Journal of Literature, Culture & Media Studies Journal of Literature, Culture & Media Studies [XV, Issue 28, July-Dec. 2022 ed.]

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Journal of Literature, Culture & Media Studies (ISSN-0974-7192) Vol. XV, Issue 28, July-Dec. 2022 Website : http//www.i-scholar.in Zindese.php/JLCMS/Index

N.D.R. CHANDRA Editor-in-Chief Editor Imlienla Imchen Assistant Professor , CNTLS School of Humanities and Education Kohima Campus Nagaland University Kohima Campus

E D I T O R I A L B OA R D Professor Patrik D. Murphy Department of English, University of Central Florida, U.S.A. Professor P. C. Kar Director, Centre for Contemporary Theory, Baroda. Dr. Brain Coates Adjunct Professor, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

2Journal of Journal of Literature, Culture & Media Studies, Vol. XV, Issue 28 Literature, Culture & Media Studies (ISSN-0974-7192)

is published twice a year in summer and in winter. It is a Multidisciplinary International Peer Reviewed Research Journal of Higher Education on Literature and Literary Theory, Art & Aesthetics, Cultural & Media Studies, Linguistics & English Language Teaching, Philosophy & Education, Hypertext & Communication Studies, Humanities & Social Sciences. Manuscripts should be written in 3000 words, prepared according to the latest MLA Handbook style. Author’s name should appear on the cover page only. Manuscripts should be submitted in MSWord alongwith two copies, double space throughout and accompained by duly stamped, self-addressed envelope. All the papers submitted for publication will be evaluated by the Journal’s referees. Only those papers which receive the favourable comments will be published. For book reviews, two copies of the book should be sent to the Editor-in-Chief. All enquiries should be made to either of the following addresses: The opinion and observation of the writers are their own and editors do not share their opinion. Prof. N.D.R. Chandra Dept. of English, Post Box-480 Nagaland (Central) University, Kohima Campus, Pin-797001 Phone-03702291470, 9436604508 Email : [email protected]

Prof. N.D.R. Chandra B-19, Central Avenue Smriti Nagar, Dist.-Durg Chattishgarh, Pin-490020 Cell- 8839846685 Cell- 9436830377 [email protected]

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CONTENTS RESEARCH PAPERS 1. Yoruba Hermeneutics in Wole Soyinka’s The Road 5 - Sangeeta Jain 2. Mending the Bond: An Eco-feminist Approach to Human-Nature Discord as Portrayed in Brave and Moana 12 -Smriti Srivastava, Shruti Dubey 3. Self-Realization through Negation in Hermann Hess’s Siddhartha 22 -Richa Pandey 4. Analyzing the Positive Dimensions of Power and Identity in Jean 29 Rhys’ Wide Sargasso Sea - Vaishali, Susheel Kumar Sharma 5. Transformation of Celie into a New Age Woman 41 -Neha Singh, Abhilasha Singh 6. Depiction of Women in the Poetry of Sylvia Plath 48 -Archana Sinha, Samir Kumar Sharma 7. An Archetypal Approach To Patrick White’s Tree of Man 55 -Priya Pathak 8. A Critical Representation of Mahesh Dattani’s Gendered Play 63 Dance Like a Man. -Sushmita Soni 9. Agony of Black Americans 71 -Sheikh Muhammad Amir Ayub Chishti 10. Demarginalizing Self and Staging Resistance: Literary 81 Significance of Black Women Authors -Laghima Joshi 11. Locating Trauma in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things 89 -Lakiumong Yimchunger, Lemtila Alinger 12. Women in Connivance with Men against Women in Arundhati 96 Roy’s God of Small Things -Darakhshan Niyaz 13. Echoes of Violence and Trauma in Select Translated Literary 103 Writings from Assam -Kailash Kumar 14 . The Disillusioned Hero of Easterine Kire’s Life on Hold 112 Talisenla Imsong 15. The Dynamics of Stories and Identity in Easterine Kire’s Son of a Thundercloud -Temjenrenla Ozukum

4 16. 17. 18.

19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 24.

Journal of Literature, Culture & Media Studies, Vol. XV, Issue 28 Material Culture of Yimkhiung Naga Tribe -Ruthson, Lemtila Alinger The Impact of Multilingualism in the Growth and Development of Minor Languages: A Case Study on the Ao-Naga -Pangersenla Walling Migrated Folks: Delving Forced Migration and its Impact in the Naga Hills -Tsutshowe-ü Sekhamo Community and Management of Cultural Heritage in Nagaland -Aokumla Walling Teachers during Pandemic Situation in Nagaland: Experiences and Challenges -Sunepinla Aier A Group of Poems ‘Tranquility’, ‘Words’ -Subhas Chandra Saha ‘Voyage of Wonder’ -Milind Kashyap Basavaraj Naikar. Light of Humanity and Other Plays -Nidhi Tinar Review of Ramnath Sahu’s The Clay Doll - NDR Chandra, Arun Nath Book Review of Bhimayana: Incidents in the life of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar -Akanksha Prajapati

127 139 145

154 160 169 170 174 175 184

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1. Yoruba Hermeneutics in Wole Soyinka’s The Road Sangeeta Jain*

Abstract : Wole Soyinka has made Yoruba Culture the backbone of his literary output to create the African Hermeneutics for the world to understand the hitherto Dark Continent - Africa in its indigenous perspective. Yoruba culture separates the cosmos into two worlds: i. The human world and ii. The world of deities.The human world contains manifestations of the ancestors, the living, and the unborn. In the Yoruba world a community's collective sense reflects the complex ties to the ancestral community and to the unborn community. Ancestral spirits enter the person who wears the masque, which acts as the bridge between the worlds of the dead and the living . Yoruba myths are stories about the efforts made to cross these gulfs between human and divine existence and between the existence of dead, living, and unborn. Ogun, the god of iron and of metallurgic lore and artistry, was the first to succeed in conquering the gulf. Ogun is also, Soyinka explains, "the god of creativity, guardian of the road, explorer, hunter, god of war, custodian of the sacred oath.”Professor the protagonist of the play The Road is symbol of Ogun’s duality. As on one side he is an explorer of the unexplored and on the other side he is an exploiter. He is a Sunday school teacher and also the god of death i.e. Ogun. Professor tries to bridge this gulf through his ‘part psychic, part intellectual grope towards the essence of death.’ The present paper elaborates how ingenuously Wole Soyinka utilises his deep sense of Yoruba culture in this play The Road. Keywords: Yoruba, Ogun, African myths, Hermeneutics, Cosmotogy, Mythology The first African to receive the Nobel Prize in 1986 for literature is Akinwande Oluwole Babatunde Soyinka, known as Wole Soyinka. The conferring of Nobel Prize to an African writer is a presumption that Anglo-centric world or European world has accepted the existence of indigenous literary and cultural treasures of African world hitherto popularised as Dark continent. Now African literature has been introduced under the rubric term of New Literatures in English as part of the syllabus of English Literature courses. Thus, the emergence and acceptance of African literature in international literary coterie is the visionary approach of African writers like Wole Soyinka, Chinua Achebe and many other prolific poets, novelists, dramatists writing in many African and European languages.

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Soyinka, a playwright, poet, novelist and political activist, is native of Nigeria of West Africa and belongs to Christian Yoruba tradition. He went to England for higher Studies and returned to Nigeria in 1960, the year Nigeria attained Independence from British colonization. He established two theatre companies – the 1960 Masks and the Orisun Theatre. His plays draw on Yoruba dramatic and cultural traditions. His famous plays are A Dance of the Forests, The Road, The Lion and the Jewel along with many poetry collections and two novels. The formidable task for African playwrights, is to convey the emotions, customs, rituals and daily life of the Africans in an alien tongue ie English. Wole Soyinka is a real master of English language, well versed in all its nuances. Soyinka thinks in images and his narratives and poems are elaborate formulations of imagery. Soyinka inherited both Christian and Yoruba religious traditions. Yoruba Cosmology and Mythology Yoruba cultural practices have received so much literary attention in the recent times that none of the African community has received. The words of a notable historian sum up the influential grasp of Yoruba “there is perhaps no other single African people who have commanded so much attention as the Yoruba ” and because of “their artistic intelligence, military prowess, cultural adaptability, and ability to manage modernization processes, and the crucial role of their educated elite, the Yoruba have earned their place in the academic spotlight”. (Falola :1) Scholars and critics contemplate on the scripted works of Yoruba culture and discover that the Yoruba have projected themselves as being “exceptionally prolific” among West Africans in their recreation of written historical literature. The amalgamation of rich history and accessibility of sources have made the Yoruba a relatively popular ethnic group to study within and outside Africa. (Falola:3) Yoruba culture separates the cosmos into two worlds: * The human world * The world of deities The human world contains manifestations of the ancestors, the living, and the unborn. In the Yoruba world a community's collective sense reflects the complex ties to the ancestral community and to the unborn community. Ancestral spirits enter the person who wears the masque, which acts as the bridge between the worlds of the dead and the living . For the Yoruba, the gods represent infinity, as humans represent worldly transience. The Yoruba cosmology differs from European cosmology which is concerned with the purely conceptual aspects of time and separates time into past, present and future. But time is concretely realized in Yoruba life, culture and religion. In other words we can say future life, present life, and past life contain within it manifestations of the ancestral,

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the living, and the unborn. All are vitally and intimately perpetually in action within life, beyond mere abstract conceptualization. But there exists the abysmal gulf between the world of deities and the human world as well as the past, present and future worlds.Yoruba people are aware of this gulf between himself and the deities, between himself and the ancestors, between the unborn and his reality, essential gulf that lies between one area of existence and another. This gulf must be incessantly reduced by the sacrifices, the rituals, the ceremonies of appeasement to those cosmic powers which lie guardian to the gulf. This gulf between all areas of existence is supposed to be the fourth space- transition space. Who covers and crosses this gulf? In the Yoruba pantheon the first actor, who conquered this transitional gulf was Ogun , after the demonic test of the self-will. “Only after such testing could the harmonious Yoruba world be born, a harmonious will which accommodates every alien material or abstract phenomenon within its infinitely stressed spirituality. The artefact of Ogun's conquest of separation . . . was iron ore, symbol of earth's womb-energies, cleaver and welder of life. Ogun, through his redemptive action became the first symbol of the alliance of disparities.” (Fortress:231) Nothing saves man (ancestral, living, or unborn) from loss of self within this abyss but a titanic resolution of the will. In the area of the living, when man is deprived of monstrosity, when catastrophic failures (the material of drama) have squeezed a man and he loses all self-consciousness and pretensions, he comes closer to the spiritual periphery of this gulf. It is at such moments that he moves ahead through the gulf of transition, by dissolving his earthly self , learning to triumph over subjugation through the agency of will. It is this experience gained through the tragic experience that the modern tragic dramatist portrays through the medium of action by reconstructing the tragic drama, reflecting emotions and will of the first active battle. Ogun is the first actor in that battle, and Yoruba tragic drama is the re-enactment of the cosmic conflict where Ogun dominates with his indomitable will. Thus Yoruba myths are stories about the efforts made to cross these gulfs between human and divine existence and between the existence of dead, living, and unborn. Ogun, the god of iron and of metallurgic lore and artistry, was the first to succeed in conquering the gulf. Ogun is also, Soyinka explains, "the god of creativity, guardian of the road, explorer, hunter, god of war, custodian of the sacred oath.” Ogun is Soyinka’s favourite god as it represents the duality of creation and destruction, life and death altogether. Ogun is represented with a ‘carving of a snake eternally devouring its own tail.’ Soyinka is fascinated by this Ogun’s ambivalent representation because as god of war, Ogun is destructive force and as god of Iron and Metallurgy, Patron of Hunting and Guardian of the Road, he is also the creative force. Therefore, he embodies the essence of creative and destructive principles. Soyinka utilises Ogun’s dualistic representation in this play The

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Road because Soyinka thinks human beings have the power of both creation and destruction, therefore human beings are reincarnation of this ambivalent god Ogun. The Road (1963) is a complex tragi-comedy with mythic plot, and weaves many diverse thematic strands into one complicated dramatic form. It interpolates traditional Yoruba cosmology, mythology, rituals and postcolonial issues with western dramatic form and style. It is a superb accomplishment of Soyinka as a dramatist and brilliantly exposes the profoundly pessimistic view of human condition. Professor the protagonist of the play The Road is symbol of Ogun’s duality. As on one side he is an explorer of the unexplored and on the other side he is an exploiter. He is a Sunday school teacher and also the god of death i.e. Ogun. Professor tries to bridge this gulf between life and death , the transition phase through his ‘part psychic, part intellectual grope towards the essence of death.’ Professor searches for the mysterious ‘Word’ putting a magnifying glass over newspapers. He is also in search of the essence of ‘Death’, causing accidental deaths on roads by uprooting the milestones, to run an ‘Aksident Store’ collecting the leftovers from accident sites. He also forges the licence for the inexperienced truck and lorry drivers. He keeps mute Muranothe embodiment of death, to know the mystery of death. As a dramatic narrative The Road revolves around some African drivers, driver trainees, passenger touts, a politician and a policeman. The play is divided into two parts. The first expository part reveals the poor illiterate African drivers, trainees, touts enacting Professor and, on his presence, pleading him to forge duplicate licences to drive lorries. The drivers’ celebration of the Ogun festival in the play is a ritualistic side of the Yoruba tradition celebrated annually in the world of Yorubaland to pacify Ogun to avoid the impending danger of accidents on the road. The drivers are the worshippers of Ogun as Ogun is the dwelling deity of the road. The drivers' festival celebrated in the play is a dramatic representation of the Ogun festival wherein they offer dog’s meat to road to dispel accidents on road. If drivers fail to appease the ruling deity, the deity will cause accidents and claim human life as sacrificial scapegoat. The drivers know that the ruling deity of the road is Ogun and Ogun’s favourite food is Dog. When drivers had a narrow escape from an accident on the road they feel that the deity of road Ogun needs sacrifice for appeasement so they want to offer dog’s meat as Samson says: Samson: When other drivers go out of the way to kill a dog, Kotunu nearly somersaults the lorry trying to avoid a flea-racked mongrel. Why, I ask him, why? Don’t you know a dog is Ogun’s meat ? Take warning Kotunu. Before it’s too late take warning and kill us dog. (Collected Plays1:165) … Kill us a dog, kill us a dog. Kill us a dog before the hungry god lies in wait and

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makes a substitute of me [... ] Dogs intestine looks messy to me he says [... ] Ogun likes it that's all. It is his special meat. Serve Ogun his titbit so Ogun won't look us one day and say Ho Ho you two boys look juicy tome. The one who won't give Ogún willingly will yield heavier meat by Ogun's designing. (Collected Plays 1:188-9) Professor causes a number of accidents by uprooting the signposts on the roads. So roads acquire the status of symbolic hell where bloody dead people are lying and Professor moves around dead bodies like god of death Ogun quenching his thirst for the essence of death and thereby quenching the thirst of the deity of road metaphorically as Samson says ‘ He was moving round those corpses as if they didn’t exist. All he cared about was re-planting that sign-post’ (Collected Plays 1:167). The road and the spider are the metaphors of death waiting ready for their prey, the moment one is stuck in their deadly plan, the death is inevitable as Kotunu states ‘The road and spider lie gloating , then the fly buzzes along like a happy fool...’ (Collected Plays 1:178) . Yoruba people believe in mask culture. They build masks of their ancestors, worship them. They have masks of their ruling deities also. They also believe that when a person wears a mask of either ancestral deity or divine deity, mask comes to life and the person wearing the mask feels possessed. How do they worship ancestors and how do they perceive connected with them? The ancestral spirits are revered through the Egungun cult. They believe that through this cult the living gets the protection and blessings of their ancestors. It is an evidence that the existing generations of the living are not alone rather their ancestors continuously observe the actions of the whole community collectively. The Egungun society has got the status of the custodian of the ancestral spirits. In its entirety basically this cult is an assurance to people about individual immortality. It is also an attempt to reduce the terror of death through the dramatic manifestation of the ancestral spirits in the world of Living. Only particular ancestors have masks dedicated to them because a masque is carved only when “the Ifa Society, a cult of divination, decides which dead are to have masks dedicated to them. A member of the Egungun is secretly appointed to be mask keeper and dancer.” (Fai:2010) Soyinka has utilised this mask as a vehicle or mechanism through which gods and spirits express their premonitory or laudatory visions to their successors in the world of the living. There are special ceremonies devoted to this invocatory act where the dance of possession occurs. The dance of possession is believed to be an event when gods participate in human affairs and make their presence felt through human agency. In the act of possession, the spirit of the masque is said to enter the mask wearing dancer’s body, whose own spirit departs temporarily and he is believed to be possessed by the dwelling spirit of the mask. Thus, gods actively engage in human affairs to predict about future, the unknowable. In this play also there are several acts

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where characters wear masks, feel possessed and remove the mask. The play ends with the Egungun Ritual which is believed to have enormous influential powers for the Yoruba people. Through Egungun Dance ritual , Yoruba people worship ancestors’ spirits. Who becomes Egungun ? Any selected individual dresses from head to toe, completely covered , acts as Egungun, who experiences mystical possession , performs ritual dance. Any disturbance to the ritualistic dance is supposed to be sacrilege, that might result in the end of life. Professor who keeps mute Murano captive , his non-observance of the Egungun ritual results in his death. After his death the Egungun spirit departs and the mask along with the raffia falls on the earth as it represents the departure of the Egungun spirit. Another incorporation of Yoruba rituals is the inclusion of Agemo and Alagemo in the play The Road. Agemo is the sacred text, is the deity – the supreme god, is also a ritual of the dead in Yoruba land. In this play, it appears as the Agemo preface poem through which Soyinka enfolds that dance is a transition phase – it’s a religious cult of flesh dissolution and it has various forms. This Agemo cult chant is spoken by the Alagemo, a carrier of the Agemo masquerade in the preface poem. It dominates the mood of the play. It is a symbol of death, the central message of the play. In the Preface Poem of The Road, the Alagemo has been summoned from the other world: I heard! I felt their reach And heard my naming named. The pit is there, the dagger fell right through My roots have come out in the other world. Make away. [...] Agemo's hoops Are pathways of the sun. (Collected Plays 1 :150) This spirit of death haunts all the characters in this play. The Preface Poem foretells the mystery and the numerous deaths in The Road. The essence of this spirit of Agemo (death) is what Professor wants to find out in his pursuit for the Word. Murano, in whom the Word reposes, has experienced both life and death. He thus becomes the Agemo spirit which Soyinka introduces into the main body of the play. His muteness i.e. inability to reveal the Word accounts for the Yoruba belief that death reveals itself only in one's own death. This belief is made explicit in the ultimate death of Professor at the end of the play. The Yoruba world view of the continuity between life and death is a major source text in the creation of The Road. It is the major force behind Professor's quest for the meaning of the Word which is interpreted by critics as a quest for the essence of life. "Now, / Gone, and Here the Future" shows the link between

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the living, the dead, and the unborn as encapsulated in the Yoruba cosmology that death is not the end of life. Professor's futile quest to understand death as guided by his incomplete knowledge of Yoruba world view results in his own death at the end of the play which shows the inability of humans to decipher the mystery of death and cyclic nature of human life. Wole Soyinks has weaved Yoruba Cosmological world view and ritualistic belief system into the western dramatic mode to represent the African hermeneutics to the world successfully in the play The Road. REFERENCES Adejare, Oluwole. Language and Style in Soyinka: A Textlinguistic Study of a Literary Idiolect. Heinemann, 1992. Adelowo, Dada E. "Rituals, Symbolism and Symbols in Yorubá Religious Thought." AJT Vol. 4, no. 1, 1990.pp.162-173 Fai , Gilbert Tarka, “Soyinka and Yoruba Sculpture: Masks of Deification and Symbolism” Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, Vol 2, No. 1, 2010 posted on March 23, 2013. Falola, Toyin and Genova, Ann(ed.). Yoruba Identity and Power. USA: University of Rochester Press.2006. web Fortress, Isaiah & Onwuka, Edwin & Egwu, Anya. “Poetics Of Man's Duality, Exploitation And Preservation” In Wole Soyinka's Madmen And Specialists. 2018f researchgate.net p. 231. Jeyifo, Biodu. Wole Soyinka: Politics, Poetics and Postcolonialism. Cambridge UP, 2004. Jones, Eldred. The Writing of Wole Soyinka. London: Heinemann, 1973. Laurence, Margaret. Long Drums and Cannons: Nigerian Dramatists and Nigerian Novelists. New York: Praeger, 1968. Moore, Gerald. Wole Soyinka. New York: African Publishing Corp., 1971. Ogúnba, Oyin. Movement of Transition: A Study of the Plays of Wole Soyinka. Ibadan U P, 1975. Peters, Jonathan. A Dance of Masks: Sengor, Achebe, Soyinka. Washington DC: Three Continents Press, 1978. Soyinka, Wole. The Road. Collected plays 1. Oxford: O.U.P., 1973. print. *Associate Professor of English, D.A.V. PG College, Varanasi. U.P. Email: [email protected].

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2. Mending the Bond: An Eco-feminist Approach to Human-Nature Discord as Portrayed in Brave and Moana Smriti Srivastava*, Shruti Dubey**

Abstract : The paper attempts to analyse Disney’s Moana (2016) and Brave (2012) from an eco-feminist perspective. It tries to demonstrate that being movies of self-realization, both Moana and Brave do not belong in the typical fairytale league thereby dismissing the notions of ‘damsel-in-distress’ and ‘the prince charming’. Their proactive role in interacting with their environment and the people around them is what defines them as characters. By analysing the fascination that the protagonists have for nature, the paper hopes to study the manner in which the movies move away from the stereotypical fairy-tale versions of women’s lives with their happily ever after and seem to lie in a continuum where the female characters become the harbingers of the much required transformation. Both the characterset forward on their respective journeys in search of a solution to a personal/social problem and end up solving a much bigger issue of the human-nature discord that seems to be one of the key issues in s times. By examining the characters of Moana and Merida along with the way they go about fulfilling their quest the paper hopes to demonstrate that unlike the typical heroic travails the journeys of these protagonists acquire greater dimensions. Key Words : Nature/Ecology, Ecofeminism, Animation, Quest, Gender Roles, Home. Treat the earth well: It was not given to you by your parents, It was loaned to you by your children. —Native American Proverb(qtd. in Smith 41) “And they lived happily ever after” is how most of the fairy tales ended. The distinction between good and bad was clear cut and the victory against evil decisive. Hardly any of the animated movies referred to the darker aspects of the fairy tales we so obliviously listened to in our childhood. Recently though a spate of animated movies have entertained the audience where a larger world

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view has been portrayed. The action of these movies moves beyond the romantic and the implications are layered leading to an increasing number of adult audiences for animated movies. In this paper two such movies released by the animation house Disney – Brave (2012) Ecofeminism where the term may be understood as a re-examination of the patriarchal structure and at the same a commitment towards environment that presupposes a connection beteween women and nature. Vandara Shiva has described the association interconnectedness between mature and women as “Nature is symbolized as the embodiment of the feminine principle on one level and she is nutured by the feminine on another level in order to produce life and offer sustenance”(1988, pp.37). Though many of the Disney house animations have female protagonists, these two movies were chosen since there is no love interest for the female leads in the movies. They are movies of self-realization and in both nature and its forces play a pivotal role. The movies focus on the interaction between the protagonists, and the human and the natural world thus raising questions about the purpose of their quests, their eligibility for the roles they play and the role of the natural world in their lives. Their interaction with their environment and the people around them lead to a very complex and layered relationship. It is this relationship that defines them as characters and raises manifold questions like – is it because of their gender identity that they could empathize with nature and its manifestations; what are the character traits that make them the chosen ones; so on and so forth. The paper will try to answer these questions by examining not only the characters of Moana and Merida but also the way they go about fulfilling their quest. The selected movies seem to revolt against the “hierarchical dichotomy” that has been the hallmark of the anthropocentric era. The world view that was created with Charles Darwin’s concept of the survival of the fittest is reflected through the struggle that all entities have to undergo to survive. As Mies and Shiva appropriately point out, “…this worldview sees the ‘Other’, the ‘object’, not just as different, but as the ‘enemy’; as Sartre put it in Huis Clos: Hell is other people! In the resultant struggle one part will eventually survive by subordinating, and appropriating the ‘Other’(pp.5) . Influenced by the patriarchal constructs, this hierarchical dichotomy leads to a separation of gender roles. Such a separation further extends to the domain of Nature which is deemed to be in contrast with Culture. It is in this hierarchical dichotomy that women find themselves placed at the very threshold where the boundaries of both the extremities overlap. They are ‘forced’ to undertake the activities that are preordained by the dictates of the community thereby submitting to the patriarchal codes of conduct and internalizing and perpetuating not only the subordination of their own gender but also that of nature, asit is tamed and

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cultivated for the survival of humankind. According to Deane Curtin in his paper Women’s Knowledge as Expert Knowledge: Indian Women and Ecodevelopment opines: Patriarchal cultures tend to locate women’s practices on the border between nature and culture. These involve caring for others, e.g., mothering, cooking, health care, and certain kinds of simple, traditional agricultural labor that are low paid or unpaid, such as weeding and tending to livestock. Women’s work is the everyday work of translation between the needs of the environment and the needs of the human community.” The ‘cultured patriarchal world’ therefore, acquires a kind of supremacy over nature and women, with all their household chores, are held responsible as the mediating agents between the former and the latter. Their activities are all focussed towards the sole act of translation between the two. Although they act as mediators, yet they are devoid of any agency and are prohibited from any kind of proactive involvement as that is the prerogative of the men folk. However, Ecofeminism reconsiders the violence perpetrated against women and nature, and as a response to it looks for alternative ways where the female members of society can contribute towards better tomorrows not by contending against the patriarchal setup but by finding a way of life based on assimilation and cooperation. As Petra Kelly in her essay entitled “Women and Power” asserts: There is a saying: where power is, women are not. Women must be willing to be powerful. ... Patriarchal power has brought us acid rain, global warming, military states, and countless cases of private suffering. We have all seen men whose power has caused them to lose all sense of reality, decency, and imagination...” Given the subtlety of such violence and the modes of its perpetration, one might feel that there seems no other way to gain access into the male dominion and seize power other than forcibly venturing into the same by disrupting the current hierarchical setup. However, there exists an alternative pathway to the same, which is, “… we must find our own definitions of power that reflect women’s values and women’s experience. ... This is not power over others, but power with others, the kind of shared power that has to replace patriarchal power.” This also seems to be the message of Moana and Brave as both the movies narrate the stories of young female protagonists who refuse to fit into the moulds assigned to them. They neither disrupt the existing order nor do they submit to allow anyone to dictate their lives. Brave is the story of Princess Merida of the clan Dunbroch. She is impressed by her father, King Fergus’ bravery when he saves her from a bear attack and wishes to be a warrior more than marrying someone or ascending the throne. Her mother, Queen Elinor, is an elegant and wise lady who wishes Merida to

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marry well. She keeps on reminding her about the legend of a prince whose refusal to follow his father’s wishes caused his clan to be destroyed. She has strict ideas about how a princess is supposed to behave. Merida in her desperation to avoid marriage asks a witch/whittler/wood carver for help, bringing down a curse upon her mother that turns her into a bear. In the beginning Queen Elinor retains her humanity but soon she starts behaving more and more like a bear. Merida not only has to save her mother from the curse but also from Mor’du, the cursed prince of her mother’s folklores. The movie is set in medieval Scots highlands and is rife with magic and sorcery. Merida ventures into the unknown realm of witchcraft represented by the forest and the will-o’-the-wisps inhabiting it. It is in the forest that she is taught the hardest lessons of her life that make her a fitting leader for her people. On the other hand, Moana is set in the Polynesian Island of Motunui. Moana is the chief’s daughter and has a strange fascination for the sea. She is the one chosen to return the heart of the goddess Te Fiti which was stolen by Maui, a demi-god with myriad powers. Her father refuses to listen to her when blight strikes their island and she suggests venturing into the sea to find a solution for it. Ignoring the wishes of her parents, Tui and Sina, she leaves on an ancestral boat/camakau. She serendipitously finds the island where Maui is imprisoned and frees him so that he can help her in her quest to return the heart to Te Fiti. They fight against each other in the beginning but soon they start working together and he teaches her to read the sea. They are faced with TeK, a lava demon before they can reach Te Fiti but they are successful in achieving their purpose and Moana returns home a lot wiser than when she had left it. She grows into the role of wayfinder for her community when she learns to read each wave and live with the sea and its creatures in a harmonious way. Unlike many other fairy tales, Moana begins with an uneasy truce between the world which Moana and her people inhabit, and the natural world. The idea of apocalypse is hinted at through Moana’s grandmother’s tale (like it is in the cautionary tale of Merida’s mother). The story that the grandmother tells the children of the community is contrasted with Moana’s Father’s stance on the subject. It is his desperate effort to impose logic and rationality on the world around him that leads him to deny any impending disaster. Here the disaster is not due to the pitting of nature against technological advancements, rather it is due to the sheer blindness of humans towards what they are doing to their natural world. This oblivion is only one of the factors for the apocalyptic build-up. Human centric approach towards natural resources is a side effect of this oblivion. Maui steals Te Fiti’s heart to help the human kind, since the heart has the power to create life, making one believe that it is alright to ‘beg, borrow or steal’ as long as it is to help humankind, a very Promethean endeavour. The relationship between men and nature is thus a one sided one where they exploit nature for

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their own gains without giving anything back to it. In failing to realize the harmonious bonds between humanity and the diverse natural resources humans seem to pave the way towards a dystopic world where both the complementary entities would be pitted against one another leading to the annihilation of the one who proves to be inferior. Judith Plant has rightly pointed out about the ubiquitous human approach towards nature, which, according to her, is alienating ourselves from our “ecological reality” (pp. 130). The reality is that “Our origins are in the earth beneath our feet, in the living and dying that is our organic reality.” However, in the blind pursuit of culture and setting up the social hierarchy, humanity seems oblivious of this ‘organic reality’, thereby fastening their pace towards their own extinction. “This arrogant smokescreen of patriarchy— where some are deemed better than, or more deserving than, others—allows us to deny this most basic fact of life. Indeed, this separating attitude enables us to rape, to kill, to exploit. Western civilization, then, has no idea how to value and live with differences”. This ‘myopic’ worldview, according to Plant is “intent on destroying diversity with its determination to control life...”and therefore “... has meant loneliness and deep despair for humankind.” The patriarchal authority, in its march towards its aim, is oblivious not only of the ‘organic reality’, but also of the hostility that it is breeding against women and this is the major cause of violence against the latter. Vandana Shiva in Staying Alive (1988) points out the same thing by diverting the attention towards the consequences of the ‘developmental march’. She asserts that the destruction of natural resources which are keeping us alive in the name of ‘development’ and ‘progress’ skews the idea of progress in a manner that is human-centric. She believes that “the violence to nature, which seems intrinsic to the dominant development model, is also associated with violence to women who depend on nature for drawing sustenance for themselves, their families, their societies”. Moana thus begins her quest as a bridge between the human world and the natural world. On one hand are the natural forces and nature gods like Te Fiti. It is not a coincidence that she is a female since she ‘created’ the world. While on the other hand is Maui whose weapon of choice is a fish hook, a tool that is representative of human technology. Maui is directly responsible for the approaching darkness that is destroying the islands. The stealing of Te Fiti’s heart may here then be considered symbolic of exploitation of natural resources. He thus has to be involved in Moana’s quest to return the heart and atone for his mistake. However, though he plays a major role, he is not the main character since he is too sympathetic towards the human world. It is Moana, who has inherited her mystical connection to the natural world from her grandmother, who understands the significance of the crime committed and the atonement required. Thus the power that Moana naturally possesses seems to be the

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consequence of her feminine sensibility along with her courageous spirit thereby making her a more empathetic or fitting character as compared to Maui. What is significant is that empathy is not an acquired trait, as even in the very beginning the toddler Moana is shown to prefer rescuing a baby turtle to collecting rarities. Her empathy and understanding of the natural world is what possibly leads her to be the chosen one. Similar to Moana, Merida also is an atypical heroine going against the dictates of the world. She wishes to be free. Instead of waiting for her “Prince Charming” she wants to be the one saving the world. While Moana’s growth as a character is restricted by her father, Merida faces censure from her ‘lady-like’ mother who tells her that, “A princess does not leave her weapons on the table” or that “A princess should not have weapons in my opinion.” Moana needs to prove to her father that she can be an able leader of their tribe while Merida has to prove to her mother that her interests in fighting and her disinterest towards marriage does not make her unfeminine. Both the movies seem to lie on the same continuum where they are symbolic of the typical patriarchal concepts of nature and women being ‘dangerous’, ‘inert’ and entities that need to be controlled and subdued for the civilization to flourish. Marti Kheel (1993) rightly points out two interconnected images that lie at the very foundation of the patriarchal world-view – first is that of “The Beast” who is ‘not human’ and maybe described as “evil, irrational and wild” thus needs to be killed or domesticated; while the second is that of nature as “mindless matter” that needs to be exploited an dsubjugated by the “superior, rational ‘Man’” (pp. 245-246). The male figures in both the movies seem to adhere to such a patriarchal mind set which is symbolic of their failure to acknowledge the significance of the ‘other’. Merida’s father tries to kill the bear that seems to be endangering Merida’s life not knowing that the bear is his wife under the influence of a curse. Similarly, Maui appears unapologetic for having stolen Te Fiti’s heart while Moana’s father adamantly refuses to listen to his mother or his daughter’s advice when faced with a crisis. Kheel rightly speaks of two widely varied yet interconnected images of nature designating it as the “unacceptable other”, hence worth being subjugated. “In one image, nature is seen as a demonic being who must be conquered and subdued. In the other image, nature has been subdued to the point of death. Behind both images, however, lies a single theme – namely, the notion of nature as the “other,” a mental construct in opposition to which a masculine, autonomous self is attained. ...”. Both Merida and Moana, on the other hand, play the crucial role of acting in close communion with the natural forces and creatures, comprehending the pain and distress of these creatures and even rebelling against their own people.

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Merida proves herself in the forest through her survival skills and her determination to face the witch who is a problematic character in herself. The witch is comfortable living in the lap of nature and has the power to change human destinies. The presence of a witch itself hints at the patriarchal stereotypes. Serenity Young (2018) defines witches as: The stereotype witch is an independent adult woman who does not conform to the male idea of proper female behaviour. She is assertive; she does not require or give love (though she may enchant); she does not nurture men or children; nor care for the weak. ... In addition, she might have other mysterious powers which do not derive from the established order. All women threaten men with their exclusive power to give life; and social order depends on women conforming to male ideals of female behaviour.” This description of the witch seems to put her in a category that in patriarchal context requires taming. She is the unknown and mysterious like the forest where she lives and the will-o’-the-wisps she controls. Another aspect of a witch’s power is that she mostly derives her powers from nature or through nature worship thus she lives in close touch with nature. In Brave, on the one hand the witch is a carver of destiny (a wood carver) and uncaring while on the other hand, she cares enough about the clan to teach Merida to be a better leader than the cursed prince of the folklore. She is misunderstood by Merida who, maybe at the time, is still trying to find a place for herself and is confused between conforming and rebelling, but towards the end the realization of the mistakes she has made helps her in saving her mother. The witch’s spell, “Fate be changed, look inside. Mend the bond, torn by pride” seems suggestive of the ethos of mutual understanding and assimilation inspired by the natural surroundings. Not only does the spell require a literal decoding but also it has to be comprehended at a metaphorical level where both Merida and her mother need to acknowledge and respect the individuality of the other. In that sense the concept of ‘Home’ as an enclosed space involving interpersonal understanding and relationships seems significant. Plant points out that the idea of home has to be “revalued and redefined” since we are unable to foster good feelings and healthy relationship with each other then it will be even more difficult to exist in harmony with nature. She further states that through this exercise one notices that “the closer we get to where we live, regionally and in our communities, the more real power women—indeed, all of us—have on a day today basis.” Ironically though, such a message in the movie comes from a witch – one who is stereotypically non-conformist and consequently shunned by the patriarchal society. In Moana the role of Moana’s grandmother is similar to that of the witch of Brave. She reveals the ancestral folktale to Moana and encourages her to look

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for her identity and go on the quest that her heart so desperately desires to undertake. She says about herself, “I am the village crazy lady. That’s my job.” She has a mystical connection with the sea and its creatures and can predict her own death. She sees something in Moana and sets her on her path. She tells her in a song: I like to dance with the water, the undertow and the waves. The water is mischievous, I like how it misbehaves. The village may think I am crazy, or think I drift too far, But once you know what you like…well, there you are. You are your father’s daughter, stubbornness and pride. Mind what he says but remember you may hear a voice inside. And if the voice starts to whisper to follow the farthest star, Moana that voice inside is who you are.” Moana is helped in the decoding of her fascination for nature and her quest through her grandmother’s version of the folktale involving Te Fiti and Maui. It is only through her grandmother’s interruption at a key moment when she is about to accept the preordained role allotted to her by her family that she comes to know of the sea voyages that were a part and parcel of the very lifestyle of their clan. The ‘crazy lady of the village’ as her grandma describes herself, uncovers the entire ancestral wisdom for Moana to revisit and derive the required inspiration. Both, the grandmother and the witch, can be considered as significant characters who play the crucial roles of making the protagonists recognize the true calling of their lives. Though they may appear as crazy and irrational, they are the ones who seem to be in communion with the natural forces/spirits. They are the connection between the natural and the human world whose places Moana and Merida are expected to inherit. Their perceived ‘craziness’ thus derives from the tendency of the natural world to be considered mysterious and requiring intuitive understanding. Their words and the wisdom they impart to the protagonists are suggestive of an acknowledgement of the fact that the concept of home includes a bigger and larger domain of the natural surroundings also. It is also one of the foundational tenets of ecocritical worldview to consider ‘Home’ as the assimilation of both the internal (the family and society) and external (the ecological surroundings). Even the root word for the term ‘ecology’, as Judith Plant (1997) suggests, signifies ‘Home’: Since we are seeking an ecologically sustainable way of life, let’s look at the word ‘ecology’. It comes from the Greek oikos, meaning “home,” clearly an indication that home means much more than the nuclear family. As it is in the natural world, where all life is interrelated, teeming with diversity and complexities, so it is with everyday human life.

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They become instrumental in making the protagonists realize that victory in its typical sense is not the only destination of their respective journeys but what also matters is the bond that they share, not only with their respective families, but also with the surroundings that they live in. Similarly, Maui also teaches Moana about her role. He talks to her about being a way finder. He says, “It’s not just sails and knots. It’s seeing where you are going in your mind, knowing where you are, by knowing where you have been.” The sea and seafaring becomes the metaphor for Moana’s quest for herself which is irrevocably linked with her quest to return the heart of Te Fiti and restore the world to its earlier healthier self. The movies in the beginning itself hint at the fact that Moana and Merida are the chosen ones. Moana plays with the sea wave while Merida is called by the will-o-the-wisps. Their quests are different but both lead them into the unknown realm of nature. Moana learns from Maui to read the sea while Merida has to decipher the clues that the Witch/Whittler has left in the forest and the caves for her to save her mother. The motif of a quest itself is masculine in nature, the end result being a decisive victory. In the movies, though the characters of Moana and Merida are chosen not only because they have the courage (a masculine trait) to fulfil a quest but also the heart (feminine sensibility) to recognize that not all victories require bloodshed. Robin E. Brenner (1997) seems to be right when he says, “…heroes and heroines are swept into a quest, whether to fulfil personal goals or a destined role, and as they gain the companions, skills, and tools necessary to win out in the end, they uncover wells of courage, confidence, and heart.” Both the girls discover in themselves the courage to accept their mistakes (or the humanity’s mistakes) and thus are able to appease the nature spirits. In Merida and Moana, one comes across female protagonists encroaching into the male domain but their empathy, intuition and feminine sensibility helps them in the assimilation of the natural and the human world. Their quests are not directed towards mere victory over the evil forces for its own sake but they also aim at keeping the familial bonds intact. ‘Familial’ here goes beyond its dictionary meaning and signifies the interdependence of humans and nature on each other connecting them through bonds, the breaking of whom will signify the end of both. Moana and Merida’s voyage/quest therefore cannot be considered as limited to their own triumph but it acquires a greater proportion as the family, the community and also the nature spirits get involved into the same. Although initially they seem to be misfits, eventually they acquire the positions of preceptor and lead their tribe/clan towards a safer and a better tomorrow. The quest therefore, seems to be all inclusive rather than being concerned with just an individual or his/her family. Both Merida and Moana do not intend to emulate the typical heroic journey

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aimed towards the overpowering of the ‘other’. Not only do they achieve success in their attempts towards a reconciliation of the antagonism between Humanity and Nature but also they make the men (the typical patriarchs-their fathers and the demi-god) realize that for the entire humanity to survive, thrive and prosper, what is required is a symbiotic relation of the human and the non-human world along with a harmonious existence of the male and female members of the society. REFERENCES Brenner, R. E. Understanding Manga and Anime. Westport: Libraries Unlimited, 1977. Clements, R., & Musker, J. (Directors). Moana [Motion Picture], 2016. Curtin, D. Women's Knowledge as Expert Knowledge: Indian Women and Ecodevelopment. In K. J. Warren (Ed.), Ecofeminism:Women, Culture, Nature (pp. 82-98). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indian University Press, 1997. Kelly, P. Women and Power. In K. J. Warren (Ed.), Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature (pp. 112-119). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1997. Kheel, M. From Heroic to Holistic Ethics: The Ecofeminist Challenge. In G. Gaard (Ed.), Ecofeminism:Women, Animals, Nature (pp. 243-271). Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993. Andrews, M., & Chapman, B. (Directors). Brave [Motion Picture], 2012. Mies, M., & Shiva, V. Ecofeminism. London: Zed Books, 1993. Plant, J. Learning to Live with Differences: The Challenge of Ecofeminist Community. In K. J. Warren (Ed.), Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature (pp. 120-139). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana Universcity Press, 1997. Shiva, V. Staying Alive: Women, Environment and Sustainable Development. London: Zed Books, 1988. Smith, H. A Seat at the Table: Huston Smith in Conversation with Native American on Religious Freedom. (P. Cousineau, Ed.) Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Young, S. Women Who Fly: Goddesses, Witches, Mystics, and Other Airborne Females. New York: OUP, 2018 *Assistant Professor, Department of English, Goverment College , Daman Email : [email protected] **‘Freelance Writer and Research Scholar’, Daman.

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3. Self-Realization through Negation in Hermann Hess’s Siddhartha Richa Pandey*

Abstract : This paper seeks to analyze the spiritual journey of the protagonist in Hesse’s Siddhartha as a practice of the Neti, Neti technique. Siddhartha uses his intellect and experience to negate all the practices that do not take an individual toward the direct spiritual realization of the Self or Atman. He begins his journey of negation when he leaves his father’s home after realizing the limitations of the religion of the Vedas. This religion lays down a path for the ethical (dharmic) pursuit of Karma and Artha but enlightenment and liberation or moksha is beyond its scope. This is followed by his negation of asceticism as denial of the self through extreme austerities only leads to temporary escapism. His teachings are valid from a relative or vyavaharik standpoint but Siddhartha, who is already aware of the Upanishadic wisdom, yearns for the Absolute and negates the teachings of the Buddha. Next comes a negation of the individual self or jiva and Samsara. His spiritual quest ends with his meeting with the jivanmukta or enlightened Vasudeva and his own enlightenment through OM. Keywords : Vedic religion, Buddhism, ‘Neti, Neti,’ Enlightenment, Self, Samanas, Causation Neti, Neti is a sacred Shruti sentence from the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. The two components of Neti are ‘na’ and ‘iti’, where the former is the negation and the latter means ‘this’, hence it means ‘not this, not this’. Since the highest, non-dual reality transcends names, forms, actions, and functions; it is impossible to describe it in words as language operates in duality. Thus, ‘Neti’ is used as a way of negating all names and forms in order to distinguish between the real (Brahman) and the appearance (Maya). This would lead one to believe that the ultimate reality cannot be objectified then it is void or sunya, the second Neti negates that too. Huston Smith in his work The World’s Religions states that this method can be found in the writings of many great mystics and theologians. For example; “St. Bernard’s “nescio, nescio” and Angela of Foligno’s “Not this! Nor this! I blaspheme” as she struggles to put her overwhelming experience of God into words” (Smith 80).

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The scope of this paper is limited to analyzing various negations made by the protagonist in Hesse’s Siddhartha. He begins his spiritual quest by the negation of the ritualistic path or Karma-Kanda of the Vedas. This is followed by his negation of asceticism, Buddhism, and Samsara. This study does not address in detail ,Siddhartha’s enlightenment through the realization of OM. Negation of Vedic Religion Siddhartha is an obedient son of a Brahmin. He performs sacred ablutions and makes offerings to the gods. He participates in discussions about the scriptures with the wise men, he mediates and practices debates. Yet, he does not want to follow in his father’s footsteps and becomes a common priest. The religion that he, his family, and the rest of his village practice is the religion of the Vedas as described in the Samhitas, Aranyakas, and the Brahmanas of Rig Veda. It is a religion of rituals and sacrifices. It ensures a happy and prosperous life and a promising afterlife. It lays down a path for the ethical (dharmic) pursuit of Kama and Artha. But Siddhartha, who is acquainted with the knowledge portion or jnana-kanda of the Vedas is looking for enlightenment and liberation (moksha). His discontent with the Vedic religion can be seen in the following lines; His father was to be admired, quiet and noble were his manners, pure his life, wise his words, delicate and noble thoughts lived behind its brow —but even he, who knew so much, did he live in blissfulness, did he have peace, was he not also just a searching man, a thirsty man? Did he not, again and again, have to drink from holy sources, as a thirsty man, from the offerings, from the books, from the disputes of the Brahmans? Why did he, the irreproachable one, have to wash off sins every day, strive for a cleansing every day, over and over every day? Was not Atman in him, did not the pristine source spring from his heart? (Hesse 13) Siddhartha feels that his father and his other teachers had already taught him the best that the Vedic religion had to offer. Realization of the Self or Atman is beyond the scope of their knowledge. The rituals, sacrifices, and invocations, although useful in many ways, were not enough. S. Radhakrishnan describes the religion of the Vedas as a lower form of religion. He also states that nobody can tread the higher road without fulfilling the requirements of the lower and highlights the importance of discontent and dissatisfaction as; “a necessary precondition of every moral change and spiritual rebirth” (Radhakrishnan 25). Thus, sacrifices are necessary for the unenlightened, though they alone will not do. Siddhartha, having fulfilled the requirements of the lower path realizes its limitations and understands that this is not the ultimate truth, Neti. He negates the ritualistic Vedic religion and decides to join the Samanas.

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Negation of Asceticism Hesse describes the Samanas as a group of ascetics who constantly wander from one place to another. They wear a loincloth and an unsewn cloak. They abstain from food for long periods and have contempt for all kinds of physical pleasures. They initially captivate Siddhartha and Govinda, however as Siddhartha resolves to annihilate the self through extreme austerities, it turns out to be a mistaken course. Colin Butler states; One cannot consciously rid oneself of oneself, since any ridding process undertaken with that intention will only further confirm the presence of that conscious self. Once Siddhartha realizes this, the exercises of the Samanas lose their point for him; if continued, they would become merely an end to themselves. (Butler 118) Siddhartha adopts the way of self-denial by putting his body through voluntary suffering and overcoming tiredness, hunger, and thirst. He uses meditation to rid the mind of all thoughts and conceptions, to turn it into a void. These ways lead him away from the self temporarily but their end leads him back; “Though Siddhartha fled from the self a thousand times, stayed in nothingness, stayed in the animal, in the stone, the return was inevitable, inescapable was the hour, when he found himself back in the sunshine or in the moonlight, in the shade or in the rain, and was once again his self and Siddharth” (Hesse 24). Meditation, fasting, and holding one’s breath are only a short escape, a brief numbing of the senses against the pointlessness of life. Siddhartha argues that the same temporary numbing of senses can be achieved by intoxicating oneself. An alcohol-induced stupor is similar to the escape that the Samanas find when they escape their bodies through fasting and meditation. He remarks about the oldest Samana that even after practicing self-denial for so many years he has not attained nirvana and he never will. He says to his friend; “O Govinda, I believe of all Samanas out there, perhaps not a single one, not a single one, will reach nirvana. We find comfort, we find numbness, we learn feats to deceive others. But the most important thing, the path of paths, we will not find” (Hesse 26). Thus, He negates the path of asceticism by arguing that self-denial may give you extraordinary physical abilities but he does not seek to perform miracles or cast a spell on others, he seeks enlightenment. Negation of the teachings of Buddha through a critique of causation Siddhartha’s meeting with the Buddha is of great importance. It brings him face to face with a living success, Buddha has found ‘the way’. He teaches the path to liberation and Siddhartha does not doubt that the Buddha is indeed enlightened who has overcome the sufferings of the world and halted the cycles of rebirths. He says to Buddha;

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One thing, oh most venerable one, I have admired in your teachings most of all. Everything in your teachings is perfectly clear, is proven; you are presenting the world as a perfect chain, a chain which is never and nowhere broken, an eternal chain the links of which are causes and effects. Never before, this has been seen so clearly; never before, this has been presented so irrefutably. (Hesse 40) In his work A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, C. D. Sharma states that Pratityasamupada or the Wheel of Dependent Causation is the central teaching of Buddha. It is evident in the Second and the Third Noble Truths. Simply put it states that a) there is suffering in life b) suffering is due to birth c) birth takes place because there is a will to be born d) the will is because cling to objects mentally e) clinging is due to a desire for objects f) desire is due to senseexperience g) the sense experience is due to sense-object-contact h) the contact arises due to the six organs i) the organs depend on psycho-physical organism j) which develops from some initial consciousness k) which comes from the experience of past life, l) which are due to ignorance of the truth (Sharma 74). What is described in the process is how suffering arises in our lives, and how it can end. The Buddha emphasized the second part. He says; “When there is this, that is. With the arising of this, that arises. When this is not, neither is that. With the cessation of this, that ceases” (Bhattacharya 5). Thus, we have twelve links in the chain of causation. The cessation of dukkha or suffering begins with removing its cause. Siddhartha feels little curiosity about Buddha’s teachings, he only wants to observe what a liberated man looks and acts like. He does not believe that the Buddha could teach him anything new, nothing he already did not know, for he knew the teachings of the Upanishads that time, space, and causation when viewed from the ultimate standpoint are mere appearances. Siddhartha’s negation of Buddha’s teachings on Dependent Origination can be illustrated by using Nagarjuna’s critique of causation or his doctrine of Noorigination or ajativad. This doctrine was later used by Gaudapada, who argued that the absolute is neither subjected to birth nor death so anything that has a beginning and an end is not the absolute or the ultimate reality. C. D. Sharma in his work The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy states that Nagarjuna opens his work Mula-Madhyamaka-Karika by proclaiming the doctrine of Noorigination. He gives eight negations in the first verse, they are; “no origination, no cessation, no permanence, no momentariness, no identity, no difference, no bondage, and no liberation” (Sharma 51). Pratityasamupada or the wheel of Dependent Origination gives the link between cause and effect but this causation is only relative and not ultimately real. To prove this, the Chatushkoti or four views are applied on the problem of

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causation. The relation between cause and effect can be that of a) identity b) difference c) both d) neither (Sharma 52). According to the first view, cause and effect are identical, which would imply that the effect pre-exists in the cause is not a new creation. The cause simply continues in the effect and there is no actual modification. This view is called sat-karyavada. Nagarjuna criticizes this view by saying that if the effect already exists in the cause, it is an existent fact and its further production is unnecessary reduplication. If this is true, there would be diversity in the universe (Sharma 52). According to the second view, cause and effect are different. The effect does not pre-exist in the cause and is produced from something completely different from it. This is called asat-karyavada. Nagarjuna criticizes this view by saying that if the cause and effect are completely different, then they are irrelevant to each other. By this logic, light could produce darkness, water could change into curd, and so on (Sharma 53). The third view is a combination of the above two views. It insists that there exists an identity as well as a difference between cause and effect. Nagarjuna criticizes this view by showing that identity and difference are opposites and cannot be synthesized. Cause and effect cannot be identical and different at the same time. The fourth view advocates that things are produced by sheer chance or accident. The relationship between cause and effect does not exist. Nagarjuna considers this view nihilistic (Sharma 55). Thus, all views of causation are self-contradictory and inconsistent. Does this mean that the teachings of the Buddha were wrong? C. D. Sharma in his work A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy says that Gaudapada suggests that, since ordinary people hold the view that this world is real and not a mere appearance they find it hard, even terrifying to accept the doctrine of no-origination. It is for such people, that the wise and the enlightened have divulged origination (Sharma 245). Origination or causality ceases to be valid once the ultimate reality is realized. This is the reason for Siddhartha’s negation of Buddha’s teachings, although he has not realized the Atman, he understands that causality is only a pedagogic tool. He says to Buddha; “these are your teachings of overcoming the world, of salvation. But with this small gap, with this small breach, the entire eternal and uniform law of the world is breaking apart again and becomes void. Please forgive me for expressing this objection” (Hesse 40). This view is further supported by Swami Vivekananda, who says; “and cause must bring the sure effect; good,good;bad,bad;and none escape the law. But who so wears a form must wear the chain. Too true; but far beyond both name and form is Atman, ever free” (Vivekananda 543). Thus, Siddhartha continues

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his spiritual quest in search of enlightenment after negating causality. Negation of Samsara The chapter titled ‘Awakening’ deals with Siddhartha’s experience with the material world or Samsara and it begins with a seemingly harmless epiphany where he becomes aware of his individual self or Jiva. He gives up his quest for the realization of the real Self and starts seeing himself as the body, sense, and mind. Through this ignorance, he is ensnared by the false notions of the ‘I’ and ‘Mine’. He says; That I know nothing about myself, that Siddhartha has remained thus alien and unknown to me, stems from one causeM, a single cause: I was afraid of myself, I was fleeing from myself! I searched Atman, I searched Brahman, I was willing to dissect myself and peel off all of its layers, to find the core of all peels in its unknown interior, the Atman, life, the divine part, the ultimate part. But I have lost myself in the process. (Hesse 46) Siddhartha enters the material world and learns the art of love and trade. Initially, he retains his detachment from the world and his power of discernment (viveka). He mocks people who take the affairs of the world too seriously, he calls them the Childlike people but slowly gets ensnared by the world. Hesse describes this transition as; Just slowly and imperceptibly, as the harvest seasons and rainy seasons passed by, his mockery had become more tired, his superiority had become more quiet. Just slowly, among his growing riches, Siddhartha had assumed something of the childlike people’s ways for himself, something of their childlikeness and of their fearfulness. And yet, he envied them, envied them just the more, the more similar he became to them. (Hesse 85) He begins to enjoy the plurality of the universe and begins to identify with his body and soul (not atman). He is ensnared by the world and its vices. His possessions become a burden for him and he is deeply unhappy with life. He stops being an ascetic at the heart. Thus he realizes that; “The name of this game was Samsara, a game for children, a game which perhaps enjoyable to play once, twice, ten times – but for ever and ever over again?” (Hesse 92) After experiencing the pleasures and inevitable pain of Samsara, Siddhartha negates it and bids farewell to his lover Kamala and goes into the forest where he meets the enlightened Vasudeva. Siddhartha chooses the path of knowledge or jnana yoga to realize the Self or Atman. This path is a three-step process that includes listening or shravana, contemplation or manana, and application or nidhidyasana. The first step requires the use of senses and intellect, the second step involves developing discernment through experience and the third step is the result of the two that results in direct realization of the Ataman. Siddhartha has listened to the teachings of the Vedas and the Upanishads since

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early childhood. He is well versed in scriptures as he is seen quoting from the Mundaka Upanishad. Through listening, he is introduced to his essential nature or Atman. The next step is contemplation and corroborating with experience what the previous step introduced as a hypothesis. Siddhartha does this through his negations of rituals, asceticism, causation, and samsara. The final step is the application of the knowledge and realization of the Absolute. Siddhartha realizes that he is Pure Consciousness, a subject without any object. He is Pure Existence and is one with all existence as everything exists in him. Hesse attempts to convey it to the reader through the voice of the river which seems to be carrying thousands of voices that are intertwined and connected and they merge into a single sound that is OM. He says; “When he did not tie his soul to any particular voice and submerged his self into it, when he heard them all, perceived that whole, the oneness, then the great song of thousand voices consisted of a single word, which was OM: the perfection” (Hesse 144). REFERENCES Smith, Huston. The World’s Religions (Revised and Updated). Harper Collins, 2009. Hesse, Hermann. Siddhartha. Fingerprint! Classics, 2012. Radhakrishnan, Servapalli. The Philosophy of the Upanisads. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1924. Butler, Colin. “Hermann Hesse's ‘Siddhartha’: Some Critical Objections.” Monatshefte, vol. 63, no. 2, 1971, pp. 117–124. Sharma, Chandradhar. Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House, 2016. Bhattacharya, Bela. “The Dependent Origination in Buddhism.” repository.cam.ac.uk, 1982. Sharma, Chandradhar. Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy: A Study of Advaita in Buddhism, Vedanta & Kashmira Shaivism. Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House, 2007. Vivekananda, Swami. Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. 4. Prasoon Publication, 2020.

* Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Eng, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttaranchal. **Email : [email protected]

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4. Power Equations in Jean Rhys’ Wide Sargasso Sea Vaishali*, Susheel Kumar Sharma**

Abstract : The paper assesses the positive aspects of power in Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys. It addresses the circular nature of power, leading to a goal that conveysthe power that a circular model involves which is more proficient and sustainable. Since, Jean Rhys, the author, is a white-skinned-creolewho faced problems with her national, regional, and sexual identities, the topic of identity as a component of power is explored in this novel. As no relationship develops in isolation it should be examined within the context of knowledge; the study makes a connection between power and knowledge.However, power’s dimensions have provided silenced and marginalised communities a voice and Rhys’ concept of positive power remains vital for both modern political discourse and political inclusion, solidarity, and resistance. The paper discusses decolonizing knowledge as a tool of power, and the power of solitude and freedom to achieve positive power goals which describe freedom and bondage as tools of power. Keywords: Decolonization, Identity, Jean Rhys, Knowledge, Power, Resistance. Power means the authority of one actor over another. It is the fundamental concept needed to understand the fabric of a social structure and its dynamics. It is exercised through institutions, law, and order. According to MerriamWebster Dictionary‘power’ is defined as the “ability to act or produce an effect”. According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics,‘power’ is defined as “the ability to make people (or things) do what they would not otherwise have done” (653). The Routledge Dictionary of Politics states that one very common definition of power in modern political science is ‘the ability of A to make B do something B would not choose to do’ (Routledge 399). The Blackwell Dictionary of Political Science (397) defines power in terms of political power, “Power is the central concept in Political Science, yet it remains elusive. . . . Somemay appear to hold power when they do not possess it: on the other hand, the perception that one has power may confer power on one.” Studying power through intangible means is quite a problem. Further, it is even more difficult to identify the person responsible for certain happenings. Evaluating power is impossible when one cannot attribute responsibility for the outcomes (397). In

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Nietzsche’s The Will to Power, power is the capacity to define reality. The French critic, Michel Foucault describes power as being more positive than negative. According to Michel Foucault, power is not domination but a production that does not constrain individuals yet their actions: The individual is no doubt the fictitious atom of an ‘ideological’ representation of society, but he is also a reality fabricated by this specific technology of power that I have called ‘discipline’. We must cease once and for all to describe the effects of power in negative terms: it ‘excludes’, it ‘represses’, it ‘censors’, it ‘abstracts’, it ‘masks’, it ‘conceals’. In fact, power produces; it produces reality; it produces domains of objects and rituals of truth. The individual and the knowledge that may be gained of him belong to this production (Foucault 194). The different disciplines of power deal with power differently. According to Wittgenstein, the concept of power needs to be understood basically through ‘family resemblance’ concepts (Wittgenstein 32). This concept would work in clusters, not as a single essence. In a family, members have different mindsets. He claimed that a son would exhibit the demeanour of his father and the manners of his mother, while a daughter would resemble her grandmother, etc. Wittgenstein describes the process of ‘resemblance’ where the person in the family would unknowingly be involved in a ‘game’ of winning or losing. A solitary person does not compete and thereby fails to understand the competition. Similarly, critics are examining the various concepts of power, where to some, power is domination and to others, it is legitimate authority. It means every discipline is involved in clarifying the concept of power by way of ‘resemblance’ and certain actors may think of implementing power in ways that are more or less compatible. Just as a person in the family is good at maintaining order and peace but not so good at handling other tasks, so it is with different conceptual tools of power. That person is trained in different atmospheres, shaping certain problems and questions surrounding the concept. Therefore, it is better to consider power as a plural concept, devoid of any limitation, because different concepts bring different practices to articulate. Liz Gunner discusses the relationships between mothers and daughters in the article “Mothers, Daughters, and Madness in Works by Four Women Writers: Bessie Head, Jean Rhys, Aidoo Ata Ama, and Dangarembga Tsitsi” and makes the connection between the concepts of language and body and the notion of the continuity between mother and daughter. One must appropriate this maternal dimension that belongs to women, according to French feminist writer Irigary, who focuses on the generative force of the mother and the engendering of

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“love, desire, language, art, the social, the political” (Margeret 1991). Gunner affirms the creative and powerful ancestry of women. The works of Rhys were influenced by “silenced and subjugation” and a “genealogy of women” that is both physical and artistic. In Wide Sargasso Sea, Rhys makes an attempt to describe the concept of motherhood by portraying how Antoinette’s servant, Christophine, tried her best to shield her from colonial subjugation while Antoinette’s mother is powerless to do so. The focus of Rhys is on insanity and a never-attempted presentation of the mother-daughter family issues. In order to represent a muted and colonial mind, Rhys uses Bertha Mason, the figure of the insane woman in the attic. However, Antoinette’s resistance to colonial enslavement makes the mother’s madness distinct from the daughter’s as her power turned out to be imaginative ingenuity. In the light of Wittgenstein’s observation on the family resemblance concept,in Wide Sargasso Sea, Antoinette resembles her mother, Annette, who represents insanity and captivity and Mr Rochester resembles his father who represents imperialistic power and attitude. Mr Rochester and Antoinette are unknowingly involved in the replication of power attitudes that define the repetition of patterns in life. Antoinette and Annette are both characterised as turning into zombies when they go crazy. The isolation gives Antoinette a better grasp of the Caribbean and strengthens her bonds with Tia and Christophine. Independence from colonial attitudes is developed through solitude. While Annette, who married Mr Mason, enjoyed her time as Englishwoman, Antoinette disapproves of the concept. “None of you understands about us” because of the differences between White supremacy and the reality of the life of the Creoles (30). Mr Mason, her step-father, shows the colonial power and attitude of being an Englishman as he possesses economic and social power. We understand that relationships play an important role during crises when one is under threat due to oppressive use of power. The family’s outlook also demonstrates how well the people in the novel get along. Black rioters set a Jamaican plantation on fire and Annette tried to save her family, but Pierre and the parrot perished in the blaze. Mr Mason tried to assist Annette get over the loss of her son, but she couldn’t, she sank into lunacy. Antoinette cares for by Aunt Cora because the accident traumatised her. It demonstrates the family’s compatibility as well as the individual coping mechanism. On the other hand, Christophine is a powerful woman who supported the Cosway family in their needs. When Annette faced abandonment by slaves who poisoned her horse, she declares, “[n]ow we are marooned” (18), they were helpless but Christophine supports Annette. Also, the ‘maroon’ shows Christophine’s resistance to oppression by never being subjected to the rules of law. The action of Annette and Antoinette shows the Creole woman who is marooned

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forcibly by Blacks and Whites whereas Christophine relocates herself from the bondage of law in a way that she escapes confinement. Power operates on a circular level, which demonstrates that power based on a circular model is more effective and sustainable. Foucault argues that: Power must be analysed as something which circulates, or rather as something which only functions in the form of a chain. It is never localized here and there, never in anybody’s hands, never appropriated as a commodity or piece of wealth. Power is employed and exercised through a net-like organization. And not only do individuals circulate between its threads; they are always in the position of simultaneously undergoing and exercising this power. They are not only inert or consenting targets; they are always also the elements of its articulation. In other words, individuals are the vehicles of power, not its point of application (98). In the article “Jean Rhys’Wide Sargasso Sea: The Other Side/Both Sides Now”Paula Grace Andersondiscusses the open-ended universe in which nothing is predictable and the other side is a feature of reality, including race, culture, sex, psychosexuality, and sexual roles.She also discusses sanity and insanity, love and hate, as well as life and death. When the unnamed Rochester marries Antoinette in order to secure his financial future, the power dynamics between the coloniser and colonised are visible. Antoinette is denied her financial rights, even on her own money. Rochester is regarded as the creator and master symbol of the exclusively male world of power. Not even monetarily, but by bringing her against her will to England and calling her Bertha Mason, Rochester crushes her individuality. As a result, Rhys Antoinette becomesCharlotteBronte’s Bertha. It has been noted by Paula that the unidentified Rochester inWideSargasso Sea is a villain, in contrast to Rochester inJane Eyre, who is a hero. This demonstrates the circular flow of power. Bertha Mason is denied all her rights, but Antoinette in the Wide Sargasso Sea resists atrocities committed by the colonisers. Antoinette resists clinging to her position of authority. The novel explains how Creoleslost their authority once slavery was abolished, a time when they were previously powerful. They [creoles] were called ‘white cockroaches’ and Antoinette witnessed this rage when Tia, a black friend, rejects her saying, “Plenty white people in Jamaica. Real white people, got gold money. They didn’t look at us, nobody see them come near us. Old-time white people nothing but white nigger now, and black nigger are better than white nigger”.

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PaulajustifiesAntoinette’s act of putting the house on fire by calling it the process of self-liberation,”I dropped the candle I was carrying and it caught the end of a tablecloth and I saw flame shoot up. As I ran or perhaps floated or flew I called help me Christophine help me and looking behind me I saw that I had been helped. There was a wall of fire protecting me”. Paulaclaims that Antoinette obtained the freedom of choice through the purging of fire, a symbol of the destroyer. The choice was between the attic non-life and self-liberation through fire. She never admitted to the colonial power despite losing her life. However, power is everywhere around us, and it convinces us via actions. Action is a person’s demeanour or conduct as well as a means of exercising authority. The systems of power and identity are operated by actions. The demeanour defines a person’s individuality and aids in decision-making since, as we all know, making decisions requires action, and when we make decisions—whether at work, at home, in politics, etc.—power is accrued. Power and action are therefore ubiquitous. This blending of authority and activity results in the acquisition of identity. The observation shows the assimilation of power and action that culminates in the existence of identity. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary(OALD), defines identity as “the distinguishing character or personality of an individual.” It is the numerical identity of a person that shows the unique ability of an individual to divulge the differences among them. Like ideas, identity is an inherent quality possessed by every individual, for example, national, regional, and sexual identity. In The Will to Power (1910), Friedrich Nietzsche said, “The individual is something quite new that creates a new thing, something absolute; all his acts are entirely his own”. It means that every individual happens to be unique in his or her way where the identity lies. They can create, destroy, or prosper. One cannot be devoid of one’s identity. Pollanen focuses on studying Antoinette’s identity problem in “Abject by Gender and Race: The Loss of Antoinette’s Identity in Jean Rhys’Wide SargassoSea”. The relationship between race and gender is examined in the paper. Additionally, it emphasises how the novel’s identity problem is examined from the perspective of psychoanalytic feminism. Throughout the narrative, Mr Rochester’s opinion of Antoinette evolves. He is initially entranced by Antoinette’s allure but later came to despise both her and the Jamaican landscape: I was tired of these people. I disliked their laughter and their tears, their flattery and envy, their conceit and deceit. And I hated the place. I hated the mountains and the hills, the rivers and the rain […] I hated its beauty and its magic and the secret I would never know. I hated its indifference and the cruelty which was part of its loveliness. Above all

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Pollanen demonstrates Rochester’s lack of empathy for her wife and the strong attachment she felt to her native country. When Antoinette resisted Rochester’s dominance, he suffocated her identity. Ania Loomba and Judith Butler’s criticism helps to explain Antoinette’s descent into madness and the crimes committed by the patriarchy. Antoinette is oppressed by others, victimised by colonisers, and objectified as a puppet or doll. According to Kristeva, she drives herself irrationally to the point of identity construction. We see that Antoinette’s search for identity was a difficult task as she is a Creole woman, white in colour, born in West Indies. She never identified with Europeans, and the black community of Roseau never accepted her. Rochester as a colonial oppressor complicates Antoinette’s assertion of White identity by saying “Creole of pure English descent she may be, but they are not English or European either” (67). If Antoinette ascertains European identity then she would be afforded political and economicrightsand Rochester, being the younger son, would never allow that to happen. The inheritance of Antoinette’s property is the political interference that makes her vulnerable to marginalization and exile. Rochester describes his wife as a zombie-like being with “white faces” and “dazed eyes”. Later, when she migrated to England with Mr Rochester, she faced an identity crisis. Mr Rochester locked her in the attic and renamed her Bertha Mason which indicatesRochester’s colonial attitude of holding power and destroyingBertha’s identity. Rochester clearly distinguishes himself from “they”- dangerous, mixed-blood Creoles who are “aimless” in a world where they have no place. As a result, he confines the insanity to Thornfield Hall to be “watched”, which is not only in Bertha but also in other Creoles who lack a past and are unable to emulate the values of originality and purity that the English possess. Antoinette’s identity becomes more fragmented and subjugated by the colonizing influence of her husband. However, the resistance is shown by Antoinette when Rochester calls her Bertha, she opposed by saying “Bertha is not my name…You are trying to make me into someone else, calling me by another name. I know, that’s obeah too” (147). As Gayatri Spivak explains, “Rhys suggests that so intimate a thing as personal and human identity might be determined by the politics of imperialism” (153), her tumult reveals a concern with the imperialist act of making others the same. According to Antoinette, obeah refers to the capacity to exert influence and control over others, particularly through the power of naming, a speech act in which the addresser’s words and delivery are integrated. It emphasises Obeah’s connection to action rather than silence.

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The interaction between power and knowledge piqued Michel Foucault’s curiosity. Edward Said puts it, ‘highly wrought presentation of the order, stability, authority and regulatory power of knowledge’.Foucault discusses political technology, economic difficulties, ideology, and physical interactions in relation to punishment. Since power is being used on the body rather than being possessed, it is not considered property but rather a strategy. By applying pressure to the body, power invests itself in it, which means that these relations penetrate all the way to the core of society by using particular processes and modalities. Knowledge is produced by power, and the two are inversely proportionate. Without the field of knowledge, there is no feasible power relationship, and this power-knowledge link must be examined through the potential domains of knowledge. One might be interested in the‘body politic’, as a set of material elements and techniques that serves as weapons, communication routes, and supports for the power and knowledge relation that invest human bodies and subjugate them by turning them into objects of knowledge. According to the study by Mojgan, “Evaluation of Fragmentation and Paranoia in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea: A Postmodern Outlook” the paranoia in this passage refers to Antoinette and her mother Annette’s mental condition and is associated with madness, in his book Madness and Civilization, Foucault describes abnormality and mental illness as going beyond the norm and holding that there is an orderly pattern underneath the chaos of the universe. Both Antoinette and Annette were able to sense the fear and loathing of slaves; they sensed and the consequences confirmed it right when they (slaves) set the home on fire. However, Annette’s husband, who is not Creole, disregarded her request to leave Coulibri’s plantation. Antoinette has a neurotic fear of being constantly observed. In Discipline and Punishment, Foucault’s concept of surveillance illustrates how the abnormal were constantly being seen and followed. In her dream, she was alone in a wilderness while being observed and pursued by some haters. This is a metaphor since Grace Poole is now the watcher when she is subsequently discovered confined in the attic. Rochester is also paranoid; he hears Christophine and her wife laughing and making fun of him, and this bothers him. He believes he is duped into marrying the crazy girl. He began to despise Antoinette after Daniel Cosway informed him about her madness, and in order to exercise his authority, he transported her to England and imprisoned her in the attic. In the text, Antoinette is an English-looking Creole woman, who married an unknown white man who is known as Mr Rochester. He enjoys his wife at first since he gets to spend time with her, learn about Caribbean culture, and dine outside while it’s hot and full of bugs. Daniel Mason, Antoinette’s half-brother,

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who misled Rochester about his wife, is to blame for the issue. Rochester has faith in him (Daniel), as though he were looking for an excuse to escape that country. He began condemning everything about her wife in the manner of a colonial master. The dynamic changed to one of master and slave. He began to command her. He initially made fun of her appearance, including her outfit, her huge lips, and many other things. He stopped loving her, and Antoinette is devastated by this. He began exerting control over her thoughts and body. After some time passes without him touching her, he decides to rename her. He uses this to make her into a puppet in order to control her. After being imprisoned in an attic for years, Antoinette changed into an animal-like monster, her body became painless, and her mind numb; as a result, Antoinette finally extricated herself from this material world of damnation. Resistance is perceived easily in day-to-day life or it’s better to call it ‘everyday resistance’. Most people feel this resistance and others are unknowingly acting on it. The best way to understand resistance is by observing it in society or a family. Resistance literature shows the various political resistance throughout history and the literature creatively resists oppressive systems. It preserves the stories of resistance throughout literature. The power of resistance stories has brought positive social change and reflects society’s social and political trends. Resistance Literature shows us the writer’s struggle, whether gender-based oppression, liberation struggle, or exile. It aims to challenge the norms, defy cultural practices, and give hope. It is a socio-political activity involved in a struggle against dominant ideologies.Barbalet’s (1985) theory of ‘power and resistance’ is the most sustained in the literature because it provides clarification to the definition of power and resistance in Weber’s understanding of power (53). In the article “Shutting up the Subaltern: Silences, Stereotypes, and DoubleEntendre in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea” Mardorossian reveals how the language of the colonisers gave meaning to slavery. Antoinette had no idea how the balance of power operated in her society. Although she is a member of the planter class and her mother was a descendant of a slave trader, their involvement in the history of slavery cannot be discounted. When Tia and Antoinette got into an argument, Tia resisted by saying, “Old time white people nothing but white nigger now, and black nigger better than white nigger” (24). The resistance in this instance demonstrates how race is a historically and discursively constructed identity, with different meanings for different socioeconomic groups. Because Antoinette is unaware of the ideological and historical divisions between classes in West Indian post-slavery culture, she is unable to understand what Tia is trying to say.

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Firstly, the resistance shown by Tia would be the way to hold her identity and subjugate Antoinette’s belongings to nowhere. Since she has never received attention from her family, particularly her mother, Antoinette develops an emotional bond with Tia because she is the only person she has ever known. When Tia opposed her, she realised how much she resembled her and decided to accept it. This demonstrates Antoinette’s resistance through Tia. Antoinette has always yearned to be a part of the Black community since she has a deeper connection to them. Secondly, she argued that there is always another side to every issue and advised her husband to listen to his wife in a letter that Daniel gave to her husband in response to the accusation that she had cheated on him. Thirdly, when Rochester attempted to change her name from Antoinette Cosway to Bertha Mason. A cunning plan to drive Antoinette insane was behind Rochester’s alteration of behaviour. She is forced to travel with him to England, where she is imprisoned until she passed away. Antoinette lit the Thornfield house on fire as her final act of defiance against colonial oppression. Additionally, Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys qualifies as Resistance literature since she gave Bertha Mason’s character justice by writing the prequel, which helped to explain how Bertha came to be what she was. The positive equations of power would be achieved through ‘decolonizing knowledge’ only when we are able to understand the Neo-colonial world’s strategy. Decolonization is the process of eradicating colonialism by destroying its intellectual empires. Because ‘decolonizing the mind’ is an option for the academic world, the topic of how they are using and manifesting power globally is no longer relevant. It’s not for freedom but for the collective liberation of minds and concepts. Individuals and institutions alike must be aware. The government should decolonize its perspective to think critically, which does not necessarily imply losing one’s identity, starting with the ideas of schools, hospitals, and prisons. Pressures from the economy, politics, culture, and other factors are used in this neo-colonial environment to exert control over or influence other countries. In “Of Heroines and Victims: Jean Rhys and Jane Eyre” Porter examines Antoinette and Mr Rochester’s apprehension, terror, and hatred. Fear is a characteristic of Antoinette (Creole), brought on by the fact that she was rejected by both Blacks and Whites. On the other side, Mr Rochester believed his wife had betrayed him. The letter, which said, “Give my love to your wife? My sister…You are not the first to kiss her pretty face. Pretty face, soft skin, pretty colour? Not yellow like me. But my sister just the same…” (126).According to the article, Antoinette never fully submitted to Mr Rochester. Getting married to Rochester is an act of identification and self-preservation. She devoted herself to the marriage as a devoted wife would, yet she is neglected to take care of

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her husband. The same is true of her decision not to become Rochester’s mistress. She would have entirely ceded her control if she had surrendered to him in that manner. She always fights him (Rochester) even when he takes her to England. Despite being the victim, she managed to break free of the cage. However, decolonizing knowledge has allowed Antoinette to maintain her position of authority. Antoinette is defying her husband Mr Rochester’s colonial rule, and she burned the house on fire when he locked her up in Thornfield Hall’s attic. This deed wasn’t done for her independence but for liberating all minds and ideas. One can see that realising one’s identity and regaining power has become possible by ‘decolonizing the mind’. Antoinette, a white Creole, never views Christophine and her black friend Tia as ‘other’ because they share a West Indian origin.She had fun with Tia, and Christophine treated her like a little girl. According to Antoinette, interconnectedness is the capacity to recognise oneself in another person to be welcomed by them. She is unable to fully comprehend what it would entail to change in conformity with what she believes the other to be. Furthermore, because he views Christophine and Antoinette’s relationship as hazardous, Rochester, who relates this to a source of power, has more and more control over her. Rochester told his wife to end her relationship with Christophine because he did not want her to turn against him. Because she adores her husband, she consents. However, Antoinette’s portrayal of the perfect wife results in her being estranged from Christophine (Blackness), who looks out for her like a mother. Nevertheless, Christophine challenges the colonial attitude of Rochester when he threatened her with the law and which she confronted. Simone De Beauvoir specified power as “The point is not for women simply to take power out of men’s hands since that wouldn’t change anything about the world. It’s a question precisely of destroying that notion of power”. It’s a matter of dismantling that notion of power, which indicates that dominance and coercion have been mistakenly understood as being associated with power. Production of power involves its possession, control, and responsible use. In the text, Jean Rhys made an effort to stay in control. Instead of attempting to usurp male authority, her protagonists exercise it through conflict and female sovereignty. In order to better themselves and find a place for themselves in a male-dominated society, women who claim female sovereignty must create or enact legislation. Female sovereignty appeals to the feminine psyche and is not about the ‘individual’ or ‘becoming the goddess’. Although it joins with the extent of reality, it is not about meeting the fictitious demands of the self that are tied to personal identity. Somehow, Antoinette wields and temporarily controls power. The house is set on fire to release her from her servitude, which brings up the final point that is readily made. She once had the idea to

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promise herself independence but ended up in bondage. After revolting against Mr Rochester’s rule, she frees her soul from an existential crisis and reunites with her ‘self’. This exemplifies how a woman can regain her lost power.She was liberated by the fire even though she never considered harming any of them while it was burning. She seeks freedom from imprisonment and pursues it by assuming advantageous characteristics of power. Likewise, Annette made an effort to adopt European customs in order to protect her children’s future from the negative effects of her Creole identity. To obtain influence over her identity, she wed an Englishman. Aunt Cora is seen as a formidable individual whose life had been spent alone, but she made it through and maintained her position of dominance. She is the result of strong female characters in fiction. Her approaches are original and sensible. She is more astute than Mr Mason when she foresaw that a servant, Mannie, would pose a threat. Later, a servant left Pierre, only son of Annette, in his chamber, which led to his death. Compared to Mr Mason, the Englishman, Aunt Cora had more control over the slaves. As a result, the analysis of the positive dimensions of power has been attempted to illustrate the good features of power in the Wide Sargasso Sea. The arguments given above appear to support this goal. No work of literature can emerge in a vacuum, and positive aspects of power are necessary for power to flourish. Additionally, a country’s main political developments frequently influence its literature. Wide Sargasso Sea’s protagonist, Antoinette, goes through a struggle that serves as a potent backdrop for criticism and analysis of power.

Works Cited Anderson, Paula Grace. “Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea: The Other Side/ ”Both Sides Now” Caribbean Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 1/2, March-June, 1982, pp. 57-65. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40653444 Bealey, Frank and Allan G.Johnson. The Blackwell Dictionary of Political Science: A User’s Guide to Its Terms. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 1999. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan, Penguin Books, 1977. Foucault, Michel. Power/knowledge.Pantheon, 1980. Gunner, Liz. “Mothers, Daughters and Madness in Works by Four Women Writers: Bessie Head, Jean Rhys, Aidoo Ata Ama and Dangarembga Tsitsi” Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, no. 14, 1994, pp. 136-151. : http:// www.jstor.org/stable/521769

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Eyvazi, Mojgan & et al. “Evaluation of Fragmentation and Paranoia in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea: A Postmodern Outlook” Canadian Open English and Literature Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, September 2014, pp. 1- 20. https:// crpub.com/Journals.php Mardorossian, Carine M. “Shutting up the Subaltern: Silences, Stereotypes, and Double-Entendre in Jean Rhys’s “Wide Sargasso Sea” Callaloo, vol. 22, no. 4, 1999, pp. 1071-1090. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3299872 Nietzsche, Frederick. The Will to Power. Random House, 1968. Pollanen, Iida. “Abject by Gender and Race: The Loss of Antoinette’s Identity in Jean Rhys’ Wide Sargasso Sea”, Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 2012,https://journals.oregondigital.org/ourj/ Porter, Dennis. “Of Heroines and Victims: Jean Rhys and Jane Eyre” The Massachusetts Review, vol. 17, no. 3, 1976, pp. 540-552. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/25088673 Rhys, Jean. Wide Sargasso Sea. Penguin Essentials, 2011. Robertson, David. The Routledge Dictionary of Politics. Routledge, 2004. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism.” The Novel: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory, 1900-2000. Edited by Dorothy J. Hale. Malden, Blackwell Pub., 2006, pp. 145165. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, Oxford UP 2000, 2003. Irigary, Luce. The Irigaray Reader. Edited by MargeretWhitford. Oxford, 1991 Wittgenstein, L. Philosophical Investigations. Blackwell, 1967.

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5. Transformation of Celie into a New Age Woman Neha Singh,* Abhilasha Singh**

Abstract: The Color Purple is one of Alice Walker's most outstanding novels. It is a tale of victimization, self-realization, suffering, trials, suppression, and tribulations throughout the life of fourteen years old black girl in AfricanAmerican society. This paper aims at studying the development and transformation of Celie from a meek girl into an independent woman with selfrespect. The story expresses the excellence of women's empowerment as it revolves around Celie's journey of suffering from a helpless girl to an independent woman. This novel also depicts love, life, faith, and ambition of a woman’s self towards independence. Celie was born into a segregated and poverty-ridden society. A repeated physical assault from her stepfather, along with her violent marriage, turned out to be more unfavourable. She accepts it as the fate of a poor black girl who was bound to suffer an abusive father and husband. These are the reasons that she loses trust in a male dominating patriarchal society; all the suffering and betrayal from husband takes a diversion into love and affection for her husband's ex-girlfriend. It helps her to grow as a person, from a thin, meek girl abused by all into a free-willed woman filled with hope and faith. Keywords: Harassment, Meek, New Age Woman, Racism, Self-respect, Sexism, Victimization. Introduction The Color Purple the novel was published in 1982 by an American author Alice Walker, and for this fiction, she won the 'Pulitzer Prize' and the 'National Book Award' in 1983. Later on, it was adapted for the movie by popular American director Steven Spielberg and became a huge success.This novel is written in epistolary form. It is an extraordinary literary work. Taking place mostly in rural Georgia, the novel depicts racial discrimination, sexism, illtreatment and the plight of black women; abuse, black lesbianism, and African-

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American women's struggles. All of these are illustrated by the example of the main character 'Celie'. "She is a victim of fate as well as man-made society, where women never get free space." (Singh 72). "Walker shows us the evolution of her major character, Celie, from being a sexually abused child to a passive wife and finally to an emancipated woman." (Padhi, 2015: 1) There was a lot of racism and harassment, especially against black women, "The black men abused their wives to show their power toward the women (Andersen, 1997: 176)". Women were abused and beaten because of their gender and colour. The Color Purple tells the story of a young AfricanAmerican woman named 'Celie' and her struggle for empowerment in a world marked by racism, sexism, and patriarchy. The author created a unique voice for her heroine, 'Celie'. "This is the country in which a woman is raped every three minutes", she says, "where one out of three women will be raped during their lifetime and a quarter of those are children under 12." (cliffsnotes.com) Celie's Evolution from a Meek Girl into an Independent Woman with Selfrespect Celie is a meek girl because she was always compelled to obey her stepfather, husband and her stepchildren, so much so that she accepted it as her fate. Earlier, Celie provides an important proof that she is a meek woman when Celie's father commands her, "You gonna do what your mammy wouldn't" (p. 3). She has to satisfy her father's sexual desire. This is when her mother becomes ill and is unable to satisfy his lust. He rapes her until Celie becomes pregnant twice. However, she will not object to any harassment she experiences. She has no one to share her experience with. Hence, Celie starts writing letters to 'God'. She is average looking black girl. She is neither beautiful nor educated or rich, which means she cannot even dream of a good life. She had a sister 'Nettie' and her stepfather and mother. In the early 20th century, she lived in Georgia and was sexually abused, verbally dominated, and physically beaten. The novel begins with a line of dialogue spoken by Celie's father, Alphonso- "You better not never tell nobody but God. It'd kill your mammy." (Walker 3) After this line, Celie begins writing letters to God."I am fourteen years old. I am I have always been a good girl." (p.3) Her father raped Celie while her mother was on the way to the doctor in town, and she was impregnated by him twice. He abused her sexually and threatened her that she did not have to tell these things to anybody, she should just can share this with God. So, she started writing letters and, in those letters, she started to pour her feelings out. In that way, she describes how she was continuously raped by her own father and how Nettie took away those two children. One was a boy, and one was a girl, and she does not know what happened to those children. Celie is essentially an object, a completely meek girl because she has no power to assert herself.

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Celie is not an educated woman. This can be gauged from the way she writes letters. The letters are in the typical language of Black Americans. As some examples are here, "I ain't gonna. Can't you see I'm already half-dead, an all of these children. She went to visit her sister doctor over Macon. Left me to see after the others. He never had a kind word to say to me." (p.3) From these examples, it is clear that many grammatical errors can be found in the letter. This proves that Celie's lack of education along with her fear makes her unable to communicate properly. In The Color Purple, Celie is described as an unattractive woman. As per white standards of beauty, she does not have either the shape or colour to make her acceptable. In the novel, her presence is "such as wearing a tight dress and having a fat body."(p.12) It shows that Celie is an ugly woman and her sister is more attractive than she. "I know I'm not as pretty or as smart as Nettie, but she says I ain't dumb." (p. 11) In this line, it is clear that Celie is not as pretty or smart as Nettie. Celie's stepfather says that "She ugly. Don't even look like she I kin to Nettie," (p. 10). So, for him, Celie is unattractive and different from her sister. “Celie writes to God because she has no one else to help her bear this terrible knowledge. What has happened to Celie is so terrible that she can talk about it only to someone who she feels loves her. Of course, her sister, Nettie, loves her, but Nettie is too young to understand what terrible things have happened to Celie. Only to God can Celie talk honestly and openly about the hell that she has suffered. And this point is important: Celie is not complaining to God. She simply needs to talk to someone — someone whom she loves and trusts and someone who she feels loves her” (Cliffsnotes.com) Celie was victimized by her father, but she does not understand why all this has happened to her. So many bad things happened to Celie which take away her self-respect. She wants freedom only in her life because "By having freedom, she is able to make choices based on her own self and decide the best for her life." (Madsen, 2000: 24) It should be noted that Celie does not even write her name in the letters to God. In the meantime, that mother of Celie dies, and there is the entry of a man Mr. Albert. He wants to marry Nettie, but Alphonso says that you can marry Celie because she is a hardworking girl. She can work just like an animal, and the most important thing is that she would not become a mother, which means she will never get pregnant; at that very particular note, Mr. Albert agrees to marry Celie though he does not like her at all. She gets married, but she was very stressed about the condition of Nettie. Celie thinks that Nettie also will be harassed by Alphonso. The condition of Celie does not improve when she gets married because "Celie cannot decide what she will do because her husband is the one who will decide it for her." (Giddings, 2008: 58-59) She has to face that

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suffering, and she has to go through the same feelings and harassment which was led by her father. Mr. Albert does not like her and he never cares about her or always ignores her. As he was a widower, he had many children which made his life with Celie miserable. She used to work hard as a horse, and nobody cared about her, and nobody loved her. Only one person, Harpo, was there who showed kindness to Celie. He was the elder child of Mr. Albert. Harpo was in love with Sofia, and ultimately, he married her. Sofia is a very different character; she is a black girl, but she is very independent. Harpo wants to control her, but she never lets him and works according to her wishes; acts on the advice of celie by beating Sofia in order to control him. However; Sofia beats Harpo badly, and she leaves the house. Sofia's life at that very point changed, and there she came in contact with Celie; they became quite friends after some time, and Celie guilty that she is the one who had destroyed the house of Harpo and Sofia. Apologize, Sofia was not angry with her. She said that she had suffered a lot at her parents hand and by various people, and those incidents had mad her strong, and now, nobody could control her in the present. Sofia's children are very clean and tidy. Mr. Mayor's wife wants that Sofia should take care of the her children and asks Sofia to work as her maid, but she refuses. Mr. Mayor misbehaves with her, and Sofia beats Mr. Mayor. As he was a white person so, she was sent to jail for 20 years. In this way, her whole life was destroyed. In between, there is an entry of a lady that is Mrs. Shug Avery. She was the mistress of Mr. Albert. They were having an affair, but she does not want to live a life of servitude and that is why she refused to marry Mr. Albert. Shug Avery comes home to recover, and Celie becomes her nurse because, at that time, Shug was ill and was suffering, and nobody was there to take care of her, So Mr. Albert brings her to his house. Shug Avery is a strong woman, and men do not engage with her. As she grows physically more robust, she encourages Celie to become stronger psychologically.Shug was a very famous singer and magic-maker. Celie knows about this woman. When she was about to come, Celie was pleased that she would be finally meeting Shug Avery. She decorated her house and colors and painted the room with the colour purple and all the curtains are changed. When she arrives, Celie was very happy, and she takes care of the lady happily. In the meantime, they grow a mutual liking for each other, and there are homosexual elements also. On the other hand, Nettie was harassed by her father, so she comes to Mr. Albert and Celie's house. Mr. Albert gets attracted towards Nettie, but she does not want to destroy her sister's house, so she leaves the house and said to Celie, I will write the letter to you, and she was writing letters, but Mr. Albert never shares those letters and one day as Celie was doing some work suddenly, she finds all the letters which were sent by Nettie and when she reads all of them

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she becomes very angry with Mr. Albert. She comes to know that Nettie has found a job, and she is living with the person Samuel and Corrine; and they have gone to Africa and they are working as a missionary. They are leading a good life, and as Britishers have attacked Africa, they are taking away the plantations, so they have to move to another place. Corrine just thinks these two kids Samuel and Corrine were having were adopted, and they looked somewhat like Nettie. Corrine thought that these are the kids of Samuel and Nettie, so he one day asked Nettie, and she told them they are the children of her sister Celie; at times, Corrine died out of some diseases, and these four people that is Adam, Olivia,the two children of Celie and Samuel and Corrine moved to the United Kingdom and Samuel and Nettie get married. Celie gets very upset with Mr. Albert and decides to leave him and start a new and fresh life with Shug Avery. Celie starts doing work of tailoring, and becomes very famous for that. Shug Avery, as she was a singer, continues singing, but she was involved with other man. She also finds that Alphonso was not their father, he was their stepfather, and he has died. He has given the property to Celie, so Celie goes there and starts afresh. Now, Mr. Albert also realizes his mistakes, and he apologizes to Celie. She is united with Nettie and her two children. On these happy notes, she becomes an independent woman, who just started to know about herself, who started to organize herself, and who started to take steps according to her wishes. Similarly, Sofia teaches Celie how to stand up to, prejudices, injustice and fight against men. For Celie, learning and being independent has not been easy, yet it is difficult for her to work on these new concepts. But when she learns how cruel her husband is to her, she rebels and relinquishes her role as a slave. By the end of the novel, enduring love for Nettie and Celie's newfound strength pays off. She kept Nettie's memory alive for years. She had no proof that her sister is alive. Nettie is busy, but she helps raise Celie's two children. So, this novel is about what happens after rape. A central focus is on the mental and emotional reincarnation of Celie. Hate and violence nearly kill Celie, but then she meets Shug, who, for the first time, can arouse feelings of self-love and sexual love within Celie. Similarly, Sofia teaches Celie by example what courage is, so Celie becomes friends with Sofia. These women's strength and their caring for each other, provide the three of them with opportunities to move forward—despite the sexist and racist world they live in. They laugh together, cry together, and affirm life together. Celie could never have imagined that they would live together in a world. Mr. Albert never imagined that Celie would find Shug, and because of Sofia and Shug, Celie can happily triumph over racial oppression and sexuality.When the novel ends, Nettie, Celie, and her two children have grown up and are reunited.She stayed, despite all the torture and learned to fight to stand up for herself. Celie survived spiritually and physically

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as she matured into a strong, and complete a new woman. Thus we see that, The Color Purple is a story of transformation, development, and happiness. The power of love nourishes all at the face of an adverse society. As a dynamic character, Celie undergoes through an internal transformation and self-recognition. At the beginning of the story, she appears meek, an unattractive and not an educated woman, but at the end, Celie develops a basic change in her life by seeking independence. Conclusion There are four women with four different experiences and personalities - Celie, Nettie, Shug and Sofia. The only thing in common was that these women were victims of abuse, sexism, and racism in different ways. The Color Purple is about how Celie finds her choices and makes a way out of the forced relationships she has been bearing all through her life. She suffers from exploitation and poverty from her stepfather and husband.This novel talks about the brutality of how black males have treated their own black women. These things are unfolded through a black point of view that makes it astonishing. The things that really come through are arguable. The resilience and determination, as Celie progresses through the ups and downs of life, bring up a string of emotions in all of us. It clearly shows how women are treated, but when they find their voices, they will stand up for themselves and be a boss while doing so. The protagonist Celie is a God-fearing girl who has never lived her life on her own terms. But at last, Celie finds a saviour in Shug Avery because with the help of Shug, she knows the simplest joys of life, freedom, and independence. And she emerges as a woman of substance.

REFERENCES Andersen, Margaret L. Thinking About Women: Sociological Perspectives on Sex and Gender. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1997. Giddings, Paula. When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America. Harper Collins e-book. n.d. World Cat. (https:// caringlabor.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/when-and-where-i-enter--the-impactof-b-paula-giddings.pdf). September 23, 2016. Madsen, Deborah L. Feminist Theory and Literary Practice. London: Pluto Press, 2000. Padhi, Prasanta Kumar. "A Study of Celie's Emancipation in Alice Walker's The Color Purple". International Journal of Humanities and Social Science

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Invention. Vol. 4. Issue. 2 (Febuary 14, 2015): p. 01-05. WorldCat. (http:// ijhssi.org/papers/v4(2)/Version-1/A04210105.pdf).September 15,2016. Singh, Harnam. “A Thematic Study of Alice Walker's The Color Purple” Vol. 19. ISSN 1930-2940(1January2019) http://www.languageinindia.com/jan2019/ harnamcolorpurplefinal.pdf Simparinka, Emmanuel. "Feminism in Alice Walker's The Color Purple."International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, Vol. 7, no. 1, 2022, pp. 277–85. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.22161/ijels.71.38. Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. London, United Kingdom, Orion Publishing Co, 2007. https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/c/the-color-purple/character-analysis/ celie *Research Scholar, Department of English and Foreign Languages, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, (M.P.) E-mail : [email protected] **Professor, Department of English and Foreign Languages, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, (M.P.) Email : [email protected]

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6. Depiction of Women in the Poetry of Sylvia Plath Archana Sinha,* Samir Kumar Sharma**

Abstract : The article entitled “Depiction of Women in the Poetry of Sylvia Plath” is an attempt to overview a number of important notions and concepts related to the representation of women in literary works of women poets particularly in the poems of Sylvia Plath. With this proposition, the study involves the thematic representation of Sylvia Plath’s poems in terms of Male Imposed World: Subordinate Self, Cries of the Heart : Voice against Subjugation, broken marital relationship, motherhood and language structures. Hence, male dominance and woman as an inferior sex are explained as two major concepts related to the topic. There are some more factors to shed light on poet’s personal agony and suffering as a woman and secondly as a writer in that age of depression. The theoretical stance of the paper approaches to the nature of language used by the poet through feminine perspective. Gender inequality and the subjugation of women are of major concerns. From a female point of view, the poetry of Sylvia Plath probes deeper into the spirits of women to trace their Identity Crisis and to represent their sufferings, mental traumas and how they opted confessionalism as their tool of expressions. The study also reviews the individual suffering, specifically the critical situation of Plath’s life due to her broken marriage and the death of her children. At last, the paper summarizes the poetry of Sylvia Plath to explore the thematic and technical excellence with an objective to draw more academic attention for a better apprehension of her poetic genius. Keywords : Patriarchy, Subordination, Depression, Relationships and Confessional Poems. Undoubtedly, in the beginning of the twentieth Century, American poetry, emerged as a new literary exercise and ended it as a vital form of cultural expression. American poets of the twentieth century have given a new shape to the poetic composition, to resolve some fundamental questions about the exact meaning of poetry and how it should be written in different forms. The writers

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were also brooding over questions of whether poetry is the result of an amalgamation between the real world and the artistic imagination only? (Beach154) The researcher attempts to address above mentioned questions to provide a better understanding of the poems, poets, and poetic movements of that period particularly. As the twentieth century began, poetry was not the major concern and the age was greatly overshadowed by the novel. During the end of the Civil War until World War I, the United States experienced explosive growth in population and economy. As a result, the nation was focused on things related to practical consideration rather than the theoretical ones. American society was not showing any interest or energy to devote to the cultivation of poetry, which was often considered as mere pastime with very least relevance to modernday life. The American poetry, on the other hand, lingered in the twilight of the late nineteenth century, unable to stand out and make its own importance in the modern world or break with the traditional forms and verbose diction of earlier decades. (Periods of American Literature) Furthermore, the United States, which emerged from World War II confident and economically strong, entered the Cold War in the late 1940s. This results in the disillusionment with Soviet Union shaped literary radicalism for more than four decades, and the proxy wars and threat of nuclear annihilation that came to define the new criticism and it were just some of the influences shaping in formal terms to conceive American literature during the second half of the 20th century. The 1950s and 1960s brought significant cultural shifts with a humanistically approach within the United States driven by the civil rights movement and the women’s movement. (Periods of American Literature) American poetry, marking a definitive historical and generational break with modernism. The postwar periods of the 1950s and 1960s often regarded as periods of cultural conformity and there were a number of different guises: there were the academic formalists who were marked by the emergence of antitraditional literary movements, there were the “confessionals” with their more intensely personal approach to the poem; and there were the Beat writers also and other countercultural movements which sought to liberate poetry from what they saw as the rigidity of academic verse. Even the Beat movement was shortlived— and opposed to the cultural , literary and moral values and stood in favour of self-realization and self expression towards the end of 1950s—but had some influence on American poetry during the contemporary period. (Abrams 56) Robert Lowell in his book Life Studies (1959) defines ‘Confessional Poetry’ as a new type of narrative and lyric verse which reveals the poet’s private or clinical matters about himself or herself , including sexual experiences , mental anguishes

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and traumas, experiments with drugs and suicidal impulses and because of its secular subject it differs from the Augustine’s ‘Confessions’(c.AD400) ( 56) There were a number of poets who have written confessional poems like Allen Ginsberg, Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, John Berryman, Adrienne Rich and other American poets. Sylvia Plath(1932-1963) was one of the best known and the most significant poets not only among American female poets but also to the whole world. She has carefully crafted her personal feelings and anguishes with the help of intense imagery and symbol to convey her message. Her early demise in 1963, followed by a miserable and short life did not create hinderance in her contribution and influence in literature, she became a symbol of protest for the female literary society. Sylvia's unconventional style of writing and themes which she portrayed in her works such as death, suffering, seeking for an identity or oppression on women in a patriarchal society embarked a new change in the feminist movement in America and changed the roles and images of women. This topic is of a great importance because the way that Sylvia Plath was representing the picture of woman of that period in a patriarchal setting was a giant leap in the women's liberation movement. From a feminist point of view Plath perceives the domestic life of a woman as confined among the four walls and complete destruction of her own identity. Plath’s psyche was strongly affected from her childhood days when her father died. The poem “Daddy” shows that Sylvia’s mental agonies had a drastic impact upon her work in which she projected the hatred she had for her father specifically. Again after getting married to Ted Hughes, who was a successful poet of his time she was constantly feeling inferior to him and considered herself the oppressed self in the male dominated society. She was torn between her father and husband. One can raise a question that what was the reason behind her suffering. The lack of love or a sense of security a woman seeks as a daughter or as a wife. Critically one can examine Plath’s poems were merely hallucination or she definitely had gone through this trauma. She was constantly suffering from disorientation and loss of identity that was quite evident in her early works. From analytical point of view the poem “The Applicant” can be taken into consideration in which Plath mocks at the society by exposing the consumerism and need of perfection in relationships especially when men have a structural power over women. The Applicant First, are you our sort of a person? Do you wear A glass eye, false teeth or a crutch, A brace or a hook,

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Rubber breasts or a rubber crotch, Stitches to show something's missing? No, no? Then How can we give you a thing? Stop crying. Open your hand. Empty? Empty. Here is a hand To fill it and willing To bring teacups and roll away headaches And do whatever you tell it. Will you marry it? It is guaranteed To thumb shut your eyes at the end And dissolve of sorrow. We make new stock from the salt. I notice you are stark naked. How about this suit—— Black and stiff, but not a bad fit. Will you marry it? It is waterproof, shatterproof, proof Against fire and bombs through the roof. Believe me, they'll bury you in it. Now your head, excuse me, is empty. I have the ticket for that. Come here, sweetie, out of the closet. Well, what do you think of that? Naked as paper to start But in twenty-five years she'll be silver, In fifty, gold. A living doll, everywhere you look. It can sew, it can cook, It can talk, talk, talk. It works, there is nothing wrong with it. You have a hole, it's a poultice. You have an eye, it's an image. My boy, it's your last resort. Will you marry it, marry it, marry it. (Soa) In the above poem the speaker begins the interrogation of an unnamed applicant starting with the description of his physicality. Ironically the poet became sympathetic towards the applicant and laughed at his incompetency. After that

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the poet mocks at the situation of women who were considered as living dolls of men’s closets. The speaker again pointed out about the supreme devotion as when the applicant dies, the wife will close her eyes and be completely devastated. The poet also made him realized all the benefits of a house wife and the various characteristics associated with her. The poet has tried to project the consumerist nature of male dominated society in which women are subjects of sales, businesses as manufactured in their so called organization of gender stereotypes. The use of metaphors, images and symbols exemplify the harsh realities of life and depicts the complex human conditions in the stereotypes social construction of that period. The language use like ‘rubber breast’, ‘stark naked’, ‘living doll’, ‘It can sew’ and others reflect her unique understanding of the social condition and set an outlook upon her poetic perspective of domestication that paved the path for Sylvia to emerged as an advocate for the second feminist movement. Taking into account the famous work of Simone De Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1984), she argued that women are always seen, not as independent or unique but as a negative, inferior or other then men. The male and female are caught into the subject relation where male is the subject and the Woman the other. Plath also believed in the radical thinking of Simone de Beauvoir and her feminism totally preferred to womanhood in each aspect of her life even in her poetry. Sylvia Plath recalls the idea of Beauvoir ‘one is not born a woman but becomes one’(1984:267). In her poem “Widow” she talks about grieves, sorrows and sufferings of a widow after the death of her husband. “Widow” Widow. The word consumes itself —Body, a sheet of newsprint on the fire Levitating a numb minute in the updraft Over the scalding, red topography That will put her heart out like an only eye. Widow. The dead syllable, with its shadow Of an echo, exposes the panel in the wall Behind which the secret passages lies—stale air, Fusty remembrances, the coiled-spring stair That opens at the top onto nothing at all…(all poetry) Although, this poem is autobiographical yet at the same time it is universally relevant to other women as well. She has expressed the pain of her mother just after the death of her father (Otto Plath). They were left alone in this cruel world; as it is difficult for any female to survive even a single peaceful day

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because of the male dominance and inequalities. The structure of the poem and the language use represented the pain and struggle of a widow throughout her life. This loneliness creates a hollow inside their lives that led to imbalance in their emotional health. The repetition of the same word widow in the beginning of the first three stanzas reflects the monotonous life of a sufferer. The word ‘widow’ itself is considered and compared to a paper in a fire that burns itself up. In the second stanza ‘Its second syllable is described as dead ...’ with its shadow of an echo" suggesting the cycle of life and the other self of man i.e. woman. There is also a spiritual message of never ending eternal love of soul who is always around but we can’t sense it. The widow got stuck in the memory of her husband and even the nature also surrounds her with bending trees or branches to show compassion for her sadness. Thus, in this poem she describes that grief memory of her husband’s death is not temporary, it will be with her till she dies. Here, the poet tries to give a strong message of a submissive nature of women and their courage to survive with children dealing with this tragedy throughout their lives. There are other poems as well which reveal the same theme of womanhood like“Mushroom”, “Ariel”, “ The Bee Meeting” and others. To conclude one can say that she was at times a true feminist and at the same time she became a victim of domestic violence, betrayal in marriage and a survivor from suicidal attempts. She has also raised her voice like other feminist writer; but could not provide any solution to these prevailing problems in the male dominated society. Her writing simply does not fit into common settings of society or any simple categories. A large number of her poems do indeed appear to be written in the confessional mode but not many of them; some of them might have been written in the domain of feminist writing of the late sixties but some of them differ. Her poems reflect her fascination with death, others equally show delight in life and in living or celebrating motherhood. She went through several stages of suffering, traumas or mental illness, anger, despair, grief, quietness and always seeking an end to these pain and miseries. Undoubtedly, Plath had a different perspective or view towards men due to the sorrowful childhood and troublesome married life. She was a victim of circumstances because of the different men she was associated with at different stages of her life. Some believe that she has gradually developed some issues with the entire male race and possess negative connotation towards men. In contrary, some critic believed that Plath’s opposition and general hatred towards men comes not only from circumstance, but also from male dominance. The question remains unanswered because Plath’s derogatory remarks towards male dominated society are the process to interpret life which is the result of circumstances or a hypocritical society where confession is a key.

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REFERENCES Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. USA, 1999, pp. 56. Print Beach, Chistopher .The Cambridge Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Poetry. New York, 2003, pp. 154.Print. https://allpoetry.com/poem/8498007-Widow-by-Sylvia-Plath Web. Accessed 17 January 2022. Luebering, J.E. “Periods of American Literature.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Invalid Date, https://www.britannica.com/list/periods-of-american-literature Web Accessed16 January 2022. Nayar, Pramod K. Contemporary Literary and Cultural Theory: From Structuralism to Ecocriticism. Pearson Education India, 2010, pp. 88. Print. Soa, Jackson. “The Applicant.” LitCharts. LitCharts LLC, 29 Oct 2019. Web. 17 Jan 2022. * Research Scholar, Department of English, Patna Univercity, Patna E-mail : [email protected] **Associate Professor, Department of English, Patna University, Patna, Bihar Email: [email protected]

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An Archetypal Approach To Patrick White’s Tree of Man Priya Pathak*

Abstract : Northrop Frye, a Canadian Critic developed archetypal approach in his studies of Blake in a book titled, Fearful symmetry: A study of William Blake (1947) and later in his well known book Anatomy of Criticism (1957). The term archetypes signifies “ narrative designs, character, types and images which are found in variety of works of literature” and this similarly helped critics to interpret works of literature . The Tree of man tells a simple story of ordinary lives. Stan parker inherits some land in Australian hills after the death of his father. He moves there width his wife Army and together they start a family throughout his journey Stan is associated with trees, indeed the novel begins and ends with his standing among trees or in a sacred grove. The novel has so many examples of Archetypes and Mythical aspects. Conventional literary Criticism often concerns itself with the author’s mind and point of view . It attempts to establish and define the author’s intellectual position assuming that his work is a product of his thought. Archetypal depth criticism is more interested in the underlying, often unconscious Mythic Structure. It assumes that the work is greater than the author, since in the process of writing the unconscious is activated and the author’s conscious intentions are sometimes even contradicted by the unconscious. This concern with deep structure is particularly relevant in White’s case, because the author’s intellectual conception of his work and the archetypal structure of his imagination are completely at odds. The author’s relation to his imagination is analogous to that between ego and unconscious in psychoanalytic dream- work .The ego is often amazed at what the unconscious produces, frequently misunderstands what is saying, and often forces the imaginable material into an incongruous intellectual frame. In White’s fiction the superimposed frame- usually Christianity, but also the Jungian mandala- is itself a kind of defense against the bleak, negative images which arise from his unconscious. Keyword : Archetypes, Mythic, Anthropology, Psychoanalytic, Jungian mandala. Archetypal literary criticism is a type of critical theory that interprets a text by

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focusing on recurring myths and archetypes (from the Greek Arch or beginning and typos, or imprint) in the narrative, symbols, images and character types in a literary work. As a form of literary criticism, it dates back to 1934 when Maud Bodkin published Archetypal Patterns in Poetry. Archetypal literary criticism’s origins are rooted in two other academic disciplines, social anthropology and psychoanalysis; each contributed to the literary criticism in separate ways, with the latter being a sub-branch of the critical theory. Archetypal criticism was its most popular in the 1950’s largely due to the work of Canadian literary critic Northrop Frye.(p.1) Thought archetypal literary criticism is no longer widely practiced, nor have there been any major developments in the field, it still has a place in the tradition of literary studies. The anthropological origins of archetypal criticism can pre-date its psychoanalytic origins by over thirty years. The Golden Bough (1890-1915), written by the Scottish anthropologist James G. Frazer was the first influential text dealing with cultural mythologies. Frazer was part of a group of comparative anthropologists working out of Cambridge University who worked extensively on the topic. The Golden Bough is widely accepted as the seminal text on myth that spawned numerous studies on the same subject. Eventually the momentum of Frazer’s work carried over into literary studies.(p.2) In the Golden Bough Frazer identifies shared practices and mythological beliefs between primitive religions and modern religions. Frazer argues that the deathrebirth myth is present in almost all cultural mythologies, and is acted out in terms of growing seasons and vegetation. The myth is symbolized by the death (i.e. final harvest) and rebirth (i.e. spring) of the good of vegetation. As an example, Frazer cites the Greek myth of Persephone, who was taken to the Underworld by Hades. Her mother Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, was so sad that she struck the world with fall and winter. While in the underworld Persephone ate six of the twelve pomegranate seeds given to her by Hades. Because of what she ate, she was forced to spend half the year, from then on, in the underworld, representative of autumn and winter, or the death in the deathrebirth myth. The other half of the year Persephone was permitted to be in the mortal realm with Demeter, which represents spring and summer, or the rebirth in the death-rebirth myth. While Frazer’s work deals with mythology and archetypes in material terms, the work of Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss born psychoanalyst, is, in contrast, immaterial in its focus. Jung’s work theorizes about myths and archetypes in relation to the unconscious, an inaccessible part of the mind. From a Jungian perspective, myths are the “culturally elaborated representations of the contents of the deepest recess of the human psyche.The world of the archetypes.” Jungian psychoanalysis distinguishes between the personal and collective unconscious, the latter being particularly relevant to archetypal criticism. The

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collective unconscious, or the objective psyche as it is less frequently known, is a number of innate thoughts, feelings, instincts, and memories that reside in the unconsciousness of all people. Jung’s definition of the term is in consistent in his many writings. At one time he calls the collective unconscious the “a priori, inborn forms of intuition”, while in another instance it is a series of “experience(s) that come upon us like fate”. Regardless of the many nuances between Jung’s definitions, the collective unconsciousness. (p.3) To Jung, archetypes in the collective unconscious, as quoted from Leitch et al, is “irreprehensible, but has effects which make visualizations of it possible, namely, the archetypal images and ideas”, due to the fact they are at an inaccessible part of the mind. The archetypes to which Jung refers are represented through primordial images, a term he coined. Primordial images originate from the initial stages of humanity and have been part of the collective unconscious ever since. It is through primordial images that universal archetypes are experienced, and more importantly that the unconscious is revealed. With the same death-rebirth myth that Frazer sees as being representative of the growing seasons and agriculture as a point of comparison, a Jungian analysis envisions the death- rebirth archetypes as a “symbolic expression of a process taking place not in the world but in the mind. That process is the return of the ego to the unconscious- a kind of temporary death of the ego and its reemergence, or rebirth, from the unconscious.” By itself, Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious accounts for a considerable share of writings in archetypal literary criticism; it also pre-dates the height of archetypal literary criticism by over a decade. The Jungian archetypal approach treats literary texts as an avenue in which primordial images are represented. It would be not be until the 1950s when the other branch of archetypal literary criticism developed. Bodkin’s Archetypal Patterns in Poetry, the first work on the subject of archetypal literary criticism, applies Jung’s theories about the collective unconscious, archetypes, and primordial images to literature. It was not untill the work of the Canadian literary critic Northrop Frye that archetypal is Anatomy of Criticism but his essay “The Archetypes of Literature” is a precursor to the book. Frye’s thesis in “The Archetypes of Literature” remains largely unchanged in Anatomy of Criticism. Frye’s work helped to displace New Criticism as the major mode of anaylyzing literary texts, before giving way to structuralism and semiotics. (p.4) Frye’s work breaks from both Frazer and Jung in such a way that it is distinct from its anthropological and psychoanalytical precursors. For Frye, the deathrebirth myth that Frazer sees manifest in agriculture and the harvest is not ritualistic since it is involuntary, and therefore, must be done. As for Jung, Frye was uninterested about the collective unconscious on the grounds of feeling it was unnecessary since the unconscious is unknowable it cannot be studied.

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How archetypes came to be was also of no concern to Frye; rather, the function and effect of archetypes is his interest. For Frye, literary archetypes “play an essential role in refashioning the material universe into an alternative verbal universe that is humanly intelligible and viable, because it is adapted to essential human needs and concerns.” (Abrams 224-225) Stan Parker enjoys an ecstatic communion with the Earth Mother, even though the virtually obliterated the course of his worship. Whenever the Mother appears to him it is always in tyrannical outbursts of flood, fire or storm. The elemental landscape has a disruptive influence upon his life, yet its anarchic power fulfils a dark need, a longing to be overwhelmed by an archetypal force. It is clear that Parker is ‘married’ to nature, and that Amy is merely his house-mate and childbearer. She hardly ever engages or arouses his deep emotional self, but remains strangely external to his true erotic life. His courtship with Amy does not involve romance, only a ‘decision to marry the fibbers girls’ and a simple marriage ceremony conducted in a cockeyed little church at Yoruga’ (p. 24). The courtship and marriage are ordinary events conducted in an atmosphere robbed of spiritual meaning. The real mystical union takes place between Parker and the Earth Mother, she is his true lover and bride. Early in the story there is sense of conflict between Amy and the Earth Mother. by marrying Parker she unwittingly puts herself in opposition to her. But there is little doubt as to which party will win. Beside the majesty of nature, Amy Fibbers is made to appear frail and insignificant. Does it always blow in these parts?(Amy) laughed. He made a motion with his mouth it was not one of the things to answer. Besides, he recognized and accepted the omnipotence of distance. But this was something she did not, and perhaps never would. She had begun to hate the wind, and the distance, and the road, because her importance tended to dwindle. Just then, too, the wind took the elbow of a bough and broke it off, and tossed it, dry and black and writhing so that its bark harrowed the girl’s cheek, slapped terror for a moment into the horse, and crumbled, used and negative, in what was already their traveled road. “Achhh, cried the girl’s hot breath, her hands touching the livid moment of fright that was more than would….”(p.27) An effective rebuke from the Mother! A branch of a tree gashes Amy’s face and returns to the ground, ‘used and negative’. Amy feels acutely overshadowed by elemental Nature, whereas Stan is fully resigned to its apparent ‘omnipotence’ For him the Earth Mother’s supremacy is a fact of existence. As Amy tends her bloody wound Stan looks at her and sees a confused, frightened girl, whom apparently he had married.’(p.27) We find this pattern throughout the novel. Every time the Earth Mother intervenes in events, Amy is cut down to size, and Stan is made to look at her with alien, detached eyes. He can hardly believe that

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the woman at his side, struggling pathetically against the elements, is also his wife. At the time of the great storm, where Stan’s erotic delight in nature is fully revealed, Amy is further reduced by the tremendous energy of the Earth Mother. All this time the big clouds, moving and swelling, pushed and shouldered each other… The woman in the house got up and closed a door, in an attempt to secure for herself and illusion of safety… Because the black clouds were bursting on her head. And the grey wool of torn cloud that the wind dragged across the sky Reced Quicker than her blood and began to rouse the terror in her ... . But the man laughed. He felt a kind of pleasure in the mounting storm. He held his face up flat to the racing clouds, His teeth were smiling in a taut uncertain humor at the sky… . Presently the man his wife running her limbs fighting the wind and the stuff of her own dress. Seeing her tortured into these shapes… he felt that this was not the girl he had married in the church at Yuruga… but he force himself to stumble on towards her. To touch.(pp. 46-7) This entire episode is underscored with a fierce eroticism. The storm is ‘Swelling’ and ‘mounting’, Stan is drenched and intoxicated (‘Rain filled his mouth’) and the wind uproots trees and knocks over buildings in orgiastic frenzy. Stan and the Earth are engaged in ecstatic intercourse and Amy is definitely the third, excluded party in this elemental ritual. In fact, Stan can barely contain his revulsion, and has to ‘force himself to move toward her during the storm. Her presence merely frustrates his immediate desire. The petrifying aspect of the movement into Nature is made starkly evident when Stan discovers, while rowing across a flooded watercourse, the body of an old man suspended in a tree. In one place Stan Parker saw, stuck in the fork of tree, the body of an old bearded man. But he did not mention this. He rowed… and soon the old man, whose expression had not expected much, dying upside dolling a tree, was obliterated by motion and rain. (p.74) Patrick White’s Tree of Man Cartoon by Coopes This is perhaps the key mythological image in the tree of man, just as the trochilus caught inside the dragon’s mouth proved to be the central motif of the previous story. Both images reflect spirit in the fatal grip of Nature. In ancient mythology dissolution into Mother Nature was often imaged as a return to the maternal Tree. The puer-god was sometimes called he in the tree’ since he was born of the tree and buried inside it at his death. In the Attis / Cybele myth the boy-god castrates himself under the sacred pine, and in another version he hangs himself on the tree. In the present story, Mr. Gage, the artist, commits suicide by hanging himself upon the tree in his backyard. (p.79) The puer is fixed upon the maternal image, which absorbs his ephemeral life back into itself. He is unable to wrest from this primal background and individual life of his own. In this regard it is

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interesting that the old man in the flood dies upside down in the tree. In a sense, the pure lives life in an inverted way. Instead of growing toward maturity and independence he sinks back into darkness, infantilism, and the unconscious. His head points down toward the earth, held in thrall by the great mother. (p.7) Stan’s Archetypal deity, usually felt to be abstract force called ‘God’ and experienced as the earth-sprit, attains personified form at one point in the story. This occurs at the time of the bushfire, when Madeleine becomes a personification of the ecstatic aspect of the mother-world. Madeleine is an aloof, dreamy figure, to the earth-bound Amy she seems ‘godlike and remote.’(p.131) Madeleine is seductive, anarchistic, and intent on erotically-toned violence. She is the only one at Glastonbury who is not disturbed by the fire, or by the prospect of death and devastation. It fact, she welcomes it, as is apparent by her languid attitude on the day of the fire, and, in the evening, by her passive acceptance of death as the Glastonbury mansion burns to the ground. It entering Amy’s house is associated with fears of claustrophobia and castration (Figure 45b), entering Glastonbury, the flaming mansion, is like moving into a chasm, or womb, of releasing fire. The erotic tone is emphasized by the swift motion as he plunges into passages of flame, and by the repetition of the word ‘mounted’ as he moves toward Madeleine. Significantly, these passages ‘open’ to him and ‘invite’ him to enter. As parker is drawn toward death his experience of unity becomes overwhelming. He sees his ‘God’ reflected in every minute object, in every blade of grass, ant, or crack in the concrete path. (p.477) He even sees the divine at the centre of his god of spittle, which ‘lay glittering intensely and personally on the ground’ (p.3 476). The point Leonie Kramer has said, that be has ‘spat out God’ but that every aspect of existence becomes charged with the numinous. Less Sceptical critics have found in this episode a kind of modern apotheosis, equal in every respect to the visions of the great Christian mystics. Others find in it the Jungian panacea: the bestowal of the mandalic vision. I can no more agree with these

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claims than I can with the agnostic position of Professor Kramer. Stan is neither saint, nor seer, nor septic. He is an eternal youth caught up in an mystical. The oneness is not his achievement but happens to him, a tidal wave over which he has no control. Once again it is Amy Parker who carries the unacknowledged negative side of his psychic situation. She stalks through the boundless garden with her gammy led and destructive manner, interrupting Stan’s quietude and communion with Nature. The old man continued to stare at the jewel of spittle. A great tenderness of understanding rose in his chest. Even the most obscure, most sickening incidents of his life were clear. In that light How long will they leave me like this he wondered, in peace and understanding? But his wife had to come presently. ‘Stan’, she said, approaching, he knew it was she, crunching over the grass with her bad leg, you will not believe when I tell you’, she said, I was scratching round the shack, in the weed, where the rosebush was that we moved to the house, the old white rose, and what did I find, scan, but the little silver nutmeg grater that Mrs. Erbey gave me on our wedding day. Look’, Ah, ‘he said. What was this irrelevant thing? He had forgotten. Branches of shadow were drifting across his fact, interfering with his sight. (p.746) Stan imagines himself at the height of understanding, yet because he is actually in the maw of the mother he must necessarily be laid low by the destructive maternal figure. Amy brigs him down to earth with a jolt, crunching over the sacred grass as surely as she cuts across his sublime thoughts with her trivializing, rambling commentary.

REFERENCES Frye, Northrop Anatomy of Criticism. New Jersey : Princeton University Press, 1971. Introduction to Northrop Frye : A Collection of Review Essay (Chicago & London : Chicago University Press, 1978, P.-5. Jung, C.G. The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Collected Works, Vol IX Trans. R.F.C. Hull. Princeton. Princeton University Press. 1969. Bodkin, M, Archetypal Patterns of Poetry : Psychological Studies of Imagination. London : Oxford University Press, 1934.

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Abrams M.H., Harpham Galt Geoffrey. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 1957 9th ed. 2009. The Tree of Man. Viking, New York, 1955. Macmillan, Toronto, 1955. Eyre & Spottis woode, London, 1956. Leonie Kramer, ‘The Tree of Man : An Essay in Scepticism’, in W.S. Ramson (ed.), The Australian Experience, 1956 Research Scholar, DCSKP.G.College Mau, Email:[email protected]

VBSPU Jaunpur, U.P.

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8. A Critical Representation of Mahesh Dattani’s Gendered Play Dance Like a Man. Sushmita Soni*

Abstract : Drama is the life of the people on the stage, with all its facets and complexities. Dramas or theatres have a direct connection with human life. Playwrights try to reach audiences through the stage and their performances, showing them the realities of life and also the harshness of society. Representation and thought make it possible to seek wholeness or continuity of wholeness. Indian society has created boundaries for everyone in this society. Some are based on gender, while others are based on caste and religion. At the same time, Indian literature always shows this outdated mentality in updates. Looking back at the history of Indian theatre, one can see that gender roles and prejudice against a particular gender or community are deeply ingrained. Mahesh Dattani’s, Dance Like a Man (2006) is one such drama representing the gruesome mentality of Indians. Dance is a matter of gender for a long period and the play represents this ideology. The play revolves around the theme of dance. There are various elements in the play that can be looked up on, which are the representation of society, family relations, and the importance of dance in an individual’s life. Keywords : Dance, Gender, Indian Society, Boundaries, Drama, Individuality. “Theater of Cruelty means a theater difficult and cruel for myself first of all. And, on the level of performance, it is not the cruelty we can exercise upon each other by hacking at each other’s bodies, carving up our personal anatomies, or, like Assyrian emperors, sending parcels of human ears, noses, or neatly detached nostrils through the mail, but the much more terrible and necessary cruelty which things can exercise against us. We are not free. And the sky can still fall on our heads. And the theater has been created to teach us that first of all.” –Antonin Artaud, The Theater and Its Double When one talks about drama and stage performances, one should be very clear about how it developed; and the purpose of performing in different manners and on different themes. Composing a drama is a more difficult task than writing

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any other form of work. Focusing on dialogue, music and plot construction, and the psychology of characters and audiences, stage craftsmanship has to focus on various elements that have been unified for a long time. Drama is the life of the people on the stage, with all its facets and complexities. Dramas or theatres have a direct connection with human life. The great sage, Bharat Muni, in his great treatise Natyashashtra dictates: “Theatre is life. There is no art, no life, no craft, no learning, and no action which cannot be seen in it.” Playwrights try to reach audiences through the stage and their performances, showing them the realities of life and also the harshness of society. Representation and thought make it possible to seek wholeness or continuity of wholeness. There are different kinds of drama. Drama can be divided into two categories: Tragic Drama or Tragedy and Comedy Drama or Comedy. From a structural point of view, the two sub-genres of drama have to go through five stages of evolution, that is, the pyramid structure of drama. They are rising action, exposition, climax, falling action, and catastrophe. The composition and functions of drama are more concise than any other form of literature. The success of a play involves the participation of three variables: the playwright, the performer, and the audience. Indian society has created boundaries for everyone in this society. Some are based on gender, while others are based on caste and religion. At the same time, Indian literature always shows this outdated mentality in updates. Looking back at the history of Indian theatre, one can see that gender roles and prejudice against a particular gender or community are deeply ingrained. Mahesh Dattani’s, Dance Like a Man (2006) is one such drama representing the gruesome mentality of Indians. Mahesh Dattani is one of the most powerful and dominant dramatic voices in the present Indian English Dramatic World. His experiments and innovations enrich and exaggerate the traditions of Indian theatre. He has authored a wide range of dramas diverse in themes, techniques, and devices. In addition, his screenplays were very successful on the stage. Mahesh Dattani in his dramas takes care of the fact that which aspect of the life he wants to show. The Indian stage has flourished even more due to the contribution of Mahesh Dattani, in the field of drama. Dance Like a Man is an example of his vivid style and portrayal of things. Dance is a matter of gender for a long period and the play represents this ideology. The play is a beautiful representation of human relationships and their weaknesses; which has been represented through the ideology of three different generations. The play revolves around the theme of dance. There are various elements in the play that can be looked upon, which are the representation of society, family relations, and the importance of dance in an individual’s life.

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Society’s Stereotypical Thinking and Dance The play depicts the idea that stimulates the dual behaviour of dance in society, and this behaviour is gendered. The debate goes on whether a man should dance or not, what name will society give to a female who chooses dance as her career and problems faced by the characters due to dance being their passion. There are several worries portrayed in the play that every character has to face during their life. Starting with Amritlal, his character is best portrayed, and he represents the mentality of the society. Through his character, one can get an idea of how dancers were seen by the Post-Independent Indian Society. Amritlal’s main concern was to prohibit and prevent his son Jairaj from dancing, as he thought dancing was to be done by females only. While on the other side, he was not happy with his daughter-in-law, Ratna’s dancing career as well. The play is full of plans and plots, and Amritlal and Ratna have mastered this quality. Amritlal at any cost doesn’t want his son to allow dancing, because he felt that dancing of a man can bring shame to his family. Amritlal has always believed that dancing is not suitable for men, especially for his son: I thought it was just a fancy of yours. I would have made a cricket pitch for you on our lawn, if you were interested in cricket. Well, most boys are interested in cricket, my son is interested in dance, I thought. I didn’t realize this interest of yours would turn into an … obsession. (Dattani, 36) Also, he is not satisfied with Ratna's participation in dancing, because, according to him, only women who dance are tawaifs or prostitutes; and they can only participate. Amritlal showed a dual personality here. On the one hand, he expressed his opposition to letting Ratner dance, and on the other, he dealt with Ratner to get his son to stop dancing. The other instance, which is noticeable in the character of Ratna is, that she plays conspiracies on her part so that she gets allowed to dance. She ruined Jairaj’s carrier by accepting Amritlal’s proposal. Not only this, but in the case of their son’s death, Ratna is equally responsible as the maid was. Her careless attitude and over-enthusiastic nature distracted her mother’s feelings for her child: Jairaj: No matter how clever an actress you are, you can’t convince me that you are playing the part of devoted mother very well. You wouldn’t even know where to start. (Dattani, 72) Later, she made up for the guilt of losing Shankar because of her love for her daughter Lata. For Lata’s sake and her dancing career, she was very particular and was not ready to see Lata get defeated by anyone in the challenge. Ratna: Of course! She… she is on her way to fame which is what I wanted for her. She had my blessings and guidance and now that her performance has

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been noticed by the right people, it shouldn’t be very difficult for her to practice very hard and take her career very seriously. And then there’s the foreign festival. I shall try my level best to see that she is included. I will use all my contacts and see that she is in. Yes, I have every reason to feel happy. (Dattani, 64) Dance is the character's primary concern. It shows how the notion of people is changing in the Indian Society. Dattani created three contrasting periods, each of which is a clear portrayal of the thought process of the society in which they live.Through Amritlal's character, it can be seen how narrow the society's way of thinking is, and how people can only recall dance performers by the name of tawaifs, which is not an acceptable art form. in the case of Viswas, the wouldbe husband of Lata, it was different, he looked at dance as a form of art. Dattani charts the stereotype of Indian society and how it has changed over time. Relations or Conspiracies The representation of the suburban/urban middle-class (Hindu) family in Dattani's play questions two basic assumptions about it. First, as opposed to the shapers of society, the family can be the image of society—a product of the value system that society represents and the cultural discourse it disseminates. Instead of turning the family situation outward, this means turning the social system inward to see how people and homes are mediated and constructed by the system of which they are but part, and how they, in turn, are conditioned to perpetuate the "tradition." Second, though not against the joint family ideal so much as it encourages stronger bonds of kinship through mutual support and sharing, Datani draws attention to its underside by exposing the patriarchal underpinnings of the institution, which routinely deprives its individual members, especially women and children, of their freedom. His family dramas expose the politics of power that lurks beneath patriarchal constructions of fixed gender identities/roles, and the proliferation of what Judith Butler calls "hyperbolic versions of 'man' and 'woman' " ("Critically Queer" 581). When we talk about the relationship between father and son, and the relationship between husband and wife, we can find all kinds of complexities. The society, which is represented by Dattani here, focuses on gendering things. It is our society that decides for an individual to choose what is better for him or her as a passion. Dance Like a Man is one such example of representation of society and its gendered norms. While mentioning the characters and their relationships, an intricate situation comes out. Amritlal and Ratna make a pact to stop Jairaj from dancing. Amritlal believes that if Jairaj stops dancing, he can focus more on family and society. The character of Amritlal is well constructed, and he, like other Indian parents, get influenced by the norms of society. On one side, people worship Lord Shiva and show respect towards his Tandava, and on the other hand, they prohibit a

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man from dancing. Just as Shiva Tandava is universally pious; then why the society does prohibits Jairaj from dancing? Several questions come to one’s mind while reading the text. His father, who is too possessive about his reputation, destroys the career of his only son. Amritlal: You are mistaken. Gaining independence was part of your goal. And someone has to be in charge. It’s what we do now that counts. As you know, our priority is to eradicate certain unwanted and ugly practices which are a shame to our society. (Dattani 37) Ratna as a character comes out as over-ambitious about her career, which led to destroying Jairaj’s career. The relationship they shared before was love, but then it turned into jealousy. In the play, various instances would make the audience think about what was the reason, which led Ratna to destroy Jairaj’s future. The play shows the occurrence of cross-dressing, which might be an indication of bisexuality in Jairaj’s character: Jairaj: There is nothing crude about it. I danced the same item. For the army. A friend of ours arranged a programme and the money was good. Your mother was too scared and they only wanted a woman. So I wore your mother’s costume, a wig and… whatever else was necessary to make me look like a woman, and danced. They loved it. They loved it even more when they found out I was a man. Of course, knowing the army, that may not be surprising. (To Viswas) What do you say about that? (Dattani 60) Ratna on her part wishes to move further in dance and make it as her career accepts Amritlal’s challenge to not allow Jairaj to perform with her. It was even because of the growth of competition between Ratna and Jairaj. Ratna also thinks that Jairaj is not manly enough and the dialogue delivered by her makes it clear: Ratna: Agreeing with your father. Letting you off so that he could shape you into whatever shape he thinks a man should have. I should have guessed the result. When I say I regret it, I really mean that, Jai. (Dattani 71) Towards the end of the play, Ratna reveals why she played tricks on Jairaj. She makes it clear that her main concern was to live happily without any difficulties in Amritlal’s house. And for that, she played with Jairaj’s career and emotion as well. Emotion Plays a Vital Role Repentance and guilt, love, and hatred, all go hand in hand in Dattani’s Dance Like a Man. Characters filled with too many emotions, some show love, some show hatred, repentance, and guilt meanwhile find their place in the play which is clearly visible. Jealousy too has some part to add to the play. Ratna’s careless

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attitude became the reason for Shankar’s death, and her jealousy spoiled Jairaj’s profession. Jairaj’s dancing became a matter of disgrace for Amritlal, and later his emotions turned into hatred. In the relationship between Lata and Viswas, love and belief play the most important role. Ratna and Jairaj both were guilt-ridden, Ratna because of her deed and Jairaj because of what happened with him. He was unable to bear the pain of the loss of his passion and his son, which led him into drinking. Though he was living in Amritlal’s house there was always guilt in him of not being able to be bold enough to go against his father. He was happy in Lata’s happiness, but he in his own self was devastated: Jairaj: Bit by bit. You took it when you insisted on top billing in all our programmes. You took it when you made me dance my weakest items. You took it when you arranged the lighting so that I was literally dancing in your shadow. And when you called me names in front of other people. Names I feel ashamed to repeat even in private. And you call me disgusting. (Dattani 69) Not only Ratna planned against him, but she even insulted him both in public and private, for not being able to dance as good as she could dance. Opposite from this, Lata and Viswas’ relationship was pious; there was no jealousy, competition, hatred, or misunderstanding. They both had respect and trust for each other’s space and work. Viswas supported Lata’s decision of pursuing further with dance and makes Ratna and Jairaj believe that he will do so. As if Lata’s parent, Viswas too felt happy and satisfied, seeing her name on the front page of the newspaper: Viswas: That’s great. That’s really … I don’t know what angashuddha and all that means, but it sounds simply wonderful. (Dattani, 56) They are not like the elderly couple, they both knew what bond husband and wife share. Dattani has tried to show the difference between the temperament of couples and for doing so he has chosen couples from different age groups and generations. Love is not only between the couple, but mother and daughter share a bond too. The mother's, love is obvious in every segment of the play. She seems to be giving her life for her daughter’s happiness and success. Most of the time, it seems that the mother through the face of the daughter wants to achieve success, which she was unable to gain while her career was blooming. Ratna’s over-ambition led to Lata’s success and Ratna’s ambition could be noticed in her words: Ratna: You know how anxious I am about Lata’s performance. If she does well, she will be national figure. Then if we butter up the right

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ministers, we can even get foreign tours arranged. You know how hard we had to struggle. I just want to make sure Lata won’t have to face the same difficulties. You understand how I feel… (Dattani 31) Dattani portrays his characters and their emotional well in Dance Like a Man. He has done justice with the Indian Drama, and its progression. He is one of the prominent figures who raised few controversial themes in the genre of Indian Drama and stage. His other plays, such as Muggy Night in Mumbai and Thirty Days in September, also focus on themes that rarely appear on stage. Dattani not only writes play but also has directed many of his plays. About his direction, he says: I always direct the first production of any play I write. That enables me to put in more stage instructions, which go on to become a kind of blue print for other directors. That way, there is no conflict, and the other directors can interpret it, as they will. His dramatic skills and stage skills are superb. He makes use of different images, symbols, devices, techniques, etc. to communicate his ideas in an effective and concrete manner. Dattani’s theatrical artistry is characterised by diversity, briskness, and innovative techniques. He is an unconventional voice in the theatrical development of the Indian stage. He tried to show the volcanic dimension of human temper and dissatisfaction, as well as the distrust and dissatisfaction in the psychological realm of human consciousness. Dattani’s theatrical dogma asserts that human nature has its own autonomous space. Any act of incursion into this space, either through conventional ideology or by any other means, will result in agitation and uprising causing chaos and destruction. REFERENCES Azmi, Shabana, “A Note on the Play”, Morning Raga, Mahesh Dattani, Collected Plays Volume-II. New Delhi: Penguin Books India 2005. Dasgupta, Uma Mahadevan, “The Minute I write a Play, I want to Direct it.” 2001 http://www.maheshdattani.com. Dattani, Mahesh. Dance like a Man: A Stage Play in Two Acts. Penguin Books, 2006. Dattani, Mahesh, “Invisible Issues: An Interview with Mahesh Dattani by Erin B. Mee”, appeared in Mahesh Dattani’s Plays Critical Perspectives, edited by Angelie Multani, Pen craft International, New Delhi, 2007. Iyengar, K. R. S., Indian Writing in English, Starling Publisher Pvt. Ltd., 2019 Naik, M. K. A History of Indian English Literature. Sahitya Akademi, 1995. Nair, Anita, ‘An Unveiling of a Playwright in Three Acts’, The Gentleman, May 2001, http:/www.anitanair.net.

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Sahitya Akademi Award citation quoted at the cover page of Collected Plays, Mahesh Dattani, New Delhi, Penguin Books, 2000.

Sengupta, Ashis. “Mahesh Dattani and the Indian (Hindu) Family Experience” Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies (HJEAS), vol. 11, no. 2, 2005, pp. 149–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/41274325. Accessed 26 May 2022. *Research scholar, Departrment of English, Patliputra University,Patna, Bihar800020. Email: [email protected].

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9. Agony of Black Americans Sheikh Muhammad Amir Ayub Chishti*

Abstract : The United States of America is a plural democratic society but still there exists a brutal system of racial discrimination. The history of the AfroAmerican shows that his place in this plural society is determined by deprivation and lack of communication which affects his interaction with the whites. Moreover, the Afro-American has undergone a painful process of acculturation. This adjustment and accommodation to the dominant white culture has been the result of the complex network of the antagonistic socio-political tensions. His self image and also his image in the eyes of the white majority have their roots in racial conflict which operates not only on the social level but also on the psychological level. Most Americans are aware of the patterns of racial discrimination. It is popularly supposed, also, that segregation as symbolized by Jim Crow railway cars, separate facilities in public places, and the exclusion of blacks from place of recreation, has prevailed since the days of slavery. To most Americans these racial practices are so long established and deep-set that it is not to be expected that they can be changed easily or quickly. It has been necessary, therefore, to a considerable extent to briefly analyze the evolution of the people of United States in order to place the Afro-American in his proper relationship and perspective. The history of the Afro-American is especially the story of the innocent black victims who have strived to keep alive in a new hostile land. This study examines the responses of the Afro-American novelists on two levels. First, the responses have been examined with special focus on the personal experiences and ideological tenets. This reveals the basic differences in racial perspective of Richard Wright, Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin. On the second level the responses of the Afro-American have been examined as a collective response of an oppressed ethnic group subject to a long history of white cruelty and socio-political, economic and cultural deprivation. Keywords : Racial, discrimination, Afro-Americans, biological rationalization, dehumanizing, cruelty, assimilation, ethnic identity, plight, segregation.

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I, too sing America I am the darker brother (Harold Ober Associates, Inc. - Hughes, Langston, p.29) Introduction : The history of Negro and Negro literature has maintained a very close relationship through the years. In his struggle for a better way of life, the Negro has, through necessity, made his literature a purposeful thing-born of his great desire to become a full-fledged citizen of the United States. He had started very late that it did not allow him the pleasure of creating a new phrase, or a more beautiful expression. The struggle against ignorance, indifference and racial bigotry had first claim upon his time and energy therefore; Myrdal rightly comments: Every man in the street, white black, red or yellow, knows that this is the “land of the free”, “the land of opportunity,” “the cradle of liberty”, “the home of democracy,” that the American flag symbolizes the “equality of all men and guarantees to us all” the protection of life, liberty and prosperity, “freedom of speech, freedom of religion and racial tolerance! (Myrdal, 1944 : 4). The assimilarity of ethnic background and religion and exploitation of the pseudoscientific doctrine of racial superiority led the white settlers to viewChristian whites as superior to heathen’’ Africans. Moreover, the fellow-whites, as indentured servants, cost more to maintain than did the Negro slaves. But the conflict between the generally accepted concept of the divine nature of man and the degradation which slavery imposed on master and servants alike troubled thoughtful men. The U.S.A. which was the land of slavery was also heir to the Declaration of Independence. It cherished the ideals of freedom and espoused the cause of personal liberty. Nevertheless, it also reaped the benefits of black slavery. Hence, it was necessary to invent a series of myths, to justify discrimination and segregation.The most raging and dominant social problem in U.S.A. is the Negro problem. Many sociologists and political scientists have studied the complex socio-economic and ethnic problems of the Negros. Gunner Myrdal, the Swedish social scientist undertook in the late 1930s the most comprehensive study of American race relations, in his classic work. An American Dilemma, although published in the forties can well provide relevant data to appreciate the problems faced by the Negro novelists. Gunnar Myrdal examines the inherent conflicts in the American society and writes: “The American Dilemma is the over raging conflict between, on the one hand, the valuations preserved on the general plan which is called the “American Creed,” where the American thinks, talks and acts under the influence of high national and Christian precepts, and, on the other hand the valuations on the specific planes of individual and group living, where personal and local interests; economics, social and sexual jealousies; considerations of community prestige and conformity; group prejudices against particular persons or types of peoples, and all sorts of miscellaneous work, impulses and habits dominate his

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outlook.”(Myrdal 557). By defining the meaning of racial pattern of living, Myrdal rightly finds in race relations the basic American dilemma. He goes on to elaborate on the specific feature of the American social behavior: The social pattern of sub during the Negroes by means of physical force was inherent in the slow very system. The master himself, with the backing, if needed, of the local police, and, indeed, of all white neighbours had to execute this force, and he was left practically unrestricted by any formal laws. (Myrdal : 558) Discourse on Black Literature:Americans have stated clearly the quality of men and that human freedom should not be limited by factors of wealth, social station, or ancestry and all the while has developed an elaborate and deeply entranced system of human relations in which white and Negro are set apart from each other and treated with myriad varieties of invidious distinction. In the presence of this paradox, guilt, fear, hostility, and distrust were experienced and the individuals were devoid of human values. Thus The American dilemma is a moral one, Myrdal says: “The moral struggle goes within people and not only between them. As people’s valuations are conflicting behavior normally becomes a moral compromise.…”(Myrdal 558) This moral schizophrenia is responsible for the nature of some of the opposition to the Supreme Court’s decision. When a person repeats “our Father” ever night and by day stands in his state legislature questioning the common fatherhood of God, he is bound to suffer conflict. If he ponders the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution and yet continues to deny equality to his fellow citizens, he is bound to feel uneasy. Personal conflicts send large numbers of Americans to psychiatrists. In 1617 the first Africans, twenty of them, arrived in Virginia. They were the parents of the first slaves in British North America. These first African arrivals were not unlike many whites who were bound out in servitude. All that time color and slavery had not become synonymous. “Slavery,” meaning buying, selling, ownership of, and enforced work by Africans exclusively, evolved with time. Slavery grew as plantation owners acquired power, wealth, and a comfortable way of life. The small farmer and artisan tended to look down on manual work because Negro slavery cast a stigma on it. Even though Negroes were upbraided for laziness it was Negro labor which opened the new land and built the great plantations. Slaves performed the lease attractive, hot, and hard, levy, and hazardous jobs. As private property they could be bought and sold their family life might be wiped out, and their offspring would become slaves. They could not bargain for wages or quit their jobs. In law, and in the common thinking, slaves were chattels. In the Dred Scott case (1857) the Supreme Court ruled that to the founding fathers, as they wrote the Constitution, Negroes had no rights which the white man was bound to respect. “Inherent in slavery as a

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social arrangement was the principle that the slave was inferior as a human being. He was allowed certain indulgences but could claim nothing as a right or privileged. The paternalistic rule of the master, who owned his body and all his abilities, including his propensity to procreate, stretched out over the most intimate phases of his life and was absolute, personal and arbitrary. The stamp of social inferiority on the Negro slave became strengthened by the race dogma, the functional importance. This biological rationalization and the logic of the slavery institution itself also isolated the free Negroes and dragged them down into social inferiority.”(Myrdal 578) But the conflict between the generally accepted concept of the divine nature of man and the degradation which slavery imposed on master and servant alike troubled thoughtful men. The land of slavery was also heir to the Declaration of Independence, with its ideals of freedom that still stir mankind. For a slave holding society to espouse the cause of personal liberty and still reap the benefits of this “peculiar institution” it was necessary to invent a series of myths. Some of the myths which were developed to justify slavery are still used today to justify discrimination and segregation. The truth is, however, that formats thorough, complete, and legal segregation is relatively new. It has not always existed, as C.Vann Woodward has pointed out in his book, “The Strange Career of Jim Crow”. He reveals that more than ten years were to pass after Reconstruction before the first Jim Crew law was to appear upon the law books of a Southern state and more than two decades before the older states of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina were to adopt such laws. Shortly after Southern “home rule” was reinstituted, several observers travelling in the south reported that Negroes were being treated with equality on common carrier trains and street car and were being admitted freely to theatres, exhibitions, and lectures. One traveler in Columbia, South Carolina found Negroes “served at bars, soda water fountains and ice-cream saloons, but not generally elsewhere.” A Richmond, Virginia, newspaper editor wrote in 1886: “Nobody here objects to serving on juries with Negroes. No lawyer objects to practicing laws in a court where Negro lawyer practice………….” (Olson 1980 : 84) The people of African race in the United States are all the descendants of slaves. Hence, the race division between slave and free. No wonder, race has attracted to itself the stigma of slavery. In the total population of the union, the Negro is in a minority, forming only about ten percent. But in the sixteenth southern states, he is in a minority of one to three. Apart from the United States, a growing hostility of Puerto Ricans in New York, prejudices against Jews and Chinese but none have assumed the rigidity which until recently characterized the white negro relationship in the South. All Americans, not just Negroes, suffer from living in the racially segregated society. Thus discrimination on the basis of color has its impact on the conscience of white Americans. Hence, the Negro

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has in a sense become the conscience of America. The very explanation used to justify racial segregation show an uneasy conscience. White parents, faced with the need to create a single integrated school system capable of educating the nation’s school children for life in a democratic society, sometime avoid the real issue by focusing on intermarriage. The householder, faced with a new Negro neighbor, seeks to justify his “For Sale” sign by economic arguments. The politician who faces a Supreme Court decision which he does not like talks about states rights. These questions are very real in people’s minds, but the moral question-how to build human relationship any the white the Negroes based on equality and respect is the central issue. In past, by preserving slavery, the founding Fathers placed a time bomb under the new republic. And this entailed a deadly threat to the very existence of the Union. Only the leaders of the bourgeois planter bloc, who were blinded by greed and for whom the profits they made off exploiting black slaves were more important than the nation’s fate, would not understand this.The Negro problem had been quite important during the war, therefore after the war was over Abolitionists societies cropped up in many states. The paradox of the American Revolution was that in casting off the claim chains of English colonial rule, it shackled every fifth citizen of the first independent state in America to the chains of slavery. This way why Franklin and other Abolitionists were accusing the congress of sanctioning the preservation of slavery. Many years later Frederick Engels drew attention to this flagrant contradiction in American history. “It is significant….,” he wrote, “that the American Constitution, the first to recognize the rights of man, in the same breath confirms the slavery of the colored races existing in America: class privileges are prescribed, race privileges sanction.(Engels, Frederick. 1878 : 127) Slavery was being attacked on two fronts. The Abolitionist movement, chiefly in the northern states, were against slavery. The inner anti-slavery front cut across all the slave states of the South. The fighters on this front were the hundreds of thousands of slaves and free Blacks who convincingly demonstrated their determination to make an open stand for the complete elimination of slavery. Frederick Douglas favoured slavery’s immediate elimination. He insisted that the war would be decided not only in the battle field, but on the political front as well. Douglass pointed to the necessity of using revolutionary methods in the war. He wrote, “Let the slaves and free colored people called into service, and formed into a liberating army, to march into the South and raise the banner of Emancipation among the slaves.” Douglas thought armed uprising the most

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effective means of lighting for slavery’s abolition. By passing the US Government, he appeals directly to the Blacks to take up arms for their liberty. People in the North loudly protested the unlawful anti-black acts of the US Army reactionary generals The New York Daily Tribune published in May 1861 one of many protest letters it had received from renders. It reasonable asked the question. Benjamin Franklin, Anthony Benezet Rush, and other opponents of slavery began getting involved in Abolitionism before the Revolution, Benjamin Franklin’s activities in this area are of particular interest. Franklin an outstanding statesman, politician and scientist, one of the greatest leaders of the American Revolution, was also a great humanist who was a confirmed opponent of slavery. This views on the issue are distinguished by considerably more demarcation than is to be found in the views of other of the United States’ Founding Fathers of the federal army does not turn rebel deserters who come over to its side, why should it do so with black slaves? Official statistics, which are obviously on the low side, indicate the 186,000 Blacks had, served in the Jed cal army by the war’s end, accounting for more than 12 percent of the North’s entire armed forces. Another 250,000 Blacks served in some military capacity another on the home front 30. Blacks took part in 449 Black soldiers and officers were killed in action. 31. It is virtually impossible to determine the number of those who were killed lighting the rebels are guerillas within the Confederacy. In the second stage of the war, but before the publication of the Emancipation Proclamation, many thousands of slaves and free Blacks actively participated in the construction of defensive structures, and worked on farms, in industry and in trade workshops. This was also a serious contribution by Afro-Americans to the military defeat of the rebel slave owners and to the elimination of slavery‘Through this direct participation in the Civil war, “wrote Herbert Aptheker, “The black people contributed, directly and decisively, towards the maintenance of the American Republic and their own liberation from chattel slavery.The love for freedom of the black soldiers and officers was shared by William E.B.Duboi’s who made significant contribution to the struggle for the rights of blacks. In his first novel, the quest of the Silver Fleece (1911) and Dark Princess (1928), he provides certain interest to the blacks for the fight of liberation from the white supremacy. In true sense, the novels represent the extension of the principle of Negro nationalism into world politics. In crisis, he reveals his association with the Victorian tradition and strongly condemned the practice of lynching. The system of public education created during Reconstruction was revised, and the practice of segregating Black in all public places was introduced. In summing up the Blacks lack of economic, political, and civil rights in the South, Lenin said; “The position of the Negroes in American in general is one unworthy of a civilized country.”Dubois symbolized the Agro-Americans, was a product

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of judicial activism and black initiative, not administration action. It mid-century blacks were still generally subject to enforced segregation in the south, and throughout the nation that were behind whites in jobs, income, housing, education, and health. Franklin was confirmed enemy of racism in all its manifestations and naturally did not first oppose the enslavement of Afro-Americans, but annihilation of the Indians be put to an end. American capitalism’s treatment of the Indian and Afro-Americans constitutes its two most dreadful crimes against humanity. Franklin’s arguments for the Indians and for Afro-Americans had much in common, first as there was much in common, first as there was much in common in their two very grievous fakes. It therefore, seems logical for us to the emergence of the world socialist system has had a great impaction the liberation movement Afro-American. This system is the prototype of a future brotherhood of peoples in all countries of the world who will live together regardless of race, nation, or religion. There is reasonable interest in the US as to how the national question has been solved in the USSR; that unique phenomenon in world history which convincingly proves the vital force and advantage of socialism. W.E.B. Dubois wrote in 1945 “The record of Soviet Russia in the matter of social tolerance has been extra-ordinary….. It has become today a community of two hundred, more or less, diverse groups of people... Bound together in an extraordinary unity of effort and enthusiasm for its ideal.” The Universal historical achievements of socialism in resolving racial and national problem and the successful development of the National liberation movement of colonial and dependent nations, the US racial problem looks to be monstrous anachronism. This is also obvious to the country’s ruling circles, who are seriously concerned about how unpleasant an impression traditional US racial intolerance is making on other nations. Never before has the world known such. The Anti-Afro Americans bourgeois historians and racists, explain the savage anti-Afro-American terror by an age-old and insurmountable hostility between whites and Afro-Americans. They consider the restoration of normal relations between Afro-Americans and whites to be hopeless and even harmful dream. As one Champion of racial segregation wrote to the white house, to throw the races together down here “is just ordering the Jews and the Arabs to associate together.” Artificially inculcated racial prejudice is deeply imbedded in the consciousness of many white Americans. According to survey data from the Harris Institute, 88 percent of whites do not want Afro-Americans for neighbors. Eighty percent of those whites polled do not want to see their near relatives getting marries to black skinned citizens of the USA. Without denying that racial prejudice is deeply rooted in the US, especially in the South, it must be stressed that racism has been and still is encourages in every way possible by monopolistic circles making enormous profits of super exploitation of Afro-

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Americans. In recent years, the liberation movement of black Americans has entered a new phase, with the struggle for socio-economic demands moving into the foreground. This phase of the struggle has tremendous importance, since Blacks continue to remain pariahs in American society. The coming social explosions frighten reactionary America. And there are the most serious reasons for such apprehensions. The difficult material circumstances of Afro-Americans, the growing solidarity of black and white opponents of racial intolerance, the mature self-awareness of Afro-Americans which is strengthening their confidence in their power, the inability and, to a significant degree, lack of desire by the nation’s ruling circles to fundamentally resolve the race relations problem-all this makes the growing fight by all opponents of racism for the elimination of this shameful phenomenon of American life inevitable. The racial tensions generated an inhuman value system which treated the Negroes no better than brute savages. Hence the Negroes rejected the white hegemony and accentuated their Negro identity. With every avenue of assimilation apparently closed, there was no longer any motivation for the conscious imitation of white norms and the deliberate suppression of racial elements. Therefore, the novels of the American Negroes, “Springs from the soil of a distinctive minority culture.” It is no accident that approximately 85 percent of the novels written by American Negroes deal principally or exclusively with Negro characters in a Negro setting. This racial emphasis is simply a literacy echo of cultural reality. Thus the Negro novel has a definite perspective towards racial conflict as it analyzes and evaluated the forcible superimposition of white values and white rule over the Negroes. This conflict is ideology against the corrosive impact of the white hegemony on the Negroes psyche and self-esteem. Mahatma Gandhi which interpreted political revolutions is moral terms. Among the oppositions of the inhuman treatment of the whites towards the Negroes M.K. Gandhi, the Indian leader and a national hero in 1929 greeted the Negroes of America telling them that there was no lack of honor in being a slave but the lack of honor in being a slave the lack of honor is to be a slave owner. At the end of his speech he said that. “Perhaps it will be through the Negro that the message of non violence will be delivered to the world.” (King Luther, Martin Jr…..Nov. 1966 pp.1-2) Martin Luther King Junior, twenty one years later made Gandhi’s words a reality, in pain and in love. He revealed how ancient hope of a world where they would build instead of destroys. Perhaps, he had become the greatest leader in the history of the Negro protest and was also the great religious leaders of the human race. Literature plays a pivotal role in the projection of Negroes selfimage. The Harlem School was more interested in interpreting Negro culture than in pleading the cause of racial justice. Racial tensions, though present is a muted one in the Renaissance novel. Renaissance Harlem is a place of love and

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laughter, not struggle and oppression. The conscious abandonment of “protest” literature freed the Negro novelist from a false conception of racial loyalty which threatened his art. In the mean while there was a period of decline of the Negro novel for the tendency toward assimilation. In the next generation of Negro novelists found that their literacy from the early period was negative. There was, no doubt, a substantial legacy from the early period, however, without which the Negro Renaissance could not have accused. The Negro Renaissance as E. Franklin Frazier has quoted reflects a pattern for self adjustment to all minorities is America. “At first the group attempts to lose itself in the majority group, disclaiming its own characteristics. When this is not possible, there is a new valuation place upon these very same characteristics, and they are glorified in the eyes of the groups.”( Ebony and Topaz 1927 :119-21 ) There was an up rise of New Negro Movement in 1920 who had expressed a unifying idea. New Negro “literary societies come up in many cities. In the development of “New Negro” Allan Locke, in 1925, predicted the end of the old” unjust stereotypes”. “The day of aunties, uncles and mammies is gone…. Uncle Tom and Sambas have passed on.” His analysis has given a much dominating base in various literary-historical ages on the unconscious needs and fears of the white race of the respective periods.This spirit gone way to that of resistance and self-assertion, therefore, this new spirit of resistant and struggle become the guiding spirit of resistant and struggle become the guiding principle for Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Ralph Ellison. Though Ellison once remarked that a novelist should not be a socialist, yet he has portrayed the effect of the dehumanizing impact of racial tension on the Negro personality. He goes on saying that, the “predicament in excision by sociological terms” would perforce, short circuit the exploration of the full range of American Negro humanity and obliterate those qualities in the race, which are of value by and any question of segregation economics or previous condition of servitude. Conclusion : The Black Literature all over the world embodies all the aspects of struggle for cultural dignity and equal rights in American society is shaped by humanism, democracy, and fraternity which are the positive aspects of the American literary tradition. Even the novelists were not spared, they were also not given the liberty to write freely what they wanted to write, and therefore Ellison complains and emphasizes that the American Negro is a unique creation, he has no counterpart anywhere, and no predecessors. Negroes in this country and Negroes do not, strictly or legally speaking, exist in and other-are taught really to despise themselves from the movement, their eyes open on the world. This world is white and they are black white people hold the power which means that they are superior to blacks (intrinsically, that is. God decreed it so) and the world has innumerable ways of making this difference known and felt and feared. Hence, color is not a human or a personal reality, it is a political reality. The future of the Negro depends on his ability to transcend the emotional reflexes found in the social conflict.

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REFERENCES Black Opals, Philadelphia: The Saturday Evening Quill Club, Boston; The InkSlingers, Los Angeles; Book And Bench Topeka, Kansas, etc. Ellison: Introduction “ Shadow and Act”. Ebony and Topaz: Racial self expression, 1927 pp.119-21. Engels, Friedrich. Anti Duhring Leipzig, 1978 Hugh M. Gloster, Negro Voices in American Fictions, Chapel Hill, 1948, Harold Ober Associates, Inc. - The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, 2002 Myrdal, Gunnar: Conception and Ideologies of the Negro Problems : unpublished manuscripts prepared for, “ An American Dilemma” p 4 Myrdal, Gunnar: An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, New York 1944 King Martin Luther. Jr.: “What Manner of Man”: Lerone Bennett. Jr. Bantam Pennant Ladder edition published: Nov. 1966 page 1,2. Olson W.Keith. An Outline of American History: United States Information Agency, page 84 E. Franklin Frazier : Racial Self Expression(1927) in Charles S. Johnson ed. Ebony and Topaz : A collector anea. New York : A Natural Urban League *Associate Professor, Department of English, Pettigrew College, Ukhrul, Manipur State. E-mail : [email protected]

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10. Demarginalizing Self and Staging Resistance: Literary Significance of Black Women Authors Laghima Joshi*

Abstract : This paper dwells on the importance of Black women writers whose representation and reconstruction of Black women persona via their writings was instrumental in humanising Black women. This representation was crucial because the Black female is not only member of the second sex but she is also a member of the often undervalued formerly, disenfranchised and enslaved people. Many Black male authors, owing to sexism had not only failed to address the concerns of Black women in their works but had also reduced them to the onedimensional roles of a mother and a wife, moreover owing to racism Black women’s concerns remained unaddressed by even Feminism, a predominantly white women led movement. Writing against the backdrop of centuries-long struggles with racist oppression and gender-based violence, Black women authors, the likes of Zora Neale Hurtson, Alice Walker , Toni Morrison , Grace Ogot, Bessie Head and others have risen and have attempted to place black women-centric issues on the centre-stage. This paper explores how via their writings these Black women writers pioneered the efforts of making their lives and experiences a part of literature produced by them andhave tackled the hard work of representing a diverse spectrum of lived and imagined experiences of the Black community and specifically of Black women. Keywords : dehumanized, deconstructed, stereotype, resilience, patriarchy, resistance, marginalise, demarginalization, center-stage. Probing an enquiry into African and African-American literature, thoroughly investigating this episteme, it’s achievements, it’s lapses, it’s biases is vital in understanding the position of black women within the pre and post-colonial context. In the early phase of African and African American literature, it was the male literary landscape that had dominated the anti-imperialist episteme. Most Black male writers during that time also encouraged the marginalisation of women, their female characters were marginal to the plot of the fiction, and their characterisation was usually one dimensional. In addressing the imbalances in the portrayal of the female persona critic Ruthven argues how women have been reduced to mere objects of voyeuristic attention, only fit as portrayed

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through types and stereotypes, for the cinders and smoke of literature’s backyard. “Black male authors penchant to portray an androcentric narrative is at variance with the female gender that are trivialized through practices like patriarchy, tradition, culture, gender socialization process, marriage and domestic enslavement.” (Fonchingong,135) . In the context of this statement if we examine Chinua Achebe’s famous work Things Fall Apart which recaptures the texture of life in the Ibo village community as it had been before the western advent, we see how polygamy, patriarchy, wife-beating, toxic masculinity runs rampant in the novel. Ekwefi’s brutal battering by Okonkwo for not serving his food on time and more so the flogging of his youngest wife, Ojiugo in the Week of Peace is strong evidence of the devaluation of women in marriage. We also see in Things Fall Apart how there’s a devaluation of feminine qualities in general. The term ‘agabala’ or women is often used as a slang to demean the weaker men in the clan. Okonkwo who represents the "male" principle, is an embodiment of toxic masculinity but his attributes are lauded in the society. Whereas people with artistic sensibilities like Okonwoko’s father Unoka who represents the “female” principle are mocked and considered worthless. Even Critic Chukukereaffirms that the ideal female character created by male writers often acts within the framework of her traditional roles as wife and mother. This pattern is evident in Achebe’s work too. In Things Fall Aapart too where Chinua Achebe’s mouthpiece – Uchendu draws our attention to the subordinate and supreme position of women: “we all know that a man is the head of the family . . . A child belongs to its fatherland and not to his motherland, and yet we say ‘Nneka’ ‘Mother is Supreme ‘!’ Why is that?.” (Achebe 125). A woman is eligible for the scant praise reserved for her only, if she adheres to the conventional role of a mother and wife. Male writers like Achebe who examine women also assist in endorsing an institutionalized and one-sided vision of female heroism in African fiction. In the struggle against slavery and racism, the plight of Black woman as an individual received but scant attention. Even classics like Gone with the Wind have also taken part in disseminating demeaning, dehumanized, stereotypical images of black women. Though Hattie McDaniel was the first black actor in Hollywood to be nominated and win an Oscar in 1940 for her role as the dutiful servant Mammy in Gone with the Wind. However; her persona had been nothing more than a mere mimicry of the stereotypical way of seeing a black women. “McDaniel’s role in the film was such a fundamentally stereotypical representation of white society’s desired way to see black women. That her character’s name, Mammy, came to be descriptive of that particularly pervasive stereotype, the sassy, cantankerous, asexual Mammy who was a caricature of black womanhood.” (Boyd) The urgency to break free from these shackles and stereotypes led Black women

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writers to record their stories. African American women writers write against the backdrop of centuries-long struggles with racist oppression and genderbased violence. The Black female is not only member of the second sex but she is also a member of the often undervalued formerly, disenfranchised and colonized people. Black women authors have been perturbed by rampant patriarchy, by the silencing of women in socio-political and economic sphere. They have been concerned with the epistemic absence of women and their marginalisation both within and outside Africa so these authors have consistently foregrounded the concerns of Black women in a highly patriarchal world. A remarkable feature of Black women writing is how they have managed to make their voices heard and have stood un-wavered despite the hostility of Black men and the oppression of White people. Black Female voices, the likes of Zora Neal Hurtson, Alice Walker, Toni Morrison, Bessie Head, Grace Ogot and others have risen and have attempted to place black women-centric issues on the centre-stage and have deconstructed the lopsided portrayal of black women. If we analyse the first major Black African novel ‘Their Eyes Were Watching God’, by Zora Neale Hurston, an African-American female writer who broke male cultural traditions by creating a woman-identified fiction representing a woman-identified reality. Set in Florida in the early 20th century at the height of Jim Crow the novel begins with Janie Crawford sharing her life story with her friend Phoebe. Via her work Hurtson puts Janie, a mullato center-stage and gives her the agency to narrate her life. Using Nannie, Jannie’s grandmother as a mouthpiece, Hurston also narrates the plight of a black women in the society. “So de white man throw down de load and tell nigger man tuh pick it up. He picks it up because he have to, but he don’t tote it. He hand it to his womenfolks. De nigger woman is de muleuh de world so fur as aj can see.” (Hurtson,16) Similar scenarios highlighting the pitiable and debased state of black women are witnessed in Morrison’s Beloved and Walker’s The Color Purple. In Walker’s The Color Purple, Celie who has been a victim of rampant sexual, physical and, mental abuse by first her stepfather, then later her husband shares a heartwrenching survival strategy of numbing herself to all the pain “I make myself wood. I say to myself, Celie you a tree. How come I know trees fear man.”(Walker 23) In Morrison’s Beloved, the women as critic Caroline Rody notes are linked by a three-generation chain of scars. The burn mark on Sethe’s mother’s ribcage, the scars on Sethe back which resemble a chokecherry tree, the scar on Beloved’s neck are scars which represent psychological and physical repression of black women. Hurston in her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God has also explored the marital life of Jannie to unveil the exploitations of the martial institution. Her work thereby follows Jannie’s account of her three marriages to three different men.

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Janie when unable to develop any affection for her first rich husband whom she was forced into marriage which comes to a bitter realisation “She knew now marriage did not make love. Janie’s first dream was dead so she became a woman” (Hurston, 18) and she runs away with her second husband Joe Stark, and though Janie gets to enjoy the high status of Mrs. Mayor with him, he belittles her in front of other, beats her and frequently claims his belief of male superiority. He moreover shares a very reductive view of women- “Somebody got to think for women and chillum and chickens and cows, they sho don’t think none themselves” (Hurtson 33). It is also mentioned in the novel how he frees a mule but never once frees Janie. Neither financial security nor power guarantee her what she actually desires that is true love which she later finds with her third husband Tea Cake who is neither rich, nor powerful. A similar theme is also explored in African author Bessie Head’s short story “The Collector of Treasures” where Head examines the marital relationships as a major arena of Black women's repression. Head showcases how the husbands in the African families dehumanize their wives to the point of treating them as mere sex slaves. How the marital life of a Black woman is riddled with psychological, sexual and physical abuse. Bessie Head here sides with the woman, who she believes to be the silent partner whose story must be told. The protagonist here is Dilkedi whose husband Garesego abandons her, sleeps with other women and leaves Dilkedi to fend for herself and their three children. Bessie here is trying to show how the institution of marriage has only served as a major tool of exploitation in the hands of dominant patriarchy and the wife here is accorded a subhuman status. It is important to note that Black women authors don’t stop at showcasing the rampant exploitation they have suffered and continue to suffer but go ahead and challenge and subvert the conventional roles black women are supposed to adhere to, the black women in their writings are given space to assert their selfhood and display their resilience. Despite her adverse circumstances Bessie Head’s protagonist Dilkedi is determined to resist, "She has filled her life with treasures of kindness and love she had gathered from others and it was all this that she wanted to protect from defilement by an evil man."(Sati 54) In the climactic scene, as an act of resistance, she finally castrates and murders Garesego after he has carried out his threat to return home and rape her. Head shows that even perfectly sane and loving women like Dikeledi can be driven to insanity through physical and mental abuse. French feminist, Toril Moi, explains phallocentrism as a system that privileges the phallus as the symbol or source of power. Garesego Mokopi represents the phallocratic misogynist and Dikeledi Mokopi in a rebellious act deconstructs phallocracy by castrating her husband. Hurston also shows resilience and resistance via her protagonist Janie in her work Their Eyes Were Watching God who through her three marriages and many

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instances of physical abuse remains fierce and unapologetic. Everyone in Janie’s life expects something from her. Her nanny wants her to marry for protection, white men want to keep her down, dark-skinned African-Americans feel she should emphasise her lighter skin, each of her husbands want her to dress and behave in a way that suits them. The subsequent of death of her husband’s releases her and she is finally able to move from the subordinate status of a wife and achieve selfhood. “She has finally been to the horizon and back” (Hurston 68). Finding selfhood outside the conventionally accorded roles to women is what both Bessie Head and Hurston have explored. Even Morrison’s work Beloved endorses the possibilities of finding a selfhood outside motherhood. Motherhood is a persistent presence and a recurring theme in Morrison‘s oeuvre. In Beloved the infant girl murdered by her own mother Sethe comes back to haunt her. The paranormal presence of the dead child in Beloved hints at the nature of motherhood, motherhood as a self-sacrificing yet self-destructive force. Sethe here is submerged in an attempt to prove her love for her dead child and there’s a conflict between the dual identities in Sethe, her as a mother and her as an individual, and Sethe tries to define herself as a mother so much so that she ceases to exist herself and almost dies. “She was my best thing” (Morrison,321), Sethe says referring to her dead child and her lover Paul D reminds her “You your best thing, Sethe. You are.”(Morrison 322) It’s also important to note how black women authors besides creating their own literary episteme have also created their own brand of feminism. Owing to race issues feminist concerns of black women demand a broader vision thus black women authors resort to the ideology of Alice Walker’s Womanism which deals specifically with the empowerment of black women and the black community as a whole. Establishing identity through sisterhood, liberation through creativity and assertion of the self, the core themes of the Womanist philosophy are foregrounded in the works of Alice Walker and many other black women authors. Walker stated in one of her interviews: I am preoccupied with the spiritual survival, the whole of my people...! I am committed to exploring the oppressions, the insanities, the loyalties, the triumphs of black women...for me black women are the most fascinating creations of the world. (Shelton 1) In her novel, The Color Purple she gives us one horrifying glimpse after another into the lives of women ravaged by unspeakable brutalities like rape and abuse, lives searching for meaning and connection and seeking out that elusive ray of hope amidst the darkness of despair. The Color Purple shows that if the lives of two sisters Celie and Nettie in the African-Americans society are torn apart by sexual abuse and humiliation from childhood then Tashi and other unnamed young girls in Africa are also victims of genital mutilation and other forms of psychological and physical torture. Walker via her novel brings to light with

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great sensitivity that misogyny, sexism and blind patriarchal prejudices are as rampantly in vogue in the Urban, upscale sphere of American cities as they are in the intractable, untameable African landscapes. Celie’s world -based on submission-changes when she encounters women who refuse to bow their heads, who fight for their right to individual pride and happiness. The enigmatic, strongwilled, unconventional and free-spirited Shug, her lover “She say my name again. She say this song I’m about to sing is called Miss Celie’s song…First time somebody made something and named it after me”( Walker 70 ). Shug’s kindness helps Celie in developing a sense of self-worth . An uncompromising Sofia who embodies a robust femininity and stuns Celie with her fierceness “I loves Harpo, she say. God knows I do. But I’ll kill him dead before I let him beat me.”(Walker 39). Nettie, Celie’s sister who encourages her to fight for herself. In these women Celie sees the true colour of female power and these women in their own ways help Celie on her journey of self-realisation. In Walker’s work we find some of the strongest women characters in women fiction. Another important idea which both Walker and Morrison explore is of sisterhood or liberation of women characters through female bonding. Celie’s relation and bonding with Sofia, Shug Avery and Nettie leads to her liberation. She finally asserts herself “I am pore, I’m black, I’m ugly and can’t cook, a voice say to everything listening. But I’m here.”( Walker 187 ) . Similarly , in the climactic scene of Morrison’s novel Beloved we see a community determined to save Sethe from Beloved’s life-threatening abuse. The neighbourhood women gather together to confront Sethe and Beloved. The community’s intervention helps exorcise the ghost of Beloved and marks a significant step in Sethe’s healing. The image of African women generally stereotyped as rural back-house, timid, subservient, dull woman by both white and black men alike has been replaced by African women writers as a well-rounded human being, individualistic ,and assertive holding her own despite dealing with myriad form of oppressions. Grace Ogot, Kenyan author in her short story “The Green Leaves” recreates a scenario similar to Achebe’s Things Fall Apart but she additionally deconstructs the misogynistic tendencies prevalent in the novel and recreates the female characters side-lined by authors like Achebe. Her stories often deal with the limitation of men and the inability of women to make a cultural impact due to being disempowered by patriarchy within both traditional and colonial societies. In “The Green Leaves”, through the use of traditional Luo, folklore and myth she emphasises on the exploitation of Kenyan people by the Colonialists. But not only does Ogot reflects on the injustice of the colonial system in Africa, she also contributes to an aspect of literature that was often overlooked by African authors who at that time were predominantly male: the experiences of being a black African female. Though the tribal clan is in a precarious position where

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the colonialists are trying by hook and crook to encroach upon the indigenous territory and oppress them. But the tribal women here are a part of doubly oppressed group—enmeshed in the structures of traditional patriarchy and foreign masculinist colonialism. The sub-human status accorded to women, the submissiveness, expected from them by the male members of their community, the exclusion of women from the clan activities are treated by Ogot in “The Green Leaves” as flaws which have serious repercussions. In “The Green Leaves” when the clan members had gathered together to chase a group of thieves, the women were excluded from participation in the activities of the clan. And so later when Nyanmundhe’s, a tribal women sees her husband Nyagar’s dead body instead of the thief’s she becomes sceptical of the clan members. The breach in the harmony of clan is evident with Nyanmundhe’s reaction and it gives the colonizers upper hand over the clan. While the whole narrative was revolving around male clan members versus colonizers, Nyanmundhe’s song of mourning shifts her point of view to that of a woman’s perspective. Her vocality gives her power in a situation in which many of the clan members are powerless. We witness here the plight of a woman caught between the world of tradition and modernization. Feminist critic, Florence Strattonnotes how the colonized women is doubly oppressed enmeshed in the structures of an indigenous patriarchy and foreign masculinist colonialism. However, Nyamundhe challenges both these systems and this is seen in her ability to disregard both clan members and European officers attempt to appease her by relying on her own ability to comfort herself through singing a traditional mourning song. Though women had been silenced throughout the narrative Nyamundhe gives herself agency via her song of mourning and the strong image of a woman mourning her husband ends the narrative. We witness how the battered image of the female gender is being redeemed via the writings of black women. Doubly marginalised on the basis of both gender and race both African and African-American women have come forward and staged a resistance against their marginalisation, they have attempted to demarginalize themselves and put themselves and their concerns center-stage through their writings. These black women writers pioneered the efforts of making their lives and experiences a part of literature produced by them and theyhave tackled the hard work of representing a diverse spectrum of lived and imagined experiences of the black community and specifically of black women. REFERENCES Boyd,Todd. “Gone With the Wind and the Damaging Effect of Hollywood Racism”. TheGuardian.13Jun.2020. https://www.google.com/amp/s/amp.theguardian.com/film/2020/jun/13/gonewith-the-wind-hollywood-racism. Accessed on 1st October 2020.

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Fonchingong, Charles C. “Unbending Gender Narratives in African Literature”. Journal of International Women’s Studies, vol.8, no.1, pp.135-147. Morrison,Toni . Beloved. Vintage 2010. Hurtson, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. Harper Collins 2004. Shelton, W Frank. “Alienation and Integration in Alice Walker’s “The Color Purple”. Journal article, Vol.28, No. 4, pp.1-11. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/ 26292918. Accessed on 1st October 2020. Sati. Someshwar. A Warble of Post-Colonial Voices | Vol 1: Short Stories. Worldview Publications 2015. Walker, Alice. The Colour Purple. Weidenfeld and Nicolson 2014. * English Honors, University of Delhi. E-mail : [email protected]

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11. Locating Trauma in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things Lakiumong Yimchunger*, Lemtila Alinger**

Abstract : Trauma is more than a physical event, it has become an increasingly familiar term in recent years. The psychological impact of trauma shows up in various symptoms in an individual and rather belatedly. The theoretical viewpoints of Caruth, Malabou, Balaev, Whitehead have been referred for further illumination of Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things, which has been found to be a fertile ground for recognising trauma experiences. Roy is a voice for the most oppressed in society, she speaks for the marginalized and the damned in society, in both her writings and social activism. This paper looks at the representation of trauma and its effects within a social context in a select literary work. In terms of literary devices used to represent trauma, the narrative pattern of timeline shows constant shifting reflecting the experience of dislocation and distress of the characters. Then there are several catastrophic events that add on to the tension of trauma in the narrative. Insistent images that show up as memory in the characters, particularly of childhood trauma, continue to have its impact on the characters. Illustrations of the extreme effects of trauma, which is disruptive and annihilative, are identified in the characters. Trauma due to social dogmas or strictures, particularly of caste and patriarchy, which then continues as trans-generational trauma is found pervasive in the novel. The memory of place is significant and makes the experience of trauma culturally specific and more defined. Literature by mediating the interrelation between scars and the language of the scars presents a potential to represent trauma and bring its complexities to a comprehensible plane. Keywords : Psychological trauma, childhood, social, negative plasticity, transgenerational, literary representation. Trauma during times of global pandemic has marked for itself a place for medical and social emergency. However, the importance of distinguishing it from other mental illnesses needs study and understanding with an intellectual eye. The literature world reads and writes about trauma stories and events in relation to war and abuse, but with the rise of suicide and cases of people suffering

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from depression, anxiety and diseases concerning mental well-being, Trauma studies has become more of a carter of wide application. “In its general definition, trauma is described as the response to an unexpected or overwhelming violent event or events that are not fully grasped as they occur, but return later in repeated flashbacks, nightmares, and other repetitive phenomena” states Cathy Caruth in her seminal book Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative and History. This idea of trauma is also supported by Michelle Balaev, when she says that, trauma is timeless, repetitious and infectious in nature in Trends in Literary Trauma Theory (2008). It is understood as not so much as a physical wound but more as a psychological injury or a lesion caused by a significantly shocking and unexpected occurrence of an accident. It is the repetition of catastrophic events, that replicate themselves for those who have ‘passed through them’. The phrase ‘passed through them’ may also include not only the individual who has suffered and but those that suffer, even through the medium of literature, as experiences are empathized with or recounted. The event of repetition has an uncanny and belated quality. It is out of the control of the individual who is suffering from the remembering of the traumatic event. Writing in the preface to the book The New Wounded (2007), Catherine Malabou mentions the sources of trauma as being political and organic extending her discussion of the resemblance displayed by the sufferer of sociopolitical traumalike war, abuse, terrorist attacks, or sexual assaults - to that of the brain damaged. This paper looks at the representation of trauma and its effects within a social context in a select literary work. The God of Small Things (henceforth to be abbreviated as GOST): The book which won Arundhati Roy the Man Booker prize in 1997, follows the experiences of two twins Estha and Rahel and their extended family in Kerela in 1969. Ammu, their mother is a Christian Syrian divorcee who, after leaving her Bengali husband had come back to live with her parent in Ayemenem. Estha and Rahel are 7 years old in 1969 and live with their mother Ammu and part of their extended family which include Ammu’s mother, her brother Chacko and Baby Kochamma- a cruel and prejudiced spinster. Velutha- a Paravan, is like a surrogate father to the children and a long-time friend of Ammu. He is an untouchable who grew up with Ammu. He would make wooden toys for her and was allowed to touch Ammu as a child, thereby breaching the caste difference. In 1969 they found out that they are in love and their transgressive love sets the novel in motion. From the first paragraph the author seems to anticipate an ending which might not be a happy one. She writes; May in Ayemenem is a hot, brooding month. The days are long and humid. The river shrinks and black crows gorge on bright mangoes in still, dust green tress. Red bananas ripen. Jackfruits burst. Dissolute

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bluebottles hum vacuously in the fruity air. Then they stun themselves against clear windowpanes and die, flatly baffled in the sun. (Roy, GOST1). Literarily, the narrative pattern of the novel is significant as it moves from one timeline to another. Half of the story takes place in the past over two weeks in 1969 when most of the events happens in the novel and the half of it takes place on one day in 1992 in the present. GOST follows a traumatic narrative pattern in the form of nonlinear plot, a shifting timeline and childlike tone and by this immerses the readers to follow the strain of the events. The novel shifts the timeline between two weeks in 1969 and one day in 1992. The incidents which happen changes the timeline and thus disorients the reader by forcing to experience the dislocation and distress of the characters. The way Arundhati Roy builds up the atmosphere of catastrophic events in the novel is much in the likes of a movie, dramatic and with increasing intensity. Sophie Mol’s death, the events after that and the separation of the twins for twenty -three years, leaves Estha and Rahel traumatized for life and maims the psyche of the children. This results in Estha’s quietness and Rahel’s emptiness. On an occasion the children decide to go to the river in a boat, “Estha waited until Rahel got in, then took his place, sitting astride the little boat as though it were a seesaw. He used his legs to push the boat away from the shore. As they lurched into the deeper water they began to row diagonally upstream, against the current, the way Velutha had taught to. (‘If you want to end up there, you must aim there’).” (Roy, GOST, 292) The boat accidently capsizes, Estha and Rahel swim to the shore, but Sophie drowns. Sophie Mol is laid in a ‘Childsized coffin. / Satin lined. / Brass handle shinned’. (Roy, GOST 4). Estha and Rahel sleep at the boathouse and the next thing they know is that they are taken to the police station with some policemen dragging Velutha, who also happens to be sleeping where the accident happened. Velutha is beaten badly although he has nothing to do with the scene that had occurred. As the events proceed, Ammu is disowned by her own family, Estha is sexually molested by a man at the Abhilash Talkies where they had gone to watch a movie. These events heavily take a toll upon the children. The memory of the small coffin, the swollen face of their surrogate father, the effects of the death of their cousin and the image of the orange drink man keeps the novel hauntingly traumatic. Christa Schönfelder remarks, “Traumatic childhood experiences, as is often emphasized, tend to have a particularly severe impact, leaving scars that--deep into the psyche as well as the body.” (Schönfelder, 72) While Velutha suffers physically the twins carry the pain psychologically. It turns their life upside down. The trauma of the catastrophic event produces a deadening ‘silence’ or ‘quietness’ in Estha and makes Rahel a ‘drifter’. She grows up to be a young woman but is unable to fill the ‘emptiness’ she feels inside her.

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According to Catherine Malabou, trauma’s interruption has a disruptive and annihilative quality. She takes the example of a wound or lesion in the brain which drastically brings about a change in the person carrying the wound. This ‘negative plasticity’ of trauma has the power to alter the personality traits by destroying the older self, giving way to a new form and a new self with no connection to the older self whatsoever. One of the crisis in the life of the twins is their separation. Ammu is helpless because she has been disowned by the family and so sends Estha to live with his father where he becomes just like a side show. He learns to cook, to shop and to sweep. The novelist says he learned to earn his living in a way by doing household chores, like cleaning the house, doing grocery shopping and cooking for the family in his father’s house in Calcutta. Estha becomes a loner. He seldom talks or ‘participate in group activities’ (Roy, GOST,11). Even after he is being returned from Calcutta when Estha’s Bengali father decides to go to Canada with a job opportunity, and he is sent him back again to Ayemenem, he follows the same routine. Estha returns with terrible memories in his head. This terrible picture keeps haunting him. He would never forget the swollen face of the man behind the bar wrongly accused, wrongly incarcerated. He decides not to go to college after high school and stays at home. The effect of the death of Sophie Mol and the events that follow leave a deep impact in Estha’s life that he is no more himself. He is physically a young man but with the bitter old memories. Baby Kochamma reports to Rahel when she comes back after a gap of twenty years is vivid and to the point. “‘I told you, didn’t I?’ she said to Rahel. ‘What did you expect? Special treatment? He’s lost his mind, I’m telling you! He doesn’t recognize people any more! What did you think?’” (Roy, GOST, 21). There is some sense of absence created. He is there and not there at the same time. The relationship of trauma and social dogmas is as old as trauma is. Although Trauma Studies and scholarship started gaining popularity with the Vietnam war survivors and the effects of war on soldiers. The rules and regulations and traditions and customs which are not always helpful and productive have been quite instrumental in creating a traumatizing environment and traumatized individuals. In GOST, Arundhati Roy writes a scathing criticism of caste and gender politics in a globalised India by focussing on a family’s tragedy and pain through the comingof-age story of the twins. Patriarchy and caste are issues connected with social trauma as represented by the author. Right from the beginning of the story the reader sees that Ammu and her mother are living under a patriarchal iron hand. This kingdom ruled by men does not have a place for women alive or death. While Ammachi struggles to secure a place in her husband’s heart by obeying and dutifully receiving the wounds from Pappachi, Ammu wriggles her way through the male dominated

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field of her ancestral home. For Ammu, home is where her heart belongs, for she feels herself when she is with Velutha, the paravan. Even after the death of Velutha when she tries to resettle herself in her own space the sting of the past events haunt her. She dies alone in a hotel room, alone and unseen. The divide between man and women, the touchable and the untouchable, the privileged upper caste and the lower caste, the socially normal and the not so normal ones, make up the bulk of the novels selected for the study. This discrimination and injustice faced by the individuals carry wounds that affect the shattering or splitting of the ego. And the trauma that the individuals have to go through is the result of shared traumatic event which began ages ago and is repeated through social memory by the virtue of similar attributes like gender, social norms, caste and religion. According to Anne Whitehead, “theories of trans-generational trauma suggest that affect can leak across generations; that a traumatic event which is experienced by one individual can be passed on so that its effects are replayed in another individual one or more generation later.” (Whitehead, Trauma Fiction, 14). Adding on she brings in the works by Nicolas Abraham and Maria Torok on trans-generational haunting. Whitehead by taking examples from the two authors mentioned suggests that the symptoms are transfused from one generation to the next as and when a catastrophic or heinous event occurs. This event which is an unreachable event is hidden in the unconscious and kept as a secret. In this case trauma can be transferred without even been spoken of and thereon begins to live in the next generation as ‘a silent presence or ‘phantom’. (Whitehead, 14). Velutha suffers because of their caste; Ammu, Rahel and Mammachi because of their gender. The pain and sufferings that appear in the life of the present generation characters is a passing down as effects of the social trauma that happened ages ago. Mammachi is suffering because of the heavy patriarchal rule imposed upon her, she has grown into it. She accepts it as her destiny to be disrespected and beaten by her God-like husband. In Ammu’s case again the old and traditional dogma of the society that a Christian should marry a Christian and Hindu should marry a Hindu overshadows her present. The rule of who should be loved and how and how much are a predetermined ritual. Going against this welcomes dire consequences. For Ammu, she crosses boundaries from where there is no turning back, marries a Hindu, gets divorced and comes back and falls in love with an Untouchable. These happenings surely affect Ammu’s life but the ripples are carried forward to her daughter’s life also. Seeing her mother dying in a hotel room, alone and unloved, Rahel sets out to find love and acceptance. These three generations suffer the trauma that has a similar source. The three women’s trauma is a result of the similar social and familial situations which causes the trauma.

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According to Michelle Balaev (2008) traumatic experience in relation to a particular place indicates that trauma is understood as a culturally specific event. The memory of Velutha’s swollen face behind the bars bagging for his life is fresh in Estha’s mind in through-out the novel. He could never forget the police station and the river where Sophie Mol drowned. There is also a mention of the river which takes Sophie Mol’s life. Perhaps, the reason why Estha is always walking could be to avoid the images in his mind. Rahel, also drifts like a log being carried away by heavy rain in search of love and care. She travels from Ayemenem to abroad and comes back to her ancestral house. The gap of twentythree years has of course changed the setting of the house. The house looks shabby and dull but the memories are so fresh in the twin’s mind as it happened yesterday. This effort of the twins brings the essence of place in the working of trauma and more so in the ghost like nature of traumatic incidents. Psychological trauma as such may not be understood in vacuum. It seems to require a medium, a language that will express the event that had traumatized the victim or group of people. Although, there has been debates about trauma’s unspeakability or whether trauma has a language of its own, the ‘speakability’ of trauma in some form finds its basis in the Lacanian philosophy of the unconscious as being structured like a language system. Therefore, if the unconscious has a literal structure, then trauma which is latent or hidden away somewhere in the unreachable recesses of the mind must have a language of its own. Literature by mediating the interrelation between scars and the language of the scars presents a potential to represent trauma and bring its complexities to a comprehensible plane. It is through the telling of stories about the past that traumatic experiences are witnessed and thus the process of acknowledgement, healing and recovery begins. This compatibility further enhances Roy’s focus directly or indirectly in her fight for a society where equality in terms of gender, sex, caste or status must exist. Thus, the manner in which Roy shows where trauma exists, among the oppressed and marginalized and by enumerating the problems they face, reconfirms her use of literary art to represent the ‘un-consoled’ and the unrepresented of society. REFERENCES Anne, Whitehead. Trauma Fiction. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. Balaev, Michelle, “Trends in Literary Trauma Theory”. Mosaic: An International Critical Journal, Vol. 41. June 2008, pp- 149-166. University of Manitoba, 2008. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44029500.2008. Caruth, Cathy, editor. Trauma: Exploration in Memory. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.

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Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed Experience: Trauma Narrative, and History. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016. Cherry, Kendra. ‘The Role of the Conscious Mind’ .01- June- 2020. https://www.verywellmind.com/what -is -the-consciousmind-2794984. Malabou, Catherine. Ontology of the Accident: An Essay on Destructive Plasticity. Translated by Carolyn Shread. Polity Press, Cambridge, 2012. Malabou, Catherine. The New Wounded: From Neurosis to Brain Damage. Translated by Steven Miller, Forham University Press, New York, 2012. Mambrol, Nasrullah. “Trauma Studies: Literary Theory and Criticism”. literariness.org, 2018. https://literariness.org/2018/12/19/trauma-studies/amp/ Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. Random House India Pvt: Penguin, 2002. *M.Phil. scholar, Department of English, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus. **Assistant Professor, Department of English, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus. E-mail : [email protected]

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12. Women in Connivance with Men against Women in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things Darakhshan Niyaz*

Abstract : Women are conventionally known to be kind, loving, magnanimous and emotional beings. Their role is deemed to be highly valuable in the making as well as strengthening the family ties. They are able to juggle various roles and accomplish myriad tasks with wonderful dexterity. However, in spite of all these, they have failed to assess their own position in the society pragmatically. Since ages, they are subjugated to the position of second-class citizens as a result of the prevalent patriarchy in the society, having limited rights and opportunities. Still, it would be unfair to put the entire blame of this lopsided social order on the male members only. The female counterparts, if not equally, but definitely have to bear the onus of this responsibility to some extent. Since literature mirrors society, this paper aims to substantiate the above point through a close reading of the novel, The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy, along with a detailed analysis of its select female characters. The portrayal of these characters under varied circumstances depicts the bitter fact that instead of standing up for the less fortunate ones, these women act against each other thus decimating their own standing in the society. Therefore; instead of being mute spectators and resigning themselves to their fates, the women need to collaborate and cooperate with each other in order to break retrogressive social norms and remote customs. In the words of French feminist and philosopher, Simone De Beauvior in The Second Sex, ‘Women’s mutual understanding comes from the fact that they identify themselves with each other; but for the same reason each is against the others.’ Keywords : Juggle, Second-class, Mute, Retrogressive, Simone De Beauvior. Women have often been portrayed as the ‘weaker vessels’, emotionally imbalanced beings, impractical and insecure characters in many of the Indian English novels. Since literature influences society and vice versa, this poor depiction of women can be extrapolated to the general mentality of the community as well. Another point worth noting in these novels is that many a times the women are not only the victims, but they play the roles of connivers

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as well as perpetrators. The women are seen to take up these complex roles quite naturally so much so that sometimes a single character plays multiple roles i.e., of a victim of violence (physical as well as psychological), as well as that of a doer. Under such circumstances, ultimately the defeat is of humanity in general and that of the women folk in particular because this overpowering of women at the hands of women has led to establish, nurture and perpetuate, the roots of patriarchy in the Indian society since ages. In this context, the novel The God of Small Things (1997) by Arundhati Roy is very apt piece of literature. A comprehensive study of its female characters reveals that one of the causes of the unquestionable establishment of patriarchy in Indian society is that it is the women themselves who act as its implementors, enforcers, executers and facilitators. These foot soldiers of patriarchy see to it that the tenets of patriarchy are followed and passed on the future generations as well. As put in by the feminist writer, Virginia Woolf in A Room of One’s Own, ‘Women have served all these centuries as looking glasses possessing the power of reflecting the figure of man at twice its natural size.’ (p.36) The novel is set in a small village, Ayemenem in Kerala. Though it deals with a number of themes like untouchability,casteism, communism, gender discrimination, class conflicts and so on, but the moot point to be scrutinized is the role played by some select female characters which have a definitive role in moulding, influencing and ‘misdirecting’ the life of the other characters by the sheer dint of their toxicity, negativity and evilness. In the light of the above discussion, the paper aims to establish that there are women who often act against their own counterparts. Their actions are mostly aimed towards destruction and annihilation. As quoted by American poet, Adrienne Rich in her prose, On Lies, Secrets and Silence (1979), ‘The connections between and among women are the most feared, the most problematic and the most potentially transforming force on the planet’. (p.22) Blinded by jealousy, false ego and a quest to have authority, lead them to further weakening the stature of their own gender, in turn strengthening the prevalence of male dominance in the society. They refuse to break out of this vicious cycle of female subjugation simply because of their inability to understand that they themselves are the essential elements of this social labyrinthine. Hence a detailed study of select female characters of the novel- The God of Small Things is directed towards enunciation of the above points. There are a few critical works done on the selected novel which deal with it from different perspectives, thus providing scope for further research and analysis. Some of them worth mentioning are as follows. A research paper titled ‘A Textual Analysis of The God of Small Things in A Citizenship Perspective’ by authors Ghazal Kareem and Waseem Hassan, University of Sindh, published in January,2020, analyses the novel from a citizenship

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perspective. The paper asserts that citizenship is an important perspective that can be observed in literary texts, which in turn provides new understanding of literature. Another paper titled, “Woman’s Place in a Patriarchal Society: A Critical Analysis of Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things” is authored by C. Neelima and published in January 2016. The paper portrays how women are relegated to the status of mere ‘females’ as opposed to ‘males’, as a result of the inhuman treatment meted out to them in a patriarchal society. A close reading of the novel, The God of Small Things constitutes the primary source of the paper; including a meticulous analysis of the speeches whether dialogue or internal monologue, throw sufficient light on the psyche of the characters under observation. The secondary source comprises of a number of critical and analytical works done on the novel by various writers available on the internet. The female characters of the novel spin a powerful story with liberal dozes of envy, hostility, pessimism and alienation weaved into it. Among them, Baby Kochamma ( Navomi Ipe) is depicted as pure evil. Though the reason of her being a highly despicable person is not clear; however, her unrequited love for the priest Father Mulligan is considered to be the driving force behind her sadistic nature. ‘She saw Grief and Trouble ahead and secretly in her heart of hearts, she rejoiced.’ (p.37) She seemed to take particular dislike to the two twins - Rahel and Estha as well as their mother, Ammu and spared no opportunity in belittling them and used to take special pleasure in humiliating them in public. Though being an aunt to Ammu, she conspired against her and finally got Ammu kicked out of her own parental house. As a result of her crafty manipulations, she succeeded in turning Mammachi (Ammu’s mother) and Chako (Ammu’s brother) against Velutha(the ‘untouchable man’ whom Ammu loved) and Ammu. She cunningly cashed in on their broken emotional state (because of death of Sophie Mol) and directed it against Ammu. This acted as the final straw and Ammu was separated from her children; the twins were also forcibly split up. Despite being highly educated, Baby Kochamma harboured obsolete and primitive views and always found an excuse to hate the most vulnerable of the people around her (especially Ammu who had married at her own will to escape torture at home). ‘She subscribed wholeheartedly to the commonly held view that a married daughter had no position in her parents’ home……As for a divorced daughter from an intercommunity love marriage- Baby Kochamma chose to remain quaveringly silent on the subject.’ (p.22) It was the outcome of Baby Kochamma’s sadist mentality that led to the splitting up of the pair of two twins, culminating into the death of their mother in a forlorn state.‘But most of all, she grudged them the comfort they drew from each other. She expected from them some token unhappiness’. (p. 22) But perhaps the worst crime of which Baby Kochamma could be accused of was holding the twins culpable and responsible for their

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cousin Sophie Mol’s death while telling this straight in their faces.‘She looked them in the eye, ‘You are murderers. (p. 148) It was this conviction that continued to gnaw at the twins’ hearts throughout their lives. And it was the fruit of her conspiracy that led to Ammu’s exile from the house.‘It wasn’t hard for her to portray Ammu as the person actually responsible for Sophie Mol’s death.’ (p.150) Mammachi was mother of Ammu and Chako and thus Estha and Rahel’s grandmother. Being unhappily married to Pappachi (John Ipe) who was 17 years senior to her, she led a violent conjugal life. She was a multitalented lady, from being a promising violinist to a successful business woman (of pickles, jams and jellies). However; both her talents went largely unappreciated. Mammachi was a victim of domestic abuse who used to get beaten up brutally at the hands of her husband every night. Her extremely jealous husband deterred her from taking violin lessons from a male English instructor. Even after retiring from the post of a respectable government servant (Imperial Entomologist), he refused to approve of the business set up by his wife, let alone lend a helping hand (though Mammachi had nearly lost her eyesight) Later it was upon Chako’s intervention that Pappachi stopped striking his wife. However; in spite of Mammachi’s distraught status as a victim, her mind was completely in agreement with the patriarchal rules laid down and practised by the society. Both her son ( Chako) and daughter ( Ammu) were divorced and came to live with her at the Ayemenem house. Though Chako was received as the rightful owner, Ammu was always an unwelcome guest and a burden in her mother’s eyes. Chako’s illegitimate relationship with the women workers of the factory was simply accepted by his mother as a ‘Man’s needs; while Ammu’s night sojourns with Velutha (an untouchable) ‘maligned’ their status and name in the entire village. It is this hypocrisy that makes Mammachi an equal participant in the violence against women. She never accepted Margaret Kochamma ( Chako’s ex-wife) as her daughter in law and disparagingly thought of her as someone who simply fulfilled her son’s physical needs.‘So Mammachi had the satisfaction of regarding Margaret Kochamma as just another whore’. (p.80) She belonged to that category of ‘conventional’ women who are completely at ease with blindly serving first their husbands, later their sons lifelong. They cultivate a highly partial attitude towards their sons who according to them can never be wrong. ‘Mammachi often said that Chako was easily one of the cleverest men in India’ (p.27) Mammachi neither showed any resistance against the beatings done to her by her husband nor did she ever protect her daughter, Ammu from her father’s thrashings and torture. In fact, Mammachi never stood for her daughter, whether in her maiden, married or divorced state. And when Ammu told her parents about his husband trying to pimp her to his boss, they didn’t buy into the idea. Despite being a woman herself. Mammachi never sympathized with

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Ammu; instead backed Chako’s decision to banish her daughter from the house. Kochu Mariahas been described as the vinegar- hearted, short tempered, midget cook of the Ayemenem house. Following the footsteps of her employer Baby Kochamma (and later her only companion), she also exhibited her despise for the twins and their mother and wouldn’t leave any opportunity to make them realize that they were not the rightful owners (or inheritors) of the house.‘Tell your mother to take you to your father’s house,’ she said, ‘There you can break as many beds as you like. These aren’t your beds. This isn’t your house.’ (p.40) However, her behaviour with Sophiie Mol was entirely different. Though she hardly knew Sophie Mol or her Mother Margaret, she publicly praised her and declared to Rahel that- ‘When she grow up, she’ll be our Kochamma and she’ll raise our salaries, and give us nylon sarees for Onam.’(p.88) This discriminatory behaviour of Kochu Maria clearly indicates her predilection towards favouring Chako’s daughter over Ammu’s child. This conduct of Kochu Maria indicates that not only the male member but his progeny is also favoured in a family by all; as against the female one. ‘They did what they had to do, the two old ladies. Mammachi provided the passion. Baby Kochamma the Plan. Kochu Maria was their midget lieutenant.’ (p.122) Ammu, daughter of Mammachi and mother to the two hapless twins, is largely portrayed as a victim in the novel. She was always at the receiving end of the injustices meted out as a result of the male dominance in collusion with the malevolent role played by the females in the family. ‘Because Ammu had not had the kind of education nor read the sorts of books, nor met the sorts of people that might have influenced her to think the way she did.’ (p.86) Since childhood she was the victim as well as the witness to the domestic abuse at the hands of her father which was a routine affair. She was inflicted with a twofold blow; been denied education (as opposed to Chako who was sent abroad) and beaten up regularly by her father to satisfy his sadistic male ego. After marriage Ammu fell from frying pan to fire. She continued to face domestic abuse, this time by her husband; who even tried to pimp her to his boss in order to save his job. However, after becoming a mother, she had to shoulder the responsibility of her two children all alone. Keeping in view with this extremely important role of Ammu, she should have been cautious in associating with Velutha, who actually proved inimical to her already vulnerable position in the society. She could have brought up her children well, providing them with a loving and healthy environment but for her reckless behaviour, which ultimately became a nemesis for all. Thus, Ammu was culpable of handing out an unhappy, lonely, stressful and guilt- ridden life to her children. ‘Oddly. Neglect seemed to have resulted in an accidental release of the spirit. ‘Rahel grew up without a brief’(p.9) ‘She left them behind, spinning in the dark, with no moorings, in a place with no foundation.’ (p.91) The above lines clearly demonstrate that Ammu’s one

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wrong step led to the destruction of the childhood of her children; it doomed their adulthood as well. This comparative analysis of the select female characters of the novel gives ample evidence to prove as well as strengthen the argument made in the paper that the ubiquitousness of patriarchy is the combined result of both male dominance and female connivance. Talking in context of the Indian society, a similar scenario is seen. The family members including the mother routinely discriminate against the female child in terms of providing education, nutrition, freedom, job opportunities and even love and concern. And often this situation turns worse post marriage when the girl has to face mental harassment and even physical torture at the hands of the husband’s family in the name of dowry, alleged barrenness, failure to produce male child or simply accused of being ‘not good looking enough’. Here also the female members gang up against the girl, treating her as an intruder. However; the position of the male member is always secure and he commands respect everywhere. Again, talking about the female victims of molestation, sexual abuse and acid attack, it is the women themselves who brand these sufferers as the soiled and despicable creatures, instead of sympathising or lending a hand towards the restoration of their ‘pride’ and rehabilitation. It is said that the history of jealousy between the females dates back to perhaps prehistoric times! It has always been an intrinsic part of their nature and even genetic makeup, passing on the same to the next generation. And as such their portrayal in literature and media is nothing but simply a representation of their social behaviour and patterns on screen or in print. Someone has anonymously and quite rightly expressed the view that it is futile for a woman to feel jealous of another woman simply because there will always be someone, somewhere who would have a bigger house, a better husband and fairer looks. Setting aside all these assumptions and conventions (which do not have a scientific backing) that females are genetically designed to act against each other, it can be plainly put that women need to support, motivate, assist and cooperate with each other because firstly it’s humane to do so and most importantly, it is the only way this gender can break the stereotyped image and position of being the subjugated, downtrodden and the second-class citizens on this planet. And this has to be first practised within each family wherein the efforts of every individual count as well as matters. When the female members feel secure, loved and accepted within the folds of their families, it would lead to their strengthened position in the society as a whole. They need to literally join hands, voice their opinions, fight for their rights and causes; cutting across the disparities in age, class, creed, colour, community and rising up from the narrow perspectives as well as social conventions or obligations. Phylicia Rashad, an American actress has aptly quoted in one of her interviews as ‘Any

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time woman come together with a collective intention, it’s a powerful thing. Whether it’s sitting down making a quilt, in a kitchen preparing a meal, in a club reading the same book, or around the table playing cards, or planning a birthday party, when women come together with a collective intention, magic happens.’ (2010) REFERENCES Bagaria, Mamta; Jhajharia, Sangeeta. “Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things: An Indictment of Patriarchy, Caste System and Christianity, Vol.3, Conference World Special Issue.2018, pp117-120. Cherian, Aswathy. “Patriarchal Domination in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things and Alice Walker’s The Color Purple, Vol.5, Issue 1, Research Journal of English Language and Literature.2017, pp116-121. Karim, Ghazal; Hassan, Waseem. “A Textual Analysis of The God of Small Things- A Citizenship Perspective, ELF Annual Research Journal. 2020, pp.7590. Neelima, C. “Women’s Place in a Patriarchal Society: A Critical Analysis of Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things, Vol.4, No 1, European centre for Research Training and Development, UK. 2016, pp.34-41. Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. New Delhi, IndiaInk.1997. *M.A. (English), Indira Gandhi National Open University. NET (English). Email- [email protected].

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13. Echoes of Violence and Trauma in Select Translated Literary Writings from Assam Kailash Kumar*

Abstract : Issues of ethnicity, identity, ideology and conflict in North East India are among recent trends in higher education. These issues have dominated the study of arts and humanities particularly English language and literature and allied disciplines. The dominant theme of many Assamese fictions and stories that were later translated into English turns out to be the violence and bloodshed caused by the numerous militant groups in addition to the one caused by the country’s security forces in their counter-insurgency measures. The story writer uses memory as a powerful device to unearth the pain and the great loss that the people of Assam underwent due to their struggle for self-determination. It is all because of the callous mental attitude that some people try to overlook injustice and inhumanity. Hence, the endeavor of the author in these stories has been to take into account the pain-filled life of the Assamese people which has not been mentioned and acknowledged by the earlier writers of literature. Here the authors are not at all concerned with historical acts and their condemnation. They do not ponder over the legitimacy of the events that engulfed the whole of Assam. Rather, they remind us that in such periods of turbulence and bloodshed there are no winners but only losers and victims. The losers and the victims bear a traumatic life in terms of physical damage to the body and even loss of life. The stories beautifully present the resultant change in the mindset of the people of the state due to their decade old conflict with the Indian security forces. This paper takes a close reading of the echoes of violence and trauma in the English version of such translated literary texts (short stories) from Assam as Atulananda Goswami’s ‘Munni’s Legs’ (2003), Manoj Goswami’s ‘Samiran Barua is on his Way’(2009), Manorama Das Medhi’s ‘A Time to Come’(1998), Imran Hussain’s ‘The Slaughter’ (2006). Keywords : bloodshed, conflict, ideology, memory, self-determination, trauma, translation.

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Introduction Translation has played a crucial part in the dissemination of knowledge throughout the ages. In a multilingual country like India, translation has been the part and parcel of every moment of the life of its citizens. However; there has been a dearth of first-rate translations of literature written in Indian languages. In the post-independent India, significant progress has been made in the translation of Indian literature in vernacular languages into English. Translation of literary works from local Indian languages into English was done with a motive to contradict the idea of colonialism. Translation of vernacular texts with a rebellious quality was done to challenge prevailing Indian cultural ways of life. Translation of literary works from local Indian languages into English served to assure the unity of India as a nation. In Assam, the writers mostly wrote in Assamese as it was the lingua franca of the state. In the post-colonial era, there was a steady growth in the number of translated works from Assamese into English. This paper is an attempt to analyse violence and trauma in some of the representative literary works from Assam that were originally written in Assamese but were later translated into English. In the post-colonial period of Indian history, North-East India in general and the state of Assam in particular has witnessed violent confrontations and continued insurgency related activities that has been equally responded with heavy–hand by the security forces belonging to Government of India and the Assam Government. This has resulted in large scale spilling of blood and abuse of human rights that is unchecked. Moreover, violence has severely influenced the emotional response of the people and upset their psyche. The theme of violence and trauma is frequently reflected in the literature of North-East India as Ananya Guha observes: “Much of the discussion today in the Literature of North-East India focuses on violence as a thematic interest.” (Guha: 2) Atulananda Goswami himself translated his story ‘Munni’s Legs’ from Assamese into English. In ‘Munni’s Legs’ we find reference to a massive bomb blast occurring in a train in Assam. The blast ‘had been set off by some terrorist organization. It was a remote controlled bomb.’ (Atulananda Goswami: 81) The accident was so terrible that ‘several bogies had been smashed to smithereens. More than a hundred people had died. About twice that number were injured.’(Atulananda Goswami: 81) The author himself was badly injured in this incident as he was travelling in the same train. A little girl named Munni who was less than four years old was travelling with her parents and brother in the same train. The author became very fond of the little girl during the course of the journey. Munni’s mother, Niti, started calling him as ‘Bhai sahab’. Unfortunately; Munni became a victim of the same incident and her legs were cut off just below the knees and taken away by the perpetrators of the crime. The writer describes this most horrifying sight in the following words: “Munni’s

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legs. Munni ki tange, Bhai sahib…!’ Niti cried out in heartrending agony and almost fell on me. ‘Someone’s stolen her legs!’” (Atulananda Goswami: 81) Later on an extremist outfit arrogantly owned the responsibility for blowing up the train. But the pertinent question is whose purpose the terrorists are fulfilling by cutting of Munni’s legs. They have committed crime against humanity and that cannot be justified on any ground. The story succinctly portrays violence and trauma in the life of the people. Patricia Resick explains that traumatic events lead to intense feeling which turns away the person from an event with disturbing system. This is because the memories of the event cannot be detached from the person’s consciousness (Resick, 2014. p. 62) Resick further says that traumatic stress in life is brought by life-threatening, self-threatening, or emotionally painful occurrences. (Resick, 2014. p. 28) Trauma may be caused by everyday experiences or activities resulting in infirmity in human beings. Due to conflict and trauma people feel vulnerable, are short of self-discipline but full of anxiety. State and non-state players have exercised fear and panic among the public that has led to large scale internal displacement of people. The occurrence of insurgency including resorting to armed struggle by home-based insurgents has been responsible for extensive violence followed by trauma and resilience. This has particularly affected the young generation whose existence has been marred by gun. The government of India on its part has used both force and political settlement to manage insurgency and violence but has not succeeded in completely wiping it: “The proliferation and intensity of the insurgencies, however, compelled India to enforce draconian laws like the Armed Forces Special Powers Act and that has added to the region’s deficit of both democracy and development.” (Bhaumik: 91) In the post-independence period, Assam had to share ‘India’s refugee burden’ (Misra: 2000) as it accepted more than six lakh refugees from East Pakistan. These refugees were settled in Assam that led to transformation in state’s demography. It ultimately created resentment among the middle class and rural masses of the state who were deeply concerned with the change in Assam’s demography and the loss of land to Bengali refugees. This resentment coupled with other problems gave rise to militant and terrorist activities in Assam in the 1980’s and the succeeding decades including the formation of ULFA i.e. United Liberation Front of Assam as Subir Bhaumik says, “In the five years of AGP rule, the ULFA killed nearly 100 people who had been branded ‘enemies of the people of Assam’…The ULFA also built up a huge war chest by systematic extortion.”(Bhaumik: 120) Manoj Goswami’s story ‘Samiran Barua is on his Way’ was originally translated from Assamese into English by D. N. Bezboruah. It was first published in 2009 in D. N. Bezboruah (ed.) A Game of Chess: Classic Assamese Stories. In Manoj

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Goswami’s story ‘Samiran Barua is on his Way’, we find literary references to terrorists and their activities. In the story, the author creates a fictional character whose name is Samiran Barua. The story writer portrays the life sketch of Samiran Barua, the chief of one of the state’s terrorist groups. Samiran is such a rebel who is linked to a number of political murder, bank robberies and antinational activities. Presently he is in a foreign country and going through a rigorous training in the application of the most lethal and complicated firearms: “According to reports, he had undergone training in the use of the most deadly and sophisticated firearms across the border, and this training had made him even more terrifying.” (Goswami: 85). There is also a possibility that when he returns to India he may bring with him a large number of lethal armaments thus causing violence and trauma in his homeland. The main reasons for trauma and conflict are domestic violence, cruelty against children, sexual assaults, natural calamities, man-made disasters, pandemic, death, religious intolerance, chaos, discontentment, etc. Miriam Cooke says that literature can play an important part in the comprehension and appreciation of trauma and conflict: “There is no one history, no one story about a war that has a greater claim to the truth but that history is made up of multiple stories, many of them her stories, which emanate from and then reconstruct events. Each story is told by someone who experienced war…” (Cooke, 1996). Even the youths who are staying back in their home state feel frustrated at the prevailing corruption in all walks of life. They talk of “Revolution”, “upheaval” and “system change” as a young man named Dool shouts out, “I’ll shoot all of them. I shall hang from the nearest lamp post all black-marketeers, ministers, MLAs, bribe-taking officers, deceitful lovers…” (Goswami: 90). For the youths, a terrorist like Samiran is a ray of hope who can provide them with the necessary arsenals to fight back the evils of society and finally realize their dream: “Don’t worry, Samiran Barua is on his way. He will lead us to heaven.” (Goswami: 91). Even the politicians don’t shy away from taking the name of the terrorists for their own benefit. They want to misuse a terrorist like Samiran and his family to shine in the state’s politics. The author gives a fictional representation to the kind of love life these terrorists had. For instance, Samiran loved a woman named Neela who was equally in love with him. But their relationship received a jolt as he joined a terrorist organization. Neela married another man whom she did not love but who provided her with all the comforts of life. Now she feared her past love as Samiran might return and force her to come back to him, ‘Come back Neelie. Come back to me.’(Goswami: 88). The storywriter gives a pathetic and emotional description of the heartbreaking life that the parents of a terrorist like Samiran Barua is leading. His parents hate him. They don’t want him to come back to their life. They happen to look upon him as dead. His sister’s marriage will not

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be possible if he comes back. His parents want him to die. His father says, “Why has he come back…Why didn’t he die? All those wild animals …bullets, bombs, explosives – could nothing finish him off?” (Goswami: 91). This is really a pathetic scene as no father wants his children to be dead. It seems as if Samiran has tarnished the image of his family by becoming a terrorist. The current circumstances are such that the moral and ethical obligations of mankind such as harmony, secularism, social impartiality and social equality are put under harsh scrutiny. The writers are compelled to articulate the pain and anguish that they have borne through the past many years. They express the failure of trust, the resentment, the annoyance, and pain of shattered dreams that have remained in their consciousness for a long time. Antisocial and antinational elements are bent upon destroying our social order. This can badly influence the value of life of people and can lead to social anxiety and turbulence in North East India especially in Assam: “Violence features as a recurrent theme because the story of violence seems to be a never ending one in this region...” (Misra, 2011: xix). However, the literary writers still wish for a bright future. It is evident in their literary endeavour. Mitali Goswami has translated Manorama Das Medhi’s story “A Time to Come” from Assamese into English. “A Time to Come” deals with internal displacement caused by insurgency and violent conflict. The story relates to the day to day difficulty faced by the citizens due to extortion, kidnapping and brutal murder of innocent people by the terrorists. A pregnant lady does not receive the necessary medical attention at the time of her delivery in her hometown as the doctors posted there have fled the place. The militant and separatist organizations were demanding extortion money from the business community and the doctors as the author says, “The demands on the doctors came much later. The first to be targeted was the business community.” (Medhi: 118). According to the author, first two or three well dressed boys belonging to a militant organization would come and place a white paper in the hands of a businessman or doctor or engineer. Exorbitant demands for money ranging from rupees one to two lakhs were mentioned in the white paper. If the demands were not fulfilled than the concerned person was killed by two or three more boys and those boys were not so well dressed. A businessman was shot in the broad daylight even after he had contributed several thousands to build a classroom in the local college. There was nobody to stand up against this kind of atrocities as the author writes: “‘Who would stand up for whom now.’ ‘No question of standing up for anyone at all.’” (Medhi: 119). People were forced to run away with their bag and baggage. The ethnic conflicts in Assam have resulted in substantial internal displacement of persecuted people. There has been expulsion and dislocation of migrant settlers as well as native people due to violent conflicts caused by ethnicity and insurgency. However; the author ends his story on a note of hope

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and resilience. The child that is born amidst all the adversity promises a new world for the humanity. The issue of language was a major source of ethnic conflict in Assam. In 1960, when the Assam government decided to make Assamese the official language of the province, Bengalis protested. As a result, “in the Brahmaputra Valley, Assamese mobs started attacking Bengali settlements in large numbers.” (Bhaumik: 131). In Medhi’s A Time to Come, we find echo of the language problem when the narrator mentions the ruling of an organization whereby it has asked everybody to play only regional songs in public places. The organization has also warned people of grave consequences if they don’t follow its decisions. The author says, “Only regional songs were played in public places these days, at marriages, festivals or picnics.” (Medhi: 115) The state of Assam is famous for its good-looking scenery, diverse races, different cultures and sub-cultures that are poles-apart. However; there is flourishing of insurgency and disagreement in the midst of diverse ethnic group that affirm their distinctiveness. This has resulted in the discontinuance of peace in the state. The ethnic groups that were united in the past have fallen apart in the recent decades. This has resulted in mass ethnic fighting within and outside the group. The inhabiting area has become an abode of terror, uncertainty and doubt due to rise in intolerance. The fundamental rights of the people of Assam were snatched away due to the presence of Armed Forces Special Powers Act. It placed the general public at the compassion of the armed services. Fresh disagreements leading to estrangement has been activated due to resentment and doubt among the people of Assam and the rest of India. Their relations with the mainland lacked enthusiasm since the earlier period. The promise of managing the National and International situation has been blemished due to unending trauma and disaster caused in the social and political circle of human life of the state. Cary Caruth makes a case for placing traumatic incidents within specified cultural and historical circumstances. She insists that literary texts are instruments by which the nature of the trauma is revealed by the witnesses (Caruth, 1996). Caruth’s book, Experience: Trauma, narrative, and history illustrates that those people who are once traumatized discover themselves to be traumatized for a second time in life. Imran Hussain’s ‘The Slaughter’ was translated into English by Atreyee Gohain and was first published in Yatra, vol.2, no.1 from Guwahati in 2006. ‘The Slaughter’ deals with the killing of an army officer by the terrorists and the resultant flare up. The protagonist Mahichandra was happy as he was going to meet his son, Sonti, after a long time. Sonti delighted the whole village. He was studying in the university after a brilliant performance in his previous examination. He had returned home after a gap of nine months. In those nine months when he was away from his parents, he had come in contact with a

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terrorist organization. He joined the terrorist organization without the knowledge and consent of his parents. His father, Mahichandra, came to know about it from the village headman who says, “It is quite sometime since your son joined the organization,” (Hussain: 141). Mahichandra was filled with shock and disbelief. He was in despair when he was further informed that his son was involved in an incident in which the terrorists gunned down an army officer and injured his wife. Now the army was searching for the terrorists. Mahichandra was under pressure to evict Sonti and his terrorist friends who had taken shelter in his house. The incident points toward the tense atmosphere prevailing in the North East India, especially Assam. Young generation is being easily lured into joining the militant organizations thus affecting the well being of the future generation. The story ‘The Slaughter’ further reveals that the lives of the armed forces personnel are at a grave risk as they perform their duty in the militancy prone areas such as Assam and many other states of North East India. The story writer appears to condemn the killing of army officer and the injury received by his family members: “What was the officer’s fault–the fact that he worked in the army? His son could have been hurt.” (Hussain: 136). He seems to equally grieve at the brutal assault of an innocent boy like Benga by the army. He questions the intent of the armed forces personnel for violating the rights of the guiltless citizens of this country such as Benga: “How can they attack their brothers in this fashion? If they had kept at it they might have killed him.” (Hussain: 140). All the four writers while writing their stories are conscious of the degradation of civilization due to insurgency, ethnic clash and violence in the state. They write with an intention to regain the purity of the society and its culture that has been defiled due to insurgency, separatist activities, ethnic unrest and political turbulence. They often give their opinion on present-day concern by submitting to olden times. They seem to gaze at the past life and culture in order to find solution to the worrying issues of the present time. The writers have observed huge transformation taking place in the state’s history. They have acted as messenger of those transformations which have resulted in drastic change in the psychological viewpoint of the masses. The stories of the four vernacular writers educate, inspire, and illuminate the people of the state. The writers take pain to write so that harmony can be established in the region. They favour nonviolent discussion, compromise and reciprocal approach to meet such an end. They want the common people to exist in an atmosphere of safety and tranquility without any persecution. At the same time the authors are not in favour of fear and dread. Such an effort from the writers has resulted in social, political and cultural liveliness in the state. Conclusion The four literary texts selected for analysis in this research paper portray violence,

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political disturbance and trauma in Assam. The social, cultural and political environment of the writings hint towards the troubled times that the state of Assam faced in the recent past. These writings were translated into English to develop understanding regarding the aggressive socio-political circumstances through which the state underwent. They offer an opportunity to the reader to widen their thoughts on the present-day culture and environment of Assam. There is a predicament of values in the social and political atmosphere of the state. There seems to be a serious anxiety regarding lack of proper values like sincerity, truthfulness and broadmindedness. The social, political and economic way of life of people is hampered by crime, violence, brutality and insatiability. The common citizen finds itself trapped in the crossfire of the rebels and the armed forces. The idea of equality cannot be endorsed if narrow-mindedness has its way through the communal atmosphere. People are separated due to caste, communal and linguistic inequity. It has created a hindrance in the growth of a common national viewpoint. Uncertainty, violence, death, kidnappings, rape and torture have frequently overwhelmed the region. The situation has further aggravated due to corruption, poverty, unemployment and indifference from the side of the government. REFERENCES Bhaumik, Subir. Troubled Periphery Crisis of India’s North East. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd, 2015. Print. Caruth, C. Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Cooke, M. Women and the War Story. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996. Goswami, Atulananda. “Munni’s Legs.” The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North- East India. Ed. Tilottoma Misra.New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011.77-83. Print. Goswami, Manoj. “Samiran Barua is on his Way.” (Ed.), The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North- East India Ed. Tilottoma Misra. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 2011. 84-96. Print. Guha, Ananya S.“Violence in Literature of North-East India”. Accessed on 23.05.2022. Web. Hussain, Imran. “The Slaughter.” The Oxford Anthology of Writings from NorthEast India. Ed. Tilottoma Misra. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 2011. 131-143. Print. Medhi, Manorma Das. “A Time to Come.” The Oxford Anthology of Writings

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from North- East India. Ed. Tilottoma Misra. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 2011. 110-120. Print. Mishra, Udayon. The Periphery Strikes Back: Challenges to the Nation state in Assam and Nagaland. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 2000. Print. Misra, Tilottama. The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011.Print. Resick, P.A. Stress and Trauma. Psychology Press, 2014. *Assistant Professor, Department of English, Wangcha Rajkumar Government College, Deomali, District – Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pin-792120 Email: [email protected]

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14. The Disillusioned Hero of Easterine Kire’s Life on Hold Talisenla Imsong*

Abstract : The word ‘Hero’ has many connotations and the present paper is a modest attempt at analyzing the main protagonist of the selected novel and to ascertain whether the protagonist in question is worthy of being deemed a ‘hero.’ Published in 2011, Life on Hold is a novel set in Nagaland during the troubled years of Naga’s fight for freedom from India. It is a realistic novel that places pain, loss, suffering and sacrifice at the centre of the freedom struggle and reflects Naga society authentically. The novel centres round the relentless and stubborn Roko who succeeds in winning the hearts of many by the sheer quality of his relentless spirit in pursuing his goals. His love for a greater cause compels him to abandon people he loves, and to some he might come across as selfish. But in understanding his true motives, ironically, Roko proves to be a man who is least selfish but is revealed as a martyr. Though the novel is set amidst the upheaval of insurgency and political turmoil, yet an indepth reading exemplifies the heroic attributes of the protagonist by delineating certain qualities that universalises him as a typical literary ‘hero.’ Key Words : Disillusionment, hero, insurgency, leader, principle, sacrifice, loyalty, courage, martyr. Easterine Kire (1959- ) is a prolific writer in English from Nagaland. She has two volumes of poetry namely Kelhoukevira (1982) and The Windhover Collection (2001). Folk Elements in Achebe: A Comparative Study of Ibo Culture and Tenyimia Culture was published in 2000 and her works of fiction includes A Naga Village Remembered (2003), A Terrible Matriarchy (2007), Mari (2010), Life on Hold (2011), Forest Songs (2011), Bitter Wormwood (2011) When the River Sleeps (2014), Son of the Thundercloud (2016), Dont Run My Love (2017) and Spirit Nights (2022). She received the Silver Medal for best creative writing in an All India Essay Contest organized by the Bertrand Russell Study Forum in 1980, is a recipient of Governor’s Medal for Excellence in Naga Literature (2011), recipient of the Hindu Prize (2015), the Tata Literature Live! Book of the Year Award in the fiction category for her recent novel Son of the

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Thundercloud (2017), and is the founder and partner of Barkweaver, a Publishing House that publishes authentic Naga folktales. ‘Disillusionment’ is a term which encompasses a lot of emotions that are mostly negative in nature. A person ends up being disillusioned with him and the world on realizing that his own cherished ideals and beliefs are illusory. When one tries to unearth the reasons for this negative feeling, it is often discovered that this disillusionment is chiefly triggered by a broken society. In Disillusionment and Change, the authors identify disillusionment as “an inability to meet identity goals” (Bubolz and Simi 57). In this regard, the current novel in discussion is a set example of how the protagonist struggles with certain goals producing in him a disillusionment that proves fatal. On the other hand, the word hero is derived from the Greeks denoting ‘protector’ or ‘defender’. It is also stated that a hero is a person or a main character of a literary work who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, bravery or strength, often sacrificing their own personal concerns for a greater good (www.en.m. wikipedia.org/). Meanwhile, Oxford Dictionary defines a hero as “a person, typically a man, who is admired for their courage or outstanding achievement.” The concept of the hero in mainstream literature is seen since classical literature however; there have been certain changes over the years. In classical literature, a person was termed as a hero who despite his flaws lived and died in the pursuit of honour such as the Greek hero Achilles, Beowulf, Hector of Homer’s Illiad and others. In modern times, Social Psychologists like Zeno Franco and Philip Zimbardo attributes the role of risks in determining the ascriptions of heroic status (www.en.m.wikipedia.org/). It can also be stated that the hero or protagonist is first and foremost a symbolic representation of the person who is experiencing the story while reading, listening or watching. History and literature at large is rife with characters that exhibit virtues deemed as heroic and therefore; are revered for their excellence, especially of character. Mentioned below are certain characteristics of a hero: 1. Courage : To be deemed as a hero, a person has to always overcome fears, and confront certain challenges put forth. 2. Virtuosity: One who is Judicious and skilled and conquers adversities ought to have this particular trait in him. 3. Sacrifice: A hero is mainly concerned with the welfare of others putting aside his personal desires and aspirations. 4. Determination: A hero should believe in his ability without the whiff of dubiety and aspire towards achieving the set target with determination. 5. Compassion: Being empathetic, benevolent, and compassionate wins the trust and love of people in society and hence, a hero should be a model of compassion. 6. Responsibility: Another key asset of a hero is his sense of responsibility and

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his tireless efforts to meet certain responsibilities shouldered upon him. 7. Loyalty: this is another prerequisite of a hero. 8. Honesty: In order to win the respect of others, being honest is an admirable virtue in a hero and should be the “base of all efforts” (www.personalitytutor.om/). Based on all these varying definitions, the selected novel explicates certain notions of a hero and though the concerned protagonist might not possess all the above attributes, yet the author has successfully created a memorable character. On post-1950s generation Naga writers, Misra opines that “the new literature, which is in English, has sprung from the staccato cry of the machine guns and reflects the revolutionary ideals of the militants as well as the disillusionment with their ways that followed” (Introduction xxv). Being an off-spring of such a generation, the novel is set in Nagaland during the troubled years of Naga’s independence movement. This is again validated by Chandra and Das when in their book they opine that “racial autonomy, conflicts of the identity-question, and insurgency/militancy over this cause have been ravaging the region.” (Chandra and Das v) Easterine Kire’s Life on Hold revolves around Nime and the immense impact of Roko’s decision in joining the Naga insurgency. According to a noted writer, the novel “captures the growing uncertainty and the confused direction that Naga nationalism took following the factional break-ups of the Naga underground movement in the eighties.” (Pou 152) Despite such a grim background, the author has also given glimpses of the protagonist’s innocent life prior to his entanglement with the freedom fighters. Though the readers get glimpses of Roko’s tenderness, especially where Nime is involved, yet the grain of disillusionment has been sowed right from his childhood. While throwing light on his childhood and school life in the initial 6 Chapters, the author paints him as a typical Angami Naga boy who values friendship and who delights in the traditional sport- wrestling. There are humorous incidences of the three friends- Roko, Setuo and Nime who often indulges in this sport with Setuo playing the role of a referee. This sport in the opinion of Sebastian is central as it portrays “a continuous wrestling to establish relationships” (“Love and Conflict in Easterine Kire’s Life on Hold”). In one embarrassing incident when Roko is overthrown by Nime, a girl, emotions such as “Dismay, disbelief and utter self contempt” overcomes him till he avenges by winning the other matches. Even as a child, he exhibits qualities of leadership whereby the author describes him as “a Natural leader.” (Kire 2) He is akin to the protagonist Roko in another of her novel with similar quality of a leader: “Roko was fearless and daring, much admired in his age-group where he was its acknowledged leader.” (A Naga Village Remembered 97) When he willingly offers his treasured, expensive knife to Neiboulie when the latter loses his while fishing, he immediately becomes a

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hero (Kire 18). Nevertheless, nowhere in the novel do we see him throwing his weight around; he is taciturn and intractable and parades a cool personality which is impenetrable. Yet one has to agree with the author that “Within his tough exterior, was a kind heart that sometimes showed itself.” (Life on Hold 3) This quality humanizes him even when he decides to work for his Uncle Pelekhou, a Major in the NCSN, one of the underground factions. Roko is unwavering in his decision; he typifies the perfect example of the then Naga youth caught up in the web of fighting for one’s motherland which we find reflected in another of Iralu’s novel : “the hunger for the battlefield went very deep in some men [...] the fever that would grip the men, old and young.” (A Naga Village Remembered 63) He remains adamant to fight for Naga’s independence despite the pleadings of his friends especially Setuo and Nime and as Setuo states to Nime: “He never listens to anyone when his mind is set on it” (27). One can only assume that his drive is similar to Vilie’s in the novel When the River Sleeps who risks his life in finding the heart-stone. According to Vilie, [...] he had an inkling how precious it must be if men would risk life and limb to find it (Iralu 112) and further states to Ate: “It is the struggle that makes it all the more precious [...] The heart-stone is in my heart. I have its knowledge carved into my heart, and no one can steal it from there (When the River Sleeps 223). One may then question why a born leader like Roko sacrifices himself to a life filled with hardships and uncertainties. The reasons are varied and according to his own opinion “there’s nothing for me here [...] there are no jobs for people like me, it all goes to the privileged classes.” (Life on Hold 28) To quote from another instance, the author shows howNime remembered how he had talked about fighting for an independent Nagaland. He would get very angry at the ruling government and say that Nagaland needed to be rid of all the corruption that was part of the state government. “The only thing they will listen to is a gun”, he would say. (Life on Hold 35) Hence, problem of unemployment, nepotism, rampant corruption in the State and various other social evils that has crept into Naga society are some of the factors which has contributed towards Roko’s disillusionment. Even though his intentions are genuine and he becomes “one of them”, yet the irony is that his disillusionment doubles after joining the insurgency movement. As is rightly interpreted by Uncle Milto, a Veteran of the First Naga army, there truly is a difference in ideology and the fight is no longer exclusive to gaining independence for the Nagas but is an outlet for many youths to earn quick money. “Unemployment and corrupt practices in the government had created a deep sense of helplessness that pushed many young men into the Naga underground movement,” (Life on Hold 36) Nime concludes. Roko’s involvement with the underground faction affects a number of people:

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his father disowns him and pronounces him dead (Life on Hold 34), and his poor mother ages and stoops with the weight of this burden. But amongst all, it completely shatters Nime and her dreams of spending their lives together dashes to the ground. When they meet after a gap of two and a half years and she pleads with him to run away, he is disillusioned even in love. Sebastian states that “In any romantic relationship sacrifices and compromises play a vital role [...] though Roko tried to forget Nime with his involvement in the National movement, ultimately he couldn’t resist his emotional tie.” (Sebastian 169) And this is the reason why he seek her out when he is at his lowest. He brutally states that he is a “condemned man” with nothing to offer her, especially not his love. (Life on Hold 39) Nime realizes that he had chosen “the stupid national movement” (Life on Hold 42) over her and despite her marriage and children, the shadow of Roko looms always in the background. Her life is sadly reduced to bearing her husband’s children and enduring the harshness of the things, as she confesses to her brother Zeu. (Life on Hold 81) The depth of her love for him is so intense that she appears in her dreams often. One in particular which haunts her is that of Roko’s lifeless body in the wood which recurs even after 14 years. (Life on Hold 98) This dream is symbolic as she remembers her Grandmother “telling her that if two people were very close, the one would let the other know if they were going to die.” (Life on Hold 54) This is proven right when the next day after the dream, there is the glaring, ugly news about his execution. His death in the end finally releases her as “for Nime, being able to bathe his body and prepare him for burial was an act deeply healing.” (Life on Hold 101) There is hope within her that she can now live her life without the constant fret of being worried about him and as the novel closes, she is relieved knowing that he had always loved her. (Life on Hold 104) Much like the unrequited love in Iralu’s “Cherry Blossoms in April”, their love when alive is incomplete and is an echo of the following statement: “Perhaps we were never meant to love on earth. The finest love stories always end in death or parting. Perhaps we overreach ourselves when we love.” (Forest Songs 78) Though Roko is not physically presented in the novel much, there are constant references to him and his name often resurfaces in conversations. We learn from Setuo that he has now risen to the rank of a Lieutenant (Life on Hold 82) but the Roko he met is a different person altogether. The glow and vitality that characterised him when they were children had left him and to Setuo, he appeared like a man who had “lost something.” (Life on Hold 83) As the novel climaxes, Roko is a hardened, embittered man with the truth dawning on him that he has been fighting a lost battle all along. He fails both in love and in his cause. He therefore comments that: I’ve been wrong, Setuo, i’ve been very wrong. The cause is dead. Most of us don’t even remember what it was anymore. It has become a contest for power and money, you know. Such a waste [...} such a waste. (Life on Hold 103)

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His desire to channel his enthusiasm and abilities for the independence movement proves futile once he realizes that it is now a mere tussle for rank and money. We can therefore defend his final action as an attempt at bringing some semblance of sanity to a group that has lost its vision, at the cost of being interpreted as an act of treachery. It is more tragic when one realizes that his execution happens because of division within their own cirle. Readers can recollect such a similar incident in another of her novel where it is pronounced that: “then we were plagued by infighting that made everyone think we were quite mad because the factionalism made Nagas kill their fellow Nagas.” (Bitter Wormwood 212) Though this very act proves tragic, yet he impresses the readers as a man of principle who remains rooted to his own cherished ideals and beliefs. His death exemplifies that people who joins Naga’s freedom struggle, signs their own death warrant, to echo Zeu. (Life on Hold 61) A willing martyr of his dreams, Roko proves worthy to be mourned not just by his near and dear ones, but especially by the readers. One can only agree with Setuo that “He did right in the end” (Life on Hold 104) much like Jim who dies “with a proud and unflinching glance” (Conrad 397); and even if Roko dies disillusioned, he remains a hero who demands reverence by virtue of his beliefs. Iralu through this story has conveyed her own belief that “every story has its space in history.” (Iralu 272) Though the novel is set amidst the upheaval of insurgency and political turmoil, yet an indepth reading exemplifies the heroic attributes of the protagonist by delineating certain qualities that universalises him as a typical literary ‘hero’. The novel is a testament to what the author herself has stated: “The truth is, there is so much more to Naga writing than the political conflict and exoticism of the folk.” (Iralu 274) Much like Joseph Conrad’s unconventional hero Jim who lived and died for the ideals he believed in, Roko’s death is a death of honour, fidelity and redeeming act of his cherished ideals. To the chief narrator Marlow, he appears “like a creature not only of another kind but also of another essence.” (Conrad 57) Jim commits a heroic suicide; his death is not a surrender to the invisible, but a sacrifice, martyrdom for the sake of a high ideal and it is this strain of martyrdom that links Easterine’s protagonist to Conrad’s. The novel is therefore a novel with the sense of isolation and the search for individual identity at its core, and Roko’s individual identity being the cause he embraced and sacrificed his life for. REFERENCES Bubolz, Bryan F and Pete Simi. Disillusionment and Change: A CognitiveEmotional Theory of Gang. USA: Routledge, 2014. Print. Chandra, N.D.R. and Nigamananda Das. Ecology, Myth and Mystery:

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Contemporary Poetry in English from Northeast India. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2007. Print. Chasie, Charles. “A Naga View of the World.” Tilottoma Misra. Ed. The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India: Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: OUP, 2011. pp. 259-271. Print. Conrad, Joseph. Lord Jim. London: Penguin, 2007. Print. Iralu. A Naga Village Remembered. Kohima: Ura Academy, 2003. Print. ---. “Should Writers Stay in Prison?” Tilottoma Misra. Ed. The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India: Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: OUP, 2011. pp. 271-75. Print. Kire, Easterine. Life on Hold. Norway: Barkweaver and Ura Academy, 2011. Print. --- Bitter Wormwood. New Delhi: Zubaan, 2011. Print. --- Forest Song. Kohima: Barkweaver, 2011. Print. --- When the River Sleeps. New Delhi: Zubaan, 2014. Print. Misra, Tilottoma. Ed. The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India: Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: OUP, 2011. Print. --- “Introduction.” The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North-East India: Poetry and Essays. New Delhi: OUP, 2011. pp. xi-xxxii. Print. Pou, KB Veio. Literary Cultures of India’s Northeast: Naga Writings in English. Dimapur: Heritage, 2015. Print. Sebastian,A.J. SDB. Critical Essays on Naga Poets & Fiction Writers in English. Kohima: Don Bosco, 2016. Print. Stevenson, Angus and Maurie Waite. Concise Oxford English Dictionary. 12th Ed. New York: OUP, 2011. Print. WEBLIOGRAPHY hero//> Accessed on 0.11.2021 // Accessed on 02.12.2021 *Assistant. Professor, Department of English, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus-Meriema. Email: [email protected]

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15. The Dynamics of Stories and Identity in Easterine Kire’s Son of a Thundercloud Temjenrenla Ozukum*

Abstract : For many contemporary Naga writers, folktales, myths and legends that formed an important part of the oral tradition have served as a source of inspiration for their works. Either these tales have been “retold” by way of putting down in writing what has been transmitted orally, or such stories have been creatively woven into stories in contemporary settings. Contrary to the belief that modern changes would lead to the dying of the tradition of folktales and myths, we see that they are in fact continuing to not only exist, but also thrive, albeit in different modes and forms. While the aim of retelling these tales, at some level, has continued to play the function of transmitting the cultural knowledge systems, traditions, sustaining the community’s beliefs, etc., it is important to note that such retellings are informed by the present “cultural moment in which that retelling is produced” and in fact, it is this quality that renders new life into the old stories. (Stephens and McCallum ix) In such ways, the old tales of the past, as they continue to be told, find their relevance in the present time. Recognizing that these retellings are informed by the present cultural webs of narratives in which the writers are situated, this paper attempts to explore how the contemporary negotiations of identity are reflected in literature by taking as an example Easterine Kire’s novel Son of the Thundercloud. The novel, often categorized under children’s literature, is based on a folktale of the Angami Nagas. While the novel is definitely the writer’s personal imaginative rendition of a story that belongs to her community’s memory, it is an invitation to its readers to have a deeper critical engagement with the worldview of the Nagas and presents the possibilities of more nuanced ways in which issues such as identity can be understood and interpreted. Keywords: identity, stories, retelling folktales, survivance, Easterine Kire Introduction For many contemporary Naga writers, folktales, myths and legends that formed an important part of the oral tradition have served as a source of inspiration. Either these tales have been “retold” by way of putting down in writing what

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has been transmitted orally, or such stories have been creatively woven into stories in contemporary settings. Contrary to the belief that modern changes would lead to the dying of the tradition of folklore and myths, we see that they are in fact continuing to not only exist, but also thrive, albeit in different modes and forms. Anungla Aier explains that the essence of folklore and oral traditions lies primarily in their quality of acquiescence to the changes in the contours of culture and society. Further, it is because of this quality of being acquiescent to change that they are rendered culpable of being altered and also modified in the process.” (2) What, we may ask, is the purpose behind such retellings? While the aim of retelling these tales, at some level, has continued to play the function of transmitting the cultural knowledge systems, traditions, sustaining the community’s beliefs, etc., it is important to note that such retellings are informed by the present “cultural moment in which that retelling is produced” and in fact, it is this quality that renders new life into the old stories. (Stephens and McCallum ix) In such ways, the old tales of the past, as they continue to be told, find their relevance in the present time. In Returns: Becoming Indigenous in the Twenty-First Century, James Clifford writes that indigenous people around the world have begun to come to terms with their identities, in realizing that they are “no longer pathetic victims or noble messengers from lost worlds, they are visible actors in local, national, and global arenas.” (13) Like many of the indigenous storytellers around the world, Naga writers also reflect this sentiment in their writings even as many of the works negotiate issues such as identity. While living in a moment that is global, Naga Writings in English explore the many intersecting identities and the resulting emerging consciousness because of the multiple socio-political realities that they are embedded in. (Bhumika 583) This paper is an attempt to explore how the negotiations of the Naga identity is reflected in literature by taking as an example, Easterine Kire’s novel Son of a Thundercloud. The Hornbill Spirit: Stories and Identity In the modern history of the Nagas, “three powerful waves” are recognized: the wave of British colonial rule, the wave of the Christian Mission, and the wave of the Indian state. These waves continue to create ripples that affect us today, making the (re)negotiation of identities an ongoing project (Oppitz 9). Scholars have studied the concept of Naga identity and its different facets from across disciplines. The Naga identity has been said to be ‘political’ and “born out of blood” (Tunyi 15), ‘amorphous’ (Ao 9), ‘shifting, to some extent voluntary concept’ (Longkumer 7), etc. As mentioned earlier, in recent scholarship, there is a growing attempt to reimagine the Nagas as being more than just passive objects but as active agents who exert their agency in shaping their identity, adapting and reinventing themselves. Stuart Hall’s definition of identity “as a concept that is always operating “under erasure”- in between reversal and

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emergence- is useful in understanding that the quest for identity is not so much about a recovery of the past.” (2) Identity is, rather, as he says, “the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by, and position ourselves within, the narratives of the past.” (Hall 112) Many of the contemporary writings attempt to engage with the complexities of such positioning. In her seminal essay, “Writing Orality”, Temsula Ao, comments on the literature that is produced in the process of writing orality as a new kind of writing that does not follow models that are euro-centric- as writings that “deeply immerse in traditional sensibilities but at the same time imbued with contemporary perceptions.” (103) Ao affirms that such writers “…are not only writing orality but also creating a new literature of their own in a language which though not their own, nevertheless lends a kind of universality to the literature.” (107) In Easterine Kire’s introduction to the collection Naga Folktales Retold published in 2009, she makes a similar point when she states that the retelling of the stories have been done so as to make them more reader-friendly, and less anthropological. The objective behind the retellings is to make these folktales “become stories in their own right to a global readership.” (N. Page) It is important to recognize such retellings as attempts to foreground an alternative history as opposed to dominant history. Gerald Vizenor, the Anishinaabe cultural theorist, popularized the term “survivance” in Native American Studies. He writes; The nature of survivance is unmistakable in native stories, natural reason, remembrance, traditions, and customs and is clearly observable in narrative resistance and personal attributes, such as the native humanistic tease, vital irony, spirit, cast of mind, and moral courage. The character of survivance creates a sense of native presence over absence, nihility, and victimry.” (1) Vizenor uses the term to talk about stories that are “renunciations of dominance, detractions, obtrusions, the unbearable sentiments of tragedy, and the legacy of victimry.” (1) This kind of narrative reflects attempts of native and indigenous writers to move away from having themselves and their works constantly stereotyped as victims. Instead, it foregrounds attempts to have their writings viewed not just through the narrative of survival but as “active presence” which goes beyond just survival and mere subsistence. (Vizenor 11) In a different context, although not vastly dissimilar, noted Naga anthropologist and scholar, Abraham Lotha, in his ethnographic study of Naga nationalism entitled The Hornbill Spirit: Nagas Living Their Nationalism, refers to the hornbill bird as a representation of values that Nagas have held dear through generations. He writes, “The birds fly in whichever direction it wants, living according to its nature and whatever the natural environment allows, being true to itself, in struggle and defense, in order to stay alive.” (Lotha 1) Lotha uses the term “the

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hornbill spirit” to speak of the resilient history of Naga nationalism. In our attempts to articulate indigenous frameworks and native metaphors to theorize our literature, it might be suggested that contemporary writings from Nagaland reflect “the hornbill spirit”, much like the concept of survivance. There has increasingly been a growing body of works that is marked by a spirit of resilience, wherein there is a conscious and unmistakable act to defy expectations to write in a certain way or write about certain things. Instead, reflective of the narrative of resilience that marks their identity, contemporary literature is marked by a deliberate attempt to articulate this spirit. In the field of Biblical studies and theology, noted Naga theologian and Biblical scholar Renthy Kietzar has argued for a need to articulate a tribal hermeneutics that is rooted in the Naga context. This idea of indigenizing Christianity led him to write about a belief that was “Naganised.” Similarly, modern literary genres like the novel has been “Naganised” to articulate the cultural imagination of the Nagas. (Bhumika 584) Kire’s novel Son of the Thundercloud, in form and in content, can be said to be an example of this. Son of the Thundercloud (2016) was awarded the “Book of the Year Award” for fiction at the Tata Literature Live Awards 2017. In 2018, the novel was awarded the Sahitya Bal Puraskar by the Sahitya Akademi. The Bal Sahitya Puraskar is a prize that is conferred annually to outstanding children’s books. The book has been described as an allegory of love and hope, being reminiscent of Paulo Coelho’s work, or as invoking magic realism. While a book can be interpreted in more ways than one, such reviews seem to overlook that the novel is a remarkable example of a Naganised novel, in that it is a retelling of the gospel of Jesus Christ reimagined in a context that is unmistakably Naga, with Kire seamlessly weaving it together with an Angami Naga folktale into the narrative of the novel. Combining folk wisdom with Biblical elements, the novel is reflective of a nativized Christianity that has been an important constitution in the process of identity formation. Readers unfamiliar to the Christian story may not immediately draw the connections but as the narrative unfolds, despite the many fantastic elements, there are many parallels to the biblical story. Kire herself mentions in an interview that the book was her imagination of Jesus growing up as a Naga boy playing, as many young Naga boys did, with slingshots. (“Easterine Kire’s ‘Son of the Thundercloud’ wins Tata Lit Award.”) Kire brings together stories that have now become a part of the community’s shared memory and collective identity. It is indicative of the ways in which narratives are central to the ways in which we understand our identity. The first part of the novel is a retelling of the Angami folktale, which is also found in Kire’s Naga Folktales Retold. The tale is about a sad old widow whose husband and seven sons had been killed by a tiger. One day, as she was drying paddy, a raindrop falls on her and consequently, she conceives of a child. She

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gives birth to a son who then grows up to avenge the widow of the death of her husband and seven sons by killing the tiger. Kire retells this folktale of an immaculate conception in the prologue to the novel. As the story unfolds, the reader finds the writer drawing many familiar parallels to the Biblical story, and the rest of the novel is a delightful interweaving of such elements with contexts and characters that are distinctly Naga. In doing so, Kire’s writing points to how the boundaries of the physical and spiritual experiences are more fluid than is often thought to be. The story begins with Pele and is often told from his perspective. Pele leaves his village after the tragic deaths of his wife and children because of a famine that wipes out most of his village. In his travels, he meets two strange women clad in coarse black cloth, their gaunt features and paper-thin flesh giving them a ghostly other-worldly appearance- Kethonuo (meaning truth) and Siedze (meaning future full of hope). These women tell him of a prophecy, a prophecy about the “Son of the Thundercloud”. They tell him that the birth of the awaited son would fulfill the promise of redemption and transformation, and it is this hope of awaiting for this promised child that kept them alive. It is the third sister, Mesanuo, meaning “the pure one”, who conceives of this promised son. Kire weaves in biblical prophecies into this Naga narrative. For instance, the prophecy of the birth of Christ- “A virgin shall conceive and give birth to a son, and he will save his people. Signs and wonders shall accompany his birth, and the land shall be rejuvenated” is quoted in the text (41) In essence, the story of the gospel remains the same- an awaited child of promise is born, there is the fulfillment of prophecies along the way, restoration, deliverance, hope, redemption and so on. The promised son is named Rhalietuo, meaning “the redeemer.” With the fulfillment of the prophecy of the promised son, many changes begin to take place. Long dried-up rivers begin to run teeming with life, villagers begin to go to their fields that were no longer barren, and there is singing and stories of hope in place of despondency. Pele also notices the change in the sisters’ appearance. Rhalietuo grows up and fulfills the prophecy by killing the tiger. The tiger becomes an allegory of evil. However, with doubt and unbelief, signs of animosity and hostility grow towards him, particularly from his friend Viphrü. It is Viphrü who deceives the other friends into unbelief by making them throw their spears at Rhalie during a community hunt. Rhalietuo becomes a Christ-like figure as he is speared to death by those whom he considered friends. In many narratives of the coming of Christianity, especially studies done by outsiders, there is a tendency to view things in terms of binaries. The Nagas are often projected as victims. In highlighting the negative consequences of Christianization, there is a tendency to draw strict distinctions between the preChristian identity and what developed after. Similarly in such narratives, the

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agency of Nagas is often completely undermined of subsumed under larger narrative agendas. That there was an exercise of agency on the part of the Nagas as they chose to convert to the new religion because of reasons such as wanting to “fast track” to a modern identity has been pointed out. (Thomas 4) Although Kire’s retelling does not speak about the ways in which Christianity has played an important role in the forging of a modern political identity, this retelling serves as an important reminder of the efforts to view the Naga identity in a light that is different from the usual. Such a novel also brings about a view that does not view the old religion and the new as being in strict opposition. Rather, by recognizing and pointing to the similarities, the ways in which identity has been understood is also challenged. Lanusangla Tzudir in her essay “Appropriating the Ao Past in the Christian Present,” she explores the ways in which Ao Christians have found ways to appropriate their past and have thus found ways to authenticate their traditional practices, in the light of the “new” religion. (265) This is a common occurrence in other societies with similar histories of colonial encounters. Rather than the interaction between the new religion and the local beliefs being only one-sided, i.e. the former having no agency, recent studies show that Christianity too, to a large extent, underwent processes of reconfigurations as it came into dialogue with the local cultures and local histories. (Bhattacharya and Pachuau 14) Such studies show how the local cultures and practices influenced the ways in which Christianity was interpreted, thus forging “a complex sense of cultural belonging and sense of identity.” (ibid. 14) Thus, even though Son of the Thundercloud may, on the surface, seem like a simple tale (even classified as a book for children), it is a narrative that is grounded in the context of the complex cultural dialogues that took place between the Christian belief system and the native Naga identity and reflects the dynamics of this dialogue. Outsiders may read it as “fantasy” or “magic realism”, but it is rather an imaginative rendering of a native articulation that fuses together Christian as well as traditional values. It can be read as the writer’s attempt to articulate the idea of a Naga Christian identity. As exemplified in her other works, Kire’s novel articulates the resistance of the easy definitions that is often imposed on the Naga identity. Such stories must be read as interpretations that have been informed by the writers who are also enmeshed in different cultural webs of narratives, just as the stories in the original were created out of the webs of narratives in the past. No story is created in a vacuum. It is important to have the awareness that “the process of retelling is always implicated in processes of cultural formation” in order to make sense of culture. (Stephens and Callum xi) Thus, in our reading of such retellings, the present historical contexts in which the writers are situated becomes as important as the past which they interrogate, and in the process, there is a reshaping of both along with the stories that are being retold. Since there is no way of actually finding out or recreating the world in which these

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stories were told, a more fruitful way for us in the present to engage with them is to ask what relevance and significance they can continue to have today. In this sense, our examination of these tales is not so much to do with retrieving or extricating something from the past, but rather engaging with the ways in which stories inform our identities and vice-versa. Conclusion Kire states in an interview that “Son of a Thundercloud is “a story about love and forgiveness and it points to the world beyond this, which is part of the Christian tradition and also has a place in Naga tradition.” As in many of her other works, Kire explores issues that go beyond the expectations that are often put on writers from this region of the country. Writers like Kire have had to resist such limitations by showing that their literature deals with so much more than just political strife and violent histories. What a novel like Son of the Thundercloud does is that while it is definitely a writer’s personal imaginative rendition of stories that now belong to the community’s memory and identity, it is an invitation to its readers to have a deeper engagement with the worldview of the Nagas and presents the possibilities of more nuanced ways in which issues such as identity can be understood and interpreted. REFERENCES Aier, Anungla. “Introduction”. Studies on Naga Oral Tradition: Memories and Telling of Origin Myth and Migration, Volume 1. Heritage Publishing House, 2018, pp.-1-18. Ao, Temsula. “Writing Orality”. Orality and Beyond: A North-East Indian Perspective, Ed. by Soumen Sen and Desmond L. Kharmawphlang, Sahitya Akademi, 2007, pp. 99-112. Bhattacharya, Neeladri, Joy L.K. Pachuau. “Introduction.” Landscape, Culture, and Belonging: Writing the History of Northeast India. Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp.1-20. Bhumika, R. “Engaging with the specific realities of postcolonial literatures: a discussion of the complex socio-cultural and political contours of contemporary Naga literature in English”, Asian Ethnicity, 22:4, 583-599, DOI: 10.1080/ 14631369.2019.1677453, pp. 583-599. Clifford, James. “Among Histories”. Returns: Becoming Indigenous in the Twenty-First Century, Harvard University Press, 2013,pp. 13-49. Hall, Stuart. “Introduction: Who Needs Identity?”. Questions of Cultural Identity, Eds. Stuart Hall and Paul Du Gay. Sage Publications, 1996, pp. 1-17. ---. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora”. Contemporary Postcolonial Theory: A

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Reader, edited by Padmini Mongia, Oxford University Press, 2010, pp.110121. Kire, Easterine. Son of a Thundercloud, Speaking Tiger Publishing Pvt. Ltd., 2018.---. Naga Folktales Retold, Barkweaver, 2009. Longkumer, Arkotong. “Introduction”. Reform, Identity and Narratives of Belonging: The Heraka Movement in Northeast India. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010, pp. 1-25. Lotha, Abraham. “Flights of the Hornbill.” The Hornbill Spirit: Nagas Living Their Nationalism, First Edition, Heritage Publishing House, 2016, pp. 1-4. Oppitz, Michael. “Preface”. Naga Identities Changing Local Cultures in the Northeast of India, edited by Michael Oppitz et.al. Snoeck Publishers, 2008, pp. 9. Pou, Veio. “’Years of listening to stories grows a wealth of knowledge within your spirit: Easterine Kire’, An Interview with the writer from Nagaland.” https:/ /scroll.in/article/971141/years-of-listening-to-stories-grows-a-wealth-ofknowledge-within-your-spirit-easterine-kire. Aug 23, 2020, 01:26 p.m. Stephens, John and McCallum, Robyn. “Preface”. Retelling Stories, Framing Culture: Traditional Story and Metanarratives in Children’s Literature, Garland Publishing Inc., 1998, pp. ix-xi. Thomas, John. “Introduction”. Evangelising the Nation: Religion and the Formation of Naga Political Identity. Routledge, Reprint 2020, pp. 1-10. Tunyi, Venusa. “What Makes Me a Naga?”. Nagas: Essays for Responsible Change, Ed. Eyingbeni Humtsoe-Nienu et.al., Heritage Publishing House, 2012, pp.-11-19. Tzudir, Lanusangla. “Appropriating the Ao Past in the Christian Present”. Landscape, Culture, and Belonging: Writing the History of Northeast India, Ed. by Neeladri Bhattacharya and Joy LK Pachuau, Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp.265-293. Vizenor, Gerald. “Aesthetics of Survivance: Literary Theory and Practice.” Survivance: Narratives of Native Presence. Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska, 2008, pp. 1-24. Yhoshu, Alice. “Easterine Kire’s ‘Son of the Thundercloud’ wins Tata Lit Award.” www.easternmirrornagaland.com, Nov 19 2017, https:// easternmirrornagaland.com/easterine-kires-son-of-the-thundercloud-wins-tatalit-award/. Accessed 27 May 2022. * Ph.D. Scholar, Department of English, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus, email: [email protected]

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16 . Material Culture in Yimkhiung Naga Tribe Ruthsan Y. Lemtila Alinger*

Abstract: The paper highlights the definition of material culture and the materials used by the tribe. Yimkhiung is one of the major tribes of Nagaland. The tribe is rich in mineral resources it has rich traditional heritage. The people are large hearted kind and brave too. The history of Naga nationalism has a record of its outbreak in Yimkhiung land called Huker village in Shamator district. Yimkhiung has five home dialect speaking people viz Makury, Chirr, Longpfürü, Langa, Phenungrü These five sub tribes live together as brothers true to the name of the tribe Yimkiung that denotes “Searched and Found”. The beauty of the tribe lies in the variety of dresses, languages and traditional practices carried out. It is spread across the state extending upto the borders of Myanmar. Mimi village and Salomi village is known for natural caves located at their jurisdictions. Mimi have many tourist attraction hotspots like caves, waterfalls, bee rocks in huge colonies etc. The Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary is also under the care of Government of Nagaland. Herein, preservation of animals and birds are carried out under the supervision of Forest Department. The various architectural structures, traditional wears of men and women, ornaments, tools and weapons, indigenous food items used are presented in the paper. The dresses can be classified under Men’s wear and Women’s wear. Youths also have their dresses which are used by student’s community or young people. Youths are also involved in all the tribal activities. They are made to learn the songs and dances and all the important festivals and activities that define their identity and tribe. Keywords: Material Culture, Yimkhiung tribe, traditional attire, style and designs of structures, food items and ornaments. Introduction Material culture is the aspect of social reality grounded in the objects and architecture that surround people. It includes usage, consumption, creation and trade of objects as well as the behaviours, norms, and rituals that the objects create or take part in. Some scholars also include other intangible phenomena that include sound, smell, and events, while some even consider language and media as part of it. The term is most commonly used in archaeological and anthropological studies to define material or artifacts as they are understood in

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relation to specific cultural and historic contexts, communities and belief systems. Material culture can be described as any object that human use to survive, define social relationships, and represent facets of identity or benefit people’s state of mind, social, or economic standing. Material culture is contrasting to symbolic culture which includes non material symbols, beliefs, and social constructs. (https://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki) By studying material culture we can learn about human behaviour, creativity, and the impact of economic environmental and technological forces on the common man. Materials things are a tangible way for people to express themselves. The material things we own express our emotions how they make us feel or how we feel about how they make us look. The clothing style and colour that one chooses to wear could reflect the feeling of an individual. Naturally, the Yimkhiung land is blessed immensely. Nagaland a small and unique state in the North Eastern part of India covers an area of 16,579 sq kms. And Yimchungrü land has so much to add to the beauty of the nature and also to the people and its history. Besides Mountain Saramati that stands tall and majestically in the Yimkhiung land there is Likimro hydro project that produces 24 megawatts of electricity. (Khalenmew 2). One of the modern song writers Mr M.Shophu of Tsotokur village mentions in one of his song that ‘Likimro Hydel Project’ is an eye or light emitting source for Yimkhiung. It shines for Yimkhiung as well as the state. Electricity or power generating source is compared to ‘the eye’ here in his song titled “Shorih Lo” Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary is maintained and looked after by the Forest and Wildlife Department of the state. It has a good preservation of animals like tragopan, hollock gibbon,etc.(Shophu interviewed on 16/8/2021) Culture and heritage are the essential factors the make each people distinct and it gives a sense of unity and belongingness. Culture unites people of a single society together through shared beliefs, traditional and expectations. The two basic types of culture are- Material Culture and non material culture. Material culture is the physical things produced by a society and non material culture is the intangible things produced by the society. Five examples of culture are customs, laws, dress, architectural style, social standards, and religious beliefs and traditional are all examples of cultural elements. Culture is considered the Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development by UNESCO. The characteristics of culture are1. Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. 2. Culture is shared amongst a section or group of people. 3. Culture is based on Symbols

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4. Culture is integrated 5. Culture is dynamic. (https://www.agenda21culture.net)

In addition to the intrinsic value culture provides important social and economic benefits. With improved learning and health, increased tolerance and opportunities to come together with others. Culture enhances our quality of life and increases overall being for both individuals and communities. Some components of culture are-Purpose, values, behaviours, recognition, rituals and cues.

The two broad classifications of culture are- Material culture and Non material culture. Material Culture is a term developed in the late 19th and 20th centuries that refers to the relationship between artefacts and social relations. In contrast, on material culture does not include physical objects or artefacts. Example of metro passes and bus tokens are part of material culture, as are automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship. Non material culture in contrast consists of ideas, beliefs, values or norms that shape the society. Studying the physical object of a culture gives us a better understanding and appreciation for the complex lives of the people who interacted with those objects. Material culture thus provides us insight into nonmaterial culture, including the ideas, beliefs, habits and values of a people.

Material Study of Yimkhiung Studying the physical objects of a culture gives us a better understanding and appreciation for the complex lives of the people who interacted with those objects. Material culture provides us insight into non-material culture, which includes the ideas, beliefs, habits and values of a people. It is an aspect of social reality grounded in objects and architecture. Examples of material culture include cars, buildings, clothing and tools. Some material culture of a society is woven or generally handmade. Some society or community imparts the art of quilt making to the young girls of the community. Quilt is connected to girlhood, a common thing in girlhood days. It was also made and gifted during marriage, or when a neighbour lost his house by fire, for a newborn child in the neighbourhood or just for keepsake too. Friendship quilt has the name inscribed on it. A material culture is a trademark of a particular tribe or a group of people. Since time immemorial, with the existence of human beings the materials were used for building shelter, clothing and food basically for these three purposes. Symbols are closely connected with every aspect of human. In material culture

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symbols are signs used to indicate necessary characters that are required to be imprinted in a community’s memory. Symbols are creative forms that perform similar function as the other narratives in a community’s folklore. There are different patterns and motifs in the dresses houses and architectural structures of the community. The patterns that existed are that of geometrical, human figures and the head and breast of human body is frequently used. Celestial motifs like star, moon and sun are also used. The Architecture : The houses with many heads or skulls of animals show the power and prestige of the owner of the house. It would also show that he had given a numbers of feast and celebrations to the people in or around his village. Some have tin roofed houses or thatched roofed houses, houses with bamboo walls were owned by poor or downtrodden or orphans. Important places in a village would be a village gate, forts or memorial stones of different occasions. Usually the Yimchungrü villages were established from the defence point of view. Many warriors built their fences around villages so that enemies find it hard to attack. The architecture- The houses with many heads or skulls of animals show the power and prestige of the owner of the house. It would also show that he had given a numbers of feast and celebrations to the people in or around his village. Some have tin roofed houses or thatched roofed houses, houses with bamboo walls were owned by poor or downtrodden or orphans. Important places in a village would be a village gate, forts or memorial stones of different occasions. Usually the Yimchungrü villages were established from the defence point of view. Many warriors built their fences around villages so that enemies find it hard to attack. The houses in the village were built with thatch, bamboo pole or wooden pillars, rope made of creepers for tying and binding. There was no partition in the one roomed house. At the entrance we find a small veranda wherein the grain was grinded there and some domestic animals lived there. On entering we find a small fireplace and also a bed which was usually carved out of a single wood piece. The houses were decorated with the skulls of the animals head. It signifies the status and the position of the owner of the house. Houses are made of thatch and some Yimchungrü villages have slate roofing. Dormitory or Community Home: It is a hostel kind of house with big unattached rooms. The young boys and girls would gather there to learn the values, art of life and life skill. It also served as an institution for educational purposes. Songs, dances and folktales were learnt from Dormitory.In the olden days community home was very necessary because of the fear of the attack of the enemies (Akhum 101). In the process of change and development the present

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day church and schools can be said to be revised or reviewed version of dormitory system of the past. (102) Store House or Granary: Some villages store their grains and other agricultural products in an outskirt area of the village by building a granary. The structure of the granary is usually up-built.it required a ladder to climb up the granary. It has four posts lifted high and on it is the room .It is the practise of the ancestors to prevent from the attacks of rats and moths or pests etc. Some store their food grains in a barn made of cane and bamboo and some villages particularly Mimi areas would store in a huge earthen pot. Council Hall or Community Hall: Most villages have a place to settle petty and small cases within the village administration. The court serves as a place to serve justice and peace. The village heads would summon both the parties and hear their grievances and settle the issue. Meetings are also held in community halls and small events like get together and certain folk activities like singing and storytelling sessions are held there.(Lakiumong Gaon Bura interviewed on 17/1/2020).

Making of Traditional Attire Weaving was there before looming came into existence. People worked manually to weave their own clothing. In the past, there was no marketing system with exceptions to barter system. Thus, whatever raw materials were available were used to get the final product. Cotton was extracted from cotton plants. Some roots, grasses, strings and thread were collected. Threads and strings of different sizes were knotted together to make it strong and long lasting. The weavers still practice the hand weaving method up to date. Some instruments used in weaving are two medium sized bamboos to hold the thread or yarn at the bottom and topmost part. The weavers’ hands are gifted as they design different motifs and patterns on the shawls and sarong. The present tribes in Nagaland have all specific traditional attires which mark the tribe’s authenticity and speciality. Yimkhiungs mostly use black and red in most of the traditional shawl used by men and womenfolk. To extract colour of the shawl a dye of a tree bark was used. It was cooked in a big pot and would dry it to make the thread smooth and strong easy to weave. Girls of marriageable age were taught to weave so that in the long run they don’t have to buy from others; it serves as a way to skill development and also a way out to self reliance and sustainability. Sarong of various types are used by Yimkhiung women folk but with the passage of time traditional attires comes in modified forms and named accordingly and used in different occasions.

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Men Traditional Attires (i) Langtam jihpü rhi (loin cloth) : Traditionally men used langtam before any clothes were there to cover the body. Traditional finery is a sight to behold as it carries a story behind its designs and motifs of a race that is bold, majestic and fierce. All the different tribes of Nagaland have distinct costume or dresses although there are some similarities on closer look. (ii) Rongkhim: Rongkhim is one of the most popular men’s shawl used by Yimkhiung tribe. Rongkhim is used since time immemorial. This shawl is the most popular shawl worn by men folk of the tribe. It is also called ‘Athrongrü Khim’ which means ‘A Shawl of the Brave’. The shawl is basically red in colour. The red and black is widely used in the shawl. It has a red band of 7X11. The number 7 denotes the number of days to observe as a genna for the war hero who has taken the head of an enemy as a war trophy. The number 11 denotes the days to resume the war after the genna period. At the bottom of the shawl there is a pattern called “Thsamthrungyak” a design drawn from the inspiration of the tattoo mark. The bottom design is woven as per the choice of one’s preferences. Some weavers prefer to leave it plain and simple. (YTC 18) Kurung Kuro (Head gear) : The traditional attires of a particular tribe bring out the separate identity of each tribe. Like any other Naga tribe Yimkhiung men have the full traditional costume that includes Kurung Kuro, the head gear also called “Athsün kuthran”as it is used in traditional dancing. The head gear is red (i) in colour that represents blood and bravery. Materials used for the headgear is a fine bamboo or cane made into the shape of cone. It is decorated with the goat’s hair that is dyed red to symbolise the power and strength. The head gear of men also has a wild boar’s tusk.(YTC 30) (ii) Muffler or Sash: There is also sash worn across the torso, it serves as a comfortable and convenient way of carrying the traditional identity instead of using big shawls. (iii) Ornaments: A loin cloth or a kilt, leggings, armlets, wristlets, earrings and a good number of necklaces made of beads, shells and bones. “Thsotorü” or Armlets are made of elephants tusk or brass, it is

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round in shape worn across arms which is white in colour and if it is of the metal the colour varies as per its property. Similarly wristlets were made of metal wire. Men would complete their looks with a dao case and belt tied around their waist and a spear and shield in their hand.

Women Traditional Attire Tsüngrümkhim: The most popular shawl used by Yimkhiung women is Tsüngrüm khim. It drew the inspiration from a metaphysical being by the name Tsüngrümkhumla Hoza’s wife. It is worn by a lady who hosts Feast of Merit, or can be worn by a rich man’s daughter or wife. The shawl contains 128 rectangular boxes with the two bottom borders called ‘Huriyak’ and ‘Thsamthrongyak’. However, some weavers love to leave the shawl without bottom pattern as per one’s likings. As and when a girl gets married the gifts for her husband would depend on the status of the family. If a marriage is to be in a rich family, she has to take the shawl that is called Aram khim that stands for power, rich and authority. She would be taking along with her an armlet of five pieces on each arm and all the sarongs like Alongzah, Kejinberü, Peiyie etc. Women wear mekhela and a shawl. The mekhela has a significant tale attached to its invention or creation. Alongza or Yakto Rongthsun: The most important body-wrap of the Yimkhiung women is Alongzah. This mekhala was worn by rich and dignified women during any social gatherings or festivals. However, today Yimkhiung women generally own and wear it as it is the main mekhala of the community. ‘Alongzah’ means a mekhala with a central design in the middle and can be interpreted like a core source, like that of a heart from where love, peace and unity pours out. A woman who wears it can be an ambassador of peace, love and unity. There is a folk story in line with the invention of mekhala. A woman is gifted with this mekhala on the day of her marriage wherein she is expected to be a channel of blessing to her new home and family. The inspiration is drawn from the fairy’s wife. The mekhala looks plain and simple with design in the middle portion. The tiny designs in the middle portion depict the tattoos that was carried on women’s chin and forehead. It has a diamond shaped pattern that symbolises grain, seeds of pumpkin and cucumbers and pounding mortar or grinder. Alongzah is an essential item for every Yimkhiung woman. It serves as an identity marker. Every woman would receive it as a send off gift from the family when married. That is how the tradition stands alive and gets pass down from mothers to daughters. (YTC 44)

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With the change in time many weavers weave a good number of modern mekhelas but traditionally our grandmothers used Thsungrumkhim and Alongzah. It is a combination of two primary colours red and black. The designs are tribe specific and that makes the identification easy in large crowds and gatherings. Mekhelas and shawl were accompanied by earrings, necklaces armlets and bangles, hair ornaments or hair bands were also used. Hair bands, hair decorations were made of beads, red goat hair or feathers attached on the hair ornaments. Kejingberu: Another important mekhala of Yimkhiung women that is handed down generations after generation is Kejingberü Rongthsun which is white in colour. Women from geographically lower areas of the community used it in olden days. It was first woven by a lady from lower region called Kejinglim in Yimkhiung dialect and was married to a man from upper region and thus the mekhala was named in honour of her which literally means a woman from lower region. It is all white with a few single strands of black and purple threads. It has a design of www at the bottom portion of the mekhala. Some weavers would put some strands of threads to give more decorative look. Attire Worn by Youths Thulun Khim is one particular shawl used by young people. Thulun means people of the same age group or peer group. On the shawl is the picture of the tiger, dao, spear and the hornbill. Young people today dress themselves with modern waist coat and mufflers. Some boys use ‘Rongkim’ designed into waist coat or muffler. It is also decorated with ivory or white beads making it look more beautiful and grand. Young people also wear a waist coat called ‘Mongtsu’ waist coat which means ‘Peace’ waist coat. The symbol on the waist coat is the picture of a dove in the front view and at the back is the sunrise picture with the word Mongtsu written below it. Head gears vary slightly from region to region or from one village to another village. Head gear used by menfolk is Kurungkuthran or Kurungkuri, Muknam kuthran is another kind of headgear with the tiger’s or wild boar’s teeth, rikheangkhi, biling, nukumukhippu, dao box, leg guard called ‘ jingtüm’, necklaces. Some of the ornaments used popularly by the womenfolk especially young girls during festivals and celebrations. ‘Thsünkhiuk’ is a female crystal rock earring that is circle in shape with the opening in the middle to insert the earlobe in it. Laktam is a necklace that is large and covers the bosom; it is made of red beads with the bells on the edge. ‘Khinulak’ can be literally called ‘Moon Necklace’ it has three white oval shaped ivories that is seen as moon. Young girls participate in cultural activities like playing games and also taking part in

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singing and dancing traditional attires. Young girls decorate themselves beautifully adorned with hair clips and head band made out of cane or bamboo and over it is tangled with colourful threads matching it with the sarong or the shawl worn. Food Widely Used and Cultivated by Yimkhiung Tribe. Yimkhiung’s Kholar (Rajma) is very popular amongst the Naga tribes. Millets were used as staple food and also used in local wine. Yimchungrü ancestors’ lives revolved around cultivation for livelihood. Maize, millet, jobs tears, rice, kholar beans, soyabeans, perilla, wild and domestics green vegetables, fruits, pumpkins etc. Yimkhiung popularly use Kholar kidney beans as the primary curry all throughout the year. It is sown once in the month of February and for the second time in the month of August and harvested in May and December or January. Kholar cultivation in done in big areas covering few acres of land and thus harvesting is done in bulk that can be supplied throughout the state. Most of the farmers cultivate kholar as main crop since it is of great demand by all sections of people. Varieties of Kholar are available in Yimchungrü land. Many people love to eat and are very nutritious and also can be kept for a longer period of time. Logdrum: Another speciality of Naga tribe is the usage of log drum. It was carved out of a single huge tree. It was with much reverence that the log drum was pulled and brought to the village. All the male members of the village would go and assist in pulling the log drum. There is an instance wherein a particular village member joked about the tree and the tree refused to respond to the pulling of the tree. After much appeasement by an elder man the tree moved and thus reached without much difficulty. (Musumong Hd GB interviewed on 11/1/2021) Stone Megaliths : They were erected to commemorate momentuous deeds and to observe in silence their great gesture with humility and gratitude. It is also erected to represent own forefathers legacy and also marks the great deeds of own predecessors.

Tools and Weapons Dao, spade, spear, bow and arrows are some tools and weapons used. Daos and spade were smitten by a particular clan “Khüvazülü” who could do the blacksmithy work. It is believed that other clans were not into that profession because it brought bad luck and the harvest became very less which affected the whole community with famine kind of situation. Bow and arrow locally called “Yhayiekhangkhang” were popularly used by the Mimi area people. It

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can be used for hunting as well as for defence purposes from enemies. Bow and arrow is made with a cane and bamboo. A quiver poisoned with a plant fluid would kill the enemy in one go. Ancestors were very skilled in using bow and arrow because the quiver was hardly wasted. Each aim would hit the target. The Art of Pottery making - It is a practice of making fine art, with different designs and patterns on the pot. It is an important profession that is passed on or taught by elder women to the younger ones. The pot making is mainly done by the women folk hailing from Mimi dialect speaking villages under Pungro block of Kiphire district. Pot making is an important skill that is passed on or taught by elder women to the younger ones. It takes a lot of effort to make a pot. Pots were used for multiple reasons. It was used for cooking, storing water, used for storing grains in the granary, used for tobacco pipes etc. The process and materials required is hard and tiresome. The clay (fine powdered clay), straw are two basic materials used. Pots were used as a means of exchange when there was barter system. Neighbouring villages would come and exchange their goods for pots. It comes in different shapes and sizes. Each girl child gets a share of big earthen pot filled with millet in it. She can take the pot and the millet on the day of her wedding to her new home. Pot preservation and making has thus, always been a sign of attachment to one’s roots and parents especially for a girl child. (Yasangwu interviewed on 22/3/2020) The Tattoos - Tattoo system was there since time immemorial. Even upto the present day we have some old people with tattoos on their chin and forehead. Designs differed from region to region. Some group of experts would tattoo the girls on attaining the marriageable age. Another interpretation says that tattoo was a way to disguise the beauty of a damsel so the enemy’s eye would not be on her. Like some of the Naga tribes, Yimchungrü practise the art of tattooing on the arms, legs and faces. Different designs are printed as per clan, villages or khel. It also shows that a girl with tattoo is of marriageable age or with certain design the boy would easily identify that she is from her own clan and so would avoid proposing her hand in marriage. The tattooing was done with a needle type prick of a plant. (Trangpen from Betang Village interviewed on 13/1/2021) In conclusion, we can sum up by saying that the tribal identity is known by the objects seen and used visibly and the dress that is worn and used every day. Some of the above mentioned materials of Yimkhiung tribe are used in all occasions and are widely known and recognised by all. It is mandatory for each household to preserve traditional attires, be it for usage or for keepsake, that creates awareness and sense of belongingness amongst the younger generations. The present day youngsters are more inclined towards western

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style and fashion. They think that the traditional attires are for the old people and thus it is becoming a threat to losing the rich material culture of the tribe. With the passing away of old people the story, the culture and the practices are slowly dwindling away. The scholarly analysis of material culture, which can include both human made and natural or altered objects, is called material culture studies. It is an interdisciplinary field and methodology that tells of the relationships between people and their things: the making, history, preservation, and interpretation of objects. It draws on both theory and practice from the social sciences and humanities such as art history, archaeology, anthropology, history, historic preservation, folklore, archival science literary criticism and museum studies among others. Material culture provides an insight into non material culture which includes the ideas, beliefs, habits and values of a people. While an object starts off as simply a physical item, over time it comes to represent non material and symbolic aspects of a culture. Thus, the main focus of this article is to highlight the material culture that is used by the Yimkhiung tribe and thus keeping the tradition alive though many more material things are left to be worked upon. REFERENCES Akhum, S.J. Yimchungrü Christian Theology. A Theological Exploration of Myth, Symbol and Values. Dimapur: KP Printing Press,2010. Khalenmew M., Yim. The Yimchungrü Christianity A Brief History. Dimapur: Print House, 2010. Yimchungrü Tribal Council (YTC) Yimchungrü Naga Cultural Heritage. Kohima: Eastern Printing Press, 2021. Websites. https://www.agenda21culture.net> https://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki Ruthsan Y. Having completed her M.Phil. she is currently pursuing Ph.D. on the literature and culture of her own tribe, from the Department of English, Nagaland University. Email: [email protected] Cell : 9612835149. Lemtila Alinger is Assistant Professor, Department of English, Nagaland University, Kohima. Her areas of interest are in folklore, semiotics, literary theory. Email: [email protected]

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17. The Impact of Multilingualism in the Growth and Development of Minor Languages: A Case Study on the Ao-Naga Pangersenla Walling*

Abstract : This article is a brief survey on multilingualism practices and its consequences in the development and growth of native languages. Multilingualism refers to speaking more than one language. The advancement of technology and globalization has led to a rise in demand for multilingualism. The growth of multilingualism has many effects on minor languages. Tribal languages have its own challenges; they struggle to protect their language and culture as linguistic diversity decline and world languages emerge. Many indigenous languages are being endangered and many at the verge of extinction. Ao Naga is a multilingual indigenous community, residing in the state of Nagaland. Many people in this community become bilingual at a very young age. The prime objective of this study is to review the impact of multilingualism in the development of Ao as a native language. A major focus of this paper is on the linguistic diversity that influences the growth of Ao language, multilingualism practices, and general consequences of multilingualism practices, some benefits of multilingualism practices in education. Keywords : Multilingualism, Technology, Endangerment, Preserve, Ao-Naga, Indigenous, standard language, language learning, consequences, lingua franca. Introduction ‘Multilingualism’ is a term to refer to a person or a community who speaks more than a language. In a pluralist society different linguistic groups come to intermingle and hence, multilingualism has been the default context for human beings. Language as the medium of human communication system and understanding, entices the mind of both the speaker and the hearer. Children in most parts of the world grow up with two or more languages which are spoken around them. The demand for knowledge of different language on younger generation both in their studies and work as they move to locations where other languages than their mother tongue has become the norm. Being a bilingual or multilingual has become so important.Multilingualism is often used interchangeably with bilingualism. In this paper, Multilingualism is used as an inclusive terminology comprising bilingualism. Multilingualism can either be

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official or unofficial. The official multilingualism is normally in the constitution or declared as official by the government and practically applied in education sector functions, national and other official engagements. The unofficial multilingualism is not necessarily rooted in the constitution or officially declared by the government. Language can be learned for different purposes. A person can learn a language for instrumental or integrative motivation. Learners with an instrumental motivation want to learn a language because of a practical reason, whereas, Integrative motivation refers to a favourable attitude toward the target language community, possibly a wish to integrate and adapt to a new target culture through use of the language (Gardner, 1985: 54). Learning a new language broadens a person’s mindset. Learning a new language introduces to new cultures and to the exquisiteness of diversity. Language is not just a tool to convey meaning for communication. It shapes our minds with regard to how we perceive the world, the way people think of the world is influenced directly by the language that the people use to talk about it. Learning language besides one’s own native language is not only beneficial, but necessary for success in life. Globalization is bringing diverse cultures and communities into contact. Learning another language provides benefits including greater academic achievement, greater cognitive development, and more positive attitudes towards other languages and cultures. Multilingualism in Naga society started mainly due to the influence of colonial administration and the spread of Christianity and education. A lot of changes in Naga society towards modernity is an outcome of growing multilingualism. The most common languages besides the native languages are English, a pidgin known as Nagamese and Hindi. English is the only official language of Nagaland thought there are around 17 indigenous languages spoken in the state. Like all Nagas, the Aos did not have a script of its own. According to a tale, a dog ate the script that was written down on animal skin. Oral tradition has been the mode of transmission of culture and knowledge. It was only during the 19th century with the progress of education; Ao was put into written using Roman script. Nagas had contact with the plains people, especially with the Ahoms from the beginning of the 13th century. Nagas had contact the Ahoms and its neighboring areas for barter-trade purpose. A pidgin known as Nagamese developed due to the contact of the Naga linguistic group and the people of Assam and also amongst each other. Nagamese was used for instrumental purpose. Nagamese is still the most popular lingua franca in Nagaland. Ao-Language Ao is the name of the community as well as the language. It belongs to the Tibeto Burman language family. The languages of the Aos can be broadly

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divided into three varieties: Jungli (also written as Chungli), Mongsen, and Changki. In the 1900’s there are 46 Ao villages out of which 21 are Jungli speaking villages and 19 are Mongsen speaking villages, while 6 are mixed, inhabited both by Mongsen and Jungli speakers, and one Changki village. Today there are around ninety-three (93). Though these varieties are spoken by the same tribal group, they are mutually unintelligible. Ever since the first published piece of literature, namely, the translation of the Gospel of Mathew (1883), and the first dictionary (Clark 1911) was published in the Chungli variety of Ao, Jungli came to be used as the standard variety. It is now used in schools, social institutions, newspapers, and the media. The standardization of Jungli and the exposure of the dialects to each other have reduced the level of unintelligibility. The standard Ao is taught in school till undergraduate courses. This is not a compulsory subject but optional. In schools, the children have an option to choose between Ao and Alternative English, which predictably Alternative English is the preferred one. In 2021 class X, board exam the total number of who took Ao as in optional paper was below 200 students in the entire state. This a major concern and an indicator on the popularity of the native language amongst the students. Multilingualism and Language Learning The three-language formula (1968) has been a failure in the state. Though the three-language formula was adopted, yet only English as a language subject was studied till class 10. Hindi is taught till class eight. Mother tongue was (still is) an optional paper and the student could choose either mother tongue or a subject known as alternative English. There are many private schools which teach Hindi as a subject but do not teach mother tongue as a subject at all. These languages are taught using the one of the oldest language teaching methods known as the grammar translation methods. Grammar translation method has been used to teach language in schools. Grammar translation method originated from the practice of teaching Latin; in the early 16th century. There are two main goals to grammar–translation classes; to develop students' reading ability to a level where they can read literature in the target language, and to develop students' general mental discipline. In typical language class in the Ao area, the students will be made to write a word for many times, the teacher would explain the grammatical rules and making the students do the language exercises. In the lower the classes the students were made to repeat the lines after the teacher without understanding the meaning. English grammar and Hindi were memorized. There was no emphasis on pronunciation or communication skills. Everything was memorized. At the end of a course the students could neither learn speak well nor communicate in the language.

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By the early 21st century there was a huge shift in speaking skills of English and Hindi in Ao-Naga community. This is due to the advancement of technology, internet and media. Today, there are many Ao children both in rural and urban area who speaks fluent Hindi and English. It is not surprising to see pre-school children speaking English and Hindi. Hindi and English are like a second language to today’s generation. The approach to language teaching has not changed in schools but the technology has aided in these learning. Besides, English and Hindi, Korean has gained a lot popularity. Korean wave has influence the Ao society. Korean entertainment industry has dominated the Naga society since the 2000s. K-dramas have attracted attention for their fashion, style culture, food and culture. Technology is having a growing impact on language learning worldwide. Unlike some decades ago, classroom is not the platform where the children are learning languages. English, Hindi, Korean, are not just the popular languages among the youngsters in the community. Nagamese is a very popular lingua franca in Nagaland. Nagamese started as a pidgin which is a mixture of Assamese, Bengali and Hindi. Today, Nagamese has reached the status of a creole. There are families where parents are from the same community but speaks Nagamese as a home language. The Ao children can potentially be exposed to three languages simultaneously if their parents for instance the father speaks Jungli-Ao, mother speaks Mongsen-Ao, the two unintelligible varieties of Ao and the baby sitter speaks Nagamese. An even more complex language exposure, up to four languages simultaneously, can actually occur if the child is educated in a private English school. Hindi as the fifth language is introduced in primary school. A huge challenge, however, the community is now facing is how to maintain, and furthermore, speak the local languages, to prevent endangerment of those languages in the future. Multilingualism has opened a lot of opportunities. Many has succeeded in the field of education, media, entertainment, and other careers. However, this has major impact in the development and growth of the native languages. Consequences of Multilingualism There are many consequences of multilingualism. Multilingualism practice creates the development of mixed languages mainly due to intense language contact. The growth of Nagamese as a lingua franca that developed because of the need for cross group communication. Most children prefer to communicate either in English or Nagamese. This is a serious issue since a generation prefers a language which is not their native language to be used at home. Multilingualism practices generally develops cross -linguistic communication strategies like code switching and code mixing. When people switch from one language used at homes to the other outside the home environment then code switching occurs. This is a very common phenomenon in many linguistic groups. Due to the

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development of technology and the force of globalization there is a demand of multilingualism. However, with globalization allowing languages and their cultures to spread and dominate on a global scale, it also leads to the extinction of other languages and cultures. A language carries with it the wisdom of the speakers which has been in their community for generations. An integral part of the cultural identity is in a verge of vanishing as the language becomes endangered. Every language has an exclusive form of cultural, spiritual, and intellectual expression. In other words, language consists of the cultural identity of a person. In many homes, the language is endangered. A language is deemed endangered when the children in a community are being spoken to in a language other than that of their parents (Hornsby 2014:252). According to Crystal (2000:14), only 600 of the 6,000 or so languages in the world are ‘safe’ from the threat of extinction. I took a pilot survey in the year 2015, in Mokokchung Town which is the home town of the Ao-Nagas. The age group of the participants were between 15-35 years. There were 100 participants of mixed gender group. The participants were from Ao community. In this survey, it was found that almost all the participants prefer to read in English though they could understand and speak their native languages. One of the interesting findings of this questionnaire, as shown below, was that only 10% of participants at the age group of 15-25 preferred to read in their native language. They all stated that reading in English was easier as they were more familiar with the spellings and pronunciation. The most common problem they stated with reading in their native language was the orthography issue. There are many sounds in the language that the 26 alphabets in roman script along with ‘ü’ cannot define. Besides that, Ao being a tonal language is not marked on the script and hence many words were mispronounced. For instance, in the orthography, metsü could mean both ‘salt’, ‘kick’ and ‘twenty’. Phonologically, the words are identified through the different tones, i.e., ‘salt’ m,‘kick’ mts, and ‘twenty’ mts. Mispronunciation of a word would change the entire meaning of the sentence. Some survey question on reading, writing and speaking skills are given below: S.N. Question 15-25 age group 26-35 age group 1 When asked which language 90% English 100% English would they prefer for reading? 10% Ao 2 Can you speak and understand 100% Yes 100% Yes your native language? 3 Can you write in your native 40%, 35% language? 4 Can you read your native 50% yes language? Table 1.1. Sample of survey question on reading, writing and speaking skills

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Most participants who said they can read and write in their native languages were those who have taken mother tongue as subject in school. Participation in church and sunday schools also has contributed to enhance the reading and writing skills in their mother tongue. Most of the participants do not read publications in their native language on a daily basis. Buying books and reading materials published in the native language was also seen to be relatively low, compared to English. A set of survey question on reading publication on native languages is presented below: S.N. Question 15-25 age group 26-35 age group 5 Do you read native language 25% yes 40% yes newspapers, magazine and book on a daily basis? 6 Do you buy books, magazine 15% yes 25% yes etc, written in your native language? Table 1.2. Sample of survey question on reading publication on native languages The participants were of the view that the languages have the higher rate of usage, function and employability most of them said English and Hindi are at the top. Thought Hindi is considered as high in terms of employability; it was not a popular subject with the students. The younger group of participants was asked which optional paper they would choose between English, Hindi, Korean and their mother tongue. Most of then picked English. Korean was surprisingly, the second choice. Mother came second and third was Hindi. 7 If the language optional subjects English: 70% were English, Hindi, Korean and Korean: 15% your mother tongue, which would Mother tongue:10%, you choose? Hindi: 5% Table 1.2. Sample of survey questiontheir choice of language to study Conclusion The study indicates that native language is not so popular among the younger people of the community. There could be many reasons. It was found that languages are valued and preferred according to their use by the community. For instance, English is preferred as there is scope in education. Hindi and English are preferred for its importance bureaucracy and other professional work. Subsequently, inclinations to learn one or two languages that young people believe can give social and economic mobility for their future are increasing. This threatens the existence of other languages specially the indigenous languages which are marginalized and are decaying. Many participants have

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expressed that they speak in their native language with their parents. Roman script which is used to write Ao is not sufficient to capture all the sounds in the language. It cannot represent all the phonemes of the language. Hence, words are not recognised automatically, and there is a problem in orthographic processing while reading. This is a major problem that inhibit a student's applied reading skills and affect the reading comprehension skills. The number of readers of native language is comparatively low as compared to English. Published literatures is a valuable treasure for the future of the community. Awareness programmes, language policy and a balanced language education is required to protect a minor language from the rise and acceleration of the growth of some languages over the other. Language is an art. It encompasses values and traditions that are passed down for generations. When a language is lost, part of that culture is lost. Multilingualism has become a way of life. It should not be a threat to native languages. REFERENCES Clark, E.W. Ao Dictionary. Mokokchung: R, Lisen. Ao, 1911. Crystal, D. Language Death. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Gardner, R. C. Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold, 1985. Hornsby, D. Linguistics: A Complete Introduction. UK: Teach Yourself. 2014. J. Lyons. Language and Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Sanz, C. “Bilingual Education enhances third language acquisition: Evidence from Catalonia.” Applied psycholinguistics Vol 21, 2000, pp.23-44. *Associate Professor in the Department of Linguistics, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus. Contact: [email protected].

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18. Migrated Folks: Delving Forced Migration and its Impact in the Naga Hills Tsutshowe-ü Sekhamo*

Abstract : Migration has been a continuous process throughout human history, be it internal or international migration, nomadic or semi-nomadic migration, large scale or small scale migration. This movement has never been easy and for most times humans have to take a long and difficult journey. As we try to understand the Naga history through oral narrations, we come to the realization that continuous movements were happening since ancient times. Naga migrations were both voluntary and involuntary. Some were compelled to move out from the existing village and migrate elsewhere due to the reasons mainly caused by village customary law, economy, natural calamity and attack from powerful villages. Since involuntary migration were not very prominent among the Nagas in early times, the area of research is limited to the Chakhesang tribe, Sema tribe and Rengma tribe inhabiting in present Nagaland state, India. Examples extracted through interviews with the village elders will be used to supplement the paper. It will try to reason the causes that made an individual or a clan to leave the parent village and formed their own villages, or migrate to another village. This paper will try to find out the incidences of involuntary migration in the pre-colonial Naga society. Keywords : Naga Migration, Involuntary Migration, Naga Society, Migration Psychology, Economy, Customary Law,Internally Displaced Persons. Leaving home is a recipe for misery (Lary, 2012). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization - International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (UNESCO-UNEVOC) defines migration as human movement from a place to another and can be categorized into destination, duration, reasons and choice. When migration happens, it affects both the place of origin and the migrant destination. James T. Fawcett in Migration Psychology: New Behavioral Models, states that, migration is one main factor for population redistribution and migration psychology studies individual behavior with respect to movement across space. As one try to understand migration, it becomes inevitable to study its two types, i.e. voluntary

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and forced movements. Free migration occurs when one is in search for a better pasture while forced migration can be witnessed in imports of slaves or dislocation of the whole or part of the community from an area. According to CARFMS-ORTT, forced migration is the result of environment degradation, war, ethnic discrimination, persecution etc. It led to the creation of two migrant groups, refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). United Nation defines IDPs as, ‘persons or group of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border.’ In historical migration, climate change has an important role to play in the creation of IDPs. Archaeological evidences direct the occurrences of drastic climate change and collapse of empires at the same time. Examples of Harappan decline due to possible drought and Sahel region’s fertile area as cause for population expansion were used to understand the influence of climatic change on migration. Negative effects of climate change through land degradation can also directly influence the economic condition of any areas where the inhabitant’s main occupation is farming (Waldinger, 2015).The incident of Migration of Eighty Shield Bearers and formation of Ghokimi village is relatable with internal migration due to climatic change and economic reasons. Ghokimi village forms part of Zunheboto district, Nagaland, India. Before the formation of Ghokimi village, the founders were living in one settlement site called Awohumi. It is postulated that the population began to grow but the food production did not increase with the rising population and the inhabitants began to starve. A Sema Naga folktale narrates about the harsh economic condition faced by the inhabitants of Awohumi which compelled them to migrate to different direction. There was a young man with his wife and a son. The young man’s father (also referred to as grandfather) was also staying with them. One day, the man went to the field while his wife went to collect firewood from the jungle. They left their child in the care of the grandfather. The family had nothing left to eat at home and the child was suffering and crying due to hunger but the poor grandfather was helpless. When the man and his wife returned home in the evening, they found their child dead due to starvation. Grandfather after experiencing the death of his grandson was heartbroken. Realizing that the village economic production could not support the growing population in the village, he encouraged the villagers to move out and migrate to other locations. Likewise, heeding to the advice of the old man, a group of 80 warriors (the eighty shield bearers) moved out from the village and reached Ghokimi, thus making it their permanent village (Swu et al., 2021). Natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, hurricanes etc. also have significant impact on human lives and migration. Environment change and degradation

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through deforestation and landslides due to other agricultural practices are also often linked to disaster (CARFMS-ORTT, 2014). Though not necessarily, the Naga Hills had issues of deforestation in early times. Khezhakeno and the Seven Settlement Sites narrates about the settlement, dispersal and formation of the seven villages within Khezhakeno village, Phek, Nagaland. The names of the seven villages which were formed one after the other are- Khezhakeno, Mobvolumi, Chichülumi, Pfulumi, Tepfulhumi, Latsalumi and Chilumi. Inhabitants of these villages were forced to move from one settlement site to another due to the occurrences of unfortunate natural calamities like landslide, epidemic, animal caused disasters and internal conflicts. Mobvolumi village was abandoned when a huge landslide happened killing some young boys and girls from their village. Chichülomi experienced severe epidemic with famine and it compelled them to abandon the village. While inhabiting in Pfulumi village, an animal resembling wild boar called Vongo would often visit the village. Whenever the animal comes it brings sickness or dead in the village. Thus the inhabitants were forced to leave Pfulumi village. Tepfulhumi and Chilumi were abandoned due to internal conflicts among themselves. Latsalumi area was windy and a termite (Mvükrü) would eat up the pillar and thatch every time they build a house, thus forcing them to leave the area (Zehol, 2009; Koza, 2018). Conflict displaced happen when in individual or a group is forced to migrate on conflict related issue (CARFMS-ORTT, 2014). Some Naga migration occurs when a misunderstanding takes place among the different clans. Conflict between the two individuals or a group against an individual can also led to forced migration. The case of conflict displaced can be related to an incident which compelled the Jemu clan and Woch clan from Nsunyu village, Rengma Naga, to move out from their village and migrate to other regions. Historically, Jemu and Woch were brothers and founders of Nsunyu village. Being strong and powerful, the clans of these two became supercilious. The other clan’s sentiments were hurt and things escalated to such an extent that the Magh clan from the same village challenged the Jemu and Woch in a fight. During the fight the man representing Magh clan got injured in his leg when the opponent attacked him with a garden fence stake. Later he succumbed to his injury and died. Since the man died due to the injury caused during the fight, the Jemu and Woch clans were made to take the responsibility. Accordingly as per the village customary law, if anyone commits a murder, they have to leave the village. Likewise, the two clans were made to take the blame and move out from the village. They later migrated to Tesophenyu village and settled there (Note: another group of Jemu and Woch clans already existed in Tesophenyu village before the arrival of this group). Some displaced Jemus and Wochs went towards Bandari (Wokha) and settled there (Woch, 2021).

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In Sema folktale, there was a pregnant lady name Ghukheli who returned to her parent’s village Ghokimi. As she reached the village gate she told the warriors guarding the village that she had come looking for Ashu (Grandfather) Vishepu (Long and Lasting Life). One warrior brought her into the village and made her live in his servant’s house (Ilaku). Later Ilaku and the women became man and wife. The woman was already pregnant and gave birth to a son named Salu (Claimed by One). When Salu grew up he fought with his grandfather for power and so he was made to move out of the village. He was given his share of paddy field and land which later became known as Asukika village. In Sema language, Asu mean Grandfather, Ki mean House and ka mean Plain (Swu et al., 2021). One of the founding members of Mishilimi village, Zunheboto, Visho also had to leave his former village, Tsüyi when an internal problem broke out. Visho lived in a place called Tsüyi with his wife and children before migration. One day Visho and his friends went for hunting expedition and they were able to kill a bison. While cutting the meat and dividing their share, someone put the bison’s private part into Visho’s bag. This created misunderstanding among them and later on it escalated into a serious issue. In the midst of all the confusion, Visho became victim to public anger. The angry villagers started searching for him and Visho was forced to abandon the village with his wife and children. After his dispersal from Tsüyi, Visho along with Kisho and Sheqi formed the present Mishilimi village (Sheqi and Sheqi. 2021). The famous flat stone (Tso Tawo / Spirit Stone/ Magical Stone) folktale which has been narrated by the tribes of Chakhesang, Angamis, Lothas and Semas also bear evidences of forced migration. In Khezhakeno village, Phek, Nagaland, the three sons, presumably the ancestors of these tribes take turns to use the flat stone for economic gain. One day they had a dispute over the usage of stone. The argument became so bitter that their parents fearing bloodshed burnt the stone and with this the stone was no longer magical. The brothers decided to move out and dispersed towards different directions (Hutton, 1921). UN Secretary-General stated, persons forced to leave their homes share many common types of vulnerability regardless of the underlying reasons for the displacement” (CARFMS-ORTT. 2014). Most of the Naga founders who left the village to form new village got the blessings from their elders and ventured out. But in some cases, they were forced to move out and disperse in different directions. Involuntary migrations among the Nagas, during early times, were influenced by village customary law, economy, natural calamity and attack from powerful villages. In the case of violation to customary law and moral ethics, individual or clan in particular, is forced to migrate. Under economic reason, group migration usually happens and this group may include of one or more clans. In case of natural calamity or enemy attack, the whole village was forced to abandon their site and move to another area. Apparently, involuntary

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migration was happening during the pre-colonial period but compared to voluntary migration, its occurrence was much less. When we try to compare the plight of past and present IDPs, we understand that the reasons for displacement are similar, but one cannot assume that the consequences were same. With the evolution of human beings, many regional and international organizations have come up to study human migration and the different strings attached to it. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Office of the United Nations High Commissioner of Human Rights (OHCHR), United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, International Federation of Red Cross and different NGOs are some important organizations working for the Refugees and IDPs. Oral narrations and written documents have mentioned about villages being burnt down in the Naga Hills. During the colonial period, British officials like Grange, Eld and Vincent have burned down many Naga villages (Mackenzie, 1979). Villages were also burned down by the miscreants or enemies. In all these, the inhabitants have to either dislocate or rebuild their village without any or much assistance from outsiders. They cannot expect reliefs and if forcibly displaced then they were at the mercy of the Mother Nature. In pre colonial period, every Naga village was considered autonomous and independent and weaker villages often becomes the prey of powerful villages unless they are under the protection of another powerful village. Thus, while forming a new village, an individual or group have to be wary of the headhunters, wild animals, adoption by a powerful village or the productivity of the new area. However, irrespective of whether the origin and destination place have productivity potential, if an individual faced any threats, he is forced to migrate (Waldinger, 2015). In this case, the migrant will not have any choice and can even move to those areas where production resources are limited. Often the poorest and the most vulnerable are unable to migrate because they lack necessary resources (Waldinger, 2015). Apart from the Wui, a Kihamnungan Naga village, Noklak district, Nagaland, India which is known for its excellent iron craftsmanship since pre-colonial times (Tzudir et al., 2019), no other renowned iron smelting industry existed in the past. This makes us agree that iron tools were mostly imported and was scarce in the Naga Hills. Only the rich and powerful can possess such tools. While moving from one place to another, Naga Hills being hilly and a virgin forest, it becomes difficult for a man to cover long distances without a Naga Doa (machete) or a spear. These weapons helped clear the jungle and protect an individual from any enemy or wild animal attack. So those who don’t have the tools, it will be hard for them to migrate even if their socio-economic condition is poor and if they migrate they usually becomes the follower. Likewise, when an individual is forced to migrate without proper tools than one can understand the amount of mental and

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physical stress he might have undergone. In involuntary migrations, as they migrate to the new inhabitants, it may be applicable to assume that, inorder to relief the bitter past attached through migrations, the IDPs evolved culturally and linguistically. However; in doing so, there is a threat of losing one’s identity and ethnicity. REFERENCES Canadian Association for Refugee and Forced Migration Studies (CARFMS) Online Research and Teaching Tools (ORTT). Accessed on 03/09/21 from https:/ /forcedmigrationguide.pdworks.com/w/page/7447981/Part%20One, 2014. Fawcett, James T. Migration Psychology: New Behavioral Models. Accessed on 01/09/2021 from https://www.jstor.org/stable/27503041, 1985. Hutton, J.H. The Angami Nagas. London. Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1921. Koza, Thochu; Khezhakeno village under Phek District, Personal Interview conducted at his residence in Khezhakeno village on 18/06/2018. Lucy and Zeho, Kevekha Kevin. The Legendary Naga Village – A Reader. Dimapur. Heritage Publishing House. 2009. Mackenzie, A. A North- East Frontier of India. New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1979. Sheqi, Akhalu and Sheqi, Zaniu; Group Interview with the Gaonburas of Mishilimi Village under Zunheboto district conducted in the village on 09/02/ 21. Swu, Pukhato; Swu, Pahlavi; Swu, Ahovi; Shohe, K. Ghunakha and Wotsa, Johan; Group Interview with the Gaonburas of Ghokimi Village under Zunheboto district conducted in the village on 10/02/21. Tzudir, Tiatemjen. Jamir, Tiatoshi and Sharma, Sukanya. “Analysis of Iron Ore, Iron Slag and Soils of Termite Nest from Wui Village, Nagaland, India.” Accessed on 16/06/2022 from https://www.academia.edu/38616684/ Analysis of iron ore iron slag and soils of termite nest from Wui village Nagaland India, 2019. Waldinger, Maria. “The Effects of Climate Change on Internal and International Migration: Implications for Developing Countries.” Accessed on 05/09/2021 from https://www.Ise.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/ Working-Paper-192-Waldinger.pdf, 2015. Wedekind, Volker. Fakoush, Haya. Alla-Mensah, Joyceline. Human Migration and TVET Discussion Paper. BILT Building Innovation and Learning in TVET. Accessed on 05/09/2021 from https://unevoc.unesco.org/pub/30002-eng.pdf, 2019.

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Woch, Khinyi; Nsunyu village under Tseminyü district, Personal Interview with the President of Rengma Public Organisation, Kohima at his residence in Kohima on 03/09/21. *Research Scholar, Department of History and Archaeology, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus, Email: [email protected]

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19. Community and Management of Cultural Heritage in Nagaland Aokumla Walling*

Abstract : Cultural heritage is what we inherit and what we retain. It includes the material aspects of culture- sites, buildings, landscapes, monuments and objects as well as the non- material aspects, which are embodied in social practices, community life, values, beliefs, and expressive forms such as language, arts, handicrafts, music and dance etc. Cultural heritage is an integral part in Naga society. Each and every Naga community directly or indirectly associates its identity with it. It provides historical information about people’s experiences and its ways of life. The involvement and contribution of the community is vital in preserving and managing ones cultural heritage. Local museums, living cultural heritage like the practise of Jhum cultivation, the arts, crafts and local practices, heritage villages, festivals etc can be spotlighted not just for conservation and preservation but also in generating economic development through cultural tourism not just locally but globally as well. This article aims to bring out the in cooperation of the community towards a positive management of cultural heritage and suggest some measures for creating awareness and its improvement. Keywords : Cultural Heritage, Heritage Conservation, Cultural Tourism, Jhum Cultivation, Local Museum Introduction Cultural heritage is what we inherit and what we retain. It includes the material aspects of culture- sites, buildings, landscapes, monuments and objects as well as the non- material aspects, which are embodied in social practices, community life, values, beliefs, and expressive forms such as language, arts, handicrafts, music and dance. It is also an entity (both tangible and intangible) that the contemporary society wants to understand and experience (Masser et al 1994: 31). Cultural heritage is an integral part in Naga society. Each and every Naga community directly or indirectly associates its identity with it. It provides historical information about people’s experiences and its ways of life. Cultural

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heritage helps in reconstructing the history of the Nagas who have been left without a written record of its past (written history of the Nagas begins during 19th century with the coming of British). Conservation of heritage (tangible and intangible heritage) helps a community preserve its practices, history and environment and a sense of continuity and identity. Thus, cultural heritage for the Nagas should not be taken or viewed as just about being objects- with its main duty as physical preservation- and also be associated with “whatever fulfils the function of cultural heritage.” (Muller 1998: 399) Awareness towards Cultural Heritage One of the most effective ways to build and maintain respect for community’s heritage is through a selection of activities that raises public awareness and increase appreciation. The success of heritage conservation initiatives depends on the understanding and participation of the local community. Thus, awareness towards cultural heritage should be carried out from the grass root local level. It should be included as a central feature of the community to safeguard one’s heritage by creating basic awareness in the local level through various measures like introducing of heritage education, promotion of local craft and museums etc. Local Museums Museums being one of the principal preservers of heritage can play a vital role in creating awareness towards cultural heritage, tradition and history of any community or nation. Museums can play a vital role in the process of creation of social identity acting as a catalyst between the present and the past from a local level as well as bring about development and safeguard the heritage of the community. Establishment of local museums should be encouraged where its role should not only be just a house that stores heritage but should widen its outlook as an instrument for local development and creating awareness towards the preservation of one’s cultural heritage (Walling 2013). The local museums should promote the local touristic potential and the external visibility of the local area. It can also encourage the local products; promote local values through heritage education of tourists and visitors. In this way it creates a sense of consciousness, promoting tourism of appreciation and commitment on the local basis. Hence for example, some local activities specific to the region like hunting, fishing, cultivation, weaving, costumes, folk arts, pot making etc, can be presented in the museum where locals who have the expertise can be utilized. Communityrun Local Museums in Nagaland Local museums in Nagaland are located in different districts and villages. They are privately run either by individuals, family, student’s unions or by the village itself. The general community (and even the local government) is less aware of the existence of such local museums in the state. The role of museum as a means of educating the masses visually, without a syllabus is hardly being

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recognized and its importance as a storehouse of our culture and heritage is hardly being realized in the state. The examples I draw in are from three local museums in Nagaland (there are more local museums) which are located at Mokokchung district of Nagaland. The museum at Chuchuyimlang Village (under Mokokchug district), though not much of items in the display, the concept and the idea of the museum is enlightening. This museum is run by a club of the village. The collections vary, from the local handmade potteries and baskets to a Neolithic celt collected near by the village. Some Second World War materials like fragment parts of battle tank and equipments, unidentified iron fragments etc as well as an anklet gifted by an Ahom Raja during the Ahom rule in Assam (medieval period) are some eye catching displays. Mopungchuket village (under Mokokchung district.) is one of the tourist villages of the district. This village is very rich in preserving the village’s culture and heritage as well as of the Ao’s. The museum at Mopungchuket village, which is run by the students union of the village, has a good number of collections. The displays includes Ahom daos, costumes of different clans in the village, some second world war materials, traditional body ornaments of the Aos, basketry works, paintings (local works as well as paintings from Raja Ram Mohan Roy Foundation, Kolkata), wood carvings, legends stones, modern art, photographs etc. Mokokchung museum is in the heart of Mokokchung town, the only museum within the district jurisdiction. Call as Rentikala Museum or Mokokchung Museum, this museum started out as a personal collection by late Mrs. Rentikala. It is said that late Mrs. Rentikala had a personal desire for collecting and preserving cultural and ancient materials. She set up a room at her residence displaying her collection for family and friends. In 1986 her collections were open for the general public display. The museum today functions in the same room at her residence where it was set up in the beginning and is managed by the family itself. The collections at the museum ranges from the customs of the different tribes of the Nagas, body ornaments, different indigenous smoking pipes, basket works, ancient coins, daos and spears, animal bones etc. A traditional hut, constructed in Ao traditional way also stands outside her residence, where one gets a glimpse of such traditional houses, a practice which is slowly fading away. Such local museums in Nagaland remain under represented in the state museum. There is no government support for such museums. Since they are mostly private run and funded by families or local student’s unions, clubs in the villages or towns etc., they lack funds in managing it and have to rely largely on their own energy and commitment to survive and grow. Under resourced and without any specific trained staffs, it needs basic training and awareness towards the

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management and display of the museums. The displays in the museums should be upgraded time to time, making it appealing for the masses. Local museums should be built up carefully instead of leading them grow in a haphazard way. Just by collecting and displaying some local materials cannot satisfy a museum. Most of the museums are mainly shut down for lack of visitors and staffs to maintain and upgrade it. Guidance and proper training is one of the most important needs of local museums in Nagaland. State museums can and should help the local museums with technical advice, and guidance, loan or gifts of reserved specimens or even replicas and photographs. National agencies should also be involved in initiating the growth of such local museums. Cultural Economic Development and Community Cultural tourism in Nagaland can contribute immensely towards a community’s economic growth. Cultural tourism is the travel undertaken to see, enjoy and experience cultures and their products. It is leisure and entertainment oriented, educative or informative and also an economic generator. Pilgrimage tourism, festivals and local crafts and traditions comes under cultural tourism. It is a growing field and according to experts, by 2020 cultural tourism will represent one- fifth of the global tourism market with growing focus on destinations in developing countries, which have emerging economies (Jenee 2004:34). The positive aspect of cultural tourism includes economic development. It can generate exchange values and minimize economic marginalization of certain areas, by utilizing their potential for cultural tourism. Various villages reflect the local art and cultural traditions as well as the history of the Nagas. These villages are examples of cultural heritage villages which can be positively utilized for cultural tourism in the state. Taking the example of the Mokokchung district of Nagaland, Ao villages like Longkhum and Ungma, which are not only some of the biggest villages but are also known as Ao ancestral villages, popularly known for preservation of cultural heritage like oral narratives, ancient craft and art remains and preservation and practise of traditional ways of life, Mopungchuket village one of the heritage villages in the district known for its preservation, conservation and protection of culture (both tangible and intangible) and also for its scenic views and village like Molungkimong, where the first Baptist Mission was established, can play an important role in the promotion of cultural tourism. As in the case of Kohima district, Angami villages like Khonoma, which is not just a historical village but also a heritage village in itself, Tophema village where there is development of traditional huts and promotion of local art and culture, Rüsoma and Nerhema villages with its rich megalithic remains are some examples. In the Lotha region beside villages like Phiro, where there are megalithic remains with huge banyan trees associated with headhunting, there are abandoned ancestral sites like Tiyi Lonchum, where the ancient remains still stand still. Such type of villages/sites

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should be identified, encouraging the locals to preserve and develop it as cultural villages, where tourism can play an important role for economic sustainability of the community. Another aspect for cultural tourism in Nagaland is the living culture of Jhum cultivation practiced by the Nagas. Jhum cultivation is one of the earliest forms of cultivation where there is community participation. Almost all the Naga tribes have a festival associated with it. The way the Nagas clear the forest, sow and attain the harvest can be fascinating not only for researchers but for the tourist as well. A full grown jhum field is breathtaking and pleasing to the eyes. If the process of jhum cultivation is converted into cultural tourism, involving the tourist partake during its various seasons, it can also be a good source for economic development in the rural areas. Festivals of the various tribes of the Nagas which are celebrated during different seasons throughout the year can be a great opportunity for cultural tourism. Also, many a times, the Hornbill Festival is taken as ‘The Festival’ of the Nagas, which is celebrated every year by the government of Nagaland in the month of December. However, local festivals celebrated by different tribes at different districts and villages like the Sekrenyi festival celebrated by the Angami tribe, which is a 10days festival of purification and sanctification, the Aoleang festival by the Konyak tribe, the Moatsü festival of harvest by the Ao tribe and such other festivals by different Naga tribe tribes are unique in its own way which are very eye catching and mesmerising where tourist can experience with the locals the local ways of life like the local cuisine, handicraft, songs, dances and customs of the community. Apart from all these, we need to develop basic infrastructure such as constructing of proper rest houses with proper sanitation and better road connectivity. Visitors centres should be set up at the headquarters and cultural heritage should be documented. This will boost the hospitality industry and in turn attract a diverse range of tourist. Above all; the promises to the potential tourist should be delivered through specially trained guides and tour operators. Cultural tourism also leads to better understanding of our culture, provides enjoyment and the income generated from it can be used for preserving and managing culture. On a broader level, it helps to create awareness and show cast the rich cultural heritage to the outside world. All these require efforts of people from different walks of the society such as local people, tourist, civic authorities and academicians to develop viable local models of sustainable cultural tourism. The aim of cultural tourism should therefore be to bring out sustainable development by incorporating heritage in a mass programme, where experts are also involved in heritage tourism activities from initiation to conception. Some Issues on Community and Cultural Heritage Community access to movable heritage is important because it helps people to understand and maintain cultural traditions and practices. It also encourages

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the conservation of significant movable items. Interpret movable heritage and place and educate people to understand uses, functions, importance, community history and cultural practices. Nevertheless, the cultural heritage significance of a place or element may be much localized. Even within Naga society there are variations in the emotional importance attributed to specific sites or elements. Effective protection of cultural heritage can be achieved only through wide community participation in recovery and reconstruction planning. Educating the community is an effective way to protect and safeguard movable heritage in the long term. Private owners and community custodians should be informed and given the knowledge about the movable heritage and its importance. Active agents in the Naga community like the churches, tribal organizations and other guardians of cultural resources should get involved in the preservation of cultural heritage. Local institutions like schools, student bodies or even the village councils can be encouraged for setting up museums where there are no museums as such to retain and preserve one’s cultural heritage. Where museums are, such institutions should be encouraged to get involved in the maintenance and display. The members of the village council can be put in as members under the control of the chairman or the school teachers under the headmaster and can be put for the stewardship of the museum. Awareness programs regarding safeguarding of cultural heritage from outside and inside threats should be conducted timely through the local museums under the guidance and aegis of the state museum or other heritage conservation agents. Heritage education (Dyer 1986) needs special focus for creating awareness towards ones cultural Heritage. Therefore; it becomes equally important for students to know about the heritage resources of their own community. Efforts should be made to include the local heritage in curriculum of schools, colleges and universities. Schools and colleges should be encouraged to set up Heritage Clubs and conduct Cultural awareness programmes like heritage tours, observing the World Heritage day etc. Books depicting the history of the Nagas, its oral traditions and important historical events with brief explanation of the various cultures should be published in simple language for understanding and creating interest and awareness among the children in schools. All these and more can be effective means of cultural education. Nagas are well known for their handicraft works like beads, wood and basket artefacts, traditional food making etc. These need more publicity to showcase the wealth and diversity of the heritage of the Nagas. For this the government and the non- governmental organization should provide sufficient incentives and guidance. The community should be made aware of societies like The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) a non-profit organization set up in 1984 with a mandate to protect and conserve India's vast natural, built and cultural heritage. Since INTACH institutionalise the conservation of the unprotected cultural heritage all over India, the local

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communities through the local Chapters of INTACH, can acquire guidance and training from such organizations which will not only enhance their knowledge of management of cultural heritage but also place the community’s cultural heritage in a global perspective. Also, traditional products exhibition cum sale should be organized in the core heritage zone and centres which will benefit both tourists and locals. The revenues generated from it can be utilized for the heritage development and for the encouragement of local craftsmen as a platform to show cast their works. Proper training on manufacturing and marketing community’s cultural heritage should be provided and the locals should be encouraged to undergo trainings imbibing better technological and marketing skills. A threat rampant in Naga society is the illegal trade of antiquities and unauthorized export of antiquities. These are portable, easily sold, relocated or thrown away during change of ownership, fashion and use. It is also vulnerable to loss, damage, theft and dispersal, often before its heritage significance is appreciated. There are immense collections of Naga artefacts in different museums in UK, Europe, USA and elsewhere, where in Britain alone there are known to be well over 12,000 Naga artefacts (Macfarlane, A and Turinn, M 2008: 307). Who were and are the collectors, how did they collect and why. The masses are ignorant and unaware, and the government taking less initiatives towards the repatriation and protection of it. Such situation can also be controlled and put into benefit by creating awareness through different agents in the community. Neville Agnew in the book Economics and Heritage Conservation (Mason1999:11) remarked that the economic benefit of cultural heritage evaporates if the social, aesthetic, and other values of cultural heritage are not respected and are lost, one should take on how cultural heritage and development can be integrated in a sustainable manner. It is important to integrate cultural heritage and development which is expected to bring a variety of benefits and advantages to the region. By bringing development to culture it can also protect the cultural heritage which outsiders are eyeing the ethnographic material from the region. Culture and development can be strongly integrated in the rural areas through agents such as local museums. However; no attempts have been made so far in Nagaland by any agents to systematically study the integration of both or even on the preservation and safeguarding of cultural heritage at local level which are the storehouse of Naga heritage- Naga History. Conclusion The sensitive integration of cultural heritage within development strategies and initiatives aimed at simultaneously addressing interconnected economic, environmental; social and community objectives could be a good way to provide diverse and wise use of a community’s heritage. At the same time, encouraging

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the masses in realization of its significant multi-functional potential is essential. Secondly, educating the young minds and the masses towards appreciating the cultural heritage can play an important role in the conservation and promotion of cultural Heritage. Finally; attention towards the development and management of a community’s cultural heritage should be not so much with the question of if, but rather on asking the question of how awareness towards cultural heritage should be created in the community and how development can be successfully integrated in a sustainable manner. REFERENCES Dyer, M. Heritage Education Handbook, d, Strawberry Hill: Heritage Education Trust: Middlesex, 1986. Jenee P. “Viability of cultural Tourism in the Present Scenario”, Journal of the Centre for Heritage Studies, vol. 1, 2004, pp. 34-38. Loulanski, T. “Cultural Heritage in Socio-Economic Development: Local and Global”, Perspectives in Environments Journal Vol. 34(2), 2006, pp. 51-69. Mark Turinn. “The Digitization of Naga Collections in the West and the Return of Culture” Changing Local cultures in Northeast of India Ed. by Michael Oppiz, Thomas Kaiser, Alban von Stockhausen and Marion Wettstein, Snoeck Publishers, 2008, pp. 367 -453. Masser, I, D Sviden and M Wegener. “What New Heritage for which New Europe, in Building A New Heritage”: Tourism, Culture and Identity in the New Europe. London: Routledge, 1994. Masson, Randel. Economics and Heritage Conservation, ed, Getty conservation Institute: J. Paul Getty Trust: Los Angeles, 1999 Muller, Markus. “Cultural Heritage Protection: Legitimacy, Property, and Functionalism”, International Journal of Cultural Property 7 (2), 1998, pp. 395-409. Patrick Hunt. “International Law and the Ethics of Antiquities Trafficking”, Stanford Journal of International Relations, 2010, pp. 80-81. Tolina Loulanski. “Cultural Heritage in Socio- Economic Development: Local Perspectives” Environment: A journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Vol. 34(2), 2006, pp. 51-69. Walling, A. “Local Museums in Nagaland”. Heritage and Us, Quarterly eJournal, vol. 2, 2013, pp. 56-63. *Assistant Professor in the Department of History and Archaeology, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus. . E-mail : [email protected]

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20. Teachers during Pandemic Situation in Nagaland: Experiences and Challenges Sunepinla Aier*

Abstract : When the pandemic occurred in 2020, every sector contributing to the progress of the country, including the educational sector, came to a halt. As such, educational institutions resorted to remote teaching-learning whereby the process of teaching and learning shifted from the classrooms to the confines of homes. The ‘online classes’ came as a savior for many as they allowed students and teachers to engage themselves in active communication. For this study, the investigator administered open-ended questionnaires to a purposively selected sample of 26 teachers both males and females teaching at primary, middle, secondary, higher secondary, and college levels. This study explored the experiences and challenges faced by the teachers in Nagaland. Considering the unplanned and sudden transition in the mode of teaching, it came as no surprise that there were many ups and downs faced by the teachers as well as the students. One significant finding was that poor network connectivity issue was the major barrier to conducting the online classes smoothly. In general, the overall journey was an eye-opener and a challenging experience whereby both teachers and students explored the variety of online platforms that can be used for educational purposes which otherwise would not have been learned about had it not been for the transition in the mode of teaching-learning. Keywords : Teachers, Pandemic Situation, Remote Teaching-Learning, Online Platforms, Face to Face Teaching. Introduction Teachers are one of the most significant elements contributing to the progress of a country. As such the quality of teachers influences the quality of education to a great extent. Education is never static. It progresses, develops, and changes intending to keep up with the needs/demands of time. Likewise, any individual who takes up the profession of teaching is expected to adapt to the changes and advance their knowledge accordingly. 2020 was a difficult year for people from every walk of life. With the unexpected COVID-19 pandemic throughout the

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world, every single sector contributing to the progress of the country came to a halt incurring losses and damages. This does not go without saying that the educational sector too had its fair share of struggles and losses. Educational institutions were shut down overnight. The whole teaching-learning process shifted from classrooms to the confines of homes. The stakeholders of education were faced with a situation they were not prepared for. Eventually, however; people were able to cope and learn from different resources to adapt to the sudden changes demanded by the situation (considering the accessibility and affordability). Faced with unusual school closures, educational institutions have designed remote learning programs that allow students and instructors to engage in active communication and collaboration in real-time and at the same time allow students to learn through a variety of instructional videos, online discussions, and employ a variety of technologies (print materials, radio, television, the Internet, and/or mobile) (Wilichowski & Cobo). It is no surprise that many teachers are finding it difficult to acclimate to this new reality, given these new delivery mechanisms (Wilichowski & Cobo). When the worldwide pandemic hit in 2020, teachers in Nagaland, just like many others, were faced with a situation they were not prepared for. Online class was a solution and savior for many, but there were numerous cases where teachers had to consider the plight of the less privileged students. Nagaland is a state which has access to technology but has various shortcomings such as bad network coverage, lack of access to smartphones (online class-friendly phones) because of the financial situation of the parents, lack of proper knowledge of technology, etc. Key Terms Used * Teachers – According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 10th edition, a teacher is ‘a person whose job is teaching, especially in a school.’ Cambridge Dictionary also defines a teacher as, ‘Someone whose job is to teach in a school or college.’ Concerning this study, the mentioned teachers refer to those teaching in Nagaland. Teachers teaching at primary, middle, secondary, higher secondary, and college levels of both rural and urban areas shared their experiences which contributed to the successful completion of this study. * Pandemic Situation – On the declaration of the Corona Virus Disease-19 (COVID-19) as a world pandemic by the World Health Organisation on 11 March 2020, an order was issued by the Government of Nagaland to close down all educational institutions in Nagaland starting from March 17th 2020. Respectively, the ‘Pandemic situation’ in this study refers to the period when a lockdown order was issued, and all educational institutions had to be shut down. * Remote Teaching-Learning – The term ‘Remote’ teaching-learning refers to when teachers and students are separated by distance and time with technologies. Regarding this study, remote teaching-learning refers to the shift from regular

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classroom teaching-learning to an online mode of teaching-learning in Nagaland during the COVID-19 pandemic. * Online Platforms – A digital service that supports interactions between two or more users that connect through the service over the Internet is referred to as an online platform (OECD 20). With regard to this study, the online platforms which served as the mediators for the teacher and the students include WhatsApp, Telegram, Google Classroom, Zoom, Google Meet, Teachmint, MyClass Attendance, and Xodo, etc. * Face-to-face Teaching – Face-to-face teaching is an instructional method in which a teacher or an instructor delivers or teaches the content materials to the students or the learners in person. This allows both parties to engage and interact in real-time. It is the most common and traditional method of teaching. Objectives The following are the objectives of this paper: –To explore the experiences of the teachers during the pandemic situation in Nagaland. –To explore and identify the challenges faced by teachers during the pandemic situation in Nagaland. Methodology Used The investigator self-developed an open-ended questionnaire. Samples were purposively selected. The number of samples was 26 teachers irrespective of gender, experience, administration, location, and levels of education taught. The questionnaire was administered through online platforms like Google Forms and WhatsApp. Responses were submitted through the same. Findings of the Study Dealing with the Transition of Teaching from Face to Face/Classroom to Remote Teaching Upon sharing their experiences on how they dealt with the transition in teaching mode when the pandemic hit the world, many teachers remarked that it was rather difficult and challenging to adapt to the new mode of teaching, i.e., remote teaching. Most of the teachers resorted to teaching through online platforms whereby all the necessary academic activities like teaching, assignments, tests, examinations, extracurricular programs, etc., were held online and there were some cases where teachers, instead of practicing the online teaching, distributed hardcopy materials to students (especially in the rural areas) because of reasons like inaccessibility to electronic gadgets and internet. Many teachers opined that they were not able to deliver the instructions to the students as successful as intended. As one teacher remarked, “Although many students adapted to it slowly, some students found ways to take advantage of the situation. Their

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attendance via online platforms was highly questionable.” Means and Techniques Used by the Teachers to Reach Out to Students to Deliver Instructions Upon such a shift in the teaching-learning process, the policymakers of education came up with a ton of new policies and regulations for educational boards, educational institutions, teachers, students, and parents to follow. Like many other professionals who resorted to online platforms to complete the tasks demanded by their professions, teachers too resorted to online platforms such as WhatsApp, Google Meet, Zoom, MyClass Attendance, Xodo, TeachMint, Telegram, Google Classroom, etc. to deliver their instructions and connect with their students. The teachers shared their experiences on how they navigated the mentioned platforms and the techniques they adopted for the delivery of instructions. The majority of the teachers utilised several online platforms such as WhatsApp, Telegram, and Google Classroom whereby, they created groups and classrooms of each class for smooth communication with the students such as for providing information, study materials, etc. For live online classes, Zoom, Google meets, and Teachmint were used. There were also instances where certain teachers used mobile apps like ‘MyClass Attendance’ for keeping a record of the students’ attendance and the ‘Xodo’ app for checking answer scripts. Live online classes were held in place of regular face-to-face classes. Pictures, audio and video files, PowerPoint slides, pdf files, etc. were shared by teachers through the online platforms to augment their explanations. Some teachers even went to the extent of giving personal calls to the students to conduct oral tests as well as to check on their well-being. Teachers’ Appraisal of Students’ Participation in the Remote TeachingLearning Process The students, according to the teachers, found it rather challenging and confusing at the beginning since everything was new to them which increased miscommunication between the teachers and the students. However; they gradually managed to adapt to the system. The students learned to do selfstudy, gradually managed to maneuver the different educational e-platforms and equip themselves with useful technological knowledge, etc. Almost all of the teachers expressed concerns about poor internet connectivity. Teachers, especially of primary level and rural areas shared their experiences of struggle because of the lack of accessibility of their students to smartphones. All these problems contributed to the lack of proper responses of the students towards the online teaching-learning process, among many. Despite the available alternative means of learning, given the pandemic situation, the students took advantage of the ‘learn from home’ situation by resorting to such behaviors as

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not attending the class after submitting their attendance. One such example would be, teachers would schedule online classes on platforms like Google Meet and Zoom whereby students joined the scheduled online class but instead of attentively listening to the teachers’ explanations and lectures, they got busy with other personal work, entertainment (behind the camera), etc. Another example of instances cited by the teachers was that many students would intentionally miss the class and later on give the ‘Poor network connectivity’ excuse. It comes as no surprise that there were numerous ups and downs. However; on a positive note, despite the paradigm shift in the mode of teaching-learning, students learned how to navigate the online educational platforms, conduct selfstudy, and demonstrate efforts to adapt to the changes. As one teacher remarked, “Not an overwhelming response, yet not very disappointing considering the paradigm shift in learning.” Advantages and Disadvantages of Remote Teaching-Learning from Teachers’ Experiences Remote teaching-learning supports students and teachers to remain connected and engaged with the content though physically not present in a traditional classroom environment. For that to function smoothly, teachers need to be vigilant and make sure students stay focused and engaged. Although remote teaching-learning may not be the best option for everyone, it is important to grasp its benefits and limitations. Advantages As shared by the teachers from their experiences, some of the advantages are as follows: * It helps schools to reach out to a larger network of students who are not limited by geography. * It allows students to attend classes from any location, one of them being, learning from the confines of home. * Implementation of more teaching aids such as audios, videos, PowerPoint slides, typed materials, etc. to attract the attention of the students. * It allowed for versatility in the delivery of instruction as it paved the way to share learning materials conveniently with all the students with the click of a button. * Significantly cost-effective and time-efficient. In addition to having the means to take virtual classes and distribution of learning materials with the click of a button, the teachers and students could save transportation money and put an ease on the financial burden. * Since most of the teachers practiced the onethod of recording their live online

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classes, students have the opportunity of re-watching those recorded videos for future reference. * Remote teaching-learning allowed the teachers to teach and deal with the students personally as well as supplement the teaching with sufficient supporting study materials. * Online teaching from home also made work easier for teachers allowing them enough time for better lesson preparation. * Learning from the comforts of the home allowed both the teachers and the students, especially for Science subjects, to utilise their creativity by experimenting with things available at home in the absence of a laboratory. * The stakeholders of education learned and experienced the ways and means of incorporating technology in education which opened the eyes of many. * Students also learned to appreciate face-to-face classroom teaching-learning experiences. Disadvantages The following are some of the disadvantages of remote teaching-learning according to experiences shared by the teachers: * The most significant drawback experienced by the teachers and students (both rural and urban) included poor network connectivity which alone could be the biggest barrier to the online teaching-learning process. * The online teaching-learning process is not a ‘one-size-fits-all’ educational model. Many students, particularly those in primary school and those from low-income families, lacked access to smartphones. Moreover, not every student is capable of doing self-study at home because of unsuitable home environments, some students learn better through direct interactions with the teacher, while some take studies lightly showing inconsistent efforts. As a result, teachers had a difficult time coping with those situations. * Another drawback was that teachers had to be in touch with their phones/ computers at all times, which led to stress, depression, not forgetting neglect of personal work. * Many teachers had a basic understanding of technology. * Students’ informality with the teachers and administration increased rapidly since WhatsApp, a popular messenger app, was used for educational purposes. * Students’ queries irrelevant to subject matter became rampant on WhatsApp regardless of time, giving little personal space to the teacher. * It also became difficult for the teachers to keep track of the students’ academic progress. * Many teachers and students struggled with time management juggling

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academic activities and domestic obligations. Teachers’ Opinions on Better Facilities In a diverse society and rapidly changing world, the interaction among the instructor, learner, and the contents need high dispositions and skills with collaborative efforts and facilities. To communicate with learners about academic content and support learners’ engagement, there is a need for proper facilities and delivery strategies to enhance the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. While sharing their experiences, teachers voiced their concerns on how better facilities could have enhanced the remote teaching-learning process. Poor network/internet connectivity was the most common issue faced by the teachers as well as their students. As such availability of a better internet facility was one of the most common wishes of the teachers as it would have facilitated a better learning outcome. As one teacher expressed, “Better network at all times. This is the only factor where we can carry out all possible activities and engage online”. Access to smartphones by all students and laptops by all teachers, microphones, more data services, among many others were some of the facilities sought for. Many teachers conducted online classes from their educational institutions, for which they needed Wi-Fi connection in the institutions. According to some of the teachers, (i) “... there is always the world of possibilities. I feel I’m still much limited in my knowledge and access to the virtual world and that I need to keep up with the pace to meet the students’ requirements in this teaching-learning experience. Right now, I can only point towards the network glitches that kept interrupting the flow because of poor connectivity.” (ii) “Better facilities definitely will help in better delivery of instructions. However, remote teaching is not just to do with better facilities as the students’ involvement has higher weightage in the overall success rate.” (iii) “Teaching-learning process would have been carried out constructively had there been better facilities as we are faced with many technical problems – Technical support system, support from administration and people that provide and support the environment for learning.” While many teachers advocated for greater facilities, others stressed the importance of training and equipping both teachers and students to understand and effectively use online teaching-learning platforms. Few expressed that in addition to better facilities, the students need to fulfill their part by putting in more effort and doing more self-studies for effective learning outcomes. Educational Implications The COVID-19 pandemic has allowed educational institutions in Nagaland to introduce and integrate virtual modes of learning into the education system at all levels of education.

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Create an Information and Technology department in every educational institution to coordinate the teaching-learning and curricular activities that are to be conducted virtually. Teachers, students, and parents have learned massively about online educational platforms. However, it is only right to say that they still have a long way to go to catch up with the rest of the world. Give proper hands-on technological training to student-teachers as well as teachers who are already in service. Conclusion To mitigate the effects of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, an active education policy response was required, which included taking advantage of the worldwide pandemic to improve and accelerate education systems. We have the chance to rebuild it now more successfully, and we must explore how to assist teachers the best in not only coping with the crisis but also in developing the skills they will need to thrive in the aftermath. Earlier; it was assumed and believed that technology would revolutionise the field of education. However; it can be seen that not all teachers are excited to adopt and adapt technology to their teaching. Some teachers are more receptive to embracing digital solutions, while others are more resistive (Wilichowski & Cobo). Despite the tragic effects of the epidemic, this global calamity has also presented an extraordinary chance for learning. People are learning about educational systems, policymakers, instructors, students, and families’ adaptation and resilience (Baron, M. et. al.). This catastrophe has shown that high-quality education necessitates more than just technology (infrastructure and connectivity), software (platforms), and content. Teachers had to devote a great deal of time and effort to building strong relationships with their students and delivering lesson content remotely, all while evaluating students’ progress and dealing with the pandemic’s stress (Baron, M. et. al.). The teaching methods practiced by the teachers and their interactions with the students have changed as a result of the pandemic. As expressed by some of the teachers, the whole experience was and is ‘exhilarating’,‘mixed feeling’, ‘challenging’, ‘Supercalifragilis-ticexpialiodocious’, ‘Good but there is but in it’. In addition to having better accessibility and availability of technology for every student and teacher, moving forward, we can only work towards and hope to acquire advanced knowledge on how best to incorporate technology in the teaching-learning process be it synchronous or asynchronous learning. REFERENCES Barron, M. et.al. “The changing role of teachers and technologies amidst the COVID 19 pandemic: key findings from a cross-country study.” World Bank Blogs. 18 Feb. 2021, https://blogs.worldbank.org/education/changing-role-

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teachers-and-technologies-amidst-covid-19-pandemic-key-findings-cross. Cobo, C, et.al. “Remote Learning During Covid-19 Pandemic_ How Countries Have Faced The Challenge Of Implementing Multichannel Education Delivery Strategies.” World Bank Blogs. 14 Jan. 2021, https://blogs.worldbank.org/ education/remote-learning-during-covid-19-pandemic-how-countries-havefaced-challenge-implementing. “Covid-19 Pandemic in Nagaland.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation.6 Mar. 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/covid-19_pandemic_in_nagaland. “Face-to-Face-Learning.” Top Hat, Tophatmonocle Corp.https://tophat.com/ glossary/f/face-to-face-learning/#:~:text=Face%2Dto%2Dface% 20learning%20is,traditional%20type%20 of%20learning%20 instruction. Accessed 19 June 2022. Griffith, M. “The Impact of the COVID-19 Recession on Teaching Positions.” Learning Policy Institute. 30 Apr. 2020, https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/ blog/ impact-covid-19-recession-teaching-positions. OECD. “An introduction to Online Platforms and Their Role in the Digital Transformation.” OECD Publishing. 2019, https://doi.org/ 10.1787/53e5f593en. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford University Press ELT, 10th edition, 2020. Playstore, https://play.google.com/store/apps/ details?id=com.oup.elt.oald10_gp. Reilly, K. “This Is What It’s Like to Be a Teacher During the Coronavirus Pandemic.” Time. 26 Aug. 2020, https://time.com/5883384/teacherscoronavirus/. “Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation. 12 June 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_ respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2#:~:text=The%20World% 20Health%20 Organisation%2 0declared,on%2011%20March%202020. “Teacher.” Cambridge Dictionary. N.d. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ dictionary/english/teacher. Wilichowski, Tracy, and Cristobal Cobo. 2021. “Transforming How Teachers Use Technology.” World Bank Blog. 02 June, 2021, https://blogs.worldbank.org/ education/transforming-how-teachers-use-technology.

*Research scholar, Department of Education, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus. Emil : [email protected]

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21. A Group of Poems Subhas Chandra Saha*

Tranquillity Do you understand what is perfect peace and retreat into tranquility where even a pebble thrown in the water can't create a noise nor create a wave? That's how happiness grows and flows into flowering when only the sun is a mate and the earth remains its only friend.

Words Let words come to me, let a sentence wave a flag. Let me see words shine, brighten the sky, colour the waters of the seas. All words flutter the flag of our living, dying, hopes, and cries.

*Former Vice-Chancellor, Assam University Silchar, Assam Emal : [email protected]

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22. Voyage of Wonder Milind Kashyap*

Walking through a land of bones, And the living, terrible, alien crones, Cities old, And of mystic gold, All time-swept. To cryptic Gods --their souls were sold, Through a portal down a collapsed temple to forgotten deities, I traveled ample. Lush swamp lands, leaves orange and blue, Trees strange unlike what I ever knew, And animals were savage, bizarre and alien, Many legs and eyes, uncanny behavior, I hid in caves to escape their fangs, I swam strange waters, climbed rocky hangs, Reach I did to a tribal congregation, Of alien men and women in primitive stations, They had faces like eagles, Wings jutting out, They danced around a flame, Sacrificed dwarves with big snouts, Aliens they were, in the truest fashion, Tools of stones, and quivering black meats for ration, They smelled in the air a foreign scent, Much better than the animals outside their tents,

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Then screeched syllables far from understood. They relinquished knives and spears of wood. I turned around, ran aplenty. Ran and ran till my breath was scanty. Until a portal swallowed me whole. And I reached the land of plenty coal. It was a world with 49 moons, Dark hazy skies and lonely dunes. The winds that blew the sands along, And revealed ancient structures bygone. Halt I did, for I saw machines. Old, primeval, looking serene. They mined the coal and diamonds and ore, Waiting forever, feeding their store. None of their biological masters in sight, For ages ago they had taken flight. Left servitors to mine the rocks, Never to return to access the stocks. Peaceful they were, these circuits of old, So I left the planet to travel farther than told. Now it was a land of feuding nations, Human like, but still alien in fashion. Long wide heads and strong wide arms, Some with wings, flying in swarms, Some had lower bodies like horses, Some fish like, glowing like torches, By one of the armies I was arrested, Allegedly a spy from their to-be-bested

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Journal of Literature, Culture & Media Studies, Vol. XV, Issue 28 Gagged and tied, carried in a cage, I was presented to their honored Queen-Sage. Though far away from their kingdom and hold, They took me to a cave that they patrolled. The 'Queen' was a massive mass of flesh, With bones jutting out, tentacles like mesh, Stuck to a wall at the end of the cave, Pulsating veins and eyes to deprave. It said it knew the secrets beyond -what the eyes could see and how the mind would respond. "You aren't the first, won't be the last To be stuck in this travel, traveling fast," "Why am I stuck on this voyage peculiar?" I asked the Flesh this query familiar. "Because you inquire the deep and the lost, Because your mind is prepared for the cost, Of knowledge unbound, of beyond and beneath, Because you ask what is below the sheath, That everyone sees and walks right over, But such are some minds that stick and hover. Such are the people that deserve such boons, Be they from Earth or from faraway moons." With that bit of knowledge that the queen put forth, She produced a portal that led me due north, Or maybe south or perhaps westward, For now this world was too massively absurdFor directions as simple as the four I have used. Forever now have my realities fused.

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Then this portal that I travelled through, Which the queen created and had me pursue, It brought me back to my home and my farm, The safety of walls, a world of no harm. But it was small, a speck of dirt, This round marble that we called Earth, For eons and lightyears beyond, Stretched the darkness of space unfound. So I found myself gazing up at the stars, Wondering which ones my feet had scarred. One was blue, one green and one red. Thousands that I wished I was on instead. But time had come to retire to bed. And dream of a travel that shall never end. If possible, that is, that I go once more, On this Voyage Of Wonder where I forever explore.

* MBBS, Intern, Saveetha Medical College, Chennai, Tamilnadu.

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23. Book Renew ofBasavaraj Naikar. Light of Humanity and Other Plays Authors Press, New Delhi. 2022. pp. 258. Rs.395 Indian drama is rooted in the religious life of the masses. Hence, the famous 'Ramlila' was enacted down the ages during Dussehra wherein the story of Lord Ram continued to enchant and inspire mankind. Even Krishnalila has drawn the masses to the charming life of Lord Krishna on the stage. The 'Lokdharmita' has been addressed in these epic plays along with 'natyadharmita' depending on the sources of these plays. Blending of both these elements has marked the script and theatrical representation of the performance aspects of the plays . If the glorification of the hero marks the natyadharmita, the concern for the masses emphasizes the tonal set up where the humanitarian dimension renders the spiritual touch. Dr. Basavaraj Naikar's Light of Humanity and Other Plays, a collection of three plays, embarks on a note of humanitarian concerns. It truly dispels the dark note of hierarchy and brings the dawn of democracy. The title of the book “Light of Humanity” establishes the theme of empowerment of the marginalized and the oppressed along with the message of empathetic leadership to attain this massive goal. The title play is based on the life of Basaveswara, the great spiritual leader of the 12th century Karnataka who is the epitome of greatness. He is depicted as a child prodigy who rises to the position of minister in Mangalavedhe under the rule of King Bijjala. The play captures the essence of humanitarian approach when Basaveswara establishes the Mystic Academy and propounds the principles of Virsaivism. His reformist philosophy converts the masses to saranas by rendering 'lingdiksha'to them. The revolutionary and bold work of Basaveswara is an attempt to provide spiritual upliftment of the downtrodden and rings the bell of equality at all levels- caste, class and gender. The play follows the conventional chronological pattern to trace the journey of Basaveswara's life. It is a play with 5 Acts and several scenes in each Act. Stage directions are provided in parenthesis. There is a lucidity in the language which provides vibrancy in the dialogues. Several scenes are robust and provide admirable lines which touch the heart. Let me cite from one scene . Basava: My dear Haralyya and Madhuvarasa, I have no objection at all to this marriage according to our sarana philosophy. Now that both families have embraced sarana -hood, there is no question of the earlier caste identities or superiority complex or inferiority complex. I permit you and bless the young bride and bridegroom wholeheartedly. You may go ahead with the programme. Allamaprabhu: Dear Basava, I also agree with the proposal in principle. It is

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indeed a revolutionary decision in the present context of die-hard orthodoxy. But it may create problems for both the families in future. My intuition tells me like this. The two families will have to be ready to face the consequences in future. The extract is a glimpse of the social life of 12th century India. Indeed, it is impossible to imagine a leader who transforms society way back in time when even in the 21st century India it is difficult to have an egalitarian society with humanitarian vision. The play Rayanna: the Tiger of Sangavalli is a true tribute to the martyr Rayanna in the time period around 1828. When India is celebrating 75th Independence day , it is remarkable to know about Rayanna who carried the torch of revolt during British rule even before the classic 1857 rebellion in India. It is praiseworthy that Dr. Basvaraj Naikar has brought to limelight a hero who is unknown to the majority in India. The theme of Rayanna: the Tiger of Sangavalli is patriotic and full of nationalism. This play can be considered a heroic tragedy. The pattern is the same as the earlier play with the difference that there are only 3 Acts and each Act has several scenes. Stage instructions are provided in brackets. It is a historical play on the theme of martyrdom and once again displays the vision of united efforts of the common peoplel under a courageous leader Rayanna who breaks the barriers of caste and religion to fight to drive out the British from his Kittur region. The lines depicting a bold decision are as follows: Rayanna: See, Chennabasu, you and I have suggestion to make. Chennabasu: What is that? Rayanna: As all of us have gathered here for a common cause, let us stop cooking our meal separately according to our caste conventions, but cook a common meal thereby forgetting our communal separateness. Chennabasu: Would you mind explaning further? Rayanna: See , Chennabasu, You and I hail from shepherd (or kurba) community. Some of our soldiers are Lingayat, and some are Mussalmans. Yet some others are kapers or Siddas or Negros and of other castes. We should forget our caste differences by cooking our common meal and eating it together. What do you think of this? Siddiqui: What a wonderful idea! My beloved Rayanna, this thought never occoured to me, Siddayya: That is a very good idea. This habit helps us to consolidate our patriotic feelings and unites us furthur. Rayanna: Let us start this habit from today itself. Once again it is difficult to imagine breaking the boundaries of caste and reli-

gion in 1830. It is only the fervour of devotion towards Kittur that leads to transcending social and religious norms of society. This important point has been presented well in this play and it relates with contemporary situations where this is a crucial need for nation building. Another significant dialogue occurs to portray the brilliant leadership of Rayanna: Rayanna: But who are parangi fellows coming from the foreign lands and claiming our land and property? What right they have over our life? We must drive them out. They are neither our friends not our blood relatives. They have deceived our Mother, Rani Chennamma systematically. Whereas Kenchavva is my genetic mother, Rani Chennamma is my metaphorical mother. She has been languishing in the fort of Bailahongala as a prisoner in her own kingdom. Chennabasu : My dear Rayanna , I really appreciate your fiery patriotism. But these high dreams can not be fulfilled by just one man or a couple of men. It requires organized effort on the part of a large number of patriots. Rayanna: Dear friend, you are quite right. One man cannot achieve this mighty goal. We have to organize a band of dedicated patriots and fight against the red monkeys. The characterization is indeed the strength of the play. The ending of the play with the song of the Lavani singer is very suitable if the play were to be staged as the audience will surely carry a strong feeling of admiration for the courageous Rayanna. The first play Victory of the Christ takes us to a different terrain. The writer has himself mentioned in the 'Preface' that it was his endeavour to combine the essence of Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained in this play. The subheading clarifies the category of the play as a morality play. Here the story of Lucifer's rebellion against God in the Bible and his great Fall is the starting point. The plot follows Milton's epic Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. Indeed it is difficult to condense the essence of these classical epics in a three Act play. But, it has been captured beautifully in Victory of Christ. The language is set carefully to attain the sublimity of the deep thought. Let me cite few dialogues from important scenes. The first one is from Act 1, Scene 2 where the fallen angels are discussing their plight. Beelzebub : Dear princes and mighty powers, although God has expelled us out of Heaven and pushed us into this hell, let us not grow desperate. Instead, let us convert this hell itself as our empire and make it comfortable for us to live in. God may try to control us here also as he used to control us in heaven. But let us not give him a chance to interfere with us. It is rather difficult for us to attack heaven which is very strong and protected with formidable walls. Why not find an easier way? Fallen Angel 1: What is that easier way?

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Beelzebub: Dear friend, we have all heard that God has created another world and creature called Man, who is almost similar to us, though not equal to us in power and excellence. Let us therefore; discover that new world of Man, understand what kind of creature Man is and what his weaknesses are so that we may seduce him thereby frustrating God in his hidden plan… The second one is from Act 1, Scene 3. Son of God: How will man recover his formal happy status? God: You have asked the right question. Man will have to repent for his sin of transgressing my command and pray to me with deep repentance and devotion. Then I shall grant him my grace if I am convinced of the authenticity and sincerity of his feelings. Son of God: Father, I am really surprised to know that both Satan and Man are subject to fall. Is there any difference between the two ? God: Yes definitely. There is a difference between the two. Whereas Satan fell from heaven due to his own depravity, man will fall from Paradise due to his yielding to Satan's cunning. Another important scene is the last scene where Satan tries to tempt Christ but is defeated by Christ. Satan: Later in the wilderness I realized that you are my fatal enemy, although I am also a Son of God like you. Although I tried my best to tempt you I found that you are beyond temptation of any kind. You are like a rock of diamond, unmoved and unmovable. All right . Now I shall lift you in the air and take you to the city of Jerusalem and keep you on a high Pinnacle… Please show your progeny how to stand up. If you are not able to do that, then you cast yourself down, if you are the Son of God. Isn't it written by the prophets that your angels will lift you up and prevent you from dashing against the stone ? Jesus: It is also written. 'Tempt not the Lord, thy God. (Jesus stands up erect, but Satan suddenly falls down and joins the group of his fallen angels… ) This play is remarkable as it uplifts the reader morally and clears the clouds of moral dilemma that mankind often faces. It justifies the category of morality play. Bharatmuni in Natyashastra remarks : Let Natya ( drame and dance ) be the fifth Vedic scripture . Combined with an epic story , tending to virtue , wealth , joy and Spiritual freedom , it must contain the Significance of every scripture , and forward every art . Taking note of this famous citation, it is appropriate to apply the yardstick of

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Natyashastra to Dr.Basavraj Naikar's Light of Humanity. His book matches all the criteria spelt out for drama. All the three plays are infused with virtue and display joy, wealth and spiritual freedom. The title play exhibits all the traits where the lead character is a pioneer of spiritual freedom when he propagates Virsaivism .Mystic Academy has all human values and virtues. Joy and wealth surrounds Basaveswara. Rayanna, the martyr , in the third play exhibits the greatest virtues of courage, commitment, planning and sacrifice for maintaining the glory of his native land Kittur. The first play Victory of Christ is centered around the great theme of conflict between good and evil which forms the basis of all religions, and is the foundation of Christianity where the Son of God Jesus saves mankind from Original Sin by dying on the Cross.The play depicts Christ's victory over the temptations of Satan . Thus, all the three plays match the high standards of great drama laid down in Natyashastra . Drama is expected to instruct and in address social concerns resulting in reform and social change. Often the purpose of drama is to create space for reflection on political, social and moral issues. Another significant aspect of drama is associated with teaching drama to students to understand characters and help them to connect with different contexts, even cultures. Often it is stated that drama develops empathy in readers and viewers which enables one to understand the perspectives of others better. As the present world is inclined to promote tolerance, celebrate diversity and create team work amongst youth, there is a dire need to equip our young students with literature that serves this purpose. Another important aspect to consider is the genre of literature which best suits this need. Certainly drama is the best type of literature which fulfils this requirement as it has the lively aspects of performance which touch the heart of the readers as well as the audience. In this context, Dr.Basavaj Naikar's Light of Humanity is praiseworthy for its contemporariness. It caters to humanitarian and spiritual concerns of society. Personally I feel that Light of Humanity should find a place in the literature syllabus of Indian Universities. Many North Indian students are unfamiliar with the heroic characters like Basaveswara and Rayanna. Hence, it will expand their horizons of Indian culture and history. The play Victory of Christ will prepare students of English literature to comprehend the vast knowledge contained in Miltonic epics. I extend my best wishes for Dr. Basavaraj Naikar's Light ofHumanity and invite scholars and students to read this inspirational collection of plays. Prof. Nidhi Tiwari, Professor & Head, Dept of English, Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal, Email : [email protected]

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24. Review of Ramnath Sahu’s The Clay Doll Lucknow : Book Riview, 2022 Shri Ramnath Sahu is a noted Indian English author who belongs to Chhattisgarh. He was born on 20th May in 1963 at Dewarghata Dabhara. He has written three English novels The Cool Land and The Little Sister of the Holy Mahanadi and The Clay Doll. In his writings the lifestyle and struggles of the people, being at the lowest rung in the social hierarchy are well pictured. Their life, philosophy, humiliation, compassion, friendship, hatred and envy have realistically been depicted by Sahu. Objectives: The main objectives of this research article are: i) To explore the social condition of the down-trodden section in Indian society. ii) To implement the lexicons of social realism theory. iii) To relate reality with literature. iv) To establish the foundation of realism Methodology : The methods selected for the present study are comparative and analytical approach. The 8th edition of MLA Handbook for Research Writers is consulted for documentation of this research paper. Analysis The Clay Doll by Ramnath Sahu is a realistic novel which has focused on social chaos caused by addiction of alcohol. It is one of the burning issues in rural India. The novel has brought into light the dominant nature of patriarchal society where women are highly dependent on the status of men because of the conventions of the society. The novelist has highlighted the rural problems which are created by consumption of alcohol in rural life. Though consumption of liquor is an old practice, it should not be allowed to destroy the society. The novel depicts a tragic picture of alcoholism among villagers of Chhattisgarh which destroys socio-cultural life and existence of future generations. This could leave future generations vulnerable to greater insecurity, dependency, poverty, unemployment, family breakdown, increase in diseased people, social abuses, crime and accident. In Chhattisgarh, male authority and dominance play a major role in social and cultural life. Increasing alcoholism among young generation and a concomitant increase in violence against women have emerged as a major issue in rural life. But today, the women lead the struggle against alcohol and violence against women in many villages and local areas across the state. They

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take active participation to rectify the society from evil practices like dowry system, alcoholism and child marriage. They led the struggle against alcohol bravely and have been in the forefront of the antiliquor agitation. The protagonist, Janki is a silent sufferer who is betrayed by her drunkard husband, Kamal. She learns the nature of her husband at her honeymoon night that he is addicted to alcohol. Being a newly married wife, she neither can leave him nor can tolerate his nature. She repents that she should not be married to him for this nature. He is not a lotus for her. She realizes as: "Kamal, my life partner…! You really could not become a lotus! The donor has given you more than the lotus, but you could not rise above this swamp of liquor and drink; but in my mind for you and for me, in your mind, this custom of love will never diminish. I am a woman…I have given my heart and chastity!" (The Clay Doll: 35) It happens because of social system where male dominance is considered central. Sahu has highlighted the social injustice where men have supremacy over women, children and property. The oppression of women has historically been condoned due to the assumed differences in physical and mental capabilities of men and women. The women are not allowed to be a part of the decision making process as they are regarded as secondary and are given few decision making power. This view is realistically illustrated in this novel. Janki, the mouthpiece of Sahu tries to remove these evils from the society. Her only son, Ratan becomes a drunkard following the footprints of his father and dies in an early age. The author has remarked on his character as: Ratan has completely occupied his father's practice and behaviour. If the father was a hundred, then the son proved twenty-five percent more than his father. Two hot drops came out of Janki's eyes and fell into granddaughter Sulochana's arm. Sulochana started looking at the grandmother face, but she could not understand anything, even then she started wiping grandma's eyes and the face with her small palm. Hey, Lord! O Mother Goddess! Ratan… Ratan, you came as a son, then I felt that my days of sorrow and doom were over. How many cherishes I had given to your name- Ratan, the gem. (The Clay Doll: 118) Both the father and son meet a premature death because of addiction of alcohol. She has brought the revolution to the public, the battle against alcoholism what she has been fighting in her own family. As a 'one-man army' she has been protesting till the last day of her life to rectify the society. It is a tale of courage, vision and never-say-die attitude, even in the face of life's most challenging situations. She has dedicated her entire life for the welfare of the society. She has proved that our society is made and protected by women. The author has raised the question that all daughters are regarded as the Goddess Laxmi, but why all the sons are not considered as Narayans. The theme of the novel is

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centering round the problems of rural society and their solutions. Sahu has depicted the rural society which is destroyed by men. He has tried his level best to protect it by educating them about the harmful effect of wine to health and society. Janki, the mouthpiece of the author has brought to the public, the battle against alcoholism, what she has been fighting in her own family. Even in her old age, she has been fighting against it as a one-man army to rectify the young generation. She educates the young people to avoid alcohol as it is detrimental to health and society. She also warns Ratan, her only son, to refrain from wine and be a good citizen. The novelist has remarked as: I have fed you by seven-flows of feeding milk in your infancy and childhood. Now there is no feeding milk to feed you next, but I have my blood son. Son…! Suck my blood. Take it. Suck the whole blood drop by drop, even the last drop, but don't take drink! My son! Don't drink the wine, the fire water. (The Clay Doll: 139) Janki requests her son not to drink alcohol which has killed his father, Kamal. She cannot tolerate her son's death. She asks him to suck her blood in spite of drinking wine. But she was not successful in her mission to save her son's life from alcoholism. She visits all the wine shops and requests their owners to stop selling wine to the villagers. Moreover; she addresses all the drunkards as her sons and asks them to avoid such bad habit as: "Son…Son! Oh, my father…!! Daughter, you guys too! You guys too, started all this, taking drinks…taking wine publicly? Don't drink it! Let the moment of happiness be of only happiness! The procession is going on, then in your pure form! Go…! Go…! Run away from here…Janki said all this in one breath, but who is listening here? All are busy in their own business." (The Clay Doll: 171) At last, Janki was killed by a drunkard who threw a bottle of wine on her forehead. Just like Sita, Janki entered the Earth who has sacrificed her life on the altar of alcohol. Ramnath Sahu has proved through the character of Janki that all the daughters of the world are Laxmi who can sacrifice their lives for the welfare of the society. On the other hand, all the sons who discriminate women and commit social crimes likealcoholism, child marriage and domestic violence cannot be God or Narayans. The novelist has drawn the picture of rural life which is destroyed by drunkards. He points out that consumption of liquor not only affects the individuals but also his family members get affected in one way or the other. The person in an intoxicated state may indulge in domestic violence with his family members. It is largely used in festivals, birthday and marriage party. The author warns the human race that we are going to be destroyed very soon because of alcohol. He remarks as: "Pralay- the final Destruction and dooms day is getting closure to closure for this mankind. It is the day of the end of our civilization." (The Clay Doll: 126)

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The literature which does not arouse in us a critical spirit, or satisfy our spiritual and intellectual needs, which does not awaken our sense of beauty, which does not make us face the grim realities of life in a spirit of determination cannot be termed as literature. In the past religion had taken upon itself the task of striving after man's spiritual and moral guidance; it used fear and cajolery, reward and retribution as its chief instruments in this work. Today, however, literature has undertaken a new task, and its instrument is our inherent sense of beauty, it tries to achieve its aim by arousing this sense of beauty in us. The more a writer develops this sense through his observation of nature, the more effective will his writing become. All that is ugly or detestable, all that is inhuman, becomes intolerable to such a writer. He becomes the standard bearer of humanity, of moral uprightness of nobility. It becomes his duty to help all those who are downtrodden, oppressed and exploited-individuals or groups-and to advocate their cause. And his judge is society itself-it is before society that he brings his plaint. He knows that the more realistic story is, the more full of expression and movement his picture, the more intimate his observation of human nature, human psychology the greater the effect he will produce. It is not even enough that from a psychological point of view his characters resemble human beings, we must further be satisfied that they are real human beings of bones and flesh. The ideal which we want to put before literature today is not that of subjectivism or individualism, for literature does not see the individual as something apart from society, but considers him as a social unit; because his existence is dependent on the society as a whole. Taken apart from society he is a mere cipher and non-entity. It follows, therefore, that those of us who have the good fortune to be educated and who have been endowed with a trained intellect, have certain obligations towards society. Just as we consider the capitalist to be an usurper and an oppressor, because he lives on the labour of others, in the same way we should strongly condemn the 'intellectual capitalist', who, after having received the best education uses it for his own private ends. It is the duty of our intellectuals to serve society in every possible way. When we compare ourselves with these people, we really feel ashamed of our ignorance. We must therefore, raise the cultural level of our writers. I know it is difficult under the present economic system; but let us at least strive after this. If we do not reach the top of mountain, we shall at least raise ourselves from the surface of the earth to a higher place. With love to guide our activities, and with service of humanity as the outward manifestation of this love, there is no difficulty which we cannot overcome. If we place our services at the disposal of the masses of this country, we shall have done our duty. The happiness which we get from serving humanity will be our reward. We shall consider only that literature as progressive which is thoughtful, which awakens in us the spirit of freedom and of beauty; which is creative, which is luminous with the realities of life; which moves us; which leads us to action and which does not act on us

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as a narcotic; which does not produce in us a state of intellectual somnolencefor, if we continue to remain in that state it can only mean that we are no longer alive. Conclusion Thus, Ramnath Sahu's The Clay Doll can rightly be termed as a novel of social realism. The author has pointed out all the social evils which should be rectified by younger generation. He has shown how alcoholism destroys the common villagers who are illiterate, poor and unprivileged. The various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society. Besides financial issues, alcoholism destroys family relationship. To sum up after implementing the major lexicons of social realism theory in Ramnath Sahu's The Clay Doll we can justify the novel as a social realism treatise. REFERENCES Sahu, Ramnath. The Clay Doll. 2022. Print. Coles Editorial Board, Dictionary of Literary Terms (New Delhi: Rama Brothers Educational Publishers, 2001), p.163. Anand, Mulk Raj.'Why I Write?', Indian Writing in English, ed. Sinha. K.N. (New Delhi: Heritage Publishers, 1979), p. 5. Quoted by Lilian R. Furst, Realism (London and New York: Longman, 1992), p.37.

*N.D.R. Chandra, Professor, Dept. of English Nagaland University, Kohima Campus. Email : [email protected] ** Arun Nath, PhD. Research Scholar, Dept of English, Nagaland University, Kohima Campus

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Book Review

Author Name: Srividya and Natrajan and S.Anand Illustrated by: Durgabai Vyam and Subhash Vyam Genre: Biographic Novel Language: English Published in: 2011 by Navayana Bhimayana: Incidents in the Life of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar Introduction: "Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested: that is, some books are to be read-only in parts, others to be read, but not curiously, and some few to be read wholly", a very famous quote by Sir Francis Bacon, clearly lays emphasis on the importance of reading but one type of reading that is missing in the quote is the visual reading, the one we love doing while waiting for a flight to catch or while waiting at the dentist appointment. A book to treat your eyes is simply a book with pictures and if I may say that this principle applies across age groups. We, humans, are visual beings and are surrounded by visuals all around us, especially in this digital world. A picture book for a toddler learning to speak will be surely a visual treat and fascination and for a teenager will be a comic book surely. In comic books or Graphic novels (the more sophisticated term) the visual narratives are generally in a book format designed to portray a story with pictures. It's indeed not a new term in the literary world but very slowly paving its way into the Indian classrooms and yet miles to go! Bhimayana: Experience of Untouchability is the biography of Bhimrao Ambedkar presented in a unique style of illustrations using the Gond tribal art. The graphic novel unravels Ambedkar's early life being born into a low untouchable caste in India. The real-life experiences of young Ambedkar facing discrimination every day in his society. The graphic novel presents the narratives under four sections/ chapters: Water, Shelter, Travel, and the art of Bhimayana. Book 1 Water shows the initial discriminational incidents in young Ambedkar's life when he couldn't drink water from the same tap as the upper caste boy. This became an unforgetful and humiliating incident in a young boy's life which had ripple effects on Ambedkar's future life. And such began his journey to become the greatest icon for the Dalits. Book 2, Shelter is staged around his experiences in the city of Baroda as an adult, when he was kicked out of a Parsi man's hotel for being a non-Parsi and was denied a stay in his Hindu and Christian friend's home either. This made him realize the poison of untouchability has affected societies outside the Hindu social order too. Book 3 Travel is the account of Ambedkar's travel journey in the city of Nasik while looking into the social boycott by Hindus of untouchables. Book 4, the Art of Bhimayana ushers us into the world of the writers and artists, the creation of the graphic novel. All the processes that were

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utilized to create this book are exhibited to the reader. The views of the writers and the artists are reflected in the last part as in how Ambedkar's life's work affected their own lives and constantly a parallel is drawn between the past and the present. The graphic novel a contemporary work published in 2011 begins with a narrative via a conversation between a girl and a boy who discuss the pros and cons of the caste system and through this conversation, much light is thrown on the beginning of the caste discrimination in the pre-independent India and also why it was needed post-independence and thus throughout the graphic novel several parallel instances from Ambedkar's life experiences and present-day instances are presented to the reader in an unconventional way. In order to understand and empathize with Ambedkar's views and his rationale behind initiating the reform movements for Dalits, one must understand his life and experiences which Bhimayana gives an insight to. "A descent society is a society in which ascending sense of reverence and descending sense of contempt is dissolved into the creation of a compassionate society." -Dr.B.R.Ambedakar

Source:www.revistadelauniversidad.com An illustrated page from the graphic novel Bhimayana: Incidents in the life of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar shows the Gond art form. Akanksha Prajapati, Research Scholar, Mar Theophilus Training College, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Email id: [email protected]

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Journal of Literature, Culture & Media Studies

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