentioned taking a leap of faith. R41 reported, “I wanted something and there was a void, so I stepped in, realized I loved it, and now want more and more!” Recalling R132’s comment above, that individual took the risk when presented with an unexpected opportunity: “I did not necessarily want [to be department chair] and I would not have been upset if I did not get it, however, I ran against the sitting VP and won.” Whether or not R132 had won the election, the act of choosing to run for election is a result of an unexpected motivation. Regardless of an individuals’ motivations at the beginning of a leadership pathway event (e.g., taking on a new position or project), their level of motivation can shift at any point before, during, or after the event. Even if they unintentionally find themselves in leadership roles, professionals can still work toward outcomes they hadn’t considered previously (e.g., recognizing the benefits of new jobs they previously disliked). For example, R184 wrote: I never saw myself as a leader and was long skeptical of the idea of ‘leadership,’…[but] now I understand leadership as service to the community and as a chance to create the conditions for colleagues and students to thrive personally and professionally.

Other unexpected motivations include not intending to be a leader, as noted by R145: “Leadership came to me, I accepted the challenge and found out I liked it.” This sense of unplanned, unexpected leadership opportunities being motivating can be found in other research, such as Curtis’s (2022) discussion of “The Accidental Leader,” in which he noted that “many of the [case] contributors had no plans to be in a leadership role” (p.14). One of Okon Effiong’s entries in Curtis (2022) provides a clear example of an unexpected leadership opportunity. After he had served for a year on the TESOL Diversity Committee, he said,

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The Past Chair nominated me as Chair-elect. I looked around the room at other members who had more experience and wondered why she had done that. I told her I knew nothing and was not sure if she had made the right choice […] and it suddenly dawned on me that this was a window of opportunity. (p. 20)

A leader’s intended pathway can suddenly change when an unexpected opportunity presents itself, offering an unintended shortcut into another position, sector, or even profession. As Curtis (2022) noted, “Although the leadership pathway is often presented as a hierarchical climb, in our field of language education, it is often more circular than linear” (p. 11). He adds that “an unexpected event can throw you off balance for a moment, but in a good way, that enables you to see what is happening from an entirely different perspective” (p.171). Instigated Motivation  Individuals who must first consider the practical external stimuli, pressures, and benefits before rejecting or accepting leadership responsibilities exhibit instigated motivation. When an unforeseen opportunity is unattractive and taking the risk seems unwise or unappealing, the balance may shift toward a more negative view of the leadership opportunity, causing practical considerations to become the primary motivation in decision making. As noted above, R74 accepted a Senior Patrol Leader role because it would make their father proud and would entail some prestige. The key difference between tentative and instigated motivations is that in the former, seeking input is an individual’s internal decision, whereas in the latter, a nudge originates from outside the individual, as illustrated in the above quote from Okon Effiong. Seven respondents (3.1%) identified a similar external stimulus that nudged them into leadership: No one else stepped forward when a task needed to be completed. R192 commented on a professional setting: “There did not seem to be anyone else who had a vision for how we should move forward.” Others, like R159, reported on non-professional settings (“When no one else stepped up to lead us in song at summer camp!”). In another example, R144 was pressured by peers: “I was quickly

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pushed to be the speaker or leader of our break-out sessions.” R44 wrote, “A mentor pushed me into the role and I became more aware of the good I could do at the front of the pack as well as at the back.” Lack of Motivation  Finally, some people may display a lack of motivation to become leaders but find themselves unintentionally having leadership responsibilities without ever actively accepting them, seeking them, being nudged, or having the option to decline. Thirteen respondents (5.7%) actually reported not considering themselves to be leaders even though they have worked in leadership roles. Professionals may not initially have the motivation to be leaders, but that can change after the responsibility of leadership is thrust upon them, as was the case for the 5.7% who reported gaining leadership awareness by being delegated leadership responsibilities without having been asked. This type of situation also occurs when established leaders suddenly vacate their roles (e.g., due to promotion, illness, or even death) and new leaders are forced to replace them. We have found numerous reasons why L2 educators take on leadership roles. R96 insisted that “while a few leadership roles were really forced on me, there were others that were entirely voluntary.” In Curtis (2022), Leo Mercado stated: The fact of the matter is that there are people who are not looking to become leaders but who get chosen for the role anyway, and others for whom there is nothing they wish for more than assuming leadership positions in the organization. (p. 126)

Our data show that the motivation to become a leader is quite complex and that many facets influence the strength of intentions. There is no single type of leader, as people in leadership roles exhibit different motivations.

Overall Perception We studied the attitudes and beliefs leaders have when reflecting on their entire leadership career, which we call their overall perception. Respondents

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were asked if they had acquired new knowledge, acquired new skills or developed existing skills, and had largely positive experiences in the L2 leadership positions they had held. Almost all respondents (99%) agreed that they had gained knowledge by serving as leaders (x̄ = 6.74). Likewise, 99% said they had gained new skills and/or developed skills by taking on leadership roles (x̄ = 6.74). The majority (90%) said they had had positive experiences with their leadership responsibilities (x̄ = 6.04). Our results correspond to those in a study on former presidents of the TESOL association (Bailey et al., 2009), which asked how the experience of leadership changed leaders. The former TESOL presidents reported having acquired new knowledge (x̄ = 6.0), and acquired new skills and/or developed existing skills (x̄ = 6.0). Those respondents also said that overall, serving as TESOL president was a positive experience (x̄ = 6.3). Our respondents commented on different types of knowledge they gained. For instance, R1 explained, “Becoming language program coordinator and then head of department gave me invaluable insights into the political aspects of [world language] education at my institution and into the larger issues of this professional field.” R183 commented, “The different leadership roles I have had over my career have been instrumental in shaping me as a professional. In addition to the professional knowledge and abilities I’ve gained, I’ve learned ‘people skills.’” A few respondents specified the breadth of skills required to be a leader in world language education. R15 commented, “Being in charge of projects and teams of people called for extending skills beyond the academic content learned in formal education––administrative, persuasive, fund-­ raising, budgeting, etc.” R67 further explained, Before accepting administrative leadership positions, candidates should be made aware of the different skills needed in order to manage their team effectively. Mentors and role models, […] workshops and other training are also effective, especially while on the job.

This comment reminds us “very few educators receive formal training in leadership development before they take on leadership roles” (Christison & Murray, 2009a, p. 8).

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Negative aspects of leadership were also reported. For example, R77 commented, “It can be a lonely place,” and R61 wrote, “I loved my job as a professor, but have started to hate my job as a department chair.” R69 said the “experience has been harrowing, with existential threats to my job and my programs” while also struggling with “survival skills, the ability to sleep well, the ability to prioritize the most vital needs, and the ability to articulate them at the right moments.” Some individuals expressed considering leaving leadership behind. R61 commented, “After years in leadership positions, I’ve decided that I don’t like it and would rather not be in leadership.” R222 wrote, “It is increasingly difficult to remain in a leadership role because of changing work ethics among instructors and the continuous lack of support from administration.” However, even after negative experiences, some leaders still see the bright side: “The failures [in that leader’s career] have been tremendous teachers, upon reflection (ah, there’s the key, right?) without which neither I nor those who look to me for mentoring would truly understand leadership” (R212). Positive experiences were also described. Both R30 and R31 commented that their leadership experiences have been “very rewarding,” and R67 acknowledged, “I’ve learned a lot over the years and have thoroughly enjoyed being a leader in schools. In fact, I now enjoy it more than teaching!” This sentiment also appears in Curtis (2022), who noted that the unpredictability of how people arrive in leadership “can make the journey more difficult but all the more rewarding” (p. 18). To summarize, our data clearly show that serving as a leader has been a very positive experience for the vast majority of our respondents.

Limitations In reference to our sample of the population of L2 leaders in the US, we do not know how representative these particular respondents are in terms of both size and demographics. They were not randomly sampled, and they were able to choose whether to reply to the survey, so these respondents may be particularly happy with their work as leaders. We do not have questionnaire data from professionals who are no longer serving as

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leaders due to retirement or attrition. Thus, the findings are subject to possible survivorship bias. Additionally, some professionals may have declined to participate because they are “too busy leading to be able to take the time to step back, reflect, and write about their leadership work” (Curtis, 2022, p. 4). Respondents’ experiences and work contexts may differ widely from leaders working in other situations. For example, the time and energy devoted to the pursuit of tenure may not be an issue for leaders working outside of tertiary education. To have a clearer picture of leadership challenges and pathways, a larger and more diverse sample would be needed. For example, we excluded teachers of English, so it would be interesting to determine whether leaders in TESOL have career pathways similar to those of the respondents in this study. Furthermore, we did not gather detailed demographic data that could allow us to analyze these leaders’ pathways from a social justice perspective. Thus, many interesting questions remain about which groups do or do not take on leadership roles in L2 education in the US. We should also acknowledge that our questionnaire has not been validated. Finally, we do not know how leadership pathways may differ in countries with strong central ministries of education, where there are often national curricula and school-leaving exams. In socio-economic contexts that are more constrained, teachers may have to work at more than one job. In such cases, volunteering for a professional association would be an unmanageable burden. (See Cameron’s [2021] discussion of such challenges in Rwanda.) Thus, different contextual factors may influence language teachers’ pathways to leadership.

Implications There are several potential implications of this study. To begin, our research questions addressed the characteristics of teachers’ experiences as leaders in L2 education. By identifying and sharing these six characteristics of a leadership pathway, we hope to help other educators to better understand their own leadership pathways and to support aspiring leaders.

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Timing and Leadership Awareness Catalysts As for how and when respondents gained awareness of their leadership potential, the majority (57%) were aware before beginning their careers. Youth and childhood seem to be an impactful time for raising awareness. Only 35% had become aware of their leadership potential prior to graduating from high school, but 45 of those individuals (90%) that had leadership experience before graduating from high school also gained awareness in the same time period. Additionally, 26.8% gained awareness in school activities and civic groups. These early experiences may have awakened their interest in leadership, helped them gain confidence, and bolstered their knowledge and skills. These findings suggest that it would be beneficial for families and teachers to help adolescents explore their leadership potential, to find leadership opportunities, and to understand the value of such experiences. Of the 50 respondents who became aware of their leadership potential during their post-secondary education, 68% of this group only took on leadership roles after they had graduated from college or university. Additionally, only 13.2% began leadership roles during their post-­ secondary education, which surprised us, given the many opportunities for students to get involved in the profession during this time (e.g., volunteering at conferences, joining professional associations with student discounts, leading student groups). These data suggest that college and university professors, advisors, and tutors should not assume that their students are aware of their own leadership potential or the opportunities available to them. While students should focus on coursework, we believe that having career-relevant leadership opportunities during college can be beneficial and may even help new graduates in the job market (Baert & Verhaest, 2021). The majority of our sample (65%) only assumed leadership roles after their careers had started and 37.7% gained leadership awareness only after beginning their careers. In our pathway metaphor, we posit that gaining leadership awareness later in your career is like being unaware of the amazing hiking trails available until you are already in a national park. Some respondents gained awareness before performing leadership

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responsibilities; some gained awareness by the act of taking on leadership responsibilities; and some gained awareness while performing leadership responsibilities. We found that most respondents (68.9%) indicated they gained leadership awareness and began leadership responsibilities in the same general time period. Therefore, we encourage the exploration of leadership potential as early as possible, though, as Curtis (2022) has noted, “It is never too early for a teacher to start thinking about and preparing for a leadership role––even if they are not expecting to be in such a role [and] it is never too late to start your leadership journey” (p. 15).

Locality The data show that 78% of respondents working in K-12 contexts and 76% working in post-secondary education contexts reported serving in administrative roles; therefore, some preparation for administrative responsibilities may be useful for world language teachers, however, it is often lacking, as noted by Curtis (2022). He found the lack of training for leadership roles “was one of the most commonly recurring themes” in the cases he analyzed (p. 108). However, we should remember R75’s comment that “aspiring leaders should think about the difference between leadership and leadership as a position.” Not all leaders have an official title; many educators lead in ways that are unstructured or unofficial. Therefore, aspiring leaders and other stakeholders should not undervalue the impact of teachers who serve without official leadership titles. Furthermore, R52 reminds us that “senior administrators are not necessarily leaders. They may be effective administrators just by complying with processes and procedures, but they may not have any leadership traits.” This view implies that language teachers will sometimes work with administrators who are primarily managers rather than leaders. Still, we venture to say that even working for administrators who are not effective leaders can be instructive by showing aspiring leaders what behaviors they should avoid and what behaviors they would want to adopt. Lastly, 66.2% of our respondents have worked in a variety of contexts in their past, and 80.7% have worked in more than one of the identified

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sectors. This diversity of experience can be a tremendous asset to share with aspiring leaders. For example, leaders who are invested in and knowledgeable about the various professional tracks available in the broad field of L2 education probably also know about the kinds of leadership opportunities available to their students. Therefore, they should raise students’ awareness of their own potential and help them become mindful about the ways they could begin their leadership pathways. Here, we see the value in established professionals raising awareness about opportunities within and beyond both their physical and professional localities.

External Influence Only 35% of our respondents had taken academic courses on leadership, which is not surprising since 65% of respondents began their leadership responsibilities after their post-secondary studies. While leadership courses are useful to young professionals, workshops may be more impactful for established professionals as they are targeted to specific needs and are shorter in duration than most courses, which may be the reason 82% of our respondents had taken leadership workshops. Additionally, around 73% reported having read books or articles related to leadership development. Given that reading can typically be done on one’s own schedule, we highly encourage (aspiring) leaders to read and potentially contribute to literature on leadership. As for interactional influences, 65% have had mentors, while 87% have had role models, which suggests an implication for established professionals––the opportunity to mentor emerging leaders among their students and junior colleagues, an often time-intensive yet rewarding endeavor (see Harold, 2020). Deborah Healey exemplifies this sentiment in Curtis (2022), noting how her encouragement led “women to take on [leadership roles] more freely because they knew from the beginning that they had the support of faculty” (p. 146). Mentors can be particularly important to emergent leaders who may need to be nudged. However, we hasten to note that such encouragement can also come from peers. We encourage supportive interactions among pre-service, in-service, and established teachers so that we can encourage the next generation of leaders to step up.

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We recommend engaging with various types of structured and interactional input to diversify the support and wisdom gained. As R21 noted, “It is a blend of inputs that leads to a solid leader.” Most notably, do not ignore interactional input, since many of our respondents cherished it. As Neil Anderson noted, such interactions “can provide inputs and perhaps new perspectives on our assumptions” (Curtis, 2022, p. 150).

Motivations We found that some teachers enter leadership positions intentionally, some seek input, some take opportunities as they arise, some weigh the benefits, some need to be nudged, and others have no intentions of becoming leaders. Those respondents who were less determined to serve as leaders may benefit from encouragement, as 45% of the catalysts reported were other-­ generated. For many professionals, a leadership awareness catalyst is a complex nexus of subtle nudges, so mentors should not lose hope with those mentees who struggle to realize their leadership potential. We realize that teachers who become leaders did not always plan to do so. Therefore, taking on unexpected opportunities is one pathway to leadership roles in language education.

Overall Perception To close on a happy note, our data show that 90% of respondents viewed their leadership experiences as largely positive. Additionally, the average age of respondents was 53 and the oldest was 80 years old with 30 years of experience––a fact which indicates a certain longevity in L2 leadership roles among these respondents. However, satisfaction with leadership roles is at least partly a function of contextual factors, including one’s colleagues. As R132 noted, “I will happily serve as president as long as folks think I should, as a leader’s potential is only as strong as their support base.” Despite the limitations of this study, these findings indicate that incorporating leadership preparation and opportunities into the career of language education professionals has many benefits and is worthwhile.

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Conclusion Though our initial motivation for this study was to fill a literature gap for a particular group of students in a specific leadership course, we hope our findings are relevant to many more language teaching professionals. The analytical framework introduced to understand the six characteristics of a leadership pathway may be applicable to many leaders, while the findings from the questionnaire data are most relevant to leaders in various language education contexts. As Curtis (2022) noted, “Leaders in language education often follow different paths to those of their peers, and different paths from the ones laid out for them” (p. 18). This sentiment was mirrored by respondents like R24: “If leadership is about anything, it is about finding out, as Dorothy and friends did, there is indeed a yellow brick road to life. And it is not always an easy path to be on.” By seeking to better understand the diverse pathways to leadership, we can better strategize for the initial and continued professional development of leaders. Despite the many potential similarities, no two leadership pathways are identical. We see the value in seeking to understand how these similarities and differences in our pathways can better inform best practices in leadership and encourage the next generation of leaders to embark upon their own pathways. Ideally, future leaders will not have the same experience as senior leaders like R226, who felt that there was “no pathway for classroom teachers to leadership.” Hopefully, our data and the inferences we have drawn indicate that there are indeed diverse pathways for teachers to become leaders in world language education.

Reflective Questions 1. Think about your own experience and awareness on your own pathway as a leader (or an emergent leader). When was the first time you became aware that you had (or might have) leadership potential? In terms of the “time zones” depicted in Fig. 1, at what point in your life did you realize you could become a leader? What was the trigger that led to that awareness?

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2. Looking back at your history as a language learner and language teacher (if you have language teaching experience), was there someone in your life whom you consider to be an outstanding leader in language education? If so, what were the characteristics of that person’s leadership style that you admired? And conversely, have you ever known someone in a leadership position whose style you would not want to emulate? What were the characteristics of that person’s leadership style? 3. When you think about your own aspirations, what kinds of leadership role(s) would you like to take on? That is, in terms of locality (as we use the term in this chapter), in what sorts of organizations would you like to serve as a leader? What kind of position would you want to hold? Share your reasons for these motivations? 4. What sorts of personal and/or institutional inputs have you experienced so far on your own pathway to leadership? What kinds of (additional) inputs would you find helpful?

References Anderson, N. J. (2008). The four scopes of effective leadership development. In C.  Coombe, M.  L. McCloskey, L.  Stephenson, & N.  J. Anderson (Eds.), Leadership in English language teaching and learning (pp.  17–26). The University of Michigan Press. Baert, S., & Verhaest, D. (2021). Work hard or play hard? Degree class, student leadership and employment opportunities. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 83(4), 1024–1047. Bailey, K. M., Thibault, J., & Nunan, D. (2009). How the experience of leadership changes leaders. In M. A. Christison & D. Murray (Eds.), Leaders in English language education: Theoretical foundation and practical skills for changing times (pp. 238–254). Lawrence Erlbaum. Beachum, F., & Dentith, A.  M. (2004). Teacher leaders creating cultures of school renewal and transformation. The Educational Forum, 68, 276–286. Benegas, M., & Stolpestad, A. (2020). Teacher leadership for school-wide English learning. TESOL. Cameron, L. M. (2021). English language teacher associations and the exclusivity of professional development: A Rwandan case study. In K. M. Bailey &

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D.  Christian (Eds.), Research on teaching and learning English in under-­ resourced contexts (pp. 101–113). Routledge & TIRF. Christison, M., & Murray, D. E. (2009a). Introduction. Leadership in English language education: Theoretical foundations and practical skills for changing times (pp. 1–10). Routledge. Christison, M., & Murray, D. E. (2009b). Leadership in English language education: Theoretical foundations and practical skills for changing times. Routledge. Coombe, C., McCloskey, M.  L., Stephenson, L., & Anderson, N.  J. (2008). Leadership in English language teaching and learning. University of Michigan Press. Coombe, C., Anderson, N., & Stephenson, L. (Eds.). (2020). Professionalizing your English language teaching. Springer. Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (4th ed.). Sage. Curtis, A. (2022). Reflecting on leadership in language education: Reflective practice in language education. Equinox Publishing Limited. Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2013). Teaching and researching: Motivation. Routledge. Harold, B. (2020). Mentoring and coaching for English language teachers. In C.  Coombe, N.  Anderson, & L.  Stephenson (Eds.), Professionalizing your English language teaching (pp. 221–231). Springer. Joyce, P. (2010). Leading and leadership: Reflections on a case study. Journal of Nursing Management, 18(4), 418–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1365-­2834.2010.01090.x Knight, K. R. (2022). English for specific purposes project leader profiles: The leadership communication of 55 ESP project leaders. Candlin & Mynard Publishing. Ritz, C., & Sherf, N. (2022). Leadership matters: World language program leadership & teacher practices. Foreign Language Annals, 55(4), 1025–1042. Winston, B. E., & Patterson, K. (2006). An integrative definition of leadership. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 1(2), 6–66.

Filling in the Blanks: Syncing Teacher and Student Perspectives Within Educational Partnerships Ewen MacDonald , Daniel Hooper and Tim Murphey

,

Introduction We believe in Eisler’s (2002, 2019) ideas of partnerships in couples, families, education, business, and government, as opposed to domination in which a leader rules with force, often with stunted participation by others. As language teachers, the content of the class is often up to us, as long as we can help our students improve their language ability. This leads to the question of how we, as teachers, can be better partners with our students about the content and running of our classes? One way to do this,

E. MacDonald (*) Kanda University of International Studies, Chiba, Japan e-mail: [email protected] D. Hooper Tokyo Kasei University, Tokyo, Japan e-mail: [email protected] T. Murphey Freelance Educator, Lostine, OR, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_4

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which we explore in this chapter, is to encourage students to become leaders in their own right and to lead through partnering together with their peers and teachers. In Eisler’s (2001) approach to educational reform, she describes partnership education as integrating three core interconnected components: the partnership process (how we learn and teach), the partnership environment (the constructed learning environment), and the partnership content (what we learn and teach). In contrast to a dominator model, in which teachers simply dispense information to students through a top-­ down authoritarian structure, the partnership process involves students and teachers as partners in a meaningful “adventure of exploration and learning” in a democratic classroom environment with “interactive feedback loops”, empowering students through enabling them to participate in decision-making regarding the class content, and teaching them that a “partnership way of life” (p. 145) can be possible. This chapter will highlight two ways, action logging and near-peer role modelling, that teachers can use to encourage partnering with and among students in their classrooms. We will demonstrate how teachers can implement these activities by sharing our experiences as well as the voices of our students.

Literature Review In this article, we basically see that when teacher leadership is without ways to respectfully partner with students, it is lacking. In educational partnering, we are inviting student autonomy, agency, and independence, which ultimately cultivate more creativity and passion for learning. Partnering depends on positive and healthy relationships in which we can communicate our respect and emotions to others. Some of the leading authors in these regards are Allwright (1984), Arnold and Murphey (2022), Candlin and Crichton (2013), Dörnyei and Murphey (2003), Eisler and Fry (2019), Hattie and Clarke (2019), and Woo and Murphey (1999). Partnership, however, does not simply manifest itself out of thin air. One must create fertile ground in the classroom for partnership to

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gradually develop, encouraged by connectedness between the two main classroom stakeholders (teacher and students) and the implementation of autonomy-supportive educational practices. Autonomy-supportive teaching is grounded in the idea that a teacher’s educational approach and students’ needs and values should be “in sync and mutually support each other” (Reeve et al., 2022, p. 9). In an autonomy-supportive classroom, students’ perspectives are proactively sought out by the teacher so as to co-construct an educational partnership in which students’ interests influence the course content as much as possible and negative affect is acknowledged and processed rather than being swept under the rug. Furthermore, opportunities for satisfaction of students’ basic psychological needs (BPNs) (Ryan & Deci, 2017) of competence (feeling efficacious), autonomy (feeling ownership of one’s behaviour), and relatedness (feeling closeness with others) are provided through different learning activities. These principles (see Fig. 1) can be used as benchmarks by which one can measure the extent to which their classroom is run in an autonomy-­ supportive manner. Take the students’ perspective

Proactively seeks student input on the class and allows the feedback to shape the class. Is aware of and takes interest in students’ goals, interests, desires, emotions, and the like.

Invite the students to pursue their personal interests

Inquires about what things students find interesting or useful and then responds by providing engaging activities.

Present learning activities in BPN-satisfying ways

Offers opportunities for students to make choices (autonomy), to experience optimal challenge and receive feedback (competence), and to prosocially work with others (relatedness).

Provide explanatory rationales

Maintains transparency with students, explaining why each class activity was chosen and the benefit it offers them.

Use invitational language

Uses non-pressuring language that implies students have numerous options/possibilities available.

Acknowledge negative feelings

Recognises and accepts negative feelings that students might have and accepts complaints or constructive criticism openly.

Display patience

Allows students to work at their own pace and waits patiently for the student to initiate behavioural change rather than trying to force it themselves.

Fig. 1 Autonomy-supportive et al. (2022))

teaching

principles.

(Adapted

from

Reeve

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Reeve et  al.’s (2022) notion of teacher and student being “in sync” with each other overlaps with the idea of alignment found in the literature on communities/landscapes of practice (Wenger-Trayner et  al., 2015). The communities of practice (CoP) theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998; Wenger et  al., 2002) has been widely utilised to guide knowledge management and social learning practices in a wide range of contexts including multinationals, NPOs, educational institutions, and self-access learning centres (Hooper, 2023; Wenger et al., 2002; Wenger-­ Trayner & Wenger-Trayner, 2015). Within this theory, alignment refers to “a two-way process of coordinating enterprises, perspectives, interpretations and contexts so that action has the effects we expect” (Wenger-­ Trayner et al., 2015, p. 21). For individual CoP members, alignment is constantly renegotiated as they bring their identities and behaviours into sync with the ways of being or regime of competence (Wenger, 1998) of the group. The key point here is that this process is “two-way”—alignment is not unilateral acquiescence to institutional or group norms. In a classroom CoP, without transparency on the part of the teacher and active involvement of students in the shaping of the class’s practices, alignment cannot be achieved. The concept of alignment as well as the guidelines for autonomy-supportive teaching (Reeve et al., 2022) underpin our understanding of partnership and reinforce our belief that autonomy has a pivotal role in whether or not an educational partnership can develop/ emerge in a given classroom. Many researchers and practitioners have examined potential approaches geared towards the autonomisation (Little, 2003)—helping one to become autonomous—of students. In the case of classroom-based interventions, most examples found in the literature have tended to be teacher-centred and didactic in nature, including instruction on learning strategies or self-directed learning (Chong & Reinders, 2022). Although such interventions are most certainly of educational value due to the value of self-­ directedness for language learning and academic achievement more broadly (Reinders et al., 2023), it could be argued that other student-­ centred approaches to autonomisation more in line with autonomy-­ supportive teaching principles (Reeve et al., 2022) would also be desirable. Rather than simply teaching about autonomy and self-directedness in a top-down fashion, it stands to reason that partnership interventions that

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both “talk the talk” and “walk the walk” in terms of autonomisation are likely to be of value to learners. Murray and Fujishima (2013) argue that by providing autonomy-­ supportive conditions for learners, we can set a positive cycle into motion where “autonomy begets autonomy” (p. 153). As learners’ autonomous engagement within a learning environment increases, they become increasingly aware of additional affordances for learning around them and then utilise them for their own benefit. If a teacher respects and encourages such autonomous acts, they lay the foundations for additional autonomous student engagement to occur: Autonomy enables the students to act upon the affordances they perceive in ways that suit their sense of self, i.e., that conform to their agency. On the other hand, having the autonomy to interact in the environment as they see fit enables learners to perceive affordances that otherwise would have gone unnoticed and, therefore, would not have existed for them. (Murray & Fujishima, 2013, p. 153)

So, in concrete terms, what can one do to foster such an autonomy-­ supportive environment? Beyond mere theoretical musings, what activities can we bring into our classrooms that will contribute to the creation of an educational partnership in which we are “in sync” with our students? In this chapter, we present two techniques—action logging and near-peer role modelling—that have been demonstrated, from both existing research and our personal experience, to contribute to a more autonomy-supportive and egalitarian classroom dynamic.

Action Logging Student action logging (Murphey, 1993) is a mutually beneficial reflective process for both students and teachers which enables them to become partners in education. It involves students recording their feelings, reflections, and evaluations related to their learning and classroom activities in a notebook or form, whether paper-based or digital, referred to as “action logs” (Miyake-Warkentin et al., 2020). Figure 2 illustrates a completed action log from the third author’s class.

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An EXAMPLE of an Entry *Class #1 *Sept 14 (EXAMPLE – Do not copy this, copy what is on the board) Partner: Miki English Target (ET) 75% English Used (EU) Me 80% EU Partner: 90% DID

Interesting

Useful

Difficult

1. Story telling

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5

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2. Speed dictation: How do you succeed?

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3. Newsletter (shadowing & summarizing)

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4. Teacher short lecture

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5. Had a quiz

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Comment: I didn’t understand some of the points in the lecture: what is chunking? Sometimes you spoke too fast. Please speak slower. My partner today was Yuki** and it was fun to get to know him. We got a lot of homework, but it looks like fun. I'm looking forward to the next classes. I will prepare more for the quizzes. I have trouble summarizing. Call Report: I called Miki and we spoke for 10 minutes. I used about 80% English. She used 99% English. I enjoyed hearing about her club and part time work. Teaching Report: I taught my club-mate Yui the speed dictation/song. She was afraid to sing at first with me. But then she wasn’t. Songs change people! She liked learning the blended forms.

Fig. 2  Example of a completed action log (Murphey, 2021)

Teachers can read their students’ logs and gain insights on what they learnt, and what they found more or less useful, enjoyable, or difficult. This student feedback can tell teachers “Where to next?” (Hattie & Clarke, 2019, p. 4) as they can make adjustments to their pedagogy and classroom activities based on students’ perceptions and preferences. In other words, the information students provide supports teachers’ decision-­making in better tailoring their teaching practices to facilitate students’ learning and meet their needs. Through inviting students to contribute to the class and share their ideas, it creates an “interactive feedback loop” (Eisler, 2001, p. 145) that enables dialogic communication, providing students with a greater sense of agency when they see their feedback has a direct impact on the classes (Hooper, 2020; Murphey, 2021).

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Action logging was originally proposed by the third author (Murphey, 1993) in response to an article by Allwright (1984) titled “Why Don’t Learners Learn What Teachers Teach?” As students may have differing perceptions of what is happening in the classroom despite having the same experience, Murphey suggested that teachers should “learn what learners are learning” (p. 6), describing the valuable information students can share through action logging as a “gold mine” of information for raising teachers’ awareness of students’ perceptions, and in eliminating the “guessing” of what students are thinking and feeling. A critical aspect of action logging is for teachers to clearly demonstrate to students that their voices are valued. Although students may be hesitant at first to participate in partnering with the teacher, action logging is an activity that shows them that they can lead through partnering. If students realise their feedback has an influence, it can help them feel more involved in the running of the class (Dörnyei & Murphey, 2003). Therefore, whether through concrete actions or written comments on students’ logs, it is essential to ensure that the “cause-and-effect relationship” (Hooper, 2020, p.  1041) between students’ comments and the teacher’s response is clear. When a teacher introduces action logging, it can be explained to students that their feedback is needed so the teacher can teach them better, and that their logs will be read and their suggestions taken into account (Dörnyei & Murphey, 2003; Woo & Murphey, 1999). Further, teachers can make comments in class such as explaining that students’ feedback has directed them to try something new, make a change in the way they do something due to their suggestion, or simply repeat or continue something due to positive feedback (Woo & Murphey, 1999). Even a seemingly minor change can “speak volumes to students about our relationship and their roles in our classes” (Miyake-Warkentin et al., 2020, p. 344). Action logging can be further extended by creating class newsletters compiled of student reflections and feedback from their logs. While writing and reading one’s action log can greatly increase students’ learning awareness, Woo and Murphey (1999) note that “when students read others’ feelings, beliefs, and strategies, they can re-evaluate their own from a new perspective” (p.  15). Kindt and Murphey (2000) described such newsletters as a form of “feedforward” (p.  85)—in other words, the

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#1 Newsletter for SONG spring 2019, Read, Shadow, Summarize, Discuss 1. I don’t have friends in this class but I like pairwork because I can make friends through pairwork. 2. Today I learned “What is asking?” and I am really influenced by this phrase because it’s a bit difficult to ask someone what I don’t understand and I need to be brave to do it but if I don’t do it , I will certainly regret not asking at that moment. So I always want to put this quote in my brain 3. I didn’t teach “What is asking?” and “Whereday belong?” to somebody. Thus I don’t remember these songs clearly. It is important to sing a song and share it, in order to learn it. 4. Mixing the people in the class was a good way to start the class and the semester. The idea that music and songs are like conversations instead of stories was interesting. 5. The activity with the picture, I enjoyed very much. I was a little hesitant to talk to my classmates because I don’t know many. But the picture allowed me to get to know them and talk to them.

Fig. 3  Example of a class newsletter

feedback provided to the teacher and students’ reflections on their learning are given to the class for additional reflection. It also further demonstrates to students that their voices are being read, heard, and respected. This supports Lambert’s (1998) assertion that any communication system requires “feedback loops” (p. 19) in order to keep everyone informed and involved. Figure 3 shows part of a newsletter from the third author’s class in which students’ feedback on the class and activities and their beliefs and feelings on their learning can be seen.

Ewen’s Experience with Action Logs I was introduced to action logging by Tim (the third author) when studying for my MA TESOL. My format and procedure were initially similar to the second author (Daniel), a fellow “action-logger” teacher. Students kept a notebook in which they would paste their action logs. In the last 5–10 minutes of each class, or sometimes as homework, students would complete their log. They evaluated class activities (written on the whiteboard) on a scale of 1–5 for usefulness, enjoyment, and difficulty, wrote

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about what they learnt, made general comments about the class, and recorded anything they would like to do differently. I would collect students’ notebooks once a week and read through their feedback, reflecting on any changes I could make to my lessons, or positive things that I could continue. I would write comments when students had written something positive about their learning, sometimes asked questions to help them reflect more, and responded to any questions or concerns. I would return the notebooks to students in the following class and, based on their feedback, if I was going to make a change, or continue or re-do an activity, would inform them of this. Additionally, in the early stages of a new course where students were still getting to know each other and adjusting to the new class (or, in the case of freshman students, getting used to university life), I compiled helpful or interesting comments from students’ action logs and put them into class newsletters every couple of weeks. Students read and discussed the comments of their peers, allowing them to learn others’ perspectives and identify feelings, ideas, and experiences they could relate to. After being forced into emergency remote teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic, I changed my action log into a digital format using Google Docs. To make the process less demanding and reduce the amount of screen-time students were facing, I had them complete their logs once a week while asking them to reflect back on the week’s classes. I also felt that defining specific activities for students to evaluate was not always straightforward depending on the content of each class, so I asked the students to make general comments regarding the class content rather than rating individual activities. I added new sections to the action log; one where students could suggest anything that would help them learn the course content better, and the other where they could ask any questions or request help, with the hope that this would encourage them to express their feelings to a greater extent (see Fig. 4). I read their logs at the end of each week and commented on them by sending a message using the Google Classroom comment function. Despite now being back in a face-to-face classroom environment, I have continued with digital action logs due to the convenience for both myself in checking the logs, and for the students, who all have devices they can use in the classroom.

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Fig. 4  Ewen’s action log template

When introducing action logging to students for the first time, I firstly present the concept of reflection and how this is not only essential for them to become good language learners, but also for teachers to be able to improve the classroom environment and understand how students learn best. I explain the rationale of completing the action logs and that by doing them, they can not only reflect on their learning, but also help me reflect on how I can improve our class through their feedback. I explain that I would really like to know if they have a suggestion to

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improve our class and ask them to be honest when writing their logs, and that I will not be offended if there is something they think I could do differently or better. Action logging has enabled my students to partner with me about the running of my classes. Through students providing me with their perceptions, I have been able to take their feedback into account, which guides me in preparing my lessons and deciding my teaching approach. Learning from students what activities they find difficult, or what concepts are challenging to grasp, helps me consider how I can adjust my pedagogy or what my review in the following class can focus on, which I can then acknowledge to them. It also allows me to make changes or introduce new things based on specific suggestions or requests students make. An example for a course that I began teaching in 2020 is when a few students, early in the semester, stated that the large number of new concepts and terms was challenging to remember, and requested to review these in some way, with one student specifically requesting a flashcard set on Quizlet (a digital tool and mobile app for learning vocabulary). It may be great and helpful if there is a sheet for new vocabularies so that I know I can go there when unknown words show up. There’s lots of definitions related to pragmatics. If we use Quizlet or [play] game[s] in class, we could understand them with enjoyment.

I mentioned this request to the class and created a vocabulary set on Quizlet, explaining to students that I would update it on a regular basis. I then introduced Quizlet Live (an app-based collaborative vocabulary review game) which I used in class to help students review the different vocabulary. Consequently, various students gave positive responses to this in their action logs, and I continued this activity every few weeks. I appreciate you making the flash card[s] available on Quizlet! And also the game was really helpful and enjoyable. Quizlet live game was really fun! I can review a lot of important terms with fun. I think doing it alone is not so much fun because it’s more like studying, but I enjoyed cooperating with group members and competing with other groups!

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Action logs also positively help reaffirm what students already like and what I should continue. When students leave positive comments about the class format, classroom activities, and my teaching methods, it helps me confirm that the decisions I am making as a teacher are having the desired effect on students’ learning and enjoyment of the classes. An example below is when I continually switched up the breakout rooms in online classes on Zoom several times in every class which a couple of students expressed their preference for: I’ve noticed that I was comfortable to discuss with different groups in one class [and] not in the same group throughout the whole day. What I mean is I like how you do when we do the discussion b/c most of teacher[s] put students in the same group until the end of class … So, I would rather change the group during the class and discuss with different classmates.

A further example has been my use of video materials to illustrate concepts that I am teaching. With the knowledge that video, as authentic material, provides rich spoken input that can motivate language learners and draw their attention to a greater range of linguistic (and non-­ linguistic) features compared with text-based materials, I regularly implement such materials in my classes and have received positive comments from students on this: I could learn with fun by watching the videos. Therefore I would be glad if we can watch video[s] and then make conversation with my group member[s] at almost every class. Watching videos as study materials is effective and efficient to see things we learn as an actual concept exists in real life. It was absolutely interesting and fun to think about what each speaker actually implies in their talkings on video materials. It also helped me understand the sense of humor and cultural humor better. Now that I’m able to analyze people’s sayings, I could pay more attention to films, talk shows or radio shows.

Through having my students tell me what they are learning, it helps me as a teacher to know whether they are achieving the objectives of my

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lessons. I can also pick up on instances where students may have misunderstood something from the class, or formed an incorrect belief, and directly write them a comment to let them know their misunderstanding. The “additional line of face-saving communication” (Hooper, 2020, p. 1041) that action logs provide also allows me to become aware of questions or concerns students have that I would otherwise have not known. For students who may avoid asking questions in front of their peers or may not approach the teacher after class in fear of losing face, or who may simply discover they have a question upon reflecting on the class, the logs have provided a comfortable space for them to ask questions or let me know whether they are confused about anything, which I can then personally answer in a timely manner. I believe that the communication that action logs foster between my students and I helps create a partnership between us. Responding to students’ questions, commenting positively on something they wrote about their learning, thanking them for their feedback, or announcing that I have read their logs and taken their feedback into account all show to students that I care about their learning and that their voice matters: Sometime[s] I want to watch some example video[s] because it becomes easier to imagine and understand. → (Following week) This week I could see many videos so I could imagine clearly, thank you! I really appreciate your great support! When I watch the video on an assignment, I [will] try to change the speed. Thank you for your explanation. It makes my understanding clearer.

In summary, making the action logging process a regular part of one’s class creates a line of communication with students that helps cultivate a positive partnership environment. Rather than a top-down domination model classroom where decision-making and feedback only come from the teacher, action logging forms a two-way feedback chain and empowers students with the knowledge that the comments they provide have a direct impact on the teacher’s pedagogical decision-making. It additionally helps teachers be more “in sync” with their students through increased awareness of their thoughts and feelings on their learning. Accordingly,

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action logging can contribute significantly to the running of an autonomy-supportive classroom; students’ input is actively sought by the teacher, students’ suggestions and any constructive criticism are readily accepted, and the teacher maintains transparency with students by communicating how their feedback shapes the running of the class.

Near-Peer Role Models Near-Peer Role Models (NPRMs) (Murphey, 1996, 1998, 2002) have been widely written about since Tim came up with the term in 1996. The term basically acknowledges the impact that someone similar to the learner can often have on them by being an accessible model for learning something. While some people want the most professional and highly advanced model, learners at lower levels can be overcome with how to perform in such advanced ways. Beginners often thrive together by setting small and achievable goals that can be easily attained by first-timers. Murphey and Arao (2001) wrote about how teachers could facilitate learners learning from each other through NPRMs. Ogawa and Murphey (2012) described how learners would be even more impressed by NPRMs of the same age, gender, and background. Other learners who are “near to my level” simply offer more accessible possibilities of becoming better than watching and interacting with the “professional” or “native”. Yes, beginners could also be led wrongly occasionally by modelling fellow beginners, but they will usually learn more comfortably, deeply, and socially with learning partners who are not perfect. The practice of near-peer role modelling stands upon theoretically solid ground. Perhaps the most fundamental rationale for providing students with chances to engage with NPRMs comes from Bandura’s (1997) work on self-efficacy and, in particular, the notion of vicarious experience—the idea that if one sees someone similar to them in some way succeed at an activity, they are more likely to believe that success is also possible for them. Murphey (1998) also argues that due to their relative proximity to learners’ zone of proximal development (ZPD), near-peers may be especially motivating figures. Furthermore, from the perspective of Reeve et al.’s (2022) guidelines for autonomy-supportive teaching, one

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could confidently assert that affording students access to examples of accessible NPRMs or encouraging them to act as role models to others are examples of BPN-satisfying activities. In the realm of English language teaching in particular, opposing disempowering ideologies such as native-speakerism and positioning learners as legitimate linguistic role models allows them to feel a sense of competence and membership within a wider imagined community of English users (Cook, 1999; Muir, 2018; Walters, 2020). The learner perspective below, taken from an ethnographic case study of a university self-access learning community in Japan, shows the potentially powerful impact that an NPRM encounter can have on a student’s feelings of competence: (After watching a NPRM community leader) Ah, konna ni jibun no yari wo shi dai de, konna ni mo jishin wo motte, yarerun da“tte omotte. Sore de dondon [community] ni hamatte itan desu. (I thought, “Ah, this much, by one’s own efforts, you can build this much confidence, and I felt I could do it.” Because of that, I gradually got more and more into [the community].) (Hooper, 2023, p. 303)

It could also be argued that students acting as near-peer role models who guide younger students in their learning journeys is an example of autonomous prosociality that develops their own BPN satisfaction (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010) and enhanced feelings of relatedness with others: Yeah, so I understand [my juniors’] feelings dakara nanka sugoku wakaru kara sore wo koetara tanoshii yo mitaina koto wo wakatte hoshikute sugoi itsumo sore wo hanashiaimasu minnade (so I really understand, so I want them to grasp things like the fun of overcoming [those challenges], and I’m always talking to everyone about that). (Hooper, 2023, p. 304)

There have been a number of NPRM studies in the field of language education featuring a range of practical options for incorporating NPRMs in the classroom. The majority of NPRM-oriented research studies and pedagogical interventions have featured either direct class visits/instruction by NPRMs or videos of NPRMs that are shown to students. In terms of the former, class visits by NPRMs, while potentially challenging

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to organise and schedule, have been shown in both a range of studies and educational settings to contribute to a low-pressure learning environment (Gimranova et  al., 2017), reduce anxiety and enhance confidence (Lingley, 2015; Ruddick & Nadasdy, 2013), and encourage reflective practice (McEvoy et al., 2016). In order to mitigate some of the logistical hurdles relating to the organisation of an NPRM visit, some educators (Gimranova et al., 2017; Lingley, 2015) have used ICT to facilitate distance or out-of-class interaction between NPRMs and students. The more indirect approach to bringing NPRMs into the classroom is through artefacts such as videos or slideshows (Wang, 2020). There have been, broadly speaking, two types of videos used in NPRM interventions to date. The first method is where NPRMs are video recorded while answering interview questions about their learning experiences or even addressing their fellow students directly, giving them advice and encouragement (Hooper, 2016; Murphey & Arao, 2001; Murphey & Murakami, 1998; Ogawa & Murphey, 2012). The second approach is more naturalistic, involving showing students recordings of NPRMs engaging in natural dialogue on a given topic. This, in essence, presents students with clear images of possible future selves inhabiting desirable identities as competent English users (Walters, 2020). The psychological proximity of these NPRMs to students can lead to “hoped-for” future selves moving into the realm of “expected” future selves as the students are provided with tangible proof that success is possible (Pizzolato, 2006). As Muir (2018) states, “[n]ear peer role models allow us to imagine, ‘if they can do it, why can’t I?’” (p. 2). The efficacy of indirect NPRM interventions is supported by numerous existing studies. Even by bringing NPRMs into the classroom by means of video or presentation slides, students can develop more positive beliefs about language learning (Murphey & Arao, 2001), enhanced self-efficacy beliefs (Walters, 2020), and form more vivid images of future imagined-selves (Wang, 2020).

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 aniel’s Experience with Near-Peer D Role Modelling I modelled my NPRM classroom intervention on Murphey and Arao’s (2001) earlier influential study. I interviewed two senior (one 2nd-year and one 4th-year) university students (Keito and Yukari) in English about their language learning experiences and, from this footage, created two edited videos and accompanying worksheets that would be used for listening comprehension activities in my 1st-year English Communication classes. The two videos were shown separately during one semester and students were asked to both answer comprehension questions about the interviews themselves and also write comments in their L1 (Japanese) about their impressions and thoughts about the NPRMs. Students’ comments predominantly focused on the practical language learning advice that the NPRMs offered, the effort and persistence that the NPRMs displayed in their language learning journeys as well as admiration for their L2 proficiency: Eigo ga umaku naru tame ni ha, mainichi eigo to kakawarukoto ga taisetsu. Mainichi eibun, yougaku wo kiki, [jishu gakushuu sentaa] he ashi wo hakobu nado, mainichi no tsumikasane de eigo ha umaku narun da na to kangaeta. (In order to improve your English, it’s important to connect with English every day. I thought that by reading English sentences, listening to Western music, going to the self-access learning centre, by building up each day, you can become good at English.) Tsugi kara tsugi he to eitango ga ukandekite, sore wo surasura hanaseru koto ha yappari sugoi to kanjimashita. (One after another English words came up in his head, and using those words so smoothly was amazing I thought.) Omotta yori sensei no you na hatsuon de ha nakatta no de jibun mo shourai kono hito kurai no hatsuon ha dekiru you ni naritai to omotta. (Unexpectedly, [my senior’s] pronunciation was different from my teacher’s. So, I thought that in the future I would like my pronunciation to be similar to his.)

I then added an extra stage to the NPRM video process featured in existing studies (Hooper, 2016; Murphey & Arao, 2001; Ogawa & Murphey, 2012; Walters, 2020) by “looping” (Murphey & Falout, 2010)

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the 1st-year student responses back to Keito and Yukari. Looping can be viewed as a form of member checking that brings participants more deeply into a research or pedagogical endeavour. The rationale for looping the 1st-year responses back to the NPRMs was thus two-fold: (1) it fostered a more participatory and intersubjective relationship with the NPRMs in the research process, meaning-making with students rather than of them (Murphey & Falout, 2010, p. 818 (emphasis original)), and (2) it reinforced a positive cycle of self-efficacy in which NPRMs were presented with tangible proof of their status as leaders and the positive impact they were having on their peers. Having sent them all of the student comments, I conducted an additional interview with the NPRMs to gauge their perspectives on what their kōhai (juniors) had said and about their self-conception as role models. I found that reading the comments provided the NPRMs with encouragement and catalysed self-reflection on their past, present, and future language learning: Before I read this feedback, I think I didn’t have confidence in my English. I have never studied abroad and I don’t have… confidence in my pronunciation… But now everyone in this [1st year class], they write very awesome comments for me and I got confidence to talk in English and I feel I want to improve my English more. I was very glad when I taught English to [1st year] students. This is, so, I want to improve my English more. Minna ga “Aa iu fuu ni naritai” tte itte kureru no ha sugoku ureshikute, demo (Everyone saying, “I want to be like that.” made me feel really happy, but…) of course, I’m not perfect, so …Minna ga mitomete kureru tte iu no ga sugoku ureshikute, demo sore to douji ni motto ganbarou tte iu kimochi ni mo tsunagaru. (I was so happy that I was recognized by everyone, but at the same time, I feel that I need to try harder myself.)

One additional way that NPRMs can be highlighted within the classroom is through class newsletters. As discussed in the previous section on action logging, newsletters make students aware of their peers’ perspectives on and contributions to the way the class is run. In addition, newsletters take this enhanced awareness beyond the classroom as they shine a light on peers’ struggles, determination, successes, and motivations

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experienced during their individual language learning journeys. Rather than advice or guidance coming from a comparatively detached figure such as a teacher, hearing about the learning journeys of others like them “invites identification” (Dörnyei & Murphey, 2003, p. 130) and can give suggestions and encouraging words more weight and authenticity. This can be seen in the example from Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) below: Every time I see the NL, I can see what my classmates’ feeling, sometimes theirs are the same as mine. It gives me lots of encouragement. Also make me eager to learn more. Because they are a very good model for me. Show me what I should do to learn well. Hope one day I can also be a good model for them or someone else. (p. 130)

Class newsletters bind the practices of action logging and near-peer role modelling—action logs are the “raw materials” for class newsletters that subsequently facilitate the modelling of positive beliefs and practices among a student community. Furthermore, by looping comments like the ones above back into the classroom community through newslettering, we can set a positive cycle of wellbeing in motion where students are afforded access to both inspiring near-peers and tangible evidence that their action log comments represent positive prosocial contributions to the classroom CoP. If one steps back and views the practice of near-peer role modelling from the perspective of autonomy-supportive teaching, there are a plethora of ways in which bringing NPRMs into the classroom challenges the domination model in education and fosters nurturing teacher-student partnerships. Rather than holding on to a role as the “fountain of knowledge” or someone who “knows what’s best” for their students, near-peer role modelling represents an investment of trust and respect in emic student knowledge and experience. We can come back to CoP theory here and regard NPRMs as representing informal or even non-canonical knowledge (Brown & Duguid, 1991)—grassroots “know-how” that may diverge from generally accepted best practices in the field. By encouraging NPRMs to come front and centre and share their potentially messy lived experiences as language learners, we are helping to create a classroom CoP in which students are taking active leadership roles and

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contributing to a learning environment in which both established educational guidelines and “insider knowledge” are both legitimised. In line with Reeve et al.’s (2022) principles for autonomy-supportive education, listening to NPRMs’ stories and listening to the hardships, challenges, and doubts that they had to overcome foregrounds the emotions and desires of learners (Take the students’ perspective) and how negative feelings are unavoidable elements within any developmental journey (Acknowledge negative feelings). Additionally, by providing students with familiar and relatable examples of language learning success, we are creating fertile conditions for the satisfaction of at least two of their basic psychological needs—competence and relatedness (Present learning activities in BPN-satisfying ways).

Discussion and Implications In this chapter, we have proposed an approach to teaching based upon partnership with, rather than domination over, our students. This approach is based on making sure that the teacher’s and students’ expectations for learning are “in sync”, placing trust in our students to make self-directed decisions relating to their education, and supporting them in taking more active leadership roles. We also highlighted the central role of learner autonomy in creating an environment in which partnership can emerge and drew upon a number of Reeve et al.’s (2022) principles for autonomy-­ supportive instruction as guidelines for determining whether learner autonomy is likely to be stifled or encouraged within the classroom. With this in mind, we first introduced action logging—a means of partnering through which students actively guide classroom practice via regular feedback to the teacher. As previously described, the teacher explains that all action log feedback, critical or otherwise, is welcomed and that students’ perspectives are necessary to create an effective class. Students then see their feedback manifested in action as the teacher thanks them for their comments and sets about making visible changes to the class based on their recommendations. Through this process, students see their agentic action (feedback) manifested in a class more aligned with their preferences and expectations. The teacher also feels reassurance and

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enhanced wellbeing as both them and the students are “in sync” and interacting in a respectful manner as partners. The second technique we highlighted—near-peer role modelling—shifts the focus of the class from the teacher to relatable student leaders who inspire and empower others. By listening to NPRMs during class visits, video lessons, or through newsletters, students are shown examples of successful self-directed learners who they may then choose to emulate. Rather than a teacher extolling the value of self-directed study, it is far more powerful to see “the proof in the pudding”—a fluent L2 user similar in age, culture, or background to students who is telling them the importance of self-directedness. Furthermore, by stepping back and shining a spotlight on a student as a role model, teachers are potentially eroding a domination power dynamic that positions them far above the rest of the class. If one looks at action logging and highlighting NPRMs through the lens of autonomy-supportive teaching, we can see a number of ways in which these techniques are likely to foster learner autonomy and ultimately teacher-student partnership. Perhaps the clearest cut example of this is action logging as a way of taking the students’ perspective. Using action logs as a means of understanding what students want and need and then bringing one’s teaching in alignment with that is arguably symbolic with the entire essence of partnership. In fact, Reeve et al. (2022) assert that “autonomy-supportive teaching begins with perspective taking” and that “data collecting” by using exit slips (or action logs) “lays the groundwork to develop the other six [autonomy-supportive teaching principles]” (p. 50). By foregrounding what students want and feel, we are better able to display patience, adjust the class to match their interests, satisfy their basic psychological need of autonomy, and so on. In Ewen’s case, we can observe how he took the students’ perspectives, acknowledged their negative feelings, and provided explanatory rationales in his explanation of the action logging process to his students and his positive reactions to their constructive criticism about his class. Moving on to near-peer role modelling, perhaps the most salient way in which autonomy-­supportive teaching is facilitated is the numerous ways in which students’ basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied. By observing NPRMs’ numerous different perspectives on learning and success (rather than just the teacher’s), students

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can feel ownership and choice (autonomy) over their actions both inside and outside of the classroom. They also encounter vicarious experience (Bandura, 1997) (competence) as they see someone similar to them acting as a successful leader and language model. If students’ responses to witnessing the role model are then “looped” back to the NPRM, this can enhance feelings of competence in the senior student as well. This can also act as an instance of autonomous prosociality—shown to enhance the BPNs of both the helper and helped (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010)—as the NPRM can see how their example has been a positive inspiration to others. Finally, both the NPRM and the students they are introduced to can enhance feelings of camaraderie and closeness (relatedness), if not directly, as part of an imagined community of L2 learners working towards shared goals. As to the wider implications of the partnership-based interventions we have explored in this chapter, one key point is how partnership can contribute to the development of language learner autonomy. Rather than solely relying on teacher-centred instructional approaches to autonomisation (Chong & Reinders, 2022), partnership-oriented interventions such as action logging and near-peer role modelling allow autonomy development to simultaneously exist in both practice and content. Advice and support on autonomous or self-directed learning practices that come not just from the teacher but also from the experiences of students are likely to have a considerable impact in terms of self-efficacy through vicarious experience (Bandura, 1997). An additional area for future consideration relating to classroom leadership is balancing formalised knowledge (from teacher training, curriculum, and the like) and experiential knowledge (that students bring with them from their lifelong learning trajectories). Foregrounding of student perspectives in classroom management and content contributes to an “in-sync” or aligned CoP where leadership and responsibility are shared and in which both canonical knowledge and informal non-canonical knowledge (Brown & Duguid, 1991) are respected. Conversely, however, one should not assume that the notion of partnership is analogous with harmony. Indeed, practices such as action logging or near-peer role modelling can reveal ideological or identity clashes and disjunctures within the classroom (Hooper, 2020). Furthermore, while it is unrealistic to claim that learning partnerships

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lead to the teacher-student power gap being discarded entirely, “in-sync” classrooms represent sites for continuous negotiation of meaning involving all participants.

Conclusion Following Eisler’s (2001) partnership education model, this chapter has illustrated two techniques, action logging and near-peer role modelling, that we, as teachers, can use to communicate respect and collaboration,  encourage our students to lead through partnering, and enable them to have more input in the content and running of our classes. Action logs offer a one-to-one communication possibility in which we can get feedback and suggestions from students on our classes, while near-peer role models can help students become more comfortable with each other, acknowledging their differences, similarities, and needs. While we acknowledge there are definitely many more ways to create healthy partnerships in the classroom, we believe we have taken some positive steps towards partnering and leadership with compassion, respect, and a willingness to understand one another. When at least some of the content of classes can come from the students, are focused on the students, and are chosen by the students, then we are in a more respectful and generative partnership environment.

Reflective Questions 1. What could you do to help foster an autonomy-supportive environment in your classroom? 2. How could you encourage partnering with and among students? 3. To what extent do you feel student perspectives shape your teaching practice? 4. What would you like to learn from your students through action logging? How would you tailor action logs for your own classes? 5. What figures could you present as near-peer role models for your students? How could you incorporate them in your classes?

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near peer role modeling. Language Teaching Research, 27(2), 441–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820940097 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Harvard Business School Press. Wenger-Trayner, E., & Wenger-Trayner, B. (2015). Communities of practice: A brief introduction. http://wenger-­trayner.com/wp-­content/uploads/ 2015/04/07-­Brief-­introduction-­to-­communities-­of-­practice.pdf Wenger-Trayner, E., Fenton O’Creevy, M., Hutchinson, S., Kubiak, C., & Wenger-Trayner, B. (2015). Learning in landscapes of practice: Boundaries, identity and knowledgeability in practice-based learning. Routledge. Woo, L., & Murphey, T. (1999). Activating metacognition with action logs. The Language Teacher, 23(5), 15–18. https://jalt-­publications.org/sites/default/ files/pdf/the_language_teacher/23.5tlt.pdf

Personal Leadership for Wellbeing Tammy Gregersen and Hayo Reinders

Becoming a leader is synonymous with becoming yourself. It is precisely that simple and it is also that difficult. —Bennis (2009)

In a chapter like ours that explores the potential of enhancing teacher wellbeing a pivotal question is whether a variable like happiness (e.g., subjective wellbeing) can actually be enriched. Through research such as that carried out by Lyubomirsky et al. (2005), the answers are hopeful that we can indeed consciously and actively alter our overall level of happiness through certain actions and activities. According to their findings, we all have a baseline level of happiness around which we tend to gravitate. This chronic happiness level is dominated by a tripartite of three T. Gregersen (*) Tennessee State University, Nashville, USA e-mail: [email protected] H. Reinders King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thonburi, Thailand © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_5

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main elements: an innate genetically pre-determined set point (roughly 50%), circumstantial life factors (roughly 25%), and intentional activities and practices (roughly 25%). Although little can be done to modify the 50% that determines one’s happiness set-point (as it is assumed to be comparatively fixed, stable over time, and immune to influence or control), the other two categories, life circumstances and intentional activities, have great potential for purposeful alteration. The life circumstances category consists of happiness-relevant incidental factors that transpire in a teacher’s life over which they have limited control, including variables such as occupational status, job security, income, and health. Intentional activities, on the other hand, is an extensive category that comprises a broad range of effortful behaviors that teachers choose to do and think about in their daily lives. In other words, life circumstances happen to teachers and intentional activities are the ways that teachers act on their circumstances (Seligman, 2002). Because of the comparative lack of amenability of one’s innate predisposition toward happiness and the more malleable qualities of life circumstances and intentional activities, we will focus the rest of our chapter on: (1) how teachers might consider taking the lead over life circumstances by using an adaptive mental mechanisms model; and (2) how they can manage their intentional activities to enhance their own wellbeing via using a five-faceted approach called “PERMA.”

Teacher Wellbeing Is a Shared Responsibility Before we begin exploring the initiatives that teacher-leaders employ to expand self-knowledge in pursuit of their own wellbeing, we need to make clear a very important caveat. Although in this chapter we are focusing our attention on teachers, this does not negate the responsibility that school leaders, administrators, and institutions in general have in engendering teacher wellbeing (Mercer & Gregersen, 2020). Everyone in the system flourishes when leaders work together with teachers to exert their combined influence to enhance the wellbeing of all educational stakeholders. Educational directors have the obligation to provide the space for teachers to find and transverse their paths toward personal and professional wellbeing and create institutions that nurture it. Teachers

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cannot do it alone. They need systemic institutional support (including social, cultural, and political) that prioritizes their wellbeing in all of the components of the education system. Although teachers’ personal self-­ care pathways provide conduits toward personal and professional flourishing, progressive attention at systemic levels, including positive leadership is also essential (Cann et al., 2021).

Teacher Wellbeing Is Not a Luxury To begin, the importance of teacher wellbeing cannot be overstated. When teachers are happy and experience wellbeing, students are also positively impacted—via learners’ academic performance and their own levels of happiness (Briner & Dewberry, 2007; Roffey, 2012; Lyubomirsky et al. 2005; Jennings & Greenberg 2009). Indeed, happy teachers beget happy learners (Bakker, 2005). Additionally, teachers’ wellbeing is pivotal in developing and maintaining a positive classroom climate and the enrichment of teacher-student relationships (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Hence, when we make a plea for teacher self-care, the notion of “selfishness” is nonsensical. Wellbeing is “the presence of positive emotions, a lack of negative emotions and a sense of overall life satisfaction” (Diener, 1984). Notice that wellbeing is NOT the complete eradication of negativity, but rather it is experienced with a higher preponderance of positive in relation to the negative. Negative emotions play an important role in our survival and alert us to issues that need our attention. Fear, for example, increases our adrenaline and sets us into immediate motion—at times in life-­saving measures, like rounding up our students and running out of a burning building. Another example, anger, often spurs us to take action that we might not otherwise take, such as in addressing issues of social injustice or classroom bullying. Although the negative has a fundamental place in our emotional repertoires, wellbeing is experienced when positive emotion is felt with greater depth and frequency. Essentially, there are two categories of wellbeing: eudemonic and hedonic. Eudemonic approaches emphasize meaning, personal development, and self-realization—aims that require we confront our adversities.

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In such cases, disagreeable emotions are as vital as the pleasant ones in fathoming life’s challenges. Hedonic wellbeing, on the other hand, is concerned with pleasure and enjoyment, doing those things we like and avoiding those we do not. Both forms of wellbeing are important pieces to the wellbeing puzzle (Seligman, 2002).

 eachers Taking the Lead Over Life T Circumstances: Mature Adaptive Mechanisms Although life circumstances and intentional activities are both susceptible to deliberate change, the first element is more static, which means it is probably more resistant to change. This does not mean, however, that teachers’ hands are tied. Within this category we find contextual factors such as the school environment, including institutional leaders who may or may not care about teachers’ wellbeing. While teachers may not have control over all circumstantial life factors, they do have choices in how to respond to them. It is in this line of thinking that we turn our attention toward adaptive mental mechanisms. These are observable behaviors we use to adapt to stressful experiences in our lives. They can range from less adaptive, unproductive, involuntary actions like denial, projection, or repression to mature defenses that mitigate and direct adverse emotional responses (Beresford et al., 2021). Mature adaptive mechanisms are the most productive ways for teachers to take the lead over undesirable circumstances and they are frequently considered analogous with positive coping and wellbeing. In such cases, the circumstances teachers experience are fully perceived without distortion and the need to adapt to them is wholly assumed by the person invoking them (Beresford et al., 2021). In continuation, we present seven “mature mental mechanisms” that teachers can summon to manage the circumstances that happen in their lives in ways that result in higher wellbeing. They include affiliation, altruism, anticipation, humor, self-assertion, self-observation, sublimation, and suppression (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). Affiliation  Teachers who manage life circumstances via affiliation confront emotional adversities by looking to others for assistance or support.

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Through affiliation, they can express themselves, share difficulties, and feel less isolated. Confiding leads to an increase in coping capacity because the other person supplies emotional validation and support. Affiliation, however, does not mean conceding the leadership role over their wellbeing and making someone else responsible for dealing with their problems, nor does it imply pressuring someone to help, or feigning helplessness to elicit aid. Through affiliation teachers cope better because they receive support from others while at the same time feel the satisfaction of human relationships (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). Consider, for example, the language teacher who feels the personal frustration of running out of ideas to help a particularly needy student and who reaches out for advice from a mentor teacher. In doing so, they find an advocate who supports them while also being able to enjoy the collegiality. Altruism  Altruism, or the dedication to fulfilling the needs of others, is also a means of being a leader in addressing negative life circumstances. Teachers who perform altruistic behaviors feel a degree of gratification either vicariously or from those to whom the altruism was directed. Because altruistic teachers are typically mindful that their own needs or feelings are often the triggers for unselfish actions, they feel direct rewards even while knowing that there may have been overt reasons of self-interest for their altruistic actions (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). Through lending a hand to a colleague in need, for example, altruistic teachers who are up against their own adverse life circumstances get their social and attachment needs met. By channeling negative emotions such as anger or adverse experiences like powerlessness into socially helpful responses teachers can feel a sense of mastery. Anticipation Another mental adaptive mechanism, anticipation, can enhance teachers’ wellbeing in two different ways. The first is through a teacher’s consideration of realistic, alternative solutions and anticipating emotional reactions to future problems. Rehearsal allows teachers to formulate a better adaptive response to the anticipated conflict or stressor in a life circumstance and mitigate distressing aspects of it. Anticipation allows them to “master conflict in small steps” (Vaillant, 2000). As a coping mechanism to life circumstances, teachers can lead the charge by

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transforming their ­negativity into positivity because they can overcome and conquer their obstacles (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). For example, consider a language teacher preparing for an upcoming conference who with anticipation scours the internet for information, puts together a brilliant PowerPoint, and plots everything down to the last detail. Although this strategy may be partially fueled by negative worry, such anticipatory behaviors are guaranteeing that the teachers succeed. The second way anticipation can work is via anticipatory savoring (Bryant & Veroff, 2007), which when employed can move a teacher from worry to joy. When using optimism to look ahead at future plans, negativity begins to recede and relaxation replaces it with positive thoughts about the future. Teachers who anticipate with healthy optimism rather than constant concern may experience a transformative effect as they look forward to future events with a positive frame of mind. Many teachers anticipate with pleasure their summer breaks! Humor  Another adaptive mechanism, humor, is one that teachers can use to gain control over life circumstances over which they have limited influence. When using humor, negativity and stressors are dealt with by focusing on their comical or ironic features, which releases the tension surrounding the negative element(s) in a manner that rallies everyone to share in it. With humor, the vexation springing from negative life circumstances, such as misbehaving students, is rapidly released so that both self and others can smile or laugh (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). For example, using it as a classroom management technique is often effective. One teacher tells the story of having to combat the mounting challenge of cell phones. He recounted that because most cell phones play music instead of ringing, he would stop what he was doing in the middle of class and dance until the phone was silenced. After the first dancing episode, his students were quick to rebuke each other when a cell phone went off: “Turn it off quickly or he’ll start dancing again!” (Powers, 2005). Self-assertion As an adaptive mechanism, self-assertion is evidenced when teachers deal with negative life circumstances by frankly expressing their feelings and thoughts to achieve their goals—not coercively or/and manipulatively, but rather through clear communication of the goal or

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purpose of the self-assertive behavior to all those affected by it. Selfassertion addresses negativity through the direct expression of our feelings and ideas, thus relieving the adverse emotion that occurs ­whenever internal or external countervailing powers prevent expression. As an adaptive response to life circumstances, self-assertion does not require that teachers who employ it get their way; instead, it permits them to thrive without the negative emotion that festers when feelings and ideas are left unexpressed and without the negativity that could arise for not advocating for oneself in adverse life circumstances (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). Self-assertion is a teacher-as-leader quality. One of the authors of this chapter was continually annoyed by an insensitive colleague who during department meetings would drone on and on about the same senseless, negative commentaries directed at the chairperson. During one online meeting during the pandemic, s/he wrote in the public chatbox, “Can we move on? I’ve heard this all before.” Immediately, others in the meeting echoed the same sentiments. After two years of the same toxic ramblings, it felt so good to self-assert … and the behavior stopped. Self-observation  Employing self-observation to deal with negative life circumstances allows teachers to reflect on their own thoughts, feelings, motivation, and behavior. For instance, in interpersonal interactions they can see themselves as others see them, and consequently they can better understand others’ reactions toward them. This adaptive mechanism goes beyond mere self-reflection or talking about themselves because it opens their eyes to a more accurate self-perspective. Although it does not change them per se, it allows teachers to develop and adapt better as they take a leadership role over their life circumstances (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). Sublimation  When using sublimation as an adaptive mechanism, teachers can manage negative emotion by channeling it into socially acceptable behavior rather than expressing potentially unprofessional or “unacceptable” feelings or impulses. Sublimation allows teachers to express the feelings and thoughts they believe could have negative repercussions but in more socially accepted forms—whether in the classroom or elsewhere. The outcome of sublimation is that the initial feelings are granted a degree

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of expression while the resulting activity or product may also bring some positive consequences (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). A primary example of sublimation occurs during teachers’ practice of emotional labor (i.e., suppressing an emotion and instead performing in a way that is aligned with role expectations) (Hochschild, 1983). For instance, as teachers we are conditioned to manage our ­emotions in the classroom and not to show anger, frustration, or disappointment. They understand that it is part of their role; however, harmful emotional labor can result when they squash their authentic emotions and experience dissonance between what they really feel and what they believe they are permitted to, or “should”, display emotionally. To combat such dissonance, teachers might consider channeling the emotions they conceal into journal writing or another creative outlet. According to Mercer and Gregersen (2020), the harmful effects of stressful emotional labor can also be mitigated by: (1) identifying and labeling it upon its occurrence; (2) observing and liberating it; (3) forecasting its arousal; and (4) identifying the patterns that precede it. Suppression  The final adaptive mechanism we address for teachers desirous of taking leadership over life circumstances is suppression or deliberately choosing not to indulge in conscious thought, feeling, or action even though they are aware of it. This allows them to focus on other more urgent matters without being distracted by every impulse that arises, and without having to act on those impulses (Di Giuseppe & Perry, 2021). Teachers often find themselves in situations where they cannot dwell on tangential problems because they must deal with the one pressing issue currently at hand. With suppression, teachers can readily recall the provisionally blocked thoughts and feelings to conscious awareness because they were not forgotten. In other words, when certain life circumstances get in the way of more urgent matters, teachers can postpone them until they feel more able or the timing is better. For example, they may be annoyed about a student’s behavior, but because of the presence of other learners and their learning objectives for the class, they decide to control their reaction and bring it up later when they can address the student privately. While the class is in session, they continue teaching, thinking internally, “I need to keep the class moving. Forget about the misbehavior right now, I’ll take care of that later.” Thus, when teachers suppress, they focus on other areas, manage their feelings, control their actions in the

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present, and do so consciously. This is helpful because teachers can buy the time they need to take action. Life circumstances are often out of teachers’ control and yet they constitute roughly 25% of their wellbeing. Although they may not have power over their occurrence, they do have the option to take a leadership role in responding to them in ways that enhance their personal and professional wellbeing through employing adaptive mechanisms such as affiliation, altruism, anticipation, humor, self-assertion, self-observation, sublimation, and suppression. We now turn our attention to the most conscious element of the happiness tripartite to enhancing teachers’ own wellbeing: intentional activities.

 eachers Taking the Lead over Intentional T Activities: Research-Based PERMA-Related Interventions Arguably the most well-researched model of wellbeing is Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model whose components include Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. Fortunately, research-based techniques are available that will increase each element. Because teachers can take the lead by making different choices in order to flourish, the following section explores factors that can aid teachers in taking control of their wellbeing by making more informed choices about intentional activities that reflect their values and interests. Positive Emotion  To increase positive emotion as a means of attaining greater wellbeing, teachers can think about it in terms of taking intentional measures to enhance their pleasure and enjoyment in life—what we described above as “hedonic.” Such measures can include those that involve their positive emotion about the past, such as nurturing gratitude and forgiveness; the present, through savoring and mindfulness; or the future via fostering hope and optimism. In continuation, we provide sample activities teachers may want to pursue, but these are by no means an exhaustive list.

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Positive Emotion Interventions  First, research suggests that writing a “gratitude letter” nurtures positive emotion about past events. This intervention begins by recalling a person who did something for which you are particularly appreciative but have not yet expressed gratitude. Address the person directly without worrying about technical writing issues and describe in detail what they did, why you are grateful, and how this has affected your life. This intervention takes on even more meaning if you can meet in-person and read your letter aloud (Peterson, 2006). Similar to the gratitude letter, a “forgiveness letter” involves recalling a person from the past, but in this case, it is an individual toward whom you are holding resentment or with whom you have been in conflict. Important to note is that forgiving is not forgetting; nor is it excusing or exonerating the wrongdoing. The objective of this intervention is not reconciliation; instead the writing of this letter is something you do for yourself to release toxic negative emotion, limit your transgressor’s power to continue their victimization, and to take back control. To begin, write a letter that describes the transgression and the emotions it evoked. Next, pledge to forgive your transgressor but do not send it nor discuss it with the offender, rather, use this intervention to feel the power of forgiveness and recapture your sense of peace (Peterson, 2006). To kindle positive emotion in the present, teachers might consider the research-based intentional activities of savoring and mindfulness. Bryant and Veroff (2007) define savoring as actively and consciously attending, appreciating, and enhancing positive experiences that occur in one’s life. Too often teachers let positive moments flutter by without truly celebrating them, whether it be a kind word from a student, a small gift from a colleague, or a congratulatory email from an administrator. These might be transitory moments and the positive emotions they engender tend to fade—but they do not necessarily have to. They just have to be savored. To help with savoring, collect all of the positive memorabilia that comes your way and put it in one place and create a “positivity portfolio” (Fredrickson, 2009). This can be electronic or in a physical box. The idea behind this intervention is that at any given time, you can return to the portfolio and savor the original feelings you had when you first received the item. Another form of savoring is a “savoring walk” ((Bryant & Veroff,

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2007) which entails setting aside 15 to 20 minutes to take a walk outside by yourself. As you walk, notice as many positive things around you as possible, whether they be sights, sounds, smells, or other sensations. For example, focus on the color of the leaves of a tree never noticed before, the reflection of the sun in a puddle of water, the smell of freshly cut grass or flowers, or the chirping of birds. As you become aware of each of these positive sensorial experiences, acknowledge each, pause for a second to ascertain that it registered, and identify what it was that made it pleasurable. Attempt to vary the route each day so it does not become a routine experience. Similar to savoring, “mindfulness” helps shift our thoughts away from usual preoccupations toward an appreciation of the moment and a larger perspective on life. The distinction is that savoring happens when a purposeful attempt is made to enrich the positive and prolong a pleasant experience. Mindfulness, on the other hand, is necessary as a conduit to the senses of taste, sight, and smell—and to notice positives in the first place. It incorporates noticing whatever is vying for attention, be it positive, negative, or neutral. With mindfulness the positive is perceived but openness, curiosity, and receptivity remain in order to discern other features of the present moment. A basic mindfulness meditation exercise could include sitting on a chair or cross-legged on the ground and concentrating on a facet of breathing, such as the feeling of air flowing into the nose and out the mouth, or the stomach expanding and contracting with each inhale and exhale. Once attention is focalized in this way, begin to widen it. Be cognizant of sounds, smells, and sensations. Finally, embrace and deliberate on each thought or sensation without exercising good/bad judgment (Carr, 2019). In positive psychology, hope is considered a positive, future-oriented emotion. For the layperson, it may conjure ideas of unrealistic, wishful thinking, but in our case, we perceive it as a positive state of mind in which teachers pursue achievable yet challenging goals (Luthans et  al., 2007). Hope begins with setting explicit goals, pinpointing pathways to success, and mustering the mental energy necessary to attain them (Lopez et  al., 2000). Increasing hope depends on creating mental targets that drive action sequences that can be exhibited in self-statements like “I want to find greater work/life balance” or mental images such as

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imagining yourself with the free time to do the things you have always wanted to do (Rand & Cheavens, 2009). Hope needs pathways that advance teachers from where they are at present to the attainment of the goals they set for themselves. According to Lopez et al. (2000), the creation of a hope pathway begins with splitting long-term goals into smaller, reachable ones and then focusing on the first sub-goal. Then, teachers use mental rehearsal to reflect upon how the next sub-goal will be achieved and employ imagery to envisage how challenges can be overcome. New skills will need to be learned as support networks are cultivated and teachers need to ask for assistance when required. Building hope pathways is powerful for teachers because through them, they define approaches that focus on goals and their own agency to attain them (Rand & Cheavens, 2009). Engagement  Through engagement, teachers fully deploy their talents, strengths, and concentration in the completion of challenging tasks, often resulting in a state of flow in which teachers feel such gratification that they feel compelled to accomplish the activity for its own sake rather than for some external incentive. In fact, the activity itself is its own reward. Teachers who intentionally take action to experience flow find demanding activities that challenge their skill set. As they pursue an explicit goal, immediate feedback on progress is evident and their attention is completely focused in the moment, their self-awareness vanishes, and time seems to stop (Basom & Frase, 2004). Such complete absorption can be felt in a wide array of activities, from engaging in an engrossing conversation, to being mesmerized by a work task, or reading an engrossing book, among other tasks. Engagement Intervention Achieving flow is not as simple as merely being immersed in a task. In continuation, we provide five steps for teachers to pursue intentionally to take control over their wellbeing through feeling a deep sense of engagement. First, find a task that taxes your skill but does not overwhelm—if it is too challenging it becomes a stressor; if it is not challenging enough boredom ensues. To achieve a flow state, teachers also need to have unambiguous goals; establishing

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clear goals provides the means to ascertaining whether success is at hand. Additionally, distractions are flow killers as they cloud the mental clarity needed for complete absorption, so get rid of them. Similarly, multitasking is a myth. The brain only processes one item at a time, so when a teacher takes pride in being an “effective multitasker,” in reality, they are not performing two jobs simultaneously; instead they are obliging their brain to jump hurriedly between two or more tasks, which strains the cognitive load on the brain even more. Furthermore, flow cannot be forced, so if it is not being felt, let it go and try again tomorrow. The “paradox of control” suggests that the more fixated teachers are at controlling something, the harder it is to control. Finally, enjoyment is a critical element of flow, so engage with something gratifying. Flow state is induced via intrinsic—not extrinsic—motivation, which means teachers want to feel satisfaction not because of a reward but because it just feels good inside (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Relationships In simplest terms, advocates of wellbeing say, “Other people matter” (Peterson, 2006). Relationships are fundamental to wellbeing and comprise the wide array of interactions teachers have with students, colleagues, partners, friends, family members, administrators, and their community at large. Intentional acts to take leadership over their own wellbeing are those that nurture effective relationships in which they feel supported, valued, and loved. This is because the experiences that promote wellbeing (intense job, profound meaning, heartfelt laughter, deep sense of belonging, and pride in achievement, among others) are frequently intensified through relationships. Sharing good news and celebrating accomplishments cultivate durable bonds and improved relationships (Siedlecki et al., 2014). Additionally, reacting enthusiastically, especially in close or intimate relationships, strengthens intimacy, wellbeing, and satisfaction. Because humans are inherently social creatures (Seligman, 2012), connection with others gives life purpose and meaning. Developing strong bonds is central to adaptation and is empowered by the capacity to love, be compassionate, show kindness, exercise empathy, and build teamwork and cooperation. The yearning to feel connected to others has long been recognized as a basic human need,

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and interpersonal relationships significantly impact our mental and physical health, health behavior, and longevity (Umberson & Montez, 2010). Relationship Intervention Research shows that prioritizing others’ needs increases teachers’ sense of flourishing, so those who want to take intentional action over their wellbeing may want to consider enhancing their relationships by performing thoughtful actions for someone else. Whether large or small, most teachers perform acts of kindness at one time or another and their beneficiaries may not even be aware of them. Yet their impact can be significant—not only on the recipient but on the teacher as well. To strengthen relationships for enhanced wellbeing, perform five acts of kindness in one day as a way of both promoting kindness in the world and cultivating happiness in yourself and others. More specifically, perform five acts of kindness—all five in one day. It does not matter if the acts are big or small, but research suggests that the intervention is more effective if a variety of acts is performed. The acts need not be for the same person and the person need not even be aware of them. Examples might include leaving a positive post-it note on a colleague’s door, donating a new plant to the teachers’ lounge, sharing a goodie basket with the class, or any other creative act of kindness you can think of. After each act, write down what you did in at least one or two sentences; for an even greater boost of happiness, also write down how it made you feel. Researchers suggest that this practice increases wellbeing because it heightens awareness of positive social interactions, encourage pro-social attitudes toward others, and builds healthier relationships (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Meaning  A sense of meaning and purpose can be derived from belonging to and serving something bigger than the self. While everyone’s definition of what is meaningful and purposeful is different, having a purpose in life helps teachers focus on what is really important in the face of significant challenge or adversity. Although enjoyment might bring positive emotion to one’s life, to nurture deeper enduring happiness, teachers need to explore the realm of meaning. To take intentional action toward a meaningful life, teachers might want to consider using their unique

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personal (signature) strengths and developing their virtues in service of something bigger than themselves (Seligman, 2002). Meaning Intervention  Sometimes teachers give their weaknesses and limitations more attention than their strengths. Yet research suggests that thinking about personal strengths can boost their wellbeing and increase their sense of meaning and purpose in life. This intervention begins by identifying personal strengths (the positive traits that contribute to your character, such as kindness or perseverance) and reflecting upon how they could be used in new and different ways. To do this, go to www.via. org and take the ten-minute survey. Upon completion, a list of 24 virtues in order ranked by the survey responses will be provided. With list in hand, take a moment to think about one of the top personal strengths— for instance, love, creativity, kindness, forgiveness, or curiosity. Consider how this strength could be used in a novel way. For example, if the personal strength of perseverance is revealed, compile a list of tasks that have been challenging to complete and then try to address each item. Or if curiosity is chosen, attempt an activity never undertaken before. Write down the personal strength you plan to use and how you are going to use it. Then, act on your strength as frequently as possible throughout the day. Repeat these steps every day for a week, either using the same personal strength across multiple days, or trying a new personal strength each day. At the end of the week, write about the personal strengths that were focused upon and how they were used. Write in detail about what you did, how you felt, and whether using your signature strengths in novel ways increased your sense of meaning and purpose in life (Seligman et al., 2005). Accomplishment  Teachers often pursue achievement, competence, success, and mastery for their own sake, in a variety of domains, including the classroom, home life, and professional development, among others. The lists are endless and lamentably often ill-defined. Some goals are big, others are small; some are easily attainable, others are difficult; some are safe, while others are bold. Many pursue accomplishments even when they do not necessarily lead to positive emotion, meaning, or relationships. Feelings of accomplishment are a consequence of striving toward

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and attaining goals, mastering an undertaking, and maintaining the selfmotivation necessary to finish what was started. Teachers’ wellbeing is enhanced through such feelings because they can look at their lives with a sense of pride (Seligman, 2012). Accomplishment needs perseverance and passion to attain goals; however, teachers’ wellbeing is compounded when accomplishment is linked to internally motivated endeavors (Duckworth et  al., 2009). Achieving intrinsic goals, such as personal growth and connection with others, results in larger wellbeing gains than external goals such as a higher salary or a promotion. Although many types of goals exist, they ultimately have one thing in common: change. Goals move teachers from where they are presently to where they want to be. Goal setting is broadly recognized as an operative means of focusing attention on the most appropriate activities, generating energy, and fostering commitment. It not only helps teachers complete the task, but also impacts wellbeing, represents their dedication to achieve personal change, and enhances meaning and purpose in life (Sheard, 2012). However, the goal must be well articulated, employ suitable strategies, and be action-directed, or it will be devoid of resolve, relevance, route, and responsibility (Ogbeiwi, 2017). Accomplishment Intervention Goals are most effective when well-­ formulated frameworks are used that provide a logical, reliable platform to plan and monitor their completion. According to Ryan and Deci (2019), we all have a set of innate psychological needs, one of which is to add meaning to life, so as teachers reflect upon the goals they would like to pursue, they must ask themselves whether each goal aligns with their overall life goals, and as goals are refined, a determination must be made that the goals continue to reflect the values and ideals of a meaningful life. The first question teachers need to ask concerns what kind of goals do they want to attain. Are they seeking an outcome goal (e.g., “I want to be the best at using technology in my school”); a performance goal (e.g., “I want to be better at providing learners with immediate feedback”); a process goal (e.g., “I want to practice doing yoga after school to increase

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my wellbeing”); or a delivery-focused goal (“I want to deliver change, such as in the methods I use to teach”)? Also, the goals teachers set need to be meaningful and challenging, provoke change, and sometimes even make them uncomfortable. To define exigent goals and to help overcome built-in resistance, several steps are necessary. Teachers first need to recognize the worth of stepping outside their comfort zone and admit that comfort often stifles growth. Second, teachers need to embrace the opportunity to challenge themselves, which may necessitate a mindset adjustment. Third, discomfort may cause distress—recognize it, own the negative emotions that might surface, and ascertain whether the rewards compensate for the discomfort. Lastly, make an effort to avoid overthinking in order to circumvent being hindered by analysis paralysis and take action even if the end goal remains a bit vague (Hyatt, 2019). In continuation, we provide two models to inspire teachers to find what they want to achieve, why, and how they are going to do it. To orient teachers’ goal setting, we have chosen to highlight the steps in both the GROW model (Whitmore, 2009) and SMARTER goals (Falecki et al., 2018). The GROW model (Goals, Reality, Options, and Way Forward) (Whitmore, 2009) helps teachers establish where they want to be, where they want to go, and how they will arrive there. The first step is to establish the goal’s current reality by reflecting on its present status, the challenges and concerns that are present, and the distance one must transverse to attain the goal. In terms of options that teachers have, they need to consider how to overcome obstacles and how to actually arrive at where they want to be. Finally, the way forward needs to be defined by converting options into actions. The SMARTER approach for goal-setting incorporates aims that are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time bound, exciting, and revisable. Teachers desirous of using this approach will compare each of their goals to the six criteria of the acronym. Specificity means the goal needs clarity and conciseness. Measurability defines what success looks like and

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how it is determined. Achievability encompasses the notion that the goal is challenging yet possible. Relevancy points to the goal’s alignment with a teacher’s overall life values and aims. Being time-bound means the goal has a schedule for completion. Exciting means it engages and is worthwhile enough to remain committed. Finally, because circumstances change, goals must be open to revision if necessary.

Conclusion Napolean Bonaparte once said, “A leader is a dealer in hope.” In this chapter, we have explored teachers-as-leaders in their pursuit of hope-­ driven pathways to wellbeing—how they can take control over their own wellbeing, both in responding to life circumstances over whose advent they have limited control as well as in freely taking intentional actions to purposefully create positivity in their daily lives. Mature adaptive mechanisms such as affiliation, altruism, anticipation, humor, self-assertion, self-observation, sublimation, and suppression provide a means by which teachers can confront the relatively stable situational circumstances that occur in their lives through responding positively. Teachers also have the option to invoke purposeful actions to enhance their wellbeing through positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Such activities are completely within their control and provide a preventative backdrop of positivity that, like a bank account, can store their moments of flourishing in their resiliency account to tap into during those adverse moments when they need to counter-balance the negativity that sometimes arises.

Reflection Questions 1. What have you noticed about the ways you maintain your own wellbeing in the workplace? 2. Which of the “mature adaptive mechanisms” do you employ? Which ones have you not yet tried out?

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3. How could you encourage your colleagues and more broadly your workplace to integrate (the development of ) such mechanisms into daily practice?

References Bakker, A. B. (2005). Flow among music teachers and their students: The crossover of peak experiences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(1), 26–44. Basom, M.  R., & Frase, L. (2004). Creating optimal work environments: Exploring teacher flow experiences. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 12(2), 241–258. Bennis, W. G. (2009). On becoming a leader. Basic Books. Beresford, T., Wahlberg, L., Hipp, D., & Ronan, P.  J. (2021). Psychological adaptive mechanism maturity predicts good outcomes in treatment for refractory PTSD. Frontiers in Psychology, 3721. Briner, R., & Dewberry, C. (2007). Staff well-being is key to school success. Worklife Support Ltd/Hamilton House. Bryant, F. B., & Veroff, J. (2007). Savoring: A new model of positive experience. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Cann, R. F., Riedel-Prabhakar, R., & Powell, D. (2021). A model of positive school leadership to improve teacher wellbeing. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 6(2), 195–218. Carr, A. (2019). Positive psychology and you: A self-development guide. Routledge. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. HarperCollins. Di Giuseppe, M., & Perry, J. C. (2021). The hierarchy of defense mechanisms: Assessing defensive functioning with the defense mechanisms rating scales Q-sort. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542. Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Seligman, M. E. (2009). Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 540–547. Falecki, D., Leach, C., & Green, S. (2018). PERMA-powered coaching: Building foundations for a flourish life. Positive psychology coaching in practice. Routledge.

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Fredrickson, B. (2009). Positivity: Groundbreaking research reveals how to embrace the hidden strength of positive emotions, overcome negativity, and thrive. Crown Publishers/Random House. Hochschild, A. (1983). Comment on Kemper’s “Social constructionist and positivist approaches to the sociology of emotions”. American Journal of Sociology, 89(2), 432–434. Hyatt, M. (2019). Your best year ever. Christianaudio Publishers. Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525. Lopez, S. J., Floyd, R. K., Ulven, J. C., & Snyder, C. R. (2000). Hope therapy: Helping clients build a house of hope. In Handbook of hope (pp. 123–150). Academic Press. Luthans, F., Youssef, C.  M., & Avolio, B.  J. (2007). Psychological capital: Developing the human competitive edge. Oxford University Press. Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 111–131. Mercer, S. & Gregersen, T. (2020). Teacher Wellbeing. . Ogbeiwi, O. (2017). Why written objectives need to be really SMART. British Journal of Healthcare Management, 23(7), 324–336. Peterson, C. (2006). A primer in positive psychology. Oxford University Press. Powers, T. (2005). Engaging students with humor. Association for Psychological Science. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/engaging-­students-­ with-­humor Rand, K. L., & Cheavens, J. S. (2009). Hope theory. Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology, 2, 323–333. Roffey, S. (2012). Pupil wellbeing—Teacher wellbeing: Two sides of the same coin? Educational and Child Psychology, 29(4), 8. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2019). Brick by brick: The origins, development, and future of self-determination theory. In Advances in motivation science (Vol. 6, pp. 111–156). Elsevier. Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish. Simon & Schuster. Seligman, M. E. (2012). Positive psychology in practice. John Wiley & Sons. Seligman, M. E., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421.

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The Role of Teacher Leadership in Interdisciplinary Collaborations: A Case Study of Discipline-Specific Writing in the Philippines Marella Therese Tiongson

Introduction Writing instruction in universities is often fragmented (Emerson, 1999) because of the ways students are taught the linguistic conventions of their disciplines and the teachers’ attitudes toward writing. This fragmentation is at times seen in interdisciplinary collaboration, a practice in teaching discipline-specific writing (Hyland, 2009). Repko et  al. (2014) define collaboration as a partnership where teachers from two or more disciplines integrate knowledge to increase students’ understanding of issues beyond one discipline. Collaboration is common in English teaching because English and content teachers work together to address students’ needs (Pawan & Ortloff, 2011). It occurs when English teachers have to teach unfamiliar content (Tatzl, 2013), describe discipline-specific language skills

M. T. Tiongson (*) Department of English and Comparative Literature, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_6

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(Basturkmen, 2010), and integrate content with language learning (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998). Collaboration may improve student achievement (DelliCarpini, 2014) because teachers recognize students’ language learning needs (Stewart & Perry, 2005) and teach communication skills with more disciplinary grounding (Craig, 2013). Because of this, many schools are increasingly encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration among teachers (Szczesiul & Huizenga, 2015). Discussions of interdisciplinary collaboration often foreground its benefits: it may accomplish teaching efficiency through shared expertise and duties (DelliCarpini & Alonso, 2014), provide professional development (Dove & Honigsfeld, 2010), reduce isolation (Kelchtermans, 2006), and improve interdepartmental relations (Barron, 1992). These benefits, and the wide range of meanings ascribed to collaboration, often suggest positive connotations of support and community, which has resulted in collaboration being seen as a “panacea for many ills” (Davison, 2006, p.458). Despite these advantages, collaboration can also be problematic. Collaboration can be challenging to implement because teachers are not explicitly taught how to collaborate. Clarifying responsibilities is essential, but conflicting teaching philosophies and privileging subject content over language needs can make collaboration difficult (Arkoudis, 2007). Interdisciplinary collaborations violate the status quo in many university cultures where departments are typically isolated from each other and have their own norms (Bryant et al., 2014), which is why such endeavors frequently fail (Burkhardt, 2006). Achieving content and language integration consequently becomes more difficult. This explains the fragmentation that some writing programs experience in teaching writing. The main models of collaboration for teaching disciplinary writing in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) often highlight the roles and interactions of content and language teachers. While they are flexible, these models seem to assume a “one-size-fits-all” perspective, which may not account for all contexts. The models appear to be influenced by the pragmatic ideology dominant in EAP (Pennycook, 1998), where EAP is seen as accommodating the demands of other disciplines or cultures and to reach the goal of teaching English (Dudley-Evans, 1998).

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Next, these models seem to highlight the so-called butler’s stance of English teachers (Raimes, 1991) as linguistic service technicians (Hadley, 2015). For example, content teachers appear to have choices regarding the level of involvement they will have in providing language instruction and collaborating. It is clear that in these collaborations, the onus of providing disciplinary writing instruction falls onto the English teacher, and the teacher is expected to adjust to the content area’s demands (Dudley-­ Evans & St. John, 1998), although they are outsiders. The models are based on the notion that it is the language teachers’ responsibility to provide language instruction, which therefore reinforces the service roles they occupy. They are expected to accommodate the discipline’s standards and conventions, while often content teachers have little interest or patience in making explicit the linguistic conventions of their own discipline. It is interesting that these assumptions toward the service role of English teachers in collaboration models have rarely been examined, even as EAP scholars such as Benesch (2001) have cautioned against EAP teachers’ tendency to be too accommodationist, leading to them being on the margins (Ding & Bruce, 2017). If, as Bond (2020) argues, the purpose of collaboration is to make language visible in the university through greater synergy between content and language teachers, how can this be done if the way collaborations are theorized does not consider how much ownership and freedom English teachers feel they have in these partnerships? Teacher leadership is a concept that effectively captures this phenomenon. It describes how teachers “lead within and beyond the classroom, identify with and contribute to a community of teacher learners … influence others towards improved educational practice, and accept responsibility for achieving the outcomes of that leadership” (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2001, p.  6). Teacher leadership may allow English teachers to assert themselves and level the playing field in such collaborations. This is because teacher leaders exercise influence in their schools and are well-­ placed to provide support and direction. Teacher leadership has been emphasized as a crucial component of school improvement and student success: it has been argued to be the second most influential factor that

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contributes to students’ learning, after classroom instruction (Leithwood et al., 2004). Thus, in studying interdisciplinary collaboration, this chapter aims to use teacher leadership as a lens to analyze two examples of interdisciplinary collaborations to teach discipline-specific writing in a Philippine university. It hopes to show the impact of teacher leadership in influencing the success of collaborations. This chapter also considers the benefits and challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration, and will explicate  teacher leadership strategies that may be useful for those seeking to implement similar programs in their contexts.

Literature Review  odels of Interdisciplinary Collaboration in English M Language Teaching Teacher collaboration is generally described as “cooperative actions for job-related purposes” (Kelchtermans, 2006, p.220). Activities that can be considered as collaboration can range from informal discussions to formalized co-teaching models (DelliCarpini & Alonso, 2014). Thus, collaboration can be seen as a continuum, where partnerships vary depending on the formality of collaborative structures (DelliCarpini, 2014) and the extent of a teacher’s involvement and responsibility (Stewart & Perry, 2005). The extent and nature of collaboration in EAP changes based on how language teaching is matched to content course activities (Hyland, 2006). To describe content and language teaching integration in university contexts, two collaborative frameworks are often used: Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) levels of cooperation and Barron’s (1992) continuum of subject specialist involvement. In Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) model, there are three levels of interaction between language teachers and content specialists: cooperation, collaboration, and team-teaching. First, in cooperation, language teachers look for information about the content course by interviewing content specialists, observing their classes, conducting stakeholder

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surveys, and doing subject discourse text analysis (Hyland, 2006). This allows them to describe the language skills and genres that students need to learn in a discipline. Consequently, cooperation allows language teachers to make informed decisions regarding their teaching based on the content course’s discoursal framework. Second, collaboration takes place when language teachers work more closely with content specialists outside the classroom when planning courses, assessing student work, or providing resources. There are three collaboration options: the language class helps prepare students for a subsequent content class taught in English; the language class focuses on a specific skill (like research writing); or the language class may act as an adjunct course to the main content course, which helps students who struggle with English. Lastly, team-teaching describes what happens when language and content teachers work together in the same classroom. They plan courses, teach, and evaluate student work jointly. Team-teaching was first pioneered at the University of Birmingham in the 1980s, when language and content teachers teamed up to increase students’ content comprehension by using follow-up questions about the lecture recording, following up discussion points, and focusing on note-taking. Similarly, Barron’s (1992) continuum of involvement between language teachers and content specialists describes the changing role of the content specialist in the partnership. The lowest degree of involvement is as a subject specialist informant who provides advice regarding the subject’s linguistic conventions, which allows the language teacher to be more familiar with the discipline. Next, the content specialist may become a consultant, designing the subject in specific stages and giving expert advice on content to ensure its accuracy. The consultant may also evaluate student work or give writing advice. Afterward, the content specialist serves as a collaborator who works with the language teacher on all tasks, but does not share the same classroom. In this set-up, language goals are subordinate to content goals to accomplish discipline-specific tasks. Lastly, the highest degree of involvement is as a colleague: the content specialist works with the language teacher on all aspects of the course and also team-teaches in the same classroom. This arrangement allows for teaching efficiency because both teachers are present and teach according

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to their specializations, which may achieve a greater degree of coherence between academic competence and language development. These models show how the teaching of disciplinary writing is divided among the content teacher and English teacher, but the division of labor is unequal. The content teacher shows a wider range of their level of involvement in the teaching of writing, while the language teacher carries the brunt of the task. The models show how, as earlier problematized, interdisciplinary collaboration is conceptualized as collaborators having roles and responsibilities that are determined by their disciplines and expertise. This focus on the segregation of language and content seems counterproductive to the goal of content and language integration, especially if current models of collaboration seem to relegate the teaching of writing mostly to the English teacher. While these models assume that the language teacher has the main responsibility for teaching writing because of their expertise in language, what the models do not account for is that the content teacher also has an equal—if not bigger—responsibility in teaching writing, because they are more familiar with their discipline’s genres and epistemologies. Additionally, the models reinforce the butler’s stance of English teachers, and it is challenging for them to have a more equal role in the collaboration because they are always expected to adjust (Benesch, 2001), and their knowledge of language is not always held in the same regard as content knowledge (Bond, 2020). Thus, there is a need to study how English teachers successfully negotiate their roles and contributions in interdisciplinary collaborations. Exploring the issue through a teacher leadership lens may show us how this is done.

An Overview of Teacher Leadership Teacher leadership is conceptually ambiguous (Berg & Zoellick, 2019): some scholars see teacher leadership as attached to formal administrative roles, while others view it as any opportunity where teachers contribute to decision-making about matters affecting students’ performance (Cosenza, 2015). Despite this broad definition, it is clear that teaching and leadership are integrated.

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A widely-used theoretical framework to understand teacher leadership was proposed by York-Barr and Duke (2004), which consists of seven components to describe the different types of teacher leadership in terms of distinguishable characteristics, leadership positions, leadership pathways, and targets of influence. The first pertains to characteristics of teacher leaders, which include being oriented toward learning in their work and being respected by colleagues. The second component describes types of leadership work, specifically the nature of leadership responsibilities or work that is valued by colleagues, visible in the school, and negotiated among stakeholders. Third, conditions for teacher leadership are identified, which include having a supportive culture and colleagues, and adequate resources and opportunities. These first three components are referred to as the foundation of teacher leadership. The next three components describe how teacher leaders affect student learning. The fourth component refers to the means of influence, which include the formal and informal pathways through which teacher leaders hold influence, such as classroom teaching, learning processes, and policy and organizational matters. The fifth component pertains to the targets of leadership influence, which includes the development of students and colleagues, and school-wide contributions to instruction. Next, the sixth component refers to the intermediary outcome of leadership, which include improvements in teaching and learning practice. The final component pertains to student learning. Teacher leaders also have several identifiable traits. Krisko (2001) developed a profile of teacher leaders by identifying characteristics of effective teacher leaders. Teacher leaders are creative, effective, flexible, lifelong learners, have a sense of humor, take responsible risks, and have good intrapersonal awareness and interpersonal skills. Similarly, Webber et al. (2023) describe the traits of teacher leaders as such: engage in critical reflection about their teaching practice, exhibit self-efficacy in how they improve student learning, and are professionally committed to serving the interests of their students and colleagues. In their review of empirical research on teacher leadership, Nguyen et  al. (2019) found four key characteristics prevalent in the literature. First, teacher leadership is often conceptualized as influence, rather than a formal authority or position. In this view, teachers are involved in a

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process of change where they are the main source of innovation. Second, teacher leadership is associated with peer collaborations, which involve professional learning communities and informal interactions. In these instances, teacher leaders showed their leadership by facilitating change and encouraging their colleagues to contribute accordingly. In these collaborations, mutual trust and respect are important. Third, teacher leaders are influential at various levels in the school system, beginning from the classroom and continuing into the educational community. Fourth, teacher leadership in general aims to improve teaching quality, school effectiveness, and student outcomes. Nguyen et al. also emphasize that school culture, school structure, principal leadership, peer relationships, and person-specific factors also influence the nature, quality, and effectiveness of teacher leadership. While much research has focused on the impact of teacher leadership in K to 12 classrooms, fewer studies have focused on teacher leadership in postsecondary education settings (Nguyen et  al., 2019) and in language education contexts (DeDeyn, 2021). The literature on leadership in higher education in general focuses on senior academic leaders holding managerial roles (Zhang et al., 2021). This is also known as faculty leadership (Tsoh et al., 2019), academic leadership (Hofmeyer et al., 2015), and departmental leadership. Interestingly, these terms are used in place of teacher leadership (Graham et al., 2018), and focus on faculty development and organizational development (Diamond, 2002). Furthermore, academic leadership in particular has the following components (Siddique et al., 2011): research leadership, educational leadership, and administrative leadership. What is more pronounced here is that leadership seems to be defined more alongside teachers’ positions and the nature of their work in higher education instead of their influence on the instructional process, which is the case in K to 12 contexts. Additionally, research on teacher leadership in Asia is only beginning to emerge (Nguyen et al., 2019). In the Philippines, the few studies that have been conducted have focused on basic education. In his analysis of the educational system of the Philippines, Alegado (2018) found that the principal-focused, top-down management style of administrators generally limits teachers’ teacher leadership opportunities because of the hierarchical nature of leadership. Nonetheless, Oracion’s (2014) study

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explored teacher leadership in public schools in the Philippines. She interviewed principals and held focus group discussions with teacher leaders from seven public schools in the Philippines and argues that context is important in the practice and development of teacher leadership. She found that teacher leadership is a meaningful concept to Filipino teachers, even if it is not a term they are familiar with, because they contribute to opportunities to improve instruction, have a strong sense of purpose, and develop  necessary teaching and leadership competencies. This shows that while teacher leadership is being practiced by some teachers in the Philippines, more research needs to be done to show how it is made manifest in this context.

Teacher Leadership and TESOL Teacher leadership has remained underexplored in TESOL (Shah, 2017). This is because most TESOL programs focus on training English teachers to develop knowledge and skills in linguistics, second language teaching, and research methods (Freeman & Johnson, 1998). Additionally, many leadership programs in TESOL usually focus on leadership theories and their applications, because of the assumption that good leadership is part and parcel of good teaching (Greenier & Whitehead, 2019). Much of the research that has been done on leadership and TESOL has focused on the application of transformational leadership by program administrators (Bi et al., 2012; Christison & Murray, 2009) and not on classroom teaching. Additionally, research on leadership paradigms and practices has focused on Western contexts (McGee et al., 2015). Nonetheless, there are a number of studies that have tried to fill in these gaps. The first two are qualitative studies done by Greenier and Whitehead (2016, 2019) that focus on teachers’ self-perceptions of leadership and South Korean students’ views of their teachers as leaders. The first study surveyed 56 native-speaking English teachers regarding their views on authentic leadership, and found that the concept of teacher leadership was not something they were clearly conscious of, but it was embedded in their teaching practices. The authors argue that a clear conception of leadership would help teachers overcome the unique

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challenges of English language teaching. Their second study involved interviewing 20 university students in South Korea to find out what they perceived as good teacher leadership. The students believe that good teacher leadership consists of traits like passion, rapport, purpose, balance, and flexibility. Interestingly, these characteristics are what students considered as important, instead of focusing on the teaching strategies of their lecturers. Next, DeDeyn’s (2021) study aims to understand effective teacher leadership practices in a TESOL context in the USA. She surveyed 59 pre-collegiate intensive English program students to explore their perspectives on what kind of leadership style they most associated with course satisfaction. Her analysis found that transformational leadership had the strongest positive relationship with students’ course satisfaction; students were motivated by teachers who are enthusiastic, have a vision for their class, challenge them, and use rewards strategically. Finally, Elmeski et al.’s (2023) research investigated collaboration and leadership among EFL teachers in Morocco. They surveyed 554 secondary school English teachers and found that 73% of teachers were involved in collaboration, and they also reported higher self-efficacy and favorable ratings of professional learning communities in their schools. However, the researchers also cite rigid scheduling, lack of support, and the lack of a collaboration framework as barriers to collaboration. It is interesting that, while teacher leadership is collaborative and interdisciplinary  in nature, its role in interdisciplinary collaborations has rarely been explored (Wenner & Campbell, 2017). Ball and Lacey (2012) argue that different subject areas have their own subcultures and epistemologies, and this could have an impact on how teacher leadership is conceptualized across disciplines. Thus, teacher leadership should also be studied from an interdisciplinary perspective, because instruction is neither generic nor monolithic. It should take into account subject-specific concerns, since content influences how teachers teach and how they improve their teaching practice (Spillane & Hopkins, 2013). Overall, the gaps in the research reveal the following: first, more research is needed to see how teacher leadership looks like specifically in English teaching and interdisciplinary contexts; second, teacher leadership theories need to be applied to interdisciplinary teaching

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collaborations; and third, more studies regarding teacher leadership in the Philippine context are necessary to discover what paradigms may be appropriate to it. Consequently, this study intends to use the given frameworks for interdisciplinary collaboration and teacher leadership to present a case study of collaboration at a Philippine university. Specifically, it looks into the perspectives of four teacher-administrators from different university departments, who have been directly involved in interdisciplinary collaborations in the planning and teaching of discipline-specific writing. It aims to answer the following research question: What is the impact of teacher leadership on the implementation of interdisciplinary collaboration to teach discipline-specific writing?

Methodology Research Setting and Participants This study utilized an interpretive-qualitative case study approach (Cresswell, 2007). The data was taken from the researcher’s thesis, which explores how interdisciplinary collaboration in teaching writing is implemented at a large public university in the Philippines, which consistently ranks among the top universities in the country. It offers about 300 degree programs spread out among 25 colleges and schools, with around 25,000 students enrolled and 1500 teaching staff. The university was chosen because the researcher is employed by the university and is deeply familiar with its context. The university generally has a collectivist culture, and values criticality and academic freedom; however, it tends toward disciplinary insularity, which made previous collaborative initiatives difficult to sustain; nonetheless, its administration has also recommended interdisciplinary collaboration as a teaching and research strategy. In view of this, the English Department has worked together with content departments to develop and teach discipline-specific writing courses, such as scientific writing with the Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Department, and business communication with the School of Business.

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Thus, the research employed purposeful sampling to identify participants, who were involved in the teaching or planning of discipline-­ specific writing courses and who hold administrative positions. This study focuses on four academics who, at the time of data collection, were involved in two courses that were collaboratively taught and planned: MBB 100 (Introduction to Scientific Writing in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology) with the Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Department, and BA 198 (Special Topics: Business Communication) with the School of Business. Pseudonyms are utilized for participants to ensure anonymity. The first informant, Helen, is an associate professor from the English Department and its assistant chair. She had team-taught MBB 100 for three years as the language expert. The second participant is Noel, an assistant professor from the Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Department and its deputy director for facilities. He team-taught MBB 100 with Helen as the content specialist. The third informant, Lea, is an associate professor from the English Department. She is also the associate dean for academic affairs at the College of Humanities and is in charge of planning and evaluating academic programs. Finally, Glenda is a professor from the School of Business and its department chair. She is in charge of faculty development and course planning, which includes liaising with the English Department to deliver BA 198. Lea and Glenda both have experience in planning BA 198, but have not team-taught the course.

Data Collection and Analysis This chapter’s data comes from semi-structured individual interviews, which allow researchers to explore informants’ perceptions of situations (Punch & Oancea, 2014). The researcher used an interview schedule, which guided the flow and allowed related topics to be pursued (Glesne, 2016). The interview questions were developed from the literature on collaboration using Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) and Barron’s (1992) frameworks, and had participants define collaboration, describe its implementation and teachers’ roles in their context, identify its benefits and challenges, and suggest ways to encourage collaboration.

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The project was approved by the university’s human ethics board. The participants were individually interviewed through video-calling applications, which took about 30 to 45 minutes each. The interview data was then transcribed, and the transcripts were sent back to the participants so they could verify what was said for accuracy. Next, the content was analyzed thematically (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) by coding what the participants said into meaningful speech segments and grouping-related ideas to aid interpretation. The analysis was undertaken deductively by using a set of a priori codes (Saldaña, 2013) from the models and literature guiding this study, specifically using Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) and Barron’s (1992) frameworks to classify collaborations and York-Barr and Duke’s (2004) to analyze the types of teacher leadership and its influence on the collaborations. Afterward, the transcripts were manually coded, accommodating themes that emerged from the data using open codes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Next, categories were formed through the application of axial coding (Cresswell, 2007). The categories were selectively coded by rereading the content to ensure adequate analysis by comparing the similarities and differences in informants’ answers and determining the relationships between codes and categories (Guest et al., 2012). Lastly, salient themes were identified and analyzed against the research question (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Finally, the findings were then sent back to the participants for member checking.

Results and Discussion Understandings and Examples of Collaboration All participants had similar understandings of interdisciplinary collaboration, which was working together to develop a course. Lea, Glenda, and Noel described collaboration as consisting of collective action, like planning a course, teaching, and assessing student performance. Helen also mentioned that collaborations can be both formal and informal and may involve teachers either handling their own sessions separately, or

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co-­teaching in the same classroom. In general, the participants understood collaboration as a continuum, where activities vary depending on teachers’ roles, levels of involvement, and the formality of such activities. In particular, when describing the interdisciplinary collaborations their departments are involved in, Lea and Glenda discussed BA 198, or the Business Communication course. This collaboration was initiated by the School of Business and has been going on for more than five years. They asked for the English Department’s assistance, since “no one in our department has any expertise in business communication, [so] we think the best faculty members will come from the College of Humanities.” They described how the business lecturers are involved in planning the course design, but only the language teacher implements the teaching. Glenda mentions how the business lecturers offer advice on assessments, suggest resources, act as panelists for presentations, and share students’ feedback. This case is an example of collaboration, as described by Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998), because the business lecturer only works with the language teacher in planning the course, provides input regarding business discourse and classroom activities, but does this outside of the classroom. Additionally,  Glenda highlighted that this collaboration should be undertaken so that “[faculty members] can conduct their courses better in terms of content, methodology, and materials.” She also emphasized how collaboration should entail “having the same … vision for the course … the same idea on how it should be conducted [which] requires an openness to share … information, best practices, and disciplinary expertise.” She is clear that the business lecturers are involved “directly for the course content.” Similarly, Lea noted that the role of the language teacher in the partnership focuses mostly on executing the goals of the business lecturers, even though the language teacher may be initially involved in needs analysis. Next, Helen and Noel talked about MBB 100, the Writing for Molecular Biology and Biotechnology course, where their majors are taught how to read and write scientific papers. This partnership has been ongoing for more than four years, under different professors. Noel shows students how scientific papers are read, while Helen pays attention to linguistic aspects, such as word choice and organizational patterns.

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Afterward, students write drafts of their own scientific papers, and both Noel and Helen give comments on these. They also observe each other’s classes by sitting in. Helen uses these observations to become more familiar with the scientific discourse community’s conventions, while Noel is present to clarify concepts and questions that the students or Helen may have. This collaboration can be classified as team-teaching according to Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998), because Noel and Helen are colleagues with complementary expertise working together to teach the same set of students the skill of scientific writing. Noel has seen students’ improvement in scientific writing during the course, and he recognizes Helen’s contribution to this achievement.

Leadership Concerns in Collaborations All of the informants believe that administrative issues are a significant challenge in collaboration. First, Noel and Lea expressed how difficult it is to assign teaching loads to teachers and coordinating their schedules to allow for the partnerships to occur. Next, Glenda also discussed staffing issues: the School of Business has a limited number of teaching staff, which plays a role in their level of investment in the collaboration. They are still working out the place of the course in their curriculum, which affects whether it is a priority. Glenda also discussed how challenging it is to maintain continuity between different course iterations if the roster of teachers who collaborate is always changing, and administrators have little control over which teachers decide to collaborate. Similarly, Noel and Helen mentioned the need to increase the number of teachers teaching MBB 100 and providing teacher training to them. Meanwhile, Lea spoke of the climate of collaboration at the university: “People like the idea, see the value in collaboration … it’s assumed that collaboration is good.” She and Helen mentioned how the English Department is generally open to collaborating with other departments on discipline-specific writing courses, but is starting to hesitate given that other content departments are not sure if they will require their students to take these courses or the extent to which they are going to be involved. Lea pointed out that “there’s an assumption of collaboration, but it’s

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worked rather informally” and suggested that “it’s the details of it that make it difficult.” Additionally, Lea emphasized the importance of university administration to make explicit their policies regarding collaboration, in addition to merely promoting it, so that it will be easier to implement. She also argued that the purpose of collaboration should be clear, so that the endeavor will be worthwhile. She mentioned the need to pilot, assess, and publicize different collaborations occurring in the university in order to foster a culture of collaboration. This may lead to institutionalizing collaboration, which Helen and Lea argue is important, so collaboration would not just be a form of lip service. Finally, another concern is incentivizing collaborations: Helen and Glenda highlighted how funding is important in encouraging teachers to collaborate and to sustain such efforts. It is interesting that, while the informants identify university administration concerns as a barrier to successful collaborations, and while they themselves are leaders, they do not necessarily see these issues as something they have much control over, and still rely on university leaders to make final and broader decisions about these collaborations. This is why they highlight the importance of formalizing collaborations and articulating procedures and policies to guide them.

 isciplinary Differences and Collaboration: The Case D of BA 198 One theme that is salient in the data is the impact of disciplinary differences in collaborations. This is especially highlighted in the case of BA 198, the business communication course. Glenda mentioned how differences in disciplinary culture may negatively affect collaborations, especially since lecturers from different fields have their own “disciplinary kingdoms” with corresponding cultures and values, which may not always be compatible with other fields. Similarly, Lea observed that most departments at universities have “turfing” tendencies, because of how they claim ownership and expertise over content.

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In relation to teaching professional communication, Lea and Glenda both stressed how different disciplines’ understanding of writing may affect how it is taught. Lea in particular highlighted how these differences could significantly impact departments’ willingness to work with each other, “if they are at odds with each other…and don’t really think what you do has value.” For example, she observes how some departments tend to view English teachers merely as grammar checkers instead of writing teachers, which may relegate them to a lower position in the collaboration. Lea pointed out the need to view writing not only as a set of skills, but “as a way of thinking and a way of living … [because] there are certain epistemologies assumed by the writing done in the classroom.” In particular, she believes that writing is a critical inquiry that necessitates being socialized into the discipline and negotiating one’s understanding in it. However, she also recognized the value of the content lecturer’s practical experience. Lea believes that in teaching writing, form and content should not be separate; thus, the presence of both the business lecturer and the language teacher would show how both perspectives are important in writing. Meanwhile, Glenda appreciated the collaboration, because it allows them to “offer courses they do not have the expertise in.” She also cited lack of business teachers as the reason they could not be involved in team-­ teaching. She also mentioned that for collaboration to be effective, the “right people [need] to be on board.” She described BA 198’s current language teachers as open-minded and “very good listeners who have been taking our comments very seriously.” Glenda mentioned that they had a preference regarding who would teach BA 198: an English lecturer who they had been working with since the beginning of the course, because she is someone who is open to their feedback. Glenda believed that things would “be different if the [English] lecturers have a closed mind, and would try to conduct the course as an English course.” What is implied in Glenda’s comments is that language teachers need to accommodate business lecturers’ comments in order for BA 198 to be successful. This consequently does not open up much interdisciplinary dialogue: it instead solidifies disciplinary boundaries and may reinforce the lower status of the language teacher in the collaboration.

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These disciplinary boundaries may be the reason why teachers from different departments hesitate to be fully involved in collaborations; as a result, business students do not think BA 198 is very useful for them. Glenda called the lack of language teachers’ exposure to the business field as a “deficiency in the conduct of the course,” and posited this as the cause for students’ “low evaluation.” It is interesting that she recognizes the language teacher’s “expertise and core competency” in business communication and says that in general, it “enriches the program.” However, it is implied that it only does so if the teachers are teaching it according to the School of Business’s expectations. Lea similarly observed that “there’s a call to make it [BA 198] more collaborative by engaging a business lecturer in the actual teaching of the course.” She cited “complaints” from students saying that BA 198 “has a lot of repetitions and overlaps” with a professional writing course offered by the English Department for all students, and she speculated that the lack of a business lecturer team-teaching the course made it difficult for students to see how BA 198 was different. Lea believed that more discussion and commitment between the English Department and the School of Business could help resolve these redundancies. Glenda thought similarly, but believed that the best way to improve the course is “to strengthen and control the design of the course content, so that anybody who’s going to teach the course will know exactly what is expected of them.” She mentioned that the language teacher “deliberately redesigning the course to suit their needs … is a no-no … because the design of the course has already been tested … and just needs to be enhanced.” It is noteworthy that Glenda believes that the extent of their involvement should just be in course design, but they sound protective of the course; they seem to want to determine  how it is taught without being too involved in the actual teaching. This also shows that in BA 198, the goals and implementation of the course are decided on  by the content specialist. While both language teachers and business lecturers have a shared goal of improving students’ business communication skills, the specifics of the goal and how it will be achieved are mainly decided on by the business lecturers. In this case, language goals become subordinate to content goals, resulting in a lack of parity between language and content teachers, thereby relegating the

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language teacher to a lower position in the partnership (Hyland, 2006). In BA 198, the business lecturers choose the goals and activities, but are not involved in teaching: this may limit the language teacher’s movements in the classroom, as they often need to consult with the business lecturers and may be overly concerned with “doing it right.” Additionally, the language teacher may not feel like they have enough ownership over the course, since they do not have much of a say in it. These attitudes are typical of collaborators, especially content teachers, who feel it is their purview to decide the “correct” way of teaching discipline-­specific writing as it is practiced in the field (Hyland, 2006). This further reinforces the “butler’s stance” (Raimes, 1991) of language teachers as linguistic service technicians (Hadley, 2015). One reason for this may be that the collaborators do not work closely in the same classroom and therefore see their roles as separate and distinct, which may make power imbalances more stark. BA 198 highlighted the challenges that come from differences in disciplinary culture, and how teachers, especially content lecturers, tend to be protective over their subject matter and have a stronger opinion of how it should be taught. This kind of perspective may make it difficult to build respect, trust, and interdependence if teachers struggle to overcome their disciplinary barriers. Additionally, in this context, the language teachers seem to not have the opportunity to advocate for themselves, display their expertise, and negotiate the terms of the collaboration. These are the characteristics that effective teacher leaders possess, and this chapter argues that if English teachers exercise teacher leadership in interdisciplinary collaborations, they may have an opportunity to elevate their status in the partnership. Similarly, if content teachers (i.e., business lecturers) manifested these teacher leadership traits, perhaps they may be more open to negotiating the course content and improving the course, making it more responsive to students’ needs. The next section examines a case where the two teachers involved manifested teacher leadership, which may have contributed to the success of the course.

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 eacher Leadership and Collaboration: The Case T of MBB 100 While the previous section discussed the types of collaborations in this case study and the participants’ perspectives on collaboration, teacher leadership was not explicitly mentioned. This could be because this term may not be familiar to the participants; however, the practices and behaviors that they mentioned, especially in talking about university administration’s concerns regarding collaboration, show an awareness of the concepts which are related to teacher leadership. This awareness of teacher leadership is further highlighted in the MBB 100 partnership, which is an example of a successful interdisciplinary collaboration at the university. This section intends to show the impact of teacher leadership on the collaboration and to the extent which it may have contributed to its success. Helen described her experience in teaching MBB 100 as “far from our department’s field.” As previously mentioned, she and Noel equally divide the class sessions between them as they tackle topics according to their expertise. Noel first introduces students to scientific literature, and discusses how to read and write the different kinds of scientific papers they will write. Helen then takes over and discusses topics that focus on language use, like syntax, word choice, and overall organization of scientific papers. Regarding how the course was established, Helen said that the idea for the course and the team-teaching design came from the Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Department. Noel believed that the English Department’s input “is needed for our students to learn how to write well.” Helen mentioned that when the proposal for the course was being developed and they were looking for an English lecturer to teach it, she volunteered. She described herself as “very much motivated because I am interested also in the sciences” which is why she is the first person who “dared to co-teach MBB 100.” She has been so involved in teaching the course that she had to take a leave from teaching it for a year, “because I was afraid I would have to teach it forever and ever!” Since then, Helen has been training other English lecturers to teach the course in her place.

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Helen shared how she and Noel and the previous Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Department professors she had worked with had regularly met to plan the course: he showed her the different kinds of scientific papers they required, and she presented some language-based lessons that she thought might fit the needs of the students. In terms of assessment, it is equally divided between her and Noel. Helen bases her grades on the students’ performance in their written exercises, while Noel focuses on grading the more extensive writing specifically a scientific proposal. The students’ final grade is composed of 50% from each teacher. Next, Helen described her own preparation for the course as “self-­ study,” because she had to read up on the language of the sciences and observe Noel as he discussed their conventions. In particular, she was “most impressed” by Noel’s approach to teaching scientific writing, because of his more philosophical and literary take on discussing the epistemologies behind scientific writing. She also welcomes his comments when he sits in her classes, since his presence helps clarify and contextualize the language issues that they discuss. Overall, Helen spoke highly of the partnership, saying “I’m very happy with my experience… it has been my honor and pleasure to co-teach with them.” She also observed that the molecular biology students “seem to appreciate and enjoy the collaboration.” Similarly, Noel says he “definitely enjoys” team-teaching with Helen, and that is has been “a really interesting experience.” It is noteworthy that the differences in disciplinary culture were more pronounced in the BA 198 collaboration compared to the MBB 100 team-teaching setup. Helen believed that collaboration “bridges the gap between the humanities and the sciences” and allows lecturers from both disciplines to be more familiar with the field and open to learning from each other. While Helen is aware of the issues of turfing, she was optimistic that these disciplinary differences could be overcome through effective communication. This partnership overall displays the characteristics of teacher leadership (York-Barr & Duke, 2004). First, Noel and Helen are learning-­ oriented and clearly see how their collaboration helps improve student outcomes. Second, they negotiate their roles and goals in the partnership. Third, they have mutual respect and trust in each other, which create the

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conditions for teacher leadership to thrive. Fourth, Noel and Helen influence their colleagues’ attitudes toward the collaboration in their own departments: Noel has voiced out his opinion that MBB 100 should continue to be team-taught, because he sees the value of the expertise that the English lecturers bring in. Meanwhile, Helen has been successful in encouraging more teachers in the English Department to try team-­ teaching the course. The final components pertaining to improved student evaluations are also addressed by this partnership: Noel and Helen both speak of how they have seen students’ skills in scientific writing improve as a result of the collaboration. Also, Helen’s keenness stands out: Noel said that Helen’s “big role in MBB 100” has been really helpful, as she initiates communicating and planning for the course, months ahead. He even observed that she is taking on a more active role in the partnership than some of his colleagues at the Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Department, which shows the impact of her teacher leadership skills. Their partnership is successful because they value each other’s contributions. Thus, in this study, teacher leadership was made manifest in the attitudes of Helen and Noel, particularly in their willingness to collaborate, their influence on their colleagues, and how they have contributed to improving teaching quality and student outcomes (Nguyen et al., 2019). Overall, it seems that the impact of teacher leadership on the success of the collaboration is most evident in both teachers’ initiative, willingness to collaborate, and eagerness to learn from each other. This helps soften disciplinary boundaries and help better integrate content and language into the course. What is especially salient is Helen’s initiative and recognition of her expertise as an English lecturer: she is able to not only suggest, but also negotiate her teaching and involvement in MBB 100, which helps level the playing field and positions her as an equal: a language expert alongside Noel’s expertise in science.

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Conclusion This qualitative case study examined how interdisciplinary collaboration is understood and implemented in the teaching of discipline-specific writing in one Philippine university. In particular, it gave the perspectives of four academics with administrative positions involved in planning or teaching such courses. Leadership concerns and disciplinary differences were salient themes in the data. The study has found that disciplinary differences can lead to inequality between collaborators and less successful partnerships. However, when teacher leaders are involved in interdisciplinary collaborations, they tend to become more successful and responsive to students’ needs because of the teacher leaders’ initiative, willingness to work with their peers (especially those from different disciplines), and ability to advocate for themselves and for their students. The research has implications for teaching practice and professional development, particularly in identifying, developing, and sustaining collaborations of an interdisciplinary nature in academic environments. By understanding the complexities of collaboration and the impact of teacher leadership in making collaborations more successful, administrators can provide clearer goals, roles, and directives to guide collaborations, and ensure that such collaborations have opportunities for teacher leadership to be developed among collaborators. Limitations of this study include that it only involved four Filipino academics, was exploratory in nature, and only used one data collection method. Future research would benefit from data triangulation, for example by conducting interviews of students to explore their perspectives of the collaborations and observing teachers’ actual collaborative teaching practices. Despite this, the study has highlighted the need to ensure parity between the different partners in educational collaborations. Future areas may investigate how such parity can best be achieved and the role of organizations in supporting teachers in this process.

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Reflection Questions 1. What is the role of teacher leadership in successful interdisciplinary collaborations? 2. How can teachers build the necessary skills to engage in such collaborations? 3. What is the role of organizations in this?

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Peer Mentoring and Coaching as Tools for Leadership Development and Learning Denise E. Murray and MaryAnn Christison

Introduction The ambiguity displayed in the title of this chapter is intentional and is meant to help disentangle some critical pieces related to leadership development and learning. The first piece of ambiguity is the phrase “peer mentoring and coaching.” This phrase allows for three possibilities: (a) mentoring by peers, (b) coaching by peers, and (c) the coaching of peers by others who may be outside the profession of language teaching. In this chapter, we will discuss each of these possibilities and explore the reasons that they are considered effective options for professional development (PD) for teacher leaders in language education.

D. E. Murray Macquarie University, San Jose, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. Christison (*) University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_7

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The second piece of ambiguity in the title is the phrase “leadership development and learning.” By using this particular phrase, we hoped to differentiate the concept of leadership development from learning—similar to the way in which we have differentiated between the terms professional development (PD) and professional learning elsewhere in our work (Christison & Murray, 2023). PD refers broadly to activities in which teachers engage in order to “[change] their dispositions and behaviors to improve the lives of their learners, and the result of that participation in such activities as professional learning” (p. 209). We also make the point that “it is possible that participation in the former, in other words PD, may or may not result in the latter, in other words, professional learning” (p. 209). Similarly, the result of participation in PD that is specifically designed for leadership development may not result in learning for reasons we will also explore in this chapter. Further ambiguity presents itself in the title as we have chosen not to use the term “professional” to describe learning. We do so because the focus of this chapter is on teachers and the types of PD that are effective in developing leadership capabilities. We consider professional to be a superordinate term and use it to embody how all individuals in a workplace, not just teachers, acquire skills to carry out the many different roles they assume. These roles collectively constitute the profession of language education. Professional roles other than classroom teaching are often neglected when leaders plan for and implement PD opportunities, and it is incumbent upon leaders in any workplace to recognize they have a fiduciary responsibility to ensure the well-being of all individuals regardless of the roles they assume. An essential role of leaders in any endeavor is to help others achieve their best performances. Whether these performances occur on sport fields or in English language teaching workplaces, the ultimate goal is to produce a superior product or service. Accomplishing this goal requires effective teamwork, positive interpersonal communication, and problem-­ solving skills. Leaders create positive workplace environments by supporting others in carrying out their professional roles and inspiring them to become effective practitioners. To be successful in creating positive workplace environments, teachers who wish to become leaders need to develop these soft skills, a term that is often used to differentiate these

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types of skills from hard skills—skills that encompass both the technical expertise and disciplinary knowledge bases that are required for particular occupations such as language teaching. Goleman (1995, 1998, 2000) captured the importance of soft skills in his model of emotional competence (EI) through the identification of specific skills that underpin both social and personal competence. Golemans’s research has shown that EI is twice as important as pure cognitive abilities in achieving success in the workplace. In a recent study on EI (Christison & Murray, forthcoming), 487 English language teachers were asked to rate themselves on their own EI skills relative to the 24 sub-components of social and personal competence (see Fig. 1). They were also asked to rate each of the sub-­components based on how important they considered these skills for language teachers in general and also for leaders. Participants evaluated their overall social and personal competences quite low—a result that was similar to the results from research conducted by Davies and Bryer (2004). In addition, the skill set they deemed most important for leaders was a skill set that was the most different from their own perceived skill set. These results indicate that teachers can benefit from leadership development opportunities to learn the soft skills necessary to carry out their respective roles as leaders. Leadership is not a unitary endeavor. Within each of the professional roles that language educators assume, there are many ways to demonstrate effective leadership. In addition, leadership can be exercised from formal positions of leadership or management, such as by deans, department chairs, directors, or presidents, but it can also be exercised from behind (Anderson, 2009) or from the periphery (Curtis, 2009) by supporting peers who have assumed formal leadership or management positions, and displaying characteristics of effective leadership in one’s behaviors and interactions with others. The chapter first considers theories of motivation because in the leadership literature, especially the literature associated with transformational leadership (e.g., Bass, 1999; Khan et al., 2020), motivating employees is listed as one of the key functions of leadership. Transformational leadership is meant to inspire and motivate staff to move beyond required expectations in order to work toward a shared vision. Understanding

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Components and Sub-components of Personal Competence Self-awareness

• • •

Emotional awareness Accurate self-assessment Self-confidence

Self-regulation

• • • •

Self-control Trustworthiness Adaptability Innovation

Motivation

• • • •

Achievement drive Commitment Initiative Optimism

Components and Sub-components of Social Competence Empathy

• • • • •

Understanding others Developing others Service orientation Leveraging diversity Political awareness

Social skills

• • • • • • • •

Influence Communication Conflict management Leadership Change catalyst Building bonds Collaboration Team capabilities

Fig. 1  Components of emotional and social competence

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motivation can also support teacher leaders in addressing issues related to stress and burnout in the workplace and promote health and well-being for both teaching and non-teaching staff. The chapter then explores how teacher leaders and PD providers can use motivational factors to choose, adapt, and implement PD, depending on individual needs and motivations. Within the profession of English language teaching (ELT), peer mentoring and coaching have been promoted as models for teacher development. While these models share many overlapping characteristics, there are distinct differences between the two. The models are presented, evaluated, and discussed, relative to their potential for advancing leadership goals for teachers and creating positive workplace environments. The models are also examined from the perspective of how they address motivational factors to support teachers in developing leadership skills, professional learning, and the promotion of well-being.

Motivation and Self-Determination Theory Motivation is a familiar construct in second and foreign language teaching and learning, and most teachers recognize the importance of motivation in learning additional languages regardless of the context. According to Gardner (2010), motivation is the initiator of second language (L2) acquisition, and all other factors involved in the process presuppose motivation to some degree. From the early work of Gardner and Lambert (1959), who found motivation to be a factor strongly associated with achievement, it has been recognized as an important consideration in the field of language education and has also been discussed broadly as it relates to both language learners and teachers (e.g., see Dornyei, 1994; Dornyei & Ushioda, 2011; Ushida, 2003, 2005a, b). It is, therefore, important to consider motivation as it relates to the development of leadership skills in teachers. While learning takes place within the individual, PD opportunities take place within the context of specific institutions and language teachers’ social, work, and home life. These factors have an impact on motivation to learn and on dispositions, attitudes, and behaviors—all of which affect the capacity to lead. In addition, individuals may be motivated in

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very different ways, depending on their own personal circumstances, where they are in their careers and how contextual factors affect them in the workplace. The way in which teachers are motivated can result in different outcomes in terms of performance in the work place and degrees of well-being (e.g., Broeck et al., 2021). Moreover, motivation changes depending on the different activities in which teachers engage both inside and outside of the workplace. Understanding how these factors influence motivation is an essential feature of planning PD for teacher leaders. As a theory of motivation, Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Deci et al., 2017; Broeck et al., 2021) is less well-known in the field of language teaching and learning than other models (e.g., incentive theories of motivation). SDT highlights the importance of considering humans’ evolved inner resources as they relate to personal development and self-regulation (Ryan et al., 1997). It also provides a basis for understanding how motivation impacts work performance and worker well-­ being and how teachers can be guided in responding to the needs of others as they develop leadership skills.

Innate Psychological Needs To understand SDT, we turn to the work of Abraham Maslow (1943) and his framework for understanding innate psychological needs in humans, which are both physical and psychological. The needs in Maslow’s framework are presented in a hierarchy: (a) physiological needs, (b) safety and security, (c) love and belonging, (d) self-esteem, and (e) self-actualization. In this hierarchy the lower needs must be satisfied before the higher needs can be addressed. Like Maslow’s hierarchical theory, SDT posits that humans have a natural tendency toward growth and development, which supports the notion that individuals in any workplace will be motivated to move up the hierarchy, do their best, and embrace opportunities to improve and learn. At its core, SDT provides an explanation for the reasons behind the choices and decisions that individuals make in absence of external influences and distractions. Unlike other theories of motivation, SDT does not include any sort of internal “autopilot” relative to achievement, in

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other words, doing things automatically with little cognitive effort. Instead, SDT emphasizes that learning is the result of active engagement with the environment and that innate psychological needs must be met as part of that engagement. Based on the research of Ryan and Deci (2000), Maslov’s psychological needs for well-being were reformulated as follows: • Autonomy, the feeling that one has choices • Competence, the experience of mastery or effectiveness • Relatedness, the feeling of belonging and the need to feel connected to others. For PD to be effective in creating teacher leaders, these innate psychological needs must be met within the PD experience. The importance of meeting innate psychological needs can also be extended to beyond PD experiences to the workplace as a whole. To create a positive workplace environment, leaders need to consider each of the innate psychological needs and determine how to promote them. All individuals need opportunities to make self-determined choices, experience what it is like to gain mastery, and become effective in carrying out teaching and non-teaching assignments. They also need to feel that they belong and that their contribution is necessary for the functioning of the team as a whole. To create PD options for teachers in which the innate psychological factors of motivation are addressed, leaders and PD providers benefit from consulting a set of simple questions that outline essential motivational considerations as they plan for PD options. • Within the PD experiences, what choices do teachers have? What opportunities do they have to direct their own learning and set professional goals? • What opportunities do teachers have for developing new competences related to their goals and how do they know when these competences have been developed? • How does the PD experience bring teachers together so that they function as a team and feel connected to one another through a specific and mutual goal?

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Within SDT there is also a well-developed, detailed, and multidimensional interpretation of intrinsic motivation, which includes self-­ regulation and extrinsic motivation (see, e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Intrinsic Motivation To understand intrinsic motivation within SDT it is helpful to consider how incentive motivation is conceptualized. The focus of an incentive theory of motivation is on the concept of rewards, which can be demonstrable or non-demonstrable. A reward is presented after an action or behavior has occurred. The intention behind incentive motivation is to initiate a desired behavior(s) or to cause it to occur again. If individuals receive a reward immediately, the effect is greater than if there is an increased amount of time between the action and the reward (see Kerr, 1995, for a review of research on the relationship between the reward and time). Psychologists, among others, have long separated intrinsic motivation from extrinsic motivation because of the nature of reward and the different types of rewards available. Rewards can result in modifications in learning, varied performances, unique personal experiences, and assorted degrees of well-being. In SDT, intrinsic motivation is not conceptualized as a dichotomy alongside extrinsic motivation but rather is presented on a continuum with external factors affecting intrinsic motivation to varying degrees. In order for individuals to be motivated intrinsically, the conditions that support or underlie motivation need to be identified. As such, the continuum becomes a useful conceptual framework for leaders and PD providers. SDT is based on the underlying assumption of human positivity, that is, that human beings are naturally and intrinsically inclined toward creativity, learning, and developing. In their seminal paper on SDI, Ryan and Deci (2000) note, “[p]erhaps no single phenomenon reflects the positive potential of human nature as much as intrinsic motivation, the inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one’s capacities, to explore, and to learn” (p. 70). When individuals are intrinsically motivated, they continue with the activity because of the joy and pleasure they derive from it. However, in some circumstances,

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people may no longer enjoy the activity, but continue to engage in the activity through self-regulation. Within SDT, self-regulation “concerns how people take in social values and extrinsic contingencies and progressively transform them into personal values and self-motivation” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 69). When individuals have insufficient intrinsic motivation to perform a particular task or achieve a specific goal, they may rely on external forms of encouragement. SDT has identified four distinct positions relative to intrinsic motivation that lie along a continuum— external regulation, introjection, identification, and integration.

External Regulation External regulation motivation is not self-determined but relies solely on rewards and punishments from others. In the workplace, these rewards and punishments may come from leaders or colleagues and may be social or material. Both staff and leaders may be performing because of their desire for rewards or for fear of punishment. Teachers may agree to serve on committees because such service will enhance their opportunities for promotion or tenure. Teachers may volunteer to take the minutes at a meeting because they know their colleagues on the committee will be grateful to them.

Introjection Introjected regulation is partially internalized because the motivation is related to self-esteem. When people don’t achieve their goals, they may feel shame, so they continue with the activity in order to prevent feelings of failure. As a result of their continuing with the activity, they feel pride. Unlike externally regulated motivation, where the pressure to perform is from external actors, with introjected motivation, the pressure comes from within.

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Identification Identified regulation is more internalized than the previous two types and lies further along the self-determination continuum. The roots of the motivation lie in personal values and importance of a given activity. For most educators, successful student learning is important, so teachers undertake tasks and activities that will help students learn and achieve success.

Integration With integrated regulation, motivation is completely internalized so that it has become integrated into the person’s value system. Teachers who are motivated in this way identify with the societal role of teachers. Such teachers may engage in professional development because being an engaged professional is how they view themselves. While it is important for leaders and PD providers to plan for and implement PD from the perspective of human positivity, it is also essential to recognize that teachers will likely be in different positions on the continuum relative to intrinsic motivation. To ascertain where teachers might be on the continuum, leaders and PD providers must know their teachers. For example, how many teachers are at the level of external regulation and need to associate PD with external rewards? What rewards are available for teachers who need external regulation to participate effectively in PD? How many teachers are positioned elsewhere on the continuum? What are their needs? Part of the process of planning and implementing PD is developing mechanisms for learning about and getting to know teachers. Getting to know teachers is associated with the innate psychological need of relatedness. It is also a critical component in addressing concerns related to stress and burnout and supports leaders in promoting wellness and sustaining health and well-being.

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Stress and Burnout Stress and burnout have become familiar in many workplaces, and research has shown that they have an effect on productivity, as well as on worker well-being (see, e.g., Bui et al., 2021). Maslach (1993) defined burnout in terms of “[the] psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment that can occur among individuals who work with other people in some capacity” (p, 20). These components of burnout were originally developed by Maslach and Jackson (1981), who created a burnout inventory (see Maslach Burnout Inventory, n.d.), which was based on research in the human services sector. The Maslach Burnout Inventory uses a 7-point Likert scale and contains 22 questions that focus on these components. The first characteristic of burnout is emotional exhaustion, which is connected to one’s relationship with stress and how stressful one’s work is perceived. Emotional exhaustion is different from depression as the symptoms of emotional exhaustion tend to diminish during vacation periods and days spent away from the workplace. Depersonalization targets a loss of empathy for others and is characterized by wanting to keep to oneself emotionally and distance oneself from peers and students. It is also characterized by the presence of derogatory or cynical remarks in interactions with others. Personal accomplishment is related to personal goals and whether an individual has set personal goals and is actively working toward achieving them. If the personal accomplishment score is high on the inventory, it reflects a positive view of one’s professional achievements and can act as a counterbalance for emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. If it is low, it contributes to overall feelings of stress and emotional exhaustion. Burnout is closely associated with whether innate psychological needs associated with motivation are being met in the workplace. For example, emotional exhaustion often occurs with individuals who are assigned to too many tasks so that they have neither the freedom to choose nor the time to do the tasks well. The Maslach Inventory has been adapted so that it is useful in a broad range of sectors and has become the most commonly used tool to self-test for burnout risks. The inventory can be taken individually or by groups

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and serves as an important tool for helping leaders understand and get to know both teachers and non-teaching staff and for understanding the effects of burnout in the workplace. It is also crucial for leaders to note that burnout is not necessarily confined to the workplace. The three symptoms of burnout, along with other recently identified symptoms, such as cognitive impairment, insomnia, becoming socially withdrawn, and experiencing anxiety and depression, may impinge on both work and non-work well-being and performance (Tavella & Parker, 2020). As Parker states in an interview, “[o]ur research shows that … burnout is over-represented in dutiful, reliable, caring people … [such as] health professionals and teachers. That’s part of its tragedy that burnout is over-represented in good people” (Kelsey-Sugg & Crothers, 2023). As many dutiful, reliable, and caring individuals are drawn to the profession of language education, the world of English language teaching is not immune to worker stress. In a survey and interview study of English language administrators’ workplace stress, del Villano (2018) found that 60% of the participants responded that they were moderately to very stressed. Using Maslach’s inventory of burnout, Salih (2018) found that Kurdish EFL teachers experienced high levels of reduced personal accomplishment, regardless of variables such as age, gender, or years of teaching, whereas Pennington and Ho (1995) found their subjects experienced less emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and more sense of personal accomplishment than did the subjects in Maslach’s research with service sector workers. If these symptoms of burnout are not identified and addressed, “… motivation decreases and frustration increases [and] we lose the desire and energy to be creative, developing teachers” (Barduhn, 1989). Incorporating innate psychological needs into planning and implementing PD is essential for addressing stress and burnout and developing teacher leaders.

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Sustaining Health and Well-Being When leaders are deciding on PD opportunities for their teaching and non-teaching staff, they need to consider more than the ELT content (i.e., the knowledge base) and the pedagogical skills that individuals may need. For PD to result in professional learning, the entire context of teachers’ lives and the PD provision must be considered, with the well-­ being of the teachers becoming a top priority. Such an approach is not merely humanistic, it ensures that everyone can perform more effectively, and ultimately, create a caring, socially and cognitively appropriate environment for students to succeed. A model of professional practice that treats the whole person can be found in the field of health care, which is referred to as holistic care or integrated health care. For the provision of medical care to be effective, health care professionals consider the psycho-­ social, cultural, spiritual, and physical environment of the patient in addition to the physical presentation of their condition. For example, best practice includes evaluating nutrition, sleep, social network, lifestyle choices, and home and environmental physical and psychological stressors. Like patients in the healthcare field, ELT professionals have complex lives both inside and outside of the workplace, and this complexity needs to be taken into account before choosing what type of PD to offer. For example, individuals who are caring for family members have many demands on their time and may experience what we refer to as time poverty (Giurge et al., 2020; Vikery, 1977)—the chronic feeling of having too many things to do and not enough time to do them. Individuals who experience time poverty do not have enough discretionary time, which is the time that is available to them after they have engaged in necessary activities like sleep and the committed activities of paid and unpaid work. Without discretionary time, there is no opportunity to engage in activities that build social and human capital, and time poverty can be a factor that affects motivation. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) recognizes that “[u]npaid care work is … an indispensable factor contributing to the well-being of individuals, their families and societies” (Ferrant et  al., 2014, p.  1). Recognizing that unpaid care

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responsibilities could be a factor that affects motivation, leaders should make accommodations for individuals with these responsibilities by adjusting committee assignments and instructional scheduling in ways that address the innate psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. For example, office staff might be encouraged to adopt the use of complementary hours with their peers so they can arrive and leave at staggered times, take breaks, or go to lunch. Complementary hours work well for staff who have specific times in which they have to drop children at school or take elderly parents to medical appointments. Teaching staff might also be given choices relative to their teaching assignments—teaching online, early mornings, late afternoon, or during school vacations. The use of complementary hours and giving teachers choices for teaching assignments are examples of how the innate psychological factor of autonomy can be addressed in the workplace. When consistently applied, it becomes an important tool for addressing wellness, stress, and burnout. Giving teachers opportunities to develop expertise by choosing from a variety of ongoing PD activities is also an excellent way to address the innate psychological need of autonomy.

Models for Professional Development PD can be conceptualized in many different ways (Christison & Murray, 2023), and teachers value and find useful many different types of PD (Yates, 2001).  For some teachers, informal opportunities for learning such as reading a book, exchanging lesson plans, or getting ideas from peers are considered to be the most useful forms of PD while other teachers find experiences such as observing a class, attending a conference presentation, or participating in a single session workshop to be the most useful forms of PD (Clarke et al., 2012). It is difficult to choose a form of PD that works for the majority of teachers, so planning and implementing PD from the perspective of teacher satisfaction is likely not the best approach to PD that is focused on learning. A synthesis of best practices for the design of PD (see McRae et al., 2001) shows that PD is most successful in promoting learning when the following features are present:

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• embedded directly in the classroom and in the process of teaching, • grounded in the specific content of teaching, • structured around problem solving and collaboration with other teachers, and • incorporated into a process of change. Peer mentoring and coaching incorporate these essential features of PD. When deciding on PD opportunities for teachers, leaders and PD providers need to consider more than the content and pedagogy for English language teaching. For PD to lead to professional learning, leaders and PD providers need to consider the entire context of teachers’ lives (Cole, 2012), as well as the PD provision, with the well-being of the participants becoming a top priority. Such an approach is not merely humanistic, it ensures that everyone can perform more effectively, and ultimately, create a caring, socially and cognitively appropriate environment for students to succeed. A model of professional practice that treats the whole person can be found in the field of health care, referred to as holistic care or integrated health care. For the provision of medical care to be effective, health care professionals consider the psycho-social, cultural, spiritual, and physical environment of the patient in addition to the physical presentation of their condition. For example, best practice includes evaluating nutrition, sleep, social network, lifestyle choices, home and environmental factors, and physical and psychological stressors. Like patients in healthcare, ELT staff have complex lives outside the classroom as well as within, and this complexity needs to be taken into account before choosing what PD to offer. For example, staff who are caring for family members have many demands on their time and may experience time poverty, which may affect their motivation. The OECD recognizes that “[u]npaid care work is … an indispensable factor contributing to the well-being of individuals, their families, and societies” (Ferrant et al., 2014, p. 1). Recognizing this, leaders may make accommodations for staff with unpaid care responsibilities in their committee assignments and instructional scheduling. For example, office staff may have complementary hours so that some have time to drop children at school or take elderly parents to medical appointments. Teachers may be given the choice of teaching online during school vacations. Similar

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accommodations need to be considered for the delivery of PD, in terms of the following characteristics: • Model of PD. There are many different models of PD—a single session workshop, a conference venue with multiple ongoing sessions, classroom observations of peers, book clubs, lesson plan exchanges, informal discussion groups, as well as different types of mentoring and coaching. • Site. PD provides need to determine if the PD will be offered at the in-house site where individuals who are expected to participate in the PD work or at an external site. External sites have advantages as they offer a new environment and may promote the feeling among PD participants that PD is something novel, exciting, and valued. However, external sites may not be convenient for the participants, and securing an external site may also be costly. • Time of event. Scheduling PD is a complicated matter and determining when PD is to take place is not an easy task. For many teachers, PD is often scheduled in late afternoons after a full day of teaching. This type of PD may be convenient for teachers and PD providers, particularly if the site is one in-house, but teachers are tired at the end of the day and less likely to be enthusiastic. On the other hand, PD that is scheduled on the weekend, even when time is compensated and continuing education credits are given, is not always welcome for a variety of reasons related to teachers’ personal and professional lives. • Duration. The most important decision that PD providers must make about the duration of the PD is whether it will be a series of short sessions or one long session. If the former, PD providers must then decide how long the session will be and how many will be necessary. • Delivery medium. With the increase in access to digital technologies and with the advancement in teachers’ skills for using online technologies, PD providers should consider not only face-to-face PD options but the benefits of offering virtual PD as well. Wherever possible, these characteristics should be chosen for the convenience of participants to allow them to focus solely on learning, without worries about other duties at school, home, or elsewhere. Peer

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mentoring and coaching are approaches to professional learning that can be very flexible. Peer mentoring and coaching are based on the assumption that humans are intrinsically motivated to achieve their best performances in the workplace. Peer mentoring is a model for promoting learning between peers while coaching involves interactions between an experienced person, who is called a coach. The emphasis is on supporting the less experienced teacher in developing specific skills.

Peer Mentoring The concept of mentoring has existed since at least 3000 years ago when Odysseus set off for the Trojan Wars leaving his son, Telemachus, in the care of his trusted companion, named Mentor. Through the ages, the term mentor has been used to signify someone who provides support, guidance, and nurturing. In the United States in the 1970s, mentoring was encouraged as an element of business management to provide advice to business managers (e.g., Levinson et al., 1978). In the 1990s, mentoring began to flourish in schools and colleges, primarily as a tool to help socio-economically disadvantaged and at-risk young adults be successful in school (e.g., Roche, 1979). Most of the mentoring was institutionally based, formal, and hierarchical. As well as flourishing as a tool for supporting students, mentoring also became a tool for the professional development of teachers (see Harold, 2020). Departments of Education institutionalized teacher mentoring, such as in California’s Teacher Induction Program in which new teachers were assigned to work with more experienced practitioners, who were usually chosen because they were considered to be master teachers by administrators. In institutionally based mentoring programs, the mentor acts as both a sounding board and an experienced other (Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2020). English language teaching programs have also used this type of mentoring by assigning a more experienced teacher to work with a new hire or a novice teacher. Overall, the goals of such programs are to increase professional learning for the individual being mentored with little or no attention paid to the professional learning of the mentor. This model of

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mentoring is often referred to as the craft model (Wallace, 1994) because it evokes the apprenticeship model of craft guilds in Europe in the Middle Ages. As Christison and Stoller (2023) have noted, it has also been a common leadership development model for English language program administrators. We learned how to be LPAs much like apprentices in a twelfth-century craft guild. We learned our craft on the job, by trial and error, and by seeking advice from LPAs who were much more experienced than we were. The apprenticeship process that we underwent as new LPAs emphasized the roles and responsibilities that LPAs must assume and the ways in which these roles are learned. (p. 2) Scenario 1 Malee is one of the new hires in the English language program (ELP). She was hired six months ago and has only been with us for one semester. This is her first position as a fulltime teacher after completing her Masters in Language Pedagogy degree. The ELP has had a long tradition of mentoring, and so Malee has been assigned a mentor who is an experienced teacher and has been teaching in the ELP for eight years. Yesterday, I received an email from Malee asking if she could have an appointment with me to talk about her mentoring experiences. As the Director of the ELP, I oversee the assignments for mentoring, so I was eager to talk to her. Given that my own relationship with Tanya is a very positive one and that I believe her to be a gifted teacher, I was surprised to learn that Malee is very dissatisfied with Tanya as a mentor and does not find the mentoring experience helpful. [Personal reflection notes]

Because of status and power differences between the mentor and the individual being mentored (Colley, 2002), tensions can frequently arise such as the one depicted in Scenario 1. The process of mentoring is essentially relational, grounded in communication, and relying on effective interpersonal skills (Harold, 2020). Not all teachers possess the soft skills to be effective mentors; therefore, many mentoring relationships are fraught with conflict between mentors and the individuals being mentored. In addition, mentors often wrestle with achieving their personal goals relative to the mentoring process and implementing the goals of the

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program or institution. For example, it is often difficult to find the right balance between being friendly and approachable, while, at the same time, being directive in giving advice. The very structure of this type of mentoring program seems to hinder a more collaborative approach, one that empowers the mentee. While some proponents of mentoring advocate for focusing on developing the quality of the mentoring relationship, rather than the content (e.g., Skinner & Fleming, 1999), it is difficult to advance a mentoring relationship when the innate psychological need of autonomy (i.e., the feeling that one has been given a choice) has been usurped by the process of assigning mentors rather than allowing mentors and mentees to self-select. Within the educational context of compulsory education, the term mentor is often used to refer to the experienced teacher or leader from a school with whom the teacher candidate in the teacher education program gains field experience during the practicum, a situation that illustrates power imbalance in the mentoring relationship. Other scholars also see advantages in peer mentoring (e.g., Collier, 2017) because both mentor and mentee share a common perspective about their roles. In addition, the differences between status and power are resolved as both are equal peers. Scenario 2 Alya and Maryam are two relatively new hires in the ELP. This is Alya’s third semester and Maryam’s fifth semester as teachers in the program. Alya has a Master’s degree in English language and Maryam has a graduate TESOL Certificate. I have just finished an almost hour-long meeting with them about their experiences in a peer mentoring program, in which they had been involved for the past two semesters. At the end of their first year, the ELP was able to send them both to the annual TESOL International Association conference for four days. At the conference, they attended a workshop together, which truly inspired them. When they returned, they asked me if they could work together as a type of pilot for a peer mentoring program within the ELP. They not only hoped to develop their skills as teachers but also take a leadership role in encouraging other teachers. I readily agreed as it seemed that they had formed a mutual professional relationship with each other as a result of their participation in the TESOL Convention. [Personal reflection notes]

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Peer mentoring has been implemented in a variety of ways. Peers can be assigned to work together or they can self-select, such as the two teachers did in Scenario 2. In peer mentoring, each person can serve as both a mentor and a mentee, which is a type of peer mentoring referred to as reciprocal mentoring. In reciprocal mentoring, participants choose their own focus and both commit to improving their own practice and that of their partner. To our way of thinking, reciprocal mentoring is best expressed when teachers consider themselves to be equals in status and power, regardless of years of teaching experience or the formal positions they may hold. Peer mentoring as portrayed in Scenario 2 addresses all three if the innate psychological needs associated with SDT. The teachers self-selected whom they wished to be their mentor and the form of PD they believed would help them meet their goals. As the process of peer mentoring is long term, it is also likely that both teachers will have the opportunity to develop expertise and competence as they both offer and receive feedback on the development of their skills. Working together closely with another teacher in peer mentoring affords both teachers an opportunity for feeling that they belong and are part of a team. We have conceptualized the term peer mentoring very broadly to explore how language-teaching professionals can hone their craft and expand their professional learning to take on new responsibilities or engage in new contexts, such as leadership roles. We, therefore, propose a framework for peer mentoring that focuses primarily on the developing relationship between the two participants. This framework allows teachers not only to explore how the relationship develops over time but also understand how it is also grounded in the opportunities for relationship building that peer mentoring affords. This framework accounts for a large range of professional learning opportunities and experiences.

Coaching In the literature on peer mentoring, reciprocal mentoring is sometimes referred to as peer coaching. However, Harold (2020) differentiates between mentoring and coaching, where “[m]entoring usually involves a

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relationship built over time …while coaching tends to be more specific and short term” (p. 221). Scenario 3 I have been working as a coach with three teachers for two weeks at a local high school. The three teachers have content area expertise in three different areas—physical science, history, and English—and primarily teach courses in these disciplines. Because each teacher also has an ESL Endorsement, they each teach one or two classes specifically for English learners. None of these three teachers has high self-efficacy relative to teaching English learners. I have been working with Celia for almost three weeks, and today is the fifth and last time that I will observe her teaching. We are working with a rubric that was developed by her school district, which is the administrative body that governs her school, and given to her as part of the district’s plan PD. There are 15 teacher indicators within the rubric. She has chosen the three indicators on which we will focus the observation today. Later this evening, we will have a brief Zoom meeting to discuss her teaching. She usually talks to me first about her own perceptions of the class, how she thought she addressed the indicators, and what she would do differently next time. After she talks to me, I will discuss some of the things I noticed. [Personal reflection notes]

Coaches can be individuals who are either internal or external to a language teaching program. In Scenario 3, the coach is external to the teacher’s workplace. The teaching observations and coaching sessions are guided by the use of the rubric, and it is the mentee who determines the specific focus of the coaching sessions. The focus is on developing the teacher’s specific skills relative to the rubric. Because specific contexts for coaching sessions are always different, an understanding of context must be a prerequisite to designing PD that results in professional learning. Peer mentoring and coaching are often used interchangeably; however, they are presented as distinct from each other in their focus and, therefore, serve different purposes relative to professional learning. Mentors share their knowledge, skills, and experiences within the profession, with the goal of professional learning. Coaches guide others on achieving their goals and to help them reach their full human potential. In other words, mentors are embedded in the

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same professional context as their mentee, while a coach may be external to the context. Within the management literature, mentoring is usually conceptualized as long-term experience and often results in a friendship as the mentor and mentee connect in personal ways, with mentors sharing their own experiences and understandings of the field or profession (Bailey, 2008). As depicted in Scenario 3, coaching is usually for a shorter time and is more formal. Coaches seldom engage in reporting their own personal experiences but focus on the personal growth of the client or the individual being coached. There can be both personal coaches and career coaches. The former help you understand yourself better, improve your mindset, and equip you with the skills to handle future challenges and situations. Darling-­Hammond et  al. (2017) consider the provision of “[c]oaching and expert support [that] involve the sharing of expertise about content and evidence-­based practices, focused directly on teachers’ individual needs (p. vi)” as one of their criteria for effective PD.

Conclusion In this chapter, we have focused on processes, theories, and a framework that will help leaders and PD providers to design and deliver professional development that leads to professional learning and growth. We have shown that motivation is key to participants’ professional learning. Therefore, leaders and PD providers need to consider the motivations of participants when designing PD opportunities. In particular, PD must be designed so that it embodies the innate psychological characteristics of SDT: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Enacting these characteristics means that teachers should have opportunities to make choices, to experience mastery, and feel they belong to the profession and a language program or institution. We have discussed both mentoring and coaching, including reciprocal mentoring. We have provided a framework for peer mentoring that focuses primarily on developing the relationship between the two participants, with the goal of designing PD opportunities that lead to professional learning and growth.

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Reflection Questions 1. What do you see as the strengths and weaknesses of peer mentoring and coaching? 2. How do you think the innate psychological characteristics of SDT are embedded in peer mentoring and coaching? 3. What challenges would PD providers have when designing PD that promoted the health and well-being of the participants? 4. How can leaders determine the motivation of their teaching and non-­ teaching staff, in preparation for designing appropriate PD?

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When Visible Minorities Lead Visible Majorities Andy Curtis, Okon Effiong, and Mary Romney

 here, When, and Who Is the “Majority” W and Who Is the “Minority”? Context Is Everything As international language educators, we tend to, at some point, refer to dictionaries to find clear, concise, general definitions for our learners and for ourselves, especially as words like “majority” and “minority” can mean different things to different people, depending on who is referring to

A. Curtis (*) The City University of Macau, People’s Republic of China (PRC), Special Administrative Region (SAR), Macau e-mail: [email protected] O. Effiong Qatar University, Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected] M. Romney Willimantic, CT, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_8

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whom. According to the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “Minority” means: “any small group in society that is different from the rest because of their race, religion, or political beliefs, or a person who belongs to such a group” (CALD, 2023b, emphases added). And while that is a fairly standard definition, some of the examples given allude to some of the negative ways in which some societies use the word, for example: “It’s a minority of these people who are causing trouble; Those who want violence are in the minority” (CALD, 2023b, emphases added). To triangulate that dictionary definition, here is a third: “A minority is a group of people of the same race, culture, or religion who live in a place where most of the people around them are of a different race, culture, or religion” with an example given that is relevant to this chapter: “Students have called for greater numbers of women and minorities on the faculty” (Collins English Dictionary, 2023c, emphases added). Again, that is a perfectly acceptable definition, reiterating the importance of differentness, with a pertinent example, but it is a definition that does highlight a potential problem in the literature, which is the regular conflating of “women and minorities” (see, e.g., Crow, & Glascock, 1995; Aguirre, 2000; Burke & Mattis, 2007; Glass & Cook, 2020, etc.). This tendency to conflate these two groups, women and minorities, in the leadership literature, as well as in other areas, makes a number of important assumptions that may well be incorrect. For example, it is clearly possible to be a man who is a minority, and to be a woman who is in a majority, which continues to be the case for professions such as nursing and teaching (Drudy, 2008; Adams, 2010; Puzio & Valshtein, 2022). Likewise, depending on the context, it is possible to be a woman of color who is not a Visible Minority (VM), and to be a man of color who is not a VM—in countries where the majority of the people there are of color. And with the increased attention now being paid to people who identify as “non-binary,” it is now also possible to be a VM but to identify as neither a man nor a woman, according to traditional definitions. Another online, dictionary definition touches on some important additional points: “a racial, ethnic, religious, or social subdivision of a society that is subordinated in political, financial, or social power by the dominant group, without regard to the size of these groups” (dicitionary.com, 2023, emphases added), highlighting the notions of minorities in terms of

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social subdivisions, subordination, and socio-political power, as well as the more traditional numerical approach, in which “the majority” are simply defined as being greater than 50% of the population being referred to, while “the minority” are simply less than 50%. Lastly, while we three co-authors have spent most of our lives living and working as VMs, we realize that there is a whole, wide, rainbow range of “invisible” minorities, due to differences that cannot be seen from a distance, for example, gender self-identity and sexual orientation, who also face discrimination, albeit of a different kind, in their countries and contexts.

We Are “Visible Minorities” According to the 2016 Canadian Population Census, there are more than 250 ethnic origins in Canada, 40% of whom “reported more than one ethnic origin” (Nicol & Osazuwa, 2022). Given that those numbers are continuing to grow in Canada, we can use that country as an example of the complex and contradictory discussions regarding the use of “VM” and other terms. However, as Nicol and Osazuwa (2022) point out: “as attitudes toward different cultures and conceptions of race evolve, so too do the terms used to describe various population groups in Canada. Knowing which terms to use and to whom they apply can often be challenging” (Nicol & Osazuwa, 2022). Nicol and Osazuwa also refer to the challenges of “navigating some of the complexities related to terminology on race and ethnicity, although it is important to note that the language surrounding this issue changes quickly and varies among countries” (emphasis added). They also report that the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination “has called on Canada three times (in 2007, 2012 and 2017) to reconsider using the term ‘visible minority’ because of VM’s “lack of precision [which] may pose a barrier to effectively addressing the socio-economic gaps of different ethnic groups.” However, it has become clear that, due to the limits of language and the highly politicized nature of terminology related to race, ethnicity, etc., especially in recent years, there is no term that has yet been found that is acceptable to all parties. For example, based on the findings of the Government of Canada’s task force to review the Employment Equity

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Act, the Ontario Human Rights Commission recommended that: “where it is necessary to use a broad, general term, the terms ‘racialized person’ or ‘racialized group’ be used instead of expressions such as ‘racial minority,’ ‘visible minority,’ ‘person of colour’ or ‘non-W/white’” (Nicol & Osazuwa, 2022), even though it was established some time ago that “race” is not real, in any meaningful, biological sense (Mukhopadhyay & Henze, 2003; Sesardic, 2010; Hochman, 2021). The report from the Government of Ontario’s Human Rights Commission also discusses the use of “BIPOC,” to refer to “Black, Indigenous and other People of Colour” which it states “originated in the United States and was introduced to recognize the distinct experiences of Black and Indigenous people from other people of colour, but its use has been criticized” (Nicol & Osazuwa, 2022, emphasis added). However, there does not appear to be any term that has not offended one group or another and which has not been criticized by those groups. For example, although the descriptor “racialized” appears to be the preferred term currently in use, “because it is a reminder that race is a social construct imposed on people rather than an objective ... some question the use of the term, arguing that everyone undergoes the process of racialization, including W/white people” (Nicol & Osazuwa, 2022, emphasis added). And the same has happened with the acronym, “BAME” used to refer to “Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic people” as its use has also been criticized by some commentators for reasons similar to those concerning the use of terms such as “visible minority” and “BIPOC,” “which place heterogenous groups into one category” (Nicol & Osazuwa, 2022). And in a similar way that “BIPOC” originated in the USA, “BME” has become more widely used in the UK. For example, Arday and Mirza (2018), at universities in England, give this definition/explanation: “Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) and the term Person or Faculty of Colour are used interchangeably ... to refer to individuals experiencing racism or discrimination in the Academy or society” (p. 199). Furthermore, Arday and Mirza (2018) extend their use of BME to include “individuals from Black, Asian, Middle-Eastern (Asia), Mixed-Heritage or Latin American ethnic backgrounds” (p.  199) (see also, Alexander & Arday, 2015). In some ways, depending on the context and the country, it might be simpler to just refer to “non-White” people. However, such definitions are

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inherently deficit, as they focus on what is absent or not there. Therefore, the current preference appears to be for more positive, race-related, terminological language. In addition to the established terminology, there are some interesting examples of linguistic creativity, such as Mahboob (2006, p. 175), who combined the words “race” and “angry” to coin the new word “enraced” and to describe himself as such. That word is still not listed in most dictionaries of English, apart from the Collins English Dictionary, which describes “enrace” as an “obsolete, British word” meaning “to bring into a race of people” (Collins English Dictionary, 2023b). According to Mahboob (2006), the word is a verb meaning: “to make or cause someone to be (very) raced [which] represents actions/negotiations through which we acquire our awareness of race” (p. 175). Mahboob goes on to explain that his verb “enrace” “does not only mean that we are enraced by others – others cause us to construct our racial identity – but, also that we enrace others – that our actions, behaviors, and/or discourses lead to a (re)negotiation of other people’s racial awareness” (pp. 175–176). In the same spirit of linguistic creativity shown by Mahboob (2006), it is possible to coin a new term: “Apparent Minority” (AM). The use of “Apparent Minority” would be based on the meanings of “apparent”: “able to be seen or understood” (CALD, 2023a), “easy to see or understand,” and that which “seems to be real or true but may not be” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2023, emphasis added), as well as a “situation, quality or feeling [that] seems to exist, although you cannot be certain that it does exist ... If something is apparent to you, it is clear and obvious to you” (Collins English Dictionary, 2023a, emphases added)—even though, it may not be clear to anyone else. There would probably be differences in majority-minority understandings of “VM” or “AM,” as well as differences between head-level, brain-­ based, and the heart-level, emotion-based understandings (Curtis, 1999) of a concept such as “AM.” For example, a well-educated White person of privilege, who has worked most of their life in mostly White countries and contexts, may be aware that, although they think, see, and talk about “minorities,” they know that, in reality, beyond their relatively small, rarified White world, that it is in fact they, White people, who are, by far, in the global minority (Browne, 2000; Gao & Schaeffer, 2016; Krogstad,

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2019). As Campbell-Stephens (2021) recently puts it, in her book, Educational Leadership and the Global Majority: Decolonising Narratives: “The term ‘Global Minority’ includes people who identify as Black, African, Asian, Brown, Arab and mixed heritage, or indigenous to the global south, and/or have been racialized as ‘ethnic minorities’. Globally, these groups currently represent approximately eighty-five percent of the world’s population, making them the ‘Global Majority’” (p. 4, emphasis added). “Global Minority” adds yet another term to the in/visible majority-­minority lexicon, which may well be challenged by one or more groups in the future, if the established pattern of offending/complaining holds. Therefore, we three co-authors of this chapter have chosen to use the term “Visible Minority” to mean, in this chapter: “Anyone who is visibly, recognizably (from a distance) different to the majority of those around them, in that particular context and/or country.” Having completed this brief and selective consideration of some of the literature most relevant to this chapter, we can now look at three, first-­ person accounts of three VMs in international language education who have, between them, well over 50 years of lived experiences as VMs in leadership roles, in countries and contexts in which those who reported to them were part of the “Visible Majority.” As noted above, in the 60+ primary-source published papers we read and reviewed for this chapter, we were struck by how few of them made the voices/words of the VMs a central part of their published papers, often choosing instead more numerical representations, such as graphs, charts, and tables, or showing short extracts from interviews with VMs. In some cases, the voices of the VMs could hardly be heard, if at all. Therefore, in the following parts of this chapter, each one of the co-authors of this chapter responded in writing (and without seeing each other’s responses) to the same question. The three written responses were then compared and contrasted by the first author, to draw out recurring themes, which are presented as practical advice for leaders that can be (and, we believe, should be) read by both parties, Visible Minorities (VMis) and Visible Majorities (VMas), as such advice was also lacking (or conspicuous by their absence) in many of the papers in this area that we reviewed.

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Hearing Directly from VM Leaders Each of the three co-authors responded in writing to the following question: As a visible minority – racially, ethnically, linguistically and/or culturally etc. – working in important leadership roles (in international language education) in groups and teams in which you are a minority, how has that “minority-ness” shaped your experiences as a leader in language education?

It should, however, be noted that multiple themes appeared in more than one of these first-person, written accounts, but for ease, clarity, and brevity of presentation, these themes are not cross-referenced, and in most cases the recurring themes may become self-evident upon reading these three, brief accounts.

Mary’s Response “As a TESOL professional of color who has occupied a number of positions of leadership, I feel that my minority status consists of a choreography of delicate balances: expectations and frustrations, responsibilities and rights, burdens and opportunities. It is my obligation to maintain my equilibrium. For me and for other minority status professionals in positions of leadership, if anything upsets the balance, it can tip you over and plunge you into an abyss of misunderstanding, miscommunication, and misfortune. You, as the minority, have to shoulder the burden of moving through the choreographer’s composition with precision, keeping in step, keeping in rhythm, and keeping your balance. There are your own high hopes and expectations that come with being in a leadership position, and there are the expectations of others, based on their assumptions about you and those in your minority group. Those assumptions may be the result of their inexperience, having little, or no experience interacting with those in your minority group. Even in a country as diverse as the USA, segregation – by race, class and other artificial boundaries  – has prevented many communities from interacting

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with each other on a daily basis. So, when a minority shares the leadership space with those who may have had limited contact with others outside their own majority group, there may be some discomfort on both sides. Whenever I have been placed in a leadership position, I feel a deep sense of gratitude and responsibility to those who placed me there  – whether by election or selection. My expectations are guided by my optimism about the possibilities that lie ahead. However, one frustration that may be shared by others who have been in the minority, is the delicate balance between introducing majority colleagues to issues faced by minority group members  – such as those related to DEIA (Diversity, Equity, Inclusion and Access) – and being perceived as the only one who is responsible for addressing these issues. I believe that most of us in the minority want to be consulted about DEIA issues because we are affected by them differently from the way majority group members are. But there needs to be a balance between our relationship with existential DEIA issues and sharing responsibility for addressing these issues with majority colleagues. As often the first/pioneering voice to advocate for DEIA (including anti-racism, and other issues of concern to “minorities”), the one minority person in leadership runs the risk of being associated only with those issues, to the exclusion of other areas of their/his/her expertise and experience. Even when the minority person does not pioneer the discussion of these issues, they are often perceived as minority issues and as such are assigned  – consciously or subconsciously  – to the minority person. Majority leaders rarely take responsibility for DEIA issues and rarely display a sense of ownership of issues that they don’t feel directly related to or responsible for. However, I would contend that DEIA is, in fact, the responsibility of everyone in language education leadership and all education. This is mainly because the world is constantly shrinking, as individuals and communities of disparate backgrounds across the globe are thrown into interaction with one another around issues of technology, entertainment, commerce, education, science and public health, etc. So, we all need to understand each other to the greatest extent possible. In my experience, one responsibility we minority leaders feel is the need to bring certain issues to the fore. Depending on the context, we

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know that without our voices, many issues related to DEIA will probably not be heard. Yet we don’t want to alienate others. We need to balance between the need to point out bias and injustice and when to be silent about it. Most of us realize that we cannot react publicly to every microaggression or inconsiderate comment. Yet, by not reacting, we help perpetuate unfair treatment. In connection with reactions, at the institutional level we often observe professional associations and other institutions making significant progress on DEIA in reaction to a specific event temporarily capturing public attention (e.g., the George Floyd incident). I feel conflicted by the need to support these institutional efforts, even though I find, in my context, that they are usually short-lived and rarely, if ever, lead to the kind of deep-level, long-term institutional changes that are needed. In other words, many institutions are reactive rather than proactive. They seem to have a short attention span where long-term commitment to anti-racism and DEIA are concerned. Being in leadership gives you many opportunities, including the opportunity to be an example and inspiration to others. As the minority in the room, many of us are “the first” or “the only,” or both. This carries with it the burden of needing to perform at a consistently high level of excellence for many reasons, including the hope that we will be seen in a positive light that will shine on others in our minority group. Here in the USA, Blacks and other “minorities” do not have the luxury of being seen  – consciously or subconsciously  – as individuals. We are seen as monolithic by many non-Blacks. So being “the first” or “the only” can add the burden of a reduced margin for error, far narrower than for those in the majority. So, it can be burdensome to strike a balance between the consciousness of being “the first” or “the only” and focusing on the tasks you need to accomplish as part of the leadership. You can’t let your “first” or “only” status distract you from the work you are leading, but neither can you ignore that status. In the back of my mind, there is also the (im)balance of being a minority in language education leadership while being part of a global majority. Minority status is relative, not universal. People of color are in the majority on a worldwide basis. The same is true for speakers of English: the majority are people of color throughout the world. However, many in English language education leadership seem to be unaware of this, or

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choose to ignore it. This is observable in the clear preference for majority Inner Circle country teachers, curricula, and teaching materials which don’t reflect the actual demographics of the English language, and which only teach students to respect and understand the Englishes of the Inner Circle. These Inner Circle Englishes are actually in the minority on a worldwide basis, yet their speakers, curricula, and teaching materials still predominate in the TESOL profession. So those of us in leadership often feel the need to take opportunities to educate others about the demographic realities of the English language and how they should be reflected in pedagogy and hiring if we are to teach our students to be prepared to understand English in the real world beyond their classrooms. It is my sincere hope that at some time in the not-too-distant future, language education leadership will arrive at the point where DEIA will be the norm so that minority status will no longer exist, or if it does, it will no longer require these delicate balances and difficult dilemmas.”

Leadership Lessons from Mary’s Response 1. A large number of studies on aspects of “visualizing racism” have been carried out and published (see, e.g., Huber & Solorzano, 2015; Hepworth & Church, 2018; Sawyer, 2020; Kyere et al., 2022, etc.). It can, therefore, be helpful (and even powerful) for both VMis and VMas to practice the use of visualization, together with metaphors, analogies, and other image-based and word-based ways of understanding themselves, and of understanding their individual place within the system, for example, in a multilingual, multicultural workplace, and the relations between themselves and those who are different from them. 2. The idea that everyone, to some extent, can be accused of being a racist can be upsetting for some people. However, the key is how “racism” is defined. For example, in an article entitled “Implicit bias: Is everyone racist?” (Edmonds, 2017) Edmonds reports that: “Few people openly admit to holding racist beliefs but many psychologists claim most of us are nonetheless unintentionally racist. We hold, what are called ‘implicit biases,’” which Edmonds briefly defines as: “bias that

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we harbour unintentionally.” Edmonds goes on to explain that Harvard University’s Implicit Association Test “has been taken nearly 18 million times. And there’s a pattern ... On the race test, most people show some kind of pro-white, anti-black bias. They are speedier connecting black faces to bad concepts than white faces ... Black people are not immune to this phenomenon themselves” (Edmonds, 2017). Edmonds also cites implicit biases as one of the most important reasons for Donald J Trump being elected to be the 45th president of the USA, using “implicit bias against his female opponent [Hilary Clinton] and the disproportionate number of unarmed black men who are shot in the US by police.” Therefore, context is critical in all considerations of VMo-VMi relationships, as is recognizing and working on our own implicit biases (see also, DiAngelo, 2018; Kendi, 2019; McGhee, 2022; Curtis, 2017a). 3. More than 60 years ago, at a meeting of the Aristotelian Society (originally based in London, England), Griffiths and Wollheim (1960) asked, as the title of their paper: “How Can One Person Represent Another?” (pp. 187–224). The short answer to their 40-page conference paper was essentially: No. One Cannot. And yet, in many contexts and countries—including all of the settings for the three co-authors of this chapter—individual VMis, or relatively small groups of VMis, are often put in a position of representing their race, ethnic group, geographical population, etc. Although this is self-­ evidently impossible, as for example nobody reading this book, nobody writing this book, and nobody involved in its publication are the same as anyone else in any of those groups, but as a species, we appear to be hard-wired to over-generalize, not just regarding race, but many other aspects too (Harrison & Johnson, 2000; Godfrey-Smith, 2002; Martin, 2019). For example, Sue et al. (2008) reported that: “Racial microaggressions cause considerable psychological distress among Black Americans and are manifested in nearly all interracial encounters” one of the consequences of which they found is the “pressure to represent one’s group” (p. 329). Therefore, care must be taken to not assume that anyone of us is in any way, shape, or form “typical” of anyone else.

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4. Although some in the world of international language education are still struggling with unwieldy acronym combinations such as “DEIA,” standing for Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Access (perhaps due to early attempts to avoid “DIE,” before the A was added), others have moved on to the more obvious “IDEA” (see, e.g., Baker & Vasseur, 2021). “IDEA” is not only much easier to say, but it also lends itself nicely to positively reinforcing statements, for example: “Diversity, Equity, Inclusion and Access – what a great IDEA!” However, like any great idea, all parties must be involved, in this case, the VMas as well as the VMis, instead of putting VMis into groups and asking them to discuss, with each other, their challenges, difficulties, etc. (Curtis, 2017b). That does not work, because it is usually the VMas who have the power to make lasting, positive changes to the environment (Curtis, 2017b).

Okon’s Response “Leadership has many connotations, and aspiring to a leadership position largely depends on the context, the people, and the personality traits of the aspirant. The English language teaching profession has numerous associations for its members, from local chapters to national and international bodies. For me, aspiring to serve at the international level was a personal ambition, and having served at various leadership positions at national and regional levels, opting to run for the board of directors of the largest international association for English language teachers in the world was the ultimate personal challenge. After two unsuccessful attempts, and as a Black African, I was beginning to feel that I would never stand a chance in a predominantly White-led association and its White-majority membership. However, with encouragement by some of my senior professional colleagues, I was persuaded to throw my hat into the ring for a third consecutive attempt. As it turned out, I did not have to run a third time, as I was invited to fill a seat vacated by a newly elected board member, who had chosen, for personal reasons, to step down. Looking back, it is difficult to conclude whether this was providence or luck, and I often joked that while

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everyone else walked in through the door to join the board, I had the singular privilege of coming in through the window. I was nonetheless pleased to be the first Black man on Earth to sit on the board of directors of this prestigious organization, that had been in existence for more than five decades. For me, joining this board was an opportunity to serve the profession and the various constituencies of the association. I did not see this as adding a feather to my cap, or passively traversing the leadership pipeline. But I was, instead, answering a call of duty to serve in a leadership position in an association that is, at this point, still comprised of and led mostly by women and/or Caucasians. Within this context I identify myself as a minority both by gender and race, having taken on the task of leading a majority. In many African cultural contexts where polygamy is a way of life, men often feel comfortable in a room surrounded by several women. However, being surrounded by mostly women in a board room in a Western context would certainly not offer the same level of comfort to the African men I know, including myself. Also, in terms of context, many African politicians are widely known to either serve the community, or in most cases, to seek elective office to enrich themselves and their families. Here was I, then, a Black African man on the board of an international professional association, with the expectations of serving a worldwide membership, as well as representing the under-represented Black race in relation to membership and leadership in the association. Africa is not the only under-represented region in the leadership cadre of the association, but as a Black male minority leader, I felt that I needed to think of myself as representing as much of the African diaspora as I could, especially as seen by the many US-born and US-based Black members of the association. For me, the above self-concept as a minority leader posed an immediate challenge. Whereas I could clearly articulate the problems and frustrations of the many African teachers I knew, the challenges of Black American members of the association could only be viewed with a different lens, given the historical injustices suffered over the centuries of European and US colonization and enslavement. Therefore, as a Black African person, I was limited in my abilities to perceive and to understand the struggles of my fellow Black American colleagues. I clearly

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lacked the right lens through which to see their challenges, as they are significantly different from those of African English teachers in Africa. Notwithstanding my racial affinity, I also saw my leadership position in the association as an opportunity to serve the whole association, and not just a sub-section of the community. This balancing act did not in any way dampen my desire to advocate for the minority, hence, while pushing for inclusivity in the association, I was conscious of the majority who also have their own needs and wants too. With my life sciences background, a good analogy for me is the tapeworm parasite that resides in the human gut. The parasite feeds well when its human host feeds well, and when the host starves, it slows down its food intake to avoid ending the life of its host and itself. In effect, the interests of the majority cannot be overlooked at the expense of the interests of the minority. Both must be addressed to ensure harmony within the body of any professional association. Another important lesson that I learned is that any preconceived notions of the leadership role and the actual performance in that role can differ greatly. It may be human nature and it is perhaps not uncommon to adopt some sort of a “messiah mind-set” while aspiring to serve in a leadership position, for example, over-turning or challenging the status quo and railroading changes in order to address perceived injustices. In reality, however, decisions were reached by consensus and unity of purpose, which requires positivity on the part of all of the contributors sitting around the table. Looking back, if I had any trepidation at all as a minority male joining a predominantly White and female-dominated board and maybe expecting not to be treated as an equal, this was completely dispelled in my first and all subsequent board and committee meetings throughout my tenure. During deliberations, I was listened to and treated respectfully as an equal. I felt no discomfort as a minority leader throughout the entire time I served the association, rather, I received encouragement to aspire for higher office. When one volunteers to serve the professional community, personal considerations need to be set aside, especially if the goal is to contribute to the growth and common good of the profession. As long as one is helping to build and nurture an environment that promotes professional excellence, all is well and good. However, I emotionally recall my early

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days in the leadership pipeline when my Caucasian line manager walked into my office and told me in no uncertain terms “if you were a dumbass, we [management] would leave you alone. The problem we have with you is that you are smart, and we are watching you. Stop doing TESOL stuff!” I sat there staring at him, dumbfounded, and said nothing in response, knowing fully well that my primary duty of teaching was not in any way suffering as a result of my involvement with TESOL. To that White man, Black people were apparently perceived as “dumbasses,” not meant to be seen or heard, and my involvement with TESOL irked him tremendously. Fortunately, such a slur only boosted my resilience and my determination to prove my unbelievers and naysayers completely wrong. In conclusion, I hope this personal account has provided food for thought for those who may not fully appreciate the struggles of the minority members of an association, especially when those members are in leadership roles. Having served my time as a minority leader, I might not have delivered the expected outcomes to my African and diaspora colleagues. But my presence in the upper echelons of the leadership structure of the largest professional association of its kind in the world has hopefully heightened awareness of these kinds of minority leadership struggles, and in the years to come, I hope that my time in those leadership roles has put those struggles more prominently on the radar of such associations. I believe it can also convey a strong message to aspiring minority leaders in the profession that they too can lead the majority successfully.”

Leadership Lessons from Okon’s Response 5. In Black Mayors, White Majorities: The Balancing Act of Racial Politics (2013) Brown University professor, Ravi Perry, points out that, in the USA, “Black mayors were a new American phenomenon in the 1960s” (p. 1) and in the early research, it was found that, for example: “African American mayors were more likely to support social welfare programs than white mayors” (p. 1). Chang (2000) described improving racial dynamics on university campuses as “a balancing act among competing interests” (p. 153); Erdal and Oeppen (2013) describe the interac-

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tions between integration and transnationalism as “migrant balancing acts” (p. 867); while Meer and Modood (2009) refer to the need for a “civic re-balancing of British multiculturalism” (p. 473). It is possible then, that of all the images, metaphors, and analogies to describe VMa-VMi relations, balancing acts may be one of the most appropriate, as all parties must be equally committed to ensuring that no party falls—because if one falls, we all fall. 6. The Black American activist for civil rights and children’s rights, Marian Wright Edelman (now in her 80s), is credited with saying: “You can’t be, what you can’t see,” referring to the importance of positive role models, mentors, and coaches. For example, Bowers et  al. (2016) reported on “the relationship between role models and leadership growth during the transition to adulthood” (pp. 96–118). They found that “participants’ descriptions of the leadership growth process ... [showed the importance of ] ... the qualities of relational role models, their knowledge of opportunities, the relational role models’ beliefs in youths potential, and the fact that they were inspired by positional role models” (p. 96). And not just youths, as many other studies have resulted in similar findings with adult VMis too (Abney & Richey, 1991; Sealy & Singh, 2010; Simien et  al., 2019), highlighting the importance of this kind of developmental support, especially for those in the minority. 7. In Okon’s account, we can see two specific and enlightening examples of how cultural and gender-related differences manifest themselves, in perhaps unexpected ways, in this case, when a Black man from Africa is the only person on the board of directors of an international language-­teaching-learning association, most of whom are women, and mostly Caucasian women. Those differences come from two distinctive features of this co-author’s experience, i.e., polygamy in some African cultural contexts (Hayase & Liaw, 1997; Oduyoye & Kanyoro, 2006; Baloyi, 2013), and assumptions about volunteer leadership, for example, in many US and European contexts, compared with political leadership in some African countries (Van Wyk, 2007; Eneh, 2011; Carbone & Pellegata, 2020). However, as this co-author and his coworkers were able to help each other stay balanced, his account ends on a high note: “During deliberations, I was listened to and treated

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respectfully as an equal. I felt no discomfort as a minority leader throughout the entire time I served the association.” 8. Given the centuries of White privilege resulting from the European and US slave-trades (McIntosh, 1990; Bonilla-Silva, 2001; Painter, 2010), in the many countries where White people are (still, for now, at least) the VMas, and where people of color are still currently VMis, tensions may well continue for the foreseeable future. For example, relatively recently, Bell (2021) looked at “White dominance in nursing education” and found that, even among “nurse educators themselves” there was “a stark need for personal and professional development towards effectively delivering anti-racist pedagogy and a deconstruction of white normativity and dominance amongst white faculty” as a result of “socialized white supremacy and enactments of white privilege” (Bell, 2021). However, it is incumbent upon VMi leaders to persist and not to give up, to demonstrate resilience and determination, sometimes in the face of race-based attacks, verbally and even physically; to work to find allies, build bridges, and create common ground, on which the next generation of leaders of color can make their own way.

Andy’s Response “As a child, it was not my choice to live as a “Visible Minority” (VM), growing up in Birmingham, England in the 1960s and 1970s, where, as a scrawny, brown child, I was an easy target for the big, White, Neo-Nazi racist thugs who hunted in packs, looking for people-of-color. Having somehow survived those formative years, I made it to college and to university, where there was a much greater diversity of languages, cultures and colours, although brown (my skin colour of choice) was still very much in the minority at that time. After completing my doctorate in England, I went to Hong Kong, where, in the 1990s, almost all of the professors in the university English Departments there were White, having left England, where many of them had left their somewhat mediocre lives to live like kings and queens, with servants, maids, etc., in the one of the last outposts of the Great British Empire. From Hong Kong, I

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went to live and work in a small, White university in a small, White town in Canada. In short, I have spent my entire life – all six decades of it thus far – living, studying and working around the world, but always as a VM, at first, as a child, with no choice in the matter, but thereafter by my own volition. My first memory of being aware of my minority-ness in a leadership role was around 30 years ago, when I was elected to be the 1994-1995 President of the Graduate Students’ Association, in a large, White university in a small White university town in the North-East of England, where the local population was nearly 99% White. Therefore, although there was far more diversity inside the university than outside of it, I was still the first president of color of the Graduate Students’ Association in that university’s history. At that time, in that town, I began trying hard “to fit in,” to be as much like my White co-students and all-White professors as I possibly could. I tried that for several years, from the beginning of my MA to the end of my PhD (1991-1996), only to find that no matter how much fish-and-chips I ate, no matter how many pints of English Ale I drank, and no matter how much I worked on faking a more upper-­ class-­ sounding British accent (mostly by stretching my immigrant, working-­class vowels to the point of breaking), I was still “that Brown Guy ... the English-sounding ... Indian-looking guy.” I did not find such descriptive references to me to be malicious or even “racist”, not least because they were factually correct (on all three counts) and they were nothing compared to the race-based epithets that had been hurled at us daily by the gangs of Neo-Nazis whilst growing up in Birmingham, England. However, as a result of such childhood, teenage and young-­ adult experiences, I learnt at a relatively early age that the whole “trying to fit in” approach may have ultimately been doomed to fail. I recalled our dearly-departed mother’s decision to strictly forbid my brother and I from growing mustaches, for her fear that: “people will think you’re Indian.” “Too late, Ma,” I replied, “Too late.” As noted above, if you are a VM, there is only so far that “trying to fit in” – or, in terms of a more color-ful metaphor, “trying to blend in” – can take you. And that may not be very far! Linguistically speaking, it is important to learn the language of those around you – especially those who report to you, in your role as a leader. However, you may never be

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able to achieve what might be called “localized native-speaker status,” i.e., the local versions of, in my case, English, would always contain more accentual, dialectal, colloquial and idiomatic expressions and turns of phrase than someone like me, from outside, would ever have been able to become completely fluent and accurate in. Therefore, “linguistic accommodation” in a particular context can help, and it is worth trying, but you will need more. Also, just because you may speak the same general, overall language as those reporting to you, for example, English, if you are from a significantly different racial, ethnic, linguistic and/or cultural background, you are most likely still/always to be seen as “an outsider.” Therefore, based on my experiences (and those of many other VM leaders I know), it may have been better for me to start by openly and publicly acknowledging those differences, with the team members I was working with and who reported to me. That way, there would perhaps have been fewer misunderstandings and communication breakdowns, as the communicative expectations could maybe then have been managed more effectively. In terms of how my “minority-ness” has shaped my experiences as a leader, I faced a significant amount of resentment from a number of staff who were required to report to me, but who made it abundantly clear that they believed the leadership job should have gone to someone who looked more like the majority, i.e., who looked like them. To quote my mum again: “Son, as a lil’ brown boy in this lily-White country [England] you go’ have to work twice as hard to get half as far,” and she was not wrong. I was, and I did. Having stopped trying to fit in with the majority, I was able to position myself, simultaneously, as both as an insider and an outsider. For example, I was born, raised and educated in England – the very heartland of colonial Britishness. However, I was also familiar with a number of other races, languages, cultures, etc., as my parents had been born in Guyana, which is part of South America and a member of the Afro-Caribbean Pacific Nation states, and of ancestors originally taken from India, by the British Empire as part of their colonially choreographed migration for movement of slave labor. Being not only a lifelong VM, but also both as an insider and an outsider in Britain for my first 30 or so years did cause some confusion, especially when I was in leadership roles. For example, staff who looked

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like me, i.e., who “looked Indian,” expected me to have direct knowledge and experiences of India which I did have, but only indirectly, from parents and other relatives (and from a few visits to our ancestral homelands). Likewise, when some Caucasian, English-born people who reported to me saw my name, heard my accent, etc., they too assumed that I had been raised in the same way, or at least similar ways, as they had been. But in my case, that too did not apply. It felt like always being stuck, as the saying goes, between a rock and a hard place, or in my case, as a brown person, between a White rock and a Black/Brown hard place. One of the most important ways in which my minority-ness has shaped by VM leadership experiences is to expect – especially with the recent rise in far-right, race-based, authoritarian populist world leaders – incorrect assumptions and inaccurate expectations. But also, and just as importantly, to keep working towards overcoming those assumptions and expectations – and the prejudice, fear, anger and even hate that goes with them – to find common ground that goes beyond our differences, focused more on what we have in common than on what separates us, whatever the right-wing leaders of some countries might tell us. And whilst I am well aware of how idealistic that might sound, it is what has enabled me to not only survive but to thrive as a lifelong VM leader of color all these years.”

Leadership Lessons from Andy’s Response 9. It is important to realize that VMis who are children have no choice where they grow up, as that is up to their parents or other adult caregivers. However, most adults studying, living, and working as VMis have chosen to be there, often to make a better life for their children as well as for themselves. The VMi children of those families, if made to feel accepted and supported, will grow up to be important contributing members of that society. For example, more than 30 years ago, the journal Child Development published a special issue on “Minority Children” in the USA, in which the editor wrote, in her introduction: “Minority children constitute a rapidly growing seg-

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ment of the population on whose competency and productivity America will increasingly depend” (McLoyd, 1990, p. 236), which does indeed appear to have been the case in the USA, Canada, the UK, and elsewhere. 10. The African-American author, Quanna Brown, wrote that “trying to fit in almost killed me” (2017), and while that is likely to be something of an exaggeration, it does make the point that, as a VMi, trying to fit in can only take a VMi person so far. Eventually, it may be necessary for the VMi to stop trying so hard to fit in, and instead find ways to celebrate their differentness, and to draw on those differences as a way to start difficult discussions about how VMis and the VMas around them can create more shared experiences and understanding, focusing on similarities rather than differences (Bannink & Jackson, 2011)—whatever the world’s right-wing, populist leaders may be telling us about how deeply, dangerously different we all are. 11. In relation to Accommodation Theory (Giles et al., 1987), Coupland (1984) wrote that: “People will attempt to converge linguistically towards the speech patterns believed to be characteristic of their recipients when they (i) desire their social approval and the perceived costs of so acting are proportionally lower (identity maintenance function) than the rewards anticipated; and/or (ii) desire a high level of communication efficiency” (p. 49). It is, therefore, worth listening closely carefully to the speech patterns of those around you, especially if you are a VMi, to notice the difference between aspects of the VMa’s languages and your own, even if you are all, technically, “speaking the same language.” 12. It could improve VMa-Vmi relations substantially for both parties to know more about why VMis exist in the first place, and have existed, in all countries and all contexts, at all times throughout history. For example, for centuries, the British Empire, like most European slave-­ trading empires of the same time (Tomich, 2004; Pettigrew, 2007; Beckert, 2015; Zoellner, 2020), engaged in what can be described as the colonially choreographed movement of slave labor for hundreds of years, from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, which is one of the longest and largest reasons for the existence of VMis worldwide today.

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13. A tripartite relationship can be visualized between our expectations, our assumptions, and the reality of the situation, forming the three corners of an A-R-E triangle. Our assumptions are often based on our expectations, and making assumptions about other people is a normal and natural part of human nature. Therefore, for us to berate ourselves for making assumptions may constitute a waste of time and energy, as making such assumptions does not make us “bad people”—doing so just makes us people (Curtis, 2017a, b; Curtis, 2022a, b; Curtis & Sussex, 2018.) 14. A much better use of our time and energies would be to ask and answer a few key (rhetorical) questions: On what are my assumptions based? Where are these assumptions coming from—my family, friends, the mainstream media, the (anti)social media online? And perhaps most importantly: What am I going to do with these assumption-based expectations, in terms of how I am going to treat people who are different from me? Lastly, if my assumptions turn out to be incorrect, based on the reality of a situation, how ready, willing, and able am I to revise those assumptions and change my expectations?

Concluding Comments In this chapter, we reviewed a range of different terms (and acronyms) that have been/are being used to refer to: “Anyone who is visibly, recognizably (from a distance) different to the majority of those around them, in that particular context and/or country.” The parenthetical caveat, “from a distance,” is an unusual but important part of our discussion, as we recognize that there are many different aspects of a person that can make them an “invisible minority,” such as gender self-identification and sexual orientation, which are not visible at a distance. Having reviewed some of the literature on terminological references in published research in this area, we then presented three, first-person/personal responses to a key question (see above) out of which this chapter grew, as we found that such accounts appear to be rare in previously published studies in this area (published over a 60-plus year period). We also found that some of the most in-depth and data-based research regarding visible minorities in

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the workplace, while important and useful, also lacked practical suggestions for how to proceed. Therefore, from these three accounts, we derived a total of 14 leadership lessons (although there are others that could also be gleaned from these accounts) that we believe will be of use to all leaders, not only those in foreign language education and/or who are VM leaders in language education, but perhaps especially those. It is our heartfelt hope that this chapter helps to address an urgent need for this kind of research, based on hearing the voices of VM leaders, and to address what appears to be something of a “gap” in this area so far.

Reflective Questions Are you a VMi or a VMa in a leadership role? If so, briefly explain some of your current main roles and responsibilities? Does being a VMi or a VMa have an effect on your work, in terms of what you do, how, when, where, and why? If you are a VMi leader, what advice would you give to other VMis who are in a new leadership role? If you are a VMi leader, what would you want/need VMa leaders to know about being a VMi leader?

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Developing Language Teacher Identity and Leadership Skills in Intercultural Learning Environments Katharina von Elbwart and Dagmar Keatinge

In order to understand language teaching and learning, we need to understand teachers: the professional, cultural, political and individual identities which they claim or which are assigned to them. (Varghese et al., 2005, p.22)

Language teacher identity (LTI) research has gained momentum in recent years (cf. Barkhuizen, 2016; Ellis, 2016; Fairley, 2020). This development is supported by the view that teachers play a huge—if not the main—role in the overall learning process and the constitution of classroom practices (Hattie, 2009, 2012; Richards, 2021). In addition, research in (language) teacher professionalization has been informed by

K. von Elbwart (*) Paderborn University, Department of English and American Studies, Paderborn, Germany e-mail: [email protected] D. Keatinge Paderborn University, Department of English and American Studies, Paderborn, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_9

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an increasing recognition to emphasize LTI development in the early stages of language teacher training (e.g., Varghese et  al., 2016; Waller et al., 2017). Therefore, it has become vital to look at perspectives from inside and outside the classroom and examine teacher identities to further our understanding of teaching and learning contexts. In this vein, “professional competence came to the fore [for] being the best mediator to gain awareness of professional teacher identity” (Richards, 2021, p. 204). Besides being a competent professional in their subjects, teachers assume several roles inside the classroom which are supported and shaped by factors that contribute to developing teacher identity, i.e., age, gender, and education, but also sociocultural, economic, and institutional dynamics (Danielewicz, 2014; Duff & Uchida, 1997; Li, 2020). LTIs, however, go beyond these “traditional,” yet challenged categories as language and its use play an essential part in the lives of language teachers; attitudes and ideologies toward linguistic forms, often found in dichotomies such as “native and nonnative speaker” or “standard and nonstandard language (use),” are said to influence the teaching and learning of foreign languages (Galloway & Rose, 2015). In addition, teaching as a profession has come under scrutiny; in this process, it has become increasingly important for teachers to professionalize their roles inside and outside the classroom and assume tasks which go beyond their teaching responsibilities. On top of their role as educators and “distributers of knowledge,” teachers demonstrate leadership within the classroom, the school, and their community of practice. Teacher leadership, a process in which teachers actively contribute to the school’s success in the context of professional school development, asks educators to actively engage in activities and take on responsibilities within their broader educational environment. Initial leadership practices in the early career stages can primarily manifest themselves through critically assessing and reflecting on individual, cultural, and professional identity categories. Thus, LTIs are shaped by the various roles as language teachers, and they are influenced by the institutionalized context educators are surrounded by. One way of developing and professionalizing teacher leadership skills is by reflecting on (identity) categories which are relevant for language teachers. This way, (future) educators become aware of skills necessary for their work and create a professional self-image of what it means to be a teacher. Understanding LTI as an ongoing process of becoming and

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considering the teachers’ languaged lives (Ellis, 2016, p. 599), this paper explores avenues of how teachers’ identities of TESOL emerge in intercultural preservice academic environments and thus places LTI development at the center of language teacher training and professionalization (De Costa & Norton, 2017; Varghese et al., 2016). We understand developing a sense of oneself as a teacher as constant “identity work” (De Costa & Norton, 2017, p. 7) in a context of teacher development and leadership. This process cannot start early enough which is why we consider preservice teachers at the starting point of their teaching career as crucial for the development of LTIs. In the following we argue that language attitudes shape the respondents’ evolving LTIs at the beginning, but also change over the course of the study within the intercultural learning environment provided by our project. Thus, the research questions are: RQ1) Which language attitudes do respondents show with regard to their future profession as foreign language teachers at the beginning of the study? RQ2) Do attitudes change between t1 and t2 (post intervention)? If so, how? RQ3) How do the different groups (“Canadian group” vs. control group) interact with regard to their language attitudes? These questions will be answered by first looking at LTI research and language ideologies in relation to (language) teacher leadership skills, which is followed by the intervention study and a discussion of the results.

LTI, Language Ideologies, and Global English LTI as a dynamic and shifting aspect of personal leadership and teacher development has gained academic significance (e.g., Barkhuizen, 2016; Ellis, 2016; Fairley, 2020) and, concomitant with this development, a move toward examining linguistic ideologies in (international) teaching and learning research is observable. In intercultural contexts, the role of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has become increasingly important for communication, but also to establish and construct linguistic identities (Jenkins, 2013, 2015; Matsumoto, 2016). Dichotomies such as “native English speaker teacher” and “nonnative English speaker teacher,” a distinction which is relevant for the respondents of our project, dominate the strongly ideological discourse on TESOL professionalization: despite

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English being the global lingua franca, the primacy of the native speaker remains strong (Holliday et al., 2015; Piller et al., 2022) and affects the perceived proficiency and competence of the foreign language educator if they are nonnative speakers of the subject language. Teacher identities, however, go beyond these dichotomies and are much more diversified. Because of this, research has moved away from the ideal of the native speaker (teacher) and from a rigid categorization into either native (NEST) or nonnative English speaker teachers (NNESTs) and toward plurilingual (language) educators and a more multi-faceted perspective on the linguistic, biographical, and personal identity of TESOL teachers (e.g., Ellis, 2016; Forman, 2015). The use of the English language (and any other standardized form of language) is no longer exclusively oriented toward a “standard variety” but toward the students’ linguistic (and multilingual) repertoires (Brevik & Rindal, 2020; Stollhans, 2020) which account for the linguistic skills necessary in a globalized world. Based on a thorough literature review on the use of global English inside and outside of educational contexts, Galloway and Rose (2015) propose a change in English language teaching (ELT) and group classroom practices into six major themes: 1. “Increasing World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) exposure in language curriculums; 2. Emphasizing respect for multilingualism in ELT; 3. Raising awareness of Global Englishes in ELT; 4. Raising awareness of ELF strategies in language curriculums; 5. Emphasizing respect for diverse cultures and identities in ELT; 6. Changing English teacher hiring practices in the ELT industry.” (Galloway & Rose, 2015, p. 203) Consequently, linguistic and (inter)cultural competences are regarded as essential for language educators to position themselves in both analog and digital spaces (cf. i.e., Ellis, 2016; Forman, 2015) and negotiate their own affiliations in multilingual learning environments. In these contexts, identity is understood as a fluid, dynamic, negotiable, and “discursive space” (Matsumoto, 2016; Morgan, 2004; Norton, 2013; Rudolph et al., 2015 inter alia) with the “teachers’ experience [of ] co-constructing identities with students in and outside of classroom context” (Matsumoto,

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2016, p. 60). Language ideologies can be defined as “predispositions to respond to (speakers of ) specific language/speech styles and language situations with a certain type of (language) behavior” (Vandermeeren, 2005, p.  1319) which are durable and linked to existing beliefs about language within a community (Woolard & Schieffelin, 1994; Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004). They are further seen as “an underlying, consensual belief system about the way language is and is supposed to be” (Wolfram, 1998, p. 109). Attitudes, however, are closely intertwined with ideologies, but appear as an evaluative reaction to a stimulus or a language variety—which may be triggered by rather manifested ideologies (Evans et al., 2018, p. xx; Wyer Jr. & Albarracín, 2005). Both, ideologies and attitudes are expanded onto language practices through which our ideas and experiences are transformed into real-life situations (Razfar, 2005). The most prominent connection between language and ideologies is the reciprocal link between language and identity, which may promote different forms of educational, sociocultural, and legal inequalities. The central questions of identity construction are “how we understand and express who we are [and] how we position ourselves in relation to others in different situations and those aspects of oneself that we choose to express in an interaction” (Richards, 2021, p. 1). In TESOL teacher education, answers to these questions determine how educators view themselves in teaching and learning contexts, but also in comparison to other TESOL stakeholders. While teacher identity may differ from personal identity, and is usually influenced by past experiences and teacher education programs, LTI is further shaped by language proficiency which then controls the teachers’ language use in the classroom (Richards, 2021, p. 6). Language teacher identities (LTIs) are cognitive, social, emotional, ideological, and historical – they are both inside the teacher and outside in the social, material and technological world. LTIs are being and doing, feeling and imagining, and storying. They are struggle and harmony: they are contested and resisted, by self and others, and they are also accepted, acknowledged and valued, by self and others. They are core and peripheral, personal and professional, they are dynamic, multiple, and hybrid, and they are foregrounded and backgrounded. And LTIs change, short-term and over time – discursively in social interaction with teacher educators, learners, teachers, administrators, and the wider community, and in material inter-

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action with spaces, places and objects in classrooms, institutions, and online. (Barkhuizen, 2016, p.4)

Two aspects of this definition need to be highlighted in the context of our study: One is the interplay of LTIs with what Barkhuizen calls the “outside social world.” While teachers possess and modify their LTI, parts of this identity are passed on, if not imposed, by members of the community within the educational institution. This means that teachers and their beliefs, attitudes, and traits are embedded in an institutionalized setting which continuously influences its stakeholders. The assessment of LTIs in our study, however, happens before the teachers enter this context which provides an opportunity for modification and development. Change, the second important aspect of LTIs, means that identities can be discursively altered through, for instance, interaction with peers or a critical reflection on (teaching) practices and classroom dynamics; an aspect which becomes important for our pre/post study design in which attitudes are assessed before and after the teaching intervention. Being aware of the implications of teacher identity is pivotal for improving and sustaining teaching standards for educators (Day et al., 2006; Barger, 2022). They hold the professional identity as a (language) teacher inside the classroom, but also shape the outside conditions for successful learning. Both, inside and outside the classroom they demonstrate leadership roles and help to shape the educational environment. Teacher leaders collaborate with other stakeholders and assume “formal leadership roles in the school, such as master teacher, department chair, team leader, helping teacher, or mentor” (Danielson, 2006, p.  18). Teachers can also take on informal leadership roles which are not associated with any administrative position, but exercise effective teaching practices and support collaboration among students and teachers (NEA, 2011, p. 11). To fulfill both formal and informal leadership roles, educators need to be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses to become an effective leader and build a functioning support network. LTI and classroom practice are closely intertwined as they determine the extent to which educators participate in leadership or mentoring (Richards, 2021, p.6). Effective teacher leaders possess strong communication skills and can build positive relationships with their colleagues, students, and

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parents. Knowing their own teacher identity, or at least parts of what constitutes their LTI, may support the process of becoming a successful teacher leader.

Study Design and Methodology In the process of becoming a language teacher, the first step is to raise awareness for identity markers by questioning how future educators position themselves in relation to others in different teaching scenarios. Our study is set against the background described above and was conducted in an academic learning environment among 35 preservice students enrolled in an undergraduate TESOL program at a German university. During a 10-week-long intercultural learning experience with a student group from a Canadian university (n = 9), in which participants acquired knowledge and skills to understand different cultures but also interacted with people from cultures different from their own (Lane, 2012), the respondents completed a questionnaire before and after the teaching intervention (“Canadian group”). To control for minimal bias, students were neither informed nor explicitly taught in the subject area prior to the study. We further distributed the questionnaire among students in the same undergraduate TESOL program (control group) who did not take part in the intercultural teaching project to control for any effects related to our teaching. In both, the intercultural teaching program and the standard TESOL courses, students were encouraged to reflect traditional paradigms of language teaching such as basic elements of second language acquisition relevant for teaching, the core competences (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), and task-based language learning throughout the course. In the intercultural teaching project, we ensured that learners from both countries work together closely by having them complete tasks and assignments as well as the final course project in groups which consisted of students from both universities.1 The research questions were formulated as follows:  For a more detailed description of the intercultural teaching project, see the practice report on the project by Keatinge et al. (2022) which is available for open access via https://iveconference.org/ wp-content/uploads/2022/03/IVECFinal_Proceedings_2021.pdf 1

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RQ1) Which language attitudes are identifiable among respondents with regard to their future profession as foreign language teachers at the beginning of the study? RQ2) Do attitudes change between t1 and t2 (post intervention)? If so, how? RQ3) How do the different groups (“Canadian group” vs. control group) interact with regard to their language attitudes? To answer these questions, we designed an intervention study to account for a variety of contextual factors. Our research uses a mixed methods approach by combining short narratives with an attitude survey to be completed by respondents. The study thus accounts for both qualitative and quantitative data on emerging LTIs in intercultural learning environments. This approach is complemented by a demographic questionnaire which asks for the linguistic and cultural background(s) to consider the respondents’ language biography. First, we collected data among the participants of the intercultural teaching project at the beginning of the project phase. Then students were taking part in the project over the course of 10 weeks; after this phase, they completed part two of the data collection. The questionnaires consisted of 3/2 parts respectively; demographics were omitted for the second data collection after the project. Only questionnaires which were completed in t1 and t2 were considered for this analysis. The mixed methods approach comprises three short narratives, a Likert scale with 28 items and a demographic questionnaire. The overarching questions we wanted to answer was whether attitudes and ideologies about the respondents’ own foreign language learning and teaching change throughout the course of the project and when being immersed in an intercultural environment. This paper focuses on the narratives and discusses the answers to one prompt in particular: “During your English language class (Year 10), two students start talking in Arabic. A third student believes they are talking about her even though she doesn’t speak Arabic. She asks you to get involved. What do you do as a teacher?” (Q2, t1). This situation is taken from an authentic classroom experience in Germany, where Arabic serves as a

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native and heritage language to a diverse Arabic-speaking community.2 For these reasons, Arabic can hardly be described as a neutral language choice; it nevertheless fulfills two functions in the questionnaire: it creates an authentic classroom scenario to which preservice teachers can relate and it increases the chances of unintelligibility and incomprehensibility among speakers of German; the last aspect is vital for the respondents’ reaction to the prompt. For t2, the question was only marginally modified into: “During your English language class (year 10), two students start talking in Arabic. A third student believes they are talking about her even though she doesn’t speak Arabic. She asks you to get involved. Has taking the class changed your perspective on how you would react? Please describe in full sentences” (*Q2, t2) and directly asked for the respondents’ perceived change or modification regarding their initial answer.

Data Analysis Data analysis of the narratives is framed within qualitative research, but we also provide a short overview with regard to the overall length of the narratives at both points of the data collection process (cf. Table 1). It is noteworthy that the length of the responses differs greatly between individual students and also between both groups, in particular at the time of the first data collection. Next, all responses were analyzed following a structured inductive approach as described by Kuckartz (2018), using the coding software Table 1  Length of responses

Min/max length Length (mean)/SD

Canadian group

Control group

t1

t2

t1

t2

14/225 98 (52)

29/222 108 (67)

26/123 64.4 (23.09)

15/210 66.97 (41.30)

 There were 1.4 million migrants from Arabic-speaking countries in Germany in 2021 (data retrieved from DESTATIS Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland, GENESIS Datenbank https:// www-genesis.destatis.de/genesis/online?operation=previous&levelindex=3&leveli d=1499967903220&step=3) (last accessed on January 21, 2023). 2

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MaxQDA. We first identified thematic categories in the material, then coded the texts by matching them with the categories, revised the categories if applicable into further subcategories, and re-coded the texts. In total, the narratives included 63 coded passages in the Canadian group and 216 coded passages in the control group. If one segment of text referred to more than one code, the segment was coded twice. To ensure reliability, data were independently coded by both researchers. We inductively derived categories of the coding, which were further differentiated into two distinct levels, a linguistic level and an affective-pedagogical level. The different categories coded for are described below: Category 1 Description Linguistic level

“English only”

Tolerance LOTEs

Participants state how they respond to the use of a language they are not familiar with in their classroom by explaining whether they expect a foreign language classroom to be a monolingual or multilingual environment. Participants encourage or even enforce the use of English as the preferred language in a foreign language teaching environment. The conflict described in the prompt is solved by focusing on the fact that English is the sole mean of communication and should be used in the classroom for all conversations. Participants show appreciation and mutual respect for the use of languages other than English and are accepting students communicating in languages other than English.

Category 2

Description

Affective-­ pedagogical level

Participants describe their reactions to the conflict in the prompt beyond preferences for a specific language, thus recognizing that the use of language is linked to self-­ concept and identity. Participants try to evoke empathy for either the students speaking Arabic or for the student who feels excluded. Participants suggest the students to evaluate their perspective on the situation, questioning if either the complaint or communication that is potentially not on classroom content is necessary. Participants state that they do not feel the need to get involved in this conflict and hope that learners will deal with the incident themselves.

Empathy (Re-) Negotiation

Ignorance

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Results 1: Beginning of the Course The responses to the prompt at the first data collection show a tendency toward a preference for dealing with the conflict by focusing on English Only as a problem-solving strategy; most segments are coded for this category in both, the Canadian and the control group, as Table 2 illustrates. As the results for responses on a linguistic level suggest, the majority of participants in both the Canadian and the control group seem to prefer a problem solution that focuses on establishing English as a medium of communication in foreign language teaching, even though the motivation behind this goal differs. Several participants stress the importance of using English Only because: –– “…it [English] is the content of the course.” (SW_t1) –– “…that [talking English] is what the English class is for.” (SL_t1) –– “For me it’s very important that every student is talking in the subject language.” (MG_t1) These responses underline the concept of a language teacher who maintains a monolingual environment in a foreign language teaching classroom without considering further implications of the conflict outlined in the prompt. The students as future language teachers consider enforcing the use of English to support the learning process as part of their teacher role and identity. Additionally, participants underline the importance of using English in the classroom in order to have a common Table 2  Number of coded segments per category—first data collection Category 1: Linguistic level

Canadian group (n = 9) Control group (n = 35)

Category 2: Affective-pedagogical level

Coded English segments Only

Tolerance (Re-) LOTEs Empathy Negotiation Ignorance

30

10

3

10

4

3

130

33

16

36

24

7

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medium of communication by stating that they would “[a]sk them to repeat what they said in English so that everyone can understand” (AL_ t1) or by “(…) [asking] them to translate what they said to English and explain what each word means” (TH_t1). Responses categorized as Tolerance toward LOTE recognize the function of native languages as part of the speakers’ identity (“I would tell the guys that it is of course fine to speak in *there mother tongue and that I don’t want them to stop talking in Arabic forever”; JM_t1) or as an additional medium of communication to understand lesson content (“the switch to Arabic would be okay, when they can’t speak English that good (…)”; MG_t1). The analysis of the coded segments in the second category “affective-­ pedagogical level” displays a preference toward an empathetic reaction or negotiation of the situation with the students; however, a number of these segments include the assumption that the students speaking Arabic would bully the third student involved: –– “I would explain them why [speaking Arabic] is not okay.” (MG_t1) –– “I would try to verbally turn the situation around so that the two students can understand what I am trying to tell them and how the other girl feels.” (JL_t1) To conclude, language attitudes of respondents regarding their future profession at the beginning of the study (cf. RQ1) are marked by a focus on maintaining a traditional, monolingual language environment in the EFL classroom. The role of other languages as an additional means of communication is not recognized; however, most respondents also suggest an emphatic reaction toward speakers of other languages. The goal of this approach is nonetheless to foster the use of English in the classroom. There is no observable difference in the responses of both groups.

Results 2: Post-Intervention Data After participating in a basic-level course as part of the undergraduate TESOL program, results in the second questionnaire indicate a change in the language attitudes of the respondents for both, the Canadian group

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Table 3  Number of coded segments per category—second data collection Category 1: Linguistic level

Canadian group (n = 9) Control group (n = 35)

Category 2: Affective-pedagogical level

Coded English segments Only

Tolerance (Re-) LOTEs Empathy Negotiation Ignorance

33 (+3)

6 (−4)

3 (+/−0)

86 (−44)

12 (−21) 19 (+3)

16 (+6)

8 (+4)

0 (−)3

23 (−13)

23 (−1)

5 (−2)

and the control group—regardless of the setting of the learning environment. Table 3 provides an overview of the coded segments, numbers in brackets display the difference to the first data collection. It is first noteworthy that the number of coded segments has decreased in the control group whereas it remained similar in the Canadian group. One reason for this is that some participants in the control group responded that their opinion hadn’t changed compared to the first data collection. Whether this is true or not cannot be verified, which is why these responses were not coded. In both groups, responses coded for English Only decreased. The results indicate a preference of respondents toward an emphasis on plurilingualism as an “identity-marking” attribute and identity construction which not solely focused on the use of English in EFL teaching (cf. Matsumoto, 2016; Jenkins, 2015). A comparison between responses from one participant demonstrates this change: T1: “I would ask the two students if they are talking about the lesson and whether I can help them with any questions they might have. After that I would encourage them to rephrase it into English.” T2: “Nowadays I wouldn’t ask them to stop talking in Arabic but rather enhance the communication between the students. Perhaps, the two students could teach the others some Arabic words.”

The role of “one language only” decreases in importance when conflicts need to be solved; emphasis on English is no longer given as the only language in the classroom. While there is a small increase in the

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segments coded as Tolerance LOTEs in the control group, this category does not occur in the Canadian group anymore. Hence, there seems to be a shift in the responses from focusing on language use in general when solving problems toward a generally more emphatic approach or an attempt to negotiate, especially in the Canadian group. t1: “I would ask the two Arabic speaking students to please continue talking in English, as that is what the English class is for. If the third student wants me to get involved, I would explain the Arabic-­speaking students that their behaviour hurt their classmate and that they themselves would not like feeling left out or gossiped about.” (SL) t2: “This is a difficult situation because speaking in a foreign language can bring a lot of problems and can even be identity-threatening. No matter how advanced the two Arabic-speaking students are in their German or English skills, it would be fatal to fault them for speaking in their mother tongue.” (SL)

The quotations above from t1 and t2 illustrate the shift in the affective-­ pedagogical behavior of learners very clearly. Even though both responses are coded as emphatic behavior, the first response does not take language as an element of identity formation (Wang, 2021) into account, whereas the second one recognizes that banning a language a learner brings to the classroom can be “identity-threatening.” Regarding research question 2 (Do attitudes change between t1 and t2? If so, how?), we can observe that a change in categories of language teacher identity has taken place on different levels (cf. Ellis, 2016; Forman, 2015). Respondents suggest different solutions to conflicts linked to language use in classroom environments, focusing on face-saving acts to deal with the situation rather than insisting on the use of English as the classroom language. Respondents have developed an understanding of language as part of their future students’ identity. It is, however, noteworthy in this context that no respondent suggested using German as a common (and neutral) code spoken by all parties involved. Concerning the way different groups (Canadian group vs. control group) interact with regard to their language attitudes (RQ3), the differences are subtle. In the Canadian group, Empathy as a course of action increases, whereas in our control group, this category decreases;

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however, a number of respondents point toward the first questionnaire (t1) in their narrative, leading to the smaller number of segments. In both groups, the category of English only decreases—the focus on conflict resolution moves, and Translation from Arabic into English as a strategy is less prevalent in t2.

Discussion: LTI and Educational Leadership As outlined initially, the role of language teachers has changed and shifted from traditional transmission of knowledge toward the facilitation of various aspects connected to enabling language use and development in a classroom setting, while traditional dichotomies in teaching and in the professionalization of (future) teachers are gradually replaced (Brevik & Rindal, 2020; Galloway & Rose, 2015; Stollhans, 2020). The dynamic and ongoing process of developing and professionalizing teacher leadership skills can be fostered by reflecting on (identity) categories which are relevant for language teachers (De Costa & Norton, 2017). TESOL classes that take place in digital and intercultural learning environments as well as courses in more traditional settings can support this level of reflection on identity categories. Our results demonstrate that the critical reflection can lead to a change of attitudes and thus a (re-)construction of LTI in different learning environments which aim at providing a multifaceted perspective on language teaching (cf. Ellis, 2016; Forman, 2015) as a learning outcome. Instead of maintaining a monolingual English Only approach even in a conflict situation, which would make problem-­ solving in the given scenario difficult, at t2, respondents considered the appreciation of multiple languages and plurilingual communication as an enriching element of language teaching. This falls in line with two of the themes outlined by Galloway and Rose (2015), namely “emphasizing respect for multilingualism in ELT” and “emphasizing respect for diverse cultures in language curriculum” (Galloway & Rose, 2015, p. 203). This change toward reacting to a conflict on different levels also hints toward a growing awareness of different options teachers have when positioning themselves in teaching/learning scenarios. The choices respondents make after attending a TESOL course indicate a change in the

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awareness for what is required in effective teacher leadership. Since identity work and leadership are closely intertwined, an early start of identity work is relevant to give students time during the pre-service phase and question previous teaching experiences outside pre-service teacher training. This way, they are enabled to re-construct their identity as speakers AND teachers and thus develop their own voice and leadership skills. Our results also show that—at least on a hypothetical level—respondents are prepared to accept giving up a certain amount of control over what is said in the classroom as a result of their “identity work” (De Costa & Norton, 2017, p. 7). By accepting the use of LOTEs that they presumably do not speak and by suggesting integrating this language in the classroom, respondents begin to see the language classroom as a place for multilingual and cultural exchange; they also recognize the use of additional language varieties as a communication strategy in language acquisition. They no longer suggest forcing learners to communicate in one particular language, which also shows the development of educational leadership as a result of identity work. Respondents do, however, refer to the role of English as a lingua franca, which implies yet another level of identity construction that opens to a linguistically and culturally diversified student body.

Conclusion To sum up, our study provides evidence that it is possible to successfully include identity works as part of educational leadership in the early stages of teacher training, ideally during the pre-service phase as part of an undergraduate program. Participation in an intercultural learning environment seems to be a contributing, yet not decisive factor in identity construction. Since the time frame of our study was limited, we are not able to determine long-term effects of the intercultural learning environment or our teaching regarding the identity construction and change in ideological thinking in pre-service teachers. Further research would need to investigate LTI and identity construction at different stages of their professionalization, i.e., during the undergraduate program (and before on-the-job-training) and in the graduate program (after the initial

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on-­the-­job training). Another aspect which would need to be investigated further is the correlation between change in LTI and practical experiences in different school types of the three-tiered school system in Germany. Our small sample size does hardly account for generalizations or a larger community. Therefore, further research should address bigger groups of teachers in order to allow for predictions regarding a potential definition of categories of development.

Reflection Questions 1. Discuss the results of the study described above. Do you think expert teachers would think differently about the conflict situation? Why, why not? 2. Reflect on the link between LTI and leadership. (Where) Do they clash? 3. “Only native speakers are good teachers of their own language.” Discuss this statement with a partner and think of its implications for (international) teaching contexts. 4. How would you as a (future) teacher respond to students using a heritage language in your classroom that you and most other students are not familiar with? What are the reasons for your choice? Do you know research that supports the way you would react?

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Teacher Leadership as the Missing Link Between TBLT Research and Pedagogical Practice William Dunn, Xavier Gutiérrez, and Leila Ranta

Introduction In this chapter, we consider teacher leadership from the perspective of a research-practice partnership that was set up to enhance collaboration between the university and the language teaching community. To this end, we set up an online community of practice (CoP) with a focus on task-based language teaching (TBLT). The project team at the start included six second language (L2) curriculum specialists in addition to the three co-authors of this paper. The importance of teacher leadership became more and more evident to us as we designed the online platform and planned activities for the CoP. As Cosenza (2015) noted, teacher leadership involves “teachers extending their presence beyond the classroom by seeking additional challenges and growth opportunities” (p. 79). From the point of view of our CoP project, our teacher collaborators are

W. Dunn • X. Gutiérrez (*) • L. Ranta University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_10

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being asked to serve the role of knowledge mediators in the research dissemination process and to mentor other teachers to take on such leadership roles. In order to support leadership development, we needed to add to what we have gleaned from the education literature to learn more about how language teacher leaders are made. We therefore asked our collaborators to reflect on their own leadership trajectory and experiences and these reflections are described within the context of the CoP project. The paper is organized into three main parts: we begin with a brief review of topics that provide a conceptual background to our discussion of teacher leadership. The first topic in Part I is the notion of a researchpractice partnership, which we argue requires the participation of teacher leaders. This then leads into a review of the literature on teacher leadership. Part II describes the CoP project that we are in the process of setting up and presents a synthesis of our community partners’ reflections on leadership. Finally, in Part III we review the TBLT literature with respect to its implementation as an innovative practice and consider the next steps in our CoP project, given what we have learned about teacher leadership.

Part I: Conceptual Background Research-Practice Partnerships Research investigating second language learning in classroom settings is referred to as instructed second language acquisition or ISLA, one of the goals of which is to improve instructional effectiveness (Loewen, 2015). To achieve this goal, ISLA researchers need to do more than report their findings in academic journals and books. They need to actively engage in the dissemination (also referred to as diffusion or mobilization or transfer) of evidence-based knowledge to practitioners. Typically, this entails giving workshops or presentations at teacher conferences or professional development (PD) sessions or writing textbooks or creating instructional materials. Yet it appears that teachers do not necessarily engage with ideas

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from research that are conveyed in these formats. For example, critics of one-off PD sessions argue that a more sustained approach is needed. In her review of PD studies, Kennedy (2016) comments that educational research offers “strong theories of student learning, but we do not have well-developed ideas about teacher learning, nor about how to help teachers incorporate new ideas into their ongoing systems of practice” (p. 973, emphasis in the original). Definition  A research-practice partnership is “a long-term collaboration aimed at educational improvement or equitable transformation through engagement with research. These partnerships are intentionally organized to connect diverse forms of expertise and shift power relations in the research endeavor to ensure that all partners have a say in the joint work” (Farrell et al., 2021, p. 5). One promising solution to this problem is to improve the communication between researchers and potential users of research through a research-practice partnership (RPP). Farrell et al. (2021) elaborate on five principles emerging from the above definition, two of which are worth highlighting. On the one hand, engagement with research occupies a central role as the main activity of RPPs and, on the other, such partnerships crucially aim to empower educators as active agents in the research endeavor. The concept of teacher leader is thus inherent in RPPs, arguably playing a key role in research-based pedagogical innovation. Even though teachers whose practice, as well as their dialogue about practice with other colleagues, is informed by research can be considered teacher leaders (Hunzicker, 2012; Lovett, 2018), participating in RPPs entails a transition from research consumers to research agents. Thus, such partnerships have the potential of playing an essential role in bridging the oft-cited research-practice gap. Although there is a body of literature focused on RPPs, more scholarship is needed about how RPPs are built and maintained in order to develop a better understanding of the dynamics and value of such partnerships for knowledge mobilization and improving educational practice (Coburn & Penuel, 2016).

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Teacher Leadership The common perception of leadership in the school system is that it is associated with official roles such as principal, department head, or curriculum specialist (Lai & Cheung, 2015; Silva et al., 2000) or what Lovett (2018) calls “positional leadership.” Indeed, in many educational settings, “little or no credibility is given to the experience-based judgments or opinions of teachers” (Institute for Educational Leadership, 2016, p. 209). Increasingly, however, leadership in school settings has become associated with roles and activities in which teachers engage in their dayto-day work such as sharing ideas and practices with their colleagues, working with colleagues in small teams, or mentoring less experienced colleagues. Even though many teachers in these circumstances often do not identify themselves as leaders (Fairman & Mackenzie, 2015; Helterbran, 2010; Sinha & Hanuscin, 2017), engaging in such roles and activities constitutes what many scholars identify as teacher leadership (e.g., Fairman & Mackenzie, 2012; Harris, 2003; Lovett, 2018; Wenner & Campbell, 2017; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). While there are varied definitions and conceptualizations of teacher leadership (Wenner & Campbell, 2017; York-Barr & Duke, 2004), several characteristics are shared by many of them. Perhaps the main characteristic of teacher leadership is that it is transformational in nature (Day et al., 2000): Teachers engage in leadership acts driven by their interest in pedagogical innovation and their motivation to improve student learning (Fairman & Mackenzie, 2015; Lovett, 2018; York-Barr & Duke, 2004; Wenner & Campbell, 2017). Thus, teacher leaders develop a deep understanding of teaching and learning processes and seek best practices in order to benefit their own students. Teacher leaders may start with a focus on their own teaching practices and on their own professional growth (Fairman & Mackenzie, 2012, 2015; Lieberman et al., 2017; Sinha & Hanuscin, 2017). However, their strong sense of professionalism often leads them to initiate interactions with other teachers, either one-to-one or in group encounters, to question and reflect on everyday practices, and to share ideas with their colleagues (Lai & Cheung, 2015; Lovett, 2018; Sinha & Hanuscin, 2017), thereby extending their influence beyond

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their own classroom. Thus, another key characteristic of teacher leadership is that teacher leaders engage in trusting and collaborative relationships with their peers (Lambert, 2003; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). Collaborative activities may include, for example, modelling best practices, coaching or mentoring, and co-teaching. Such activities arguably reflect collective teacher efficacy, which refers to teachers’ shared belief that together they can make a difference in student learning (Bandura, 1997). This collective belief emerged as the top factor in an analysis of what actually works in schools to improve learning (Hattie, 2012). Focus on improvement of student learning and collaboration with peers often result in the desire for continued learning. Therefore, a third major characteristic of teacher leadership entails engaging in one’s own professional learning efforts and the professional growth of other teachers (Fairman & Mackenzie, 2012, 2015; Hunzicker, 2012; Lovett, 2018; Wenner & Campbell, 2017). Consequently, teacher leaders look for opportunities to develop their own knowledge and skills (e.g., in-service teacher training programs or professional learning initiatives), conduct professional development for their colleagues or participate in research teams. York-Barr and Duke (2004) provide a definition of teacher leadership that encompasses these aspects: “leadership is the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influence their colleagues, principals, and other members of school communities to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increased student learning and achievement” (pp.  287–288). While teachers who are interested in upward career advancement may perceive this form of leadership as preparation for official or positional leadership roles, teacher leadership may have a stronger influence on other teachers. Lovett (2018) argues that “leadership, when achieved from within one’s own ranks, is more attractive to peers than hierarchical position, because the development of trust has come from ‘within’” (p. 63). Likewise, informal leadership may also have a stronger impact on improvement of student learning. In this regard, Smylie et al. (2002) conclude their review of research about leadership stating that the evidence “suggests that these new approaches to teacher leadership can promote school improvement and that they appear to be more effective in this regard than previous models” (p. 181). These claims that teacher leaders can influence their peers and impact student learning call for a

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greater recognition of the role of teacher leadership so that these teachers do not have to leave the classroom to engage in leadership activities (Cosenza, 2015; Lovett, 2018). Indeed, Wenner and Campbell (2017) define teacher leaders as “teachers who maintain K-12 classroom-based teaching responsibilities, while also taking on leadership responsibilities outside of the classroom” (p. 140, emphasis in the original). For this form of teacher leadership to flourish the appropriate conditions need to be in place. The literature emphasizes repeatedly the need for institutional support, the provision of time and opportunities to engage in leadership roles, and the availability of resources (e.g., Harris, 2003; Institute for Educational Leadership, 2016; Lambert, 2003; Lovett, 2018; Muijs & Harris, 2003; Silva et  al., 2000). In other words, teachers need to feel empowered to develop and exercise their leadership capacity. At the same time, however, teacher leadership is contingent on teacher agency (Harris, 2003; Lovett, 2018; Muijs & Harris, 2003). Thus, teachers’ willingness to engage in activities associated with informal leadership is another essential factor: “It is largely up to teachers themselves to locate and exploit opportunities for the professional growth and personal development that will increase their qualifications and credibility for leadership” (Institute for Educational Leadership, 2016, p. 209).

Part II: The CoP Project Origins of the Project Definition  Wenger-Trayner and Wenger-Trayner (2015) define communities of practice as “groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly” (p. 2). The Task-Based Language Teaching online Community of Practice (TBLT CoP) project originated from our work as language teacher educators and our efforts to create effective professional development opportunities for teachers. We were aware that professional development should, ideally, provide continued support beyond one-off sessions, offer

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opportunities for teachers to collaborate with other teachers, and be relevant to their educational contexts (Baecher, 2012). After considering a number of options for meeting these criteria, we decided to establish an online CoP with a specific focus on TBLT. The decision to set up this CoP as an online environment was made in part because of the COVID-19 pandemic, but also because constraints regarding time and accessibility often make it difficult for teachers to attend face-to-face events (Riverin & Stacey, 2008). Coupled with this, in our context there is often only a small number of L2 teachers at any given school, which limits their capacity to collaborate with other colleagues in their area of expertise. Given such constraints, online CoPs have the potential to eliminate or reduce such barriers since they may bring together L2 teaching professionals (teachers, consultants, researchers) who otherwise might not be able to collaborate. Since we as university professors were the initiators of this CoP, it can be considered a research-practice partnership. In deciding to focus the CoP on TBLT, we were guided by our own interest in the topic and the interest shown by a considerable number of teachers at workshops we had previously offered for educators in our region. We believed this to be a suitable focus for a university-community collaboration since TBLT is considered a research-based pedagogy (see Part III for further information about TBLT). Despite extensive research supporting its effectiveness, a recurring theme in the TBLT literature is that, while there is evidence of engagement with the concept of task-based teaching, its adoption and implementation have been somewhat limited (e.g., Bygate, 2020; Ellis et al., 2020). This is true of our educational context. Although teachers of languages in the K-12 system are mandated by the Alberta government to include communicative tasks in their lesson planning, there seems to be limited awareness of the latest developments in TBLT scholarship, despite its overtly practical applicability. Our hope is that the CoP project will offer us some insights about the factors that seem to hinder the uptake of task-based ideas in our local context, as well as how the CoP can support those teachers who see TBLT as an innovative approach that may contribute to improved student learning.

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Project Team Our community partners at the start of this project were six second language curriculum specialists working as teacher consultants in  local school districts. Our partners were four women and two men who had transitioned into formal leadership roles after years of experience as second language teachers. Their teaching experience before becoming consultants ranged between 8 and 22 years, and all of them had held other leadership positions (e.g., lead teacher, learning coach, and resource manager) before becoming consultants. Regarding their L2 learning experience, three of them had learned one additional language and three had learned two. Similarly, three had taught two languages and the three others had taught three languages. The languages they had taught were English, French, German, and Spanish. With respect to their education, all six held at least one university degree, a Bachelor’s in Education or a Bachelor’s in Arts, although four of them held two degrees or more (including two Master’s in Education). In addition, all of our partners had received leadership training in some form (e.g., leadership courses in their school district, provincial government leadership certificates, or workplace mentoring).

Teacher Leadership and the Trajectory of the Project An important turning point in the project for us academics was an increased emphasis on the idea that the CoP should not serve merely as a place for knowledge transfer from us to language teachers, but rather, as a hub for developing teachers’ leadership qualities and leveraging those qualities in support of pedagogical improvement, innovation, and change. This shift came about partly as a result of our own reading on the topic of teacher leadership and partly as a result of our conversations with the school-based members of the project team. During our planning discussions, it became apparent that the successful establishment and continued functioning of the CoP would depend on the active participation of its members and the transition of some of those members into leadership roles. Furthermore, our shared understanding of a CoP as a group of

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professionals who come together around a common interest and who share knowledge and experiences with the purpose of furthering their growth meant that it had much in common with the collaborative, transformational, and ongoing learning nature of teacher leadership. Despite the extensive body of literature on teacher leadership, descriptions of how language teacher leadership develops are scarce (Smylie & Eckert, 2018). Although themes from the teacher leadership literature reviewed above are likely to be widely applicable, we wondered about potential impacts of our complex language learning environment. Language education in our context includes official languages (English and French), Indigenous languages (e.g., Cree), and international languages. School districts in our area offer a number of international languages including Arabic, Chinese, Filipino, French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Spanish, and Ukrainian. Furthermore, in addition to regular language and culture programs, some languages are also offered as bilingual or immersion programs that typically start in kindergarten and provide language instruction and content classes in the target language. We believed that the so-called foreign language teacher (i.e., international or world languages) may have a different developmental trajectory than teachers of other school subjects. Specifically, due to the fact that teachers of Spanish or German, for example, in our context of English-­ speaking Alberta are responsible not only for teaching the target language but also for representing its speakers and culture, and promoting out-of-­ class connections to the target language community, there is perhaps more pressure to engage in leadership activities. We realized that the curriculum specialists on the CoP project team would be an excellent source of information regarding language teacher leadership. Therefore, during one of the CoP team meetings, we discussed our interest in teacher leadership with them and they agreed to take part in an in-depth conversation about their own experiences.

Procedure Using Baecher’s (2012) interview questions as a guide, along with the leadership domains described in the Teacher Leader Model Standards

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(Teacher Leadership Exploratory Consortium, 2010), we prepared a series of questions for semi-structured interviews. The questions addressed topics such as understandings of leadership, experiences of coming to take on leadership roles, and involvement in pedagogical innovation. The interviews, each of which lasted approximately one hour, were conducted online using a remote meeting platform. They were video-recorded and transcribed to facilitate analysis. Initial draft transcripts were generated using the automatic transcription tool of the meeting platform. The transcripts were then revised and checked for accuracy by a research assistant. Analysis of the transcripts focused on the content of the teacher leaders’ narrative accounts of their own experiences of taking on leadership roles, as well as their more general reflections on leadership and teacher professional development. Instances were identified where participants indicated understandings of leadership or where they gave examples of behaviors or qualities that demonstrated leadership. Because the interviews focused on the teacher leaders’ individual experiences, the analysis process involved identifying examples and grouping them into categories based on common features.

Reflections on Language Teacher Leadership In the interviews, the teacher leaders reflected on the nature of language teacher leadership and how it develops. As all were experienced teachers who had come to occupy official leadership roles, they provided retrospective accounts of their pathways into leadership. They also reflected on potential opportunities and challenges of developing teacher leadership within the context of the CoP. In this section, we present a summary of ideas and insights drawn from our conversations with the teacher leaders.

Characteristics of Teacher Leaders and Pathways to Leadership Our teacher leader partners described their own experiences of leadership and their journeys of coming to occupy leadership roles. In seeking to identify and categorize pathways to leadership, we found it useful to distinguish between attributes, activities, and turning points. Attributes

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refer to specific traits that characterized the teacher leaders, while activities refer to what they did as leaders. Turning points were specific moments that signaled entry into leadership or a shift in identity associated with recognition as a leader. Although we found the distinction between attributes, activities, and turning points to be useful, we also recognize the overlap between these domains. The leadership activities that we identified tended to involve occasions for demonstrating the attributes of leaders, and the turning points were often tied to significant examples of leadership activities. The primary attributes of language teacher leaders, as identified through the experiences of our teacher leader partners, were passion, and a predisposition toward collaboration and involvement. An underlying passion for languages, language teaching, and language learning was described by all of the teacher leaders and was reflected through both the content and tone of the interviews. In our estimation, this attribute seemed to be an essential precondition for their entry into teacher leadership. In addition to an underlying passion, the other key attributes of the teacher leaders were predispositions toward collegiality and being part of a group, traits that were manifested through collaboration and involvement. Both of these attributes reflect proactive engagement with people and with activities, events, organizations, or projects. In describing collaborating and connecting with others as an important attribute of teacher leaders, one interviewee stated: “It’s all about collaboration for sure… You just have to reach out for those growth opportunities.” Since teacher leadership is often defined in relation to having an impact beyond one’s own classroom (Cosenza, 2015), it is not surprising that being drawn toward collaboration and connecting with others was identified as a main attribute of teacher leaders. Another key attribute theme identified through the interviews was involvement. The teacher leaders talked about actively seeking out opportunities to become involved, and when such opportunities were not readily available, they would sometimes create them. Additionally, they indicated that as language teachers, they often found themselves in a situation where they were the only language teacher in the school and, therefore, felt the need to take on initiatives because there was no one else to do what needed to be done. As noted by one of the teacher leaders:

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I just found that through my teaching experience, more often than not, I was the only language teacher, or one of the very few language teachers at the school. So I was doing the micro work in the classroom dealing with students, and I was also doing the macro work reaching out to the community and arranging for PL [professional learning] and looking for conferences and department initiatives. I was just doing that out of necessity, because if people didn’t step up, then things wouldn’t get done.

These types of experiences reinforced the teacher leaders’ predisposition toward becoming involved and connecting with others beyond their own school context. In addition to the leadership attributes inferred from the interviews, our informants also described various leadership activities. We categorized the experiences of our teacher leader partners into two main types of activities: developing their knowledge about language teaching and supporting the teaching and learning of languages. As illustrated by the examples below, these activities reflected the leadership attributes of passion and being drawn toward collaboration and involvement. The teacher leaders’ pathways to leadership included many examples of activities related to developing their knowledge about language teaching. The examples included taking courses and workshops as well as being mentored in workplace settings. Courses—and graduate-level study, in particular—provided links with universities and research. Such links figured prominently in the teacher leaders’ activities through which they sought to continue their own education by taking part in learning opportunities. For example, one of the teacher leaders stated: “From the very beginning that was something I wanted to do, to connect with the university, with people in the university, who are doing research on all these fields.” The second main category of leadership activities that we identified from the interviews was supporting the teaching and learning of languages. This category of activity included work with teachers, such as mentoring and delivering professional development. It also involved developing resources for students, as well as advocating for language programs. Supporting language teaching and learning was closely tied to the teacher leaders’ official roles as curriculum specialists working for school

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districts. However, they also indicated that they took part in these sorts of activities even before they were officially responsible for them, and taking part in such activities served as a way to demonstrate leadership and to attain recognition as a leader. This, in turn, provided further access to the latest projects and practices. For example, one of the teacher leaders stated: “The other pros [of being in a leadership role], I like being on the cutting edge or the first step of new developments, new partnerships.” This comment points to the feedback loop that can result from involvement in leadership activities, and the resulting possibilities for gaining access to subsequent leadership activities and opportunities. Besides attributes and activities, the teacher leaders described turning points that signaled a shift in identity. These were moments in time when participants began to see themselves as leaders, were identified as such by others, or took on official leadership roles. These turning points were often associated with significant instances of involvement in leadership activities. For example, in describing a key instance of developing her knowledge about language teaching by taking a course, one of the teacher leaders stated: It was an excellent course, again it bolstered my confidence… It changed the way I thought of myself, because I went from thinking of myself as just an FSL [French as a second language] teacher in my little school to more of someone who is a leader.

Another teacher leader described a turning point associated with her activities of supporting language teaching and learning: “My shtick is technologies and language learning, and presenting to teachers is sort of how I got my foot in the door.” Invitations from others were also identified as turning points marking entry into leadership. For example, one teacher leader said: “I often needed a bit of a push, or an invitation perhaps is a better word, to get involved in some of the leadership kinds of things.” Another stated that “leadership just seems to be a lot of shoulder tapping.” The teacher leaders described numerous instances in which their leadership activities became turning points that led to recognition or invitations into further activities or even official leadership roles.

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Teacher Leadership Within the Context of the CoP In addition to describing their own pathways to leadership, the teacher leaders also reflected on the potential uses of the CoP as a way to foster the development of teacher leadership. Their knowledge of the local context and their experience of working closely with local teachers made them ideally suited to gauge ways in which the CoP might support this aim. In thinking of the CoP as a space for collaboration, the teacher leaders suggested that it could potentially offer some of the affordances associated with pathways to leadership by providing opportunities to acquire and demonstrate leadership attributes and to engage in leadership activities. For example, one stated: “I think just having a community of practice is great for the people to connect and…get some things going.” This statement suggests the potential value of the CoP as a space for teachers to connect and become involved, thus pointing to leadership attributes. With respect to leadership activities, there was little doubt that the CoP could be a source of information for developing knowledge about language teaching, but the teacher leaders emphasized the need to ensure that teachers would be active and engaged participants and that the transfer of knowledge would not be unidirectional. For example, one pointed to the importance of ensuring that the CoP would promote reflective engagement: “There’s the reflection piece, because I don’t think growth can happen without reflection.” Another said: I think sometimes it's really important for teachers to recognize that it's not all just a take away but there needs to be a give and take…to have them recognize that it's really important to give as well, not just for the benefit of others, but when you give, it benefits yourself a lot too. It develops your own skills, it develops your own outlook, and it develops …your perspective on what you do in the classroom and your perspective on how you can contribute to teachers in the province or wherever.

This statement suggests a link with the leadership activity of supporting language teaching and learning, which was identified in the interviews as one of the two main types of leadership activities. Our teacher leader

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partners noted that in their own pathways to leadership, sharing their practices with others in support of language teaching and learning was a main type of leadership activity. Significant instances of doing so sometimes served as turning points by creating opportunities for leadership recognition. In reflecting on the potential of the CoP, the teacher leaders also pointed to the value of greater interaction between schools and post-­ secondary institutions. For example, one stated: “I would love to see more connection between the post-secondaries and school divisions…because there seems to be sometimes a disconnect.” Another added that partnering with the university “adds a level of legitimacy to the professional learning.” In part, this legitimacy brought by post-­ secondary institutions was seen as deriving from the research that takes place there. One of the teacher leaders stated: “We want them [teachers] to be in contact with all the new research as much as possible.” As anticipated, the teacher leaders also indicated that there are challenges associated with comprehending research in order to make full use of it. One stated, for example, “Something that I find challenging is not being knowledgeable enough in knowing how to read data.” She also pointed out, however, that such challenges are not insurmountable, and teachers can develop strategies for engaging with research such as working with a mentor: I think it's the exposure and maybe finding a leader mentor. Connecting with someone who is more knowledgeable and saying ‘what would you recommend to be the best resource in order to improve my knowledge of this aspect’. It's seeking those people that have so much more experience than I do and saying, what do you recommend? How can you mentor me in this area?

An additional challenge of engaging with research had to do with applying it. For example, one of the teacher leaders stated: “What are we going to do with it, now that we have the information? Because it’s so easy to just get data and research, but the next step is the ‘now what?’” Another described the value of engaging with research as follows: “It depends on

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the study and trying to connect with it and picture how that could work in the settings that I work with.” Both of these comments point to teachers’ need to apply research and to adapt information to their own specific context for it to be relevant and useful. It was clear from the teacher leaders’ comments that pedagogical change should be based primarily on what is most suitable for one’s own students or one’s own particular classroom context. One described better teaching as that which is “more relatable and authentic for the students.” She added: And I think that does require learning more about the students and expanding on your knowledge as a leader in terms of what are new methods for teaching, what are new theories in terms of pedagogy, what are new strategies, what kind of students do you have in your class.

Similarly, another stated: “You’ll find stuff that works for you and your students and that will change every year. Your students will change and you will change. Those goal posts aren’t always fixed.” These comments suggest that pedagogical change should be determined primarily in relation to students. It is important to learn about new approaches and techniques, but teachers must also learn about their own students and their own classroom context in order to make pedagogical decisions.

Summary The conversations with our teacher leader partners provided insights into their pathways to leadership, allowing us to identify key attributes, activities, and turning points associated with teacher leaders. Their reflections on leadership have provided insights for establishing the CoP project and continue to inform its ongoing development. Future aspects of the project involve considering ways in which the CoP can support the formation of teacher leaders while leveraging their leadership characteristics in support of pedagogical improvement.

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Part III: The TBLT Focus of the CoP As noted previously, the CoP project originated from our interest in TBLT coupled with our professional commitment to addressing the needs of the second language teaching community. In this section of the paper, we reflect on what we have come to better understand through the trajectory of the CoP project. We begin by providing an overview of current views in the literature of TBLT implementation and then discuss insights we have gained about the importance of teacher leadership in professional development and pedagogical change. These insights suggest that more attention should be paid to the role of teacher leadership in conceptualizations of the process of how knowledge is disseminated from the research community to the language teaching community.

TBLT Definition  A task is defined as “an activity in which: meaning is primary; there is some communication problem; there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities; task completion has some priority; the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome” (Skehan, 1998, p. 95). TBLT is a pedagogy that builds on and fine-tunes earlier developments of the communicative approach (e.g., Ellis, 2003). In TBLT, tasks are proposed as the basic unit for organizing a syllabus and lesson planning. The assumption is that the use of the L2  in order to accomplish tasks promotes L2 acquisition processes (e.g., Long & Crookes, 1992). A taskbased approach constitutes a complete break from traditional language teaching, which was typically organized around features of the target language itself (e.g., grammatical structures, lexical fields) and requires a different way of thinking about lesson planning. Based on classroom observations as well as survey and interview data, studies of the implementation of TBLT in many contexts show that overall teachers react positively to the approach (for reviews of these studies see Ellis et  al., 2020; Van den Branden, 2021). Perhaps not surprisingly, however, those studies also report a number of challenges that teachers often experience

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when implementing TBLT.  Such challenges include: understanding of what a task is, concerns about how grammar will be addressed, the compatibility of TBLT with particular learners or contexts, a lack of resources, departure from familiar teacher roles, workload, administrators’ expectations, and washback effects from standardized tests (Ellis et al., 2020). It is worth noting that, although our focus is on task-based instruction, many of these issues are not unique to TBLT, but rather emerge when teachers attempt to implement any pedagogical innovation (Ellis et al., 2020). Various suggestions have been put forward as possible ways of facilitating the implementation of TBLT. One approach has been to argue for teacher education and professional development that address the challenges that teachers experience when attempting to implement TBLT (e.g., Brandl, 2017; Ellis et al., 2020). A second approach has been to recommend additional guidance and support for teachers (e.g., East, 2021; Ellis, 2020; Van den Branden, 2022). While pre- and in-service teacher training and other support initiatives are undoubtedly needed for providing the appropriate conditions to facilitate the enactment of TBLT ideas, such initiatives by themselves may be perceived as top-down impositions of pedagogical innovation that are unlikely to be effective (East, 2021). Thus, another suggested solution is to devote greater attention to the concerns of practicing teachers and their classroom realities. As Norris (2015) pointed out, TBLT was originally conceived as an educational proposal intended to address teachers’ and learners’ needs. While TBLT-­ related research has been very fruitful in many areas, it has been criticized for not paying enough attention to how TBLT is actually implemented in specific educational settings as well as to the contextual factors that influence those implementations (Ellis et  al., 2020; Norris, 2015; Van den Branden, 2016). Although more studies focusing on examples of real-­ world implementation of TBLT have begun to appear, they sometimes depict teachers’ modifications of TBLT to adapt it to their context or their understanding of TBLT from a deficiency perspective (McDonough, 2015). Such a perspective tends to view locally situated implementations as deviations from TBLT theory and reinforces a top-down perspective on how TBLT ideas should be put into practice. In contrast, a bottom-up approach that takes teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, their local context, and

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their perceptions about task-based instruction as the starting points might contribute to task theory and research (McDonough, 2015) and, at the same time, it might lead to more widespread uptake in the long term (East, 2021). In the same vein, Bygate (2020) emphasizes the need to bridge the gap between research and practice so that task-based ideas might make their way to actual classrooms. In his view, “TBLT needs substantial and extensive engagement with the issues and realities of real world stakeholders if it is to move out of the world of research and become part of a genuinely applied linguistics” (p. 284). This last perspective recognizes the crucial role that teachers play in the adoption and implementation of pedagogical innovations (Van den Branden, 2016). Bygate (2020) and East (2021), among others, have recently stressed this point, noting that, ultimately, the success of TBLT will be determined by individual teachers’ willingness to try it out in their classrooms. And yet, even until quite recently, the role of the classroom teacher has been largely ignored by researchers and in theoretical discussions of TBLT (Van den Branden, 2016). Discussed even less has been the potential mediating role of teacher leaders. We agree that teacher educators and researchers have an important role to play in providing adequate teacher training and continuing guidance and support (Brandl, 2017; East, 2021; Van den Branden, 2022) that are necessary for the success of TBLT as a pedagogical innovation. Thus, how teachers can best be supported so that they can successfully implement task-based ideas in their classrooms becomes a central question in TBLT inquiry (East, 2021). In our view, however, more crucial to the TBLT endeavor is the willingness of teachers to learn about, and experiment with, task-based instruction. Like any other innovation, TBLT clearly requires some form of leadership to prosper, but a top-down approach is unlikely to succeed without teachers’ interest and endorsement; that is, without “teachers who have a vision of improved language program practices and who essentially assume leadership roles” (Stoller, 2009, p. 74). Although not explicitly mentioned, the notion of teacher leadership is hinted at in some of the recent TBLT literature discussed above. In the light of the preceding discussion, however, it seems to us that teacher leadership should occupy a more central space in conceptualizations of the research-practice relationship.

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Our Next Steps Our decision to create a teacher-focused CoP with a specific emphasis on TBLT was our response to the implementation challenges we observed in our context as well as similar issues raised by TBLT researchers elsewhere. The process of setting up the CoP involved several steps. The first of these steps, as already mentioned, were gauging teachers’ interest in TBLT at our workshops, presenting the idea of the CoP to the L2 consultants, and inviting them to become partners in the CoP team. We then surveyed those teachers who had shown interest in the approach about their training in and experiences with TBLT, the TBLT-related topics that they would be interested in learning more about, and specific features that they would find useful in the online platform for the CoP. The input we received through that survey and the suggestions from the consultants during planning meetings informed the design and development of the online platform and the types of activities that could be organized (e.g., a discussion forum, a repository of TBLT resources, or a newsletter, to name a few). In September 2022, once the platform was ready, we invited L2 teachers from the K-12 school districts in our area to become members of the CoP, and we also organized two launch events to introduce the CoP, at which we requested further suggestions for PD sessions and other potential activities that we could offer through the CoP. Promising as those steps are in tailoring the CoP to teachers’ interests and needs, the question of how to connect TBLT research and teachers’ practices remains an important one. We believe that teacher leadership could well be the “missing link” that facilitates bridging the gap between research and practice. When discussing the uptake of TBLT, we are dealing with the pedagogical domain, and this is precisely the domain where teacher leadership should play a crucial role. How do we reconcile the fact that research offers important insights into how languages are learned and how they could be taught with the fact that teachers are the pedagogical decision makers in their own classrooms? How do we develop leadership capacity and how do we leverage this capacity for pedagogical innovation? The design process of creating the CoP involved careful consideration of these questions and issues to reflect our understanding that

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it should foster teacher leadership and agency rather than merely transmitting information to teachers. Therefore, the future activities of the CoP that we outline below are guided by the insights gained from the literature on teacher leadership and on TBLT implementations, as well as those gleaned from the conversations with our partners. A key aspect for pedagogical innovation and for the development of teacher leadership identified in the literature and in the interviews is the availability of learning opportunities. Consequently, a priority for the CoP would be the creation of a professional development program/course that would provide such learning opportunities as well as continued support to teacher leaders. This PD initiative would focus on learning about TBLT, on the one hand, and building language teacher leadership capacity, on the other, and it would place a strong emphasis on teacher agency. Thus, learning about TBLT would start with teachers’ critical reflection about their current practices, pedagogical beliefs, and contextual factors (Bygate, 2020; East 2021), as well as about the compatibility of TBLT ideas with those elements. Such a starting point would respond to the ideas expressed by our partners regarding the need for pedagogical innovation to be suitable for one’s students and context and the essential role for reflective inquiry in professional growth. With respect to building teacher leadership capacity, we anticipate that this PD program would provide leadership training as well as opportunities for practice-oriented leadership activities aligned with individual teachers’ interests and contexts (Smylie & Eckert, 2018), thus recreating some of the pathways to leadership identified in the conversations with our partners. This way, taking reflective inquiry a step further, we intend to encourage teachers’ involvement in research projects, not as participants or consumers, but as agents with a say in the decision-making process (Van den Branden, 2016). We also envision that participation in this PD program would facilitate collaboration with other teachers and L2 professionals in various ways (sharing best practices with colleagues, collaboratively developing tasks from already-existing materials, leading PD sessions) so that teacher leaders could contribute to the professional growth of their peers. The proposed PD program would also encourage mentor-mentee relationships between researchers or consultants and teacher leaders who, in time, could become mentors to other teachers themselves.

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Conclusion In this paper, we have described the potential role of language teacher leaders within the context of a project to improve the communication of research-based insights from the TBLT community to K-12 practitioners through an online community of practice. We believe that our teacher collaborators will play a key leadership role as mediators in the knowledge dissemination process as well as in the sustainability of our CoP. Furthermore, the planned CoP activities will potentially offer many of the affordances associated with pathways to leadership, thereby helping to create conditions for future teacher leaders to develop. The ultimate goal of our teacher leaders is to promote ways of improving student L2 learning success. In our view, engaging with ideas from TBLT rather than adopting or implementing it in a non-reflective way (Bygate, 2020; East, 2021) is one way that this goal may be realized.

Reflective Questions 1. Review the notion of teacher leadership discussed in Part I of this chapter. Do you agree with it? Why or why not? 2. What kinds of activities do you engage in during your day-to-day work that you think constitute examples of teacher leadership? Are your experiences of leadership similar to those of the CoP partners as described in the chapter? What kind of support would be necessary for you to be able to engage in leadership activities even more? 3. In what ways do you engage with research-based knowledge (e.g., attending conferences, reading journal articles)? How does this engagement translate into your everyday teaching practice? If you were to participate in the organization of a research-practice partnership, what kinds of activities would you suggest as effective ways for partners to engage with research? 4. Imagine that your school district is planning to implement TBLT in all second/foreign language classes that are offered. As a teacher leader, what kinds of things would you do in order to promote the successful implementation of TBLT across the district?

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Acknowledgements  We would like to express our gratitude to the six second language consultants, and partners in our CoP team, who generously volunteered their time to offer their insights about language teacher leadership. We also want to thank Lisa Lawrence and Arash Shojaie, the two research assistants who provided invaluable help at different stages of this project. Finally yet importantly, our thanks go to Hayo Reinders, the editor of this volume, for the opportunity to contribute to this book.

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Building Leadership Capacity: The Impact of Language Teacher Leadership Programs William S. Davis and Brianna Janssen Sánchez

Introduction World languages (WL) education exists within a unique sociopolitical space in the United States. The WL teaching profession continues to face a number of interconnected challenges, such as a national shortage of elementary and secondary teachers and lower enrollments in teacher education programs. These factors have coincided with disparate perceptions toward the value of multilingualism and heighted political tension toward cultural and linguistic diversity in the United States, despite its evident position as a multilingual nation. Due to these issues, schools and universities have experienced noticeable trends of lower enrollments in WL

W. S. Davis (*) University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA e-mail: [email protected] B. J. Sánchez Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_11

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classes in the past decade, putting language programs at risk for closure (Looney & Lusin, 2018). Moreover, multilingual children continue to encounter deficit perspectives and inadequate linguistic support in schools (García & Kleifgen, 2018). Thus, advocacy for language learners and multilingualism has become a major pillar of the language teaching profession, and a critical need exists for the development of language educators and partners as leaders in their classrooms, schools, their communities, and beyond. Empowering language teachers to begin to view themselves as leaders in their field has an impact on the state of WL and bilingual education as teachers collaborate toward a shared goal of preparing students to interact in a multilingual and multicultural society. Despite this need, a stronger understanding is needed regarding the pathways—both semi-formal spaces and formal programs— through which language teachers’ leadership capacity can be developed to prepare them to address the needs of their specific contexts. Specifically, more insight into the rationale and structures of such programs is needed, including how those programs conceptualize language teacher leadership, the components of the program, and how the program is experienced by those involved. To this end, this chapter explores the origins and potential of language teacher leadership programs in addressing the need for a leadership pipeline in the fields of WL and bilingual education. First, we examine the literature on teacher and language teacher leadership programs. We then turn our attention to an analysis of a unique case of one national language teacher leadership program, the Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL), based in the United States in the context of WL education. In addition to a detailed examination of the rationale and structure of the program, the case study highlights how two WL teachers perceived and experienced their 2-year participation in LILL. Finally, we present a selection of recommendations for consideration when designing and implementing language teacher leadership programs.

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Literature Review Teacher Leadership Programs The justification for establishing teacher leader programs arises from the belief that all teachers can become leaders given appropriate scaffolds (York-Barr & Duke, 2004). Through the design of formal leadership programs for teachers, or the cultivation of semi-formal collaborative spaces where school personnel work in community toward a shared goal, all teachers have the capacity to begin to identify themselves as leaders. Despite this underlying assumption, programs organized to develop teachers as leaders vary greatly. Programs share various and sometimes conflicting origins, goals, conceptualizations of teacher leadership, formality, programmatic structure, and intended outcomes. In this section we turn our attention to exploring the diversity and effectiveness of teacher leadership programs.

Program Rationale and Formality The most common rationale for organizing teacher leadership programs is to improve teacher practice and, in turn, increase student achievement (Berg et  al., 2014; Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2009; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). The goals and intended outcomes of such programs are often guided by the needs of schools, school districts, or other educational institutions. Teacher leaders, in this case, would be developed in order to influence their colleagues’ practices and strengthen teacher effectiveness within or across schools. In this way, the overarching goals of such programs would be to further facilitate educational reforms (Klein et  al., 2018), which may conflict with the autonomy or goals of the emerging teacher leaders themselves (Ross et al., 2011). Other programs, however, place the professional interests and leadership goals of teachers at the center (Berg et al., 2014). From this perspective, programs operate with the broader goal of developing agents of organizational change within teachers’ specific contexts.

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Typically, teacher leadership programs are formal in nature and are organized by institutions such as schools, districts, universities, and professional organizations (York-Barr & Duke, 2004). This might involve an initiative by an individual school administration to establish “master teachers” for supporting other teachers at the school (Ross et al., 2011) or a sustained professional development workshop in a specific subject area (Klein et al., 2018). Some programs may be limited to teachers of certain subjects (Yow & Lotter, 2016), while others are aimed more broadly at improving instruction as a whole (Yost et al., 2009). Studies by Sinha and Hanuscin (2017) and Carver (2016) investigate examples of multi-year leadership programs for teachers seeking to promote high-level achievement in  local schools by means of teacher leadership development. Universities, too, provide formal degree- and certificate-offering educational leadership programs. Berg et al. (2014) and Taylor et al. (2011) highlight two master’s degree programs in teacher leadership that focus on the teachers’ lines of inquiry themselves and their potential to enact culturally responsive change in their own school environments. The development and enactment of teacher leadership, however, are not bound to formal, designed programs. Theoretical frameworks such as distributed leadership (Sánchez & Menken, 2020) and communities of practice (Wenner & Campbell, 2018) situate teacher leadership as a fundamentally collective and shared phenomenon between teachers, staff, families, administration, and other educational partners beyond the school. Klein et al. (2018) state that leadership programs must recognize that, “rather than paying attention to the individual engaging in teacher leadership, it is essential to understand teacher leadership as a series of interacting relationships taking place in linked contexts” (p.  109). Through collaborating with other teachers in mutual support, teachers can begin to develop as leaders regardless of the formality of a program or organized space (Ross et al., 2011; York-Barr & Duke, 2004).

Program Structures and Outcomes In addition, the structural components of formal and informal teacher leadership programs vary greatly (Kendall, 2019). Despite this, research

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on the effectiveness of teacher leadership programs has identified some shared characteristics that may facilitate the development and identification of leadership (Poekert et  al., 2016; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). Programs typically spend considerable time exploring pre-conceptions about what teacher leadership is, coming to a common vision, and reading about the leadership development and experiences of other teacher leaders (Clemans et al., 2012). Programs often integrate regular reflection, feedback, writing and journaling, and transformative learning experiences (Carver, 2016; Clemans et  al., 2012). Turning to their own contexts, teachers would have space to identify opportunities to lead in their schools or community, requiring them to become knowledgeable about the structures, policies, and relationships within their own school and local educational structures (York-Barr & Duke, 2004) while growing in their pedagogical content knowledge (Green & Kent, 2016). Action research and other action-based projects are a common characteristic (Taylor et al., 2011) and reflect the need for job-embedded programs (Ross et  al., 2011) and the notion of leadership as practice (Sinha & Hanuscin, 2017). Finally, development and support cannot end after the conclusion of the program; concurrent, ongoing, sustained support is needed, which might come in the form of a mentor advising and advocating for the teacher (Klein et al., 2018), opportunities to build a shared network through an online platform (Clemans et al., 2012), or regular follow-up meetings (Carver, 2016). Research has shown that engagement in formal and semi-formal leadership programs can bring about a number of intended and unintended outcomes. First, through a combination of programmatic and community support, teachers can begin to understand that leadership is already part of their identity and work. Studies have reported that this gradual process may take significant time and can be non-linear (Poekert et al., 2016; Sinha & Hanuscin, 2017), and self-identification as a leader often coincides with growth in confidence as a teacher (Mentzer et al., 2014) and a leader (Green & Kent, 2016). Depending on the orientation of the program, teachers may develop more nuanced understandings of leadership, namely the capability of leaders to enact influence and change in formal and informal contexts (Klein et al., 2018). Research has shown that teachers can develop a stronger sense of empathy toward their

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colleagues’ background experiences and beliefs, which assists in building trusting relationships with them, influencing their teaching, and challenging them to reconsider their practice (Green & Kent, 2016). These leadership actions are not confined to the teachers’ classroom or their school, but can include seeking opportunities for self-development at universities, through research, or advocacy (York-Barr & Duke, 2004).

Language Teacher Leadership Programs Much like general teacher leadership programming, language teacher leadership programs can vary in structures, rationales, level of formality, and intended and achieved outcomes. In this section, we focus on language teacher leadership programs, highlighting commonalities and differences, and integrating a selection of WL and multilingual language teacher leadership programs and subsequent research efforts that encompass a range of structures, goals, intended outcomes, and approaches to research.

Program Rationale One common rationale for developing language teacher leadership programs is to impact language teachers’ pedagogical practice and thus enhance students’ target language proficiency or multilingual growth. In language teaching in particular, these pedagogical practices are often focused on proficiency-based, communicative, high-leverage teaching practices (Glisan & Donato, 2017) and culturally and linguistically appropriate bilingual instruction, such as translanguaging pedagogy (García & Kleifgen, 2018). Initiatives of professional pedagogical development are often driven by the needs of the school district or state, by initiatives of neighboring universities specializing in language teacher education, or by national, state, and regional language teaching associations. Geographical location and regional or state demographics can impact initiatives, such as in the case of a large bilingual or heritage speaking population of the languages taught or access to linguistic and

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cultural diversity in the community (Espinet et  al., 2020; Sánchez & Menken, 2020). As schools and programs reach learners in different types of course contexts (i.e., language sequence, advanced placement, heritage language, dual immersion), the needs and therefore leadership development initiatives will shift. It is common that leadership learning and development efforts are often found under the umbrella of professional pedagogical development for teachers as an additional or optional programming that not all teachers can or will pursue. A study from Lozano et al. (2004) highlights how early programming initiatives from the California World Language Project (CWLP) accomplished overall goals of teacher pedagogical and opportunities for content learning, but that more opportunities should be provided for leadership development such as conference presentations, involvement in administrative and curricular decision making, and mentorship. Currently, programs focusing primarily on leadership rather than pedagogical development highlight efforts in teacher development of leadership and communication skills, integration within an active professional community of language teacher leaders, willingness and drive to implement pedagogical development programming, and awareness of national and state language policies (Steele et al., 2009). Another purpose of teacher leadership programming is to grow and diversify the leadership pipeline for the future of language education leaders while increasing the number of individuals in formal leadership and administrative positions. Ritz and Sherf (2021) and Scanlan and López (2012) highlight a lack of WL and bi/multilingual specialists in administrative positions across school districts despite the research-­ supported idea that specialists in administrative positions who supervise and support language teachers have a positive impact on teaching practice (Ritz & Sherf, 2022). A small body of research in WL leadership highlights initiatives in a collaborative or distributed leadership model to address these challenges (Baldwin, 2021; Jansa, 2019; Sánchez & Menken, 2020) where teachers and department leaders are encouraged to bring their specialized knowledge and experiences to administrative and decision-making processes.

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Program Structures and Outcomes Similar to general teacher leadership programs, language teacher leadership programs vary in structure and goals and intended outcomes. Development opportunities for teachers are offered at the school, district, state, or national level. School-based language teacher leadership programs are often semi-formal and take place within existing relationships between schools and university language initiatives. A study by Sánchez and Menken (2020) highlights the formation of teacher groups called “Emergent Bilingual Leadership Teams” that embody the belief that the development of language teacher leadership is situated in practice. After the principal formed the teams to create a plan of action to improve bilingual education for multilingual learners within their school, the appointed teachers themselves “quickly took over, … involving the principal once the group reached consensus on any changes they recommended” (p. 71). Similarly, Espinet et al. (2020) describe another school-based initiative aimed at encouraging teachers’ reflections on and implementation of translanguaging pedagogy. University faculty and doctoral students formed a leadership team that collaborated with school administrators and teachers to consider plans of action for sustaining the linguistic repertoires of their emergent bilingual students. Some programs, such as those stemming from various sites of the California World Language Project, present professional development with the belief that teachers with sound pedagogical practices become leaders in the field as they promote effective practices (CWLP, 2023). Others offer specialized training under the umbrella of professional development as an additional line of inquiry once language teachers have completed the pedagogical training sequence, such as the Stanford World Language Project Leadership Strand (Steele et  al., 2009). Finally, programs such as the Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL) are designed for proficient and experienced WL education partners to develop their leadership skills as they pursue leadership roles in schools, districts, and professional organizations. As such, language teacher leadership programs have different purposes, formalities, structures, and intended outcomes and can be led by administrators, university

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professors, language leaders at the state or national level, or by language teachers themselves.

Research Question Despite the breadth of research on teacher leadership programs, little scholarship has examined the rationale, structures, foundational assumptions, and effectiveness of language teacher leadership programs specifically. Given these needs, we turn our attention toward a unique and undocumented national-level WL teacher leadership program in the United States—the Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL)— and consider how an analysis of the program may contribute to the design of more effective language teacher leadership programs. To this end, our case study research was guided by the question: What are the origins, characteristics, and perceived outcomes of the Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL)?

Methods We approached this examination of the LILL program as qualitative case study research. Our investigation recognizes the LILL program and its four cohorts as one unique case. In line with much case study research (Yin, 2014), multiple forms of data were collected for the analysis. First, we conducted semi-structured interviews with three individuals involved in the program: one organizer (Shawn) and two emerging WL teacher leaders (Carrie and Rose). Second, we collected and analyzed documents pertaining to the LILL program, which included publicly available web pages as well as documents and information shared with us by participants. Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from participants prior to data collection. Analysis of the data involved multiple rounds of independent researcher coding (Bhattacharya, 2017). Our coding schema was informed by the literature on the components and characteristics of (language) teacher leadership programs with an emphasis on how programs conceptualize

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(language) teacher leadership and how participants perceived their participation in the program. We worked to ensure empirical validity through regular dialogic engagement between researchers as well as methodological and data triangulation (Ravitch & Carl, 2016). Finally, it is important to note that we, the researchers, are not involved in or affiliated with LILL. Our interest in the program stems from our investment in the fields of WL and multilingual teacher education.

Findings The case study begins with an analysis of an interview with a program organizer, Shawn, in addition to documents and websites detailing the LILL program. After exploring the origins, structure, and outcomes of the program, we examine how two participating emerging teacher leaders—Carrie and Rose—experienced and were influenced by the program.

The Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL) The Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL) was established in 2015 as a leadership program for WL teachers, partners, and advocates across the United States. Each year, LILL leverages national and regional WL organizations to identify emerging leaders within the profession to form a cohort for a sustained, 2-year leadership program. The participants, called “LILL Advocates” or “Emerging Leaders,” work together to fulfill their leadership capacities through discovering needs for change within their individual contexts, reflecting on their strengths and networks, and collaborating with new WL colleagues from around the country. Housed within the national organization for WL education in the United States, the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), LILL represents the only national-level leadership program for WL educators. In this section, we analyze the LILL program, including its origins, rationale, structure, conceptualization of teacher leadership, programmatic components, and outcomes, both intended and those experienced by program completers.

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Origins, Mission, and Vision of LILL The conception of the LILL leadership program emerged out of proactivity, urgency, and necessity at the intersection of the issues faced by the field of WL education. In recent years, expanding the number of language teacher advocates and leaders has become a priority. Shawn characterizes these origins in describing that LILL initially arose out of regional and national conversations about the future of the WL profession: “Instead of looking around and seeing the same people doing everything, you need to plan proactively for the future. That was really the impetus behind the whole initiative—really to identify how you would create a leadership pipeline that was connected to existing organizations.” Given the urgent need for growing leadership in the field, nine WL organizations came together to envision the program, develop its mission and vision, and organize the structure. These included ACTFL, two other national language organizations, and the five regional WL teachers’ organizations. In this way, LILL represents the comprehensive product of the collaboration of all major WL organizations in the United States. The mission and vision of LILL have undergone some transformation since its conception in 2015. What originally began as collaborative professional development experience for existing leaders has grown into an intentional pipeline for identifying and developing new leaders in the field. Shawn explains that, “by the third cohort, it was really important to give more guidance to organizations. And that guidance was very specific and strategic to say: ‘Use this as a leadership development process, not an honoring of existing leadership.’” Thus, as of early 2023, the program states the following: LILL’s mission and vision are to empower individuals to become agents for change, foster a growth mindset focused on effective teaching and learning, and purposefully nurture leadership skills, all in the service of learners. … This initiative aims to bring the best and brightest language educators, teacher leaders, and national experts to explore this issue and others. This Emerging Leader will have the opportunity to discover her or his sphere of influence for effecting change, engage with peers, and create a proactive plan to grow as an effective leader and language teacher.

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The program did not always have such a defined mission and vision. When it began in 2015, it shared more of a resemblance to typical professional development for language teachers. Participants began the first LILL cohort by taking part in a multi-day workshop on the new high-­ leverage teaching practices (HLTPs) for WL teaching (Glisan & Donato, 2017). There was some expectation at the time for teachers to facilitate the implementation of this new initiative by educating other language teachers in their own contexts. While a focus on the HLTPs is still present in the program “like this subtle underground river” (Shawn), it has grown since Cohort 2 to encompass developing leadership capacity for change across a diverse range of individual and organizational needs.

Participant Diversity and Nomination Process As of early 2023, LILL is preparing for its fifth cohort of LILL Advocates. To date, 183 teachers and WL partners have been involved in Cohorts 1–4, with approximately 35 to 60 in each. While most participants are WL or modern language teachers from the elementary to postsecondary levels, others are involved in WL education outside of the classroom, such as school and district administrators, WL supervisors in state departments of education, and university language teacher educators. Participants are solicited primarily through leadership boards of the 50+ state WL organizations and five regional organizations, as well as more specific organizations such as those for less commonly taught languages. To promote equity and diminish hierarchical influences, self-­ nominations have also been accepted in recent cohorts. According to the nomination request application, eligible nominees “must be an educator that has demonstrated excellence in working in world languages for a minimum of 3 years” (ACTFL, 2023b, p. 2). Nominees should also be active in the field, exhibit energy, grit, positivity, a growth mindset, leadership, and service to the profession, be self-confident, willing to carry out LILL obligations, and represent the program in their state, regional, and national organizations. When nominating potential LILL Advocates, the program board “strongly encourages organizations to consider LILL Emerging Leaders that have the potential to impact the organization,

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not necessarily existing leaders that are already doing so” (ACTFL, 2023a, n.p.). The program provides funding ($500 per year) for associated expenses (registration, travel, housing). After the cohort is confirmed, new LILL Advocates take part in an initial virtual meeting in the spring and a three-day in-person Summer 1 Institute a few months after. The cohort and facilitators then meet virtually two to three times over the course of the next school year for “bridge-year experiences” (August through May) before returning for a final in-person Summer 2 Institute.

Conceptualization of Teacher Leadership LILL is based on the premise that “every educator is a leader and strives to be highly effective.” Similar to other teacher leadership programs, LILL believes teacher leadership can be further developed with appropriate conditions and supports. Shawn describes how leadership “develops through experiences and through connections” and that participants are “engaged in their own leadership within the development of leadership.” In this way, LILL considers engagement in leadership development through the program as an act of leadership itself. Further, LILL stresses the importance of understanding leadership “as capacity, both individually and organizationally,” in which effective leadership development is dependent upon organizational support and guidance. Central to the program’s principles is the “spheres of influence” framework (Fig. 1) which describes the potential influence teacher leaders have on people, practices, and policies around them. Through LILL, teachers reflect on the levels in which they work as well as opportunities for enacting change and branching into further levels. Emerging leaders first have an influence in their classroom by guiding and inspiring students; however, Shawn describes how, through the development of leadership, “the circle keeps getting bigger and bigger. … But then quickly, you may be leading in your department, in your school, in your district or institution campus-wide, multi campus-wide, state, regional, national, international.” Recognizing the individuals within one’s multiple spheres of influence is a fundamental part of the program.

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Fig. 1  “Spheres of Influence” framework from the LILL program

Programmatic Components Across the summer institutes and mid-year virtual meetings, LILL facilitators design and implement a number of approaches and strategies to grow leadership skills and community. In this section we highlight three areas of development: Leadership Skill Development, the Action Plan, and Mentorship and Collaboration. Leadership Skill Development  Recognizing teachers’ capacity for leadership while developing their leadership skills is at the center of the LILL program. To reach these outcomes, program organizers and facilitators organized various activities across the virtual and in-person meetings. The foremost component of the program was the StrengthsFinder platform from Gallup (Rath, 2007), in which individuals complete the assessment to determine their top strengths and personality themes. The assessment also provides insights, actions, and questions for reflection. From these results, they reflect on their potential strengths as leaders as well as areas where the strengths of others can complete them. Shawn explains that:

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A lot of it was looking carefully at your own skill set. … What skills do you have within you? And also finding your own passion. So, once I know that this is my strength, I know that then I’m going to have to tap other people for these strengths that I don’t have. … A lot of the work with each cohort was, as they were thinking about their [Action] Plan, “Okay, what is it that you bring to it? Who do you need to involve?”

To sum, one LILL Advocate, Wilma Dunkle, explains how LILL teachers “will never be strong leaders by leading through the lens of a strength we don’t genuinely possess” but that they can “magnify our leadership lens with a focus on our collective, balanced strengths” (2021, p. 21). Upon starting in LILL, teachers are encouraged to join informal “affinity groups” comprising teachers of similar work backgrounds, contexts, or advocacy interests. The purpose of the groups is to assist teachers in building a support network and recognizing who and what one needs to accomplish their goals. Groups could be centered on various contexts and factors, such as organizational structure (e.g., state, regional, or national needs) or goal type (e.g., pedagogy, membership, website) in order to gather like-minded emerging leaders. Despite these groups being a planned part of the program, they were informal in nature, and teachers were able to move between groups how they wished. As Shawn explained, “It’s very fluid and it might change. It’s not like you’re in one group the entire journey. … It’s a fluid regrouping and letting people choose.” Teachers found a supportive group of new colleagues working within contexts similar to their own. The LILL organizers wanted to provide participants with the opportunity to practice navigating their spheres of influence. Within these groups, teachers took part in “challenging conversations” through which they role played difficult conversations they had previously experienced with colleagues, administrators, or parents. Shawn explains the approach: People wrote down scenarios like, ‘This is what I’ve encountered. This is what I need help with.’ And we took those and then had groups. They were sort of clustered under categories, and people took them and then re-­ enacted the conversation. … And actually walking through those made it always very personal and adaptable. It wasn’t that the scenarios were invented for them. They came from their own experience.

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In this way, the conversations were designed to be intentional, impactful, and directly applicable to their own background experiences. Action Plan  The centerpiece of the LILL program is the action plan, which provides teachers with an actionable space to consider how to make change within their organization, school, or WL classroom. The project spans the entirety of the program and acts as a cohesive thread for leadership development. According to the ACTFL website for LILL: The LILL Emerging Leaders’ development of an action plan is a key element in this leadership initiative. It should be an organic and dynamic process starting in the first summer by evaluating the needs of the organization and putting an action plan in place that both supports the organization and aligns to the passions of the LILL Emerging Leader.

Advocates start to develop their project during the first summer institute and begin implementation during the bridge year. The second summer institute focuses “on providing support and building leadership capacity to overcome challenges and barriers” (ACTFL, 2023a, n.p.) in implementing the plan. The project includes various components that participants build over time, including their personal vision and mission, a title, description, and rationale for their action plan, potential challenges they may face, and collaborators they would need to connect with to be successful. Finally, they design the tasks required to meet their goals and a timeline for action. Shawn explains that, despite the action plan being a major piece of the program, There is no failure. A project may not work out as planned. It may never have a visible product at the end. That doesn’t mean it’s a failure. It means things changed and maybe there was a new priority or in the implementing of a project, we realized, “Wait, this wasn’t the most important thing that we could do.” … I think that has been from the beginning part of the whole message that there isn’t failure. There’s just growth.

Mentorship and Collaboration  Recognizing how “leadership doesn’t happen in a vacuum” (Shawn), LILL programming consistently promotes space for collaboration, network-building, and sustained mentor-

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ship. Shawn explains that “the only way you can improve is by having colleagues on whom you can lean and from whom you can get feedback. That support and collegiality and collaboration have been definitely the whole structure from the very beginning of the institute.” To cultivate sustained relationships between program years, the cohort facilitation team is often made up of previous LILL Advocates. This allows new emerging leaders to learn from those who have experience in the program while encouraging informed changes and improvements to be made. Feedback and reflection are found within every aspect of LILL, including the challenging conversations activity and the development, refinement, and implementation of the action plans. Community forms naturally through participation in affinity groups and the ongoing in-person institutes and virtual meetings. In addition, LILL Advocates created a Facebook page where members of all cohorts can continue to stay in touch, tap each other for advice, or contribute new ideas to a collective of WL leaders. Further, regional WL conferences and the national ACTFL conference typically schedule gatherings for any LILL Advocates to meet informally and re-create community.

Narratives of Two LILL Advocates Rose Rose always had an interest in language, culture, international travel, and education, which led her to a career as a high school French teacher. At the time of the interview, Rose had over 15 years of high school French teaching experience, school administrative experience, and leadership experiences in state level and national organizations and was currently serving as president of her state language association. Having finished her LILL cohort, she had begun serving as a LILL advocate and mentor for future LILL emerging leaders. Rose reflects on the strong, supportive, and encouraging mentors she had early in her career that helped her learn and develop as a professional and helped her connect to others. Early in her teaching career, she became involved in ACTFL, and through her graduate studies her mentors connected her with LILL, a series of

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experiences that she describes as “connecting the dots that put me on the leadership journey in education, not just the teacher journey.” Rose reflects, “if you’re a leader in the teaching world, then you stay in the game. Retention is all about good mentors,” emphasizing the importance of continued mentorship and its impact on the profession. Rose highlights three main outcomes, the leadership skills developed through LILL instructional routines, developing the action plan, and the network and community of other language teacher leaders. When Rose began in LILL, she was conflicted in that she had expected, “another groundbreaking way of doing world language education,” as the first cohort was focused on core pedagogical practices, and the organizing team had modified their approach for Cohort 2. She remembers, “they explained to us how we needed to find our own path, we’re being given leadership skills to lead in an area that we feel comfortable or confident.” When she first realized she was to create an action plan, she recalls feeling like she wasn’t sure what to focus on and that she was going to fail out of the program. Her worries were met with LILL organizer Shawn’s reassurance as he explained her feelings meant she was ready and open to consider her own path. She mentions feeling “nervousness and imposter syndrome in the beginning,” but the network and LILL community helped her overcome those feelings and find her place in LILL and as a language teacher leader. She often referred to her LILL “family” as a supportive, helpful community, one that “I know at any point, I can text three dozen people and ask any sort of question and they would have my back immediately.” Being the president of her state’s language association, Rose’s action plan came at a time when she was tasked with organization of the state conference. She was able to reflect on the needs of her organization, her skills as a leader, and was “bolstered and supported into being able to clearly define my mission and vision.” Rose integrated her own mission and vision into planning the state conference in a more sustainable and supportive way. Rose reflected on the process of creating the action plan and said, “even though they were completely different, we did them in conference and checked in with each other,” highlighting the collaborative process which contributed to her feelings of success. When met with challenges, she was able to rely on her LILL community to reassure her,

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to support her, and to be available to talk through her plan. The LILL community continues to be active and connected on social media and colleagues communicate about troubleshooting problems, brainstorming, and supporting each other through challenges (e.g., how to organize conferences during COVID). Rose fully believes in giving back to LILL and discusses efforts in growing and diversifying the leadership pipeline in her current LILL leadership roles. She stresses a focus on bringing in emerging teacher leaders earlier on in their leadership journey. Rose reflects, “we were already kind of leaders, and then we got to be better leaders. We want people who are right at the beginning of their journey… because those are the people that we really want to connect with so that they feel like they have full support to take that journey.” Rose believes that when emerging leaders can “connect with people who are two, or three, or ten steps ahead of you,” it allows them to visualize the leadership possibilities in the field. She emphasizes that LILL gives teachers the vision and the support to “push people forward and try out things they didn’t think that would have.”

Carrie Carrie began her career as an elementary Spanish teacher by chance, as her original plans were to teach at the secondary level. Through the support of a mentor in her first years of teaching, she started to present at conferences, lead workshops, and get involved with her state WL organization. This led to further opportunities teaching some university teacher education courses and becoming a state representative for a national professional organization. This organization approached her with the opportunity to take part in the second cohort of LILL.  Despite her prior leadership experiences in WL organizations, she initially felt out of place in the program. Carrie explains: I felt very much like when I first started in LILL, that I didn’t belong there … Sitting in Cohort 2 and looking around and seeing people introduce themselves, they were all like presidents and supervisors, and I just felt like I was “just a teacher.” Even though I was serving in different leadership roles, I didn’t really see myself as anything more than that.

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In addition to these feelings of inadequacy, Carrie initially felt overwhelmed by the prospect of creating and implementing an action plan. Her national organization, having nominated and sponsored her participation in the program, defined for her what the focus of the action plan should be—building and sustaining membership in their organization. She found that, in her first year, there was a significant emphasis on detailing and rationalizing the project. She described how she felt like she “was flailing a little bit. I didn’t know what to do” because “it felt like there was so much pressure in my first year to produce this thing that I don’t even think I could put into words how to even do it.” As she began her second year, however, there were noticeable changes: “They really took it in a different direction … It really focused more on your own personal leadership.” She described how the program began to center much more on each LILL Advocate’s personal vision and mission, which were used to reflect on and inform their action plans in a new light. She wholeheartedly welcomed these changes to the project, which “made it much more attainable.” Carrie’s action plan, which initially focused on recruiting new organizational members, expanded to involve creating professional development, redesigning their organization’s website, and connecting WL teachers together, especially during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. She attributes her action plan’s success to the fact that it was not her working on it alone, but rather a collaboration with board members from her organization and her new LILL colleagues. In this way, she developed an understanding of leadership as working collectively. She explains, “I’m not going to be in a leadership role in [this organization] forever. You have to kind of roll off and let other people rise to their potential.” In fact, she became a mentor for the next LILL Advocate from her organization who shared the same concerns about their own action plan. Contrasting her own experience, Carrie’s feedback to the new LILL Advocate was: “I think you should think about your strengths and your passions and what you really feel like you could bring to the organization.” The community created within LILL was a major outcome for Carrie. She explained how that community “took what seemed like a really daunting task and made it much more manageable when you could sit down with people, these wonderful thinkers and leaders, in one space.”

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Reflecting on her new network of colleagues and friends, she shared that “we all kind of trust and admire each other.” That feeling of belonging continued after the conclusion of the program through the Facebook group, which has become “a wealth of information that comes from all of these people” and “just continues to grow.” Another one of the most impactful parts of LILL for Carrie were the challenging conversations. She explained that “it kind of felt like therapy. Like you were going through it and you were saying it out loud and you were talking it through it with someone…I guess it made me a more reflective teacher and leader.” Overall, the program helped Carrie recognize the limitations of how she perceives issues in her professional work. Specifically, LILL helped her in “leaving space for nuance,” namely understanding that “it doesn’t have to be either this or that. There can be a complex way to handle a situation.”

Discussion The purpose of this research was to examine the origins, characteristics, and outcomes of the Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL), a leadership program for WL teachers in the United States. Analysis of the interviews and program documents establishes LILL as a unique space for language teacher leadership development and presents evidence that the structure of LILL is working to meet the needs of the WL teaching profession. Since its initial cohort, LILL has worked to move away from inviting pre-existing leaders to the “table,” and instead has collaborated with national and regional organizations to identify WL teachers who are just beginning their leadership journey. Further, LILL has transformed from a more traditional program focused on improving teachers’ pedagogical practice into an autonomous and flexible space for building the leadership capacity of contextually diverse WL education partners from across the United States. In these ways, the program has grown closer to meeting its primary goal to “create a leadership pipeline” for the WL teaching profession. Despite the formal structure of the program, one organizer (Shawn) and two emerging leaders (Carrie and Rose) described how many

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non-­formal parts of the program, namely relationship building and constant reflection, were particularly impactful for them and others in their development as leaders. First, LILL participants had consistent opportunities throughout the 2 years of the program to question and reconsider what teacher leadership is. Rather than conceptualizing it solely as someone inhabiting a formal position of leadership, LILL encourages its participants to recognize that all WL teachers are already leaders and that all teachers have an influence on the people and structures around them. Second, the program designed experiences allowing teachers to recognize that leaders cannot function in isolation and must rely on the strengths of others. To illustrate, Rose and Carrie attributed the success of their action plans and their leadership development to the support and feedback from their LILL “family” and respective sponsoring organizations. Finally, LILL has worked to emphasize the critical value of participating in the program (i.e., the process) over any products that may result from that participation. By designing a collective space that is flexible, fluid, and low-stakes, LILL participants understand that their own individual process of building leadership capacity is the primary objective of the program rather than an expectation to return to their respective organizations as a certified leader with a refined and guaranteed plan of action. How does LILL relate to the literature on (language) teacher leadership programs? Like many programs (Carver, 2016; Klein et al., 2018; Sinha & Hanuscin, 2017), the first cohort of LILL shared a pronounced focus on improving teachers’ practice through the high-leverage teaching practices (HLTPs) for WL teaching (Glisan & Donato, 2017). It did so as these core practices were being developed and presented in the field, thereby acting as a means of facilitating reform in the field through the dissemination of best practices across the country. Soon after this, however, the focus on the HLTPs moved into the background and a stronger emphasis on personal leadership development arose. Like other programs, LILL also conceptualizes teacher leadership in similar ways, namely that it is naturally collective, distributed, and is built through relationships and interactions with others (Ross et  al., 2011; Sánchez & Menken, 2020; Wenner & Campbell, 2018). Finally, LILL shares many components and characteristics with existing teacher leadership programs, such as ongoing opportunities for reflection and collaboration, sustained support, and action-focused projects.

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LILL stands apart from other programs in multiple ways. First, it is a national program specifically for WL educators organized by and pulling from state, regional, and national language organizations rather than a school- or district-based initiative (Carver, 2016; Espinet et  al., 2020; Klein et al., 2018). In this way, LILL leverages teacher leadership development to address broad needs in the field rather than gaps in WL teaching and learning in specific schools. Second, the contextual diversity of the program’s participants is noteworthy. Unlike most leadership programs, LILL Advocates are not exclusively teachers; they inhabit a variety of positions, locations, prior leadership experiences, and affiliations with professional organizations, yet are each connected to WL education in their professional work and their novice leadership level. This is mirrored in their action plans; despite the variation in project type, context, and purpose, the shared thread between them is their multifaceted support for the field of WL teaching.

 ecommendations for Language Teacher R Leadership Programs Those seeking to organize a program or semi-formal space for the development of language teacher leadership have a growing corpus of available literature to inform their work. To this end, we present a selection of recommendations for consideration when designing, planning, and implementing a language teacher leadership program. These recommendations representing guiding principles were identified by synthesizing the findings of the current research with findings and recommendations from related programs and studies: • Valuing participant diversity and autonomy. Programs should be flexible and welcoming toward the diverse language professional positions, professional goals, and contextual needs of its potential participants. • Identifying emergent leaders. Organizers should situate the leadership program as a space for emerging rather than existing language teacher leaders.

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• Modeling collective and reflective understandings of leadership. Programs should model the distributed and collective nature of language teacher leadership while designing programmatic components that encourage participants to reflect on strengths and identify opportunities for collaboration. • Facilitating community. Programs should prioritize formal and informal spaces for language teachers to build relationships and community within and between groups with shared professional experiences and goals. • Sustaining support. Organizers should consider the programmatic structures that are in place to facilitate a network of support that is sustained beyond a participant’s completion of the program. • Centering action-focused projects. Programs may benefit from the creation of a structured yet flexible and process-focused project for participants to identify needs within their own language teaching or advocacy contexts and collaborate to consider actionable ways to address them. • Establishing previous participants as facilitators. Program participants can benefit from guidance and mentorship from program facilitators who have previously taken part in the program as emergent language teacher leaders. The LILL program in the United States contributes substantially to understandings of what language teacher leadership is and how it is best supported in formal and semi-formal settings. LILL contrasts other (language) teacher leadership initiatives in that it is uniquely positioned as a national rather than local or state program encompassing participants’ pedagogical, advocacy, and organizational needs in their specific contexts. It stands as a proactive response to the needs of the WL profession while remaining an autonomous, sustained, and participant-driven community for building leadership capacity. By centering the diverse identities and leadership capacities of emergent leaders themselves, language teacher leadership programs are able to build a pipeline of agentic and empathetic advocates for language teaching and learning.

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Reflective Questions 1. How might the structure of the LILL program be adapted to meet the language teacher leadership needs of your context? 2. Consider the narratives of Rose and Carrie. What similarities do you see in their journey as emerging world language teacher leaders? What aspects of the LILL program seemed most suited to facilitate their journeys? 3. What benefits or disadvantages do you feel that formal leadership programs may have in comparison to more informal spaces for language teacher leadership development? Ethical Approval  This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects of the University of Oklahoma (Approved 24 January 2022, No. 14211).

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“Womentoring” as Leadership Development in the Field of TESOL Laura Baecher, Araceli Salas, Luciana C. de Oliveira, Jennifer D. Pendergrass, Lenora Haranaka, and Hind Elyas

Whenever we meet [on Zoom], it feels like we have known each other for ages. A group of women from different continents, different backgrounds, different life stories that are together, no matter what, simply because we believe in each other… No judgment. No egos. No hidden agendas. Just the genuine joy of being together and supporting each other, always. (Lenora)

What are the particular challenges of women in the field of TESOL/ TEFL globally? How do culture and context shape the conditions for

L. Baecher (*) Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA e-mail: [email protected] A. Salas Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] L. C. de Oliveira Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_12

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women to advance in their ELT careers? We, a collective of women in the global TESOL community, came together in 2020 just as the global pandemic created new challenges for women working and teaching from home. We began with an urge to connect and deepen our professional and personal relationships and as we did so, we reduced our isolation during this time of remote work. We then saw the possibilities of reaching and engaging even more women across nations and time zones. We determined to engage in an exploration of how women were navigating their professional advancement by discussing this question informally with each other as colleagues, friends, and peer-to-peer “womentors”. From these conversations, we grew into a special interest group of TESOL International and hosted a public symposium and several webinars related to this topic, gathering insights and perspectives from our attendees along the way. In this chapter, we present themes we noted as part of this large social networking process in which we solicited women’s testimonios—first person accounts (Reyes & Curry Rodríguez, 2012). Then, the testimonios were layered with themes that emerged as we wrote our own personal narratives about our leadership development. This chapter situates our findings and recommendations against the broader background of leadership development in ELT and women’s leadership development.

J. D. Pendergrass Floyd County Schools, Rome, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] L. Haranaka Cultura Inglesa, São Paulo, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] H. Elyas Niagara College, The Leading National Academy, Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected]

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 hat Does the Literature Say About Women’s W Leadership Development? Before we look at women’s leadership in the TESOL field, it is first important to distinguish between “leader development” and “leadership development” (Day, 2000, p.  583). This distinction provides a useful framework when considering how women can look at their own development and how they can support others. Day posits that leader development is concerned with the individual, and therefore the emphasis is on developing a single person, focusing in particular on their intrapersonal competence—for example, the development of self-awareness, self-­ regulation, and self-motivation. Leadership development, on the other hand, emphasizes building collective leadership capacity across a whole organization, and is a process which is grounded in building relationships and the ability of workers to collaboratively generate direction. It is therefore concerned with developing interpersonal competence by focusing on social awareness (for example, empathy and service to others) and social skills (for example, the ability to work together constructively and manage conflict) (Day et al., 2014). For the purposes of this article, the term “leadership development” is used in its most general sense to encompass both individual (leader) and collective (leadership) development, noting that attention must be paid to both aspects when considering the developmental needs of an organization and its staff. One of the challenges of investigating women’s leadership development is that this kind of research may emerge in almost every field, from finance to the arts, to education and psychology. This leadership spread makes for various models and frameworks across disciplines. Despite this, three important themes emerge from the generic leadership development literature (e.g. Day & Dragoni, 2015): (1) leadership is primarily learnt through first-hand experience which is accrued over time; (2) leadership is learnt through social connections and the input of others; and (3) leadership development is strongly linked to context (Bailey et  al., 2009; Stephenson, 2018). Indeed, leadership development is nuanced by the environment and organizational climate in which it operates (Day & Harrison, 2007).

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Clearly, women’s trajectories in traditionally male-dominated industries will look different from those in traditionally female professions, like teaching. “Organizations, particularly those that are male-dominated, are not gender-neutral—they reflect environments where women’s presence, performance, and success are scrutinized, measured, and evaluated differently from men’s” (Hopkins et al., 2008, p. 350). Overall, women’s leadership development has become an emerging field of research as women have stepped into leadership roles in almost all fields of knowledge and public life. The development of leadership involves challenges for men and women, yet according to Ely et al. (2011), women face significant barriers to leadership development due to the stereotypes and gender roles that still prevail. These barriers are particularly pronounced and stressful for women taking on leadership roles in contexts where they must also cross racial, linguistic, cultural, religious, and other boundaries. Although gender is seen as a social construction (Douglas, 2010), beliefs and social practices hinder women’s leadership development, and these also contribute to how women envision leadership. Hopkins et al. (2008) note that some research has found that “women tend to define career success as an interest in intrinsically rewarding roles, personal achievements, self-­ development, and work–life balance, whereas men tend to view success as high salaries, moving up the corporate ladder, and achieving status” (p. 349). This may translate into women being seen as preferring to display more warm, participatory, and democratic leadership behaviors. In looking at how women in leadership roles behave, research has suggested that women in management positions tend to display more relationship-­ driven approaches, with a greater emphasis on individual mentoring than men (Eagly et al., 2003). Some studies have shown that women tend to have higher emotional intelligence, displaying more care and empathy for their employees when holding management roles, as well as more distributive leadership styles where they share information and decision-­ making (Boyatzis & Goleman, 2007). Key developmental processes that have been identified as being effective in the general leadership development literature are the use of mentors and coaching, participation in networking, and feedback on

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performance. These processes support individual and group development and are most impactful when linked with a focus on broader principles, rather than only identifying a remedy or completing particular tasks (Day, 2000). Applying these key processes to women, Hopkins et  al. (2008) conclude that due to women’s different time demands, priorities, role expectations, and preferred interactional style, leadership development designed for women must look different than programs of leadership development designed for men. They identified a set of seven practices for developing women leadership, which can be designed as formal or informal practices within organizations, briefly outlined here: 1. Assessment: use leadership appraisal tools with an understanding that they may be biased toward men’s workplace styles, and support women in asking for 360-degree feedback that will be developmental. 2. Training and Education: offer women-only leadership training opportunities and encourage women to inquire about and complete organizational training programs to enhance leadership knowledge and practice. 3. Coaching: practice a holistic approach to leadership development for women by using work–life integration and career–phase-specific insights, and advocate for professional executive coaching for women leaders as an ongoing developmental strategy. 4. Mentoring: assist women in cultivating both female and male mentors, in actively managing their mentoring relationships, and in defining strategic learning objectives for the mentoring relationships, and support women in developing the skills needed to play the role of both mentee and mentor supporters and builders of other leaders in a cycle of continuous socially and contextually grounded professional learning (Bailey, 2020). In addition to the benefits identified to the individual (growth and renewal) and to the organization (greater commitment to strategic goals and better-informed decision-making), Stephenson (2020) has also claimed that the systematic interweaving of leadership into individual and collective behaviors is a key means of increasing professionalism across the ELT industry.

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Outside of LTA leadership, which is generally voluntary, there is less research on what leadership development looks like for TESOL professionals in the workplace—such as in administrative positions at schools, universities, or institutes. One challenge is the flat hierarchies of educational institutions. In comparing our leadership development opportunities in teaching to other fields (medicine, business, etc.), our pathways are more uneven and unclear. In other professions, oftentimes the pathways to promotion and titles are apparent, and those who are not able to produce results let go of sooner. In P-12 education, the structure is completely flat—you are a teacher whether you are a superstar with 20 years of experience, or it is your first year on the job. The phenomenon of leadership development therefore becomes particularly tied to the individual who wishes to excel in combination with the luck of having a leader who cares for that individual’s success. In other words, there is no structural ladder for growth and development as a leader in most cases. If the individual teacher excels, develops, and grows, they may leave the system, which requires the work of replacing that individual in the classroom. The P-12 system thus craves the status quo (for an explanation of this, see “Schoolteacher” by Dan Lortie, 2020). The route to these types of formal leadership positions in English language teaching settings is frequently through successful teaching, often by first moving into a “teacher leader” role (York-Barr & Duke, 2004). However, especially in our field, there appears to be little or no specific preparation for formal leadership roles (Christison & Murray, 2009). Many English language teachers feel their way forward at times rather clumsily and painfully as expectations and responsibilities are thrust upon them, with little to no preparation for their roles, either in their teacher preparation studies or at the workplace (Baecher, 2012). Aslan-­ Bilikozen (2011) concludes from her research on English language teachers transitioning into leadership positions in the United Arab Emirates that while teachers bring many leadership skills from the classroom into these roles, there is still an array of complex skills that require support. There is also relatively little research about leadership development that is specific to our field and our very diverse contexts and particular challenges.

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Language program leaders are surrounded by unpredictable interactions, emerging situations, and multiple layers of social, political, and institutional contexts visible in multiple forms. Issues like curriculum development, legitimation of English teachers (especially those whose English is not recognized as a standard variety or those who do not speak English as their first language), multilingualism (multiple languages spoken with varying proficiencies), multiculturalism, plurilingualism (competence and the ability to switch between multiple languages for communication), professional development of faculty and administrators, racism, marginalization of TESOL as a field, and scarcity of research on TESOL leadership are some examples of the challenges TESOL leaders face every day. (Raza & Chua, 2022, p. 307)

In sum, questions remain regarding how leadership is best developed in ELT, especially by and for women, and with this in mind, this chapter deepens the knowledge base by focusing on women’s leadership and leadership development in the field of ELT.

 ow Did We Explore Women’s Leadership H Development in the ELT Field? In weaving together our personal stories of leadership development, we adopted and adapted from the collaborative autoethnographic approach. In collaborative autoethnography: Intentional and systematic consideration of various autobiographical data give rise to autoethnographic interpretation that transcends mere narration of their past to help researchers reach explanations of the sociocultural phenomena connected to the personal. They tell stories to explain how they respond to their environments in certain ways and how their sociocultural contexts have shaped their perspectives, behaviors, and decisions. The sociocultural interpretation of self-society connectivity sets this inquiry method apart from other self-narratives such as autobiography and memoir. With this distinctive goal, autoethnographers explore their own experiences to construct interpretive narration (presented most frequently as evocative stories) or narrative interpretation (presented more often in academic discourse). (Chang et al., 2016, p. 19)

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In keeping with this methodological approach, we (co-authors) started through collaborative online discussions, where we identified some of the “evocative stories” within our histories that we believe shaped our values and attitudes toward leadership development. We discussed two overarching questions: 1. What are the particular leadership challenges of women in the field of TESOL/TEFL globally? 2. How do culture and context shape the conditions for women to advance in their ELT careers? After several monthly online conversations via webconferencing, we decided to open a forum for women in ELT around the world to be able to engage with these same topics. In the summer of 2021, we hosted a “Womentorship Symposium” and were amazed by the response—more than 500 registered for the event and we created a program with 40 speakers from 25 countries. As part of that open online event, we asked women attending to share their stories and experiences with leadership and career development to further answer these questions. As a follow-on experience, we asked participants to share their stories of leadership development through raw, honest narratives—testimonies of endurance, bravery, and perseverance.

 hat Themes Emerged from the Testimonios W Shared by Women in ELT? We invited testimonios—a narrative research method rooted in Latin American political history (Reyes & Curry Rodrigues, 2012) in order to explore how women experienced “womentorship” in their leadership development. The narratives were shared via an online, live collaborative document and organized in three major categories: (a) The personal level (b) The interactions and relationship level (c) The social level

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At the personal level, the women shared their concerns regarding feelings and emotions. For example, the women talked about issues such as lack of confidence, shyness, and the impostor syndrome which seemed to be a common trait of women in ELT. This can be explained by the fact that women in ELT have to deal with different languages and different cultures and the fact that many of them are non-native speaking teachers of English (NNST) and may feel intimidated by peers who are native speakers of the language they teach as they expressed during the forum. Here are some extracts to illustrate this point: I attended the symposium and felt motivated to hear from professionals around the world about their challenges and successes. Michelle from Vietnam Special thanks for encouraging and supporting me to overcome my imposter syndrome by presenting to so many wonderful people! It was my first time ever presenting at a global event like this. Meggy from England I am excited to be part of this movement. For a long time, I have wanted to mentor in a more structured way. I know I create an impact on my students, however, I think this initiative gives a push to take our efforts to the next level. Anabell from El Salvador

Women identified that interactions and relations play an important role in their development and performance in the profession. The themes that women addressed in this level were among others: mentoring, specifically, in their leadership trajectories in LTAs. Other topics that women mentioned were empowering younger women and the importance of supporting networks. Finally, women in ELT also raised their interest in maximizing social media for its potential in their personal and professional development. For instance: I love the idea that we can both mentor others and be mentored ourselves; we do not just ‘graduate’ from mentee to mentor. Karen from the USA

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I feel truly passionate about my profession, and am very grateful to share this passion with wonderful teachers from all over. Let us pass this on, and may our strength be an inspiration to many others. Rita from Argentina What an amazing symposium!! I’m still high on the excitement, encouragement, and information sharing from this international community of female English language educators! Yasmeen from the USA

At the social level, women in ELT discussed some of the issues that influence or impact their lives around the world. Some of the women mentioned the gender issues that still prevail in several countries. They explained the way these gender roles, accepted in their societies, may affect their lives and their jobs. Another interesting topic that the women brought forward was migration, with many of them expressing that they had become migrants due to the nature of the ELT profession. Teaching English may be a cause of migration movements and based on the work situations in different countries, teachers look for better opportunities for their lives and jobs. Another topic that was mentioned was inclusion and the need for equal opportunities for all teachers and students. Here are some extracts to illustrate that: I am very excited and look forward to meeting women educators from around the globe and being able to make a connection that binds us all together as one empowered community. Rana from Kuwait I’m excited to connect with like-minded ELT professionals online and learn from empowered women across the globe. Let’s change the ELT world together! Chanel from Hawaii So proud to be part of this initiative to support an intersectional approach to equity, diversity and inclusion. Like many of you, navigating across cultures is a constant reality. Looking forward to building intercultural dialogue with you! Ching from the USA

The forum offered women in ELT a safe space for them to talk and express their concerns but also their hope for a better future for all of them.

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 hat Themes Emerged W from Our Autoethnographies? After the forum, we realized that the women had helped us uncover some of our own concerns and we decided to share our own stories. We became aware that our own trajectories could help us understand what our leadership paths involved and where they could take us. In the next phase, we agreed to separate and independently construct our own narratives focused on two central questions: 1. What have our personal challenges been (at whatever point we are in our careers)? 2. What have been some of the opportunities/mentoring supports— especially women mentors? By returning to our own histories, we could examine how our experiences fit into the overall tapestry of stories we had cultivated from women around the world. We wrote our stories and then invited each other to comment and question constructively. We then returned to add on, edit, or supplement our original stories. After analyzing the narratives, we identified seven main themes, presented in this section with excerpts from our narratives. We share our unedited, personal narratives as both data and process for us to discover and uncover, at times, painful and upsetting memories and situations as well as proud and grateful recollections. We found that our experiences fit closely with the literature on women’s leadership development as well as the research on leadership development in English language teaching contexts.

Stepping Out of the Comfort Zone There was a key milestone in my teaching exploring path: I was working as a private teacher in a French Company and during the hiring process, the HR person asked me for a series of documents I had never heard before, but I replied with confidence that I would provide them asap. When I left

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the meeting, I went straight to my accountant to find out what those documents were. And they turned out to be quite simple. I then realised that if I had limited myself because I did not know what he was talking about I would have missed a very important opportunity. Another lesson learned: Never say no to yourself just because you don’t know something: go and learn it. (Lenora) I have the conviction that we must be prepared for the job we want to have, even when luck and good fortune may also play a part in our academic trajectories by being in the right place at the right time. I had realized that I wanted to be a College professor in a public university and I decided to go for it. By that time, I was working in a company, teaching English to the employees. I loved this job, it was interesting and I learned a lot, but I didn’t want it for the rest of my life. Then, I started studying for a B.A. and then an M.A in TESOL. My boss in the company was not happy as I was teaching fewer classes. However, I kept studying and working. Those years were hard. I remember I was always running from the company to the university. Not many people understood why I was doing it. People should be more empathic with women who work hard for their dreams. (Araceli)

We noted that we had identified barriers or challenges as opportunities for growth. The experiences shared prove that when women encounter difficulties, they often take them as turning points in their lives. Finding coincidences in the way we reacted and overcame difficulties was moving and created an even tighter bond among us. Our life stories have not been easy, but instead of focusing on what was hard, we chose to devote our energy to the things we could make better, and we have come up with the strength to grow even stronger. The sacrifices we make on our journeys to take risks and have a greater impact are ultimately what propel us into leadership roles. We push ourselves, and then we reach out to support other women in doing the same.

Seeing Role Models I always saw the English teaching profession as a way of opening doors and showing learners how far they could go in life. But I think I wanted more. I remember attending a training session, and there was a teacher who also

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acted as a Coach and Mentor, helping teachers to develop further. I said to myself “I wanna be like her one day”. And I started paying attention to what Coaches and Mentors did so that I could learn from them and find my path towards Coaching & Mentoring. Then one day my manager at the time, Lidia Machado, and the Academic Coordinator, Dani You, invited me to act as a Coach-Mentor, helping new teachers to get acquainted with Cultura and helping experienced teachers to develop even further. A word to define that moment: JOY. I started acting as a Coach-Mentor in 2014 and never stopped – I never will, I guess. (Lenora) I spent my childhood in the UK and have great memories of London. When I was fifteen, I moved to Saudi Arabia. I went to an International School in Taif City in Saudi Arabia, and it was called the Pakistan International English School. I lived in Saudi with my parents and siblings. My dad worked as a chest physician; my mother was the Principal of the Pakistan International school I attended. I remember my sister and I watched her grade exam papers and notebooks, and we enjoyed it. We got to know her students because she used to talk about them all the time. That is when I decided that I wanted to be a teacher… I joined Ahfad University for Women in Sudan, one of the most important universities in Sudan, focusing on women’s development and empowerment and creating opportunities for women in Sudan. In my family, women’s empowerment and development are essential aspects. My grandmother participated in setting up the first school for women in Sudan many years ago, so I can proudly say that women’s empowerment and women’s education are in my blood. (Hind)

The theme of seeing role models was a real eye-opener for us. We realized that the influence and impact of the women around us in different roles, either in the familiar, personal, or professional environments, can become an inspiration and an aspiration for the younger women in the circle. Role-models present women with the qualities they want to develop and show them real possibilities for their future. One may think that by mentoring other women, one feels good and proud of one’s work, but in reality, it is quite humbling that we end up learning so much, and we dare to say that it is one of the best ways to grow and develop professionally and as a person. Women who had the benefit of a supportive mentor often make an effort to become a supportive mentor.

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Leading as Relational Leadership to me is a process that involves a humanistic approach. I have used a humanistic leadership approach by building relationships through authentic conversations, highlighting strengths of individuals, and engaging in collaborative decision-making… I think what is unique about this approach is that it connects to my own background as a Latina, originally from Brazil, a woman, a multilingual speaker, and transnational scholar. Building relationships is such a big part of Brazilian culture—we are considered very nice people and very caring—that’s a major part of being a leader for me and especially a woman leader. (Luciana)

As this extract illustrates, we view leadership as a process that involves interactions. Cultural practices also impact on the way women exercise their leadership. Women tend to build relationships (colleagues, peers, or friends) and rely on them to build their own leadership trajectories. When we take responsibility for finding potential in others, and we have the courage to develop these potentials, we might become true leaders ourselves (Brown, 2018).

Experiencing Oppression I have to say that being a leader in a department and School has not been easy. I experienced linguistic racism—discrimination for my being a “non-­ native” English speaker—which I explain elsewhere (de Oliveira, in press). These experiences continue to shape who I am and what I do. I also changed my career trajectory and wanted to become a department chair because of experiences with linguistic racism early on in my career—as a Master’s student in an English (TESOL concentration) program (see de Oliveira, 2022). Though painful to recall, these experiences continue to influence me to this day and guide my work as a leader. (Luciana) When I became a mother, time was never enough. I did not stop working, I have always worked, first, because the money was necessary and also, because I love my profession. Being in the classroom keeps me grounded and motivated to go on, even when times are hard. When I look back and

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I remember how I felt, I can see that this is one of the biggest challenges of female teachers, not only EFL or in ELT; we are expected to do everything, take care of kids and home, work and be always smiling. This is overwhelming when we are all exhausted. Balancing our personal, work and academic lives is still one of the challenges women have to face, at least, in Mexico. Culture may play an important role in the education of women. Educating the males of a family is still preferred over the education of females in my country. Women are not encouraged to go to College or pursue a postgraduate program as the idea is that females, sooner or later, will stay home and take care of the family. I am glad these views are starting to change and I, honestly, feel happy when I see women advancing in professional careers and doing what they love doing. (Araceli)

This theme showed that the expectations that society may place on the roles that women play affect the way women feel about their identities (personal and professional) and the responsibilities they must meet. These expectations are not limited to experiences in the classroom, instead they relate to more personal aspects that we cannot control, such as the place where we are born or the natural flow of life. Being a non-native speaker or being a mother can be reasons for discrimination. As a result, women leaders must carry overwhelming tasks in order to achieve their goals. It is critical that we search for any opportunity to create a safe space for others who have faced and are continuing to face oppression in the field.

Suppressing Versus Supporting Innovation Early in my career while working in public schools, I began spending time outside of work collaborating with other TESOL professionals, designing tools to support teachers in planning instruction, and providing professional learning for neighboring districts. This was an exciting time in my career, but my eagerness was met with supervisors who took credit for my work, reprimanded me for seeking opportunities to present professionally outside of our work setting, and even attempted to contact organizations who invited me to speak to request that they rescind the invitation. It was disheartening. I am now so lucky now to have found a work setting where leadership is supportive and regularly encourages professional growth.

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Successes are praised instead of reprimanded. However, finding this positive work setting wasn’t easy. In the interview for my current job, the leaders asked if I had any questions about the role. I asked how leaders in the district support teachers who show initiative to contribute to the field of education outside of the walls of the building. The interviewer responded that they view teacher success as an honor, and they are proud to support teachers when they are invited to speak or celebrate them when they publish or earn awards. They have been true to their word. I’m so grateful to now work in an environment where innovation and collaboration inside and outside the district are encouraged. (Jenn) In the mid 1990’s, I was a new ESL teacher at a large public school that had about 4000 students, with 800 or so English language learners. Our supervisor, the Assistant Principal, whom I will call “Veronica”, was thoroughly disliked by 99% of us teachers. She ruled mostly by fear and intimidation, played favorites in a consistent fashion, and we imagined, was probably a very unhappy person outside of school. Inside the school she reigned from her place of power, and she wielded that power over us teachers with relish. Certain colleagues were targeted by Veronica. Perhaps she didn’t like something about their teaching styles, or perhaps they resisted her directives in some way. She would proceed to observe them, writing up negative observation reports, reporting them to the principal, calling them into performance review conferences relentlessly until they found another school to work at or took early retirement. Unsurprisingly, she was despised by all of us for this vindictiveness except for her one or two pets. Behind and supporting her was the Principal, “Walter”, who appeared charming and friendly, yet seemed to enjoy having Veronica out in front, never challenging her or building relationships directly from us minions. From our perspective as teachers, in that school there certainly was no reason to do more, do extra, as any innovations or creative new directions for our students or ourselves was seen through narrowed eyes of suspicion. Because my internal desire to learn more, grow, and try new things was seen as an oddity, or worse still, somehow a way to make others look bad, innovation was suppressed. In the higher education environment, I found myself again with a blander but also less-than-ideal female supervisor. “Jane” has been my department chair, a top administrator in my university, and well-­ positioned to support my career growth and interests for the more recent set of 20 years. Yet she has weakly signed off when pressed to do so, has not

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been particularly eager to know me, celebrate my work, or put her mind to seeing how she can advance my interests. She too has had her “pets”, other faculty who have become favorites, perhaps because they appear more like her at another point in her life, or who are less troublesome than I, with my innovations, ideas and improvements in mind that are perceived as causing others to have to add to their workloads. Jane is quite a bit more subtle than Veronica ever was, with just a small sigh and dropping of the shoulders as she greets me reluctantly at a department meeting, or as she comments with a touch of sarcasm about an initiative I have completed “Oh, Laura, how do you find the time.” (Laura)

Working with other women may mean completely different things for female leaders. From the narratives, we could notice that the women around us can be either supportive or they can suppress any effort in improving the environment. The experiences that Jenn and Laura shared can exemplify how attitude impacts on the growth and performance in the workplace. Their insights made us reflect on the importance of being supportive.

A Calling to Support Other Women When I take on a new teacher reaching out for mentorship, they often express the need to keep our meetings quiet for fear of being reprimanded. They experience that seeking outside guidance or mentorship is discouraged. To remain discreet, we use their personal email addresses rather than their school email accounts to avoid any uncomfortable situations. How have we in education created an environment where teachers feel fear of showing initiative and growing in the field? Is it simply that ESOL leadership positions are few, and leaders feel threatened by teachers who show great promise? Are some women in leadership so accustomed to having to fight for promotion and acknowledgement that they forget to extend support to other women who are ready to take their first steps in leadership? Because I experienced the professional trauma of this stifling atmosphere from ESOL supervisors early in my career, I, like the teachers who reach out to me now, was forced to seek mentorship in other places. At first I reached out to other passionate ESOL teachers. These collaborations were

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powerful and had a great impact on my effectiveness as an educator. Next I became active in my state TESOL affiliate organization. There I met fellow educators from around the world. These relationships prepared me for greater leadership efforts. In particular, the relationships I made with other strong female leaders left me feeling empowered to lead in such a way that the women I encounter along the journey are left feeling celebrated and supported. I’m determined to be the support I so desperately needed years ago. I’ve learned to continue to surround myself with encouraging women and hand-select the supportive circle of advisors I need. (Jenn) In Brazil we have to decide what to do at university at a very young age: 16 or 17. I just couldn’t. I did enter University at 17, tried History and Pedagogy and discovered that these were not for me… I had my family’s support to drop out and keep searching. Lesson learned: Your path is yours alone. I then decided to focus on working: I could speak English very well and was invited to start teaching by my fantastic English teacher—she said “Why don’t you start teaching in smaller language institutes, gain experience, and then apply to work here at Cultura Inglesa?” She opened so many possibilities in my mind! She was really a lighthouse in my ocean: she gave me direction and showed me how to reach my goals. From that point on I understood that my path belongs to me, not to nobody else. My choices were my responsibility alone, nobody else’s. It does not mean it was easy or that I was completely sure of myself, but it meant that I had to do it as no one would do it for me. It was quite challenging to choose not to go to university and to gain experience by working—there was a lot of prejudice against it. (Lenora) I have faced many challenges, but I have been very lucky to have found female mentors throughout my life. Women who had trusted me have always encouraged me to go ahead and to go for my dreams. Nowadays, what I want to do is to mentor women and tell them that everything is possible when we set our minds on it. Women need other women to be with them and to guide them. Women need to be heard, and who can understand them? Other women can. We know what we go through and we can support each other. Mentoring women can also be, for me, the way to end my teaching career. I cannot think of a better way to fill my years, at this moment, than helping women achieve their goals. If I can inspire women to go for what they want for their own lives, then, I can say I am a leader. (Araceli)

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The theme of females supporting their peers emerged in the narratives as a relevant element in these leaders’ development. When challenges, difficulties, or new projects appear, we realize how important it is for women to support each other. When another female peer you admire has faith in you, and shares her vision of possibilities for you, this boost of confidence may give you the strength you need to go places you had never dreamed of going. What we have lived and learned have made us more empathic and more grateful, and the way to give what we have received along our leadership trajectories is to support other women, mentoring them, collaborating, empowering, and being there for each other. As we find ways to have an impact on others’ careers, we learn about ourselves and find meaning in our own journeys.

 Lack of Leader Development: The Need A to Target TESOL Professionals General classroom teachers often find mentorship and inspiration for improvement in their school setting through the evaluative process with their building principals. While many principals are equipped with years of rich experience with general classroom practice, often their understanding of effective ESOL instruction is limited. This makes the teacher evaluation and goal setting process less impactful for ESOL teachers. ESOL teachers often reach out to me to introduce themselves and connect following speaking engagements. A large number of these ESOL teachers have confided in me that their school administrators either incorrectly anticipate that ESOL services should look like special education services and evaluate them unfairly based on this misconception. Other principals simply give them high marks with little feedback, likely unsure what ESOL services should look like. This limits the ESOL growth and mentorship opportunities at the school level. When these teachers are unable to find mentorship in their assigned buildings, they frequently reach out to ESOL professionals in other schools or districts for mentorship. Finding a mentor who can inspire us to achieve more effective instructional practice and greater depth in our work is critical, but it can be a delicate task in a heavily political environment. What I am learning as teachers reach out to me for support is that they first tried building a network of ESOL support in their local

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districts. These bids for mentorship from fellow women in local leadership were met with negative responses. One new teacher wanting to re-deliver a professional learning experience with the other teachers in her building was told that she should remember that her role is teacher, not professional learning coordinator. Another teacher reported that when she brought a new idea for professional learning to her ESOL team, it was met with advice by veteran teachers to mind her place. As ESOL teachers become ready to step up and take on leadership roles, professionals already in leadership roles often react by discouraging them and reminding them to stay content in their current roles. This kind of reaction is perplexing, because it seems like encouraging new leadership would only strengthen their local teams and encourage more effective practice. (Jenn)

The narratives revealed that even when much has been done to foster women leadership in ELT, there is still a need to go further. Professional development must also include guidance on how women can develop leadership. Many of the current women leaders in ELT have walked their leadership paths by themselves and they have raised awareness of the need for continuous and systematic projects or programs that provide companionship and support to women who want to take a leadership role in their careers. It is important to plan our career in terms of ELT, but even more important is to understand how far we want to go, and how we will get there. Many times, the kind of knowledge we need to go further might come from sources outside the ELT field, such as business administration, human resources, and other sectors.

 hat Recommendations Do We Have W for Leadership Development for Women in ELT? Returning to Hopkins et al.’s (2008) processes to support women’s leader and leadership development in our TESOL organizations, associations, and institutions, we offer suggestions in the seven categories presented earlier in this chapter (Table 1).

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Table 1  Approaches to women’s leadership development in TESOL Process to support leadership development (Hopkins et al., 2008) Assessment

Training and education

Coaching

Mentoring

Networking

Actions toward leader (individual) and leadership (organizational) development Provide self-assessment tools at performance reviews with specific indicators relative to TESOL leadership roles (presenting, publishing, training others, curriculum development, etc.) Identify channels for friendly and supportive feedback (forums, reading circles, or discussion group) Design your journey with a peer, setting milestones throughout the year using SMART goals as starting points Design-focused professional learning to lead in specific ELT environments (primary, secondary, university, community-based programs) with widely different student populations, budgets, and organizational structures Embed leadership as a topic area in teacher training programs Provide professional development not just for instructional skills but also in the areas of people management, human resource issues, financial management Join leadership groups outside ELT field (on LinkedIn, for instance) to exchange ideas and learn from other cases Develop peer-to-peer support for women at different phases of their personal and professional lives (new mothers, balancing parenting or caregiver responsibilities) Point out ways to get involved in regional and global TESOL professional associations Integrate groups of experienced leaders who can offer guidance for emerging leaders Offer opportunities to meet other TESOL professional women locally and internationally, including nonnative English speakers in leadership roles and from different cultures Create support groups in different fields of knowledge where English can be the key for collaboration (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Process to support leadership development (Hopkins et al., 2008) Experiential learning

Career Planning

Actions toward leader (individual) and leadership (organizational) development Offer job shadowing for a day Introduce teachers to the bigger picture of how an institution works/various roles other than teaching/ making transparent all the different roles at an institution, and how they each contributes to student success Support job search, interviewing, and negotiations skills Create councils, forums, and committees where teachers can take up offices and advocacy work

Why Is “Womentoring” Essential to Us? Leadership is a journey, and as on every journey, there will be challenging moments as well as joyful ones. Nobody is ever completely ready to be a leader, as it is an ongoing process; ironically, when you feel you are ready, it probably means that you are ready to develop even further and expand beyond your comfort zone. We see leadership as a phenomenon more than as an attribute of a person. It requires a whole host of environmental conditions to be enacted; barriers removed and on-ramps provided. It also requires a union of energies—on the side of the individual, an excitement, an interest, a desire to do more and grow—and on the side of the mentor/leader/supervisor/colleague, a sincere belief in that individual and a sense of fulfillment in seeing that individual move ahead. We see “womentorship” as the finest form of friendship offered by visionary, caring women friends and hopefully, the reciprocation of that toward the women we have taught, befriended, or worked alongside. Defining “womentorship” as compassionate, committed, and forward-­ moving may reduce it to a feminized version of male leadership/mentorship, but we believe that it has been womentorship that has sustained us,

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propelled us on, and been a sheltering space in times of difficulty. In many instances, the womentorship we have received has come not from someone in a leadership role, but from the collegial sidelines. Womentorship has been an inestimable source of leadership development in our career. Womentorship has proven that when we can create an environment in which women feel safe to share, are supported and heard with respect, they are more likely to not only develop their talents and skill to the fullest, but also to contribute wholeheartedly to the development of others around them.

Reflection Questions 1. What have you noticed in your workplace regarding leadership styles of women versus men? Do you think these styles are influenced by culture, the institution, or individual factors? 2. Who has been important in supporting your career development? How have you supported the career development of others? 3. How do you see the field of ELT better preparing teachers for leadership roles? Do you believe it can start in pre-service training? What other ways do you see it happening? 4. What are the particular challenges for women-as-leaders in your context?

References Aslan-Bilikozen, N. (2011). From teaching to leading. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 4(10), 145–161. Retrieved from https://search.proquest. com/docview/906338594?rfr_id=info%3Axri%2Fsid%3Aprimo Baecher, L. (2012). Pathways to teacher leadership among English-as-a-secondlanguage teachers: Professional development by and for emerging teacher leaders. Professional Development in Education, 38(2), 317–330. https://doi. org/10.1080/19415257.2012.657877 Bailey, K. (2020). Priming the pump: Giving back to the profession. In C. Coombe, N. J. Anderson, & L. Stephenson (Eds.), Professionalizing your English language teaching (pp. 233–241). Springer.

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Bailey, K.  M., Thibault, J.  A., & Nunan, D. (2009). How the experience of leadership changes leaders. In M.  A. Christison & D.  E. Murray (Eds.), Leadership in English language education: Theoretical foundations and practical skills for changing times (pp. 238–254). Routledge. Boyatzis, R. E., & Goleman, D. (2007). Emotional and social competency inventory. Hay Group. Brown, B. (2018). Dare to lead: Brave work. Tough conversations. Whole hearts. Random House. Chang, H., Ngunjiri, F., & Hernandez, K. A. C. (2016). Collaborative autoethnography. Routledge. Christison, M., & Murray, D.  E. (2009). Leadership in English language education: Theoretical foundations and practical skills for changing times. Routledge. Day, D.  V. (2000). Leadership development: A review in context. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-­ 9843(00)00061-­8 Day, D. V., & Harrison, M. M. (2007). A multilevel, identity-based approach to leadership development. Human Resource Management Review, 17(4), 360–373. Day, D.  V., & Dragoni, L. (2015). Leadership development: An outcome-­ oriented review based on time and levels of analyses. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2(1), 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-­orgpsych-­032414-­111328 Day, D. V., Fleenor, J. W., Atwater, L. E., Sturm, R. E., & McKee, R. A. (2014). Advances in leader and leadership development: A review of 25 years of research and theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(1), 63–82. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.004 Douglas, S. J. (2010). Enlightened sexism. Henry Holt. Eagly, A.  H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M.  C., & van Engen, M. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-­ analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 569–591. Ely, R.  J., Ibarra, H., & Kolb, D.  M. (2011). Taking gender into account: Theory and design for women’s leadership programs. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(3), 474–493. https://doi.org/10.5465/ amle.2010.0046 Hopkins, M. M., O’Neil, D. A., Passarelli, A., & Bilimoria, D. (2008). Women’s leadership development strategic practices for women and organizations. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(4), 348–365. https:// doi.org/10.1037/a0014093

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Lortie, D.  C. (2020). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. University of Chicago Press. Raza, K., & Chua, C. (2022). Global-contextual TESOL leadership in diverse and multi-dimensional contexts: A paradigmatic shift. International Journal for Leadership in Learning, 22(1), 305–339. https://doi.org/10.29173/ijll12 Reyes, K. B., & Curry Rodríguez, J. E. (2012). Testimonio: Origins, terms, and resources. Equity & Excellence in Education, 45(3), 525–538. Stephenson, L. (2018). Developing leadership capacity through leadership learning opportunities. In A. Elsheikh, C. Coombe, & O. Effiong (Eds.), The role of language teacher associations in professional development (pp. 187–200). Springer International Publishing. Stephenson, L. (2020). Developing leadership capacity in English language teaching. In C.  Coombe, N.  J. Anderson, & L.  Stephenson (Eds.), Professionalizing your English language teaching (pp. 197–206). Springer. York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255–316. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074003255

Index

A

Action logging, 76, 79–82, 84, 85, 87, 88, 92–97 Advocacy, 256, 260, 269, 278 American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), 264–267, 270, 271 Autonomy, 76–79, 88, 93–96 B

Basic psychological needs (BPNs), 77, 89, 94–96 Beliefs, 3–8, 10, 12 C

Career development, 290 Coaching, 153–174 Colonization, 193

Communities of practice (CoP), 78, 93, 96, 229, 230, 234–250 Community, 256–259, 261, 268, 271–274, 278 Cultivating reflection, 19–35 D

Dissemination (diffusion), 230, 250 Diversity, 188, 192, 197, 198 E

Emergent leaders, 277, 278 Emotional competence (EI), 155 Empire, 197, 199, 201 English language teaching (ELT), 284, 287, 289–290, 297, 302–303 Equity, 188, 192

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Reinders (ed.), Language Teacher Leadership, New Language Learning and Teaching Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42871-5_12

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310 Index F

M

Feedback, 76, 80–85, 87, 88, 92, 94, 97

Mentoring, 232, 233, 236, 240, 286, 287, 291, 293, 295, 300, 301 Mentorship, 261, 270–272, 278 Models of collaboration, 126, 130 Motivation(s), 42, 45, 47, 48, 56, 59–64, 71, 72

G

Global English, 211–215 H

Happiness, 103–105, 111, 116 Hard skills, 155

N

Near-peer role modelling, 76, 79, 88, 93, 95–97

I

Inclusion, 188, 192 Intercultural learning, 211, 215, 216, 223, 224 Interdisciplinary collaboration, 125–147

O

Open-minded, 25, 26, 34 P

L

Language attitudes, 211, 216, 220, 222 Language teacher identity (LTI), 209–225 Leadership, 76, 93, 94, 96, 97, 182, 186–203 awareness, 45–52, 60, 64, 68, 69 awareness catalyst, 47, 49, 51, 52, 60, 68–69, 71 development, 153–174, 283–305 pathway, 39, 40, 45, 47, 56, 60, 62, 63, 67, 70, 72 programs, 255–279 Leadership Initiative for Language Learning (LILL), 256, 262–278 Locality, 45, 53–56, 69–70

Partnership, 75–97 Pathway event, 45 Pedagogical innovation, 231, 232, 238, 246–249 Peer mentoring, 153–174 Perceptions, 4, 12, 15 Personal competence, 155 Philippines, 125–147 Planned behaviour, 13 Positive psychology, 113 Professional development (PD), 153, 154, 157–160, 162, 164–174, 230, 231, 233, 234, 238, 240, 245, 246, 248, 249 Professional growth, 232–234, 249 Professional learning, 154, 157, 165, 167, 169, 172–174, 233, 240, 243

 Index 

311

Q

T

Questionnaire, 42, 43, 66, 67, 72

Task-based language teaching (TBLT), 229–250 Teacher agency, 234, 249 Teacher education, 246 Teacher identity, 210, 212–215, 222 TESOL, 187, 190, 195 Time poverty, 165, 167

R

Racism, 184, 188–190 Reflection, 79, 81, 82, 84, 92 Reflective disposition, 19–35 Reflective practice, 20–24, 26–28, 31, 34, 35 Research-practice partnership (RPP), 229–231, 235, 250 Responsible, 28, 34 Role of teacher leadership and collaboration, 125–147 S

Soft skills, 154, 155, 170 Spheres of influence, 267–269 StrengthsFinder, 268

V

Visible minority, 181–203 Volunteerism, 51 W

Wellbeing, 103–120 Whole-hearted, 30, 31, 35 Willingness to lead (WTL), 1–17 Women, 283–290, 293–297, 299–305 World languages (WL), 255, 256, 260–266, 270–278