Land of Strangers: The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia 9780231552226

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Land of Strangers

LAND STRANGERS The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia

ERIC SCHLUESSEL

COLUM IA UNI ERSITY PRESS NEW YORK

Columbia University Press Publishers Since 1893 New York C i ester est Susse u olumbia e u Co yri t Columbia University Press All ri ts reserve Library of Con ress Catalo in in Publi ation Data Names: S luessel Eri aut or Title: Lan of stran ers : t e ivili in ro e t in in Central Asia Eri S luessel Des ri tion: New York : Columbia University Press In lu es biblio ra i al referen es an in e I enti ers: LCCN rint LCCN ebook IS N ar over IS N a erba k IS N ebook Sub e ts: LCSH: in ian Uy ur i i u C ina History in ian Uy ur i i u C ina Et ni relations in ian Uy ur i i u C ina Politi s an overnment Ui ur Turki eo le History C ina Colonies C ina in ian Uy ur i i u Asia Central Relations C ina C ina Relations Asia Central C ina History in ynasty Classi ation: LCC DS S S rint LCC DS S ebook DDC LC re or available at tt s: l n lo ov LC ebook re or available at tt s: l n lo ov Columbia University Press books are rinte on ermanent an urable a i free a er Printe in t e Unite States of Ameri a Cover esi n: Milen a Nan Ok Lee Cover ima e: ilin ual C a atay C inese o ument ate P oto by aut or

To Gwen olyn w o revels in t e mar inalia

Contents

A knowle

ments i

A Note on Conventions

iii

Intro u tion T e C inese Law: T e Ori ins of t e Civili in Pro e t in ian as E e tion: T e Transformation of t e Civili in Pro e t rontier Me iation: T e Rise of t e Inter reters a

omen an Lost C il ren: T e Se ual E onomy of Confu ian Colonialism Re olle tin ones: T e Muslim U risin s as Histori al Trauma

Histori al Estran ement an t e En of Em ire Con lusion [ vii ]

Notes iblio ra In e

[ viii ]

y

A knowle

ments

To my ollea ues w o ave isa eare or are im risone or silen e : I wis t at I oul name you ere an elebrate your s olars i I o e t at some ay you will rea t is book an t at w en you o it leases you You nurture me you were atient w en I was ea stron subtle w en I was bras You tau t me ili en e e i ation an ommitment to istori al an s ienti trut T ank you for wel omin me in T ank you to Gwen olyn Colla o wit out w om none of t is is wort it You us me to be better as a s olar an as a erson an to seek out moments of oy T ank you for your ers i a ious eye an ui k min an for insistin t at I take breaks T is book is t e ro u t of many years of ot er eo le s kin ness Members of t e ori inal issertation ommittee tolerate t e moun s of a er t at I o asionally wa e u an lobbe a a ar ly in t eir ire tions T ank you to Mark Elliott for takin me on as a stu ent us in me to onsi er t e osition an im a t of s olarly work an insist in on ilolo i al ri or You were t ere for me urin some of t e ar est times in t is ro ess an I will never for et it T ank you to Mi ael S onyi w o s owe me ow to buil an ar ument t at mi t wit stan is vi orous uestionin el e en less ueries about u lin t rou lo al ar ives an mo ele a oyful an umane rofessionalism Il ik ell r Hann was resent in t is work from its very on e tion Her insi tful met o olo i al an em iri al riti ues enri e t e ar ument [i ]

reatly ensurin t at it remaine roun e in et no ra y an te tual s olars i w ile en a in wisely wit t eory illiam Alfor w o is a rofoun ly benevolent in ivi ual saw t e value in t is work s un erlyin ro e t an en oura e me to ursue a more is i line om arison rom t e a e before Harvar t e umi ays of In iana I must t ank Gar ner ovin on w o tau t me in ian istory an oliti s but ust as im ortantly let me lay in t e reat san bo of so ial t eory Mu of t is book is a workin out of uestions t at I be an to ask be ause of Gar ner Devin De eese not only tau t me C a atay an all sorts of t in s about Na s ban s but was kin enou to rea a raft of a ter all of fourteen years after I rst walke into is lassroom It as been a reat leasure to re onne t wit C risto er Atwoo w o un er stan s w at kin of book t is is Many ot er establis e s olars ave iven t eir time an e ort to su ort my ma a er amon t em P r Cassel Cemal afa ar Ablet amalov ames Millwar Carla Na i A me Ra ab Davi Ro bur ir it S lyter un Su awara Donal Sutton Onuma Taka iro an iu Yuanyuan Yet s e ial t anks surely o to eeler T a kston on w ose sofa I learne not only to u le t rou a te t in C a atay but to ras it I o e sin erely to ay t eir eneros ity forwar T ere is no reativity wit out a ommunity an I am fortunate to be art of a enerous one So many ours of intelle tual ferment were s ent in t e om any of ot er true believers in t is ui oti enter rise not least amon t em Gre ory A no enov at erine Ale an er Elise An erson Sara ramao Ramos Davi ro y Darren yler elle C eves Sakura C ristmas rian Cwiek Maura Dykstra Devin it eral os ua reeman illy ren elly Hammon ustin a obs Ma abe eli er Ni olas on tovas en Levey Eve M Glynn Aysima Mirsultan Anne So ie Pratte Davi Porter Ma Oi tmann Gul ana Salim an Rune Steenber Davi Strou Hanna T eaker Rian T um ei ie Tsai Noriko Unno Ni o las almsley an in en S e ial t anks to Mira enia S wer a w o volunteere to rea t is s ambles of a book t e weeken before it was ue Many of us met un er a ur osefully va ue rallyin ry New Dire tions an t e romise of sna ks or else be ause of our uestionable e ision to stu y Inner Asian istory an ulture e seem re eate ly to emonstrate t e ower of ommunity of enerosity an olle iality to raise all of us u an el us a ieve t e im ossible w i is re isely ow some [ ]

ori inally ara teri e t e on e t of t is book T ank you for rea in t e rafty a ters t at emer e over t e years but t ank you also as times ave rown arker for stan in u for w at you know to be ri t T at is t e kin of s olarly ommunity I want to be art of rien s an ollea ues at t e University of Montana in t e De artments of History an Politi al S ien e an beyon lent time an atien e to t is ro e t T ank you es e ially to Claire Ar enas Ab is ek C atter ee ra Clou o n E lin Robert Greene Tobin Miller S earer an o y Pavila k for un erstan in T ank you to t e ore members of t e Montana East Asia orks o or MEA : rian Dow le Ma ie Greene an Rob Tu k I am la t at we value one anot er as s olars an as uman bein s Time s ent wit you over Rob s unfairly oo ookin rian s ba kyar in ners or eein into t e mountains to meet Ma ie alfway as meant t e worl to me Mu of t e t inkin be in t is book laye out in onversa tion wit my stu ents at Montana as we tra ke atterns of an e a ross t e broa swee of C inese istory talke t rou Neo Confu ian iloso y or riti ue t eories of nationalism If you rea t is lease un er stan t at it is a sin ular rivile e to know you an work wit you Take a moment to look east alon t e Clark ork River into t e s a e between t e mountains an onsi er t e mystery T e nal raft of t is book was om lete urin resear leave un er a Mellon ellows i at t e Institute for A van e Stu y w ere onversations wit Ni ola i Cosmo arl Gert an Ly ia Liu es e ially in uen e its om osition Resear an writin ave been ai for in various ways by numerous rants an fellows i s: a ellows i for Assistant Professors from t e An rew Mellon oun ation resear an works o rants from t e Ameri an Coun il of Learne So ieties an Henry Lu e oun ation a So ial S ien e Resear Coun il International Dissertation Resear ellows i a fa ulty evelo ment rant from t e De artment of History at t e Univer sity of Montana a Yama u i un rant from t e Mans el Center at t e University of Montana a one mont resi en e at t e Yuelu A a emy at Hunan University travelin fellows i s from Harvar University t e eat er ea Center for International A airs t e airbank Center for C i nese Stu ies an t e Asia Center an a fellows i from t e National En ow ment for t e Humanities e i ate to translatin t e 7čUҸNKL҇DPҸGҸ T e last few weeks of writin were s ent as a s olar in resi en e at t e Man ester C ina Institute [ i]

T ank you to Caelyn Cobb an Moni ue riones at Columbia University Press w o us ere t is book to rint wit t e utmost s ee an rofes sionalism Two anonymous rea ers enri e t e te t by rovi in two ra i ally i erent ers e tives on it I take full res onsibility for any errors t at remain an ask ot ers to take t em u as rom ts for furt er resear T ank you nally to my fat er Ri ar S luessel my mot er Cynt ia Conti an my brot er E mun S luessel w o tau t me to are to work ar an to remain true to my rin i les T is as been su a lon our ney an I am la t at you are ere to s are it Of ourse I woul be remiss not to a knowle e t e sin ular ontributions of an P our ouse ol a ents of aos T e sour es for t is work are ra e t ey are a e s rat es on mouse eaten s ra s of rusti a er t at smell like s ee an eat No neatly sorte ase les reet t e istorian of Tur an An in ivi ual o ument mi t be torn in alf intentionally or t rou some uman error an tu ke in t e fol of anot er a or in to some obs ure lo i Stories be in or en or i k u in t e mi le of t e a tion an t e istorian is lu ky to n a w ole narrative a ka e an waitin Even t en alf of t e story may be a e e tion Su is life: a olla e of letters ut o alfway t rou wit lines on every olor of a er interse tin at o an les an it is beautiful T ank you all for s arin t is loak of ra s wit me May ot ers ull at t e t rea s until everyt in omes un one a ain

[ ii ]

A Note on Conventions

T is book works between several lan ua es an tra itions some of w i may be obs ure to t e rea er C inese rei n ates an Hi ri ates ave bot been onverte to t eir e uivalents in t e Gre orian alen ar Most of t is story takes la e urin t e Ton i abbreviate in t is book s en notes as T Guan u or G an uanton or T rei ns an in t e years of t e Hi ri It ontinues in t e era of t e Re ubli of C ina Min uo or MG omen in in o uments were fre uently i enti e only by t eir sur name followe by t e wor shi ei shi t en is rou ly e uivalent to Ms ei or t e woman ei A e as re or e in C inese sour es is re kone in sui A erson is one sui ol at t e moment of birt an onse uently may be one or two years ol er in estern years ol t an t ey woul be in sui Yamen was t e term use for t e o e of any in o ial Terminolo y for in ranks an titles in eneral follows t at rovi e by runnert an Ha elstrom w i alt ou somew at anti uate is om re ensive enou to in lu e t e terms of lo al a ministration an re e ts a ertain un erstan in of t e in overnment aroun t e time t is story took la e In t e late in Tur an was a ire tly a ministere refe ture zhili ting an its i est o ial a rst lass sub refe t I t erefore refer to im as t e refe t Un er t e Tur an refe t was t e subor inate [ iii ]

o e of t e Pi an sub istri t ma istrate xunjian In Pi an was elevate to t e level of a ounty xian formin S ans an County an t e sub istri t ma istrate was ma e a full ounty ma istrate After t e in ai Revolution of an t e fall of t e in Tur an was ma e a ounty e ual to S ans an an its refe t a ma istrate Tur an was lo ate in one of four a ministrative units alle ir uits dao ea le by an inten ant daotai Tur an was in t e en i Cir uit of in ian rovin e an t e ot ers were t e Aksu as ar an Ili Tarba atai Cir uits T ose inten ants re orte to a rovin ial overn ment in t e a ital of Di ua mo ern r m i ea e by a overnor xunfu T e overnor s imme iate subor inates in lu e a nan ial om missioner buzhengshi an a u i ial ommissioner anchashi I ave osen to resent names an wor s in t e various lan ua es in t is book in ways t at rea ers will o efully not n alienatin C inese is transliterate a or in to t e Pinyin system or Arabi Persian an C a atay I use a mo i e version of t e system of t e International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies for Man u M llen or an a anese He burn Dia riti s ave been minimi e as mu as ossible As minority eo le in C ina know well usin C inese to ren er lon names t at in lu e soun s not en ountere in Man arin often yiel s even lon er an unwiel ier results T is was true in late in in ian as well w ere t e Turki an Islami names t at we en ounter in C inese in t e ar ive sometimes barely resemble w at eo le alle t emselves Hel fully I ave foun o uments in t e Tur an ar ive t at resent Tur o Islami names an t eir C inese e uivalents si e by si e rovi in a rela tively systemati un erstan in of ow Turki s ee soun s were ren ere into C inese On t at basis I resent t e most likely Turko Islami name if it an be e i ere alon si e its C inese transliteration in t e rst instan e for e am le Raw alla Ruo an le I follow a similar sys tem for la e names in w i ase I favor t e name as it was ren ere in C a atay over t at use in C inese

[ iv ]

Intro u tion

AT THE END of t e nineteent entury a rou of elite men from C ina aine ontrol over a Muslim ma ority re ion of Central Asia an attem te to transform it a or in to t eir own vision of an i eal Confu ian so iety T is book es ribes t e rami ations of t is ro e t for or inary eo le It ar ues t at t is e ort to transform Muslims into Confu ians s a e t e so ial relations i s between eo le w o arti i ate in i erent reli ious tra itions an w o s oke i erent lan ua es Instea of t e assimilation t at t is ivili in ro e t s en ineers inten e it ro u e estran ement as t e ro e t simultaneously intensi e t e ine ualities an every ay violen e t at ty i e t e new era imbue t em wit new meanin s an rovi e a owerful new lan ua e wit w i to navi ate t em Peo le use its i eolo y an institutions to oli e new so ial boun aries an arti ulate ommunal i entities in ways t at bot resiste C inese omina tion an were s a e by it New or reima ine myt s of ommon es ent re e ne t e boun aries of t e Muslim ommunity T e settin of t is istory of so io ultural an e an t e every ay is a la e t at istory writin an t e o ular ons iousness un erstan mainly t rou ran oliti al narratives: in ian in ian or East Turkestan is a re ion t at is ulturally lin uisti ally an istori ally tie to t e so ieties an states of Central Asia As of t e turn of t e last en tury t e ma ority of its eo le s oke an wrote in Turki lan ua es an ra ti e a form of Sunni Islam eavily in uen e by Su sm Yet t ese [ ]

Turki Muslim eo le a ome un er t e ontrol of a C ina base state t e in em ire ile in territory later e ne t e boun aries of t e mo ern C inese nation state t e em ire was rule not by et ni ally C inese Han eo le but by a Man u royal ouse wit Inner Asian ori ins In t is multiet ni em ire on uere in ian an a en e it to t e realm as one of several istin t territories ke t se arate from C ina ro er an rule t rou lo al institutions an aristo rats mu as Mon olia was A military overnor ensure t e territory s se urity but by an lar e lo al Turki Muslims rule on be alf of t e in an wit in t e boun s of Islami law T e mi nineteent entury owever saw a series of wars break out a ross t e in an t e em ire lost ontrol of nearly a t ir of its territory in ian s eo le rebelle in an a series of Islami states emer e in t e va uum forme by t e wit rawal of in ower In t e em ire returne but in a new form: T e ian Army w i was foun e in in t e rovin e of Hunan a fou t an efeate many of t e em ire s internal enemies an now it rea e in ian on a mission of re on uest However t e ian Army was le by a rou of Confu ian intelle tuals w ose iloso y eman e t at t ey brin or er to C ina by im osin w at t ey un erstoo to be t e foun ation of a ar monious so iety: t e atriar al Confu ian family T erefore t eir oal was not to restore t e ol re ime of in ire t rule but instea to assimilate t e Muslim eo le of in ian an t us ensure t eir omelan s er etual in lusion wit in t e C inese ultural an oliti al e umene T ey attem te to o so by transformin t e Muslim family an see in Muslim so iety wit t eir own elite norms t rou e u ation an resettlement A s e ial le al re ime elevate t eir s ri tural i ea of t e Confu ian rites li above even t e o i e law of t e em ire Ultimately t e ian Army s oal was to re reate in ian not as a territory but as a rovin e like its own Hunan or any ot er in C ina ro er ile t at oal was formally a ieve in w en in ian rovin e was e lare t e ian Army s ivili in ro e t ersiste nearly until t e fall of t e in em ire in as t ey ontinue to stru le to establis ontrol an assimilate t e Muslims Many ironies resulte C ief amon t em was t at instea of atta in in ian an its eo le forever to C ina t e ro e t rovi e a means to

[ ]

arti ulate a sense of et ni ity t at bot o ose C inese ower an a ro riate it Put i erently t e e erien e of a istori ally s e i form of omination s a e t e is ourses an ra ti es of self e nition t at emer e amon t e ominate eo le T is was in art be ause eo le use t e resour es an lan ua e of t e ominatin ower to arti ulate an resolve t eir own laims an rievan es but also be ause t e form an i e olo y of omination ui kly be ame naturali e Mu as ren est Afri an or ritis In ian sub e ts turne t eir oloni ers laims of iti en s i an res e t for uman i nity a ainst t eir e loitation so i Turki Muslims in in ian learn to mani ulate t e i eolo y an institutions of t e ivili in ro e t to a van e t eir own interests as im erial sub e ts However s olars i on olonial is ourses of i entity remin s us to atten to t e role t at lass lays in arti ulatin anti olonial ositions on t e art of a ominate ommunity: it is usually t ose members of t e ol oni e rou w o ave learne su essfully to mani ulate t e is ourses of t e oloni er w o t en laim to s eak on be alf of t e w ole rou T is book s ows ow relatively owerful Turki Muslim eo le use t e resour es of t e state to oli e boun aries wit in w at t ey were omin to see as t eir own ommunity to ur e t e internal Ot ers w om t e ivi li in ro e t reate New arti ulations of i entity emer e from new ine ualities an forms of violen e At t e same time t e relations i between t e Muslim eri ery an t e im erial metro ole ame to seem natural as t ou events in in ian were intimately boun to t e istory of C ina itself in ian is to ay known for an on oin an seemin ly intra table on i t between t e Turki Muslim Uy ur eo le w o om rise t e re ion s ma ority an a C inese Communist Party an state attem tin to eliminate t eir lan ua e an ulture T e on i t is often analy e as emer in from a set of on i tin nationalist im eratives: Uy ur nationalism w i re ates t e Party state s ontrol of t e re ion laims in ian as a ome lan for t e Uy ur eo le ile t e Party state formally re o ni es t e Uy ur laim to ultural autonomy w i is ens rine in t e mo ern C inese onstitution C inese nationalism s own eman for ultural omo eneity wit in t e bor ers of t e state now takes re e en e over le al rote tions for t e Uy ur minority lea in to resentment T e ar a teristi s an ori ins of Uy ur nationalism ave t erefore be ome t e

[ ]

Leitmotif of s olars i on in ian It woul be tem tin to raw a strai t line from t e every ay ne otiations of ommunal boun aries in late in in ian as es ribe in t is book to ontem orary on i ts However t e enealo y of Uy ur et nonational i entity is om le Classi ally s olars ave em asi e t e elite intelle tual or oliti al imensions of Uy ur nationalism an attribute its arti ulation to t e oin i en e of transnational Turki nationalism an t e et ni i in re imes of Soviet later C inese Communist overnment Su a ers e tive ives t e im ression t at et ni i entities were ma i ke into e is ten e in t e s More re ently Uy ur nationalism s roots ave been lo ate instea in t e om li ate transnational environment of Central Asia an its interse tion wit subtler forms of reli ious an lin uisti if ferentiation in t e in realm None of t ese analyses is ne essarily e lu sive of t e ot ers However I t ink it is lear t at ertain stran s of t is enealo y ten to obs ure t e ot ers in arti ular romanti Uy ur nationalisms w i arti ulate t e a ealin i ea t at Uy ur ness is an an ient s irit unfol in in time or a ure line of Turki evelo ment iverte from its natural at by C inese omination T e formulai Stalinism of t e C inese Party state s o ial istories of et ni forma tion minzu xingcheng resses u a similar story in seu os ienti lot in alt ou a romanti narrative fre uently s ows t rou Re ar less of t e at t ey take tra in t e enealo y of Uy ur et nonational i entity ine orably lea s s olars ba k to t e erio e amine in t is book w i as nevert eless remaine un ere lore : t e late in Several books ave etaile t e istory of rovin ial in ian in terms of its elite oliti s t e oli ies a van e by t e re ional overn ment an t e intelle tual ba k roun s of its rulers T e i level a roa is valuable but it rarely analy es t e erio of ian Army omi nation from to rou ly in more t an s emati terms Re ent works on t e istory of mo ern in ian ten to be in at least two e a es after t e re on uest at t e time w en a nan ial risis for e t e ian Army rulin ommunity to onsi er reative lans to enerate revenue t at followe t e resour e ma imi ation im eratives ty i al of mo ern states Per a s t e fa t t at t e late in was tem orally wit in t e s o e of t e lobal mo ern as ire te s olars to seek t e roots of mo ern e nomena However as t is book s ows t e in ian overnment before re e te t e riorities an te ni ues of tra itional im erial rovin ial [ ]

a ministration more t an it i t e mo ern state In ee t e e uliar so ial formation t at sustaine Hunanese ominan e also reserve in i an as an out ost of onservative reformism t at by t e last years of t e in alrea y a eare to be a fossil It was not a nationali in re ime in ontrast to t e Soviet an C inese overnments t at el sway in in ian from onwar An yet somet in took la e in t is a arently re mo ern settin su t at a new sense of rou ness emer e t e arti ula tion of a Muslim self in et ni terms a ainst similarly et ni i e Ot ers T e resent book ontributes to t e un erstan in of i entity in in i an by illuminatin its ro essual ne otiate every ay nature as it was urin t is erio T at is it is on erne wit i enti ation ow eo le un erstan arti ulate an a t on or erform belon in It e lores t at on oin ro ess in t e onte t of every ay on i t in one art of in ian Tur an At t e en of t e in Tur an was a ire tly a ministere refe ture zhili ting wit in t e rovin ial system T e refe ture s survivin ar ive tells t ousan s of stories t at w en rea t rou t e oliti s of translation an re resentation illuminate ow eo le ne otiate relation s i s an resolve on i ts in a multilin ual multi onfessional so iety In t at so iety a C inese s eakin non Muslim minority ominate a Turki s eakin Muslim ma ority but t ere were many ra ations in t e ierar y of ower Class was as si ni ant as lan ua e or reli ion alt ou t e on i ts of every ay life w en arti ulate in t e lan ua e of t e ivili in ro e t ro u e a is ourse of belon in t at s olars to ay woul re o ni e as et ni ity On t e w ole t e ivili in ro e t an its e e ts resemble t ose t at ave istori ally ara teri e s e i forms of Euro Ameri an olonial ism an so om arative olonial istory ui es t e analysis erein How ever olonialism as been invoke wit re ar to t e in em ire many times an often wit i erin meanin s onnotations an assum tions so it is ne essary to state re isely w at I mean by it Colonialism ere is e ne as a system of omination aime at territorial a uisition t rou so io oliti al reor ani ation It is inter onne te wit im erialism a ro ess in w i eo le from one re ion of t e worl ominate t ose from anot er for t e rimary ur ose of resour e e tra tion or territorial se u rity but intervene less ire tly in so ial evelo ment for e am le by rulin t rou a lo al aristo ra y I t us istin uis olonialism as a form of omination aime at assimilatin t e eo le of t e ominate territory [ ]

from im erialism as a form of rimarily e onomi omination t at main tains ontrol of lural onstituen ies t rou iverse vo abularies of rule Generally s eakin a transition from lural im erialism to assimilatory olonialism often o urs as a rea tion to a risis of im erial ontrol an t e in em ire in t e mi nineteent entury was in re isely su a re arious osition In broa om arative terms we may see t e ian Army as a ents of t at an e in on e tions of soverei nty as its lea ers sou t an e an sion of normal institutions into t e reviously se arate bor erlan s Generally s eakin e an in em ires ten to refrain from me iatin between multi le le al an oliti al systems but instea maintain boun aries between t em Over time slowe e ansion or ot er re u tions in t e rate of resour e a uisition as well as t e ten en y of eri eral eo les to learn to make use of t e institutions of t e state ombine to en oura e omo eni ation Lo al elites in in ian s ase t e Turki Muslim begs are re la e wit fun tionaries from t e metro olitan or er ere C inese ma istrates T at omo eni ation is base on a laim to universality but takes a olonial Ot er as its ob e t T e ian Army s e orts in in ian om rise ust su a ivili in ro e t an e ort on t e art of a omi nant rou to im art t eir norms an institutions to a subor inate rou by for e if ne essary Des ite t e loseness of t e ritis an Russian em ires an t e in ursions of Euro Ameri an im erialists alon t e C i nese oast t is ivili in ro e t was of C inese ori in It a its intelle tual an institutional roots in a s e i ommunity of Confu ian t ou t entere on t e ity of C an s a in t e rovin e of Hunan an t e lea ers of t e ian Army were art of t is ommunity T is book emonstrates ow olonialism emer es in a non Euro Ameri an onte t However my rimary oal is not to ro u e some ran ty olo i al statement but to use t e om arison ro u tively as a roun s for is ourse an e loration: If we a e t t e ro osition t at t e omination of in ian an its eo le was in some way olonial w at o we learn In t is ase t inkin of in ian as olonial turns my met o olo i al em a sis to t e tensions an an ieties t at omination t rou so io oliti al reor ani ation en en ers amon its sub e ts et er a olonial ower im oses a ertain oliti al or er reates a system of e onomi e loita tion or re on ures stru tures of en er an se uality it is t e ro u tion of i eren e t at enables it to o so an t at re isters its ee er [ ]

e e ts Di eren e is not a mere intelle tual u le or sim ly a tool of ower as t is stu y s ows it is an on oin ro ess of i enti ation t at relates to formal ate ories in om le ways As mu as been reveale by s olars of im erial ulture an t e institutions of knowle e in Sout C ina an Taiwan w ose works are a entral in uen e on t is book S olars i on lobal frontiers e ually informs t is stu y of t e C inese Nort west T ere is no sin le analo y for in ian but t ere are nevert e less many arallels an e lorin t em will reveal a lar ely une lore istory from below as resente in t e wor s of or inary eo le owever me iate instea of t e minority of ower ol ers y re ar in im erialism an olonialism as so io ultural ro esses we an e ten t e el of is ourse an om arison between e ansive states an t e so iet ies at t eir mar ins it in t e el of C inese istory t is book re resents an e ort to brin t e met o olo ies of istori al ant ro olo y familiar from stu ies of Sout C ina to bear on t e uestions ose by t e New in History T e New in History is an amor ous an e ansive el t e ief intervention of w i is t e illumination of eri eral voi es of various kin s In t e min s of most observers owever t is sub el is rimarily on erne wit et ni i eren e in t e onte t of in em ire S olars of t e New in History ave s own for e am le ow Tibetan reli ious lea ers an Mon ol aristo rats relate to t e in ourt an earlier seminal works a ress t e ro u tion of et ni ity t rou in institutions Generally s eakin ea of t e em ire s onstituen ies saw a i erent fa e of in ower t at was relevant an le itimate in t eir own onte t Yet in ian as remaine somew at of a mystery in t is re ar : w ile Mon ols an Tibetans mi t ave seen t e em eror as a warrior k an or an in arnate bo isattva t e in a eare to ave no Muslim uise T e uestion remains o en as to ow t e in s Turki Muslim sub e ts un er stoo t e em ire I ar ue t at an i ea of t e in emer e not from areful im erial ro a an a but rat er in t e ro ess of routine en ounters wit C inese ower in t e last e a es of t e em ire Yet all of t ese re resentations of self em ire an t e relations i between sub e t an soverei n only be ome lear w en we rea a ross t e lo al ar ive an la e it into ialo ue wit t e Turki lan ua e manu s ri t tra ition S olars i on in ian s mo ern istory as often relie on C inese lan ua e sour es ro u e at t e i est levels of overnment [ ]

w i tell us little about ow oli ies laye out on t e roun Meanw ile anot er bran of resear fo uses on manus ri t sour es in C a atay t e Turki literary lan ua e use in Central Asia into t e s Alt ou t ese latter sour es illuminate ri worl s of iety e onomy an every ay life t ey say relatively little about t e e erien e of C inese rule T e Tur an ar ive owever was forme in a multilin ual onte t t rou t e a umulation of re or s of on i t between for t e most art or inary eo le Alt ou only a minority of t e o uments in t e ar ive are urely in C a atay w ile t e ma ority are in C inese almost all are none t eless ro u ts of translation T is book reveals t e oliti s of Turki C inese translation in late in in ian an brin s t at oliti s to bear on its rea in of sour es a ross an beyon t at ar ive s owin ow on e ts from wit in t e s a es e ne by C inese ower nevert eless olo ni e t e is ourses beyon t em y rea in t e ar ive riti ally as a site of ne otiation an om etition I seek to em asi e t e a en y of or inary eo le over t at of i level o ials Or inary eo le in t is ase sim ly in i ates t ose w o el no o e an w ose a tivities were lar ely meant to remain uiet beyon t e si t of t e a ministration T ese in lu e farmers artisans mer ants rostitutes ervis es an but ers amon a w ole ost of eo le w o were in no osition to ir umvent t e u i ial system At its ore t is book is a stu y of every ay oliti s : t e ebates on i ts e isions an oo eration amon in ivi uals rou s an or ani ations re ar in t e ontrol allo ation an use of resour es an t e values an i eas un erlyin t ose a tivities Every ay oliti s is t e uiet subtle an ra ual a ustment an ontestation of norms an institutions T is book is about ow eo le en a e in t at kin of mun ane oliti s ow t ey resiste ower an ow t ey a ro riate it for t emselves T eir on i ts oul be about very mun ane t in s su as lan in eritan e an nevert eless re e t ran er uestions of im ort to ontem orary s olars su as t e e nition of et ni ity Certain issues are raise fre uently in t e ar ive t e is osal of t e ea for e marria e an t e unis ment of se workers amon t em Alt ou we annot ave ire t a ess to t e is ourses an ra ti es sur roun in su oints of tension as t ey manifeste in t e every ay t ey are re e te imly in t e orners of t e ar ive Let us turn now to t e etails of t e ase fo usin on ow eo le in Tur an t emselves es ribe t eir la e in istory an eo ra y irst I will [ ]

lo ate Tur an in t e istory of t e u risin s t at re e e t e stu y at an T en we will onsi er ow eo le es ribe Tur an s lo ation in in ian an its ost u risin s so iety ot oint to a sense t at t is was a broken la e a s attere so iety of estran e eo le

Prelu e: After t e

orl S attere

T e so alle Muslim u risin s be an in not in in ian but in t e nei borin Muslim ma ority re ions of Nort west C ina Lon stan in rievan es on t e art of lo al Muslims in lu in C inese violations of Muslim sa re s a es an overta ation interse te wit a set of on oin feu s wit in t e ommunities of C inese s eakin Muslims or Hui Two years later in une rumors s rea t at t e military overnor of in i an a or ere t e reem tive slau ter of Hui eo le in or er to re vent t e rebellion from omin to t e bor erlan Instea t at rumor rom te Hui military o ers an reli ious lea ers to atta k in arri sons an C inese mer ants ust t en t e on oin rebellions in C ina ro er lose t e lines of ommuni ation wit ei in an t e eo le of in ian foun t emselves in a va uum of ower T e initial violen e a ainst C inese .KLࠃč\ eo le w i in lu e Man u s eakers an ot er non Muslims soon broke into a stru le amon Muslims as lea ers of i erent Su linea es former in omman ers an ot er laimants to ower stoo oise to lun er on uer an emonstrate t eir own ability to establis a le itimate Islami state y t e en of t e year a o en fa tions a built om etin ower bases a ross t e re ion In t e wor s of one man t e worl s attere T e lines rawn in t is on i t were ui an o en to inter retation E onomi fa tors laye a role in t e rebellion as i o ortunism but so i t e ability of Su lea ers to mobili e t eir a erents an ot ers w o esire an Islami state T eir followin s ten e to orres on rou ly to i eren es in lan ua e as C inese s eakers relate to tren s in Islami iety amon Hui in C ina ro er w ile Turki s eakers orien tation aroun ertain te ts an s rine il rima e onne te t em more to Central an Sout Asia Nevert eless allian es a ross boun aries of lin uisti an se tarian i eren e were as fre uent as enmities T at is w ile oly war JKD]čW ame to ara teri e t e rebellion t e ob e t of [ ]

oly war oul be ambi uous as it oul be turne a ainst internal or e ternal enemies As mu is illustrate by t e istory of t e rebellions in Tur an On Au ust a Su lea er name Ma m an wa a le t e u risin t ere an ire te a series of atta ks on C inese settlements He was soon oine by for es from t e Su lea ers or NKZčMDs of t e nearby oasis of u a w o were t en in an allian e wit Hui military o ers from t e ol arrison town of r m i To et er t ey besie e t e C inese arrison an ommunity at Tur an for nine mont s In Mar after a ty i ally lon an bleak winter t ey o ere t e besie e C inese an es ort ba k to C ina in e an e for t eir surren er Instea w en t e C inese o ene t e ates t e Muslims let t em travel some istan e from t e ity an t en slau tere t em T ose t at remaine were enslave Soon as t e allie rebel for es attem te to e an t eir territory eastwar a lo al NKZčMD rou base in t e town of L k n attem te to sei e ower T e Hui s e i ally were vi timi e as t e L k n for es burne un re s of Hui omes to t e roun in an attem t to anta oni e t e r m i om man ers er a s in retaliation for t e r m i for es enslavement of Turki Muslims in umul Hami T e r m i omman ers retaliation was swift an evastatin but remnants of t e L k n fa tion eventually rose to su rema y in Tur an an e elle t e u a NKZčMDs Su s fou t Su s a ainst an alon si e Hui Later in t e o er Ya b e arrive in as ar from t e anate of o an an soon bot t e battle lines an t e is ourse of on i t an e T e violen e be an to be re resente as a on i t between boun e ommunities of eo le t at were i enti e rimarily by lan ua e an la e of ori in albeit o e in reli ious terms As t e roni lers of t is erio re resente it t e rimary rou of anta onists a been t e C inese s eakin non Muslims T at t ese C inese in fa t in lu e Man u s eakin eo le was lost in re olle tion t ey were nev ert eless obvious i olaters an in els an t eir i ol tem les C a a tay EXWNKčQD burne all t e same Yet as t e C inese e ie or on verte an t rou t e on i ts t at ra ually emer e between C inese s eakin an Turki s eakin Muslims Turki Muslim writers ame to onstrue t e Hui as t e enemy After all w ile t e o an is an Ya b e ori inally a eare as outsi ers t ey nevert eless s oke a lan ua e very lose to t at of East Turkestan were ulturally similar an [

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es ite t eir inte ration of Hui an onverte C inese into t e state oul laim to un ertake oly war on be alf of t e Muslim 0XVXOPčQ eo le T at laim was es e ially im ortant as Ya b e a initially ome to as ar wit or ers to establis o an i in uen e t ere by installin an su ortin a Su as its lea er However Ya b e a betraye t e Su w ile o an fell to Russian on uest an now e en e on is mil itary rowess an i entity as a oly warrior for le itima y T e Turki Muslim roni lers of t is erio an after a or in ly referre to t emselves as 0XVXOPčQ literally meanin Muslim w ile e lu in t e Hui C a atay 'ࡃQJčQ from t is ate ory T erefore I use t e term 0XVXOPčQ t rou out t is book to in i ate Turki s eakin Muslims S e i ally it in i ates t ose Turki Muslims w o i enti e wit oasis a ri ulture an life as istin t from a ak s or yr y w o es ite bein Turki s eakin Muslims were e i te as livin stri tly by er in in t e mountains To ay most of t ese 0XVXOPčQs woul retros e tively be labele Uy ur a or in to mo ern et nonational ate ories 0XVXOPčQ owever retains t e label s istori ally s e i ambi uity wit its reli ious enotation lin uisti onnotations an im li it re e tion of ot er Muslims es ite its su er ial in lusivity T e story in t is book unfol s in a worl before t e e emony of t e nation state an it is a ro riate to use t e ate ories t at were a tive in it Moreover as Ro ers rubaker ar ues lan ua e an reli ion resemble et ni ity but are not e uivalent to it Rat er t ese are all embo ie i enti ations ways of a tin an erformin rou belon in T ese more ui erformative or situational i enti ations be ame in reasin ly naturali e t rou t e late in by emer in is ourses of ommon es ent an t e violen e of t e u risin s was an im ortant atalyst for t at naturali ation Ya b e s state rose to su rema y swee in t e fa tions before it Musulman an Hui alike en is armies rea e Tur an in t ey vis ite yet more violen e u on Hui eo le T ey a roa e from t e west an t e town of To sun killin nearly all of t e Hui sol iers statione t ere At t e ates of Tur an ro er t ey met an efeate several t ousan more or es from r m i attem te to tra Ya b e s sol iers in a in er movement but faile L k n fell an t e as ar army e e ute t ose t ey took risoner Tur an was un er sie e a ain but now it was full of an ious Hui rat er t an C inese eo le or nine mont s Ya b e s armies besie e t e ity an bombar e it wit annon re Hui i in t e lo es of [

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Su or ers until nally some ose to sue for ea e Mulla M sa Sayr m t e elebrate istorian from u a later re or e ow Ya b e visite tyranny এXOP a ainst t e Hui in is am ai ns by massa rin inno ent Muslims C inese s eakers an se tarians t ou t ey mi t ave been However anot er roni ler w o was an eyewitness to Tur an an a loyal o er in Ya b e s army ro u e a i erent a ount T is writer As r Ak un ara teri es Ya b e as an instrument of Go s usti e ૛DGčODK He es ribes t e Hui emissary sent to ne otiate ea e as a trea er ous Su w o istra te t e o ers w ile a Hui army re are for a sneak atta k After t e battle a vi torious Ya b e for e t e Hui to sell t eir own belon in s to ay for foo an t en mar e t ousan s of t em towar as ar an into slavery Su As r k n asserts are t e wa es of sin w at Hui eo le eserve for bein a ostates T ese two writers Mulla M sa Sayr m an As r Ak un were art of a oo of istori al writin t at emer e as Muslims re e te on t eir own i entities an la e in istory an t e worl T ey also re resent two ositions on i eren e t at were in tension urin t e u risin s an after ile t e lines of on i t were rawn r etori ally between Muslims an non Muslims in fa t t e violen e was fre uently between C inese s eakers an non C inese s eakers Sayr m resents Ya b e s vio len e a ainst Hui as tyranny w ile As r laims it was usti e A ontem orary t e oet Mu amma G ar b S y r similarly oses a istin tion between Musulmans like imself an non Muslims Qč0XVXOPčQ w o ave betraye t e fait namely t e C inese s eakin Muslims of r m i T e nature of Hui eo le s alle e sin was obs ure but as we will see it oul later be as ribe to t eir myt i al ori ins as eo le between C ina an t e Muslim worl To G ar b Ya b e s estru tion of t e Hui was t erefore a means to men t is broken buzuq lan to ur e t e internal t reat wit in t e Muslim ommunity an make it w ole a ain ile Musulmans ara teri e t eir lan as s attere or broken none of t em woul see it men e in t e way t at t ey o e In Au ust t e ian Army mar e a ross Nort in ian uttin Ya b e s for es to i t In May as Ya b e strate i e from is ala e in u a e ie su enly T e ause of eat in retros e t was a stroke but Musul man aut ors be an ointin n ers tryin to i entify some reason w y t e Islami state fell: Sayr m for is art inter rete Ya b e s su en assin as a onse uen e of t e same wrat JKDঋDE t at a le im to [

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massa re inno ent Hui Pro Ya b e roni lers insiste t at e a been oisone er a s by a Hui omman er w o a visite a C inese i ol tem le an rank lt in t e im erial manner .KDTDQUDVPLFKlčQLFKWL violatin Muslim ietary rules before le in oat s to t e C inese Ot ers sus e te a former in o ial w o a serve many masters Niy e of swit in si es on e a ain an ons irin wit t e ian Army to betray Ya b e In t e ensuin aos Ya b e s sons turne a ainst ea ot er w ile is armies fell ba k In Sayr m s wor s T e eo le s atien e was e auste so t ey turne t eir fa es to t e Court of t e Creator t eir eyes brimmin wit tears an wis e for t e Em eror of C ina t eir ries an leas rowin ever lou er or better or worse t eir rayers were answere It was t e mornin of A ril w en t e ian Army arrive in Tur an T e army move ui kly east to west a ross t e valley an its swift mar set eo le in motion At t is moment we oul i entify t ree of t em all of w om were travelin in i erent ire tions: Ab l Ma a youn Musulman man was runnin for t e ills wit is brot ers T ey o e to avoi t e violen e entirely Instea t ey wan ere in un er for several years unable to survive easily in t e new so ial or er A ommon sol ier name Yan en en a C inese s eaker an non Muslim mar e wit t e army He soon settle in t e same town t at Ab l Ma e an t ere e trie an faile to remake imself on t e frontier ei shi a Hui woman was a refu ee s e e t e same army westwar in sear of free om for erself an er family Yet ei shi foun only bon a e an a tivity Tur an fell wit ar ly a t an a new era of re onstru tion be an an era marke by subtler kin s of violen e Over t e ne t t irty years a new kin of C inese ower transforme t e lives of t e eo le of Tur an an of in ian e will revisit Yan en en ei shi an Ab l Ma later in t is book However un erstan in t e ar s of t eir lives will re uire us rst to illuminate a set of istori al ro esses t at transforme in ian s so iety an ulture

Tur an t e Lan of Stran ers ourteen years later on uly sat own wit a man name Ma

a Russian et nolo ist visitin Tur an Ak un an aske im to es ribe is [

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omelan In res onse Ma ounte o t e Si Cities one by one be innin wit t e most istant T ese Si Cities altä shahar by tra itional re konin om rise t e lan of t e Musulmans alt ou some ounte seven or even ei t Ma es ribe t em by t eir o ular ni knames ar to t e west was as ar lan of saints w ere t ose w o rst brou t Islam to t is lan were burie Yarkan lan of masters was known for its Su or ers otan lan of martyrs was t e last to ol out a ainst any invasion in lu in t e C inese re on uest Movin to t e nort Aksu was t e lan of oly warriors an its nei bor u a t e lan of Go s el ers See ma s an inally Ma ame to is ome: Tur an t e lan of stran ers JKDUҸEčQDࠦXU‫ݥ‬čQ T ere is no river in Tur an e e laine T ere is not mu lan nor water but t ere are many s rines Conse uently t ere are many stran ers t ere y stran ers e lari e I mean wan er ers T e terms e use stran er JKDUҸE an wan erer PXVčϮU a or in to is own e lanation in i ate travelers refu ees il rims an va abon s riftin in wret e isolation T ese wor s es ribe Tur an s two fa es well: Pil rims ame from as ar an beyon to visit t e Cave of t e Seven Slee ers a oly s rine believe to be t e la e w ere a

MAP Ma or settlements of in ian Lo ation ata from CHGIS

ir a

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Ma by Evan eline M Glynn

MAP Towns of Tur an ase on a ma in Tulufan zhiliting xiangtuzhi in XTZG Ma by Evan eline M Glynn

rou of believers a taken refu e from a tyranni al ruler an sle t for enturies un er Go s rote tion Ot ers rifte t rou many of t em mi rant laborers or mer ants on t eir way to or from C ina Many more survive as ay laborers Tur an a no reat river an t e weat er oul be evastatin ly ot in t e summer an so a ri ulture an t e liveli oo s of farm laborers e en e on mountain runo Every s rin water tum ble own from t e mountains an into tunnels u ee un er roun to rote t it from eva oration in t e sun s rays T at water fe Tur an s fame vineyar s an t e small farms t at lustere aroun t e tunnels Life was re arious but tena ious T ere is anot er sense in w i Tur an is JKDUҸEčQD solitary One oul travel t rou t e rest of t e Si Cities wit out rossin mountains as t ey forme a semi ir le of oases aroun t e e anse of esert in t e eart of Sout ern in ian Tur an owever was se arate from t e rest: to et t ere from u a one woul nee to take a lon ourney eastwar a ross t e territory of a non Muslim Tor ut Mon ol rin e T en one woul ross t e Desert Mountains Chöl Tagh an es en into t e se on ee est eolo i al e ression in t e worl As tra itional wis om [

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a it in u a t e roa to Tur an was a es erate one To make it a abit meant ermanent se aration from one s family a or in to one sayin for lon enou t at a man s wife oul ivor e im in absentia T e ara teri ation is somew at y erboli but it s eaks to t e sense of Tur an as a subre ion t at was simultaneously isolate from an intimately onne te wit its nei bors In ee Tur an was well travele as it lay on one of t e few assable routes from C ina ro er As t e row ies Tur an was not far from t e in arrison town at r m i w i was later ma e t e rovin ial a i tal an rename Di ua rom t ere one oul travel to t e small mostly C inese tra in settlements t at otte t e Nort T is fa t ma e Tur an a riti al un ture between Nort an Sout an between C ina an Cen tral Asia However to travel to Di ua an beyon re uire traversin t e mountain ass at Dawan in T e Tur an De ression was t us a annel but also an im e iment a oke oint in t e movement of oo s eo le an i eas Tur an s eo ra i al betweenness makes it interestin for t is stu y as a la e w ere eo le w o s oke i erent lan ua es an ra ti e i erent reli ions en ountere ea ot er fre uently T e ar ive makes it lear t at even as Tur an re overe from t e re on uest C i nese Hui an Musulmans were livin in t e same ourtyar s suin ea ot er for t e ri ts to ro erty an as we will see s arin omes an be s as well Yet Tur an was no multi ultural uto ia As of t e valley a a o ulation of rou ly forty t ousan an it rose only to seventy t ousan or so by as eo le returne settle an re ro u e T e ian Army t at went beyon t e Pass onsiste of some si ty t ousan sol iers er a s alf of w om staye in Tur an for a year or more ile t e army was meant to sustain itself by farmin t is was not ossible in mu of in i an an arti ularly i ult in Tur an T ey t erefore relie on mostly Tian inese mer ants to su ly t em wit rain from C ina ro er an Russia Grain ri es remaine i for a few years but ra ually fell on e o ials im lemente t e system of ranaries an ri e re ulations famil iar from C ina ro er Grain ri es a ear to ave stabili e by w en t e rovin e a to lower its own ri es to mat t ose on t e mar ket In t e meantime owever t e s ar ity an e ense of foo for e eo le to seek alternate means of survival C inese s eakin mer ants an former sol iers w ile not ri ten e to be mu wealt ier t an [

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Turki s eakin Muslims an ossess reater a ess to t e ower of t e state T ose Musulmans w o were not bilin ual foun t emselves e lu e from key se tors of t e new e onomy as well as from t e rovin ial oliti o uri i al system of a ministration le by C inese s eakers w i was im ose on t eir omelan Hui often ste e in as interme iaries an el e C inese eo le se ure e onomi ominan e over Musulmans Pre atory mer ants an len ers usually C inese el Musulman farm ers an laborers in ebt Demobili e ian Army sol iers ur ase es erate Musulman women as wives to serve t em an bear t em il ren A Musulman w o oul a a t to C inese settler ulture an en a e wit t e rovin ial overnment was t erefore at a reat a vanta e in t is envi ronment an t e ivili in ro e t establis e institutions of e u ation t at rovi e a ess to lan ua e skills to some eo le Yet t e C inese s eakin Musulman inter reters w o emer e from t ese s ools were also re ar e wit sus i ion alt ou less so t an t e Musulman women w o a intimate relations i s wit C inese men w o were ostra i e from t e ommunity Musulman writers ame to label t ese trans ressors of boun aries Chantou Chantou is a C inese wor meanin wra e ea w i C inese o ials an settlers alike use to refer to Turki s eakin Muslims In Musulman is ourse a Chantou erson o u ie an unt ink able la e wit in t e ya s of reli ion an lan ua e t rou w i Musulmans an C inese alike were omin to un erstan in ian so i ety: C inese s eakin non Muslims C inese or Han C inese s eakin Muslims Hui an Turki s eakin Muslims Musulmans were now oine by Turki s eakin eo le w o a eare to ave be ome non Muslims ere t e ian Army inten e for Turki Muslims to assimilate lin uisti ally an ulturally be omin C inese s eakin non Muslims t e ivili in ro e t instea fostere t e Chantou w o be ame t e internal Ot er a ainst w om Musulmans arti ulate an oli e rmer ommunal boun aries Here a ain t e om arison wit Euro Ameri an olonialisms su ests avenues for e lorin t e istory of rou ness beyon t e sear for t e nation state In ren est Afri a a iti en of t e Re ubli w o was nev ert eless enie t eir ri ts on a ount of ra e oul use t e i eolo y of oloni ation t e Euro ean laim to ivili e to e tra t ertain on essions from t e relu tant oloni er T rou out t is book Musulman sub e ts make laims on t e basis of t eir im erial sub e t oo as it oul be [

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arti ulate un er t e ivili in ro e t t rou areful a ts of re resenta tion T e rovin ial a ministration s lan ua e of belon in was owerful A erson oul ain ower by invokin t e is ourse of im erial sub e t oo an Confu ian atriar y or be ome a sub e t of ower w en ma e to s eak in t at same lan ua e Conse uently eo le inverte t e ivili in ro e t by usin its is ourses to oli e ommunal boun aries an unis trans ressions T ose trans ressions t emselves were intimately relate to t e roblem of e onomi ine uality t e is ossession of Musul mans from t eir lan an ro erty t rou ebt an t e ob e ti ation of Musulman bo ies I t erefore seek to emonstrate in t is book t at rou ness in late in in ian arose rst from a sort of estran ement alienation from t e self from so iety an seemin ly from one s la e in istory an t e osmos an se on from t e naturali ation of t at estran ement t rou t e mobili ation of is ourses about self sub e t oo an istory T ose is ourses about self emer e from an entan lement of elite an i eties about lass wit ulturalist i eas of i eren e in a arti ular intelle tual an so ial onte t in C ina ro er s e i ally in t e rovin e of Hunan urin an after t e ivil wars of t e mi nineteent entury T e Tai in ar was a ru ible for a new kin of oliti s as elites forme new mo ern armies roote in lo al so ial institutions an i entities Amon t em was t e ian Army w ose lea ers i was intimately on ne te to t e s e i Neo Confu ian iloso ies e oun e at t e Yuelu A a emy in t e rovin ial a ital of C an s a T e ian Army not only was re ite wit t e efeat of t e in em ire s internal enemies but also was also a ief a ent of ostbellum re onstru tion shanhou Re on stru tion was a ro e t not sim ly of ysi al rebuil in but of so ial an moral re ti ation re i ate on t e i ea t at C ina was in aos be ause its eo le a straye from t e ort o o be aviors of t e ast T ese new lea ers were arti ularly sus i ious of lower lass men s otential for vio len e an t e se ual mores of lower lass women bot of w i t ey attem te to ontrol Later w en t e ian Army mar e nort west towar in ian its lea ers were alrea y rime wit i eas about Muslims as eo le on t e e e of ivili ation similar to t e une u ate men an women w om t ey sou t to save in C ina ro er T e beliefs surroun in i eren e an ivili ation t at motivate t e ian Army s members an t at t ey use to om re en w at t ey fa e in in ian ombine an [

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intelle tual ro ram t at emer e in t e a a emy wit a o ular sense of millennial isaster an t e nee for onservative Neo Confu ian revival C ina s re onstru tion from t e oast of t e Sout C ina Sea to as ar on t e t res ol of t e Pamirs was t us a ro ess in w i new elites attem te a transformation of t e em ire an its eo le T e so io ultural le a y of re onstru tion in C ina ro er not unlike t at of Ameri an Re onstru tion ontinue to s a e lives memories an i entities lon after ust as C inese elites saw t e so alle Muslim u risin s of t e Nort west an in ian as art an ar el of t e same isor er t at brou t about t e Tai in war so i in ian s re onstru tion follow t e met o s t ey a establis e in C ina ro er However t e ian Army s te ni ues of moral re ti ation ori inally ire te a ross ori ontal boun aries of lass arti ulate wit lin uisti an reli ious i eren e in ways t at rei e verti al boun aries between rou s In t is sense Land of Strangers seeks to isentan le ertain establis e i eas about et nonational i entity an t e bor erlan s t at ave been ose at a more abstra t level of analysis w ile onne tin et ni ity an rou ness instea to every ay ro esses of ne otiation t at were never t eless onne te to t e broa er reima inin of t e ommunity T is is a subtle istin tion but im ortant for ow we un erstan t e late in : T e ian Army an t e Hunanese intelle tual ommunity t at onstitute an surroun e it ave been ara teri e as key a tors in t e reation of a rotonational C inese i entity To be lear it woul be a mistake to ara teri e t e ian Army in in ian as strai tforwar ly national rat er t eir arti ulations of i entity an ro e t of transformation belon e more to t e is ourse of C ineseness or elite Confu ian i entity t at some s olars all ivili ational T ese mo es of is ourse were an remain in tension in mo ern C ina an late in in ian s ows one way t at t is tension was reali e in ra ti e Civili ational is ourses on t e level of oli y an i eolo y informe re o ni ably et nonational mo es of i enti ation on t e level of o ular ra ti e

On Namin I must t erefore ask t e rea er to bear in min t at all of t e labels use in t is book were un er ne otiation T e lines of estran ement were unstable [

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as terms aine new so ial meanin s w ile s e in ot ers T e im li it meanin of Musulman in was I woul ar ue i erent from w at it meant in an t e same was true of Hui an C inese However t e fa t t at t e relations i s between wor s an t eir referents was un er onstant ne otiation oses ertain roblems for writin istory es e ially w en eo le s ifte between ate ories often out of a resear er s si t e mi t onsi er t e ase of Mu amma Na m alias Lin S en tian Mu amma Na m was e en in on t e onte t a Hui mer ant a lo al Musulman lea er or a re resentative of t e ritis Ra from In ia In anot er uise e oul easily ave been onsi ere a non Muslim C inese All e en e on is self resentation an ability to take a vanta e of im e rial interests T erefore t is book is areful to use t e labels t at eo le ave t emselves an ot ers an to fo us on t e relational imensions of namin rat er t an seekin stable i entities T is is to say not in of t e multi le terms for rou s of eo le use in i erent lan ua es Take for e am le t e term Hui use in En lis an C i nese to esi nate C inese s eakin Muslims alt ou it was on e use in C inese to in i ate Muslims in eneral an now refers to an et ni rou wit in C ina s formal lassi ation an institutionali ation of et ni ities as of in in ian in C inese o uments it usually referre to C inese s eakin Muslims In C a atay meanw ile writers alle su eo le 'ࡃQJčQ All of t ese labels t erefore ointe not to a e ob e t in t e worl but to t e same onteste on e t Hui was not an et ni ity so mu as a s iftin osition in a el of relations i s T e same is true of C inese or in late in o uments Han C a atay te ts referre to .KLࠃč\ an alt ou t e term lon before erive from a eo ra i al an et ni label for t e itans of Nort C ina it learly refers in t is erio to a s iftin osition of C inese or t at matter C inese s eakin non Muslims were fre uently labele sim ly ommoner min in i atin t eir er eive status as normative im erial sub e ts To refer se arately to .KLࠃč\ ness an C ineseness an Han ness or Hui ness an 'ࡃQJčQ ness as se arate on e ts woul intro u e a false istin tion T ere were myria ways of onstruin C ineseness an Hui ness t at were in ne otiation a ross lan ua es e may say t e same about Musulman ness ren ere in C a atay as 0XVXOPčQFKLOLT in ontrast to Chantou ness or Chantoluq Musulman ness was e ne in art ositively t rou a set of ra ti es an ara teristi s [

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but it was most mobili e in ya i relations i s over an a ainst Hui ness an C ineseness formin a relational tria Chantou was an e li itly trans lin ual term: in C inese it ointe to t e osition of Turki Muslim but in C a atay to a Turki Muslim be omin a ostate Nevert eless we later n eo le a o tin t is seemin ly erisive label for t emselves an t eir own ommunity T is relations i was art of an on oin ro ess of is tin tion an it is to t at ro ess t at we must atten T is book is also inevitably boun u in a oliti s of namin an sim ly referrin to t e re ion in uestion by name im lies a oliti al stan e So far I ave alle t is la e in ian be ause t at is t e name by w i most eo le know it However to many Uy urs an ot er Turki Muslims t e name in ian is la en wit t e wei t of olonial o ression in i an after all means new frontier an to all it as su means i entify in it rimarily as C ina s bor erlan Instea East Turkestan as be ome many Uy urs referre to onym T e term as a vanta es: it a tures t e eo ra i al istin tiveness of t e re ion simultaneously wit its inter onne tion wit t e est Turkestan of Central Asia T e C inese Party state of ourse o oses t e term on t e roun s t at usin it romotes et nonational se aratism In t is book I use bot terms Xinjiang an (DVW7XUNHVWDQ but not uite inter an eably T is is be ause rst t e istin t a ministrative stru ture an territorial boun aries t at ave ma e u in ian in t e eyes of C ina base states alon wit t e o ular an o ial ima inations of t at la e were istori ally si ni ant T e reation an maintenan e of a t in alle in ian a a rofoun im a t on t e lives of eo le in t e la e is usse in t is book T erefore w en I refer to in ian I mean in ian as an assembla e of i eas an ra ti es a overnmental a ara tus e ten in over a ertain territory an t e ways t at eo le t ou t about it an a ro ess of estru tion an reation in ian is t e to own formation of t is la e its reterritoriali ation as a C inese s a e Moreover writers in C a atay fre uently use t is name ren ere 6KҸQJ -čQJ to label t e re ion arti ularly w en referrin to C inese a minis tration an eo ra y In ontrast I use East Turkestan to em asi e a Turki Muslim ers e tive an envisionin an onstitution of t is la e from t e roun u East Turkestan oints to t e ra ti es t at were often invisible to t e rovin ial overnment yet boun eo le to et er in a territorial formation t at was overla in wit but not e uivalent to t e [

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C inese a ministration T e issonan e between in ian an East Turkestan is near t e eart of t is story Moreover I am obli e in t is book to s eak about Islam an Confu ianism neit er of w i in its so ial an ultural onte ts was or is a sin le stable t in I efer to t e istori al a tors en ountere in t is book on t eir own e nitions of t emselves an t eir tra itions In t e onte t of East Turkestan Islam enerally in i ate Sunni Islam followin t e Hana madhhab ombine wit a number of ra ti es t at ten to be asso iate more wit S ia Islam but entere on a iolatry an a io ra y il rima e to t e s rines of Islami saints an en a ement wit t eir sa re bio ra ies Confu ianism similarly ointe to a set of intelle tual tra itions an ritual ra ti es t at were base on tea in s set own in s ri ture be innin wit Confu ius S olars to ay woul i entify t e kin of Confu ianism a tive in in ian as Neo Confu ianism w i bot ur orte to re is over t e i eals of t e lassi Confu ian t inkers an rovi e a set of rules of life t at be ame e emoni in t e late im e rial erio Of ourse a erents of eit er woul sim ly es ribe t eir own ra ti e as Islam or Confu ianism Ru or in even more essential terms T is is a book not about e nin w at Islam is or was or w at Confu ian ism is or was but about e lorin t e ui ity of eo le s i enti ations wit eit er one

T e Stru ture of t e ook T is book is e e tively in t ree arts: art onsistin of a ters an is a istory of t e so ial intelle tual an oliti al ori ins an a tivities of t e re onstru tion overnment C a ters an e lore t e so io ultural e e ts of t e ian Army s oli ies an t eir im lementation s owin ow t e institutions of assimilation instea rei e boun aries between rou s C a ters an illuminate t e an es t at followe in istori al ima inations an on e ts of i eren e in C inese an Islami is ourses C a ter resents t e so io iloso i al ori ins of a ivili in ro e t t at sou t to ameliorate i eren e but instea rei e it I ar ue t at t e ian Army s oli ies in in ian ori inate in t e t ou t of t e so alle state raft jingshi ommunity of a tivists in C an s a Hunan in t e early nineteent entury T eir i eolo y was s a e in turn by t e [

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ommunity s e erien es urin an after t e Tai in war e ause mem bers of t is ommunity le t e re on uest an re onstru tion of in ian an C ina s Nort west t ey a t e o ortunity means an motives to ena t t eir onservative reformist oli ies on a ulturally non C inese o ulation T e entral oal was so iomoral transformation base on an inter retation of t e notion of rites or ritual li be innin wit t e at tern of familial relations i s C a ter ontinues t at narrative to retell t e story of in ian s oliti al istory in t e late in t rou t e ian Army ominate overn ment s a li ations of jingshi solutions to emer in rises I ar ue t at t e overnment onstrue an treate in ian as a one of e e tion an t at t e nature of t e e e tion an e alon wit t e ommunity as it re ro u e itself over time Ea allen e eli ite an ine e tive oli y res onse t at reate new institutional stru tures but i not se ure ontrol of t em allowin Musulman an Hui sub e ts to take a vanta e of t e state s low a a ity an enetration Eventually wit t e intervention of t e ei in ourt in ian s jingshi re ime ave way to an e li itly olonialist a roa t at was still am ere by a la k of fun tionin institutions C a ter moves more ee ly into t e Tur an ar ive an intro u es skille mani ulators of ultural an lin uisti i eren e t e inter reters C inese tongshi C a atay tongchi T e ian Army inten e to see Mus lim so iety wit Confu ian values as t ey inter rete t em by trainin a eneration of youn Musulman men in C inese lan ua e an t e Classi s Instea I ar ue t is ro e t of transformation t rou e u ation jiao hua reate a lass of bi uent interme iaries w o mani ulate t e state to t eir own en s T e inter reters be ame in is ensable: C inese ma is trates were almost totally in a able of o eratin in an environment t at was so ulturally an lin uisti ally i erent from t eir la es of ori in an t ey stru le to lo ate loyal interme iaries T e inter reters be ame not moral atriar s but fun tionaries an some even limbe t e la er i er T e inter reters su ess ause resentment amon Musulmans w o e en e on t em for ommuni ation wit C inese aut orities T at resentment was re e te in a istin t so ial ersona t at emer e in Musulman is ourse aintin t e tongchi as a sus i ious ivisive ure an a kin of C antou C a ter turns to t e ot er si e of t e ivili in ro e t s en ere e e ts T e ian Army in its e orts to transform t e Muslim family [

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for ibly resettle women into new marria es an romote C inese family norms arti ularly t rou t e ult of wi ow astity I ar ue t at t e ivili in ro e t s ultural an se ual violen e interse te wit e onomi ine ualities between C inese sol iers Hui mer ants an or inary Musul mans an so en oura e bot tra kin in women an its i eolo i al us ti ation T e e an e of one s own an ot ers omesti se ual an re ro u tive labor was a strate y for survival urin a time of u eaval an one t at a a te ree istin ustoms in East Turkestan but it was also a ve tor of on i t between ommunities C inese an Musulman elites bot use t e institutions of t e ivili in ro e t to oli e ommunal boun aries by unis in women w o rosse t em omen s se uality t e ontrol of w i was riti al to t e maintenan e of atriar y be ame entral to an emer in meta or of es ent use to e ne t e Musulman ommunity C a ter on erns t e oliti s of olle tive memory in t e wake of war I ar ue t at t e Muslim u risin s an re on uest were e erien e a ross ommunities as istori al trauma C inese lan ua e an C a atay lan ua e te ts ran in from e ositions to oems to roni les ure an t e events t at followe as a isaster tribulation or s atterin a time w en an ima ine ea eful a e was lost forever T e ruins of war an uman remains an ust as si ni antly t e absen e t ereof be ame owerful sites for is ourses of loss an re overy t rou w i eo le arti ulate new olle tive rievan es an i entities entere on ommon es ent C a ter s ifts more fully into t e C a atay lan ua e manus ri t tra ition an t e oliti s of Islami istory writin I ar ue t at an es in t e narrative of t e ori ins of t e worl s eo les an t e arrival of Islam in C ina re e te t e s e i on erns of Musulmans un er ian Army rule in t e wake of on i t T at is myt o istori al te ts were rewritten in ways t at naturali e t e im erial or er as it was ima ine to ave e iste before t e Muslim u risin s In istory writin t e em eror of C ina be ame a ust ruler in t e Perso Islami mo e an rote tor of t e S aria T rou t e is ourse of a lost ol en a e an t e stru le to re over it Muslim writers re ure t e relations i between eo les an soverei n as one of lost family Musulmans internal Ot ers boun ary rossin women an inter reters be ame si ns of a s attere an un ust worl interme iaries w ere none a e iste or been ne essary before

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ONE

T e C inese Law The Origins of the Civilizing Project

ON ULY Ney Elias was in Yarkan on a mission of re onnaissan e for t e ritis Ra Elias o ine in a re ort to is su eriors t at t e C inese o u ation alt ou e ee in ly a ri ious me le some an evoi of rin i le at least from t e ers e tive of t is areer ritis a ent was e i e ly not a bloo y rule not even a ruel one Nev ert eless Elias observe some stran e intera tions t at to im e oe ritis rule in In ia T e lowest of C inese sol iers e observe ri es own t e Mussulman or las es im wit is w i if e n s im in t e way in t e street e a resses im by inferior ronouns in onversation or swa ers into is ouse or Yamen an a ro riates t e most onourable seat wit out a wor of remonstran e T at is t e rule of t e C inese over Musulmans a eare arbitrary an Elias note wit on ern t at t ese abuses resemble t ose of w i In ians a use t e ritis Moreover Elias e laine su arbitrariness was loake in t e mantle of law One s e i ra ti e stoo out: women w o overe t eir fa es are liable to ave t e veil torn from t eir fa es by t e rst C inese sol ier w o a ens to ass wit t e remark t at t e ustom is not in a or an e wit t e C i nese li T is li t is sim le but eni mati syllable aunte t e Musulman un er stan in of t e C inese state in t e late in re isely be ause it in i ate a set of i eas an ra ti es at t e ore of t e ian Army s ivili in ro e t T is a ter establis es t e intelle tual an so ial onte t of t at [

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ro e t by e lorin t e meanin s t at li took on over t e ourse of its evo lution In t e Neo Confu ian iloso y t at t e army s lea ers a stu ie li ⿞ ointe to t e rites t e om le of normative so ial relations an ritual ra ti es t at an e uman bein s an t e osmos for t e better T is on e t was arti ulate as art of a t eory of ivili ational an e Yet it also aine a o ular meanin as a kin of essential C ine seness e ne over an a ainst t e in s internal enemies in t e mi nineteent entury To Musulman observers li t erefore a eare to stan for a law like system erive from s ri ture t at s e i ally on erne matters of family ritual an tea in a C inese S aria T is a ter tra es t e enealo y of t e ian Army s ro e t ba k to t e iloso i al an oliti al milieu of t e Min in transition in w i t ere emer e an antile al moralisti stan e alon si e a vision roote in t e Classi s of C ina as ivili ation an territory Over t e ne t two enturies t at osition aine institutional su ort an substan e as a s olarly ommunity in Hunan evelo e t ose i eas into t e main stream of so alle state raft jingshi t ou t e will see ow t e army s lans for in ian rew out of a s e i ali nment of interests an i eas wit in jingshi t ou t arti ularly wit re ar to Muslims family an law T ose i eas rystalli e in t e i eolo i al statements of uo on tan t e ar ite t of in ian s re onstru tion uo s t eories an e in t e ourse of ra ti e an t e ian Army s mana ement of Muslims in S aan i an Gansu s a e t e lea ers i s i eas about ivili ation T ere is a istorio ra i al ten en y to frame uo s a tivities an t ose of is om atriots in terms of C ina s mo erni ation an t e emer en e of nationalism After all uo imself was res onsible for a number of innova tions in t e in em ire s military infrastru ture His a tivities on t e w ole seem mo ern in t e sense of intro u in new te nolo ies to ma imi e resour e e tra tion as in Gansu w ere e e an e minin o erations an establis e amon ot er fa ilities an arsenal an a woolen mill T e view from ust beyon t e Great all owever looks very i er ent In in ian uo s te nolo i al interventions were fo use on makin t e re ion e onomi ally in e en ent an a able of su ortin an i eal a ri ultural so iety t at woul foster oo family morality In ee to Musulmans rovin ial re onstru tion looke less like mo erni ation an nationalism an more like a reli ious ivili in ro e t e will t erefore

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be in wit t e insi ts of Musulman observers w ose e i tions of li reveal often overlooke as e ts of ian Army i eolo y

Law

it out Law: T e Mystery of Li

estern observer of various ba k roun s w o learne about li in in ian t rou Musulman interlo utors all ara teri e it as a form of law Even t e lin uist Denison Ross translate t e wor li as law es ite av in written besi e it in is own an t e C inese ara ter for rites Ort o o Confu ians woul ob e t to su a ara teri ation as woul Denison s Sinolo i al ontem oraries After all Confu ius imself on traste o i e law w i re els eo le from oo ness t rou unis ment wit t e rites w i subtly brin eo le to o oo by evelo in t eir sense of ri t an wron In ee t e on e t of t e rites is so ubi uitous an entral to Confu ian t ou t as to be almost unnoti eable in t e C inese onte t an it as taken on a broa s e trum of meanin s over time w i oul be ren ere in En lis as anyt in from ro ri ety to om ortment to oliteness or t e late in An ela ito s ef inition of li is a t: ways of bein uman t at are onsi ere ne essary to t e workin s of t e osmos as well as its embe e so ial or er in lu in everyt in from ow to ress to ow to venerate an estors Li unite osmi rin i le wit ra ti al be avior by means of rules t at were on si ere riti al to t e maintenan e of a oo an or ere so iety Never t eless t e ways in w i t e ian Army attem te to in ul ate t e Musulmans wit li reveale a si e of li t at normative iloso y obs ures its law like uality: its arti ulation of a set of abstra t ate ories an restri tions on be avior t at eman e im osition on t e aoti reality of life t rou systemati san tions Early in t e army s o u ation all Muslims were ma e to bow to a er tain la ar ra e wit w ite silk t at was la e at re ular intervals alon t e i way T is la ar was a ubli is lay of t e an i em er or s ro lamation 6KHQJ\X VKLOLX WLDR from w i uo on tan or ere in to be istribute a ross t e re ion ust as e a in Gansu T e ro lamation was to be oste alon every ma or roa an on t e walls of every ity an rea alou in every s ool an by every villa e ea man

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T is te t blen s e ortations t at su er ially enfor e t e aut ority of o i e law wit t ose t at s eak to a more fun amental set of Confu ian values: brin ea e to t e villa e fa tions to ut an en to lawsuits e an s ools to brin about s olarly stu y e lain t e law to a mon is t e i norant an stubborn illuminate oo manners to ee en oo ustoms en false a usations to brin about t e oo an so on In fa t w at t e an i e i t ro e ts is t e foun ational Confu ian belief t at in a well or ere an moral so iety law is unne essary an even armful T e C a atay translation of t e e i t owever was resente as t e essen e of an untranslate syllable li ointin to an ot erwise un e ne abstra t on e t to w i Musulmans were nonet eless re uire to atten T e e erien e of t e enfor ement of li emonstrate t at t is on e t was boun u wit normative C inese be aviors To return to Elias s obser vation t e li t at t e ian Army enfor e a no obvious onne tion to t e in Co e t e e tensive olle tion of statues an substatutes t at s e i e infra tions an unis ments In as ar t e ra ti al enfor e ment of li meant t at sol iers tore t e veils from Muslim women s fa es an ot erwise im ose an arbitrary re ime of C inese su eriority over Muslim sub e ts None of t e be aviors t at Elias es ribe was omman e by any known or er from t e ian Army lea ers i nor were t ey to be foun amon t e myria statutes of t e in Co e However t ey emon strate ow or inary sol iers inter rete t eir ominion over t e Muslims as one of for in Muslims to res e t im li it an e li it norms an rules of be avior It a eare t at w atever a C inese erson believe to be ro er was im li itly also li e mi t all t is Sino normativity : a so io oliti al stan e t at romotes an e li it or ommonsensi al i ea of essential C ineseness even as t at i ea is un er ne otiation Li foun furt er arti ulation in one of t e ian Army s rst ubli a tions in in ian a translation of a moral rimer written in An ui in T is rimer was meant to e li ate t e an i e i t an illustrate its moral rin i les t rou arables e er te from t e o ular 7ZHQW\)RXU)LOLDO Exemplars Ershisi xiao T ose arables in turn were s own to be manifeste in sele te non onse utive statutes an substatutes from t e in Co e fo use on family relations In C inese t e e e t was to emonstrate t at fun amental moral rin i les erive from t e rites foun e ression in o i e law T e ori inal C inese te t t at a be ome t e %RRNRI/L was a [

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arti ular favorite of t e ian Army ommunity w i romote its usa e amon ommoners in Hunan w ere it oine ot er Confu ian reviv alist te ts in romotin an austere new morality fo use on family an salvation en t e te t was translate into C a atay owever several t in s an e about its resentation: irst t e translators re a te se tions of t e rimer in or er to fo us t e te t even more narrowly on family values Se on in t e C a atay version t e alternation between enres be omes totally un lear as stories an statutes blen into one T e intermin lin of narrative an o e is enfor e by t e lunky un rammati al translation as t e translator attem te to s oe orn C a atay wor s into t e onven tions of Literary C inese writin an t e e uliar synta of t e le al o e Naturally a Musulman rea er or listener unfamiliar wit t e intri a ies of t e in Co e woul take it to be a sin le te t an ins rutable s ri ture In ee t e title was ren ere as /ҸNLWčEL w i sim ly meant %RRNRI/L leavin t e meanin of t is riti al syllable obs ure en urb n Al li t e er e tive an roli s olar w o was t en t e ief Islami u e of Tarba atai was aske about t e meanin of li e re lie t at li bot ivi e eo le into istin t lasses an s e i e or oral an ar eral unis ments for various infra tions In ot er wor s it was law like as emonstrate by t e new overnment s lear em asis on morality base on s ri ture an willin ness to enfor e it t rou violen e li was not alone in t is un erstan in His ontem orary an interlo utor Mulla M sa Sayr m e an e on su observa tions t rou a more t orou oin om arison of li wit S aria t rou w i e lent te tual evi en e in su ort of a o ular un erstan in He resents li as t e rules Tč૛LGD of t e new re ime of t e ian Army in on trast to t e re ulations of t e Lifanyuan t e in o e t at mana e t e em ire s non rovin ial territories in in ian Mon olia Man uria an Tibet T e Lifanyuan belon e to t e im erial ast w ile li marke t e rovin ial resent T e Lifanyuan is e i te as a rational sour e of us ti e as it rovi es bot an institutional me anism for ommon eo le to seek usti e a ainst o ials w o wron t em an a onsistent set of rules t rou w i t e em eror isburses t at usti e Li in ontrast a ears in Sayr m s te t as a set of moral rules for life akin to t e S aria It is re sente as a system of aternalisti are t e norms t at bin t e a tions of C inese o ials as well as a moral for e e uivalent to t e S aria [

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Sayr m attem ts to emonstrate as mu t rou is a ount of an ient C inese istory in w i e re ounts t at t e C inese eo le say t at t ey believe in t e S aria of L n He refers to L an ian iya w o laye a key role in foun in t e estern ou ynasty onsi ere t e ol en a e an mo el for all ynas ties t at followe rom t is ers e tive L an s an ient C inese S a ria is a orru te revelation a system of rules an ate ories t at is S aria like in its basis in awe s ri ture Sayr m e an s u on t is om arison by emonstratin t rou enealo y t at t e le en ary ures of t e an ient C inese ast were likewise t ose w o were sai to ave live after t e loo in Islami istory Et no ra i evi en e su orts t e i ea t at ot ers onsi ere li to be akin to S aria Su a ara teri a tion in t e onte t of Islami le en s of t e ori ins of eo les an of sa re knowle e oses C inese law as an earlier revelation t at re e e t at of Mu amma er a s a orru tion of Mosai law T e om arison of li an S aria invites us to leave Euro entri on e tions of law asi e an onsi er ow a Muslim intelle tual stee e in Cen tral Asian tra itions woul ave seen t e in state an its late in muta tion To be lear S aria is not re isely law in t e normative Continental or An lo Ameri an sense Rat er we may un erstan it to be Go s will on Eart as is erne t rou s ri ture t is an be many t in s amon t em a ve i le to t e reater un erstan in of ivine Trut as well as a ui e to livin a or in to Go s wis es In t e an s of a u e TčঋҸ or an e ert in uris ru en e PXIWҸ it is ertainly a means to establis an enfor e abstra t an eneral ate ories u on t e messiness of life Yet S aria an also be ontraste wit ot er law like systems o eratin alon si e it: In t ose la es w ere Muslims ave live un er non Muslim rule arti ularly in Asia after t e Mon ol on uests S aria ame to be istin uis e from ynasti law Dynasti law or sultani law often alle TčQࡃQ enerally onsiste of royal e rees an mi t in lu e a for mal le al o e an w ile ynasti law notionally nee e to be in a or an e wit S aria t e fri tion between t e systems was wi ely a knowl e e A or in to Sayr m s analo y if t e re ulations of t e Lifanyuan onstitute t e o i e law of t e in em ire by w i t e em eror oul ro u e rational usti e t en li was akin to t e S aria wit in t e C inese onte t In ee in Sayr m s a ount t e Lifanyuan re ulations are alle TčQࡃQ w ile t e li om rises rules Tč૛LGD re e tin a lassi al [

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istin tion between t e two systems Sayr m su ests t at w ereas t e earlier in re ime ossesse t e or inary tension between S aria an TčQࡃQ t e new in re ime instea ose a om etition between S aria an a orru te revelation e will see t rou out t e followin a ters t at Sayr m s analo y was er e tive as t e ian Army sus en e t e in Co e in favor of enfor in t eir inter retation of t e rites as an alternative law like system Pre isely su a on e t of li un erlay t e ian Army s ivili in mission t eir renewe belief in t e Confu ian elite s res onsibility to transmit t eir norms an institutions to ot ers ile Confu ians a ar uably os sesse t is rive for as lon as t ere a been Confu ianism for t e ian Army t ese ra ti es an beliefs now took on a new ur en y as it was ose as t e ief means to restore t e rima y of a C inese ivili ation t at t ese Confu ians felt to be fa in an e istential t reat not ust from wit out but from wit in T is mission was ire te not only towar t e une u ate t e oor an t ose members of t e family w om elite men onsi ere subor inate to t e atriar but also outwar ly beyon t e eo ra i al boun aries of C inese ivili ation

T e Intelle tual Ori ins of t e Civili in Mission T e ian Army s em asis on li an t e ne essity of so iomoral transfor mation rior to ot er forms of evelo ment was ar ly innovative in itself Alt ou many self es ribe Confu ians el e reate t e aut or itarian i eolo ies of im erial C ina t e i ea t at or erin t e worl be an wit t e in ivi ual an t e family t e basi buil in blo k of lo al so iety an not wit t e em eror a lon been entral to Confu ian t ou t Yet t e s e i form of i eolo y t at t e ian Army a lie in in ian arose from t e ebates of t e late Min T e is or er an tyranny t at literati er eive t en an urin t e violent Min in transition t at followe an t e solutions t ey a van e for t e ills of t eir time ire tly informe evelo ments in t e nineteent entury In t e followin a es we will outline t ose in uen es t at were most si ni ant for t e ian Army s rule of in ian T e relevan e of late Min t ou t to t e e orts of C ina s onservative reformers to save t e em ire in t e nineteent entury is well o umente [

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Min military writin s rofoun ly in uen e t e or ani ation of t e ian Army arti ularly t rou an em asis on stron inter ersonal relation s i s between members of units an t e nee for militias to maintain lo al roots At t e same time t e militia or ani ations t emselves re e te institutional ontinuities t at a survive t e Min in transition T e revival of lo al militias an t eir transformation into t e new armies t at won t e in ivil wars in lu in t e ian Army are t us often e i te as a trium of a uni uely C inese tra ition of ra ti al t ou t over t e ossi e institutions of t e Man u ourt T is a arent ra ti ality is on si ere a allmark of t e so alle state raft jingshi s ool of t ou t in w i t e ian Army s lea ers i was ee ly en a e Some elements ersiste t rou e u ational institutions w ile ot ers were revive t rou t e stu y of te ts atin to t e Min in transition T ose i eas lent jingshi t ou t a set of ore beliefs t at were not ra ti al in t e sense of ra ti al learnin shixue w i t e movement also em asi e Here we will fo us on t ose i eas t at rovi e t e jingshi ommunity wit a sense of mission a mission to or er t e worl as we may more literally translate jingshi an of t eir own role as literati in t at uest T e late Min witnesse renewe iloso i al ebates about t e nature of law t e nee for e u ation an t e role of Confu ian s olars in or er in t e worl Dominant urrents of Confu ian t ou t el t at one oul erform orre t a tion an is over meta ysi al trut t rou nature an ontem lation alone but many blame t is i ea for t e rise of tyranni al em erors an orru t ministers At t e same time many t inkers on lu e t at t e Min was foun e on a ras in auto ra y maske by an in reasin ly om li ate le al o e inally t e visible ominan e of or ru t eunu s at t e Min ourt rom te literati to oin reformist fa tions base at a a emies amon t em t e Don lin A a emy w ose artisans sou t to restore t e moral aut ority of s olars an t e tra ition t ey u el en t e Man u in inva e t e Min owever many Don lin reformists an t eir intelle tual kin foun t emselves in a i ult osi tion: avin been re e te by t e orru t Min ourt t ey now fou t a ainst t e in inva ers as well It seeme as t ou no monar oul brin ea e to all un er Heaven an t at t is res onsibility lay instea in t e an s of e u ate men Two s olars Huan on i an an u i stan out in t is erio for t eir systemati ation of t e anti statist moralisti [

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i eas t at su reformists enerally el an t at in uen e t e jingshi rou an ian Army lea ers i later on Mo ern s olars i owever as often mis onstrue Huan an an s entral laims arti ularly by la in t em in a enealo y of rotonationalist t ou t T is is ue in art to nationalist intelle tuals own a ro riation of Huan an an s writin s at t e turn of t e twentiet entury but also to an unfortunate ten en y on t e art of estern s olars sear in for t e ori ins of nationalism to a e t t ose laims Ot ers in Mainlan C ina an Taiwan ave ro e te roto Mar ist or rotoliberal inter retations into t eir writin s T erefore in or er to emonstrate t e si ni an e of Min in t ou t for t e ian Army s i eolo y it is ne essary to lear away a moun of assum tions about t ese t inkers an t e i eas t ey synt e si e If as Ste en Platt ar ues uo on tan s onne tion wit an u i s writin s was riti al to is i eolo i al evelo ment an t at of is omra es it is ne essary to un erstan ow uo mi t ave rea im not ow uo s mo ern a mirers o e e woul ave A te tually roun e rea in of Huan reveals a ure t at a mo ern observer woul onsi er onservative even rea tionary an ertainly elit ist Huan an is ontem oraries e li itly arti ulate t e nee for e u ate men su as t emselves to re ain ontrol of overnment not only by assertin t emselves as t e e uals of kin s instea of t eir servants but t rou e u ation Confu ian reformists at t is time believe t at in t e ol en a e of t e estern ou s oolin a been universal an t e otential for sa e oo o en to all If su a system were in la e in t e resent ay t ey reasone literati oul ontrol bot t e urri ulum an t e ro ess by w i bureau rats were sele te So io oliti al an e woul t erefore be riven not by t e em eror above or by is ontente farmers below but by t e ure w o me iate between state an so iety t e s olar bureau rat S olar bureau rats a t e le itimate aut ority to lea from t e mi le Huan an is ollea ues reasone be ause t ey un erstoo t e rites To Huan t ere a been no enuine law fa in C ina sin e t e ou be ause avari ious rin es a use overnment to t eir own a van ta e s un ever more elaborate le al o es to om ensate for t e resultin orru tion an so erverte t e very on e t of law T ese unlawful laws fei fa zhi fa brou t about aos an so ial isturban e Conversely looser laws law wit out laws ZX ID ]KL ID ermitte eo le to reali e t e [

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rin i le of law un erlyin t e te t of t e o e His work s ows t at t e e u ate man s res onsibility is to awaken eo le to t e fun amental trut t at informs bot Confu ian so iomoral i eolo y an t e im erial le al o e It is akin to t e intent of t e %RRNRI/L w i asserts t at t is fun amental trut is embo ie in t e relations i s between members of t e family rior to t ose between rulers an sub e ts an u i our se on re resentative t inker looms lar e in t e isto rio ra y of mo ern C ina an of Hunan in arti ular an was a s olar from Hen yan Hunan w o be ame involve in reformism on t e eve of t e in on uest Like many ot ers e fo use is riti ue on orru t o ials an re eive is ins iration from t e Don lin movement Later w en t e Min ourt was retreatin sout war un er assault from t e in an le a s ort live uerrilla war a ainst t e inva ers S olars ave ma e mu of an s resistan e to t e Man us an t e romanti ima e of a lone literatus stan in a ainst t e ti e of barbarism later a ture t e ima inations of turn of t e entury nationalists w o tra e t e ori ins of t eir own anti Man uism ba k to an u i T e inter re tation of an u i as a rotonationalist as some roun in in is work as ertain assa es in is