Landscape Dynamics: Spatial Analyses of Villages and Farms on Gotland AD 200-1700 9150623850, 9789150623857

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Occasional Papers in Archaeology 58

Landscape Dynamics –Spatial analyses of villages and farms on Gotland AD 200-1700

Gustaf Svedjemo

Dissertation presented at Uppsala University to be publicly examined in Ihresalen (ENG 21-0011), Engelska Parken, Humanistiskt centrum, Thunbergsvägen 3L, Uppsala, on Friday April 25, 2014 at 13:00 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The examination will be conducted in Swedish. Abstract Gustaf Svedjemo 2014. Landscape Dynamics –Spatial analyses of villages and farms on Gotland AD 2001700. Occasional Papers in Archaeology 58. 255 pp. Uppsala 2014. ISSN 1100-6358, ISBN 978-91506-2385-7. Š‹•†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘†‡ƒŽ•™‹–Š–Š‡Ž‘‰Ǧ–‡”†›ƒ‹…•ƒ†ϐŽ—…–—ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡–•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ˆ‘” the period from AD 200 up until early modern times. The settlement structure on Gotland is most often described as very stable and consisting of solitary farms, established in the Iron Age. A contrasting view is presented by analyses of a vast source material from different periods. The source material consists of both physical remains, noted in the Swedish national Archaeological Sites Information System, FMIS and large scale historical maps, as well as other written sources. ‘”–Š‡ϐ‹”•–•–—†‹‡†’‡”‹‘†ǡ–Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ•‘‡ʹͲͲͲŠ‘—•‡•ƒ”‡‘™ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡›™‡”‡…‘•–”—…–ed with sturdy stone walls and are thus preserved. The source material for the following periods is •…ƒ”…‡”ǡ„—–•‘‡Š—†”‡†‹‹‰‰‡•‹–‡•ƒ”‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ǡƒ‹Ž›„›–Š‡ϐ‹†’Žƒ…‡•‘ˆ•‹Ž˜‡”Š‘ƒ”†•Ǥ› retrogressive analyses of historical maps, from the decades around the year 1700, and other written sources, later periods are analysed. All available data are gathered in geodatabases, which enables both generalised and detailed spatial and statistical analyses. Š‡”‡•—Ž–•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡••Š‘™ƒ‘”‡˜ƒ”‹‡†’‹…–—”‡ǡ™‹–Š‰”‡ƒ–ϐŽ—…–—ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ farms; the existence of villages is also clearly indicated in a large part of the settlements. The villages ƒ”‡…‡–”‡†‘‹•Š‹’ƒ†–Š‡Žƒ…‘ˆ•–”‘‰”‘›ƒŽ’‘™‡”‘”Žƒ†‡†‰‡–”›‡ƒ––Š‡›™‡”‡‘–ϐ‹š‡† ‹…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•ǡƒ•ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–•ǡƒ•˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‡”‡‘–Š‡™‡†‹•Šƒ‹Žƒ†Ǥ ™‘ ’‡ƒ•ǡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‡† „› ƒŒ‘” †‹’•ǡ ™‡”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‹ –Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ƒ† –Š—• ‹ –Š‡’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡ϐ‹”•–’‡ƒ‘……—””‡††—”‹‰–Š‡Žƒ–‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡Ȁ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘’‡”‹‘†ǡ™Š‹…Š™ƒ• followed by a reduction in the Vendel period of possibly up to 30-50%. After this, a recovery started in the Viking Age, which culminated during the heydays of Gotland in the High Middle Ages, with population numbers most probably not surpassed until late in history. This upward trend was broken by the diminishing trade of Gotland, the Medieval agrarian crisis, The Danish invasion and later events. All this resulted in a decline, probably as great as after the Migration period. Keywords: ‘–Žƒ†ǡ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰›ǡ‹•–‘”›ǡ‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•ǡ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ǡ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘‡”‹‘†ǡ‹††Ž‡ Ages, Village, Village formation, Farm , Settlement archaeology, Spatial analyses, GIS, Prediction modelling. © Gustaf Svedjemo 2014 Fil. lic Gustaf Svedjemo, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Campus Gotland, Cramérgatan 3, SE-621 57 Visby, Sweden. ISSN 1100-6358 ISBN 978-91-506-2385-7  ǣ—”ǣ„ǣ•‡ǣ——ǣ†‹˜ƒǦʹͳͻʹ͵͹Ǥ ‡”ƒ‡–Ž‹ǣŠ––’ǣȀȀ—”Ǥ„Ǥ•‡Ȁ”‡•‘Ž˜‡ǫ—”α—”ǣ„ǣ•‡ǣ——ǣ†‹˜ƒǦʹͳͻʹ͵͹ Cover: Villages in the parish of Vall on Gotland. Fair copy of the map LSA, H82-1:1. Back cover: The Iron Age village of Vallhagar. Layout and design by the author. All maps and illustrations by the author, if not otherwise stated. Printed in Sweden by Elanders Sverige AB, 2014. English revised by Judith Crawford.

This book is dedicated to my wife Berit, my daughter Sara and my father Matts

Contents Preface 9 1. Introduction

11

Objective and research questions 12 Sources, methods and some general source criticism 13 Some source critical aspects on FMIS 16 Šƒ–…‘•–‹–—–‡•ƒ††‡ϐ‹‡•ƒˆƒ”ƒ†ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǫ ͳͺ The Swedish concepts of hemman, mantal and part 19  ‹•…—••‹‘ƒ††‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡…‘…‡’–•‘ˆŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†ǡˆƒ”ƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ Households and farms Villages 23

2 Previous research

20

ʹͲ

31

2.1 The concepts of household, village and neighbourhood community (bygd) in Gotland research 2.2 Previous research concerning the development of the cultural landscape on Gotland The early Iron Age 39 The abandonment of the Iron Age stone house foundations 44 The later Iron Age 46 Middle Ages and early modern times 49

3. The landscape of the late Roman Iron Age and Migration period

76 78

Visual interpretation 80 Identifying the more dispersed villages 84 Large farms 89 Farm sizes in villages 93 3.2 The extension of the Iron Age landscape 95 About predictive modelling 95 The prediction model for Iron Age stone house foundations on Gotland 98 The dependent variable 99 Independent variables 99 The prediction model 102 Comparison of farms and non-farms, inside or outside the model area ‡‘˜‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ͳͲ͸ Estimation of the number of farms during the mid millennium 108

4 The periods between the mid millennium and early modern times The late Iron Age 111 Viking Age 113 Middle Ages 124

5 Generic villages in the historical material

127

The source material 127  ƒ”•‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹–Š‡ϐ‹”•–™‡†‹•Š…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡• ͳ͵Ͳ Some old Swedish measurements used in the cadastres  ‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆˆƒ”•‹œ‡ ͳ͵ʹ

131

39

55

Stone house foundations from the early Iron Age 55 Other types of houses with stone walls and the question of the dating 58 The issue of contemporaneity and the presence of other house types during the mid millennium 3.1. Identifying farms and villages of the mid millennium 65 The introduction of property rights to land 66 Identifying farms and villages 68  ‹†‹‰ƒ‡–”‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆƒˆƒ” ͹Ͳ Analysing the clusters 74 Solitary house foundations 75 Clusters consisting of two house foundations Clusters with more than two house foundations Clusters with large house foundations 78

31

104

111

63

Cluster analysis of the historic farms 134 Spatial distribution of farms of different sizes 134 The formation of vicarages 137 Generic villages on Gotland 138 About the presented maps 138 The parish of Fide 138 The parish of Buttle 141 The parish of Alskog 143 The area around Havor in the parishes of Havdhem, Hablingbo and Alva The parish of Alva 148 The parish of Havdhem 149 The parishes of Fole and Hejnum 152 The parish of Gothem 152 The Parish of Anga 156 The parish of Bunge 160 The parish of Burs 162 The parish of Dalhem 164 The parish of Eskelhem 165 The parish of Lummelunda 166 The parish of Näs 166 Other types of farm groups 169 ‡•—Ž–•‘ˆ–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡•‡Ž‡…–‡†’ƒ”‹•Š‡• ͳ͹Ͳ Distances between farms in villages 171 Sizes of the farms in the generic villages 173

6 Comparison between the mid millennium and 1700

Comparison between the village structures of the two periods

7 Farms, villages and the society on Gotland Governance and social order on Gotland 189 The society during the mid millennium The independence of Gotland 190  ‹‡”ƒ”…Š‹‡•ƒ†•–”ƒ–‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ͳͻͳ Middle Age stone houses and trade

Farms, villages and social organisation Villages on Gotland 202 







198

189

147

177 185

189 196

Š›–Š‡”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†ƒ†ϐ‹•…ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‡˜‡”‡‡”‰‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ† The role of the regional laws 205 Š‡ˆƒ”ƒ•–Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–‘ ‘–Žƒ† ʹͲ͹

8 Ups and downs - the development of settlements on Gotland The abandonment of the mid millennium settlements 210 The archaeological records 210 The explanations of the abandonment 212  ‘–Žƒ†ǯ•‘ƒ…‘‡…–‹‘ ʹͳͷ The expansion during the Viking Age and Middle Ages 216 The peak in the High Middle Ages and following regression The complex issue of deserted farms 220 The recovery during the early modern times 223

ʹͲͶ

209

217

9 Landscape Dynamics -Summary of the results and the main conclusions The mid millennium 227 The late Iron Age after the decline 228 The Middle Ages and early modern times 228 Continuity and discontinuity 230 Final words 231

Map of Gotland 232 Explanation of concepts References 238

233

227

Preface I have had a keen interest in history ever since childhood, thanks to my father’s profound historical interest. At bedtime and Sunday mornings, he used to read me the 19th century series of historical short stories Fältskärns berättelser by Zacharias Topelius, which is set in Finland during the thrilling 17th and 18th centuries in the common history of Sweden and Finland. Later, archaeology came in as a main interest, which led me to Gotland. The island is an ideal place to live and raise children on, especially if you are an archaeologist, working with landscape archaeology and preserved ancient remains like I †‘Ǥ›ˆƒ…›ˆ‘”…‘’—–‡”•Ž‡†‡‹–‘–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†‘ˆ ƒ†ƒ’’‹‰‹–Š‡ͻͲ•ǡƒ‹Ž›–Šƒ•–‘ěĊēǦ đĔċĎēĉĖĚĎĘę and ēČĊėYĘęĊėčĔđĒ. These interests made the theme for my thesis more or less self-evident, particularly since I have had the privilege to work with ĆēĆėđĘĘĔēfor many years, and with whom I have had many discussions concerning the cultural landscape on Gotland and whose ‘™Ž‡†‰‡…‘…‡”‹‰–Š‹•‹•˜ƒ•–ǤŠ‡•‡ƒ”‡•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡’‡”•‘•ǡ™Š‘Šƒ˜‡Šƒ†ƒƒŒ‘”‹ϐŽ—‡…‡‘ the course of my professional life. As life, a thesis cannot be accomplished without the aid and assistance of many helping hands. First, I would like to thank my wife, ĊėĎę and daughter ĆėĆ, for keen support and giving me the time ƒ†•’ƒ…‡ ‡‡†‡†–‘ϐ‹‹•Š–Š‹•ǡƒ†ˆ‘”–‘Ž‡”ƒ–‹‰›‡–ƒŽƒ†’Š›•‹…ƒŽƒ„•‡…‡ˆ”‘–‹‡–‘–‹‡Ǥ In addition, my father, ĆęęĘěĊĉďĊĒĔ has giving me much aid in several ways, when I have been in Uppsala, where he now lives. For professional assistance, I am in debt of gratitude to several persons, foremost my supervisor ėĆēĉĘĊėĘĈčĊēĉ, for guiding me through this process and always having time to read and discuss my work. čėĎĘęĔĕčĎđČĊė, ĊđĊēĊĆėęĎēĘĘĔēǦĆđđĎē have had many wise and competent comments. I would also like to thank ĎđĘđĔĒĐěĎĘę for his interest in my work and whose opinion I value highly. I am also grateful to ĊēĘĊėćĔĒ, who took the time to read and comment on my manuscript. One key issue in a thesis it to keep track on all references, and no matter how scrupulous you are, errors tend to sneak in. ĔđČĊėĚĘĊđ has spent many hours helping me correcting them and if there still are errors, I am all to blame, since I have made edits afterwards. I also would like to thank ĆČśėćĔĒ at the Department of Statistics at Uppsala University, who I have consulted regarding the •‡…–‹‘ƒ„‘—–‘‰‹•–‹…‡‰”‡••‹‘ƒŽ›•‹•Ǥ Also, many of the students who have attended my courses in GIS throughout the years, have contributed by doing the time-consuming work of vectorising many of the parish maps needed for this work. Thank you all! Besides input and help given by colleagues and others, vital help has been given by different scholarships and research foundations. Without these foundations, much interesting research would never come about. Grants were generously given by the following foundations: ĊėĎęĆđđĊēćĊėČĘĘęĎċęĊđĘĊ, ĔėĘęĊēśĉĊėćĊėČĘĘęċęĊđĘĊ, ĚēěĔėĆēĉ ĔĘĊċēĴėĘĘęĎċęĊđĘĊ, ĎđčĊđĒĎēĆěĔēĆđđĜĞđĘ ĔęđĆēĉĘċĔēĉ, ĊđČĊĝǣĘĔē ĔčēĘĔēĘĘęĎċęĊđĘĊ and ĤđđĘĐĆĕĊęĊĆĉĆēĉĊĤēēĊėēĆȋȌǤ

9

10

Chapter 1 Introduction The old, medieval Gotlandic regional law, the Gutalag, does not mention by (village), only gård ȋˆƒ”Ȍƒ†‹–Š‡ϐ‹”•–…ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽƒ’•ǡ‡ƒ…Šˆƒ” ‹• ƒ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ —‹– ‘ˆ ‹–• ‘™Ǥ • ƒ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ …‘…‡’–ǡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹• ƒ„•‡– ‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ Š‹• ‹• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ƒ major reason why the view that no villages have ‡˜‡”‡š‹•–‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡƒ–ƒ›’‘‹–‹–‹‡ǡ‹• ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†‹‘†‡””‡•‡ƒ”…ŠǤ ‘–Žƒ†‹•‘•– often referred to as a region where the settle‡– •–”—…–—”‡ Šƒ• ƒŽ™ƒ›• „‡‡ –Š‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› farm, ensamgårdǤ ‹†“—‹•– ȋͳͻͺ͹ǣͳ͸ͶȌ ˆ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›•–ƒ–‡•ǣǮPå Gotland har inte funnits „›ƒ”˜ƒ”‡‹–‘’‘‰”ƒϔ‹•ǡƒ‡”ƒŽ‡ŽŽ‡”ˆ—–‹‘nell mening -bara ensamgårdarǯǤ (Villages have never existed on Gotland; not in any topographi…ƒŽǡϔ‹•…ƒŽ‘”ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ•‡•‡Ȃ–Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ‘Ž›•‘Žitary farmsȌǤ Š‡ ‘•– …‘‘ ˜‹‡™ •‡‡• –‘ be that these solitary farms were established in –Š‡ Žƒ––‡” ’ƒ”– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ”‘ ‰‡ǡ ™‹–Š Ž‹––Ž‡ …Šƒ‰‡‹—„‡”‘”•–”—…–—”‡—–‹Ž–Š‡ͳͺth cen–—”›Ǥ  •–—†›‹‰ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ƒ’• ‘ˆ

‘–Žƒ†ǡ †”ƒ™ ƒ– ƒ”‘—† ͳ͹ͲͲǡ ‹– ‹• …Ž‡ƒ” –Šƒ– –Š‡ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡‘ˆ–‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†…Ž‘•‡–‘‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ǡ ˆ‘”‹‰ ‰”‘—’•Ǥ Š‡•‡ ‰”‘—’• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ‘–‹…‡†„›ƒ›ǡ„—–ƒƒŽ›•‡†‹ƒ›†‡’–Š„›ˆ‡™Ǥ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ ‘– ƒŽŽ ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ– •‘—”…‡• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ –ƒ‡‹–‘ƒ……‘—–ǡ™Š‹…ŠŠƒ•Ž‡†–‘—•ƒ–‹•ˆƒ…–‘”› ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‰”‘—’• ‘•–Ž› †‡ƒŽ• ‡‹–Š‡” ™‹–Š –Š‡ †‹˜‹•‹‘• ‘ˆ ƒ •‹‰Ž‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ” ‹’Ž›‹‰ ƒ ”ƒ’‹† ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ ‰”‘™–Š ‹ –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•ǡ or of large estate-like farms, divided into many •ƒŽŽ‡”‘‡•ƒ–•‘‡’‘‹–‹–‹‡Ǥ–Š‡”‡š’Žƒnations involve already existing farms moving –‘‰‡–Š‡”†—”‹‰–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ǡ‡–…Ǥ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ ‹–‹•ƒŽ•‘˜‡”›…‘‘ˆ‘”–Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†‘ˆ different farms to have been scattered and inter‹š‡†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ‘ˆ–‡ ‡š’Žƒ‹‡† ™‹–Š ”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡ to land being sold or inherited, or to land belong‹‰–‘†‡•‡”–‡†ˆƒ”•–ƒ‡‘˜‡”„›‡‹‰Š„‘—”‹‰ˆƒ”•‡–…Ǥ Š‹• …‘–”ƒ•–• –‘ –Š‡ ˜‹‡™ ‘ˆ ‘•– ’ƒ”–• of the mainland, where adjacent, related farms

ƒ”‡”‡…‘”†‡†ƒ•‘‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–‹–Š‡…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•ǡ and the village is seen as the most common form ‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡– •–”—…–—”‡ ‹ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ –‹‡•Ǥ  ƒ›’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡…‘—–”›ǡŠ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ”‡ very often small, consisting of only two or three ˆƒ”•ǤŠ‡”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡’”‘’‡”‹•†‡•…”‹„‡† in the written regional laws, written down in the 13thƒ†ͳͶth…‡–—”‹‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒŽ‹–›‡š‹•–‹‰•‘‡ …‡–—”‹‡•Žƒ–‡”ƒ†‘–ƒŽ™ƒ›•…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰–‘ –Š‡Žƒ™•‹•†‡•…”‹„‡†ƒ†‹•†‡’‹…–‡†‹–Š‡ϐ‹”•– …ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽ ƒ’• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ͳ͹th …‡–—”›Ǥ  –Š‡•‡ ƒ’•ǡ–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹•–Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–ǡ—†‡”™Š‹…Š –Š‡‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽˆƒ”•ǡ‹…Ž—†‡†‹–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡƒ”‡ Ž‹•–‡†ƒ††‡•…”‹„‡†Ǥ Nevertheless, one wonders whether villages are in reality lacking on Gotland in historical –‹‡• Œ—•– „‡…ƒ—•‡ –Š‡ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ —‹–ǡ —†‡” ™Š‹…Š farms are registered in cadastres, is not the vilŽƒ‰‡Ǥ…Ž‘•‡”•–—†›‘ˆ–Š‡‘Ž†‡•–…ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽƒ’• ‘˜‡” ‘–Žƒ†ǡ…‘„‹‡†™‹–Š‘–Š‡”•‘—”…‡•ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‡•‘–Š‡”’‘••‹„Ž‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘•ǣ‘–Š‡ƒ’• •‡˜‡”ƒŽƒ†Œƒ…‡–ˆƒ”•ˆ‘”—‹–•‹•‡˜‡”ƒŽ”‡•’‡…–•Ǥ •–—†›‹‰–Š‡…Ž—•–‡”•‹‰”‡ƒ–‡”†‡–ƒ‹Žǡ ‹–‹••‡‡–Šƒ––Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡ •…ƒ––‡”‡†ƒ†‹–‡”‹š‡†ǡ‘ˆ–‡ˆ‘”‹‰†‡ϐ‹‡† territories, similar to what can be seen in the vilŽƒ‰‡•‘–Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†ƒ’•ǤŠ‡Žƒ†•—”˜‡›‘”• on Gotland, also mentions that farms can make —’ byalag ȋƒ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ …‘—‹–›Ȍǡ …‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‰ with each other, even if they are listed and de•…”‹„‡†ƒ•‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽϐ‹•…ƒŽ‡–‹–‹‡•ǤŠ‡…‘…‡’– of village is also known on Gotland from oth‡” •‘—”…‡•ǡ •—…Š ƒ• ‡–Š‘‰”ƒ’Š‹… †‡•…”‹’–‹‘• ƒ†ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‘ˆ‘Ǧϐ‹•…ƒŽƒ–—”‡Ǥ‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‡”‡ ƒŽ•‘ƒ…‘™Ž‡†‰‡†ƒ•–Š‡’”‡˜ƒ‹Ž‹‰•‡––Ž‡‡– •–”—…–—”‡†—”‹‰–Š‡‹††Ž‡‰‡•„›•‘‡‘Ž†‡” •…Š‘Žƒ”•„‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡‡…‘†‘”Ž†ƒ”Ǥ ”‘ ƒ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ ’‘‹– ‘ˆ ˜‹‡™ǡ ƒ• ™‡ ‘™ ˆ”‘‘Ž†‡”ϐ‹•…ƒŽ•‘—”…‡•ƒ†–Š‡ϐ‹”•–…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡• —’ —–‹Ž ‘†‡” –‹‡•ǡ ‹– ‹• –”—‡ –Šƒ– ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• Šƒ˜‡‡˜‡”‡š‹•–‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ„—––Š‡…‘…‡’– ‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡…ƒ‘–„‡…‘ϐ‹‡†–‘‹…Ž—†‡‘Ž›˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ••‡‡‹–Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǤŠ‹•ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ most often embraces only historical villages as

Opposite side: Š‡”‡…‘•–”—…–‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ƒ– ‡”˜‹†‡‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆŒ‘Š‡

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–Š‡›ƒ”‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†‹™”‹––‡•‘—”…‡•ǡŽ‹‡–Š‡”‡‰‹‘ƒŽŽƒ™•ǡ‘Ž†–ƒš”‡…‘”†•‘”…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ ‹• ‘”‡ –‘ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• –Šƒ –Š‹•Ǥ Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ —•– ’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›„‡•‡‡ƒ•ƒ•‘…‹ƒŽƒ†ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘” ‘ˆ‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ǡ†‡ϐ‹‡†‘”‡„›–Š‡Ž‘…ƒŽ…‘—‹–›ǡ –Šƒ –Š‡ ƒ—–Š‘”‹–‹‡•ǯ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡Ǥ Š‹•‹•ƒŽ•‘‹†‹…ƒ–‡†„›–Š‡Žƒ†•—”˜‡›‘”ǯ•†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•‘ˆ„›ƒŽƒ‰ǡ‡–‹‘‡†ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ –‹’Ž‹‡• –Šƒ––Š‡Žƒ†•—”˜‡›‘”•‘ˆ–Š‡–‹‡‘ˆ–‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ‰”‘—’‘ˆˆƒ”•ƒ•ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡƒ†ƒ†‡ƒ†‹•–‹…–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽ‡–‹–‹‡•ƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ƒ•ƒˆ‘”ˆ‘”…‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ – ‹• ‘– ‘Ž› ƒ “—‡•–‹‘ ‘ˆ •‡ƒ–‹…• Ǧ what to call things – since the choice of words ƒ† Š‘™ –Š‹‰• ƒ”‡ †‡ϐ‹‡† ‡ˆˆ‡…–• Š‘™ –Š‹‰• ƒ”‡ ’‡”…‡‹˜‡†Ǥ ‘ —•‡ –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› farm (ensamgårdȌǡ ‹’Ž‹‡• Ž‹––Ž‡ …‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ ˆƒ”•ǡ „‘–Š ‹ ƒ ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ ƒ† •‘…‹ƒŽ ƒ•’‡…–ǡ™Š‹Ž‡–Š‡–‡”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹’Ž‹‡•–Š‡‘’’‘•‹–‡ǡ™Š‹…Š „‡Ž‹‡˜‡‹•–Š‡…ƒ•‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǤŠ‡ ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡•‘—”…‡•ǡ–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‡–Šƒ–˜‹ŽŽƒ‰es existed in some form on Gotland, in historical –‹‡•Ǥ—–‹•–Š‹•ƒŽ•‘–”—‡ˆ‘”’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹…–‹‡•ǫ  ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡–”ƒ…‡•‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡–•ˆ”‘ –Š‡Žƒ––‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž› ”‘‰‡ǡ…ǤʹͲͲȂ ͸ͲͲǡƒ”‡•–‹ŽŽ˜‹•‹„Ž‡ƒ„‘˜‡‰”‘—†•‹…‡–Š‡™ƒŽŽ• ‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡•™‡”‡„—‹Ž–‘ˆ•–‘‡ǡƒ†•‘‡ͳͺͲͲ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ •–‹ŽŽ ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ‹ –Š‡ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ ‘ˆ –‘†ƒ›Ǥ ˆ –Š‡ •’ƒ–‹ƒŽ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡•‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹• •–—†‹‡†ǡ‹–‹••‡‡–Šƒ––Š‡›‘ˆ–‡ˆ‘”‰”‘—’•‘ˆ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‹œ‡•ƒ††‡•‹–‹‡•ǡ‘–—Ž‹‡–Š‡’ƒ––‡”••‡‡‹–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•ǤŽ†‡”•…Š‘Žƒ”• ‘ˆ–‡”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘–Š‡•‡…Ž—•–‡”•ƒ••‡˜‡”ƒŽˆƒ”• •‹–—ƒ–‡†‹˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡƒ†–Š‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•–”—…–—”‡ of the island was considered to consist of villag‡•ƒ†•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•Ǥ—”‹‰–Š‡Žƒ•–ˆ‘”–››‡ƒ”•ǡ however, villages have been seen as non-existent ƒ† –Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”• ƒ”‡ „”‹‡ϐŽ› †‡•…”‹„‡† ƒ• ‡‹–Š‡” large farms, remains of farms that are not coe˜ƒŽǡ‘”‰”‘—’•‘ˆˆƒ”•‹…‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ„—––Š‡› ƒ”‡‡˜‡””‡ƒŽŽ›ƒƒŽ›•‡†ǤŠ‡ˆƒ‘—• ”‘‰‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‘ˆƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ǡ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†‹–Š‡Žƒ–‡ͳͻͶͲ• ƒ•ƒ…ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒŒ‘‹–’”‘Œ‡…–ǡ—†‡”–Š‡Ž‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹•–¤”–‡–‡„‡”‰‡”ǡ‹• –‘†ƒ›‘ˆ–‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•–Š‡‘Ž› ”‘‰‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡƒ†ƒ•ƒƒ‘ƒŽ›Ǥ –Š‡™‡†‹•Šƒ‹Žƒ†1, the solitary farm was also for a long time considered the sole form ‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡–•–”—…–—”‡†—”‹‰–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ǡ™‹–Š •‘‡ ‘†† ‡š…‡’–‹‘•Ǥ Š‹• ˜‹‡™ ™ƒ• ƒ‹Ž› „ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ͳǤš…‡’––Š‡…‘—–›‘ˆ¤‡–Šƒ–‹‘•–ƒ––‡”•ƒ”‡‘”‡ …‘‡…–‡†–‘‡ƒ”ǡ„‘–Šƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽŽ›ƒ†‹–Š‡ƒ…ƒ†‡‹…†‹•…‘—”•‡Ǥ

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evidence available at the time, which was mainŽ›˜‹•‹„Ž‡‹‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ•‹…‡˜‡”›ˆ‡™”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ™‡”‡ ‘™ǡ „—– ƒŽ•‘ –‘ •‘‡ †‡‰”‡‡ „‡…ƒ—•‡ ‘ˆ Š‘™ –Š‡ ™ƒ› –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡™ƒ•†‡ϐ‹‡†ǡƒ•‡–‹‘‡†ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ‡…‡–ly, large-scale excavations on the mainland have ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡†ƒƒ„—†ƒ…‡‘ˆ–”ƒ…‡•‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡–• ˆ”‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’‡”‹‘†•‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ǡ‹•–”—…–—”‡•–Šƒ– Šƒ”†Ž› …ƒ „‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ• •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‹• ‹…Ž—†‡• YŽƒ†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒŽ•‘ Šƒ• –Š‡ •ƒ‡ –›’‡ ‘ˆ ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ Žƒ––‡” ’ƒ”– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ”‘ ‰‡ ƒ• ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ These new data and analyses on the mainŽƒ†ƒ†‘YŽƒ†ǡŠƒ˜‡‹‹–‹ƒ–‡†ƒ‡™†‡„ƒ–‡ ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š Šƒ• Ž‡† –‘ ‡™ ‹•‹‰Š–• ƒ† †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ› „—– ‘– ƒŽŽ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹•–• •‡‡ –‘ ‡„”ƒ…‡Ǥ Š‡ ’”‡˜ƒŽ‡– •‡––Ž‡‡– •–”—…–—”‡ ‹• ‘™ ‘•– ‘ˆ–‡”‡…‘‰‹•‡†ƒ•„‡‹‰˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‡˜‡†—”‹‰–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ǡƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–‹–Š‡…‡–”ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ’”‡•‡– †ƒ›™‡†‡Ǥ˜‡ƒ˜‡”›„”‹‡ˆ•–—†›‘ˆ–Š‡•‡•‡––Ž‡‡– •–”—…–—”‡• ˆ‘—† ‘ –Š‡ ƒ‹Žƒ† ƒ† YŽƒ†ǡ•Š‘™‘„˜‹‘—••‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡•™‹–Š–Š‡•–”—…–—”‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ˆ‘—† ‘

‘–Žƒ†Ǥ Š‹• ‹†‹…ƒ–‡• –Šƒ– ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ™‡”‡ …‘‘ƒŽ•‘‘ ‘–Žƒ††—”‹‰–Š‹•’‡”‹‘†ǡƒ†‹–‹• –‹‡–‘…‘–‹—‡–Š‹•†‹•…—••‹‘ˆ”‘ƒ ‘–Žƒ†‹… ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡Ǥ

Objective and research questions Š‡”‡‹•–Š—••–”‘‰”‡ƒ•‘–‘„‡Ž‹‡˜‡–Šƒ–˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• in some sense have existed also on Gotland, both ‹ ’”‡Š‹•–‘”› ƒ† †—”‹‰ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ –‹‡•ǡ ‹ˆ ‘– ‹ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ –‡”•Ǥ Š‡ ƒ‹ ‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡ ‘ˆ –Š‹• –Š‡•‹• ‹•–‘‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡ƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‡–Š‡•’ƒ–‹ƒŽ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ƒ† •–”—…–—”‡ ‘ˆ ’Š›•‹…ƒŽ ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡–•ƒ†Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ•‘—”…‡•ˆ”‘–Š‡Žƒ––‡”’ƒ”– ‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž› ”‘‰‡—’—–‹Ž‡ƒ”Ž›‘†‡”–‹‡•ǡ „›—•‹‰Žƒ”‰‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•‘ˆ•’ƒ–‹ƒŽ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ …‡–”ƒŽ“—‡•–‹‘—•–ƒŽ•‘„‡–‘‡š’Žƒ‹™Š›–Š‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ ‘–Žƒ†–‘‘ƒ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’ƒ–Š‹ these matters than in most other regions of Swe†‡Ǥ ™Šƒ–”‡•’‡…–™ƒ•–Š‡•‘…‹‡–›‘ ‘–Žƒ† different, and what characteristics led to the cir…—•–ƒ…‡ –Šƒ– ϐ‹•…ƒŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‡˜‡” ‡‡”‰‡†ǫ Š‡ƒ•™‡”–‘•—…Šƒ“—‡•–‹‘‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ˆ‘—† within the society itself and to some degree in its ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•–‘–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰™‘”Ž†Ǥ‘•‡“—‡–Ž›ǡ ‹ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘˜‡”–‹‡‹•‘…‹ƒŽ•–”—…–—”‡ǡ‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”•ƒ†‡ƒ•‘ˆ•—’’‘”– ƒ†–”ƒ†‡™‹ŽŽ„‡•–—†‹‡†Ǥ

‘–Š‡” ‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡ ‹• –‘ ƒƒŽ›•‡ –Š‡ Ž‘‰Ǧ–‡” ϐŽ—…–—ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ƒ† ˆƒ”• ƒ† Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡—–‹Ž‹•ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡’”‡˜ƒ‹Ž‹‰†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•‘ˆ –Š‡ •‡––Ž‡‡– •–”—…–—”‡ ‘˜‡” –‹‡ ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ ‘•–‘ˆ–‡…‘’”‹•‡–Š‡’‹…–—”‡‘ˆƒ Ž‹‡ƒ”†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ǡ‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡•‹‰Ž‡ˆƒ”••‡‡‹Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•ƒ”‡‡š–”ƒ’‘Žƒ–‡†„ƒ… ‹ –‹‡Ǥ •‘…‹‡–›™‹–Š˜‡”›Ž‹––Ž‡…Šƒ‰‡‹–Š‡—„‡” ‘ˆˆƒ”•ƒ†‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”•‹•‘ˆ–‡†‡’‹…–‡†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‹• ‘– …‘””‡…–Ǥ  –Š‡ mainland, new research and excavations have ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡†—…Š‰”‡ƒ–‡”˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ ƒ† —„‡” ‘ˆ ˆƒ”• –Šƒ ™ƒ• ’”‡˜‹‘—•Ž› estimated and there is no reasons to believe that –Š‡•‡–”‡†•ƒ”‡ƒ„•‡–‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǤŠ‡•‘…‹‡–› ‘ ‘–Žƒ†Šƒ••‡˜‡”ƒŽ—‹“—‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š‹ •‘‡”‡•’‡…–•Šƒ•Ž‡†–‘ƒ—‹“—‡†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–Ǥ Š‡˜ƒ•–‡š–‡”ƒŽ…‘–ƒ…–•†—”‹‰–Š‡•–—†‹‡† ’‡”‹‘†•ǡ —•– Šƒ˜‡ ”‡•—Ž–‡† ‹ ƒ ‰”‡ƒ– ‡š’‘•—”‡ –‘ –Š‡ •—””‘—†‹‰•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ’”‡•—ƒ„Ž› ƒ†‡ –Š‡ •‘…‹‡–› ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ‘”‡ ˜—Ž‡”ƒ„Ž‡ ƒ†•‡•‹–‹˜‡–‘‡˜‡–•‹–Š‡™‘”Ž†ƒ”‘—†ǤŠ‹• †‘‡• ‘– –ƒŽŽ› ™‹–Š ƒ ˜‡”› •–ƒ„Ž‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ƒ† Ž‹––Ž‡ …Šƒ‰‡Ǥ Š‡ –”—‡ ’‹…–—”‡ ‹• ’”‡•—ƒ„Ž› ‘”‡ ˜ƒ”‹‡† ƒ† …‘’Ž‡š –Šƒ ‘•– •…Š‘Žƒ”• Šƒ˜‡ ’”‡˜‹‘—•Ž› ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡†Ǥ Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ –Š‡ —„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•ƒ†Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•™‹ŽŽƒŽ•‘„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡† ƒ† ˆ‘” •‘‡ ’‡”‹‘†•ǡ ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡ •‘—”…‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ’‡”‹–•ǡ–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›™‹ŽŽ„‡‡•–‹ƒ–‡†Ǥ –‹•–Š—•–‹‡–‘’ƒ‹–ƒ‡™’‹…–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ǯ•…—Ž–—”ƒŽŽƒ†•…ƒ’‡Ǥ

Sources, methods and some general source criticism  •‡”‹‡• ‘ˆ ƒ–‹‘™‹†‡ •’ƒ–‹ƒŽ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡• ƒ† †‹‰‹–ƒŽ ƒ”…Š‹˜‡• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡† †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ’ƒ•– †‡…ƒ†‡ ™‹–Š ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ„‘—– ƒ…‹‡– remains, geological information and historical ƒ’•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ‡• ‹– ’‘••‹„Ž‡ –‘ †‘ ‡š–‡•‹˜‡ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ƒ†•‡––Ž‡‡–ƒƒŽ›•‡•‘ƒŽŽ•…ƒŽ‡• ‹ ‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‹…ƒŽ ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘›•–‡•ǡ Ǥ—…Š ƒƒŽ›•‡• ’‡”ˆ‘”‡† ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ™‹ŽŽ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ƒŽ–‡” –Š‡ ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ ’‹…–—”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡…—Ž–—”ƒŽŽƒ†•…ƒ’‡ƒ†•‡––Ž‡‡–•–”—…–—”‡ǡ •‹…‡‘•–’”‡˜‹‘—•ƒƒŽ›•‡•‘ˆ–Š‡‹•Žƒ†Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ƒ†‡ ‘ •ƒŽŽ •—„•‡–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒǡ ‘” ˆ‘” ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆŽ‹‹–‡†•‹œ‡ǤŠ‡”‡•—Ž–•Šƒ˜‡–Š‡„‡‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡†–‘…‘˜‡”–Š‡‡–‹”‡‹•Žƒ†ȋ…ˆǤƒ”Ž••‘ ͳͻ͹ͻǡ ‹†“—‹•– ͳͻͺͳǡ ‹†‡ŽŠ‡† ͳͻͺͶ„ ƒ† Y•–‡”‰”‡ ͳͻͺͻȌǤ Š‡ —•‹‰ ‘Ž› Ž‹‹–‡† ƒ”‡ƒ• ƒ†Ȁ‘” •—„•‡–• ‘ˆ †ƒ–ƒ ‹ ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹•ƒ†ƒ‰‡”–Šƒ––Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ†•—„•‡–•’‹…‡†ˆ‘” ƒƒŽ›•‡• ƒ”‡ ‘– ”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹˜‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ ™Š‘Ž‡ǡ ƒ††‘–Š—•‘–‰‹˜‡ƒ…‘””‡…–’‹…–—”‡™Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡†Ǥ These databases, with data for the whole ‹•Žƒ†ƒ‡–Š‡–‹‡”‹’‡ˆ‘”Žƒ”‰‡Ǧ•…ƒŽ‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡–’ƒ––‡”•ƒ†•–”—…–—”‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ ‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ› †‹ƒ…Š”‘‹… •–—†‹‡• …‘…‡”‹‰ …Šƒ‰‡• ‹ –Š‡ •–”—…–—”‡ ƒ† †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘˜‡” –‹‡Ǥ‹…‡–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•…‘•‹•–‘ˆƒ•‘—”…‡ƒ-

Figure 1.1.–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘—†‡”‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘Ǥ‘—•‡‘•Ǥͳͺƒ–ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”Ǥȋ ”‘ Œ‡˜ƒŽŽͳͻͷͷǣʹͳͷϐ‹‰Ǥ͹ͳȌ

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terial with considerable differences, with vary‹‰ ”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹˜‡‡••ǡ ‹– ”‡“—‹”‡• ƒ Žƒ”‰‡ –‘‘Ž„‘šǡ ™‹–Š ƒ ˜ƒ”‹‡–› ‘ˆ ‡–Š‘†•Ǥ  –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ™‘”ǡ ˜‹•—ƒŽǡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ƒ† ™Šƒ– …ƒ „‡ …ƒŽŽ‡† ‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ‡–Š‘†•™‹ŽŽ„‡—•‡†ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– methods will be described in more detail in conŒ—…–‹‘™‹–Š–Š‡˜ƒ”‹‘—•ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ The geodatabase with information on an…‹‡– ”‡ƒ‹• ‹• –Š‡ ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‹–‡• ˆ‘”mation System, FMISǡ™Š‹…Š‹•–Š‡ „ƒ•‡†˜‡”•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‘Ž†ƒ…‹‡–‘—‡–•”‡‰‹•–‡”ǡFMR, ™Š‹…Š™ƒ•„ƒ•‡†‘’ƒ’‡”ƒ’•ƒ†‘–‡„‘‘•Ǥ FMIS was released almost a decade ago by ‹•ƒ–‹˜ƒ”‹‡¡„‡–‡–ǡ" (The Swedish National ‡”‹–ƒ‰‡‘ƒ”†ȌǤ –…‘˜‡”•ƒŽŽ‘ˆ™‡†‡ƒ†–‘†ƒ›‹–…‘–ƒ‹•‘˜‡”ͳǤ͹‹ŽŽ‹‘ƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹• ƒ–ƒ”‘—†͸ͲͲͲͲͲŽ‘…ƒ–‹‘•ȋ"ʹͲͳ͵ƒȌǡƒ†‹• …‘•–ƒ–Ž›‰”‘™‹‰Ǥ   ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‘”‡–Šƒ 30 000 records for Gotland, with many more in†‹˜‹†—ƒŽƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹•Ǥ Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ”‡ƒ‹•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ†YŽƒ† ƒ”‡—‹“—‡ˆ‘”•–—†‹‡•‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ƒ•’‡…–•‘ˆ–Š‡ Žƒ–‡”‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ƒ†‹‰”ƒ–‹‘’‡”‹‘†ǡ ʹͲͲ –‘  ͸ͲͲǡ ƒ† ‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ› “—‡•–‹‘• …‘…‡”‹‰ •‡––Ž‡‡– •–”—…–—”‡•Ǥ Š‹• ’‡”‹‘† ™‹ŽŽ henceforth be referred to as the mid millennium’‡”‹‘†Ǥ—”‹‰–Š‹•’‡”‹‘†ǡ–Š‡’‡‘’Ž‡‘ „‘–Š ‹•Žƒ†• „—‹Ž– –Š‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ‘ˆ –Š‡‹” Š‘—•‡• ƒ• ƒ••‹˜‡ •–‘‡ …‘•–”—…–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹…Š –‘ ƒ Žƒ”‰‡ †‡‰”‡‡ ƒ”‡ •–‹ŽŽ ’”‡•‡– ‹ –Š‡ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡Ǥ Š‡ ”‡ƒ•‘ ˆ‘” –Š‹• ‹• –Šƒ– ’”‹‘” –‘ –Š‡ ‡…Šƒ‹•‡† farming, the effort needed to remove them was ‘•–‘ˆ–‡‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒ–Š‡‰ƒ‹ǤYŽƒ†ǡ–Š‡› are called Jättegrav and on Gotland Kämpagrav, „‘–Š ‡ƒ‹‰ ‹ƒ–ǯ• ‰”ƒ˜‡Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ –Š‡ folklore they where graves for giants or legendary warriors (kämpeȌǤ ‡…‡ˆ‘”–Š –Š‡› ™‹ŽŽ „‡ referred to as Iron Age stone house foundations or simply stone house foundationsǤ ‹‡†–‘–Š‡ ”‘‰‡Š‘—•‡•ƒ”‡ƒŽ•‘ƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆƒ‘–Š‡”–›’‡ǡ…ƒŽŽ‡†stenvast or stensträng ȋ•–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽǡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽȌǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ –Š‡ ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡Ǥ Š‡› …‘•‹•– ‘ˆ Ž‘™ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• –Šƒ– …ƒ „‡ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ Š—†”‡† ‡–”‡• ‹ Ž‡‰–Šǡ ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›Žƒ”‰‡•–‘‡•ǡ‘ˆ–‡ƒ”‘—†ͲǤͷ‡–”‡• ‹†‹ƒ‡–‡”ǤŠ‡›ƒ”‡‘•–‘ˆ–‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ• •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‡…Ž‘•‡† –Š‡ ‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ –Š—• ’”‡˜‡–‹‰–Š‡Ž‹˜‡•–‘…ƒ†™‹Ž†ƒ‹ƒŽ•ˆ”‘ ‰”ƒœ‹‰ ‹ –Š‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• ‘” ‡ƒ†‘™• ȋ…ˆǤ ƒ”Ž••‘ ͳͻ͹ͻȌǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ •‘‡ ‹–‡”’”‡– –Š‡ ’ƒ”–Ž› ‹ ‘–Š‡”–‡”•ƒ†•‡‡–Š‡ƒ•ƒŽ•‘Šƒ˜‹‰”‹–—ƒŽ‘” …‘•‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽˆ—…–‹‘•ȋ•‡‡ƒ••‡Žͳͻͻͺƒ†‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ȌǤƒ›•–‹ŽŽ”‡ƒ‹‹–Š‡ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ƒ†•‘‡™‡”‡‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›’ƒ”–Ž›

ͳͶ

—–‹Ž‹•‡†ƒ†”‡„—‹Ž–‹Žƒ–‡”’‡”‹‘†•ǡ™Š‹…Š…ƒ„‡ ƒ„‹–‘ˆƒ’”‘„Ž‡ǡ™Š‡—•‹‰–Š‡‹ƒƒŽ›•‡• ‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡Ǥ Today only fragments of the once existing …—Ž–—”ƒŽŽƒ†•…ƒ’‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—…ƒ„‡ •‡‡ƒ„‘˜‡‰”‘—†ǤŠ‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•‘‡ʹͲͲͲ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ† ͶͷͲ  ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ•ƒ”‡–‘„‡ˆ‘—†‹FMIS. Some of the now vanished remains can be seen in large-scale his–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•ǡ™Š‡”‡–Š‡›ƒ›„‡†‡’‹…–‡†Ǣ•‘‡ ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽʹͷͲŠƒ˜‡„‡‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†–Š‹•™ƒ›Ǥ The information in FMIS ‹• “—‹–‡ —•–”—…–—”‡†ƒ†‡‡†•—…Š†ƒ–ƒ…Ž‡ƒ•‹‰ƒ†’”‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‘ –‘ „‡ ϐ‹– ˆ‘” —•‡ ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ™‘”ǡ ƒ †‡•…”‹’–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‹•™‹ŽŽ„‡’”‡•‡–‡†ˆ—”–Š‡”‘Ǥ ‘”†‡”–‘ƒƒŽ›•‡–Š‡•’ƒ–‹ƒŽ•–”—…–—”‡•‘ˆ–Š‡ •‡––Ž‡‡–”‡ƒ‹•ǡ„‘–Š‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽƒ†˜‹•—ƒŽ ‡ƒ•ƒ”‡—•‡†Ǥ‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ‡–Š‘†‹˜‘Ž˜‡• ‰”‘—’‹‰Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ–ƒ…‡”–ƒ‹†‹•–ƒ…‡•‹–‘…Ž—•–‡”•ǤŠ‡•‡…Ž—•–‡”•™‹ŽŽ–Š‡„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†—•‹‰•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽƒ†˜‹•—ƒŽ‡ƒ•ǡ–‘‹†‡–‹ˆ›–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–—‹–•Ǥ ˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒ› ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•’”‡•‡”˜‡†‹–Š‡’”‡•‡–Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ǡ later activities have taken a large toll, and the majority once existing are believed to be re‘˜‡†ǡ…Š‹‡ϐŽ›†‡•–”‘›‡†–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡‹’ƒ…–‘ˆ ’Ž‘—‰Š‹‰ •‹…‡ –Š‡ ͳͻth …‡–—”›Ǥ › —•‹‰ †ƒ–ƒ ‹‹‰ –‡…Š‹“—‡• ƒ† ‡’Ž‘›‹‰ Ž‘‰‹•–‹…ƒŽ ”‡‰”‡••‹‘ƒƒŽ›•‡•‹•‘Ǧ…ƒŽŽ‡†’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ǡ–Š‡ˆ‘”‡”‡š–‡•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡– ƒ”‡ƒ• ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ‘†‡ŽŽ‡†Ǣ ƒ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ ™‹ŽŽ ƒŽ•‘„‡ƒ†‡‘ˆŠ‘™ƒ› ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Šƒ˜‡˜ƒ‹•Š‡†Ǥ ƒ› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐ‹† Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘• ˆ‘” ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‹Ž˜‡” Š‘ƒ”†• …ƒ ƒŽ•‘ „‡ ˆ‘—† ‹ FMISǤ —‡ –‘ ƒŒ‘”•—”˜‡›‹‰’”‘Œ‡…–•ǡ‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡•‡•‹–‡•Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ •…”—–‹‹œ‡† ™‹–Š ‡–ƒŽ †‡–‡…–‘”• ˆ‘” ‡–ƒŽ ϐ‹†•ǡ‡š…‡’–‹”‘ǡƒ†–Š‡ϐ‹†•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡”‡’‘”–‡†ǤŠ‡•‡Š‘ƒ”†•ƒ”‡ƒ›–‹‡•ǡ„—–‘–ƒŽ™ƒ›•ǡ ˆ‘—†‘‹‹‰‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•‹–‡•ǤŠ‡ϐ‹†ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽˆ”‘–Š‡•‡•—”˜‡›•™‹ŽŽ„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†‹‘”†‡” –‘ ‹†‡–‹ˆ› ’‘••‹„Ž‡ •‡––Ž‡‡– •‹–‡•Ǥ Š‡ •’ƒ–‹ƒŽ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ƒ†•‡––‹‰•‘ˆ–Š‡•‡•‹–‡•™‹ŽŽ„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†‹…‘Œ—…–‹‘™‹–Šƒˆ‡™‘–Š‡”•‹–‡•–Šƒ– ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•‹‹‰‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ‹…‡‘Ž›ͳͲͻ•‹–‡•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ǡ ‘Ž›ƒ‹‘”‡šƒ‹ƒ–‹‘™‹ŽŽ„‡ƒ†‡ǡ’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›„›…‘’ƒ”‹‰–Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‹‹‰‰‡ •‹–‡• ™‹–Š –Š‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹— •‹–‡• ƒ†–Š‡•‹–‡•‘ˆŽƒ–‡”’‡”‹‘†•–‘•‡‡–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•‹Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘”–Š‡‡†‡Ž’‡”‹‘†ǡ–Š‡•‘—”…‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽˆ‘”•‡––Ž‡‡–•–—†‹‡•‹••…ƒ”…‡‹FMIS, ƒ†–Š‡•‡––Ž‡‡–”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆ–Š‡’‡”‹‘†™‹ŽŽ„‡ †‹•…—••‡†„”‹‡ϐŽ›™‹–Šˆ‡™ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ

‘–Š‡”ƒŒ‘”†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǡƒŽ•‘ƒ……‡••‹„Ž‡‘Ž‹‡ǡ is the database Arken released by Lantmäteriverketȋ–Š‡™‡†‹•Šƒ’’‹‰ǡ…ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽƒ†Žƒ† ”‡‰‹•–”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ—–Š‘”‹–›Ȍ •‘‡ ›‡ƒ”• ƒ‰‘Ǥ Š‹• ‹• –Š‡ †‹‰‹–ƒŽ ˜‡”•‹‘ǡ ™‹–Š –Š‡ •…ƒ‡† ƒ’• ƒ† ϐ‹Ž‡•ǡ‘ˆ–Š‡‹”Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’ƒ”…Š‹˜‡•†ƒ–‹‰ˆ”‘ –Š‡‡ƒ”Ž›ͳ͹th…‡–—”›—’—–‹Ž–Š‡ϐ‹”•–†‡…ƒ†‡• of the 20th …‡–—”›Ǥ Š‡ ƒ”…Š‹˜‡• …‘˜‡” ‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ’’‹‰ †‘‡ ‹ ™‡†‡ ƒ† …‘–ƒ‹ ™‡ŽŽ ‘˜‡”‘‡‹ŽŽ‹‘ϐ‹Ž‡•ȋƒ–¡–‡”‹˜‡”‡–ʹͲͳͳ„ȌǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡›Šƒ˜‡‘–„‡‡ˆ—”–Š‡”’”‘…‡••‡† ˆ‘”ƒ›—•‡‹ ǡ„—–‘Ž›•–‘”‡†ƒ•‹ƒ‰‡ϐ‹Ž‡• ƒ†ƒ……‡••‹„Ž‡˜‹ƒ–Š‡ –‡”‡–ȋŠ‹•–‘”‹•ƒƒ”–‘”Ǥ Žƒ–ƒ–‡”‹‡–Ǥ•‡ȌǤ

ƒŽ•‘ …‘•—Ž–‡† ‹ •‘‡ …ƒ•‡•Ǥ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ –Š‡•‡ ϐ‹”•–ƒ’•Šƒ˜‡‡š–‡•‹˜‡–‡š–—ƒŽ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•‘ˆ –Š‡ˆƒ”•ƒ†’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ††‡’‹…–‡†‹–Š‡ǡ as do the Storskifte- and Laga skifte ƒ’•ǡ „—– –Š‡›ƒ”‡‘ˆƒ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”Ǥ –Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲǡ–Š‡”‡‹•‘‡–‡š–—ƒŽ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ˆ‘”‡ƒ…Šˆƒ”‹™Š‹…ŠƒŽŽ‹–•’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ† ƒ”‡†‡•…”‹„‡†ǡ™‹–Š‹–•ƒ‡ƒ†ƒ„”‹‡ˆ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ǡ‘•–Ž›‘Ž›…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡•‘‹Ž–›’‡ǡ›‹‡Ž† ƒ†ƒ…”‡ƒ‰‡Ǥ‡•‹†‡•–Š‹•ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ„”‹‡ˆ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆƒ” ‹–•‡Žˆǡ ƒ† ‘ˆ Š‘™ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ‘™‡”ƒ…“—‹”‡†‹–Ǥ•ƒ’Ž‡‘ˆƒƒ’ƒ†–Š‡–‡š–—ƒŽ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘‹••‡‡‹ϐ‹‰ͳǤʹǤ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ™‡ ƒ”‡ƒŽ•‘ˆ‘”–—ƒ–‡–‘Šƒ˜‡ƒŽŽ–Š‡•‡–‡š–†‡•…”‹’-

Figure 1.2. ‡–ƒ‹Ž ‘ˆ ƒ ƒ’ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲ ƒ† ƒ –”ƒ•…”‹’– ‘ˆ –Š‡ –‡š– „‡Ž‘‰‹‰ –‘ –Š‡ ƒ’Ǥ › ƒ ƒŽ’ŠƒǦ—‡”‹…ƒŽ …‘†‹‰•›•–‡ǡ–Š‡ƒ’ƒ†–Š‡–‡š–ƒ”‡Ž‹‡†–‘‰‡–Š‡”Ǥ •‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ’ƒ–…Š‡•‘ˆ™ƒ•–‡Žƒ†ƒ”‡†‡’‹…–‡†ǡ™Š‹…Š ƒ›–‹‡•…ƒ„‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•ƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹•Ǥ‘‡–‹‡•–Š‡•Šƒ’‡ƒ†”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡’‘•‹–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ–…Š‡•ƒ‡•ƒ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘˜‡”›Ž‹‡Ž›ǤŠ‹•Šƒ•„‡‡…‘ϐ‹”‡†‹•‡˜‡”ƒŽ…ƒ•‡•„›–Š‡ˆƒ…––Šƒ– –Š‡ †‡’‹…–‡† ’ƒ–…Š ‘ˆ ™ƒ•–‡Žƒ† ‹• •–‹ŽŽ ’”‡•‡– ‹ –Š‡ ‘†‡” ϐ‹‡Ž†ǡ ƒ† …‘–ƒ‹• ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ȋ̹ƒ–¡–‡”‹‡–ǡ’—„Ž‹•Š‡†™‹–Š’‡”‹••‹‘ ʹͲͳʹȀͻʹͳȌ

Š‡ ƒ’• ‘ˆ ‰”‡ƒ–‡•– ‹–‡”‡•– ˆ‘” –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ™‘” ƒ”‡ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ƒ’• ‘˜‡” ƒŽŽ ˆƒ”• ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ†”ƒ™‹–Š‡•…ƒŽ‡‘ˆͳǣͺͲͲͲ‹–Š‡›‡ƒ”• ƒ”‘—† ͳ͹ͲͲǡ ™Š‹…Š …‘˜‡” –Š‡ ‡–‹”‡ ‹•Žƒ†Ǥ Š‡•‡ ƒ’• ™‹ŽŽ Š‡…‡ˆ‘”–Š „‡ ”‡ˆ‡””‡† –‘ ƒ• –Š‡ ‘–Žƒ†‹…ƒ’•‘ˆͳ͹ͲͲǡGM1700, and will „‡†‡•…”‹„‡†‹‘”‡†‡–ƒ‹ŽŽƒ–‡”Ǥƒ–‡”Žƒ†”‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ƒ’•ǡStorskifte and Laga skifte, are

–‹‘•‘ˆ‘—”‘Ž†‡•–ƒ’•–”ƒ•…”‹„‡†ƒ†•—ƒ”‹•‡†‹†‹‰‹–ƒŽˆ‘”Ǣ–Š‡•‡ƒ”‡ƒ……‡••‹„Ž‡‹’†ˆǦ ϐ‹Ž‡•ǤŠ‹•™‘”™ƒ•†‘‡„›ƒ’”‹˜ƒ–‡”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡”ǡ

ƒ‘„ ‘•–‡ ƒ† –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ’—„Ž‹•Š‡† ‘ ƒ Ǧ ”‘ ȋ‘•–‡ ʹͲͳͳ„ȌǤ ˜‡ ‹ˆ –Š‡ ’”‘†—…–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡–‹”‡ ƒ’ •‡”‹‡• –‘‘ ‘”‡ –Šƒ ƒ †‡…ƒ†‡ǡ ƒ”‘—†–Š‡–—”‘ˆ–Š‡…‡–—”›ͳ͸ͲͲǦͳ͹ͲͲǡ–Š‡‹” †ƒ–‡™‹ŽŽ„‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡†–‘–Š‡›‡ƒ”ͳ͹ͲͲǤ

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Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲƒ’•ˆ‘”‡˜‡”›’ƒ”‹•Š‘–Š‡‹•Žƒ† are georeferenced against the modern economi…ƒŽƒ’•Ǥ’ƒ–‹ƒŽ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒ„‘—––Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ‡˜‡”›ˆƒ”–‘ˆ–‹–Š‡›‡ƒ”ͳ͹ͲͲ‹•‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡† and is stored in a geodatabase together with data concerning the farms, which was gathered ˆ”‘˜ƒ”‹‘—•’ƒ”–•‘ˆ‘•–‡ǯ•–”ƒ•…”‹’–•ƒ† •—ƒ”‹‡•Ǥ ‹…‡ –Š‡ ƒ’• …‘–ƒ‹ ƒ› –‡• ‘ˆ–Š‘—•ƒ†•‘ˆ†‡’‹…–‡†’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†ȋ’‹‡…‡• ‘ˆŽƒ†Ȍǡ™‹–Š…‘’Ž‡š•Šƒ’‡•ǡƒ•…ƒ„‡•‡‡‹ ϐ‹‰ǤͳǤʹƒ„‘˜‡ǡ‹–™ƒ•‘–’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘˜‡…–‘”‹•‡ƒŽŽ ƒ’•–‘ˆƒ…‹Ž‹–ƒ–‡•’ƒ–‹ƒŽƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž• ‘ˆŽƒ†ǤŽ‹‰Š–Ž›‘”‡–ŠƒŠƒŽˆ‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‡•ǡ ͷͳ•’”‡ƒ†ƒ…”‘••–Š‡‡–‹”‡‹•Žƒ†ǡ™‡”‡˜‡…–‘”‹•‡†ƒ†‡ƒ…Š’ƒ”…‡Ž‘ˆŽƒ†™ƒ•ƒ––”‹„—–‡†™‹–Š –›’‡ ‘ˆ Žƒ† ƒ† –‘ ™Š‹…Š ˆƒ” ‹– „‡Ž‘‰‡†Ǥ › ‰‹˜‹‰’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†‘ˆ‡ƒ…Šˆƒ”ƒ—‹“—‡…‘Ž‘—”‹–Š‡ ǡ‹–‹•‡ƒ•›–‘†‡’‹…––Š‡•’ƒ–‹ƒŽ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•‘ˆ‡ƒ…Šˆƒ”‹ƒ’ƒ”‹•ŠǤ Š‡•‡ ƒ’• ƒ”‡ –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽŽ› ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ† ‰”‘—’• ‘ˆ ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š ‹š‡† ’ƒ”…‡Ž• ‘ˆ Žƒ†ǡ ‘” …‘‡…–‡†ƒ‡•ǡ…ƒ„‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰ƒ …‘‘ ‘”‹‰‹ǡ ƒ† –Š—• …‘•–‹–—–‹‰ ƒ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‹…Šƒ’–‡”ʹǤ These villages can then be analysed statistically ‹–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ‡”ƒ•–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ Š‡‡š–‡•‹˜‡•‘—”…‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǡ—•‡†‹–Š‹• work, consisting of large databases from differ‡– –‹‡ ’‡”‹‘†•ǡ ”‡“—‹”‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹• –‘ „‡ˆ—ŽŽ›—†‡”•–‘‘†ƒ†’”‡•‡–‡†Ǥ……‘”†‹‰Ž›ǡ ‘‡‘ˆ›…‡–”ƒŽ‡–Š‘†•‹•–‘—•‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ƒ•ƒ „ƒ•‹•ˆ‘”ˆ—”–Š‡””‡ƒ•‘‹‰Ǥƒ›–‹‡•ǡ’”‡•‡–‹‰ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ †‡•…”‹’–‹‘• ‘” ƒƒŽ›•‡• ‹‰Š– Š‡Ž’ ‹ –Š‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ –ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‘•– ‘ˆ–‡ ‘Ž› …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ †‡•…”‹’–‹˜‡ statistical methods, is a good way of getting to ‘™–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ›‘—ƒ”‡™‘”‹‰™‹–ŠǢ‹–‹•‘”‡‘˜‡”ƒ‡š…‡ŽŽ‡–™ƒ›–‘’”‡•‡–‹–Ǥ —”–Š‡”‘”‡ǡ ‹–‹•ƒ•—‹–ƒ„Ž‡•–ƒ”–‹‰’‘‹–ˆ‘”–Š‡Š‡”‡‡—–‹… ”‡ƒ•‘‹‰ ƒ† ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒŽ™ƒ›• —•– „‡ ’‡”ˆ‘”‡† ‹ ƒ› ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š ™‹–Š‹ –Š‡ Š—ƒ‹–‹‡•Ǥ Š‡ ‹’‘”–ƒ– ’ƒ”– ‹• –Š‡ ”‡ƒ•‘‹‰ ƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ––‡”ǡ‘”‘Ǧ’ƒ––‡”•”‡vealed by the statistical analyse, since statistical –‡•–•ƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‹•†‘‘–…‘•–‹–—–‡ƒǮ„Žƒ…„‘šǯ ™Š‹…Š ‰‹˜‡• –Š‡ ϐ‹ƒŽ ƒ•™‡”• –‘ –Š‡ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š “—‡•–‹‘•Ǥ ‘‡–‹‡• –Š‹• …ƒ „‡ –Š‡ …ƒ•‡ǡ „—– ˜‡”› •‡Ž†‘Ǥ ”‡•‡–‹‰ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ǡ …ƒ ‹ ƒ› …ƒ•‡•ƒŽ•‘”‡†—…‡–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆǮ‹–Ž‘‘•Ž‹‡ǤǤǤǯ ‘” Ǯ‹– •‡‡• Ž‹‡ǤǤǤǯ ‘” Ǯ‹– ‹‰Š– „‡ǤǤǤǯ ‹ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ™‘”ǡ „—– ‘ˆ …‘—”•‡ ‹– …ƒ‘– ‡Ž‹‹ƒ–‡ –Š‡ǡ •‹…‡ –Š‡ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ •‘—”…‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ Šƒ•ƒ„—‹Ž–Ǧ‹ —…‡”–ƒ‹–›ǤŠ‡—•‡ ‘ˆ•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‡•ƒ†’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹‘•…ƒƒŽ•‘”‡˜‡ƒŽƒ›

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™‡ƒ‡••‡•Ǣ –Š‡ …‘’Ž‡š‹–› ƒ† ‹””‡‰—Žƒ” ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ”ƒ‰‡–ƒŽƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ•‘—”…‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ †‘‡• ‘– ˆƒ…‹Ž‹–ƒ–‡ •‹’Ž‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘• ƒ† ‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ‘– •‘ •‡Žˆ ‡˜‹†‡–Ǥ Š‹• will be demonstrated in some of the analyses in –Š‹•™‘”Ǥ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ –‘ –Š‡•‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡• ™‹–Š …—Ž–—”‡ǦŠ‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ …‘–‡–ǡ Sveriges geologiska undersökningar, SGUȋ™‡†‹•Š‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ•—”˜‡›•Ȍ Žƒ—…Š‡† –Š‡ ‡™ ‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‰‡‘†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ˆ‘”

‘–Žƒ†‹ʹͲͲͻǦͳͲǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‹’‘”–ƒ–ˆ‘”–Š‡ ’”‡•‡–™‘”Ǥ ‡•‹†‡• –Š‡•‡ Žƒ”‰‡” †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•ǡ –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘•ƒŽŽ‡”†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•…”‡ƒ–‡†ˆ‘”˜ƒ”‹‘—•ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ ŽŽ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡• —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ™‘” ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ‘”‡ –Š‘”‘—‰ŠŽ› ’”‡•‡–‡† ‹ …‘‡…tion with the different analyses in which they ƒ”‡ —•‡†ǡ ƒ† •‘ ™‹ŽŽ ‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘”‡ •’‡…‹ϐ‹… •‘—”…‡ …”‹–‹…ƒŽ ƒ•’‡…–• ‘ˆ ‡ƒ…Š ƒƒŽ›•‹•Ǥ ‡”‡  ™‹ŽŽ‘Ž›ƒ††”‡•••‘‡‰‡‡”ƒŽƒ†’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ˆ‘” ƒ›ǡ„—–‘–ˆ‘”‡˜‡”›„‘†›ǡ™‡ŽŽ‘™•‘—”…‡ …”‹–‹…ƒŽƒ•’‡…–•…‘…‡”‹‰–Š‡ƒ–—”‡‘ˆFMIS. – ‹• ‹’‘”–ƒ– –‘ ”‡‡„‡” –Š‡•‡ •Š‘”–…‘‹‰•ǡ ™Š‹…Šƒˆˆ‡…––Š‡’”‡•‡–™‘”ƒ†ƒŽŽ‘–Š‡”ƒƒŽyses made with FMIS†ƒ–ƒǤ

Some source critical aspects on FMIS The FMIS database is a fantastic national asset for which we archaeologists and also the generƒŽ ’—„Ž‹… •Š‘—Ž† „‡ ˜‡”› ‰”ƒ–‡ˆ—Žǡ „—– ‹– Šƒ• ‹–• †”ƒ™„ƒ…•ƒ†•Š‘”–…‘‹‰•Ǥ –‹•’ƒ”–Ž›ƒ……‡••‹„Ž‡ƒ•ƒ’—„Ž‹…‘Ž‹‡˜‡”•‹‘ȋˆ‹•Ǥ”ƒƒǤ•‡ȌǤFMIS ‹•–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆƒ†‹‰‹–ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘’”‘Œ‡…–‘ˆ–Š‡‘Ž† ƒƒŽ‘‰—‡Fornminnesregistret, FMRȋ…‹‡–‡ƒ‹•‡‰‹•–‡”ȌǤŠ‹•’”‘Œ‡…–•–ƒ”–‡†ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›‹ ͳͻͺͶ™‹–Š–Š‡†‹‰‹–ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡–‡š–†‡•…”‹„‹‰–Š‡•‹–‡•ǤŠ‡”‡‰‹•–‡”ˆ‘”–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡‘ˆ™‡†‡™ƒ•ϐ‹ƒŽ‹•‡†ƒ––Š‡‡†‘ˆʹͲͲͷǤ–‹ŽʹͲͲʹǡ –Š‡”‡™‡”‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’”‘Œ‡…–•™‹–Šƒ˜ƒ”‹‡–›‘ˆ‡–Š‘†•ƒ††‹ˆˆ‡”‡–”‡•’‘•‹„Ž‡‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘•ǡ™Š‹…ŠŽ‡†–‘‹ƒ†‡“—ƒ–‡“—ƒŽ‹–›Ǥ ʹͲͲʹǡ ƒ ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ •–”ƒ–‡‰› ™ƒ• •‡– —’ –‘ ƒ•–‡” –Š‡•‡ ’”‘„Ž‡• ƒ† ϐ‹ƒŽ‹•‡ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™ƒ• †‘‡‹ʹͲͲͷǤˆ–‡”–Š‹•ǡ‡ˆˆ‘”–•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒ†‡ –‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡“—ƒŽ‹–›ȋ‡–œŠ‘‰ʹͲͲͻǣʹ͵ˆȌǡ„—– there are still many errors in FMISǤ ‡…ƒ—•‡ FMIS is a digitalisation of an old ™”‹––‡”‡‰‹•–‡”ǡ–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ•–”—…–—”‡‘ˆFMIS is very ’”‹‹–‹˜‡ƒ†—•–”—…–—”‡†ǡ•‹…‡‘ƒŽŽǦ‡„”ƒ…ing effort to redesign it was made from the start ‹ –Š‡ ͳͻͺͲ•Ǥ – —•– Š‘™‡˜‡” „‡ ”‡‡„‡”‡† –Šƒ– ‹– ‹• ƒ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ˆ‘” —•‡ ™‹–Š‹ …—Ž–—”ƒŽ ”‡•‘—”…‡ƒƒ‰‡‡–ƒ†‹•‘–†‡•‹‰‡†ˆ‘””‡-

•‡ƒ”…ŠǤ”‡†‡•‹‰‘ˆFMIS‘™ǡ™‹–Š–Š‡ƒ‘—– ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ƒŽ”‡ƒ†› ‹ –Š‡ •›•–‡ǡ ™‘—Ž† ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› „‡ ˜‡”› ‡š’‡•‹˜‡ ƒ† –‹‡Ǧ…‘•—ing, „—–‹–‹‰Š–„‡†‘‡‹–Š‡ˆ—–—”‡Ǥ Š‡•—”˜‡›‹‰ˆ‘”ƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹•‘ƒƒ–‹‘ƒŽ„ƒ•‹•™ƒ••–ƒ”–‡†‹ͳͻ͵͹Ȁ͵ͺǡ‹…‘‡…–‹‘™‹–Š–Š‡ƒ’’‹‰ˆ‘”ƒ‡™‡…‘‘‹…ƒŽƒ’ •‡”‹‡•Ǥ–‹ŽʹͲͲ͵ǡ–Š‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘™ƒ•…‘ŽŽ‡…–‡† ‹•ƒŽŽ’ƒ’‡”‘–‡„‘‘•ƒ†‘’ƒ’‡”ƒ’•‹ Fornminnesregistret, FMR ȋ ‘”•Ú ʹͲͳ͵ƒǣƒ‰”—†ȌǤ Š‡ •—”˜‡›‹‰ ™ƒ• ’‡”ˆ‘”‡† –™‹…‡ –Š”‘—‰Š‘—– –Š‡ ‡–‹”‡ …‘—–”›ǡ ‡š…‡’– ˆ‘” –Š‡ ‘—–ƒ‹ƒ”‡ƒ•ǤŠ‡•‡…‘†•—”˜‡›ǡ”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ as Revideringsinventeringenǡ ȋ–Š‡ ”‡˜‹•‡† •—”˜‡›Ȍ•–ƒ”–‡†‹ͳͻ͹ͶǤ‡•‹†‡•ǡ–Š‡”‡Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒ —„‡”‘ˆ•ƒŽŽ‡”ǡ•’‡…‹ƒŽ‹•‡†•—”˜‡›•‹†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ƒ”‡ƒ•ȋ"ͳͻͻͻ„ǣ„‹Žƒ‰ƒͷǣͳͳȌǤ The conversion to digital format meant that ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž› ŠƒŽˆ ƒ ‹ŽŽ‹‘ ‘–‡„‘‘ ’ƒ‰‡• ™‡”‡•…ƒ‡†Ǥ‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡–”ƒ•…”‹„‡†ƒ•†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ƒ––”‹„—–‡• ‹ ͷ͸Ͳ ͲͲͲ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ”‡…‘”†• ƒ† •‘‡ ͷͷͲ ͲͲͲ ‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ˆ”‘ –Š‡’ƒ’‡”ƒ’•™‡”‡†‹‰‹–‹•‡†‹ Žƒ›‡”•Ǥ‘– ƒŽŽ †‡•…”‹’–‹‘• ‹ –‡š– ™‡”‡ –”ƒ•…”‹„‡† ƒ• ƒ––”‹„—–‡•ƒ†•‘‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•–Š—•‘Ž›‡š‹•–• ƒ• ƒ ‹ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Šƒ†™”‹––‡ ‘–‡„‘‘ ’ƒ‰‡ ȋ" †” ͳͲͲǦʹ͸ͲͶǦʹͲͲ͸ǣ͵ˆˆȌǡ ™Š‹…Š ‡ƒ• –Šƒ– –Š‡ –‡š– ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ ”‡…‘”†• …ƒ‘– „‡ “—‡”‹‡† in FornsökǤ —”–Š‡”‘”‡ǡ –Š‡ †‡•…”‹’–‹‘• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ –”ƒ•…”‹„‡† ƒ• ƒ––”‹„—–‡• ‹ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ …‘–ƒ‹ ƒ Ž‘– ‘ˆ –›’‹‰ ‡””‘”• ƒ† ‹••’‡ŽŽ‹‰•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‡ƒ• –Šƒ– ˆ”‡‡ –‡š– “—‡”‹‡• ˆ‘” •’‡…‹ϐ‹… ™‘”†•‘”–‡”•†‘‘–ƒŽ™ƒ›•’”‘˜‹†‡”‡Ž‡˜ƒ– ”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ ‹•…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ”‡cords, which mean that they are listed as some ‘–Š‡”–›’‡‘ˆˆ‡ƒ–—”‡‡–…ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ–™‹–Š‘—–ƒŽ–‡”ƒ–‹˜‡“—‡”›–‡”•ƒ†‡š–‡•‹˜‡•…”—–‹›ǡƒ›”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–ƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹•ƒ”‡‹••‡†Ǥ –Š‹•™‘”ǡ–Š‡•…”—–‹›‹•†‘‡ǡ„—––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ •–‹ŽŽ‘•–Ž‹‡Ž›”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–”‡…‘”†•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡‹••‡†Ǥ Š‡›ƒ”‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘–ƒ›ǡ„—––Š‡›‡š‹•–Ǥ ’ƒ”–ˆ”‘–Š‡‡””‘”•‹–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǡ™Š‹…Š ‹•‘–•—”’”‹•‹‰…‘•‹†‡”‹‰–Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆ†ƒ–ƒ ƒ†–Š‡•‘‡–‹‡•ˆ‘”…‡†™‘”’ƒ…‡‹–Š‡†‹‰‹–‹•‹‰’”‘Œ‡…–ǡ–Š‡•—”˜‡›‹‰’”‘…‡••‹–•‡Žˆ‰‡‡”ƒ–‡†ƒ—‡˜‡“—ƒŽ‹–›Ǥ‡’”‘„Ž‡‹•–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡• ‹ •–ƒ†ƒ”†• …‘…‡”‹‰ –Š‡ •—”˜‡›‡† –›’‡• ‘ˆ ”‡ƒ‹Ǥ – ƒ ™‘”•Š‘’ ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ FMIS some ›‡ƒ”•ƒ‰‘ǡ‹ƒ”†‘ŠŽ‡‹—•ˆ”‘"•Š‘™‡†ƒ ‡šƒ’Ž‡‹ŽŽ—•–”ƒ–‹‰‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡’”‘„Ž‡•™‹–Š–Š‡ FMIS‹ƒ˜‡”›…Ž‡ƒ”™ƒ›ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•™‘”–Š”‡’‡ƒ–‹‰Ǥ ‹‰ǤͳǤ͵•Š‘™•–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡–›’‡‘ˆ site termed Bytomt/gårdstomt (village toft/farm –‘ˆ–Ȍ ‹ –Š‡ …‘—–› ‘ˆ ¤Žƒ†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• †‹˜‹†‡† into three different län ȋƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹˜‡ …‘—–›ȌǤ

Š‡•‡ ƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹˜‡ …‘—–‹‡• ™‡”‡ •—”˜‡›‡† ƒ– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’‘‹–•‹–‹‡Ǥ•…ƒ„‡•‡‡ǡ–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‹•–›’‡‘ˆ•‹–‡•‹•˜‡”›—‡˜‡Ǥ –Š‡ ͳͻ͹Ͳ•ǡ™Š‡ƒŽƒ”Ž¡™ƒ••—”˜‡›‡†ǡ–Š‹•–›’‡ ‘ˆ ”‡ƒ‹• ™ƒ• ‘– …‘•‹†‡”‡† ‹’‘”–ƒ– ƒ† was only entered into the FMR/FMIS in some rare …ƒ•‡•Ǥ –Š‡Žƒ–‡ͳͻͻͲ•ǡ‹–™ƒ•Š‹‰ŠŽ‹‰Š–‡†ƒ†ƒ…tively looked for and all cases were entered into FMR/FMISǤ –‹•‘„˜‹‘—•–Šƒ–ƒ›”‡‰‹‘ƒŽ•–—†‹‡• ‘ˆ¤Žƒ†„ƒ•‡†‘–Š‹•†ƒ–ƒǡ™‘—Ž†›‹‡Ž†ƒ…‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž›„‹ƒ•‡†”‡•—Ž–Ǥ

Figure 1.3.Š‡”‡…‘”†•‘ˆ–Š‡  –›’‡„›–‘–Ȁ‰¤”†•–‘– ȋ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡–‘ˆ–Ȁˆƒ”–‘ˆ–Ȍ‹–Š‡–Š”‡‡ƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹˜‡…‘—–‹‡• ‹–Š‡…‘—–›‘ˆ¤Žƒ†ǤŠ‡›‡ƒ”•”‡ˆ‡”–‘™Š‡–Š‡…‘—–‹‡•™‡”‡•—”˜‡›‡†ˆ‘”ƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹•–Š‡•‡…‘†–‹‡Ǥ

‘”–Š‡’”‡•‡–•–—†›‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‹•‹•‘’”‘„lem, since the historical data over farm tofts rely ‘†ƒ–ƒˆ”‘Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•ǡƒ†‘–ˆ”‘FMISǤ The entire database of deserted farms on GotŽƒ†ƒ†‡„›ƒŽ‹”‹••‘‹ʹͲͳͲǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ „‡ †‹•…—••‡† ‘”‡ Žƒ–‡”ǡ Šƒ• „‡‡ ‡–‡”‡† ‹–‘  ǡƒ† Šƒ˜‡ƒ……‡••–‘Š‡”™‘”ϐ‹Ž‡•Ǥ ‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹˜‡‡•• ‹• ‘– ‘Ž› ƒˆˆ‡…–‡† „› ‡™‘™Ž‡†‰‡…Šƒ‰‹‰–Š‡ˆ‘…—•‘ˆ–Š‡–›’‡• of remains that are entered into FMISǤ Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– •—”˜‡›‘”• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ…‹‡– ”‡ƒ‹• Šƒ˜‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‹–‡”‡•–•ƒ†‘™Ž‡†‰‡‹ϐŽ—‡…‡•‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘• ƒ† –Š‡ ™ƒ› ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ƒ”‡ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†Ǥ ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‹–‡•—•‡†‹–Š‹•™‘”™‡”‡˜‹•‹–‡† ‹–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘‘”Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‡†–Šƒ––Š‡›™‡”‡•‘‡–Š‹‰‡Ž•‡–Šƒ ”‘ ‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ •‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒ•‡•ǡ ‹– ™ƒ• …Ž‡ƒ” –Šƒ– –Š‡ •—•’‹…‹‘ ™ƒ• …‘””‡…– ƒ†–Š‡”‡…‘”†”‡‘˜‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǤŽ•‘ •—”˜‡›‹‰ …‘†‹–‹‘• ƒ† •‡ƒ•‘ǡ –›’‡ ‘ˆ ˜‡‰‡–ƒ–‹‘ǡ™‡ƒ–Š‡”ǡ‡–…ƒˆˆ‡…–•–Š‡•—”˜‡›•ƒ†–Š—• the content in FMISǤ•—”˜‡›‹–Š‡‹††Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡

ͳ͹

•—‡”ǡ ™Š‡ –Š‡ ‰”ƒ•• ‹• Š‹‰Š ƒ† –Š‡ Ž‡ƒ˜‡• ƒ”‡‰”‡‡†‘‡•‘–Šƒ˜‡ƒ•‰‘‘†ƒ’”‘•’‡…–ƒ•ƒ •—”˜‡› ‹ ‡ƒ”Ž› •’”‹‰ǡ ™Š‡ –Š‡ •‘™ ‹• ‰‘‡ǡ „—–„‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡ϐŽ‘™‡”‹‰•‡ƒ•‘ǤŽ‘•–™‹–Š‘—– ‡š…‡’–‹‘ǡ ™Š‡ ›‘— ƒ‡ ƒ †‡–ƒ‹Ž‡† •—”˜‡› ‹ ƒƒŽ”‡ƒ†›•—”˜‡›‡†ƒ”‡ƒǡ›‘—ϐ‹†ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡––›’‡•Ǥ – ‹• ‡••‡–‹ƒŽ –‘ ‘™ –Šƒ– FMIS does not ’”‘˜‹†‡–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡’‹…–—”‡ˆ‘”ƒ›–›’‡‘ˆƒ…‹‡– ”‡ƒ‹•ƒ†–Šƒ––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‡””‘”•Ǣ„—–ˆ‘”‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ‹ˆ‡•– –›’‡•ǡ –Š‡ ˜ƒ•– ƒŒ‘”‹–› ‹ ƒ area are registered in the database in a correct ˆƒ•Š‹‘Ǥ‘›‘™Ž‡†‰‡ǡ–Š‡•‹œ‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‡””‘”•ƒ†‹•…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘•Šƒ•‘–„‡‡‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†ǡƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–‘–ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ†ǡ„—–‹–‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘–‘”‡–Šƒƒˆ‡™’‡”…‡–ǡ™Š‹…Š‹–Š‡’”‡•‡–™‘”ǡ†‘‡•‘–ƒˆˆ‡…––Š‡”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ

Šƒ–…‘•–‹–—–‡•ƒ††‡ϔ‹‡•ƒ farm and a village? ™‡†‹•Šǡ–Š‡”‡‡š‹•–•‘Ž›‘‡™‘”†ˆ‘”ƒ˜‹Žlage/hamlet of any size, which is byǤ˜‡–Š‘—‰Š the Swedish villages often were very small, with ‘Ž› ƒ ˆ‡™ ˆƒ”•ǡ ƒ† Ž‹‰—‹•–‹…ƒŽŽ› ‹– ™‘—Ž† „‡ ‘”‡ ƒ’’”‘’”‹ƒ–‡ –‘ ”‡ˆ‡” –‘ –Š‡ ƒ• ŠƒŽ‡–•ǡ –Š‡ –‡” ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ™‹ŽŽ „‡ —•‡†ǡ •‹…‡ –Š‹• ‹• –Š‡ –‡” ‘”ƒŽŽ› —•‡† ‹ –”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘• –‘ ‰Ž‹•ŠǤ The villages were normally only of a larger size ‹ •‘‡ ’ƒ”–• ‘ˆ ™‡†‡ǡ Ž‹‡ ‘ –Š‡ ’Žƒ‹• ‹ ¤‡ ƒ† ¡•–‡”‰Ú–Žƒ† ƒ† ƒŽ•‘ ‹ ƒŽƒ”ƒ ȋ‡Žˆ”‹†ʹͲͲͲǣ͸͵ȌǤ –Š‡•‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• …‘—Ž†ƒ‘—––‘ͶͲǦͷͲˆƒ”•ǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘•ƒŽŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ȀŠƒŽ‡–•‡š‹•–‡†Ǥ The Scandinavian word by Šƒ• —†‡”‰‘‡ …‘…‡’–—ƒŽ …Šƒ‰‡• †—”‹‰ –Š‡ …‡–—”‹‡•Ǥ • by ‹• —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‘Ž† ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ ”‡‰‹‘ƒŽ Žƒ™• ‹– ‡ƒ• ƒ ‹†‡’‡†‡– •‡––Ž‡‡–ǡ ‘ ƒ––‡” Š‘™ƒ›ˆƒ”•‹–…‘•‹•–‡†‘ˆǤ˜‡ƒ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”› farm was referred to as a byǤŠ‹•‹•ƒŽ•‘Š‘™–Š‡ ™‘”† ‹• —•‡† ‘ ‘•– ”—‡ •–‘‡•ǡ ‡ƒ‹‰ ƒ •‹‰Ž‡ˆƒ”ǡ„—–‹–„‡‰—–‘„‡—•‡†ƒ•†‡‘–‹‘ ‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ™‹–Š ‘‡ ‘” ‘”‡ ˆƒ”• †—”‹‰ –Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ȋ†”ƒ‡ͳͻ͸Ͳǣͺ͸ˆȌǤ Š‡ †‹•…‘—”•‡ ƒ”‘—† –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ „›ǡ ƒ†™Šƒ–‹–•‹‰‹ϐ‹‡•Šƒ•ˆ”‘–‹‡–‘–‹‡„‡‡ Ž‹˜‡Ž›‹†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–™‡†‹•Šƒ…ƒ†‡‹…†‹•…‹’Ž‹‡•Ǥ ‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡ͳͻ͸Ͳ•ǡ–Š‡‘•–…‘‘‘–‹‘™ƒ• –Šƒ–˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Šƒ†‡š‹•–‡†‡˜‡„‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡‹‹‰ ‰‡Ȁ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•ǡ ƒ• ‘‡ ˆ‘” ‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡– •–”—…–—”‡ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ͳͻͻ͵ǣ͸ͲȌǤŠ‡–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡– ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰› ‘’‡‡† —’ ‹ ™‡†‡ǡ ƒ ”‡•—Ž– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ †‡„ƒ–‡ „‡–™‡‡ Š—ͳͺ

ƒ‰‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‡”•ƒ†ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹•–•‹–Š‡͸Ͳ• ƒ†͹Ͳ•™ƒ•–Šƒ–ƒ‹ƒ‰‡‘ˆƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǦŽ‡•• ”‘ ‰‡„‡…ƒ‡‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†Ǥ‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”• (ensamgårdarȌ™‡”‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•–Š‡•‘Ž‡ˆ‘”‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•–”—…–—”‡‹Žƒ”‰‡’ƒ”–•‘ˆ’”‡•‡– †ƒ› ™‡†‡ ȋ”‘„‡”‰ ͳͻͻͲǣʹͶˆǢ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ ͳͻͻ͵ǣ͸ͲȌǤŽ›ƒˆ‡™•…Š‘Žƒ”•ǡ™‹–ŠŽ‹––Ž‡‹’ƒ…–ǡ advocated the existence of villages in the central ’ƒ”–•‘ˆ™‡†‡ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ͳͻͻ͵ǣ͸ͲȌǤ ‘”‡”‡…‡–›‡ƒ”•–Š‡’‡†—Ž—Šƒ••™—‰„ƒ…ƒ†ƒ Ž‡••”‹‰‹†˜‹‡™‘ˆ™Šƒ–…‘•–‹–—–‡•ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹•ƒ– hand, so both villages and single farms are now •‡‡ ƒ• ƒ–—”ƒŽ •‡––Ž‡‡– ’ƒ––‡”• ‹ ƒŽŽ ’‡”‹‘†•ǤŠ‹•†‡„ƒ–‡ƒ†ƒŽŽ‹–••–ƒ†’‘‹–•™‹ŽŽ‘– „‡ƒ……‘—–‡†ˆ‘”Š‡”‡ǡ•‹…‡–Š‹•‹•†‘‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽ –‹‡•„‡ˆ‘”‡ȋ…ˆǤƒŠŽ„¡…ͳͻ͹͹Ǣ ”ÚŽ—†Ƭ‹Ž•‘ͳͻͻ͵Ǣ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ͳͻͻ͵Ǣ”‘„‡”‰ͳͻͻͶƒ† ƒŽŽ‰”‡ʹͲͲ͸ȌǤ‡”‡ǡŒ—•–•‘‡•Š‘”–”‡ƒ”•™‹ŽŽ „‡ƒ†‡‘ˆ•‘‡ƒ•’‡…–•Ǥ Š‡ †‡„ƒ–‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ͸Ͳ• ƒ† ͹Ͳ• …‘…‡”‹‰ the establishment/formation of villages (bybildningȌ™ƒ•‹•Ž‡ƒ†‹‰‹•‘‡™ƒ›•Ǥ ‹”•–Ž›ǡ–Š‡ †‹•…—••‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡…‘…‡’–™ƒ•‡˜‡”…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›†‡ϐ‹‡†ǡ•‘–Š‡†‡„ƒ–‡™ƒ•ƒ…–—ƒŽŽ›‘”‡ƒ„‘—––Š‡ ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‹•–‡ƒ† ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡–Ȁˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ ͳͻͻ͵ǣ͸ͲȌǤ Š‡ ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽǡ ”‡‰—Žƒ–‡† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ™ƒ• –Š‡ –‡’Žƒ–‡ ƒ† …‘’ƒ”‹•‘• ™‡”‡ ƒ†‡ ™‹–Š ƒ‹•Š ”‘ ‰‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ Ž‹‡ ‘††‡ ƒ† ‘”„ƒ••‡Ǥ Š‡•‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Šƒ†ƒ˜‡”›†‡•‡•–”—…–—”‡ǡ™Š‡”‡ the farms lay close together, which became the •–ƒ†ƒ”†‘ˆŠ‘™ƒ ”‘‰‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Š‘—Ž†Ž‘‘Ǥ ‹…‡‘•—…Š˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‡”‡‘™‹™‡†‡ǡ‹– ™ƒ•–ƒ‡ƒ•ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ•—’’‘”–ˆ‘”–Š‡’”‹ƒ…› ‘ˆ–Š‡•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ʹͲͲ͸ǣͺ͹ȌǤ Secondly, the archaeological data on which –Š‡†‡„ƒ–‡Žƒ”‰‡Ž›”‡•–‡†‹•‘—–†ƒ–‡†Ǥ—”‹‰–Š‹• ’‡”‹‘†ǡ–Š‡”‡™ƒ•˜‡”›Ž‹––Ž‡‡’‹”‹…ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒˆ”‘ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ”‘‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•‹™‡†‡ǤŠ—•ǡ ˜‹•‹„Ž‡ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• ™‡”‡ —•‡† –‘ •‹‰‹ˆ› •‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ ‰”ƒ˜‡• ‘ –Š‡ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• ‹ ‡ƒ…Š Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ –‡””‹–‘”›ǡ –Š‡…‘…Ž—•‹‘™ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘™ƒ•‘– Žƒ”‰‡ ‡‘—‰Š ˆ‘” ƒ› ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǣ –Š‡”‡ —•– Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ”• ȋ„”‘•‹ƒ‹ ͳͻ͸ͶǣʹͲͷˆˆȌǤ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒš‹‘• ƒ†‡ ‹ –Š‡ •–—†‹‡• ’”‘˜‡† –‘ „‡ ™”‘‰Ǥ Š‡ ƒ••—’–‹‘ ™ƒ• –Šƒ––Š‡’‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡‘ˆ‰”ƒ˜‡•ƒ†‘–Š‡”ƒ…‹‡– ”‡ƒ‹• †‡•–”‘›‡† „› ’Ž‘—‰Š‹‰ ™ƒ• Ž‘™ ƒ† …‘—Ž†„‡‡‰Ž‡…–‡†ǡ„—–‡™”‡•—Ž–•‹†‹…ƒ–‡–Šƒ– –Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ‰”ƒ˜‡•Šƒ•„‡‡—…ŠŠ‹‰Š‡”–Šƒ ’”‡˜‹‘—•Ž› ™ƒ• ƒ••—‡† ȋ”‘„‡”‰ ͳͻͻͶǣ͵ͷȌǤ Š‹• ƒ‡• –Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘• —…‡”–ƒ‹ǡ ™‹–Š ƒ Žƒ”‰‡ ƒ”‰‹ ‘ˆ ‡””‘”Ǥ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ •—„•–ƒ–‹ƒŽ—„‡”‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡–•ˆ”‘ƒŽŽ’‡”‹‘†•–Šƒ–

Šƒ˜‡„‡‡„—”‹‡†–Š”‘—‰Š’Ž‘—‰Š‹‰ǡ™Š‹…ŠŠƒ˜‡ „‡‡ˆ‘—†‹’”‡•‡–Ž›…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†ϐ‹‡Ž†•†—”‹‰ –Š‡Žƒ•–…‘—’Ž‡‘ˆ†‡…ƒ†‡•Šƒ•…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž›ƒŽ–‡”‡† –Š‡’”‡‹•‡•ˆ‘”•—…Š…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘•Ǥ –Š‹”†”‡ƒ•‘‹•–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‡‘ˆ ”‡•—Ž–•ˆ”‘ƒ•ƒŽŽ‡”ƒ”‡ƒǤ„”‘•‹ƒ‹ǯ•ȋͳͻ͸ͶȌ ƒƒŽ›•‡•…‘˜‡”‡†–Š‡‡ƒ•–‡”’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡˜ƒŽŽ‡› ‘ˆƒ‡¡Žƒ”‡ƒ†Žƒ–‡”›‡•–”ƒ†ȋͳͻ͹ͶȌ‡š’ƒ†‡†‹––‘…‘˜‡”–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡ƒ”‡ƒƒ”‘—†ƒ‡ ¡Žƒ”‡Ǥ Š‡•‡ ‘†‡Ž• ™‡”‡ –Š‡ —…”‹–‹…ƒŽŽ› ’‹…‡†—’„›‘–Š‡”•ƒ†„‡…ƒ‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡†ƒ† ƒ†‡˜ƒŽ‹†ˆ‘”‘”‡‘”Ž‡••–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡…‘—–”›ǡ ‡š…‡’–•‘‡’ƒ”–•ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ͳͻͻ͵ǣ͸ͲȌǤ This established a view of a village-less ™‡†‡ —’ —–‹Ž –Š‡ Žƒ–‡ ‹‹‰ ƒ‰‡Ȁ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•ǤŠ‹•˜‹‡™‰”ƒ†—ƒŽŽ›ˆƒ†‡†ƒ™ƒ›ƒ†‹–Š‡ ͳͻͺͲ•ǡŠ—ƒ‰‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‡”••–ƒ”–‡†–‘–ƒŽƒ„‘—– Ǯ—Ž–‹—…Ž‡ƒ”ǯ•‡––Ž‡‡–•ƒ•ƒˆ‘”‡”—‡”–‘–Š‡ ‹‹‰‰‡Ȁ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ȋ‘„‡”‰ͳͻͻͶǣ͵͸ȌǤ ˆ–‡”–Š‡ƒ›Žƒ”‰‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‡™‹–Š ‘†‡”‡–Š‘†‘Ž‘‰›‹…‘Œ—…–‹‘™‹–ŠŽƒ”‰‡Ǧ •…ƒŽ‡‹ˆ”ƒ•–”—…–—”‡’”‘Œ‡…–•‹–Š‡Žƒ•–†‡…ƒ†‡•ǡ –Š‡”‡‹•–‘†ƒ›ƒƒ„—†ƒ…‡‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡–†ƒ–ƒ ˆ”‘ƒŽŽ’‡”‹‘†•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ˆ‘”ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǤŠ‹•ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ Šƒ• „‡‡ ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ ˆ‘” •–—†‹‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š Šƒ• Ž‡†–‘ƒ‡™‹•‹‰Š–ƒ††‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ …‘…‡’–‹™‡†‹•Šƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰›‘–Š‡™‡†‹•Š ƒ‹Žƒ†Ǥ ‘•‡“—‡–Ž›ǡ ‹ ‘”‡ ”‡…‡– ™‘” ›‘—˜‡”›‘ˆ–‡ϐ‹†–Š‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡ments forming villages even if they do not look Ž‹‡‘††‡‘”‘”„ƒ••‡ȋ…ˆǤ‹†˜‹•–Ƭ‹„‘”‰ ʹͲͲ͹ǣͶͲ͹ˆǢ ږŠ„‡”‰ ʹͲͲ͹ǣͶ͵ͻȌǤ ‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ƒ”‡ now believed to have been a common form of •‡––Ž‡‡–•–”—…–—”‡‹‘”‡‘”Ž‡••ƒŽŽ‘ˆ™‡†‡ȋ ”¡•Ž—†ʹͲͲͶǣͳʹˆˆȌǤ

Š‡™‡†‹•Š…‘…‡’–•‘ˆŠ‡ƒǡ mantal and part ‹”•–ǡ‹–‹•„‡•––‘‡š’Žƒ‹ƒ†…Žƒ”‹ˆ›•‘‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ –‡”• ƒ† ™‡†‹•Š …‘…‡’–• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ —•‡†Ǥ ƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡•‡…‘…‡’–•ƒ”‡‘–•’‡…‹ϐ‹…ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ†ǡ„—–ƒ”‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ…‘…‡’–•—•‡†‹ƒŽŽ‘ˆ™‡†‡Ǥ Hemman‹•ƒ‘–Š‡”™‘”†ˆ‘”ƒˆƒ”Ǣ–‘„‡ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•ƒhemman–Š‡ˆƒ”•—•–„‡Žƒ”‰‡ ‡‘—‰Š–‘„‡ƒ••‹‰‡†ƒmantalǤmantal (hide) ‹•ƒƒ••‡••‡–‘ˆ–Š‡•—’’‘”–‹‰…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆƒ ˆƒ”Ǣ‘‡ƒ–ƒŽ‹•ƒˆ—ŽŽˆƒ”ǡ…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰–‘ –Š‡ƒ…”‡ƒ‰‡–Šƒ–™‘—Ž†•—’’‘”–ƒˆƒ‹Ž›ƒ†‹–• †‡’‡†ƒ–•Ǥ ˆ‹–™ƒ•–‘‘•ƒŽŽǡ–Š‡ˆƒ”™ƒ•‘– regarded to be self-contained and was not clas•‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•ƒhemmanǤ

The mantal was the bases for the taxation or Ž‡ƒ•‡Ǥ  –Š‡ •–—†‹‡† ’‡”‹‘†ǡ —’ —–‹Ž –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ͳͺth…‡–—”›ǡ–Š‡Ž‘™‡•–mantal™ƒ•᪦Ǥ Hemmansklyvning ‹• –Š‡ –‡” —•‡† ™Š‡ ƒ ˆƒ” ™ƒ• •’Ž‹– ‹–‘ –™‘ǡ ‘” ‘”‡ǡ ‡™ ‹†‡’‡†‡–Ž›‘™‡†ƒ†…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†ˆƒ”•ǡ‡ƒ…Š™‹–Š a mantalǤŠ‡ˆƒ”•–‹ŽŽ„‡Ž‘‰‡†–‘ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‘” ™ƒ•ƒ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”ǡ„—––Š‡‡™’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ” …‘—Ž† Šƒ˜‡ ‹–• ‘™ǡ „—– Ǯ—‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽǯ ƒ‡ ‹ –Š‡ ‘Ž†‡”…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•Ǣ‹–ƒ›ƒŽ•‘„‡”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘„›Œ—•– ƒ —„‡” ‹ –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ Š‹• ‹• ‘”ƒŽŽ› ™Šƒ– –Š‡ ’”‘…‡•• ‘ˆ †‹˜‹†‹‰ ƒ ˆƒ” ”‡ˆ‡”• –‘ ‘ –Š‡ mainland. ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”••‘ǡ ƒ Sämjodelning …ƒ„‡•‡‡ƒ•˜‹”–—ƒŽŽ›–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ•hemmansklyvningǡƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š‘–‹ƒŒ—†‹…‹ƒŽ•‡•‡ȋ”••‘ ͳͻͻͳǣͺȌǤ The term partklyvning ™ƒ• —•‡† ™Š‡ ƒ farm was divided into two or more parts, owned ƒ†…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†ƒ••‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ˆƒ”•ǡ‡˜‡™Š‡–Š‡ mantal™ƒ•‘–†‹˜‹†‡†Ǣ‹–Š‹••‡•‡ǡ–Š‡ˆƒ” ™ƒ••–‹ŽŽ‡’––‘‰‡–Š‡”ǤŠ‡–™‘’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ” •–‹ŽŽ …‘•–‹–—–‡† ‘‡ –ƒšƒ–‹‘ ‘„Œ‡…–Ǥ Š‹• ’”‹…‹’Ž‡™ƒ•ƒ’’Ž‹‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡƒ••‡‡‹–Š‡…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•ǤŠ—•ǡ‘‡ˆƒ”™‹–Šƒmantal…‘—Ž†„‡ divided among several farmers, and according to ‹Ž•‹–Š„‡”‰ǡ‡ƒ…Š’ƒ”–…‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡‹–•‘™ƒ‡ ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ ͳͻ͵ʹǣʹͳȌǡ „—– –Š‡•‡ ™‡”‡ —‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ ƒ†‘–‘–‡†‹–Š‡‘Ž†‡”…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•Ǣ–Š‡ƒ‡• ƒ› ƒŽ•‘ Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ‘ˆ ƒ –‡’‘”ƒ”› ƒ–—”‡Ǥ  Gotland, normally the term partklyvning was —•‡†ˆ‘”ƒŽŽ†‹˜‹•‹‘‘ˆˆƒ”•‹ƒ›’‡”‹‘†ǡ‡˜‡ in later days, when the mantal™ƒ•†‹˜‹†‡†Ǥ ƒŽŽ ”‡•’‡…–•„—––Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽǡƒpart of a farm on GotŽƒ†—•–„‡•‡‡ƒ•‡“—ƒŽ–‘ƒ…‘’Ž‡–‡ˆƒ”‘ –Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†ǡƒ†‘’‡”ƒ–‡†ƒ••—…ŠǤ ƒ†‹˜‹†‡† ˆƒ”ǡ ‡ƒ…Š ’ƒ”– ™ƒ• ‹†‡’‡†‡– ƒ† ‘‡ ’ƒ”– …‘—Ž†„‡†‡•‡”–‡†ǡ‡˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡‘–Š‡”’ƒ”–™ƒ•‘–Ǥ ˆ‹–™ƒ•ƒˆ”‡‡Š‘Ž†‡”ˆƒ”ǡ‹–…‘—Ž†„‡•‘Ž†ƒ† ‹Š‡”‹–‡†Ǥ ˆƒˆƒ”‘ ‘–Žƒ† ™ƒ•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘•‡˜‡”ƒŽ’ƒ”–•ǡ–Š‡•‡’ƒ”–•…‘—Ž†„‡‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‹œ‡• and might also be of different jordnatur ȋϐ‹•…ƒŽ ƒ–—”‡Ȍǡ ˆ”‡‡Š‘Ž†‡” ‘” …”‘™ ˆƒ”Ǥ  ‡šƒ’Ž‡ ‘ˆ –Š‹• ‹• –Š‡ ˆƒ” ƒŒ†‡„› ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ”¡Ž‹‰„‘ǡ™Š‹…Š‹ͳ͸ͻͻ™ƒ•ƒˆ—ŽŽˆƒ”ǡ†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–™‘’ƒ”–•Ǣ‘‡’ƒ”–…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆΧ‘ˆ–Š‡ total farm and was owned by a freeholder and the remaining ¼ was owned by the crown, with a landboȋ–‡ƒ–ȌǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’ƒ”–•Šƒ˜‡–Š‡‹” ‘™ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ†‡ƒ†‘™•Ǥ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ•–—”‡• ƒ† ™‘‘†• ƒ”‡ ‘™‡† ƒ† —–‹Ž‹•‡† Œ‘‹–Ž› ƒ† •‘‡ƒ”‡‘™‡†•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡Ž›ǤŠ‹•‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ• –Š‡ˆƒ”•‹ƒƒ‹Žƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡™‘—Ž†Ž‘‘Ž‹‡ǡ ™‹–Š •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡Ž› ‘™‡† ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ Š‡ ”‡ƒ•‘ ™Š› ‘‡’ƒ”–™ƒ•‘™‡†„›–Š‡…”‘™‹•‘•–Ž‹‡-

ͳͻ

Figure 1.4. ‹‡Ž†•ƒ†‡ƒ†‘™•„‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘–Š‡ˆƒ”ƒŒ†‡„›‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ”¡Ž‹‰„‘ǤŠ‡ˆƒ”™ƒ•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘ –™‘’ƒ”–•ǤŠ‡’ƒ”–•ƒ”‡‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ϐ‹•…ƒŽƒ–—”‡ǡ„‘–Š’ƒ”–• ‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”‘™ƒ†…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ’ƒ•–—”‡ƒ†™‘‘†•ƒ”‡‘™‡†Œ‘‹–Ž›ƒ†•‘‡ƒ”‡‘™‡† •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡Ž›Ǥ ȋ̹ ƒ–¡–‡”‹‡–ǡ ’—„Ž‹•Š‡† ™‹–Š ’‡”‹••‹‘ ʹͲͳʹȀͻʹͳȌ

Ž›†—‡–‘–Š‡…‹”…—•–ƒ…‡–Šƒ–ƒ‘™‡”‘ˆ–Š‹• ’ƒ”–Šƒ†‘–’ƒ‹†–Š‡ˆƒ”•–ƒš‡•ˆ‘”•‘‡›‡ƒ”• ƒ† –Š—• –Š‡ ‘™‡”•Š‹’ ™ƒ• –”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡† –‘ –Š‡ …”‘™ǡƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘–Š‡Žƒ™Ǥ This kind of division of farms, ’ƒ”–Ž›˜‹‰ǡ ƒŽ•‘‡š‹•–‡†‘–Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†Ǣ‹–‹•‘–•‘—…‘mon in the older cadastres to see farms divided, „—–™‹–Šƒ…‘‘mantal (hide), among severƒŽˆƒ”‡”•ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡hemmansklyvning and partklyvning‹•‘”‡‘ƒ„—”‡ƒ—…”ƒ–‹…ƒ†ϐ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡˜‡Žǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘ˆŽ‡••‹’‘”–ƒ…‡‹ –Š‹•™‘”Ǥ –‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡’”‘…‡••‹„‘–Š…ƒ•‡•Ǣƒ †‹˜‹•‹‘‘ˆˆƒ”•‹–‘•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‹†‡’‡†‡–‡™ ˆƒ”•Ǥ

‹•…—••‹‘ƒ††‡ϔ‹‹–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡…‘…‡’–•‘ˆŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†ǡˆƒ”ƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Šƒ˜‡‘–„‡‡–Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ–‹‡•Ǥ –‹•Š‘™‡˜‡”‘–——•—ƒŽ–Šƒ––Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ† Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ˆƒ”• ˆ‘” …Ž—•–‡”•ǡ ™Š‹…Š Šƒ• „‡‡ noted by many scholars who have tried to ex’Žƒ‹–Š‡‹†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–™ƒ›•ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–˜‹‡™• ‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒ†‹–‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ†‡„ƒ–‡•ƒ”‘—† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• Šƒ˜‡ ƒŽ•‘ ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡† –Š‡ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š ‘

‘–Žƒ†ǡ ™Š‹…Š Šƒ• Ž‡† –‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒtions and answers over the years, which will be 20

†‹•…—••‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‡š– …Šƒ’–‡”Ǥ  –Š‹• …Šƒ’–‡”ǡ •‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡…‡–”ƒŽ…‘…‡’–•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡—•‡†™‹ŽŽ „‡’”‘„Ž‡ƒ–‹•‡†ƒ††‹•…—••‡†ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ”‡•—Ž– ‹ ƒ —„‡” ‘ˆ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡•‡ ƒ”‡ –Š‡ …‘…‡’–• ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†ǡ ˆƒ”ǡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ƒ† „›‰†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ ‘– ƒŽ™ƒ›• ‡ƒ•› –‘ †‹•–‹‰—‹•Š ˆ”‘ ‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”Ǥ Š‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆbygd, is well established in –Š‡™‡†‹•ŠŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ƒ†‹–‹•ˆ”‡“—‡–Ž›—•‡†ǡ „‘–Š…‘ŽŽ‘“—‹ƒŽŽ›ƒ†‹™‡†‹•ŠŠ‹•–‘”‹‘‰”ƒ’Š›ǡ ƒ† ‹– ‹• ‘– ‡ƒ•‹Ž› –”ƒ•Žƒ–‡† ‹–‘ ‰Ž‹•ŠǤ Š‡ †‹”‡…– –”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ –‘ ‰Ž‹•Š ‹• †‹•–”‹…–ǡ „—– –Š‡ ‡ƒ‹‰‹–Š‡…ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡•‹•‘”‡ …‘’Ž‡šǤ –‹•Šƒ”†–‘ƒ‡ƒ›ˆ‘”ƒŽ†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ of bygdǡ„—–ƒ‘”‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘‹•ƒƒ”‡ƒ ‹™Š‹…Š’‡‘’Ž‡Ž‹˜‡ƒ†Šƒ˜‡ƒˆ‡‡Ž‹‰‘ˆƒˆϐ‹‹–›ƒ‘‰•––Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•Ǣƒ•‡•‡‘ˆ„‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘‰‡–Š‡”ǤŠ‹•…ƒ„‡ƒ‹ˆ‡•–‡†‹ƒ›™ƒ›•ǡ‹ collaboration and social bonds, in ways of dress‹‰‘”„—‹Ž†‹‰Š‘—•‡•‡–…Ǥbygd is often delim‹–‡†„›ƒ–—”ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ƒ†–‘’‘‰”ƒ’Š›…‘˜‡”‹‰ ƒ ™‹†‡” ‘” ƒ ‘”‡ Ž‹‹–‡† ƒ”‡ƒǤ  ’”‡•‡–Ǧ†ƒ› Gotland, a bygd‹•‘ˆ–‡†‡ϐ‹‡†„›ƒ’ƒ”‹•Šǡ„—–ƒ ’ƒ”‹•Š‹‰Š–ƒŽ•‘Šƒ˜‡‘”‡–Šƒ‘‡bygdǢ–Š‡ term bygd–Š—•™‘”•‘ƒ›Ž‡˜‡Ž•Ǥ ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ ”ÚŒ‡Ž‹•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘—’’‡”ƒ† Ž‘™‡” ”ÚŒ‡Žǡ‡ƒ…Š…‘•–‹–—–‹‰ƒbygd delimited „› ƒ ˆ‘”‡•–‡† ƒ”‡ƒǤ  –Š‹• „‘‘ǡ  ™‹ŽŽ ‘•– ‘ˆ–‡ —•‡ –Š‡ –‡” ‘ˆ ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘† …‘—‹–› to denote bygd‹‹–••‘…‹ƒŽ†‹‡•‹‘ǡ„—– ™‹ŽŽ ƒŽ•‘—•‡‘–Š‡”–‡”•ˆ‘”ƒŽƒ”‰‡”•‡––Ž‡‡–ƒ”‡ƒǤ

Households and farms Where is the line drawn between a village with •‡˜‡”ƒŽ ˆƒ”• ƒ† ƒ ˆƒ” ™‹–Š •‡˜‡”ƒŽ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ǡ ‘” ƒ •’ƒ”•‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ƒ† ƒ ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘† …‘—‹–› (bygd)ǡ ‹ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‘” ϐ‹•…ƒŽ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǫ Š‡ „‘”†‡” ‹• ˆ—œœ› ƒ† ƒ •–”‹…– †‹•–‹…–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ …‘…‡’–• ‹• Šƒ”† –‘ ƒ‹tain both in historical and archaeological mate”‹ƒŽǡ„—–‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›‹ƒƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ ‹™Š‹…Š‘Ž›•ƒŽŽˆ”ƒ‰‡–•‘ˆ–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡’‹…–—”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒ– Šƒ† –‘ ƒƒŽ›•‡Ǥ Š‹• ƒ‡• ‹– ‡š–”‡‡Ž›†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘”‡ƒ…Šƒ›…Ž‡ƒ”ƒ•™‡”•ƒ† ƒ› –‹‡• ‘Ž› Š‹–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ’ƒ•– ‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† •–”—…–—”‡ …ƒ „‡ •‡‡Ǥ ‹…‡ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– …‘…‡’–• ƒ”‡ ‘– ‡ƒ•› –‘ †‡Ž‹‹– –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ–‡ —•‡†‹ƒ˜‡”›—…Ž‡ƒ”ˆƒ•Š‹‘„›ƒ›•…Š‘Žƒ”•Ǥ ‡”‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™••‘‡‡šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ•—…Š‘„•…—”‹–‹‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡ƒ……‘—–‡†ˆ‘”‹‘”‡†‡–ƒ‹ŽŽƒ–‡”Ǥ ‹ŠŽ± ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡• •‘‡ Žƒ”‰‡” …Ž—•–‡”• ‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ•…‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ•‡˜‡”ƒŽŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ǡŽ‹‡‘–˜ƒŽ†‡‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ–¤‰ƒȋ"–¤‰ƒ͵ͳȌǤ‹•‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‹• „ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡‰”‘—’‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘—”Š‘—•‡•ƒ”‘—†

ƒ…‘—”–›ƒ”†Ǥ‡ƒŽ•‘ƒ”‰—‡•–Šƒ––Š‡ˆƒ”Šƒ•ˆ‘—” ’ƒ”–•ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣ͵͸ˆȌƒ†–Š—•‹’Ž›‹‰–Šƒ–ƒ’ƒ”–ƒ†ƒŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†ƒ”‡–Š‡•ƒ‡Ǥ The large villages Lithberg mentions in ͳͻͳͷǡ™‡”‡™Š‡Š‡…Žƒ”‹ϐ‹‡†–Š‡ƒ––‡”‹ͳͻ͵ʹǡ not considered to be villages in the sense of sev‡”ƒŽ ‹†‡’‡†‡– ˆƒ”•Ǥ •–‡ƒ†ǡ Š‡ †‡•…”‹„‡• –Š‡ƒ•Žƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”•…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ•‡˜‡”ƒŽŠ‘—•‡holds, or matlag as he calls themǡ which might „‡ –”ƒ•Žƒ–‡† –‘ ‡ƒŽ …‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ ‹ ‰Ž‹•ŠǤ —––Š‡›™‡”‡‘’‡”ƒ–‡†ƒ•‘‡‡…‘‘‹…ƒŽ—‹–ǡ ™Š‹…ŠŠ‡†‡ϐ‹‡†ƒ•ƒŽƒ”‰‡Ǧ•…ƒŽ‡Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†Ǥ‡ …‘’ƒ”‡†‹–™‹–ŠŠ‘™‘”™‡‰‹ƒƒ† …‡Žƒ†‹… ˆƒ”•™‡”‡‘”‰ƒ‹•‡†—’—–‹Ž–Š‡Žƒ–‡ͳͻth and early 20th…‡–—”›ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ͳͻ͵ʹǣʹͷˆȌǤ Š‡ ™ƒ› †‡”• ƒ”Ž••‘ ȋͳͻͺ͵ǣ͵ͳȌ †‡ϐ‹‡• –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž† ‹• ”ƒ–Š‡” ˜ƒ‰—‡Ǣ Š‡†‹•…—••‡•„‘–Š‹–Š„‡”‰ǯ•‘–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡Ǧ •…ƒŽ‡ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž† ƒ† ƒ– –Š‡ •ƒ‡ –‹‡ ”••‘ǯ• ‹†‡ƒ• ƒ”‘—† partklyvning. ‡ …‘…Ž—†‡• –Šƒ– ƒ farm on Gotland consisted of an average of two Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•‹–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡Ǥ –‹•—…Ž‡ƒ”‹ˆŠ‡ ‡ƒ•‡ƒ…ŠŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†ƒ•ƒ•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ǡ‹†‡’‡†‡–’ƒ”–‘”–Šƒ–ƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ƒ–ƒˆƒ”…‘•‹•–‡†‘ˆ‘‡‡…‘‘‹…ƒŽ—‹–ǡƒ•‹–Š„‡”‰•—‰‰‡•–•Ǥ ‘•–Ž‹‡Ž›Š‡‡ƒ•–Šƒ–ƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•–‘‰‡–Š‡”‘ƒˆƒ”ǡˆ‘”‘‡‡…‘‘‹…ƒŽ—‹–ǡ™Š‹…ŠŠ‡ refers to as a bebyggelseenhetȋ•‡––Ž‡‡–—‹–Ȍ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰–‘ƒˆƒ”Ǥ Š‡—…Ž‡ƒ”—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡…‘…‡’–•‹•‘–ƒŽŽ–‘ be blamed on the scholars, since it is most often very hard to know the difference in an archaeoŽ‘‰‹…ƒŽ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǡ ƒ• ™‡ŽŽ ƒ• ‹ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ •‘—”…‡•Ǥ Some of the analyses and reasoning in the coming …Šƒ’–‡”• ™‹ŽŽ Šƒ˜‡ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ †‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–‹‡• ‹ ƒ› …ƒ•‡• ƒ† ƒ……‘”†‹‰Ž›ǡ –Š‡ …‘…‡’–• •‘‡–‹‡• ƒ”‡‹–‡”…Šƒ‰‡ƒ„Ž‡ǡƒ†‹’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡Ǥ Š‡—•ƒ‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡–‡”Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†‹•–Š—•‘– ƒŽ™ƒ›•…Ž‡ƒ”ǡ„—–‹‘•–…ƒ•‡•‹–•‡‡•‘––‘„‡ —•‡†ƒ•ƒ•›‘›ˆ‘”ƒ•‡ŽˆǦ…‘–ƒ‹‡†—‹–ǡ„—– ”ƒ–Š‡” ƒ• ƒ •—„’ƒ”– ‘ˆ ƒ Žƒ”‰‡” ‡…‘‘‹…ƒŽ —‹–ǡ the farm or brukningsenhet ȋ™‘”‹‰ —‹–Ȍǡ ”‡‰ƒ”†Ž‡••‘ˆ’‡”‹‘†Ǥ –‹•‹–Š‹••‡•‡™‡™‹ŽŽ—•‡ –Š‡ –‡” ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ ’‡”‹‘†•ǡ •—‰‰‡•–• –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ǣA household is not an independent and •‡ŽˆǦ…‘–ƒ‹‡†‡…‘‘‹…ƒŽ—‹–‹ƒŽŽ”‡•’‡…–•ǡ„—– part of a larger unit. A farm with more than one household is in certain aspects considered as one economical unit. Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†‹‰Š–„‡•‡‡ƒ•ƒ …‘•—’–‹‘—‹–Ǥ Š‡ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ ˆƒ”Ȁ’ƒ”– ‘ˆ ƒ ˆƒ” ‹• ‘”‡ ‘” Ž‡•• –Š‡ ‘’’‘•‹–‡Ǣ ƒ —•ƒ„Ž‡ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ‹• ˆ‘”—Žƒ–‡† „› ƒŽŽ‰”‡ ȋʹͲͲ͸ǣʹͺȌǣ ǮThe term farm (or part of a farm[authors comment]) means a permanent and independent economical

—‹–ǡ™Š‡”‡–Š‡’‡‘’Ž‡ƒ‹Ž›•—’’‘”––Š‡•‡Ž˜‡• by stock-raising and farming’ [Translated from ™‡†‹•Š„›–Š‡ƒ—–Š‘”ȐǤ‡”ƒ‡–‹’Ž‹‡•–Šƒ– ‹–‹•‘–•‡ƒ•‘ƒŽǡ„—–‹–—•–‘–‡…‡••ƒ”‹Ž›‡š‹•–ˆ‘”ƒŽ‘‰–‹‡ǤŠ‡ˆƒ”‹•‘”‡‘ˆƒ’”‘†—…–‹‘—‹–Ǥ  ‘–Š‡” ’ƒ”–• ‘ˆ …ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒ –‘‘ǡ •‘‡ ˆƒ”• ƒ”‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ• …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•†—”‹‰–Š‡ ”‘‰‡Ǥ •–—†›‹‰ƒ› ƒ‹•Š˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ‡”•…Š‡†…‘‡•–‘–Š‡…‘…Ž—•‹‘–Šƒ–•–ƒ”–‹‰‹–Š‡ƒ”Ž›‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ǡ‹– became more common to extend the farm with ‘”‡Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ǡ”ƒ–Š‡”–Šƒ†‹˜‹†‹‰‹–‹–‘•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‡™ˆƒ”•ȋ‡”•…Š‡†ʹͲͲͻǣʹʹͲȌǤ‹•‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‹•ƒ‹Ž›„ƒ•‡†‘Š‘™–Š‡’”‡•‡”˜‡† –”ƒ…‡• ‘ˆ ˆ‡…‡• †‹˜‹†‡ –Š‡ •’ƒ…‡ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ „—‹Ž†‹‰•‹–‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–›ƒ”†•ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆƒ”•‹–Š‡…Ž—•–‡”•Ǥ ‡ƒ”ǡ–Š‡’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹… ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ”‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†‹•—…Šƒ™ƒ›–Šƒ–Žƒ”‰‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ”‡”‡‘˜‡†‘ˆƒŽŽ–—”ˆǡ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‹‰ƒŽŽ’‘•–Š‘Ž‡• ƒ†…‘•–”—…–‹‘•—†‡”‡ƒ–Šǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ—…Š ‘”‡‘ˆ–Š‡’Š›•‹…ƒŽ”‡ƒ‹•ƒ”‡”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡†ƒ†–Š‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘…ƒ„‡„ƒ•‡†‘‘”‡†ƒ–ƒǤ  ‘–Žƒ†ƒ”‡ƒ› ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•’”‡•‡”˜‡†‹–Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ƒ†˜‹•‹„Ž‡ƒ„‘˜‡‰”‘—†„—–‘Ž›‘‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†Ǥ – ™ƒ• ‘Ž› –Š‡ ˜‹•‹„Ž‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ‘– –Š‡ •’ƒ…‡ ‹Ǧ„‡–™‡‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‡”‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†Ǥ ‘•‡“—‡–Ž›ǡ –Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‡• ‹ –Š‹• ™‘” ƒ”‡ „ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡˜‹•‹„Ž‡”‡ƒ‹•ƒ†‡‘—–‘ˆ•–‘‡ǡ ƒ†‘•–…Ž—•–‡”•‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•†‘‘–Šƒ˜‡ƒ‰”‡ƒ–ƒ‘—–‘ˆ•–‘‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡Ȁ„‘—†ƒ”› ™ƒŽŽ• ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ™‹–Š‹ –Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”•–Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ‡•‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘• ‘”‡†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–Ǥ ‡…‡• …ƒ „‡ ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ ’‡”‹•Šƒ„Ž‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǡ Ž‹‡ ™‘‘†ǡ ‘– ‘Ž› ™‹–Š‹ …Ž—•–‡”• „—– ƒŽ•‘ ƒ–‘–Š‡”’Žƒ…‡•‹–Š‡•›•–‡•‘ˆ‡…Ž‘•—”‡™ƒŽŽ• ƒ†ˆ‡…‡•Ǥ–•‡˜‡”ƒŽ’Žƒ…‡•ǡ‹–…ƒ„‡‘„•‡”˜‡† –Šƒ– •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• …‡ƒ•‡ ƒ„”—’–Ž› ™‹–Š‘—– ƒ› ‘„˜‹‘—• ”‡ƒ•‘Ǥ Š‹• ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ‘„•‡”˜‡† ‘ YŽƒ† „› ƒŽŽ‰”‡ǡ ™Š‘ ‹–‡”’”‡–• ‹– ƒ• –Š‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ •›•–‡…‘–‹—‡†ǡ„—–™ƒ•ƒ†‡‘ˆ‘–Š‡”ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ• ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ʹͲͲ͸ǣ͵ͶȌǤ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ•‘‡…Ž—•–‡”•ƒ”‡ seen with visible stone walls extending between –Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡˆ‘”‹•–ƒ…‡ƒ–ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ǡ ™Š‹…Š‹†‹…ƒ–‡•ƒ›ˆƒ”•™‹–Š‹–Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”•Ǥ Ž•‘‹•ƒŽŽ‡”…Ž—•–‡”•ǡ–Š‡•›•–‡‘ˆ•–‘‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ‹†‹…ƒ–‡• ƒ› ‹†‡’‡†‡– •ƒŽŽ farms rather than one large farm, maybe with sev‡”ƒŽŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ǡƒ••Š‘™‹–Š‡ϐ‹‰—”‡•ͳǤͷƒǦ„Ǥ ‡ –Š‹‰ ™Š‹…Š ‹‰Š– ‹†‹…ƒ–‡ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†• ‹• –‘ ϐ‹† •‡˜‡”ƒŽ Š‡ƒ”–Š• ‹ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘•‹‘‡Š‘—•‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹‰Š–‹†‹…ƒ–‡ –Šƒ– –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ™ƒ• †‹˜‹†‡† ‹–‘ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ ”‘‘• 21

Figure 1.5a.  …Ž—•–‡” †‹˜‹†‡† ‹–‘ –Š”‡‡ ˆƒ”•ǡ ƒ‹Ž› „ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ •›•–‡ ‘ˆ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽ•Ǥ – …Ž‡ƒ”Ž› •Š‘™• ƒ…ƒ––Ž‡–”ƒ…Ž‡ƒ†‹‰–‘–Š‡‡†•‘ˆƒŽŽ–Š”‡‡Š‘—•‡•ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ Š‘—•‡• ƒ”‡ †‹˜‹†‡† ‹–‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •‡…–‹‘•ǡ ˆ‘”Ž‹˜‡•–‘…ƒ††™‡ŽŽ‹‰ǡƒ†‡ƒ…ŠŠ‘—•‡…‘–ƒ‹•ƒŽŽ–Š‡ ˆ—…–‹‘•‡‡†‡†ˆ‘”ƒˆƒ”ǤŠ‡•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒŽ•‘†‹˜‹†‡–Š‡ •—””‘—†‹‰Žƒ†‹–‘–Š”‡‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ‘‡ˆ‘”‡ƒ…Šˆƒ”Ǥȋ" ‘Œ•–ƒͶȌǤ

‹‰—”‡ͳǤͷ„Ǥ ‘—”Ǧ…Ž—•–‡”†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–™‘ˆƒ”•ǡ‘•–Ž› „ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽŽƒ›‘—–ƒ†‡…Ž‘•—”‡•›•–‡ǤŠ‡–™‘ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•–‘–Š‡Ž‡ˆ–•‡‡–‘„‡ƒ‰”‘—’‘ˆ‹–•‘™Ǥ Š‡”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆ•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•…—––Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡‰”‘—’ǤŠ‡†‹•–ƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‘—–‡”‘•–Š‘—•‡•‹•ͳ͹Ͳ‡–”‡•ƒ†–Šƒ– —•–„‡–‘‘ˆƒ”ˆ‘”‘‡ˆƒ”ȋ"ƒŽŽƒʹ͸ȌǤ

ȋαŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ȌǤ Š‡”‡ ‹‰Š– ƒŽ•‘ „‡ Š‡ƒ”–Š• ‹ •‡˜‡”ƒŽŠ‘—•‡•ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•„‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘‘‡ˆƒ”Ǥ‡•‘—”…‡…”‹–‹…ƒŽ‹••—‡Š‡”‡‹• ‘ˆ…‘—”•‡–Š‡“—‡•–‹‘‹ˆ–Š‡Š‡ƒ”–Š•ƒ”‡ƒŽŽ…‘‡˜ƒŽǤ ‘–Š –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– –Š‡ Š‘—•‡• …ƒ „‡ —•‡† ˆ‘”ƒŽ‘‰–‹‡ǡƒ†ƒŽ•‘–Šƒ––Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–‡•—’‡”‹’‘•‡‘Ž†‡”•‡––Ž‡‡–•ǡƒ•™‹ŽŽ†‹•…—••‡†Žƒ–‡”ǡ‹•’”‘„Ž‡ƒ–‹…Ǥ Š‹•‹•’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–™Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ 22

Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ’”‹‘” –‘ –Š‡ ‹–”‘†—…–‹‘‘ˆ”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘†ƒ–‹‰ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•–Š‡ ƒŒ‘”‹–›‘ˆ…ƒ•‡•Ǥ – ‹• …‘‘ –‘ ϐ‹† Žƒ”‰‡ Š‡ƒ”–Š• †‹˜‹†‡† ‹–‘ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ ’ƒ”–•ǡ …‘•–”—…–‡† ‹ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ™ƒ›•ǡ ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ’ƒ”–• ™‡”‡ ‹–‡†‡† ˆ‘”•’‡…‹ϐ‹…–ƒ••ǡ„—–•—…ŠŠ‡ƒ”–Š•†‘‘–‹’Ž› •‡˜‡”ƒŽŠ‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ǡŒ—•–•‡˜‡”ƒŽˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ—…Š Š‡ƒ”–Š•ƒ”‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”‹„—‹Ž†‹‰•ͳǡ͹ ƒ† ͳ͵ ™‹–Š –Š”‡‡ Š‡ƒ”–Š• ‡ƒ…Šǡ „—– ‘Ž› –™‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ „—‹Ž†‹‰• ™‡”‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ• †™‡ŽŽ‹‰ Š‘—•‡• „› –‡„‡”‰‡” ȋͳͻͷͷ…ǣͳͳͶ͹ȌǤ ‡˜‡”ƒŽ ‘–Š‡” Š‘—•‡• Šƒ† –™‘ Š‡ƒ”–Š• ȋ„—‹Ž†‹‰• ͻǡ ͳͲǡ ͳͳǡͳ͹ǡͳͺǡͳͻȌǡ‘ˆ™Š‹…Š‘Ž›–™‘„—‹Ž†‹‰•ǡͳͳ ƒ†ͳͺǡ™‡”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•†™‡ŽŽ‹‰Š‘—•‡•„› –‡„‡”‰‡”Ǥ™‘„—‹Ž†‹‰•™‹–ŠŒ—•–‘‡Š‡ƒ”–Š ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ• †™‡ŽŽ‹‰ Š‘—•‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ „—‹Ž†‹‰ ͳ͸ ƒ† ’‘••‹„Ž› ƒŽ•‘ „—‹Ž†‹‰ ʹ ȋͳͻͷͷ…ǣͳͳͶ͹ȌǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡Š‡ƒ”–Š•‹ƒŽ‘•–‡˜‡”› Š‘—•‡ƒ–ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ‡•‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘• …‘…‡”‹‰ –Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†• †‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž– ȋ•‡‡ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲͲǦʹͷͶȌǤ‡ƒ”–Š•ƒ”‡‘– ‘Ž›—•‡†ˆ‘”…‘‘‹‰ǡƒ†–Š‡–›’‡‘ˆ•‘…‹ƒŽ‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† …‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ”‘—† †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆ—…–‹‘•‹•—‘™Ǥ–‡„‡”‰‡”ƒ••—‡•‹Š‹• ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”–Šƒ–…‡”–ƒ‹ˆ—…–‹‘• ™‡”‡…‘—ƒŽǡ™‹–Š‘—–•’‡…‹ˆ›‹‰–Š‹•ƒ›ˆ—”–Š‡”ȋ–‡„‡”‰‡”ͳͻͷͷƒǣͳͳͶͻȌǤ –¡‡‹—”•ȋ"—”•ͷͷȌǡƒŠ‘—•‡‘ˆ ‡š–”‡‡Ž‡‰–Šȋ͸͹Ȍ™ƒ•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–™‘•‡…–‹‘•„›ƒ™ƒŽŽǢ‡ƒ…Š•‡…–‹‘…‘–ƒ‹‡†Š‡ƒ”–Š•Ǥ  –Š‡ •‘—–Š‡” •‡…–‹‘ǡ ‘‡ –‡ ‡–”‡ Ž‘‰ Š‡ƒ”–Š™ƒ•ˆ‘—†ǡ™Š‹…Š™ƒ•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–Š”‡‡ ’ƒ”–•ǤŠ‡‘”–Š‡”•‡…–‹‘Šƒ†–™‘Š‡ƒ”–Š•ǤŠ‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‘”‹ŠŽ±‹–‡”’”‡–‡†–Š‡•‡–™‘•‡…–‹‘• ƒ•–™‘”‘‘•™‹–Š•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ˆ—…–‹‘•ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣͺʹˆȌǡ„—–ƒ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘„ƒ•‡† ‘–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•ˆ”‘ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”†‘‡•‘–”—Ž‡‘—– ƒ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–™‘Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•Ǥ ‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡ ‘ˆ –Š‹• ‘—–•‹†‡ ‘–Žƒ† ‹• ‘ YŽƒ†ǡ™Š‡”‡ƒŽƒ”‰‡…Ž—•–‡”™‹–Š•‡˜‡”ƒŽŒ‘‹‡† Š‘—•‡•‹•‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•„‡‹‰†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–™‘ farms, based on the hearths and how walls di˜‹†‡–Š‡Š‘—•‡•‹–‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–”‘‘•ȋ‡”•…Š‡† ʹͲͲͻǣʹͷͷϐ‹‰ͺͲ„ȌǤ †‰”‡ƒ†‡”•…Š‡†Šƒ˜‡‹–Š‡‹”…ƒŽ…—lations of the size of an average Gotlandic farm, ‡•–‹ƒ–‡†ˆƒ”•–‘…‘•‹•–‘ˆƒ”‘—†ˆ‘—”Š‘—•‡•ƒ†–™‘Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ǡ„ƒ•‡†‘†ƒ–ƒˆ”‘–Š‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ‡–‘”’ ‘ YŽƒ† ƒ† ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ȋ†‰”‡Ƭ‡”•…Š‡†ͳͻͺʹǣͳͺȌǤŠ‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ™‘”ǡ „ƒ•‡† ‘ ƒ –Š‘”‘—‰ŠƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆƒŽŽ’”‡•‡”˜‡†•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—dations on Gotland will yield a somewhat differ‡–”‡•—Ž–ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡’”‡•‡–‡†‹…Šƒ’–‡”͵Ǥ

Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡†‡’‡†•‘™Šƒ––Š‡…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡„ƒ•‡†‘ǤŠ‡’‘‹–‘ˆ†‡’ƒ”–—”‡‘ˆ†‰”‡ ƒ†‡”•…Š‡†‹•–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‘ˆ‡–‘”’ǡ™Š‹…Š ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‹• ƒ ƒ‘ƒŽ› –‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹… …‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡ ‡š‹•–‡…‡ ‘ˆ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ ‹†‡’‡†‡– Š‡ƒ”–Š•‹•‘‡Š‘—•‡•Šƒ•ƒŽ•‘„‡‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•–Š‡’”‡•‡…‡‘ˆ•Žƒ˜‡•‘”–Š”ƒŽŽ•Ǥ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‹•‹‰Š–„‡–Šƒ–‹•‘‡Š‘—•‡•ǡŠ‡ƒ”–Š• ƒ”‡ˆ‘—†–‘„‡’Žƒ…‡†‹ƒ”‘‘„‡›‘†–Š‡„›”‡

†‹•…—••‡† Žƒ–‡”ǡ …ƒ—–‹‘ —•– „‡ –ƒ‡ ‹ —•‹‰ ƒ…‹–—• ƒ• ƒ •‘—”…‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ƒ ˜‹‡™ •Šƒ”‡† „› –‡ˆƒ ”‹ǡ ™Š‘ ‹• ˜‡”› †‘—„–ˆ—Ž –‘ –Š‡ •Žƒ˜‡”› †‡•…”‹„‡† ‹ ‡”ƒ‹ƒ „› ƒ…‹–—•Ǥ – ‹• ‘– —Ž‹‡Ž›–Šƒ––Š‡‹†‘ˆ•Žƒ˜‡”›‘™–‘‡š‹•– Žƒ–‡” ‹ …ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒ ™ƒ• ‹–”‘†—…‡† „› –Š‡ ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘ ™‹–Š ‘‡ ȋ”‹ ʹͲͳʹǣʹͷͳˆȌǤ  ™‹ŽŽ ‘–‹†—Ž‰‡ƒ›†‡‡’‡”‹–Š‡ƒ––‡”…‘…‡”‹‰ •Žƒ˜‡•ǡ•‹…‡‹–‹•‘–‘”‹‘—•Ž›†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘Šƒ†Ž‡ ƒ†–Š‡‹”’”‡•‡…‡‹•Šƒ”†–‘˜‡”‹ˆ›‹ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽƒ–‡”‹ƒŽȋƒ…Š”‹••‘ʹͲͲ͵ǣͺͻȌǤ

Villages

Figure 1.6. Š‡ ˆ”‡“—‡…› ‘ˆ Š‡ƒ”–Š• ‹ ‡ƒ…Š „—‹Ž†‹‰ ƒ– ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”Ǥ ‹‰—”‡•”‡’”‡•‡––Š‡„—‹Ž†‹‰—„‡”•

ƒ•ƒ’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡—Ž–‹Ǧˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽŠ‘—•‡•Ǥšƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ–Š‹•‘……—”ƒ–•‹–‡•‹ ‡‡‹–Š‡…‘—–› ‘ˆ%‰‡”ƒŽƒ†ǡƒ– ¤‰‡Ž„ƒ…‡ƒ†‹’’•ƒŽƒ ‹–Š‡…‘—–›‘ˆ’’Žƒ†Ǥ‘•‹†‡”‹‰–Š‡•‡…ƒ•‡•ǡ˜ƒ–‡‘””Šƒ••—‰‰‡•–‡†ƒ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡•’ƒ…‡•ƒ•–Š‡†™‡ŽŽ‹‰”‘‘•ˆ‘”•Žƒ˜‡• ȋ‘”” ͳͻͻ͸ǣͳͷͺˆˆȌǤ ‘”†•–”ڏ ƒ† ‡”•…Š‡† ȋʹͲͲ͵ǣ͹ͷȌ ƒ‡ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ ˆ‘” ƒ Š‘—•‡‹‡–‘”’Ǥ ƒ…‹–—• †‡•…”‹„‡• •Žƒ˜‡”› ƒ‘‰ –Š‡ ‡”ƒ•ǡ „—– ‘ˆ ƒ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‹†ǡ ™‹–Š …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•‘”‡Ž‹‡–Šƒ–‘ˆŽƒ†–‡ƒ–•Ǥ—–ƒ•™‹ŽŽ„‡

• †‹•…—••‡† ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”ǡ ‹– Šƒ• „‡‡ ”‡…‘‰‹•‡† ˆ‘” some decades by many archaeologists that villag‡•†‹†‡š‹•–‹’”‡ǦŠ‹•–‘”‹…–‹‡•–Š”‘—‰Š‘—–™‡†‡ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ •‡––Ž‡‡– ’ƒ––‡” ‘ ‘–Žƒ† Šƒ• also in modern research sometimes been referred –‘ƒ•…‘•‹•–‹‰ǡƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–’ƒ”–Ž›ǡ‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ȋ…ˆǤ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ͳͻͻ͵ǡʹͲͲ͸Ǣ ”¡•Ž—†ʹͲͲͶȌǤŠ‡”‡‹•ǡŠ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ƒ‘–Š‡” ‹’‘”–ƒ– ‹••—‡ –‘ †‹•…—••ǡ ™Š‹…Š is whether villages existed in historical times on

‘–Žƒ†Ǥ  Žƒ–‡” Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ’‡”‹‘†•ǡ –Š‡ …‘…‡’–• ‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡˆƒ”ƒ†’ƒ”–‘ˆˆƒ”Šƒ•–‘›‹† ƒŽ‘––‘†‘™‹–Š•‡ƒ–‹…•ƒ†”‡‰‹‘ƒŽ—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡––‡”•Ǥ …‘’ƒ”‹•‘…ƒ„‡ƒ†‡„‡–™‡‡ ‘–Žƒ† and Norway, which in many ways are similar in –Š‹•”‡•’‡…–ǤŠ‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ȋ™‡†‹•Šǣby, ƒ‹•ŠȀ‘”™‡‰‹ƒǣ landsby) does not exist in ‘”™ƒ›ƒ•ƒ†‡‘‹ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”ƒ†‘‡•–‹…”—”ƒŽ settlement and the word Landsby‹•‘Ž›—•‡†–‘ †‡‘‹ƒ–‡ ˆ‘”‡‹‰ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‹ ‘–Š‡” …‘—–”‹‡•Ǥ The word by ‹ ‘”™‡‰‹ƒ ƒ† ƒ‹•Š ‡ƒ• –‘™ǤŠ‡‘Ž›‘”™‡‰‹ƒ–‡”ˆ‘”ƒ”—”ƒŽ•‡–tlement is gård (farm) and a gård can be divided into different brukǡ‘’‡”ƒ–‡†ƒ•ƒ‹†‡’‡†‡– —‹–ǡ ƒ† ”— ‘ ƒ ˆƒ‹Ž› „ƒ•‹• ȋ‹ŽŽ‡Šƒ‡” ͳͻͻͻǣͳ͵ͳȌǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘ƒ ‘–Žƒ†‹…part of ƒ ˆƒ”Ǥ Š‡ –‡” ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ Žƒ…‹‰ ‘ ‘–land, at least in cadastres, and as in Norway, a ”—”ƒŽ•‡––Ž‡‡–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†gårdǤ  ‹–• Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ •‡•‡ǡ –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ gård ‹• ‘– ƒ •–”‹…– †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ‘” ’”‡…‹•‡ ‡ƒ‹‰ ‹ ‘”™ƒ›ƒ†‹•Šƒ”†–‘—•‡‹‘†‡”ƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘” –Š‹• ’—”’‘•‡ǡ –Š‡ –‡”• Matrikkelgård ȋϐ‹•…ƒŽ ˆƒ”Ȍ ƒ† Navnegård (named farm) have „‡‡ …”‡ƒ–‡†Ǥ Matrikkelgård ‹• ƒ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ —‹– ƒ† Navnegård…‘•‹•–•‘ˆƒ—„‡”‘ˆ…Ž‘•‡Ž›•‹–—ƒ–‡† Matrikkelgårdǡ™‹–Š–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ‡ǡƒ†ƒ••—‡† –‘ Šƒ˜‡ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ‘”‹‰‹ ȋ–‘••‘ ʹͲͲͶǣʹͲˆˆȌǤ Š‹•™‘—Ž†ƒ‡–Š‡–‡”•‘ˆMatrikkelgård and ƒ˜‡‰¤”†ǡ•‹‹Žƒ”–‘ˆƒ”ƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡”‡•’‡…–‹˜‡Ž›ǡƒ•–Š‡›ƒ”‡—•‡†‹™‡†‡Ǥ

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Žƒ–‡”Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ–‹‡•ǡƒ•–Š‡›ƒ”‡†‡’‹…–‡†‹ ƒ’• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ͳͻth …‡–—”›ǡ ƒ ‘”™‡‰‹ƒ gård ȋˆƒ”Ȍ …‘—Ž† „‡ †‹˜‹†‡† ‹ ƒ› bruk ȋ’ƒ”–•Ȍǡ —’–‘͵Ͳ‘”‘”‡ǤŠ‡•‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–bruk…‘—Ž†„‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‡†‹˜‡”›†‡•‡…Ž—•–‡”•ǡŒ—•–Ž‹‡ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ The bruk on these large gård, did not all have to „‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†‹‘‡Žƒ”‰‡…Ž—•–‡”ǡ„—––Š‡›…‘—Ž†„‡ †‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘•‡˜‡”ƒŽǡ•‹–—ƒ–‡†•‘‡Š—†”‡†‡–”‡•ƒ’ƒ”–ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ†‡–Š‡‹–‘—Ž–‹Ǧ—…Ž‡ƒ” ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǤŠ‡’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†‘ˆ–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–bruk are mixed within the territory of the gård (LilleŠƒ‡”ͳͻͻͻǣͳ͵ʹˆˆȌǤŠ‹•‹•‘”‡‘”Ž‡••ǡ™Šƒ– ƒ …‘‘ ™‡†‹•Š ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ™‘—Ž† Šƒ˜‡ Ž‘‘‡† Ž‹‡‹–Š‡•ƒ‡’‡”‹‘†ǡƒ†•‘‡gård on GotŽƒ† –‘‘Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ‘ •—…Š Žƒ”‰‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ ‘™ –‘ ’”‘’‡”Ž› †‹˜‹†‡ –Š‡•‡ ‘”™‡‰‹ƒ gård into several bruk ‹• †‡•…”‹„‡† ‹ –Š‡ Ž† ‘”™‡‰‹ƒŽƒ™•ǡˆ‘”‹•–ƒ…‡‹Țͺ͹‹–Š‡Ž†‡” ƒ™ ‘ˆ –Š‡ —Žƒ–Š‹‰ ȋƒ”•‘ ͳͻ͵ͷǣͻͺȌǤ Š‡ ’”ƒ…–‹…‡‘ˆ†‹˜‹†‹‰ˆƒ”•‹–‘bruk–Š—•‰‘‡•ˆƒ” „ƒ…‹–‹‡Ǥ  ¡–Žƒ†ƒ†¡”Œ‡†ƒŽ‡ǡ™Š‹…Š„‡…ƒ‡ ƒ™‡†‹•Š’”‘˜‹…‡‹ͳ͸Ͷͷǡƒ†’”‹‘”–‘–Š‹•™ƒ• ƒ’ƒ”–‘ˆ‘”™ƒ›Ȁ‡ƒ”ǡ–Š‡–‡”gård seems –‘Šƒ˜‡„‡‡—•‡†ˆ‘”ƒŽ‘‰–‹‡Ǥ‡”‡ǡ‹–‹•—•‡† ‹‘Ž†”‡…‘”†•ˆ”‘–Š‡ϐ‹”•–†‡…ƒ†‡•‘ˆ–Š‡ͳ͹th …‡–—”›ƒ†‡˜‡‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”Ǥ –‹•—•‡†‹‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ …Šƒ”–‡”•ǡ ™Š‡ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ ’‡”•‘• ™‡”‡ Ž‹•–‡† ƒ• ˆƒ”‡”• —†‡” ‡ƒ…Š gårdǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† –‘…‘””‡•’‘†–‘–Š‡‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽˆƒ”‡”•‘‡ƒ…Š brukǤƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‘ˆ͵Ǥ͵bruk’‡”gård‹•…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡† ˆ‘” –Š‡ ’‡”‹‘† ͳ͵ͲͲ –‘ ͳͷͷͲǡ „› –‘••‘ǡ ™Š‡ Š‡ …‘’ƒ”‡• •‡––Ž‡‡– ƒ‡•ǡ ™‹–Š –Š‡ —„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”‡”•‹–Š‡–‹–Š‡”‡‰‹•–‡”ȋ–‘••‘ʹͲͲͲǣͳͲͺȌǤŠ‡–‡”by™ƒ•‘–—•‡†–‘†‡•…”‹„‡ƒ•‡––Ž‡‡–‹ ¡–Žƒ†—–‹Ž–Š‡•‡™‡”‡ ƒ”‡†‘–Š‡™‡†‹•Šƒ’•ˆ”‘ƒ”‘—†ͳ͹ͲͲ ȋ–‘••‘ʹͲͲͻǣʹͷȌǤ –‹•…Ž‡ƒ”ǡ–Šƒ––‘–Š‡Žƒ† •—”˜‡›‘”•ƒ†…‹˜‹Ž•‡”˜ƒ–••‘‡͵ͲͲ›‡ƒ”•ƒ‰‘ǡ –Š‡”‡™‡”‡‘ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•„‡–™‡‡ ƒ •‡––Ž‡‡– ‹ ™‡†‡ ƒ† ‹ ¡–Žƒ†Ǣ –Š‡•‡ …‘—Ž†‡ƒ•‹Ž›„‡”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ȋby) in both ƒ”‡ƒ•Ǥ ‘ƒ†‡‰”‡‡ǡ–Š‡•ƒ‡‹•–”—‡ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ†ǤŠ‡ Žƒ† •—”˜‡›‘”• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘Ž†‡•– ‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ ƒ’• ‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲƒŽ•‘ˆ”‡“—‡–Ž›—•‡–Š‡ term bolbyǡ‡ƒ‹‰˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹–Š‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•Ǥ ƒŽ‘•–͹Ͳ‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•ǡ–Š‡–‡” bolby ‹• —•‡†ǡ ƒ• ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ ‡šƒ’Ž‡•ǣ Ǯär ‹ ‘ŠŽ„› ‡†ǤǤǤǹ ȋ‹ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ …‘—‹–› ™‹–ŠȌ ‘” Ǯ...nästa Bohlby in til Kialler och Seges’ (next vilŽƒ‰‡ƒ†Œƒ…‡––‘ƒ‹ŽŽ‡”ƒ†‡‰‡•Ȍȋ…ˆǤ‘•–‡ ʹͲͳͳ„ǣƒ—˜ƒŽ†•• ƒ† ‘Ž• ‹ ƒ˜†Š‡ȌǤ Š‡ Žƒ† •—”˜‡›‘”• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲ ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ƒŽ•‘

ʹͶ

noted if the farms worked together in a byalag ȋ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡…‘—‹–›Ȍ™‹–Šƒ›‘–Š‡”ˆƒ”•ǤŠ‡› —•‡ –Š‡ –‡” i byalag med ȋ…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‰ ™‹–Š‹ ƒ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ …‘—‹–›Ȍ ‘” enstaka ȋ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ȌǤ ˆ‘”–—ƒ–‡Ž›ǡ–Š‹•‹•‘–‘–‡†ˆ‘”‡˜‡”›ˆƒ”ǤŽ› •‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ† •—”˜‡›‘”• •‡‡ –‘ Šƒ˜‡ †‘‡ •‘Ǣ‘•–‘ˆ–‡ǡ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‹•Žƒ…‹‰ˆ‘”™Š‘Ž‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š‡•Ǥ Š‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ …‘…‡”‹‰ i byalag med‹•‘–‡†ˆ‘”ƒ”‘—†ŠƒŽˆ‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•Ǣ Šƒ˜‡ ˆ‘—†Ͷ͸ͳ‘–‡†ƒ•enstakaȋ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ȌǢͳ͵͹™‡”‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ–™‘ˆƒ”•Ǣ͵͹™‡”‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‹–Š–Š”‡‡ˆƒ”•Ǣ͹™‡”‡ˆ‘—”Ǧˆƒ”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǣ͵ ™‡”‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆϐ‹˜‡ˆƒ”•Ǣƒ†ϐ‹ƒŽŽ› ͳ™ƒ•ƒ•‡˜‡Ǧˆƒ”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǤŠ‹••Š‘™•–Šƒ–‘”‡ –Šƒ ͶͲΨ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘–‡† ˆƒ”• ™‡”‡ ‹…Ž—†‡† ‹ some kind of village constellation with other ˆƒ”•ǡƒ––Š‡–‹‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ’’‹‰Ǥ……‘”†‹‰–‘ ‹†‰”‡ǡ–Š‡Žƒ†•—”˜‡›‘”•‹–Š‡…‘—–›‘ˆ‘Š—•Ž¡—•‡†–Š‡–‡”byalag in this fashion also ˆ‘” ‘Ǧϐ‹•…ƒŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‹ …‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ ȋ‹†‰”‡ ͳͻͻ͹ǣͶͳȌ There is a great variation in how villages ™‡”‡•–”—…–—”‡†ƒ†‘”‰ƒ‹•‡†™‹–Š‹„‘–Š‘”way and Sweden and there were differences in •‘…‹ƒŽ ‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† †‡‰”‡‡ ‘ˆ …‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ǡ „—– –Š‡ ‡••‡–‹ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ‘ˆ ƒ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ ƒ• ™‹ŽŽ „‡ †‡ϐ‹‡† „‡Ž‘™ǡ ƒ”‡ ˆ‘—† ‹ „‘–Š …‘—–”‹‡•Ǥ Š‡–‡”‹‘Ž‘‰›Œ—•–†‹ˆˆ‡”•ǤŠƒ–‹™‡†‡‹• called a by (village), is in Norway called a gård ȋˆƒ”Ȍ ƒ† –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ƒ’’Ž‹‡• –‘ –Š‡ ‘–Žƒ†‹… …‘…‡’–‘ˆgårdȋˆƒ”ȌǤ™‡†‹•Šˆƒ”‹•‡“—ƒŽ to Gotlandic part and a Norwegian bruk, when there are several parts or „”—ǡ‹ƒ…Ž—•–‡”ȋ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ȌǤŠ‹•‹••‘‡–Š‹‰•–ƒ–‡†„›‹Ž•‹–Š„‡”‰ ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›‹ͳͻ͵ʹǡ™Š‡Š‡ƒ”‰—‡•–Šƒ––Š‡•ƒ‡ …‘…‡’–‹™‡†‡ƒ† ‘–Žƒ†…ƒŠƒ˜‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ƒ‡•ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ͳͻ͵ʹǣʹͳȌǤŠ‹•‹•ƒŽ•‘’‘‹–‡† ‘—– „› ”‹š‘Ǥ ‡ …‘•‹†‡”• –Šƒ– –Š‡•‡ …Ž—•ters of farms, divided into bruk and partǡ—•–„‡ •‡‡ƒ•ƒ•’‡…‹ƒŽ–›’‡‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•„‘–Š‹‘”™ƒ› ƒ†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ȋ”‹š‘ͳͻ͸ͲǣͳͻͺȌǤ –‹•‘–ƒŽ™ƒ›•’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘‘™–Š‡‡ƒ‹‰‘ˆƒ…‘…‡’–‹ƒ•’‡…‹ϐ‹……‘–‡š–ǡ„—–˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• …ƒ‘–•‹’Ž›„‡•–ƒ–‡†–‘‡š‹•–ƒ–•‘‡’Žƒ…‡•ǡ „—–‘–‹‘–Š‡”•ǡ•‘Ž‡Ž›„ƒ•‡†‘•‘‡•‹’Ž‹ϐ‹‡†ϐ‹•…ƒŽ†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ǤŠ‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘‹„‘–Š‘”™ƒ› ƒ† ‘–Žƒ† Šƒ• „‡‡ ”‡‰ƒ”†‡† ƒ• —‹“—‡ ƒ†‘–…‘’ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡–‘–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡”‡•– ‘ˆ …ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ƒ• ‹†‰”‡ •ƒ›•ǡ –Š‡ differences between Norway and Sweden are ƒ›„‡‡šƒ‰‰‡”ƒ–‡††—‡–‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡––‡”‹‘Ž‘‰›ǡ •‘—”…‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•ǡƒ†”‡•‡ƒ”…Š–”ƒ†‹–‹‘•ȋ‹†‰”‡ ͳͻͻ͹ǣͶͲˆˆȌǤ Š‹• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ƒŽ•‘ ƒ’’Ž‹‡• –‘

‘–Žƒ†Ǣ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡• „‡–™‡‡ ‘–Žƒ† ƒ† –Š‡ ™‡†‹•Š ƒ‹Žƒ† ‹• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘ ‰”‡ƒ–‡”

than the difference between different regions ‘–Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†Ǥ–Š‡…‘–”ƒ”›ǡ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘• between different regions on the mainland are ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›Žƒ”‰‡”Ǥ Š‡–‡”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹•ƒŽ•‘—•‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹ ‘†‡”ȀŠ‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ Ž‘…ƒŽ …‘–‡š–• ‘ˆ —‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ ƒ–—”‡Ǥ –‹•‘–——•—ƒŽ–Šƒ–ƒ—„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”• Ž›‹‰ …Ž‘•‡ –‘‰‡–Š‡” ƒ”‡ ‘™ —†‡” ƒ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ƒ‡Ǥ  –Š‡ ‘–Žƒ†‹… †‹ƒŽ‡…– ‹– ‹• …ƒŽŽ‡† Ǯböi’ and in the dictionary over the old Gotlandic ƒ—Ǧ†‹ƒŽ‡…–ǡ‹–‹•‡š’Žƒ‹‡†ƒ•ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™•ȋ‡Ž‡ˆ‘”• ͳͻͺ͵ǣ͹ͻȌǣ Ǯ„›ƒŽƒ‰ǡ Ǯ‰”ƒŽƒ‰ǯǡ •ƒŽ‹‰ ƒ˜ ¡”ƒ varandra liggande gårdar’ (˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ …‘—‹–›ǡ ‡‹‰Š„‘—” …‘—‹–›ǡ ƒ ‰”‘—’ ‘ˆ …Ž‘•‡Ž› Ž›‹‰ farmsȌǤ –Š‡†‹…–‹‘ƒ”›ǡƒ‘–Š‡” ‘–Žƒ†‹…–‡” ˆ‘” ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹• —•‡†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ǮGrannlagǯ‘” ǮGrannelagǯǤ  ¤”Ú –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ˆ‘—” ˆƒ”• ‘™ ƒ• ǮŽ¡•‡‰”ƒ‡Žƒ‰ǯǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘–‡†‹–Š‡‘Ž†…ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽƒ’‘ˆͳ͸ͻ͵ǤŠ‹•grannelag and its forƒ–‹‘ƒ”‡†‹•…—••‡†„›”••‘ȋͳͻͻͳǣͳͶȌǤ ”‘—†ͶͲ‰”‘—’•‘ˆˆƒ”•”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•˜‹Žlages by a common village name have been iden–‹ϐ‹‡† ˆ”‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •‘—”…‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ ƒ‹Ž› Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•ƒ†‘–Š‡”’—„Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡•‡ͶͲ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ”‡‘•–Ž›•‹–—ƒ–‡†‘–Š‡•‘—–Š‡”’ƒ”– ‘ˆ–Š‡‹•Žƒ†Ǥ•›•–‡ƒ–‹…•—”˜‡›‘ˆƒŽŽ’‘••‹„Ž‡ •‘—”…‡•™‘—Ž†’”‘„ƒ„Ž››‹‡Ž†ƒŠ‹‰Š‡”—„‡”Ǥ ’ƒ”–ˆ”‘ƒˆ‡™‡šƒ’Ž‡•ˆ”‘Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•ǡ Ž¡•‡‰”ƒ‡Žƒ‰‘ ¤”Úǡ‘””„›‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ƒŽ‹‰„‘ǡ ‡„› ƒ† —”‰‡„› ‹ ƒ˜†Š‡ǡ ƒŽŽ •‘—”…‡• ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ ƒ ‘Ǧ‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”Ǥ ‡Ž‡ˆ‘”•ȋͳͻͺ͵ǣͺͲȌƒ……‘—–•ˆ‘”•‘‡‡–Š‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ •‘—”…‡•ǡ •—…Š ƒ• –Š‡ „”‘–Š‡”• ƒ”Ž ƒ† ‡” ”˜‹† ¡˜‡ǯ• ™”‹––‡ ƒ……‘—–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘–Žƒ†‹… •‘…‹‡–›†—”‹‰–Š‡ͳͻth…‡–—”›Ǥ ‹–Š„‡”‰™”‹–‡•‹ƒƒ”–‹…Ž‡ˆ”‘ͳͻͳͷǡ–Šƒ– Š‡Šƒ•Š‡ƒ”†‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ•Ǯ‡š…‡’–‹‘ƒŽ…ƒ•‡•ǯƒ† Ž‹•–••‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡Ǥ‡”‡‰ƒ”†•–Š‡ƒ•–Š‡”‡•—Ž– ‘ˆŽ‘…ƒŽ…‘†‹–‹‘•ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ͳͻͳͷǣͶʹȌǤ‹–Š„‡”‰ connects these villages with different forms of …‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹˜‡™‘”ǡŽ‹‡–Š‡bidlag, which is constellations of farms that have different kinds of ‘„Ž‹‰ƒ–‹‘• ‹ ‹˜‹–‹‰ ƒ† Š‡Ž’‹‰ ‡ƒ…Š ‘–Š‡” ƒ– •‘…‹ƒŽ ˆ—…–‹‘•ǡ Ž‹‡ ™‡††‹‰• ‡–…Ǥǡ „—– ƒŽ•‘ –‘•‘‡†‡‰”‡‡Š‡Ž’‹‰‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”™‹–Š…‡”–ƒ‹ –ƒ••Ž‹‡Šƒ›Ǧƒ‹‰‡–…Ǥ‡•‡‡•–Š‡bidlag as –Š‡”‡ƒ–•‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ǡ…‘–‹—‹‰ ƒˆ–‡” –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• Šƒ† Ž‘•– –Š‡‹” ‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ •–ƒ–—•Ǥ ƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡bidlag–Šƒ–Š‡‡…‘—–‡”‡†‹–Š‡„‡ginning of the 20th…‡–—”›†‹†‘–…‘•‹•–‘ˆ–Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ ˆƒ”• ‹ –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ •‹…‡ ‹•Š‹’ ƒ† ‘–Š‡” Žƒ–‡” ’Š‡‘‡ƒ Šƒ† ƒŽ–‡”‡† –Š‡ ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‰ˆƒ”•ǡƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘‹–Š„‡”‰ȋͳͻͳͷǣͶͺȌǤ

Š‹•˜‹‡™‹•‘–•Šƒ”‡†„›‘„‡”‰ȋͳͻ͵͸Ȍ‹Š‹• •–—†› ‘ˆ byordningar2 ȋ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ •–ƒ–—–‡•Ȍ ‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ  Š‹• •–—†›ǡ ‘„‡”‰ ƒ”‰—‡• –Šƒ– ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ™‡”‡‹–”‘†—…‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†„›–Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡– ‹–Š‡Žƒ–‡ͳͺthƒ†ͳͻth…‡–—”‹‡•ǡƒ†–Š‡›™‡”‡ not based in any local tradition, as on the mainŽƒ†Ǥ ‘„‡”‰ ȋͳͻ͵͸ǣͳͳͷȌ ‹• –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘’‹‹‘ –Šƒ– –Š‡•‡ •‘Ǧ…ƒŽŽ‡† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ˆ‘—† ‘

‘–Žƒ†ƒ”‡‡šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆǣǮofullgångna anlag till konventionellt och temporärt byväsende i vissa trakter av Gotland.’ (Immature tendencies to conventional and temporary villages in some parts of GotlandȌǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ‘„‡”‰ǡ –Š‡•‡ grannelag or bygdelag…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ‘•–Ž›…Ž‘•‡Ž›ǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘ •‘‡–‹‡•“—‹–‡•’ƒ”•‡Ž›Ž›‹‰ˆƒ”•ǡ†‘‘–”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ›Ž‘‰ǦŽƒ•–‹‰‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ǡ‡š…‡’–‹–Š‡ cases where they coincide with the bidlagǤ Š‡ names of the villages are often the same as one of –Š‡ˆƒ”•‹–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡™‹–Š–Š‡•—ˆϐ‹šȂ„›Ǥ ‘„‡”‰ •—‰‰‡•–• –Šƒ– –Š‹• ƒ‡” ‘ˆ ‰‹˜‹‰ƒ‡•–‘˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›„‘””‘™‡†ˆ”‘ –Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†ƒ†‘ˆƒ‘”‡”‡…‡–†ƒ–‡Ǥ‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ƒ‡• ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ •‘‡–‹‡• ‡…‘—–‡”‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‹—–‡•‘ˆ’ƒ”‹•Š‡‡–‹‰•ǡƒ•–‡’‘”ƒ”›‰”‘—’‹‰• ‘ˆ ˆƒ”• ˆ‘” •’‡…‹ϐ‹… –ƒ••Ǥ ‡ ƒ”‰—‡• –Šƒ– ‹–‹•‘„˜‹‘—•–Šƒ–„›–Š‡‹†ͳͺth…‡–—”›ǡ™Š‡ –Š‡•‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•–ƒ–—‡•™‡”‡‹–”‘†—…‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ Ǯ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǯ™‡”‡‘Ž‹˜‹‰‹•–‹–—–‹‘‘™Š‹…Š–Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ •–ƒ–—‡• …‘—Ž† „‡ ‹’Ž‡‡–‡†Ǥ •–‡ƒ†ǡ Ǯƒ”–‹ϐ‹…‹ƒŽǯ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‡”‡…”‡ƒ–‡†ǡ‘•–‘ˆ–‡…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆƒ™Š‘Ž‡’ƒ”‹•Šǡƒ†‹•‘‡Žƒ”‰‡”’ƒ”‹•Š‡••‡˜‡”ƒŽƒ”–‹ϐ‹…‹ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‡”‡…”‡ƒ–‡†ǤŽ› ‹ •‘‡ …ƒ•‡•ǡ †‹† –Š‡•‡ ƒ”–‹ϐ‹…‹ƒŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• …‘‹…‹†‡™‹–ŠǮ—‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǯǤ ‘„‡”‰ •–ƒ–‡• –Šƒ– „‡…ƒ—•‡ –Š‡ Žƒ… ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǧ–”ƒ†‹–‹‘ ƒ† „‡…ƒ—•‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ–—”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •‡––Ž‡‡–•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡ƒ––‡’––‘‹–”‘†—…‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•–ƒ–—‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ˆƒ‹Ž‡†ƒ†–Š‡›†‹†‘– Ž‡ƒ˜‡ƒ›Žƒ•–‹‰–”ƒ…‡•ȋ‘„‡”‰ͳͻ͵͸ǣͳͳͺˆˆȌǤ ‘„‡”‰ǯ• ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ •‡‡• ”ƒ–Š‡” —Ž‹‡Ž›ƒ•…ƒ„‡‡š‡’Ž‹ϐ‹‡†„›‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡–Š”‡‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ƒ˜†Š‡ǡ ƒ‡† ‡„›Ǥ –…‘•‹•–•‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•††˜‡†‡ǡ‘˜ƒŽ†•ǡ ‹…ƒ”˜‡ƒ†–‘”ƒƬ‹ŽŽƒ‹„„‡ƒ”˜‡Ǣ‹ͳ͹͵ͻǡ ‹–™ƒ•ƒ’’‡†„›–Š‡Žƒ†•—”˜‡›‘” ‘Šƒ ‹‡ƒ ȋǣ ͶʹǦ͵ʹǣͳȌǤ Š‡ ˆƒ” ‡ǡ ‘ˆ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‰‘–‹–•ƒ‡ǡ™ƒ•‹ͳ͹͵ͻŽ‘‰•‹…‡ ʹǤ……‘”†‹‰–‘–Š‡™‡†‹•Š‡…›…Ž‘’ƒ‡†‹ƒƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‡…›Ž‘’‡†‹ǡ ƒ byordning …‘•–‹–—–‡• Ž‡‰ƒŽ •–ƒ–—–‡• ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‰ •‘‡ƒ•’‡…–•‘ˆ–Š‡™‘”‹ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ ͳ͹Ͷʹǡƒ–‡’Žƒ–‡ ˆ‘” •—…Š •–ƒ–—‡• ™ƒ• ƒ†‡ ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ ‘ˆ ™‡†‡ǡ –Š‡ mönsterbyordning, which had its roots in older traditions on –Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†ǤŠ‡ƒ—–Š‘”‹–‹‡•‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡†–Š‡—•‡‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ •–ƒ–—‡•ǡƒ•ƒ‡ƒ•–‘”‡‰—Žƒ–‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ž‹ˆ‡ƒ†•–ƒ–—‡•™‡”‡ –‘„‡”ƒ–‹ϐ‹‡†‹–Š‡Ž‘…ƒŽ…‘—”–ǡŠ¡”ƒ†•”¡––‡Ǥȋƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‡…›Ž‘’‡†‹ʹͲͳ͵ǣ›Ȍ

ʹͷ

†‡•‡”–‡†Ǥ  –Š‡ …ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽ ƒ’ ‘ˆ ͳ͹Ͳʹ ȋǣ ͲͻǦǦ͵Ȍǡ‹–‹•”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•Ǯ‡–‘–ǯƒ†‹– ™ƒ•…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†—†‡”–Š‡ˆƒ”–‘”ƒ—”‰‡‹–Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆƒ„Ž‹‰„‘Ǥ –…‘•‹•–‡†‘ˆϐ‹˜‡•…ƒ––‡”‡† ’‹‡…‡•‘ˆŽƒ†‘–Š‡„‘”†‡”„‡–™‡‡ƒ„Ž‹‰„‘ ƒ†ƒ˜†Š‡Ǥ Š‡ ‘Ž†‡•– •‘—”…‡ „‡Ž‹‡˜‡† –‘ ‡–‹‘ ƒŽŽ „—–ƒˆ‡™‘ˆ–Š‡‡š‹•–‹‰ˆƒ”•ƒ––Š‡–‹‡‹•–Š‡ Husarbetsbok3 (book of Žƒ„‘—”‹Ž‹‡—‘ˆ–ƒš‡•Ȍ, ˆ”‘–Š‡Žƒ––‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡ͳ͸th…‡–—”›Ǥ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”••‘ǡ –Š‡ ˆƒ” ‡ ‹• ‡–‹‘‡† „‘–Š in the Husarbetsbok, where it is referred to ƒ• Ǯ••‡ǯ ƒ† ‹ –Š‡ Ž‹•– ‘ˆ †‡•‡”–‡† ˆƒ”•ǡ –Š‡ Y†‡‰¤”†•Ž‹•–4 ˆ”‘ ͳͷͺͷǡ ™Š‡”‡ ‹– ‹• †‡‘–‡† Ǯƒ…‹•ǯ ȋ”••‘ ͳͻͺͷǣͳͺͻȌǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ˜‡ Y•–‡”Š‘Ž –Š‡ ˆƒ” ‘ˆ ‡ †‘‡• ‘– ‘……—” ‹ the Y†‡‰¤”†•Ž‹•–ƒ, and is not the same farm as –Š‡ˆƒ”•‡‡–‹‘‡†‹–Š‡HusarbetsbokǤ‡ ’‘‹–•‘—––Šƒ––Š‡ƒ‡•‡‹•‡–‹‘‡†‹–Š‡

ͳ͹ͲͲǡ ƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ƒ„Ž‹‰„‘ ȋY•–‡”Š‘Žͳͻ͹ʹǣͳͻͷˆȌǤ•‡ƒ†‡ƒ”‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†ƒ–ƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆƒ”‘—†–Š”‡‡‹Ž‘‡–”‡•ˆ”‘ ‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”Ǥ –Š‡…ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽƒ’‘ˆͳ͹Ͳʹǡ–Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡–Š”‡‡’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†ǡ„‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘–Š”‡‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ˆƒ”•‹ƒ„Ž‹‰„‘ǡ™‹–Šƒ‡•‹…Ž—†‹‰ –Š‡ ƒ‡ Ǯ•‡ǯǢ •‡„—”¤‡”ǡ •‡„—”‰¤‡” ƒ† •‡„—”‰‡ȋY•–‡”Š‘Žͳͻ͹ʹǣͳͻͷȌǤ  „‡Ž‹‡˜‡ Y•–‡”Š‘Ž ‹• ”‹‰Š– ‹ –Šƒ– •‡ from the Husarbetsbok, is not the same farm as ‡Ǥ Š‡ •…Š‘Žƒ” ‘ˆ –‘’‘›› ˜‡”– ‡Ž‡ˆ‘”•ǡ ™Š‘Šƒ••–—†‹‡†–Š‡•‡‘Ž†™”‹––‡•‘—”…‡•–Š‘”‘—‰ŠŽ› –Š”‘—‰Š‘—– –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”•ǡ ’‘‹–• –‘ –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ––Š‡›ƒ”‡ˆ—ŽŽ‘ˆ™”‹–‹‰‡””‘”•ƒ†‹••’‡ŽŽ‹‰ǡ†—‡–‘…‘’›‹‰ˆ”‘‘Ž†‡”•‘—”…‡•ǡƒ†…ƒ –Š—• „‡ †‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž– –‘ †‡…‹’Š‡”Ǥ ‹• ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‹•–Šƒ– Ǯ••‡ǯǡƒ•‹–ƒ’’‡ƒ”•‹–Š‡ Husarbetsbok, ‹•ƒ‹••’‡ŽŽ‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”‹••‡ƒ†–Šƒ–ƒ…‹•‰ƒƒ”†‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ•–Š‡†‡•‡”–‡†ˆƒ”‰‡”• –‘–ȋ‡Ž‡ˆ‘”•ʹͲͳ͵Ȍǡ™Š‹…Š‹–Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲ‹•ƒ tomtͷ —†‡” ‹••‡Ǥ Š‹• •‘—†• ”‡ƒ•‘ƒ„Ž‡ „—– ‘ƒ––‡”‹ˆƒ…‹•‘”‡‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡ˆƒ”ǡ‹–‹• Ž‘‰•‹…‡†‡•‡”–‡†ǤŠ‡ˆƒ”‡™ƒ•’”‘„ƒ„Ž› —…ŠŽƒ”‰‡”‹–Š‡’ƒ•–ǡ•‹…‡‹–‹•‘–Ž‹‡Ž›–Šƒ– –Š‡ ˆƒ”Ǧ‰‹˜‹‰ ƒ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ™‘—Ž† „‡ ƒ •ƒŽŽ ˆƒ”Ǥ Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ƒ Ž‘…ƒŽ Ž‡‰‡† ƒ„‘—– ͵Ǥ Š‡ Husarbetsbok ‹• ƒ Ž‹•–ǡ ƒ†‡ „› –Š‡ ƒ‹•Š ‘˜‡”nor on Gotland of all farmers who ™‡”‡‘„Ž‹‰‡†–‘’‡”ˆ‘” ™‘”‘•–ƒ–‡Žƒ†‹Ž‹‡—‘ˆ–ƒš‡•Ǥ‘‡ˆƒ”‡”•ǡŽ‹‡Œ—†‰es, are believed to be lacking, since they were relieved from –Š‡†—–›Ǥ ͶǤŠ‡Ödegårdslist‹•ƒƒ‹•ŠŽ‹•–‘ˆ†‡•‡”–‡†ˆƒ”•ˆ”‘ ƒ”‘—†ͳͷͺͷǤ ͷǤŠ‡‘”‹‰‹ƒ†™Šƒ––Š‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆtomt really stands for ‹•†‡„ƒ–‡†ƒ†™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‘”‡‹…‘‹‰…Šƒ’–‡”•Ǥ –Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲ–Š‡›ƒ”‡—•‡†–‘†‡‘–‡•ƒŽŽ‡”’”‘’‡”–‹‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š —•—ƒŽŽ› †‹† ‘– …‘–ƒ‹ „—‹Ž†‹‰• „—– ™‡”‡ ‘™‡† ƒ†…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†„›ƒˆƒ”Ǥ

ʹ͸

–Š‡”‹…Šˆƒ”‡”ˆ”‘‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•†‹•…—••‡†‹ …Šƒ’–‡”ͷǤ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– –Š‡ ƒˆ‘”‡‡–‹‘‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‘””„›ǡ‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆƒŽ‹‰„‘ǡŠƒ†ϐ‹˜‡‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡••‹–—ƒ–‡†˜‡”› …Ž‘•‡–‘‰‡–Š‡”ǡ‘•–Ž‹‡Ž›„‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘ϐ‹˜‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ˆƒ”•ȋ ‹•Ž‡•–ƒͳͻͻͳǣʹ͵ͶȌǡƒŽ•‘…‘–”ƒ†‹…–• –Š‡ ‹†‡ƒ –Šƒ– ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ™‡”‡ ‹–”‘†—…‡† „› ‡šƒ’Ž‡ˆ”‘–Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†ƒ†‘ˆƒŽƒ–‡†ƒ–‡ƒ• ‘„‡”‰ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡•Ǥ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘‡Ž‡fors, there is one village named in an inventory ”‡‰‹•–‡”‘ˆ…Š—”…Š’”‘’‡”–‹‡•ˆ”‘ͳͷͻͶǡ•–ƒ–‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ …Š—”…Š ‘™‡† Žƒ† ‹ Ǯ‘Ž„›‡ ‡‰‡ǯ ȋ‘Ž„› ‡ƒ†‘™Ȍ ȋ‡Ž‡ˆ‘”• ͳͻͺ͵ǣͺͺȌǤ Š‡•‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• •Š‘™ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‰‘ ˆƒ” „ƒ… ‹ –‹‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡƒ†—•–‘–„‡…‘ˆ—•‡†™‹–Š –Š‡“—‡•–‹‘‘ˆbyordningar, which is a late and †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ƒ––‡”Ǥ

—•– „‡…ƒ—•‡ –Š‡ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ —‹– ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ‹• –Š‡ˆƒ”ǡ†‘‡•‘–ƒ‡–Š‡•‡––Ž‡‡–’ƒ––‡” ƒ†•–”—…–—”‡—…Š†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”’ƒ”–•‘ˆ …ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒǡ™Š‡”‡–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹•–Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–Ǥ ƒ”• ”•‰¤”† ƒ† Ǧƒ”‹‡ ¤ŽŽƒ• Š‹‰ŠŽ‹‰Š– –Š‹•ƒ†…ƒŽŽƒ––‡–‹‘–‘–Š‡ˆƒ…––Šƒ––Š‡•–”—…–—”‡ƒ†ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‘—”…‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‹–•‡ŽˆǦ–Š‡ regional laws, cadastres, charters etc – has been normative and affected the research considera„Ž›Ǥ Š‡ ™‡†‹•Š …‘—–”›•‹†‡ Šƒ• „‡‡ †‹˜‹†‡† ‹–‘ƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹˜‡—‹–•ǡƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘–Š‡•–”—…–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‘—”…‡•ȋ”•‰¤”†Ƭ¤ŽŽƒ• ͳͻͻ͸ǣͻˆȌǤ ‘ ƒ Žƒ”‰‡ †‡‰”‡‡ǡ –Š‡ ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ ”‡“—‹”‡‡–• ƒ† ƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹˜‡ •›•–‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ—–Š‘”‹–‹‡•ǡƒƒ„‘˜‡’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡ǡŠƒ• –Š—• †‘‹ƒ–‡†ǡ ƒ† ‘– –Š‡ ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡ ˆ”‘ „‡Ž‘™ǡ‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‘…ƒŽ…‘—‹–›Ǥ ‘–Š‡” –›’‡ ‘ˆ ”ƒ–Š‡” ƒ””‘™ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ ™Šƒ– …‘•–‹–—–‡• ƒ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹• ‰‹˜‡ „› Ž••‘ & Thomasson, who do not recognise villages in ’”‡ǦŠ‹•–‘”›ƒ–ƒŽŽǤŠ‡›•‡‡–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ƒ•ƒ’”‘†—…–‘ˆƒ’”‘…‡••‡•‘……—””‹‰Žƒ–‡‹Š‹•–‘”›Ǥ‘…‡”‹‰ •‡––Ž‡‡– „‡ˆ‘”‡ –Š‡ ’‡”‹‘† ™Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ”‘•‡ǡ–Š‡›ƒ”‰—‡–Šƒ–‹–‹•‘Ž›’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘ —•‡–Š‡–‡”‰”‘—’•‘ˆ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•ǡ‹””‡•’‡…–‹˜‡‘ˆ–Š‡’Š›•‹…ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ…‡ƒ†Žƒ›‘—–‘ˆ’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹…•‡––Ž‡‡–Ǥ‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•…ƒ‘–Šƒ˜‡‡š‹•–‡† ‹’”‡Š‹•–‘”›ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡™ƒ•‘–‘”‰ƒ‹•‡† ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ –‡””‹–‘”‹ƒŽ ’”‹…‹’Ž‡•ǡ ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ –Š‡Ǥ Š‡ Žƒ† ™ƒ• Ž‹‡† –‘ –Š‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ Ž‹˜‹‰–Š‡”‡ǡ‘–ƒ‡…‘‘‹…—‹–ǤŠ‡‹”‘’‹‹‘ ‹• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ —•– „‡ ƒ †‡ϐ‹‡† –‡””‹–‘”‹ƒŽ —‹–ƒ†–Š‡…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹˜‡ƒ•’‡…–™‹–Š‘’‡ϐ‹‡Ž† systems and collective decision making is the ‘•–ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ“—ƒŽ‹–›‘ˆƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡƒ†™Šƒ– •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡•ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ˆ”‘ƒ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”ȋŽ••‘ ƬŠ‘ƒ••‘ʹͲͲͳǣͷˆˆȌǤ

•‹‹Žƒ”˜‹‡™‹•–ƒ‡„›ƒŽŽ‡”™Š‘”‡ƒ•‘• –Šƒ– –Š‡ Ǯƒ‰‰Ž‘‡”ƒ–‡† •‡––Ž‡‡–•ǯ ˆ‘—† ‹ •‘—–Š‡” …ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒǡ ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‡†‡Ž ’‡”‹‘† ƒ† —’ —–‹Ž –Š‡ –‹‡ ™Š‡ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ™‡”‡ ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†ǡ ƒ”‡ ‘Ž› Ǯ•—’‡”ϐ‹…‹ƒŽŽ› •‹‹Žƒ”ǯ –‘ –Š‡ –”—‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ ƒŽŽ‡” ƒ”‰—‡•ǡ Ž‹‡ Ž••‘ ƒ† Š‘ƒ••‘ –Šƒ– ƒ –”—‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ —•–Šƒ˜‡–Š‡–›’‡‘ˆ•‘…‹ƒŽ‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–ion, which ‘Ž› ‡š‹•–‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ȋƒŽŽ‡” ͳͻͻͳǣ͵Ͷ͹ȌǤ Ž••‘ ƒ† Š‘ƒ••‘ǡ ‹ ƒ‰”‡‡‡– ™‹–Š ƒŽŽ‡”ǡ —†‡”Ž‹‡ –Š‡ ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ ˜‹Žlage and its social organisation as the only ac…‡’–ƒ„Ž‡†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆ–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ ‘‘‘’‘Ž‹•‡–Š‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ–‘†‡ϐ‹‡ ‘Ž› ƒ …‡”–ƒ‹ –›’‡ ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‡š‹•–‹‰ ˆ‘” ƒ •Š‘”–‡” –‹‡ ‹ Š‹•–‘”› ƒ† –Š—• ‡š…Ž—†‡ Žƒ”‰‡ ’ƒ”–•‘ˆ™Šƒ–‹™‡†‡ƒ”‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ †—”‹‰ƒ›’‡”‹‘†ǡ‘”–‘‘”‡‘”Ž‡••”‡•‡”˜‡–Š‡ –‡”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡–‘…‘˜‡”‘Ž›ϐ‹•…ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‘”•‘‡ •’‡…‹ƒŽ…ƒ•‡•ǡ‹•‘–•ƒ–‹•ˆ›‹‰Ǥ The fact that villages exists on Gotland, as –Š‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ƒ„‘˜‡ •Š‘™ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ˆ—”–Š‡” ‡’Šƒ•‹•‡† „› –Š‡ …‘‹‰ ƒƒŽ›•‡• ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ™‘”ǡ ‹†‹…ƒ–‡• –Šƒ– –Š‡ †‡‰”‡‡ ‘ˆ …‘Žlaboration between farms on Gotland was most ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ƒ• Š‹‰Š ƒ• ‹ ƒ› ‘–Š‡” ”‡‰‹‘• ™‹–Š ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‘ –Š‡ ƒ‹Žƒ†Ǥ – ‹• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž‡ –Šƒ– –Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”•ƒ†–Š‡‹š‹‰‘ˆ’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†•‡‡‹ –Š‡ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ƒ’• ‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ† ƒ”‡ ”‡‹‹•…‡– ‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡••‹‹Žƒ”–‘–Š‘•‡‘–Š‡ƒ‹Žƒ†ǡ„—– –Š‡›Šƒ†‘”‘Ž‡‹ƒ›Œ—†‹…‹ƒŽ‘”ϐ‹•…ƒŽ•›•–‡ǡ ƒ† ™‡”‡ ‡˜‡” ”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†Ǥ • ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ƒ……‘—–‡† ˆ‘”Žƒ–‡”ǡ–Š‡ˆ‘”ƒŽ‹•‡†ƒ†”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡƒ• •‡‡ ‘ –Š‡ ƒ‹Žƒ†ǡ ™ƒ• ‡˜‡” ‹–”‘†—…‡† ‘

‘–Žƒ† „› ƒ› …‡–”ƒŽ ƒ—–Š‘”‹–› ‘” Žƒ†‡† ‰‡try͸Ǥ –Š‡”‡‰‹‘ƒŽŽƒ™•ƒ†Žƒ–‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽŽƒ™• ‘ˆ™‡†‡ǡ–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•–”—…–—”‡ƒ†‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ ™ƒ•Š‹‰ŠŽ› ”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†Ǥ Š‹• ‹• ‘– –Š‡…ƒ•‡‹–Š‡ Gutalag7ǡŠ‡…‡ˆ‘”–Š”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•–Š‡ —–ƒƒ™ ȋ Ȍǡ ™Š‹…Š Šƒ• ˜‡”› ˆ‡™ ’ƒ”ƒ‰”ƒ’Š• ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‰ …‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡”—”ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ„—–•‘‡†‘‡š‹•–ǤŠ‡–‡”•˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‘”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡”•ƒ”‡‘–—•‡†‹ –Š‡ —–ƒƒ™ǡ‘Ž›–Š‡’Š”ƒ•‡•’ƒ”‹•Šƒ†’ƒ”‹•Š ‡‘”‡‹‰Š„‘—”•ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‘”‡ ‹…Šƒ’–‡”͹ǤŠ‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†•‡‡–‘Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ˆ‘”‡† ‘Ž› ƒ• ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ ƒ† •‘…‹ƒŽ —‹–• ͸Ǥ  ™‹ŽŽ —•‡ –Š‡ –‡” Žƒ†‡† ‰‡–”›ǡ ƒ† ‘– ƒ”‹•–‘…”ƒ…›ǡ ™Š‹…Š–‘›‹†‹•ƒ–‡”ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†™‹–Š‘„‹Ž‹–›Ǥ –Š‹• ™‘”ǡŽƒ†‡†‰‡–”›Žƒ”‰‡Ž›”‡ˆ‡”•–‘’‡‘’Ž‡‘™‹‰‡•–ƒ–‡• ’”‘˜‹†‹‰–Š‡™‹–Š‹…‘‡•ǤŠ‹•†‘‡•‘–‡…‡••ƒ”‹Ž›‹’Ž›ǡ„—–‡‹–Š‡”†‘‡•‹–‡š…Ž—†‡ǡ–Šƒ––Š‡›™‡”‡‡„‡”•‘ˆ any nobility ͹ǤŠ‡Gutalag‹•–Š‡‘Ž†‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ ‘–Žƒ†‹…Žƒ™ǡ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› written down in the early 13th…‡–—”›ǡ™Š‹…Š™ƒ•‹ˆ‘”…‡ —’—–‹Žͳͷͻͷǡ™Š‡‹–™ƒ•”‡’Žƒ…‡†„›–Š‡Skånelag by the ƒ‹•Šƒ—–Š‘”‹–‹‡•ǤŠ‡Gutalag, will be described in more †‡–ƒ‹Ž‹…Šƒ’–‡”͹Ǥ

ˆ‘”…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†ƒ”‡‘–‘–‡†‹ƒ›‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ ”‡…‘”†•Ǥ ˜‡” –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”•ǡ –Š‡”‡ Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ƒ› †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡•‡Šƒ˜‡ ‘– …‘•‹†‡”‡† –Š‡ ’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹… •‹–—ƒ–‹‘ǡ „—– Šƒ˜‡ˆ‘…—•‡†‘–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ†ϐ‹•…ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ •†‹•…—••‡†‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”ǡ–Š‡”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‡š‹•–‹‰‹–Š‡‹††Ž‡‰‡•ƒ†Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ–‹‡•Šƒ• „‡‡ –Š‡ –‡’Žƒ–‡Ǥ ›’–‘ƒ–‹… ‘ˆ –Š‹• ‹• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ™‡†‹•Š Š—ƒ ‰‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‡” Žˆ ’‘””‘‰ǯ• †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹•‘Ž›ˆ‘—† in the book Medeltidens ABCȋŠ‡’”‹ƒ”›„‘‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•Ȍ ƒ† ‹• ƒ„•‡– ‹ –Š‡ …‘””‡•’‘†‹‰ „‘‘• …‘˜‡”‹‰ –Š‡ ’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹… –‹‡ ’‡”‹‘†•Ǥ’‘””‘‰ǡ™Š‘Šƒ•™‘”‡†ƒ‰”‡ƒ–†‡ƒŽ ™‹–Š †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ƒ•’‡…–• ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ •–”‡••‡• –Šƒ– –Š‡”‡‹•‘…‘Š‡”‡–•…‹‡–‹ϐ‹…†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆ™Šƒ– …‘•–‹–—–‡•ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ȋ’‘””‘‰ʹͲͲͳǣ͸ͶȌǣ Ǯ ‡Š‡–Ž‹‰ ˜‡–‡•ƒ’Ž‹‰ †‡ϔ‹‹–‹‘ •ƒƒ• ‘…•¤ǡ ‡ ˜ƒŽ‹‰‡ ƒ˜¡†• „› •‘ motsats till ensamgård. By består alltså av minst två gårdar med avgränsat ägoom”¤†‡ǡ ˜ƒ”‹ ƒŽŽƒ Šƒ” •‹ƒ ¡‰‘” ‡•‹Ž– ‡ŽŽ‡” samfällt. By bildar i regel ett skifteslag och har gemensam utmark och gemensamt ϔ‹•‡˜ƒ––‡ǯǤ (‘ —‹ˆ‘” •…‹‡–‹ϔ‹… †‡ϔ‹‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‡š‹•–•ǡ „—– ‘”ƒŽŽ› ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹• —•‡† ƒ• –Š‡ opposite to solitary farm. A village consists ‘ˆ ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– –™‘ ˆƒ”•ǡ ™‹–Š‹ ƒ †‡Ž‹‹–‡† ƒ”‡ƒǡ‹™Š‹…ŠƒŽŽˆƒ”•Šƒ˜‡–Š‡‹”’ƒ”…‡Ž• ‘ˆ Žƒ†ǡ •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡Ž› ‘” Œ‘‹–Ž›Ǥ ‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ most often forms a group of jointly regulated farms and have common outlying land ƒ†ϔ‹•Š‹‰Ǥ) • ƒ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ” ȋ‡•ƒ‰¤”†Ȍ ˆ‘—†‹‡†‡Ž–‹†‡•ǡ’‘””‘‰ȋʹͲͲͳǣͳͲ͸Ȍ •–ƒ–‡•–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ǣ Ǯ•ƒ‰¤”†ǡ‡•ƒ–Ž‹‰‰ƒ†‡‰¤”†•‘Šƒ” ett avstånd till sina grannar på minst 200 m. Gården ingår inte i bysamfällighet eller skifteslag.’ ȋ ƒ” ‹ ‹•‘Žƒ–‡† Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ǡ ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– ͸ͶͶ  from its neighbours. The farm is not part of a village community or any jointly regulated group of farms). •…ƒ„‡•‡‡ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ†‹•…”‡’ƒ…›„‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ –™‘ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘• ƒ† ƒ› –›’‡• ‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ˆƒŽŽ ‹ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ †‡•…”‹’–‹‘•ǡ ‘” ƒ”‡ ’ƒ”–Ž›…‘˜‡”‡†„›„‘–ŠǤ‡‹–Š‡”‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”‡‡ƒ•‹Ž› ƒ’’Ž‹‡†‹ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ‘”‡ƒ”Ž›Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ•‹–—ʹ͹

ƒ–‹‘•ǡ •‹…‡ ‹’‘”–ƒ– ’ƒ”–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘• ƒ”‡„ƒ•‡†‘Žƒ–‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ’Š‡‘‡ƒ•—…Šƒ• Žƒ†”‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‹–Š‡ͳͻth and 20th…‡–—”‹‡•Ǥ Š‹••Š‘™•Š‘™ Šƒ”†‹– ‹•–‘ϐ‹†ƒ› …‘Š‡”‡– †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡…‘…‡’–•ǤŠ‡…‘…‡’–•‘ˆgård (farm) and byȋ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ȍƒ”‡‘–‡ƒ•‹Ž›†‡ϐ‹‡†ƒ† ƒ”‡‘”‡•—‹–‡†ˆ‘”†‹•…—••‹‘–Šƒ‡šƒ…–†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ǡ ƒ• ƒ••‘‡– ƒŽ ȋʹͲͲͷǣ͹ͺȌ•—‰‰‡•–Ǥ ‘‡ ‹†‘ˆ†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ǡ—•–Š‘™‡˜‡”„‡ˆ‘—†–‘„‡ ƒ„Ž‡–‘™‘”™‹–Š–Š‡…‘…‡’–•‹ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ ‹‰—”† ”‹š‘ Šƒ• •’‡– —…Š –‹‡ ‘ •–—†›‹‰ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ƒ† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ Ž‹ˆ‡ ‹ ™‡†‡Ǥ  his later work, Svenska byar utan systematisk reglering ȋ™‡†‹•Š ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ™‹–Š‘—– •›•–‡ƒ–‹… ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘ȌǡŠ‡•–”‡••‡•–Š‡†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–›‹†‡ϐ‹‹‰ ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ‘„—‹Ž†ƒ†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‡–‹”‡Ž›„ƒ•‡†‘ –Š‡ …ƒ†ƒ•–”‡• ‹• –‘ Š‹• ‹† ‘– ’‘••‹„Ž‡ǡ •‹…‡ ‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ› ‹ ‘Ž†‡” –‹‡•ǡ –Š‡ ˆƒ”• ™‡”‡ ‘ˆ–‡ ƒ……‘—–‡†ˆ‘”‹‘–Š‡”ƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹˜‡—‹–•–Šƒ –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ ”‹š‘ ƒ”‰—‡• –Šƒ– ™Š‡–Š‡” ƒ —ber of farms can be described as a village or not —•–„‡†‡…‹†‡†‹‡ƒ…Š‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ…ƒ•‡ȋ”‹š‘ ͳͻ͸ͲǣͳͻͷȌǤ• •‡‡‹–ǡ–Š‹•‹•‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›–”—‡‘

‘–Žƒ†Ǥ ‡•’‹–‡ –Š‡ †‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–‹‡•ǡ ”‹š‘ǡ ‹ˆ ‘– ’”‘˜‹†‹‰ƒ…Ž‡ƒ”†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ǡƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–ƒ‡•ƒ‰‡‡”ƒŽ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ȋ”‹š‘ͳͻ͸ͲǣͳͻͷȌǤ Ǯ‘„›„‡–‡…ƒ”˜‹Š¡”‡‰”—’’Žƒ–‰¤”dar som ligger så nära ihop att deras odlade arealer eller hemägor berör varandra eller är blandade med varandra men oberoende av jordbesittningsrättens natur. Normalt ligger i detta närboende att vissa anŽ¡‰‰‹‰ƒ”ǡ•¤•‘–‹ŽŽ‡š‡’‡Ž•–¡‰•‡Ž‘…Š ˜¡‰ƒ”ǡ’¤¤‰‘–•¡––¤•–‡‘„‹‡”ƒ•‘…Š ڏ•‡•‹†‹‰– ‘–”‘ŽŽ‡”ƒ•Ǥ –– ˜‹••– ¤–– ƒ˜ anpassning erfordras hos grannarna för att ‹•ƒˆ”‹–‹‘‡†‡‡‡ŽŽƒǡ‹ƒŽŽ¡Š‡– också något slags samarbete i terrängen där ett sådant erfordrades för att bemästra särskilt krävande naturförhållanden. Antalet gårdar är växlande.’ (A village is here denoted as a group of farms so closely situated that their land are „‘”†‡”‹‰‘”‹š‡†ǡ”‡‰ƒ”†Ž‡••‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–—”‡ of ownership. This normally implies that •‘‡ …‘•–”—…–‹‘•ǡ Ž‹‡ ”‘ƒ†•ǡ ˆ‡…‡• ƒ”‡ co-owned and need mutual attendance. A …‡”–ƒ‹†‡‰”‡‡‘ˆƒ†ƒ’–ƒ–‹‘‹•”‡“—‹”‡†ǡ–‘ minimize the friction between the farms. In ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–‘ƒ•–‡”’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›†‡ƒ†‹‰ ’Š›•‹…ƒŽ…‘†‹–‹‘•ǡ…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘‹•‡‡†‡†Ǥ The number of farms can vary.)

ʹͺ

”‹š‘†”ƒ™•–Š‡Ž‘™‡”Ž‹‹–ƒ––Š”‡‡ˆƒ”•ǡ„—– †‘‡• –Š‹• ˆ‘” „‘–Š ’”ƒ…–‹…ƒŽ ƒ† ’”‹…‹’Ž‡ ”‡ƒ•‘•ǡ •‹…‡ Š‡ •—„†‹˜‹†‡• –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‹ ƒ› •’‡…‹ƒŽ …ƒ•‡•ǡ „ƒ•‡† ‘ Š‘™ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ˆ‘”‡† ƒ† ƒŽ•‘ –Š‡ †‡‰”‡‡ ƒ† ƒ–—”‡ ‘ˆ …‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘–’‘••‹„Ž‡‘”‡‡†‡†ˆ‘”‡–‘ †‘Ǥ‡†‡‘–‡•–™‘ˆƒ”•ƒǮtvåböle’ǡ„—–‹–Š‹• …ƒ•‡ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•‘”‡ƒ•‘–‘‡š…Ž—†‡–Š‡ˆ”‘–Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘Ǥ”‹š‘ǯ•†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ •‡‡•–‘„‡—•‡ˆ—Ž•‹…‡‹–‹…Ž—†‡•ƒŽŽ–Š‡…”‹–‡”‹ƒǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡—•‡†‹–Š‹•™‘”™Š‡‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ‹„‘–Š’”‡ǦŠ‹•–‘”›ƒ†Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ –‹‡•ǤŠ‡…”‹–‡”‹ƒ…‘’”‹•‡†‹•–ƒ…‡•ǡ–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž† ‡…Ž‘•—”‡•ǡƒŽ‘‰™‹–Š–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ƒ†‹š‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ˆƒ”•Ǥ˜‡ ™‹–Š ’”‘’‡” †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•ǡ –Š‡”‡ ™‹ŽŽ „‡ †‹ˆϐ‹…—Žties to identify farms and draw a line between –Š‡ …‘…‡’–• ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ ˆƒ”•ǡ ’ƒ”–• ‘ˆ ˆƒ”•ǡ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†• ‡–…ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ƒ ’”‘„Ž‡ ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘”–Š…‘‹‰ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ ƒ›–‹‡•ǡƒƒ‡…”‹–‡”‹‘‹•ƒŽ•‘‹…Ž—†‡†‹–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡ ˆƒ”•‹…Ž—†‡†‹–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Š‘—Ž†„‡”‡ˆ‡””‡† –‘ „› ƒ …‘‘ ƒ‡ ‹ ƒ …ƒ†ƒ•–”‡ǡ „—– •—…Š …”‹–‡”‹ƒ ƒ”‡ ‹’‘••‹„Ž‡ –‘ ‡‡– ˆ‘” ‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹…’‡”‹‘†ƒ†…‘–”ƒ†‹…–•›˜‹‡™’”‡•‡–‡†‹–Š‡†‹•…—••‹‘ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ ••–ƒ–‡†„‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ–‘†ƒ›ǡ‹–‹•‘’”‘˜‘…ƒ–‹˜‡ statement to say that villages have existed in ‡˜‡”›’‡”‹‘†‹…ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒƒ†‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‹•–Š‡‘•–…‘‘ˆ‘”‘ˆ•‡––Ž‡‡––Š”‘—‰Š‘—– –‹‡Ǥ ‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹ ’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹… –‹‡•ǡ ‘ ”¡•Ž—† Šƒ• ˜‡”› ™‹•‡Ž› observed that if the same hard body of evidence is needed to classify traces of settlement as solitary farms, as is needed to classify anything as ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ–Š‡”‡™‘—Ž†‘–„‡ƒ›•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”• ‡‹–Š‡”ȋ ”¡•Ž—†ʹͲͲͶǣͳ͵ȌǤ Š‡–‡”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹•‘™ˆ”‡“—‡–Ž›—•‡†ˆ‘” “—‹–‡ †‹•’‡”•‡† •‡––Ž‡‡– ’ƒ––‡”• ˆ‘—† ‹ ’”‡Š‹•–‘”›ƒ†‹–†‘‡•‘–‡…‡••ƒ”‹Ž›‘Ž›•‹‰‹ˆ›†‡•‡Ž›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†•–”—…–—”‡•Ž‹‡–Š‡ƒ‹•Š ”‘ƒ‰‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǤŠ‡–‡”Šƒ•„‡‡„”‘ƒ†‡‡†ǡ ™Š‹…Š‹•˜‡”›‰‘‘†Ǥ Nevertheless, concerning historical times, –Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•–‹ŽŽŠ‘Ž†•‹–•‰”‹’‘˜‡”–Š‡–‡”‹‘Ž‘‰›Ǥ’‘•‹–‹‘–Šƒ–‹•‘ˆ–‡–ƒ‡‹•–Šƒ–‹ˆ ‹–‹•‘–‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•ƒϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–‹–Š‡…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡• ‘”‘Ž†ƒ’•ǡ‹–…ƒ‘–„‡ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ–Š—•‹–—•– „‡ƒ•‹‰Ž‡ˆƒ”ǤŠ‡†‹•…—••‹‘ƒ„‘˜‡ǡ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘‹‘”™ƒ›ƒ† ‘–Žƒ†•Š‘™• –Šƒ––Š‹•‹•‘––”—‡Ǥ‘•‹’Ž›”‡ˆ‡”–‘–Š‡ ‘–Žƒ†‹… •‡––Ž‡‡– ’ƒ––‡” ‹ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ –‹‡• ƒ• ensamgårdar (solitary farms), is misleading and evokes an image of a society with little collabo-

”ƒ–‹‘„‡–™‡‡ˆƒ”•Ǥ –•—‰‰‡•–•–Šƒ–‘”‰ƒ‹•‡† •‘…‹ƒŽ ƒ† ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ •–”—…–—”‡• ™‡”‡ ™‡ƒ „‡tween the farms and that the farmers were isoŽƒ–‡†‘–Š‡‹”‘™ˆƒ”•™‹–ŠŽ‹––Ž‡…‘”’‘”ƒ–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡–Š‡Ǥ –Š‡…ƒ•‡‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡–‡” Ǯˆƒ”•‹…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ǯƒ†Ǯ‰”‘—’•‘ˆˆƒ”•ǯƒ”‡ •‘‡–‹‡• —•‡†ǡ „—– –Š‹• ‹• ‘– ‡‘—‰Šǡ –‘ › ‹†ǤŠ‡–‡”‹‘Ž‘‰›•–‹ŽŽ‹†‹…ƒ–‡•–Šƒ––Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ •—„•–ƒ–‹ƒŽ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• ™‹–Šȋϐ‹•…ƒŽȌ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ†–Š‘•‡™‹–Š‘—–ǡ™Š‹…Š‹• ‘– –”—‡Ǥ Š‡ …‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ ˆƒ”• ‹ ƒ •ƒŽŽǡ —”‡‰—Žƒ–‡† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‘”‡•–‡† ƒ”‡ƒ• ‘ˆ‘”–Š‡”¤‡™ƒ•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘”‡•‹‹Žƒ”–‘ –Š‡…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘„‡–™‡‡ˆƒ”•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Šƒ to the collaboration between farms in a large ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ™‹–Š‘’‡Ǧϐ‹‡Ž†•›•–‡•ǡ‘–Š‡’Žƒ‹•‹ ¤‡Ǥ ‘ †‡•…”‹„‡ –Š‡ ’ƒ•– ”‡ƒŽ‹–‹‡• „‡––‡”ǡ ™‡ —•– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‹ƒ–‡ „‡–™‡‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –›’‡• ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ †‘‘–‡ƒ–Šƒ–™‡•Š‘—Ž†”‡•‘”––‘ –Š‡‘Ž†™ƒ›‘ˆ†‡ϐ‹‹‰˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ†ƒ‡–›’‘Ž‘‰‹‡• „ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ ’Š›•‹…ƒŽ •–”—…–—”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡‹” –‘ˆ–•ǡ•—…Šƒ•”‘—†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ”‘™˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ‰”‘—’ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‡–…ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•”ƒ”‡Ž›ˆ”—‹–ˆ—ŽǤŠƒ– ‡ƒ ‹•–Šƒ–™‡•Š‘—Ž†’ƒ›ƒ––‡–‹‘–‘–Š‡’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹… village, the ”‡‰—Žƒ–‡† ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡, the —•–”—…–—”‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡, the ϐ‹•…ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‡–…Ǥ †‘‘– ‹–‡†–‘ƒ‡ƒ…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž‹•–‘ˆƒŽŽ†‡‘–ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ ’‘••‹„Ž‡Ǣ  Œ—•– ™ƒ– –‘ ’‘‹– ‘—– –Šƒ– –Š‡”‡‹•ƒ‡‡†ˆ‘”ƒ‘”‡—ƒ…‡†–‡”‹‘Ž‘‰›Ǥ –Š‡’”‡•‡–™‘”ǡ ™‹ŽŽ•Š‘™–Šƒ––Š‡”‡ are many historical villages on Gotland, which ƒ”‡–‘†ƒ›‘–…‘˜‡”‡†„›ƒƒ†‡“—ƒ–‡–‡”‹‘Ž‘‰›Ǥ —•––‘…ƒŽŽ–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‹ŽŽ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘Ž› …‘ˆ—•‡ƒ––‡”•‡˜‡‘”‡ǡ–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ ™‹ŽŽŠ‡”‡ ‹–”‘†—…‡–Š‡–‡”generic village, in contrast –‘ϐ‹•…ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥϐ‹•…ƒŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡…‘•‹•–•‘ˆ–™‘ or more farms with a common name, treated as

ƒ—‹–‹ϐ‹•…ƒŽ”‡…‘”†•ǡ•—…Šƒ•‘Ž†…ƒ†ƒ•–”‡•ƒ† –ƒš”‡…‘”†•ǤŠ‡—•‹‰–Š‡–‡”‰‡‡”‹…˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ ‡ƒ–™‘‘”‘”‡ˆƒ”•–Šƒ–Šƒ˜‡ƒ…‘‘ origin or have some other kind of common his–‘”›‘ˆ†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ǡ–Š—••‹‰ƒŽŽ‹‰…‘‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ ‹ –Š‡ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ ƒ† •‘…‹ƒŽ „‘†•Ǥ Š‡ ‰‡‡”‹… ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ƒ”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† „› –Š‡ …”‹–‡”‹ƒ Ž‹•–‡† ‹ ”‹š‘ǯ•†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ—”†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‹•–Š—• a functional and/or social aspect‘ˆ–Š‡…‘…‡’– ƒ††‘‡•‘–‹…Ž—†‡ƒ›ϐ‹•…ƒŽ†‹‡•‹‘ǡ™Š‹…Š ™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‘”‡ƒ––Š‡‡†‘ˆ–Š‡„‘‘Ǥ Š‡ ϐ‹•…ƒŽ —‹– ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ‹• –Š‡ ˆƒ”ǡ „—– ‹– ‹• ‘„˜‹‘—• –Šƒ– –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ’”‘…‡••‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š created the villages on the mainland, have also ‘……—””‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ„—–‹ƒ—”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†™ƒ›Ǥ The villages on Gotland have been social and ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ …‘•–”—…–‹‘•ǡ „ƒ•‡† ‘ ‹•Š‹’ ƒ† –Š‡ƒ…–—ƒŽ‡‡†•‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‘…ƒŽ…‘—‹–›Ǥ –™ƒ• –Š‡ Ž‘…ƒŽ …‘—‹–› ƒ† ”‡“—‹”‡‡–• ‘ˆ Ž‘…ƒŽ •‘…‹‡–›ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‰‘˜‡”‡† –Š‡ ’”‘…‡••‡•Ǥ ‘ ”‘›ƒŽ ‘” ƒ”‹•–‘…”ƒ–‹… ƒ—–Š‘”‹–‹‡• ƒ† ‡š–‡”ƒŽ Žƒ†‘™‡”• Šƒ˜‡ ‹–‡”ˆ‡”‡† ‹ –Š‡ ’”‘…‡••‡•ǡ —–‹Ž ˜‡”›Žƒ–‡‹Š‹•–‘”›ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†ƒˆ–‡” –Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•ƒ”‡’”‡•‡–‡†Ǥ‘„‡„‘Ž†ǡ …‘—Ž††‘ •‘‡ …‘—–‡”ˆƒ…–—ƒŽ Š‹•–‘”› ƒ‹‰ǡ ƒ† •–ƒ–‡ that if the Gotlanders had not ǮǤǤǤ„‡ŠÚŽŽ‘‰—–ƒ”ƒ alltid seger och sin rätt.’ (…kept their victory and their rightsǤȌǡƒ•‹–‹•‡š’”‡••‡†‹–Š‡Gutasaga8, when the Gotlanders fended off attacks on the ‹•Žƒ†ǡƒ†‹•–‡ƒ†Šƒ†„‡‡ˆ—ŽŽ›‹…‘”’‘”ƒ–‡† ‹™‡†‡ƒ–ƒ‡ƒ”Ž›•–ƒ‰‡ǡ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡ existed on Gotland in the same manner as on the ™‡†‹•Šƒ‹Žƒ†Ǥ

ͺǤŠ‡Gutasaga, is a historical and mythical relation attach‡––‘–Š‡ —–ƒƒ™ǡ†‡•…”‹„‹‰–Š‡ϐ‹”•–•‡––Ž‡”•ƒ†‡ƒ”Ž› Š‹•–‘”›‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ„‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡Š”‹•–‹ƒ‹œƒ–‹‘Ǥ

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Chapter 2 Previous research Gotland is one of the most researched areas in Scandinavia and many scholars have presented different models and ideas of the settlement structure and development of the cultural landscape. I have chosen to divide the presentation of the research history into two parts, and present the different ideas concerning the question of

collaboration in the landscape and the absence ‘” ’”‡•‡…‡ ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ϐ‹”•–Ǥ ˆ–‡” –Š‹•ǡ –Š‡ †‹ˆferent views and models of the more general development of the cultural landscape will be presented. These issues are of course intertwined, but a separation of the issues is believed to make a better structure and facilitate the reading.

2.1 The concepts of household, village and neighbourhood community (bygd) in Gotland research Dan Carlsson who has probably done most research of the cultural landscape on Gotland in later times, only recognises the solitary farm (Carlsson 2007:25) and does not acknowledge villages on Gotland, except during the Bronze ‰‡Ȁ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡•– ”‘ ‰‡Ǥ Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”• ‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundations are to his mind either large farms or groups of solitary farms in collaboration (cf. Carlsson 1979:36, 1986:30) and ”‡Ž‹…–•ˆ”‘ƒ‘Ž†‡”’Šƒ•‡Ǥ‡‡š‡’Ž‹ϐ‹‡•–Š‹• with an analysis of Vallhagar. Vallhagar is by most people recognised as a village, but regarded as an exception on Gotland. North-west of the ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”…‘’Ž‡š‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡŠ‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡•ƒƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽǡ’‘••‹„Ž‡•‡–tlement area, which probably is the predecessor of the mid millennium village. Carlsson suggests that at Vallhagar, the settlement did not split up ‹•‡˜‡”ƒŽ•…ƒ––‡”‡†ˆƒ”•ƒ”‘—†ʹͲͲǡƒ•‹ most other places on Gotland. Instead, the concentrated settlement just moved to a new location nearby, but with a less dense structure and the different farms were enclosed by stone walls. He interprets the stone walls as a way for the different farms to manifest their private ownership

(Carlsson 1979:89). The reason villages never formed on Gotland, according to Dan Carlsson, is the low population increase. He supports this view with the fact that the number of farms on

‘–Žƒ†•‡‡•–‘„‡“—‹–‡…‘•–ƒ–„‡–™‡‡ 500 and 1700. The regression periods, which will be discussed in more detail at the end of the book, during the 6th century and in the mid 14th, century were not too severe, only around 10% of the farms perished (ibid:145). Since the publication of his thesis in 1979, Carlsson’s research has had great impact; without overstating, one can say that his position and ˜‹‡™ ‹ –Š‡•‡ ƒ––‡”• Šƒ• ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡† ‡ƒ”Ž› ƒŽŽ the following research and the solitary farm has been seen as the only type of settlement structure on Gotland. However, in older research concerning

‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡–‡”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹•‘ˆ–‡—•‡†–‘†‡ϐ‹‡ some types of settlement structures. John Nihlén was one of the leading scholars in Gotland research before the Second World War. Through surveys and excavations, he contributed largely to a more comprehensive picture of the spatial •–”—…–—”‡ƒ†–Š‡‡š–‡•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡

Opposite side: Dr John Nihlén, who is one of the esteemed scholars in settlement research on Gotland. Here, at an excavation of the main square in Visby 1924. Photo by J. Fardelin

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house foundations. In the publication Gotländska gårdar och byar under äldre järnåldern (Gotlandic farms and villages during the early Iron ‰‡Ȍǡ ˆ”‘ ͳͻ͵͵ǡ Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‡• ƒ† ’”‡•‡–• ƒŽŽ the known stone house foundations of the time, which were around 1 100. He published the book –‘‰‡–Š‡”™‹–Š–Š‡”–Š‹•–‘”‹ƒ ‡”†ƒ‘´–Š‹—•ǡ but it is clearly stated who wrote what, so I will refer to them separately. Nihlén uses the concepts of solitary farm, village and bygd (neighbourhood community) to †‡•…”‹„‡–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–…Ž—•–‡”Ž‡˜‡Ž•‘ˆ ”‘‰‡ stone house foundations. Nihlén divides the solitary farms into one sub group, which is the large farm with many households. The villages are divided into three different types; long villages, circular villages and closed villages1. ‹ŠŽ± ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣ͵͵Ȍ †‡ϐ‹‡• –Š‡ ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘† …‘—‹–› ȋbygd) as: ‘...grupper av glest liggande gårdar, som genom vaster äro förbundna till en trolig organisatorisk enhet’. (Groups of sparsely lying farms connected through stone walls to a probable organizational unit). This is more or less identical to how Wid‰”‡ †‡ϐ‹‡• Š‹• –‡” hägnadslag (enclosure district) which he uses to describe a similar situation in the county of Östergötland (Widgren 1984a:147). Nihlén points out that there are no clear boundaries between the different concepts. With the evolutionary and typological views of his time, he considers there to be several transitional types between the groups, suggesting that there is a linear evolutionary development in the types. The typological approach with its evolutionary ingredient is not fashionable today, but some other of his ideas are still relevant. The settlement pattern seen in the stone house foundations seems rather to be the result of a development over long time, displaying many different variations and is hard to describe in any general model or direction. Nihlén describes the evolution on Gotland as developing from small isolated farms before the birth of Christ to the formation of larger ˆƒ”• ƒ† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ and Migration period. These were knitted to1. Here are some examples of the different villages, which ‹ŠŽ±‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡•ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣͶͲǦ͸ͲȌǣ‘‰ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǢƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ȋ" ”ÚŒ‡Ž͵ͳȌǡŽ˜‡ƒȋ"ƒŽŽ•–‡ƒ ͷ͵ǡͷͶǡͷ͸ǡͷ͹ǡͷͺǡͳ͵ͳƬͳͶͻȌǡ‹‡Ž¡‰ƒ”ȋ" ”ÚŒ‡Ž͵ͷǡ ͳʹʹƬͳͷͷǫȌǡډŽ—†ƒ”ȋ"–‡›”ƒͷʹǡͳͲ͵ƬͳͲͶȌǤ ‹”…Ž‡‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǣ‹•‡¡‰ƒ”ȋ"Ž•‘‰͸ͻǡ͹ͳǡ͹͵ǡ͹͸ǡ͹ͺǡ ͹ͻƬͺͲȌǤ—”‰‡ȋ"•–ƒʹǡ͸ǡͳͲǡʹͲͲƬ’”‘‰‡͵͹Ȍ‹• partly destroyed, like the village by the farm Sigers nearby ȋ"•–ƒͻͷƬͻ͸ȌǤ‡‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆƒ…Ž‘•‡†‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹• ƒŽŽ‡–ȋ"‹‰•–¡†‡͹ͷȌǤ

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Figure 2.1.1. The village of Vallhagar. It is situated in the ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ”ÚŒ‡Žǡ ƒ† …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ •‘‡ ʹͶ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ house foundations. It was totally excavated in the late forties under the leadership of Mårten Stenberger. In 1955, the ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘™ƒ•’—„Ž‹•Š‡†‹‰Ž‹•Š‹–™‘˜‘Ž—‡•ǡƒŽŽhagar I & II. From Vallhagar I 1955:Map 1

gether into larger neighbourhood communities ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣʹͷʹȌǤ Š‹• ‹• ‘”‡ ‘” less the opposite of Carlsson’s more recent view. Nerman also interprets the settlement structure on Gotland during the mid millennium as consisting of stone house foundation grouped to farms and villages, similar to Nihlén (Nerman 1963:20). Gunnar Fritzell (1972) supports the ‹†‡ƒ‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•†—”‹‰–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ…cording to him, after the abandonment of the ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ –Š‡•‡ ™‡”‡ replaced by solitary farms, in a type of structure that essentially continued into historical times (Fritzell 1972:21). Since Fritzell’s text is very brief and sweeping, his arguments for such a standpoint are unknown.

This view is challenged by Claes Claesson and Harry Thålin, who reject the idea of villages. Instead, they interpret Nihlén’s villages as fäbodar (mountain pasture, shieling). Moreover, many of –Š‡”‡‘–‡Ž›•‹–—ƒ–‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—dations are interpreted in these terms. Howev‡”–Š‡›ϐ‹†‹ŠŽ±ǯ•…‘…‡’–‘ˆ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘† community (bygd) to be a term that best corresponds to the settlement pattern found on Gotland, but they prefer to use the term gårdslag ȋˆƒ”Ǧ‰”‘—’•Ȍ‹–”‘†—…‡†„›‹‰—”†”‹š‘‹ƒ early work (Claesson & Thålin 1940:12ff). This term means a closed neighbourhood community (bygd) of sparsely distributed farms, with neigh„‘—”‹‰ ‹ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ† ‘—–Ž›‹‰ Žƒ†ǡ …‘‘Ž› used for pasture in an organised form. ‘‡‘ˆŠ‹•‡ƒ”Ž›™‘”•ǡ‹–Š„‡”‰•—‰‰‡•–• that the people on Gotland lived in large villag‡• †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡• ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ ͳͻͳ͵ǣʹʹȌǤ šƒ…–Ž›‘™Šƒ–‰”‘—†•‘”‡’‹”‹…ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒ–Š‹• statement rests is however unclear, but it is probably mostly based on his studies concerning different forms of cooperation in the society of Gotland, but also on the fact that villages did ‡š‹•–‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ„—–‘–‹ƒ›Ǯ‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽǯ‘”ϐ‹•…ƒŽ •‡•‡Ǥ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡”‡Šƒ˜‡–”ƒ†‹–‹‘ƒŽŽ›„‡‡ several different forms of cooperative organisations between farms for different tasks, like the bidlag‡–‹‘‡†ƒ„‘˜‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹–Š„‡”‰•‡‡•ƒ• reminiscences of parts of an older village organ‹•ƒ–‹‘ǡ™Š‹…ŠŠƒ†Ž‘•–‹–•Ǯ‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–—•ǯ†—”‹‰ –Š‡…‘—”•‡‘ˆ–‹‡ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ͳͻͳͷǣͶͺȌǤ‹–Š„‡”‰ intended to study this in more detail, but his ’”‡ƒ–—”‡†‡ƒ–Š‹ͳͻ͵Ͷǡ•–‘’’‡†–Š‹•Ǥ‹–Š„‡”‰ ȋͳͻ͵ʹǣ͵ͳȌ ϐ‹‹•Š‡• Š‹• Žƒ•– ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ …‘…‡”‹‰ this with the phrase: ‘Den historiska bakgrunden för denna samfundstyp och dess förhållande till de byar, som en gång tidigare synes ha funnits på ön, -dessa frågor skola bli föremål för en studie i ett kommande häfte av denna årsbok’. (The historical background for this type of society, its age and relationship to the village that seems to have existed on the island, will be addressed in a forthcoming issue of this yearbook). Š‡–›’‡‘ˆ•‘…‹‡–›‹–Š„‡”‰ȋͳͻ͵ʹǣʹͷˆȌ”‡ˆ‡”•–‘ is the idea of the settlement structure on Gotland in the 17th century, being partly made up of large solitary farms with large families organised in several households. These large families consisted of several related nuclear families; an elderly couple with their grown-up children’s families,

each with their own dwelling house. The farm was operated as one economical unit, with all families cooperating. The master, normally the grandfather, was the person who signed for the farm and had all the rights and obligations, like paying the taxes etc. He also redistributed the needed resources and each family’s part of the ›‹‡Ž†Ǥ‹–Š„‡”‰‹•‘ˆ–Š‡‘’‹‹‘–Šƒ––Š‡•‡—Žti-household farms were in many aspects comparable to villages on the mainland. He also considers that they are comparable to the situation found in Norway and Iceland and in some parts of Sweden, like Jämtland up until the 20th century. He argues that this might at least have its roots in the Norse saga times, since it is the kind of society depicted in, for example Njals Saga ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ͳͻ͵ʹǣʹͷˆȌǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ‹–Š„‡”‰ǡ –Š‡•‡ Žƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ”• on Gotland were not endorsed by the Swedish authorities, which saw lost revenues. In their perspective, the married children should take over deserted farms or establish new ones. In †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ†‘…—‡–•ǡ‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ•ˆ”‘–Š‡ Crown recommend these ‘Stoore boolagh’ (large companies) to be broken up into several farms. ‹–Š„‡”‰ǯ•˜‹‡™ǡ–Š‹•‹•–Š‡ƒ‹”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”–Š‡ ‡š‹•–‡…‡‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”ƒ‡•™‹–Š–Š‡’”‡ϐ‹š‡•‘ˆ Stora ȋ ”‡ƒ–Ȁ ”‡ƒ–‡”Ȍ ƒ† Lilla ȋ‹––Ž‡Ȁ‡••‡”Ȍǡ ƒ†ƒ›‘–Š‡”ƒ‡•™‹–Š’”‡ϐ‹š‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š‹†‹cate a common genesis. However, exceptions to –Š‹•”—Ž‡‡š‹•–Ǥ‹–Š„‡”‰‹•‘ˆ–Š‡‘’‹‹‘–Šƒ––Š‡ vast majority of these names are created from the late 16th century and beginning of the 17th century, but that there is a peak after the mid 1600’s, as a result of the Swedish government forcing the largest farms to be divided into two ‹†‡’‡†‡–ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–•ȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ͳͻ͵ʹǣʹͺˆˆȌǤ This view of large farms with several households is also supported by the historian Yrwing, who adds further support for it by pointing to a ’ƒ”ƒ‰”ƒ’Š‹–Š‡ —–ƒƒ™ȋ ȌǤŠ‡’ƒ”ƒ‰”ƒ’Š ȋ …Šƒ’ǤʹͺǣͺȌ•–ƒ–‡•ǡƒ‘‰‘–Š‡”ƒ––‡”•ǡ–Šƒ– the father is not obligated to shift his farm to his sons, but instead give them their share of the yield. This and other paragraphs clearly presuppose and support a system of large farms with several households (Yrwing 1978:169f). These thoughts of multi-household farms ƒ”‡ƒŽ•‘’‹…‡†—’„›†‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘…‘…‡”‹‰ –Š‡‹‹‰‰‡Ǥ‡…‘•‹†‡”•–Šƒ––Š‡”‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž› have been large farms, with several households, maybe as large as four households. He estimates an average of two households per farm during –Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡͳͻͺ͵ǣ͵ͳȌǤƒ•‡†‹ Sawyers thoughts, about the silver hoards being 33

the properties of men who did not return from looting (Sawyer 1982:143ff), Carlsson argues that the inheritance system of Gotland encouraged young men to set off on Viking raids. With the silver gathered during these raids, brothers not entitled to the farm could make themselves a future. In reality, many of them perished and this is the reason why so many hoards are still buried in the soil. If there was only one household per farm, many farms would be deserted, but with two or more households per farm, the resilience of the farm is guaranteed, in spite of –Š‡ ‰”‡ƒ– Ž‘•• ‘ˆ ‡ ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡ  ͳͻͺ͵ǣ͵͸ˆȌǤ ‘–Š‡”ƒ”‰—‡–ˆ‘”Žƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”•†‹•…—••‡†„› †‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘‹•–Šƒ––Š‡’”‘†—…–‹‘‘ˆ…‡”–ƒ‹ ‹†• ‘ˆ ϐ‹„—Žƒ• …‘—Ž† ‘Ž› –ƒ‡ ’Žƒ…‡ ƒ– Žƒ”‰‡ multi-household farms, large enough to sustain •’‡…‹ƒŽ‹•–•ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡͳͻͺ͵ǣͺͷȌǤ Östergren also holds the interpretation of several households and dwelling houses on a ˆƒ”ǡ ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‹‹‰ ‰‡ǡ ƒ• ’Žƒ—•‹„Ž‡ ˆ‘”•‘‡‘ˆŠ‡”‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ˆƒ”•‹–‡•ȋY•–‡”‰”‡ 1989:93). •‡–‹‘‡†‹…Šƒ’–‡”ͳǡ†‰”‡ƒ†‡”schend estimates the average farm to have had ƒ”‘—†ˆ‘—”Š‘—•‡•ƒ†–™‘Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ȋ†‰”‡ & Herschend 1982:18), and Nihlén is also open to the thought of large farms with several houseŠ‘Ž†•†—”‹‰–Š‡ ”‘‰‡Ǥ‡•‡‡•–Š‡…”‡ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ‡™Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•‹–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ǡƒ•ƒ•‹‹Žƒ” process as the historical process of partklyvning and as an example he points to the farm Botval†‡ ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ –¤‰ƒ ȋ" –¤‰ƒ ͵ͳȌ ƒ• „‡‹‰ƒˆƒ”™‹–Šˆ‘—”’ƒ”–•ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—• 1933:37). Further, one of the greatest names in ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š ‹ ™‡†‡ǡ ‹‰—”† ”‹š‘ •—’ports the view of multi-household farms on GotŽƒ†ȋ”‹š‘ͳͻ͸ͲǣͳͻͷȌǤ Two my knowledge, Dan Carlsson does not mention anything about farms with more than one household concerning the prehistory. For –Š‡‹‹‰‰‡Š‡…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡•–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ˆƒ”–‘ be family based with only one household, consisting of around 6-10 persons; based on his calculations of the size of arable land, this would also be the size of a mid millennium farm (Carlsson 1983a:12ff). •…Š‘Žƒ”™Š‘ƒ–ƒ‡ƒ”Ž›•–ƒ‰‡“—‡•–‹‘‡† ‹–Š„‡”‰• ‹†‡ƒ• ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ‹Ž› ‹ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ times is Ivar Moberg. He concludes that the population records of the 17th century show a different picture, with low birth rates and few people, and that the small amount of arable land per farm made large families hard to support and thus not likely (Moberg 1938:85). He sees the dividing of 34

farms (partklyvning) as a late phenomenon and a process led by the farmers themselves due to an increase in population, which demands more Žƒ†ƒ†ˆƒ”•Ǥ‡”‡ˆ‡”•–‘‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ”‡’‘”–•ˆ”‘ the early 18th century describing a rapid increase in population (Moberg 1938:82). ƒ–‡” ˜‡ǦŽ‘ˆ ‹†“—‹•– ’”‡•‡–‡† ƒ”‰—ments similar to Moberg’s. Calculations show that in the in the 17-18th century, Gotland farms were about twice the size in potentially arable land, but they only had half the acreage of tilled land and meadows in comparison with the agricultural area of Falbygden on the Swedish mainland. This indicates a low degree of utilisation of the arable land. The average arable land per farm on Gotland was 1.42 km2Ȁˆƒ”ƒ†‹ ƒŽbygden 0.76 km2Ȁˆƒ”ǤŠ‹•ƒ‡•‹–†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘ support an extended family on Gotland, accord‹‰–‘‹†“—‹•–ȋͳͻͺ͹ǣͳͳȌǤ Siltberg presents further arguments in order –‘ …ƒ•– †‘—„–• ‘ ‹–Š„‡”‰• ”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ ‡ •—‰‰‡•–• –Šƒ– ‹–Š„‡”‰ ‹•‹–‡”’”‡–• –Š‡ ™”‹––‡ •‘—”…‡• he uses, which include various reports from the Danish Governors in the early 17th century, and later from the Swedish Governors of Gotland and a report from a Swedish investigation commission for Gotland in 1669. Siltberg points to the fact that these all describe the problem of deserted farms and the authors of the reports most probably exaggerated the situation to be able to ’”‡•‡–ƒ•‘Ž—–‹‘–‘–Š‡’”‘„Ž‡Ǥ–Š‡”•‘—”…‡• do not indicate any other circumstances on farms of Gotland than the family situations that were common at the time, which was a nuclear family (Siltberg 1986:186). Siltberg adds in a later work some additional remarks on Yrwing’s support ˆ‘”‹–Š„‡”‰••–ƒ†’‘‹–Ǥ‹Ž–„‡”‰’‘‹–•‘—––Šƒ– Yrwing’s interpretation of the Guta law is not the only possible way to understand this source and that the archaeological evidence at excavated medieval farms does not suggest anything but one nuclear family per farm (Siltberg 2007:178). Siltberg returns to this issue in several articles (cf. Siltberg 1990:134, 2011a:244f, 2013:199ff), where he argues that the ‘Stoore Boolagh’ most likely refers to the farms with more than one part. In regard to taxation, these farms are seen as one farm, which means that the Crown misses revenues. There are however some examples of multiple farmers on one farm, but only one person is registered in the tiondelängd (Tithe roll) of 1614; this means that he does not rule out the possibility of some farms having had extended families, but they are probably counted in tens (Siltberg 2011a:244f, 256). His opinion is that the

people of Gotland used birth control to prevent the farms being divided. This was not always successful and as a result, some farms were divided (Siltberg 1998:79). He summarizes his position concerning the size and structure of the Gotlandic farm with these words (Siltberg 1998:78): ‘In my view the Gotlandic farm is an enduring institution: from the Iron Age until today the farm has been occupied by one family. I hereby aim at a nuclear family of a sort that is common in many places: the family is centred around a married couple’ This discussion on the size and structure of the Gotlandic farm was recently followed up by the historian Nils Blomkvist (2010) in a very interesting and initiated contribution. He discusses several aspects of the matter, in a similar fashion ƒ•‹–Š„‡”‰ǡ„—–‹…Ž—†‡•‡™ƒ‰Ž‡•‘–’”‡˜‹ously discussed. He makes one important comparison with family structures found on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. There are similarities between the multi-nuclear family systems often found there and the situation on Gotland, according to Blomkvist. He also discusses many differ‡–’ƒ”ƒ‰”ƒ’Š•‹–Š‡ —–ƒƒ™ǡ‹™Š‹…Š•‘‡ give paramount priority to male inheritance and brothers living together. There are also paragraphs ensuring that the farms were preserved undivided on the male side, along with paragraphs prohibiting the farm to be sold outside the family. Commenting on the –Š‘—‰Š–•‘ˆŽ•ƒŒÚŠ‘ŽǡŠ‡•–ƒ–‡•–Šƒ––Š‡ —–ƒ ƒ™‹•ƒ•–”ƒ–‡‰›†‘…—‡––‘…‘’‡™‹–Š–Š‡…‘‡val political and economical situation. Blomkvist ƒ‰”‡‡•–Šƒ––Š‡ —–ƒƒ™‹•ƒ‹‡†–‘™ƒ”†•’”‡serving the pure Gotlandic society threatened by ˆ‘”‡‹‰ˆ‘”…‡•ȋ”‡ƒ†ǣ ‡”ƒ•ƒ†–Š‡—”‘’‡ƒization processes) trying to take control. These ƒ”‡ Š‹• ƒ‹ ƒ”‰—‡–• ˆ‘” ƒ ‘†‹ϐ‹‡† ˜‹‡™ ‘ˆ the Gotlandic extended family, introduced by ‹–Š„‡”‰Ǥ ‡ –Š‹• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ˆƒ”• ‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ time were the base for the stem family, which is similar to the biblical concept of domus (house). Ž‘˜‹•–ȋʹͲͳͲǣͳͳͶȌ…‹–‡•‡‘›ƒ†—”‹‡ǯ• words about the inhabitants of Montaillou in the Pyrenees, to explain his view: ‘För dem var familjen av kött och blod och huset av trä, sten eller klenbruk samma sak’. (‘–Š‡–Š‡ˆƒ‹Ž›‘ˆϔŽ‡•Šƒ† blood and the house of wood, stone or mortar was the same). The large Gotlandic farm was a base and ‘safe haven’ for the members of the stem family to which they always could return and had a share in, without necessarily living there. He thus, to a certain degree supports the older research of

‹–Š„‡”‰ ƒ† ”™‹‰ǡ „—– ™‹–Š ‹’‘”–ƒ– ‘†‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡ϐŽ‡š‹„Ž‡‹Š‡”‹–ƒ…‡”—Ž‡•‰ƒ˜‡’”‹ority to members of the stem family and could easily be adapted to the needs of this family type. The family members could always return to the farm, in which they had rights, which led to circumstance that the Gotlandic farms could evolve into villages, but as easily revert to solitary farms if needed (Blomkvist 2010:113ff). The farm is an important aspect of a genuine Gotlandic identity, still in the 21st century, as it was in the past, according to Siltberg (2007:188). These matters ™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‘”‡‹–Š‡ϐ‹ƒŽ…Šƒ’–‡”•Ǥ ”••‘ •–—†‹‡• –Š‡ ’”‘…‡••‡• ‘ˆ hemmansklyvning and partklyvning on Gotland and concludes them to be essentially the same thing, but representing different time horizons. The process of hemmansklyvning results in a new name ƒ†ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–ƒ†–Š‡partklyvning only result in ƒ‡™’ƒ”–‘ˆƒˆƒ”ǡ„—–‘‡™ƒ‡‘”ϐ‹•…ƒŽ —‹–Ǥ Š‹•–Š‡•‹•ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹ͶȌǡƒ†‹ƒ•‡”‹‡• of articles, he has indulged in different aspects of this subject, which he refers to as ‘double farms’ ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹͹ǡͳͻͻͳƒ†ͳͻͻ͹ȌǤŠ‡†‹•…—••‹‰ double farms, he means farms lying very close ƒ†Ȁ‘” Šƒ˜‹‰ ƒ ƒ‡ ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰ ƒ …‘‘ genesis. Hemmansklyvning and partklyvning are conducted during periods of expansion, and ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”••‘ –Š‡› ƒ‹Ž› ‘……—” †—”‹‰ –Š”‡‡ ’Šƒ•‡• ‘ˆ ‡š’ƒ•‹‘Ǥ Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ’Šƒ•‡ ‹• ƒ hemmansklyvning†—”‹‰–Š‡‹††Ž‡‰‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š results in closely situated farms with different names but with a common origin. In phase two, farms with a common word stem in their names, using Stora and Lillaȋ ”‡ƒ–‡”‘”‡••‡”Ȍƒ•’”‡ϐ‹šǡ ‘”–Šƒ–—•‡•‘‡‘–Š‡”‹†‘ˆ’”‡ϐ‹š™‹–Šƒ…‘mon word stem, as in the names Bäntbingels and Nybingels, are the result of a hemmansklyvning ‹–Š‡Žƒ–‡‹††Ž‡‰‡•—–‹Ž–Š‡ͳͷͲͲ•Ǥ ‹ƒŽŽ›ǡƒ third phase, the partklyvning started in the late 1500s and resulted in the division of farms, but ‘‡™ƒ‡•‘”ϐ‹•…ƒŽ—‹–•™‡”‡…”‡ƒ–‡†ȋ”••‘ ͳͻͻ͹ǣʹ͹͵ȌǤ ”••‘ •—‰‰‡•–• †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– †ƒ–‡• and reasons for the division of the Stora and Lillaˆƒ”•–Šƒ‹–Š„‡”‰Ǥ–”ƒ‰‡Ž›‡‘—‰Šǡ”••‘ †‘‡•‘–”‡ˆ‡”–‘ǡ‘”…‘‡–‹–Š„‡”‰ǯ•ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ from 1932 and he also relies on other sources. ”••‘•‡‡•–Š‡ϐ‹”•–’Šƒ•‡‘ˆ‡š’ƒ•‹‘ƒ• a colonisation where new or more peripheral areas were put under the plough, which is of–‡”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•‘—–™ƒ”†…‘Ž‘‹•ƒ–‹‘ȋ”••‘ 1974:44). The two last phases are inner coloni•ƒ–‹‘• †—‡ –‘ Žƒ… ‘ˆ ‡™ ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡ Žƒ† ȋ”••‘ 1977:12), similar to the view of Moberg. Inner colonisation means that new farms are estab35

lished in the free space between already cultivat‡†Žƒ†Ǥ—–ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘–Š‡•–—†›„›‹†“—‹•–ǡ referred to earlier here, the degree of cultivation and utilisation of the arable land on Gotland in the 17th…‡–—”›™ƒ•…‘’ƒ”ƒ„Ž›Ž‘™ȋ‹†“—‹•– 1987:11); therefore, nothing points to this be‹‰ –Š‡ ”‡ƒ•‘ǡ ™Š‹…Š …‘—Ž† •—’’‘”– ‹–Š„‡”‰ǯ• statements. •™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†Žƒ–‡”ǡ”••‘ǯ•‡–Š‘†• for dating the establishment of farms are also a bit problematic, which makes his conclusions —…‡”–ƒ‹‹–Š‹•”‡•’‡…–Ǥ”••‘ƒƒŽ›•‡••‘‡ aspects of the spatial distribution of the farms in the three different colonisation phases he iden–‹ϐ‹‡†Ǥ‡‡ƒ•—”‡•–Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ˆƒ”•–‘ˆ–•‹–Š‡†‘—„Ž‡ˆƒ”•ƒ†ϐ‹†• some clear differences between the northern and southern parts of the island. In search for an explanation to the differences, he tests different ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǡŽ‹‡•‘‹Ž–›’‡•ǡˆƒ”•‹œ‡‡–…Ǥ„—–ϐ‹†• ‘‡ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹͹ǣͳʹˆˆȌǤ Some scholars, studying Gotland have launched alternative interpretations of both the social and settlement structure on Gotland, which to some degree involves how the groups ‘ˆ ˆƒ”•ǡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† „› ”••‘ ƒ”‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡†Ǥ Š‡Žƒ–‡•–…‘–”‹„—–‹‘–‘–Š‹•‹•„›†‡”•drén in 2009, who advocates that the group of farms, mainly those situated by the churches, were formed through the division of large farms, with the character of smaller estates, owned by •‘‡‹†‘ˆŽƒ†‡†‰‡–”›Ǥˆ–‡ǡ–Š‡•ƒ‡‰‡–”›–‘‘–Š‡‹‹–‹ƒ–‹˜‡–‘‡”‡…––Š‡…Š—”…Š‡•ȋdrén 2009, 2011a, 2011b). These matters will be discussed further in chapter 7. ‡˜‹•– ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™• —’ •‘‡ ‘ˆ ”••‘ǯ• thoughts; he studies the names of 192 doubleƒ†–”‹’Ž‡ˆƒ”•ƒ†ϐ‹†•–Šƒ–‹ͷͲΨ‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒ•es, one of the names is a nature- or settlement ƒ‡ǡƒ†–Š‡”‡•–ƒ”‡ƒ‡•‘ˆ’‡”•‘•ȋ‡˜‹•– ͳͻͻʹǣͶͶˆˆȌǤ ‡˜‹•– •—‰‰‡•–• –Šƒ– –Š‡•‡ ‰”‘—’• of farms have their origin in the division of one original farm and he sets the time for it to the beginning of the 13th…‡–—”›ȋ‡˜‹•–ͳͻͻʹǣͶ͹ȌǤ village like Norrbyn (the northern village) with seven farms, in the parish of Vamlingbo, is accord‹‰–‘‡˜‹•–ǡ–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡†‹˜‹•‹‘‘ˆƒ˜‡”› large farm and it is a unique feature on Gotland. ‡˜‹•– †‡’‹…–• –Š‡ †‹˜‹•‹‘ ƒ• ‘‡ ‘……—””‡…‡ that took place in history, when one farmer divid‡†–Š‡ˆƒ”ƒ‘‰Š‹••‘•ȋ‡˜‹•–ͳͻͻʹǣͶͺˆȌǤ If this was the case, it must have occurred already ‹–Š‡‹††Ž‡‰‡•ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡”—‹•‘ˆϐ‹˜‡‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡• †‡”‹˜‹‰ ˆ”‘ ϐ‹˜‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– farms exist in Norrbyn (Gislestam 1991:234). 36

Östergren takes a diametrically opposed posi–‹‘–‘”••‘ƒ†‡˜‹•–ǡ•Š‡…‘•‹†‡”•–Šƒ– the formation of these small village-like clusters with 2-3 farms are the result of existing farms moving together along the roads during the Vi‹‰‰‡Ȁ‹††Ž‡‰‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š•Š‡†‡•…”‹„‡•ƒ•ƒ tendency to formation of villages. However, she does not exclude the possibility that of some of the clusters are formed by the division of existing farms in a parallel process (Östergren 1989:220, 243). Her conclusions are mainly based on the †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒtions and interpretations of the archaeological material found in her metal-detector surveys at –Š‡ϐ‹†’Žƒ…‡•‘ˆ‹‹‰‰‡•‹Ž˜‡”Š‘ƒ”†•Ǥ—”ing the mid millennium there was still remains of a more collective organisation from the earlier periods, manifested in the vast systems of stone walls, but the last traces of this vanished ™Š‡ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• were abandoned, and a new structure with only solitary farms emerged. In historical times, the ˆƒ”•–‘ˆ–•„‡…ƒ‡ϐ‹š‡†ƒ––Š‡’”‡•‡–•‹–‡Ǥ Östergren believes the development to have proceeded from a more concentrated settlement structure during the mid millennium, with farms collaborating in a larger unit, similar to a bygd, continuing to a more dispersed settlement structure with solitary farms. The main trend in her own analyses is that the farms are more spread out and the system with solitary farms is emphasised (Östergren 1989:218f, 243). ˜‡ǦŽ‘ˆ ‹†“—‹•– ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡• †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‰”‘—’•‘ˆˆƒ”•ǡƒ‹Ž›‹ƒ‡ˆˆ‘”––‘†‡ϐ‹‡–Š‡ neighbourhood community (bygd), in his now classical study from 1981, concerning the establishment of the parishes and the construction of …Š—”…Š‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ‘†‡ϐ‹‡•‘…‹ƒŽƒ†ˆ—…tional interaction at different levels between ˆƒ”•ǡ ‹†“—‹•– •–—†‹‡• –Š‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡• „‡–™‡‡ farms and the mixing of parcels of land of the different farms in an investigation area in the central part of the island, consisting of 31 parishes. He works on two different levels; groups of farms, which he refers to as gårdsgrupper and neighbourhood communities (bygd). By connecting each farm to its nearest neighbour in a network, referred to as a neighbourhood network of –Š‡ϐ‹”•–†‡‰”‡‡ǡƒ†–Š‡„›Ž‹‹‰–Š‡•‡‰”‘—’• together in a network of the seconded degree, Š‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡•‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘†…‘—‹–‹‡•ǡbygd ȋ‹†“—‹•– ͳͻͺͳǣͷʹˆˆȌǤ Š‡•‡ ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘† communities correspond quite well with the parish borders, and normally a parish consists of one or several neighbourhood communities.

‹†“—‹•– †‡ϐ‹‡• –Š‡ ‰”‘—’ ‘ˆ ˆƒ”• „› •‡˜‡”ƒŽ‡–Š‘†•Ǥ‡‹•„›•–—†›‹‰Š‘™–Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž• ‘ˆŽƒ†‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡‹š‡†Ǥ‘–Š‡”‹• through investigating the bidlag ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† „› ‹–Š„‡”‰Ǥ‹†“—‹•–ƒŽ•‘•–—†‹‡•–Š‡ˆƒ”ƒ‡• indicating the position of the farm in relation to something else or the cardinal direction, like Suder- (south), Norr- (north), Mede- (middle) etc. He concludes that they do not refer to the position of the farm in the parish or in relation to the church, but its position in a group of farms. In such groups, farm names ending with –by (village) are more common, whereas farm names ending with –gårde or -gårda (-farm) are more common on farms in a solitary position. In the •ƒ‡ ˆƒ•Š‹‘ ƒ• ”••‘ǡ Š‡ •—‰‰‡•–• –Šƒ– –Š‡•‡ groups of farms are the result of an inner colonisation, further suggesting that the functional and social bonds between these farms are probably closer than normally occurs between farms ȋ‹†“—‹•– ͳͻͺͳǣͷͺˆˆȌǡ „—– †‘‡• ‘– ƒƒŽ›•‡ ‹– further. Nihlén emphasises that the Swedish concept of bygdǡ‹•ƒ˜ƒ‰—‡…‘…‡’–ǡŠƒ”†–‘†‡ϐ‹‡ ƒ††‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ˆ”‘˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– kinds. He describes the difference in terms of the villages as a more constant organisation among the farms situated geographically close to each other; the neighbourhood community (bygd) is characterised as a looser and temporary cooperation between the different villages and farms ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣ͸ͳȌǤ‘™‡˜‡”ǡŠ‡†‘‡• not explain how this is visible in the archaeological material. He links the different concepts to the texts of Caesar and Tacitus, mainly the description made by the latter of how the Germanic tribes were organised in familia, vicus, and civitas. The familia is the farm, the vicus is the village and the civitas is the neighbourhood community (bygd), which is a tribal area. He sees this as a stage in the evolution of society. In the mid milŽ‡‹—ǡ ‘–Žƒ†™ƒ•‘–›‡–—‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ†–Š‡†‹ˆferent tribes were still separated into independ‡–…‘’‡–‹–‹˜‡‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘†…‘—‹–‹‡•Ǥ proof of this is all hillforts, which are evidence ‘ˆ ϐ‹‡”…‡ ϐ‹‰Š–‹‰ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –”‹„‡•Ǥ He states that the most important objective for the continued research of stone house foundations must be to link these written documents concerning social and genealogical conditions to how they are manifested in the topographical •›•–‡ ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣ͸ʹǦ͸͸ȌǤ Š‹• ™ƒ•™”‹––‡‹ƒ–‹‡™Š‡–Š‡…‘ϐ‹†‡…‡‹–Š‡ antique written sources was much higher and source criticism not so developed.

˜‡ ‹ˆ –Š‡ †‡•…”‹’–‹‘• ‘ˆ ƒ…‹–—• ƒ† ƒ‡•ƒ”• can be of interest, it is to give them far too much explanatory value to use them as Nihlén does. It is not possible to associate these descriptions directly with the settlement structures in this way, particularly not in the way he links the concept of neighbourhood community (bygd) to a tribe and –”‹„ƒŽ ™ƒ”ˆƒ”‡Ǥ ƒ–‡” ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡”•ǡ ™‹–Š ƒ ‘”‡ critical attitude to older written sources, point to that fact that Tacitus probably did not have any deeper knowledge about all the Germanic areƒ•ǡ„—–™ƒ•‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›…‘ϐ‹‡†–‘–Š‡–”‹„‡• Ž‹˜‹‰…Ž‘•‡•––‘‹‡•ǤŠ‡˜ƒ‰—‡‡••‘ˆƒ…‹–—• descriptions indicates that he probably did not have any clearer picture of the conditions in the described areas, and the passage describing the social order is one of the most debated passages in his work (Önnerfors 2005:86f). Tacitus descriptions are based on a number of other written sources from the centuries before the birth of Christ (Önnerfors 2005:18f), which makes it †‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž– –‘ ‘™ ‡šƒ…–Ž› ™Š‹…Š ’‡”‹‘† ‹ –‹‡ that is described and what Tacitus’ sources are. There are similarities and differences between ƒ…‹–—•ǡ ™”‹––‡  ͻͺǡ ƒ† ƒ‡•ƒ”• †‡•…”‹’tion of the Germanic peoples, written some 150 years earlier. The causes of these differences are hard to tell, as Caesars description is only of the peoples living in one particular area (Önnerfors 2005:88), and does not have the ambition to describe ‘all’ of Germania, as Tacitus has. The agenda of Tacitus was probably not only to describe the society and ways of the Germanic society, but also to moralize his fellow Romans and stress that Rome’s lost virtues are still living among the Germans, and that it is time for Rome to regain them. This also makes him an ethnographer with a hidden agenda, and thus the Germanic society he describes might be an idealistic one. He might even have used descriptions regarding some other non-Roman people and attributed them to the Germans, if it suited his purposes and made his point clearer (Her•…Š‡† ʹͲͲͻǣͳ͸ͳˆˆȌǤ ŽŽ –Š‹• –‘‰‡–Š‡” ™‹–Š –Š‡ ˆƒ…––Šƒ––Š‡ ”‘‰‡•‘…‹‡–›‹…ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒ™ƒ• going through rapid and far-reaching changes during the centuries around the birth of Christ, makes it hard to use Tacitus as an exact source when interpreting the Gotlandic society. It is not possible to relate it with archaeological features ‘ˆ–Š‡…‡–—”‹‡•™Š‡–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ foundations were in use. He should however not be ruled out completely as a source in these matters, but must be used with care.

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Dan Carlsson (1981:13f) traces the establishment of the neighbourhood community (bygd) to the time when extensive cultivation was replaced by a more intensive and less mobile culti˜ƒ–‹‘•›•–‡Ǥ‡†‡ϐ‹‡•–Š‡•‡‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘† communities (bygd)ǡ™Š‹…ŠŠ‡–”ƒ•Žƒ–‡•–‘‰lish as ‘central communities’, as loosely grouped farms (Carlsson 2007:25). Individual farms with‹ ƒ †‡ϐ‹‡† ƒ”‡ƒ ƒ”‡ ϐ‹š‡† ‹ •’ƒ…‡ ƒ† …”‡ƒ–‡ the neighbourhood community (bygd). The later development of the cultural landscape primarily took place within these old neighbourhood communities (Carlsson 1981:13f). This process did not start simultaneously in all areas on Gotland, but was dependent on the topography. Carlsson distinguishes between odlingsbygder (areas with intensive cultivation in vast systems of ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ȍƒ†skogsbygder (woodland). He suggests an earlier start of the process, during the Bronze ‰‡‹–Š‡ˆ‘”‡”–›’‡‘ˆŽƒ†•…ƒ’‡ƒ††—”‹‰

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–Š‡ –”ƒ•‹–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ”‘œ‡ ‰‡ ƒ† –Š‡ ”‘‰‡ˆ‘”–Š‡Žƒ––‡”ȋƒ”Ž••‘ͳͻͺͳǣͳͻȌǤ In certain cases, this view is correct, but as a generalisation for the whole island, it is not. ‹”•–ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ ƒƒ…Š”‘‹• ‹ –Š‡ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ of the two concepts odlingsbygder and skogsbygderǡ•‹…‡–Š‡†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•‡‡•–‘„‡„ƒ•‡†‘ the situation at present and not the coeval situation, which is not necessarily the same. The topography and degree of land use in an area might be different throughout the centuries, which will be analysed and discussed further in this work, when the mid millennium and the historical landscape is compared. Carlsson’s whole analysis is based on a detailed study of six parishes on eastern Gotland, which are the parishes ‘ˆ Œ‘Š‡ǡ ¡‰‡ǡ —––Ž‡ǡ Žƒǡ ”¡Ž‹‰„‘ ƒ† ‰ƒǤ  ‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘ ˆ”‘ –Š‹• •ƒŽŽ •ƒ’Ž‡ (around 6-7% of the parishes) cannot be used to represent the whole island.

2.2 Previous research concerning the development of the cultural landscape on Gotland In this chapter, a quite extensive presentation of much of the previous research will be presented concerning the development of the cultural landscape on Gotland, from the mid millennium up until historical times. This chapter is mainly a presentation and most of the critical discussion is made in connection with the different analyses in chapters 3-5 and also in the following chapters. Previous research and views on matters concerning villages, has been discussed above.

The early Iron Age Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†• ™‡”‡ †‹•…‘˜‡”‡† ‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹ͳͻ͸ͺǤ•ƒ”‡•—Ž–ǡƒ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š’”‘Œ‡…–™ƒ• started in the early 70s at the department for human geography at Stockholm University under –Š‡Ž‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’‘ˆ˜‡ǦŽ‘ˆ‹†“—‹•–ǤŠ‹•’”‘ject generated much new knowledge about the cultural landscape and mainly around the Iron ‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•–”—…–—”‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǤŠ‡’”‘Œ‡…– introduced many new techniques in landscape analysis in Sweden; with an innovative combination of different methods, vast areas of fos•‹Ž‹•‡†ϐ‹‡Ž†•‘ˆ–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†Ǧ–›’‡™‡”‡ˆ‘—†Ǥ The methods were primarily based on archive studies involving analyses of aerial photography and historical maps, in conjunction with differ‡– ‹†• ‘ˆ ϐ‹‡Ž†™‘” ‹ •‡Ž‡…–‡† ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ ™Š‹…Š Šƒ† „‡‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† „› –Š‡ ƒ”…Š‹˜‡ •–—†‹‡•Ǥ Š‡ ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ϐ‹‡Ž†‡–Š‘†•ƒ‹Ž›…‘’”‹•‹‰’Š‘•phate mapping, detailed topographical mapping ƒ†’‹’‘‹–‡†•ƒŽŽ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡ϐ‹”•–ƒ”‡ƒ investigated with these methods was the Vinarve area in the parish of Rone on southern Gotland. This area was already known to be rich in settlement remains from the mid millennium with ƒ› ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ† •–‘‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽ•Ǥ ”‘œ‡ ‰‡ …ƒ‹”• ™‡”‡ ƒŽ•‘‘™ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰”‘œ‡‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ Š‡†‹•…‘˜‡”›‘ˆ–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•ϐ‹ŽŽ‡†ƒ‰ƒ’‹ the source material and made the area suitable for long term studies. The investigation at Vinarve covered ƒ”‘—†ͳ͵ͲŠƒǤŠ‡ƒ‹ƒ‹‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹”•–›‡ƒ”•‘ˆ

ϐ‹‡Ž†™‘”™ƒ•–‘‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Šƒ…Š”‘‘Ž‘‰›‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”chaeological features occurring in the landscape, ™Š‹…Š‹†“—‹•–”‡ˆ‡”•–‘ƒ•Ǯˆ‘”‡Ž‡‡–•ǯǡ‘ˆ ™Š‹…Š•‘‡™‡”‡—†ƒ–‡†Ǥš…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘–”‡…Š‡• were placed at key spots to ascertain the stratigraphical relationships between different types of form elements, as well as to obtain samples for radiocarbon dating of charcoal layers to obtain a series of absolute dates (or at least tpqdates) for the different types of form elements. The results made it possible to conclude that –Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•™‡”‡•—’‡”‹’‘•‡†„›ƒ†‘– synchronous with the stone house foundations and stone enclosure walls; thus representing an older phase of cultivation and settlement. The area had been continuously settled for a long time and the oldest traces dated to the Neolithic ȋ‹†“—‹•–ͳͻ͹ͶǣʹͳˆˆȌǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ‹†“—‹•– ȋͳͻ͹ͶǣʹͳˆˆȌǡ –Š‡ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž† •›•–‡• ™‡”‡ ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡††—”‹‰–Š‡ƒ–‡”‘œ‡‰‡Ǧƒ”Ž›’”‡Ǧ‘ƒ‰‡ƒ†™‡”‡Žƒ‹†‘—–‹ƒ•›•–‡ƒ–‹…™ƒ›Ǥ Š‹• ™ƒ• …‘ϐ‹”‡† „› ƒ”Ž••‘ „› Š‹• ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘• ƒ– ڐ†‡ ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ƒ— ȋƒ”Ž••‘ ͳͻ͹ͻǣ͸͵ȌǤ ‹†“—‹•– …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡† –Šƒ– ‹– ™‘—Ž† have taken between 500-1 000 cattle to be able –‘ ƒ—”‡ –Š‡ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ– ‹ƒ”‡Ǥ Š‹• ˆƒ…–ǡ along with analogies from Tacitus descriptions of the Germanic farming, led him to the conclusion that the cultivation was of an extensive …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”ƒ†„ƒ•‡†‘Ž‘‰Ǧ–‡”ˆƒŽŽ‘™ȋ‹†quist 1974:29ff.). The analyses and conclusions drawn by ‹†“—‹•– ƒ† ƒ”Ž••‘ ‹ –Š‡ ͳͻ͹Ͳ• ƒ”‡ ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡†„›•–‡”‘•‡”—’•–Š‘—‰Š–•ǤŠ‡•‡‹†‡ƒ• were quite new at the time, basically stating that ‘Necessity is the mother of invention’, reversing Malthus’ cause and effect. Instead of, as Malthus, seeing the population as dependent on the development of the means of subsistence, Boserup sees it as the independent variable, which means that when the population reaches numbers over –Š‡•—’’‘”–‹‰…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡ϐ‹†‡™™ƒ›•‘ˆ increasing the agricultural production, so a larger population can be sustained. This is done by developing the agricultural technology, among ‘–Š‡”–Š‹‰•ȋ‘•‡”—’ͳͻ͹ͻȌǤ –Š‹•…ƒ•‡ǡ‹†-

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quist’s interpretation was that there was no need for intensive farming, because there was plenty ‘ˆƒ”ƒ„Ž‡Žƒ†ȋ•‡‡ƒ…‹–—•…Šƒ’ʹ͸ȌǤ‹†“—‹•– depicts a development from an extensive farming system based on long periods of fallow and ƒ•—”’Ž—•‘ˆŽƒ†•–ƒ”–‹‰†—”‹‰–Š‡”‘œ‡‰‡ǡ when the economical unit consisted of larger groups, to a more intensive farming based on the family as economic unit, starting during the Žƒ––‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡’”‡Ǧ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡Ǥ –‹•ˆ—ŽŽ› developed during the later part of the older Iron ‰‡ȋ‹†“—‹•–ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ͵ͲˆȌǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ƒ˜‹‡™ƒ‹ly shared by Carlsson (1979:154,157). Carlsson connects the restructuring of the landscape as –Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆƒ’”‹˜ƒ–‹•ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ––Š‹• time. The conclusion is based on the observation –Šƒ–‹–™ƒ•–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•–Šƒ–™‡”‡‡…Ž‘•‡†„›–Š‡ stone wall systems. The outlying land still consisted of commons, and was privatised at some point later, but he admits that this is hard to verify (Carlsson 1979:147).

process over several hundred years. He implicitly dates the formation of the landscape associated with the stone house foundations to early ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ ȋ‹†“—‹•– ͳͻ͹ͶǣʹͳȌǤ Š‹• ‹• something Carlsson rejects. In analogy with the much later land reforms in historical times, he argues that a much quicker process took place sometime around the shift between the early ƒ† Žƒ–‡” ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ƒ”‘—†  200. He also refers to parallels on the continent ™Š‡”‡–Š‡•›•–‡‘ˆ‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•‹••ƒ‹†–‘…‡ƒ•‡ “—‹–‡ ƒ„”—’–Ž› ȋƒ”Ž••‘ ͳͻ͹ͻǣ͵ʹȌǤ ‡ ‘ˆ Š‹• ’‘‹–•‹•–Šƒ––Š‡–™‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ϐ‹‡Ž†•›•–‡•ǡ–Š‡ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ† –Š‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š –Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ‡š…Ž—†‡‡ƒ…Š ‘–Š‡”ǡ”‡ˆ‡””‹‰–‘ϐ‹‰ͷ‹‹†“—‹•–ͳͻ͹Ͷǡƒ•ƒ indication of this. Windelhed, who conducted most of the local studies at Vinarve has in many respects an ‘’’‘•‡†‘’‹‹‘–‘ƒ”Ž••‘ƒ†‹†“—‹•–ǡ–ƒing a third stand point. Windelhed’s view is that

Figure 2.2.1.Š‡ƒ’‘ˆ’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ–‰‰ƒ”†‡ƒ†‹ƒ”˜‡Ǥȋ ”‘‹†“—‹•–ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ ‹‰ͷȌ

˜‡ ‹ˆ ƒ”Ž••‘ ƒ† ‹†“—‹•– ƒ‰”‡‡ ‘ ‘•– things, there is some disagreement between them. The latter regards the development from ‡š–‡•‹˜‡ –‘ ‹–‡•‹˜‡ ˆƒ”‹‰Ǥ ‹†“—‹•– ”‡gards the development from extensive to intensive farming, arguing for a long and drawn-out 40

–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•›•–‡•ƒ”‡‘––Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆƒ› planned system, laid out according to certain ”—Ž‡•ƒ–‘‡’‘‹–‹–‹‡Ǥ•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽƒƒŽ›•‹• based on a scatter diagram, with all the shapes of the parcels in different areas, displays a very irregular and dispersed pattern, not in line with

–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•‹—”‘’‡ǡ‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž• are said to be regular in size and shape (Windelhed 1984b:181-183). His conclusion is that the parcels are the sum all of cultivation during ƒ Ž‘‰ –‹‡ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†• ™‡”‡ …‘–‹—ously used for a period of 1 500 years, starting ‹–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž›”‘œ‡‰‡ǤŠ‡•›•–‡•‡š’ƒ†‡† over larger and larger areas as new parcels were added. This is a view shared by Gunilla Hallin (now Runesson), who makes comparisons with ”‡•—Ž–• ˆ”‘ •–‘‹ƒǡ ™Š‡”‡ ˆ‘••‹Ž ϐ‹‡Ž†• †‘ ‘– show signs of being established according to any plan, but have evolved spontaneously over time (Hallin 2002:86). ……‘”†‹‰–‘‹†‡ŽŠ‡†ǡ–Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ parcels is governed by the geology and the preferences have differed over time. The best sandy •‘‹Ž•™‡”‡‡š’Ž‘‹–‡†ϐ‹”•–ƒ†–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž› ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ǡ–Š‡‘”ƒ‹‡•‘‹Ž••–ƒ”–‡†–‘„‡ utilised (Windelhed 1984a:97, 1984b:181ff). He also rejects the idea of the land being cultivated collectively in a larger economic unit during this period, arguing that the family was the basic economic unit (Windelhed 1984b:184; 2009:20). Windelhed argues that such a point of view is •—’’‘”–‡† „› –Š‡ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ’”‡Ǧ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ”‡‘ˆƒ•‹œ‡‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰–Šƒ– they were used by one family. This is in line with results from Denmark where the family farm was the basic unit within a larger village-like organisation, according to Windelhed (1984b:184). Concerning the line of agricultural produc–‹‘ǡ ‹†‡ŽŠ‡† ƒŽ•‘ †‹•ƒ‰”‡‡• ™‹–Š ‹†“—‹•–ǡ who suggests that the production was mainly oriented towards cereals during the time of the ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ ™Š‡”‡ƒ• †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ǡ‹–•Š‹ˆ–‡†‘”‡–‘™ƒ”†••–‘…Ǧ”ƒ‹•‹‰ȋ‹†quist 1974:30f). Based on the analysis of pollen diagrams, Windelhed comes to the opposite conclusion; stock-raising was the main activity dur‹‰–Š‡’‡”‹‘†‘ˆ–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†ƒ†–Š‡’”‘†—…tion of cereals increased in importance during the mid millennium (Windelhed 1984b:186). ‹†‡ŽŠ‡†–Š—•–ƒ‡•ƒ•–ƒ†’‘‹–…Ž‘•‡–‘‹†quist, concerning the issue of the duration of the –”ƒ•‹–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘† „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†• •›•tem and the mid millennium system, but disagrees concerning the social organisation and the main agricultural production. Nylén (1976b) also discusses this problem. He argues for a slow and drawn out process, with no radical changes, starting at the turn between –Š‡”‘œ‡‰‡ƒ† ”‘‰‡ȋ›Ž±ͳͻ͹͸„ǣ͵͹͸ȌǤ This is also a shift from cereal production to keeping cattle as the main line of agricultural

production, but also the shift from a centralised society to a small scale family based society. He is of the opinion that a centralised society exist‡† ‹ –Š‡ ”‘œ‡ ‰‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‡ƒ„Ž‡† ƒ •—”’Ž—• of cereals, which was needed as payment of the imported bronze. With the introduction of iron, which could be produced locally, a society based on class and hierarchical structures was no longer needed, and the larger collective system for cultivation could be split up into family based farms (Nylén 1976b:377f). ˆ–‡” •…”—–‹‹•‹‰ –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ‘ˆ ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ• excavations, Hyenstrand (1981:48) points out that several circumstances indicate that the ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ† –Š‡ ϐ‹‡Ž† •›•–‡• ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ †‘ not exclude one another. He argues further that ƒ‰‡‡”ƒŽ†ƒ–‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•›•–‡• –‘ –Š‡ ”‘œ‡ ‰‡Ȁ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡•– ”‘ ‰‡ …ƒ‘– „‡ substantiated. There is thus no strong evidence •—’’‘”–‹‰ –Š‡ ‘’‹‹‘ –Šƒ– –Š‡ –™‘ ϐ‹‡Ž† •›•tems exclude each other. Hyenstrand is also of the opinion that Carlsson is contradictory as he in another chapter says that the systems of stone walls, associated with the stone house foun†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ‡…‹”…Ž‡ –Š‡ ‡–‹”‡ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž† •›•–‡ (Carlsson 1979:85).  •–—†›‹‰ –Š‡ ϐ‹‰—”‡ ƒ”Ž••‘ ”‡ˆ‡”• –‘ǡ •‡‡ ‹ ϐ‹‰ ʹǤʹǤͳǡ –Š‡ …‘…Ž—•‹‘ –Šƒ– –Š‡ –™‘ ϐ‹‡Ž†•›•–‡•…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž›‡š…Ž—†‡‘‡ƒ†‘–Š‡” is not obvious. In some parts, mostly far from the stone house foundations, the stone walls cut ‘˜‡”ϐ‹‡Ž†’ƒ”…‡Ž•‹–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•›•–‡ǡ„—– nearer the stone house foundations, the stone walls seem to integrate quite well with the parcels, as also seen in Carlsson’s own maps. This is what could be expected, since the farms of the ‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹——•–Šƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ™Š‹…Š‘—‰Š––‘ be located near the farm toft. It is more reasonable to assume that some of the parcels in the ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž† •›•–‡ ƒŽ•‘ Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ —•‡† „› –Š‡ mid millennium farms, while some of the parcels were abandoned. If this had not been the case, there would have been parcels belonging to the mid millennium farm, which were not integrated ™‹–Š–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•›•–‡ǡ„—––Š‹•Šƒ•‘–„‡‡ observed. Windelhed (1984a:93) also clearly states that conclusions regarding how later set–Ž‡”•—•‡†–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•…ƒ‘–„‡†”ƒ™„ƒ•‡†‘ –Š‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ ƒ– Šƒ†Ǥ ˜‡”›–Š‹‰ ’‘‹–• –‘ …‘tinuity between the two time horizons. Several ’‘‹–• •—’’‘”– ‹†“—‹•–ǯ• ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ gradual change and thus a drawn out process over a longer period of time.

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To my mind, Carlsson’s comparison with the land reforms in historical times are not relevant, since these took place in a much more centralised and regulated society. Cassel also disagrees with Carlsson in this matter, and points to the huge social consequences and fundamental change of practice the later Swedish land reforms in the 18th and 19th centuries resulted in. To be able to conduct such a revolutionising reform, there must be a central authority strong enough to enforce it against most people’s wishes, and this is ƒŠ‹‰ŠŽ›—Ž‹‡Ž›•…‡ƒ”‹‘‹–Š‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ on Gotland (Cassel 1998:89). ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– –Š‡ ‰Ž‹•Š ‡…Ž‘sure movement was not a rapid process, makes ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ• ƒƒŽ‘‰› Ž‡•• ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–Ǥ Š‡ ‰Ž‹•Š process of enclosure was drawn out for several hundred of years, roughly between the 13th and 19th…‡–—”‹‡•ǤŠ‡’”‘…‡••™ƒ•‹–‡•‹ϐ‹‡††—”ing the Tudor era and a series of Parliament acts „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”• ͳ͹ͷͲ ƒ† ͳͺ͸Ͳ ϐ‹ƒŽ‹•‡† ‹– at the end of the 19th…‡–—”›ȋ…Ž‘•—”‡ʹͲͳ͵ȌǤ ˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡„—Ž‘ˆ–Š‡”‡‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘ˆƒŽŽ•™‹–Š‹ the latter centuries, which however is debated (Wordie 1983:483), it covers a period of more than 500 years. Carlsson connects the restructuring of the landscape, discussed above, to a shift in agricultural technique, from long-term fallow to a sys–‡‘ˆ‘‡Ǧϐ‹‡Ž†”‘–ƒ–‹‘Ǣ–Š‹•™‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ linked with the construction of the stone enclosure walls and the stone house foundations. He sees these occurrences as dependent of each other and as synchronous processes. In Carlsson’s view, the reason for the erection of the stone walls is the need to enclose the privatised ‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ȋƒ”Ž••‘ͳͻͺ͸ǣʹͻȌǤ This is not necessarily the case and the idea has been criticised by Cassel (1998:88). Stone enclosure walls dating from the same period only exist in a few other areas, namely Öland, Y•–‡”‰Ú–Žƒ† ƒ† ‹ •‘‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• ƒ”‘—† ƒ‡ ¡Žƒ”‡Ǥ”‹˜ƒ–‹•ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•—•–Šƒ˜‡ taken place in other areas, which will be discussed in chapter 3, but would have been manifested in other ways. This also indicates that there is more to the stone constructions than just a practical function. It is more likely that the manifestation of the structure of stone in the landscape is dependent of other factors than merely a desire to manifest private ownership, which will be addressed in chapter 7. In other areas, the enclosures must have been made of ’‡”‹•Šƒ„Ž‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•ǡ ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ™‘‘†Ǥ  YŽƒ†ǡ ƒŽŽ‰”‡•‡‡•–Š‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†• 42

using stone walls as merely a practical arrangement; it was a way to use the stones cleared from –Š‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ •–‡ƒ† ‘ˆ †‡’‘•‹–‹‰ –Š‡ ‹ …Ž‡ƒ”ance cairns, they were used for building enclosure walls (Fallgren 2006:33). The same inter’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‹•ƒ†‡„›Ž‹†–Ǧ ‡•‡ȋͳͻͷͷƒǣͺ͵͸Ȍ regarding Vallhagar. Fallgren (2006:34f) explains the abrupt ending of some of the stone walls to be the result of a lack of stones in the area, the rest was built as a fence in other materials; it was not caused by later disturbance or the removal of a stone wall. Cassel also has a key point regarding the shift of settlement sites, which Carlsson considers a necessary procedure for restructuring the landscape in order to apply the new agricultural techniques. Underneath 13 of the 30 excavat‡† •‹–‡• ‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ which is approximately 43 %, traces of older settlements have been found (Cassel 1998:87). ’”‘„ƒ„Ž‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘…ƒ „‡ƒ††‡†–‘–Š‹•ǡ†ƒ–‡†–‘‘ƒ ”‘‰‡Ȁ‹gration period, found in 2006, at the at the site of ”–‹ŽŽ‡”‹‡–ͳǣ͵͵‹‹•„›ǡ•‹–—ƒ–‡†”‹‰Š–„‡•‹†‡–Š‡ ”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆƒŠ‘—•‡†ƒ–‡†–‘’”‡Ǧ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ (Wickman-Nydolf 2010, 2011:35). This contradicts any general movement of the settlements between the two periods. Cassel thus does not see any major link between the choice of building material and other processes concerning agricultural development and the shifting of settlement sites (Cassel 1998:87f). This is an important observation. Just because a new material is introduced, this does not automatically mean alterations in settlement patterns or ownership. During the 1970s, Dan Carlsson made sev‡”ƒŽ Ž‘…ƒŽ •–—†‹‡• ƒ† …‘†—…–‡† ϐ‹‡Ž†™‘” ƒ– different locations, which enabled him to apply his theory to cover the whole island. The results are published in reports and articles (Carlsson 1975, 1976a, 1976b, 1977a, 1977b, 1978) and a synthesis is presented in his thesis 1979. In this exposition of previous research, I will not go in to any detail, but keep to the general conclusions and major contributions of his work. Many aspects of his work will be discussed in conjunction to the analyses made in chapter 3 to 5. His theoretical foundation is of a functionalistic nature and his general conclusions are in line with Boserups thoughts (Carlsson 1979:23ff). He suggests that there is a constant growth of the population, which forces the agricultural society within a given territory to expand to poorer and poorer soils; this eventually leads to subsistence

problems. Due to the conservative nature of the peasant society, counter measures in the form of reorganisation and introduction of new production facilities were not taken until a crisis was at Šƒ†Ǥ•‹–—ƒ–‹‘–Šƒ–‹‰Š––”‹‰‰‡”ƒ…”‹•‹•…‘—Ž† be some years of failure of the crop, maybe due –Š‡ ™‡ƒ–Š‡”Ǥ ˆ–‡” –Š‡ …”‹•‹•ǡ ƒ ”‡†—…–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ population or decrease in the population rate might occur. Crises may lead to change of the ’”‘†—…–‹‘•›•–‡ƒ†Ȁ‘”’”‘†—…–‹‘ˆƒ…‹Ž‹–‹‡•Ǥ Carlsson regards the long-term development as a series of crises, each time leading to development of technology and social organisation in order to meet the needs and leave room for an increase in the population (Carlsson 1979:27). Carlsson presents his main conclusions as a model divided into three phases. The key point in his model is the continuity in the agricultural landscape, and that the same land is cultivated during all the phases; it is only the settlement sites that are relocated. Carlsson argues that the •‡––Ž‡‡– ƒ”‡ƒ• †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž† ’Šƒ•‡ were more concentrated and presumably ‘village’-like with collective ownership of land. The establishment of the mid millennium settlement structure involved a splitting of these larger collective units into smaller family based farms. These new farms were relocated and placed in •—…Šƒ™ƒ›ƒ•–‘•—””‘—†–Š‡‘Ž†‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ™Š‹…Š were divided between the new farms, marked by stone enclosure walls (Carlsson 1979:85). The major changes in this transition involve the in–‡•‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‹‘ƒ†–Š‡’”‹˜ƒ–‹•ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǤŠ‡•‡…‘†’Šƒ•‡Žƒ•–‡†„‡–™‡‡ʹͲͲƒ†͸ͲͲƒ†ƒ”‘—†ͺͲǦͺͷΨ of the farms created in this process were the pre-

decessors of the historical farms as seen in the oldest maps of Gotland, according to Carlsson (1979:146). The transition to the third phase •–ƒ”–• ™‹–Š –Š‡ ƒ„ƒ†‘‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundations. This does not mean that the farm or the land was abandoned, just that new houses, built in another fashion, were erected at a new location within the farm’s territory. The reason for this second transition into the third phase is mainly the introduction of the –™‘Ǧ…‘—”•‡ϐ‹‡Ž†”‘–ƒ–‹‘•›•–‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹’Ž‹‡• ƒ †‘—„Ž‹‰ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐ‹‡Ž† ƒ…”‡ƒ‰‡ ƒ† ”‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ (Carlsson 1979:146). John Nihlén connects the origin of building ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –‘ –Š‡ –‹‡ when domestic iron production started under ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡Ž–•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ– –Š‡ –‹‡ ‘ˆ ‹hlén’s work was set to around 150 BC. However, –Š‡ ”‡ƒŽ ‹’‡–—• ‘……—””‡† ƒ”‘—†  ʹͲͲ ƒ† the tradition to build in stone ceased around ͷͲͲǤ‹ŠŽ±‹•”‡•‡”˜‡†‹Š‹•˜‹‡™•”‡‰ƒ”†ing the most popular explanation of the time for –Š‡ ƒ„ƒ†‘‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations on Gotland and Öland, which involved drastic diminishing of the population due to warfare or exodus. Nihlén underlines the source critical aspects of the fact that only two whole farms and around ten stone house foundations had been excavated until 1933, awaiting more research before making any conclusions ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣͳͶʹǡ ʹͷͶˆˆȌǤ ‡ …‘’ƒ”‡•–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ foundations of the mid millennium settlements occurred with the extension of cultivated areas and deciduous forests of his own time and notices that there is almost an exact correspondence.

Figure 2.2.2. ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ•‰‡‡”ƒŽ‘†‡Ž•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ƒ†Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ•‡––Ž‡‡–‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ ‘’‹Ž‡†„›–Š‡ƒ—–Š‘”ȋ ”‘ƒ”Ž••‘ͳͻ͹ͻϐ‹‰͸ͺȏ’Ǥͺ͸Ȑƒ†ϐ‹‰ͳͶͺȏ’ǤͳͶ͹ȐȌǤ

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Ž› ‹ •‘‡ ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ –Š‡”‡ Šƒ˜‡ –Š‡”‡ „‡‡ ƒ› ƒŒ‘”…Šƒ‰‡•ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣͳ͵ȌǤ ƒ•‡†‘ƒƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ‹ŠŽ± describes the development on Gotland as developing from small isolated farms before the birth of Christ to the formation of larger farms ƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•†—”‹‰–Š‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ƒ†–Š‡ ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘‡”‹‘†ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣʹͷʹȌǡ which is the opposite of Carlsson’s (1979:85) view. These villages are knitted together into larger neighbourhood communities (bygder). This is a process developing from the individualistic to the collectivistic, which he sees as a mir”‘”‘ˆ–Š‡•‘…‹ƒŽƒ†’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ’”‘…‡••ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ϐ‹nalised during the Christianisation in the Middle ‰‡•Ǥȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣʹͷʹȌǤ

The abandonment of the Iron Age stone house foundations Š‡ ƒ„ƒ†‘‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations is a much-debated issue, which ™‹ŽŽ‘Ž›„‡†‡•…”‹„‡†„”‹‡ϐŽ›Š‡”‡Ǥƒ›•…Š‘Žƒ”•Šƒ˜‡•‡‡–Š‡ƒ„ƒ†‘‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ stone house foundations as a result of war and major catastrophes, leading to extensive devastation of the settlements and a decline in popuŽƒ–‹‘Ǥ‡ˆƒ…–•—’’‘”–‹‰–Š‹•‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡–Š‡ legendary narrative of the Gutasaga, which describes an exodus from Gotland when one third of the population was forced to leave the island due to overpopulation. ‡…Š‹‡ˆƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘•‹• ‹”‰‡” ‡”ƒǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ‡”ƒǡ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ changes are seen in the archaeological material „‡–™‡‡Ͷ͹ͷƒ†ͷͷͲǤ˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡–›’‡•‘ˆ graves remain the same, there is a drop of around 50% in the number of graves dated to period. He ƒŽ•‘”‡ˆ‡”•–‘–Š‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡‘ˆϐ‹†•‘ˆ‰‘Ž††‡’‘–• during the same period (Nerman 1963:19f) and he suggests that most hill forts probably were from this period. He links this to another part of the Gutasaga, mentioning the incorporation of Gotland in the realm of the SvearǤŠ‹•ƒˆϐ‹Ž‹ƒ–‹‘ is seen in the change of local burial customs and ƒ”–‡ˆƒ…–• ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ƒˆ–‡”  ͷͷͲǡ ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡† „› –Š‡ ”‡‰‹‘• ƒ”‘—† ƒ‡ ¡Žƒ”‡ ȋ‡”ƒ 1963:21ff). This direct connection between the exodus narrative of the Gutesaga and any archaeologi…ƒŽ‡˜‹†‡…‡‹•…”‹–‹…‹•‡†„›–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹ƒƒ—”‹–œ Weibull (1963), who in an essay accounts for the ‘”‹‰‹‘ˆ–Š‡‡š‘†—•–ƒŽ‡Ǥ……‘”†‹‰–‘Š‹ǡ‹–‹• ƒ –ƒŽ‡ –Šƒ– ™ƒ• •’”‡ƒ† ƒ…”‘•• —”‘’‡ ˆ”‘ –Š‡

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convent of Monte Cassino, in present day Italy, in which a scholar, Paulus Diaconus, in the 8th century accounted for the history of his people, the ‘‰‘„ƒ”†•ǤŠ‡›ƒ”‡•ƒ‹†–‘„‡†‡•…‡†‡†ˆ”‘ a Germanic tribe on the island of Scandinavia. The tale is found in many versions across North‡” —”‘’‡ ƒˆ–‡” ͺth century; he argues that it has no roots in any local Gotlandic folklore, but it is just a transposition added to the Gutasaga, without any connection to actual events (Weibull 1963:29ff). Mårten Stenberger (1933, 1955c) advocates an explanation of the abandonment of the ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘„‘–ŠYŽƒ† and Gotland, involving warfare and destruction. His main arguments include the hoards of gold, which he considers to be buried to avoid looting, but also the fact that many of the excavated house foundations show traces of being de•–”‘›‡†„›ϐ‹”‡ǤŠ‹•†‹†‘–‡…‡••ƒ”‹Ž›‘……—”ƒ– one single point in time, but there was a longer period of crises and warlike conditions, which Šƒ’’‡‡† ƒŽŽ ‘˜‡” ‘”–Š‡” —”‘’‡Ǣ Š‡ ’‘‹–• –‘–Š‡‰Ž‘ƒš‘‹˜ƒ•‹‘‘ˆ‰Žƒ†ƒ†–Š‡ Danish raids in Friesland, in the 5th and 6th centuries (Stenberger 1955c:1175ff). He explains the abandonment of Öland’s stone house foundation in similar terms (Stenberger 1933:201-212). Š‡ ƒ„ƒ†‘‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations is seen as the desertion of both the settlement and the land itself, so-called Flurwüstung; in the Vallhagar area he interprets it as ‘...the effects of the disaster were virtually total’ (Stenberger 1955c:1182). ‡”–‹Ž Ž‰”‡ “—‡•–‹‘• ™Š› –Š‡ Š‘—•‡• were not re-erected after the mid millennium, since there could hardly have been a total annihilation. There must also have been other reasons; his rhetorical answer is that the acts of war ™‡”‡‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›Œ—•––Š‡Žƒ•–ƒ‹Ž‹–Š‡…‘ˆϐ‹ of already impoverished and dying settlements ȋŽ‰”‡ͳͻͷ͹ǣʹͶ͵ȌǤ The ravage of the Justinian plague is also discussed as an explanation of a major devastation, which led to desertion (Gräslund 1973:278ff). Fritzell (1972) considered it obvious that •‘‡–Š‹‰ †”ƒ•–‹… Šƒ’’‡‡† ƒ”‘—†  ͷͲͲǡ but based on the arguments brought forward by professor Weibull, he rejects the exodus theory advocated by Nerman. Fritzell extrapolates the estimated farm size of around four houses per farm, made by Stenberger for Vallhagar, and makes the estimation that the around 1 600 stone house foundations known in the early 1970s, thus represents some 400 farms situat-

ed in villages. Since a very high degree of stone house foundations have been removed by later activities, a vast number of settlements would Šƒ˜‡„‡‡†‡•‡”–‡†ƒ”‘—†ͷͲͲǤŠ‡•‡––Ž‡ments moved to new locations and a new settlement structure with solitary farms was established. The farms have since remained at these sites and he estimates the number of farms to ͳͲͲͲǦͳʹͲͲƒ––Š‡‡†‘ˆ–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ȋ ”‹–œ‡ŽŽ 1972:21). It is not clear as to what grounds the ‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ‹‹‰‰‡ˆƒ”•‹• done. Fritzell thus see the abandonment of the ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ• ƒ ™ƒ–‡”shed in the settlement structure on Gotland. The ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡‹†‹Žlennium were situated in villages, but the new structure emerging afterwards consisted of solitary farms. This new structure lasted until the 17th century, when the division of farms began. ””Š‡‹—•„”‹‰•ˆ‘”™ƒ”†…Ž‹ƒ–‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘•–‘–Š‡ƒ„ƒ†‘‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ stone house foundations. He compared the soil types of the historical farm sites and the mid ‹ŽŽ‡‹—•‡––Ž‡‡–•‹–‡•ǡϐ‹†‹‰Žƒ”‰‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•Ǥ ’ –‘ ͺͲ Ψ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations are situated on clay- or moraine soils and only 20% on sandy soils, whereas the historical sites have a strong correlation to the sandy soils and especially on the banks of the ˆ‘”‡”•Š‘”‡Ž‹‡•‘ˆ–Š‡…›Ž—•ƒ‡ƒ†–Š‡‹–‘”‹ƒ‡ƒȋ””Š‡‹—•ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲ͸ʹȌǤ‡‹–‡”’”‡–• this discontinuity as: ‘A radical change in the methods of cultivation and way of life must have taken placeǯ ȋ””Š‡‹—• ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲ͸ʹȌǤ ‡ •‡‡• ƒ possible explanation to this change between the mid millennium settlement areas and the areas of historical settlements; the once prosperous ”‘ ‰‡ ‘–Žƒ† ˆ‡ŽŽ ‹–‘ †‡…ƒ› ™‹–Š ƒ ’‘‘”‡” and starving cattle stock, due to a probable increase in rainfall, which may have had drastic effects on Gotland. The geological condition on Gotland makes it vulnerable to increased precipitation, since the soils are easily saturated with water. The only cure for this was to dig ditches, ™Š‹…Š‹•’”‘„Ž‡ƒ–‹…‘ ‘–Žƒ††—‡–‘–Š‡ϐŽƒ– terrain; he also comments that the knowledge of †‹–…Š‹‰ †‹† ‘– ‡š‹•– †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡Ǥ Š‡ ditching did not start until the late 18th century ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ȋ””Š‡‹—•ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲ͸ʹˆȌǤ Bengt Pettersson (1955) comes to the opposite conclusion and considers lack of rain to Šƒ˜‡…ƒ—•‡†–Š‡†‡•‡”–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ house foundations. †‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘…ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡•–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡‹†‡ƒ of any Migration period desertion and the evi-

dence of pollen diagrams, on which assumption is mainly based, according to Carlsson. He emphasizes that a key issue concerns the point in time of the abandonment of the more remotely situated mid millennium settlements, those that are not closely situated to today’s rural settle‡–• ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡ  ͳͻͺ͵ǣͳͺȌǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ders Carlsson, most scholars assume that this Šƒ’’‡‡†™Š‡–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—dations were deserted, which occurred at the end ‘ˆ–Š‡‹‰”ƒ–‹‘’‡”‹‘†ǡ„—––Š‹•‹•‘–˜‡”‹ϐ‹‡†‹ ƒ›•‹‰Ž‡…ƒ•‡Ǥ‡‡š‡’Ž‹ϐ‹‡•™‹–Š‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡ isolated mid millennium settlements, Fjäle in the ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ Žƒǡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† „› ƒ ƒ”Ž••‘Ǥ ‡”‡ǡ settlement lasted until the Medieval crisis in the mid 14th century; it was not abandoned during ƒ› Šƒ˜‘… ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘† ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡ  1983:27ff). It is of course hard to ‘prove’ that a sites ™‹–Š ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒtions was not settled even during later periods; settlement traces from the later periods are not easily found and if they exist, they are probably not situated at the exact same spot. This would involve removing the turf over large, most often forested areas, which probably is unfeasible. Nylén (1962) argues that the stone house foundations started to be built some centuries before the birth of Christ (Nylén 1962:176). He does not rule out the possibility that a period of unrest and warfare played a role in the abandon‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ but hesitates as to what degree, and thus does not regard it as the principle explanation. He is •…‡’–‹…ƒŽ –‘ –Š‡ ‘’‹‹‘• ‘ˆ ””Š‡‹—• ȋͳͻͷͷȌ ƒ†‹–Š„‡”‰ȋͳͻͳ͵Ȍ…‘…‡”‹‰–Š‡ƒŽ‘•–…‘plete shift of entire settlement areas after the ƒ„ƒ†‘‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǢŠ‡ƒ”‰—‡•–Šƒ–‹–‹•†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘˜‡”‹ˆ›‹ the grave material and in the gold hoards of the ’‡”‹‘†ȋ›Ž±ͳͻ͸ʹǣͳ͹͵ˆǡͳ͹͹ȌǤ ‡™‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†• show discontinuity between the Migration period and the Vendel period, even though there is a reduction of graves from the latter part of the ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ ƒ† ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘† ‹ •‘‡ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǣ ˆ‘” ‹•–ƒ…‡ǡ ƒ˜‘” ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š of Hablingbo, Bjers in Hejnum, Barshaldershed situated at the border between the parishes of Grötlingbo and Fide. However, he recognises –Šƒ– •‘‡ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• …‡ƒ•‡ –‘ „‡ —•‡† „‡ˆ‘”‡ the end of the 6th century (Nylén 1962:174ff). Nylén points to a correlation between the ‹‹‰ ‰‡ ‹Ž˜‡” Š‘ƒ”†• ƒ† –Š‡ ϐ‹† ’Žƒ…‡• ‘ˆ ‘ƒ ‰‡ ‰‘Ž† †‡’‘•‹–•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹†‹…ƒ–‡• –Šƒ– the settlement areas were the same in the two 45

’‡”‹‘†•Ǥ‡˜‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡Š‘ƒ”†•ƒ”‡ˆ‘—† ‹ –Š‡ ‹‡†‹ƒ–‡ ˜‹…‹‹–› ‘ˆ ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‹Ž˜‡” hoards, and all twelve in his analysis are close to 18th century farm tofts, of which two include ruins of medieval farmhouses (Nylén 1962:177f). Based mainly on these circumstances, but also the fact that many of the excavated stone house ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• †‹•’Žƒ› ƒ ˜‡”› ’‘‘” ϐ‹† ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǡ he argues that the remaining stone house foundations are the still visible traces of an impoverished part of the mid millennium settlements; only the richer parts of the settlement continued to exist. However, here all traces of the mid millennium settlement have been destroyed under the impact of ploughing. The presently remaining ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ •–‹ŽŽ visible in the landscape thus represent only the poorer part of the society (Nylén 1962:179ff). Š‹• ‹• •‘‡–Š‹‰ ƒ ƒ”Ž••‘ ϐ‹†• —reasonable and by comparing the location of the ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ† ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ •›•–‡• ™‹–Š –Š‡ ‹ϐ‹‡Ž† ƒ”‡ƒ• ‹ –Š‡ GM1700, he shows clearly that the same land was cultivated during the subsequent period as during the mid millennium period (Carlsson 1977a:31ff). The remaining stone house foundations represent both the abandoned farms and the farms that lived on; he calculates that about 30% of the total number of stone house foundations have disappeared (Carlsson 1979:38, 1984:134f). Based on his studies of the settlements, Dan Carlsson argues that there was no major devastation and de-population after the abandonment ‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†”‡jects the opinion of many of the older scholars, Ž‹‡–‡„‡”‰‡”ǡŽ‰”‡ƒ†‡”ƒǤ……‘”†‹‰ to him, it was mainly a question of relocation of the farm tofts, due to other causes. He suggests that at most 10-15 % of the farms were abandoned (Carlsson, D 1977a:28ff; 1988:38ff). For a more comprehensive account of the debate of this intriguing archaeological ques–‹‘”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰–Š‡ƒ„ƒ†‘‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ stone house foundations, see Stenberger 1955c, Nylén 1962 or Östergren 1981.

The later Iron Age The opinion that the location of the farm tofts, †ƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡Žƒ–‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡Ȁ‹‹‰‰‡ ƒ†–Š‡‹††Ž‡‰‡•ƒ”‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†ƒ–ǡ‘”˜‡”›…Ž‘•‡

46

to, the tofts of the historical farms is not a new idea and has been the view of many scholars for a long time. The number of excavated houses from –Š‡‹‹‰‰‡‹•˜‡”›ˆ‡™ǡ•‘„‡•‹†‡•‰”ƒ˜‡•ǡ–Š‡ source material for studies of the settlement pattern of the period primarily consists of the silver Š‘ƒ”†•ƒ†–Š‡•–”ƒ›ϐ‹†•‘ˆ–Š‡’‡”‹‘†Ǥ ‹–Š„‡”‰ȋͳͻͳ͵Ȍƒ”‰—‡†–Šƒ––Š‡”‡™ƒ•‘Ž› one spatial transition of the settlements; this occurred after the mid millennium, when the settlements changed from the location of the Iron ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –‘ –Š‡ ’‘•‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ the historical farm tofts. The mid millennium •‡––Ž‡‡–•Šƒ†–Š‡‹””‘‘–•‹–Š‡”‘œ‡‰‡ǡ‘” even in Neolithic times. Based on the distribu–‹‘‘ˆ‰”ƒ˜‡•ǡ†ƒ–‡†–‘ƒ”‘—†͸ͲͲƒ†Žƒ–‡”ǡ he concluded that the areas settled in his own time had been continuously settled since after ‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ‡…‘ϐ‹”‡†–Š‹•™‹–Š–Š‡ˆƒ…– that nearly all of the around 100 remains of medieval farm houses of stone, from the latter part of the 12th century, are located on or very near –Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽˆƒ”Š‘—•‡•Ǥȋ‹–Š„‡”‰ͳͻͳ͵ǣʹʹȌǤ ˜ƒ–‡””Š‡‹—•ȋͳͻͷͷȌ•–—†‹‡†–Š‡’Š‘•phate content of settlements from different periods. For the mid millennium locations, the picture was blurry, since some house foundations at Vallhagar had high values and some low. Based on the generally accepted fact at the time –Šƒ––Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ˆƒ”–‘ˆ–•ƒ”‡Ž‘…ƒ–‡†‹–Š‡ same places as the historical farms, he sampled ͸͵”ƒ†‘Ž›•‡Ž‡…–‡†ˆƒ”–‘ˆ–•‹ϐ‹˜‡’ƒ”‹•Š‡• distributed throughout the island. There were very few with any high values of phosphates. In spite of the fact that this heavily contradicted his results from the Swedish mainland, where nearly all historical village sites had left traces ‘ˆŠ‹‰Š’Š‘•’Šƒ–‡•ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰‹‹‰‰‡”‘‘–•ǡ Š‡ …‘…Ž—†‡† –Šƒ– –Š‡ ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‹–‡• †‹† ‘– Ž‡ƒ˜‡ Š‹‰Š ’Š‘•’Šƒ–‡• ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ȋ””Š‡‹—• ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲ͸ʹȌǤ‘”‡’Žƒ—•‹„Ž‡…‘…Ž—•‹‘™‘—Ž† Šƒ˜‡„‡‡–Šƒ––Š‡‹‹‰‰‡•‹–‡•ƒ†–Š‡Š‹•torical farms are not located at exactly the same spot on Gotland. Dan Carlsson (1979, 1984) argues that there are two general cases of settlement move‡– ƒˆ–‡” –Š‡ ƒ„ƒ†‘‡– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundations. The most common is that the farm toft moved to a new location and the second is that it stayed at the same location. Š‡ϐ‹”•–…ƒ•‡‹•„‡…ƒ—•‡‘ˆƒ†‡•‹”‡–‘‡‡’–Š‡ location of the settlement area on the bounda”›„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ†–Š‡‘—–Ž›‹‰Žƒ†ǡƒ• discussed above. New houses where erected in

connection to the location of the historical farm. Nevertheless, due to the tendency of agricultural systems to preserve the old structures, most probably the second case also occurs; in this context, the settlement did not move far from the location of the mid millennium farm toft. He reˆ‡”•–‘—”‰‡‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ—‡Ž—†ƒƒ•ƒ example of the former and Havor in Hablingbo as an example of the latter (Carlsson 1979:146). In a later work, Carlsson seems to emphasise that the most common case is that primarily the medieval settlement sites, but also the ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‹–‡• ƒ”‡ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‡ƒ” –Š‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ of the historical farm tofts. There are also variƒ–‹‘•™‹–Š‹–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ƒ†Š‡ƒ”‰—‡•–Šƒ– the settlement sites which are dated to the latter part are more often closer to the 17th cen–—”› •‹–‡ǡ –Šƒ –Š‘•‡ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ‹‹‰ ‰‡ ȋƒ”Ž••‘ ʹͲͲͺǣ͸͸ȌǤ —”‹‰ –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•ǡ most farm tofts were moved to their historical Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ǡ•‡‡‹–Š‡ϐ‹”•–Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•ȋƒ”Ž•son 2008:88). Nihlén observes house plateaus at many sites with stone house foundations, which he interprets as house foundations for houses of a different construction and of a later date, may„‡ ‹‹‰ ‰‡ ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣͻʹȌǤ ˆ –”—‡ǡ–Š‹•™‘—Ž†…‘ϐ‹”ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ•ƒ••—’–‹‘ that some farms remained at the same location. Schnittger (1915) compares the distribution of 226 silver hoards, consisting of ten or more coins, with the contemporary settled areas and ϐ‹†• ƒ †‡…‹†‡† …‘””‡Žƒ–‹‘Ǣ ƒŽŽ „—– ƒ ˆ‡™ ™‡”‡ located in the areas populated in the early 20th century. He recognises the risk for a biased distribution, due to the fact that all silver hoards were found during cultivation work, but he argues that this is still the most likely picture. He considers that the hoards most probably were buried close –‘–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ˆƒ”Š‘—•‡•–‘‡•…ƒ’‡’Ž—†‡”ing (Schnittger 1915:243). This correlation between the location of –Š‡ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ˆƒ”• –‘ˆ–• ƒ† ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‹Ž˜‡” hoards was later recognised by many scholars, such as Stenberger (1945:18). He interprets them in the same manner as the Migration period gold hoards, understanding them as hidden in times of unrest, close to the farm to hide them from looters (Stenberger 1945:13f). The analyses of both Schnittger and Stenberger are of a general character and based on studies of quite small scale maps ˆ‘”–Š‡‡–‹”‡‹•Žƒ†ǤŽ›‹–™‘ƒ”‡ƒ•†‘‡•–‡berger make detailed studies, where he shows the correlation between the silver hoards and the historical farm tofts and the network of roads (Stenberger 1958:17, Pl. I, Pl. II).

Nihlén also analyses this issue by comparing his ‘™ƒ’‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ house foundations, Schnittgers (1915) map of silver hoards and a map from 1908 showing the then settled areas. He concludes that most of the settled areas are the same during different periods, but that changes can be seen in some •’‡…‹ϐ‹… ƒ”‡ƒ• ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣͳ͸ȌǤ • Š‡’—–•‹–ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣʹͷ͹ȌǣǮettlements existed during the mid millennium period in most of the areas containing larger settlement areas (bygd) today, but not the other way around’ ȏ–”ƒ•Žƒ–‡†„›–Š‡ƒ—–Š‘”ȐǤ The meaning of this is that there were areas settled during the mid millennium, which are not settled today. He sees this as a concentration of the settlement areas, since the more remotely situated settlements at the edges of the larger settlement areas were abandoned after the mid millennium period (NiŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣʹͷ͹ˆȌǤ Š‹•†‘…–‘”ƒŽ–Š‡•‹•ǡ†‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘Šƒ• scrutinized the major views and hypotheses up –‘ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ͳͻͺͲ• ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‡––Ž‡‡–•ǡ†‹•…—••‹‰•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹”ϐŽƒ™•Ǥ‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ …Š‹––‰‡”ǯ•…‘…Ž—•‹‘•ǡŠ‡‡’Šƒ•‹•‡•–Š‡ϐ‹† …‹”…—•–ƒ…‡•Ǥ Ž‘•– ƒŽŽ Š‘ƒ”†• ™‡”‡ ˆ‘—† during present day cultivation work; Carlsson calls attention to the fact that the hoards only •Š‘™ –Š‡ ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡› coincide with the areas that are cultivated or developed today and not the true extension of –Š‡‹‹‰‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ‹ŠŽ±ǯ•‹†‡ƒ•ƒ„‘—– settlement patterns on Gotland, suffers from the •ƒ‡ ϐŽƒ™•Ǣ ƒ”Ž••‘ ”‡…‘‰‹•‡• ƒ ‹’‘”–ƒ– fact that the silver hoards are found in areas with more recent cultivation and the that Iron ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ‹ the areas that are not heavily cultivated. The two ‘maps’ can easily exclude each other, but still say nothing about the changes in settlement areas, ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘†‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘ȋͳͻͺ͵ǣͳͺȌǤ †‡”• ƒ”Ž••‘ …”‹–‹…‹•‡• –Š‡ ‡–Š‘† used by many scholars in establishing areas of settlements for different periods, in which distribution maps of different archaeological fea–—”‡• ƒ”‡ …‘’ƒ”‡†Ǥ †‡”• ƒ”Ž••‘ …‘””‡…–Ž› points out a fundamental weakness of the meth‘†ǡ •‹…‡ ‘•– ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ϐ‹†• ƒ”‡ ˆ‘—† during cultivation work or development. Many distribution maps mainly show the differences in the land use of later periods, rather than the distribution of the archaeological features at hand, which applies to all types of features. He ‡š‡’Ž‹ϐ‹‡•„›…‘’ƒ”‹‰†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ maps from various periods, all showing similar 47

patterns. If ancient remains are presented on the maps, these tend to occur in areas that are not so heavily cultivated or developed; if artefacts, mostly found during tilling or land development, are shown on the map, the circumstance is re˜‡”•‡†ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡͳͻͺ͵ǣͳͺˆȌǤ It must however be emphasised that the two ‘maps’ do not always exclude each other, since ƒ› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• are preserved in areas with modern cultivation and only in some intensively cultivated areas Šƒ˜‡‡ƒ”Ž›ƒŽŽ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• vanished. However, Carlsson points to one of the central problems of source criticism in archaeology, which everyone is aware of, but all have †‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–‹‡•™‹–Š„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡…‘–‡–‘ˆ–Š‡„Žƒ areas in distribution maps is always unknown. Š‡ϐ‹”•–”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡”–‘–‡•––Š‡ƒ••—’–‹‘ of the relation between silver hoards and Viking ‰‡ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ‹• ƒŒ˜‘” Y•–‡”‰”‡Ǥ ‡•‹†‡• this, her objective was to compare these loca–‹‘• ™‹–Š –Š‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ house foundations and historical farm tofts ȋY•–‡”‰”‡ ͳͻͺͻǣͳͻȌǤ —– ‘ˆ ͳͶ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ϐ‹† ’Žƒ…‡•‘ˆ‹‹‰‰‡•‹Ž˜‡”Š‘ƒ”†•ǡͳ͵…‘–ƒ‹‡† ϐ‹†•‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰…‘‡˜ƒŽ•‡––Ž‡‡–ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ͻ͵Ψ of the cases (Östergren 1989:51). Östergren’s ‘™ ‡–ƒŽ †‡–‡…–‘” ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ͺʹ ϐ‹† places of silver hoards reveal the same high per…‡–ƒ‰‡Ǣ ͻͶΨ ƒ”‡ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡† ƒ• ‹‹‰ ‰‡ ˆƒ” tofts, according to her criteria. She interprets the ϐ‹†…‹”…—•–ƒ…‡•ƒ•‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰–Šƒ–‘•–•‹Ž˜‡” hoards were not buried, but were kept within a Š‘—•‡ǡ ƒ›„‡ —†‡” –Š‡ ϐŽ‘‘”„‘ƒ”†•Ǥ ‡” …‘…Ž—•‹‘ ‹• –Šƒ– ‹‹‰ ‰‡ •‹Ž˜‡” Š‘ƒ”†• …ƒ „‡ —•‡†ƒ•ƒ’”‘š›ˆ‘”‹‹‰‰‡ˆƒ”–‘ˆ–•ȋY•–‡”gren 1989:62ff). In the skattfyndsprojekt (The treasure hoard project), they were able to locate the ϐ‹†•’‘–‘ˆ͵͹ͷ‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž›͹ͲͲ•‹Ž˜‡” hoards found on Gotland, and Östergren believes –Š‡•‡–‘„‡–Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘‹‹‰‰‡ˆƒ”–‘ˆ–•‘ Gotland (Östergren 1983:47, 1986:12). The only ‘–Š‡”–›’‡‘ˆ‹‹‰‰‡•‹–‡‡š‹•–‹‰‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ where silver hoards are found, are harbour sites by the coast, according to Östergren. There is only one known exception, which is the hoard, ˆ‘—† ‹ ƒ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†ǡ ƒ– ¡ŽŽ‡ ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ Fröjel. This is the ‘exception that proves the rule’, as Östergren puts it (Östergren 1989:214). Based on her 82 surveyed areas, she iden–‹ϐ‹‡• –Š”‡‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –‹‡ •’ƒ• ˆ‘” Š‘™ Ž‘‰ ƒ farm has been located at the site. 1: Farms with continuity of settlement until historical times, which is 1700 (47 places); 2: Farms deserted 48

before 1700 (22 places); 3: Settlements associƒ–‡† ™‹–Š ‹‹‰ ‰‡ Šƒ”„‘—” •‹–‡• ȋʹ ’Žƒ…‡•ȌǢ Ͷǣ‡––Ž‡‡–™‹–Š—…‡”–ƒ‹…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡ last class is for sites, of which there is an uncertainty as to whether it was the toft of a now deserted farm, or whether it was a previous, now abandoned farm toft, belonging to any of the still existing historical farms. With the help of the †ƒ–ƒ„Ž‡ϐ‹†ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǡ•Š‡”‡…‘•–”—…–••‡”‹‡•‘ˆ different locations, where the farms were moved during different periods, which she refers to as ‘chains of movement’ (Östergren 1989:192ff). ……‘”†‹‰–‘Y•–‡”‰”‡ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”‘˜ing the buildings of farms between different locations can be explained in practical terms and is due to the increase in cultivated land. The most expansive phase occurred during the late Viking ‰‡Ȁ‡ƒ”Ž› ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•Ǣ †—”‹‰ –Š‹• ’‡”‹‘†ǡ –Š‡ farm tofts were moved the greatest distances. The expansion does not necessarily mean that a vast number of farms were established, only –Šƒ– ‡ƒ…Š ˆƒ” ‹…”‡ƒ•‡† –Š‡‹” ‹ϐ‹‡Ž† ƒ…”‡ƒ‰‡ (Östergren 1989:225). She makes an interesting connection with this expansion and the ex‹•–‡…‡‘ˆ‘ƒ†‡ƒ”‹—•‹‹‹‰‰‡Š‘ƒ”†• from the late 11th century and early 12th century. The reason, she says, is that during this period, the settlements from the mid millennium were tilled and the coins were found during ploughing (Östergren 1989:226). This would thus consti–—–‡ƒ‹‹‰‰‡’ƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Ž–‘–Š‡”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”ϐ‹†ing silver hoards today. Östergren makes a sample of 32 silver Š‘ƒ”†•ǡ™Š‹…Š•Š‡…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡•‹ˆ‘—”…Š”‘‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‰”‘—’•ˆ”‘–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž›‹‹‰‰‡—’—–‹Ž–Š‡ͳͶth …‡–—”›ǤŠ‡‡ƒ•—”‡•–Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡ˆ”‘–Š‡ϐ‹† ’Žƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ…ŠŠ‘ƒ”†–‘–Š‡‡ƒ”‡•–‘™ ”‘‰‡ stone house foundation and historical farm toft. Š‡”‡‹•ƒ…Ž‡ƒ”–”‡†‘˜‡”–‹‡ǤŽŽ•‹Ž˜‡”Š‘ƒ”†• Žƒ›—…Š…Ž‘•‡”–‘ƒ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—dation than to a historical farm toft, but the distance to the historical farm tofts decreased over time. The silver hoards with a later dating are found on locations closer to the historical farm tofts. She draws the general conclusion that the Ž‘‰‡•–‘˜‡‘ˆƒˆƒ”–‘ˆ–‹•ˆ”‘–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡ location to the historical farm toft (Östergren 1989:196). She thus sees a stronger spatial con‡…–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ‹‹‰ ‰‡ ˆƒ”• ƒ† –Š‡ mid millennium farms, than between the Viking ‰‡ˆƒ”•ƒ†–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽˆƒ”•ǤŠ‡‡’Šƒ•‹•es this by showing examples of mid millennium farms, lying isolated from the historical farms, which most probably were not deserted until the medieval agrarian crises (Östergren 1989:228ff).

This contradicts Dan Carlsson’s view that the ϐ‹”•–ˆƒ”•–‘„‡†‡•‡”–‡††—”‹‰–Š‡†‡…Ž‹‡‹ –Š‡ Žƒ–‡ ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘†Ȁ‡†‡Ž ’‡”‹‘† ™‡”‡ those in remote areas. Östergren’s results sup’‘”– †‡”• ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ• ˜‹‡™ –Šƒ– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘ major desertion of farms took place when the ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ ƒ„ƒdoned. She argues that it is more a question of ϐ‹†‹‰–Š‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•‹–‡•ˆ”‘–Š‡•—„•‡“—‡– periods, which are situated close by the stone house foundations. Östergren argues that the shift to the farm –‘ˆ–•ˆ‘—†‹–Š‡ϐ‹”•–Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’•„‡‰ƒ†—”‹‰–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž›‹‹‰‰‡ǡ„—–Šƒ†‹–•’‡ƒ‹–Š‡ Žƒ–‡” ‹‹‰ ‰‡Ȁ‡ƒ”Ž› ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡• ȋ ͳͲͷͲǦ 1150). She sees several reasons for this, but major issues concern the greater impact of a central authority, the Gotlandic Allting2 ȋŽŽǦ–Š‹‰Ȍǡ –Š‡ ‡”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡…Š—”…Š‡•ƒ†–Š‡ϐ‹šƒ–‹‘‘ˆ’ƒ”‹•Š „‘”†‡”•Ǥ ‘–Š‡” ‹’‘”–ƒ– ˆƒ…–‘” ™ƒ• –Šƒ– transportation by land became more important and therefore a need to be close to roads, which ϐ‹ƒŽŽ›†‡–‡”‹‡†–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽŽ‘…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ farms (Östergren 1989:238). Östergren summarises her general view of the development of the cultural landscape of Gotland as follows. From a more collective farm‹‰•›•–‡†—”‹‰–Š‡”‘œ‡‰‡Ȁ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡•– ”‘ ‰‡ǡƒ‰”‡ƒ–‡”—„‡”‘ˆ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•™‡”‡‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡††—”‹‰–Š‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡Ȁ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ‡”‹‘†•ǡ™Š‡–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒtions were built. They were deserted in the mid†Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹”•–‹ŽŽ‡‹—ƒ†™‡”‡”‡’Žƒ…‡† by settlements consisting of only solitary farms. The historical settlement pattern was created †—”‹‰–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡Ȁ‹††Ž‡‰‡•ǡ™Š‡ƒ…‘centration of some degree occurred, as the farms moved together, often in groups of 2-3 farms along the roads (Östergren 1989:221, 243). ……‘”†‹‰–‘Y•–‡”‰”‡ǡƒŽ‘•–‡˜‡”›ˆƒ” on Gotland, regardless of parish had access to silver, so the farms associated with the silver hoards do not represent any special social strata of farmers. This conclusion is based on many different facts, the prime circumstance concerns –Š‡ Š‹‰Š —„‡” ‘ˆ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‹‹‰ ‰‡ Šƒ”bours and trading places evenly spread along –Š‡…‘ƒ•–‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ‘–‹…‡ƒ„Ž‡…Šƒ‰‡‹–Š‡ hoards is that there is a tendency for fewer and larger hoards and that these were placed closer to the coast, from the latter part of the 11th century and the beginning of the 12th (Östergren 1989:65). This might indicate a concentration of 2. The Allting was the highest authority and judicial body on the island, chaired by the County judge

the trade to fewer hands and a specialisation in the society (Östergren 2008:14). Östergren points to that the analysis of all –Š‡ϐ‹†•ƒ––Š‡•—”˜‡›‡†•‹–‡•™‹–Š•‹Ž˜‡”Š‘ƒ”†• displayed an interesting pattern; more often, –Š‡•‹–‡•™‹–ŠŽƒ–‡”†ƒ–‡•Šƒ†ƒ—…Š”‹…Š‡”ϐ‹† material than was the case with those of earli‡”†ƒ–‡ǡ‡˜‡‹ˆϐ‹†’Žƒ…‡•”‹…Š‹ϐ‹†•ˆ”‘–Š‡ earlier period also exist (Östergren 1989:52, 181f). She argues that it is not the older sites –Šƒ–ƒ”‡’‘‘”‹ϐ‹†ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ„—––Š‡Žƒ–‡”ǡ‡•’‡cially the late 11th –and early 12th century sites that are rich in metal objects, which indicates a great wealth, almost lavishness, especially com’ƒ”‡†™‹–Šƒ‹Žƒ†‹‹‰‰‡•‹–‡•ȋY•–‡”‰”‡ ͳͻͺͻǣͳͺʹȌǤŠ‡ϐ‹†ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽƒŽ•‘‹†‹…ƒ–‡•–Šƒ– crafts such as metalworking were commonly performed at the farms; especially bronze casting (Östergren 1989:187). She also sees a chronological difference, as metalworking tended to be common by harbour sites during the early Vi‹‰‰‡ǡ„—–ƒ––Š‡ˆƒ”•‹–‡•‹–†‹†‘–„‡…‘‡ particularly common until the later part of the ‹‹‰‰‡ȋY•–‡”‰”‡ͳͻͺͻǣͳͺ͹ȌǤ

Middle Ages and early modern times The medieval agrarian crisis and the degree of deserted farms, has only partly been discussed and accounted for by researchers dealing with Gotland, and most of their conclusions are based ‘–Š‡™‘” ‘ˆ”••‘ǡ™Š‘Šƒ••–—†‹‡†–Š‹•‹ more detail in his dissertation and in some arti…Ž‡•ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹ͳǡͳͻ͹Ͷǡͳͻ͹͹ǡͳͻͺͷǡͳͻͻͳƒ† 1997). His work will therefore be accounted for •Ž‹‰Š–Ž› ‘”‡ ‡š–‡•‹˜‡Ž›Ǥ ”••‘ •ƒ™ –Š‡ Žƒ… of more detailed research for the time period and rejected the conventional view accepted at the time, that the settlement and farm struc–—”‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†•‡‡‹–Š‡ϐ‹”•–Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’• was more or less completed during the Viking ‰‡ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ”‡ˆƒ…‡ȌǤ‹•‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡™ƒ•–‘ identify the different periods of colonisation and ”‡‰”‡••‹‘ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡• —–‹Ž –Š‡ ‹† ͳ͸ͲͲ•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• –Š‡ –‹‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– …‘’Ž‡–‡ …ƒ†ƒ•–”‡ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ†ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹ͶǣͳȌǤ He worked with a vast source material and many different methods, penetrating more or less all written sources of interest, combining –Š‡™‹–Šϐ‹‡Ž†™‘”‹•‘‡…ƒ•‡•ǤŠ‡™”‹––‡ sources are, however, scarce for the early and ‹‰Š‹††Ž‡‰‡•ƒ†ƒˆƒ‹”Ž›…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž‹•–‘ˆƒŽŽ –Š‡ˆƒ”•Ȁˆƒ”‡”•‘ ‘–Žƒ†™ƒ•‘–…‘’‹Ž‡† 49

until the end of the 16th century, and is normally referred to as the aforementioned Husarbetsbok (book of labour in lieu of taxes). It lists the names ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ ˆƒ”‡”•Ȁˆƒ”•ǡ ™Š‘ ™‡”‡ ‘„Ž‹‰‡† –‘ ’‡”form labour in lieu of taxes at the State demesne. šƒ…–Ž›™Šƒ–’‡”‹‘†–Š‡Husarbetsbok depicts is debated and it is thus referred to under many –‹‡•–ƒ’•ǡ‡Ǥ‰Ǥͳͷ͹ͶȀ͹͹ǡͳͷͻͶƒ†Ǯͳ͸Ͳͺǯǡ•‹…‡ it is a part of the cadastre for Gotland from 1608. ™‹ŽŽ—•‡–Š‡†ƒ–‡‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†„›–—”‡‡“—‹•– ‘ˆ ͳͷͷ͹Ȁ͸Ͳǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ƒ……‡’–‡† „› ‹Ž–„‡”‰ ȋʹͲͳͳƒǣʹ͵ͶȌǡ„—–”••‘•‡–•–Š‡†ƒ–‡–‘ͳͷ͹Ͳ•Ǥ Before this, there are only sporadic sources, mainly books of accounts from the Governors at Visborg Castle, listing some farmers delivering taxes and selling things to the castle. From the years 1485-87, only around 74 farms can be ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†‹ ‘˜‡”‘”Ivar Axelsson Totts räkenskapsbok ȋ„‘‘ ‘ˆ ƒ……‘—–•Ȍǡ ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”•son, and in Governor Sören Norrbys räkenskapsbok from 1523-24 some 563 farms can surely be ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹ͶǣʹͷˆȌǤ Š‡ ϐ‹”•– …ƒ†ƒ•–”‡ ƒ†‡ „› –Š‡ ™‡†‡• ƒˆter Gotland was taken over from the Danes, is from 1646, but the most used cadastre is from the years 1653-54. It has two parts of which the Revisionsboken (Book of Statement) of 1653, referred to as Rev1653, is often used by researchers, since it has the most comprehensive description of the farms. The Rev1653 lists all farms and –Š‡‹”ƒ…”‡ƒ‰‡‘ˆϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ†‡ƒ†‘™•ǡƒŽ‘‰™‹–Š many other resources and the farms are evaluat‡† ƒ† ”ƒ‡† ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ –™‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ϐ‹•…ƒŽ measurements, marklej and mantal. Marklej is ƒ‘Ž†‡”ϐ‹•…ƒŽ‡ƒ•—”‡‡–™‹–Š—‘™‘”igin and mantal was the standard measurement used to classify farms in Sweden, and will explained more in chapter 5. ”••‘ǯ•‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡‹Š‹•†‘…–‘”ƒŽ–Š‡•‹•ˆ”‘ 1974 is to make a chronology of when the individual farms were established. The dating of the ˆƒ”•‹•ƒ‹Ž›„ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡ˆƒ”ƒ‡Ǥ•ƒƒšiom, his presumption is that a farm gets its name when it is established, and it never changes, which is most often a standard assumption in placename research. He divides the farm names into 19 categories based on different components in the name, like the ending of the name (like; -inge, -unge, -by), if the name originates from Christian or pre-Christian times, if it is named after a trade, like Smiss (smith), names of natural features etc. ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡…Š”‘‘Ž‘‰›…‘—Ž†‘–„‡†‡–‡”‹‡† using only the farm names; by applying several other variables and methods, he attempts to make a relative chronology. 50

Most of these variables and methods are quite complex and hard to give a short account of, „—–  ™‹ŽŽ ‡š‡’Ž‹ˆ› ™‹–Š •‘‡Ǥ ‘‰ ‘–Š‡” points, he compared the names of the farms with the structure of the farm territory, in order to see whether or not the land of the farm is intermixed with the land of other farms. He also compares the size of the farm toft with of the age of the farm name, etc. None of his methods ‰‹˜‡• ƒ› …Ž‡ƒ” ”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ ‡ ‡–Š‘† –Šƒ– ‰‹˜‡• some results was based on comparing the different name groups with the marklej from the ‡˜ͳ͸ͷ͵Ǥ ‹• …”‹–‡”‹ƒ ˆ‘” †‡ϐ‹‹‰ ƒ ˆƒ” ƒ‡ of great age, which implies that the farm itself is old, is the average of the marklej in the group, the percentage of divided farms, the percentage ‘ˆˆƒ”•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡‘–Ǯˆ—ŽŽˆƒ”•ǯƒ†ϐ‹ƒŽŽ›–Š‡ percentage of known deserted farms in each of –Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ƒ‡‰”‘—’•ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣʹ͹ˆˆȌǤ He concludes that farms having names ending with –inge, -unge (79) and the nature names, like Bjärs (32) are the oldest. Farms having names starting with Ny- (32), that are named after trades like Smiss etc (94), names ending on –arve (43), Skogs or similar nature names (23) and names containing ‘other cultural terms’ (77) ƒ”‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡›‘—‰‡•–ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣƒble 4 on p.125.). Most of the names are not possible to say much about, but the interpretation of result is that at least every other farm have ”‘‘–• ‹ –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š Š‡ …‘…Ž—†‡• ȋ”••‘ ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ͵͸ȌǣǮ...vilket rimmar illa med alla påståenden om stark kontinuitet.’ (...does not tally with all statements of a strong continuity). He lists two conceivable explanations to this; one is –Šƒ– –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ abandoned quite late, near the introduction of Christianity or, secondly that a normalisation of farm names was done when the parishes were created, since the same farm name never exists in a parish. ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”••‘ǡ –Š‡ ‰”‡ƒ– —„‡” ‘ˆ farms with young names is a proof for an extensive colonisation at the beginning and middle of –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•Ǣ ˜‡”› ˆ‡™ ˆƒ”• ™‡”‡ ˆ‘—†‡† during the 16th and 17th centuries (1974:36ff). Based on his different methods and name chronology, he creates a more detailed time sequence of when the different farms were established is some selected parishes. From the results, he deducts a more general model of colonisation. The central parts of a par‹•Š™‡”‡…‘Ž‘‹•‡†ϐ‹”•–ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ–‡†‡…› for the older farms to be closer to the parish centre and the farms with younger names to be lo-

cated in the periphery, and are thus established later. However, there are several exceptions to –Š‹•ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ͵͸ˆˆȌǤ Š‡Žƒ––‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ”••‘ǯ•–Š‡•‹•…‘…‡”• the desertion of farms in the later part of the ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡• ƒ† Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ –‹‡•Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ some concepts found in older records, which are of an unclear nature, and have been discussed in other parts of Sweden, as the traces of deserted farms. These are the real property types of frijord (free land), ϔŽ›–ƒ†‡Œ‘”†ȋϐŽ‘ƒ–‹‰Žƒ†Ȍǡutjord (outlying land) and tomt (toft). In Rev1653 –Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ͳͺ”‡…‘”†•…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•tomt and 17 of –Š‡•‡ƒ”‡Ž‹•–‡†ƒ•†‡•‡”–‡†ǡ™Š‹…Š”••‘–ƒ‡• as a proof for the concept of tomt meaning a de•‡”–‡† ˆƒ” ȋ”••‘ ͳͻ͹Ͷǣͷ͹ȌǤ ‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ –Š”‡‡ ϐ‹”•– …ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•ǡ ”••‘ Š‹‰ŠŽ‹‰Š–• •‘‡ interesting patterns. The frijord are concentrated to the area around Visby and are interpreted as land bought by the burghers of Visby. He suggests that ϔŽ›–ƒ†‡ Œ‘”† is land that is not originally part of the farm and from the beginning refers to land situated in another parish than the farm that owns it. The utjord can have its origin in late colonisations, constituting new farms situated on the outer edges of the cultivated area; these were never taxed and were later abandoned and eventually taken over and cul–‹˜ƒ–‡† „› ‘–Š‡” ˆƒ”•Ǥ ˜‡” –‹‡ǡ –Š‡ „‘”†‡”• between the different concepts are blurred, but most probably, many of them are deserted farms ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ͸ͲȌǤ To validate his hypotheses he makes some ’Š‘•’Šƒ–‡ƒ’’‹‰•‹–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†ƒ––Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ for some of the types of real properties listed ƒ„‘˜‡ǡ„—– …ƒ‘–…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›…‘ϐ‹”ƒ›†‡•‡”–‡† ˆƒ”•ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ͸ʹǦ͹ͲȌǤ Š‹•Ž‹•–‘ˆ†‡•‡”–ed farms, parcels of land named Forngård (ancient farm) also occur; these are not included since he believes that they most often refer to ”‘‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ He ends up with a list of 302 deserted farms, of which 271 are known by name. He divides them into chronological groups based on when they were most likely deserted. 123 were desert‡†„‡ˆ‘”‡ͳͷ͹ͶȀ͹͹Ǣʹ͸†—”‹‰–Š‡–™‘†‡…ƒ†‡•‘ˆ ͳͷ͸Ͳƒ†ͳͷ͹ͲǢ͸ͳ„‡–™‡‡ͳͷ͹ͶȀ͹͹ƒ†ͳͷͺͷǢ 44 in the time span of 1585 to 1614; 14 between ͳ͸ͳͶ ƒ† ͳ͸ͷ͵Ǣ ƒ† ϐ‹ƒŽŽ› ͵Ͷ „‡–™‡‡ ͳ͸ͷ͵ and 1693-1703, which is the time span between –Š‡ ‡˜ͳ͸ͷ͵ ƒ† –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– …ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽ ƒ’•ǡ –Š‡

ͳ͹ͲͲȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣ͹ͲˆˆȌǤŠ‡ˆƒ”•†‡•‡”–‡† before 1600 have a clear tendency of being situated in the periphery. For the farms deserted between 1600 and 1700, this tendency is not as clear

and for the early desertions there is also a very clear tendency for the smaller farms to have been deserted. In addition, there is a tendency that the more remote parts of the island, including Fårö, ™‡”‡–Š‘•‡‘•–ƒˆˆ‡…–‡†ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹ͶǣͻʹˆˆȌǤ In summary, his results indicate that the deser–‹‘™ƒ•‘–‹•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–†—”‹‰–Š‡Š‹‰Š‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•ǡ „—– ‹…”‡ƒ•‡† †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ͳ͸th century to ”‡ƒ…Š ƒ ’‡ƒ ƒ– –Š‡ ‡† ‘ˆ –Š‡ …‡–—”› ȋ”••‘ 1974:89). The reasons for the abandonment in –Š‡ Š‹‰Š ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡• ƒ”‡ǡ ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”••‘ǡ mainly economical with changed trading routes; the trading farmers were outmanoeuvred by ‡”…Šƒ–•‹‹•„›ƒ†‘–Š‡”•Ǥ”••‘•‡‡•–Š‡ political and military situations in the Baltic with unrest and piracy as the main reason for this, which led to the invasion of Gotland by the ‡—–‘‹…‹‰Š–•ȋTyska orden). The crisis in the later part of the 16th …‡–—”›ǡ ”••‘ …‘•‹†‡”• to be caused by raised taxation, which can be seen in written complaints from the farmers of Gotland to the Danish king. The Governor also ™ƒ”•–Š‡‹‰ˆ‘”–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡—„‡”‘ˆ†‡•‡”–‡† ˆƒ”•‹Ž‡––‡”ˆ”‘ͳͷ͹ͳȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹Ͷǣͻ͸ˆȌǤ ͳͻͺͷǡ”••‘’—„Ž‹•Š‡†ƒ—’†ƒ–‡†Ž‹•–‘ˆ deserted farms with some amendments, which increases the number of possibly deserted farms to around 370, but since not all are known by ƒ‡ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹‰Š– „‡ †—’Ž‹…ƒ–‡•Ǣ ”••‘ „‡lieves that 329 are almost certain to be deserted ˆƒ”•ȋ”••‘ͳͻͺͷǣͳ͹͵ȌǤ‡Šƒ••…”—–‹‹•‡†–Š‡ sources in search of deserted farms and his list is used by many, and has been of great importance. ‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ ”••‘ǯ• ‡•–‹ƒ–‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ„ƒdonment, Östergren (1989) has a different view. She considers that the archaeological material must always be included in any calculation of the †‡‰”‡‡‘ˆ†‡•‡”–‹‘ǡƒ†‘–‘Ž›–Š‡ϐ‹•…ƒŽƒ† written sources. In her analysis of the 82 silver hoards distributed over the island, accounted for above, she interprets that 22 of them were situated at deserted farms and in additional map •–—†‹‡•ǡ •Š‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ƒ‘–Š‡” Ͷ͹ǡ ™Š‹…Š •—• —’–‘͸ͻ†‡•‡”–‡†ˆƒ”•Ǥ –Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ”••‘‘Ž›‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡•͵ʹǤY•–‡”‰”‡…‘…Ž—†‡•–Šƒ– at least in the cultivated parts of the island, the number of abandoned of farms were more than –™‹…‡–Š‡ͳͲΨ–Šƒ–”••‘‡•–‹ƒ–‡†ȋY•–‡”‰”‡ ͳͻͺͻǣʹͲͻȌǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ”••‘ǡ ‹– ‹• ‘•–Ž› the peripheral farms with poorer soils, which are abandoned, but this is a view not shared by Y•–‡”‰”‡Ǥ ˆ Š‡” ʹʹ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† †‡•‡”–‡† ˆƒ”•ǡ only four are in remote locations and most were not situated on poor soils.

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……‘”†‹‰ –‘ Y•–‡”‰”‡ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ‘ •‹‰Ž‡ ”‡ƒson, but a number of concurrent factors behind –Š‡ …”‹•‡• ‹ –Š‡ ‹‰Š ‹††Ž‡ ‰‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒŽ•‘ affected larger farms on fertile soils. Besides –Š‡ ”‡ƒ•‘• …‘‘ –‘ ‘•– ’ƒ”–• ‘ˆ —”‘’‡ǡ Ž‹‡–Š‡Žƒ…‡ƒ–Šǡ–Š‡”‡™‡”‡”‡ƒ•‘••’‡…‹ϐ‹… ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ†ǡŽ‹‡–Š‡‹˜ƒ•‹‘‘ˆƒŽ†‡ƒ”––‡”dag and changes in the trade in the Baltic area (Östergren 1989:239). Ž› ”‡…‡–Ž›ǡ ‹ –Š‡ ™‘” ‘ˆ ƒŽ‹ ”‹•son (2010a, 2010b), the list over deserted farms has been revised for the whole island and more ˆƒ”• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ƒ††‡†Ǥ  ʹͲͳͲǡ ”‹••‘ †‹† a new scrupulous examination of the available sources. Today, these are often are accessible in reprints and digital versions and thus much easier to work with. This resulted in a more complete list of possible farms that were deserted, probably mainly during the Medieval period, which has been used in some of the analyses in –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ™‘”Ǥ ‘–Š Y•–‡”‰”‡ ƒ† ”••‘ had most probably underestimated the degree of decline during the agrarian crises of the late ‹††Ž‡‰‡•ǡ„—––Š‹•™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‹…Šƒ’ter 8. Š‡ ‘•– ’”‘„Ž‡ƒ–‹… ’ƒ”– ™‹–Š ”••‘ǯ• work in 1974 concerns the colonisation; some of his methods in attempting to date certain events ƒ”‡‹’ƒ‹”‡†™‹–Š•‡”‹‘—•ϐŽƒ™•ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ‡Š‹• …‘…Ž—•‹‘•Ž‡••˜ƒŽ—ƒ„Ž‡Ǥ––‡’–•–‘‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š a detailed chronology over the colonisation and desertion based on farm names, as performed „›”••‘ǡ•‡‡•–‘„‡ƒ—…‡”–ƒ‹‡–Š‘†ˆ‘”

‘–Žƒ†Ǥ ”••‘ Š‹•‡Žˆ ”‡ƒŽ‹•‡• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ’Žƒ…‡ names of Gotland are poorly researched and the origin and age of most of them are unknown. Names that are well established in time and space on the mainland are lacking on Gotland ȋ”••‘ͳͻ͹ͶǣͳʹˆˆȌǤ  ’‡…—Ž‹ƒ”‹–› ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ† ‹• –Š‡ Š‹‰Š †‡gree of farms consisting of personal names or names after trades. It is probable that in older times, many Gotlandic farms were named after –Š‡‹”‘™‡”Ǥ‡•–”‘‰‹†‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‹•‹•–Š‡ ”—‹… ‹•…”‹’–‹‘ ‹ –Š‡ …Š—”…Š ‹ ‰ƒ ’ƒ”‹•Šǡ Angalistan ȋ–Š‡ ‰ƒ Ž‹•–ȌǤ Š‡ ”—‹… ‹•…”‹’tion is dated to the 13th century and mentions ‘Ž›–Š‡ϐ‹”•–ƒ‡ǡ„—–‘ˆƒ”ƒ‡ǡ‘ˆ–Š‡ͳͶ farmers, who supposedly defrayed the cost of building the church. It is unclear when the farm ƒ‡• ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ™‡”‡ ϐ‹š‡†Ǣ „—– „‡ˆ‘”‡ –Š‹• point in time, it is not unlikely to assume that many farms were only referred to by the own‡”ǯ•ϐ‹”•–ƒ‡ƒ†–Š—•–Š‡ˆƒ”•…Šƒ‰‡†ƒ‡ with the owner. This is a view brought forward 52

„› ‡˜‹•– ȋͳͻͻʹǣ͹ȌǤ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ Š‹ǡ ƒ ƒ††‹–‹‘ ™ƒ• ƒ†‡ –‘ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ƒ‡ǡ ‘•– ‘ˆ–‡ ƒ–‡””ƒ‹ƒ‡–‘ˆƒ…‹Ž‹–ƒ–‡–Š‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ –Š‡”‹‰Š–’‡”•‘ǡ•‹…‡ƒ›Šƒ†–Š‡•ƒ‡ϐ‹”•– names. He gives examples like ‘på burgen’ (on the hill), ‘på skogenǯ ȋ‹ –Š‡ ™‘‘†•Ȍ ȋ‡˜‹•– 1992:43f). It is hard to tell when the farm names ™‡”‡‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ›ϐ‹š‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ˜‡”–‡Ž‡ˆ‘”• mentions that this occurs before 1450 (Melefors 1983:162), but Siltberg argues that changing the names of farms was probably easy and not too uncommon until the more strict Swedish legislation and taxation system, based on a proper cadastre, was introduced in the 1650s. Some farms on Gotland are known to have changed names as late as in the 18th century (Siltberg 1990a:255). There are some examples of notes in the text descriptions in the GM1700 maps of farms with …Šƒ‰‡†ƒ‡•Ǥ•ƒ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ–Š‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ of Sigvards tomt ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ •‡ŽŠ‡ …ƒ be mentioned; ‘Siwertz tompt... i forna tider heet Wijksarwe... nu Siwerdzholm’ (Sigvards tomt... in ancient times it was called Wijksarve...now Siwertsholm) (Ronsten 2011b:Sigvards tomt in •‡ŽŠ‡ȌǤŠ‹•™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‘”‡Žƒ–‡”‘ in this work. When studying farm names on Gotland it is Ž‹‡Ž›–Šƒ–ƒ›ƒ‡•†‘‘–”‡ϐŽ‡…––Š‡‡•–ƒ„lishment of the farm or settlement, but rather some special event or change in its history. It is hard to believe that names like Stenstugu (Stone house) or Smiss (Smith) have attained their ƒ‡„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡ϐ‹”•–•‡––Ž‡”„—‹Ž–ƒ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ or was a smith. It is more likely, that this represented new events or functions of a magnitude that caused an already established farm or settlement to be given a new name; this is an idea ƒŽ•‘ †‡•…”‹„‡† „› ‡˜‹•– ȋͳͻͻʹǣͶ͵ȌǤ ‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ –‡•–—‰Ǧˆƒ”•ǡ †‡”• ƒ”Ž••‘ ƒŽ•‘ regards them as older farms that have changed ƒ‡•ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡͳͻͺ͵ǣͳʹ͸ȌǤ ‹†“—‹•–‹•…”‹–‹…ƒŽ–‘•‘‡‘ˆ”••‘ǯ•”‡sults concerning his calculations of the number ‘ˆˆƒ”•ƒ”‘—†–Š‡›‡ƒ”ͳͲͲͲǡ™Š‹…ŠŠ‡…ƒŽculates to 765. This is not based on archaeological evidence, which indicates another picture, ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ‹†“—‹•–ǡ ™Š‘ –Š‹• –Š‡ ‡•–‹ƒtion is far too low, which he supports by exam’Ž‡•”ƒ‹•‡†„›ƒƒ”Ž••‘ȋ‹†“—‹•–ͳͻͺͳǣͶ͹ȌǤ Y•–‡”‰”‡‹•‘ˆ–Š‡‘’‹‹‘–Šƒ–”••‘ǡ„‡…ƒ—•‡ of his dating methods underestimates the num„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•Ǥ”••‘ǯ•—†‡”‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘‹•†—‡–‘ the fact that farms are older than their names suggest (Östergren 1989:223). This means that ˆƒ”• ™‹–Šǡ ™Šƒ– ”••‘ •–ƒ–‡• ƒ”‡ ƒ‡• ‘ˆ ƒ

later date, can be older than the name indicates; thus affecting the relative dating in which the farm names are compared, making this incorrect and altering the entire dating sequence for the ƒ”‡ƒǤ  ƒ ‘”‡ ”‡…‡– ™‘”ǡ ”••‘ …‘‡–• on his own methods used in 1974 and admits to the prospect of farms changing names. The reason farms change names is that the farm toft seems to have been relocated within a given farm territory several times, as Windelhed suggests, which might provoke a change in the name ȋ”••‘ͳͻͺͷǣͳ͹ͶȌǤ

Š‹• ϐ‹ƒŽ‹•‡• –Š‡ ‡š’‘•‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ ’”‡˜‹‘—• ”‡search concerning the overall settlement development on Gotland. Not everyone, who has had an opinion about Gotland is mentioned, but most of them. Some aspects and work regarding certain perspectives of these matters are also discussed in other chapters of this book, but I hope this chapter has provided a useful and comprehensive overview of the discussions concerning these matters.

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Chapter 3 The landscape of the late Roman Iron Age and Migration period In this chapter, individual farms and villages ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹— ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†Ǥ  endeavour to predict the former extension of the mid millennium settlement areas will also be made, together with an estimation of the num„‡”‘ˆ†‹•ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•ƒ”‡’”‡•‡–‡†ǡƒ’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ •‘‡ ƒ•’‡…–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ house foundations have to be done, and several •‘—”…‡…”‹–‹…ƒŽ‹••—‡•‡‡†–‘„‡†‹•…—••‡†ǤŠ‡ ϐ‹”•–“—‡•–‹‘…‘…‡”•–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ†ƒ–‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡ ‘kämpagrav’ stone house foundations, and the ‡š‹•–‡…‡ ‘ˆ ‘–Š‡” –›’‡• ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡• ™‹–Š •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ•Ǥˆ–‡”–Š‹•ǡ–Š‡“—‡•–‹‘ƒ„‘—––Š‡’”‡•‡…‡ ‘ˆ ‘–Š‡” –›’‡• ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡• ™‹–Š‘—– •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• during the mid millennium will be treated along ™‹–Š –Š‡ “—‡•–‹‘ ‘ˆ ™Š‡–Š‡” ƒŽŽ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundations are coeval, before the ƒƒŽ›•‡•ƒ”‡…‘˜‡”‡†Ǥ

Stone house foundations from the early Iron Age Š‡ ‘Ž†‡•– ”‡…‘”†• ˆ‘—† ƒ„‘—– ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ house foundations are from Rannsakningar efter antikviteterȋ•‡ƒ”…Šˆ‘”ƒ–‹“—‹–‹‡•Ȍǡ…‘†—…–‡† „›˜‹…ƒ”•ƒ†‘–Š‡”’‡”•‘•‹ƒ—–Š‘”‹–›–Š”‘—‰Šout Sweden during the mid 17th…‡–—”›Ǥ ‘–land, reports to Stockholm from 28 parishes are ’—„Ž‹•Š‡† ‹ ‘†‡” –‹‡•Ǥ  –Š‡ ”‡’‘”– ˆ”‘ –Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‡•‘ˆŽ˜ƒƒ†‡•‡ˆ”‘ͳ͸͸͹ǡ‘‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡–Š‡ grave of ‘Stråbeenz’, who is mentioned in the GutasagaǤ‡•ƒŽŽ‡” ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡˜‹…‹‹–›‹••ƒ‹†–‘…‘–ƒ‹Š‹•‡’±‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š‹•ƒ‹†‘ˆ•™‘”†Ǥ…‘—’Ž‡‘”‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ‘kämpagrav’ house foundations are mentioned; ƒ‘‰‘–Š‡”•ǡ‘‡‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ—”•‹••ƒ‹† –‘…‘–ƒ‹–Š‡”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆƒ™ƒ””‹‘”Ǥ –‹••‹–—ƒ–‡† in a meadow called Staffuegard (Rannsakningarƒͳͻ͸ͻǣ͵Ͳ͹ˆˆǤȌǤ –‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‹†‡–‹…ƒŽ™‹–Š–Š‡

largest known stone house foundation, with the "Ǧ‹†‡–‹–› —”• ͷͷǤ Š‹• •–‘‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ‹• ͸͹ ‡–”‡• ‹ Ž‡‰–Šǡ ƒ† ™‹ŽŽ „‡ †‹•…—••‡† Žƒ–‡”Ǥ ‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡’‘”–• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ˜‹…ƒ”• …‘…‡” ”‡…‘”†‹‰• ‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ™‡”‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•‰”ƒ˜‡•Ǥ•”‹…—• ‘˜‡‹—•ǡ˜‹…ƒ”‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆƒ”Ž‹‰„‘™”‹–‡•‹ —Ž›ͳ͸͸͹ ȋƒ•ƒ‹‰ƒ”ƒͳͻ͸ͻǣ͵ͳ͸ˆǤȌǣ ‘...kalle gemene man, del Jättegraffuor, dels Kämpegraffuor. Men skijner klarliga, att det hafuer i fordom tijgh, warit, En eller ϔŽ‡”‡ ƒ‹Ž‹‡”•ǡ ƒ –—‹ˆˆ—‡Ž• ˜–Šƒ ‘—‰ars, kämpars eller Andra förnämblige Mens begraffningz Platser, effter någre hafua för någon tijdh sedan vnderståt sig att grauffa there vthj effter Skatter, och funnit menisksobeen större och Smärre’ (…are by the common people called giant graves and are believed to be the graves of one or many families, yes without doubt; the graves of Kings, Warriors and other Distinguished Men. Some time ago, somebody dug into them after treasures and found human bones, smaller and larger.Ȍ Š‡˜‹…ƒ” ‘˜‡‹—•ƒŽ•‘•–ƒ–‡•–Šƒ––Š‡›Šƒ˜‡ƒŽŽ „‡‡ ‡…Ž‘•‡† „› ‡š–‡•‹˜‡ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ ‘™ ˆƒŽŽ‡ †‘™Ǥ ‡ ƒŽ•‘ ‘–‡• –Šƒ– –Š‡› ƒ”‡‘ˆ–‡•—””‘—†‡†„›ƒ’’Ž‡–”‡‡•ǡ‘–Š‡”ˆ”—‹– trees and herbs, which he believes to be planted ȋƒ•ƒ‹‰ƒ”ƒͳͻ͸ͻǣ͵ͳ͹Ȍǡ„—–Š‡ƒ‡•‘ ”‡ϐŽ‡…–‹‘–Šƒ––Š‡›‹‰Š–„‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ  ‡ƒ”Ž› ŠƒŽˆ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š‡• ‡–‹‘‡† in the Rannsakningar, stone house foundations ƒ”‡†‡•…”‹„‡†Ǣ‹–‹•…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ––Š‡›ˆƒ•…‹ƒ–‡†ƒ† ’—œœŽ‡†–Š‡’‡‘’Ž‡‹‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”–‹‡•Ǥ –‘’‘‰”ƒ’Š‡”™Š‘ƒŽ•‘‡–‹‘• ”‘‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‹• ‹Žˆ‡Ž‹‰ǡ ™Š‘ ˜‹•‹–‡† ‘–Žƒ†ˆ‘—”–‹‡•„‡–™‡‡ͳ͹ͻ͹ƒ†ͳͺͲͳǡ …‘‹••‹‘‡† „› ‡Š” Šƒǡ Žƒ–‡” ƒ Ž‡ƒ†‹‰ member of Götiska förbundetȋ–Š‡ ‡ƒ–‹•Š‘…‹‡–›ȌǤ–ϐ‹”•–ǡŠ‡†‘‡•‘–’ƒ›ƒ––‡–‹‘–‘–Š‡käm-

Opposite side: ‡”‹ƒŽ’Š‘–‘‘˜‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ–ƒ‡ƒ––Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•‹ͳͻͶ͹„›ϐŽ›‹‰‘ˆϐ‹…‡”Ž•–ƒ†

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pagravȋ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ȍǡƒ•Š‡ „‡Ž‹‡˜‡•–Š‡›ƒ”‡”—‹•‘ˆ‘Ž†Š‘—•‡•ȋ•‹…ǨȌǡ„—– when he hears the folklore about them being the graves of prominent people and ancient heroes, he thinks otherwise and starts to notice them ȋ‹Žˆ‡Ž‹‰„ƒ† ǡͳͻͻͶǣʹͲͶȌǤ‡ƒŽ•‘‰‡–•”‡’‘”–• ‘ˆϐ‹†•‘ˆŠ—ƒ„‘‡•†‹•…‘˜‡”‡†‹–Š‡•–‘‡ house foundations during treasure hunting, and †”ƒ™•–Š‡…‘…Ž—•‹‘–Šƒ––Š‡›™‡”‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡• ƒ”‘—†ƒ…‹‡–ˆƒ‹Ž›‰”ƒ˜‡•ȋ‹Žˆ‡Ž‹‰„ƒ† ǡ ͳͻͻͶǣͳͷͲˆȌǤ ‘–Š‡” ˆƒ‘—• –‘’‘‰”ƒ’Š‡” ‹• ‹Ž• ‘Šƒ †ƒŠŽǡ™Š‘˜‹•‹–‡† ‘–Žƒ†‹ͳͺʹ͸Ǥ‡™ƒ•–Š‡ ϐ‹”•––‘”ƒ‹•‡–Š‡“—‡•–‹‘ǡ™Š‡–Š‡”–Š‡›…‘—Ž†„‡ ”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆƒ…‹‡–Š‘—•‡•ȋ‘”†‹ͳͺͺ͸ƒǣͳͲͷȌǤ Š‡”‡ ‹• “—‹–‡ …Ž‡ƒ”Ž› ƒ ‰”‘™‹‰ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ ƒ‘‰ scholars of the time that the kämpagrav are not ‰”ƒ˜‡• „—– ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡•Ǥ  –Š‡ Žƒ–‡” ’ƒ”– of the 19th …‡–—”›ǡ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– •…‹‡–‹ϐ‹… ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ …‘†—…–‡† ƒ† –Š‡ ‘–‹‘ –Šƒ– –Š‡› might be the remains of ancient houses grows •–”‘‰‡” ȋ‘”†‹ ͳͺͺ͸ƒǣͳͳͳȌǤ  –Š‡ ͳͺ͹Ͳ•ǡ ƒ•‹Ž†‡„”ƒ†ƒ†‡ƒ•ƒŽŽ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–™‘ stone house foundations at Rovalls in the par‹•Š‘ˆ•‡ŽŠ‡Ǥ‡…‘…Ž—†‡•–Šƒ––Š‡›‹†‡‡† ƒ”‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ„—–‘ˆƒ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›”‡…‡– †ƒ–‡Ǥ‹•†ƒ–‡™ƒ••‘‘“—‡•–‹‘‡†„›‡””˜‹† ¡˜‡ǡ™Š‘‰—‡••‡†–Šƒ––Š‡›’”‘„ƒ„Ž›™‡”‡’”‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷǣͺ͸ͶȌǤ Š‡ϐ‹”•–‘”‡‘†‡”ƒ†•…‹‡–‹ϐ‹…‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘™ƒ•…‘†—…–‡†„› ”‡†”‹‘”†‹‹ͳͺͺ͵Ǥ Š‹• …‘…‡”‡† ƒ ‰”‘—’ ‘ˆ ˆ‘—” •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations and other obstacles that a farmer ƒ–ƒ––•ƒ”˜‡‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆڔ•‡™ƒ–‡†–‘ ”‡‘˜‡Ǥ‘”†‹™ƒ•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹–‘”‡•‘Ž˜‡–Š‡‹••—‡ ™Š‡–Š‡” ‘” ‘– –Š‡› ™‡”‡ ƒ…‹‡– ”‡ƒ‹•Ǥ ‡ excavated parts of the foundations of the stone houses and found no human remains, but dis…‘˜‡”‡†„—”‡†Ž‘‰•ƒ†–—”ˆǤ‡…‘…Ž—†‡•–Šƒ– it is the remains of a burnt down houses with ƒ”‘‘ˆƒ†‡‘ˆ–—”ˆǤ‘‰–Š‡ϐ‹†•™‡”‡ƒŽ•‘ „—”– ”›‡ǡ ’‘––‡”› ƒ† ƒ‹ƒŽ „‘‡• ȋ‘”†‹ ͳͺͺ͸ƒǣͳͲͲˆˆǤȌǤŠ‹••–”‡‰–Š‡•Š‹‹Š‹•„‡Ž‹‡ˆ –Šƒ– –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡•ǡ „—– •–‹ŽŽ Š‡ ‹• ‘–ͳͲͲΨ•—”‡ǡ•‹…‡Š‡„‡Ž‹‡˜‡•ƒ‘–Š‡”’Žƒ—sible explanation could be some kind of temple ‘”’Žƒ…‡‘ˆ™‘”•Š‹’Ǥ ƒƒŽ‘‰›™‹–ŠŠ‘™–Š‡‹‹‰ ‰‡ Š‘—•‡• ƒ”‡ †‡•…”‹„‡† ‹ –Š‡ …‡Žƒ†‹… ƒ†‘”™‡‰‹ƒ•ƒ‰ƒ•ǡŠ‡†ƒ–‡•–Š‡–‘–Š‡Žƒ–‡ ”‘‰‡ȋ‘”†‹ͳͺͺ͸ƒǣͳͳ͵ˆˆǤȌǤ‡•–‹’—Žƒ–‡†ƒ •‡”‹‡• ‘ˆ ϐ‹†• –Šƒ– ‡‡†‡† –‘ „‡ †‹•…‘˜‡”‡† ‹ connection with the house foundations, in order –‘ ϐ‹ƒŽŽ› „‡ ƒ„Ž‡ –‘ ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š ™Š‡–Š‡” –Š‡› ƒ”‡ Š‘—•‡•‘”‘–ǤŠ‡’”‹ƒ”›…”‹–‡”‹‘™ƒ•–‘ϐ‹† ”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆƒŠ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ

ͷ͸

ͳͺͺ͸ǡŠ‡•–ƒ”–‡†ƒ‡™‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘ƒ–‹‰•‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ‡Œ—Ǥ Š‡ ϐ‹†• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘ƒ†‡‹–…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ––Š‡›™‡”‡Š‘—•‡•Ǣ–™‘ Roman denarii and a gold rod in the shape of a •’‹”ƒŽ ƒ†‡ ƒ ‘”‡ ‡šƒ…– †ƒ–‹‰ ’‘••‹„Ž‡Ǥ ‘”din concluded that the buildings were a farm and that it was not used later than the middle of –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ‹ŽŽ‡‹—  ȋ‘”†‹ ͳͺͺ͸„ǣͳ͹ͲˆˆȌǤ ‘‡›‡ƒ”•Žƒ–‡”ǡ‘”†‹ƒŽ•‘‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†ƒ•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ƒ– %„› ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ”‘ǡ ™Š‹…Š …‘ϐ‹”‡† –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ȋ‘”†‹ ͳͺͻͲǣͳ͹ȌǤ —”‹‰–Š‡Žƒ–‡ͳͺͲͲ•ƒ†‡ƒ”Ž›ͳͻͲͲ•ǡƒ•‡”‹‡• of excavations of stone house foundations were —†‡”–ƒ‡ –‘ …‘ϐ‹” –Š‡ †ƒ–‹‰ ƒ† ‹…”‡ƒ•‡ –Š‡ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡Ǥ ‘” ƒ …‘’”‡Š‡•‹˜‡ ƒ† –Š‘”ough, but not complete, exposition of these older ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•–Šƒ–™‡”‡…‘†—…–‡†—–‹Ž–Š‡ͳͻͷͲ•ǡ •‡‡‹Ú”•–ƒ†ȋͳͻͷͷȌǤ —”‹‰–Š‡†‡…ƒ†‡•ƒ”‘—†–Š‡ˆ‘”‡”–—” ‘ˆ –Š‡ …‡–—”›ǡ –Š‡ ‹–‡”‡•– ˆ‘” ƒ…‹‡– ”‡ƒ‹• ‹…”‡ƒ•‡† ‰”‡ƒ–Ž› ƒŽ‘‰ ™‹–Š –Š‡ ‹•‹‰Š– –Šƒ– Žƒ”‰‡ǡƒ–‹‘ƒŽ•—”˜‡›•™‡”‡‡‡†‡†ǡ™Š‹…Š™ƒ• ƒŽ•‘ ‹‹–‹ƒ–‡†„› –Š‡ –Š‡ †‹”‡…–‘”‘ˆ–Š‡ ™‡†‹•Š ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ ‡”‹–ƒ‰‡ ‘ƒ”†ǡ ƒ• ‹Ž†‡„”ƒ†Ǥ Š‹•Ž‡†–‘•‡˜‡”ƒŽ•—”˜‡›•ƒ…”‘••™‡†‡ȋ   ʹͲͳʹȌ ƒ† ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ƒ• ƒ••‘ ‹‹–‹ƒ–‡† –Š‡•—”˜‡›•ȋ‡”ƒͳͻͶͷǣͳ͵ȌǤ˜‡”–Š‡›‡ƒ”•ǡ –Š‡› ™‡”‡ …‘†—…–‡† –Š”‘—‰Š –Š‡ ™‘” ‘ˆ •‡˜eral persons, under different management and ˆ—†‹‰Ǥ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—”˜‡›•™‡”‡…Ž‘•‡Ž›”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘ǡƒ†Ž‡†„›ǡ–Š‡‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ•—”˜‡›‹‰‘ˆ ‘–land that took place at the same time and some ™‡”‡ϐ‹ƒ…‡†ƒ†‘”‰ƒ‹•‡†„›Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademienȋ—–Š‡‡–ƒŽ ͳͻʹʹǡ ͳͻʹ͵ǡ ͳͻʹͶƒǡ ͳͻʹͶ„ǡ ͳͻʹͺǡ ͳͻʹͻǡ ͳͻ͵͵ǡ ͳͻ͵͸Ǣ—†“˜‹•–ͳͻͶͲȌǤŠ‡”‡ƒ‹•ƒ”‡ƒ”‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‘Ž† ’”‹–‡† ‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ƒ’• ‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ† ’—„Ž‹•Š‡†„‡–™‡‡ͳͻʹʹƒ†ͳͻͶͲǤ ͳͻʹʹǡ ‘Š ‹ŠŽ± …‘‡…‡† ‘ ƒ ‘”‡ …‘’”‡Š‡•‹˜‡ ƒ†—‹ˆ‘”’Žƒˆ‘”•—”˜‡›‹‰ƒ†‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡’”‹‡ ‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡™ƒ•–‘ƒ––ƒ‹ƒ…‘’”‡Š‡•‹˜‡’‹…–—”‡ of their distribution, their measurements and ‘–Š‡”“—ƒŽ‹–‹‡•ȋ‹ŠŽ±Ƭ‘´–Š‹—•ͳͻ͵͵ǣͳͲȌǤŽŽ –Š‡•‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•—”˜‡›•”‡•—Ž–‡†‹ƒ†”ƒƒ–‹…‹crease of known stone house foundations, from –Š‡͹Ͳ‘™„›‘”†‹‹–Š‡ͳͺͺͲ•ǡ–‘ƒ”‘—† ͳͳͲͲ„›ͳͻ͵͵Ǥ ŽŽ ‘™ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ Ž‹•–‡† ‹ –ƒ„Ž‡ ͵ǤͳǤ Š‹• is the most complete list published and it sup’Ž‡‡–• –Š‡ Ž‹•–• ‘ˆ ƒ••‡Ž ȋͳͻͻͺǣʹͳͶȌ ƒ† ‹Ú”•–ƒ†ȋͳͻͷͷǣͺ͸͵Ȍǡ„›ϐ‹ŽŽ‹‰‹–Š‡Žƒ–‡•–‡šcavations and some older excavations, which are Žƒ…‹‰‹–Š‡‹”Ž‹•–•Ǥ

Table 3.1. š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ ‘–Žƒ†—–‹ŽʹͲͳ͵

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Other types of houses with stone walls and the question of the dating

‡”†ƒ ‘´–Š‹—• –”‹‡† –‘ ’‡”ˆ‘” ƒ –›’‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ •‘”–‹‰–Š‡‹–‘ϐ‹˜‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡––›’‡•ǡ„ƒ•‡†‘ dimensions and construction details of the walls ‡–…Ǥ Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ –›’‡• ™‡”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣ͹ͺˆˆȌǤ Ǥ ‘‰ ŠƒŽŽ•ǡ ‘˜‡” ͵ͷ‡–”‡•‹Ž‡‰–Šǡ™‹–Šƒ‡–”ƒ…‡‹‘‡‘” „‘–Š‰ƒ„Ž‡‡†•Ǥ ǤƒŽŽ•ǡƒ”‘—†ʹͲǦ͵Ͳ‡–”‡• ‹ Ž‡‰–Šǡ ™‹–Š •Ž‹‰Š–Ž› …—”˜‡† Ž‘‰ •‹†‡• ƒ† ”‘—†‡† …‘”‡”•Ǥ Š‡ ’”‘’‘”–‹‘• ƒ”‡ …Ž‘•‡ –‘ ͳǣ͵Ǥ–”ƒ…‡•ƒ”‡‹‘‡‘”„‘–Š‡†•Ǥ ǤƒŽŽ• Ž‹‡ –Š‡ ƒ„‘˜‡ǡ „—– ™‹–Š •–”ƒ‹‰Š– …‘”‡”•Ǥ Ǥ Ž‹‰Š–Ž›‘”‡•“—ƒ”‡„—‹Ž†‹‰•™‹–Š’”‘’‘”–‹‘• ƒŽ™ƒ›•—†‡”ͳǣʹǢ‘•–‘ˆ–‡ǡ–Š‡•‡Šƒ˜‡‘˜‹•‹„Ž‡ ‡–”ƒ…‡• ‹ –Š‡ ™ƒŽŽ•Ǥ Ǥ Ǧ•Šƒ’‡† Š‘—•‡•ǡ

Figure 3.1a.ƒ–‡•‘ˆ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘‹Ú”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷϐ‹‰͵ͻͷ’Ǥͻ͸Ͷ

…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ‘‡–›’‡ ƒ†‘‡–›’‡ Š‘—•‡Ǥ ‹…‡ ƒ›ǡ „—– ‘–ǡ ƒŽŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…• †‡ϐ‹‡†„›‹ŠŽ±ƒ†‘´–Š‹—•ƒ”‡‘–‡†‹–Š‡ –‡š–†‡•…”‹’–‹‘‘ˆ  ƒ†…ƒ„‡‡š–”ƒ…–‡†ƒ• •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ƒ––”‹„—–‡•‹–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǡ ƒ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ™ƒ• ƒ†‡ –‘ ˜‡”‹ˆ› ‹ˆ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ› ’ƒ––‡” –Šƒ– can be observed amongst these kinds of attrib—–‡•ǡƒ›„‡Ž‹‡–Š‡‘‡‘´–Š‹—••—‰‰‡•–•Ǥ

58

†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•—‹–ƒ„Ž‡ ˆ‘”ƒ…‘””‡•’‘†‡…‡ƒƒŽ›•‹• ™ƒ• …‘•–”—…–‡†ǡ ‹ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• length, width, direction, shape of the long sides ƒ†‡–”ƒ…‡•™‡”‡‡š–”ƒ…–‡†ǤŠ‡”‡•—Ž–†‹†‘– ›‹‡Ž†ƒ›”‡…‘‰‹•ƒ„Ž‡’ƒ––‡”•ǤŠ‡‘Ž›‹–‡”pretation that can be made is that the variables ƒ”‡‰”‘—’‡†ƒ–”ƒ†‘ƒ††‘‘–Šƒ˜‡ƒ›…‘””‡Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡”‡‹•Š‘™‡˜‡”ƒ•‡”‹‘—•‘„Œ‡…–‹‘Š‡”‡ǡ •‹…‡ –Š‡ •–ƒ†ƒ”† ‘ˆ   †‡•…”‹’–‹‘• Ž‡ƒ˜‡• —…Š –‘ „‡ †‡•‹”‡†ǤŠ‡‘Ž› ƒ†ƒ–‘”›‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”–Š‡•—”˜‡›‘”•–‘‘–‡™ƒ•–Š‡Ž‡‰–Šǡ width and in which direction it is oriented, this means that in most of the descriptions there are no notations of the entrances or the shape of the ™ƒŽŽ•‘”…‘”‡”•Ǥ –…ƒ‘–„‡ƒ••—‡†™‹–Š‘—– a doubt that there were no entrances or that the walls or corners were straight if there was

Figure 3.1b.ƒ–‡•ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘ƒ••‡ŽͳͻͻͺǤ•ǤͻͶ

‘ ‘–‹…‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘’’‘•‹–‡ǡ ‘” ˜‹…‡ ˜‡”•ƒǤ Š‡”‡ is, however, reason to believe that the result of –Š‡ …‘””‡•’‘†‡…‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‹• ˜ƒŽ‹†ǡ •‹…‡ ‹– ‹• ‹ Ž‹‡ ™‹–Š –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ‡šcavations, where the 24 excavated stone house ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•…‘—Ž†‘–„‡…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘ ‘´–Š‹—•ǯ ˆ”ƒ‡™‘” ƒ† ‹Ú”•–ƒ† ”‡‰ƒ”†‡† –Š‡ –›’‘Ž‘‰› ƒ• ˆƒŽ•‹ϐ‹‡† ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ† ͳͻͷͷǣͻͷͳȌǤ Ž‹†–Ǧ ‡•‡ȋͳͻͷͷ„Ȍƒ––‡’–‡†–‘ƒ‡ƒ‡™

…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ „ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ ‰”‡ƒ–‡” —„‡” ‘ˆ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• ƒ……‡••‹„Ž‡ ƒˆ–‡” –Š‡ ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘ǡ „—– –Š‡ …Žƒ••‡• „‡…‘‡ ˜‡”› †‹ˆˆ—•‡ ƒ† ƒ”‡ ƒ‹Ž› „ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’ „‡–™‡‡ Ž‡‰–Š ƒ† ™‹†–Š ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡• ȋŽ‹†–Ǧ ‡•‡ ͳͻͷͷ„ǣͳͲͲͲˆˆȌƒ†ƒ”‡–Š—•‘–‡ƒ‹‰ˆ—ŽǤ Š‡”‡ Šƒ• ‘– „‡‡ ƒ› ”‡ƒŽ †‹•…—••‹‘ around what constitutes the remains of a farmhouse from the mid millennium, kämpagravǤ ‘”ƒŽŽ›‹–‹••ƒ‹†–Šƒ–Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ‘Ž› ‡š‹•– ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ƒ† YŽƒ†ǡ ‹ •‘‡’ƒ”–•‘ˆ‘”™ƒ›ǡƒ‹Ž› §”‡‹‘‰ƒŽƒ†ǡ ƒ†‹‘”–Š‡”‘”™ƒ›ǤŠ‹•‹•‘Ž›’ƒ”–Ž›–”—‡ǡ since some occasional stone house foundation Šƒ˜‡„‡‡†‹•…‘˜‡”‡†‹‘–Š‡”ƒ”‡ƒ•Ǥ Š‡ –Š‡ ”‘ƒ† ͹Ͳͻ ™ƒ• •–”ƒ‹‰Š–‡‡† ‹ ʹͲͲ͸‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ‡†‡Ž‹’’Žƒ†ǡƒ‡šcavated house foundation showed great similari–‹‡•™‹–Š–Š‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ ‘–Žƒ† ƒ†YŽƒ†ǡƒ†‹•†ƒ–‡†–‘‡ƒ”Ž›–Š‡•ƒ‡–‹‡ •’ƒ ‘ˆ  ʹͶͲǦ͸ͷͲ „› ˆ‘—” ”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘ •ƒ’Ž‡•ȋŒÚ”…‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͺǣͳͶ͸ȌǤ –™ƒ•ƒ•—”’”‹•‡–‘ the archaeologists since no houses like this have ever been found in the central or northern part ‘ˆ’’Žƒ†ȋŒÚ”‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͺǣ͹ͳȌǤ Š‡†‹‡•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡‹•ƒ”‘—†ͶͲš ͳ͵ȋ‹„‹†ʹͲͲͺǣͳͲͻȌǡƒ†‹–Šƒ†ƒ•–‘‡ˆ”ƒ‡ ‘ˆ †”›•–‘‡ ƒ•‘”› ™ƒŽŽ• …‘•–”—…–‡† ‹ †‘—„Ž‡•‹™ƒŽŽ–‡…Š‹“—‡Ǥ –Š‡”‡’‘”–ǡ–Š‹••–‘‡ wall is considered to be situated outside the Š‘—•‡‹–•‡ŽˆǡŒ—•–•—””‘—†‹‰‹–ǤŠ‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‘”• interpreted remains of a wall, in the form of a small ditch inside the stone walls, as the actual ™ƒŽŽ‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡ȋŒÚ”‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͺǣͳͲͻˆȌǤ‘™ever, the traces of these walls are described in •—…Šƒ™ƒ›‹–Š‡”‡’‘”–ƒ•–‘”‡•‡„Ž‡–Š‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹‡” –”‡‡ ’ƒ‡Ž• ‘ˆ ƒ –›’‹…ƒŽ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ  •‡˜‡”ƒŽ cases, an inner wall of tree panels has been dis…‘˜‡”‡†‹ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘

‘–Žƒ†Ǥšƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ•‹‹Žƒ”™ƒŽŽ•…ƒ„‡•‡‡‹ „—‹Ž†‹‰•͵ƒ†Ͷƒ–ډŽ—†ƒ”ƒ†„—‹Ž†‹‰͹ƒ– ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ȋ•‡‡‹Ú”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷǣͻ͸͸ˆ‘”ƒ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ȌǤ – ‹• ’‘••‹„Ž‡ –Šƒ– –Š‡ †”›•–‘‡ ƒ•‘”› ™ƒŽŽ• ƒ…–—ƒŽŽ› ƒ”‡ –Š‡ ‘—–‡” ™ƒŽŽ• ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ǡ ƒ†–Š—•ƒ‡•‹–ƒƒ‹Žƒ†‡“—‹˜ƒŽ‡––‘–Š‡ Š‘—•‡•ˆ‘—†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ†YŽƒ†ǤŠ‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒtors make this observation in the report, but do ‘–ƒƒŽ›•‡‹–ˆ—”–Š‡”ȋŒÚ”‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͺǣ͹ͶȌǤŠ‡ whole surrounding environment, as described ‹–Š‡”‡’‘”–ȋŒÚ”…‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͺǣ͸ͺˆˆȌǡƒŽ•‘Šƒ•ƒ •–”‹‹‰”‡•‡„Žƒ…‡–‘ ”‘‰‡‡˜‹”‘‡–• ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ ™‹–Š •–‘‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽ•ǡ ƒ”‡ƒ• …Ž‡ƒ”‡† ‘ˆ •–‘‡• ȋˆ‘••‹Ž‹•‡† ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ȍǡ …Ž‡ƒ”ƒ…‡ …ƒ‹”•ƒ†™ƒ–‡”Š‘Ž‡•Ǥ

‘–Š‡” –›’‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• „‡Ž‘‰‹‰ to houses, existing in several places in Scandiƒ˜‹ƒǡ „—– ƒ‹Ž› ‹ ™‡†‡ǡ ƒ”‡ –Š‡ •‘Ǧ…ƒŽŽ‡† …—Ž–ǦŠ‘—•‡• ™‹–Š •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ•Ǥ —Ž– Š‘—•‡• ƒ”‡ ˆ‘—†‹ƒ›†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ˆ‘”•†—”‹‰ƒŽƒ”‰‡’ƒ”– ‘ˆ‘—”’”‡Š‹•–‘”›ǡ„—––Š‡‘‡•ƒ†‡™‹–Š™ƒŽŽ• ‘ˆ•–‘‡ƒ”‡‘–•‘…‘‘ǤŠ‡‹••—‡‘ˆ†ƒ–‹‰ ‹•†‹•…—••‡†Ǣ ”‡†”‹˜ƒ„‡”‰ȋʹͲͲ͸ǣͳʹͶȌ†ƒ–‡• –Š‡ƒ‹Ž›–‘–Š‡Žƒ–‡”‘œ‡‰‡ƒ†‡Ž‡ƒ ‹…–‘” ȋʹͲͲͳǣͳͳͺȌ ’”‹ƒ”‹Ž› †ƒ–‡• –Š‡ –‘ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž›”‘œ‡‰‡Ǥ • –Š‡ ƒ‡ ‹’Ž‹‡•ǡ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† as being the remains of houses with a different ˆ—…–‹‘–Šƒ–Šƒ–‘ˆƒ†™‡ŽŽ‹‰Š‘—•‡ǤŠ‡‹”…‘struction and setting in the landscape most of–‡†‹ˆˆ‡”•ˆ”‘‘”ƒŽ•‡––Ž‡‡–•ǡƒ†–Š‡ϐ‹† ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽˆ”‘‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•‹••‘‡™Šƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Ǥ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒ„‘—– ͸Ͳ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘™ƒ†‘Ž›ƒˆ‡™ƒ”‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†Ǥ‡’”‘„lem is that most of the excavations were carried ‘—–ƒŽ‘‰–‹‡ƒ‰‘ǡ™‹–Š’‘‘”‡–Š‘†‘Ž‘‰›ƒ† ‹ ƒ› …ƒ•‡•ǡ –Š‡ †‘…—‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ’‘‘”ǡ ‘”–Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡—”‡’‘”–‡†ǤŠ‹•ƒ‡•‹– ˜‡”›†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘‰‡–ƒ…Ž‡ƒ”’‹…–—”‡‘ˆ™Šƒ–…‘•–‹–—–‡•ƒ•‘Ǧ…ƒŽŽ‡†…—Ž–Š‘—•‡‹”‡•’‡…––‘ϐ‹†• ƒ† …‘•–”—…–‹‘ †‡–ƒ‹Ž• ȋ‹…–‘” ʹͲͲʹǣ͸͸ȌǤ – ‹• often claimed that cult houses lack postholes and hearth, and much of the debate has revolved ƒ”‘—† –Š‡•‡ ‹••—‡•Ǥ ‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘•–’”‘‹‡–…—Ž–Š‘—•‡•ƒ–¤‰ƒ‹’’Žƒ† Šƒ••‡˜‡”ƒŽŠ‡ƒ”–Š•ȋ‹…–‘”ʹͲͲʹǣͳͷͻˆˆȌƒ†ƒ…cording to Kaul, the cult houses were constructed like ‘real’ houses, with walls and roof (Kaul ʹͲͲ͸ǣͳͲ͵ˆȌǤ–Š‡‘–Š‡”Šƒ†–Š‡”‡‹•ǡƒ• ‘Ž†ŠƒŠ ȋʹͲͲ͹ǣʹͺͶȌ ‡–‹‘•ǡ ƒ ‰”‡ƒ– •’”‡ƒ† ƒ† ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‹Š‘™…—Ž–Š‘—•‡•ƒ”‡…‘•–”—…–‡†Ǥ ŽŽ ‹ ƒŽŽǡ ͻ͸ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡• Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ”‘—†ŠƒŽˆ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ȋͷͳȌŠƒ˜‡„‡‡’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘†ƒ–‡ǤŠ‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡ ƒŒ‘”‹–› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations were made before the introduction of radiocarbon dating; the dating thus relies ‘ –›’‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‘” ‘–Š‡” ‡–Š‘†•ǡ ‹ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡ ”‡ƒ‹• ƒ”‡ †ƒ–‡† ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž› –‘ ‘–Š‡” …‘•–”—…–‹‘•Ǥ Ž› ‹‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ †ƒ–‡† –Š”‘—‰Š”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘†ƒ–‹‰Ǥ ‹Ú”•–ƒ†Šƒ••…”—–‹‹œ‡†–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽƒ† ϐ‹†•ˆ”‘‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•’”‹‘”–‘ͳͻͷͲǡ in an effort to determine the period when the •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ —•‡†Ǥ Š‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘ –Šƒ– ›‹‡Ž†‡† –Š‡ ‘•– †ƒ–ƒ„Ž‡ ϐ‹†• ™ƒ• ƒ…–—ƒŽŽ› ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•–Ǣ ƒ– ‹‰• ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ‡Œ—ǡ †ƒ–ƒ„Ž‡ ’‘––‡”›ǡ ƒŽ‘‰ ™‹–Š „”‘œ‡Ǧ ƒ† ‹”‘ ƒ”–‡ˆƒ…–• ™‡”‡ ”‡…‘˜‡”‡† ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ† ͳͻͷͷǣͻ͵ʹȌǤ Š‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ƒ••—’–‹‘ ‹• –‘ †ƒ–‡ 59

Figure 3.2. ”‘•••‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡™ƒŽŽ•‹„—‹Ž†‹‰Ͷƒ–ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ȋ ”‘Œ§”—‡–ƒŽͳͻͷͷǣϐ‹‰͵ͷȌ

–Š‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –‘ ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž› ʹͲͲǦ͸ͲͲǤŠ‹•Šƒ•Š‘™‡˜‡”„‡‡…ƒŽŽ‡†—’ –‘“—‡•–‹‘„››‡•–”ƒ†ȋͳͻͺͳǣͶͺˆǤȌƒ†”‹ ›ŠŽ±ǡ™Š‘”ƒ‹•‡††‘—„–•ƒ†Šƒ˜‡’‘‹–‡†‘—– some stone house foundations with possible dates prior or post this period, and thus argues for a much longer period of use, starting before –Š‡ „‹”–Š ‘ˆ Š”‹•– —’ —–‹Ž –Š‡ ‹‹‰ ‰‡Ǥ Š‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•›ŠŽ±†‹•…—••‡•ƒ”‡…Š‹‡ϐŽ›‹‰•‹ ‡Œ—ǡ¡‡‹—”•ǡ–›”ƒ•„‡”‰‡–‹ ”ÚŒ‡Žƒ†ƒƒŽŽ‡‰‡†•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ƒ–‡˜‹†‡‹ƒŽŽǡƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•ƒ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ƒ– Y†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒ ‘ ¤”Ú ȋ›ŠŽ± ͳͻ͹͵ǣͻˆˆǡ ͳͻ͹͸ƒǣͷͷˆˆǡ ͳͻͺͳǣͷʹȌǤ  ƒ ‡š–‡•‹˜‡ †‹•…—••‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•ǡ†‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘ Šƒ•‹ƒ…‘˜‹…‹‰™ƒ›•Š‘™–Šƒ––Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ ƒ••—’–‹‘Š‘Ž†•ǡ‘”ƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–…ƒ‘–„‡ˆƒŽ•‹ϐ‹‡† „››ŠŽ±ǯ•ƒ”‰—‡–•ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡͳͻͺ͵ǣʹʹˆˆǤȌǡ ‡š…‡’–‹–Š‡…ƒ•‡‘ˆY†‡Š‘„—‰ƒ‘ ¤”Úǡ™Š‹…Š ™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†Žƒ–‡”Ǥ  ˆ—ŽŽ †‹•…—••‹‘ ƒ† ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ –Š‡ †ƒ–‡• ™‹ŽŽ‘–„‡ƒ†‡•‹…‡–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•‘ˆ†‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘ƒ†‡”•–‹ƒ••‡Žƒ”‡Žƒ”‰‡Ž›‹’‡……ƒ„Ž‡ˆ‘” –Š‡ …ƒ•‡• –Š‡› †‹•…—••Ǥ Ž› •‘‡ …ƒ•‡• ™‹ŽŽ „‡ discussed here and their arguments concerning ƒŽŽ–Š‡…ƒ•‡•™‹ŽŽ‘–„‡”‡’‡ƒ–‡†Ǥ†‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘ ȋͳͻͺ͵Ȍƒ†ƒ••‡ŽȋͳͻͻͺȌ’”‘˜‹†‡ƒˆ—ŽŽƒ……‘—– ‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•…—••‹‘Ǥ Since 1998, when Cassel published her the•‹•ǡƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•Šƒ˜‡›‹‡Ž†‡†•‘‡‹teresting material, which needs to be added to –Š‡†‹•…—••‹‘ǤŠ‡•‡ƒ”‡–Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š”‡‡ stone house foundations at different locations in ʹͲͳͲǦʹͲͳͳǢ‘‡ƒ–‡š‡–‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ‡ŽŽ˜‹ǡ ƒ •‡…‘† ƒ– –Š‡ ‰”ƒ˜‡Ǧϐ‹‡Ž† ”—ŽŽ„”¡†ƒ ‹ ƒŽŽ•–‡ƒƒ†–Š‡–Š‹”†™‹–Š‹–Š‡‡š’ƒ†‹‰…‹–›‘ˆ ‹•„›ǡƒ–”–‹ŽŽ‡”‹‡–ͳǣ͵͵Ǥ Š‡ Žƒ––‡” ‹• †ƒ–‡† –‘ –Š‡ Žƒ–‡ ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡Ȁ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘† „› –™‘ ”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘ –‡•–•Ǥ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡Š‘™‡˜‡”‘”‡ƒ‹‹‰•–‘‡•ˆ”‘–Š‡ walls, but since it is situated in what used to be a ϐ‹‡Ž†ǡ–Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‘”••’‡…—Žƒ–‡ƒ„‘—–‹–„‡‹‰–Š‡ ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ ƒ †‡‘Ž‹•Š‡† ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ȋ‹…ƒǦ›†‘Žˆ ʹͲͳͲǣͳͻȌǡ ™Š‹…Š•‘—†•’Žƒ—•‹„Ž‡Ǥ ˆ–Š‡…”‘•••‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†„—‹Ž†‹‰ Ͷ ƒ– ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ‹• •–—†‹‡† ȋŒ§”— ‡– ƒŽ ͳͻͷͷǣϐ‹‰

͸Ͳ

͵ͷȌǡ‹–…ƒ„‡‘„•‡”˜‡†–Šƒ––Š‡•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒ”‡‘– †—‰‹–‘–Š‡‰”‘—†ǤŠ‡•–‘‡•ƒ”‡Œ—•–’Žƒ…‡†‘ the surface and the bottom of the stone walls are Ž‡˜‡Ž ™‹–Š –Š‡ •—””‘—†‹‰•Ǥ Š‡ ‘Ž› •–‘‡• Ž›ing on a deeper level seem to have been the big „‘—Ž†‡”•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‡”‡ ‘•– Ž‹‡Ž› –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– –‘ „‡ ”‡‘˜‡†™Š‡–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†™ƒ•…Ž‡ƒ”‡†ˆ‘”‘†‡” cultivation in the 19th‘”ʹͲth…‡–—”›ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ• that no traces of the stone walls would be pre•‡”˜‡†ƒˆ–‡”–Š‡–—”ˆ‹•”‡‘˜‡†„›†”‡†‰‡Žƒ†Ž‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‘”†‘™–‘–Š‡ϐŽ‘‘”Ž‡˜‡Ž‘ˆ–Š‡„—‹Ž†‹‰ ‘”•Ž‹‰Š–Ž›—†‡”ǡƒ•™ƒ•–Š‡…ƒ•‡‹–Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘ ƒ–”–‹ŽŽ‡”‹‡–ͳǣ͵͵Ǥ Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ ‡ŽŽ˜‹ ȋ" ‡ŽŽ˜‹ ͶͶȌǡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ‹ ʹͲͳͲ„› ‘–Žƒ†—•‡——†‡”–Š‡Ž‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’ ‘ˆ‡”‹†‡”•–”ڏǡϐ‹––Š‡’”‘ϐ‹Ž‡’‡”ˆ‡…–Ž›ˆ‘”ƒ •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡”‡‰—Žƒ” ”‘‰‡ –›’‡ǡ™‹–Šϐ‹†•ˆ”‘–Š‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡Ǥ‡”‡ǡ –Š‡›‘—‰‡•–‘„Œ‡…–‹•†ƒ–‡†–‘…ƒǤ͸ͲͲȋ ‘–Žƒ†•—•‡—ʹͲͳͳǤ”ʹͲͳͳǦͲʹ͹ͻȌǤ ‘–‘Ž›†‘•–‘‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•‡šist in other parts of Scandinavia belonging to different traditions and time spans, there are also •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ ‘–Žƒ†–Šƒ–ƒ”‡‘– †ƒ–‡†–‘Žƒ–‡”‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ƒ†Ȁ‘”‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘†Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡•‡ƒ”‡…‘•–”—…–‡†‹ƒ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–™ƒ›ƒ†ƒ”‡‘•–‘ˆ–‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†‹†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•—””‘—†‹‰•ǡ•‘–Š‡›ƒ”‡‘”ƒŽŽ›‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‡ƒ•‹Ž›ǤŠ‡›ƒ”‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘–˜‡”›ƒ›ǡ„—––Š‡› †‘‡š‹•–Ǥ‘›‘™Ž‡†‰‡ǡ–Š‹•Šƒ•‘–„‡‡†‹•cussed earlier, but there is a need to do so, since the few existing anomalies cannot be explained ƒ™ƒ› ™‹–Š •–ƒ–‡‡–• –Šƒ– –Š‡”‡ ‹• •‘‡–Š‹‰ wrong with the dating, or the dating is made on •‘‡–Š‹‰‘Ž†‡”Ȁ›‘—‰‡”‘–’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š‹•‘ˆ–‡–Š‡…ƒ•‡–‘†ƒ›Ǥ Š‡‹–…‘‡•–‘–›”ƒ•„‡”‰‡–ȋ" ”ÚŒ‡ŽͶͷȌǡ –Š‹–Š‡‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”–Š‡†ƒ–‹‰ǡ™Š‹…Š ‹•‰‹˜‡„›†‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘ȋͳͻͺ͵ǣʹͶȌŠ‘Ž†•ǡƒ† –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ‹• …‘‡˜ƒŽ ™‹–Š ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ǡ ƒ† –Š—• „‡ †ƒ–‡† –‘ –Š‡ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ Š‹• ‹•‹†‹…ƒ–‡†„›–Š‡…‘•–”—…–‹‘ǡƒ†’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‹– should be seen in the same light as the founda–‹‘•‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•‹–Š‡Š‹ŽŽˆ‘”–ƒ–‡””‰¤”†•Ž‹–‹ –Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ ƒ‡Ž‰ƒ”ǤŠ‡•–‘‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘

ƒ––›”ƒ•„‡”‰‡–‹••‹–—ƒ–‡†‹ƒ•–”ƒ–‡‰‹…’‘•‹–‹‘„›‘”‹ƒŠ‹ŽŽˆ‘”–ȋ—†•–”ڏͳͻͷͷȌǤ ‹˜‡ house foundations are located within a hillfort ƒ–‡””‰¤”†•Ž‹–ȋ" ƒ‡Ž‰ƒ”ͷͳȌǡ™Š‹…Š …ƒ ˜‡”› ˜ƒ‰—‡Ž› „‡ †ƒ–‡† –‘ ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷǣͻͶͻȌǤŠ‡›…ƒƒŽ•‘„‡•‡‡‹ a similar context as other house foundations in remote barren land, as will be discussed later in ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•–‘…‘‡Ǥ ‘–Š‡” ‘ˆ –Š‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ– ™ƒ• ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ‹ ”‡…‡– ›‡ƒ”• ‹• •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‹”—ŽŽ„”¡†ƒ‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆƒŽŽ•–‡ƒȋ" ƒŽŽ•–‡ƒͻͲȌǢ–Š‡•–”—…–—”‡…ƒ’‘••‹„Ž›”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘†ƒ–‡†–‘ͶͳȂͺͺȋ…ƒŽʹȭȌǤŽ‹‰Š–Ž› ——•—ƒŽŽ›ǡ ‹– …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ –™‘ •ƒŽŽ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• or sections, with one wall in common; in the folŽ‘™‹‰ǡ ™‹ŽŽ”‡ˆ‡”–‘‹–ƒ•‘‡•–”—…–—”‡Ǥ—”‹‰

Figure 3.3a. Š‡ –™‘ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‹ ”—ŽŽ„”¡†ƒ ‹ ƒŽŽ•–‡ƒ ’ƒ”‹•Š ȋƒŽŽ•–‡ƒ ͻͲȌǤ ”‘‡ŠŽ‹ʹͲͳͳ’ǤͺǤ

the surrounding landscape and other archaeoŽ‘‰‹…ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•Ǥ‡ŠŽ‹™ƒ•‹–‡”‡•–‡†‹–Š‡•‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• „‡…ƒ—•‡ –Š‡› †‹ˆˆ‡” •‘ —…Š ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‘”†‹ƒ”› –›’‡Ǣ Š‹• ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š “—‡•–‹‘…‘…‡”‡†™Š‡–Š‡”–Š‹•…‘—Ž†„‡ƒ…—Ž– Š‘—•‡ˆ”‘–Š‡”‘œ‡‰‡ǤŠ‹•‹•ƒƒŽ›•‡†‹ a bachelor thesis and the conclusion is that this –›’‡‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘Šƒ•—…Š‹…‘‘ with cult houses on the Swedish mainland (Richƒ”†•‘ʹͲͳͳȌǤ • …ƒ „‡ •‡‡ ‹ ϐ‹‰ ͵Ǥ͵ƒǡ „‘–Š –Š‡ •Šƒ’‡ ƒ† ’‘•‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ –™‘ •‡…–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ˜‡”› ‘††Ǥ Š‡™ƒŽŽ••‡‡–‘Žƒ…ƒ›•‹Ǧ™ƒŽŽ–‡…Š‹“—‡ …‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ‘‡‘—–‡”ƒ†‘‡‹‡”†”›•–‘‡ ƒ•‘”› ™ƒŽŽǡ ™‹–Š ƒ ϐ‹ŽŽ‹‰ ‘ˆ †‹”– ƒ† •ƒŽŽ‡” •–‘‡• ‹Ǧ„‡–™‡‡Ǥ Š‡•‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ƒ”‡ Œ—•– •–‘‡ boulders piled up as simple walls sharing one

Figure 3.3b. Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ƒ–Y†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒȋ ¤”Úʹ͸ͺȌƒˆ–‡”–Š‡–—”ˆ™ƒ• ”‡‘˜‡†ǤŠ‡ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†‡–”ƒ…‡•ƒ”‡ƒ”‡† „›–Š‡„Žƒ…•“—ƒ”‡•ȋ”ͶͻͻͲȀͺͻƬ Ǧƒ”‹˜‡– ‘–Žƒ†•—•‡—ȌǤ

–Š‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘ǡ‘Ž›–™‘–‡•–Ǧ’‹–•™‡”‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†…Ž‘•‡–‘–Š‡™ƒŽŽ•‹‡ƒ…Š‘ˆ–Š‡–™‘•‡…–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡ƒ‹’—”’‘•‡™ƒ•–‘†ƒ–‡–Š‡•–”—…–—”‡ƒ† if possible, see how the walls were constructed ȋ‡ŠŽ‹‡–ƒŽʹͲͳͳȌǤ   ‹–‹•…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•ƒ •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡•ƒ‡–›’‡ƒ•–Š‡ ‘–Š‡”• ƒƒŽ›•‡† ‹ –Š‹• ™‘”ǡ Husgrund, förhistorisk/medeltida, Typ: Husgrund med vallformig begränsning (House foundation, prehistoric/me†‹‡˜ƒŽǤ›’‡ǣ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘†‡ϔ‹‡†„›ƒ‡bankmentȌǤ It is not included in the database for the ’”‡•‡–™‘”ǡ•‹…‡–Š‹••–”—…–—”‡‹•…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›‘ˆƒ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –›’‡ –Šƒ –Š‡ ‘”ƒŽ –›’‡ ‘ˆ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡•ǤŠ‡•–”—…–—”‡†‹ˆfers in important aspects from these, concerning construction, as well as the placing in relation to

™ƒŽŽǢ –Š‹• ‹‰Š– ’‘••‹„Ž› „‡ …‘•‹†‡”‡† ƒ• ‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ™‹–Š –™‘ ”‘‘•Ǥ Š‡ ‡–”ƒ…‡• ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ ˜‡”› ƒ””‘™ ƒ† ƒ”‡ ——•—ƒŽŽ› ’Žƒ…‡† ‹ –Š‡ long side of the house, near the gable-end of the Š‘—•‡Ǥ Š‡ ‡–”ƒ…‡• ‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ƒ”‡ ƒŽ‘•– ™‹–Š‘—– ‡š…‡’–‹‘•’Žƒ…‡†‹–Š‡‰ƒ„Ž‡Ǧ‡†Ǥ ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–Š‡ fact that this structure is placed in the middle of ƒ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž† ƒ† ‹ ƒ ƒ”‡ƒ ‘ˆ „ƒ””‡ Žƒ†ǡ ˆƒ” ˆ”‘ ƒ› ˆ‡”–‹Ž‡ •‘‹Žǡ ƒ‡• ‹– ——•—ƒŽ ȋ‡ŠŽ‹ ‡–ƒŽʹͲͳͳȌǤŠ‹•‹•†‡ϐ‹‹–‡Ž›‘‘”†‹ƒ”›•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡Ǧ–›’‡ǡ •‘ –Š‡› —•– ”‡’”‡•‡– •‘‡–Š‹‰ ‡Ž•‡Ǥ ‹…‡ –Š‡ ‡š…ƒvation was so limited, no other information con…‡”‹‰–Š‡…‘•–”—…–‹‘™ƒ•”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡†Ǥ ‘–Š‡”…ƒ•‡–Šƒ–—•–„‡†‹•…—••‡†‹•–Š‡ •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ƒ–Y†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒ‘ ¤”Ú

͸ͳ

ȋ" ¤”Ú ʹ͸ͺȌǤ – ‹• ƒ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ǡ ‡ƒ•—”‹‰ •‘‡ ͳ͵ š ͺ ‡–”‡•ǡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† „› ƒǦ‡ƒ ‡”†‹ ‹ –Š‡ ͳͻ͹Ͳ•Ǥ Š‡ excavation revealed one certain and one uncertain hearth, along with three postholes of a thin †‹‡•‹‘ǡ‘Ž›ͳʹǦͳͺ…‹†‹ƒ‡–‡”Ǥˆ‘—”–Š ’‘•–Š‘Ž‡‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‹••‹‰ǤŠ‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‘”ƒŽ•‘ found traces of what might have been two en–”ƒ…‡•Ǣ‘‡‹‡ƒ…ŠŽ‘‰•‹†‡ǡ„—––Š‡›ƒ”‡˜‡”› —…‡”–ƒ‹Ǥ ™‘ ”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘ •ƒ’Ž‡• †ƒ–‡• ‹– –‘ –Š‡ –™‘ Žƒ•– …‡–—”‹‡• „‡ˆ‘”‡ Š”‹•–Ǥ Š‡”‡ ‹• •‘‡ —…‡”–ƒ‹–› ‘ˆ ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡ •ƒ’Ž‡• ˆ‘” –Š‡ ”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘†ƒ–‹‰™‡”‡–ƒ‡Ǥ –Š‡”‡’‘”–ǡ‘–Šing is mentioned about where the one sample, Ǧ͹ͷʹǡ ™ƒ• …‘ŽŽ‡…–‡†ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‘–Š‡”ǡ –ͷͷͶͳǡ ‹• ƒ‡†Ͷ‹–Š‡Žƒ„”‡’‘”–Ǥ –Š‡Ž‹•–‘ˆϐ‹†•ǡ K4 is marked as a charcoal sample taken from ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡–”ƒ…‡• ȋ ‡”†‹ ͳͻͺͻȌǤ  –Š‡ ‘•teological report, osteologist Sabine Sten (Sten ͳͻͻͺȌ •–ƒ–‡• –Šƒ– –™‘ …Šƒ”…‘ƒŽ •ƒ’Ž‡• ˆ‘” ”ƒdiocarbon dating, were collected from hearth —„‡”–™‘ǤŠ‹•‹•…‡”–ƒ‹–‘„‡ƒŠ‡ƒ”–Šǡ‹–Š‡ bottom there were packed stones and dirt mixed ™‹–Š…Šƒ”…‘ƒŽƒ†•‘‘–ǤŠ‹•‹‰Š–„‡–Š‡’Žƒ…‡ ˆ‘”–Š‡Ǧ͹ͷʹ•ƒ’Ž‡ǡ„—––Š‡‡šƒ…–•’‘–ˆ‘”–Š‡ •ƒ’Ž‡•‹•—…Ž‡ƒ”Ǥ ‹‡…‡• ‘ˆ ’‘––‡”› ™‡”‡ ˆ‘—† ‡š– –‘ –Š‡ …Šƒ”…‘ƒŽǤ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡’‘–•Š‡”†•™‡”‡ƒ••‡„Ž‡† ‹–‘ ’ƒ”– ‘ˆ ƒ ˜‡••‡Žǡ ”‡•‡„Ž‹‰ ƒ ”‘œ‡ ‰‡–›’‡ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒ›’Š‘–‘•ˆ”‘–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”ent stages of the excavation, including a series of ˜‡”–‹…ƒŽ’Š‘–‘‰”ƒ’Š•Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰–‘–Š‡”‡’‘”–ǡ–Š‡™ƒŽŽ•™‡”‡‘Ž› ’ƒ”–Ž›„—‹Ž–‹†”›•–‘‡•‹™ƒŽŽ–‡…Š‹“—‡ȋ ‡”†‹ ͳͻͺͲȌǤ Š‡ •–‘‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ ‹ –Š‡ ™ƒŽŽ …‘•–”—…–‹‘ ‘•–Ž› …‘•‹•–•‘ˆ ϐŽƒ‡• ‘ˆ Ž‹‡•–‘‡ or small stones and seems to be built in a much •‹’Ž‡”–‡…Š‹“—‡ǤŠ‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒ”‡“—‹–‡–Š‹ƒ† from measurements in the vertical images, it can „‡‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†–Šƒ––Š‡›™‡”‡‘”ƒŽŽ›‘Ž›…Ǥ͹Ͳ … –Š‹…ǡ ƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š ‹ •‘‡ •‡…–‹‘• –Š‡› ™‡”‡ –Š‹…‡”Ǥ Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ƒ „ƒ† ‘ˆ •–‘‡• ”—‹‰ through the centre of the house foundation, parƒŽŽ‡Ž™‹–Š–Š‡Ž‘‰•‹†‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›˜‹•‹„Ž‡ ‹–Š‡’Š‘–‘•Ǥ –‹•‘–‡–‹‘‡†‹–Š‡”‡’‘”–ǡ and must have been removed because it was interpreted as not being a part of the construction, •‹…‡–Š‡”‡’‘”–…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›•–ƒ–‡•–Šƒ–ƒŽŽ•–‘‡ǡ‘– „‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘ƒ…‘•–”—…–‹‘™‡”‡”‡‘˜‡†Ǥ‘™ever, it looks like a wall that had caved in, thus dividing the house foundation in two sections, •‹‹Žƒ”–‘–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‹”—ŽŽ„”¡†ƒǤ Š‡’‘•–Š‘Ž‡•ƒŽ•‘‹†‹…ƒ–‡–Šƒ––Š‡’‘Ž‡•™‡”‡ ‘ˆ˜‡”›–Š‹ƒ†™‡ƒ†‹‡•‹‘•ƒ†•–ƒ†‹‰

͸ʹ

ˆƒ”ƒ’ƒ”–ǤŠ‡ˆƒ…––Šƒ––Š‡™ƒŽŽ•—•–Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ rather unstable, considering the small sizes of the stones, points to the circumstance that neither the posts nor the walls could have support‡† ƒ› ‹† ‘ˆ ‘”‡ ‡Žƒ„‘”ƒ–‡ ”‘‘ˆǡ ‹ˆ ‹– Šƒ† ƒ ”‘‘ˆǤŠ‹•…ƒ‘–„‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•ƒ ”‘‰‡ •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‘”ƒŽ–›’‡Ǥ †‡”•ƒ”Ž••‘†‘‡•‘–†‹•…—••–Š‹•…ƒ•‡ —…Šǡ„—–•‹’Ž›†‹•‹••‡•‹–™‹–Š–Š‡ƒ”‰—‡– –Šƒ–‹–‹•—…Ž‡ƒ”™Šƒ–‹–™ƒ•–Šƒ–™ƒ•†ƒ–‡†Ǥ‡ points to the fact that it is not uncommon for stone house foundations to superimpose older •‡––Ž‡‡– Žƒ›‡”• ȋƒ”Ž••‘ǡ  ͳͻͺ͵ǣʹ͵ǡ ƒ••‡Ž ͳͻͻͺǣͺ͹ȌǤŠ‹•ƒ›‘ˆ…‘—”•‡ƒŽ•‘„‡ƒ’Žƒ—•‹„Ž‡ explanation in this case, but since no other traces of an older settlement were found, it is pos•‹„Ž›‘”‡Ž‹‡Ž›–Šƒ––Š‡ϐ‹†•ƒ”‡…‘‡…–‡†–‘ –Š‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡•‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡•„‡–™‡‡Y†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒ ƒ† …—Ž– Š‘—•‡•Ǥ Š‡ ”‡’‘”– †‘‡• ‘– ‡–‹‘ ƒ›…—Ž–—”ƒŽȀ•‡––Ž‡‡–Žƒ›‡”ƒ†–Š‡ˆ‡™ϐ‹†• …‘•‹•– ‘ˆ ‘Ž› ’‘––‡”› ƒ† „‘‡•Ǥ ‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ „‘‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽˆ‘—†‹Y†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒ‹•†‘‹ƒ–‡†„›–‡‡–Šƒ†Œƒ™•ǡ’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›ˆ”‘Š‘”•‡ƒ† …ƒ––Ž‡Ǥ –Š‡…—Ž–Š‘—•‡‹”‘„›‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ ڔŒ‡‹’’Žƒ†ǡ•‡˜‡”ƒŽ–‡‡–Šˆ”‘Š‘”•‡ƒ† …ƒ––Ž‡ ™‡”‡ ˆ‘—† ȋ‹…–‘” ʹͲͲʹǣͳͲͻȌǤ – Y†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒ ϐ‹”‡Ǧ…”ƒ…‡† •–‘‡• ƒ”‡ ˆ‘—† ‹ –™‘ areas inside the house, of which one was inter’”‡–‡†ƒ•ƒŠ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ    –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ ”‡…‘”† ‘ˆ ƒ ‰”ƒ˜‡ǡ •—’’‘•‡†Ž› ‡š‹•–‹‰ ‘ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ǡ ƒ† ƒ”‘—† ʹͲͲ ‡–”‡• –‘ –Š‡  –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž† ƒ† …ƒ‹”•Ǥ Š‡–Š‡” –Š‡› ƒ”‡ …‘‡˜ƒŽ ™‹–Š –Š‡Š‘—•‡Ǧˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‹•—‘™ǤŠ‹•…‹”…—stance is similar to other known cult houses ȋ‹…–‘”ʹͲͲʹȌǤY†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒƒŽ•‘Šƒ••‘‡•‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡• ™‹–Š ”—ŽŽ„”¡†ƒǡ ƒ• „‘–Š Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—dations have their entrances in the long sides and both can be seen to consist of two parallel ”‘‘•Ǥ……‘”†‹‰–‘‡ŠŽ‹‡–ƒŽȋʹͲͳͳǣʹͲȌǡ„‘–Š Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡Ž‘…ƒ–‡†”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›…Ž‘•‡–‘ •Š‹’•‡––‹‰•Ǥ›‘™Ž‡†‰‡‘ˆ…—Ž–Š‘—•‡•‹•–‘‘ •ŠƒŽŽ‘™ƒ†–Š‹•‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‘‹•–‘‘…—”•‘”›ˆ‘” ƒ› …Ž‡ƒ” •–ƒ–‡‡– …‘…‡”‹‰ ™Š‡–Š‡” „‘–Š Y†‡Š‘„—”‰ƒ ƒ† ”—ŽŽ„”¡†ƒ ƒ”‡ …—Ž– Š‘—•‡•ǡ „—––Š‡”‡‹•—…Š–‘‹†‹…ƒ–‡–Šƒ––Š‹•‹•–Š‡…ƒ•‡Ǥ Š‡”‡…ƒ„‡†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–‹‡••‡’ƒ”ƒ–‹‰…—Ž–Š‘—•‡• ˆ”‘‘”†‹ƒ”›Š‘—•‡•ǡ„‡…ƒ—•‡ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘‹–‘”ǡ–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡‹†‡ƒ‘ˆ…—Ž–Š‘—•‡•‹•–Šƒ––Š‡›ƒ”‡ ƒ •›„‘Ž‹… ƒ† ‹†‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ †™‡ŽŽ‹‰Š‘—•‡ȋ‹…–‘”ʹͲͲʹǣͳͷͲȌǤ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ‘–Š‡” ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ‘ˆ •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•–Šƒ–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›…ƒ‘–„‡ ”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ• ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•

”‡’”‡•‡–‹‰ˆƒ”Š‘—•‡•ǤŠ‡  ™ƒ••…”—–‹‹œ‡† ˆ‘” ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ”‡…‘”†•™‡”‡ˆ‘—†–Šƒ–‹•‘‡™ƒ›™‡”‡‘†† ‘”‘—–‘ˆ–Š‡‘”†‹ƒ”›Ǥƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡™Š‡”‡˜‹•‹–‡†ˆ‘”ϐ‹‡Ž†‹•’‡…–‹‘ƒ†•‘‡™‡”‡‡š…Ž—†‡† ˆ”‘ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•Ǣ –Š‡•‡ ƒ‹Ž› …‘•‹•–‡† ‘ˆ•‹–‡•…Ž‘•‡–‘–Š‡…‘ƒ•–ǤŠ‡‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘–Šƒ– ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‡† “—‹–‡ˆƒ”ˆ”‘–Š‡…‘ƒ•–‹•‘Ž†ƒ†ƒ†‡ƒŽ”‡ƒ†› „›‡‡”•–‡‹ͳͻͲʹȋ‹ŠŽ±ͳͻ͵͵ǣʹͲȌǤ›Ž± …‘•‹†‡”• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ‹†‡ƒ ‘ˆ ‘– •‡––Ž‹‰ „› –Š‡ …‘ƒ•– ™ƒ• ƒ ™ƒ› –‘ ’”‡˜‡– „‡‹‰ •—„Œ‡…–‡† –‘ ’Ž—†‡”‹‰”ƒ‹†•ˆ”‘–Š‡•‡ƒȋ›Ž±ͳͻ͹͵ǣʹͺȌǤ šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ‡š…Ž—†‡†  ”‡…‘”†•‹…Ž—†‡ –Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰•‹–‡•Ǥ" ƒ‡Ž‰ƒ”ͳͶ͵‹•ƒ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘”‹‰Š–„‡•‹†‡ƒ…ƒ‹”ǡ ˆƒ‹”Ž›…Ž‘•‡–‘–Š‡…‘ƒ•–Ǥ –™ƒ••‘‘˜‡”‰”‘™„› moss, that the construction of the walls could ‘–„‡…Žƒ”‹ϐ‹‡†Ǥ"—‡Ž—†ƒͻ…‘•–‹–—–‡• –Š‡”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆƒ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›Š‘—•‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†…Ž‘•‡–‘ –Š‡•Š‘”‡Ǥ‡‡”•–‡‡–‹‘•–Š‹•ƒ•ƒ‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆƒ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘…Ž‘•‡ –‘–Š‡…‘ƒ•–ȋ‹ŠŽ±ͳͻ͵͵ǣʹͲȌǡ„—––Š‹•†ƒ–‹‰‹• Šƒ”†Ž›Ž‹‡Ž›ǤŠ‡™ƒŽŽ••‡‡–‘Žƒ…ƒ›ˆ‘”‘ˆ •‹Ǧ™ƒŽŽ ‘” †”›•–‘‡ –‡…Š‹“—‡ǡ …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ •–‘‡•Œ—•––Š”‘™—’–‘ˆ‘”ƒ™ƒŽŽǤ –Š‡˜‹…‹‹–›ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ˆ”‘–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡Ȃ ‡ƒ”Ž›‹††Ž‡‰‡•ȋ"—‡Ž—†ƒͺȌǤ–Š‹”† ‡šƒ’Ž‡‹•"‹Ž–‡ͳͶǡ…‘’”‹•‹‰•‡˜‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• Ž‘…ƒ–‡† …Ž‘•‡ –‘ –Š‡ …‘ƒ•–Ǥ Several of the house foundations are grouped Ž‹‡ ƒ ˆƒ ƒ”‘—† ƒ …ƒ‹”Ǥ ‘ ϐ‹ƒŽ‹•‡ –Š‹• Ž‹•– ‘ˆ ‡šƒ’Ž‡•ǡ™‡…ƒ‡–‹‘ƒ’”‘„ƒ„Ž‡‹‹‰ƒ‰‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ‹ ƒŽ‹‰„‘ ȋ" ƒŽ‹‰„‘ͳʹͲȌǤŠ‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒ”‡‘•–Ž›‘ˆ•ƒ†™‹–Š‘Ž› ‘……ƒ•‹‘ƒŽ•–‘‡•Ǥ –‹••‹–—ƒ–‡†˜‡”›…Ž‘•‡–‘–Š‡ •Š‘”‡ǡƒ–ƒ‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘Ž›…ƒ͵‡–”‡•‹ƒ ƒ”‡ƒ ƒ‡† ¡…Š—•˜‹‡Ǥ Š‡ snäck name is ’‘••‹„Ž› ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š –Š‡ ‹‹‰ ‰‡Ȁ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ‹Ž‹–ƒ”›‘”‰ƒ‹•ƒ–‹‘…ƒŽŽ‡†ledungenȋŽ••‘ ͳͻ͹ʹǣʹͲͺȌǤ Š‡•‡ …‹”…—•–ƒ…‡• •—’’‘”– ƒ †ƒ–‹‰–‘–Š‡‹‹‰‰‡Ǥ Š‡ƒŽŽ‡‰‡†•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ƒ–ƒŽŽ ‹ ‡˜‹†‡ǡ ”‡ˆ‡””‡† –‘ „› ›ŠŽ± ƒ• ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundation with a late date, is more Ž‹‡Ž› –‘ „‡ ƒ stenfotshus ȋ•‹ŽŽ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡Ȍ ‘ˆ •‘‡‹†ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷǣͻ͸͸Ȍǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ• –Šƒ––Š‡•–‘‡•ƒ”‡Œ—•––Š‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”™ƒŽŽ• ‘ˆ–‹„‡”‘”’Žƒ•ǤŠ‹•–›’‡‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•–ƒ”–•–‘ ƒ’’‡ƒ”‹–Š‡Žƒ–‡‹‹‰‰‡Ǥ Š‡•‡ ƒ”‡ Œ—•– •‘‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‘ˆ •–‘‡ house foundations that cannot be referred to as ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹— –›’‡Ǥ – —•– –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ „‡ ”‡…‘‰‹œ‡† –Šƒ– •‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡…‘”†• ‹   ‘ˆ –Š‡ –›’‡

Husgrund, förhistorisk/medeltida, Typ: Husgrund med vallformig begränsning are of a different –›’‡ƒ†ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”’‡”‹‘†•ǤŠ‡”‡‹•‘”‡ƒ•‘ –‘„‡Ž‹‡˜‡–Šƒ––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡•‡Ǥ••–ƒ–‡†„‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ–Š‡†‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡†  †ƒ–ƒ™ƒ••…”—–‹‹œ‡†ƒ†ƒŽŽ ƒ‘ƒŽ‹‡•ˆ‘—†™‡”‡‡š…Ž—†‡†Ǥ ‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ‹–‹••‘‡–‹‡•Šƒ”†–‘Œ—†‰‡Œ—•– „› ”‡ƒ†‹‰ ƒ •Š‘”– –‡š– †‡•…”‹’–‹‘ǡ •‘‡–‹‡• –Š‡ •—”˜‡›‘” Š‹•‡Žˆ …ƒ‘– ‹–‡”’”‡– ™Šƒ– Š‡ •‡‡•Ǣ–Š‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡Ž‹‡Ž›–‘„‡•‘‡ ƒ‘ƒŽ‹‡•Ž‡ˆ–ǤŠ‹•‹•Š‘™‡˜‡”ƒŽ™ƒ›•–Š‡…ƒ•‡ ™Š‡ ™‘”‹‰ ™‹–Š †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡• Ž‹‡   ƒ† since the number of records is so large, some ʹͲͲͲǡ‹–‹•‹’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘˜‹•‹–ƒŽŽ—…‡”–ƒ‹•‹–‡• –‘ƒ‡›‘—”‘™‘’‹‹‘‹–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ since the database is so large, minor errors and anomalies will not affect or bias the results to ƒ›‰”‡ƒ–‡”†‡‰”‡‡Ǥ •‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘”–Š…‘‹‰ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ‹–™‹ŽŽ„‡•‡‡Š‘™Ž‹––Ž‡–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•ƒ”‡ „‹ƒ•‡†„›•ƒŽŽ‡”†‡ϐ‹…‹‡…‹‡•Ǥ

The issue of contemporaneity and the presence of other house types during the mid millennium Š‡•‡‹••—‡•ƒ”‡†‹•…—••‡†„›ƒ••‡ŽȋͳͻͻͺǣͻͲˆǡ ͳͳͳˆȌǡ „—–  †‘ ‘– ˆ—ŽŽ› ƒ‰”‡‡ ™‹–Š Š‡” …‘clusions, so some additional remarks must be ƒ†‡ǤŠ‡ƒ”‰—‡•–Šƒ–‘–ƒŽŽ–Š‡”‡ƒ‹‹‰ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ …‘‡˜ƒŽ ƒ† –Š‘•‡ •‡‡ –‘†ƒ› ƒ”‡ –Š‡ ƒ……——Žƒ–‡† —„‡”Ǥ šƒ…–Ž› Š‘™ Žƒ”‰‡ ƒ ’‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡ •Š‡ …‘•‹†‡”• to have been in use at the same time is not stat‡†ǤŠ‡ƒ”‰—‡•–Šƒ–‹ˆ–Š‡›ƒŽŽ™‡”‡‹—•‡ƒ––Š‡ •ƒ‡–‹‡ǡ–Š‡Ž‹ˆ‡•’ƒ‘ˆƒŠ‘—•‡™‘—Ž†„‡ͶͲͲ ›‡ƒ”•ǡ™Š‹…Š™‘—Ž†‹†‡‡†„‡ƒ˜‡”›Ž‘‰–‹‡Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‹••–ƒ–‡‡–‹•‘Ž›–”—‡‹ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡• ™‡”‡„—‹Ž–ƒ”‘—†ʹͲͲƒ†™‡”‡ƒ„ƒ†‘‡† ‹͸ͲͲǡ™Š‹…Š‹•—Ž‹‡Ž›Ǥ

ږŠ„‡”‰ Šƒ• ƒ†‡ ƒ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Ž‹ˆ‡•’ƒ ‘ˆ –”ƒ†‹–‹‘ƒŽŽ› „—‹Ž– Ž‘‰ Š‘—•‡• –Š”‘—‰Š‘—–…ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒǡ™Š‹…Š™‡”‡‘•–Ž›†ƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡Žƒ–‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž› ”‘‰‡ǤŠ‡”‡•—Ž–‹†‹…ƒ–‡•ƒŽ‹ˆ‡•’ƒ”ƒ‰‹‰ˆ”‘͵Ͳ—’–‘ ͵ͲͲ›‡ƒ”•ǤŠ‡‘•–…‘‘‹•ƒ”‘—†ͳͲͲ–‘ ͳͷͲ›‡ƒ”•ȋ ږŠ„‡”‰ʹͲͲͲǣͳͲͻȌǤ‡––Ž‡‡–•‹–‡• ƒ••—…Šƒ›Šƒ˜‡„‡‡—•‡†ˆ‘”ƒ˜‡”›Ž‘‰’‡”‹‘†ǡƒ•‹•–Š‡…ƒ•‡‘ ‘–Žƒ††‹•…—••‡†ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ  ‘”–Š‡” ‡”ƒ›ƒ†‘ŽŽƒ††—”‹‰–Š‡ƒ”Ž› ”‘ ‰‡ǡ •‡––Ž‡‡– •‹–‡• ™‡”‡ ‘”ƒŽŽ› —•‡† ˆ‘”ʹͲͲǦ͵ͲͲ›‡ƒ”•ƒ†—’–‘ͶͲͲ›‡ƒ”•ȋƒŽŽ‡” ͳͻͺ͸ǣʹͲʹˆȌǤ Š‡ …‘•–”—…–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ™ƒ• ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ˜‡”›

͸͵

time consuming, both to collect all the stones ƒ† –‘ …‘•–”—…– –Š‡ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡•Ǥ Š‡ Ž‹ˆ‡ •’ƒ ™‘—Ž† ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› „‡ Ž‘‰‡” –Šƒ ˆ‘” Š‘—•‡• ‹ ‘–Š‡” ’ƒ”–• ‘ˆ …ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒǤ Š‡ …‘•–”—…–‹‘ ™‹–Š ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž› •ŠƒŽŽ‘™ ’‘•–Š‘Ž‡•ǡ where the post often was placed on a stone •Žƒ„ǡ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ƒŽ•‘’”‘Ž‘‰‡†–Š‡Ž‹ˆ‡–‹‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ’‘•–•ǤŠ‹•–›’‡‘ˆ’‘•–Š‘Ž‡™ƒ•‘ˆ–‡ˆ‘—†‹ ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ȋƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”  ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲͲǦʹͶ͹ȌǤ ƒ› ‘ˆ the excavated houses also show traces of recon•–”—…–‹‘ ƒ† ”‡’ƒ‹”•Ǥ Š‹• ‹• …‘ϐ‹”‡† ™Š‡ –Š‡†ƒ–‡† ”‘‰‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡• ƒ”‡…‘•‹†‡”‡†Ǥ ’ƒ”–ˆ”‘–Š‡ˆ‡™•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• discussed earlier, with dates prior to the late Roƒ ”‘‰‡ǡ‘Ž›–™‘‘ˆ–Š‡•‘‡ͶͲ–‘ͷͲ†ƒ–‡† houses have dates that could not be extended into –Š‡‹‰”ƒ–‹‘’‡”‹‘†ǤŠ‹”–‡‡‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡•…‘—Ž† ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› „‡ †ƒ–‡† –‘ –Š‡ ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘† ‘Ž›ǡ and the rest are dated to both the late Roman Iron ‰‡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ‡”‹‘† ȋƒ••‡Ž ͳͻͻͺǣͻͶȌǤ Š‹•‹†‹…ƒ–‡•ƒŽ‘‰Ž‹ˆ‡•’ƒǤ ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”ǡ–‡„‡”‰‡”‘–‹…‡•–Šƒ––Š‡‰”‡ƒ–ƒŒ‘”‹–›‘ˆϐ‹†•ƒ”‡ ˆ”‘–Š‡Žƒ––‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ ƒ†‹‰”ƒ–‹‘’‡”‹‘†ƒ†‘Ž›ƒ•ƒŽŽ’ƒ”–†ƒ–‡• ˆ”‘–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ ȋ–‡„‡”‰‡”ͳͻͷͷƒǣͳͳͶ͸ȌǤŠ‡…‘…Ž—•‹‘‹•–Šƒ– –Š‡ƒŒ‘”‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›™‡”‡‡”‡…–‡†‹–Š‡Žƒ–‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ ƒ† ™‡”‡ ƒ„ƒ†‘‡† †—”‹‰ –Š‡ …‘—”•‡‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹ˆ–Šƒ†•‹š–Š…‡–—”‹‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š‰‹˜‡• –Š‡ƒ˜‡”›”‡ƒ•‘ƒ„Ž‡Ž‹ˆ‡•’ƒǤ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž› houses can have been used longer, which the data ’”‡•‡–‡†„› ږŠ„‡”‰•—’’‘”–•Ǥ •–‡ƒ† ‘ˆ •–ƒ–‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ house foundations represent the sum of all mid ‹ŽŽ‡‹— ˆƒ”•ǡ ‹– ‹• ‘”‡ …‘””‡…– –‘ •ƒ› –Šƒ– –Š‡› ”‡’”‡•‡– –Š‡ ’‡ƒ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹— •‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ‘”‡‘”Ž‡••ƒŽŽ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‹ —•‡ ƒ– –Š‡ •ƒ‡ time and the abandonment was a gradual process, not a single abrupt event, which will be discussed ‹‘”‡†‡–ƒ‹Ž‹–Š‡Žƒ––‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‹•„‘‘Ǥ‘‡ ‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‡”‡‘ˆ course abandoned earlier than the peak, which ‹• ‘„˜‹‘—• ‹ •‘‡ …ƒ•‡• ™Š‡”‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• •—’‡”‹’‘•‡ ‡ƒ…Š ‘–Š‡” ȋ…ˆǤ ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ ”ÚŒ‡Žƒ†ډŽ—†ƒ”‹ –Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ–‡›”ƒȌǤ‘‡–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ–Š‡•‡™‡”‡ ˆ‡™ǡƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š‹–‹•Šƒ”†–‘•ƒ›Š‘™ƒ›Ǥ Š‡‘–Š‡”‹••—‡–‘†‹•…—••‹–Š‹••‡…–‹‘‹• ‹ˆ–Š‡”‡™ƒ•ƒ›‘–Š‡”–›’‡‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š†‹† ‘–Šƒ˜‡•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•ǡ†—”‹‰–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ Š‹•‹•˜‡”›Šƒ”†–‘–‡ŽŽǡ•‹…‡ƒŽŽ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ •‡––Ž‡‡–•‹–‡•™‹–Š ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—-

͸Ͷ

†ƒ–‹‘Šƒ˜‡‘Ž›‹˜‘Ž˜‡†–Š‡ƒ…–—ƒŽ•–‘‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǣƒ––Š‡‘•–ǡ‘Ž›‡š–‡†‹‰•‘‡‡–”‡• ‘—–•‹†‡–Š‡™ƒŽŽ•Ǥš…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ house foundations have never covered much of –Š‡ •—””‘—†‹‰ ƒ”‡ƒǤ ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ –‘’ ‹–‡• ‘ ›Ž‹•–‘ˆ™Šƒ– ™‘—Ž†Ž‹‡–‘†‘™Š‡‹–…‘‡• –‘ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰›‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹•–‘…‘†—…–ƒ‡š…ƒvation of a suitable site, removing the turf from a larger area with a machine excavator, in order –‘ ϐ‹† ƒŽŽ •—””‘—†‹‰ …‘•–”—…–‹‘• ƒ† †ƒ–‡ –Š‡ƒŽŽǤ In some of the more recent excavations ƒ”‘—†‹•„›ǡ‡š–‡•‹˜‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†Ž‹‡–Š‹•ǡ‹ˆ‘––‡•‘ˆ–Š‘—•ƒ†•‘ˆ•“—ƒ”‡ ‡–”‡•ǡ –Š‡ ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– –Š‘—•ƒ†•Ǥ – ”–‹ŽŽ‡”‹‡– ͳǣ͵͵ǡ •‘‡ ͸ ͺͲͲ 2 was stripped and the reƒ‹•‘ˆ•‡˜‡Š‘—•‡•™‡”‡ˆ‘—†Ǥ‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ™ƒ• †ƒ–‡† –‘ –Š‡ Žƒ–‡” ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š is discussed earlier, and another situated close „›™ƒ•†ƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡Žƒ–‡”‘œ‡‰‡Ȁ’”‡Ǧ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ǤŠ‡”‡•–‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡•…‘—Ž†‘–„‡†ƒ–‡†ǡ„—––™‘Š‡ƒ”–Š•ƒ†ƒƒ”‡ƒ™‹–Šϐ‹”‡Ǧ…”ƒ…‡† •–‘‡•™ƒ•†ƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ƒ†Ȁ‘” ‹‰”ƒ–‹‘ ‡”‹‘†Ǥ …–‹˜‹–‹‡• –Šƒ– Šƒ† „‡‡ …ƒ”ried out in the surrounding areas were thus con–‡’‘”ƒ”›–‘–Š‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Cassel gives an example from Skedem‘••‡ ‘ YŽƒ† ‘ˆ Žƒ–‡ ‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡Ȁ‹‰”ƒtion period houses without stone walls (Cassel ͳͻͻͺǣͳͳͶȌǤ Š‡ ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ –Š”‡‡ Š‘—•‡• –Šƒ– •Š‡ ”‡ˆ‡”• –‘ ™‡”‡ ƒŽŽ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‹ –‹ŽŽ‡† ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǣ the photos and the excavation plans show large ƒ‘—–• ‘ˆ •–‘‡• ‡ƒ”„› ƒŽŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡• ȋ‡•‘™ǦŒÚ„‡”‰ͳͻ͹͹ǣͳͳǦ͹ͻȌǤ‘”‡Ž‹‡Ž›‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘ ‹• –Šƒ– –Š‡•‡ ™‡”‡ ‘”†‹ƒ”› ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundations with stone walls, de•–”‘›‡†„›…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ˜‡‹ˆ‘–Š‡”Š‘—•‡–›’‡•–Šƒ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡• existed at the farms during the mid millennium, ‹– ‹• Š‹‰ŠŽ› —Ž‹‡Ž› –Šƒ– ƒ› ˆƒ”• …‘’Ž‡–‡Ž› lacked stone house foundations during this peri‘†ǤŠ‡’”‡†‘‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‹•…‘•–”—…–‹‘‹••‘ ƒ••‹˜‡ƒ†—•–Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ϐ‹ŽŽ‡†™‹–Š•‘—…Š •›„‘Ž‹…˜ƒŽ—‡–Šƒ–‹–‹•Šƒ”†–‘•‡‡ˆƒ”•‡š‹•–ing without having at least one house of this con•–”—…–‹‘ǤŠ‹•™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†Žƒ–‡”Ǥ –Š‹‹– is safe to postulate that at least one stone house ‘……—””‡†‘‡ƒ…Šˆƒ”‘ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ†–Šƒ––Š‡ number of them, combined with the sizes, can be —•‡†ƒ•ƒ‹†‹…ƒ–‘”‘ˆ–Š‡‹’‘”–ƒ…‡Ȁ•‹œ‡‘ˆƒ ˆƒ”Ǥ ˆ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡•‘‡‘††…ƒ•‡•–Šƒ–Šƒ’’‡–‘ Šƒ˜‡ƒ…‘’Ž‡‡–ƒ”›„—‹Ž†‹‰‘ˆƒ‘–Š‡”–›’‡ ‘ˆ…‘•–”—…–‹‘ǡ‹–™‹ŽŽ‘–…Šƒ‰‡–Š‡’‹…–—”‡Ǥ

3.1. Identifying farms and villages of the mid millennium Š‡ƒ‹…”‹–‡”‹ƒ—•‡†ˆ‘”‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ˆƒ”•ƒ† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‹–Š‡•‡…‘‹‰ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ™‹ŽŽ„‡–Š‘•‡ •’‡…‹ϐ‹‡† ‹ –Š‡ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ‹ …Šƒ’–‡”ʹǤŠ‡•‡‹…Ž—†‡††‹•–ƒ…‡•ǡ‡…Ž‘•—”‡™ƒŽŽ• ȋˆ‡…‹‰Ȍƒ†–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ’ƒ”…‡Ž•‘ˆŽƒ†Ǥ Š‡Žƒ––‡”‹•‘–ˆ‡ƒ•‹„Ž‡–‘ƒ›‰”‡ƒ–‡”‡š–‡–‹ –Š‡ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ ƒ– Šƒ†Ǥ Š‡ ‘•– —•‡† …”‹–‡”‹‘ ™‹ŽŽ „‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡•ǡ „—– ‹ ƒ› …ƒ•‡• –Š‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ •›•–‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ƒ”‡ ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ƒ† …ƒ „‡ ‘ˆ ‰”‡ƒ– Š‡Ž’ ‹ ‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ „‘–Š ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ˆƒ”• ƒ† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ Š‡ ‰‡‘Ž‘‰› ™‹ŽŽ ƒŽ•‘ „‡ —•‡†ǡ •‹…‡ ‹– ‰‹˜‡• ‰—‹†ƒ…‡ to the agricultural conditions, and can separate ‘”—‹–‡ˆƒ”•ƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•„›†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•‹–Š‡ ‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ…‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ In the older research, the existence of villages was recognised, but was more or less reŒ‡…–‡† ‹ Žƒ–‡” ”‡•‡ƒ”…Šǡ ƒ• †‹•…—••‡† ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”ǡ which implies that the concept of village has „‡‡ǡ‹‡ˆˆ‡…–ǡƒ„•‡–‹–Š‡’ƒ•–ˆ‘”–››‡ƒ”•‘ˆ ”‡•‡ƒ”…ŠǤ Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡” •…Š‘Žƒ”•ǡ ™Š‘ ”‡…‘‰‹•‡† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ ƒ‹Ž› †‡ϐ‹‡† –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– …‘…‡’–• „› Š‘™ ƒ› •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ ’Žƒ…‡† –‘‰‡–Š‡” ƒ– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– †‹•–ƒ…‡•Ǥ ƒ”‰‡” and more concentrated clusters of house foun†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ ”‡…‘‰‹•‡† ƒ• ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘‹ŠŽ±ƒˆ‡™Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•…Ž‘•‡–‘‰‡–Š‡” †‡ϐ‹‡• ƒ ˆƒ”Ǥ ‘”‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• †‡ϐ‹‡ ƒ Žƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ” ‘” ƒ •ƒŽŽ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ ‡˜‡”ƒŽ ‰”‘—’• ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• Ž›‹‰ …Ž‘•‡ –‘ ‡ƒ…Š ‘–Š‡” …ƒƒŽ•‘†‡ϐ‹‡ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ‘”‹ˆ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ•Ž‹‰Š–Ž› ‰”‡ƒ–‡” †‹•–ƒ…‡ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡•ǡ –Š‹• ƒ› „‡–‡”‡†ƒ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘†…‘—‹–›ȋbygdȌǤ Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ’”‹…‹’Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‹•‹•…‘””‡…–ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡ ‘Ž›™ƒ›–‘‹†‡–‹ˆ›•‘…‹ƒŽ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’•ƒ††‹ˆferent degrees of interaction in an archaeological material of this kind, without excavations, is „›†‹•–ƒ…‡•Ǣ„—–ƒ›„‡‘–‡šƒ…–Ž›ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘ ‹ŠŽ±ǯ•‡–Š‘†ǤŠ‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•™‹ŽŽ•–ƒ”–„›‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ˆƒ”•ǡŠ‘™‡˜‡”ǤŠ‹•Šƒ•‹‘”‡”‡…‡– ›‡ƒ”•ǡƒŽ•‘„‡‡†‘‡„›‘–Š‡”•ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽϐ‹”•– „‡†‹•…—••‡†Ǥ ƒƒ”Ž••‘ȋͳͻ͹ͻȌ†‘‡•‘–…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›•–ƒ–‡ ‹–ǡ„—–Œ—†‰‹‰ˆ”‘Š‹•‡šƒ’Ž‡•ǡ–Š‡•›•–‡•‘ˆ •–‘‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ’Žƒ› ƒ ‡› ”‘Ž‡ ‹ ‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆƒ”•Ǥ –‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ž‹‡†–‘‰‡–Š‡”„›ƒ‡…Ž‘•‹‰•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ

ƒ”‡†‡ϐ‹‡†ƒ•„‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘–Š‡•ƒ‡ˆƒ”ǤŠ‹• ”‡•—Ž–• ‹ ˆƒ”• ‹ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡ „—‹Ž†‹‰• ƒ› „‡ rather spread out, with distances of up to more –Šƒ ͵ͲͲ ‡–”‡• „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ „—‹Ž†‹‰•‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”Ǥƒ”Ž•‘‡š’Žƒ‹•–Š‹•™‹–Š–Šƒ– all house foundations are not coeval, but repre•‡–• †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ’Šƒ•‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆƒ”Ǥ  ‡šƒ’Ž‡ ‘ˆ –Š‹• ‹• •‡‡ ‹ ϐ‹‰—”‡ ͻͲ ‹ ƒ”Ž••‘ ͳͻ͹ͻǤ ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ•†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆƒˆƒ”‹•“—‹–‡˜ƒ‰—‡ƒ† •–ƒ–‡•ȋƒ”Ž••‘ͳͻ͹ͻǣͻͳȌǣǮA farm is here denoted as a number of houses in connection to stone enclosure walls, which enclose a piece of land, the ‹ϔ‹‡Ž†•ǯȏ–”ƒ•Žƒ–‡†„›–Š‡ƒ—–Š‘”ȐǤ‡‡’Šƒ•‹œ‡•–Š‡†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž–›‹‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰–Š‡•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ˆƒ”• ‹‰”‘—’•‘ˆ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ› in situations where stone walls are lacking (ibid ͳͻ͹ͻǣͻͳȌǤ –Š‡‡šƒ’Ž‡ƒ„‘˜‡ǡƒ‘”‡”‡ƒ•‘ƒble explanation is that there are more farms than Carlsson suggests ƒ•‡†‘ƒ•—„•‡–‘ˆ ”‘‰‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒtions from six parishes, he calculates that a farm …‘•‹•–•‘ˆͳ–‘͸Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‹–Šƒ‡ƒ ˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆƒ”‘—†ʹǤͻŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•’‡”ˆƒ”Ǥ ƒ‘‡Ǧ›‡ƒ”ƒ•–‡”ǯ•’ƒ’‡”ǡ™Š‹…Š…ƒ„‡ •‡‡ƒ•ƒ’‹Ž‘–•–—†›–‘•‘‡ƒ•’‡…–•‘ˆ–Š‹•™‘” ƒ† ‹• „ƒ•‡† ‘ › †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•ǡ ‹Ž••‘ ȋʹͲͳͳȌ —•‡•ƒϐ‹š‡††‹•–ƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –‘†‡ϐ‹‡ƒˆƒ”ǤŠ‡†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͺͲ‡–”‡•„‡tween the centres of each house foundation, is „ƒ•‡†‘ƒˆ‡™‡šƒ’Ž‡•ˆ”‘ƒ‹•Šƒ†™‡†‹•Š•‡––Ž‡‡–•–—†‹‡•Ǥ‹–Š–Š‹•ǡ•–”‹…–‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ‡–Š‘†ǡŠ‡”‡ƒ…Š‡•ƒƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‘ˆͳǤ͹Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•’‡”ˆƒ”ȋ‹Ž••‘ʹͲͳͳǣͳͺˆˆȌǤ –ƒŽ•‘ ”‡•—Ž–•‹ƒ›‡š–”‡‡Ž›Žƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”•–‡ƒ†•ƒ† ‹’Ž‹‡•ƒ•–”ƒ–‹ϐ‹‡†•‘…‹‡–›ǡ™Š‹…Š †‘‘––Š‹ ‹• …‘””‡…–Ǥ Š‡ Žƒ›‘—– ƒ† •‹œ‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡‘–…‘•‹†‡”‡†„›‹Ž••‘Ǥ Š‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽˆƒ”•–‡ƒ†• must be based on several parameters and be ƒ……‘’ƒ‹‡†„›ƒ†‹•…—••‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡•‘…‹ƒŽ•–”—…ture and ownership and land usage, considering ™Š‡–Š‡”–Š‡Žƒ†™ƒ•’”‹˜ƒ–‡Ž›‘™‡†ǡ‘”…‘‘ ƒ† Œ‘‹–Ž› ‘™‡†Ǥ ƒ ƒ”Ž••‘ ȋͳͻ͹ͻȌǡ ™Š‘ —•‡• –Š‡ •›•–‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ‡…Ž‘•‹‰ –Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•‹Š‹•†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆƒˆƒ”ǡƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡• ƒˆƒ‹Ž›„ƒ•‡†ˆƒ”ǡ‹™Š‹…Š‡ƒ…Šˆƒ‹Ž›‘™• ƒ†…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡•–Š‡‹”‘™Žƒ†Ǥ‡…‘•‹†‡”•–Šƒ–

͸ͷ

the clusters of house foundations represent an ‘Ž†‡”ǡ …‘ŽŽ‡…–‹˜‡ǡ •‡––Ž‡‡– ’ƒ––‡” –Šƒ– ‘Ž› ’ƒ”–Ž›–”ƒ•ˆ‘”•–‘–Š‡‡™ˆƒ‹Ž›„ƒ•‡†‘†‡Ž ȋƒ”Ž••‘ ͳͻ͹ͻǣͺ͸ˆˆȌǤ Š‹• ‡™ ’ƒ––‡” ‘……—”• ƒ”‘—†–Š‡•Š‹ˆ–„‡–™‡‡‡ƒ”Ž›ƒ†Žƒ–‡‘ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ǡ ƒ”‘—†  ʹͲͲǤ Š‡ •‡––Ž‡‡– ƒŽ•‘ ‘˜‡•ˆ”‘–Š‡…‡–”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†ƒ”‡ƒ–‘–Š‡ ‘—–‡” ‡†‰‡•Ǥ Š‡ •ƒ‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• ™‡”‡ —•‡† ˆ‘” ‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ„—–—†‡”‡™ˆ‘”•ƒ†™‹–Š‡™Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”–‘ˆ–•ȋƒ”Ž••‘ͳͻ͹ͻǣͺͷˆˆǡͳʹͳȌǤ

The introduction of property rights to land When dealing with issues of how land was controlled and of the right to land of different persons or groups, the concept of ownership and landowning is an unsuitable and too narrow –‡” –‘ —•‡Ǥ ƒ–• ‹†‰”‡ ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡• –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ ’”‘’‡”–› ”‹‰Š–• ‹•–‡ƒ† ƒ† ‡š‡’Ž‹ϐ‹‡• ™‹–Š ƒ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ˆ”‘ ƒ ƒ–Š”‘’‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ †‹…–‹‘ƒ”›ȋ‹†‰”‡ͳͻͻͷǣ͸Ȍǣ ‘Property: In modern capitalist society the popular conception of property is that of a relationship between a person (the owner) and a thing (that which is owned). In fact the extreme development of private property and ‘absolute property’, the right to dispose of property in the manner in which the owner decides have obscured the true nature of property in all human societies. It is not in fact a relationship between a person and a thing or things but a relationship between persons which is expressed in terms of rights over things. Property itself has no meaning except as the right of an individual or group to exclude others from access to, use of or control over certain items or commodities. In this sense and viewed in a comparative perspective, property rights are extremely variable and take many different forms. In fact absolute property is rare even in modern society, as there always exist certain legal and administrative limitations as to the manner in which the owner may employ or dispose of that which is owned’.

ƒ‡ ›”†ƒŽ ‹• ˜‡”› …”‹–‹…ƒŽ –‘ –Š‡ —•‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ –‡”’”‘’‡”–›”‹‰Š–•ǡ•‹…‡‹–‹•‰‹˜‡ƒ˜‡”›™‹†‡ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‹–Š‡‡…‘‘‹…ƒŽ–Š‡‘”‹‡•‘ˆ–Š‡•‘Ǧ …ƒŽŽ‡†’”‘’‡”–›”‹‰Š–••…Š‘‘ŽǤ›”†ƒŽƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡• –Š‡ –‡” ”‹‰Š– ‘ˆ †‹•’‘•‹–‹‘ ‹•–‡ƒ† ȋ›”†ƒŽ ͸͸

ͳͻͻ͸ƒǣͳͲͳȌǤ  ™‹ŽŽ ‘– —•‡ –Š‡ –‡” ’”‘’‡”–› ”‹‰Š–• ƒ• ‹– ‹• †‡ϐ‹‡† „› –Š‡ ”‘’‡”–› ”‹‰Š–• •…Š‘‘Žǡ„—–‹•–‡ƒ†Ž‹‡–Š‡†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ •‹•‘ƒ›‘–Š‡”ƒ––‡”•ǡƒ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘‹•tic view was for a long time prevalent also in this ‹••—‡Ǥ‘—ƒŽ‘™‡”•Š‹’™ƒ•…‘•‹†‡”‡†ƒ• –Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽˆ‘”‘ˆ’”‘’‡”–›”‹‰Š–ǡ™‹–Š‹–•”‘‘–• ‹ƒƒ…‹‡– ‡”ƒ‹…ˆ‘”ǤŠ‡•‘—”…‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡ thoughts and conclusions was interpretations of the medieval Swedish regional laws and other Žƒ™•ǡƒŽ‘‰™‹–Š–Š‡™”‹–‹‰•‘ˆƒ‡•ƒ”ƒ†ƒ…‹–—•ǤŠ‡‘Ž›’‘••‹„Ž‡‘™‡”‘ˆŽƒ†™ƒ•ƒˆƒ‹Ž› ‘” …Žƒǡ †‡‘–‡† ätt ‹ ™‡†‹•Š ȋ‘Ž„¡… ͳͻʹͲǣͷˆˆȌǤ  ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ ‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ …‘—ƒŽ ˆƒ‹Ž› ‘” …Žƒ ȋättȌ ”‹‰Š– ‘ˆ ‘™‡”•Š‹’ ™ƒ• the word bördsrätt, ȋ„‹”–Š”‹‰Š–Ȍ ‹ –Š‡ ”‡‰‹‘ƒŽ Žƒ™•Ǥ –Šƒ•‘™Ž‘‰•‹…‡„‡‡…Žƒ”‹ϐ‹‡†–Šƒ––Š‡ ‘–‹‘‘ˆ…‘ŽŽ‡…–‹˜‡—•‡‘ˆŽƒ†‹ƒ›—”‘’‡ƒ medieval villages are not relicts of this ancient

‡”ƒ‹……‘—ƒŽ•›•–‡ǡ„—––Š‡›ƒ”‡–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆƒŽ‘‰†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ǡƒ†ƒ›–‹‡•Žƒ–‡ ‹–”‘†—…–‹‘•ǤŠ‹•ƒ‡•‹–…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ–ƒ›‘‡Ǧ ™ƒ› †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ǡ ‹ ƒ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘‹•–‹… •‡•‡ǡ from communal to individual is hard to support ȋ‹†‰”‡ ͳͻͻͷǣͻˆǢ ʹͲͲ͸ǣͷͻȌǤ ›”†ƒŽ ’‘‹–• –‘ the established relationship between the development and regulation of common rights ƒ†–Š‡‹–”‘†—…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ› regulating the different landowners’ rights and ‘„Ž‹‰ƒ–‹‘•‹…‘‘—–‹Ž‹–‹‡•ǡŽ‹‡†‹–…Š‡•‡–…Ǥǡ –Š‡‹˜‡•–‡–™ƒ••‡…—”‡†Ǥ……‘”†‹‰–‘›”†al, the correlation between the competition over land and the degree of investments in it, on the ‘‡Šƒ†ǡƒ†ƒ‘”‡™‡ŽŽ†‡ϐ‹‡†ƒ†ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ–ed right of disposition to land on the other, is so ˆ”‡“—‡––Šƒ–‹–…ƒ„‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•…‘ˆ‘”‹–›–‘ Žƒ™ȋ›”†ƒŽͳͻͻ͸ƒǣͳͲͷˆȌǤ Š‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ƒ‹•Š •‘Ǧ…ƒŽŽ‡† vandrende landsbyer ȋ™ƒ†‡”‹‰˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ȍǡ™Š‹…Š•–ƒ”––‘ƒ’’‡ƒ”‹–Š‡Žƒ–‡”‘œ‡‰‡ƒ†‡ƒ”Ž› ”‘‰‡ǡ Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰’”‘’‡”–›”‹‰Š–•Ǥ – ‹•„‡Ž‹‡˜‡†–Šƒ––Š‡Žƒ†™ƒ•…‘‘Ž›‘™‡†ǡ but each farm has had individual user rights, ƒ† –Š‡ …ƒ––Ž‡ ™‡”‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘™‡† ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽŽ›Ǥ Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• ‘ˆ ‡Ž–‹… ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ† ’ƒ”…‡Ž• ‹ ‡ƒ” ƒ† ‘–Žƒ† ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ‹ –Š‹• ƒ‡”ǡ ™‹–Š ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ’”‘’‡”–› ”‹‰Š–• —†‡”•–”‹…–…‘–”‘Ž™‹–Š‹ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡…‘—‹–›Ǥ •‹‹Žƒ”•›•–‡‹••—‰‰‡•–‡†ˆ‘”–Š‡˜ƒ•–ƒ”‡ƒ• of clearance cairns found in the southern parts of western Sweden, but instead of a controlling ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡…‘—‹–›ǡ–Š‡…‘–”‘Ž™ƒ•‡š‡”…‹•‡†„› ‹†”‡†‰”‘—’•ǤŠ‡•‡•›•–‡••Š‘™ƒ›•‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡•™‹–Š–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•ˆ‘—†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ

„—–Šƒ˜‡Žƒ–‡”†ƒ–‡•ǡ–‘–Š‡’‡”‹‘†‘ˆƒ”‘—† ʹͲͲȂͶͲͲǤ –Š‡•‡’ƒ”…‡ŽŽ‡†•›•–‡•–Š‡†‡ƒ”…ƒ–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž•ǡ‹•‘–‘Ž›ƒ”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ –Š‡–‡…Š‘Ž‘‰›–Šƒ–™ƒ•—•‡†ǡ„—–™ƒ•ƒŽ•‘’”‘’‡”–› „‘—†ƒ”‹‡• ˆ‘” –Š‡ —•‡” ”‹‰Š–• –‘ –Š‡ Žƒ† ȋƒ•…Š‡”ͳͻͻͷǣͶ͵ˆˆȌǤ‹†‰”‡•—’’‘”–•–Š‡‹†‡ƒ –Šƒ–ƒ„‘—†ƒ”›„‡–™‡‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽ—•‡”•„‡…‘‡• a mean to regulate access to land and is a part of the social relations of production (Widgren ʹͲͲ͸ǣͷͻˆȌǤ ”‘—†  ͶͲͲǡ Žƒ”‰‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• ‹ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡ land is divided in band parcels start to appear ‹–Š‡Š‹‰ŠŽƒ†ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ•‘—–Š™‡•–™‡†‡Ǥ‡–”‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽƒƒŽ›•‡•…‘ϐ‹”–Šƒ––Š‡›ƒ”‡Žƒ‹†‘—– ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘•’‡…‹ϐ‹…’”‹…‹’Ž‡•ǡ„ƒ•‡†‘‘™ ‡ƒ•—”‡‡– —‹–•ǡ Ž‹‡ –Š‡ ‡ŽŽ ƒ† ˆ‡‡–Ǥ ‹…‡ almost all of the cultivated land is covered with –Š‡•‡„ƒ†’ƒ”…‡Ž•ǡ‹–‹•‘„˜‹‘—•Ž›–Š‡•Š‘”–ƒ‰‡ of land, which has motivated the planning as a ‡ƒ•–‘—–‹Ž‹•‡–Š‡Žƒ†‡ˆϐ‹…‹‡–Ž›Ǥƒ•Š‡”•—‰gests this to be the start of a more institutionalised landowning, but she points out that it does ‘–‡…‡••ƒ”‹Ž›‡ƒ–Š‡‹–”‘†—…–‹‘‘ˆˆ—ŽŽ’”‹˜ƒ–‡‘™‡”•Š‹’ȋƒ•…Š‡”ͳͻͻͷǣͶͻˆˆȌǤ ”ƒ†• ‡”•…Š‡† …‘‡• –‘ ƒ •‹‹Žƒ” …‘…Ž—•‹‘„›ƒƒŽ›•‹‰–Š‡•‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‡‘™—Žˆ ’‘‡ǡ‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡‹‰‰”ƒ–•‡‘™—Žˆƒ‡ƒ•—”‡†ƒ‘—–‘ˆŽƒ†ȋ͹ͲͲͲȌƒ•ƒ”‡™ƒ”†ˆ‘””‡dered services; this shows that land, to some de‰”‡‡™ƒ•ƒ…‘‘†‹–›–Šƒ–…‘—Ž†„‡–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡† ‹ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ™ƒ›•Ǥ ‡ †”ƒ™• ƒ ’ƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Ž –‘ ƒ”‡ƒ• ™‹–Š ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘YŽƒ† ™Š‡”‡–Š‡Žƒ†„‘—†‡†„›•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒ’’‡ƒ”• to be measured and laid out according to an ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡† ‡–”‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ •›•–‡Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ‡”•…Š‡†ǡ –Š‹• •—‰‰‡•–• –Šƒ– ’”‘’‡”–› ”‹‰Š–• ‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›…‘—Ž†„‡–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡†‘YŽƒ†‹ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ˆƒ•Š‹‘Ǥ ‡”•…Š‡† ’‘‹–• ‘—– –Šƒ– ‹– ™ƒ• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘– —…‘–”‘˜‡”•‹ƒŽ –‘ ‰‹˜‡ ƒ™ƒ› land in 7th …‡–—”› ‰Žƒ† ƒ† ‹– ™ƒ• ‘– ˆ‘”ƒŽŽ›ƒ……‡’–‡†—–‹Ž–Š‡ͳͳth…‡–—”›ȋ‡”•…Š‡† ͳͻͻ͹ǣ͹ʹˆˆȌǤ ‡ „‡Ž‹‡˜‡• –Š‡ ‹†‡ƒ ‘ˆ Žƒ†‘™‡”•Š‹’ǡ„›™Š‹…ŠŠ‡‡ƒ•–Š‡”‹‰Š–ˆ‘”‡„‡”• ‘ˆ–Š‡…‘—‹–›–‘—•‡’ƒ”–•‘ˆ‹–•Žƒ†ƒ•Š‡ ‘”•Š‡•ƒ™ϐ‹–ǡ™ƒ•ƒ”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡…‘–ƒ…–•™‹–Š –Š‡ ‘ƒ ™‘”Ž†Ǥ – –Š‡ •ƒ‡ –‹‡ǡ –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– ˆ‘”‡„‡”•‘ˆ–Š‡•‘…‹‡–›–‘•‡––Ž‡ƒ†•—„•‹•– ‘ ‹–• Žƒ† ™ƒ• …‘–”‘ŽŽ‡† ƒ† ”‡•–”‹…–‡† ȋ‡”•…Š‡†ʹͲͲͻǣ͵ͺͳǡ͵ͻͳȌǤ In Roman law, ownership was more or less absolute with few restrictions and the Romans distrusted common ownership, but in Sweden, •—…Š ƒ ˜‹‡™ ‘ˆ ‘™‡”•Š‹’ ™ƒ• ‹–”‘†—…‡† ˜‡”› Žƒ–‡ǡ‘–—–‹Ž–Š‡–‹‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‡…Š‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ ȋ¡¡”Š‡‹Ž ͳͻͻͷǣͳͺȌǤ – ‹• –Š—• ‘– Ž‹‡Ž› –Šƒ–

ƒ›–Š‹‰ Ž‹‡ –Š‹• ‘……—””‡† ‹ …ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒ †—”‹‰–Š‡ ”‘‰‡Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰–‘›”†ƒŽǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ…Ž‡ƒ”†‹˜‹†‹‰Ž‹‡†—”‹‰–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž›‹††Ž‡‰‡•Ǣ„‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡ 12th‘”ͳ͵th…‡–—”›ǡŽƒ†–”ƒ•ƒ…–‹‘™ƒ•‘–‡ƒ•‹Ž›…‘†—…–‡†ȋ›”†ƒŽͳͻͻ͸ƒǣͳͲʹȌǤ……‘”†‹‰–‘ ‹†˜‹•–ƒ†%‰”‡ǡ–Š‡Š—”…Š™ƒ•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ prime movers in introducing the view of land „‡‹‰ƒ…‘‘†‹–›–Šƒ–…‘—Ž†ˆ”‡‡Ž›„‡•‘Ž†‘” ‰‹˜‡ƒ™ƒ›„›‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•ǤŠ‡”ƒ’‹†‡š’ƒ•‹‘ of the church and its power was based on gifts ƒ†’—”…Šƒ•‡‘ˆŽƒ†Ǥ‘–Š‡”…‘’‘‡–‹–Š‹• ‹• –Š‡ ‹–”‘†—…–‹‘ ‘ˆ „‡“—‡ƒ–Š‹‰ ’”‘’‡”–› –‘ –Š‡…Š—”…ŠǤ›‰”ƒ–‹‰ƒ„•‘Ž—–‹‘ƒ†•ƒŽ˜ƒ–‹‘ ‹”‡–—”ˆ‘””‡ƒŽ’”‘’‡”–›ǡ–Š‡…Š—”…Š‹…”‡ƒ•‡† –Š‡‹” ‡•–ƒ–‡• ȋ‹†˜‹•– Ƭ %‰”‡ ͳͻͺͷǣ͹ͳˆȌǤ  –Š‡ —–ƒ Žƒ™ –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ •’‡…‹ƒŽ ’ƒ”ƒ‰”ƒ’Š• ȋ  …Šƒ’Ǥ͹ȚͳǦʹȌǡ”‡•–”‹…–‹‰†‘ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆŽƒ†–‘–Š‡ …Š—”…Šǡ•‘‘Ž›Ž‹‹–‡†ƒ‘—–•ƒ†‘–™Š‘Ž‡ ˆƒ”•…‘—Ž†„‡‰‹˜‡ƒ™ƒ›Ǥ  Šƒ˜‡ –‘ …Žƒ”‹ˆ› –Šƒ– ™Šƒ– Šƒ• „‡‡ †‹•cussed above concerns cultivated land, the inϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ —–Ž›‹‰ Žƒ† •—…Š ƒ• ’ƒ•–—”‡Žƒ† ƒ† ™‘‘†• ™ƒ• •–‹ŽŽ —–‹Ž‹•‡† ƒ• …‘‘•Ǥ  ͳ͹͵Ͷǡ when a new Swedish law was passed, the outŽ›‹‰Žƒ†™ƒ••–‹ŽŽ‘•–Ž›…‘‘Žƒ†‹™‡†‡Ǥ Š‡ ˆƒ”‡”ǯ• ’”‘’‡”–› ”‹‰Š–• ‹…Ž—†‡† ‘– ‘Ž›Š‹•‘™Š‘—•‡ƒ†‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘”‹‰Š–• ‹–Š‡…‘‘•ǡ„‘–ŠŽƒ†ƒ†‘–Š‡””‡•‘—”…‡•Ǥ Š‡”‹‰Š–•–‘—–‹Ž‹•‡…‘‘•™‡”‡•‡–ƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– Ž‡˜‡Ž•Ǥ ‘‘• …‘—Ž† „‡ •Šƒ”‡† „‡–™‡‡ landowners at the village-, parish-, hundred- or …‘—–› Ž‡˜‡Ž•Ǥ Š‡ ‹’‘”–ƒ…‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ …‘‘ resources was greater in the northern and east‡”’ƒ”–•‘ˆ™‡†‡ǡŽ‹‡ ‹Žƒ†ǡ™Š‹…Š—’—–‹Ž ͳͺͲͻ™ƒ•’ƒ”–‘ˆ™‡†‡ǤŽ•‘‹–Š‡•‘—–Š‡” ’ƒ”–•ǡŽ‹‡¤‡™‡”‡–Š‡›™‡”‡‘––‘‘ˆ‡™ǡƒ† the importance of these resources should not be —†‡”‡•–‹ƒ–‡†ȋ¡¡”Š‹‡Žͳͻͻͷǣʹ͸ˆȌǤ ‡– —• ”‡–—” –‘ ƒ•Š‡”• „ƒ† ’ƒ”…‡Ž•Ǥ Whether or not these band parcels represent …‘‘ Žƒ† ‘” ‘”‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ’”‘’‡”–› ”‹‰Š–•ǡ ‹• –‘ › ‹† †‡’‡†‡– ‘ –Š‡ •‹œ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž•Ǥ •–—†›‹‰–Š‡’ƒ”…‡Ž••Š‘™‹–Š‡ ϐ‹‰—”‡•‹Š‡”ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ǡ–Š‡›ƒ”‡“—‹–‡ƒ””‘™ƒ† the mean size seems to be somewhere around ͵ͲǦͶͲ‡–”‡•„›ͳͷͲ‡–”‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š™‘—Ž†‰‹˜‡ an acreage of around one tunnlandȋͶͻ͵͸2Ȍ, „—– •‘‡ ƒ”‡ •ƒŽŽ‡” ƒ† •‘‡ Žƒ”‰‡”Ǥ Š‹• ‹• too small to being the cultivated area for more –Šƒ‘‡ˆƒ‹Ž›ǡ™Š‹…Š…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›‹†‹…ƒ–‡•‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ’”‘’‡”–›”‹‰Š–•ǤŠ‡ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡”‹‰Š–•‹• ‘ˆ…‘—”•‡˜‡”›Ž‹––Ž‡‘™ǡ„—–„›•–—†›‹‰–Š‡ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ YŽƒ†ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ”‡„‡––‡”

͸͹

’”‡•‡”˜‡†–Šƒ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ‹–‹•”ƒ–Š‡”…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ– –Š‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡™ƒŽŽ•‘•–Ž›•‡‡–‘‡…‹”…Ž‡–Š‡ ’”‘’‡”–›‘ˆ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽˆƒ”•ǤŠ‡’‹…–—”‡‹•‘– so clear for the mid millennium settlements on

‘–Žƒ†Ǥ ƒ ƒ”Ž••‘ …‘•‹†‡”• –Šƒ– –Š‡ •–‘‡ walls enclosing the land around the houses, as •‡‡ ‹ ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ‹• ƒ ™ƒ› –‘ ƒ‹ˆ‡•– ’”‹˜ƒ–‡ ownership, which is introduced at the time ȋƒ”Ž••‘ ͳͻ͹ͻǣͺͻȌǡ ƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š Š‡ †‘‡• ‘– †‹•…—•• –Š‡ ƒ–—”‡ ‘ˆ •—…Š ”‹‰Š–• ˆ—”–Š‡”Ǥ ‘ › mind, the stone enclosure walls associated with the farmland, indicate that both individual prop‡”–›”‹‰Š–•ȋ…ˆǤϐ‹‰Ǥ͵ǤͳǤͳͳƒȌƒ†…‘‘…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‹‘ ȋ…ˆǤ ϐ‹‰Ǥ ͵ǤͳǤͳ͸ƒȌ ‡š‹•–‡† ‘ ‘–Žƒ† †—”‹‰ –Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ ‘”‘—†–Š‹••‡…–‹‘‘ˆǡ–Š‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘•‘ˆ ƒ…‹–—•ƒ†§•ƒ”ǡ…ƒ„”‹‡ϐŽ›„‡†‹•…—••‡†Ǥ The lands, allotted in proportion to the number of cultivators, are entered upon by the communities’ in rotation, and these lands they thereupon distribute amongst themselves according to their estimate of individual claims. The great amount of open land at their disposal makes this task of distribution easy. The part ploughed they change annually, and there is ground over ƒ† –‘ •’ƒ”‡Ǥ ‘” –Š‡› –ƒ‡ ‘ ƒ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡ of the extent and the fertility of their soil by corresponding industry in planting orchards, and fencing off meadows, and irrigating gardens ; corn is the only return they insist upon from the earth. [Tacitus. Germania XXVI. Cited from Tacitus B:76f] They (the Germans) are not fond of agriculture, and the principal portion of their diet …‘•‹•–•‘ˆ‹Žǡ…Š‡‡•‡ǡƒ†ϔŽ‡•ŠǢ‘”Šƒ˜‡ ƒ› ƒ‘‰ –Š‡ ƒ ϔ‹š‡† “—ƒ–‹–› ‘ˆ –‡””‹tory or private property in land, but the magistrates and the chiefs assign for the term of one year to the tribes and clanships forming communities as much land as they think good, and in such place as they think good, and compel them to remove to another place the next year. [Cæsar. Commentarii de Bello Gallico VI. xxii. Cited from Tacitus B:76) • †‹•…—••‡† ‹ –Š‡ •‡…‘† …Šƒ’–‡”ǡ —…Š …ƒ „‡ •ƒ‹† ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ †‡•…”‹’–‹‘•‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡”ƒ‹… ’‡‘’Ž‡•ƒ†‡„›ƒ…‹–—•ƒ†§•ƒ”ǡ„—–‡˜‡ƒ …—”•‘”› ‡šƒ‹ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ –‡š– •Š‘™• •‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡• ‹ –Š‡ †‡•…”‹„‡† •›•–‡ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ –™‘Ǥ –‹•‘–Ž‹‡Ž›–Šƒ––Š‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•‘ˆ–Š‡•–‘‡

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house foundations in the mid millennium were those described, which indicates that there must Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ƒ ƒŒ‘” …Šƒ‰‡ ‹ –Š‡ ‡”ƒ‹… •‘cieties between the described periods and the ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ Š‡ •‘—”…‡ …”‹–‹…ƒŽ ƒ•’‡…–• ‘ˆ –Š‡–‡š–•ƒ•Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ•‘—”…‡•ǡƒŽ”‡ƒ†›†‹•…—••‡† above, have of course to be considered, as well as –Š‡“—‡•–‹‘‘ˆ‹ˆ–Š‡›ƒ”‡ƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ„Ž‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹……‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ •—‰‰‡•––Šƒ––Š‡•–‘‡ material itself signals permanence and rules out ƒ›–Š‹‰ •‹‹Žƒ” –‘ §•ƒ” ƒ† ƒ…‹–—• †‡•…”‹’–‹‘•‘ˆƒ‰”‹…—Ž–—”ƒŽ•›•–‡ƒ†’”‘’‡”–›”‹‰Š–• –‘ Žƒ†ǡ ƒ• ˜ƒŽ‹† ˆ‘” –Š‡ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ Š‡‹” †‡•…”‹’–‹‘ ‹• Š‘™‡˜‡” ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‹ ƒ……‘”†ƒ…‡ ™‹–ŠŠ‘™–Š‡‡Ž–‹…ϐ‹‡Ž†•™Š‡”‡…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†ƒ† thus describe an earlier form of organisation ƒ†•›•–‡‘ˆ’”‘’‡”–›”‹‰Š–•Ǥ I think that there was a shift in how prop‡”–›”‹‰Š–•–‘Žƒ†™‡”‡’‡”…‡‹˜‡†‹…‘‡…–‹‘ with the establishment of the mid millennium •‡––Ž‡‡–•ǡ’‘••‹„Ž›—†‡”–Š‡‹ϐŽ—‡…‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ‘ƒ•ǡ’ƒ”–Ž›‹Ž‹‡™‹–Š–Š‡–Š‘—‰Š–•‘ˆ‡”•…Š‡† ƒ† ƒ”Ž••‘Ǥ – ‹• ‘ˆ …‘—”•‡ ‹’‘••‹„Ž‡ –‘ •ƒ› Š‘™ •–”‘‰ –Š‡•‡ ”‹‰Š–• ™‡”‡Ǥ  †‘ ‘– believe that this included the idea of selling or ‰‹˜‹‰ƒ™ƒ›–‘‘—–•‹†‡”•Ǥƒ†ƒ†ˆƒ”•…‘—Ž† be inherited and be transferred to others based on kinship, but not without asking the rest of the …‘—‹–›Ǥ –Š‹‹–‹•‘”‡…‘””‡…––‘•ƒ›–Šƒ– people had rights to use land, rather than land rights, and that issues regarding this were still Šƒ†Ž‡†„›ƒŽƒ”‰‡”‰”‘—’ǤŠ‹•ƒŽ•‘‡ƒ––Šƒ– ƒŽ‡‰‹–‹ƒ–‡‡„‡”‘ˆ–Š‡•‘…‹‡–›ǡˆ—Žϐ‹ŽŽ‹‰Š‹• obligations, could not be denied the right to set–Ž‡ƒ†…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡Žƒ†Ǥ

Identifying farms and villages ‘” –Š‡ …‘‹‰ ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •‡–• ‘ˆ †ƒ–ƒ ƒ”‡ —•‡†ǡ „—– –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ƒŽŽ •—„•‡–• ‘ˆ ƒ †ƒ–ƒ•‡– …”‡ƒ–‡† ƒ‹Ž› „› ‡š–”ƒ…–‹‰ †ƒ–ƒ ˆ”‘  ǡ „—–™‹–Šƒ††‹–‹‘•ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”•‘—”…‡•Ǥ –Šƒ•–‘ „‡”‡…‘‰‹•‡†–Šƒ–  ‹•ƒŽ‹˜‹‰ǡ†›ƒ‹…†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǡ ƒ† ‘– ϐ‹ƒŽ ƒ† •–ƒ–‹…Ǥ – ƒŽ–‡”• ƒŽŽ –Š‡ time when records are added, errors are correct‡†ƒ†ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ƒ”‡”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ǤŠ‹•ƒ‡•‹– ‹’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘‰‹˜‡ƒϐ‹š‡†—„‡”‘ˆŠ‘™ƒ› there are of a certain feature, since it varies over –‹‡Ǥ Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ …Ž‡ƒ•‹‰ ƒ† ƒƒŽ›•‹• ˆ‘” –Š‹• ’”‘Œ‡…–Šƒ•„‡‡…‘†—…–‡†‘˜‡”•‘‡–‹‡Ǣ–‘‰‡–Š‡”™‹–Šƒ‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹‘™Ž‡†‰‡ǡ–Š‹•ƒ› Ž‡ƒ† –‘ ’”‡˜‹‘—• …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘• „‡‹‰ ˆ‘—† –‘ „‡ ™”‘‰Ǥ ‡™ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ› ƒŽ•‘ ’‘‹– –‘

ƒ ‡””‘” ‹ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ‘” –‘ –Š‡ †‹•…‘˜‡”› ‘ˆ ‡™ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǤŽŽ–Š‡•‡•…‡ƒ”‹‘•‡ƒ–Šƒ––Š‡ databases changes between the occasions when data was accessed, but since this is a small scale ƒƒŽ›•‹•…‘˜‡”‹‰–Š‡‡–‹”‡‹•Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡•‡‹‘” …Šƒ‰‡•ƒ††‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•†‘‘–ƒˆˆ‡…––Š‡”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ Š‡ ’”‡•‡–   •›•–‡ ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ ˆ‘” ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š Šƒ• •‘‡ †‹•ƒ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡•Ǥ Š‹• Šƒ• –‘ †‘ with the heterogeneous nature of the recorded †ƒ–ƒ…‘…‡”‹‰‡–Š‘†•ƒ†–‹‡Ǥ –Šƒ•„‡‡ ‰ƒ–Š‡”‡††—”‹‰ƒ’‡”‹‘†‘ˆ‘”‡–Šƒ͹Ͳ›‡ƒ”• and was not designed for digital storage in reŽƒ–‹‘ƒŽ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ •–ƒ”–Ǥ ˜‡ –Š‘—‰Š  ‹•ƒ‡‘”‘—•ƒ†ˆƒ–ƒ•–‹…”‡•‘—”…‡ǡ‹–‹• ‘–ƒŽ™ƒ›•‡ƒ•›–‘™‘”™‹–ŠǤ‡•‹†‡•‡””‘”•‹ Š‘™ ”‡…‘”†• ƒ”‡ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ǡ –Š‡ •–”—…–—”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒ‡•‹–Šƒ”†–‘ƒ•–‡”Ǥ   ™ƒ• •…”—–‹‹•‡† ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ ”‡…‘”†• …‘cerning house foundations; all records that did ‘– …‘…‡” ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡‡š…Ž—†‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡ƒ……‡••‡††ƒ–ƒǤ    –Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒ›‹•…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‹–Šƒ•–‘„‡ •–”‡••‡†–Šƒ––Š‡•Š‘”–‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡–‡š–†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ ƒ‡•‹–†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘Œ—†‰‡‹ˆ–Š‡”‡…‘”††‡•…”‹„‡• ƒ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‘”‘–ǤŠ‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡ƒŒ‘”‹–›‘ˆ”‡…‘”†•ƒ”‡•–”ƒ‹‰Š–ˆ‘”™ƒ”†ǡ but a number of records are not so clear, and a •—„Œ‡…–‹˜‡ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ „ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ Šƒ† –‘ „‡ ƒ†‡Ǥ ‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—dations in important locations were inspected ‹–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†–‘ƒ‡ƒϐ‹ƒŽ…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ•†‡•…”‹„‡† ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ Š‹• ”‡†‡”‡† ƒ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ™‹–Š ƒ”‘—†ͳͻ͹ͲŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‡š–”ƒ…–‡†ˆ”‘  ǤŠ‡ˆ—ŽŽ–‡š–†‡•…”‹’–‹‘™‹–Š‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–ƒ––”‹„—–‡•‹••–‘”‡†‹ƒ•‹‰Ž‡–‡š–ϐ‹‡Ž†ǡ ƒ†‘Ž›ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡‹–Š‡‘Ž‹‡˜‡”•‹‘‘ˆ  ǡ ‘”•ÚǤŠ‡–‡š–‘ˆ‡ƒ…Š”‡…‘”†Šƒ†–‘„‡ƒ—ƒŽŽ›…‘’‹‡†ˆ”‘ ‘”•Ú‹–‘–Š‡ Ǧ†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ‘ˆ–Š‡’”‘Œ‡…–Ǥ ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–‘‰‡–ƒ•—‹–ƒ„Ž‡†ƒ–ƒbase structure, the relevant attributes had to be •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡†‹–‘…‘Ž—•‘ˆ–Š‡‹”‘™Ǥ ƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹  ƒŽ•‘ Žƒ…‡† ƒ ‘”‡ ’”‡…‹•‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† ™‡”‡ ‘Ž› stated to be positioned within a larger settle‡–ƒ”‡ƒǤ‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡•‡Šƒ†ƒ–‡š–†‡•…”‹’–‹‘‘ˆ their relative position, which made it possible to plot them out in an approximate position within –Š‡ •‡––Ž‡‡– ƒ”‡ƒǤ ‘‡ Žƒ…‡† –Š‹• ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ„—–‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡™‡”‡˜‹•‹–‡†‹–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†ǡ ƒ†’Ž‘––‡†™‹–Šƒ‘”†‹ƒ”›Šƒ†Š‡Ž† Ǥ ‘” ƒˆ‡™ǡ‹–™ƒ•‘–’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘ϐ‹†ƒ‘”‡’”‡…‹•‡ location; these were distributed at random with‹–Š‡ƒ’’‡†•‡––Ž‡‡–ƒ”‡ƒǤ In addition to this, the oldest historical ƒ’• ™‡”‡ ”‡…–‹ϐ‹‡† ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ ’ƒ”‹•Š‡•Ǥ Š‡ ƒ’•

™‹ŽŽ „‡ †‡•…”‹„‡† ‹ …Šƒ’–‡” ͷǤ  –Š‡•‡ ƒ’•ǡ –Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‘–Š‡”ƒŒ‘”ƒ…‹‡– ”‡ƒ‹•…ƒ‘ˆ–‡„‡•‡‡‹–Š‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ•’ƒ–…Š‡•‘ˆ™ƒ•–‡Žƒ†Ǥ ƒ›…ƒ•‡•ǡ–Š‡ƒ’•†ƒ–‹‰ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ƒŒ‘” Žƒ† ”‡ˆ‘”• ™‡”‡ …‘•—Ž–‡†Ǣ these were the Storskiftesƒ’•ǡƒ‹Ž›ˆ”‘–Š‡ latter part of the 18th…‡–—”›ƒ†ϐ‹”•–†‡…ƒ†‡• of the 19thǡƒ†–Š‡ƒ’•‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•‡“—‡–Laga skifteǤŽ‘•–͵ͲͲƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‡”‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†‹–Š‹•™ƒ›ƒ†’Ž‘––‡†Ǥ ‘‡ ‘™ †‹•ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡† ”‘ ‰‡ –‘‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™ƒ•ƒŽ•‘‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡ old geological maps, on which known ancient reƒ‹•™‡”‡ƒ”‡†ǡ’”‹‘”–‘–Š‡ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ•—”˜‡› „› –Š‡ ™‡†‹•Š ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ ‡”‹–ƒ‰‡ ‘ƒ”† ™Š‹…Š •–ƒ”–‡† ‹ ͳͻ͵͹Ǥ ƒ› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ™‡”‡ ƒŽ”‡ƒ†› ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†„›–Š‡•—”˜‡›‘”•‘ˆ  ‹–Š‡ͳͻͺͲ• ƒ† ™‡”‡ Ž‹•–‡† ‹  ǡ „—– •‘‡ ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ •–‘‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†Ǥ Š‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations derived from these historical maps lack dimensions and orientation and can thus ‘–„‡—•‡†‹ƒŽŽƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ –‘–ƒŽƒŽ‘•–ʹʹͷͲŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡•‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‘—”…‡•ǡ‘ˆ™Š‹…Š •‘‡ͳͺͲͲƒ”‡•–‹ŽŽ’”‡•‡”˜‡†ƒ†˜‹•‹„Ž‡‹–Š‡ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ ‘†‡Ž —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ Ǧ•‘ˆ–™ƒ”‡ ’ƒ…ƒ‰‡ ”… ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™ƒ• —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ ƒŽ•‘ …‘’Ž‹…ƒ–‡• ƒ––‡”•Ǥ – †‘‡• ‘– ƒŽŽ‘™ ‹š‡†–›’‡•‘ˆ‰‡‘‡–”‹‡•‹–Š‡•ƒ‡–ƒ„Ž‡ǡ•‘ –Š‡  †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡‹•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–Š”‡‡•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ Žƒ›‡”•ˆ‘”–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‰‡‘‡–”›–›’‡•Ǣ‘‡ˆ‘” ’‘‹–•ǡ ‘‡ ˆ‘” Ž‹‡• ƒ† ‘‡ ˆ‘” ’‘Ž›‰‘•Ǥ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ •–”—…–—”‡ ‘ˆ   Šƒ• ƒ ˆ‘—”–Š –ƒ„Ž‡ˆ‘”‹š‡†–›’‡•‘ˆƒ…‹‡–”‡ƒ‹•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡ a part of a compound feature; this is called the  Ǧϐ‹Ž‡ ™‹–Š –Š‡ ƒ––”‹„—–‡•ǡ „—– ‘ ‰‡‘‡–”‹‡•Ǥ Š‹•–ƒ„Ž‡Šƒ•–‘„‡Œ‘‹‡†–‘‘‡‘ˆ–Š”‡‡‰‡‘‡–”›–ƒ„Ž‡•–‘„‡’Ž‘––‡†ǡ„—––Š‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡™‹ŽŽ–Š‡ be plotted at the position of the compound fea–—”‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹‘•–…ƒ•‡•‹•ƒ’‘Ž›‰‘ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡Ǥ  –Š‡…ƒ•‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ –Š‹•‹•‘•–Ž›ƒŽƒ”‰‡”•‡––Ž‡‡–ƒ”‡ƒǤ Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• …ƒ „‡ ˆ‘—† ‹ ƒŽŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ –ƒ„Ž‡•Ǥ Ž› ƒ”‘—† ͸ͷͲ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡†‡’‹…–‡†™‹–Šƒ’‘Ž›‰‘ǡ showing its approximate dimensions and orien–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ –Š‡’‘‹––ƒ„Ž‡ǡƒ”‘—†ͳͳ͸Ͳƒ”‡ˆ‘—† ƒ† ƒ”‘—† ͸Ͳ ƒ”‡ •–‘”‡† ƒ• Ž‹‡ ‘„Œ‡…–•Ǥ Š‡ ”‡•–ƒ”‡ˆ‘—†‹–Š‡ Ǧϐ‹Ž‡ƒ†Šƒ˜‡‘‰‡‘‡–”›ǡ‘•–Ž›…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•’ƒ”–‘ˆ•‘‡‘–Š‡”–›’‡ ‘ˆˆ‡ƒ–—”‡ǡƒ›–‹‡•†—‡–‘‹’—–‡””‘”•Ǥ ‡•‹†‡•–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•’Ž‘––‡†ˆ”‘ historical maps, a number of house foundations ‹  ƒŽ•‘Žƒ…‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒ„‘—–†‹‡•‹‘•

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ƒ†‘”‹‡–ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒŽ•‘†ƒƒ‰‡†Š‘—•‡ foundations, which makes their true dimensions —…‡”–ƒ‹Ǥ ƒŽŽǡͳ͸ʹͶ‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• can be regarded to have accurate information ƒ„‘—––Š‡†‹‡•‹‘•ƒ†‘”‹‡–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘”–Š‡•‡ an algorithm was developed, which created pol›‰‘•†‡’‹…–‹‰–Š‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘™‹–Š the correct length, width and orientation, at the ƒ……—”ƒ–‡’‘•‹–‹‘ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ„Ž‡•ƒ†‡–ƒ‹Ž‡†˜‹•—ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆŠ‘™–Š‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ situated in the landscape and relative each other, ™Š‹…Š‹•‘–’‘••‹„Ž‡™‹–Š  ƒ•‹–‹•ǡƒ†‹•ƒ ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ’ƒ”–‹•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•Ǥ ›†‘‹‰„ƒ•‹…•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽƒƒŽ›•‹•ƒ†”‡ƒŽŽ› †‡•…”‹„‹‰–Š‡ ‘–Žƒ††ƒ–ƒˆ”‘‹–•‘™”‹‰Š–ǡ –Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆƒ›ˆ—–—”‡…‘’ƒ”‹•‘•™‹ŽŽ‘–„‡ „‹ƒ•‡†Ǥ‘•‡“—‡–Ž›ǡ‹ˆ–Š‡†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘•ƒ††‡…‹sions are made on a solid foundation of how the

‘–Žƒ† ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ ‹• …‘•–‹–—–‡†ǡ ƒ† ‘– „ƒ•‡† on the situation in other areas, the result will be —…Š ‘”‡ …‘’ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡ǡ ƒ• ›ŠŽ± ȋͳͻ͸ͺǣͳͻ͵ǡ ͳͻͺͳǣͷͳȌ ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡•Ǥ Š‡ …‘’”‡Š‡•‹˜‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ ˆ”‘ ‘–Žƒ† ‹• ‡š…‡‡†‹‰Ž› •—‹–‡† ˆ‘” –Š‹• ‹† ‘ˆ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ ‡˜‡ –Š‘—‰Š ‹– ‹• ‘– ™‹–Š‘—– problems and some additional source critical as’‡…–•Šƒ˜‡–‘„‡†‹•…—••‡†ϐ‹”•–Ǥ ‘”–Š‡ϐ‹”•–•‡–‘ˆƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ–Š‡Ž‡‰–Šǡ‘”‹entation and position of the house foundations are crucial; this means that the dataset with all house foundations with known length and pol›‰‘•‹•–Š‡‘Ž›‘‡’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘—•‡Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‹–Š —‘™ Ž‡‰–Š ƒ› occur in connection to house foundations with ‘™ Ž‡‰–Šǡ ƒ† –Š—• ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡ –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹•Ǥ ‹…‡ ‘Ž› ƒ”‘—† ‘‡ Š—†”‡† house foundations with unknown length are situated close to house foundations with known Ž‡‰–Š ƒ– –Š‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡ …Š‘•‡ ‹ –Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ –Š‡ ‡ˆˆ‡…– ‹• ‹‘”Ǥ Š‡ ƒŽ–‡”ƒ–‹˜‡ –‘ …Ž‡ƒ” –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡‘ˆƒŽŽ”‡…‘”†•ƒˆˆ‡…–‡†„›–Š‡•‡‹…‘plete records is not an option, since a large part ‘ˆ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ™‘—Ž† –Š‡ „‡ Ž‘•–Ǥ •’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ most of the larger groups of house foundations ™‘—Ž† „‡ Ž‘•–ǡ ™Š‡”‡ ƒ› Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• are interconnected and one damaged foundation ™‘—Ž† ‡š…Ž—†‡ –Š‡ ™Š‘Ž‡ ‰”‘—’Ǥ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ Žƒ”‰‡’ƒ”–•‘ˆƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”™‘—Ž†„‡‡š…Ž—†‡†ǤŠ‹• ™‘—Ž†•‡™–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•‘”‡„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ ‘– •‘ ƒ› Žƒ”‰‡ ‰”‘—’• ƒ† –Š‡› ƒ”‡ …‡–”ƒŽ ‹–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǤŠ‡‹…‘’Ž‡–‡”‡…‘”†•ƒˆˆ‡…–ƒŽŽ different sizes of groups of house foundations, •‹…‡ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ †‹•–”‹„—–‡† ‹ ƒ ”ƒ†‘ ˆƒ•Š‹‘ǡ ƒ†™‹ŽŽ–Š—•‘–„‹ƒ•–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‹ƒ›’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ” †‹”‡…–‹‘Ǥ’‘••‹„Ž‡‡š…‡’–‹‘‹•–Šƒ––Š‡ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š ‘Ž› ‘‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ‹‰Š–

͹Ͳ

„‡ ƒ ˆ‡™ ‘”‡ ‹ —„‡”Ǥ Š‡ ’”‘„Ž‡ …ƒ „‡ seen in the same light as house foundations that Šƒ˜‡„‡‡†‡•–”‘›‡†‹…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†Žƒ†—†‡”–Š‡ ’Ž‘—‰ŠǤ–Š‹”†•–”ƒ–‡‰›…‘—Ž†„‡–‘‹…Ž—†‡–Š‡ ‡–‹”‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ ‹ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– •‡– ‘ˆ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ „—– •‹…‡•‘‡͸ͲͲ”‡…‘”†•Žƒ…–Š‡”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–ƒ––”‹„—–‡•ǡ‹–™‹ŽŽ„‹ƒ•–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‡˜‡‘”‡Ǥ ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ—‘™Ž‡‰–Š™‹ŽŽ –Š—• ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡ ƒ† ‹–”‘†—…‡ ƒ …‡”–ƒ‹ †‡‰”‡‡ ‘ˆ —…‡”–ƒ‹–› –‘ –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ˆ‘” –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– •‡– ‘ˆ ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ‘ƒ––‡”™Š‹…Š†ƒ–ƒ•‡–‹•—•‡†Ǥ‡˜ertheless, the selected approach is seen as the „‡•–ǤŠ‡†”ƒ™„ƒ…‹•ƒ‹Ž›ˆ‘”–Š‡”‡ƒ†‡”ǡ„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡—„‡”•™‹ŽŽ…Šƒ‰‡•Ž‹‰Š–Ž›„‡–™‡‡ –Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ƒƒŽ›•‡•ƒ†ƒ‡–Š‡Šƒ”†‡”–‘ follow, but the differences are minor and not sig‹ϐ‹…ƒ–ǡƒ•™‹ŽŽ•‡‡ǤŠ‹•‹••‘‡–Š‹‰–‘„‡ƒ”‹ mind in reading the tables and diagrams; even if –Š‡—„‡”•’”‡•‡–‡†ƒ”‡‡šƒ…–ǡ–Š‡›Šƒ˜‡–‘„‡ –ƒ‡™‹–Šƒƒ”‰‹‘ˆ‡””‘”Ǥ •…‹‡–‹ϐ‹…–‡”•ǡ it can be said that the precision in the calcula–‹‘•ƒ”‡Š‹‰Šǡ„—––Š‡ƒ……—”ƒ…›‹•Ž‘™‡”ǡ„—––Š‡ ‡–Š‘†•ƒ”‡„‘–Š”‡Ž‹ƒ„Ž‡ƒ†˜ƒŽ‹†Ǥ –Š‡–‡š–—ƒŽ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ǡ ™‹ŽŽ–”›–‘…‘’‡•ƒ–‡ˆ‘”–Š‹• when the tabular data and calculations are pre•‡–‡†ǡ„›”‘—†‹‰‘ˆˆ–Š‡’”‡…‹•‡—„‡”•‹ †‹•…—••‹‘•Ǥ‘™‡˜‡” —•– –Š‡ ƒ…–—ƒŽ —„‡”• must be presented in the tables to enable the ”‡ƒ†‡”–‘ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™–Š‡…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ Š‹• —…‡”–ƒ‹–› †‘‡• ‘– ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡ –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• to the degree that it alters the conclusions that ƒ”‡†”ƒ™Ǥ Š‡ƒ‹‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•‹–Š‡…‘‹‰•‡…–‹‘• ‹• –‘ ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š –Š‡ ‘•– –›’‹…ƒŽ •‹–—ƒ–‹‘• ƒ† ‰‡‡”ƒŽ “—ƒŽ‹–‹‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹— ˆƒ”•ƒ†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ –—•–Š‘™‡˜‡”„‡•–”‡••‡† that I do not believe this to be without excep–‹‘•Ǥ —ƒ ƒ…–‹˜‹–› ƒ† …—Ž–—”ƒŽ ’”ƒš‹• ƒ† ‘”• Šƒ˜‡ ƒ –‡†‡…› ‘ˆ …‘•–ƒ–Ž› „”‡ƒ‹‰ ”—Ž‡• ƒ† †‡ˆ›‹‰ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ ‡“—ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• Ž‘‰ •‹…‡ ’”‘˜‡ „› ‡…‘‘‹•–•Ǥ Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ƒŽ•‘•Š‘™•–Š‡…‘’Ž‡š‹–›‹–Š‡ƒ–‡rial and the exceptions to the rule are often the ‘•–‹–‡”‡•–‹‰…ƒ•‡•–‘•–—†›ǡ„—–Š‡”‡–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•—•–‡”‡Ž›„‡•‡‡ƒ•–Š‡ „‡•–ϐ‹––‹‰‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†„›‘‡ƒ•ƒ› ƒŽŽǦ‡„”ƒ…‹‰”—Ž‡Ǥ

‹†‹‰ƒ‡–”‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ†‡ϔ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆƒ farm  –Š‹• •‡…–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ƒƒŽ›•‡†ǡ „‘–Š •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽŽ› ƒ† ˜‹•—ƒŽŽ›ǡƒ•ƒ‡ƒ•–‘‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š•‘‡…”‹–‡”‹ƒ–‘

†‡ϐ‹‡ƒ††‡•…”‹„‡–Š‡‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽƒ†•’ƒ–‹ƒŽ ƒ•’‡…–•‘ˆƒˆƒ”Ǥ ‹”•–™‹ŽŽ‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ‡–Š‘†• ƒ†„ƒ•‹…†‡•…”‹’–‹˜‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•„‡—•‡†–‘ϐ‹†ƒ distance between house foundations, which can †‡ϐ‹‡ƒˆƒ”ǤŠ‹•ƒƒŽ›•‹•™‹ŽŽ‰”‘—’–Š‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‹ …Ž—•–‡”•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ƒƒŽ›•‡† ˆ—”–Š‡” „› †‡•…”‹’–‹˜‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…•Ǥ Š‹• ƒƒŽ›•‹• Figure 3.1.1 showing the statistics for a nearest ‡‹‰Š„‘—”…Ž—•–‡”ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆƒŽŽ‘™Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒtions with known length

will be followed up with a visual interpretation ‘ˆ ‡˜‡”› …Ž—•–‡”ǡ ‹ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ˆƒ”• ™‹ŽŽ„‡‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†Ǥ‡…‡–”ƒŽ‹••—‡‹•–Š‡†‹•tances between the house foundations, since a farmstead often consists of more than one Š‘—•‡ǤŠ‡‘•––›’‹…ƒŽˆƒ”‹•‘ˆ–‡…‘•‹†‡”‡† –‘…‘•‹•–‘ˆ–™‘‘”ƒ›„‡–Š”‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒtions, one larger and one or two smaller, situated …Ž‘•‡Ž›–‘‰‡–Š‡”ȋƒ”Ž••‘ͳͻ͹ͻǣ͵ͶȌǤ  …Ž—•–‡” ƒƒŽ›•‹• ’”‡•‡–‡† ‹ ϐ‹‰ ͵ǤͳǤͳ shows the stone house foundations to be clus–‡”‡† ™‹–Š ƒ ˜‡”› Š‹‰Š Ž‡˜‡Ž ‘ˆ …‘ϐ‹†‡…‡Ǥ ‘ •‘‡ †‡‰”‡‡ǡ –Š‡ ƒ–—”ƒŽ Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ ‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ ™‹–Š ƒ”‡ƒ• ‘ˆ „ƒ””‡ Žƒ† ƒ† ƒ› „‘‰•ǡ …‘tributes to this, but it does not explain all of the …Ž—•–‡”‹‰Ǥ Š‡ ‡ƒ”‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—” †‹•–ƒ…‡ ȋǦ†‹•–ƒ…‡Ȍ ™ƒ• …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡† —•‹‰ –Š‡ –‘‘Ž Ǯƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ ‡ƒ”‡•–‡‹‰Š„‘—”ǯ‹”… ǡ‘ˆ™Š‹…Š–Š‡”‡•—Ž– …ƒ„‡•‡‡‹–ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤͳǤŠ‡ˆ—ŽŽ†ƒ–ƒ•‡–Šƒ•ƒ •‡™–‘–Š‡”‹‰Š–ƒ†‹–‹•‘–‘”ƒŽŽ›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†ǤŠ‹•‹•„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒ›‘—–Ž‹‡”•™‹–Š Ž‘‰†‹•–ƒ…‡•–‘–Š‡‹”‡ƒ”‡•–‡‹‰Š„‘—”Ǥ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– –Š”‡‡ “—ƒ”–‹Ž‡•ǡ —’ –‘ ƒ †‹•–ƒ…‡• ‘ˆ ͳͷͲ metres, the skew is not too bad and at distances Ž‡••–ŠƒͺͲ‡–”‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•͸ͺΨ‘ˆ–Š‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹…Ž—†‡†‹–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ–Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ ‹•˜‡”›…Ž‘•‡–‘‘”ƒŽŽ› †‹•–”‹„—–‡†ǡ™‹–Š the mean, median and mode values close to each ‘–Š‡”ǤŠ‡–‘’͵ʹΨ™‹–Š‘˜‡”ͺͲ‡–”‡•–‘–Š‡ ‡ƒ”‡•–‡‹‰Š„‘—”•Š‘™•ƒ…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž›†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– picture, with considerable distances to the near‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Ǥ Š‡•‡ ƒ”‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ƒ› ‘ˆ –Š‡

Table 3.1.1. ‡•…”‹’–‹˜‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”‡•–‡‹‰Š„‘—”†‹•–ƒ…‡•ˆ‘”–Š‡ͳ͸ʹͶ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‹–Š ‘™Ž‡‰–ŠǤ

71

•‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ”•ǡ ‘” Š‘—•‡• ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡” ˆ—…–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†•Š‘”–Ž›ǡ„—––Š‡Ž‘‰†‹•–ƒ…‡•ƒ”‡ƒŽ•‘Ž‹‡Ž›–‘„‡…ƒ—•‡†„›–Š‡‘”‡ ”‡…‡– ”‡‘˜ƒŽ ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ƒ‹Ž› †—‡ –‘ ‘†‡” ˆƒ”‹‰Ǥ  •‘‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• ™Š‡”‡ ‹–‹•Ž‹‡Ž›–Šƒ–ƒ›ˆƒ”•‘……—””‡†‹–Š‡‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—ǡ˜‡”›ˆ‡™ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡’”‡•‡”˜‡†Ǥ Š‡‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ƒƒŽ›•‹•‹•–‘ create clusters of house foundations at different nearest neighbour distances, to be able to deϐ‹‡ ƒ† ‹†‡–‹ˆ› ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‡ ‡–Š‘† ‹•“—‹–‡•–”ƒ‹‰Š–ˆ‘”™ƒ”†Ǥ‘—†„—ˆˆ‡”œ‘‡•ƒ”‡ …”‡ƒ–‡† ƒ• ’‘Ž›‰‘• ƒ”‘—† ‡ƒ…Š …‡–”‘‹† ȋ‰‡‘‡–”‹… …‡–”‡Ȍ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡ ’‘Ž›‰‘• ™‹ŽŽ –Š‡ „‡ ‡”‰‡†Ǣ ƒŽŽ ’‘Ž›‰‘• ‹–‡”•‡…–‹‰‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”™‹ŽŽˆ‘”Žƒ”‰‡”’‘Ž›‰‘•Ǥ ‹–Š ƒ •’ƒ–‹ƒŽ Œ‘‹ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ’‘Ž›‰‘• ƒ† the database record of individual house foundations, each house foundation is assigned to the …‘””‡•’‘†‹‰ „—ˆˆ‡”Ǧ’‘Ž›‰‘ǡ –Š—• ˆ‘”‹‰ ƒ …Ž—•–‡”ǡ™Š‹…Š…ƒ„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†Ǥ ‘”–Š‡ϐ‹”•–’ƒ”– ‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ–Š‡–‡”…Ž—•–‡”™‹ŽŽ„‡—•‡†ƒ•ƒ ’—”‡ƒƒŽ›–‹……‘…‡’–ǡ‡˜‡‹ˆ‹–‘Ž›…‘•‹•–•‘ˆ ‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ǡ•‹…‡™‡Šƒ˜‡‘–›‡–‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†™Š‡–Š‡”‡ƒ…Š‘ˆ–Š‡…Ž—•–‡”•‹•ƒˆƒ”Ǥ …‡ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ǡ–Š‡–‡”ˆƒ”™‹ŽŽ„‡ —•‡†‹•–‡ƒ†Ǥ ™‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– †‹•–ƒ…‡• ƒ”‡ –”‹‡†ǡ •–ƒ”–‹‰ ™‹–Š ͺͲ ‡–”‡• •‹…‡ –Š‹• ‹• ƒ”‘—† ͸ͺ Ψ ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ house foundations, which is the same amount as ‘‡•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘‹ƒ‘”ƒŽŽ›†‹•–”‹„—–‡† statistical population and also because the skew of the data that can be seen at longer distances •‡‡• –‘ •–ƒ”– …Ž‘•‡ –‘ –Š‹• †‹•–ƒ…‡Ǥ Š‹• ƒŽ•‘ substantiates a more general assumption that †‹•–ƒ…‡• ‘˜‡” ͳͲͲ ‡–”‡• „‡–™‡‡ Š‘—•‡ …‡–”‡•‘ƒˆƒ”—‹–ƒ”‡‘–Ž‹‡Ž›Ǥ –‹•Šƒ”†–‘•‡‡ ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”•—…ŠŽ‘‰†‹•–ƒ…‡•„‡–™‡‡Š‘—•‡•Ǥ Š‡‘Ž›ƒ…–‹˜‹–›–Šƒ–™‘—Ž†‘–‹˜ƒ–‡ƒŽ‘‰†‹•tance is hazardous occupations such as a blacksmith’s workshop or other work that could cause ϐ‹”‡ †—‡ –‘ •Š‘™‡”• ‘ˆ •’ƒ”•Ǥ  Š‹•–‘”‹… –‹‡•ǡ –Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‡šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ’Žƒ…‹‰–Š‡•‹–Š‹‡•“—‹–‡ ˆƒ”ˆ”‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”„—‹Ž†‹‰•‘ƒˆƒ”ǤŠ‡•‡…‘††‹•–ƒ…‡–Šƒ–Šƒ•„‡‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†‹•ͷͲ‡–”‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š‹•ƒ”‘—†ͷͻΨ‘ˆ–Š‡•ƒ’Ž‡ǤŠ‡ͺͲǦ‡–”‡ distance will be compared to house foundations ™‹–Šƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡‡“—ƒŽ‘”•Š‘”–‡”–ŠƒͷͲ‡–”‡• to its closest neighbour, in order to see which distance should be used as the maximum distance „‡–™‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹ƒˆƒ”Ǥ  …‘’ƒ”‹•‘ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ ͷͲǦ‡–”‡ ƒ† ͺͲǦ‡–”‡ ‰”‘—’• ‡šŠ‹„‹–• •‘‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡• „‡tween the groups, as can be seen below, in table 72

͵ǤͳǤʹǤ Š‡ ƒ‹ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ ‹• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ͺͲǦ‡–”‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡’”‘†—…‡•ˆ‡™‡”•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒtions and a greater number of larger clusters, as ™‘—Ž†„‡‡š’‡…–‡†ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ͳͲʹͻ…Ž—•–‡”•ƒ– ͷͲ ‡–”‡• ƒ† ͻͳ͸ …Ž—•–‡”• ƒ– ͺͲ ‡–”‡•Ǥ Š‡ most interesting difference is between the clus–‡”•™‹–Š–™‘Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ •‡–‹‘‡†„‡ˆ‘”‡ǡƒ’”‡†‘‹ƒ–ƒš‹‘ ‹• –Šƒ– ƒ Ǯ–›’‹…ƒŽǯ ˆƒ” …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ –™‘ ‘” –Š”‡‡ house foundations, of which one is bigger than –Š‡ ‘–Š‡”Ǥ Š‡•‡ ’”‡Ž‹‹ƒ”› ”‡•—Ž–• •‡‡ –‘ contradict this, since more than half of the clus–‡”• …‘•‹•– ‘ˆ ‘Ž› ‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ǡ ”‡gardless of distances to the nearest neighbour, but the clusters with two house foundations are –Š‡•‡…‘†Žƒ”‰‡•–Ǥ Š‡ ‡–Š‘† —•‡† –‘ …Š‘‘•‡ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ –™‘ †‹•–ƒ…‡•ǡ ‹• –‘ ƒƒŽ›•‡ –Š‡ •‹œ‡• ‘ˆ „‘–Š house foundations in the different 2-house foundation groups with the group that forms the difˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡–™‘‰”‘—’•Ǥ ‘–Š‡”™‘”†•ǡ –Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡…‘’Ž‡‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ͷͲǦ‡–”‡‰”‘—’ ‹–Š‡ͺͲǦ‡–”‡‰”‘—’™‹ŽŽ„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†ǡƒ••Š‘™ ‹ϐ‹‰͵ǤͳǤʹǤŠ‡•‹œ‡•‹•†‡ϐ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š‹ ‡–”‡•Ǥ Š‹• ‰”‘—’ …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ Ͷͳ …Ž—•–‡”• ƒ† –Š—•ͺʹŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ –…ƒ…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›„‡•‡‡ –Šƒ––Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡…‘’Ž‡‡–ȋ–Š‡‰”‘—’Ȍ‹•ƒ †‹•–‹…–‰”‘—’‘ˆ‹–•‘™ȋƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤ͵ȌǤŠ‡‡ƒ ˜ƒŽ—‡•ƒ”‡ƒŽŽŠ‹‰Š‡”ˆ‘”–Š‡Ǧ‰”‘—’Ǥ•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ –—†‡–ǯ• Ǧ–‡•– •Š‘™• –Šƒ– –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡• ƒ”‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽŽ›•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–ˆ‘”ƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǣ –Š‡Žƒ”‰‡•–ǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘–Š‡•ƒŽŽ‡•–Ǥ

Table 3.1.2. showing the difference in cluster sizes „‡–™‡‡‡ƒ”‡•–‡‹‰Š„‘—”†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͷͲƒ†ͺͲ

Š‹• •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ –‡•– ™ƒ• …Š‡…‡† „› ƒ •—’’Ž‡‡–ƒ”› ˜‹•—ƒŽ ‡šƒ‹ƒ–‹‘ǡ ™Š‹…Š ”‡˜‡ƒŽ• ƒ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’‹…–—”‡Ǥˆ–Š‡Ͷͳ…Ž—•–‡”•ǡ‘Ž›–™‡Ž˜‡ …ƒ „‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ• …‘•–‹–—–‹‰ –™‘ …Ž‘•‡Ž› situated neighbouring farms each consisting of ‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ™‡–›Ǧ‹‡ ™Š‡”‡ ‹terpreted as one farm with two houses, mostŽ›†—‡–‘–Š‡Žƒ›‘—–ƒ†•‹œ‡•‘ˆ–Š‡–™‘Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡…Ž—•–‡”ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‹–Š‡ ‡ƒ Ž‡‰–Š• „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ Ǧ‰”‘—’ ƒ† –Š‡ Ǧ ƒ† Ǧ‰”‘—’•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• –Š‡ …ƒ—•‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•Š‘™„›–Š‡Ǧ–‡•–ǡ—•––Š‡„‡…ƒ—•‡†

„›‘”‡†‹•’‡”•‡†ˆƒ”•™‹–ŠŽ‘‰‡”ƒ†Žƒ”‰‡” Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‘‰‡” Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• mean that the distance between the walls is not as long as it seems, since the distance used in the ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‹• ‡ƒ•—”‡† „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ …‡–”‘‹†• ‘ˆ –Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•‹•–Š‡”‡„›•‘‡™Šƒ– ƒ„‹‰—‘—• ƒ† ‘– •‘ ‡ƒ•› –‘ ‹–‡”’”‡– ˆ—ŽŽ›Ǥ‹…‡–Š‡Ž‘‰‡”†‹•–ƒ…‡•‡‡•–‘„‡…‘nected to larger house foundations, and thus means that the farm buildings are kept in close ’”‘š‹‹–› –‘ ‡ƒ…Š ‘–Š‡”ǡ ‘‡ …ƒ …‘…Ž—†‡ –Šƒ– –Š‡ͷͲǦ…Ž—•–‡”†‡•…”‹„‡•–Š‡“—ƒŽ‹–‹‡•‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ foundations that form a farm, better than the ͺͲǦ‡–”‡ …Ž—•–‡”•Ǥ  –Š‡ ‘–Š‡” Šƒ†ǡ ‹ˆ –Š‡ Ͷͳ more dispersed farms are to be included, the ͺͲǦ…Ž—•–‡”•—•–„‡…Š‘•‡‹–Š‡•—„•‡“—‡– ƒƒŽ›•‡•‘ˆ†‹•–ƒ…‡•ǤŠ‡ͺͲǦ‡–”‡†‹•–ƒ…‡‹• therefore chosen as the maximum distance be–™‡‡ Š‘—•‡• ‹ ƒ ˆƒ”Ǥ Š‡ …Š‘‹…‡ ‘ˆ ‡ƒ”‡•– neighbour distance will of course change how clusters are created all along the line, as seen ‹–ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤʹǡ„—–ƒƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ–Š‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•‘ˆ ƒŽŽ …Ž—•–‡”• …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ —’ –‘ ϐ‹˜‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—dations gives the same picture as those clusters ™‹–Š–™‘Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ

Figure 3.1.2.‡Žƒ–‹˜‡…‘’Ž‡‡–‘ˆ‹ Table 3.1.3.–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ…‘’ƒ”‹•‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆ–Š‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡ͷͲǦ‡–”‡‰”‘—’ǡ–Š‡ͺͲǦ‡–”‡ ‰”‘—’ƒ†–Š‡‹””‡Žƒ–‹˜‡…‘’Ž‡‡–ǡ–Š‡Ǧ‰”‘—’Ǥ

͹͵

Analysing the clusters Š‡†‹ƒ‰”ƒƒ†–ƒ„Ž‡„‡Ž‘™•Š‘™–Š‡„ƒ•‹…•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ˆ‘”–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š•‘ˆ–Š‡ͳ͸ʹͶŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•—•‡†‹–Š‹•ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ™Š‹…Š…‘•–‹–—–‡•–Š‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ •—„’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ •ƒ’Ž‡Ǥ Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ is not in accordance with a normal distribution because it has a skew to the right, but the mean, ‡†‹ƒƒ†‘†‡˜ƒŽ—‡•ƒ”‡“—‹–‡…Ž‘•‡ǤŠ‹•‹• †—‡ –‘ •‘‡ ˜‡”› Ž‘‰ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡ Ž‘‰‡•– ‹• " —”• ͷͷ ™‹–Š ƒ Ž‡‰–Š ‘ˆ ͸͹ Ǥ –™ƒ•‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†‹–Š‡›‡ƒ”•ͳͻʹͺǦ͵ͳ„› ‘Šƒ ‹ŠŽ± ȋ‹ŠŽ± ͳͻ͵ʹȌǡ ƒ† •–ƒ†• ‘—– ƒ• ƒ ‡š–”‡‡ǤŠ‡”‡‹•ǡŠ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ‘‡‘††–Š‹‰™‹–Š–Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ „‡Ž‘™Ǥ ‡”–ƒ‹ Ž‡‰–Š• ƒ”‡ ‘”‡ …‘mon, which is the even 5 metres marked with †ƒ”‡”•Šƒ†‡‹–Š‡†‹ƒ‰”ƒǤ‡…ƒ•’‡…—Žƒ–‡ if this is due to some kind of ancient measuring •›•–‡ǡ„—––Š‡”‡‹•‘•–Ž‹‡Ž›ƒ•‹’Ž‡‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘–‘‹–ǤŠ‡•—”˜‡›‘”•‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›”‘—†ed off their not so precise measurements of the Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ –‘ ƒ ‡˜‡ —„‡”Ǥ ‘‡ ‘ˆ the values in the darker pillars in the diagram should thus be distributed to the neighbouring ˜ƒŽ—‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‘—Ž† •‘‘–Š –Š‡ …—”˜‡Ǥ Š‡”‡fore, a trend line is added showing the moving average over 5 values, so the overall trend is ‘”‡˜‹•‹„Ž‡Ǥ ˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡Š‹•–‘‰”ƒ†‘‡•‘–•Š‘™ƒ‘”mal distribution, standard deviations will be —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‡• –‘ †‡ϐ‹‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– „”‡ƒ-

points, since apart from a few extreme values, which however are of importance, there is a –‡†‡…›–‘ƒ‘”ƒŽ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘Ǥ–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ƒ†•—…Š‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•—•—ƒŽŽ›†‡’‡† ‘ƒ‘”ƒŽ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ‡˜ertheless, in this case, even if not all statistical †‡ƒ†•ƒ”‡ˆ—Žϐ‹ŽŽ‡†–Š‡•‹œ‡ƒ††‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ –Š‡•ƒ’Ž‡‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹••—ˆϐ‹…‹‡–ˆ‘” ƒ—•ƒ„Ž‡ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”‘—”’—”’‘•‡•Ǥ‘†‘ƒ log-transformation of the data, which in statistical terms would be the proper thing to do, would ‘Ž› ƒ‡ –Š‹‰• ‘”‡ …‘’Ž‹…ƒ–‡† ƒ† ™‘—Ž† ‘–ƒŽ–‡”–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•‹ƒ›†‡…‹•‹˜‡™ƒ›Ǥ Š‡ ‡ƒ Ž‡‰–Š ‹• ʹͲǤʹ ‡–”‡• ƒ† –Š‡ •–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ȋ•–†˜Ȍ‹•͹‡–”‡•ǤŠ‹•™‘—Ž† ‹ƒ‘”ƒŽŽ›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘‡ƒ–Šƒ– ƒ”‘—† ͸ͺΨ ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ „‡–™‡‡ͳ͵ƒ†ʹ͹‡–”‡•‹Ž‡‰–Šǡ„—–•‹…‡–Š‡ ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹•‘–’‡”ˆ‡…–Ž› in accordance with a normal distribution, the ac–—ƒŽ˜ƒŽ—‡‹•͹ͳΨǤ™‘•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ „‡–™‡‡͸ƒ†͵Ͷ‡–”‡•‘ˆŽ‡‰–Š ƒ†•Š‘—Ž† ‹…Ž—†‡•‘‡ͻͷΨ‘ˆ–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ‹ƒ‘”ƒŽŽ›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ǡ„—––Š‡ƒ…–—ƒŽ˜ƒŽ—‡‹•ͻ͸Ψ ‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ–Š‡Ž‡ˆ–•‹†‡ȋŽ‘™‡” ˜ƒŽ—‡•Ȍǡ–Š‡”ƒ‰‡‘ˆ–™‘•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘•‹• outside the data, since there are no house foun†ƒ–‹‘••Š‘”–‡”–Šƒ͹‡–”‡•Ǥ–Š‡”‹‰Š–•‹†‡ ȋŠ‹‰Š‡”˜ƒŽ—‡•Ȍǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡͹ͶŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‹–ŠƒŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆ͵Ͷ‡–”‡•‘”‘”‡Ǥ ƒ’‡”ˆ‡…–Ž› ‘”ƒŽ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆƒ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ǡ–Š‡›™‘—Ž†

Figure 3.1.3.‹•–‘‰”ƒ•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆƒŽŽ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‹–Š‘™Ž‡‰–ŠǤ

74

Table 3.1.4. ˜‡”ƒŽŽ•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ˆ‘”–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–…Ž—•–‡”•‹œ‡•

„‡ƒ„‘—–ʹǤʹΨǡ„—–•‹…‡–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ•‡™–‘–Š‡ ”‹‰Š– ‹ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒǡ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ͶǤ͸Ψ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡™ƒ›‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡•‡Žƒ”‰‡•–‘‡ house foundations are distributed both in space and across the different cluster-sizes, will be anƒŽ›•‡†ˆ—”–Š‡”Žƒ–‡”‘Ǥ Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ƒƒŽ›•‹• …‘…‡”• ™Š‡–Š‡” –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒ› †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡• „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– …Ž—•ter sizes, regarding the length of the stone house ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•„‡Ž‘‰‹‰–‘–Š‡…Ž—•–‡”•ǤŠ‡‘˜‡”all statistics for the different clusters are pre•‡–‡†‹–ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤͶǤŠ‡Š‹‰Š‡•–‡ƒ˜ƒŽ—‡‹• found in the clusters with seven and nine house ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ™‹–ŠʹͲǤ͸ƒ†ʹͲǤͺ‡–”‡•”‡•’‡…–‹˜‡Ž›ǤŠ‡Ž‘™‡•–‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ‡ƒǡ‹•ˆ‘—†‹–Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”• ™‹–Š ϐ‹˜‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ™‹–Š ƒ ‡ƒ‘ˆͳͺǤͶ‡–”‡•Ǥ––Š‹••–ƒ‰‡ǡ‘”‡ƒŽ…‘clusions can be drawn from this, so the clusters Šƒ˜‡–‘„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†‹‘”‡†‡–ƒ‹ŽǤ

Solitary house foundations Š‹•‹•–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡•–…Ž—•–‡”‰”‘—’™‹–Šͷʹ͸Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•͵ʹΨ‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ-

–‹‘•Ǥ‘–ƒŽŽ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡…ƒ„‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•ˆƒ”•–‡ƒ†•ǡƒ‹Ž›„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡–‘‘•ƒŽŽǤˆ—ŽŽ farm must have a minimum of housing space for †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ ‘ Š‘—•‡ ƒ– ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ” ™‹–Š a length shorter than 19 metres was interpreted to contain both dwelling space and a part for …ƒ––Ž‡ȋƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”’ƒ”– ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲͲǦʹͶ͹Ǣ–‡„‡”‰‡”ͳͻͷͷ„ǣͳͲͷͲˆȌǤ‘–Š’ƒ”–•‡‡†–‘„‡‹…Ž—†‡† in a farm for it to be self-contained and to func–‹‘ ”‘—† –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”Ǥ šƒ…–Ž› ™Š‡”‡ –‘ †”ƒ™ –Š‡ Ž‹‡‹•†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘•ƒ›ǡ„—–‹ˆ–Š‡Ž‹‡‹•†”ƒ™ƒ– —†‡”ͳͷ‡–”‡•ǡ–Š‹•Ž‡ƒ˜‡•ͶͲͲ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•ǡ and at a length of less than 18 metres, there are ‘Ž› ͵ͳͲ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ”• Ž‡ˆ–Ǥ Š‡†‘‹ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ƒ• –Š‡ ’”‹…‹’ƒŽ ˆƒ” –›’‡ ‹• ‘– ‡˜‹†‡– ƒ› ‘”‡Ǥ  Ž‹‹– ™ƒ• set at less than 18 metres, to keep a ‘margin’ of ͳ‡–”‡ǤƒŽŽ‡”•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ž‘cated at a distance from other house foundations ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ”‡’”‡•‡– ƒ› †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ ‘‡–›’‹…ƒŽ•‹–—ƒ–‹‘•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ† …ƒ„‡†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰…ƒ•‡•Ǥ

Figure 3.1.4. ‹•–‘‰”ƒ•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆƒŽŽ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›‰”‘—’

75

‘Ž‹–ƒ”›Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ž‡••–Šƒͳͺ‡–”‡• ‹Ž‡‰–Š–Šƒ–ƒ”‡Ž‘…ƒ–‡†ǣ ͳǤ Ž‘•‡–‘‘†‡”ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ†‹‰Š–„‡ˆ”ƒ‰‡–‡† ˆƒ”•Ǥ ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ǡ –Š‡› Šƒ˜‡ been farms, with more house foundations, but the other house foundations have been †‡•–”‘›‡† „‡…ƒ—•‡ ‘ˆ ’Ž‘—‰Š‹‰Ǥ Š‡•‡ house foundations are often situated in ‘†‡” ϐ‹‡Ž†• ‘” ƒ– –Š‡ ‡†‰‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ǡ ƒ• •ƒŽŽŠ—’•‘ˆ™ƒ•–‡Žƒ†Ǥ ʹǤ Isolated stone house foundations, which ‡ƒ‘”‡–ŠƒʹͲͲǦ͵ͲͲ‡–”‡•ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”ˆƒ”•Ǥ –‹•Š‘™‡˜‡”‘–—…‘‘–Šƒ– several of these smaller house foundations are located together at some distance from ‡ƒ…Š ‘–Š‡” ˆ‘”‹‰ Ž‘‘•‡ Ǯ…Ž—•–‡”•ǯǤ Š‡•‡ can be compared with similar ones situated on the Stora Alvaret, a barren limestone ’Žƒ‹‘YŽƒ†ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ʹͲͲ͸ǣʹͻȌ ͵Ǥ ‹–—ƒ–‡†‡ƒ”‘–Š‡”ˆƒ”•ǡ„—–ˆ—”–Š‡”ƒ™ƒ› –ŠƒͺͲǤ ͶǤ Isolated and in close connection to grave ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ ͷǤ Isolated in connection with enclosure walls ‘”ˆ‘••‹Ž‹•‡†ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ ˆ …‘—”•‡ǡ …‘„‹ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ –Š‡•‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‡š‹•–ǡ„—––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‘–ƒ›ǤŠ‡‘•–•—‹–ƒ„Ž‡ …ƒ•‡‹•–Š‡…Š‘•‡Ǥˆ–Š‡ƒ”‘—†ͳ͸Ͳ•ƒŽŽ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”› Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ƒ”‘—† ‘‡ –Š‹”† ȋͷͳȌ ‘……—” …Ž‘•‡ –‘ ‘†‡” ϐ‹‡Ž†• ȋ…ƒ•‡ ͳȌ ƒ† …ƒ –Š—• „‡ –Š‡ ‘Ž› ”‡ƒ‹‹‰ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ƒ Žƒ”‰‡” ˆƒ”Ǥ ‡ƒ”Ž› ‘‡ “—ƒ”–‡” ȋ͵ͷȌ ƒ”‡ ’Žƒ…‡†‹‹•‘Žƒ–‡†ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›ˆƒ”ˆ”‘ƒ› ‘–Š‡”ˆƒ”•ȋ…ƒ•‡ʹȌǤŠ‡•ƒ‡ƒ‘—–ȋ͵͸Ȍƒ”‡

situated in isolated places close to stone enclo•—”‡™ƒŽŽ•Ȁˆ‘••‹Ž‹•‡†ϐ‹‡Ž†•ȋ…ƒ•‡ͷȌǤŠ‡›‹‰Š– perhaps be related with fäboddriftȋ•Š‹‡Ž‹‰Ȍǡ‹ which the cattle are moved to a small ‘summer ˆƒ”ǯˆ‘”‰”ƒœ‹‰ǤŠ‹•‹•ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡†„›Žƒ‡••‘ Ƭ Š¤Ž‹ ȋͳͻͶͲǣʹͲˆȌǡ ™Š‘ ƒŽ•‘ ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡• –Š‡ ™‹–Š…‡”–ƒ‹–›’‡•‘ˆŠ‹ŽŽˆ‘”–•ǡ™Š‹…Š–Š‡›„‡Ž‹‡˜‡ ‹‰Š–Šƒ˜‡•‹‹Žƒ”ˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—dations, located on poor soils or barren land, far ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†„›‡”•…Š‡† ƒ•’‘••‹„Ž›„‡‹‰‘……—’‹‡†„›’‡‘’Ž‡™Š‘ƒ†‡ ƒ Ž‹˜‹‰ ‘ ˜ƒ”‹‘—• ‹†• ‘ˆ ‹†—•–”› ‘” …”ƒˆ–•ǡ ‘–Š‡” –Šƒ ˆƒ”‹‰ ȋ‡”•…Š‡† ͳͻͺͺǣͶͷˆȌǤ Š‡ Žƒ•–ƒŒ‘”‰”‘—’‹•…ƒ•‡͵ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ”‡•ƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• Ž‘…ƒ–‡† …Ž‘•‡ –‘ ˆƒ”• ȋ͵ʹȌǤ Š‡”‡ are some in such a situation, close to house 22ʹͶƒ–ƒŽŽŠƒ‰‡”ǡ™Š‹…ŠŽ‰”‡ȋͳͻͷ͹ǣʹ͵ͲȌ„‡lieves are backstugor ȋŠ—–• ‘” …ƒ„‹•Ȍ ‘” torp ȋ…”‘ˆ–‡”•Š‘—•‡ȌǤ‡”•…Š‡†•—‰‰‡•–•–Šƒ–ǡ™Šƒ– Š‡…ƒŽŽ•Ǯ…ƒ––Ž‡ǦŽ‡••ǯˆƒ”•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‡š‹•–‡††—”‹‰–Š‡’‡”‹‘†ǤŠ‡•‡ˆƒ”•™‡”‡†‡’‡†‡–‘ ‘–Š‡” ˆƒ”• ƒ† •‹…‡ –Š‡› …‘—Ž† ‘– ’”‘†—…‡ ‡˜‡”›–Š‹‰ –Š‡› ‡‡†‡† –Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•ǡ –Š‡› ™‡”‡ ‘–•‡ŽˆǦ…‘–ƒ‹‡†ƒ†’”‘„ƒ„Ž›Šƒ†–‘™‘”ƒ• some form of labourers for full farm-owners to ϐ‹ŽŽ ƒŽŽ –Š‡‹” ‡‡†• ȋ‡”•…Š‡† ʹͲͲͻǣʹͲͺȌǤ Š‹• could be a plausible interpretation to these Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Ž› ƒ ˆ‡™ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†–‘…ƒ•‡ͶǡŽ‘…ƒ–‡†…Ž‘•‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ In addition, a few are not isolated, but are situat‡†˜‡”›‡ƒ”‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǤŽ–‘‰‡–Š‡”ǡ–Š‡›ƒ”‡‘– ‡˜‡ƒŠƒ†ˆ—ŽǤ Š‡•ƒŽŽ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹•‹–uations as in cases 2-5 are interpreted to have ‘–Š‡” ˆ—…–‹‘• –Šƒ „‡‹‰ ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‡ ‹–‡”pretation is not as clear when it comes to case ͳǡ–Š‘•‡Ž›‹‰…Ž‘•‡–‘‘†‡”ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ„—–‘–•‘ …Ž‘•‡ –‘ ‘–Š‡” ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ ‘Ž› •‘‡ ‘ˆ them are considered farms and the others might „‡ Š‘—•‡• ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡” ˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ ŽŽ ‹ ƒŽŽǡ ͳ͵͸ ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– …ƒ•‡• ƒ”‡ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡† ƒ• ‘– „‡‹‰ ˆƒ”•‹–Š‡…‘‹‰ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ

Clusters consisting of two house foundations

Figure 3.1.5.  •ƒŽŽ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‘ ’‘‘” and barren land outside the preferred settlement areas, close to several graves; this represents case 4

͹͸

Š‡ …Ž—•–‡” –›’‡ ™‹–Š –™‘ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ–‡ •ƒ‹† –‘ ”‡’”‡•‡– ƒ ˜‡”› Ǯ–›’‹…ƒŽǯ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹— ˆƒ” ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣͻ͸ˆˆȌǤŠ‡†ƒ–ƒˆ‘”„‘–Š–Š‡ͷͲǦ‡–”‡†‹•–ƒ…‡ ƒ† –Š‡ ͺͲǦ‡–”‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡ ƒ”‡ •Š‘™ ‹ diagrams and tables to visualise the marginal differences there are between the two distances ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…•Ǥ Š‡ Š‹•–‘‰”ƒ• „‡Ž‘™ show how the lengths are distributed between –Š‡–™‘Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ –†‹•’Žƒ›•–™‘’‡ƒ•ǡ as would be expected, if we have a farm with two

houses of different sizes, but from the histogram, ‹–…ƒ‘–„‡…‘…Ž—†‡†‹ˆ–Š‡›ˆ‘”’ƒ‹”•Ǥ Whether the statement is true or not, can „‡ƒ•™‡”‡†„›ƒƒŽ›•‹‰–Š‡’ƒ‹”•‹‡ƒ…Š…Ž—•ter regarding the difference in length between –Š‡–™‘ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‹•‡š’”‡••‡†ƒ•ƒ‹†‡š …”‡ƒ–‡†„›†‹˜‹†‹‰–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ™‹–Š–Š‡•ƒŽŽ‡”ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ–‹ƒ’ƒ‹”™‹–Š an index value of two, the larger house founda–‹‘‹•–™‹…‡ƒ•Ž‘‰ƒ•–Š‡•ƒŽŽ‡”ǡ‡Ǥ‰Ǥƒ’ƒ‹”–Šƒ– ƒ”‡ʹͲ‡–”‡•ƒ†ͳͲ‡–”‡•‹Ž‡‰–Š‘”ʹͺƒ† ͳͶ‡–”‡•Ǥ‹†‡š˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆͳǤʹ‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡”‹•ͳǤʹ–‹‡•Ž‘‰‡”ǡ‡Ǥ‰Ǥ͵Ͷ‡–”‡•ƒ†ʹͺ ‡–”‡•Ǥ‹†‡š˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ‘‡‡ƒ•„‘–ŠŠ‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ Ž‡‰–ŠǤ  –Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ„‡Ž‘™ǡ–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•‹••‡‡Ǥ ‡’‡†‹‰ ‘ˆ –Š‡ …Š‘•‡ –Š”‡•Š‘Ž† ˜ƒŽ—‡ǡ –Š‡”‡•—Ž–™‹ŽŽ†‹ˆˆ‡”ǡƒ••Š‘™‹–Š‡–ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤͷǤ  ”‡ƒ•‘ƒ„Ž‡ ˜ƒŽ—‡ …‘—Ž† „‡ ͳǤ͵ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‡ƒ•ǡ ˆ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ƒ’ƒ‹”™‹–ŠƒʹͲƒ†ƒͳ͸Š‘—•‡ foundation, or 15 m and 12 m, or 24 m and 19 Ǥ – –Š‹• –Š”‡•Š‘Ž†ǡ ‹– ‹• –”—‡ ‹ ͸͸Ψ ‘ˆ –Š‡ …ƒ•‡• –Šƒ– ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‹• ͳǤ͵

–‹‡•Žƒ”‰‡”‘”‘”‡–Šƒ–Š‡‘–Š‡”ǤŠ‡Š‹‰Š‡” –Š”‡•Š‘Ž† ˜ƒŽ—‡ …Š‘•‡ǡ –Š‡ Ž‡•• –”—‡ ‹– ™‹ŽŽ „‡Ǥ –ƒ–Š”‡•Š‘Ž†˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆͳǤͷǡ‘Ž›ŠƒŽˆ‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒ•‡• ƒ”‡–”—‡Ǥ ‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ–Š‡•–ƒ–‡‡––Šƒ––™‘Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• •‹–—ƒ–‡† –‘‰‡–Š‡” ‹• ƒ –›’‹…ƒŽ ˆƒ” has some bearing and could be used to describe “—‹–‡ ƒ …‘‘ •‹–—ƒ–‹‘ǡ „—– ‹• ˆƒ” ˆ”‘ ’”‡†‘‹ƒ–Ǥ

Figure 3.1.7a Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’„‡–™‡‡–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”ƒ†–Š‡ •ƒŽŽ‡”Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ–ƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͷͲ‡–”‡•

Figure 3.1.6a ‹•–‘‰”ƒ •Š‘™‹‰ –Š‡ Ž‡‰–Š• ‘ˆ „‘–Š Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹…Ž—•–‡”•‘ˆ–™‘ƒ–ƒǦ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆ ͷͲ‡–”‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ʹͳͲ•—…Š…Ž—•–‡”•

Figure 3.1.7b Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’„‡–™‡‡–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”ƒ†–Š‡ •ƒŽŽ‡”Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ–ƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͺͲ‡–”‡•

Table 3.1.5.‘’ƒ”‹•‘„‡–™‡‡‹†‡š˜ƒŽ—‡•ƒ–ͷͲƒ† ͺͲ

Figure 3.1.6b ‹•–‘‰”ƒ •Š‘™‹‰ –Š‡ Ž‡‰–Š• ‘ˆ „‘–Š house foundations in clusters with two founda-tions at an Ǧ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͺͲ‡–”‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ʹͳ͸•—…Š…Ž—•–‡”•

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Clusters with more than two house foundations When it comes to the clusters with more than two house foundations the picture gets more com’Ž‡šƒ†Šƒ”†‡”–‘ƒƒŽ›•‡„›•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ‡ƒ•Ǥ Š‡†‹ƒ‰”ƒ•‹ϐ‹‰͵ǤͳǤͺǡ•Š‘™–Š‡…Ž—•–‡”•™‹–Š —’–‘ϐ‹˜‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ –Š‡†‹ƒ‰”ƒ•ǡ‹– can be seen that the different length intervals ‘˜‡”Žƒ’ –‘ ƒ Žƒ”‰‡ †‡‰”‡‡ ƒ† –Š‡› ƒ”‡ Šƒ”† –‘ ‹–‡”’”‡– ƒ† ‰‡– ƒ› ‡ƒ‹‰ˆ—Ž ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘—– ‘ˆ –Š‡Ǥ Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ• •Š‘™ –Šƒ– –Š‡ Žƒ”‰-

Figure 3.1.8a ‹•–‘‰”ƒ•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š•‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ foundations in clusters with three house foundations at Ǧ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͺͲ‡–”‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ͻͻ•—…Š…Ž—•–‡”•

‡” …Ž—•–‡”• ƒ”‡ ˜‡”› Š‡–‡”‘‰‡‡‘—•ǡ •‹…‡ –Š‡”‡ are several clusters, in which the smallest house ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ “—‹–‡ Žƒ”‰‡Ǥ Š‹• ‹†‹…ƒ–‡• –Šƒ– all house foundations are large in the cluster, but the opposite seems to be as common; that there …ƒ ƒŽ•‘ „‡ ‘Ž› “—‹–‡ •ƒŽŽ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• in a cluster, since the largest house foundation is ‘ˆƒ•ƒŽŽ‡”•‹œ‡Ǥ‘…Žƒ”‹ˆ›–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘ƒ˜‹•—ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ’‹•‡‡†‡†ǡ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡†‘‡ Žƒ–‡”‘Ǥ

Clusters with large house foundations • †‹•…—••‡† ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ –ƒ‹Ž ‡† –‘ –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– ‹ –Š‡ Š‹•–‘‰”ƒ ‹ ϐ‹‰ ͵ǤͳǤ͵ǡ •Š‘™‹‰ –Š‡ Ž‡‰–Š ‘ˆ –Š‡ ͳ ͸ʹͶ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡•‡–‡† ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ Š‡ ‡š–”‡‡ ˜ƒŽ—‡• ƒ– –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– •‹†‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ƒƒŽ›•‡† –‘ϐ‹†ƒ†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ˆ‘”Žƒ”‰‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‘‡ ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‡• ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ ƒ†‡ –‘ •‡‡ how the larger house foundations are distribut‡†‹•’ƒ…‡ƒ†‘˜‡”…Ž—•–‡”•‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‹œ‡•Ǥ ‹ŠŽ± ƒ† ‘´–Š‹—• ȋͳͻ͵͵ǣͺʹȌ •‡– –Š‡ –Š”‡•Š‘Ž†˜ƒŽ—‡ƒ–͵ͷ‡–”‡•ˆ‘”–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡•––›’‡ ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ǡ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡› …ƒŽŽ‡† ›’‡ Ǥ †‡”–Š‹•–›’‡ǡ–Š‡›Ž‹•–ͷ͵‘ˆ–Š‡ͳͳͲͲŠ‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘™ ‹ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ͳͻ͵Ͳ•Ǥ Š‡ –Š”‡•Š‘Ž†˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ–™‘•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘•‹•͵Ͷ ‡–”‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡͹ͶŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‹• Ž‡‰–Šǡ‘”Ž‘‰‡”ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ͶǤ͸Ψ‘ˆƒŽŽͳ͸ʹͶǤŠ‡ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‹••‡‡‹ϐ‹‰Ǥ͵ǤͳǤͻǤ

Figure 3.1.8b‹•–‘‰”ƒ•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š•‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ foundations in clusters with four house founda-tions at Ǧ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͺͲ‡–”‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ͶͲ•—…Š…Ž—•–‡”•

Figure 3.1.9. ‹ƒ‰”ƒ •Š‘™‹‰ –Š‡ Ž‡‰–Š• ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ Žƒ”‰‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‹–Š ƒ Ž‡‰–Š ‘˜‡” ʹ •–†˜ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ͵Ͷ ‡–”‡•Ǥ

Figure 3.1.8c ‹•–‘‰”ƒ•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š•‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‹ …Ž—•–‡”• ™‹–Š ϐ‹˜‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—Ǧ†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ– Ǧ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͺͲ‡–”‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ʹͲ•—…Š…Ž—•–‡”•

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‘‘‹‰ƒ––Š‡”ƒ–‡‘ˆ…Ž—•–‡”‹‰ˆ‘”‡˜‡”›‡–”‡ ‹Ž‡‰–Š•ˆ‘”ƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•„‡–™‡‡͵Ͳ ‡–”‡•—’–‘͵ͷ‡–”‡•ǡ–Š‡Ǧ•…‘”‡…‘‡•…Ž‘•‡” ƒ†…Ž‘•‡”–‘Ͳ–Š‡Ž‘‰‡”–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ is, which means the rate of clustering becomes Ž‘™‡” ƒ† Ž‘™‡”Ǥ  Ǧ•…‘”‡ ˜ƒŽ—‡ ‘ˆ „‡–™‡‡ ǦͳǤͻ ƒ† ͳǤͻ ‡ƒ• –Šƒ– ƒ ”ƒ†‘ ’ƒ––‡” …ƒ‘–”—Ž‡‘—–Ǥƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤ͸ƒǡ•Š‘™•–Šƒ––Š‡Š‘—•‡

ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ ͵Ͷ ‡–”‡• ‘” Ž‘‰‡” ƒ”‡ …Ž—•–‡”‡†ǡ„—–™‹–Š—…ŠŽ‘™‡”•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡ƒ† ƒ…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰Ǧ•…‘”‡‘ˆǦʹǤͲʹǡ™Š‹…Š‹•˜‡”› …Ž‘•‡–‘ƒ”ƒ†‘†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘Ǥ ˆ–Š‡–Š”‡•Š‘Ž† ˜ƒŽ—‡‹••‡––‘͵ͷ‡–”‡•‘”Ž‘‰‡”ǡƒ•‹–Š‡•–—†› ’‡”ˆ‘”‡†„›‹ŠŽ±ƒ†‘´–Š‹—•ǡ–Š‡›ƒ”‡†‹•–”‹„—–‡† ‹ ƒ ”ƒ†‘ ’ƒ––‡” ™‹–Š ƒ Ǧ•…‘”‡ ‘ˆ ǦͲǤ͹͵ȋ–ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤ͸„ȌǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡͸ͳŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒTable 3.1.6a. ƒ„Ž‡ •Š‘™‹‰ –Š‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…• ˆ‘” ƒ ‡ƒ”‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—”…Ž—•–‡”ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆƒŽŽ‘™Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ™‹–Š‘™Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆ‘˜‡”‘”‡“—ƒŽ–‘͵Ͷ‡–”‡•

Table 3.1.6b. ƒ„Ž‡ •Š‘™‹‰ –Š‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…• ˆ‘” ƒ ‡ƒ”‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—” …Ž—•–‡” ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ ‘™ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‹–Š‘™Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆ‘˜‡”‘”‡“—ƒŽ–‘͵ͷ‡–”‡•

–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‹•Ž‡‰–Šǡ™Š‹…Š‹•͵ǤͺΨ‘ˆƒŽŽǤ……‘”†ing to this, it cannot be concluded that the larger Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡‡˜‡Ž›†‹•’‡”•‡†‘˜‡”–Š‡ area, but rather no pattern at all, and that the Žƒ”‰‡” Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ”ƒ†‘Ž› †‹•–”‹„—–‡†Ǥ ˆ –Š‡ –‘’‘‰”ƒ’Š› ‹• …‘•‹†‡”‡†ǡ ™‹–Š ƒŽŽ bogs, lakes, forests and other natural obstacles ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ ƒ ‡˜‡Ž› †‹•–”‹„—–‡† •‡––Ž‡‡– ’ƒ––‡”…‘—Ž†’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘–„‡ˆ‘—†Ǥ ”‡‰‹‘• ™‹–Š ƒ ‘”‡ Š‘‘‰‡‘—• Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡Ǧ–›’‡ ‘˜‡” Žƒ”‰‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡŽ‹‡–Š‡’Žƒ‹•‹¤‡ǡƒ†‹•’‡”•‡† •‡––Ž‡‡–’ƒ––‡”‹‰Š–„‡’‘••‹„Ž‡–‘ϐ‹†Ǥ –ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤ͹ǡ‹–…ƒ„‡•‡‡Š‘™ ”‘‰‡ stone house foundations over and under the length of 27 metres are distributed over the …Ž—•–‡” •‹œ‡•Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ͵Ͳ͵ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• Ž‘‰‡”–Šƒʹ͹‡–”‡•ƒ†ͳ͵ʹͳ•Š‘”–‡”ǡ™Š‹…Š ‹• ͳͻΨ ƒ† ͺͳΨ ”‡•’‡…–‹˜‡Ž›Ǥ – ‹• …Ž‡ƒ”Ž› •‡‡ that there is not much difference in the distribution between the house foundations longer than ʹ͹‡–”‡•ƒ†–Š‡‘‡••Š‘”–‡”ǤŠ‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ƒ†’”‘’‘”–‹‘•ƒ”‡‡ƒ”Ž›–Š‡•ƒ‡‹–Š‡†‹ˆferent clusters up to four house foundations, but in the larger clusters, there are some differences, ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†ˆ—”–Š‡”Ǥ Š‡•ƒ‡’ƒ––‡”‡‡”‰‡•ˆ‘”ƒŽŽ–Š”‡•Š‘Ž† values up to two standard deviations, which is ͵Ͷ ‡–”‡• ‘ˆ Ž‡‰–ŠǤ –ƒ”–‹‰ ˆ”‘ ͵Ͷ ‡–”‡•ǡ the pattern changes and the longer house foun†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡…‘…‡–”ƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡•ƒŽŽ‡”…Ž—•–‡”•Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ‘Ž› –Š”‡‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• Ž‘‰‡” –Šƒ͵Ͷ‡–”‡•‹…Ž—•–‡”•Žƒ”‰‡”–Šƒˆ‘—”Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǣ–Š‡•‡ƒ”‡͵Ͷǡ͵ͷƬ͵ͷ‡–”‡•Ž‘‰ǡ which means that there are no house founda–‹‘•Ž‘‰‡”–Šƒ͵ͷ‡–”‡•‹ƒŽƒ”‰‡…Ž—•–‡”Ǥ

Table 3.1.7. ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘˜‡”ƒ†—†‡”ʹ͹‡–”‡•ȋ—†‡”‘”‘˜‡”ͳ•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘Ȍ

Table 3.1.8. ‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆŽƒ”‰‡ƒ†•ƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆŽ‡‰–Š•‘˜‡”ƒ†—†‡”͵Ͷǡ͵ͷƒ†͵͸‡–”‡•

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‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘˜‡”͵͸‡–”‡•ƒ”‡ƒ„•‡–‹ the large clusters and lengths over one standard †‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ǡ‘˜‡”ʹ͹‡–”‡•ǡ‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•—†‡””‡’”‡sented in large clusters, as can be seen in the ta„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤͻǤŠ‡Žƒ”‰‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ˆ‘—† ‹ …Ž—•–‡”• ‘ˆ ͳ –‘ Ͷ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‡ƒ”Ž› ŠƒŽˆ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡ƒŽŽ› Žƒ”‰‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ‘˜‡” ͵ͷ ‡–”‡•ǡ ƒ”‡ ˆ‘—† ƒ‘‰ –Š‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǣ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ‘„˜‹‘—•Ž› ‘ ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’ between large house foundations and large clus–‡”•Ǥ ˜‹‡™‘ˆ–Š‹•ǡ‹–…ƒ„‡†‡†—…–‡†–Šƒ–Žƒ”‰‡ house foundations are not the same as the large ˆƒ”•Ǥ”‡ƒ•‘ƒ„Ž‡‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘‘ˆ™Š›–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ‘•–Ž› ˆ‘—† ‹ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› positions or in two house clusters is that the larger house foundations represent multi-functional „—‹Ž†‹‰•Ǥ •–‡ƒ†‘ˆ„—‹Ž†‹‰•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡„—‹Ž†‹‰• for different functions, several functions where ’Žƒ…‡†‹‘‡Žƒ”‰‡”„—‹Ž†‹‰Ǥ Š‹• ‹• –‘ › ‹† ƒ •–”‘‰ ƒ”‰—‡– ˆ‘” the view that the large clusters are villages and …‘•‹•–‘ˆƒ›ˆƒ”•ǤŠ‡•ƒŽŽ‡”…Ž—•–‡”•…ƒ also be villages, depending on how the sizes of the house foundations are allocated in each clus–‡”ǡ™Š‹…Š…ƒ‘Ž›„‡•‡‡‹ƒ˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Table 3.1.9. Š‡–ƒ„Ž‡•Š‘™•Š‘™–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—dations are distributed among the small and large clusters

Visual interpretation Š‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ –Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”• ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡† a lot of hidden knowledge about the spatial dis–”‹„—–‹‘ƒ†“—ƒŽ‹–‹‡•‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ „—–†‹†‘–‰‹˜‡–Š‡ϐ‹ƒŽƒ•™‡”ƒ„‘—–™Šƒ–…ƒ „‡…‘•‹†‡”‡†ƒˆƒ”Ǥ ‘”–Š‹•ǡƒ˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ „ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ ‡™ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ‰ƒ‹‡† „› –Š‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽƒƒŽ›•‹•‹•‡‡†‡†Ǥ ‘”–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ǡ–Š‡†‡•–”‘›‡†Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ–ƒ”‡…Ž‘•‡Ž›•‹–—ƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡‘‡•™‹–Š‘™ Ž‡‰–ŠŠƒ˜‡–‘„‡‹…Ž—†‡†ǤŽ‹––Ž‡‘”‡–Šƒ‘‡ hundred additional house foundations are added in the visual interpretation; this means that –Š‡ ϐ‹‰—”‡• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ’”‡˜‹‘—• ’—”‡Ž› ‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ ƒ† •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ƒ› …Šƒ‰‡ •Ž‹‰Š–Ž›ǡ ™Š‹…ŠŠƒ•„‡‡†‹•…—••‡†‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”ǤŠ‡˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‹•‘Ž›…ƒ””‹‡†‘—–‘–Š‡ͺͲǦ‡–”‡ …Ž—•–‡”•Ǥ ‡…‡ˆ‘”–Š  ™‹ŽŽ ”‡ˆ‡” –‘ ˆƒ”•ǡ •‹…‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ˆƒ”• ™‡”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‹ –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡…‘…‡’–‘ˆ…Ž—•–‡”‹•ƒ‹Ž› —•‡†ƒ•ƒƒƒŽ›–‹……‘…‡’–ˆ‘”–Š‡‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽŽ› …”‡ƒ–‡†‰”‘—’•‘ˆ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ˆ–Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽʹͳ͸…Ž—•–‡”•™‹–Š–™‘Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡͳ͵͸ƒ”‡Ž‘…ƒ–‡†‹™Šƒ–™‡…ƒ…ƒŽŽ ƒ Ǯ–›’‹…ƒŽǯ ˆƒ” •‹–—ƒ–‹‘Ǥ • …ƒ „‡ •‡‡ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ ƒ”‘—† ͸͸Ψ ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ Šƒ† the ‘correct’ relationships regarding the lengths ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ ‹– …ƒ ƒŽ•‘ „‡ …‘…Ž—†‡† –Šƒ– ͸͵Ψ were positioned in the ‘correct’ arrangement; the meaning of this is that the two house foundations should be arranged in an angel or in an offset position to one another and be different in •‹œ‡Ǥ ‹‰ ͵ǤͳǤͳͲƒǦ„ •Š‘™• –™‘ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‘ˆ –Š‹•ǡ

Figure 3.1.10a.  –™‘Ǧ house farm with a ‘correct’ arrangement and relationship between the two hous‡•ȋ"–¤‰ƒͳͺȌǤ

ͺͲ

Figure 3.1.10b. ™‘ –™‘Ǧ house farms with the ‘correct’ arrangement and rela-tionship between the –™‘Š‘—•‡•ȋ" —Ž†”—’‡ ͺͺƬͺͻȌǤ

™Š‹…Š ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ Ž‹†–Ǧ ‡•‡ ȋͳͻͷͷƒǣͻ͹ͺȌ ‹•…‘‘„‘–Š‘ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ†YŽƒ†ǤŽ›ʹͶ of the two-house clusters were reinterpreted in –Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽƒƒŽ›•‹•Ǣ‹‘•–…ƒ•‡•„‡…ƒ—•‡Š‘—•‡ foundations with unknown lengths are situated ™‹–Š‹ ƒ †‹•–ƒ…‡ •Š‘”–‡” –Šƒ ͺͲ ‡–”‡•ǡ –Š—• …”‡ƒ–‹‰ƒŽƒ”‰‡”…Ž—•–‡”ǤŽ›•‡˜‡™‡”‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•–™‘…Ž‘•‡Ž›•‹–—ƒ–‡†‘‡ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”•Ǣ–Š‹• circumstance was based on their relative sizes ƒ† Ž‘‰ Ǧ†‹•–ƒ…‡Ǥ Š‡› ƒ”‡ ƒŽŽ “—‹–‡ Žƒ”‰‡ǡ ”‘—‰ŠŽ›‘ˆ–Š‡•ƒ‡•‹œ‡ǡƒ†ƒ”‡‘–’‘•‹–‹‘‡† •‘…Ž‘•‡–‘‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ǤŽŽ„—–‘‡’ƒ‹”™ƒ•‘˜‡” ʹ͹ ‡–”‡• ‹ Ž‡‰–ŠǤ ˆ–‡” –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ͵ͶͲ ˆƒ”• …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ –™‘ Š‘—•‡•ǡ •‹…‡ ƒ› ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡” …Ž—•–‡”• ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ ”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ‘”‡–Šƒ‘‡ˆƒ”Ǥ

‡…”‹–‡”‹‘ˆ‘”‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ˆƒ”•‹Žƒ”‰‡”…Ž—•ters is based on how the house foundations are ‰”‘—’‡†™‹–Š‹–Š‡…Ž—•–‡”Ǥ ˆ–Š‡”‡‹•‘‘„˜‹‘—• ˆƒ”›ƒ”†ƒ†–Š‡Š‘—•‡•ˆ‘”•—„‰”‘—’•Ž‹‡ƒ two-house cluster or one two-house group and one larger, situated at some distance from each ‘–Š‡”ǡ–Š‹•‹•‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•‘”‡–Šƒ‘‡ˆƒ”Ǥ Š‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡•›•–‡•ƒ”‡’”‡•‡”˜‡†ǡ–Š‡›…ƒ ƒŽ•‘„‡‘ˆŠ‡Ž’‹–Š‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ˆ•–‘‡‡closure walls cut through clusters, these are norƒŽŽ›‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•„‘—†ƒ”‹‡•„‡–™‡‡ˆƒ”•ǡ •‹…‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡„‡Ž‹‡˜‡†–‘‘–‘Ž›•‡”˜‡ƒ•‡closure walls between different land usages, but ƒŽ•‘†‹˜‹†‡ˆƒ”•‹…Ž—•–‡”•Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ ‡š…‡’–‹‘•–‘–Š‹•”—Ž‡ǡƒ•‹–•‡‡•Ǥ ˆ–Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽͻͻ…Ž—•–‡”•ǡ…‘–ƒ‹‹‰–Š”‡‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘Ž›ƒ”‘—†ʹͲ™‡”‡”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†Ǣƒˆ–‡”–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ–Š‡”‡™‡”‡ͳͶͶ ˆƒ”•…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ–Š”‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ

Figure 3.1.11a

Figure 3.1.11d

Figure 3.1.11c

Figure 3.1.11e

Figure 3.1.11b

Figure 3.1.11f

Figure 3.1.11a. …Ž—•–‡”‘ˆ–Š”‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ™Š‹…Š is interpreted as three farms based on their sizes and the •›•–‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ –Š”‡‡ Š‘—•‡•Ǥ  …ƒ––Ž‡ track leads to the short ends of all three houses, which probƒ„Ž›ƒ”‡ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽŽ›†‹˜‹†‡†ǡ™‹–Šƒ…‘™ǦŠ‘—•‡ƒ††™‡ŽŽ‹‰ ’ƒ”–ǤŠ‡”‡•–‘ˆ–Š‡•–‘‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒŽ•‘•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡–Š‡ ‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡ˆƒ”•ȋ"‘Œ•–ƒͶȌǤ

Figure 3.1.11c…Ž—•–‡”‘ˆ–Š”‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ™Š‹…Š ‹•‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•‘‡Žƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”ȋ"‡Œ—ʹʹͳȌ

Figure 3.1.11b  …Ž—•–‡” ‘ˆ –Š”‡‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• †‹vided into 2 + 1 farms, based on the grouping and sizes of –Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ™‘‘ˆ–Š‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—Ǧ†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ ‰”‘—’‡†ƒ•ƒ–›’‹…ƒŽ–™‘ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”ƒ†–Š‡–Š‹”†Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ‹• “—‹–‡ Žƒ”‰‡ ƒ† ‹• Ž‘…ƒ–‡† ƒ– •‘‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡ ˆ”‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”Š‘—•‡•ȋ"‘Œ•–ƒͷͺȌǤ

Figure 3.1.11f.ˆƒ”™‹–Š–Š”‡‡Š‘—•‡••’”‡ƒ†‘—–Ǥ –…‘—Ž† ƒŽ•‘„‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•–Š”‡‡•ƒŽŽˆƒ”•ȋ" ƒ”†‡ͳ͸Ȍ

Figure 3.1.11d.  ‘”ƒŽ •‹œ‡† ˆƒ” ™‹–Š –Š”‡‡ Š‘—•‡• ȋ"ƒŽŽͳʹȌ Figure 3.1.11e. –Š”‡‡ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”ǡƒ„‹–Žƒ”‰‡”–Šƒƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ȋ"‡Œ†‡͵ͲȌ

81

Figure 3.1.12b

Figure 3.1.12a Figure 3.1.12a.  ˆ‘—”ǦŠ‘—•‡ …Ž—•–‡” consisting of two farms placed near each ‘–Š‡”ȋ"ƒ„Ž‹‰„‘Ͷ͹Ȍ Figure 3.1.12b. ˆ‘—”ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”ȋ" ‘‡͵͵Ȍ

Figure 3.1.12d

Figure 3.1.12c. …Ž—•–‡”‘ˆˆ‘—”…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ–™‘ˆƒ”•ȋ"ƒ—ʹ͹Ȍ

Figure 3.1.12d.  –Š”‡‡ǦŠ‘—•‡ ˆƒ” and a single house farm in a cluster of ˆ‘—”ȋ" ¤”ÚͳͳͺȌ

ƒŽˆ‘ˆ–Š‡‘”‹‰‹ƒŽͶͲˆ‘—”ǦŠ‘—•‡…Ž—•–‡”•™‡”‡ ”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ǡƒ†‡ƒ”Ž›ƒŽŽ‘ˆ–Š‡”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡† …‘•‹•–‡† ‘ˆ –™‘ ‡“—ƒŽŽ› •‹œ‡† ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‡ –‘–ƒŽ —„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•™‹–Šˆ‘—”Š‘—•‡•‹•͵ͳƒˆ–‡”–Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Ž•‘ ‡ƒ”Ž› ƒŽŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡” …Ž—•–‡”•ǡ ™‡”‡ reinterpreted as consisting of more than one ˆƒ”Ǥ ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”• ™‹–Š ͶǦͷ Š‘—•‡• ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘…‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž›•’”‡ƒ†‘—–ǡ™‹–Šƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆ ƒ”‘—†ͳͲͲǦʹͲͲ‡–”‡•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‘—–‡”™ƒŽŽ• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘—–‡”‘•– Š‘—•‡•ǡ ƒ† …ƒ Š‡…‡ Šƒ”†Ž› „‡ ‘‡ ˆƒ”Ǥ ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡” …Ž—•–‡”• ‘Ž› …‘–ƒ‹ ˜‡”› •ƒŽŽ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ …‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž›•’”‡ƒ†‘—–ƒ†ƒ”‡–Š—••‘‡–‹‡• Šƒ”†–‘‹–‡”’”‡–Ǥ Ž›–™‘‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡…Ž—•–‡”•™‡”‡‘–†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘•‡˜‡”ƒŽ•ƒŽŽ‡”ˆƒ”•Ǥ‡‹•ƒ‘—–Ž‹‡” ‘ ¤”Úǡ ™Š‹…Š …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ ϐ‹˜‡ •ƒŽŽ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‹•Šƒ”†–‘‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ•ƒ›–Š‹‰ else than a farm, but it is somewhat of an anomƒŽ›Ǥ –…‘•‹•–•‘ˆ‘‡Žƒ”‰‡”„—‹Ž†‹‰ǡͳͻ‡–”‡• long and a second smaller building of 9 metres ‹ƒǮ…Žƒ••‹…ǯ–™‘ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ —”–Š‡”ǡ–Š”‡‡ small houses were distributed at some distance from the other two houses and must be some –›’‡‘ˆƒ…‹ŽŽƒ”›„—‹Ž†‹‰•ǤŠ‡‘–Š‡”Žƒ”‰‡…Ž—•ter that was not reinterpreted consists of six small house foundations within the hillfort at ‡””‰¤”†•Ž‹–Ǥ‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡™‡”‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†‹ ͳͻͶͲ „› ¤”–‡ –‡„‡”‰‡”Ǥ Š‡‹” ‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰› differs from other house foundations in the re82

Figure 3.1.12c

•’‡…– ‘ˆ „‡‹‰ ‰”‘—’‡† •‘ …Ž‘•‡Ž› ƒ† –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ˜‡”› ‹””‡‰—Žƒ” ‹ –Š‡‹” …‘•–”—…–‹‘Ǥ ‘– —…Š was found inside the house foundations during excavation and there is even doubt as to wheth‡”–Š‡„—‹Ž†‹‰•™‡”‡”‘‘ˆ‡†ǤŠ‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ ƒ†‡„›–‡„‡”‰‡”‹•–Šƒ––Š‡›”‡’”‡•‡–•‘‡–Š‹‰‡Ž•‡–Šƒƒˆƒ”ǡƒ†™‡”‡‘Ž›ˆ‘”–‡’‘”ƒ”›—•‡ǡ‘•–Ž‹‡Ž›ƒ•ƒˆ‘”–‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ† ͳͻͷͷǣͻͳ͸ˆˆȌǤŠ‹•‹•ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ƒ„Ž‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ǡ •‹…‡–Š‡›ƒŽ•‘Ž‹‡ƒ–•‘‡†‹•–ƒ…‡ˆ”‘ƒ”ƒ„Ž‡ Žƒ†Ǥ Š‡ ‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ ƒ† ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š —•‡† –‘ ƒƒŽ›•‡ ƒ† ‡š’Ž‘”‡ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations worked well and gave a good picture and results for the smaller clusters, up to three house foundations, but when it comes to

Figure 3.1.13a. Š‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ–‡””‰¤”†•Ž‹– ȋˆ”‘ ‹Ú”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷǣͻͳ͸ϐ‹‰͵͸ͻȌǤ

Figure 3.1.13b ‹˜‡ǡ•ƒŽŽƒ† scattered house foundations ‘ ¤”Úǡ™Š‹…Šƒ”‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ•‘‡ˆƒ”ȋ" ¤”ÚͳͶ͸Ȍ

Figure 3.1.14b. ‘–˜ƒŽ†‡ ‹ –¤‰ƒ ȋ" –¤‰ƒ ͵ͳȌǤ Š‹• ϐ‹˜‡Ǧ…Ž—•–‡” ‹• ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† „› ‹ŠŽ± ƒ• one large farm with four households ȋ‹ŠŽ± Ƭ ‘´–Š‹—• ͳͻ͵͵ǣ͵͸ˆȌǤ  Šƒ˜‡ ‹terpreted it as two ˆƒ”•Ǥ

Figure 3.1.14a. ϐ‹˜‡Ǧ…Ž—•–‡”†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–™‘ˆƒ”•ǡ‘ˆ™Š‹…Š‘‡‹•ƒ ‘‡ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”ǤŠ‡•ƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘‘ˆͳͲ‡–”‡•Ž›‹‰ƒ–ƒ†‹•tance from the others is included in one of the farms, although it might „‡’ƒ”–‘ˆƒ‘–Š‡”ˆƒ”Ǥ –‹••‹–—ƒ–‡†…Ž‘•‡–‘ƒ‘†‡”ϐ‹‡Ž†ƒ†‹–Š‡ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’ˆ”‘ͳ͹Ͷʹ‘˜‡”¡•–‡”‰ƒ”ȋͻͲǦͳǣͳȌǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽ patches of wasteland, which might have been removed house founda–‹‘•ȋ"¡•–‡”‰ƒ”ͳͷȌǤ

Figure 3.1.15b. Four farms in a sev‡Ǧ…Ž—•–‡”Ǥ ‡ ‹• a bit bigger than the others are, and has three houses ȋ"ƒŽ‹‰„‘ͶͻȌǤ

Figure 3.1.15aǤ…Ž—•–‡”™‹–Š•‹šŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•†‹˜‹†‡†‹–™‘ ˆƒ”•ȋ"‹Ž–‡͹Ȍƒ†ƒˆƒ”™‹–Š–™‘Š‘—•‡•‡ƒ”„›Ǥ

Figure 3.1.15dǤ‡˜‡”ƒŽˆƒ”•‹ƒ•‡˜‡Ǧ…Ž—•–‡”ȋ"¡Ž͸ͶȌǤ Figure 3.1.15c. ‡˜‡”ƒŽ ˆƒ”• ƒ† ƒ •ƒŽŽ‡” •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ǡ™Š‹…Š’”‘„ƒ„Ž›Šƒ†•‘‡‘–Š‡”ˆ—…–‹‘ȋ" ”Ú–Ž‹‰„‘ʹͻȌǤ

ͺ͵

the larger clusters, the picture gets blurred in –Š‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ƒ†Šƒ”†–‘‹–‡”’”‡–Ǥ ˆ–Š‡•–ƒ†point was taken that houses within a certain †‹•–ƒ…‡ ƒŽ™ƒ›• „‡Ž‘‰‡† –‘ ‘‡ ˆƒ” ƒ† –Š‡ ‘”‡Š‘—•‡•–Š‡„‹‰‰‡”ˆƒ”ǡ‡˜‡”›–Š‹‰™‘—Ž† Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‡ƒ•›ǡ„—–‘—”˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ –Š‡…Ž—•–‡”•”‡˜‡ƒŽ•–Šƒ–‡ƒ”Ž›‡˜‡”›Žƒ”‰‡…Ž—•-

–‡”…‘–ƒ‹‡†‘”‡–Šƒ‘‡ˆƒ”Ǥ –‹•Š‘™‡˜‡” ‘ˆ–‡ ˜‡”› Šƒ”† –‘ •‡‡ ‡šƒ…–Ž› Š‘™ –Š‡ …Ž—•–‡”• can be divided into different farms, but the idea of the large clusters not being one single farm is …‘””‡…–ǡ–‘›‹†Ǥ‡–Š‹‰ǡ™Š‹…Š’‘‹–•–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‹•‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ǡ‹•‹Ú”•–ƒ†ǯ•”‡ƒ” –Šƒ– •‹…‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ‡˜‡”› ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† Š‘—•‡•ƒ–ƒŽŽŠƒ‰ƒ”…‘–ƒ‹‡†Š‡ƒ”–Š•ƒ‡•‹– ‹•Šƒ”†–‘ϐ‹†ƒ›‘—–Š‘—•‡•Ǥ‘–Š‡”’‘‹–‹ line with this statement is the fact that the com’‘•‹–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹†•†‘‡•‘–†‹ˆˆ‡”•‘—…Š‹ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– Š‘—•‡• ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ† ͳͻͷͷǣͻͷͻȌǤ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– •‘ ƒ› …ƒ•‡• ™‹–Š –Š‡ Ǯ–›’‹…ƒŽǯˆƒ”•‹–—ƒ–‹‘ǡ™‹–Š‘‡‘”–™‘•ƒŽŽ‡” house foundations close to a larger house foundation in the ‘right’ arrangement, were found even in the larger clusters is a strong argument –Šƒ–›‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‹•…‘””‡…–Ǥ Š‡ –Š‡ ”‡•– ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ –Š‡ ʹ ʹͷͲ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† house foundations are added to the database, some 1 249 mid millennium farms are known as –‘Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

Identifying the more dispersed villages Figure 3.1.16a.  …Ž—•–‡” ™‹–Š ‡‹‰Š– Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒǦ–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹…Š’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ˆ‘”•ƒ–Š”‡‡Ǧˆƒ”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡’Ž—•ƒƒ…‹ŽŽƒ”› „—‹Ž†‹‰™‹–Š—‘™ˆ—…–‹‘ǤŠ‡’”‡•‡”˜‡†‡…Ž‘•—”‡ •›•–‡ ƒ‡• ‹– “—‹–‡ …Ž‡ƒ” Š‘™ –Š‡ ˆƒ”• ƒ”‡ ‰”‘—’‡†Ǥ ‡ ˆƒ” ‹• Žƒ”‰‡” –Šƒ –Š‡ ‘–Š‡”• ƒ”‡Ǥ Š‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•ˆ‘”‡†„›’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡‘ˆ•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•‹• ƒ”‘—†ͳͲǤͷŠ‡…–ƒ”‡•ȋ"–‡ŽŠ‡ͳͲȌǤ

Figure 3.1.16b.  Žƒ”‰‡ …Ž—•–‡” †‹˜‹†‡† ‹–‘ –Š”‡‡ ˆƒ”• ȋƒŽŽ ͳͷȌǤ Š‡ •›•–‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ƒ† –Š‡ ‰”‘—’‹‰ ƒ‡• –Š‡ ˆƒ”• ‡˜‹†‡–Ǥ Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ ƒ…‹ŽŽƒ”› building with some other function (or it is a part of a fourth †‡•–”‘›‡† ˆƒ”ȌǢ ‹– ‹‰Š– Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ƒ …‘ŽŽ‡…–‹˜‡ ”‡•‘—”…‡ ‘”„‡Ž‘‰–‘ƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•ǤŠ‡”‡‹•ƒ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”ȋ" ƒŽŽͶͺȌƒ”‘—†ʹͲͲ–‘–Š‡•‘—–ŠǤ‹…‡‹–‹•ƒŠ‡ƒ˜‹Ž›…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡† ƒ”‡ƒ –‘†ƒ›ǡ –Š‡”‡ Šƒ˜‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› „‡‡ ‘”‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡‡‹‰Š„‘—”Š‘‘†ǡ–‘†ƒ›”‡‘˜‡†Ǥ

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‹…‡ƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”…Ž—•–‡”•™‡”‡‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ƒ•…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ•‡˜‡”ƒŽˆƒ”•ǡ–Š‡›—•–„‡•‡‡ ƒ•˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ••–”‡••‡†„‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ‹–‹•‘ˆ…‘—”•‡‹’‘••‹„Ž‡ˆ‘”—•ǡ•‘‡ͳͷͲͲ›‡ƒ”•Žƒ–‡”ǡ–‘‘™ ‡šƒ…–Ž›Š‘™–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—’‡‘’Ž‡†‡ϐ‹‡† –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– —‹–•ǡ •‘ ‹ˆ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ”‡ˆ‡””‡† –‘ ƒ• ˆƒ”•‘”Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•ǡ‹•’—”‡Ž›ƒ…ƒ†‡‹…ǡƒ–Ž‡ƒ•– ˆ‘”‘™Ǥ •–—†›‹‰ƒ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ƒ’‘˜‡” ”‘‰‡ stone house foundations, it is clear that there is ‘”‡ –‘ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• –Šƒ –Š‹•Ǥ ‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‘ ‘–Žƒ† ƒ”‡ ‘”‡ –Šƒ Œ—•– •‘‡ ˆƒ”• Ž›‹‰ ™‹–Š‹ ƒ ƒš‹—†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͺͲ‡–”‡•ˆ”‘‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ǤYŽƒ†ǡ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ƒ”‡‘”‡†‹•’‡”•‡†ǡ™Š‹…Š ‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ƒŽ•‘–Š‡…ƒ•‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ ƒŽŽ‰”‡Šƒ• †‹•…—••‡†–Š‡ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ ͳͻͻ͵ǣ͹ͻȌ ƒ† Šƒ• ‰‹˜‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‘ˆ †‹•’‡”•‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ‰ƒ ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ʹͲͲ͸ǣͺʹȌǤ Š‡ •ƒ‡ ‡–Š‘†‘Ž‘‰› —•‡† ™Š‡ ‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ ˆƒ”• ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ƒ’’Ž‹‡† ‹ ‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ –Š‡ ‘”‡ †‹•’‡”•‡† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ  –Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ „‡Ž‘™ǡ the nearest neighbour distances of all the 1 249 ‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡’”‡•‡–‡†Ǥ •™ƒ••—•’‡…–‡†ǡ‘•–ˆƒ”•™‡”‡‘–ˆƒ” ˆ”‘ ƒ ‡‹‰Š„‘—”Ǥ Š‡ Š‹‰Š ‡ƒ †‹•–ƒ…‡ ‘ˆ Ͷ͵ͷ ‡–”‡• ƒ† –Š‡ ‡†‹ƒ ‘ˆ ʹ͹ͳ ‡–”‡• ƒ”‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›†—‡–‘–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆ•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›‘—–Ž‹‡”• „‡…ƒ—•‡ ‘ˆ ”‡…‡–Ž› ”‡‘˜‡† Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—-

Figure 3.1.17. ‹ƒ‰”ƒ•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡–‘–Š‡‡ƒ”‡•–‡‹‰Š„‘—”ˆ‘”ƒŽŽͳʹͶͻ‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ˆƒ”•ǡ‰”‘—’‡†‹ ͳͲǦ‡–”‡‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•Ǥ

†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ  ƒ”‡ƒ• ™‹–Š ƒ ‹–‡•‹˜‡ ƒ…–‹˜‹–› ‘ˆ modern agricultural, the distance between the ’”‡•‡”˜‡†Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹‰Š–„‡Ž‘‰ǤŠ‡ median value describes the data better, but is ƒŽ•‘Š‹‰ŠǤ‡†‹ƒ˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆʹ͹ͳ‡–”‡•‡ƒ• that half of all farms have 271 metres or less to their nearest neighbour, which in the mid millen‹——•–Šƒ˜‡„‡‡…‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž›•Š‘”–‡”Ǥ‹…‡ the data does not follow a normal distribution, statistics like standard deviation does not make •‡•‡ǡ•‘‘–Š‡”‡–Š‘†•ˆ‘”…Žƒ••‹ˆ›‹‰–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ ™‹ŽŽ„‡—•‡†Ǥ –Š‡–ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤͳǤͳͲǡ–Š‡•ƒ‡†ƒ–ƒƒ• Table 3.1.10. Š‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡ –‘ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—” ˆ‘” ƒŽŽͳʹͶͻ‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ˆƒ”•ǡ‰”‘—’‡†‹ͳͲǦ‡–”‡‹–‡”˜ƒŽ• ƒ†‰”‘—’‡†„›ˆƒ”•‹œ‡Ǥ

•‡‡‹–Š‡†‹ƒ‰”ƒ‹ϐ‹‰Ǥ͵ǤͳǤͳ͹ǡ‹•‰”‘—’‡†‘ ˆƒ”•‹œ‡•ƒ†–Š‡…——Žƒ–‹˜‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ†‹•tances to the nearest neighbour is calculated, in „‘–Šƒ„•‘Ž—–‡—„‡”•ƒ†ƒ•’‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡Ǥ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ Šƒ• ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† –Š‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡• „‡–™‡‡ˆƒ”•‹˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•–‘„‡„‡–™‡‡ͷǦʹͲͲ‡–”‡• ‘ YŽƒ† ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ ʹͲͲ͸ǣ͹͹ȌǤ  ‘–Žƒ†ǡ ‘Ž›ͶʹΨ‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•Šƒ˜‡ƒ‡‹‰Š„‘—”™‹–Š‹ ʹͲͲ‡–”‡•Ǥˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•™‹–Š–™‘‘”–Š”‡‡Š‘—•‡•ǡͷͲΨƒ†ͷͷΨ”‡•’‡…–‹˜‡Ž›ǡŠƒ˜‡ƒ‡‹‰Š„‘—” ™‹–Š‹ ʹͲͲ ‡–”‡•ǡ „—– ‘Ž› ͵ͶΨ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘‡Ǧ Š‘—•‡ˆƒ”•ǤŠ‹•‹’Ž‹‡•–Šƒ–•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡ “—‹–‡…‘‘ǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘Š‡”‡–Š‡”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽ ‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‡šƒ‰‰‡”ƒ–‡•–Š‹•–‡†‡…›Ǥ ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ǡ ƒ Ž‘– ‘”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ”• have had closer neighbours, but this is of course Šƒ”†–‘˜‡”‹ˆ›Ǥ Š‡ ƒ‹ ‡–Š‘† ˆ‘” ‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‹ –Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ƒƒŽ›•‡•—•–„‡„ƒ•‡†‘†‹•–ƒ…‡• „‡–™‡‡ˆƒ”•ǡ•‹…‡˜‡”›Ž‹––Ž‡‘–Š‡”†ƒ–ƒ‹•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ǤŠ‹•‡–Š‘†‹•‘ˆ…‘—”•‡•‡•‹–‹˜‡–‘”‡…‡– ”‡‘˜ƒŽ‘ˆˆƒ”•Ǥ ˆ‘Ž›‘‡ˆƒ”‹•‹••‹‰ǡ–Š‡ ‘chain’ of farms building up the village network ‹• „”‘‡ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ™‹ŽŽ ‘– „‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†Ǥ In some cases, there are stone enclosure walls or ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹‰Š– ƒ••‹•– –‘ •‘‡ †‡‰”‡‡Ǥ ‡…”—…‹ƒŽ’ƒ”–‹‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰–Š‡‘”‡•’”‡ƒ†‘—– villages, besides the distance, will therefore be the •›•–‡•‘ˆ•–‘‡‡…Ž‘•—”‡™ƒŽŽ•‹–Š‡…ƒ•‡•–Š‡› …ƒ„‡—•‡†ǤŠ‹•”‡“—‹”‡•ƒ˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘ of the map and the result is presented in the folŽ‘™‹‰ •‡…–‹‘ ™‹–Š •‘‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‘ˆ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ

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Figure 3.1.18b.˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ‘””Žƒ†ƒ•—’‡”‹’‘•‡†‘ ƒŠ‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽƒ’ȋǡ͸ͶǦͳǣʹȌǤŠ‡•›•–‡‘ˆ•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒ”‘—†–Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‘ˆ͵ǦͶˆƒ”•‡…Ž‘•‡•͵ͲŠƒǤŠ‡•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ••—””‘—†ƒŽƒ”‰‡ ‡ƒ†‘™–Šƒ–‹•†‹˜‹†‡†„‡–™‡‡ƒ›Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽˆƒ”•Ǥ —†‰‹‰„›–Š‡ ’ƒ–…Š‡•‘ˆ™ƒ•–‡Žƒ†‹–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ–Š‡”‡‹‰Š–Šƒ˜‡„‡‘”‡ǡ ‘™ ˜ƒ‹•Š‡† ˆƒ”• ‹ –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ ȋ̹ ƒ–¡–‡”‹‡–ǡ ’—„Ž‹•Š‡† ™‹–Š ’‡”‹••‹‘ ʹͲͳʹȀͻʹͳȌ

Figure 3.1.18a. Š‡ ƒ”‡ƒ ‹• …ƒŽŽ‡† ‹•‡ ¡‰ƒ” ƒ† ‹• ƒ ”‘ ‰‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡™‹–Š͸‘”͹ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ–‹‡•ǡ‹–™ƒ•—•‡†ƒ•‡ƒ†‘™• ƒ†™ƒ•†‹˜‹†‡†„‡Ǧ–™‡‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽˆƒ”•‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆŽ•‘‰Ǥ –‹• un-clear when the village was abandoned, but it might have been populated to some degree even after the stone house foundations were †‡•‡”–‡†ǤŠ‡•‹šŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ȋ"Ž•‘‰͹͸ǣͳȌ‹–Š‡‘”–Š™‡•–…‘”‡”‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒƒ”‡˜‡”›†‹ˆˆ—•‡ƒ†‹–‹•—…‡”–ƒ‹‹ˆ–Š‡›ƒ”‡ ”‘‰‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡›…ƒ„‡‘ˆƒŽƒ–‡”†ƒ–‡ǡ•‹…‡ƒ•–‘‡ lined well indicates that the settlement had a continuation in later ’‡”‹‘†•ȋ"Ž•‘‰͹͸ǣʹȌǤ‹…–—”‡•–‘‡•ƒ†‰”ƒ˜‡•‹–Š‡•‘—–Š‡” ’ƒ”–ƒ”‡†ƒ–‡†–‘–Š‡‡†‡Ž’‡”‹‘†ȋ‡‡”•–‡ͳͻ͹͵ǣͳͳ͹ȌǤŠ‡ ”‘ ‰‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡™ƒ••‹–—ƒ–‡†‘ƒ’ƒ–…Š‘ˆ‘”ƒ‹‡•‘‹ŽǡƒŽ‘‰–Š‡‡†‰‡ ‘ˆƒ„‘‰ǤŠ‡„‘‰–‘–Š‡‡ƒ•–‹•‘™†‹–…Š‡†ƒ†–‹ŽŽ‡†ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡‘ ‘–Š‡” Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‹ –Š‡ ˜‹…‹‹–›Ǥ Š‡ •›•–‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ•ǡ extending down to the estimated edge of the former bog, encloses ƒ”‘—†ͶͲŠƒǤ

Figure 3.1.18c.˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡™‹–Šϐ‹˜‡ˆƒ”•ƒ†–™‘•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ—––Ž‡ǤŠ‡•›•–‡‘ˆ•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒ”‘—†–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‡Ǧ…Ž‘•‡•ƒƒ”‡ƒ ‘ˆƒ”‘—†ͶͲŠƒǤŠ‡”‡Šƒ˜‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž›„‡‡‘”‡ˆƒ”•‹–Š‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ•‹…‡ Žƒ”‰‡’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ…‹‡–‡…Ž‘•—”‡ƒ”‡…—Ž–‹Ǧ˜ƒ–‡†–‘†ƒ›ǤŠ‡–™‘•ƒŽŽ enclosures to the south, with two house foundations each, should be in–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•–™‘•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡‘‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•‹–Š‡ ˜‹…‹‹–›ǡ‘Ž›–™‘•–‘‡•‡––‹‰•‡ƒ”„›‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•

ͺ͸

Figure 3.1.18dǤ ”ƒ‰‡–•‘ˆƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ—––Ž‡Ǥ –‹•Šƒ”† –‘–‡ŽŽ Š‘™ƒ›ˆƒ”•–Š‡”‡Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ǡ•‹…‡Žƒ”‰‡’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘”‡” ‡…Ž‘•—”‡‘™…‘•‹•–‘ˆ’Ž‘—‰Š‡†ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ„—––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ϐ‹˜‡ˆƒ”•Ž‡ˆ–Ǥ …ƒ––Ž‡–”ƒ…”—•–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡…‡–”ƒŽ’ƒ”–•ǡ…‘‡…–‹‰ƒŽŽ”‡ƒ‹‹‰ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–™‘‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•‹–Š‡˜‹…‹‹–›Ǥ

Figure 3.1.18e. ‡’‘••‹„Ž‡Žƒ”‰‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ƒ””ƒ‰‡†Ž‹‡ƒ”‹‰ƒ”‘—† ‘‡Žƒ”‰‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆƒ”‘—†ʹͲͲŠƒǤ™‡Ž˜‡ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡’Žƒ…‡†‹ –Š‡”‹‰ƒ†‘‡‹–Š‡‹††Ž‡ȋ‘™˜ƒ‹•Š‡†ȌǤƒŽ–‡”ƒ–‹˜‡‹–‡”pretation is that this constitutes two smaller villages, of which the ‘”–Š‡”‘‡ǡ™‹–ŠͺǦͻˆƒ”•ǡŠƒ•‹–•‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•—’–‘–Š‡‘”–ŠǤŠ‡”‡ ƒ”‡ –™‘ „‹‰ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ† •‡˜‡”ƒŽ •ƒŽŽ ‘‡• ƒ† ƒ› •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› •–‘‡ •‡––‹‰• ‹ –Š‡ •—””‘—†‹‰•Ǥ Š‡ –™‘ Žƒ”‰‡ ‰”ƒ˜‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• ƒ”‡ " ƒŽŽ•–‡ƒ ͺ͹ ™‹–Š ”‘‘–• ‹ –Š‡ ”‘œ‡ ‰‡ …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ ͶͺͲ ‰”ƒ˜‡•ǡƒ†"ƒŽŽ•–‡ƒ͹Ͷ™‹–Šƒ”‘—†͸͹‰”ƒ˜‡•Ǥ Figure 3.1.18f. ‘••‹„Ž› –™‘ ”‘ ‰‡ ˜‹ŽǦŽƒ‰‡• ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š ‘ˆ —––Ž‡ ȋ" —––Ž‡ Ͷ͵ ƒ† ‘–Š‡”•Ȍ …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ ͳͳ ˆƒ”• ƒŽ–‘‰‡–Š‡”Ǥ Š‡› ƒ”‡ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‘ –Š‡ ‹ϐ‹‡Ž†• ‘ˆ –Š”‡‡ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ˆƒ”•ǡ …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ ϐ‹˜‡ ˆƒ” ’ƒ”–• ‹ ƒŽŽǤ ‡˜‡”ƒŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‘ •ƒ†› •‘‹Ž•ǡ ™Š‹Ž‡ –Š‡ •›•–‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ‡…Ž‘•‡• Žƒ† ‘ moraine soils, which is not uncommon ƒ† …ƒ „‡ •‡‡ ƒ– •‡˜‡”ƒŽ ’Žƒ…‡•Ǥ Š‡ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ• ‡…Ž‘•‡ ƒ”‘—† ͳͶʹ ŠƒǤ Š‡ –Š”‡‡ ‘•– ‘”–Š‡”Ž› ˆƒ”• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› constitute one separate village, which is •—‰‰‡•–‡† „‘–Š „› –Š‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡• ƒ† „› –Š‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ •›•–‡Ǥ Š‡ ‡‹‰Š– ˆƒ”• ‹ –Š‡ ‹††Ž‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ ‘–Š‡” ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ ‘ the west is barren land and another vilŽƒ‰‡‹••‹–—ƒ–‡†ƒƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ͹ͲͲ‡–”‡• ˆ—”–Š‡” ƒ™ƒ›ǡ ™‹–Š ‹–• ‘™ •›•–‡ ‘ˆ •–‘‡ ™ƒŽŽ•Ǥ ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‘ ƒ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ƒ’ ȋǡͳͶǦͳǣͳȌǤ

Figure 3.1.18fg.•ƒŽŽ–™‘Ǧˆƒ”˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǡ™Š‹…Š•‡‡•–‘Šƒ˜‡ƒ…‘‘‹ϐ‹‡Ž† ƒ”‡ƒȋ"ڔ•‡͸ͺ‡–ƒŽǤȌǤŠ‡‡…Ž‘•‡†ƒ”‡ƒ…‘˜‡”•ƒŽ–‘‰‡–Š‡”ƒ”‘—†ʹͲŠƒǤ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–™‘•ƒŽŽ‰”ƒ˜‡ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ†•‘‡•–‘‡•‡––‹‰•‹–Š‡˜‹…‹‹–›Ǥ

87

Considering the seven examples presented ƒ„‘˜‡ǡƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡ˆ—”–Š‡”–Šƒ͵ǦͶͲͲ‡–”‡•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡ˆƒ”•‹ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡†‘‡•‘–•‡‡Ž‹‡Ž›ǡ ™‹–Šƒˆ‡™‡š…‡’–‹‘•Ǥ –Š‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ǡ’”‡•‡–‡† ‹ϐ‹‰͵ǤͳǤͳͻǡ‹–…ƒ„‡•‡‡–Šƒ––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‘‰”‡ƒ– differences in the number of villages that can be ˆ‘”‡† ‹ˆ –Š‡•‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡• ƒ”‡ —•‡†Ǥ ‘” –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ ƒƒŽ›•‡•ǡ –Š‡ ͶͲͲǦ‡–”‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ™‹ŽŽ „‡ used, because this will retain the largest villages and to some degree compensate for all removed •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡‡ˆˆ‡…–™‹ŽŽ be that the two-farm villages might be overrepresented, since it might be doubtful whether two ˆƒ”•™‹–ŠͶͲͲǦ‡–”‡•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡•Š‘—Ž†„‡ ”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡͵ͲͲǦƒ†ͶͲͲǦ‡–”‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‹–Š‹•”‡•’‡…–‘Ž›…‘•‹•–•‘ˆ–™‡Ž˜‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǢŠ‡…‡ǡ–Š‹• ™‹ŽŽ‘–ƒˆˆ‡…––Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ…‘…Ž—•‹‘•Ǥ ‡•’‹–‡ –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– –Š‡ –›’‡ ‘ˆ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ƒ†‡ Š‡”‡ǡ ‹• ˜‡”› •‡•‹–‹˜‡ –‘ ”‡‘˜‡† Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ‘Ž› ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž› ͵͹Ψ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡•‘Ž‹–ƒ”›ˆƒ”•ƒ†ƒŽ‘•–ͶͲΨ‘ˆ–Š‡ farms are found in villages with three or more ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‡ ƒŒ‘”‹–›ǡ ƒŽ‘•– ͸ͲΨ ƒ”‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ˆƒ”• ‘” ˆ‘—† ‹ ’ƒ‹”•Ǥ Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ •‡– ˆ‘” –Š‹• ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‹…Ž—†‡† ƒŽŽ ‘™ ˆƒ”•ǡ „—– ‘– ƒŽŽ stone house foundations, since some of are re‰ƒ”†‡† ‘– –‘ „‡ ˆƒ”•Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ –Š‡ ‡•–‹mates, which will be presented in the next chap–‡”ǡ ƒ”‘—† ͹ͲͲ ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š —‘™ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡‹••‹‰‹–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•Ǥ ˆ™‡–‘‘ƒ……‘—–‘ˆ all missing farms, the number of farms in villag‡•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›™‘—Ž†‹…”‡ƒ•‡Ǥ

Table 3.1.11. ”‘—’ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…• ˆ‘” ͶͲͲǦ‡–”‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•

Figure 3.1.19a-d —„‡” ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ƒ– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– Ǧ†‹•–ƒ…‡•Ǥ

88

Figure 3.1.20a and bŠ‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘ˆ ”‘‰‡˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†™‹–Šƒ maximum distance between farms of ͵ͲͲ  ȋŽ‡ˆ–Ȍ ƒ† ͶͲͲ  ȋ”‹‰Š–ȌǤ Š‡ map is based on known house foun†ƒ–‹‘• ‘Ž›Ǥ • …ƒ „‡ •‡‡ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ƒ’•ǡ –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ‘ •‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•Ǥ Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ Žƒ”‰‡” ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ™‹–Šƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆͶͲͲ‡–”‡•„‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ˆƒ”•ƒ”‡ƒˆ‡™‘”‡Ǥ

Large farms

–‹‘•ǡ ‘˜‡” ͵Ͷ ‡–”‡•ǡ ƒ”‡ •‘Ž‹–ƒ”› ‘” ‹ ƒ –™‘Ǧ Š‘—•‡…Ž—•–‡”ƒ†‘–’ƒ”–‘ˆƒŽƒ”‰‡…Ž—•–‡”Ǥ –‹• Š‡•–”—…–—”‡•‘ˆˆƒ”•ƒ”‡˜‡”›•‹‹Žƒ”‘ ‘–“—‹–‡…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ––Š‡Žƒ”‰‡•–Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•†‘ Žƒ† ƒ† YŽƒ†ǡ ™‹–Š †‹•’‡”•‡† ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ „—– not constitute large farms and neither does the –Š‡”‡ƒ”‡•‘‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•ǤŠ‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽƒƒŽ›Žƒ”‰‡•–…Ž—•–‡”ǤŠ‹•™ƒ•…‘ϐ‹”‡†„›–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽ sis of the relation between the cluster sizes and ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ™Š‹…Š•Š‘™‡†–Šƒ––Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”…Ž—•–‡”• the large house foundations, showed a reverse …‘•‹•–‡†‘ˆƒ›ˆƒ”•Ǥˆ–‡”–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽ‹–‡””‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’ –Šƒ …‘—Ž† „‡ ‡š’‡…–‡†Ǥ  YŽƒ†ǡ pretation, the share of largest house foundaƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ǡ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ‘˜‡” ͵Ͷ ‡–”‡•ǡ ‹ •ƒŽŽ …Ž—•–‡”•Ȁˆƒ”• –‹‘•ƒ”‡ˆ‘—†‹ˆƒ”•™‹–Šƒ›Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—Šƒ˜‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡†–‘ƒ”‘—†͹ͷΨǤŠ‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒdations, which are considered to constitute the tion has strengthened the trend, but not created large farms and represent the higher estate in ƒ›‡™’ƒ––‡”‘–ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›’”‡•‡–Ǥ •‘…‹‡–› ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ ʹͲͲ͸ǣͳͶ͵ȌǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ‘ ‘–If all farms are plotted according to their Žƒ† ‘•– ȋ͸ͳΨȌ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡•– Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒsize, based on the length of all houses in it, the curve is a gentle slope to the right, but with some ‰ƒ’•ƒ†’‡ƒ•Ǥ –‹•‹’‘”tant to stress that the curve looks the same for the ͺͲǦ‡–”‡• …Ž—•–‡”• „‡ˆ‘”‡ the visual interpretation, so this was not introduced „› –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽ ‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”–Š‹•”—‰ged appearance is proba„Ž›”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽ‘ˆ•–‘‡ house foundations and incomplete data, which ƒŽ™ƒ›• ‹• ƒ ’”‘„Ž‡ ™‹–Š ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ †ƒ–ƒǤ Š‡ Figure 3.1.21. ‹ƒ‰”ƒ•Š‘™‹‰–Š‡–‘–ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡•‹‡ƒ…Šˆƒ”Ǥ –‹•„ƒ•‡† peaks seen at some even ‘ƒ•—„•ƒ’Ž‡‘ˆƒ”‘—†ͺͲͲ‘ˆ–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽŽ›‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ˆƒ”•ǡ…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ‘Ž›–Š‡ —„‡”•ǡ Ž‹‡ ʹͲ ƒ† ͵Ͳǡ Š‘—•‡•™‹–Š‘™Ž‡‰–ŠŽ‘‰‡”–Šƒͳͺ‡–”‡•Ǥ are similar to those in the 89

Figure 3.1.22a.ˆ‘—”Ǧ…Ž—•–‡”†‹˜‹†‡†‹–‘–™‘ˆƒ”•ǡ‘•–Ž›„ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽŽƒ›‘—–ƒ†‡…Ž‘•—”‡™ƒŽŽ•ǤŠ‡–™‘ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•–‘–Š‡Ž‡ˆ–•‡‡–‘„‡ƒ‰”‘—’‘ˆ–Š‡‹”‘™Ǥ Š‡”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆ•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ•ƒŽ•‘…—––Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡‰”‘—’ǤŠ‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‘—–‡”Š‘—•‡•‹•ͳ͹Ͳƒ†–Šƒ–‹•†‡ϐ‹‹–‡Ž›–‘‘ˆƒ”ˆ‘”‘‡ˆƒ”ȋ"ƒŽŽƒʹ͸ȌǤ Figure 3.1.22b. …Ž—•–‡”™‹–Šˆ‘—”Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•–Šƒ– …‘•–‹–—–‡–™‘ˆƒ”•Ǥ –˜‡”›—…Š”‡•‡„Ž‡•–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘ ‹"ƒŽŽƒʹ͸ȋϐ‹‰Ǥ͵ǤͳǤʹʹ„Ȍ™‹–Šƒ•–‘‡™ƒŽŽ†‹˜‹†‹‰–Š‡ two farms, which are both ‘classic’ two-house farms, with a larger and smaller house at an angle or offset position to ‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ȋ"ƒŽŽƒ͸ͺȌǤ

‹‰—”‡͵ǤͳǤ͵ǡ…ƒ—•‡†„›–Š‡•—”˜‡›‘”•‘ˆƒ…‹‡– remains, rounding the lengths in the documen–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡ ƒ› •ƒŽŽ ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š ‘‡ Š‘—•‡ might also be overrepresented due to recent removal of stone house foundations, as discussed ‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”Ǥ It is hard to interpret settings like the ones •‡‡ ‹ ϐ‹‰—”‡ ͵ǤͳǤʹʹƒǦ…ǡ ƒ• ƒ›–Š‹‰ ‡Ž•‡ –Šƒ ‘”‡–Šƒ‘‡ˆƒ”Ǥ•ƒ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ‹‰•‹–Š‡ ’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ‡Œ—ȋϐ‹‰Ǥ͵ǤͳǤʹʹ…Ȍ…ƒ„‡†‹•…—••‡†Ǥ – ™ƒ• ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– •…‹‡–‹ϐ‹…ƒŽŽ› ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ‰”‘—’•‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘™ƒ•

ͻͲ

Figure 3.1.22c. Š‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•„›–Š‡ˆƒ” ‹‰•‹–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‘ˆ‡Œ—Ǥ –™ƒ•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹”•–•‡–‘ˆ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‡˜‡”‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†‹ͳͺͺ͸„› ”‡†”‹‘”†‹Ǥ –Šƒ•ƒŽ™ƒ›•„‡‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•‘‡ˆƒ”ǡ„—–‹ˆ‘‡ Ž‘‘•ƒ––Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆŠ‘™–Š‡›ƒ”‡‰”‘—’‡†ǡ‹–‹•‘–‡˜‹†‡–ǤŠ‡›ƒ”‡‰”‘—’‡†ƒ•–™‘Ǯ…Žƒ••‹…ƒŽǯ–™‘ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”•Ǥ ‡”•…Š‡† ȋͳͻͺͺǣͷͲˆȌ •’‡…—Žƒ–‡• ‘ •‹–—ƒ–‹‘• Ž‹‡ –Š‹• ‘YŽƒ†ǡƒ•–Š‡•ƒŽŽ‡”’ƒ‹”‹•ƒˆƒ”–Šƒ–™ƒ•’ƒ”…‡ŽŽ‡† ‘—–ˆ”‘–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”‘‡ȋ ‹‰͵Ͷͳ‹ŒÚ”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷǣͺ͸͸ȌǤ

…‘†—…–‡† ‹ ͳͺͺ͸ „› ”‡†”‹ ‘”†‹ ƒ† ƒ• ƒ ”‡•—Ž–ǡŠ‡ϐ‹ƒŽŽ›…‘—Ž†‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š–Š‡ˆƒ…––Šƒ––Š‡ Kämpagrav indeed was the remains of a house ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡Ǥ  ͳͻ͵ͷǡ •—’’Ž‡‡–ƒ”› ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•™‡”‡…ƒ””‹‡†‘—–„›—†„‡”‰ƒ†‹ŠŽ± ƒ† ‹ ͳͻͷͲǡ ‹Ú”•–ƒ† …‘†—…–‡† ƒ –Š‹”† ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘ –‘ …Žƒ”‹ˆ› …‡”–ƒ‹ ƒ•’‡…–• ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ† ͳͻͷͷǣͺ͸ͶˆˆȌǤ Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ƒ•‘‡Žƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”ǡ„—––Š‡Žƒ›‘—–‘ˆ the buildings and the results from the excava–‹‘••—‰‰‡•–‘–Š‡”™‹•‡Ǥ Š‡‡–”ƒ…‡‘ˆŠ‘—•‡‹•‘–‘”‹‡–‡†–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡•—’’‘•‡†ˆƒ”›ƒ”†‘ˆƒŽƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”ǡ„—– ˆƒ…‡™‡•–™ƒ”†•ǡƒ™ƒ›ˆ”‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”„—‹Ž†‹‰•Ǥ ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆϐ‹†•‹„—‹Ž†‹‰ǡ it seems to be a multifunctional building with a ’ƒ”–ˆ‘”…ƒ––Ž‡ƒ†ƒ’ƒ”–ˆ‘”†™‡ŽŽ‹‰Ǥ—‹Ž†‹‰ …ƒƒŽ•‘„‡‹–‡”’”‡–‡†‹–Š‡•ƒ‡™ƒ›„ƒ•‡† ‘–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‘ˆ–Š‡ϐŽ‘‘”‹‰‹–Š‡

•‘—–Š‡” ƒ† ‘”–Š‡” ‡†•ǡ „—– –Š‡ ϐ‹†• ƒ”‡ ‘”‡‡˜‡Ž›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†ȋ‹Ú”•–ƒ†ͳͻͷͷǣͺ͸ͶˆˆȌǤ Š‡ ˆ‘—” Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ˆ‘” –™‘ ‰”‘—’•ǡ where each is in the ‘classical’ two-house farm Žƒ›‘—–Ǥ Š‡ ‰”‘—’ …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ „—‹Ž†‹‰• Ǧ appears to be separated from the large farm …‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǦǤ‹…‡„‘–Š farms seem to have all the functions of a farm, with both dwelling and cow-house, it should be interpreted as two farms and not one farm with –™‘ Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†•Ǥ ‡”•…Š‡† †‹•…—••‡• ƒ •‹–—ƒ–‹‘Ž‹‡–Š‹•‘YŽƒ†ǡ™Š‡”‡Š‡‹–‡”’”‡–•–Š‡ smaller pair as a farm parcelled out from the Žƒ”‰‡”‘‡ȋ‡”•…Š‡†ͳͻͺͺǣͷͲˆȌǤ  YŽƒ†ǡ –Š‡ ‘•– …‘‘ ˆƒ”• Šƒ˜‡ one or two houses, with some predominance ˆ‘”–Š‡–™‘ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”•Ǥˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•™‹–Š–Š”‡‡ Š‘—•‡•ǡ ƒ”‘—† ͳͲͲ ƒ”‡ ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ‘ YŽƒ†Ǥ Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡•– ˆƒ”•ǡ ™‹–Š ˆ‘—” ‘” ‘”‡ Š‘—•‡•ǡ ƒ”‡”ƒ”‡ƒ†‘Ž›ͳͺƒ”‡’”‡•‡”˜‡†–‘†ƒ›ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ʹͲͲ͸ǣͳͶ͵ȌǤŠ‡•‡—„‡”•–ƒŽŽ›“—‹–‡™‡ŽŽ ™‹–Š–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡƒ•…ƒ„‡•‡‡‹ –ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤʹǤ͸ǡ‹–Š‡‡š–…Šƒ’–‡”Ǥ‹…‡ ‘–Žƒ†‹• Žƒ”‰‡”–ŠƒYŽƒ†ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‘”‡ˆƒ”•ǡ„—––Š‡ relationships between the different farm sizes ƒ”‡ƒ„‘—––Š‡•ƒ‡Ǥ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘‹• the opposite concerning the one- and two-farm houses, but this is a minor difference and might „‡†—‡–‘”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽǡƒ•†‹•…—••‡†‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”Ǥ ƒ”‰‡ˆƒ””‡’”‡•‡–•‘‡ˆ‘”‘ˆƒ”‹•–‘…”ƒ…›‹•‘…‹‡–›ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ƒ†Š‡†‡ϐ‹‡•–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”•ƒ•–Š‘•‡™‹–Šƒ›Š‘—•‡• ȋ ƒŽŽ‰”‡ʹͲͲ͸ǣͳͶ͵ȌǤ˜ƒ‹ˆ‘ƒ”‹•–‘…”ƒ…›‡š‹•–‡†‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡƒ•™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‹ƒ…‘‹‰ chapter, an argument for the three-house farms or larger to be the residences of the leaders in •‘…‹‡–›‹•–Šƒ–ƒ–Š‹”†Š‘—•‡ǡ…‘—Ž†‹ƒ›…ƒ•‡• „‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ• ƒ ŠƒŽŽǤ Š‡ ŠƒŽŽ ‹• ƒ ’Žƒ…‡ where a leader can receive guests and perform ‘ˆϐ‹…‹ƒŽ–ƒ••ǡ‘–Šƒ˜‹‰–‘„‡‹–Š‡’”‹˜ƒ…›‘ˆ Š‹•Š‘—•‡Š‘Ž†ǤŠ‡ŠƒŽŽƒ…–•ƒ•ƒ‹–‡”ˆƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡ƒ’—„Ž‹…ƒ†ƒ’”‹˜ƒ–‡•’Š‡”‡Ǥ……‘”†‹‰ –‘‡”•…Š‡†ǡ–Š‹•…‘…‡’–Šƒ•‹–•”‘‘–•‹‘‡ and develops in Scandinavia from a single room, within the dwelling house in the pre-Roman Iron ‰‡ǡ –‘ ƒ •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ „—‹Ž†‹‰ †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡ǤŠ‹•‹•‘”ƒŽŽ›ƒ•ƒŽŽ‡”‘‡Ǧ”‘‘‡† „—‹Ž†‹‰ǡ’Žƒ…‡†‹–Š‡…‘—”–›ƒ”†‘”‹ƒ•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ ˆ‡…‡†ƒ”‡ƒ…Ž‘•‡–‘–Š‡ƒ”‹•–‘…”ƒ–‹…ˆƒ”ȋ‡”•…Š‡†ʹͲͲͻǣʹͷͳˆȌǤ Š‡•–—†›‹‰–Š‡•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ†ǡ‹–‹•‘–’‘••‹„Ž‡Œ—•––‘•ƒ›–Šƒ–ƒˆƒ”‘ˆƒ …‡”–ƒ‹—„‡”‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•‹•Žƒ”‰‡‘”‘–Ǥ˜‡‹ˆ –Š‡”‡‹•ƒ•–”‘‰…‘””‡Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆͺͶΨ„‡–™‡‡–Š‡ number of houses on a farm and the total length

of all the houses, there are small outliers in each group cluttering the picture, as can be seen in –Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ ‹ ϐ‹‰Ǥ ͵ǤͳǤʹ͵Ǥ  ˜‹•—ƒŽ •–—†› ‘ˆ –Š‡ farms reveals that most of these smaller outliers ƒ”‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž›†—‡–‘”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽƒ†‹…‘’Ž‡–‡†ƒ–ƒǤŠ‡”‡‹•‘‡ˆ‘—”ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”‘ ¤”Úǡ ™Š‹…Š‹•ƒ„‹–•ƒŽŽǡ„—–‘ ¤”Úǡ‘•–‘ˆ–Š‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡•ƒŽŽƒ† ¤”Ú‹•ƒ•’‡…‹ƒŽ …ƒ•‡‹ƒ›”‡•’‡…–•ǤŠ‡”‡•–‘ˆ–Š‡•ƒŽŽˆ‘—”Ǧ Š‘—•‡ˆƒ”•…‘—Ž†’”‘„ƒ„Ž›„‡‡š’Žƒ‹‡†„›”‡…‡– ”‡‘˜ƒŽǤ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ •‘‡ –Š”‡‡ǦŠ‘—•‡ ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š ˜‡”› •ƒŽŽ Š‘—•‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š …‘—Ž† ‘– „‡‡š’Žƒ‹‡†„›”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽƒ†–Š‡›•Š‘—Ž† ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘–„‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•Žƒ”‰‡ˆƒ”•Ǥ‘‡‘ˆ –Š‡–™‘Š‘—•‡ˆƒ”••Š‘—Ž†’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ƒŽ•‘„‡‹Table 3.1.12. ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ ‡ƒ”‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—” ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ ʹ͸ ˆƒ”•™‹–Šˆ‘—”Š‘—•‡•Ǥ

Figure 3.1.23. ‡‰–Š‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡•‹‡ƒ…Š‰”‘—’‘ˆˆƒ”• ‰”‘—’‡† „› –Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ Š‘—•‡•Ǥ Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ ‹• „ƒ•‡† ‘ ƒ •—„•ƒ’Ž‡ ‘ˆ ƒ”‘—† ͺͲͲ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽŽ› ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ˆƒ”• …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ ‘Ž› –Š‡ Š‘—•‡• ™‹–Š ƒ ‘™ Ž‡‰–Š Ž‘‰‡” –Šƒ ͳͺ ‡–”‡•Ǥ Š‡ „‘š ”‡’”‡•‡–• ‘‡ •–ƒ†ƒ”† †‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ƒ†–Š‡™Š‹•‡”•–Š‡‹ƒ†ƒš˜ƒŽ—‡•Ǥ Table 3.1.13. ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ ‡ƒ”‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—” ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ ͶͲ ˆƒ”•ƒŽŽ™‹–Šƒ–‘–ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆ‘˜‡”͹Ͳ‡–”‡•

91

Figure 3.1.24. Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ʹ͸Žƒ”‰‡•–ˆƒ”•ǡ†‡ϐ‹‡†ƒ•ˆƒ”•™‹–Šˆ‘—”‘”‘”‡Š‘—•‡•ǤŠ‡ƒ’‹•„ƒ•‡† ‘ ƒ •—„•ƒ’Ž‡ ‘ˆ ƒ”‘—† ͺͲͲ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽŽ› ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ˆƒ”• …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ ‘Ž› –Š‡ Š‘—•‡• ™‹–Š ƒ ‘™ Ž‡‰–Š Ž‘‰‡” –Šƒ ͳͺ ‡–”‡•Ǥ ‹…‡ –Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ ˆƒ”• ‹• ˆ‡™ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ …‡”–ƒ‹ ƒ‘—– ‘ˆ •‡•‹–‹˜‹–› –‘ ”‡…‡– ”‡‘˜ƒŽ ‘ˆˆƒ”•Ǥ•–‹ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ˜ƒ‹•Š‡†ˆƒ”•ƒŽ•‘ show that these numbers must at least be doubled; thereˆ‘”‡ǡƒ”‘—†ͷͲˆƒ”•‘ˆ–Š‹••‹œ‡‹‰Š–Šƒ˜‡‡š‹•–‡†Ǥ

Figure 3.1.26a. ƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ”• †‡ϐ‹‡† ƒ• ͵ ‘” ‘”‡ Š‘—•‡•ƒ†ƒ–‘–ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆ͸Ͳ‘ˆƒŽŽ–Š‡Š‘—•‡•ǤŠ‡ƒ’‹• „ƒ•‡†‘ƒ•—„•ƒ’Ž‡‘ˆƒ”‘—†ͺͲͲ‘ˆ–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽŽ›‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ˆƒ”•…‘•‹•–‹‰‘Ž›‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•™‹–Šƒ‘™Ž‡‰–Š Ž‘‰‡” –Šƒ ͳͺ ‡–”‡•Ǥ ‹…‡ –Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ ˆƒ”• ‹• ˆ‡™ǡ ”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽ‘ˆˆƒ”•‹‰Š–…ƒ—•‡ƒ„‹ƒ•ǤŠ‡‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘• made over vanished farms, also show that these numbers —•–ƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–„‡†‘—„Ž‡†Ǥ

Figure 3.1.25. Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡•–ˆƒ”•†‡ϐ‹‡† ƒ• ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š ƒ –‘–ƒŽ Ž‡‰–Š ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ Š‘—•‡• ‘ˆ ͹Ͳ ‡–”‡• ‘” ‘˜‡”ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ ͶͲǤ Š‡ ƒ’ ‹• „ƒ•‡† ‘ ƒ •—„•ƒ’Ž‡ ‘ˆ ƒ”‘—† ͺͲͲ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˜‹•—ƒŽŽ› ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ˆƒ”• …‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆ‘Ž›–Š‡Š‘—•‡•™‹–Šƒ‘™Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆ‘˜‡”ͳͺ‡–”‡•Ǥ Since the number of farms is few, recent removal of farms ƒ›„‹ƒ•–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•ǤŠ‡‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‡‘˜‡”˜ƒ‹•Š‡† farms, also show that these numbers must at least be the †‘—„Ž‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ••‘‡ͳͲͲ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡ˆƒ”•‘…‡‡š‹•–‡†Ǥ

Figure 3.1.26b. ƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ”• †‡ϐ‹‡† ƒ• ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š ƒ –‘–ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆ͸Ͳ‘ˆƒŽŽ–Š‡Š‘—•‡•ǤŠ‡ƒ’‹•„ƒ•‡†‘ƒ •—„•ƒ’Ž‡‘ˆƒ”‘—†ͺͲͲ‘ˆ–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽŽ›‹–‡”’”‡–‡†ˆƒ”• …‘•‹•–‹‰‘Ž›‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•™‹–Šƒ‘™Ž‡‰–ŠŽ‘‰‡”–Šƒ ͳͺ‡–”‡•Ǥ‹…‡–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•‹•ˆ‡™ǡ”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽ ‘ˆˆƒ”•‹‰Š–„‹ƒ•–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•ǤŠ‡‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‡‘˜‡” vanished farms, also show that these numbers must at least „‡†‘—„Ž‡†Ǥ

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cluded among the large farms, since both build‹‰• ƒ”‡ “—‹–‡ Žƒ”‰‡ǡ ƒ† ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– ‘‡ „—‹Ž†‹‰ could have multiple functions as discussed ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ‹–Š”‡‰ƒ”†–‘–Š‡‹†‡ƒ–Šƒ–‘‡Š‘—•‡‘ the large farms might be a hall, one of the houses on these two-house farms, could be a multifunctional building with a hall function in a separate ”‘‘ǡƒ•‹–Š‡’”‡Ǧ‘ƒ ”‘‰‡Ǥ Š‡ ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ ’‹…–—”‡ ‹• Š‘™‡˜‡” –Šƒ– –Š‡ number of houses indicates large farms, but not ™‹–Š‘—–‡š…‡’–‹‘•Ǥ‡‹’‘”–ƒ–‘–‡–‘ƒ‡ is that all groups overlap, even if we regard that –Š‡”‡ ‹• ‹…‘’Ž‡–‡ †ƒ–ƒ ƒ† ”‡…‡–Ž› ”‡‘˜‡† •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ  –Š‡ †‹ƒ‰”ƒ ‹ ϐ‹‰—”‡͵ǤͳǤʹ͵ǡ–Š‡‹ƒ†ƒšŽ‡‰–Šǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘–Š‡ length over and under one standard deviation ȋ•–†˜Ȍ…ƒ„‡•‡‡ˆ‘”ƒŽŽˆ‘—”‰”‘—’•Ǥ‡•–ƒ†ard deviation around the mean implies a range ‘ˆƒ„‘—–᪟‘ˆƒ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡•‡‰”‘—’•ƒ”‡‘– ’‡”ˆ‡…–Ž›‘”ƒŽŽ›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†ǡ„—––Š‡ϐ‹‰—”‡•ƒ”‡ …Ž‘•‡‡‘—‰Š–‘„‡—•‡ˆ—ŽǤ•…ƒ„‡•‡‡ǡ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆŠ‘—•‡•‹•„‡–™‡‡͵ͲǦͶͻ‡–”‡•ˆ‘” ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž›᪟‘ˆ–Š‡–™‘ǦŠ‘—•‡‰”‘—’Ǣ–Š”‡‡Ǧ Š‘—•‡ˆƒ”•‡ƒ•—”‡„‡–™‡‡Ͷͷƒ†͸ͻ‡–”‡•Ǣ among the four-house group, house foundations ƒ”‡ ͷͻǦͻͳ ‡–”‡• ‹ Ž‡‰–ŠǤ ƒ„Ž‡ ͵ǤʹǤ͸ǡ ‹ –Š‡ ‡š– …Šƒ’–‡”ǡ •Š‘™ ƒ ‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ Š‘™ ƒ› ˆƒ”• –Šƒ– ‘…‡ ƒ› Šƒ˜‡ ‡š‹•–‡† ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•‹œ‡•ǤŽ›ƒ”‘—†ͶΨ‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•Šƒ†ˆ‘—” ‘”‘”‡Š‘—•‡•Ǥ ‘–Š‡” †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘ ‘ˆ Žƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ”• …‘—Ž† „‡ „ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡–‘–ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡•‹ƒˆƒ”Ǥ –—†›‹‰–Š‡†‹ƒ‰”ƒ‹ϐ‹‰Ǥ͵ǤͳǤʹ͵‹–Ž‘‘•Ž‹‡͹Ͳ ‡–”‡• ‹• ‰‘‘† „”‡ƒ’‘‹–Ǥ Š‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘˜‡”͹Ͳ‡–”‡•…‘•–‹–—–‡•ͷΨ‘ˆƒŽŽŠ‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ ƒ”‘—† ͶͲ ˆƒ”• ‹ –Š‡ •ƒ’Ž‡—•‡†‹–Š‹•ƒƒŽ›•‹•ƒ†ƒ‡•–‹ƒ–‡†ͳͲͲ †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ ‡ƒ”Ž› ŠƒŽˆ ‘ˆ –Š‡ consist of farms with four or more houses, two ˆƒ”•™‹–Š–™‘˜‡”›Žƒ”‰‡Š‘—•‡•ƒ†–Š‡”‡•–ƒ”‡ –Š”‡‡ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”•ǤŽŽ–Š”‡‡ǦŠ‘—•‡ˆƒ”•‘˜‡”͹Ͳ ‡–”‡ƒ”‡Žƒ”‰‡”–Šƒ‘‡•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡ ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ ’ƒ––‡” „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ –™‘ ™ƒ›• ‘ˆ †‡ϐ‹‹‰ Žƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ”• ‹• ˜‡”› •‹‹Žƒ”ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‡ƒ• –Šƒ– ‹– ‹• “—‹–‡ …Ž‡ƒ” –Šƒ– –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡ ˆƒ”• ƒ”‡–Š‘•‡™‹–Š͵ǦͶŠ‘—•‡•‘ˆ…‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž‡Ž‡‰–Šǡ ™‹–Š•‘‡ˆ‡™‡š…‡’–‹‘•ǤŠ‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ƒ’• ƒ„‘˜‡ ‹ ϐ‹‰—”‡ ͵ǤͳǤʹͶ ƒ† ͵ǤͳǤʹͷ •Š‘™ –Šƒ– –Š‡ large farms of four or more houses and also the ‘‡• Ž‘‰‡” –Šƒ ͹Ͳ ‡–”‡•ǡ ƒ”‡ †‹•–”‹„—–‡† ƒŽŽ ‘˜‡” –Š‡ ‹•Žƒ†Ǥ ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡•– ˆƒ”• Ž‹‡ ‹ –Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡƒ†•‘‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ”‡‡’–›ǡ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›†—‡–‘”‡…‡–”‡‘˜ƒŽǤƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡ƒ”‡•– ‡‹‰Š„‘—” ƒƒŽ›•‹• ƒŽ•‘ …‘ϐ‹”• –Š‡ †‹•persed or random patterns of the largest farms, ƒ••‡‡‹–Š‡–ƒ„Ž‡•͵ǤͳǤͳʹƒ†͵ǤͳǤ͵ǤŠ‡’ƒ––‡”

”‡ƒ‹• ”‘—‰ŠŽ› –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ™Š‡ ‘–Š‡” •‡Ž‡…–‹‘ criteria for large farms are chosen, as can be seen below, which indicates that the different farm siz‡• ƒ”‡ ”ƒ–Š‡” ‡˜‡Ž› †‹•–”‹„—–‡† ‘˜‡” –Š‡ ‹•Žƒ†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹‰Š– ‹†‹…ƒ–‡ •‘‡ ‹† ‘ˆ Š‹‡”ƒ”…Š›ǡ ™Š‹…Š™‹ŽŽ„‡†‹•…—••‡†‘”‡Žƒ–‡”Ǥ

ƒ”•‹œ‡•‹˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‡‹–‡”‡•–‹‰ƒ––‡”–‘ƒƒŽ›•‡‹•–Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’‹•‹œ‡•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡ˆƒ”•‹ƒ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ǤŠ‡”‡ ƒ”‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽ“—‡•–‹‘•ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†™‹–Š–Š‹•ǡŽ‹‡–Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ ƒ† –Š‡ Š‹‡”ƒ”…Š› „‡–™‡‡ ˆƒ”• ‹ ƒ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ Š‡•‡ –™‘ ‹••—‡• ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ ‹–‡”…‘‡…–‡†–‘•‘‡†‡‰”‡‡ǡƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ Š‹•™‹ŽŽƒŽ•‘„‡ƒƒŽ›•‡†ˆ‘”–Š‡Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ’‡”‹‘†Ǥ ‹–Š ˆ‡™ ‡š…‡’–‹‘•ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ‡ƒ”Ž› ƒŽ™ƒ›• ‘‡ ˆƒ”Žƒ”‰‡”–Šƒ–Š‡”‡•–‹‡ƒ…Š˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡Ǥ•™‹ŽŽ„‡ shown later on, the results for the historical data ƒ”‡˜‡”›•‹‹Žƒ”Ǥ Š‡‡ƒ‹†‡šˆ‘”–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‹œ‡•‘ˆ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡••Š‘™•ƒ‹–‡”‡•–‹‰’ƒ––‡”Ǥ –Š‡•ƒŽŽ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•™‹–ŠʹǦ͵ˆƒ”•ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ‰”‡ƒ–‡”†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ in size between the largest and the second largest farms than there is in the larger villages, but since the sample size is much smaller for the larger vilŽƒ‰‡•ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ—…‡”–ƒ‹–›Ǥ Table 3.1.14. Relationship between the largest and second largest farm in villages of different sizes

Š‡ͶͲŽƒ”‰‡•–ˆƒ”•ǡ‘˜‡”͹Ͳ‡–”‡•ƒ”‡‘˜‡””‡’”‡•‡–‡† ‹ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ ™‘ –Š‹”†• ‘ˆ –Š‡ Žƒ”‰‡•– ˆƒ”• ƒ”‡ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‹ ͶͲͲǦ‡–”‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ƒ† ͸ʹΨ ƒ”‡ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‹ ͵ͲͲǦ‡–”‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•Ǥ ‹…‡–Š‡ϐ‹‰—”‡•ƒ”‡•‘…Ž‘•‡„‡–™‡‡͵ͲͲǦƒ† ͶͲͲǦ‡–”‡• ˜‹ŽTable 3.1.15. ‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘ˆ Žƒ”‰‡ lages, the followˆƒ”• ƒ…”‘•• †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡ •‹œ‡•Ǥ ‹‰ƒƒŽ›•‡•™‹ŽŽ Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•‹•„ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡˜‹•—ƒŽŽ› ‘Ž›„‡ƒ†‡‘ interpreted villages –Š‡ ͶͲͲǦ‡–”‡ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡†ƒ–ƒǤ • …ƒ „‡ seen in the table ͵ǤͳǤͳͷǡ –Š‡ †‹•tribution of the largest farms across different village sizes, does ‘– •‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–Ž› †‹ˆˆ‡” ˆ”‘ ƒŽŽ farms (see table ͵ǤͳǤͻȌǤ

ͻ͵

Figure 3.1.27a-f. ƒ”•‹œ‡•‹†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‹œ‡†˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǤŠ‡†‹ƒ‰”ƒ•ƒ”‡„ƒ•‡†‘ƒ•ƒ’Ž‡‘ˆͳ͵Ͷ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡•ǡ™‹–ŠƒŽ‘•– …‘’Ž‡–‡†ƒ–ƒǡ…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆ͵ͺ͵ˆƒ”•Ǥ

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3.2 The extension of the Iron Age landscape Since one of the prime goals of this work, be•‹†‡• –Š‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† ƒƒŽ›•‡• ‘ˆ ˜‹ŽŽƒ‰‡• ‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ‹•–‘•‡‡–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡•‹–Š‡†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–‘ˆ–Š‡…—Ž–—”ƒŽŽƒ†•…ƒ’‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡ‹–‹• ‡••‡–‹ƒŽ–‘ϐ‹†–Š‡•‡––Ž‡†ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ–Š‡•–—†‹‡† ’‡”‹‘†•Ǥ • …ƒ „‡ •‡‡ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ Žƒ•– …Šƒ’–‡”ǡ –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• ™Š‡”‡ ‘ ‘” ˜‡”› ˆ‡™ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ˆ‘—†ǤŠ‡“—‡•–‹‘ ‹•‹ˆ‹–‹•„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡›†‹†‘–‡š‹•–‘”‹ˆ–Š‡›Šƒ˜‡ vanished due to later activities, such as plough‹‰ ‘” †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–Ǥ ‡ ‡–Š‘† ‘ˆ –”›‹‰ –‘ ‹†‡–‹ˆ› ƒ”‡ƒ• ™‹–Š …‡”–ƒ‹ –›’‡• ‘ˆ ƒ…‹‡– ”‡mains or that have been used for different activities during different periods is called predictive ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰Ǥ‹…‡–Š‡ƒ†˜‡–‘ˆ ‹ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰›ǡ–Š‹•Šƒ•„‡‡ƒŽƒ”‰‡ϐ‹‡Ž†‘ˆƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡ ’”‹‡‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡‘ˆ–Š‹•ƒƒŽ›•‹•‹•–‘‹†‡–‹ˆ›–Š‡ ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ™Š‹…Š‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›™‡”‡•‡––Ž‡††—”‹‰ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‘‡• ‘•– ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› Žƒ…‡†•‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ –Š‹•™ƒ›ǡŽ‹‡Ž›„‘—†ƒ”‹‡• for the central settlement areas of the period de–‡”‹‡†Ǥƒ•‡†‘–Š‹•‘†‡Žǡƒ…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘™‹ŽŽ also be made estimating the number of vanished ‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—ˆƒ”•Ǥ

About predictive modelling ”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ ‹• —•‡† „‘–Š ‹ —Ž–—”ƒŽ ‡•‘—”…‡ ƒƒ‰‡‡– ȋȌ ƒ† ˆ‘” ƒ…ƒ†‡‹… ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š ‹ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰›ǡ •‹…‡ –Š‡ ‡‡† ƒ† †‡ƒ†ˆ‘”™ƒ›•–‘’”‡†‹…–ƒ†—†‡”•–ƒ†–Š‡ reasons for the location of various archaeological sites are of great importance within both ar‡ƒ•Ǥ”‡†‹…–‹˜‡‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰‹•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹”•–‘”‡ …‘’Ž‡š ‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ– ™‡”‡ †‘‡ ‹  „› archaeologists, since it was the natural contin—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘–Š‡”‘Ǧ…‘’—–‡”„ƒ•‡†–‡…Š‹“—‡• †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† –‘ ’”‡†‹…– •‹–‡• ‹ ‘”–Š ‡”‹…ƒǤ ‡”› ˆ‡™ •—”˜‡›• ˆ‘” ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ •‹–‡• Šƒ† been conducted and there was a need to develop methods of predicting the areas of archaeologi…ƒŽ•‡•‹–‹˜‹–›ˆ‘”—•‡‹–Š‡’Žƒ‹‰‘ˆ•‘…‹‡–› ‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Ž‡˜‡Ž•ȋ‘†‘„‹ƒ”‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͳǣͷ͵͸ȌǤ ƒ‰‰‹‰•‘‡›‡ƒ”•„‡Š‹†ǡ—”‘’‡ƒ…—Žtural resource management and scholars began –‘ —•‡ ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ ‹ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”Ž› ͳͻͻͲ• ȋ‡—•‡ǡ˜ƒͳͻͻ͸ǣͳ͹͹ˆǡ‡‡„‡et alͳͻͻ͹ǣ͹͹ȌǤ ‡”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”–Š‡‡ƒ”Ž›•–ƒ”–‹‡”‹…ƒ‹•–Š‡

greater need of predictive models due to differ‡…‡‹Ž‡‰‹•Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘•–—”‘’‡ƒ…‘—–”‹‡•ǡ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹•–• …ƒ •—”˜‡› ƒ† ’‡”ˆ‘” ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‹‘•‘’”‹˜ƒ–‡Ž›‘™‡†Žƒ†ǡ„—––Š‹•‹•‘––Š‡ …ƒ•‡‹‡”‹…ƒǡ™Š‡”‡ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹•–•‘•–‘ˆ–‡ƒ”‡…‘ϐ‹‡†–‘’—„Ž‹…Ž›‘™‡†Žƒ†ȋ‘†‘„‹ƒ”‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͳǣͷ͵͸ȌǤ –Š‡‡–Š‡”Žƒ†•ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‘•– †‡•‡Ž› ’‘’—Žƒ–‡† …‘—–”‹‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ™‘”Ž†ǡ ƒ† ™Š‡”‡”‘—‰ŠŽ›ͳΨ‘ˆ–Š‡…‘—–”›‹•—†‡”†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ‡ƒ…Š ›‡ƒ” ȋƒ‡”ƒ• Ƭ ƒ•Ž‡„‡‡ ͳͻͻͻǣʹʹͷȌǡ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰Šƒ•„‡‡Žƒ”‰‡Ž›‡„”ƒ…‡†ƒ†—…Š‡ˆˆ‘”–‹••’‡––‘†‡˜‡Ž‘’ and explore new methods, which also has generƒ–‡†ƒ›’—„Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•‘–Š‡•—„Œ‡…–ȋƒ‡”ƒ• ‡– ƒŽ ʹͲͲͻǣͳͲˆȌǤ  ƒ› ‘–Š‡” —”‘’‡ƒ countries, different methods are also tried and ƒ”‡—–‹Ž‹•‡†‹”‡•‡ƒ”…Šǡƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•‹™‘”ǡ „—––‘›‘™Ž‡†‰‡‘–‹™‡†‡Ǣƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–‘– ’—„Ž‹•Š‡†Ǥ  ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡Ž ƒ––‡’–• –‘ ’”‡†‹…– where archaeological sites or features are lo…ƒ–‡†ǡ „› Ž‘‘‹‰ ˆ‘” –‡†‡…‹‡• ƒ† ’ƒ––‡”• ‘„•‡”˜‡† ‹ ƒ ”‡‰‹‘ǡ ‘” †‡”‹˜‡† „› –Š‡‘”› ȋ˜ƒ‡ͳͻͻͲǣʹͷ͹ȌǤ –Š‡Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡ƒ„‘—–’”‡dictive modelling, several different terms and …‘…‡’–• ƒ”‡ —•‡†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ •‘‡–‹‡• ˜‡”› …Ž‘•‡ ‹ ‡ƒ‹‰Ǥ ‘•‡“—‡–Ž›ǡ ƒ …Žƒ”‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡„ƒ•‹…–‡”•™‹ŽŽ„‡ƒ†‡Ǥ …—Ž–—”ƒŽ”‡source management and in academic research, –™‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š‡• ƒ”‡ ‘”ƒŽŽ› ‡‡†‡†Ǥ Š‡ ƒ‹ ˆ‘…—• ‘ˆ …—Ž–—”ƒŽ ”‡•‘—”…‡ ƒƒ‰‡‡–‹•–‘„‡ƒ„Ž‡–‘’”‡†‹…–™Š‡”‡‹–‹•Ž‹‡Ž›–‘ ‡…‘—–‡” ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ •‹–‡• ‹ ƒ ƒ”‡ƒǤ Š‡ ‡‡†–‘‡š’Žƒ‹™Š›‹–‹•–Š‡”‡‹•‘ˆ‹‘”‹–‡”‡•–Ǥ  ƒ…ƒ†‡‹… ”‡•‡ƒ”…Šǡ –Š‡ ‡‡† ˆ‘” —†‡”standing the reasons and mechanisms behind the choice of a site location is often the central ‹••—‡ǤŠ‡ˆ‘”‡”‹•’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡‹‹–•ƒ‹•ƒ†–Š‡ Žƒ––‡”‹•‹–‡”’”‡–‹˜‡ȋƒ””‡ͳͻͻͲƒǣͻͲǢ‡—•‡ǡ ˜ƒͳͻͻ͸ǣͳͺͳˆˆȌǤ Š‡ ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š …ƒ „‡ ‡š’”‡••‡† ƒ• ‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ ˆƒ…–‘”• ƒ† –Š‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‹˜‡ ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡ …ƒ „‡ ”‡‰ƒ”†‡† ƒ• ƒ ™ƒ› of understanding factors behind the choice of Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ …ƒ ƒŽ•‘ „‡ ‡š’”‡••‡† ‹–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰™ƒ›Ǣ‹–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡…ƒ•‡ǡ–Š‡ present distribution of sites is predicted; and in the interpretive case, an explanation of the past †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘ˆ •‹–‡• ‹• ƒ––‡’–‡† ȋ‡—•‡ǡ ˜ƒ 95

ͳͻͻ͸ǣͳͺ͵ˆȌǤ –…ƒƒŽ•‘„‡˜‹‡™‡†ƒ•–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ ‘ˆ —•‹‰ †‡†—…–‹‘ ˆ”‘ –Š‡‘”› ‘” ‹†—…–‹‘ˆ”‘‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘•ȋƒ””‡ͳͻͻͲƒǣͻͲǢ‡ŽŽƒ ‘ƒͳͻͻͶǣͷȌǤŠ‹•™‘—Ž†„‡–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ•ƒ”–‹Œ˜ƒ‡—•‡ǯ•ƒ…ƒ†‡‹…ȋ†‡†—…–‹˜‡Ȍƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š ƒ† –Š‡  ȋ‹†—…–‹˜‡Ȍ ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š‡•Ǥ –Š‡” terms that are sometimes used are empirical …‘””‡Žƒ–‹˜‡ƒ††‡†—…–‹˜‡‘†‡Ž•ǤŠ‡ˆ‘”‡”‹• based on observations and the latter is based on †‡†—…–‡†–Š‡‘”›ȋ˜ƒ‡ͳͻͻͲǣʹ͹͵ȌǤ ’”ƒ…–‹…‡ǡ–Š‡„‘—†ƒ”›„‡–™‡‡–Š‡–™‘ ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š‡• ‹• •‘‡™Šƒ– ˆ—œœ› •‹…‡ ‘•– ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ ‹• ƒ …›…Ž‹… ’”‘…‡••ǡ ‹ ™Š‹…Š both deductive and inductive input is used –‘ ”‡ϐ‹‡ –Š‡ ‘†‡Ž ȋƒ‡”ƒ• Ƭ ƒ•Ž‡‡„‡ͳͻͻͻǣʹʹͷȌǤ ‘„‡”– ƒ””‡ ƒ”‰—‡• –Šƒ– –Š‡‘”‹‡• ƒ”‡ ƒŽ™ƒ›• ‡‡†‡† ˆ‘” …Š‘‘•‹‰ –Š‡ ‹†‡’‡†‡– ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǡ ƒ† ‹ˆ ‘Ž› ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ used in the selection of variables, there is a risk ˆ‘”–Š‡…”‡ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ™‡ƒ‘†‡Žȋƒ””‡ͳͻͻͲƒȌǤ In the pure predictive case, there is a danger of a biased result when no attempt is made to under•–ƒ†–Š‡—†‡”Ž›‹‰”‡ƒ•‘•ƒ†•–”—…–—”‡•ˆ‘” the location, because the archaeological material ‹–•‡Žˆ‹•„‹ƒ•‡†ȋ‡—•‡ǡ˜ƒͳͻͻ͸ǣͳͺͶȌǤ Š‡ ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š ‹ –Š‡ …‘‹‰ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‹• ƒ combination of both, as most models are, since the selection of independent variables is based ‹’”‹‘”‘™Ž‡†‰‡ƒ†‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‘ ’”‘†—…‡ ƒ •—……‡••ˆ—Ž ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ƒ’ one needs to have several models for different –›’‡• ‘ˆ •‹–‡•ǡ ƒ† •‹–‡• ˆ”‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ’‡”‹‘†•Ǥ Š‡ ’”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡• „‡Š‹† –Š‡ …Š‘‹…‡ ‘ˆ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –›’‡• ‘ˆ •‹–‡•ǡ Ž‹‡ •‡––Ž‡‡– •‹–‡•ǡ have changed over time as well as the reasons ˆ‘”–Š‡•‡…Š‘‹…‡•ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ƒ…–‹˜‹–‹‡•…ƒ””‹‡† ‘—–„›Š—–‡”Ǧ‰ƒ–Š‡”‡”•ǡ ”‘Ǧƒ‰‡ˆƒ”‡”•ǡϐ‹•Šers etc lead to different strategies for choosing •‹–‡•Ǥ – –Š‡ „‡•–ǡ ‘‡ ‘†‡Ž …ƒ ƒ……‘—– ˆ‘” ƒ couple of different kinds of related sites and fea–—”‡•ȋƒŽŽƒ‘ƒͳͻͻͶǣ͹ȌǤ ‘•– ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡Ž• —•‡ ‡˜‹”‘‡tal variables that are measurable in the present Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡Ǥ Š‹• ‹’Ž‹‡• –Šƒ– –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– –™‘ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ƒ••—’–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ‹• –Šƒ– ‡˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽˆƒ…–‘”•’Žƒ›‡†ƒ‡›”‘Ž‡™Š‡–Š‡ prehistoric people chose their place to settle and the second is that these variables are still measurable in the present landscape (Warren ͳͻͻͲ„ǣʹͲʹȌǤ Š‡ ƒŽ‘•– ‡š…Ž—•‹˜‡ —•‡ ‘ˆ ‡˜‹ronmental variables has led to criticism of predictive modelling as being to environmental †‡–‡”‹‹•–‹… ȋ‡—•‡ǡ ˜ƒ ͳͻͻ͸ǣͳͺͳˆǢ ƒ””‹• Ƭ ‘… ͳͻͻͷǣ͵ͷ͹ˆȌǤ  –Š‡ ƒŒ‘”‹–› ‘ˆ •–—†‹‡•ǡ –Š‹•‹•–”—‡Ǥ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”–Š‹•‹•–Šƒ–…—Ž–—”ƒŽˆƒ…-

ͻ͸

–‘”•ƒ”‡Šƒ”†‡”–‘ƒ’ƒ†ϐ‹–‹–‘ƒ Ǧ•›•–‡Ǥ ‘‡ ƒƒŽ›•‡• Šƒ˜‡ ƒ––‡’–‡† –‘ –ƒ‡ Š—ƒ cultural behaviour in account, with the use of algorithms to produce viewsheds for studies of ‹–‡”˜‹•‹„‹Ž‹–› „‡–™‡‡ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǡ friction surfaces, which can model movements in –Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡‡–…Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒ•‡‡–Š˜ƒ‡ ƒ†ƒ”–‹Œ˜ƒ‡—•‡’‘‹–‘—–ǡ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• used in these models, are all derived from envi”‘‡–ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒǡ•—…Šƒ•‹‰‹–ƒŽŽ‡˜ƒ–‹‘‘†‡Ž• ȋȌǡƒ†–Š—••—ˆˆ‡”–Š‡•ƒ‡Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Ž‹…‹ƒ ‹•‡ ‡’Šƒ•‹•‡• –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ „‡tween ecological and phenomenological variƒ„Ž‡• –Šƒ– …ƒ „‡ —•‡† ‹  ƒ† …”‹–‹…‹•‡• –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– ‘•–  ƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘• ‹ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰› –‘†ƒ› ƒ”‡ „ƒ•‡† •‘Ž‡Ž› ‘ ‡…‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•Ǣ ƒ† †‘‡ •‘ ‹ –Š‡ ™”‘‰ ™ƒ›Ǥ Š‡ ‡ƒ• –Šƒ–

 ‹• ƒ ’‡”ˆ‡…– –‘‘Ž ƒŽ•‘ ˆ‘” ’Š‡‘‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• ƒ† •Š‡‘—–Ž‹‡• •‘‡ ™ƒ›• –‘ ‹…‘”porate human perception and consciousness of –Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡ƒ†‡˜‹”‘‡–‹–‘ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ȋ‹•‡ʹͲͲͲȌǤ ‘–Š‡” …”‹–‹…‹• ‘ˆ –Š‡ —•‡ ‘ˆ ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ modelling is that the focus is often on the wrong –Š‹‰•Ǥ ‘” ‘•– ‘†‡Ž „—‹Ž†‡”•ǡ ‹– ‹• …‘‘ –Šƒ–‘Ž›–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡’‘™‡”‘ˆ–Š‡‘†‡Ž‹•‹portant and the full potential of the model is not —•‡†Ǥ Ǧ•›•–‡…ƒ „‡ —•‡†–‘ƒƒŽ›•‡’ƒ––‡”•ǡ„—–‘–”ƒ†‘‘……—””‡…‡•ǤŠ‡ …ƒ ‹†‡–‹ˆ› –Š‡ ‘Ǧ’ƒ––‡” ’ƒ”–•ǡ „—– …ƒ‘– ƒƒŽ›•‡ –Š‡ ȋ ƒˆˆ‡› Ƭ ‡—•‡ǡ ˜ƒ ͳͻͻͷǣ͵͹ͲˆȌǤ

‡ˆˆ”‡› Ž–•…Š—Ž ’‘‹–• ‘—– –Šƒ– ‡˜‡ ‹ˆ –Š‡ ’”‡dictive power sometimes is poor, there is still much information and knowledge to extract ˆ”‘–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•ǡ‹ˆ›‘—ˆ‘…—•‘–Š‡”‹‰Š––Š‹‰•Ǥ Š‹••–—†›‘ˆ‘—–”—„—ŽŽŠ‡‡šƒ‹‡•–Š‡ outliers that did not follow the pattern, which he …ƒŽŽ•Ǯ‡†ϐŽƒ‰•ǯǡ™Š‹…Šƒ”‡–Š‡•‹–‡•‘–’”‡†‹…–‡† …‘””‡…–Ž›Ǥ ‡ ƒ”‰—‡• –Šƒ– ˆ”‘ •—…Š •–—†‹‡•ǡ much knowledge about the studied ancient soci‡–‹‡•…ƒ„‡‰ƒ‹‡†ȋŽ–•…Š—ŽͳͻͻͲǣʹʹ͹ˆˆȌǤ  –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ –Š‡ ƒ”‡ƒ• –Šƒ– ˆƒŽŽ ‘—–•‹†‡–Š‡‘†‡Žƒ”‡‘ˆ‡“—ƒŽ‹’‘”–ƒ…‡ǡƒ† ƒ”‡—•‡†‹–Š‡‹–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘•Œ—•–ƒ•—…Šǡ‘” ‡˜‡‘”‡–Šƒ–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ•’”‡†‹…–‡†„›–Š‡‘†‡ŽǤŠ‹•‹•„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”‡as that were not settled in the mid millennium ƒ”‡‹’‘”–ƒ–‹–Š‡•–—†›…‘…‡”‹‰Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ –‹‡•ƒ†‹–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰…‘’ƒ”ƒ–‹˜‡ƒƒŽ›•‹• „‡–™‡‡–Š‡’‡”‹‘†•Ǥ ŽŽ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡‘†‡Ž•…‘•‹•–‘ˆ–Š”‡‡„ƒ•‹… ‡Ž‡‡–•ǣ ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ‡–Š‘†ƒ†‘—–…‘‡Ǥ predictive model uses a method to transform information into a prediction, the outcome (War”‡ ͳͻͻͲƒǣͻͳȌǤ Š‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ —•‡† ‹ –Š‡

models consists of two parts, the dependent and –Š‡‹†‡’‡†‡–˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•Ǥ Š‡ †‡’‡†‡– ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡ ‹• –Š‡ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰ical site or feature that we want to know how ‹– ‹• †‹•–”‹„—–‡†Ǥ Š‡ —‹– ‘ˆ •–—†› ‹• –Š‡ ’ƒ”…‡Ž of land and the prediction concerns whether or not it has the characteristics of a site of the fea–—”‡–Šƒ–‹•‘†‡ŽŽ‡†ǡ‹–Š‹•…ƒ•‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ – ‹• ‘– –Š‡ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• –Š‡selves that are predicted, the prediction concerns whether the independent variables of the parcels of land are similar to those that contain –Š‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•Ǥ Kvamme lists several kinds of dependent ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• –Šƒ– …ƒ „‡ —•‡†Ǥ ͳǤ ‹–‡ ’”‡•‡…‡ ‘” •‹–‡ ƒ„•‡…‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ƒ „‹ƒ”› –‡…Š‹“—‡ –Šƒ– †‡ƒŽ• ‘Ž› ™‹–Š †‹…Š‘–‘‘—• †‡’‡†‡– ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•Ǥ –’”‡†‹…–•–Š‡’”‡•‡…‡‘”ƒ„•‡…‡‘ˆ•‹–‡• ‹ ƒ ’ƒ”…‡Ž ‘ˆ Žƒ†Ǥ Š‹• ‹• –Š‡ ‘•– ˆ”‡“—‡–Ž› —•‡†–‡…Š‹“—‡ǡƒ†–Š‡‘‡—•‡†‹–Š‡’”‡•‡– ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǤʹǤ—Ž–‹’Ž‡–›’‡•‘ˆ•‹–‡•‹•ƒ’‘Ž›…Š‘–‘‘—•‘†‡Žǡ™Š‹…Š…ƒ†‡ƒŽ™‹–Šƒ›†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –›’‡•‘ˆ•‹–‡•ƒ†…ƒ’”‡†‹…––Š‡Ž‹‡Ž‹Š‘‘†‘ˆ–Š‡ ’ƒ”…‡Ž‘ˆŽƒ†…‘–ƒ‹‹‰ƒ•‹–‡‘ˆƒ•’‡…‹ϐ‹……Žƒ•• ‘” ‘– …‘–ƒ‹‹‰ ƒ •‹–‡ ƒ– ƒŽŽǤ ͵Ǥ ‘—–• ‘” •‹–‡ †‡•‹–›ƒ”‡‘†‡Ž•‘”ƒŽŽ›—•‡†ˆ‘”•–—†‹‡•‹ ™Š‹…Š–Š‡•–—†›—‹–ȋ’ƒ”…‡Ž‘ˆŽƒ†Ȍ‹•Žƒ”‰‡ǤŠ‡ ˆ”‡“—‡…› ‘” †‡•‹–› ‘ˆ •‹–‡• ‘” ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ‹• …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡†™‹–Š–Š‡•‡‡–Š‘†•ǤͶǤ‹–‡•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡ deals with ranking different sites according to •‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡•‡‘†‡Ž•ƒ–tempt to rank locations in accordance with their ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‹’‘”–ƒ…‡Ǥ Š‡ ‹‹–‹ƒŽ ”ƒ‹‰ —•–„‡†‘‡‹–Š‡‘”›ȋ˜ƒ‡ͳͻͻͲǣʹ͸ͻˆˆȌǤ Š‡ ‹†‡’‡†‡– ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡ …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ characteristics that are recorded at each parcel of land; the correlation between them is then used –‘ƒ‡–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‹‘ǤŠ‡•‡…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•…ƒ „‡†‹˜‹†‡†‹ˆ‘—”ƒŒ‘”–Š‡‡•ǤͳǤ˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•–Šƒ–…ƒ„‡‡ƒ•—”‡†ƒ–‡˜‡”›—‹–ǡ Ž‹‡‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‹‘ǡ’”‡…‹’‹–ƒ–‹‘ǡ˜‡‰‡–ƒ–‹‘ǡ•‘‹Ž–›’‡ ‡–…Ǥ ”‘ •‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǡ ‘–Š‡”• …ƒ „‡†‡”‹˜‡†ǡ‡Ǥ‰Ǥƒ‹‰‹–ƒŽŽ‡˜ƒ–‹‘‘†‡ŽȋȌ can be used to calculate the slope, aspect and relief of a site, along with landforms, networks of •–”‡ƒ•ǡ ™ƒ–‡”•Š‡†• ‡–…Ǥ ʹǤ —Ž–—”ƒŽ ƒ† •‘…‹ƒŽ ˆƒ…–‘”•…ƒ„‡‹†‡’‡†‡–˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǤŠ‡•‡˜ƒ”iables might be roads, other settlements, central ’Žƒ…‡•‡–…Ǥˆ–‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡†‡”‹˜‡†ˆ”‘‡˜‹”‘mental variables, like viewshed, friction surfac‡•‡–…Ǥ͵Ǥ‘•‹–‹‘ƒŽ…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•ƒ”‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• „ƒ•‡†‘ƒ—–‘…‘””‡Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ ˆ…Ž—•–‡”‹‰ǡ†‹•’‡”•ƒŽ ‡–… ƒ”‡ ‘„•‡”˜‡†ǡ ‹– …ƒ „‡ —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‘†‡ŽǤ ‘†‡Ž•–Šƒ–…ƒ’”‡†‹…––Š‡…‘‘”†‹ƒ–‡•‘ˆƒ•‹–‡ ƒ”‡ ƒŽ•‘ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡†Ǥ ͶǤ ƒ†‹‘‡–”‹… …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•-

–‹…•ƒ”‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•–Šƒ–—•‡–Š‡‡ƒ•—”‡†”‡ϐŽ‡…–‹˜‹–›‘ˆ”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘–Šƒ–‹•’”‡•‡–‹–Š‡—‹–ǤŠ‡ ”ƒ™†ƒ–ƒ‹•‘•–‘ˆ–‡”‡‘–‡Ž›•‡•‡††ƒ–ƒŽ‹‡ •ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡‹ƒ‰‡•ƒ†ƒ‡”‹ƒŽ’Š‘–‘•Ǥ ”‘—†…‘˜‡” ”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘‹•Š‘™‡˜‡”ǡ‹‘•–•‡•‡•ǡŒ—•–ƒ’”‘š› for different environmental variables present in –Š‡—‹–ȋ˜ƒ‡ͳͻͻͲǣʹ͹ͳˆˆȌǤ Š‡–‡”‡–Š‘†•‹‰‹ϐ‹‡•–Š‡‘†‡Ž•ƒ† –‡…Š‹“—‡•–Šƒ– ƒ”‡—•‡†‹–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‹‘ǤŠ‡ ‘†‡Ž•Ȁ‡–Š‘†•…ƒƒŽ•‘„‡†‡•…”‹„‡†ƒ•ƒ•‡– of rules on which to base decisions (Kvamme ͳͻͻͲǣʹ͸ͳȌǤ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ •‡˜‡”ƒŽ ‡–Š‘†• –‘ —•‡ ™Š‡ ƒ‹‰ ƒ ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡Ž ‹ ƒ  ‡˜‹”‘‡–ǡ™Š‹…Š‘”ƒŽŽ›‹’Ž‡‡–•‘‡‹† ‘ˆ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ‡–Š‘†Ǥ Š‡•‡ …ƒ „‡ ‰”‘—’‡† ‹ –™‘ƒŒ‘”…ƒ–‡‰‘”‹‡•Ǣ‡–Š‘†•„ƒ•‡†‘–”‡†• ‹ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ ‘Ž› ƒ† ‡–Š‘†• „ƒ•‡† ‘ –”‡†• ‹–Š‡…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡Žƒ––‡”ǡ which is the most common one, uses different characteristics measured at the sites to estabŽ‹•Š–Š‡–”‡†•‹…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•ƒ––Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒ ˜ƒ•– •‡”‹‡• ‘ˆ ‡–Š‘†• ƒ† ‘†‡Ž –›’‡•Ǥ ™‹ŽŽ‘Ž›‡–‹‘•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‘”‡…‘‘‘‡•Ǥ ‘”ƒ†‡•…”‹’–‹‘‘ˆƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡ǡ•‡‡ ˜ƒ‡ ȋͳͻͺͺ„ǡ ͳͻͻͲȌǡ ‡ŽŽƒ ‘ƒ ȋͳͻͻͶȌ ‘” Œ•–”—†ȋʹͲͲͳǡʹͲͲ͵ȌǤ ‘‘Ž‡ƒ ‘†‡Ž• ƒ”‡ ƒ •–”ƒ‹‰Š–ˆ‘”™ƒ”† ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š –Šƒ– ‹• ‡ƒ•› –‘ ‹’Ž‡‡– ™‹–Š‘—– ƒ› knowledge in statistics, and can be used when ˜‡”›Ž‹––Ž‡•ƒ’Ž‡†ƒ–ƒ‹•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡Ǥ ‘”‡ƒ…Š˜ƒ”iable a threshold value is calculated and then •–‘”‡† ‹ •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ „‘‘Ž‡ƒ Žƒ›‡”•ǡ ‹ ™Š‹…Š ͳ ‡‡–•–Š‡–Š”‡•Š‘Ž†ƒ†Ͳ†‘‡•‘–ǤŠ‡Žƒ›‡”• are then added up; the higher the sum a location gets, the more criteria are met and thus it is ‘”‡Ž‹‡Ž›–‘…‘–ƒ‹•‹–‡•‘ˆ–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‡†‹†Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ …‘—”•‡ †”ƒ™„ƒ…• ƒ––ƒ…Š‡† –‘ –Š‡ •‹’Ž‹…‹–›Ǥ Š‡ ƒ‹ †”ƒ™„ƒ… ‹• –Šƒ– ›‘— …ƒ‘– ‡•–‹ƒ–‡ –Š‡ ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡ ‹ϐŽ—‡…‡ ‘ˆ ‡ƒ…Š ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ƒ”‡–”‡ƒ–‡†•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡Ž› ƒ†‡“—ƒŽŽ›˜ƒŽ—‡†Ǥ‘—…ƒŠ‘™‡˜‡”ƒ••‡••–Š‡ ’‡”ˆ‘”ƒ…‡ ‘ˆ ‡ƒ…Š ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡ „› …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‰ with how large area it contributes to the model ȋ–ƒ«‹«Ƭ˜ƒ‡ͳͻͻͻǣʹ͵ͶˆˆȌǤ  Š‹• •–—†› ‘ˆ –”—•…ƒ ƒ† ‘ƒ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ‹ Ž„‡‰ƒ ƒŽŽ‡›ǡ –ƒŽ›ǡ Š‹Ž‹’ ‡”‹• —•‡•–Š‹•ƒ’’”‘ƒ…ŠǤ‹…‡–Š‡•‹–‡•”ƒ‰‡ˆ”‘ƒ long period and include different cultures, sev‡”ƒŽ‘†‡Ž•™‡”‡…”‡ƒ–‡†ǤŠ‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•—•‡†‹ the different models were, elevation, slope, as’‡…–ƒ†•‘‹Ž–›’‡•ȋ‡”‹•ʹͲͲͲȌǤ ‘”‡…‘’Ž‡šƒ††‡˜‡Ž‘’‡†ˆ‘”‘ˆ–Š‡ ‘‘Ž‡ƒ‘†‡Ž‹•–Š‡™‡‹‰Š–‡†ƒ’Žƒ›‡”‘†‡ŽǤ •–‡ƒ†‘ˆŒ—•–ƒ••‹‰‹‰–Š‡†‹‰‹–•ͳƒ†Ͳ–‘ variables, representing whether the criteria are 97

‡–‘”‘–ǡ›‘—Šƒ˜‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽ–Š”‡•Š‘Ž†•ǡ•‘‡ƒ…Š variable is weighted according to its importance ‹–Š‡‘†‡ŽǤŠ‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡‘”‡‹’‘”–ƒ–˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•…‘–”‹„—–‡‘”‡–‘–Š‡”‡•—Ž–ǤŠ‡ ƒ‹†”ƒ™„ƒ…™‹–Š–Š‹•‡–Š‘†‹•–Šƒ–›‘—‰‡– ˜‡”›†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–”‡•—Ž–•ǡ†‡’‡†‹‰‘Š‘™›‘—†‡ϐ‹‡›‘—”™‡‹‰Š–•ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡”‡‹•‘”—Ž‡‘”•–ƒ†ƒ”†’”‘…‡†—”‡ˆ‘”–Š‹•ǤŠ‡™‡‹‰Š–‹‰Šƒ•–‘„‡ based on knowledge or on assumptions of the ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡’”‡†‹…–‡†Ǥ In developing a method for aiding the sur˜‡› ˆ‘” ƒ‰”‹…—Ž–—”ƒŽ –‡””ƒ…‹‰ ‹ ‘–‡ ƒŽŽƒ‘ ‹ „”—œœ‘ǡ –ƒŽ›ǡ ƒ ™‡‹‰Š–‡† ‘†‡Ž ‹…Ž—†‹‰ …—Ž–—”ƒŽȀƒ–Š”‘’‘‰‡‹…ƒ†‡˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•™ƒ•—•‡†ǤŠ‡…—Ž–—”ƒŽȀƒ–Š”‘’‘‰‡‹…˜ƒ”iables included among nearness to settlements and roads; environmental variables involved ’”‘š‹‹–›–‘•’”‹‰•ƒ†™ƒ–‡”ǡ‡š’‘•—”‡–‘–Š‡ •—ǡŠ‘™™ƒ–‡”ƒ…–•ƒ†ϐŽ‘™•ƒ…”‘••ƒ•—”ˆƒ…‡ ƒ† •Ž‘’‡ ȋ‘—–”›ƒ ‡– ƒŽ ʹͲͳʹǣ͵Ͳ͹ˆˆȌǤ ‡ ‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹”•–ƒ––‡’–•‘ˆƒ’’Ž›‹‰’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰‹—–…Šƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰›—•‡†–Š‹•ƒ’’”‘ƒ…ŠǤ Š‡›•‘Ž˜‡†–Š‡™‡‹‰Š–‹‰’”‘„Ž‡„›—•‹‰ƒ empirical method and simple statistics to calcuŽƒ–‡–Š‡™‡‹‰Š–•ȋ”ƒ†–et alͳͻͻʹȌǤ Regression and correlation models are based on correlation between the independent and the †‡’‡†‡– ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•Ǥ ‘•– •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ‡–Š‘†• ‡‡†ƒ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›Žƒ”‰‡—„‡”‘ˆ•ƒ’Ž‡•ȋεʹͷȌ ƒ†ƒ”‡’ƒ”ƒ‡–”‹…ǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ•–Š‡›Šƒ˜‡•‘‡ —†‡”Ž›‹‰ ƒ••—’–‹‘• ‘ˆ Š‘™ –Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ ‹• †‹•–”‹„—–‡†Ǥ ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ‹ƒ›…ƒ•‡•ǡŽ‹‡Ž‹‡ƒ” ”‡‰”‡••‹‘ ƒ† †‹•…”‹‹ƒ– ˆ—…–‹‘ ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ there is an assumption that the independent var‹ƒ„Ž‡•ƒ”‡‘”ƒŽŽ›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†ǤŠ‹•‹•‘ˆ–‡Šƒ”† to meet in an archaeological context, and leads to extra work in transforming the data to meet these ƒ••—’–‹‘•Ǥ ’”ƒ…–‹…‡Š‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ƒ› ‡šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ‘†‡Ž•’‡”ˆ‘”‹‰™‡ŽŽǡ‡˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡› ƒ”‡‘–ƒŽ‹‰‡†™‹–Š–Š‡—†‡”Ž›‹‰ƒ••—’–‹‘• ȋ˜ƒ‡ͳͻͻͲǣʹ͹ͶȌǤ ‹•…”‹‹ƒ– ˆ—…–‹‘ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‹• ƒ ™‹†‡Ž› —•‡† ‡–Š‘†ǡ ƒ† ˆ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ —•‡† ‹ –Š‡ ”‘‡ ‹Œ ƒ”‡ƒ ‹ –Š‡ ‡–Š‡”Žƒ†•ǡ ™Š‡”‡ ‹– showed a good predictive power with the varia„Ž‡• –Šƒ– ™‡”‡ —•‡†Ǥ ‘”‡ –Šƒ ͹ͷΨ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •‡–tlements were predicted in the zones with the Š‹‰Š‡•–Ž‹‡Ž‹Š‘‘†ǡ™Š‹…Š…‘˜‡”‡†‘Ž›ʹͷΨ‘ˆ–Š‡ ƒ”‡ƒȋ‡‡„‡et alͳͻͻ͹ȌǤ ‘‰‹•–‹… ”‡‰”‡••‹‘ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ȋȌ ‹• ƒ ”‡‰”‡••‹‘–‡…Š‹“—‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘’ƒ”ƒ‡–”‹…ƒ† –Š—•†‘‘–Šƒ˜‡ƒ›—†‡”Ž›‹‰ƒ••—’–‹‘•‘ˆ Š‘™–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ‹•†‹•–”‹„—–‡†Ǥ –…ƒƒŽ•‘Šƒ†Ž‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•‘ƒŽŽ•…ƒŽ‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ƒƒŒ‘”ƒ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡Ǥ – Šƒ•„‡‡™‹†‡Ž›—•‡†‹ƒ›‘†‡Ž•ǡƒ†‹•–Š‡ ‘‡—•‡†‹–Š‡’”‡•‡–™‘”Ǥ 98

‡•‹†‡• –Š‡•‡ ™‡ŽŽ –‡•–‡† ƒ† ‘ˆ–‡ —•‡† –‡…Š‹“—‡•ǡ ‘”‡ ƒ†˜ƒ…‡† Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ –”‹‡† ‹ ”‡…‡–›‡ƒ”•‹ƒ‡ˆˆ‘”–‘ˆϐ‹†‹‰‡™‡–Š‘†•‘ˆ †‡ƒŽ‹‰™‹–Š•Š‘”–…‘‹‰•…‘…‡”‹‰–Š‡“—ƒŽ‹–› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘†‡Ž•Ǥ Š‹• ‘•–Ž› ‹˜‘Ž˜‡• –”›‹‰ out new advanced statistical methods in which —…‡”–ƒ‹–›‹•Šƒ†Ž‡†ƒ†™Š‹…ŠŠƒ˜‡–Š‡ƒ„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ–‡•–‹‰–Š‡ϐ‹ƒŽ‘†‡ŽǤƒ›‘ˆ–Š‡‡–Š‘†•ƒ”‡Š‘™‡˜‡”˜‡”›…‘’Ž‡šƒ†ƒ•–‡”‡†„› ˆ‡™ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹•–•ȋƒ‡”ƒ•‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͻǣʹͲȌǤ ‘‰ –Š‡•‡ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ‡–Š‘†• ‹• ƒ›‡•‹ƒ —Ž–‹Ǧ’‡”‹‘†‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ǡ™Š‹…ŠŠƒ•–Š‡„‡‡ϐ‹–‘ˆ being able to model expert opinions as a varia„Ž‡ǡƒŽ‘‰•‹†‡–Š‡‘–Š‡”‘”ƒŽŽ›—•‡†˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• ȋ‡—•‡ǡ˜ƒ‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͻǣͳʹͶȌǤ‘–Š‡”ƒ†˜ƒ…‡† ‡–Š‘† ˆ‘” Šƒ†Ž‹‰ —…‡”–ƒ‹–› ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡†‹…–‹‘• ‹• –Š‡ ‡’•–‡”ǦŠƒˆ‡” ‘†‡Žǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽŽ›”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘ƒ›‡•‹ƒ‡–Š‘†•ƒ† Š‘Ž†•ƒ—„‡”‘ˆ„‡‡ϐ‹–•ǡ’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›ˆ‘” ƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ•‹…‡‹–‹•‡ƒ•›–‘—’†ƒ–‡ǡ‹–‹•ϐŽ‡š‹„Ž‡ ƒ†–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•ƒ”‡‡ƒ•›–‘‹–‡”’”‡–ȋ‡—•‡ǡ˜ƒ ‡–ƒŽʹͲͲͻǣͳ͵͸ȌǤ In his work in testing different methods ˆ‘” ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ ˆ‘” †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –›’‡• ‘ˆ •‹–‡•‹‡ƒ”ǡ‘Œ•–”—†–‡•–•‘”†‹ƒ”›ƒ† weighted boolean models, logistic regression ƒ†‡’•–‡”ǦŠƒ”‡ˆǡ‹™Š‹…Š‡’•–‡”Ǧ•Šƒˆ‡” ˆƒŽŽ•‘—––Š‡„‡•–ȋŒ•–”—†ʹͲͲͳǣͳͶ͸ˆȌǤŠ‡‡–Š‘†‹•Š‘™‡˜‡””ƒ”‡‹ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰›ƒ†–Š—•‘– ˜‡”›™‡ŽŽ–‡•–‡†‘”†‡•…”‹„‡†Ǥ Š‡‘—–…‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡––›’‡•‘ˆ‘†‡Ž• ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™• †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •…ƒŽ‡• ‘ˆ ‡ƒ•—”‡‡–ǣ ‘‹ƒŽǡ ‘”†‹ƒŽǡ ‹–‡”˜ƒŽ ‘” ”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘” –Š‡ ’”‡diction of archaeological site locations, output in a ratio scale is preferred, since it can produce ƒ ’”‘„ƒ„‹Ž‹–› •—”ˆƒ…‡Ǥ ‡ ‘ˆ–‡ —•‡† ‡–Š‘†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ’”‘†—…‡• ’”‘„ƒ„‹Ž‹–› •—”ˆƒ…‡• ‹• –Š‡ ‘‰‹•–‹… ”‡‰”‡••‹‘ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ȋȌǤ Š‡ ‘—–’—– ‘ˆ ˜ƒ”‹‘—• ‘‘Ž‡ƒ ‘˜‡”Žƒ› ‡–Š‘†• ’”‘†—…‡• an outcome on the interval or ordinal scale; the higher the value, the more of the used variables ƒ”‡’”‡•‡–ȋƒ””‡ͳͻͻͲƒǣͻ͵ȌǤ

The prediction model for Iron Age stone house foundations on Gotland Š‡‡–Š‘†…Š‘•‡‹–Š‡’”‡•‡–™‘”‹•Ž‘‰‹•–‹… ”‡‰”‡••‹‘ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ȋȌǤ Š‹• ‹• ƒ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ ‡–Š‘† –Šƒ– ‹• “—‹–‡ ˆ”‡“—‡–Ž› —•‡† ƒ† ƒ •–ƒ†ƒ”†‡–Š‘†‹ƒ›ϐ‹‡Ž†•‘ˆƒƒŽ›•‹•Ǥ‡neth Kvamme introduced the method in archae‘Ž‘‰›‹ͳͻͺ͵ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡‹–Šƒ•„‡‡‘ˆ–‡—•‡† because it is considered robust and well suited

ˆ‘” ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡ ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰Ǥ Š‡ greatest drawback for most archaeologists has „‡‡–Šƒ–‹–‹•“—‹–‡…‘’Ž‡šǡ„—–‘™ƒ†ƒ›•‹–‹• „—‹Ž– ‹ ƒ• ƒ •–ƒ†ƒ”† ‘†—Ž‡ ‹ ƒ› Ǧƒ’plications and available in most statistical packƒ‰‡•ˆ‘”•–ƒ†ƒ”†ǯ•ǡ•‘—•‡”•†‘‘–‡‡†–‘ —†‡”•–ƒ† –Š‡ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…• ‹ ƒ› †‡–ƒ‹ŽǤ Š‡ ƒ‹ ƒ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡• ™‹–Š  ƒ”‡ –Šƒ– ‹– …ƒ †‡ƒŽ with all scales, nominal, ordinal, interval and ra–‹‘Ǣ‹–†‘‡•‘–ƒ••—‡–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ–‘„‡‘”ƒŽŽ› †‹•–”‹„—–‡† ƒ† ‹– ’”‘†—…‡• ƒ ’”‘„ƒ„‹Ž‹–› •—”ˆƒ…‡ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ–›‘—…ƒ—•‡†‹…Š‘–‘‘—• ȋ„‹ƒ”›Ȍ†‡’‡†‡–˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǡŽ‹‡’”‡•‡…‡Ȁƒ„sence of sites in a unit and use soil classes (nom‹ƒŽȌ–‘‰‡–Š‡”™‹–Š†‹•–ƒ…‡•ȋ”ƒ–‹‘Ȍ‹–Š‡•ƒ‡ ‘†‡ŽǤ”‡“—‹”‡•–Šƒ–›‘—Šƒ˜‡–™‘†ƒ–ƒ•‡–•Ǣ one with all the variables measured at the sites ™Š‡”‡ϐ‹†•Ȁ”‡ƒ‹•‘……—”ƒ†‘‡™‹–ŠƒŽŽ–Š‡ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• ‡ƒ•—”‡† ƒ– ”ƒ†‘Ž› •‡Ž‡…–‡† •‹–‡• ™‹–Š‘—– ϐ‹†• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ’”‡†‹…–‡† ‹†ǡ ™Š‹…Š …ƒ „‡…ƒŽŽ‡†‘Ǧϐ‹†•‹–‡•ǤŠ‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•‘ˆ–Š‡–™‘ †ƒ–ƒ•‡–•ƒ”‡–Š‡…‘’ƒ”‡†ˆ‘”•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–•–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•Ǥ Š‹•™ƒ•‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†„›Œ•–”—†ƒ•–Š‡™‡ƒ ’‘‹– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡–Š‘† ‹ –Š‡ ™ƒ› Š‡ ‹’Ž‡‡–‡† ‹– ƒ† –Š‡ …ƒ—•‡ ‘ˆ ™Š› ‹– †‹† ‘– ’‡”ˆ‘” •‘™‡ŽŽ‹Š‹••–—†›ǤŠ‡’”‘„Ž‡Ž‹‡•‹‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰ •‹–‡• –Šƒ– ”‡ƒŽŽ› ƒ”‡ ‘Ǧϐ‹† •‹–‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‹–ŠŠ‹•ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ™ƒ•Šƒ”†–‘ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡Ǥ‡—•‡†ƒ …‘„‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘™‘Ǧϐ‹†•‹–‡•ƒ†ƒ”ƒ†‘ˆ—…–‹‘ȋŒ•–”—†ʹͲͲͳǣͻͷˆˆȌǤ –Š‡’”‡•‡– case, both the chosen method and the character ‘ˆ–Š‡•‹–‡•–Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•‹‹‹•‡–Š‹•’”‘„Ž‡Ǥ model development area was careful selected; –Š‹•‹•ƒƒ”‡ƒ–Šƒ–‹•‘–•‘Š‡ƒ˜‹Ž›ƒˆˆ‡…–‡†„› modern cultivation or development, and where ƒƒ„•‘Ž—–‡ƒŒ‘”‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ foundations are believed to be preserved and ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†Ǥ –Š‹•ƒ”‡ƒǡ–Š‡‘Ǧϐ‹†•‹–‡•™‡”‡‰‡‡”ƒ–‡†™‹–Šƒ”ƒ†‘ˆ—…–‹‘‹–Š‡ Ǧ’ƒ…ƒ‰‡ǡ ƒ† „‡Ž‹‡˜‡–Š‡”‹•–Šƒ–ƒ›”ƒ†‘’‘‹–• are generated at the location of unknown Iron ‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•–‘„‡•ƒŽŽǤ

The dependent variable Š‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘• ’”‡†‹…–‡† ‹ –Š‹• •–—†› ƒ”‡ –Š‡ •‹–‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǣ or rather, the characteristics of the site are pre†‹…–‡†Ǥ  –Š‡ ƒ‹ ƒ‰”‹…—Ž–—”ƒŽ †‹•–”‹…–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹•Žƒ†ǡ ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡ ‘†‡” ƒ‰”‹…—Ž–—”ƒŽ ƒ…–‹˜‹–› ‹• ‹–‡•‹˜‡ǡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ •…ƒ”…‡ –‘†ƒ›Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ‹– ‹• „‡Ž‹‡˜‡† –Šƒ– –Š‡”‡ Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ƒ› ˆƒ”•–‡ƒ†• ‹ –Š‡•‡ ƒ”-

‡ƒ• †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š –‘†ƒ› Šƒ˜‡ ‘ ˜‹•‹„Ž‡ –”ƒ…‡• ƒ„‘˜‡ ‰”‘—†Ǥ —”–Š‡”‘”‡ǡ ˆ‡™ ƒ”‡ ’”‡•‡”˜‡† ‹ –Š‡ —”„ƒ ƒ”‡ƒ ƒ”‘—† ‹•„›Ǥ •ƒ……‘—–‡†ˆ‘”‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”ǡƒ„‘—–ͳͺͲͲ”‡ƒ‹‹‰ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡˜‹•‹„Ž‡‹ –Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†–‘†ƒ›Ǥ‘‡ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ Š—†”‡† ƒ”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‹ ‘–Š‡” •‘—”…‡•Ǣ –Š‹• ‡ƒ•–Šƒ–  …‘–ƒ‹•‡ƒ”Ž›ʹͲͲͲ ”‘‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ —”‹‰ –Š‹• ™‘” ƒ‘–Š‡” ʹͷͲ ƒ”‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‹ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ maps, which means that the location of around ʹ ʹͷͲ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ‘™–‘†ƒ›Ǥ –Š‹•ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ‘Ž›–Š‡ͳͻ͸ͻ ”‘ ‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ž‹•–‡†‹  ƒ”‡ ‹…Ž—†‡†ǡ •‹…‡ –Š‹• ƒƒŽ›•‹• ™ƒ• †‘‡ ’”‹‘” –‘ –Š‡ •…”—–‹‹œ‹‰ ‘ˆ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ƒ’• ‹ –Š‡ “—‡•– ˆ‘”‘”‡Ǥ It would seem natural also to include the stone enclosure walls, which most often are ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† ƒ• ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽŽ› Ž‹‡† –‘ –Š‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ǡ„—––Š‡›™‹ŽŽ‘–„‡‹…Ž—†‡†Ǥ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–™‘ƒ‹”‡ƒ•‘•ˆ‘”–Š‹•Ǥ ‹”•–Ž›ǡ–Š‡› are absent in the same area as the stone house ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‡…‘†Ž›ǡ –Š‡ ‡…Ž‘•—”‡ •›•–‡• can be extensive; several hundreds of metres ‹Ž‡‰–Šǡ…‘˜‡”‹‰Žƒ”‰‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ†‹–‹•‘Ž›–Š‡ •‹–‡• ˆ‘” –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ–ƒ”‡–Š‡‘„Œ‡…–‘ˆ•–—†›ǤŠ‡•‡–™‘ˆƒ…–•–Š—• make them poor predictors

Independent variables  …Ž‘•‡ …‘””‡Žƒ–‹‘ Šƒ• „‡‡ ‘–‹…‡† „‡–™‡‡ the mid millennium settlements, moraine soils ƒ†Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ‡ƒ†‘™•Ǥ ƒ•–—†›„›ƒ”Ž••‘ ȋͳͻ͹ͻǣͻͳȌ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲ …ƒ†ƒ•–”ƒŽ ƒ’•ǡ –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž– •Š‘™‡†–Šƒ– ƒ– Ž‡ƒ•– ͷͲΨ‘ˆ–Š‡”‡ƒ‹‹‰ ”‘‰‡Š‘—•‡•™‡”‡ˆ‘—†‹–Š‡‡ƒ†‘™•Ǥ Š‡ ‡ƒ†‘™• ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ–‡ •‹–—ƒ–‡† ‹ –Š‡ Ž‘™‡” ƒ††ƒ’‡”’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•Ǥ•–—†›ƒ†‡ „› ””Š‡‹—• •Š‘™• –Šƒ– —’ –‘ ͺͲΨ ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ ”‘ ‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†‘‘”ƒ‹‡•‘‹Ž•ȋ””Š‡‹—•ͳͻͷͷǣͳͲ͸ʹȌǤ ˆ…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡† ƒ•–Š‡†‡•‹–›’‡”ƒ”‡ƒ—‹–ǡ‹–‹•‘”‡–Šƒ–™‹…‡ ƒ•…‘‘ȋʹǤʹȌˆ‘” ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—dations to be situated on moraine soils than on •ƒ†›•‘‹Ž•ǡ™Š‡‘”ƒŽ‹•‡†ˆ‘”–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”ƒ…”‡ƒ‰‡•‘ˆ–Š‡‘”ƒ‹‡•‘‹Ž•Ǥ –‹•“—‹–‡…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ––Š‡ ‘”ƒ‹‡ •‘‹Ž• ™Š‡”‡ ˆƒ˜‘—”‡† „› –Š‡ •‡––Ž‡”• †—”‹‰–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ It is also noted that the houses are built on, or near, patches of non-productive land, most ‘ˆ–‡ –Š‡ „ƒ”‡ ”‘…Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ –Š‡ •…ƒŽ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ available geological data makes it unfeasible to include the small areas of limestone bedrock in 99

–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡–‘‘•ƒŽŽ–‘„‡ˆ‘—† ‘–Š‡ƒ’Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ –™‘ •‘—”…‡• ‘ˆ ‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ† ’”‘†—…‡† ™‹–Š †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –‡…Š‹“—‡•ƒ††—”‹‰†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‡”ƒ•Ǥ‡‹•ƒ ‘Ž†‡”’”‹–‡†‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽƒ’ˆ”‘–Š‡ϐ‹”•–ŠƒŽˆ ‘ˆ–Š‡ʹͲth…‡–—”›ƒ†–Š‡‘–Š‡”‹•ƒ‘†‡”†‹‰‹–ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ˆ”‘ƒ”‘—†ʹͲͲͻǦͳͲǤŠ‡‘Ž†‘‡ ‹• ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ ƒ• Š‹‰ŠǦ”‡•‘Ž—–‹‘ –‹ˆˆǦϐ‹Ž‡•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‡”‡ ”‡…–‹ϐ‹‡† ƒ† –Š‡ ’ƒ”–Ž› ˜‡…–‘”‹•‡†ǡ ˆ‘” –Š‹•™‘”ǤŠ‡†ƒ–ƒˆ‘”–Š‡‘Ž†ƒ’•‹•…‘ŽŽ‡…–‡† „›ϐ‹‡Ž†™ƒŽ‹‰ƒ†•ƒ’Ž‹‰ƒ†•Š‘™•–Š‡•‘‹Ž –›’‡‘”„‡†”‘…‘ˆ–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡Žƒ›‡”•ǤŠ‡‘†‡”†‹‰‹–ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡‹•ƒ†‡„›”‡‘–‡•‡•‹‰ –‡…Š‹“—‡• ƒ† ‘Ž› •‘‡ •ƒ’Ž‹‰ ƒŽ‘‰ –Š‡ ƒ‹”‘ƒ†•™ƒ•ƒ†‡–‘˜‡”‹ˆ›–Š‡”‡‘–‡•‡•‹‰”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ Š‡ ‘”‡ ‹’‘”–ƒ– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ ‹• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ƒ’’‹‰†‡’–Š‘ˆ–Š‡†‹‰‹–ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡‹•ͲǤͷ‡–”‡•Ǥ Š‹• ‡ƒ• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ƒ• ™‹–Š •—”ˆƒ…‡ •‘‹Ž• –Š‹‡”–ŠƒͲǤͷ‡–”‡•ƒ”‡…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ‹Ž›ƒ• Ǯ‘–Š‡”‘”—•’‡…‹ϐ‹‡†•‘‹Žǯȋ ʹͲͲͻƒǣʹȌǤ ˆ –Š‡ ͳ ͻ͸ͻ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• —•‡† ‹ –Š‹• ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǡ ͳ ͸ͷ͸ ȋͺ͵ΨȌ ƒ”‡

•‹–—ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š‹ ͳͲͲ ‡–”‡• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘”ƒ‹‡ •‘‹Ž •Š‘™‹–Š‡†‹‰‹–ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡Ǥ ˆ–Š‡•ƒ‡“—‡”› ‹• ƒ’’Ž‹‡† ‘ –Š‡ …‘„‹‡† †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǡ ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡ ‘”ƒ‹‡ •‘‹Ž• ˆ”‘ „‘–Š ƒ’•Ȁ†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡• ƒ”‡‡”‰‡†ǡ–Š‹•”‡•—Ž–•‹ƒ•‡–‘ˆͳ͹ͶʹȋͺͺΨȌ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ –Š—• ͺ͸ ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundations situated on thin mo”ƒ‹‡•‘‹Ž•ǤŠ‡–‘–ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡‘”ƒ‹‡…‘˜‡”ƒ‰‡‹…‘„‹‡†Žƒ›‡”•‹•ͳͷͲʹ͵͵ŠƒǤŠ‡ƒ”‡ƒ …Žƒ••‹ϐ‹‡†ƒ•‘”ƒ‹‡‹–Š‡‘†‡”†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡‹• ͳʹͲʹͳͲŠƒǤ˜‡‹ˆ’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‹•†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž› …ƒ „‡ †—‡ –‘ ‡””‘”• ‹ –Š‡ ƒ’’‹‰ ƒ† ‹•…Žƒ••‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ‹– •Š‘™• –Šƒ– ƒ”‘—† ʹͲΨ ȋ͵Ͳ ͲͲͲ ŠƒȌ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘”ƒ‹‡ •‘‹Ž• ‘ –Š‡ ‹•Žƒ† ƒ”‡˜‡”›–Š‹ƒ†™‡”‡‘–—•‡†—…Šˆ‘”•‡––Ž‡ment in the mid millennium, with the exception ‘ˆƒˆ‡™…ƒ•‡•Ǥ ”‘‰‡ˆƒ”••‹–—ƒ–‡†‘–Š‡•‡ •‘‹Ž•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›Šƒ†’‘‘”•—’’‘”–‹‰…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›Ǥ ‘” –Š‡’”‡†‹…–‹˜‡‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ǡ‘Ž›–Š‡‘†‡”‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡™ƒ•—•‡†Ǥ –™ƒ•ƒŽ•‘…Ž‡ƒ”‡†ˆ”‘ƒŽŽ˜‡”›•ƒŽŽƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”ƒ‹‡Ǥ‡˜‡”ƒŽ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡––Š”‡•Š‘Ž†•™‡”‡ –”‹‡†ǡ ƒ‘‰ ‘–Š‡”• ͳͺ Š‡…–ƒ”‡•ǡ •—‰‰‡•–‡† „› ƒ ƒ”Ž••‘ ȋͳͻ͹ͻǣͳͳͻˆȌ ƒ• –Š‡ ‡ƒ •‹œ‡ ‘ˆ

Table 3.2.1a-c. Š‡—„‡”ƒ†’‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹”‡Žƒ–‹‘–‘–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ†‘ˆ–Š‘•‡‹–Š‡‘†‡Ž†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ƒ”‡ƒǤͳͲͲ‡–”‡„—ˆˆ‡”œ‘‡‹•ƒŽ•‘ƒ……‘—–‡†ˆ‘”ǡ†—‡–‘‰‡‘‡–”‹…ƒŽ ‡””‘”•‹–Š‡—•‡††ƒ–ƒǡ™Š‹…Šƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘ ǡ•Š‘—Ž†‘”ƒŽŽ›‘–‡š…‡‡†ͷͲǡ„—–‹”ƒ”‡‡š…‡’–‹‘ƒ›„‡—’–‘ͳͲͲ ȋ ʹͲͲͻƒǣͳͳȌǤ Table 3.2.1a.ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•ˆ‘”ƒŽŽ‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ

Table 3.2.1b.ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•ˆ‘”–Š‡‘†‡Ž†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ƒ”‡ƒ

Table 3.2.1c. ‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ•‘‹Ž–›’‡•‘ƒŽŽ‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ†‹–Š‡‘†‡Ž†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ƒ”‡ƒ

ͳͲͲ

ƒ ”‘‰‡ˆƒ”•–‡ƒ†ǤŠ‹•Ž‹‹–‡š…Ž—†‡†‘”‡ –Šƒ ŠƒŽˆ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘ ¤”ÚǤ  –Š”‡•Š‘Ž† ‘ˆ –™‘ Š‡…–ƒ”‡• ™ƒ• ϐ‹ƒŽŽ›…Š‘•‡ǡ•‹…‡‹–‘Ž›‡š…Ž—†‡†ͳ͵ ”‘‰‡ stone house foundations, but would clear the prediction map from all smaller predicted areas, ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘•–Ž›‘–”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–Ǥ • ‡–‹‘‡† ƒ„‘˜‡ǡ ‹– Šƒ• Ž‘‰ „‡‡ ‘„served that there is a correlation between the inϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡƒ•†‡’‹…–‡†‹–Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲƒ’•ǡƒ†–Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ  …‹”…—•–ƒ…‡ —‹“—‡ ˆ‘” ‘–Žƒ† ‹• –Šƒ– –Š‡ ™Š‘Ž‡‹•Žƒ†ǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ•‡˜‡”›ˆƒ”‹‡˜‡”› parish, was mapped during a short time period ƒ††”ƒ™‹–Š‡ ͳ͹ͲͲƒ’•ǡ™Š‹…Š‰‹˜‡•—• a complete picture of the land use and location ‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•ƒ––Š‡–—”‘ˆ–Š‡…‡–—”›„‡–™‡‡ –Š‡•‡˜‡–‡‡–Šƒ†‡‹‰Š–‡‡–Š…‡–—”‹‡•Ǥ –Š‡ͳͻͺͲ•Š—ƒ‰‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‡”•ƒ––‘…Š‘Ž‹˜‡”•‹–›†‹‰‹–ƒŽ‹œ‡†–Š‡ˆƒ”–‘ˆ–•ǡϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ ‡ƒ†‘™•ǡ ’ƒ•–—”‡• ƒ† „‘‰• ‹–‘ ǦŽƒ›‡”• ‘ˆ vector format for the entire island, which is freeŽ›ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡Ǥ –™ƒ•†‘‡ƒ•ƒ’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡’”‘Œ‡…– Markdatabas Gotland (database of land use for

‘–Žƒ†ȌǤŠ‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡‹••‘‡™Šƒ–‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡† …‘…‡”‹‰ –Š‡ ϐ‹‡Ž†• „‡…ƒ—•‡ •‘‡–‹‡• –Š‡ ’ƒ–…Š‡•‘ˆ–‹ŽŽ‡†ϐ‹‡Ž†•ƒ”‡•‘•ƒŽŽǡ–Šƒ–‹–‹•–Š‡ ˆ‡…‡†ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ”‘—†•‡˜‡”ƒŽϐ‹‡Ž†’ƒ”…‡Ž•™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡†‡’‹…–‡†ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡•—‘ˆƒŽŽϐ‹‡Ž†• ‹–Š‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡‹••Ž‹‰Š–Ž›Žƒ”‰‡”–Šƒ‹”‡ƒŽ‹–›Ǥ ƒ•‡†‘–Š‹•†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡ǡƒ–•‹†‰”‡…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡† –Šƒ– ƒ”‘—† ͹ͲΨ ‘ˆ –Š‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†™‹–Š‹–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†•–Šƒ– ™‡”‡ ƒ’’‡† ƒ”‘—† –Š‡ ›‡ƒ” ͳ͹ͲͲ ȋ‹†‰”‡ ͳͻͺͶ„ǣͶͳȌǤ Š‡•‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ƒ”‡ •‹‹Žƒ” –‘ –Š‘•‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘’”‡•‡–‡†„‡Ž‘™ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‘ˆƒ ˆ‡™ ’‡” …‡– …ƒ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› „‡ ‡š’Žƒ‹‡† „› –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ ‹ –Š‡ Ǧ‡–Š‘†• –Šƒ– ™‡”‡ —•‡† ƒ†‹–Š‡—†‡”Ž›‹‰†ƒ–ƒ•‡–‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ In most predictive models, information †‡”‹˜‡† ˆ”‘ ‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‹‘ †ƒ–ƒǡ •‘ …ƒŽŽ‡† ‹‰‹–ƒŽ Ž‡˜ƒ–‹‘‘†‡Ž•ȋȌǡ‹•ƒ‡••‡–‹ƒŽƒ†‘ˆ–‡†‘‹ƒ–‹‰’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǤŽ‡˜ƒ–‹‘ǡ slope, aspect and other calculated measure‡–•ƒ”‡–Š‡„ƒ•‹……‘’‘‡–•‹ƒ›‘†‡Ž• ȋ…ˆǤ –ƒ«‹« ͳͻͻͻǢ ƒ”‹…Šƒ‡Ž ͳͻͻͲǢ ‡ŽŽƒ ‘ƒ ͳͻͻ͸ǡƒ””‡ͳͻͻͲȌǡ„—–•‹…‡ ‘–Žƒ†‹••‘ϐŽƒ– ƒ†Šƒ”†Ž›ƒ›‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‹‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•ƒ”‡’”‡•‡–ǡ –Š‡—•‡‘ˆ†‡”‹˜‡†˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ˆ”‘ƒ‹•‘•– ‘ˆ–‡‘–‡ƒ‹‰ˆ—ŽǤ

‘–Žƒ†ƒ†ƒŽŽ‘ˆ…ƒ†‹ƒ˜‹ƒǡ™ƒ•’”‡••‡† †‘™„›–Š‡‰Žƒ…‹ƒŽ‹…‡‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ•– …‡‰‡Ǥ˜‡” since the ice melted, the island has been rising ‘—–‘ˆ–Š‡•‡ƒǤ ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–Š‡™ƒ–‡”Ž‡˜‡Ž•Šƒ˜‡

•Š‹ˆ–‡† ‹ –Š‡ ƒŽ–‹… ‡ƒǡ ™Š‹…Š ‡ƒ• –Šƒ– –Š‡ •Š‘”‡Ž‹‡‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡‹•‘™‘†”›Žƒ†Ǣˆ‘” the mid millennium it is estimated to around 5 metres above the present, but this varies and the difference is greater in the northern part of the ‹•Žƒ†–Šƒ‹–Š‡•‘—–ŠǤŠ‡•Š‘”‡Ž‹‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–‘†‡Ž—•‡†‹•…”‡ƒ–‡†„›Sveriges geologiska undersökningar, SGU ȋŠ‡ ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ —”˜‡› ‘ˆ ™‡†‡Ȍ ƒ† ‹• „ƒ•‡† ‘ ”ƒ†‹‘…ƒ”„‘ †ƒ–‡† †ƒ–ƒ ˆ”‘ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ‘Ž† •Š‘”‡ Ž‹‡• ‹ –Š‡ ƒŽ–‹…”‡‰‹‘ǤŠ‹•‡’‹”‹…ƒŽϐ‹‡Ž††ƒ–ƒ‹•‘†‡ŽŽ‡† in mathematical formulas and implemented in ƒ Ǧƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘ ™Š‹…Š —•‡• ‡š‹•–‹‰ ‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‹‘ data to model both the extent and position of ‹Žƒ†™ƒ–‡”•ƒ†–Š‡…‘ƒ•–ƒŽ•Š‘”‡Ž‹‡ˆ‘”ƒ› ’‘‹–‹–‹‡ȋ¤••‡Ƭ†‡”••‘ʹͲͲ͸ǣͳͲˆˆȌǤ —”‹‰–Š‡ͳͻthƒ†ʹͲth centuries, most of –Š‡™‡–Žƒ†•ƒ†Žƒ‡•‘ ‘–Žƒ†™‡”‡†”ƒ‹‡† –‘ ”‡…Žƒ‹ Žƒ† ˆ‘” ƒ‰”‹…—Ž–—”ƒŽ ’—”’‘•‡•Ǥ Ž› ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž› ͷǦͺΨ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‘”‡” ‡š’ƒ•‡• ‘ˆ ™‡–Žƒ†•ƒ”‡‘™Ž‡ˆ–ǡ•‘–Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ† ‹• …‘’Ž‡–‡Ž› †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –‘†ƒ› …‘’ƒ”‡† –‘ „‡ˆ‘”‡Ǥ –Šƒ•Ž‘‰„‡‡‘–‹…‡†–Šƒ–ƒŽƒ”‰‡’ƒ”– of the mid millennium settlements are located in the lower parts of the landscape, near the for‡”™‡–Žƒ†•ǡ„‘‰•ƒ†Žƒ‡•ǤŠ‡ ‘†‡Ž• the past distribution of the wetlands, even if it is “—‹–‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡†ǤŠ‹•ˆ—…–‹‘•ƒ•ƒ’”‘š›ˆ‘” elevation data, since the wet areas are the lower ’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡Ǥ Š‡•Š‘”‡Ž‹‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–‘†‡Ž…”‡ƒ–‡† „›   Šƒ• •‘‡ •Š‘”–…‘‹‰• ƒ† ‹• ‘– ’‡”ˆ‡…–ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒˆˆ‡…–• –Š‡ ƒ……—”ƒ…› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘†‡ŽǤ Š‹•†‡’‡†•‘–Š‡“—ƒŽ‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‹‘†ƒ–ƒ –Šƒ– ™ƒ• —•‡† ȋ¤••‡ Ƭ †‡”••‘ ʹͲͲ͸ǣͳͲˆˆȌǤ It has been noticed that archaeological data ƒ†–Š‡ Ǧ•Š‘”‡Ž‹‡•‘‡–‹‡•†‘‘–ƒ–…Š ‘ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ Š‹• ‹• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› †—‡ –‘ ™‡ƒ‡••es in the model itself and in applied elevation †ƒ–ƒǡ•‹…‡‹–‹•‘–„ƒ•‡†‘‘†‡”Ž‹†ƒ”Ǧ†ƒ–ƒǤ Š‹• …”‡ƒ–‡• ƒ „‹ƒ• ‹ –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ ‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ the bias might not be so great, since the errors ƒ”‡‘•–Ž‹‡Ž›‘–•›•–‡ƒ–‹…ǡ„—–”ƒ†‘ƒ† •‡…‘†ƒ”›Ǣ‹–‹•‘––Š‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡’‘•‹–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ •Š‘”‡Ž‹‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”–Šƒ–‹•—•‡†‹–Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ǡ„—––Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡–‘‹–Ǥˆ…‘—”•‡ǡ–Š‹• makes the results less accurate, but it is worth noticing in the statistics below, that the variable †‡ϐ‹‡†ƒ•†‹•–ƒ…‡–‘‹Žƒ†™ƒ–‡”ǡ’”‘˜‹†‡•–Š‡ least contribution to the prediction model; this ‹•ƒƒ”‰‹ƒŽ‹”‡•’‡…––‘•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ…‡ȋͲǤͲͷͻȌǡ ™Š‹…Š‹‰Š–„‡…ƒ—•‡†„›–Š‡†‡ϐ‹…‹‡…‹‡•‹–Š‡  ‘†‡ŽǤ

ͳͲͳ

Figure 3.2.1. Š‡‘†‡Ž†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ƒ”‡ƒ‘–Š‡‡ƒ•–‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†

Š‡ ‡ƒ†‘™•ǡ ‘”ƒ‹‡ ƒ† ‹Žƒ† ™ƒ–‡” ™‡”‡ –”ƒ•ˆ‘”‡†‹–‘”ƒ•–‡”Žƒ›‡”•‘ˆͷǦ‡–”‡”‡•‘Ž—tion for the entire island and the distances were …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡†ˆ”‘ƒŽŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǤŠ‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡‹•–Š‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡•–‘–Š‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡ǡ‘––Š‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡‹–•‡ŽˆǤ –‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•„‡•––‘†‡˜‡Ž‘’–Š‡‘†‡Ž‘ƒ •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡•‡–‘ˆ†ƒ–ƒǢ‹–Š‹•™ƒ›ǡ–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡ model can be evaluated with independent data ȋ˜ƒ‡ͳͻͻͲǣʹ͹ͻȌǤ……‘”†‹‰Ž›ǡƒ•—„•‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ †ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡™ƒ•…Š‘•‡ˆ‘”‘†‡Ž†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–Ǥ ’ƒ”– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹•Žƒ†ǡ ͵͵ͳ •“—ƒ”‡ ‹Ž‘‡–”‡•ǡ ™ƒ• …Š‘•‡ ȋ•‡‡ ϐ‹‰ ͵ǤʹǤͳȌ ƒ• ƒ ‘†‡Ž †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ƒ”‡ƒǤŠ‹•ƒ”‡ƒ‹•‘™ˆ‘”‹–•ƒ›”‡ƒ‹•‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡ •‡––Ž‡‡–• ƒ† ‹• ”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹˜‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ƒ–—”ƒŽŽƒ†•…ƒ’‡‘ˆ ‘–Žƒ†Ǥ ‘”–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ ‘†‡Ž †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ǡ ƒ ”ƒ†‘ •‡– ‘ˆ ʹͺ͸ ‘Ǧ ϐ‹†•‹–‡•™ƒ•‰‡‡”ƒ–‡†ƒ†ƒŽŽ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡˜ƒŽ—‡• for these points were extracted together with –Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡•ˆ‘”–Š‡•‹–‡•‘ˆ–Š‡ʹ͹͸ ”‘‰‡Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‹–Š‹–Š‡‘†‡Ž†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ƒ”‡ƒǤ ƒ„—Žƒ”†ƒ–ƒˆ‘”•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•…‘…‡”‹‰–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•‹•’”‡•‡–‡†„‡Ž‘™Ǥ ͳͲʹ

Š‡‹†‡’‡†‡–˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•…Š‘•‡ˆ‘”–Š‡‘†‡Ž ™ƒ•ǣ 1. Distance to moraine soils > 2 ha 2. Distance to 18thFHQWXU\LQ¿HOGV 3. 'LVWDQFHWRLQODQGZDWHU!KD

The prediction model Š‡ –ƒ„Ž‡ ͵ǤʹǤ͵ƒ •Š‘™• •‘‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ •–ƒ–‹•–‹…• ˆ‘”–Š‡•‡Ž‡…–‡†˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ƒ†–Š‡‡–‹”‡‘†‡ŽǤ ŽŽ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• ƒ”‡ Š‹‰ŠŽ› •‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–ǡ ‡š…‡’– Ǯ ̴ ‹•–ƒ…‡‘ Žƒ†™ƒ–‡”̴•–̴ͷŠƒǯǡ „—– ‹– ‹• ˜‡”› …Ž‘•‡ȋ’αͲǤͲͷͻȌƒ†‹•–Š‡”‡„›‡’–‹–Š‡‘†‡ŽǤ Š‡ 2 values cannot be read as in an ordiƒ”›Ž‹‡ƒ””‡‰”‡••‹‘‘†‡Žǡ‹–‹•‘Ž›ƒ’•‡—†‘ R2ǤŠ‡… ƒ††‡2‹•…Ž‘•‡”ǡ„—–…ƒ•–‹ŽŽ‘Ž› ‰‹˜‡ƒŠ‹–‘ˆ–Š‡ϐ‹–‘ˆ–Š‡‘†‡ŽǤ‡†‹—˜ƒŽ—‡ ‹• ‘”ƒŽŽ› …‘•‹†‡”‡† ˜‡”› ‰‘‘† ȋ˜ƒ‡ ͳͻͺͺ„ȌǤ Š‡ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡• ƒ† –Š‡ ‘†‡Ž ƒ› ‘– meet all statistical demands, but these statistics …ƒ‘Ž›‰‹˜‡ƒ…Ž—‡–‘Š‘™–Š‡‘†‡Ž™‹ŽŽ’‡”-

Table 3.2.2. ”‘—’–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ƒ†Ǧ–‡•–ˆ‘”†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–˜‡”•‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•Ǥƒ•‹…•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ƒ†”‡•—Ž–• ˆ”‘–Š‡Ǧ–‡•–‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ȋͳȌƒ†–Š‡‘Ǧϐ‹†•‹–‡•ȋͲȌ ‹–Š‡‘†‡Ž†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–ƒ”‡ƒǤŠ‡˜ƒŽ—‡•”‡ˆ‡”–‘†‹•–ƒ…‡•–‘–Š‡ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǤŠ‡Ž‘™˜ƒŽ—‡•‹–Š‡•‹‰Ǥ …‘Ž—‘ˆ–Š‡‡˜‡‡ǯ•–‡•–•—‰‰‡•––Šƒ–•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡…‘–”‘Ž‰”‘—’ƒ†•‹–‡•ƒ”‡ ’”‡•‡–ˆ‘”ƒŽŽ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•‡š…‡’––Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡–‘‹Žƒ†™ƒ–‡”„‘†‹‡•Žƒ”‰‡”–ŠƒͳͲŠƒǤ

Table 3.2.3a. •–‹ƒ–‡•ǡ‹–‡”…‡’–ƒ†•–ƒ–‹•–‹…•ˆ‘”–Š‡—•‡†‘†‡Ž

Table 3.2.3b. Results of statistical tests

form; the most important test will be how well it ’”‡†‹…–•Ǥ‘“—‘–‡˜ƒ‡ȋͳͻͺͺȌǣ ‘When I asked them [professional statistician] about the role of statistical theory in model development, they suggested that I worry less about theory and more about how well the model works in practice’

Š‡ …Š‘•‡ ‘†‡Ž Šƒ• –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ ˆ‘”—Žƒ ȋ”‘—†‡† ˜ƒŽ—‡•Ȍǡ ™Š‹…Š ™ƒ• —•‡† ™Š‡ –Š‡ ’”‘„ƒ„‹Ž‹–›•—”ˆƒ…‡ȋ”‡•—Ž–Žƒ›‡”Ȍ™ƒ•…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡† ™‹–Š–Š‡”ƒ•–‡”…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‘”‹”… ǣ P = 1/(1+EXP(-(0.967846 - 0.000515 * HG_DistanceToInlandwater_st_5ha* ǦͶǤͶͶͷͻͿͻȗ ̸‹•–ƒ…‡‘ ϔ‹‡Ž†• - 0.001250 * HG_DistanceToMoraine_st_2ha )))

ͳͲ͵

ŽŽ ‹Žƒ† ™ƒ–‡” ƒ† ™‡–Žƒ†• –Šƒ– ‡š‹•–‡† ƒ”‘—†›‡ƒ”Ͳ™‡”‡†‡†—…–‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡’”‘„ƒ„‹Ž‹–›•—”ˆƒ…‡ǡƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•–Š‡…‘ƒ•–Ž‹‡—’–‘ͷ‡–”‡•ǡ which was set as an average of the shoreline of –Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—ǤŠ‡‘†‡Ž™ƒ•ƒŽ•‘…Ž‡ƒ”‡† ˆ”‘ƒ”‡ƒ••ƒŽŽ‡”–Šƒϐ‹˜‡Š‡…–ƒ”‡•ǡ•‹…‡–Š‡› cluttered the map and contained no mid millen‹—•‡––Ž‡‡–•Ǥ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡”ƒ”‡Ž›ˆ‘—†‡ƒ”–Š‡…‘ƒ•–ǤƒƒŽ›•‹• •Š‘™•–Šƒ––Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‘Ž›ʹͶ‘ˆ–Š‡…Ž‘•‡”–Šƒ ͶͲͲ ‡–”‡• –‘ –Š‡ …‘‡˜ƒŽ •Š‘”‡Ž‹‡ ƒ† –Šƒ– ͳͻ of these are concentrated in two different areas ȋ–Š‡’ƒ”‹•Š‡•‘ˆ‘‰‡ƒ†‘‡ȌǤ„‘”†‡”œ‘‡ „›–Š‡•Š‘”‡Ž‹‡™ƒ•–Š—•ƒŽ•‘”‡‘˜‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡ ’”‘„ƒ„‹Ž‹–›•—”ˆƒ…‡Ǥ Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‹‘…ƒ„‡•‡‡‹ –Š‡ –ƒ„Ž‡ ͵ǤʹǤͶ ˆ‘” –Š”‡‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– „”‡ƒ’‘‹–•Ǥ Š‡…Š‘•‡„”‡ƒ’‘‹–™ƒ•ͲǤͷͶǡ•‹…‡–Š‹•™ƒ• the best compromise considering the purpose of the modelling, which is to obtain a picture of –Š‡ …‡–”ƒŽ ƒ”‡ƒ• ‘•– Ž‹‡Ž› •‡––Ž‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ˜‡‹ˆƒ„”‡ƒ’‘‹–‘ˆͲǤ͸‡ƒ•ƒ „‡––‡”‰ƒ‹ǡ‹–‡š…Ž—†‡•–‘‘ƒ› ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‡”‡ǡ ‰ƒ‹ ‡ƒ• –Š‡ ”‡Žƒtionship between the predicted number of ex‹•–‹‰ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†–Š‡ ƒ”‡ƒ …‘˜‡”‡† „› –Š‡ ‘†‡Žǡ ƒ• •‡‡ ‹ –Š‡ –ƒ„Ž‡ ͵ǤʹǤͶǤŠ‡…Š‘•‡‘†‡Ž‘ˆͲǤͷͶ’”‡†‹…–•ͳͷʹͳ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ͹͹ǤʹΨ‘ˆ–Š‡ͳͻ͸ͻ—•‡†‹–Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‡•Ǥ

than 2 metres shorter than the ones within the ‘†‡Žƒ”‡ƒȋʹͲǤ͹ȌǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‹••–ƒ–‹•–‹…ƒŽŽ› •‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–Ǥ ‘•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘Ǧˆƒ” …Ž—•–‡”• ƒ”‡ •ƒŽŽǡ…‘•‹•–‹‰‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹•‘Ž‹–ƒ”› Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‡ƒ”Ž› ŠƒŽˆ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ȋͶͷΨȌ Ž‹‡ ‘—–•‹†‡ ‘”ƒ––Š‡„‘”†‡”‘ˆ–Š‡‘†‡Žƒ”‡ƒǤŠ‹•‹•ƒ—…Š Š‹‰Š‡” ”ƒ–‹‘ –Šƒ ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆƒ”•ǡ •‹…‡ ‘Ž› •‘‡ͳ͸Ψ‘ˆ–Š‡ˆƒ”•ˆƒŽŽ‘—–•‹†‡–Š‡‘†‡Žƒ”‡ƒǤ › ”‡ϐ‹‹‰ –Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ ˆ”‘ ƒ„‘˜‡ ƒ† looking at how the mean length of the house foundations are distributed across the different farm sizes, it is clear that all farm sizes that lie within the model area have a higher mean length than –Š‡‘‡•‘—–•‹†‡ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…es, except for the three-house foundation farms ™Š‡”‡ ‹– ‹• •Ž‹‰Š–Ž› ™‡ƒ‡”Ǥ Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ƒ •ƒŽŽ –‡†‡…›–Šƒ–Žƒ”‰‡”ˆƒ”•–‘ƒŠ‹‰Š‡”†‡‰”‡‡ƒ”‡ located within the model, but it is not strong as •‡‡‹–ƒ„Ž‡͵ǤʹǤͷǤ Š‹•…ƒŠƒ˜‡•‡˜‡”ƒŽ”‡ƒ•‘•ǡ„—–‹–•–”‡‰–Šens the general assumption that the farms in the more remote areas are smaller and that these ˆƒ”• ƒ”‡ ƒ‰”‹…—Ž–—”ƒŽŽ› ™‡ƒ‡”ǡ ’‡”Šƒ’• ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡†Žƒ–‡”‹–‹‡Ǥ Table 3.2.5. —„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•ƒ†‘Ǧˆƒ”•‘ˆ‡ƒ…Š•‹œ‡ that fall outside or inside the model area

1 585 1 521 1 330

80.4 77.2 67.5

52.2% 57.1% 64.4%

Gain Iron Age

Gain Present

40.3 34.8 25.3

% of total

38.4 33.1 24.0

͒ of house foundations within the model (total 1 969)

% of total area ha (Iron Age 297 218)

0.50 119 919 0.54 103 485 0.60 75 090

% of total area ha (present 312 481)

Area in (ha)

Breakpoint

Table 3.2.4. Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‹‘ƒ––Š”‡‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– „”‡ƒ’‘‹–•Ǥ

49.8% 54.9% 60.7%

Table 3.2.6. Comparison of the mean length of the house foundations in the different cluster sizes inside and outside the model area

Comparison of farms and non-farms, inside or outside the model area Š‡‘†‡Ž•Š‘™•–Š‡…‡–”ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ‘•–Ž‹‡Ž›–‘ Šƒ˜‡„‡‡’”‡ˆ‡””‡†„›–Š‡ˆƒ”‡”•‘ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ– –Š‡ –‹‡ǡ ƒ† ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• falling outside this must be regarded as the pe”‹’Š‡”›ǡƒ†‘—–Ž‹‡”•ǤŠ‹•‹•–‘•‘‡‡š–‡–˜‡”‹ϐ‹‡†„›–Š‡ˆƒ…––Šƒ––Š‡”‡‹•ƒ•‹‰‹ϐ‹…ƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ in length between the house foundations that fall ‹•‹†‡ –Š‡ ‘†‡Žǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‘‡• –Šƒ– ˆƒŽŽ ‘—–•‹†‡Ǥ Š‡‡ƒŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆ–Š‡‘—–Ž‹‡”•ȋͳͺǤ͹Ȍ‹•‘”‡ ͳͲͶ

Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ •‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ‹ –Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ –Šƒ– ƒ”‡‘ˆ—‘™Ž‡‰–Šǡ„—–‘–‡‘—‰Š–‘Šƒ˜‡ƒ›…”—…‹ƒŽ ‡ˆˆ‡…–‘–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ n.b: The mean value of the row ‘All’ is calculated for all farms/ clusters in each group, and not the values in the table above.

Figure 3.2.2. Š‡”‡•—Ž–‘ˆ–Š‡’”‡†‹…–‡†ƒ”‡ƒ•™‹–Š–Š‡„”‡ƒ’‘‹–‘ˆͲǤͷͶȋͷͶΨȌǡ™Š‹…Š•Š‘™•–Š‡…‡–”ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ•‹–Š‡‹† ‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ

ͳͲͷ

Removed Iron Age stone house foundations ‡˜‡”ƒŽ ‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘• ‘ Š‘™ ƒ› •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ foundations and farms once existed have been …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡† †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”•Ǥ ƒ ƒ”Ž••‘ ȋͳͻ͹ͻǣͳͶͺȌ ‡•–‹ƒ–‡† –Šƒ– ƒ”‘—† ͵ͲǦͶͲΨ ƒ”‡ missing, and that the total number was around ͳ ͳͲͲ ˆƒ”•–‡ƒ†•ǡ ™Š‡ Š‡ —•‡† ƒ ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ ʹǤͻ Š‘—•‡• ’‡” ˆƒ”•–‡ƒ†Ǥ Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ based on his assumption that there were more or less the same number of mid millennium ˆƒ”•ƒ•Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽˆƒ”•‹‰ƒ’ƒ”‹•Šǡ™Š‹…Š Š‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡† –‘ …‘˜‡” –Š‡ ™Š‘Ž‡ ‹•Žƒ†Ǥ Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‹••‘‡ͳͲΨǡŽ‡••‹–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—Ǥ ‹Ž–„‡”‰ Šƒ• ‘„•‡”˜‡† ƒ ƒŒ‘” ’”‘„Ž‡ ™‹–Šƒ”Ž••‘ǯ•…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡›ƒ”‡„ƒ•‡†‘ ƒ‹•—†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‡„› ‘„‡”‰‘ˆ–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•‹–Š‡›‡ƒ”ͳ͹ͲͲǤ Carlsson’s calculations assume the number of ˆƒ”• –‘ Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ͳ ͵ʹͷǡ „—– ‹Ž–„‡”‰ ’‘‹–• to the fact that the correct number is 1 ͷͶͲǡ‘” ͳ͸͵Ͳ‹…Ž—†‹‰˜‹…ƒ”ƒ‰‡•Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒ•‹Ž–„‡”‰ ’‘‹–• ‘—–ǡ –Š‹• ‹• ‘ ƒŒ‘” ’”‘„Ž‡ ˆ‘” ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ• ”‡ƒ•‘‹‰ǡ •‹…‡ ‹– Œ—•– ‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‡• Š‹• …ƒŽ…—lated settlement curve a bit, but it does not falsiˆ›‹–ȋ‹Ž–„‡”‰ͳͻͻͲ„ǣͳʹ͸ȌǤ‘”‡…‘•–”—…–‡šƒ…–Ž› how Carlsson made his calculation is not possi„Ž‡ǡ„—––Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡ͳͷͶͲƒ†ͳ͵ʹͷ ‹•ƒ”‘—†ͳͲΨǢ‹ˆ™‡”ƒ‹•‡ƒ”Ž••‘ǯ•…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ –‘ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž›ͳʹͲͲˆƒ”•ǡ–Š‹•™‘—Ž†…‘””‡…– Š‹•‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•Ǥ Y•–‡”‰”‡ ’”‡•‡–• several alternative ™ƒ›• ‘ˆ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‰ –Š‡ —„‡” ‘ˆ ˜ƒ‹•Š‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•„ƒ•‡†‘Š‡” ‘™”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‘ϐ‹†’Žƒ…‡•‘ˆ‹‹‰‰‡•‹Ž˜‡” Š‘ƒ”†•ƒ†‘ƒ†‡ƒ”‹—•ǤŠ‡’”‡•‡–••‡˜‡”ƒŽ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‹†•‘ˆϐ‹‰—”‡•ǡƒ†‹–‹••‘‡™Šƒ– —…Ž‡ƒ”™Š‹…Š•Š‡’”‡ˆ‡”•Š‡”•‡ŽˆǤŠ‡—„‡”• ˜ƒ”›„‡–™‡‡ͳͶͳͺƒ†ͳͷͳ͹ˆƒ”•™‹–Šƒƒ˜erage of three stone house foundations per farm ȋY•–‡”‰”‡ͳͻͺͻǣʹʹ͹ˆȌǤ ‹Ž••‘ǯ•ȋʹͲͳͳȌ…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡„ƒ•‡†‘ the number of stone house foundations locat‡† ‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –›’‡• ‘ˆ Žƒ† ‹ –Š‡ ›‡ƒ” ͳ͹ͲͲǡ ™Š‹…Š Š‡ ‘˜‡”Žƒ›• ™‹–Š ‘†‡” Žƒ† –›’‡•ǡ to calculate the percentage of vanished stone house foundations on different combinations of Žƒ†–›’‡•ǤŠ‡‡–Š‘†ƒ••—‡•–Šƒ––Š‡•–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ”‡‘˜‡† ƒ‹Ž› ‹–Š‡Žƒ•–…‡–—”‹‡•ȋ‹Ž••‘ʹͲͳͳǣͺˆˆȌǡ™Š‹…Š‹• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›…‘””‡…–Ǥ‡…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡•–Šƒ–ƒ”‘—†͸ͲΨ of the stone house foundations have vanished and that the original number wasͶ͹͵ͷ†‹˜‹†‡† ƒ‘‰ ʹ ͹͸ʹ ˆƒ”•Ǥ Š‹• ‰‹˜‡• ƒ ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ ͳͲ͸

ͳǤ͹ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘ ’‡” ˆƒ” ȋ‹Ž••‘ ʹͲͳͳǣͳͻȌǤ‹•‡–Š‘†ƒ••—‡•ƒͳͲͲΨ…‘””‡Žƒ–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‹ϐ‹‡Ž†ƒ†’ƒ•–—”‡ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ˆ–Š‡ ›‡ƒ”ͳ͹ͲͲƒ†–Š‡ ”‘‰‡•‡––Ž‡‡–•ǡ™Š‹…Š ‹•ƒ†”ƒ™„ƒ…ǡƒ•Š‡ƒ…‘™Ž‡†‰‡•Š‹•‡ŽˆǤŠ‹• ‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›–Š‡”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”Š‹•˜‡”›Š‹‰Š‡•–‹ƒ–‡ ‘ˆ˜ƒ‹•Š‡†•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡ correlation between the settled areas during –Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—’‡”‹‘†ƒ†–Š‡›‡ƒ”ͳ͹ͲͲ‹• high, it is not complete and there are differences in some of the preferred areas, which will be •Š‘™Žƒ–‡”Ǥ Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ Š‘™ ƒ› •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•–Š‡”‡™‡”‡†—”‹‰–Š‡ ”‘‰‡…ƒ „‡†‘‡‹•‡˜‡”ƒŽ™ƒ›•Ǥ Šƒ˜‡…Š‘•‡ƒ‡–Š‘† based on the now remaining stone house foun†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ͳ ͺͲͳ •–‘‡ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘••–‹ŽŽ’”‡•‡–‹–Š‡Žƒ†•…ƒ’‡Ǥ……‘”†‹‰–‘ –Š‡ƒ’ǡ͵ͳƒ”‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†‹’”‡•‡–Ž›…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡† ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ‘ƒŒ‘””‘ƒ†•‘”‹†‡•‡Ž›„—‹Ž–Ǧ—’ƒ”‡ƒ•ȋŠ‡…‡ˆ‘”–Š”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡†ƒ”‡ƒ•ȌǤ ‘•–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ǡ–Š‡ƒ‹”‡ƒ•‘ˆ‘”–Š‹•‹•’‘•‹–‹‘ƒŽ—…‡”–ƒ‹–›ƒ†–Šƒ–•‘‡ƒ”‡•‹–—ƒ–‡†‘ •ƒŽŽ’ƒ–…Š‡•‘ˆ™ƒ•–‡Žƒ†‹ƒϐ‹‡Ž†Ǣˆ‘”–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘•ǡ–Š‡›™‹ŽŽ„‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ••‹–—ƒ–‡†‘Žƒ†–Šƒ–‹•‘–…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†Ǥ ‹…‡ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ substantial and contain a lot of stone, there is ‘”‡ƒ•‘–‘„‡Ž‹‡˜‡–Šƒ––Š‡›™‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ ”‡‘˜‡†—Ž‡••‹–™ƒ•‡–‹”‡Ž›‡…‡••ƒ”›Ǥ‘‡ might have been used as raw material for other …‘•–”—…–‹‘•ǡ„—––Š‹•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›†‘‡•‘–Ž‡ƒ†–‘ the total elimination of the stone house founda–‹‘‹‘•–…ƒ•‡•Ǥ…‘‘‘……—””‡…‡‹•–Šƒ– Žƒ–‡”ϐ‹‡Ž†…Ž‡ƒ”ƒ…‡Šƒ••’”‡ƒ†•‡…‘†ƒ”›•–‘‡ ‘–‘’‘ˆ–Š‡ǡ„—–‘Ž›‘•‘‡’ƒ”–•ǡƒ†–Š‡› ƒ”‡•–‹ŽŽ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹ƒ„Ž‡Ǥ‘‡‹‰Š–Šƒ˜‡„‡‡–‘–ƒŽŽ›…‘˜‡”‡†„›…Ž‡ƒ”ƒ…‡•–‘‡•ˆ”‘‘”‡”‡…‡– ϐ‹‡Ž†•ǡ ƒ† ƒ”‡ –Š—• ‘– ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡† ƒ• ”‘ ‰‡ •–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ„—–•‹…‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡‘ˆƒ …‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž‡•‹œ‡ǡ–Š‹•‹•‘–Ž‹‡Ž›–‘„‡’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›…‘‘Ǥ ˆ …‘—”•‡ǡ –Š‡”‡ —•– ƒŽ•‘ „‡ ˜ƒ‹•Š‡† house foundations outside the model area and in areas that once were cultivated, but are now for‡•–‡†ǤŠ‡•‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ”‡Š‘™‡˜‡”‘–Žƒ”‰‡ǡ•‹…‡ the acreages of discontinued cultivation are not ƒ•‡š–‡•‹˜‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†ƒ•–Š‡›‹‰Š–„‡‹‘–Š‡”’ƒ”–•‘ˆ™‡†‡ǤŽŽ‹ƒŽŽǡ–Š‡”‡‹•‘”‡ƒ•‘• –‘„‡Ž‹‡˜‡–Šƒ–ƒŽƒ”‰‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡ house foundations have disappeared in non-de˜‡Ž‘’‡†ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ„—–ƒŽ‘•–…‡”–ƒ‹Ž›–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡•–‹ŽŽ •‘‡–Šƒ–Šƒ˜‡‘–›‡–„‡‡”‡‰‹•–‡”‡†‹  ǡ ƒ†–Š‹•…‘—Ž†‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡—„‡”‹–Š‡ˆ—–—”‡Ǥ –‹•‘ˆ…‘—”•‡†‹ˆϐ‹…—Ž––‘•ƒ›Š‘™ƒ›–Š‡›ƒ”‡ǡ

Table 3.2.7. ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆ˜ƒ‹•Š‡† ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ

Ha

% of total model area

Presently cultivated or developed area within model area

51 467

49.6 %

Model area presently not cultivated

52 256

50.4%

͒ of house foundations in the calculation

Outside the model area Model area

1 408*

Density of distribution of house foundations/ha

0,0404** (0.0269 x 1.5)

predicted γ 2 080

0.0269

1 408

448* 103 723

Total number of house foundations

100%

448 3 936***

The percentage of vanished Iron Age stone house foundations

γ 54%

ȗŠ‡—„‡”‘ˆƒŽŽ‘™•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ‹…Ž—†‹‰•‘‡”‡‘˜‡†ȋͷͷȌˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‘™ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”•‘—”…‡•ǡ ƒ•‡š’Žƒ‹‡†‹–Š‡–‡š–Ǥ ȗȗŠ‡•‡ƒ”‡–Š‡„‡•–•‘‹Ž•‘‘”ƒ‹‡ǡƒ†™‡”‡’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘”‡—–‹Ž‹•‡††—”‹‰–Š‡‹†‹ŽŽ‡‹—ǡƒ•–Š‡›ƒ”‡–‘†ƒ›ǤŠ‹• ‘–‹˜ƒ–‡•ƒ•Ž‹‰Š–‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹–Š‡ϐ‹‰—”‡•…‘…‡”‹‰–Š‡†‡•‹–›‘ˆ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ˆ‘”–Š‡‡š’Ž‘‹–‡†ƒ”‡ƒǤ ȗȗȗƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡†™‹–Š–Š‡ˆ‘”—Žƒˆ‘”’‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡†‡…”‡ƒ•‡ȋ͵ͻ͵͸ǦͳͺͲͳȌȀ͵ͻ͵͸γǦͷͶΨǤͳͺͲͳƒ”‡–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ’”‡•‡”˜‡† Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ

„—–’”‘„ƒ„Ž›‘–ƒŽŽ–Šƒ–ƒ›Ǥ›…‘’ƒ”‹‰–Š‡ number of stone house foundations, which are situated within non-developed areas in the dataset containing all known stone house foundations, with those still remaining in the landscape, an estimate can be done of the number of van‹•Š‡†‘‡•ǤŠ‡”‡ƒ”‡ͳ ͵͹ͳŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• still remaining, but 1 ͶͲͺƒ”‡‘™ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ• –Šƒ–͵͹Šƒ˜‡†‹•ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡†ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ƒ”‘—†ʹǤ͹ΨǤ ‘–ƒŽŽ‘™ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒtions will be used in the calculation, since most ‘ˆ –Š‡ ͶͷͲ Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• –Šƒ– Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”•‘—”…‡•…‘•–‹–—–‡ƒ•—„•‡– of the vanished stone house foundations, which ƒ”‡’”‡†‹…–‡†‹–Š‹•…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ•‘‡ of the removed stone house foundations situated outside the model area are included in the ͶͶͺ‘™ǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ•–Š‡ϐ‹‰—”‡•‹–Š‡–ƒ„Ž‡ †‘‡•‘–•——’–‘ͳͺͲͳ•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ˆ™‡ƒ••—‡–Šƒ––Š‡†‡•‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•–”‹bution of stone house foundations is the same in the non-developed areas, as in the developed areas, the number of removed stone house foun†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ‘—–•–‘ƒ”‘—†ͳ͵ͺͶǤŠ‡”‡‹•Š‘™ever reason to believe that the number of Iron ‰‡Š‘—•‡•™ƒ•Š‹‰Š‡”‹–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡•–‹ŽŽ …—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†–‘†ƒ›ǤŠ‡•‡ƒ”‡–Š‡„‡•–•‘‹Ž•ǡ‘•–Ž› ‘ ‘”ƒ‹‡ •‘‹Ž• ƒ† ™‡”‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘”‡ —–‹Ž‹•‡††—”‹‰–Š‡ ”‘‰‡ǡƒ•–Š‡›ƒ”‡–‘†ƒ›ǤŠ‹• ™‘—Ž† ‘–‹˜ƒ–‡ ƒ •Ž‹‰Š– ‹…”‡ƒ•‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐ‹‰—”‡• …‘…‡”‹‰ –Š‡ †‡•‹–› ‘ˆ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ˆ‘” –Š‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† ƒ”‡ƒǤ Ž•‘ –Š‡ ˆƒ…– –Šƒ– –Š‡ ‘†‡Ž ‹• somewhat ‘too wide’ and includes a little bit too much of the outer edges of the landscape of mid millennium in some places, motivates such an

‹…”‡ƒ•‡Ǥ –‹•˜‡”›Šƒ”†–‘…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡™Šƒ––Š‹•ϐ‹‰ure should be, since there are no available data for such a calculation, but I choose a cautious ap’”‘ƒ…Šƒ†‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡†‡•‹–›„›ͷͲΨǤ Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ •Š‘™ –Šƒ– ƒ”‘—†ͷͶΨ‘ˆƒŽŽ ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡”‡‘˜‡†Ǥ ˆ–Š‡…ǤͶͷͲ”‡‘˜‡† foundations, known from other sources, as ex’Žƒ‹‡†ƒ„‘˜‡ǡƒ”‡†‡†—…–‡†–Š‹•Ž‡ƒ˜‡••Ž‹‰Š–Ž› Ž‡•• –Šƒ ͳ ͹ͲͲǡ ™‹–Š —‘™ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘ ™‹–Š‹ –Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ•‘™…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†‘”‹ƒ›‘–Š‡”™ƒ›†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡†Ǥ Š‡•‡”‡•—Ž–•…ƒ‘Ž›„‡”‡‰ƒ”†‡†ƒ•ƒ‰‡eral picture for the entire island, with a relativeŽ›Žƒ”‰‡ƒ”‰‹‘ˆ‡””‘”ǤŠ‡•‹œ‡‘ˆ–Š‹•‡””‘”‹• ˜‡”›Šƒ”†–‘–‡ŽŽǤ‹…‡ƒŽŽƒ”‡ƒ•‹–Š‡‘†‡Žƒ”‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡†™‹–Š–Š‡•ƒ‡†‡•‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—tion of stone house foundations, and we know –Šƒ–‹”‡ƒŽ‹–›–Š‹•†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‹•—‡˜‡ǡ‹–…ƒ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘– „‡ —•‡† –‘ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡ Š‘™ ƒ› ”‘‰‡•–‘‡Š‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡‹••‹‰‹ •ƒŽŽ‡”ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡŽ‹‡’ƒ”‹•Š‡•Ǥ

ͳͲ͹

Estimation of the number of farms during the mid millennium ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡ …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘ ‘ Š‘™ ƒ› Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•–Š‡”‡‘…‡™‡”‡‘ ‘–Žƒ†ǡƒ”‘—‰Š ‡•–‹ƒ–‡Šƒ•ƒŽ•‘„‡‡’‡”ˆ‘”‡†‘ˆŠ‘™ƒ› ˆƒ”•‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‹œ‡•–Š‡”‡™‡”‡ǤŠ‡ƒ••—’tion here is that the ratio between farm sizes is the same for the vanished stone house founda–‹‘•ǡƒ•ˆ‘”–Š‡‘™ǤŠ‡†‹•ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡†Š‘—•‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‡”‡‡•–‹ƒ–‡†–‘ƒ”‘—†ͷͶΨǤˆ the 1 Ͳʹͳ…Ž—•–‡”•‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•ǡ‹†‡–‹ϐ‹‡†‹–Š‡Žƒ•–…Šƒ’–‡”ǡͺͺͶƒ”‡ˆƒ”•ǡ…‘•‹•–‹‰ ‘ˆƒ”‘—†ͳ͸ͲͺŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‘‰‡–Š‡” ™‹–Š –Š‡ ‘Ǧˆƒ”•ǡ –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ͳ͹ͷͲŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘•Ǣ–Š‹•‹•”‘—‰ŠŽ›–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ’”‡•‡”˜‡† house foundations, which are 1 ͺͲͳǤ……‘”†‹‰Ž›ǡ –Š‡ͳ͹ͷͲŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•™‹ŽŽ„‡—•‡†‹–Š‡ following calculations, since the difference will „‡˜‡”›•ƒŽŽǤŠ‡–‘–ƒŽ—„‡”‘ˆŠ‘—•‡ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‹•…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘‹••Ž‹‰Š–Ž›Ž‘™‡”–Šƒ in the result from the model, but this is because –Š‡ —„‡”• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ”‘—†‡† ‘ˆˆǤ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ different data sets, with a different number of house foundations have been used in the differ‡–…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‹•Šƒ•„‡‡‡š’Žƒ‹‡†‡ƒ”Ž‹‡” and is due to fact that not all information is pres‡–‹ƒŽŽ”‡…‘”†•ǤŠ‡—„‡”•ƒ”‡Š‘™‡˜‡”˜‡”› close and can be regarded as a cross validation of each other and as a reminder of the roughness of this kind of calculations of the total amount ‘ˆ ƒ ƒ”…Šƒ‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡Ǥ —…Š …ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ƒŽ™ƒ›•‹’ƒ‹”‡†™‹–Š‰”‡ƒ–—…‡”–ƒ‹–›ƒ† can never be considered more than a course es–‹ƒ–‡Ǥ•–ƒ–‡‡–ˆ”‘ ”‡†”‹‘”†‹‹ͳͺͺ͸ is an amusing example of how wrong an estiƒ–‡…ƒ„‡ȋ‘”†‹ͳͺͺ͸ƒȌǣ

‘.. Med dessa äro omkring 70 ‘kämpagrafvar’’ kända öfver ön och troligen kan man leta upp lika många till. Med all sannolikhet bör man derför kunna antaga, att inemot 200 ursprungligen funnits’ (…with these around 70 ’kämpagravar’ are known across the island, most likely it is ’‘••‹„Ž‡ –‘ ϔ‹† ƒ ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ ͽͶ ƒ† –Š—• one can assume that there has been at least 200 from the beginning).  –ƒ„Ž‡ ͵ǤʹǤͺ ‹– …ƒ „‡ •‡‡ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ‡•–‹ƒ–‡† number of farms during the mid millennium is ƒ”‘—†ʹͲͲͲǤ –—•–Š‘™‡˜‡”„‡•–”‡••‡†–Šƒ– this is the number of farms but also households, since it is impossible to distinguish a household from a farm in an archaeological material of this ‹†ǡƒ•†‹•…—••‡†‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”Ǥ ƒ•‡† ‘ –Š‡•‡ ϐ‹‰—”‡• ƒ •‹—Žƒ–‹‘ ™ƒ• ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘ˆ ”‘ ‰‡ ˆƒ”•Ǥ ••—‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ”‡‘˜‡† ”‘ ‰‡ stone house foundations, known from other sources but not included in the calculations above, form farms in the same fashion according –‘ –Š‡ ͺͲ ‡–”‡ †‹•–ƒ…‡ ”—Ž‡ǡ –Š‡ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ͳʹͶͻˆƒ”•ƒ”‡‘™Ǥ‹–Š–Š‡‡•–‹ƒ–‡–Šƒ– ͳ ͻͺ͹ ˆƒ”• ‘…‡ ‡š‹•–‡†ǡ –Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ͹͵ͺ ˆƒ”• ™‹–Š —‘™ Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘Ǥ › ‰‡‡”ƒ–‹‰ ͹͵ͺ ˆƒ”•ǡƒ•’‘‹–‘„Œ‡…–•‹”… ƒ††‹•–”‹„—–ing them with a random function in the areas of –Š‡‘†‡Žǡ™Š‹…Š–‘†ƒ›ƒ”‡…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†‘”†‡˜‡Žoped, a mid millennium settlement map can be •‹—Žƒ–‡†ǤŠ‡Žƒ”‰‡”ƒ…—Ž–‹˜ƒ–‡†‘”†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† ƒ”‡ƒ‹•–‘†ƒ›ǡ–Š‡‘”‡ˆƒ”•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡”ƒ†‘Ž›‰‡‡”ƒ–‡†–Š‡”‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•„‡Ž‹‡˜‡†–‘„‡…‘””‡…–Ǥ Š‡ ƒ’ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‰‹˜‡• ƒ ˆƒ‹”Ž› ‰‘‘† ƒ† general picture of where most of the missing ˆƒ”•‘…‡Žƒ›ǡ„—–‘ˆ…‘—”•‡ǡ‹–‹•‘–…‘””‡…–‹ ƒ›†‡–ƒ‹ŽǤŠ‡ƒ’‹ ‹‰͵ǤʹǤ͵ǡ•Š‘™•–Š‡‹–‡”-

Table 3.2.8.ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆ—„‡”‘ˆˆƒ”•‰”‘—’‡†ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘ˆƒ”•‹œ‡•Ǥ Present farms in the analysis Farm size 1 2 3 4 5-6 All

Frequency 504 340 145 30 2 1 021

Not farms 136 0 0 0 1 137

Estimated farms* (=present x 1.25) Farms 368 340 145 30 1 884

Not farms 170 0 0 0 1 171

Farms 460 425 181 37 1 1 104

Total number of farms Not farms 306

1 300

Number of House foundations

Farms

%

Frequency

%

828 765 326 67 1 1 987

42% 38% 16% 3%