Key Concepts in Physics 9781774691496, 9781774693285

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Key Concepts in Physics

Key Concepts in Physics

Nelson Bolivar

www.arclerpress.com

Key Concepts in Physics Nelson Bolivar

Arcler Press 224 Shoreacres Road Burlington, ON L7L 2H2 Canada www.arclerpress.com Email: [email protected]

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Nelson Bolivar is currently a Physics Professor in the Physics Department at the Universidad Central de Venezuela, where he has been teaching since 2007. His interests include quantum field theory applied in condensed matter. He obtained his PhD in physics from the Universite de Lorraine (France) in 2014 in a joint PhD with the Universidad Central de Venezuela. His BSc in physics is from the Universidad Central de Venezuela.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ........................................................................................................ix List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................xi Preface........................................................................ .......................................xiii A ............................................................................................................... 1 B.............................................................................................................. 20 C ............................................................................................................. 34 D ............................................................................................................. 55 E .............................................................................................................. 63 F .............................................................................................................. 75 G ............................................................................................................. 88 H ........................................................................................................... 101 I............................................................................................................. 115 J............................................................................................................. 129 K............................................................................................................ 133 L ............................................................................................................ 137 M........................................................................................................... 154 N ........................................................................................................... 171 O ........................................................................................................... 182 P ............................................................................................................ 190 Q ........................................................................................................... 204 R............................................................................................................ 210

S ............................................................................................................ 219 T ............................................................................................................ 230 U ........................................................................................................... 238 V ........................................................................................................... 241 W .......................................................................................................... 247 X............................................................................................................ 251 Y............................................................................................................ 254 Z............................................................................................................ 255 Bibliography .......................................................................................... 257 Index ..................................................................................................... 263

viii

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Acceptor Figure 2. Accuracy Figure 3. Ammeter Figure 4. Angle of contact Figure 5. Ballistic galvanometer Figure 6. Barometer Figure 7. Bimetallic strip Figure 8. Brush chamber Figure 9. Calorimeter Figure 10. Carbon microphone Figure 11. Coaxial cable Figure 12. Daniell cell Figure 13. Densitometer Figure 14. Earth Figure 15. Electrometer Figure 16. Electron gun Figure 17. Farad Figure 18. Ferrite Figure 19. Fuel cell Figure 20. Galilean telescope Figure 21. Gas cooled reactor Figure 22. Gluon Figure 23. Gyrocompass Figure 24. Gyrostat Figure 25. Hall effect Figure 26. Holography Figure 27. Hyperboloid Figure 28. Illuminance

Figure 29. Induction coil Figure 30. Ion pump Figure 31. Jupiter Figure 32. Kepler telescope Figure 33. Kundt’s tube Figure 34. Landau damping Figure 35. Light year Figure 36. Line spectrum Figure 37. Lunar time Figure 38. Magnetic dipole Figure 39. Mass spectrometer Figure 40. Helix Nebula Figure 41. Nucleus Figure 42. Ophthalmoscope Figure 43. Parallelogram Figure 44. Pendulum Figure 45. Photosynthesis Figure 46. Quartz Figure 47. Radio Figure 48. Resistor Figure 49. Seismograph Figure 50. Steam Engine Figure 51. Telescope Figure 52. Thermometer Figure 53. Uranium Figure 54. Viscometer Figure 55. Wimshurst machine Figure 56. Xerography

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CGS

Centimeter–Gram–Second

JFET

Junction-Gate Field-Effect Transistor

IGFET

Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistor

MOSFET

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

DIODE

Dynamic Information Operations Decision Environment

RAM

Random Access Memory

ROM

Read-Only Memory

TNT

Trinitrotoluene

PREFACE

Physics is a branch of science that deals with the structure of matter as well as the interchange between the basic components of the universe that examines everything. In an extensive manner, physics is derived from the Greek word physikos which includes concepts and dimensions of nature on both the levels, be it macroscopic or submicroscopic. It’s a range of study which revolves around not only the behavior of objects under the action of provided forces but is also concerned with the concept and origin of different types of forces such as gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear force. Its utmost goal is the construction of a few far-reaching principles that draw together and describe all such various occurring phenomena. Physics is the fundamental physical science. Until rather during current years, physics, in addition to the natural philosophy, has been applied conversely for the science whose objective is the discovery and construction of the basic laws of nature. As the contemporary sciences evolved and became expandingly specialized, physics came to imply that a fraction of physical science is excluded from astronomy, chemistry, geology, as well as engineering. Physics plays a vital role in all the natural sciences, although, and all such fields contains branches where physical laws and systematic evaluations receive an exceptional emphasis, bearing names like astrophysics, geophysics, biophysics, along with psychophysics. Physics can, at the initial stage, be explained as the science of matter, motion, and energy. Its laws are generally defined with economy and precision in the field and language of mathematics. Both experiments, the examination of phenomena under circumstances that are regulated as accurately as possible, and theory, the formation of a combined conceptual structure, play a significant and harmonizing roles in the progression of physics. Physical experiments result in estimations, which are contrasted with the aftermath anticipated by theory. A theory that reliably anticipates the outcome of experiments to which it is relevant is said to incorporated a law of physics. Although, a law is always subject to mitigation, replacement, or curtailment to a more restricted domain, if eventually the experiment makes it required. The major focus and objective of physics is to discover a unified framework of laws governing matter, motion, as well as energy at small (microscopic) subatomic distances, at the human extensive (macroscopic) scale of day-to-day life, and out to the largest distances (for instance, those on the extragalactic scale). This aspiring goal has

been identified to a remarkable extent. However, an entire unified theory of physical phenomena has not yet been obtained (and plausibly never will be), a notable small set of basic physical laws emerges to be accountable for all known phenomena. The contemporary developments of relativity as well as quantum mechanics modify these laws insofar as they implement to higher speeds, very immense objects, and to the tiny elementary components of matter, such as electrons, protons, along with neutrons. This book will introduce the readers to the field of physics and its concepts. It is precisely designed for readers or students with no prior experience related to physics and its key concepts, and touches upon a diversity of fundamental topics. By the end of the book, readers will understand the basic knowledge of dimensions of physics and the key concepts involved.

xiv

Key Concepts in Physics

1

A Aberration 



                   distortion. Astigmatism, Chromatic Aberration, Coma, Curvature of Field, Optical Distortion, and Spherical Aberration are some of the different types of aberration. The apparent shift in the position of a star caused by the Earth’s orbital motion.

Abrasive A material used in polishing or cleaning to wear away a solid surface. Emery and pumice are two common examples.

Absicissa A point’s x co-ordinate on a two-dimensional Cartesian graph, i.e., its distance from the y axis, measured along the x axis from the origin.

Absolute Pressure The real pressure at a given location as a result of all factors. The total of air pressure and pressure due to the supernatant liquid determines the absolute pressure at a point in a liquid.

Absorption All or a portion of the energy incident on a substance is converted into another type of energy within the substance; for example, part of the energy of an incident beam of light may be used to excite the atoms or molecules of the absorbing substance.

            !"!0e#$, where I0 and I are the incident and transmitted radiation intensities, respectively, and x is the thickness of the material traversed. The quantity x can be written as a length, mass per unit area, moles per unit area, or atoms per unit area; the associated absorption coefficients are linear, mass, molar, and atomic, respectively.

Key Concepts in Physics

2

Absorption Spectrum A SPECTRUM produced by the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by matter. To obtain an absorption spectrum, incident radiation with a continuous range of wavelengths is used. The prism or diffraction grating is used to disperse the beam emerging from the sample. It is discovered that some wavelengths of radiation have been absorbed, and the energy at these wavelengths has been used to raise the energy of atoms or molecules in the absorbing medium to higher levels. When visible light is incident, the absorption spectrum is made up of dark lines or bands on a bright continuous background.

Abundance 



 %&     !'&'*+/    to the total number of atoms in an isotope mixture. Natural abundance refers to the amount of an element’s isotopic mixture that occurs naturally. The amount of a particular substance in the Earth’s crust (also known as terrestrial abundance) or the universe (sometimes called cosmic abundance).

Acceleration Due To Gravity Symbol g. The acceleration of a body falling freely, without air resistance or buoyancy, at a particular point close to the Earth’s surface. It is caused by the gravitational attraction of the Earth and varies with latitude because the Earth is not completely spherical and also because of the Earth’s rotation. At the poles g is 9.832 metre per second2 (m s-2); at the equator it is 9.78 m s-2; the Earth’s rotation accounts for 0.034 m s-2 of the difference. The standard value of g (symbol gn) is taken as 9.806 65 m s-2.

Accelerator The kinetic energy of charged ions and ELEMENTARY PARTICLES can be increased with this equipment. Its primary applications are in nuclear and particle physics fundamental research as well as radiotherapy. Betatron; Cockcroft-Walton Generator; Cyclotron; Electrostatic Generator; Linear Accelerator; Synchrocyclotron; Synchrotron; Van De Graaff Generator.

Key Concepts in Physics

3

Acceptor

Figure 1. Acceptor. Source: Image by Wikimedia commons.

An atom that receives an electron in an external SEMICONDUCTOR, resulting in a positive HOLE in the conduction band.

Access Time The amount of time it takes for information to be obtained from a computer store and processed.

Accumulator A group of secondary cells that are connected in a series. The charge on an accumulator is the entire quantity of electricity stored; it is commonly measured in ampere-hour.

Accuracy The degree to which an experimentally determined value and the true value agree. Operator faults, instrument errors, and random errors all have an impact. The first can be eliminated with care and patience; the second is inherent: the limitations of any instrument should always be addressed; and the third can be avoided by using as large a numbing agent as practicable.

4

Key Concepts in Physics

Figure 2. Accuracy. Source: Image by Wikimedia commons.

Achromatic Lens A planoconvex combination lens made up of a biconvex crown glass lens bonded to a planoconcave flint glass lens by Canada balsam. It is required to image red and blue rays from the same axial object point at the same axial image point.

Achromatic Prism A compound prism that removes DISPERSION between two colors, most often red and blue. The remaining colors in the light are dispersed in incident white light, but most of the color effect is lost because blue and red are at the two ends of the visible spectrum. Two small angle prisms, one made of crown glass and the other of flint glass, are in contact. The condition for no red-blue dispersion by the combination (i.e., for      <=>#%?b, a is greater than b that means that a and b are not equal similarly in this case a