Land, Freedom and Fiction: History and Ideology in Kenya 9781350221000, 9781786990709, 9781786990143

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To Susan

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Foreword by Stephen Clingman

When I was approached by Zed with a view to writing this Foreword, I agreed without hesitation. I remembered my enthusiasm for Land, Freedom and Fiction when it first appeared in 1985, and was eager to return to it. This was not so much to see whether and how it bore up some thirty years later – for this was relatively assured – but more to take a look across that time at its inner shape and the specific nature of its engagement. I am delighted to say the book has borne up extremely well, with much to offer in both the ‘then’ and the ‘now’. Land, Freedom and Fiction is a book extraordinarily attuned to the impress of history, politics and ideology upon literature. In that respect it is filled with time as its subject matter, here specifically the history of the Land and Freedom movement in Kenya, and its fictional and non-fictional representations. With this working method in mind, it seems apposite to apply a similar lens to Maughan-Brown’s study itself. What were its own ‘markings’ in time, the nature of its engagements and preoccupations? In such a view we might find that a book such as this is valuable not despite those markings but precisely because of them. It seems to me there are five ‘moments’ (in the vectoral sense) underlying the moment (in the temporal sense) of this study. The first, of course, concerns the specific history and literature it undertakes to examine, in Kenya from the 1950s through to the 1970s, turning on the images, myths, representations and realities of what was termed ‘Mau Mau’. The second had to do with the prominence, in the early 1980s, of specific forms of theory deriving from the work of Louis Althusser, which had a major impact across fields from political philosophy to literary criticism. The third – since this book was originally a doctoral thesis undertaken at the University of Sussex – was the context of England in the 1980s, in the midst of Thatcherism. This reality, the dark afterlife of the British Empire, seemed not a million miles divorced from its earlier incarnations in the repressive environs of Kenya. Nor was it divorced from the fourth moment I would discern here, the reality of neo-colonial development in Kenya and other African countries, so evident in the concerns of this book. The fifth ‘moment’ concerned a different country entirely, South Africa, where xi

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Land, Freedom and Fiction

David Maughan-Brown returned to live and where he completed the book. The resonance of ‘Kenya’ for ‘South Africa’ and vice versa would have been readily apparent; perspectives on the one would have been irresistible in relation to the other. This I believe was part of my original fascination with Land, Freedom and Fiction. Like David Maughan-Brown I was a South African who had written a doctoral thesis in England, in my case on what I called ‘history from the inside’ in the novels of Nadine Gordimer. Though MaughanBrown studied (for the most part) popular fiction, while Gordimer was more overtly literary, we had many of the same preoccupations, on the nature and shape of historical consciousness, on the workings of ideology, on the role of fiction in crafting the world it took on the job of writing. Our minds would have been filled with the debates of the time, of Althusser vs Thompson, of Macherey in relation to Goldmann. In South Africa there was a generation of social historians undertaking extraordinarily innovative work. How could, or would, ours hold up as literary critics? In just a few years, deconstruction would become the prevailing orthodoxy, loosening literature from the kind of politics that seemed so critical. J. M. Coetzee would object vociferously to the view that literature was somehow a ‘supplement’ to history. Soon we would be in the realm of a postcolonial theory and its attendant notions of hybridity that had seemingly lost its sense of the urgency of the political. As another South African, Neil Lazarus, has argued, postcolonial theory had lost touch with the impulses of its origins. But not in Maughan-Brown’s book, and this was why I was keen to look into the mirror of Land, Freedom and Fiction and see what I would find there. There is certainly much to find. One immediately admirable aspect of the book is the sheer amount of work that has gone into it, whether in areas of literary theory, colonial history, the political economy of Kenya or the writings, non-fictional and fictional, that came out of it. This, in other words, is a major study, the kind that lasts, as evidenced in Zed’s decision to republish it. One also has to admire Maughan-Brown’s sheer tenacity and analytical stamina when faced with the livid accounts of ‘Mau-Mau’ produced in colonial fiction and non-fiction. At times, reading descriptions of supposed ‘Mau Mau’ depravity, featuring sexuality and violence in a promiscuous mix, is like an extended tour through the inner swamp of the colonial unconscious. In this light, Maughan-Brown gives us a taxonomy of the terminology and fictive structures which constitute and reinforce a governing world view, all in astute and highly nuanced readings. Most nuanced of all is the test case of what we might call reading for ideology, in his account of Ngugi’s A Grain of Wheat. Here we see a writer in transition in what Maughan-Brown acutely calls a ‘crisis text’, as Ngugi makes his way from an individualist aesthetic governed by prevailing literary orthodoxies and pedagogies towards more collective manifestations. xii

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Foreword

From a distance of thirty years, one sees in Land, Freedom and Freedom a kind of structural scientism regarding the relations between politics, ideology and fiction that might not be possible in exactly the same terms nowadays. The view of this book is that fiction is a production of ideology, and it is true to that guiding idea throughout. For my part, I would be as interested in what fiction tells us that other sources and forms of imaginative production (including ideology) cannot, but there is virtue in a strong thought argued through to conclusion. Yet though perspectives will inevitably differ or change over time, one thing that has not changed is the political urgency that underlies this book, and which underlies its continuing relevance and resonance now. We live in the era of Brexit, of Trump, of refugees, of climate change, of huge disparities and unevenness throughout the world, of fake news and mythology in resurgent forms. It is a world that has a direct line of connection to what happened in Kenya in the 1950s. In that respect, as we find new ways to analyse and respond to our surroundings, there is enormous inspiration in a study such as Land, Freedom and Fiction, and a legacy to draw on. It is our sixth moment across time. Stephen Clingman February 2017

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Preface and Acknowledgements

This book derives from a D. Phil. dissertation written for the University of Sussex. Its topic was chosen because it enabled me to focus simultaneously on a number of literary, political and cultural concerns which are not only of particular importance to South Africa in the 1980s but are relevant to all societies in which racial prejudice is endemic, such as Great Britain. Chief among these concerns were the relationship between fiction and ideology, the use that is made of fiction as an instrument of propaganda, the way race myths and stereotypes are embodied in fiction and the continuing place ‘Mau Mau’ has as a reference point for race myths. This last is particularly relevant to South Africa, where support for the ideology of apartheid is still, in 1985, bolstered by race myths identical to those which provided the Kenyan settlers with their justification for their presence and behaviour in Kenya in 1952, and where, apart from strategies for repression, nothing whatever appears to have been learnt from the experiences of Kenya in the 1950s and Zimbabwe in the 1960s and 1970s. In revising the dissertation for publication my main concern has been to simplify the terminology appropriate to an academic thesis in order to make the argument accessible to as wide an audience as possible without losing such cogency as it may have. It has, however, seemed necessary to retain most of the Introduction in its original form, largely because any adoption of Althusserian terminology or concepts remains so contentious – particularly, ironically, on the embattled academic Left in South Africa. But readers who do not feel inclined to subject themselves to discussions of the theory of ideology or literary theory may well wish to skip the sections headed ‘Ideology’ and ‘Literary Theory’ in the Introduction. Understanding of the argument in the rest of the book should not be dependent on having read the Introduction in its entirety, and it is always possible to return to the Introduction after reading the rest of the book. Earlier versions of parts of this book have appeared as articles in various journals. Parts of chapters 2 and 3 were drawn on for ‘Myth and the “Mau

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Mau”’ in Theoria, 54 (1980), pp. 59–85. Part of chapter 4 appeared as ‘Nothing of Value: Robert Ruark on “Mau Mau”’ in Africa Perspective, 16 (1980), pp. 42–60. Parts of chapters 6, 7 and 8 have been combined in an article for the May 1985 special Ngugi issue of Research in African Literatures: ‘Four Sons of One Father: A comparison of Ngugi’s earliest novels with works by Mwangi, Mangua and Wachira’. An earlier draft of parts of chapter 8 was published as ‘“Mau Mau” and violence in Ngugi’s novels’ in English in Africa, 8, 2 (1981), pp. 1–22. Where permission has been required for republication I am grateful to the editors of those journals for that permission. This book owes its single greatest intellectual debt to my supervisor at Sussex, Adrian Crewe, so many of whose suggestions, and sometimes even formulations, were adopted as to bring him perilously close to the dubious distinction of rating as a co-author. Without Adrian’s knowledge of the general fields of African literature and materialist cultural theory this would not have taken the direction it has: without his painstakingly thorough comments on earlier drafts this would not have achieved such shape and concision as it has: and without his general encouragement and friendship the dissertation grind would have been much more laborious than it was. I am grateful to Tony Voss, John Wright, Trish Gibbon, Michael Vaughan, Colin Gardner, Don Beale, Glenn Lawson, Nick Visser, Malcolm McKenzie and Jill Arnott who have all helped me either practically, by way of comments on earlier drafts, proof-reading, etc., or by their general encouragement and support. I would also like to record my thanks to Geraldine Goodacre for very many hours of patient, skillful and good-humoured typing. The faults and weaknesses in this book are, of course, entirely my responsibility. I am indebted to the University of Natal Research Committee for a research grant which enabled me to travel to Nairobi and the once supposedly ‘White’ Highlands to tie up some loose ends of my research. This project has been greatly assisted by the support, both material and otherwise, of my parents, and also of my parents-in-law, Mr and Mrs R.O. Lacey, for which I am very grateful. Finally, this would have been far more difficult without the tolerance of my sons, Anthony and Brendan, and would have been quite impossible without the loving support, patience and assistance of my wife Susan. D. A. Maughan-Brown

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