Land Navigation for Outdoor Enthusiasts (Nuts 'n' Bolts Guide) 0897321782, 9780897321785

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“NAVIGATION FOR OUTDOORS ENTHUSIASTS

ILLUSTRATIONS BY SUSAN NEWMAN

Land Navigation Bob Newman Illustrations by Susan Newman

‘; Menasha Ridge Press Birmingham, Alabama

For my compatriot David E. Petzal, Executive Editor of Field & Stream magazine, who years ago gave me a peek at my future by simply opening the door. Over hill, over dale...just what is a dale, anyway?

© 1995 Bob Newman All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Published by Menasha Ridge Press First edition, first printing

Illustrations by Susan Newman

Text design and production by Carolina Graphics Group

This is an instruction book on land navigation. Land navigation has potentialy dangerous consequences. You

should not depend solely on information gleaned from this book for your personal safety. This book cannot be

expected to replace an approved and appropraite course in orienteering and survival.

Menasha Ridge Press 3169 Cahaba Heights Road

Birmingham, Alabama 35243

Contents Introduction 0.

4

Your Compass |...

6

Taking Bearings with a Compass ................ 7 Rabe pARs COUAVOIC .. fo. .cccsccc-cseesedccconevevedecees 8 Ganing For Your Compass .........:s.c.00.00ed... 10

(cl) 0.) 0 (COV WOTTTC (A0 ete eee a i CHOLOUS .xSccpe ee he nee ae ene Ae eo RN ern ME 5h ccc. dokeo oMvcase cess Be I SMe ce eissecccccssovewessestcsseuestess SAMMCHROG Y OUD MAD 2 cicc.c6c0ccechedseccssadeseses MNeEVAGeIOL YOUY Map «........6.cccccecesseseveeese 25

On the Move on... 0 ee er ee SCE TULE10)» Nene eae en ee BAe ESOT en te 4. « seersde as dacs tac reunned connec theies eee

12 12 il 14 NY 18

20 2h 22 24 24

Nature’s Way ....0.0.0.....cc000... 27 Common Sense and BURT EG S010 0 ae UTBUOUIRG 5) ORR BIMEIQCHCY BEATINGS

the Senses ................. eee ae ee =.......02.0c...0sceceseneceveteee

The Global Positioning

27 29 30 30

4

Land Navigation

Introduction If there is one skill every man, woman, and child who ventures into the outdoors should have, it is that of land navigation—how to find your way from one spot to another without getting lost (or how to find yourself once you are lost). Prehistoric people first employed navigational skills as they roamed the face of a younger earth. People have since constantly sought to improve their ability to remain

self-sufficient in backwoods travel. There are few experiences more exhilarating than wandering through a wilderness area completely unassisted by others, knowing where you are, where you are going, and how you are going to get there. Land navigation is a skill that has been practiced for many thousands of years, but many people still struggle with the most rudimentary principles

of the craft. Why does the north-seeking arrow on

my compass usually point somewhere other than true north? What are all those squiggly lines on my topographic map? Can I really trust my compass? What if my map is old? Can I follow game trails to

get around in the woods? Why does my map tell me there are three kinds of north? How can I tell where Iam on my map? How do I safely navigate in rugged terrain? These questions, and many more related to them, are answered for you in this book. All the misinformation, myths, old camp wives’ tales, and other tidbits of bogus information you have heard,

tried to use, and perhaps even passed on over the years, will be dispelled and replaced with facts presented in a straight-forward, easy-to-understand way.

The book is broken down into five parts. Your Compass explains precisely how the

Land Navigation compass

works

and describes

different types of

compasses. You will discover how to best use your compass, common mistakes in its use, and other

practical information about this ancient and extremely useful instrument. Your Map will clear up the confusion surrounding topographic maps, how they are used, and how they relate to your compass and travel. On packed woods regions

The Move is a fun, pragmatic section with guidance on how to travel through the behind your home or in vast wilderness without a care in the world.

Nature’s Way covers little known aspects of backwoods

travel practiced by hunters, trappers,

game wardens, and explorers. You will learn how to

navigate like the pioneers did.

Finally, the Global Positioning System, details this remarkable, easily- accessible world-wide navigational system meant for the United States military and now used by thousands of outdoor enthusiasts. Shall we go?

6

Land Navigation

Your Compass Today’s compasses are light-weight marvels that are simple to use.

Compass Face with Bezel Ring, Cardinal and Intercardinal Points

The compass has been around for centuries, having first been used by ancient mariners plying the oceans of the world in search of riches and their destiny. Today's compasses are light-weight mar-

vels that are very inexpensive and simple to use, once you know how. Compasses come in several designs, but the best models have a rectangular base, free-moving north-seeking arrow, and rotating bezel ring. The floating compass card or arrow should be as detailed as possible rather than just showing the cardinal (north, south, east, west) and intercardinal (northeast, southeast, southwest, northwest) directions. The more detailed the compass, the more accurate your navigation will be if you pay attention to the mules. It is also important to be familiar with other details of your compass, such as the increments used on the bezel ring. Oné compass may have a small line on the bezel ring for each degree, while another may have small lines that equal three degrees each. Over long distances, a mistake of two degrees will put you far off the mark. Your compass may also have a mirror split with a sighting line for additional ease of bearing alignment and sighting. Some expensive models allow you to hold the compass to your eye and read the bearing via the mirror; others just add the mirror as a signaling device. The rectangular base of the compass should have a scale along its sides with inches, centimeters, and millimeters, used to measure distances on your map. Whatever compass you buy should be rugged and shock resistant, easily surviving bumps against rocks and pack frames. The north-seeking arrow on your compass

Land Navigation North Pole +

Magnetic North Pole

4 does not point to the North Pole or to grid north (which refers to the military’s system of superimposed grid lines on a topographic map). Instead, your compass arrow points to a place on the earth where the planet's magnetic lines of force converge

- magnetic north. Contrary to myth, there is no huge iron ore deposit or other anomaly there. Currently,

magnetic north is in northern Canada; varies slightly from year to year.

its location

Taking Bearings with Your Compass With your feet about shoulder width apart and facing your objective, hold your compass at about chest level with index fingers along the sides of the base so that it is level and the north-seeking arrow floats freely (compasses that are not liquid-filled may have needles or compass cards that stick

|

Land Navigation Agonic Line (Line of No Variation)

WY

A\an

pf

= DEAK

SE

Vi

XB

21w

18*w

Lines of Declination

against the housing). Allow the needle to settle down and turn the rotating bezel ring until the alignment arrow painted onto the bottom of the compass card is directly below the north-seeking arrow. Now look at the top of the compass base and you will see an index or reference line (usually luminous). Read the bearing or azimuth on the bezel ring just below this line. That is the direction you are facing in degrees magnetic.

Mistakes To Avoid

The difference between magnetic north and true north is called declination.

So, forget about grid north altogether and concentrate on magnetic north and true (polar) north. Now we're down to two norths: magnetic north being that point in northern Canada where those mysterious magnetic lines of force come together, and true north, which is in the direction of the North Pole. The difference between the two, measured in degrees, is called declination or deviation. It varies depending on where you are, so check the declination diagram on your map to see what it is for the area you are in. If you are standing at a point where there is no declination, you are on an imaginary agonic line, or line of no variation. This means that

Land Navigation

y

Sighting Line

hefiy/

~ Index/Reference Line

there is no declination anywhere along this imaginary line. We know the north-seeking arrow on your compass points to northern Canada, but it can also point to local magnetic disturbances called anoma-

lies. Your camp stove might be one, as might your rifle, snowmobile, car, wristwatch, sunglass frames, radio, knife, or nearby power lines. It could also be a natural anomaly such as a subterranean ore deposit (magnetite). If you suspect that your compass is trying to fool you, check to see if something on your person or nearby might be pulling that north-seeking arrow off line. Don’t know if a suspicious object is the culprit? Move the compass slowly toward the object and watch the arrow to see if it suddenly spins toward that object. If it does, you have probably found the problem, but remember that there can always be more than one anomaly. Nothing there? Perhaps you are near an ore deposit

10

Land Navigation after all, so just move a couple of hundred yards away (if that is feasible) and try again. Another common problem when using the compass is inadvertently following the north-seeking arrow. You shouldn't, unless you are heading directly along magnetic north. Remember to sight along the sighting line or index line after lining up the north-seeking arrow and alignment arrow. If your compass is a compensator model, which has a small screw on the bezel ring that allows the user to permanently adjust the compass for the declination in a particular region, be sure to change the setting when traveling in a different area. Otherwise, depending on the difference in declination between the two regions, you could be way off. Way off. A compass of lesser quality may have a northseeking arrow that jams against the inside of the bezel ring when it is not perfectly level. Avoid this problem by not buying a cheap compass. And if your compass has a slope scale, do not confuse it

with the bezel ring’s degree scale. A slope scale is a feature that allows you to judge the degree of slope of a distant hillside or mountainside.

Caring For Your Compass If you want to keep your compass

Attach you compass to a belt loop with a piece of cordage.

around for a

while, it should be attached in some way to your person. I attach mine to a belt loop with a piece of cordage approximately thirty inches long. This allows me to kneel on one knee and use the compass atop the map that I spread out on the ground before me. It also allows me to shoot a bearing at waist height, and then slip the compass back into my pocket knowing that it is going to be there when I need it again. Many a compass has been left atop log, vehicle hood, stump, or rock

Land Navigation because the owner failed to attach it to his body. Some folks prefer to keep the compass on a loop around their neck. I find this method impractical, uncomfortable, and potentially hazardous, and do not recommend it. You should always try to avoid mangling your compass, or otherwise slamming it against something hard. If you do hit it against something, check it out thoroughly. A crack in the base may not be critical, but if the liquid-filled housing is cracked, the compass readings will not be reliable. Get another one. This brings up another point: always Calry a spare compass, just in case. However, believe your compass unless it is obviously broken (you can see the damage) or is telling you that Florida is north of Maine, the sun is setting in the east, or some other clearly and verifiably incorrect information. That was easy enough, right? Now let’s take a look at maps.

1]

Believe you compass unless it is obviously broken.

12

Land Navigation

Your Map A topo map is a twodimensional representation

of a portion of the earth’s surface.

The topographic (or topo) map, is frequently the most intimidating, daunting, and confusing tool available for use by a traveler. Actually, it is no more than a fancy piece of paper and is easy to use. A topo map is simply a two-dimensional representation of a particular portion of the earth's surface. It shows vegetation (such as orchards, clearcuts, and trees), cultural features (such as buildings, roads,

power lines, and wells), bodies of water (such as rivers, oceans, and springs), and boundaries (such as county, town, and state lines). The margin contains important information, ranging from who made the map to what other maps adjoin the one you have before you. A legend in the map’s margin shows what all the different symbols and markings mean. For our purposes, a topographic map is one that

defines elevation (the distance in feet above mean sea level) and relief (the lay of the land) through curving lines called contour lines.

Contour Lines Contour lines are those rambling, thin lines (usually

brownish in color) that wind their way all over the body of the map and tell what the elevation is at any given point along the contour line. A single contour line is precisely the same elevation regardless of where on the map the line lies, or what the terrain is like thereabouts, i.e., gently rolling, jumbled and broken, very steep, and so on. There are three basic types of contour lines: index, intermediate, and supplementary. Index contour lines are darker than the others. At some point along the index contour line, a numerical figure denotes the elevation of that line. Intermediate

Land Navigation _—_—_—_—

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Primar

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CONTOUR

LINES

contour lines are the thinner lines between the index lines which tell the elevation between the index lines. They have no elevation figure written in along them, but you can determine their elevation by referring to the legend, which gives the contour interval for that map. This will vary between maps, sO pay attention. One map may have a contour interval of twenty feet, while another may have a contour interval quite a bit larger. Finally, there is the supplementary contour line.

These dashed lines are used to show fine detail in relief and elevation. Not all maps have them, and do not confuse them with boundaries, power lines, or

other symbols.

Colors You will see several colors on your topographic map

and each color indicates something different.

Black denotes cultural features like buildings, boundaries, roads and streets, towers, and dams. In other words, just about anything man-made is going to be depicted in black on your topo map. Green features depict vegetation of some sort; the legend will show the type of vegetation, such as sparse woodlands, fields, vineyards, orchards, for-

ests, etc. Blue means

water.

Rivers,

streams,

creeks,

springs, oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, and other bod-

ies of water will always be shown in blue. Brown is usually reserved for contour lines, but some maps depicting deserts may have various shades of brown showing the desert itself.

13

14

Land Navigation Red usually shows highways, but is sometimes used to depict built-up areas like large cities. Yellow is used more often than red to indicate cities.

Symbols You need to either be familiar with all map sym-

bols—and they can be legion—or get into the habit of referring to the legend when you come across something you don’t understand. Either way is okay; and you will find that, the more you refer to the reference, the less you will need it. The legend, as we now know, is where these symbols are explained. They range from the obvious (churches) to the obscure (horizontal control

station), but we will stick to the most common and practical.

wll Building ‘whe

Church

ol

School

Lake, pond

YY,

—

Seasonal lake or pond

et ee

et

Political boundary

Land Navigation

15

Power line

s=="""~“s._

Dirt road

————_

Improved dirt road

a)

ATOCt

omc

Highway

My

Swamp, pocosin, marsh, or other

——

wetland

—SH+-+++H— X1406

are eee eee

YUON andy,

Railroad tracks Monumented benchmark

eee

Kilometers

et?

«=Nautical Miles

Bar scales

The above are symbols for features not formed by contour lines. Terrain features like hills, valleys, ranges, depressions, slopes, and saddles, to name a few, are all depicted with contour lines. Here are a

few:

Saddle

Declination diagram

Land Navigation

Road Cut

Scales Two types of scales are important when using your topographic map: the scale the map was drawn to, and the bar scales in the margin. Simply put, the scale the map was drawn to,

depicted as a ratio, means that for every unit of measure on the map you have a certain corresponding unit of measure on the ground. For instance, if your map was drawn to a scale of 1:50,000 (read “one-to-fifty-thousand”), it means that every inch measured on the face of the map equals 50,000 inches on the ground. The bar scales are found in the margin and usually depict straight line distances by statute mile, kilometers, and nautical miles. Each bar may have a section at one end that is broken down into smaller increments such as tenths, so be careful

17

18

Land Navigation when using them; you may accidentally start measuring at the tenths end rather than the true beginning that reads “0.” To measure a straight line distance using the bar scales, place the straight edge of a piece of paper from the point where you intend to start through the point at which you hope to finish. Make a small tick mark with a pencil at each point on the edge of the paper. Now lay the paper’s edge along the bar scale you want to use and read the distance. To measure an approximate distance that is not linear, such as along a curving trail, use another paper edge. This time, place the marks from one end of a straight section to the end of that straight section, slide the paper carefully around the corner

marking it in small increments as you go, and continue along the next straight section. Do this all the way to your destination. You will end up with a series of tick marks along the paper's edge. Now lay the paper's edge along the proper bar scale from the first mark to the last, and read the distance. This is a pretty accurate way of getting non-linear distance, but a better way is to use a cartographer’s wheel. This useful tool runs along the course on the map, showing the distance on a small built-in scale.

Caring For Your Map Certainly you will try to avoid tearing or mutilating your map. However, it is easy to accidentally damage or destroy it if you are careless. You will probably not have the room or inclination to roll your map and keep it in a weatherproof case between uses, so you are going to be folding it. If so, try to use the same fold lines each time, and try to avoid folding across the terrain you are most likely to be in. Even a narrow fold can obscure a feature or symbol on the map, and according to Murphy's Law, you can be sure that hidden feature

Land Navigation or symbol will be a critical one. Fold your map with the terrain you are in on the outside so you need not unfold the map every time. Keep your map in a plastic zip-loc freezer bag Or a specially made map case. Try to keep it close at hand, in a cargo pocket of your trousers or the inside pocket of your coat. Laminating your map will further protect it from the elements, but too thick a lamina will make folding the map awkward. Also, use caution when writing on an unlaminated map; ink obscures symbols and features and erasing tends to take features and symbols right into oblivion. Pencil is always better than ink, since it doesn’t run, and it is easier to write lightly with lead than with ink.

The Age Of Your Map I tell my navigation students that their topographic

maps are out-of-date the moment they are printed, and they are. Terrain features change constantly, sometimes slowly, sometimes anything but slowly. This flux includes man-made features, which may crop up overnight. A structure or natural feature that is not there on Tuesday may be there on Wednesday. In other words, you must never completely trust your map. Attention to detail and deduction are two of the traveler’s most important

tools. Note the printing date when perusing maps, since there may be two maps of the same area with printing dates that are decades apart. Check with the source to see if a new map is available for the area you will be navigating. Finally, use your map. All the technical navigation skills in the world will be of little use unless you perform a thorough map study, which is taking a detailed look at your topo map, and using what you see and deduce to aid in your navigation.

Keep your map in a Zip-loc freezer bag.

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Land Navigation

Note prominent terrain features (landmarks), drainage patterns, slope patterns, all bodies of water, distant and nearby roads, rail lines, trails, and any other feature that could be of assistance. With practice, you will become adept at recognizing things on the map (even tiny terrain features) as what you see on the ground. Failure to do a good map study may come back to haunt you. Okay, let’s get on the move.

On The Move Up to this point we have learned quite a bit about our map and compass, and believe me, the more you know about those two tools the better navigator you will be. Intimate familiarity with your map and compass is critical in becoming a savvy and crafty navigator. Many years ago Kevin Garner, a survival expert in the Royal Navy, and I were on a land navigation exercise. We had to locate a tiny clearing on a densely-forested slope on the north side of a valley, and the situation was such that we couldn't afford to make the smallest error in our calculations. If we missed the mark, we would end up in terrain we didn't want to be in, which local lore said held several sasquatches. This assignment called for a detailed map study to give us good grasp of the terrain features, including miniscule changes in slope. It also required that we be “dead-on” our bearings at all times, which was easier because of our experience with using our compasses. After about two hours of travel through the conifers, maple, and birch, we used dead reckoning to ascertain our position. We determined that within

Land Navigation ten meters we should come upon a with the land pitching down at least degrees, bordered on the east by a more than a meter wide. The creek

slope change, ten additional tiny creek no wasn’t on the

map, but the barely discernible “V” in the contour lines on the east side of the slope change told us that a creek was

likely there. After walking another

eleven meters, sure enough, there was the change in pitch. We then turned to the west and took up a bearing of precisely 270 degrees for a distance of 65 meters, and stepped directly into the clearing we were searching for. Because we completely understood everything about our maps and compasses, the little episode just described was made fairly easy. Without that knowledge, navigation becomes an exercise in futility. Navigating efficiently requires a set of simple procedures coupled with attention to detail, sound planning, anticipation, and common sense. The first

thing you have to do is get oriented.

Orientation To orient your map, which is to say situate it so that the top of the map and you are facing true north, spread it out on level ground with the bottom nearest you. Take out your compass, align its straight edge with the side of the map, and set the compass atop the map. Now turn the map and compass simultaneously until the compass tells you that you

are facing north. This is magnetic north, of course, so we aren't quite finished getting oriented. What is the declination where you are? Check the map’s declination diagram. If you have 3 degrees easterly declination, you are 3 degrees west of the agonic line or line of no variation. Simply tum your map and compass together 3 degrees to the left, or west. Conversely, if you have westerly declination, tum

Navigating efficiently requires a set

of simple procedures and attention to detail.

21

22

Land Navigation the map and compass to the right, or east. This

removes the natural “error” of magnetic declination or deviation, and from here on out you are shooting true bearings, provided you orient your map correctly every time. Orienting your map this way eliminates the need to add or subtract declination when shooting bearings. A rough orienting of the map can be performed by terrain association or inspection. This is no more than spreading your map out before you and roughly aligning it with the terrain you see on the ground. You must know which features on the ground correspond to the ones shown on the map. This is where attention to detail and a knowledge of features depicted on the map come in. Pay close attention to hilltops, bodies of water, slope, and other readily-identifiable features.

Triangulation Now you are oriented. Next comes plotting your position on the map, which we will do by triangulation, also known as resection. With your map oriented before you, select an

easily identified terrain feature on the ground, and then locate it on the map. Verify that you are looking at the right terrain feature by noting other features around it. For instance, if the cliff you see

It is very easy to mistake a feature on the

ground for the wrong feature on the map.

on the ground has two adjacent hilltops just beyond, but the cliff on the map you think is that cliff doesn’t show those two hilltops, you are looking at the wrong cliff on the map. It is very easy to mistake a feature on the ground for the wrong feature on the map. Trust me, here—I speak from personal experience. One of the reasons I decided to write this book is so you won't make the same mistakes I did when beginning land navigation. Once you have verified the feature, shoot a bearing at it and note it. Lay your compass down on

Land Navigation

‘BS ON) ! |

3°

4

fe)

Liege

\

(Bearing)

A

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140°

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Triangulation/Resection

the map and lightly draw a long straight line along that bearing using the straight edge of the compass, starting at the terrain feature you shot at and coming back toward you. Now select another identifiable feature preferably at least 45 degrees out from the first, and verify it. Follow the same procedure. Now select a third feature, verify it, and do it again. Note that you now have three lines drawn on the map which converge, probably creating a small enclosure between the lines. You are within that enclosure, or if the lines intersect perfectly you are at that intersection. You can use only two features to locate yourself, which is called biangulation, but it isn’t quite as accurate.

23

24

Land Navigation

Intersection

Intersection There may comea time when you may need to plot a point on your map that you can see on the ground but are not exactly sure where on the map it is located. You can determine its location by performing an intersection. Intersection is a simple and effective means of accurately updating an older map. From your position, shoot a bearing to the point that you are trying to locate on the map—perhaps a small footbridge spanning a chasm. Note the bearing and mark it on your map. Now move a few yards to another place from which you can see the footbridge, and shoot the bearing from there; note it and mark it on your map. Do this again from a third vantage point. Where the three lines intersect is the position of the footbridge.

The Traveler So. You have your compass and map and are ready to head out. Many beginning land navigators make the mistake of wandering off with their compass out in front of them. Not only do you miss the surround-

Land Navigation ing beauty of the outdoors, but anyone who knows how to navigate or who is comfortable wandering in the woods will be duty-bound to make fun of you if they see you plowing through the forest with a compass glued to your chest. Before you follow your bearing off into the woods, note some prominent terrain features that lie along your route, and keep them in mind. These are your way-points and will help you stay on route. Before you take off, make sure the terrain features you use as way-points are indeed the ones on the map. And when you take a bearing and step off, do not wander along with your compass out in front of you. Note a clearly defined feature along that bearing, put your compass in your pocket, and walk to that feature. When you get to your way-point, take your compass back out, shoot the bearing again, and repeat the process. This procedure allows you to choose your steps carefully and not spend time pussy-footing across the planet with a compass held out in front of you the whole way. Also, keep in mind that when navigating along a slope, you have the natural tendency to drift downhill off your bearing, so constantly recheck it. You should also know your pace count before stepping off, which is to say that you should know how many paces it takes you to traverse 100 yards over various types of terrain and through different sorts of vegetation. Walk the length of a football field, counting how many times your right foot hits the ground. Now do it back the other way just to make sure. A pace is two steps, so every time your right foot hits the ground, you’ve gone one pace. Remember that number. Keep in mind that varying factors, such as thick vegetation, an uphill slope or broken terrain will affect your pace. Rain and snow will shorten your

Way-points. help you stay on route.

25

26

Land Navigation

a

Pere gest sestssessc

Ps 7

eaeA, ‘Ax

¢ Te,

sv

_~ .

Orfser BEarzne of 360°

. ‘St#at GHT-SHOT BEARtNC

oF 35°

mw em ew oT wee eee

Offset Navigation pace, as will heavy or restrictive clothing. Those in good shape will maintain a steadier pace than those

Use dead reckoning to determine your position while on the move.

who are not. And there are other, more subtle factors that can increase your pace count by shortening your steps. Conversely, a downhill slope may lengthen your stride. Keep track of how many 100yard lengths you have gone by tying a knot in a cord every 100 yards. You can use dead reckoning to determine your position while on the move. If you know your pace count, know where you started, and have been true to your bearing, you can tell where you are by using your map’s bar scale and your bearing to plot the distance you have traveled; then use terrain association to verify your position without triangulation.

If you need to locate something small and easily missed along your route, such as an abandoned gold mine that two grizzled ex-miners swore to you holds the proverbial mother lode, or your Global Positioning System unit that you left sitting on a rock yesterday, off-set your bearing to an easily-located feature near the small one, and then

Land Navigation home in on the little feature from there. Simply put, off-setting is the intentional plotting and moving along a bearing that is slightly off to the right or left of your true destination, so that when you have travelled the correct distance, you know that your destination, which would have been easy to miss had you gone straight for it, is easy to find by simply turing to the right or left at the appropriate waypoint (trail intersection, cliff, etc.). For instance, if you were trying to find the mine entrance in the offset navigation illustration on the previous page, you could easily plot and run an off-set bearing of 360 degrees to the main trail (way-point), then upon reaching the way-point, turn right and go along the main trail until you hit the side trail leading to the mine. Easy! :

Nature’s Way You now have the compass and map down pat, and

your technical navigation skills are up to par. You can orient your map, do resections and intersections, avoid unpleasant people and creatures, per-

form off-set navigation, identify every symbol on the map, and plot and run bearings. Now you must learn about the almost mystical means by which you can navigate. I am referring to the ways of

nature, which man has been using for eons. Yes, nature

can assist you in navigating, offering a variety of tricks and techniques to make navigating easier and safer.

Common

Sense

and The Senses For centuries, adventurers have used their senses to guide their way through the woods. One method, rearward referencing, uses the eyes to keep on

27

28

Land Navigation track. By remembering passed terrain, you can look for similar patterns of terrain on your map in order to find your location. Eyes also help by looking for way-signs—ridges or other terrain features—which you know runs in a specific direction in relation to your location. Ears can help also. By listening for the sounds of water, a river or creek, you know is supposed to be to the west, you can verify that you

are on track. Contouring is using terrain features without the use of a compass but with the use of a map to get from one point to another. You must make a careful map study and note terrain features that can guide you on your way. Plot your route by using these features as references, and frequently refer to your map to verify your position. Contouring differs from bushwhacking by using a more fluid course; i.e., contouring is not a straight-line shot across a section of woods. Bushwhacking moves you in a more or less straight line.

GAME

TRALL

A “1

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Land Navigation Using game trails and runs to get around is an ancient art that is related to contouring. Following the same travel paths that wild game uses can save you time and energy and build your confidence. If you are heading upslope and come across a good trail that is also going uphill, get on it and stay on it until it reaches the top or turns away. When the trail tums away, get off it and bushwhack or contour uphill until you come across another trail heading up. Even if the trail isn’t perfectly straight, it may save you time. In nature, the quickest way to your destination is rarely a straight line. You can use the same system going downhill as well.

Bushwhacking For whatever reason, you may frequently decide to cut cross-country or bushwhack. This means leaving your bearing (or not even using a bearing in the first place) to get from one point to another without a trail of any kind, and without the use of your compass. I suppose the reasons one would do this are endless. Some of my excuses have included a bear (BIG bear) coming straight towards me on a

perfect back-bearing (pun intentional), or my failure to do a map study, resulting in my bearing running right off the face of the earth. Before you decide to bushwhack, you should note the type of vegetation or other terrain features you have passed by that are similar to the one or ones you may be considering bushwhacking through. I say this to you because no one bothered to tell me before I tried to bushwhack my way up the face of a mountain in Maine’s Blue Mountains. But I can't blame my decision on those who didn’t warm me; I

should have known better. In fact, I did know better, but didn’t think that the going would be that tough. My target was a good-sized mountain. All went

The quickest way to your destination is rarely a straight line.

29

30

Land Navigation

well until, a few hundred feet below the summit, I hit the krumholz band, a band of twisted, tightlypacked, fir and spruce trees that surrounds the base of the summit. Crawling through them isn't amus-

ing in any way, and I learned a valuable lesson that day. The next time I wasn't so brazen. Check your map before you bushwhack. Observe the slope and other terrain features to deter-

mine if bushwhacking through there is viable. Are there terrain features that will help guide you? Where do you intend to come out? How will you know when you are out? In other words, plan your bushwhacking.

Detours A good map study may reveal features you want to avoid, such as bayous and tar pits. You can detour around them by plotting legs that skirt the obstacle (determining the distance of each detour leg by your pace count), with the final detour leg bringing you back on line with your original bearing. Use terrain association to help guide you. It doesn't matter how many detour legs are required as long as they are effective.

Emergency Bearings Over the years I have trained thousands of students in land navigation. In each course, I always insure they have an emergency bearing. This is the bearing they will automatically take up if they get into trouble, no matter where they are within the confines of the course. How can they be sure of the confines? Easy. Clearly defined terrain features— rivers, highways, roads—make up the borders. Of course, when you are out in the boonies, you might not have clearly-defined terrain features hemming

Land Navigation you in. In that case, plan your emergency bearings

depending upon your location; i.e., if I get lost or turned around in this region, my emergency bearing will be 180 degrees until I hit this stream, and then I'll follow it down to the river and back to town. And speaking of following streams, woodlore says that most streams lead to safety. True, but some streams are better to follow than others. In other words, one stream may wind through the forest for fifteen miles before coming out at a road, while another stream, one hundred meters away, may get you to the same road in half that distance. If you can, determine which stream is which. Now let’s get technical with the Global Positioning System.

31

Plan your emergency bearings depending upon your location.

The Global Positioning system You may want to consider buying a Global Positioning System unit. Born out of military necessity, today’s GPS units are hand-held wonders that link you with a system of orbiting satellites that tell you where you have been, where you are, where you are going, and how to get there. Originally these terminals were expensive, but today you can get one for a few hundred dollars; and most are pretty easy to operate (though explaining how these work is beyond the extent of this book). There is no access charge to the satellites, so the only additional cost is that of batteries needed to operate the unit. Before you run off to get a GPS, be sure to check them all out. Several companies offer them, and

ft BOG 8He8 Oooo fF BAG seoo Hooe8

32

Land Navigation some units are better than others in ease of operation and reliability. Some things to remember about GPS: 1. The device is only as smart as the user.

. 3.

With GPS you

can’t get lost.

It is electrical and not indestructible. If yours breaks when afield, and you have no idea how to navigate without it, you have a real problem. 4. Terrain can mask one or more of the satellites the unit is trying to lock onto. You may have to move quite a distance to get a “shot” at the satellite(s). 5. ‘Tf your unit does malfunction, it will invariably do so at the worst possible place and time. Still, despite the negatives, a GPS is a fabulous tool

for the navigator. With GPS you can't get lost. If you forget to use it and become lost, it will find you, orient you, and tell you exactly how to get to safety.

Conclusion Please don’t make the mistake of thinking that reading this book will instantly make you a master at land navigation. Nothing could be further from the truth. The fact is, you need to practice the skills I have described in small, restricted pieces of woods—before you strike off for the Yukon. Join an orienteering club, or take a land navigation course at the local college or with the local search and rescue team. Start small and safe, and then work your way up to the heavy-duty stuff. The moment you realize you are lost is not the time to decide you should become intimately familiar with your map and compass.

LAND NAVIGATION FOR OUTDOOR ENTHUSIASTS Ifthere is one skill every man, woman, and child who ventures into the outdoors should have, it is that of land navigation. This guide explains how to get from one point to another without getting lost in simple terms.

Map and compass skills are augmented with backcountry-

tested techniques for finding your way Bob Newman

is the author of Survival in the 90s:

Outdoor Enthusiasts and

A Guide for

Common Sense Survival, another book in the

Nuts 'n Bolts senes.

ABOUT

THIS

SERIES

Nuts 'n Bolts Guides cover the basics of outdoor sports in a concise, easyto-understand format. The series includes guides to Knots for Hikers and Backpackers,

Tandem Canoeing on Quietwater, Common Sense Survival

and Hiking with Your Dog.

“LM 5 IN

ISBN 0-89732-178-2

M00

LO9Menasha Ridge Press i

32178

Birmingham, Alabama

OTT