John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary, Europe 1937: The Travel Journals of JFK and Kirk LeMoyne Billings 9781805391043

Citation preview

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary, Europe 1937

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary, Europe 1937 The Travel Journals of JFK and Kirk LeMoyne Billings

Edited with an introduction by Oliver Lubrich

berghahn NEW YORK • OXFORD www.berghahnbooks.com

Published in 2024 by Berghahn Books www.berghahnbooks.com English-language edition © 2024 Berghahn Books German-language edition © 2021 DVB Verlag GmbH, Vienna, 2021 Originally published in German as John F. Kennedy: Das geheime Tagebuch, Europa 1937 All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Kennedy, John F. (John Fitzgerald), 1917–1963, author. | Billings, K. Lemoyne (Kirk Lemoyne), 1917–1981, author. | Lubrich, Oliver, 1970– editor. Title: John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary, Europe 1937: The Travel Journals of JFK and Kirk Lemoyne Billings / John F. Kennedy, Kirk LeMoyne Billings; edited with an introduction by Oliver Lubrich. Description: New York: Berghahn Books, 2023. | Originally published: John F. Kennedy: das geheime Tagebuch, Europa 1937. Wien: DVB Verlag, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2023017769 (print) | LCCN 2023017770 (ebook) | ISBN 9781805391036 (hardback) | ISBN 9781805391043 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Kennedy, John F. (John Fitzgerald), 1917-1963—Diaries. | Kennedy, John F. (John Fitzgerald), 1917-1963—Travel—Europe. | Billings, K. Lemoyne (Kirk Lemoyne), 1917-1981—Diaries. | Billings, K. Lemoyne (Kirk Lemoyne), 1917-1981—Travel—Europe. | Europe—Description and travel. Classification: LCC E842.A3 1937 (print) | LCC E842.A3 (ebook) | DDC 973.922092 [B]—dc23/eng/20230419 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023017769 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023017770 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-80539-103-6 hardback ISBN 978-1-80539-228-6 paperback ISBN 978-1-80539-394-8 epub ISBN 978-1-80539-104-3 web pdf https://doi.org/10.3167/9781805391036

contents

Acknowledgments

vi

About This Book

vii

Introduction. “Hitler Seems So Popular Here”: John F. Kennedy’s Travels in Germany between Insight and Misperception Oliver Lubrich

1

Editorial Principles

39

John F. Kennedy: European Diary, July–September 1937

45

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

95

John F. Kennedy, European Diary Itinerary and General Timetable

151

Bibliography

158

Indexes

167

Photographs follow pages 72 and 136

–v–

acknowledgments

The editor, Oliver Lubrich, would like to thank Stephen Plotkin, Sharon Kelly, and Maryrose Grossman of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston, and Tracy Potter and Elaine Grublin of the Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston for their support; Robert Kennedy Jr. for his permission to use the Billings Papers; Nigel Hamilton, author of JFK—Reckless Youth (1992), Robert Dallek, author of An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963 (2003), and David Pitts, author of Jack and Lem: The Untold Story of an Extraordinary Friendship (2007), for their collegial information; Sabine Hesse (Cologne) for an early inspiration; Rex Clark, German studies scholar in Boston, for his spontaneous helpfulness and contributions to deciphering the Billings manuscript; Sven Weber, Kennedy specialist in Biel (Switzerland), for stimulating conversations; Thomas Nehrlich in Bern for valuable advice; Hans-Joachim Neubauer (Berlin) for his wise counsel; Alexandra Just (Bern) for additional research; Yahya Elsaghe (Bern) for critical reading; Aufbau Verlag (Berlin) for cooperation in the edition of John F. Kennedy: Unter Deutschen. Reisetagebücher und Briefe, 1937–1945 (2013), and for permission to reuse material from that volume; Albert Eibl as publisher in Vienna for his dedication to the German edition of John F. Kennedy: Das geheime Tagebuch, Europa 1937 (2021); Volker Berghahn (New York) for his translation, suggestions, and indexing; and Marion Berghahn (New York) for her commitment to the present edition.

– vi –

about this book

John F. Kennedy and his friend Kirk LeMoyne Billings never published the diaries they wrote during their journey across Europe in the summer of 1937. Both manuscripts are held at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum in Boston, Massachusetts. The section from Kennedy’s diary relating to Germany was edited by Oliver Lubrich and printed in Travels in the Reich, 1933–1945: Foreign Authors Report from Germany (Chicago, 2010), 159–61. A German translation of Kennedy’s complete diary appeared in John F. Kennedy: Unter Deutschen. Reisetagebücher und Briefe, 1937–1945, edited by Oliver Lubrich, translated by Carina Tessari (Berlin, 2013), 59–127; both the Kennedy and the Billings diaries appeared in German in John F. Kennedy: Das geheime Tagebuch, Europa 1937, edited by Oliver Lubrich, translated by Carina Tessari (Vienna 2021). They are now published for the first time in English in this volume, together with a selection of photos. All material that was originally written in German has been translated here by Volker Berghahn. An introduction provides the historical context to the accounts of the two young travelers in 1937 and of Kennedy’s subsequent trips to Germany in 1939 and 1945, as well as in 1963. The editorial principles section provides explanations on the edition of the historical documents and a list of errors in the manuscripts. The appendix includes a bibliography and a timeline.

– vii –

Introduction “hitler seems so popular here” John F. Kennedy’s Travels in Germany between Insight and Misperception Oliver Lubrich

President Kennedy wants to visit Germany—in 1964 on the occasion of Adolf Hitler’s seventy-fifth birthday. It is on this provocative idea that Robert Harris’s bestseller Fatherland, published in 1992, is based, as is Christopher Menaul’s film adaptation of the same name. In this nightmarish scenario, “Germania” has won the war in Europe and now wishes to obtain an accord with the United States, and it is Joseph P. Kennedy who, as president, wants to travel to Berlin. In reality, it was Joseph’s son John F. Kennedy who went to the divided city in 1963 to make his legendary “Ich bin ein Berliner” speech. What is much less well-known is that JFK undertook three journeys to Germany as a young man: in 1937 after his first year as a student at Harvard; in 1939 just before the beginning of World War II, when his father was the US ambassador to Britain; and in the summer of 1945 to attend, as a reporter, the conference of the victorious Allies in Potsdam, just outside Berlin. He thus came on different missions as a tourist, as an unofficial diplomat, and finally as a journalist. It was on these trips that he gained insights into dictatorial regimes, systemic conflicts, and the paths that lead toward war. During these journeys, young Kennedy wrote texts that he never published. He kept a personal diary in 1937. In 1939 he wrote letters, and in 1945 he drafted press reports. These doc-

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

uments were edited in German under the title John F. Kennedy: Unter Deutschen (2013) and John F. Kennedy: Das geheime Tagebuch (2021), the latter of which focuses on Kennedy’s diary from 1937 and includes that of his travel companion Lem Billings. Both diaries are published in English for the first time in the present volume. They demonstrate how Kennedy was interested in the Germans, how he tried to gain an understanding of their relationship with Hitler, and how his thoughts changed in the process. In the contrafactual story in Robert Harris’s novel, the fate of the world depends on Joseph P. Kennedy’s visit to Berlin. At the same time, the trips that the young John F. Kennedy actually undertook had a profound impact and continue to raise far-reaching questions: What significance did Kennedy’s German experiences have for his presidency of the United States? What role did they play in his policies toward Germany and Berlin? Can we better understand his development as a statesman by reference to his earlier notes? Kennedy’s time as US president from January 20, 1961, until his assassination on November 22, 1963, was marked by the competition between East and West and the danger of war. There were such dramatic events as the Bay of Pigs invasion on April 17, 1961, launched against the revolutionary government in Cuba. On August 13, 1961, there followed the Berlin crisis and the building of the Wall by East Germany’s communist regime. These two crises took mankind close to another world war. Kennedy was grappling with similar challenges when he was traveling in Europe and Germany as a young man: How does a dictatorship work? How can a war be prevented? How does one deal with a society that is fundamentally different from one’s own? Kennedy first experienced totalitarian society when he visited Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany in 1937 and talked to refugees of the Spanish Civil War near the Spanish border in France. –2–

Introduction

He was able to follow the path that would ultimately lead to war when he visited Munich, Berlin, and Danzig in the summer of 1939: The Bavarian capital was the city where the crisis was de-escalated in 1938, when Hitler and the British prime minister Neville Chamberlain signed their agreement to keep the peace. Hitler’s decision to tear up this agreement and attack Poland was subsequently taken in Berlin. And the invasion began in Danzig (after the Germans had staged a Polish attack on a radio station in Gleiwitz, then part of Germany). After World War II, Kennedy experienced the beginning of the Cold War when he stopped over in Potsdam near Berlin, where the victorious Allies were meeting to negotiate a new order. Kennedy’s connections with Germany, his public defense of (West) Berlin, his frequently quoted sentence that he uttered in German in front of an enthusiastic crowd on June 26, 1963, must be considered against the background of his familiarity with that country. It was in the course of his earlier journeys that the future president slowly emancipated himself from his powerful father’s political program—Joseph Kennedy was an advocate of keeping the United States out of Europe’s conflicts and avoiding resistance against the dictators. This was the policy of “America First.” His son shifted from this isolationist policy to one of intervention. The early experiences of a man who later became a protagonist of global politics gain their significance in retrospect, but they are also worth studying in their original context. After all, Kennedy’s diaries and statements provide examples of how foreigners experienced the German dictatorship on the spot and at the time. Their testimonial value is all the greater because they are direct recordings of Kennedy’s observations—in different genres and without subsequent modifications. How did Kennedy perceive the Third Reich in 1937, 1939, and 1945—i.e., during the consolidation of the regime, before –3–

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

the war of aggression was launched, and after Hitler had been defeated? What insights are contained in his notes? But the questions we must also ask include, what errors, misperceptions, and blind spots become visible in hindsight?

1937DICTATORSHIP It was after his first year at Harvard that the twenty-year-old John, born on May 29, 1917, and nicknamed “Jack,” undertook an extensive journey with Kirk LeMoyne Billings (“Lem,” 1916– 1981), a friend from Choate Preparatory School in Wallingford, Connecticut, who went on to study at Princeton. It was to be an educational trip, but also a fun one—a grand tour of Europe. They brought a Ford convertible across the Atlantic with them, and they drove it first through France to the Spanish border. Their next stops were Italy, Austria, and Germany before continuing to the Netherlands and Belgium, and finally they traveled by boat across the Channel to Britain. On the way, Kennedy began to keep a diary. On the cover of this bound notebook was printed the generic title: “My Trip Abroad.” It runs to some ninety pages, with entries made by the day. There is no indication that Kennedy changed any of his entries afterward, thereby preserving an unadulterated picture of the way he saw things at the time. This diary covers personal, cultural, and political aspects of the visit. At first glance, it appears as if the two college students had a good deal of fun during their summer vacation. They met with friends, went to the movies, and enjoyed themselves in bars. In Munich they visited the famous Hofbräuhaus, followed by a night club. They went to the cinema to see the Hollywood movie Swing High, Swing Low, a love story featuring Carole Lombard. Women were a frequent topic of conversation. When they crossed the border into the Third Reich, Kennedy –4–

Introduction

records rather light-heartedly that they “picked up a bundle of fun.” It seems that this is a reference to a young woman, Johanna, to whom they gave a lift. Johanna also seems to be the person whom Kennedy subsequently refers to as “Her Ladyship,” as she was not happy with the simple accommodation that they found, which Kennedy writes sarcastically about on two occasions. However, it is also possible that he is mocking his friend Lem Billings for whom he never stopped inventing new nicknames. Kennedy’s diary contains many references to flirts, dates, and sexual conquests. Lem apparently did not have such affairs; for all we know, Lem was gay—and in love with Jack. When he made advances to him at school, Kennedy casually rejected them in a letter without letting it affect their relationship, as David Pitts reports in his double biography, Jack and Lem: The Untold Story of an Extraordinary Friendship. One of JFK’s closest friends, Billings later visited him in the White House, where he stayed in one of the guest rooms. There are passages in Kennedy’s diary where his companion appears as a comic figure. As Kennedy’s sidekick, Lem is subjected to a fair amount of amicable mockery: for smelling of French cuisine or when he is forced to sprint or when he falls ill, of all places, in the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes. The Protestant Billings has to spend hours in the nave of Notre Dame, while his Catholic friend succeeds in getting a seat near the altar. In the end, Kennedy unceremoniously leaves Lem with the car in Boulogne and takes a mail steamer across to Britain. In Germany, Kennedy and Billings acquired another companion: a dachshund that they named after Carmel Offie, the US ambassador’s secretary in Paris. The journey of the two Americans in Nazi Germany in the company of a pet is reminiscent of the strange trip undertaken by the novelist Virginia Woolf, who had traversed the country two years earlier with her domesticated monkey “Mitz” in the hope of distracting the –5–

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

native population and authorities from her and her Jewish husband. Woolf recorded her own reactions to fascism in her diary. The dachshund exacerbated a problem that played an important role in Kennedy’s life: his poor health. He suffered from allergies and developed a skin rash that was quite worrying. He spent his life in pain from chronic ailments affecting his stomach, his intestines, and his backbone. As Billings liked to joke, if he would ever write a biography of his friend, it would be titled John F. Kennedy: A Medical History. All these details receive a passing mention in Kennedy’s diary. His style is laconic. His boyish humor is reflected in a somewhat careless writing style, but also in dry, ironic sentences, and it is not always easy to immediately capture his meaning. Thus, he compiles a list of all hotels and hostels, marking with a star those where he has been told he is “not [a] gentleman!” A total of ten of these establishments receive this arbitrary distinction, and two receive a second star. As Billings was not as well-heeled, the two stayed in inexpensive guesthouses or youth hostels—and their behavior was less than exemplary. Repeated references appear to angry proprietors demanding payment or responding to physical damage the two caused. At the same time, the two students from elite institutions clearly exhibited interest in European culture. They took a sightseeing tour. Kennedy’s diary mentions visits to cathedrals in Rouen, Beauvais, Notre Dame, and Orléans, the Dome in Milan, and the Domes of St. Peter and Cologne. They visited and admired the chateaux of Thierry, Fontainebleau, Versailles, Chambord, Blois, Amboise, and Chenonceau, as well as the castles along the Rhine. Their list also includes museums such as the Louvre, the Vatican, and the German Museum in Munich. Kennedy records visits to historical sites such as Invalides Cathedral, Lourdes, the Colosseum, Castel Sant’Angelo, and Pompeii, and he remarks on encountering Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper in Milan and Michelangelo’s David in Florence. –6–

Introduction

A faithful Catholic, Kennedy attended Mass during his visit to Cologne’s cathedral, where his admiration of Gothic architecture is evident. He mentions the Passion plays in the Bavarian Oberammergau and specifically Anton Lang, who played Christ on stage and gained international fame in this role. The two tourists also drove to Garmisch-Partenkirchen, which the Hitler regime had selected for the Olympic winter games. At the German Museum in Munich, Kennedy and Billings admired the displays of mining and aircraft technologies as expressions of German perfectionism. Both of them highlight in their notes the beauty of the Rhine River valley, with its picturesque villages and castles, but they also note the modernity of the autobahns that had been built with military uses in mind. Among their exploits as students and impressions as tourists, Kennedy includes a series of political observations that are of particular interest from a contemporary perspective. Several earlier issues during their trip influence his subsequent attitudes toward Nazi Germany. Thus, it was shortly after their arrival in France that the two friends visited the battlefields of World War I at Chemin des Dames and Fort de la Pompelle, the damaged cathedrals of Soissons and Reims, and the American war cemetery near Château-Thierry. At the border between France and Spain they could see the Basque town of Irún that Franco’s forces had destroyed, and they also met refugees who told them about their horrendous experiences. Irún is not far from the town of Guernica, which had been severely damaged by bombs of the German “Condor Legion.” Pablo Picasso’s triptych commemorating this attack was shown in the Spanish Pavilion at the World Exposition in Paris (May 25 to November 25, 1937), which Kennedy and Billings visited. There they saw the monumental pavilions of Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Soviet Union that stood juxtaposed next to the Eiffel Tower as architectural monuments of a conflict between opposing systems of government. –7–

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

Kennedy also attended a Mass held by Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli who, before becoming Pope Pius XII in 1939, had been the apostolic delegate to Nazi Germany and who in 1933 signed the Vatican’s Concordat with the Hitler government. Pacelli was a friend of Kennedy’s father Joseph. John Kennedy had taken courses in political history during his first year at Harvard, but he realized that his knowledge was still quite patchy. Thus, he misspells the word “Fascism” as “Facism” throughout his diary. He also concedes that it is easy to be influenced by others, “if you know nothing.” However, he is keen to improve his knowledge—almost like a political journalist or a junior anthropologist doing field research. He is influenced by the book Inside Europe (1936) by the American journalist John Gunther, which provides a panorama of the most important European countries with their different societal systems and leading personalities. Wherever they traveled, the two students interviewed indigenous people or gave hitchhikers lifts, among them German soldiers, but also an anti-Nazi. Kennedy was able to talk to Enrico Galeazzi, Pacelli’s secretary, and with Arnaldo Cortesi, the Italian bureau chief of the New York Times. They informed him of the “advantages” of Italian Fascism and in particular its “Corporatism” as a system of statist mediation between divergent interests. As Kennedy records rather gullibly, but with hesitation, “it really seemed to have its points.” Looking at daily life, he writes that “Fa[s]cism seems to treat them well.” However, he was aware of the fact that Mussolini has started a colonial war in 1935/36 and had occupied Ethiopia. Their trip through Germany took the two students to places that had played a prominent role in the Nazification of the country. These included, above all, Munich, the “capital of the movement” of National Socialism, infamous also as the location where Hitler attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic in November 1923. They also stopped in Nuremberg—the city of the annual Nazi Party rallies—which they saw in the form of –8–

Introduction

a scale model at the World Exposition in Paris and where, on August 19 and 20, 1937, they just missed the arrival of Hitler. With the “Reich Party Rally of Labor” taking place from September 6 to 13, 1937, Lem Billings, looking back on the visit, later admitted they always regretted that they did not stay longer to see Hitler in person. Thanks to the survival of both Kennedy’s and Billing’s diaries, we are in a position to compare two impressions of the same journey. Both documents overlap in many respects, in some cases even literally. This is probably due to the fact that the two friends exchanged their observations spontaneously and then recorded them in parallel. However, there are not only variations with respect to some details but also differences in emphasis. While Kennedy is interested in political questions, Billings foregrounds his art-historical observations. Thus, the notes of the latter repeatedly mention that Kennedy had a “political talk” (that Billings apparently did not join)—be it with the executive director of a champagne winery or with the correspondent of the New York Times in Rome. Framed by his often-trivial experiences as a tourist, Billings’s political commentaries are sparse, superficial compared to Kennedy’s. Yet they coincide with Kennedy’s analyses, in particular when it comes to Hitler’s and Mussolini’s obedient followers and totalitarian propaganda. Thus it is Billings who observes in Germany that “Hitler seems very popular here—you can’t help but like a dictator when you are in his own country—as you hear so many wonderful things about him and really no bad things.—Hitler’s strongest weapon seems to be his very efficient propaganda.” In comparing the two testimonies, we get an idea of how one could travel and perceive Europe and Germany in 1937. Billings’s diary shows how an educated and informed person could make rather personal observations on cultural aspects, without paying much attention to the political situation. Conversely, by reading Kennedy’s notes in parallel with Billings’s, his words –9–

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

gain in importance. The more private quality of Billings’s notes enables us to gain a better understanding of Kennedy’s efforts to focus on politics. The two stayed less than a week in Germany—August 17–22, 1937. Apart from writing about Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Oberammergau, Munich, and Nuremberg, they also discuss their visits to Frankfurt and Württemberg (or do they mean Würzburg?), their trip along the Rhine, their arrival in Cologne, and their departure for the Netherlands. Their 1937 trip took place in an intermediate period of apparent calm. Following the Olympic Games of 1936, when the Hitler regime tried to impress its many visitors from all over the world by putting up an elaborate façade of success, Hitler began a series of aggressive foreign policy moves, exacerbated by the Anschluss of Austria in 1938 and the occupation of the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. In November 1938, the Nazi regime unleashed the pogrom against its Jewish population. If one went to Germany in the summer of 1937, though, it was still possible to tour the country under seemingly “normal” circumstances. While much could be overlooked or misunderstood, one also had a chance to gain insights into the Nazi dictatorship, and this coexistence of insight and misperception makes Kennedy’s observations especially worthwhile, also in light of his later attitudes as president of the United States. At the same time, the two friends were not the only foreign tourists who saw the Third Reich from the inside and documented their impressions. The novelist Thomas Wolfe, for example, had visited Germany several times and had even declared it his country of choice. But he abandoned it in 1937, when he described in a confessional short story his shock of witnessing the persecution of Germany’s Jews during his trip a year earlier. The title he chose: “I Have a Thing to Tell You.” Samuel Beckett, who stayed in Germany for half a year in 1936/37, kept a diary – 10 –

Introduction

that is riddled with many German expressions. In it he spoke of a growing frustration with the Gleichschaltung, which he observed with regard to literature, the arts, the media, and society at large. As he put it: “what a Schererei [aggravation] this trip is becoming.” He concluded: “Soon I shall really begin to puke. Or go home.” Even more provocatively, Jean Genet saw the “Third Reich” in 1937 as a vagrant. He noted that the criminality he had been idealizing in order to set himself apart from French bourgeois society had penetrated the whole of Germany: “This is a people of thieves” [“C’est un peuple de voleurs”]. He had to realize, “If I steal here, I commit no singular act” [“Si je vole ici je n’accomplis aucune action singulière”]. The American filmmaker Julien Bryan, who traveled in Germany at the same time as John F. Kennedy, filmed peasants during harvesttime and children in a Jewish school, but also veterans and soldiers in uniform, autobahns, and warplanes. He attended the Nuremberg Party Rally that Kennedy and Billings had missed and dubbed it the greatest “show” on earth. Overwhelmed by what he saw, he added that American football games were nothing in comparison. The African American sociologist W. E. B. Du  Bois wrote weekly reports of a five-month research trip to Germany in 1936 for the Pittsburgh Courier. He had undertaken the journey in order to compare the situation of the Jews in Germany with that of the Black population back home. He was astounded that he did not experience any discrimination at all: “I cannot get over the continual surprise of being treated like a human being.” As a Black man he was received “with uniform courtesy” in all places in Hitler’s Germany. He experienced no offensive behavior, which would have been “impossible” in the United States over such a long period under conditions of racist segregation. At the same time, Du Bois knew all too well that German racism was directed much more sharply against another minority: “There is a campaign of race prejudice [. . .] against the Jews – 11 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

which surpasses in vindictive cruelty and public insult anything I have ever seen; and I have seen much.” In comparison with the statements by these witnesses, the private notes of John F. Kennedy and Lem Billings reflect how they experienced National Socialism at the same time—spontaneously, without later emendations, without knowledge of hindsight, with the eyes of strangers, and without German inhibitions. It is only later that their experiences appear unambiguous. As Billings remembered three decades after their journey: “We disliked the whole setup. We left there with a very bad taste in our mouths.” This clear assessment does not tally with Billings’s own notes or with the entries in Kennedy’s diary that contain everyday banalities, superficial impressions, and naïve misperceptions by two young tourists, side by side with occasional doubts and critical evaluations. From a contemporary perspective it is irritating to read the stereotypes the travelers used to apparently gain some firm ground under their feet. After visiting a bullfight, Kennedy concludes that Spaniards love violence. The French are deemed to be negligent in respect of hygiene: a “primitive nation” with “cabbage breath.” The Italians strike him as “the nosiest race in existence,” but “regimented,” “the whole race seems more attractive.” There are similar clichés in Billings’s account, and he even uses racist terms such as “to gyp,” meaning to deceive someone. Another word is “wob,” derogatorily used for Italians or Italian Americans. Ethno-psychological prejudices or speculations like these even lead Kennedy to the daring conclusion that “Fa[s]cism is the thing for Germany and Italy, Communism for Russia and democracy for America and England.” Even in their great enthusiasm for the beauty of the Rhineland, the travelers provide disturbing commentary. As Billings remarks: “All these German towns are very attractive—clean + well planned out. This is certainly a great difference from the dirty little Italian towns that we have gotten to dislike so much. – 12 –

Introduction

The Germans seem to do everything well—and their only trouble is that they are a little to[o] con[s]cious of it.” Kennedy’s notes are even more troubling: “All the towns are very attractive, showing that the Nordic races certainly seem superior to the Latins. The Germans really are too good—it makes people gang against them for protection . . .” Even though these are private notes, the diarist is quite careful here, whether involuntarily or consciously. The verb “seem,” contrasting so strangely with the adverb “certainly,” relativizes the statement—just as in other places in the diary—as a superficial impression. The terse yet intensified adjective (“too good”) can also be read ironically or sardonically. And the points of omission at the end indicate a certain openness, unfinishedness, or uncertainty. The strange remark nevertheless testifies to the fact that the author—as already in Italy and now also in Germany—was deceived by the impression of public order in the dictatorship. Reluctant and ambivalent responses can also be found among other foreign travelers who visited Nazi Germany during those years. When the Swiss writer Max Frisch reported for Neue Zürcher Zeitung in 1935, his article on a racist exhibition in Berlin reflected a mix of moral alienation and technical admiration. As late as the first year of the war, 1940, the Danish author Karen Blixen was sufficiently impressed by Hitler’s disproportionately large new buildings to refer to them as “the greatest aesthetic achievement,” provoking “profound admiration” and yet maintaining a “ghost-like” quality. In a piece written by Heinrich Hauser, who had emigrated to the United States, entitled “Berlin in the Summer of 1939,” the author pinpoints the contradictory impressions that a foreign visitor could carry away from two different guided tours through Berlin: the first was led by an official Nazi spokesman, the second by an opponent of the regime. Similar ambivalences can be found in many other reports. Numerous visitors vacillated between attraction and repulsion, or they changed their attitudes as they experienced the dicta– 13 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

torship over the course of their stay. Thus Martha Dodd, the daughter of the US ambassador to Germany William Edward Dodd, who was stationed in Berlin from 1933 to 1937, experienced several contradictory twists and turns in her attitudes toward the Nazi regime. In her memoirs My Years in Germany (or Through Embassy Eyes), published before the outbreak of the war, she mentions how she had a romanticized view of the country, how she sided with the Germans and even the Nazis at first and ignored early irritations. When observing anti-Semitic violence in the streets, she managed her growing insecurity by resorting to sarcasm and making even worse political judgments before the news of Nazi terror, torture, and concentration camps had a sobering effect on her. All the while, her aesthetic and even erotic attraction to the country and its people continued until she arrived at a strictly rejectionist position, at which point she even began to support the Communist underground movement. In the end, Martha Dodd insistently and with clear eyes warned her fellow Americans that Hitler would plunge the world into a war and that he was planning the “liquidation” of the Jews. Looking back, Lem Billings describes the growing maturity of his friend Jack quite straightforwardly: There was a noticeable change in Jack Kennedy. In the summer of 1937, he had just completed his freshman year at Harvard and he was beginning to show more interest and more of a desire to think out the problems of the world and to record his ideas. [. . .] He insisted, for instance, that we pick up every German hitchhiker. This worked out very well because a high percentage of them were students and could speak English. In that way, we learned a great deal about Germany. I remember picking up two German soldiers who were on leave. [. . .] They were with us for a week and we gathered that their general attitude was pro-Hitler. – 14 –

Introduction

We picked up another German student who was very antiHitler. He is probably dead now. The European journey during the summer of 1937 amounted to a kind of political initiation. As Billings puts it, Kennedy “was absolutely overcome with interest in the Hitler movement.” Kennedy was particularly interested in its public display. As he observes, the media had a major share in promoting the popularity of the dictators: “Hitler seems so popular here as Mussolini was in Italy, although propagand[a] seems to be his strongest weapon.” He thought the outside world did not fully appreciate the extent to which this popularity was artificially produced or reinforced: “These dictators are more popular in the country than outside due to their effective propaganda.” Such insights into media communication would later be useful to Kennedy in his campaigns, first for Congress, then for the Senate, and finally for the US presidency. Kennedy posed a number of questions at the end of his diary: Just how popular is Mussolini? Will the alliance between Hitler and Mussolini hold? How does the Spanish Civil War unfold? Can Britain’s rearmament diminish the danger of a large-scale war? What is the role of France? Or the Soviet Union? Would fascism be possible in the United States? Is fascism the final stage of capitalism? Is it a prelude to communism? The diary concludes with the feelings of doubt on the part of the observer who asks these questions and who wrestles with these problems, his last sentence being: “Is this true?” On August 22, 1937, the day of his departure from Germany, Kennedy’s diary entry concludes with observations of the mansion of the exiled German emperor Wilhelm II at Doorn in the Netherlands. It is, Kennedy notes, “entirely surrounded by barbed wire.” His report on Germany thus ends with a reference to Germany’s earlier attempt to become a world power, with “barbed wire” being his last word. – 15 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

1939WAR Kennedy made his second trip to Germany shortly before the beginning of World War II. While his father represented the United States as ambassador to London, Jack spent a semester in Europe to do research for his senior thesis at Harvard. He wrote about the policies of appeasement by the democratic states. These had culminated in the Munich Agreement of September 29/30, 1938, in which the Sudetenland was handed to Hitler: “Appeasement at Munich,” as he titled his thesis. Kennedy, the student of political science, focused on the question of how the aggressive German dictatorship, which he had witnessed from the inside two years earlier, should be treated by outside powers and how war could be avoided, above all through a timely rearmament program. After submitting his work in the following year, he decided to publish a revised version under the telling title Why England Slept. This title is a play on the book of a similar name, While England Slept, by Winston Churchill, who had published his analysis of British policy in 1938. A joke circulated at the expense of Joseph P. Kennedy, who had favored appeasing Hitler, suggesting that the title should have been While Daddy Slept. The slim book became a bestseller. As he was studying British appeasement und American isolationism, Kennedy ran into Charles Lindbergh—one of the most prominent advocates of “America First,” a friend of his father’s, and a pioneer of aviation—at the American embassy in Paris. Lindbergh had visited Nazi Germany repeatedly, and on one occasion Hermann Göring, the chief of the Luftwaffe, had informed him of the construction of the German air force and given him a decoration. As tensions rose in Europe during the summer of 1939 and the outbreak of war appeared likely, Kennedy immersed himself more deeply in German foreign policy. From his base in – 16 –

Introduction

London, but also during visits to France, he took several trips to an increasingly turbulent European continent. However, his travels were also semiofficial explorations in the service of his father. As his movements became in many ways quite hectic, he no longer kept a continuous diary but instead sent intermittent situation reports to his father’s embassy, complemented by letters to his friend Lem Billings. He traveled to Danzig, the city around which the crisis began to escalate; it became the initiation point for the German invasion on 1 September 1939. Writing to Billings about the “Free City” that looked as if it already belonged to Germany, Kennedy concludes that “Danzig is completely Nazified—much heiling of Hitler.” The formula “completely Nazified” coincides with the assessment of William Shirer, the well-known American journalist who had visited the city on August 11, 1939, and recorded his observations in his Berlin Diary. Kennedy exploited the opportunities that opened up to him as the delegate of a US ambassador: “Talked with the Nazi heads and all the consuls up there.” What follows is an analysis of geostrategic, political, and diplomatic factors that is much more complex and coherent than the observations he had jotted down in his diary in 1937. He even reinforces his deliberations by including a map drawn in his own hand. Kennedy assumes mistakenly that Hitler is prepared to compromise, provided he can assert himself against foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop “and the radicals” who are bent on war. Although he continues to hope that war can be prevented, his prediction for the opposite case will be true: “What Germany will do if she decides to go to war—will be to try to put Poland in the position of being the ag[g]ressor—and then go to work.” And indeed on August 31, 1939, German agents dressed in Polish uniforms staged the Gleiwitz radio station incident in Silesia, which the Nazis used as pretext for their attack on Poland that unleashed World War II. – 17 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

In his letters from London of July 17, 1939, and from Berlin of August 30, 1939, Kennedy makes further reference to the Danzig crisis. In the first, he notes that propaganda (which had already intrigued him in 1937) had developed a fateful dynamic of its own: “I still don’t think there will be a war, but it looks quite bad, as the Germans have gone so far internally with their propaganda stories on Danzig + the [Polish] corridor that it is hard to see them backing down. England seems firm this time, but as that is not completely understood here, the big danger lies in the Germans counting on another Munich + thus finding themselves in a war when Chamberlain refuses to give in.” Kennedy undertook his trip to Germany in 1939, accompanied by his Harvard roommate Torbert Macdonald (1917– 1976), who had come to Britain for a sports competition—and became a member of Congress after 1945. Joseph Kennedy had admonished his son to avoid conflicts with ordinary Germans at all costs, thereby pursuing private “appeasement” as well. In Munich in July, they ran into Byron “Whizzer” White, who was a football star—and was later nominated by JFK to the Supreme Court. What Kennedy’s father had feared promptly happened: they found themselves in a brawl with some Nazi storm troopers. According to Macdonald’s account, Kennedy, White, and himself had driven their car close to a monument that commemorated Horst Wessel, a young SA-Sturmführer who had died in 1930 in a violent clash between Nazis and Communists: we went by this monument to some beer hall hero, Worst Hessel or something, and we slowed down to take a look. Some stormtrooper types had a flame burning, and they started to yell. At that time, I didn’t know who Horst Wessel was, frankly, I thought just a guy who was some sort of a local hero—so we stopped. They started getting rough; we were yelling back, and they started throwing bricks at the car. As we drove the car away, I turned to Jack and said, – 18 –

Introduction

“What the hell is wrong with them? What’s this all about? We weren’t doing anything.” And Whizzer explained it: the car we were driving had English plates on it. On their return to France, “Jack” and “Torb” rented a car that they drove to the Kennedys’ vacation home on the Côte d’Azur. But on August 12 they departed for Germany once more. As Kennedy writes to his father, in Munich they attended a performance of Richard Wagner’s opera Tannhäuser. Next they drove to Vienna, which had been incorporated into Hitler’s Reich. Finally, they arrived at Prague through Nazi-occupied Sudetenland. It is a journey that should have been off-limits for them. US-American diplomat George F. Kennan, then posted in the Czech capital, remembered how unwilling his office was to organize this visit of Ambassador Kennedy’s son, whom he considered “an upstart and an ignoramus”: In those days, as the German forces advanced like encroaching waves over all the borders of Bohemia, no trains were running, no planes were flying, no frontier stations existed. Yet in the midst of this confusion we received a telegram from the embassy in London, the sense of which was that our ambassador there, Mr. Joseph Kennedy, had chosen this time to send one of his young sons on a fact-finding tour around Europe, and it was up to us to find means of getting him across the border and through the German lines so that he could include in his itinerary a visit to Prague. We were furious. Joe Kennedy was not exactly known as a friend of the career service, and many of us, from what we had heard about him, cordially reciprocated this lack of enthusiasm. His son had no official status and was, in our eyes, obviously an upstart and an ignoramus. The idea that there was anything he could learn or report about conditions in Europe which we did not already know – 19 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

and had not already reported seemed (and not without reason) wholly absurd. That busy people should have their time taken up arranging his tour struck us as outrageous. With that polite but weary punctiliousness that characterizes diplomatic officials required to busy themselves with pesky compatriots who insist on visiting places where they have no business to be, I arranged to get him through the German lines, had him escorted to Prague, saw to it that he was shown what he wanted to see, expedited his departure, then, with a feeling of “that’s that,” washed my hands of him—as I thought. Had anyone said to me then that the young man in question would some day be the President of the United States and that I, in the capacity of chief of a diplomatic mission, would be his humble and admiring servant, I would have thought that either my informant or I had taken leave of our senses. It was one of the great lessons of life when memory of the episode returned to me, as I sat one day in my Belgrade office many years later, and the truth suddenly and horribly dawned. When the nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union was announced on August 23, 1939, journalist William Shirer wrote in his Berlin Diary: “Great excitement.” And on August 23: “What a turn events have taken in the last forty-eight hours.”—“It looks like war tonight.” Antiaircraft guns were positioned on rooftops. Air force planes flew over the German capital. According to one anecdote, the chargé d’affaires of the US Mission in Berlin, Alexander Kirk, entrusted young Jack Kennedy with a diplomatic message for his father, the ambassador in London: Within a week, Germany would strike. Kennedy’s reports from the summer of 1939 were written under this tense historical moment. At the same time, however, he complains with characteristic sarcasm—on the stationery of the Berlin Hotel Excelsior, no less—about the German food (“one – 20 –

Introduction

week of these German meals”), the consequences of which were already showing on him. The cynical jokes, the tales of parties and affairs, which took up a lot of space in the 1937 diary, can also be found on the eve of the world war: Kennedy reports about his trip from Warsaw that “it was pretty good fun.” John F. Kennedy predicts in his report on the situation in Danzig that if Poland surrendered the city to the Germans, it would give control of its export lanes to Hitler. But as he writes, he lapses into anti-Semitic stereotype. The Germans, as he puts it, would be able to force “Jew merchants” to dispatch their goods through the lost port. It is striking that this terminology appears in the Kennedy documents, even if anti-Semitic remarks were nothing particularly unusual in the social environment through which he was moving. Kennedy’s elder brother Joe, who was traveling in Europe at the same time, in a letter to his father of June 10, 1939, is much blunter in his references to Jews and his rejection of their immigration into the United States. Like his father, he is very firmly of the opinion that the United States should not involve itself in the European crisis, which means that he also distances himself from the policies of US president Franklin Roosevelt and his secretary of state, Cordell Hull: Before Mr. Hull and Mr. Roosevelt ask me to go over and fight because an American ship is sunk or some tourist is killed by the Germans, I want them to answer me the following questions. What do they think would be the economic and political effect of German domination of Europe and having licked England and France? How much trade would we lose and how would it effect us? [sic] [. . .] Do we want to get frightfully aroused by the treatment of the Jews when Cath[olics] and others were murdered more cruelly in Russia and in Republican Spain and not a word of protest came? Do we want an increasing anti-Semitism in our country brought about by the production of forty – 21 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

thousand Jews and political undesirables in our country from Europe [. . .]? In other words, Joe Jr. articulates here his father’s advocacy of isolationism, a policy leaving Europe’s dictators to deal with their victims. It was a position that Joe’s younger brother gradually abandoned. Are we going to fight for the liberties of the people of the world when [it] is really none of our damned business but is up to the people in those countries themselves? Are we going to guarantee liberty in every country [in] the world and if there isn’t that liberty, are we going to march in? Are we going to yell bloody murder when the Italians go into Ethiopia and Spain and the Germans in Czechoslovakia and then do nothing about it except to call the English cowards for not fighting? [. . .] Does it ever occur to people that there are happy people in Italy and Germany? When on August 21, 1939, Joe Jr. met with the British aristocrat Unity Mitford, he nonetheless expressed abhorrence for the Nazi sympathizer and admirer of Hitler: “She is the most fervent Nazi imaginable, and is probably in love with Hitler.” Meanwhile, instead of a British Nazi sympathizer, his younger brother John met with Marlene Dietrich, the famous German actress in exile, in Antibes. She was accompanied by the writer Erich Maria Remarque, the author of the antiwar novel All Quiet on the Western Front. Dietrich mentions in her memoirs that during this last summer of peace she met young Jack Kennedy, who asked her for a dance. Kennedy’s travels through the Third Reich triggered erotic and cinematic fantasies. This is shown by the two-part television production JFK: Reckless Youth (directed by Harry Winer, 1993, starring Patrick Dempsey). An episode that is particu– 22 –

Introduction

larly laden with clichés stages the trip with Torbert Macdonald through Italy and Germany in the summer of 1939 (and also incorporates elements of the 1937 trip with Lem Billings). Kennedy’s relationship to fascism is consistently sexualized here. Right at the beginning, the Americans pick up a German hitchhiker, the red-haired Beate, who combines both the allure and the danger of her country in the classic double role of saint and seductress. She appears in front of a statue of the Virgin Mary and ends up in bed with the hero in the next scene, while a fascist march is heard outside. Afterward, a chamber concert (Wagner, of course) sends her into an agitation that apparently only Germans can feel. “You’re not German,” she explains to the American. And the latter wonders: “How can a country produce so much beauty and at the same time so much violence?” As he struggles to get to the bottom of this question, Kennedy approaches the Germans in an uncanny way—namely erotically. In a beer cellar, as the “Horst Wessel Song” is sung, a sexual rivalry ensues with Beate’s German lover. The lover corresponds to the stereotypical elegant film Nazi and wears a black fantasy uniform, somewhere between a traditional costume, an SS uniform, and existentialist dandy attire. He has the pseudo-Prussian name Joachim von Hildenstein, but he has studied at Oxford and speaks appropriate English. It is only here that Kennedy says a few words in German, and about beer, the metaphor of German intoxication: “Das ist gut” (That’s good). The relationship to Germany is an underlying leitmotif of the series, which retells Kennedy’s life from childhood to his first electoral success. Thus, the Nazi dictatorship is jokingly compared to the regime led by the principal of his boarding school in Connecticut. The appeal of “German hitchhikers” is alluded to. When the father/ambassador sends Jack and Torb on their journey, he ironically equates them with Adolf Hitler as ruthless seducers: “If they think Hitler is bad, wait till they see you two.” Later, Kennedy’s lover Inga Arvad, a Danish journalist who has – 23 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

met Adolf Hitler, comes under suspicion of being a German spy. She too represents a German temptation that combines beauty and fascism. Kennedy asks, while Inga seduces him: “Is this the way you interviewed Hitler?” In more ways than one, the series is a symptom. Exhibiting similar ambivalence, Francine Mathews stages Kennedy’s relationship to Nazism in her spy thriller Jack 1939, published in 2012. The novel by the former CIA employee is based on the fictive assumption that President Roosevelt hires the twenty-two-year-old ambassador’s son as a special agent in the spring of 1939. JFK’s mission is to spy on a European Nazi network—in which, embarrassingly, his father Joe Kennedy Sr. is involved—that wants to influence the presidential elections in the United States. The role of the elegant sadist (“a connoisseur—of food, of music, of violence”) and the diabolical seducer (“his hand at her back was intoxicating”) is played here by Reinhard Heydrich, the head of the Gestapo. Kennedy competes with him for the same woman as his assignment takes him to Berlin, Danzig, Moscow, Vienna, Prague, and Warsaw. In the process, the American secret agent loses the mysterious mistress to the German secret police chief. Plagued by jealous fantasies, he follows the two across the continent. As the men take turns having sex with the same partner, an indirect erotic relationship obscenely develops between the future organizer of the “Final Solution” and the future president of the United States. Kennedy even imagines that he feels Heydrich’s touch on his lover’s skin with his own body (“Jack could almost feel the imprint of his thumb on her flesh”), while Heydrich, conversely, should feel that she is distracted by his clandestine presence (“Would Heydrich feel her sudden awareness through his fingers in her arm?”). When he discovers the double game being played by the beautiful woman with the ambiguous name, Diana Playfair (hunter and game), Heydrich has her killed. Kennedy reproaches himself for not saving her, conjuring the – 24 –

Introduction

political allegory of the United States’ and England’s inability to save Poland: “What sort of man,” he wonders, “left the girl he loved to sadists and knives?” As he looks at himself in the mirror, he seems to have transformed into the image of Heydrich. For what he sees is a murderer—“a killer’s face.”

1945FASCINATION The extent to which not only the fictional but also the historical Kennedy traced his sinister fascination with National Socialism is shown in accounts of his next trip to Germany. Kennedy himself makes an attempt to understand the impact of a charismatic personality by following Adolf Hitler’s footsteps. He does so by the end of his 1945 account, after visiting a ruined country. After the liberation of the concentration and extermination camps, Kennedy tries to uncover the Germans’ attraction to Hitler. Before writing about this topic, he examines a number of political, military, and economic problems in the report on his visit to Germany’s bombed-out cities. But he also witnesses the beginnings of the Cold War, which would so profoundly define his later policies as US president. How does Kennedy experience the early phase of this confrontation between East and West? What does he report on the Red Army that he is able to observe in Germany at close range? What does he have to say about the situation of the defeated country, its division into zones of occupation, and Allied occupation policies more generally? And what are the insights he has gained into the character of the Third Reich after its demise? Having returned home shortly before the outbreak of World War II, Kennedy observed the unfolding of the European struggle against Hitler and Mussolini until he decided to join the US Army officer training program in 1940. Though he was rejected on medical grounds, as he suffered from chronic back problems, – 25 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

in September 1941 he was admitted to the Naval Reserve. There he was promoted to junior lieutenant, and, after the United States had entered the war in December 1941, he saw action in the Pacific as a torpedo boat commander aboard PT-109. In a battle against the Japanese, his boat was rammed and sunk, but despite being badly injured, he survived to serve in further missions during 1943/44. He commanded PT-59, was injured again, and spent the next months in a military hospital until December 1944. Having been honorably discharged and receiving several decorations, he retired from the US Navy in the spring of 1945 and began work as a journalist, a job that took him to the Allied conference at Potsdam in the summer of 1945. He thus arrived at the Potsdam Conference that took place from July 17 till August 2, 1945, attending as a war veteran and a professional observer. He had been hired by the International News Service founded by media mogul William Randolph Hearst. After he had written a number of articles on the signing of the Charter of the United Nations at San Francisco on June 26, 1945, he traveled to Britain where elections to the Lower House took place on July 5, 1945, that ended in a victory for the Labour Party and the rise of Clement Attlee as Churchill’s successor. On his trip to Berlin and then to Potsdam, Kennedy accompanied US secretary of the navy James Forrestal, another friend of his father’s. The Western Allies were represented at Potsdam by US president Harry S. Truman and secretary of state James Byrnes and British prime minister Attlee and his foreign secretary Ernest Bevin. On the Soviet side, Joseph Stalin and his foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov had flown in from Moscow. This enabled him to observe the key actors up close. Kennedy encountered Truman (1945–1953) and Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961), his presidential predecessors. It is possible that he participated as part of Forrestal’s group in a breakfast meeting with the new US president. There is a photo that shows him – 26 –

Introduction

at Frankfurt airport just behind Eisenhower, the supreme commander of US forces in Europe. His methods of travel and observation remained the same. In 1937, he had given hitchhikers lifts and made it his habit to ask people he met about politics. In 1939, he had had access to diplomats and talked to Nazi leaders and consuls while in Danzig. In 1945, he tried to strike up conversations with Allied military administrators such as Colonel Frank Howley, foreign correspondents such as Pierre Huss, and ordinary Germans, including “a German girl,” more likely to have been a young woman. Again Kennedy keeps a “European Diary.” Rather than chronological experiences and thoughts he records more detailed and coherent observations, so the result reads like a reporter’s travel account. On his flight from Paris to Berlin, he sees bombed-out cities and damaged railroad stations. Remembering his visit to the city in 1939, he finds that “there is not a single building which is not gutted.” “The devastation is complete.” He describes the “ash gray” rubble, “the stench—sweet and sickish from dead bodies,” and “the colorless faces” of people who live in the cellars of ruins. His style has changed since his student days—it is more mature and descriptive. His depictions of the destruction are memorable, and his conversations are conducted in the manner of a newspaper correspondent. When he sees that people lug their belongings in “bundles,” the term now takes on a macabre meaning compared to how he used it in 1937, when he described the carefree beginning of his first visit to Germany meeting a “bundle of fun.” The women with whom the young Kennedy had been flirting in 1937 or 1939 have now become the victims of rape or prostitution— they attempt to become unattractive to Russian soldiers but make themselves up for American GIs. Kennedy takes a systematic approach to recording his observations about the postwar order and reconstruction in the zones of occupation. He writes about de-Nazification, frater– 27 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

nization, and public administration. He discusses various ways of treating the Germans—as defeated subjects or as partners in renewed cooperation. He examines the provision of foodstuffs, coal, and firewood as well as the system of rationing, the black market, infrastructure, and transportation. He touches on looting and currency questions and the role of marks, dollars, and occupation money. Without citing his sources, he presents data and statistics. Surrounded by ruins, he visits damaged armament installations and ponders the country’s potential, with special reference to the industries of Bremen and Bremerhaven. There are the shipyards that mass-produced submarines, including their sophisticated protection in bunkers and the latest technologies for air circulation. As a former PT commander, he speaks from personal knowledge when he calls Germany’s torpedo boats “far superior.” The Soviet soldiers whom Kennedy encounters in Berlin and Potsdam at first appear in his typescript as “rugged and tough” fellows who are frequently drunk and wear soiled uniforms. He learns that they have stolen and pillaged goods and committed rapes. He quotes a German woman who says that “[i]n many ways the ‘SS’ were as bad as the Russians.” The SS as bad as the Red Army—the Russians have replaced Germany’s Death Head units as the yardstick of all evil. The focus already seems to be on the emerging conflict between East and West. “As far as looting the homes and the towns, however,” Kennedy adds quite soberly, “the British and ourselves have [also] been very guilty,” relating that the Soviet soldiers behaved with no less discipline than that of American GIs. He even praises political activism in the Soviet Zone that has allowed the founding of (socialist) parties, the publication of newspapers, and the reopening of schools. Having known Germany before the war, Kennedy is particularly impressed by the extent of the destruction he sees from – 28 –

Introduction

the air, in the streets, and in the shipyards. Like many foreign observers, he wonders what the impact of the Allied bombing raids were. Did the air raids accelerate Germany’s imminent defeat? Or did they result in senseless casualties? Was the death of so many civilians necessary? Journalists such as Janet Flanner, Martha Gellhorn, and Virginia Irwin were among the first to come to Germany with Allied troops and among the first to report on the extent of the destruction. They also estimated what impact this had on the morale of the population. Authors such as W. H. Auden and James Stern, who had stayed in the country before the Nazi dictatorship, now returned in order to interview German civilians for the US Strategic Bombing Survey, recording their experiences of the attacks. It was Kurt Vonnegut who provided the most impressive literary testimony of the traumatic destruction in his disturbing 1969 novel Slaughterhouse-Five. He had survived the massive air attack on the city of Dresden in February 1945 as a prisoner of war in the basement of an abattoir. Not long after Kennedy’s visit, the Italian filmmaker Roberto Rossellini made a semidocumentary in devastated Berlin with German lay actors in 1947. In it he described the material and psychic damage that had been done by the regime and the war by relating the story of a downtrodden youth who, still misled by Nazi ideology, kills his own father in desperation. Its title: Germania anno zero (Germany Year Zero). Kennedy arrives at a negative conclusion as far as the bombing campaign is concerned: “[T]he bombing of Germany was not effective in stopping their production.” And yet he considers the damage the bombers left behind considerable, as it will remain visible for a long time. As to the divided capital of a divided country—the city that he will visit again eighteen years later as president of the United States—he comes to a pessimistic hypothesis: “Berlin will remain a ruined and unproductive city.” – 29 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

It was only a few days after Kennedy had recorded this that air warfare would reach an unprecedented level of destruction. When Kennedy arrived in Potsdam, Truman had signed the order to deploy atomic weapons, and by the time the young journalist returned with Forrestal to the United States, the Japanese city of Hiroshima had been obliterated. Earlier on, Kennedy had seen the buildings of IG Farben, which had profited from the employment of forced labor in Auschwitz (Monowitz) and had also manufactured Zyklon B, the poison used to murder millions of Jews and other minorities in the gas chambers. The only place he mentions these German crimes, using the term “concentration camps,” is when he quotes a German woman: “People did not realize what was going on in the concentration camps.” The reporter himself sidelines existing knowledge of the genocide and the moral questions raised by it. He seems to be more interested in military technology, such as the bunker-cracking “Tallboy” bomb, the “Willow Run” for the serial production of long-range bombers, and the snorkel technique of German submarines. Such information, however, would have been available to Kennedy. Martha Dodd, the daughter of the US ambassador in Berlin, had explicitly warned in her widely read book Through Embassy Eyes that even before the war Hitler was bent on the “extermination” of the Jewish people. Edward Murrow visited Buchenwald before the end of the war and reported from the liberated concentration camp on the CBS radio program. “For most of it,” the veteran war reporter confessed, “I have no words.” At the same time, Kennedy seems to be aware of how certain attitudes among the Germans to follow authority (“almost docile in accepting directions”) and to execute orders (“extremely willing”) with great efficiency (“passion for accuracy”) had disastrous consequences: “The docility of the German bureaucrats demonstrates how easy it would be to seize power in – 30 –

Introduction

Germany.” What makes the difference is a charismatic and ruthless personality. At the end of his journey, Kennedy grapples with the dark fascination that Hitler continued to generate even after his death. There had been a long-standing interest in the Führer among foreigners even before the Nazi seizure of power. A myth had been created around this man who seemed quite ordinary and yet dangerous, ridiculous and yet diabolical. It arose after the American journalist Karl Henry von Wiegand interviewed Hitler—a mere political agitator in Bavaria at the time in 1922— portraying him as a “German Mussolini.” And the myth was analyzed in Dorothy Thompson’s 1932 book “I Saw Hitler!” in which she diagnosed the psychology of allegiance. In 1938, the British magazine Homes & Gardens put out a richly illustrated report on “Hitler’s Mountain Home.” It spoke admiringly of the stylish chalet high up on Obersalzberg in the Alps south of Munich, where the vegetarian Hitler, acting as “his own architect,” had designed his estate, the “Berghof,” giving him “the fairest view in all Europe.” Kennedy first visits the ruins of the former Reich Chancellery in Berlin before descending into Hitler’s bunker, where he describes the room in which the dictator shot himself and where there are still traces of the incineration of his body. Kennedy concludes his journey with a trip to Obersalzberg, where he visits Hitler’s Berghof, converted from the original “Haus Wachenfeld,” as well as the “Kehlsteinhaus” that had been added at the top and that the Americans called “Eagle’s Nest.” At the end of his German travelogue, which did not appear in any newspaper at the time and was only made available posthumously, Kennedy talks about Hitler’s “mystery.” The conclusion of his notes reads as follows: [W]ithin a few years Hitler will emerge from the hatred that surrounds him now as one of the most significant fig– 31 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

ures who ever lived. He had boundless ambition for his country which rendered him a menace to the peace of the world, but he had a mystery about him in the way that he lived and in the manner of his death that will live and grow after him. He had in him the stuff of which legends are made. The last sentence is a confusing reminder of the famous stanzas in William Shakespeare’s The Tempest: “We are such stuff / As dreams are made on.” This all the more so, as Prospero’s words are followed by a premonition of death: “and our little life / Is rounded with a sleep.” Kennedy wrote this under the impression of visiting a cursed place—Hitler’s personal residence surrounded by a majestic landscape and expressing a twilight magic. It seems that he was captivated by what Susan Sontag described in 1974 as “Fascinating Fascism,” i.e., an aesthetic attraction that this phenomenon had even on people who were themselves not Nazis. Thus, Kennedy describes Berchtesgaden, the place, its guesthouse, and its environment three times as “beautiful.” Hitler’s Eagle’s Nest is “famed” and “cleverly camouflaged.” Indeed, Kennedy writes about his impressions of defeated Germany with many positive attributes. Viewing the country from the plane, he finds it “peaceful.” The lake Kleiner Wannsee is “beautiful” and “wonderful,” a villa there “beautifully furnished.” The supply infrastructure during the air raids was “extremely well organized,” the submarine production “gigantic,” the construction of a shipyard “extremely clever,” a bunker a “masterpiece.” German boats he considers “superior,” “better,” “safer,” “cheaper.” Germans, he notes, are “good workers,” “efficient.” Some women he finds “very attractive.” The term “significant” that Kennedy uses to define Hitler’s role in history does not in itself contain a moral valuation. It is ambivalent, interpretable. But the idea that Hitler will “emerge” out of the present “hatred” within a few years and then appar– 32 –

Introduction

ently be reevaluated is misleading. The conjunction “but,” which opposes the alleged “mystery about him” with the actual war guilt (“a menace to the peace of the world”), threatens to obfuscate the latter. While the German crimes are explicitly mentioned only once in Kennedy’s text (when the woman whom he is interviewing utters the term “concentration camps”), these crimes are at most hinted at whenever there are references to Hitler. Kennedy’s account shows how difficult it is to come to terms with a dark fascination. For its author as for its readers, it ends with a mystery.

1963RETURN Back in Boston from Europe, Kennedy gives his first public political lecture on 11 September 1945 to the American Legion that is also broadcast on the same day. He talks about three countries, Britain, Ireland, and Germany, as “victor, neutral, and vanquished,” offering a digest of his recent trip on the basis of his notes: Berlin today is a gutted ruin. Its destruction far surpassed anything that I had ever imagined. The buildings which still stand are merely shells, and where the three million people who still remain in Berlin live, is a mystery. The streets are filled with them—their faces colorless, their lips a pale tan, their expressions lifeless and dead, as though they were suffering from shock. Occasionally, and it appears incongruous, you see a dog. They won’t last through this winter. The streets are swarmed with Russian soldiers who look young and stocky and tough, and grim and dirty. [. . .] The food problem is more acute in Berlin than anywhere else in Germany. The average ration runs to about twelve – 33 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

hundred calories, which is below the subsistence level. The city of Berlin is being administered as a single unit, and all the citizens—no matter in which section—get the same ration. The reason for this is obvious. If the United States fed their 700,000 people better than the Russians, for example, fed theirs, hungry Berliners would swarm into the American zone. Everyone in Berlin is therefore treated alike. The Russians have not only sent back all the food and machinery which they can move to Russia, but they are transporting nearly all the able-bodied Germans between the ages of 15 and 60 to Russia as laborers. [. . .] [T]he Russians have a long way to go before they win much support from the German people. The Russian army that first entered Berlin was a fighting army and it acted with great violence. Many Germans who might have been Communist sympathizers were thus alienated. Given his experiences, Kennedy is able to distinguish the situation in different parts of Germany (and Austria), but overall he outlines a uniformly pessimistic view of the future: In the western cities like Bremen, Frankfurt, and Salzburg, the people have been living very well up to now. They have had food reserves to supplement their low ration, but by winter these rations will be gone and they will be on a bare subsistence level. There will be no coal, and many of their houses have been destroyed. The Germans this winter will pay for their support of Hitler. On the basis of these observations, Kennedy finally adds his thoughts on the emerging postwar order. What is the future of Germany? Some people believe that Germany should be split up into principalities or divided – 34 –

Introduction

into zones of control as she is now. The objection to this solution, as Bismarck realized, is that Germany forms a geographical and economic unit. [. . .] Others say leave the Germans alone to work out their own salvation, they are too weak to ever menace us again. But Germany is in no position to build any kind of democratic government, and I do not think that it is particularly desirable for the United States to leave Germany a political vacuum which the Russians might be only too glad to fill. I believe that we should keep some measure of control indefinitely in Germany. The German people will never forget nor forgive this defeat. The French did not in 1870, and whether Nazi or anti-Nazi, there is no reason to believe the Germans will after their defeat in 1945. Their scientific experiments particularly must be carefully supervised, because science is fast learning the secret of annihilation. When Kennedy returns to Germany in 1963, these considerations of 1945 form the unspoken background to his last journey. Today’s collective memory of the Germans on the US president, who was assassinated a few months after his visit to West Berlin, essentially revolve around this trip and his muchquoted sentence, “Ish bin ein Bearleener,” with its affirmation of the freedom and security for the city surrounded and menaced by Soviet totalitarianism. Would this sentence have been said without his engagement with Germany that dates back to his experiences in 1937, 1939 and 1945? Kennedy knew Germany quite well. He undertook these trips as a tourist interested in European culture but also as a future elected official engaging in political and strategic studies as well as economic and social developments. Through his encounters with Germans he developed an empathy for them. He got to know them as a vacationer, yet perhaps learned to like or even “love” them. He saw people living in ruins, and he tried to un– 35 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

derstand them as he grappled with their abject support of Nazism, puzzling over Hitler and his uncanny myth or “mystery.” However, he never mentions in his many statements during his state visit that he had been to Germany several times before. He is shown around Cologne, Frankfurt, and Berlin, and even enters the Cologne Cathedral, as he had done in 1937. His hosts make references in their statements that Kennedy could have picked up, such as the mayor of Frankfurt mentioning instances of former presidents traveling to the city before assuming political office. Kennedy could have contrasted what he saw in 1937 with the new democracy, and what he saw in 1939 with the peaceful German present. But he kept silent. In a statement at the Frankfurt Römerberg, the president refers in passing to a visit he made to the city as a member of the House of Representatives during the Berlin Blockade. It is only in his toast to Willy Brandt, the mayor of West Berlin, that he mentions his earlier journey: “I came last to Berlin in July of 1945 and I saw a ruined city. So when I see these bright and shining buildings and, much more importantly, these young bright and shiny faces, I am not fooled that this has been an easy 18 years.” Only when he stands with Brandt in front of the walled-off Brandenburg Gate does Kennedy confide to him privately that he had been to Berlin before the war, on the other side of the new Wall and as a guest at the famous Hotel Adlon. In his public speeches, however, his three earlier trips are at most very indirectly alluded to. Thus, in front of West Berlin’s town hall in Schöneberg, he urges the representatives of a new isolationism to travel to Berlin themselves. Experiencing Berlin, he argues, would change their attitude and their view of the Soviet dictatorship: “Let them come to Berlin.” By repeating these words in subsequent statements to create emphasis, he resorts to a four-part epiphora: “Let them come to Berlin.” The individual components of this rhetorical figure can stand for the repeated – 36 –

Introduction

journeys that have furthered his own political development: “Let them come to Berlin.” With the concluding element, the speaker as traveler switches to the foreign language, as if he were now relating what he has said to himself and his own German experience: “Lust z nach Berlin comen” (according to a jotted note in his phonetic German). Those who do not understand the contrast between the “Free World” and Communism, Kennedy says, those who believe that Communism brings economic progress, and who perhaps even think that Communism is the future, should come to Berlin— that is, see for themselves at the Wall the aggressiveness, the violence, and the failure of this system. And before one of the largest and most enthusiastic audiences he has ever addressed, the president even goes so far as to claim that this also applies to anyone who considers even cooperation with communism possible at all. In short, the son of an advocate of Appeasement had become a Cold Warrior. He announced his antitotalitarian program in the country that had led him to form his attitude. Finally, he left behind one further hint to his earlier travels, this time during a reception by Georg August Zinn, the minister president of Hesse, in the spa center (Kurhaus) of Wiesbaden on June 25, 1963: “When I leave the office of the White House, whenever that may be, I am going to leave an envelope in the desk for my successor, and it will say ‘To be opened only in saddest moments.’ It will have only the words written: ‘Go visit Germany!’” As Kennedy left Germany on the following day and said farewell to Chancellor Adenauer at Berlin’s Tegel Airport, he came back to this idea and advice (“Go to Germany!”). He extends the “saddest moments” to a “a time of some discouragement” that a visit to Germany may put an end to. However, he then supplements his remarks by a sentence about himself. It looks as if he wants to recall the experiences of his earlier visits, pull out his notes of those trips, and announce that he himself will – 37 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

return: “I said yesterday that I was going to leave a note to my successor which would say: ‘To be opened at a time of some discouragement.’ And in it would be written just three words: ‘Go to Germany!’ I may open that note myself one day.”

– 38 –

Editorial Principles John F. Kennedy’s 1937 European diary is published here for the first time in English together with the diary of his friend and travel companion Kirk LeMoyne “Lem” Billings. Their journey took the two American students to France, Italy, Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Britain from early July to mid-September 1937. Both manuscripts are held by the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston. Kennedy’s daily observations take up some ninety pages in a notebook titled “My Trip Abroad.” Billings, on the other hand, compiled his recollections in an album, including in a transparent sheet after each page photos, postcards, and other travel souvenirs with brief identifications or commentaries. The last page of this ninety-page album features paper silhouettes of the two friends, produced, according to the stamp on them, at the World Exposition in Paris. John F. Kennedy’s diary was first published in German in John F. Kennedy: Unter Deutschen. Reisetagebücher und Briefe, 1937–1945, edited by Oliver Lubrich (Berlin: Aufbau 2013), 59–127, transcribed by the editor and translated by Carina Tessari. A selection from the original text appeared as “The Germans Really Are Too Good” in: Travels in the Reich, 1933–45: Foreign Authors Report from Germany, edited by Oliver Lubrich (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2010), 159–161. Lem Billings’s diary was first published in German in John F. Kennedy: Das geheime Tagebuch, Europa 1937, edited by Oliver Lubrich (Vienna: DVB, 2021), transcribed by the editor and translated by Carina Tessari. Both texts appear here for the first time in their entirety in the original English. Only individual paratexts are omitted, namely, in Kennedy’s case, some subsequent address notes, and in Billings’s case, the captions to the photos and postcards that he pasted between

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

the diary pages. (Hence his references to the pages with pictures on 13 August and 23 August 1937.) The historical value of the testimonies consists precisely in their unedited state, which corresponds to the limited knowledge of two young men in 1937. In order to interfere as little as possible with the historical testimonies, the content has not been corrected or annotated, even if it contains errors, inaccuracies, or ambiguities according to current knowledge. The observations that Kennedy and Billings recorded on-site and did not subsequently edit are not commented on individually (for example, the contradictory information provided by the two travelers on Roman churches and saint legends on 11 August 1937). A comprehensive commentary is provided in the afterword. In order to also preserve the spontaneous character of the records on the level of form, only traceable corrections are carried out by additions in square brackets. Other irregularities and errors of orthography were not corrected in the transcription. And they are not marked—the labeling “[sic]” is omitted. They are listed below as corrigenda. For some passages that cannot be deciphered with certainty, readings are suggested and listed below as conjectures. (For example, the last sentence in Kennedy’s diary entry of 1 September 1937.) Only punctuation has been carefully normalized where punctuation marks could not be clearly identified or distinguished, especially commas from dashes or + from & signs. Dates and times in each entry have been formally standardized (by completing the names of the months and adding subsequent dashes in Billings’ diary). The dates and the days of the week have been supplemented and corrected. (For example, Kennedy entered 29 August 1937 twice, which apparently shifted the days of the week of his subsequent entries inadvertently.) Missing apostrophes have not been added. Underlined words are rendered in italics. Titles of books and films have been italicized throughout. – 40 –

Editorial Principles

Differences in the spelling of names between the two diaries are left as such (“Reed”/“Reid,” “Pourtales”/“Pourtalis,” “Pompernay”/“Pomperney”). For the names of unknown persons, conjectures had to be made in some cases, which are documented in the following lists.

CORRECTIONS The following list of corrigenda records all those words that are incorrect in the original text but could not be corrected in an unambiguous manner (in angular brackets). They have not been amended in order to preserve the historical status of the documents. The contemporary level of knowledge of their twenty- and twenty-one-year-old authors remains visible. They are listed here in the order of their first occurrence. The following errors (corrigenda) occur in Kennedy’s diary: − Rheims ¤ Reims − Chateau ¤ Château − tres ¤ très − Orleans ¤ Orléans − Americain ¤ American/Américain − Chenonceaux ¤ Chenonceau − Angouleme ¤ Angoulême − Meditteranean ¤ Mediterranean − Irun ¤ Irún − Abbysina ¤ Abyssinia − Colloseum ¤ Colosseum − musuem ¤ museum − Germish ¤ Garmisch − Uberammagau ¤ Oberammergau − propagander ¤ propaganda − developement ¤ development – 41 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

− Urtrecht ¤ Utrecht − tomatoe ¤ tomato The following errors (corrigenda) occur in Billings’s diary: − Rheims ¤ Reims − medecine ¤ medicine − embaressment ¤ embarrassment − Ambassitor, Ambassidor ¤ Ambassador − Concierge ¤ Conciergerie − Orleans ¤ Orléans − Toreodors ¤ Toreadores − barbarious ¤ barbarous − arrouse ¤ arouse − ressembles ¤ resembles − appartment ¤ apartment − neices ¤ nieces − Spaggetti ¤ Spaghetti − Germish ¤ Garmisch − Oberammagau ¤ Oberammergau − Hofbrau ¤ Hofbräu − Wurtenberg ¤ Württemberg − quickley ¤ quickly − Koln ¤ Köln − Charings Cross ¤ Charing Cross − South Hampton ¤ Southamptom − heathes ¤ heaths − Edinbourgh ¤ Edinburgh

CONJECTURES The diaries contain passages that are not clearly decipherable. In each case a consistent conjecture is offered. – 42 –

Editorial Principles

The following conjectures were made in Kennedy’s diary: − Ben Welles, Robert, brother, Crimson, Burnham etc. (1−7 July) − The waiter + his sugar serving machines quite a problem. (1−7 July) − the minister to Haiti (26 July) − St. Luke (11 August) − Harrisson (15 August) − Joe & Scotie Schriber & Freddie Cosgrove (25 August) − a very good idea (26 August) − Indre Gardiner (26 August) − blood count with [?] is 4000 (29 August) − Sans the usual flood in the room (1 September) The following conjectures were made in Billings’s Diary: − Suekie (30 June–7 July) − Crimmius (30 June–7 July) − Mme. Lebrun (13 July) − Maine (15 July) − where Marie Antoinette was imprisoned (16 July) − they are rather static [stagnant?] (15 August) − Doris the maid (28 August) − he had a secture [section?] (10 September)

SOURCES John F. Kennedy, European Diary, July–September 1937, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston: Personal Papers, Box 1, Series 2, Early Years; Folder: Diary European Trip, 7/1/37−9/3/37. Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Travel Diary and Scrapbook, July–September 1937, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston: Kirk LeMoyne “Lem” Billings Personal Papers.

– 43 –

John F. Kennedy european diary, july–september 

july – s. s. washington Very smooth crossing. Looked pretty dull the first couple of days but investigation disclosed some girls—chiefly Ann Reid. Had cock-tails with the Captain who knew Sir Thomas Lipton and thus grand-pa. The chief source of interest was General Hill and his rather mysterious daughter. He was a congress man she might have been any thing. Ben Welles, Robert, brother, Crimson, Burnham etc. aboard so pretty good. The waiter + his sugar serving machines quite a problem. Stayed up to see Ireland.— Landed at Havre—headed first to Mt. St. Michel then turned to Rouen.

july  rouen + beauvais The cathedral at Rouen most impressive. We reached it only after turning around from our route to Mt. St. Michel. After lunching at Rouen we proceeded to Beauvais where we were greatly impressed by the height and size of the cathedral. Stayed at a little inn where we ran into the first of our Fr[ench] breaths. Went to a fair that night and then to bed.

july  – thursday reims Up at 12:00—wrote letters had lunch got our money and the medicine for Billings “mal d’estomac” after much trouble—Then to Soissons—saw the chemin des dames—one of the great scenes of fighting during the war. Also saw the cathedral that had been bombed—Then to Reims where we looked at the cathedral and – 47 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

to the Hotel Majesty (1.00 for room for 2). My French improving a bit + Billings breath getting French. Went to bed early. General feeling seems to be that there will not be another war.

july  – friday rheims – chateau thier[r]y + paris Got up around 10:00—Went up to the cathedral and then went out to the French fort Pompernelle [de la Pompelle]—scene of some of the war’s worst fighting. Then had lunch and visited the Champagne caves of Pompernay—located in the old chalk caves of the Gauls—Treated very well—then had a talk with the manager over a free bottle of champagne—The general impression seems to be that while they real[ly] like Roosevelt, his type of government would not suc[c]eed in a country like France which seems to lack the ability of seeing a problem as a whole. They don’t like Blum as he takes away their money and gives it to someone else. That to a French man is tres mauvais. The general impression also seems to be that there will not be a war in the near future and that France is much too well prepared for Germany. The permanence of the alliance of Germany + Italy is also questionable. From there we went to Chateau Thier[r]y picking up two French officers on the way. Arrived in Paris around eight. By mistake in French invited one of the officers to a dinner but suc[c]eeded in making him pay for part of it. Looked around and finally got a fairly cheap room for the night (35 francs).

july  – saturday paris Awoke at 1:00. Found a new place to stay for 40 francs. Have now acquired the habit of leaving the car around the block to – 48 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

keep the price from going up. Had the lights fixed and got another screwing. These French will try to rob at every turn. Went to Notre Dame then looked around Paris. That night went out to Moulin Rouge and Café of artists and met some of the wellknown French artists. Billings wanted to come home early but did not.

july  – sunday paris Went to Church then after lunch went out to Fontain[e]bleau. Very interesting—but not quite what you would expect as all seems very artificial. Rather crowded and the distinguishing mark of the Frenchman is his cabbage breath and the fact that there are no bath-tubs—Anyways fed the fishes chewing gum and returned for a movie and bed. Am having difficulty with the eggs as it [is] necessary to ask for them about six minutes as the stove is a bit off.

july  – monday paris Went over to the American Express Monday morning and located Pourtales, Iselin and finally got in touch with Ann Reid. Was a rotten day so went to see The Good Earth in the afternoon.

july  – tuesday paris Got up early and went to Notre Dame to hear Cardinal Pacelli. Terrific mob but by tagging on to an official managed to get a – 49 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

good seat right next to the altar. A very impressive ceremony which lasted for 3 hours. Billings had to wait in the body of the church. Had lunch with C. Offie, Bullitts secretary and then went out to Versailles which was very impressive. Found the stables and got a public bawling out. Took Ann Reed to Maurice Chevalier in the evening and was reminded greatly of the Old Howard. Went around a bit and then to bed.

july  – wednesday paris Slept late and in the afternoon went thru the Exposition: Quite a disap[p]ointment but aeroplanes were quite a success. Had dinner with Pourtales, Iselin, Ann Semler etc. and then took a look at the crowds in the street over the 14th of July. Met Jonas at Harry’s bar and went to a number of places. The main idea seems to be to buy champagne. Pretty entertaining evening.

july  – thursday paris Went over to the American Express in the morning and saw Bruce Lerner who now has a moustache. Had lunch with Billings friends from Princeton which was rather interesting though expensive. In the afternoon made a flying visit thru the Louvre, which I had done once before. That evening took in a movie and then went to bed. Have picked up quite a bit although my knowledge is quite vague. Have decided to read Inside Europe by Gunther.

– 50 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

july  – friday paris Got up early after much cursing and went over to Napoleons tomb and thru the Palace of the Invalides which is very interesting. Then over to the exposition and went up the Eiffel Tower after finally persuading Billings that it had the makings of quite a long hike. In the afternoon went to the Concierge[rie] where Marie Antonette was kept. Quite a contrast to Versailles. That night went to another movie with Ann Reid, and Billings went home.

july  – saturday paris, chartres, orleans Finally got ready to leave Paris after changing our ticket from the Pres. Harding which was reported by everyone to be terrible and 9 days to the Washington. This will necessitate me getting back 2 days late for football camp but it looks now as if I wont play. Saw Jonas at A. E. and then started out for Chartres. Stopped at Versailles to see the Trianon and saw Marie Antoinette[’s] idea of “roughing it.” Just got to Chartres—very impressive window and that night drove to Orleans arriving around 10:00. Much trouble with Montana.

july  – sunday orleans – chambord, amboise Went to mass at a cathedral and looked around a bit. Amazing what a small town it is. France is really quite a primitive nation. Went to the Chateau at Chambord which is quite a sight. A

– 51 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

hunting lodge which held 2,000 people. The roof laid out like a village—built by Francis I. Billings, amidst many groanings, lost his pocket-book but was able to recover it thru the assistance of a French girl. Picked up a couple of English fellows—one of whom went to Trinity College Cambridge—name of Ward. He said “to get on his scent,” which at that point would not have been hard. He considered Roosevelt the Best “dictator.” Went for a swim in the Loire which has quite a current and then drove on. Looked at the Chateau at Blois and stopped in for the night at Amboise in order to look at that chateau. Remembering the dog at the Americain cemetery at Chateau Thier[r]y decided not to go in that night. Went over to a fair and won our dog. (Mothers birthday.) Tree path at Blois impressive.

july  – monday amboise, chenonceaux, angoulême Up around 10:00 after breakfast in bed and looked at the Chateau which is really an amazingly impressive fort. Walls very high but beautiful inside. Saw Wall of the Conspirators where 1500 were hung and also the place where Charles VIII bumped his head and died. Finally thrown off the walls and continued to Chenonceau, built on the water which is also very impressive. Liked this one the best. Drove thru to Angouleme, thru Tours at Poitiers, both deserted towns, and spent the night for 10 francs each.

july  – tuesday angouleme to st. jean de luz Started driving around 11:00. Stopped in for lunch around 2:00. Had our usual difficulty cashing our travellers checks. Eu– 52 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

rope is not nearly as tourist conscious as we expected. Very impressed by the little farms we have been driving thru. America does not realize how fortunate they are. These people are satisfied with very little and they have very little so it is really a very conservative country, at least outside of Paris. Finally found Pourtales + Iselin. A movie and then to bed—after the club Cesari.

july  – wednesday st. jean de luz Wrote letters all morning and on beach in afternoon. Movie at night.

july  – thursday st. jean-de-luz Slept late. In the afternoon saw a game of pelot[a]. Reminded of the book Ramuntcho [by Pierre Loti] where this game is first described. Much slower than Jai-[a]lai also a game played with bats. Went for a swim and then that night, after a cocktail party of Wilsons played Boule—lost seventy francs. Was out with French girl. Their customs very strict requiring a chaperone until 21 or so.

july  – friday st. jean-de-luz Up early + down on the beach. Tennis in the afternoon and Plainsman at night. Gary Cooper speaking French as well as the Indians is worth the price of admission. – 53 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

july  – saturday st. jean-de-luz Down on the beach all morning and part of the afternoon. Over to Biar[r]itz in the afternoon for tickets to the bull-fight. Rather governmental after reading Gunther even though St. Jean is rebel strong hold. England opposes Franco as they don’t want Meditteranean a Fa[s]cist lake. Question of how much influence Germany and Hitler have. Russia’s position. How far countries will go in having their side win? What type of government would Franco have? England and Germany?

july  – sunday st. jean de luz Went to Church at 10:00 for high mass where Louis XIV married Marie Therese. Very beautiful. After lunch went over to Biar[r]itz—then drove down to Spanish Border with WilsonPort[ales]-Iselin etc. and saw the town of Irun, that had been bombed by the Rebels. Story of father starved kept in prison without food for a week brought in piece of meat, ate it—then saw his son’s body with piece of meat cut out of it turns me a bit from government. Government too divided also to make Spain unified ever. England changing a bit to Franco.

july  – monday st. jean-de-luz bull-fight On the beach all morning. Met Mrs. Meyer, wife of the minister to Haiti who had met Mother and Kick in Berlin, last summer.

– 54 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

In the afternoon went to a bull-fight. Very interesting but very cruel, especially when the bull gored the horse. Believe all the atrocity stories now as these southerners, such as these French and Spanish, are happiest at scenes of cruelty. They thought funniest sight was when horse ran out of the ring with his guts trailing. Managed to buy some spears later for 20 c each.

july  – tuesday lourdes – toulouse Left Pourtales after much excitement and headed for Marseilles. Stopped on our way to look at Lourdes, the grotto where the Virgin appeared to St[e]. Bernadette—and now the scene of thousands of sick people seeking cures. Very interesting but things seemed to become reversed as Billings became quite ill after leaving. Decided to go to Toulouse for the night. Billings temp 103°.

july  – wednesday toulouse Toulouse very hot. Waiting over for a day until poor old Billings gets healthy. Have continued reading Gunther. Not quite as positive now about Franco victory. Shows that you can be easily influenced by people around you if you know nothing and how easy it is for you to believe what you want to believe, as the people of St. Jean do. The important thing in the question of victory is—how far will Germany, Italy + Russia go in trying to secure victory for their side, how sincere the non-intervention committee is—+ what the results will be.

– 55 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

july  – thursday toulouse – carcassonne – cannes Left Toulouse and stopped in at Carcassonne—an old medieval town in perfect condition—which is more than can be said for Billings. Very interesting. Arrived at Cannes around nine after a drive of 350 miles and stopped at a fairly expensive hotel 35 fr. The service is 15 percent which is really robbery. Cannes seems to have much more life than Biar[r]itz. Will stay here until the “invalid” is well. A much different France here than the poor poverty stricken France, thru which we drove.

july  – friday cannes Went swimming in the morning. A beautiful beach—in the afternoon slept. That night went to the Palm Beach Casino and tried to do a bit of contacting with the American girls but no avail. Looked around a bit afterwards—Billings having a date with Simone Corsica.

july  – saturday cannes – monte carlo Awoke late—feeling none too spry. Dried on the beach for about an hour and then started off to Monte Carlo via Nice. Went by way of the Grand Cassien up thru the mountains. Very beautiful. Stayed in Monte Carlo for 15 fr. Went to see Ben Hur that night. Was not allowed in the Casino but managed to get in the sporting club—broke even after giving them a scare. Very beautiful there—in fact the best looking night club I’ve ever seen.

– 56 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

august  – sunday monte carlo – savona Went to Church and then up to the beach. Managed to get in for nothing. Saw Jane Kaufman there who was very gracious. Saw our first good-looking foreign girls. In the afternoon went over the border with a great deal of difficulty into Italy. Bought some hotel coupons. The Italian streets are much more full and lively then those of France and the whole race seems more attractive. Fa[s]cism seems to treat them well.

august  – monday savona – genoa – milan After a bit of trouble over our hotel bill we hopped to Milan via Genoa. Stayed at the hotel with a Fa[s]cist proprietor who had been to Abbysina which he said was easy to conquer but uncomfortable. Very impressed by the intelligence of some of the children Bobby’s age and by the fact that they all seem regimented. Pictures of Mussolini everywhere. How long can he last without money and is he liable to fight when he goes broke. If not—I don’t see how there can be a war till 1945 or 50. Car locked in church yard.

august  – [tuesday] milan – piacenza Slept late and in the afternoon took an American Express Tour thru Milan. Beautiful cathedral, one of the worlds largest*. A cardinal buried there with numerous jewels by Cellini etc. His skeleton carried thru the city in its glass coffin every 100 yrs.

– 57 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

Last time in 1910 part of the glass broke and his skull turned black. Saw the “Last Supper” of Leonardo da Vinci. Billings managed to take picture of me in cemetery where forbidden but had the shutter wrong. Likewise I got him in the cathedral suitably but forgot to turn the picture so we have 2 more good ones for our collection. Went on to Piacenza. Finished Gunther and have come to the decision that Fa[s]cism is the thing for Germany and Italy, Communism for Russia and democracy for America and England. Thought Gunther’s book very interesting but he seems to be more than partial to socialism and communism and a bitter enemy of Fa[s]cism. What are the evils of Fa[s]cism as opposed to communism? * Biggest windows—1 family 35 lir.

august  – [wednesday] piacenza – pisa Had great difficulty escaping due to Billings’ being accused of tearing Madame’s towel, leaving one half on the writing table and the other in the toilet. Big crowd and much cursing in Italian. Picked up a German boy Martin on our way to Pisa. Rather interesting as he was anti-National Socialist and Hitler. He told us of many of the abuses they suffer. Told us of the radio station from Russia that told the Germans 3 weeks ahead that they were going to have ration cards for their butter. Told us how the Germans hated the Russians. Looks as if the next war would come from that direction especially as England and the rest of Europe seem to be drawing away from Russia. Went thru the tower of Pisa and the Bap[t]istry which has an echo like an organ and then continued on our way to Rome, stopping at a little town about 150 kil.

– 58 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

august  – [thursday] rome Martin and Krause, our other German voyager, being “woken” after sleeping all night in the car—we started out for Rome. Its amazing with how little they can get along. Martin had some tomatoes and bread for supper the night before costing a lira and a half. Decided to take a swim and it was almost our finish as it took more than two hours to get the car out of the sand and the air back in the tires. Arrived in Rome around five-thirty and went to the American Express where I got a wire from Dad and heard that mother and Joe were on their way to Europe with Kick. Dropped off Martin and Krause and then went and found a hotel. That night “snuck” into the Colosseum and found it filled with people. Very impressive by moon-light.

august  – [friday] rome Up around nine—but by the time I had had my shoes “painted” which took around 35 min.—it was over 11 before we got up to Galeazzi who wasn’t in. Tried to see Cortesi—New York Times Corespondent. He wasn’t in either, nor was Mr. Philipps but was saved from complete failure by seeing Mr. Reed, Counselor of the Embassy—very attractive fellow. Saw the St. Angelo (Tomb of Hadrian), Pantheon, Colloseum, Forum in the afternoon— have decided that the Italians are the nosiest race in existence— they have to be on everything—even if it is only Billings blowing his nose. Galeazzi called late and mumbled something about an audience.

– 59 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

august  – [saturday] rome Went to Galeazzi’s early and met him and learned we were going to have an audience. Went to his apartment and met Bishop Spellmans three nieces. Started out in Galeazzi’s car and went to the Popes summer Palace. Had a private audience with Cardinal Pacelli first who asked after Mother and Dad. He is really a great man, although his English is rather poor. Afterwards had an audience with the Pope with nearly 1,000 in the room which was packed. He looked very sick but made a long speech. After that we went to lunch and then to Tivoli to see the beautiful fountains which are amazing. The most unusual is the one that played music by means of the water rushing thru it. We then returned to Rome—and had dinner at Galeazzi’s. He gave me quite a talk about the virtues of Fa[s]cism and it really seemed to have its points especially the corporative system which seems quite an interesting step forward.

august  – sunday rome – naples – vesuvius – pompeii Went to mass at St. Peters which was terribly impressive being by far the most beautiful building we had yet seen. Started out for Naples immediately afterwards arriving there around two 2. Paid out 26 lire immediately to use the autostrada and learned that the only way we could see Pompeii was to sneak in—which we did. Left for Vesuvius + picking up a couple of German soldiers on the way. Amidst much cursing from the car we got to the top after great expense. It was night by this time and Vesuvius which gave off minor eruptions every few minutes was very impressive. Got some pictures up there and then went down taking our guide with us who turned out to be the village – 60 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

smoothie. Had to run the autostrada as our ticket had been lost and it was quite exciting. Managed to get a room late at night; after much hand-holding with a very unattractive chambermaid—managed to get a good room—tired but happy.

august  – monday capri – rome Left for Capri after much scurrying around and looking for money and finally borrowed it from the Germans who were also on their way. Went to the blue Grotto which is a cave under the water, the water having a beautiful blue color—although not beautiful and blue enough for 30 lire which we finally scraped together. Bought our share of boxes at Capri which was quite beautiful and then left for home—Rome our final destination arriving around 2:00 with the Germans in the back-seat.

august  – tuesday rome Went to the Express in the morning and heard from Eunnie + Torb + Olive. In the afternoon went to see Mr. Cortesi—the N.  Y. Times man in Rome. He was very interesting and gave me some very good points. Seemed to feel that non-intervention committee was a safety valve but not of much actual good as none of the countries would like to recall their armies—the Reds expecially as most of their volunteers were from all corners of the world. It would be unlikely that Italy would bring out hers also. Said that there were few Germans in Spain. Also said that war seemed unlikely as if anyone had really wanted war there had been plenty of excuses for it. Also explained about – 61 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

Mussolini statement of war—which were just the latin way of saying what England was saying about Peace and rearmament. Said Fa[s]cism was not now unfair to the worker—in fact under it he got many advantages. Very much in favor of the Corporative system. He said chief danger of a war was that someone would call Italy’s or Germany bluff—more Germany as Italy had to digest Ethiopia. Spoke of Fa[s]cism as being out and out socialism. Said Europe was too well prepared for war now—in contrast to 1914. That night took out some dates that turned out quite well. Very beautiful girls al[t]hough our not speaking Italian was a temporary damper. Billings knew some Italian parlor tricks that were worth remembering and we went to bed tired but happy!

august  – wednesday rome Went with Mr. Conti thru the Vatican musuem although were not so spry. Did it in about 1 hour. Went to lunch and were met by Billings girl who needed car-fare. This went on quite a while and the Lemmer got a bit disgusted as well he might. In the afternoon took in some of the churches—doing St. Jean Laterano on our knees—the steps that Christ used being there. Got thru the catacombs and heard about some more miracles—of St. Luke and St. Peters head.

august  – thursday rome – florence Left for Florence around 12:00 after much battling with the cross-eyed proprietor who turned out to be a terrific crook de– 62 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

spite being an “Italian and a gentleman.” Managed to save about 60 lire but left Rome amidst the usual cursing porters. Reached Florence late and stayed in our best hotel of the trip.

august  – friday florence – venice Looked around Florence in the morning and rather disap[p]ointed, although quite impressed by Mich[el]angelo’s David. Left in the afternoon for Venice and quite impressed by the canals which were much more numerous than we expected. Once again we got our 25 lire room while the Germans got theirs for 8. Will have to get some shorts.

august  – saturday venice Went over to the Excelsior Beach at the Lido in the morning and saw Barbara Hutton and Al Lerner, though not together. Then ran into Joe and Elie Hoguet and had dinner with them that night. Very impressed by the Piazza at San Marco’s which is really unbelievable. Getting a bit fed up with spag[h]etti also. Found that the Hoguets were living much much cheaper than we. Put in our usual bad night with mosquitoes as our net just seemed to lock them in.

august  – sunday venice Went to mass at St. Marco’s after much difficulty—then over to the Lido where Al Lerners cabana did us good service. Then – 63 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

sat on the dock with Hoguets—Dumpling + Harrisson then we went to the American Bar and Billings finally had his picture taken with the pigeons. Had dinner with Hoguets etc. and went to listen to the concert in the square. Went out in a gondola which would have been quite romantic except that as usual Billings managed to make a gay threesome. Billings objects to this most unjust statement as Kennedy is always pushing himself in.

august  – monday venice to innsbruck Due to the rain—decided to leave for Munich. Picked up a bundle of fun to take with us in addition to Heinz and set out. Bad driving and by the time we got to the Brenner Pass, it was pretty cold. The Austrian people impressed us very much as they were certainly different from the Italians. Stayed at a youth hostel in Innsbruck which caused “her Ladyship” much discomfiture. It was none too good as there were about 40 in a closet and it is considered a disgrace to take a bath.

august  – tuesday innsbruck – munich Left early, though not from choice. Her Ladyship stated that her night had been far from pleasant. Started over the alps to Germany after exacting money from Johanna who was rather upset. Stopped at Germish where the Olympic games were held—then to Uberammagau where I saw the Christus—Anton Lang. Arrived in Munich around eight and went to the Hofbrau house which was very interesting. Hitler seems so popular here

– 64 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

as Mussolini was in Italy, although propagander seems to be his strongest weapon.

august  – wednesday munich Got up late and none too spry. Had a talk with the proprietor who is quite a Hitler fan. There is no doubt about it that these dictators are more popular in the country than outside due to their effective propaganda. Went to see the Deutsches Museum in the afternoon which is terribly interesting, as it outlines the different steps in mining and shows the developement of aviation etc. A great job and shows the German sense of detail. That night went to see Swing High, Swing Low for the 2nd time and enjoyed it more than the first—Probably because we havent seen a picture lately. When we arrived back at the car found a note from Pourtales + Iselin and met them at the Hofbrauhaus with Ann Hollister + Joe Garrety from Harvard. Went to a Munich night club which was a bit different.

august  – thursday munich – nuremburg After the usual amount of cursing and being told we were not gentlemen we left the Pension Bristol for the American Express. Saw Pourtales + Iselin there—broke—lent them 20.00 and then started out for Nuremberg. Stopped on the way and bought “Offie,” a dach[sh]und of great beauty for 8.00 as a present for Olive. Immediately got hay fever etc. so it looks like the odds are about 8–1 towards Offie getting to America.

– 65 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

august  – friday nuremberg – wurtenberg Started out as usual except this time we had the added attraction of being spitten on. Due to the cold stopped short of Frankfurt. Offie is quite a problem because when he’s got to go—he goes.

august  – saturday wurtenberg – koln (cologne) Started out for Cologne by way of Frankfurt, where we stopped to look for more dach[sh]unds, Offie being so attractive. However, no luck so continued on our way up the Rhine. Very beautiful as there are many castles all along the way. All the towns are very attractive, showing that the Nordic races certainly seem superior to the Latins. The Germans really are too good— it makes people gang against them for protection . . .

august  – sunday cologne – amsterdam Got up in the worst day we’ve had yet and parted on good terms with the woman for about the first time. The women seem to be the more honest—strange as it seems. Went to mass at the cathedral which is really the height in Gothic architecture. The most beautiful really of all we have seen. From there headed for Urtrecht on one of the new autostrades that are the finest roads in the world. Really un[n]ecessary though, in Germany as the traffic is so small but they would be great in U.S. as the speed is unlimited. Looked around for some more dogs and then went across the border into Holland where every one looks like Juli-

– 66 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

ana + Bernhard. Payed a tax on entering for the roads instead of having it added on to the gasoline which I think is a very good idea, as it makes gasoline so much cheaper and makes traveling cheaper, at least for tourists. I suppose the small size of the country has something to do with it though. Stopped in at Doorn and saw where the Kaiser lives, although his place is entirely surrounded by barbed wire. Went on then to Amsterdam where we stayed for 2 guilders.

august  – monday amsterdam – hague Up and went around to see if we could find another Dach[sh]und, even going so far as to go to the dog market—but no luck. Went thru the musuem and saw Rembrandts famous Night Watch which has had such an interesting history. In the afternoon had a test made to see if it was the Dunker who was giving me the hay fever. Decided it was and then set out for the Hague, where we had our hotel cheap due to not having any money.

august  – tuesday the hague – antwerp Got up and went over to the American Express where we ran into a man who was interested in us giving him the hound. We decided to think this over—first taking a look around the Hague which was sort of dull, under the direction of one of the aid to British students who do it gratis. Sold the hound for 5 guilders then set out for Antwerp where I called mother “collect” which however cost me 60 francs. I should learn more exact French.

– 67 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

august  – wednesday ghent – london Left Ghent where we stayed the night and went to the beach at Ostend which was much too cold—so continued on to Calais where we discovered we had missed the channel boat. Still had five minutes to get the mail boat but due to some misunderstanding with Billings over the passport missed it by ten seconds although Billings managed to get a good work-out which he badly needed. Went to Boulogne and took the mail boat there as I wanted to see Joe + Kick before they left London. Billings stayed on with the car. Arrived in London with a Mr. Naylor who knew Grandpa, and went around to meet Kick, Joe & Scotie Schriber & Freddie Cosgrove who was with Kick. He gave me a[n] ad[d]ress to stay at.

august  – thursday london Went to lunch with Doug Wilkinson + Mr. Harrisson at the Savoy and then went shopping with Kick. Joe was down to see Harold Laski. Met Billings and then went around to 17 Talbot Square which looked very good. That night Kick treated us to French without Tears—a very good idea. Ran into Indre Gardiner and Colter—Sam Merrills roommate. Went to the Dorchester House afterwards.

august  – friday london Up early—just managing to catch the train for Southampton which Joe + Kick were taking. Saw Mother at the boat and helped – 68 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

myself to a liberal dose of chocolates and tomatoe juice. When I arrived back in London found myself with the hives. Went home and was damn sick.

august  – saturday london Still sick—had very tough night. Billings got a  “neat” doctor who wondered if I had mixed my chocolate + tomatoe juice in a big glass. Finally convinced him I hadn’t. Got another Dr.

august  – sunday london Still with the hives. A new doctor for my hives + blood count with is 4000.

august  – monday [sunday] london Less hives + a new doctor. Blambo arrived in town. Listened to Tommy Farr fight Joe Louis + won 6 bob from the Welsh element. Met Blambos girl-friend who was very entertaining.

august  – tuesday [monday] london Felt okay so got up late in the afternoon and shopped a bit. Movie in the night.

– 69 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

august  – wednesday [tuesday] london Got in touch with Sir Paul Latham who invited us down to his castle at [Herstmonceux].

september  – thursday [wednesday] london – herstmonceux castle Shopped all day then started down for Sir Paul’s place. Terrific— big castle with beautiful furnished rooms. One room forty yards long—a bedroom. Had goose for dinner and stayed up to about 3. Sans the usual flood in the room.

september  – friday [thursday] herstmonceux castle Decided to leave that night but as the day wore on—Herstmonceux got more + more appealing a wonderful place. However due to the gentle persuasion of that timid soul Stanley set out for London and got the 10:30 train for Sir James. Got just a blanket and a pillow as we were 3rd class. Very uncomfortable.

september  – saturday [friday] kinrossshire Arrived at Ledlanet about 8:30 and went fishing with Sir James during the morning. A rather difficult feat, casting that fly and Sir James caught most of them—as all ours had to be thrown back. In the afternoon tried for some rabbit without any suc[c]ess. Very good meals here—the bed hour is 10:00 and from then on – 70 –

European Diary, July–September 1937

it is quite perilous to move about as Sir James is very cautious on the electricty.

 1. Is Mussolini more popular now than before the Abyssinian Question. 2. If the belligerent foreign troops were withdrawn, how much chance would Franco have. Englands attitude. 3. If Franco wins, what will be the extent of Mussolini’s control. Hitler’s?—Is there any chance of conflict of those 2 countries. 4. Isn’t the chance of war less as Britain gets stronger—or is a country like Italy liable to go to war when economic discontent is rife.

Wouldn’t Mussolini go if there was a war—as in all likelihood Italy would be defeated in major war.

Would Fa[s]cism be possible in a country with the economic distribution of wealth [as] in the U.S.

Could there be any permanence in an alliance of Germany and Italy or are their interests too much in conflict—Austria + Yugoslavia. Frances position? Russias position?

Gunther says “Fa[s]cism, momentarily powerful, may be the convulsive last agonies of the capitalist cycle, in which case Fa[s]cism will have been merely the prelude of communism.” Is this true? – 71 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

JOHN FITZGERALD KENNEDY (1917–1963), John F. Kennedy for short, later often referred to simply by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth president of the United States of America. A politician of the Democratic Party, from 1961 to 1963 he served in office during the height of the Cold War and saw historic events such as the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the construction of the Berlin Wall, the beginning of manned spaceflight, the escalation of the Vietnam War, and the African American civil rights movement. Because he ascended to the presidency at a young age and exuded a charisma unusual to that office, he embodied for many the hope for a renewal of the United States. The reasons for his assassination in 1963 are still disputed today. As a young man, Kennedy traveled to Nazi Germany three times: in 1937, 1939, and 1945. His private notes on these trips were never published during his lifetime. Now his diary from 1937 is printed for the first time in English, together with the diary of his friend and travel companion Lem Billings.

– 72 –

John F. Kennedy in Chambord. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 73 –

Kennedy climbing the walls of Carcassonne. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 74 –

Kennedy in Cannes. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 75 –

Billings in Cannes. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA

– 76 –

Kennedy at the border between France and Italy. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 77 –

Kennedy in front of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 78 –

Kennedy inside the Dome of Pisa. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 79 –

Kennedy with two German hitchhikers. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

Billings and Kennedy at the Vatican. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 80 –

Perseus with Medusa’s Head, Florence. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 81 –

The Rape of Polyxena, Florence. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 82 –

Kennedy feeding the pigeons at San Marco. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 83 –

Kennedy with girls at the Lido. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 84 –

Kennedy juggling in Nuremberg. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 85 –

Kennedy juggling in Nuremberg. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 86 –

Kennedy and Billings with dachshund Offie. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 87 –

Kennedy with dachshund. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 88 –

Kennedy with dachshund. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 89 –

Dachshund Offie in Kennedy’s car. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 90 –

Kennedy in The Hague. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 91 –

On the beach in Ostend. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 92 –

The car is brought ashore in Dover. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 93 –

Kennedy in London. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 94 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings scrapbook, july–september 

june  – july  –  Sailed on S. S. Washington June 30. Mother, Uncle Ike, Florence Page, Blambo & Suekie saw me off. Slept the first few days—had an inside cabin, so we lost all idea of time.—Looked like it was going to be a pretty dull crossing as far as people were concerned.—but soon discovered a fairly nice “bit of Irish”—Eileen O’Connor.—won 30 at Bingo.—Later met a friend of the Woods and Dan Coyle, Louise Berry—Kennedy was well taken care of by Ann Reid. A guy by the name of general Hill and his rather mysterious daughter kept the parties going. He was a congressman—she might have been anything. Many Johnny Harvards aboard—among whom was old Choatie Crimmius—so things were kept pretty gay. We stayed up all night to see Ireland.— found it not worth it as it necessitated sleeping the entire next day. It was an extremely smooth crossing—so was unable to test my stomach—however that was just as well—as the food was marvelous.—We had a communiste waiter—who never cracked a smile except when the boat was held up in Ireland—and he heard it had cost the Line over $1000.—That had him rolling on the deck.—We arrived in Havre July 7th.—and after watching all the fenders of Jack’s car get scratched—as it came from the boat—we got started on our trip.

july  – rouen + beauvais Today we got our first taste of the French people.—it was rather fun at just trying out our extremely doubtful French on them; immediately impressed by the looks of the French farm houses. They are so extremely different than any buildings in America. We started our tour of the Cathedral country by first going to Rouen. There seeing our first Cathedral we were extremely impressed. I was especially glad to see the building that practi– 97 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

cally made me flunk my final Art exam. We also saw the Butter tower, which the people of Rouen built by the butter tax. I don’t see how they collected very much, as butter is just as scarce as gold around here. Another Art 202 stickler, Eglise St. Maclou is also in Rouen. We had our first wrestle with foreign food in Rouen, and had quite a meal of it, despite the luke warm boiled milk. We got to Beauvais pretty late but found a little French Inn where they spoke us English, and the land lady’s breathe was something to walk to Paris on. The interior of Beauvais is just as impressive as we are told it is. No one could possibly imagine the tremendous height of this building. It is hard to comprehend how the ancient French were able to plan and build such a thing.—as the modern French appear to be perfectly incapable of building anything. We were equally impressed by the very interesting clock that this Cathedral contained. It only has to be wound every hundred years.—We went to the fair that night and saw our first group of French soldiers. There were hundreds of them. France seems to be pretty well prepared so far as an active army is concerned.

july  – soissons – rheims Up late and discovered Kennedy in need of medecine.—finally got it after much discussion with the Lady proprietor of a Beauvais drug store. We drove to Soissons where we saw the Chemin des Dames. This was one of the greatest scenes of the fiercest fighting during the war. Of course it now looks merely like a very peaceful agricultural country—had a long talk with two French peasants about it—but neither the peasants or ourselves got very much out of the conversation—We stopped at a Cathedral bombed by the Germans—and saw the hole where 2000 French peasants hid.—The guide proudly told us his mother had cooked corned beef for them. We later met her—and she – 98 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

appeared to have eaten nothing but garlic since the war. The Guide, like all the other French we’ve spoken to—seemed to feel very confident that there would not be another war for a long long time—and if there was, France was well enough prepared—at least to lick Germany. I’m anxious to see if Germany is as swarming with soldiers as France appears to be. We arrived in Rheims pretty late—so got a room at a small Inn, and continued trying to struggle with the French language.—however we already seem to be learning the necessary words, we found Rheims night life plenty dead so went to bed early.

july  – rheims, chateau thierry – paris Up fairly early and went up to the Cathedral—found it more than beautiful—Its facade is remarkable. However the Cathedral was bombed by the Germans—and a great part of the facade is mutilated. Took some unusual pictures under Joan of Arc’s statue—however they didn’t come out. We went out to the French fort Pompernelle—the scene of some of the war’s worst fighting. It was awfully interesting as very little of it is damaged. At one time it was occupied by the Germans. After lunch we visited the champagne caves of Pomperney.—They are built from the old Gallic chalk caves. During the war many of the French hid there. We were treated to a bottle of champagne & Jack had a long political talk—belly laugh—with the English speaking head. From there we went to Chateau Thierry after picking up a couple of French officers. We saw the American Monument which is the most beautiful in fact the only modern edifice in France. We also went to the American Graveyard, but were darned near eaten up by a watch dog there.—after climbing over the closed gates.—We finally arrived in Paris around eight.—one of the officers thought we had invited him to dinner.—so there was much embar[r]essment when the check ap– 99 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

peared. After a great deal of trouble we finally found a none too good room & settled down for our first night in Paris.

july  – paris Up very late—and being kicked out of our first abode—we found what seemed to be a very good + cheap one by the unique Parisian name “Montana”—we are very careful to leave the car around the block + then apply for rooms looking as poverty stricken as possible. We took the car in to be repaired + were naturally ripped. These French try to rob you at every turn. We looked around Paris a bit + tried to get our bearings. We saw Notre Dame which is really not half so impressive as Beauvais + Rheims. That night we took a look at Paris night life—we expected to find this town flooded with Americans—but didn’t find any. We took in Moulin Rouge + Café of Artists, and had quite a time—hurrying home to bed tired but happy.

july  – paris We went to church at St. Etienne + after lunch drove out to Fontainebleau. This is a very interesting place—but we were a bit disappointed in it as it all seems a bit artificial and gaudy. It was very crowded + it was therefore necessary to get on entirely too intimate terms with the French nation. The lack of bath tubs + the typical cabbage breath, make them not too attractive at close quarters. The pond near the chateau is filled with very ugly and unusually greedy fish—everyone was feeding them bread—so we succeeded in giving a few of them indigestion by giving them a variety of chewing gum + brightly colored paper.—We went back to the hotel where badly boiled eggs were to be our chief diet. – 100 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

july  – paris We went to the American Express expectantly looking for mail in the morning—but neither of us got any. We did locate Iselin + Portales. Two of Kennedy’s Harvard friends—and also found Anne Reid—We spent most of the morning trying to locate Caesar’s hotel only to find he’d checked out an hour before we got there. It was a rotten day—so we all went to the movies in the afternoon The Good Earth—a great many of the Paris movies seem to be in English.

july  – paris Got up very early so we could get to Notre Dame in time to hear Cardinal Pacelli give mass.—There was an enormous typical French mob—I mean by typical, bad smelling and pushy.— Somehow Kennedy managed to get into the reserved seat section + sit within inches of Mme. Lebrun.—but I got caught trying to do the same thing too + had to content myself with standing with the rest of Paris through a service that lasted more than 3 hours—and which I couldn’t see any way.—We had lunch with a guy by the name of Offie, Ambassitor Bullett’s secretary—he seemed quite a self-animated little nut. Afterwards we went to Versailles—with which we were more than impressed. Those old Frenchmen really knew how to live in luxury.—its impossible to conceive the size of this place—we got our complete fill of seeing statues, paintings etc. of Louis Quatorze—That boy certainly liked to look at himself. In Versailles everywhere you turn there he is sitting. We got into some English tour + the guide took it upon himself to give Kennedy a long and fierce public bawling out—for daring to ask a question “without being in his party.” We managed to find the stables and took a self conducted tour thru them. That evening we took Ann Reid to – 101 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

hear Maurice Chevalier musical show—he’s darned good. Just like he was on the screen.

july  – paris We slept very late and after lunch took in the Exposition—it was quite a disappointment.—There is just too much to see—so much that you really see nothing—we got plenty tired walking around. The Russian + German buildings which are ironically right across from each other—are very impressive. Half of the Exposition is unfinished—so you can’t tell what a lot of the two buildings even are. We had dinner with Iselin, Pourtales + a couple of girls they had met—afterwards drove around Paris to watch the French celebrate their national holiday. Paris is really very beautiful at night. We met Harvard’s J. Press—a guy by the name of Jonas, who is plenty typical at Harry’s bar—afterwards went a number of places—found Paris night life none too exciting—the main idea seems to be to buy a glass of champagne at each place.

july  – paris Went to American Express in morning and saw old Choatie Bruce Lerner—who is married and has a great moustache now.—got a wire from Blambo, saying he was coming to Europe later in August—wired him not advisable since then we would see so damned little of him.—wish he could have come over with us in beginning. We had lunch with Jack Miller + his older brother, Maine’s friend—had a plenty expensive meal due to our over insistence of paying the check. Looked around Paris a bit that afternoon + took in a movie that night.

– 102 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

july  – paris After much cursing climbed out of Montana beds + hurried over to Napoleon’s tomb—which is really impressive. The coffin being tremendous + of the greatest shade of red marble—we took a trip thru the palace of the Invalides—+ saw a bit more of Louis Quatorze likenesses—altho—Napoleon really holds the scene there. We took a flying tour thru the Louvre rather too bad as we probably missed a lot.—The wingless Victory and Mona Lisa, The Sculptor Le Moyne’s self portrait—being of chief interest. In the afternoon—we took in a bit more of the exposition + went up the Eiffel Tower—it looked like it would be quite a sporting climb—but after we had intimately seen its height, we were more than grateful to the guy who built the elevator.— We alas took in the Concierge[rie] where Marie Antoinette was imprisoned, just before her execution.—The smallness of her cell is unbelievable.—quite a contrast from Versailles. Took in another movie that night + hurried back to our little Parisian home the Montana.

july  – paris – chartres – orleans Finally got all set to leave Paris—and left the little Montana. We got a very grim disappointment—when the little Innkeeper + his wife to whom we had gotten very attracted—tried to jyp us as much as they could—finally got the bill down a little, + parted with many less smiles + calls of “Have a good promenade” as usual. Changed our return tickets to the Washington instead of the President Harding—as everyone says its rotten. Saw Frank Severance at the American Express.—Sorry I didn’t know he was in Paris—as he would have been a big help in the Louvre. We left Paris about one o’clock. Stopped at Versailles on the way

– 103 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

to Chartres to see Marie Antoinette’s “Petite Trianon.” This was her idea of “roughing it.” Its about as “Petite” as the white House. Took some pictures there none of which came out. Just arrived at Chartres in time to see the Cathedral. The most impressive thing about this is the remarkably beautiful wheel window. The colors in it are unbelievable. It was also interesting to see side by side the two entirely different school towers, one Romanesque—the other gothic. That night we drove to Orleans getting there around ten. Got a cheap room—but very disturbed to find the sheets didn’t look like they’d been changed since the inn had been built.

july  – orleans, chambord, amboise We went to mass at a cathedral + then looked around the town a bit. Of course the whole town is very con[s]cious of Joan of Arc—Statues of her everywhere. One always thinks of Orleans as a comparatively large town, it is surprising how small it really is. It makes you feel France is still a pretty primitive nation. Paris is its only modern possession. Drove to the Chateau at Chambord. It is terribly impressive—a really tremendous structure. Francis I (its hard to imagine how he ever found time to live in his different houses) used it has a hunting lodge. It held over 2000 people. The roof looks very much like a village—has streets and houses etc.—even a chapel. The roof was important as the women seem to have spent most of their time there, while the men were hunting. The main staircase is very unique as two people can climb it at the same time without ever seeing each other. It is two staircases in one. We had lunch at a restaurant near the chateau + I left my pocket book there.—After an awful scare I got it back from a man who had picked it up + taken it to the chateau. Some darned nice French girl helped me master their language in my search. Peo– 104 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

ple like her make me feel the French aren’t so bad after all. We picked up a couple of very very English fellows—one of whom went to Trinity College Cambridge—name of Ward.—he parted after saying he hoped we’d “get on his scent” in England.—at that point it certainly wouldn’t have been hard. We went for a swim in the Loire—it has a tremendous current, which is plenty hard to swim against. It is to this swim that I trace my cold which I’ll say more about later. We stopped at Chateau Blois, owned by the Princess d’Orleans. Quite a beautiful place. We stayed in Amboise for the night in order to see the chateau in the morning. We contemplated climbing the impregnable wall, but remembered the watch dog at the American Cemetery. Went to the fair that night. The tree bridge + path at Blois was particularly impressive.

july  – amboise, chenonceau, angoulême Up around 10 after being served breakfast in bed—+ at last got our look at the chateau.—It is really an amazingly impregnable fort—The walls are tremendously high + even today with modern warfare—an army would have trouble taking it. It is quite beautiful inside—especially the little chapel—which they call “a gem” of gothic architecture. Leonardo Da Vinci is said to be buried in this chapel. We also saw the traitors wall where 1500 men were hung at one time—also the door where Charles V[III] bumped his head + died. We did a bit of exploring ourselves + climbed around the fortification but were thrown out by an extremely irate female Frog. We continued to Chenonceau, which is really a beautiful chateau. It is built over the Loire river + the water flows under it. It is privately owned now + is so beautiful, it is hard to understand why the present owner never inhabits it. This was Catherine D’Medici’s favorite residence. During the war it was used as a hospital for French soldiers. We then drove – 105 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

thru Tours + Poitiers to Angoulême arriving there fairly late at night.—got a room there for 10 francs each which is the cheapest so far.

july  – angoulême – jean de luz Got started around 11 + had a rather expensive + not very good lunch around two. Had our usual difficulty cashing travellers checks—France is certainly not as tourist con[s]cious as we expected—all these French act as if they have never seen an American before. We went thru Biarritz and from what we saw were extremely disappointed in it.—it seems barren + deserted—not at all like a resort known all over the world.—We arrived in St. Jean de Luz + after an hours search finally located the Pourtales’ villa. Found there was one good + one bad bed for Kennedy + I—we tossed for the good—I lost as usual, it is phenomenal how Kennedy always wins when we toss a coin. We met Pourtales’ family—which consists of his mother + grandmother + his sister, Dian.—The mother + sister very nice—but the grandmother a terrible bore. We went to a movie in French—+ were plenty amused to hear Pat O’Brien spouting French. Dian + Alex translated for me + both had different versions of the plot—so it was a bit involved.—We drove over in car with top down + me without a coat—to this + my swim in the Loire—I attribute my cold which is fast developing. We went to the club Cesari afterwards + had a drink of water— much to the disgust of all the waiters.

july  – st. jean de luz Drove to the Spanish border in the morning with Iselin. It is only a few kilometers from St. Jean de Luz. We couldn’t enter – 106 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

of course but followed the river, which is the boundary for several miles. It is guarded on both sides—every few meters by soldiers.—We saw the ruins of the town of Irun—where some of the fiercest fighting took place last year. On the beach in the afternoon, but found my cold getting worse so went to bed for supper + stayed in that night.

july  – st. jean de luz Stayed in bed all day—as my cold pretty bad.

july  – st. jean de luz Up late and did a bit of shopping for basque shoes—after much trouble got my size specially made—as they didn’t have it.— These French are such a petit race.—Went to bed in the afternoon + stayed in that night.

july  – st. jean de luz Went over to Biarritz to get tickets for bullfight—have acquired a very queer looking costume to keep warm while driving + have curious Frenchmen peering at me from every side all the time. It is extremely interesting to see + meet the many refugees from Spain that are here. St. Jean de Luz is very definitely a Franco strong hold + we are getting completely the Franco point of view—we hear stories such as the following. A father in prison was given a piece of meat to eat after he had eaten it—they brought in the body of his son with a large chunk taken out of it.—this turns one a bit against the government.—But of course we have [not] heard the governments side of the story. – 107 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

Went to bed in the afternoon and stayed in that night. I’m afraid I’m not being a too scin[t]il[l]atting guest for the Pourtales.

july  – st. jean de luz Went to mass with Jack in the morning at the church where Louis XIV was married [to] Marie Theresa of Spain. Its typically Basque architecture + very beautiful in its simplicity. Went to bed in the afternoon + stayed in at night—cold seems to be improving a bit. We hadn’t planned to stay so long here, but due to my cold + also because we want to see the bull fight on the 26 we decided to stay til the 27.

july  – st. jean de luz – bull fight Stayed in bed all morning + got up for lunch. In the afternoon went to the bull fight beyond Biarritz. Extremely interesting, but terribly cruel, didn’t mind the torturing of the bull so much, but hated to see the horses get gored. They bring out poor old nags with Toreodors on them with spears to protect them from the bull, but then, usually, fail miserably. It is not hard to believe the stories about the atrocities in Spain, after seeing a bull fight. These Southern French + Spaniards are a very cruel race. They were much the happiest when a poor old nag was terribly gored + was led out with his guts trailing for yards behind him. We bought some spears afterwards for $.20 each.

july  – lourdes – toulouse Left Pourtales after much excitement and picture taking—and drove to Lourdes. This is the town where the famous grotto is – 108 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

located. In this grotto the Virgin Mary is said to have appeared to Saint Bernadette 18 times, and commanded that a church be built there. The water in the grotto is said to have healing powers—and many cases have been proved cured there. We saw some of the thousands of sick people who go there all the time hoping to be cured. However the grotto had a different effect on me.—as soon as we left Lourdes I began to feel rotten + by the time we reached Toulouse I couldn’t have felt worse—found my temperature to be 103—so put in a mighty unhappy + uncomfortable night.

july  – toulouse Stayed in bed all day pouring down the many medecines Kennedy brought in + found my temperature down to normal again, therefore believe we will continue our journey tomorrow if everything goes well.

july  – toulouse – carcassonne – cannes Left Toulouse early in the morning feeling mighty chipper. We stopped at the old medieval town Carcassonne, which is still in perfect condition. It was terribly interesting, as people still live inside the walls on crowded little streets, and even they + their houses look medieval. We walked around the entire wall + I still felt O. K. so I guess I’m well. We drove all the rest of the day + arrived at Cannes around nine + stopped at our most expensive hotel so far—35 fr. The service is now 15 percent which we feel is complete robbery. Cannes has an awful lot more life than Biarritz and the beach is marvelous yet it somehow seems to lack something. Perhaps its because we know absolutely no one + also its almost completely a winter resort + naturally – 109 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

wouldn’t be so good in summer. However we found here a very much different France than the poor poverty stricken France through which we just drove. Went to bed fairly early slapping mosquitoes.

july  – cannes Went swimming in the morning + got my really first sunburn—I really did it right—as I got as red as a lobster + then some. Slept a bit in the afternoon in preparation of what we thought would be a big night in the midst of gay Cannes night life. That night went to the Palm Beach Casino—which is not half so gay as its cracked up to be.—we tried a bit on contacting with some darned good looking American show girls—just for common nationality’s sake—but to no avail—we looked around Cannes a bit afterwards—and Kennedy ended up with a date with Simone Corsica.

july  – cannes + monte carlo Awoke very late—but very unhappy—Kennedy did a dying act on the beach as shown in the photograph—however got started for Monte Carlo by way of Nice after lunch. Went from there by the way of the Grand Cassiene up through the mountains— very beautiful drive—but plenty plenty winding. Got a darned cheap room in Monte Carlo—but a very nice one for 15 francs together.—We found food very cheap there too—which is very surprising. Went to the Casino that night—Jack wasn’t allowed in as he had to show his passport + he wasn’t 21—I bet—the staggering sum of 40 francs—won + finally ended up even—we later went to the Sporting Club—and Jack got in.—We bet 10

– 110 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

francs there and scared them plenty.—Really beautiful there— especially the night club—which was right on the water.

august  – monte carlo – savona Went to a small, but darned pretty church—+ sat thru a very long service—+ then went to the beach at the Grand Hotel— managed to crash the gates in our usual way—Saw Palm Beach’s Jane Kauffmann looking her gracious self—+ took a look at some really beautiful foreign girls—but didn’t meet them—altho Jack really liked one plenty. In the afternoon we crossed the border into Italy—which took all of two hours.—I’ve never seen so much red tape as they make you go thru, including the buying of hotel and gas coupons. At the time we didn’t know whether we were being gyped or not—all we did know is that we handed out more than forty bucks for a lot of coupons. Everything in Italy seems a bit more gay than in France.—They seem a very happy race. We found we couldn’t make Milan as we had planned so we stopped at Savona + found that with the coupons we really got darned good rooms. However the Italian language it is easy to see is really going to be a terrific bore—as we’re darned lucky when we find an Italian that can speak French!

august  – savona – genoa – milan After a great deal of trouble with “mine host” we finally left Savona + started for Milan by way of Genoa—we didn’t get much of a look at the lat[t]er—but it impressed us mostly by its size— It is awfully small + one would believe it to be large, being one of the oldest cities in the world. We found a darned nice hotel in Milan + found the proprietor was an extreme fascist who

– 111 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

had been to Abyssinia, which he said was easy to conquer—but will be very hard to make use of—as it is still so barbarious— and nothing will be able to be done with it until it has railroads. Pictures of Mussolini everywhere—even painted on the walls of houses. All along the roads he has painted his commands— which seem to consist mostly of “obey.” We went to see Robert Taylor + Greta Garbo in Camille—+ watched “Beautiful Robert” with the utmost interest as he spouted Italian at a great rate.— Didn’t get a great deal out of the movie. We found we had left our car in a church yard which was tightly locked—so had to leave it there all night—after trying to arrouse its priest + failing.

august  – milan – piacenza Slept late + went + rescued the car from the hands of the Catholic church. In the afternoon we went on the American Express Tour of the city. Especially impressed by the Beautiful cathedral—one of the largest in the world. In the apse there are the biggest colored glass windows in the world. During the war they were all sent to Rome to safe keeping. Under the Altar there is a cardinal buried in a glass tomb. The tomb is in a room entirely encrusted in silver—the cardinal’s skeleton is entirely dressed in his state robes which are changed every year—+ he has all the church jewels with him—Every 100 years the coffin is carried through the streets—last time one of the crystal sides went broken + air got in and changed the whiteness of the skeleton to black. We saw Leonardo Da Vinci’s famous “Last Supper,” which is in very bad repair, in fact so bad it is hard to realize what a great masterpiece it is. Took a picture of Jack in the Milan Cemetery where it is forbidden—but had the shutter wrong.—Jack managed to have the shutter wrong when we took Milan Cathedral—so we’re really getting good pictures. Left Milan late not before watching Kennedy almost buy a $100 watch + my– 112 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

self—really buying a $10 one, which I regret now—We arrived in Piacenza late + went to bed after writing a few letters.

august  – piacenza – pisa Had a plenty hard time leaving in the morning as Madame accused us of having torn her $.25 towel for which we refused to pay.—A crowd of at least 50 curious + unattractive Italians gathered outside the hotel. Finally we paid her not without much cursing from both sides. We picked up a German boy by the name of Martin on the way to Pisa. Very interesting as he was definitely anti-Hitler—altho he couldn’t tell us much about it. He also told us how very much the Germans hate the Russians. It looks like the next war will come from that direction, especially as England + the rest of Europe seem to be drawing away from Russia. We stopped at Pisa + climbed the tower + went through the church + Baptistry. The Tower is really strange, for even while climbing it, you can feel its lean. The Baptistry is curious, for when you whistle inside it it ressembles an organ. We picked up another German boy—this one spoke no English + named Krause—we stopped at a small hotel about 150 kilometers from Rome. Martin + Krause spent the night in the car.

august  – rome Got up late + found Martin + Krause raring to go after a night in the car. These Germans really do live cheaply—of course from absolute necessity as they can only leave Germany with 10 marks but these guys even overdo it—They have merely tomatoes + bread for meals + appear to sleep out every night.—We took a swim + sunbath in the Med.—about 50 kilometers from Rome—+ parked the car plenty foolishly in the sand pretty far – 113 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

from the road.—To our dismay—we found ourselves miserably stuck—+ after about an hour we finally got out after letting most of the air out of the back tires.—We spent another unhappy hour trying to locate a pump to put it back in. As a result of all this we didn’t get to Rome until after 5:30—we went to American Express right away + found that Kennedy’s family were on their way to Europe—I got a couple of forwarded letters from Mother—+ one from Louise Berry. Dropped our pals Martin + Krause + found a hotel—“We sightseed” a bit around the city that night + “climbed” stealthy into the Colosseum—finding it is used as a public park + was filled with people—however it is very beautiful by moonlight + looked very much like necker’s heaven.

august  Up fairly late + spent the entire morning looking up Kennedy’s fathers friends Mr. Galeazzi, Cortesi (N. Y. Times correspondent) + Mr. Phillips, Italian Ambassidor—were all out, but did meet Mr. Reed—Counsellor of the Embassy—who seemed a darned nice guy. In the afternoon we went to St. Angelo / Tomb of Hadrian. Thought it an extremely interesting place. A modern army today would have its troubles taking it—as it is really ingeniously fortified. We also went to the Pantheon, of which Art 202 has told me so much this year, and it was especially interesting to see it after having had to study it so carefully. It has really enormous doors—which the guide proudly said 3 men couldn’t move—there upon Kennedy gave them a little push + they swung shut—we took it that he meant 3 Italian men. We took another look at the Colosseum + found it even more impressive by day light—we also went to the Forum + got a guide to take us thru + found him more of a hindrance than help. Of course the Forum is in such utter ruins that it is hard for an – 114 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

uneducated eye to appreciate it—but to see all the different levels of civilization—is wonderful. They still are digging + making new discoveries all the time. These Italians really are the nosiest race in existence—I hope. They hate to miss a single trick.— They gather even if they hear someone honking their horn— which by the way is a plenty bad offense in Rome—+ the cops really jump down your neck when you do. These Roman cops are the strictest too we’ve hit.

august  – rome When [Went] to Galeazzi’s office about 8:30 and met him. Darned attractive man—we learned we were to have an audience with the Pope that day. We went to Mr. G’s appartment + met Bishop Spellman (catholic) of Boston. Three neices—all of them young. Started out in Mr. G’s car for the Pope’s summer Palace. Mr. G. didn’t come along but sent his assistant Mr. Conti. The Palace is about 10 miles from Rome—we got there to find about 2000 people waiting outside it—however we were driven into the Inner court + conducted up into a small, but very beautiful room. There we met the Bishop of Louisiana—as it seemed the thing to do I had to kneel down + kiss his ring.—he seemed like an awful stuck up guy + none of us liked him at all—a little later Cardinal Pacelli came in + we were all introduced personally to him—I again had to do a bit of ring kissing.—I was impressed how poorly he speaks English. After this we were taken into an enormous room with a throne in it.—we were given wonderful places—right at the foot of the throne.—about 3000 other people were in the room—it was really boiling—never have I been so hot—after about an hours wait the Pope with great ceremony was carried in on a litter—he took almost two steps to his throne—he is a very sick looking man + it looked like it was an awful effort for him to speak—however he doesn’t – 115 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

look 80!—he talked for about an half hour in Italian + then they carried him out amid the screams of “Vive le Pope”—After that Mr. Conti took us to lunch which lasted about 3 hours + then to Villa d’Este at Tivoli. The fountain gardens there are really remarkably beautiful—took plenty of candid shots of the statues there but none of them seemed to come out.—Went to Mr. G’s for dinner that night.—his wife speaks no English—+ very little French—so there wasn’t a hell of a lot of gaiety at her end of the table where I was—went home pretty early.

august  – rome – pompeii – vesuvius Got up early + went to mass at St. Peters.—never have seen such a beautiful building—its interior is by far the prettiest we’ve seen yet. The whole thing is unbelievably big.—We were there for quite a long time as we couldn’t seem to find the right mass.— however finally got started for Naples. We arrived there about 2—+ had to hand out 26 lire to get into the road to Pompei—we stopped for lunch + thereby missed being able to get into Pompei legitimately as it closed at 3—however we climbed over its wall + conducted a private tour for ourselves thru it—however we heard later we missed its most interesting parts.—however we did accomplish one thing, we lost our ticket for which we had paid 26 lire—went thru fights with almost the entire Italian nation to get to Vesuvius without paying out a few more lire.—On the way up V we picked up two Germans.—who turned out to be soldiers—They were wonderful guys—despite the handicap of not being able to speak anything but German. Amid much cursing + spurting from the car we finally reached the top—its really a damned long drive as the road is so windy. We saw some guy from Princeton coming down forgotten his name. By the time we got up there it was night—we went within inches of the

– 116 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

hot lava which pours out of many crevasses. We went within 10 yds of the main eruption. The air is full of sulphur up there + extremely hard to breathe but they say its good for the lungs. This eruption—erupts every few minutes. It really was darned interesting. Had much excitement driving thru the Pompei road again without a ticket, but got away with it. The Germans went to some hostel in Naples—we finally found a cheap hotel—after much bickering.

august  – naples – capri We left for Capri at 9 in the morning—after plenty of scurrying around looking for boat fare—finally we borrowed from the two Germans who were also on the boat—it was a very long trip— and we had to keep borrowing from the Germans for food etc. Finally we reached the blue grotto—+ there we continued making enemies with the already hostile crew—because we changed into our bathing suits.—The grotto is really very beautiful—in fact I don’t believe I’ve ever seen such a pretty shade of blue— but it wasn’t pretty enough to spend a whole day + plenty of dough to see.—The big boat anchors outside it + natives row you in in small boats. They pull into the tiny entrance of the grotto by means of a chain.—Afterwards we got off at the main town of Capri + bought our share of wooden boxes—darned pretty + only .50 each. We finally got back to Naples around 6 + headed for Rome—with the two Germans packed in behind— we are beginning to enjoy them a little more as—we have perfected a sort of sign language.—We were held up by a train gate for a long time + no train appeared to be in sight. Kennedy came to blows with the little wop attendant who missed him by hairs with a club bigger than he was.—finally arrived in Rome around two + took the Germans to their hotel. Then off to bed.

– 117 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

august  – rome Got up late just in time for lunch—met some darned good looking Italian girls at lunch + made dates with them for tonight— The only trouble is that they only speak Italian—After lunch Jack went to see Mr. Cortesi (N. Y. Times)—and had a long political talk with him.—That night took out the gals—had dinner at the restaurant across from our hotel + of course was miserably gyped by the proprietor.—went to Romes only night club that night—Villa del[la] Rosa.—very nice place with good floor shows. Kennedy introduced a few parlor tricks that shouldn’t be forgotten + we went to bed tired but happy.

august  – rome Got up fairly early + met Mr. Conti. He took us thru the Vatican museums—They are really so filled with art treasures that it is impossible to see all of them.—+ we never would have even seen the important ones without Mr. Conti’s help. Saw the Italian gals at lunch—but got a bit tired of talking “Italian” to them.—In the afternoon we met Mr. Conti again and saw a lot of the churches. We climbed the steps in St Jean Lateran on our knees. This staircase is said to be the same one as that that Christ walked down after being condemned by Pontius Pilot— Therefore good catholics must do penance by climbing them on their knees + saying a prayer on every step. Poor Mr. Conti says he does it almost every day, while showing it to Mr. Galeazzi’s friends. We also went to the Catacombs by way of the Appian way. Its really unbelievable how many miles of catacombs there are—it should be very simple to get lost in them. We heard more miracles which are getting harder + harder to swallow. This was about St. Cecelia. We went to St. Paul’s Basilica later + there saw Mr. Dickey + Spouse. This Basilica is one of the prettiest—in – 118 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

its interior it has medallions of every Pope since St. Peter. Here we heard about St. Paul’s head when chopped off—it fell down from some stairs + every place the head fell a fountain burst forth.—this also is a bit hard to swallow. Went home + packed + got to bed early.

august  – rome – florence Met the Germans in front of our hotel—and after a long argument + bitter fight with the hotel proprietor who had gyped us at every turn especially in our photographs—during which argument—he called himself “an Italian + a gentleman—a thing which Americans weren’t”—finally got back 60 lire from him— and started for Florence. Got to Florence pretty late + stayed at our best hotel so far. They never even made a pass at gyping us and everything was very nice and cheap.

august  – florence – venice Looked around Florence all morning—for some reason a bit disappointed with it.—we went thru the Royal gallery where there are a lot of art treasures—also saw the Palazzo Vecchio—which was a stickler on the final art exam—however we really were much impressed by Michael Angelo’s famous statue of David— its the most beautiful statue I’ve ever seen or ever hope to see. In the picture on the next page it doesn’t show its great size, but it is 3 times the size of an average man. We also went thru the Cathedral—which is very beautiful from the outside, but very unimpressive in its interior. We left in the afternoon for Venice—I had no idea how the city is really all canals. I thought that there were perhaps two. However this is entirely wrong. You have to leave your car in a garage at the end of the bridge which – 119 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

takes you to the city + from then on you have to go by boats. We found a small hotel near St. Marco for 25 lire—somehow the Germans got theirs for 8. It was darned late so we only looked around the square a lot + then went to bed. + spent a miserable night as the mosquitoes raised the very devil.

august  – venice Went by boat over to the Lido to the Excelsior Hotel in the morning. Found Barbara Hutton + Al Lerner over there, but not together. Later we ran into Joe + Elie Houguet + met a lot of other people. Had lunch with Elie + also dinner that night with she + Joe.—afterwards walked around Venice a bit—very impressed by St. Marcos + the square at night really very beautiful. Spaggetti is getting a little tiresome as we eat it all the time—as its so cheap + fills you up.—we found the Houguets are living even cheaper than we are. Elie even stayed at the youth Hostels when she was in Germany. We have changed our room + are now paying 30 lire for the mosquito netting they kindly “gave” us.

august  – venice Went to mass at St. Marcos after a great deal of difficulty finding it—Then went over to the Lido where Al Lerner’s cabana did good service—sat out on the dock with MacAdoo, Houguets, Dumpling etc—and had quite a swim + sun burn—Then off to the American Bar where we got plenty sick on cheese “dreams.”—we also got our pictures finally taken with the pigeons altho we had a hard time making them have any part of Kennedy or the food he offered them. Had dinner with Ho[u]guets etc + afterwards went to listen to the concert in the square. The square was com– 120 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

pletely crowded—never saw so many people—Later we all took to gondolas + went thru the city—up + down the little streets etc—the only trouble is—that all the sewage empties into these canals + as they are rather static [stagnant?]—the smell is really bad—After this trip—we hurried back to the little “Zacheri.”

august  – venice – innsbruck As it rained pretty hard—we decided to leave “Sunny” Italy and head for Munich. Picked up a real bundle of Norwegian fun to take with us in addition to Heinz—George had some way fallen by the wayside—the rain was so bad—that the driving was awful—it otherwise would have been a really beautiful drive. By the time we reached the Brenner Pass—it really was plenty cold.—however we certainly were not sorry to leave Italy—as the people there are really pretty awful—we were immediately impressed by the difference of the Austrians—they are a very genial race + certainly got out of their way to be nice to you. Arrived in Innsbruck fairly late + decided to stay the same place our passengers did which turned out to be a Youth Hostel. This was a darned interesting experience but one I wouldn’t want to repeat too often—the beds are only an inch apart—+ you wake up to find your face about an inch from some big German—also there were about 40 people + only one window which they liked closed—so we spent the time opening it while they closed it.

august  – innsbruck – munich Up plenty early altho certainly not by choice—as our friends had to bounce on their bikes around 5—Started over the Alps to Germany after extracting as much money from Johanna as we could get—also we got a bit from good old Heinz—both of them – 121 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

were very upset. We stopped at Germish where the Olympic Games were held + right near there went thru a really beautiful but very wet cascade. From there we went on to Oberammagau where the passion plays are held—There we saw + bought postcards from Christus—Anton Lang. We arrived in Munich around eight + got what looked like a darned good room—we took Heinz out to dinner + finally got him on the train also got Johanna safely into a Youth Hostel—then to Munich’s great Hofbrau house—where we stayed until pretty late—meeting what seemed a great part of the German nation.—Tried to get away with some steins—Kennedy got one I didn’t—as they inspected me. Hitler seems very popular here—you cant help but like a dictator when you are in his own country—as you hear so many wonderful things about him and really no bad things.—Hitler’s strongest weapon seems to be his very efficient propaganda.

august  – munich Got up late + had quite a talk with our proprietor—who is a plenty big Hitler backer.—walked around Munich a bit the rest of the morning.—In the afternoon took in the Deut[s]chen Museum.—it really is terribly interesting—it has everything there and is certainly the most educative thing we have seen—we enjoyed every bit of it + were terribly disappointed when we found we couldn’t finish it.—The Germans have done a real job.—here and the whole thing shows their very exact sense of detail. That night we went to see Swing High, Swing Low—in English—The first movie we’ve enjoyed since Paris—found when we got back to the car a note from Iselin + Pourtales—so met them at the Hofbrau house—They were with a gal from Boston named Ann Hollister—we went to a Munich night club—which was certainly a bit different if nothing else.

– 122 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

august  – munich – nuremberg After the usual amount of cursing + being told we were not gentlemen + that Germans would never act that way we left the Pension Bristol—which except for queer money matters had been an awfully nice place. We saw Portales + Iselin at the American Express also Harlon Swift.—Then started out for Nuremberg.— Got there darned late at night after a plenty interesting trip, and after a lot of trouble found a hotel—with a very surly looking proprietor—so we felt we’d probably get to know him better in the morning.

august  – nuremberg – wurtenberg As we guessed we did have trouble with that darned proprietor—in fact he was worse than we were even prepared for—because we refused to pay $.60 which he was trying his best to gyp out of us—the whole thing ended up by his sweepingly showing us the door + then spitting on us—as we got out—at least we think he did. We went on a bit of a spending spree in Nuremberg—both of us bought cameras—as mine had been stolen in Rome. Jack got a coocoo clock + some toys for his family. We have been trying for some time to get a dachshound for Olive— but so far haven’t been able to. We left for Wurtenberg after lunch + continued our search all along the road for a dog + went on many a wild goose chase.—we finally bought one in Wurtenberg for $8 which we named “Dunker”—after the only German word we knew—we think him a thing of great beauty however Jack immediately developed asthma + hay fever—so it looks like his chances of getting back to America are plenty slim. Our first night with him was a bit anxious—as we had to train him to stay in his bed—he learned very quickley—but one thing we can’t

– 123 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

train him—which makes him quite a problem—for when he’s got to go he goes.

august  – wurtenberg – koln (cologne) Started out for Cologne by way of Frankfurt—we stopped all along the way trying to find another dachshound—as Dunker is so very attractive—we both want one to take care of—however we had absolutely no luck—(luckily)—so we continued our way up the Rhine. This trip is very beautiful—There are castles all along the way.—we didn’t have time to stop and look at any of them—All these German towns are very attractive—clean + well planned out—This is certainly a great difference from the dirty little Italian towns, that we have gotten to dislike so much. The Germans seem to do everything well—and their only trouble is that they are a little to[o] con[s]cious of it.—We arrived in Koln late—and after a great deal of trouble as the town was very crowded, we finally secured cheap rooms.—however got a darned nice one.

august  – koln – amsterdam Got up at 6 which is now my usual rising hour since we’ve acquired “Dunker”—as it is absolutely necessary to take him out then altho I admit it doesn’t do an awful lot of good. The morning was really lousy—but we parted with our proprietor on extremely good terms. We went to mass in the Cathedral which is a wonderful example of Gothic architecture at its absolute height. It is really the most beautiful cathedral we have seen and strangely enough we never heard any mention of it in Art 202. From Koln we headed for Utrecht on one of the auto stradas— which are said to be the finest roads in the world.—They seem – 124 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

however absolutely unnecessary in Germany as there is very little traffic—however perhaps Hitler in building them has something up his sleeve + is planning to put them to use for military purposes. Went across the border into Holland, where we spent at least an hour at the border—every dutch woman has that Juliana look about her—heard immediately what a gay dog this Prince Bernhard is. We paid our gas tax before entering which seems to be a pretty sound idea. We stopped in at Doorn and saw where the Kaiser lives—at least we saw his Lodge houses— They are enormous—he certainly isn’t living in poverty. We wasted a bit more time trying to buy another dachshound—but finally got to Amsterdam pretty late. Kennedy spends a great deal of his time juggling—so I finally took his picture during the process.—

august  – amsterdam – hague Up + immediately set out to find another Dunker—we even went so far as to look for one in the dog market—no luck (again luckily)—after lunch we went to the Amsterdam museum pictured on the opposite page—and saw there many Rembrandts among which were his famous “Night Watch” + his self portrait. Both of these pictures were of primary importance in Charles Laughton’s movie on Rembrandt—which made them darned interesting. The “Night Watch” has an especially interesting history. We had a guide who piled it plenty. Jack went to a doctor + to find out about Dunker giving him hay fever—reports were plenty unfavorable for the Dunker so we’re thinking of getting rid of him as soon as we can get a good home + price if possible. We got to Hague pretty late and had plenty of trouble due to the fact we had no money—we picked up a palie at the Salvation Army—who was plenty green—but who lent us enough dough until the banks opened. – 125 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

august  – hague – antwerp – ghent Went over to the American Express the first thing in the morning—we found a pretty decent fellow there who said he’d like to buy the hound for about $3—a loss of $5 for us. We thought it over a bit—and looked around The Hague in the meanwhile with the aid of a student who did it gratis. Finally decided to sell Dunker + parted with him very unwillingly—after taking many last shot pictures—we then set out for Antwerp. We crossed into Belgium in record time and got to Antwerp about eight. Kennedy had a long + expensive conversation with his mother on telephone + had to pay cash for it due to some misunderstanding in handling his French language. We drove on a bit + stopped around ten as Jack’s back has gotten quite bad + I have to do all the driving now—we stopped in Ghent where we later learned Blambo was at the same time.

august  – ghent – calais Left Ghent with a bit of arguing on the price of eggs in Belgium + then headed for Ostend, the famous Belgium beach—on the way we stopped at what we thought was a famous cathedral—at least using my wide knowledge of architecture acquired in Art 201 + 202—I dated it at at least not later than 1900—however I was very unhappily informed that it was only two years old. Only after I had wasted a couple of pictures on it—we were extremely disappointed in the beach at Ostend as it was terribly cold + dreary + we just sat there rather flatly for a while in the wet sand + I built a few models of the French chateaux—we continued on to Calais, where we found we had just missed the last auto carrier + due to a great deal of excitement about getting Kennedy’s passport for him—he missed the last mail boat.—He wanted to get over there right away—as Joe + Kick were in London + were – 126 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

leaving for U  S very soon.—However he caught another boat further down the coast + I stayed with the car in Calais to bring it on the next day. Jack left from Boulogne.—I stayed at a little Inn in Calais—+ went to bed fairly early.

august  – calais – london – canterbury Up very early as there was so darned much noise right under my window from the kitchen—hurried the car over to the dock at 10:30 as I’d been told—but found that my boat didn’t leave until 12—had a plenty easy trip over altho it was pretty cold—had to wait for the slow auto carrier for about two hours in Dover and it took another hour to get thru the very strict English customs— finally got on my way + headed for Canterbury.—stopped + had my first English tea there—and also took a look at the cathedral—it is very unimpressive as compared with the French and German ones—but of course it is much later period than they are.—I found this true of all the famous English cathedrals.— headed for London + got there about 6. Found Jack, Joe + Kick at the Piccadilly Hotel—which is a plenty expensive place—so Jack + I went to 17 Talbot Square near Lancaster Gate Hyde Park—this only cost 1.25 a night for bed and breakfast. Strangely enough I found Maine had stayed at the same place + he had never recommended it to us. Kick treated us to French without Tears which was darned funny—afterwards we all went to the Dorchester House which was not a very gay place but I guess because summer is certainly not the London season for gaiety.

august  – london – south hampton Up to[o] darn early—however we just managed to catch the train at Victoria Station. Sat with Joe + Kick + Joe’s grouse in 1st – 127 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

class—were kicked out about 5 times—but we always turned up again like a plenty bad penny—Met Mrs. Kennedy at the boat—had quite a long chat with her while we waited for the Manhattan to leave—It finally pulled out with Joe the only guy on board surrounded by amusing gals. Kennedy mixed tomato juice + plenty of chocolates in their cabin + thus going back on the train felt pretty green—by the time we reached London he was covered with hives—after a bit of trouble with a Bobbie about parking the car—we went back to Talbot square. Kennedy really by this time was damn sick—and I got him some horrible doctor—who couldn’t have been more unattractive.

august  – london Kennedy still in awful shape—a bit worried about him as he has that dying dog look about him.—We’ve tried darned near every medecine in existence to relieve his hives.—however he’s bearing up like a little soldier.—Due to both our dislike of our present doctor—we got Doug Wilkinson to get a good one.— He came and after a great deal of handling got rid of the other doctor to the tune of a pound. I have found a darned good place to eat + I look around London a bit—but usually stick around Talbot Square.

august  – london Jack still in pretty bad shape—but a little better. I spent the entire morning looking for Wodehouse books for him—but they don’t have them in any of the small Sunday book shops at Charings Cross—went to Jean Harlow’s last picture Saratoga—which isn’t so good—but rather interesting in the way they stick in a girl in her place after Harlow’s death. I got back to find Kennedy – 128 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

well taken care of by Doris the maid.—He had his blood count taken today which turned out to be O. K.

august  – london Jack a lot better, but still a bit uncomfortable—Blambo arrived in the morning + I went over to his hotel with him as he’s moving in over here.—I went to lunch with he and his Belgium gal— who looks pretty old + strangely enough quite mad about the Blambo. Shopped a bit in the afternoon + got a sport coat—also took a trip to the Tower of London—which was plenty disappointing—I didn’t know why but I expected an awful lot more.— got back pretty late + took Jack shopping. He also ordered a sport coat—at Sel[f ]ridges. That night Blambo + I stepped out a bit—and then went back to Talbot Square with Blambos Piccadilly girl friend to listen to the Tommy Farr—Joe Louis fight. The Welsh element plenty excited.

august  – london Kennedy Okay now—we shopped all morning + afternoon— after dinner we went to a movie—and hurried home by way of Piccadilly. This London is really the place to shop—everything you see in the way of men’s stuff is just twice as cheap + twice as good as anything you can get in America.

august  – london Spent a very lazy day—just fooling around London + packing for Herstmonceau castle. Sir Paul Latham has invited us down there. Time can certainly go fast in London + we really didn’t – 129 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

know what we do with it. Looked around a bit that night after the movie + then went off to bed fairly early.

september  – london – herstmonceau castle Got up early + shopped all morning—we haven’t very much as yet to show for our extensive shopping—but thats one of the nice things about the English stores—they didn’t appear to mind how much you look + don’t by. We both got black evening coats however + a few presents for our families—Jack is setting up an extensive store of woolen socks.—Set out for Sir Pauls after lunch. The traffic was awful going down so we didn’t get there until about 5. The castle is really unbelievably beautiful. I didn’t know anything existed like it. It was built during or just after William the Conqueror.—Sir Paul found it in ruins + has completely rebuilt. It is enormous + has unlimited bedrooms. The gardens are wonderfully laid out—and all the hedges are cut like fortifications. He also has a pool + tennis court. There are a lot of Spanish refugees here who live in one wing + you never ever see them. We had a very nice but plenty long dinner.—and afterwards went to bed. I have a darned good looking room—with an enormous bed + was impressed to note that every room has a bathroom—which is extremely uncommon in England.

september  – herstmonceau castle We got up pretty late in the morning—Sir Paul had left for London so we had the castle entirely to ourselves. We had decided to leave for Scotland that night, but as the day wore on—we got to like the castle more + more—so we decided to stay the

– 130 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

weekend—however due to the none to[o] gentle persuasion of that “timid soul” Stanley—we decided to leave anyway. That boy certainly has Sir Paul buffaloed—we started pretty late, and got to London just in time to the “The Flying Scot” after having parked the car in a garage—we had a 3rd class compartment, when they gave us just a blanket + a pillow—it was darned uncomfortable—but we managed to sleep a bit.

september  – kinross shire Arrived at Kinross about 8:30 and were met by Sir James’ chauffeur, who drove us immediately to Ledlanet. There we found Sir James with his 8000 acres looking as healthy as can be.—He immediately took us over to his lake where we spent the entire morning fishing. It is a plenty different feat learning to cast a fly + Kennedy + I ended up by only catching two—as Sir James made us put all the rest back. However Sir James really was pulling them in. In the afternoon walked all over the moors trying to shoot rabbits—which are plenty hard to hit—as neither Kennedy, Sir James nor I hit any.—They have darned good food here + at least we’re beginning to feel a bit healthy again. Lady Calder is really very nice + the evenings are usually spent with Sir James cracking wise. Everyone retires at 10—and no one is to be about afterwards—because Sir James is plenty particular about the use of electricity.

september  – kinross shire Got up early + went to mass with Sir James + Jack.—very funny little service—the country around here is really beautiful—and there are plenty of world famous golf courses such as Glen Eagles

– 131 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

+ St. Andrews. We had a really enormous dinner + afterwards walked with Sir James + his 10 dogs up thru the heathes—saw a couple of grouse.—just before supper we went for another walk with Sir James’ son—to look for rabbits—There really are a lot of them up here—when you suddenly come over a hill—a field seems solid with them + the field itself seems to move.—we had the usual evening going to bed early after gay repartee at the table.

september  – kinross shire Got up early—as Sir James has breakfast at 8 every morning and every one has to be there.—about 9 after getting as warmly dressed as possible started out on the heathes with Sir James’ gamekeeper to get a few grouse. The weather couldn’t have been worse. Walked all morning + didn’t even get within gun shot of one. Finally got to a small lake where we had our lunch— Kennedy killed a duck there.—A little later Kennedy shot his first grouse.—we had quite a time finding it, but the dog finally got it.—It was my turn next—as I got some shots at about 3— but apparently missed them all. We took turns for awhile + finally after about two hours more walking Kennedy shot his second.—By this time I was getting a bit fed—It was really raining hard now + I could hardly see thru my glasses. When we had only two shells left—I said I’d shoot one + Ken could shoot the other.—At last a grouse flew up + at last I got him.—I was plenty pleased—as I had gotten very discouraged. Kennedy got another one with his last shell—+ we went back tired + wet but happy—we are finally packed + ready to go. I have just finished a really marvelous novel—called Paradise. It is very much the same idea as Gone with the Wind—we went to bed early in preparation for our trip tomorrow.

– 132 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

september  – kinross shire – edinbourgh – london Got up early + hurried down to the train making it just in time. We got to Edinbourgh about 12 + started a bit of a shopping tour up Princes Street—got some wonderful tweeds + wools.— Later we went over to take a look at Edinbourgh Castle + Holyrood house. We were a bit disappointed in the former, but very pleased with Holyrood house—Marie Stuarts original appartments are there but all the rest has burnt down + been rebuilt.— Edinbourgh is a very interesting old city—but certainly is far from a gay spot. Things are awfully far apart + we really had to walk to see things. In Holyrood house the thing we were most impressed with was the painting of Queen Mary done by an English artist named David. Both of us agreed it is the most beautiful painting we ever had seen. We took the Coronation Express back to London—leaving around 5 + getting into London about 11—It really is a beautiful train the 3rd class quarters are better than first class on any other train. We returned to 17 Talbot Square and found ourselves installed in new quarters.

september  – london Got up late + then went down to the American Express—found a couple of letters from Mother + a summons to appear at court the 25th of Sept. Big laugh I’ll be back in Princeton then.—I parked on the wrong side of the street near Sel[f ]ridges. We did a bit of shopping in the afternoon + went back to meet Blambo at Talbot Square. We found he had gone out with Sir Paul—who had called up when we were out.—We went to a movie—and then came back to meet Blambo + Sir Paul. found Blambo back there after having walked out on Sir Paul + Lady Latham at the Ballet. We got him to go back + we went out to look over the town a bit—came home + went to bed tired but happy. – 133 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

september  – london Got up + found Blambo in plenty bad shape in fact in such bad shape that he had slept with the grouse all night that the lovely girls at Talbot Square had put there.—So we left him in bed under the care of our attractive hostesses + went shopping some more.—also took in Madame Tussauds waxworks—which are darned interesting—in fact they are so real looking that some of the attendants pretend to be wax + completely fool you.—We called up Blambo but missed him—so we had dinner + went to Double for Nothing a movie I was destined to see 3 times. Very good the first time. Went to bed fairly early.

september  – london Got up pretty early—+ spent the day getting ready to leave London + Europe.—cashed a hundred more bucks—+ paid for all our clothes. Went over to United States Lines + found we had to get the car to South Hampton by 8:30.—which meant Kennedy + I would have to leave at 5.—however we found both Simpson’s and Sel[f ]ridges had all Kennedy’s orders wrong which necessitated his staying to get them in the morning—so old Lemmer had to go down to South Hampton at 5 by himself. We went to a movie that night + got to bed early—after much gay repartee with our too lovely hostesses.

september  – london – south hampton + s. s. washington september – Got up at 5:30—never felt worse—died all the way to South Hampton which was plenty hard to find—got there at nine—ter-

– 134 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings: Scrapbook, July–September 1937

rified that they would refuse to put the car on. It took me about one hour to go thru the procedure of getting the car out of England + then there it sat on the dock.—I walked around the boat a bit—+ it looked like a plenty motly crew of people on it—among which was Hugh Wilson whom we’d met in San Jean de Luz. The boat special carrying Kennedy + his smelly grouse— naturally he had a secture [section?] in fact practically the whole train. Boy these grouse really stank!—Blambo didn’t get down.—the car was still not on the boat.—I could easily have left London around 10 with it.—The boat didn’t finally sail until 3 o’clock.—+ still we hadn’t found any one at all on the boat.— the Purser put us at a rotten table—so we got changed—+ luckily spotted 3 girls that looked pretty neat—so got placed there. There were Eadie + P. J. Garver + Missy Geer.—There were also enough guys on the boat to make it look like a pretty good crossing. George Roberts, the Cummings brothers + a big Philipino element.—The general + his daughter also graced the ship again with their presence. The first night + all the next day we played hard to get with the gals at our table—a policy which we later found rather good as we had them plenty anxious. We got very athletic on board + gave ourselves terrific workouts in the gym every day. One of the world Champion wrestlers, a fellow by the name of Johannes, van [der Walt], who beat Jim Londos in South Africa was looking for guys to work out with him—so they spotted me + I wrestled him twice—he practically killed me—I’ve never come in contact with such a strong guy.—I couldn’t even budge him if he didn’t want me to. We played volley ball every day. Met Mr. McCleary who was coming back with his bride.—we docked around one the morning of the 16th. Mother, Uncle Ike, Rip, Kick + Olive were there to meet us. Mr. Harris was there to put us through the customs without any trouble. So at last I’m back to USA after a wonderful trip—I’m sorry as the devil its over.

– 135 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

KIRK LEMOYNE BILLINGS (1916–1981), known as “Lem,” was a school friend of John F. Kennedy and remained his close confidant throughout his life. As students in the summer of 1937, the two undertook an extensive trip through Europe, from France via Italy, Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium to England. They kept diaries, which are published here together in English for the first time. After his studies at Princeton University and Harvard Business School, Lem Billings worked as a businessman and in advertising. He supported Kennedy in his election campaigns and in various functions during the presidency.

– 136 –

Kennedy, European Diary, July–September 1937. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 137 –

Kennedy, European Diary, July–September 1937 (detail). John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

Kennedy, European Diary, July–September 1937, entry from Germany. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 138 –

Kennedy, European Diary, July–September 1937, entry from Germany. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 139 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook, 1937, entries from Germany. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. – 140 –

– 141 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook, 1937. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 142 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook, 1937. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 143 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook, 1937. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 144 –

Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook, 1937. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 145 –

Billings and Kennedy in silhouette from the Paris World’s Fair. Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook, 1937. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 146 –

“The Big Muss.” Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook, 1937. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 147 –

John F. Kennedy with a copy of his book Why England Slept (1940). John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 148 –

James Forrestal (fourth from left) visits the ruins of the new Reich Chancellery. John F. Kennedy can be seen in his entourage (back row, second on right). John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

– 149 –

John F. Kennedy, European Diary Itinerary and General Timetable Note: In two prefatory chronologies to his diary, John F. Kennedy listed the itinerary (one page, New York to Rome, then aborted) and the accommodations with their prices (two pages, France to England). An asterisk (*) indicates where Kennedy and Billings were told that they had not behaved appropriately (“not gentleman!”). Ten accommodations are marked with this ironic distinction, two of them even twice.

MY TRIP ABROAD Going July 1, 1937 S.S. Washington United States Line Itinerary New York

July 1

Le Havre

July 7

Beauvais

July 7

Rouen [Reims]

July 8

Paris

July 9–17

Chartres – Orleans

July 17

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

Orleans – Amboise

July 18

Amboise – Angoulême

July 19

Angoulême – St. Jean de Luz

July 20–26

St. Jean de Luz – Lourdes – Toulouse July 27 Toulouse

July 28

Cannes

July 29

Monte Carlo

August 1 – Hotel Rep 15

Sa[v]ona

August 2 – Italie + Suisse – 20

Milan

August 3

Piacenza

August 4

Rome

August 5 – Hotel Cesare

Hotels Stopped At Beauvais

La Cotelette

25 fr

Rouen [Reims]

Hotel Majesty

25 fr

Paris

Hotel Montana

40 fr **

Orleans

Hotel de Paris

22 fr

Amboise

Hotel de France et [du] Cheval

25 fr

Angoulême

no name

20 fr

St. Jean de Luz

Hotel Pourtales

–

Toulouse

Grand Hotel

45 fr

Cannes

Pourlioni Royal Hotel

35 fr *

Sa[v]ona

Italie + Suisse

20 lirecent

– 152 –

European Diary Itinerary and General Timetable

Milan

Albergo

““

Piacenza

Piacenza

table cloth *

Rome

Hotel Cesare

“ “ + artres **

Naples

–

““

Florence

Malgreno

““

Venice

Panem Zaccherri

30 lire *

Innsbruck

Youth Hostel

20 cents

Munich

Pension Bristol

1.50 (5 marks) *

Nuremburg

Pension

1.50 (6 marks)

Wurtemberg

(Markt-Heidenfeld)

1.50 (5 marks)

Cologne

Pension

1.50 (5 marks)

Amsterdam

Rheinfeld

2.20 (4 guilders)

Hague

Salvation Army

40 cents *

Ghent

Pension

80 cents *

London

Pic[c]adilly

““

London

17 Talbot Square

31.00 * not gentleman!

– 153 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

TIMETABLE May 29, 1917

JFK’s birth in Brookline, Massachusetts

1931–1935

At Choate School, Connecticut; friendship with Kirk LeMoyne Billings

Summer 1935

At London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE)

Autumn 1935

At Princeton University, New Jersey

1936–1940

Undergraduate studies at Harvard College

1937 Travels in Europe July 1–7

Voyage to Europe on board SS Washington

July 7–9

Visits to Le Havre, Rouen, Beauvais, Soissons, Chemin des Dames, Reims, Fort de la Pompelle, Pomperney, Château Thierry, Paris

July 10–17

Paris, Fontainebleau, Versailles

July 17

Paris, Versailles, Chartres, Orléans

July 18

Orléans, Chambord, Blois, Amboise

July 19

Amboise, Chenonceau, Tours, Poitiers, Angoulême

July 20

Angoulême, St. Jean-de-Luz

July 21–26

St. Jean-de-Luz, Biarritz, Spanish Border

July 27

St. Jean-de-Luz, Lourdes, Toulouse

July 28

Toulouse

July 29

Toulouse, Carcassonne, Cannes

July 30

Cannes

July 31

Cannes, Nice, Monte Carlo

– 154 –

European Diary Itinerary and General Timetable

August 1

Monte Carlo, Savona

August 2

Savona, Genoa, Milano

August 3

Milano, Piacenza

August 4

Piacenza, Pisa

August 5–7

Rome

August 8

Rome, Naples, Pompeii, Vesuvius

August 9

Capri, Rome

August 10–11

Rome

August 12

Rome, Florence

August 13

Florence, Venice

August 14–15

Venice

August 16

Venice, Innsbruck

August 17

Innsbruck, Garmisch, Oberammergau, Munich

August 18

Munich

August 19

Munich, Nuremberg

August 20

Nuremberg, Wuerttemberg (Wuerzburg?)

August 21

Frankfurt, Cologne

August 22

Cologne, Doorn, Utrecht, Amsterdam

August 23

Amsterdam, Den Haag

August 24

Den Haag, Antwerp, Ghent

August 25

Ghent, Ostend, Calais, Boulogne, London

August 26– September 1

London

September 1–2

Herstmonceux Castle

September 3–6

Kinross-shire

1938

Family vacation in France

– 155 –

John F. Kennedy’s Hidden Diary

1939 Travels in Europe February

Journey to Europe by sea, London

March

As his father’s assistant and secretary, Rome

April

Paris, Val d’Isère

May

Danzig, Warsaw, Soviet Union, Turkey, Palestine

June

London

July

France, Italy, Germany

August

Cote d’Azur, Munich, Vienna, Prague, Berlin, London

September

London, Glasgow

1940

B.A. in government, with a senior thesis “Appeasement in Munich,” published as Why England Slept

1940–1941

Beginning of studies at Stanford University, California

1941

Travels in South America

1941–1945

Service in US Navy

1943

Sinking of PT-109

1944

Death of his elder brother Joe

June 1945

Reporter at the founding meeting of the United Nations in San Francisco

1945 Travels in Europe June–July Britain, Ireland, Paris July 28– August 2

Potsdam, Berlin, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Frankfurt, Salzburg, Berchtesgaden, Obersalzberg – 156 –

European Diary Itinerary and General Timetable

1947–1953

Congressman

1948

Trip to Europe, Germany

1951

Trip to Europe, Germany

1953–1960

Senator

1961–1963

President

June 23–26, 1963

State visit to Germany

June 26, 1963

Speech in Berlin: “Ich bin ein Berliner.”

November 22, 1963 Assassination in Dallas

– 157 –

bibliography

ARCHIVAL SOURCES Samuel Beckett, German Diaries, Beckett International Foundation. In: Reading University Library, UK. Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Personal Papers (1934–1939). In: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Scrapbook (July–September 1937). In: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Oral History (1964–1966). In: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, European Diary (July–September 1937). In: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Letter to Joseph P. Kennedy, Vienna (August 1939). In Personal Papers, Correspondence 1936–1940, Box 1, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Letters to Kirk LeMoyne Billings, Warsaw (May 1939), London (July 17, 1939), Berlin (August 20, 1939). In: Nigel Hamilton Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Recordings of his Trip to Vienna, 1961. In: White House Audio Collection, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Recordings of his trip to Germany, 1963. In: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Correspondence 1933–1950: Family. In: Personal Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Harvard Notebooks: Topic 2, Fascism [fragment]. In Personal Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

Bibliography

John F. Kennedy, “Appeasement at Munich,” Honors Thesis, 15 March 1940. In: Personal Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Hearst Newspaper, International News Service, 1945: 25 April–28 July. In: Personal Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Requests for radio speech, 11 September 1945. In: Personal Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, European Trip Correspondence, 1948. In: Personal Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, European Trip, 1951: Correspondence and News Releases. In: Personal Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, Pre-Presidential Papers. In: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. John F. Kennedy, “Remarks at the Crosscup-Pishon American Legion Post, Boston, MA, November 11, 1945.” In: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. Torbert Macdonald, Oral History Interview, 1964. In: John F. Kennedy Oral History Collection, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.

MEMOIRS, DIARIES, NOVELS, EDITED DOCUMENTS, AND NONARCHIVAL MATERIALS Artus, O. M., ed. 1965. President John F. Kennedy in Germany / Präsident John F. Kennedy in Deutschland. Revised translation by Hermann Kusterer and Heinz Weber. Düsseldorf. Bell, Anne Olivier, ed., with Andrew McNeillie. 1982. The Diary of Virginia Woolf. Vol. 4. London. Blixen, Karen. 1948. “Breve fra et Land i Krig.” Heretica 1, no. 4: 264– 87; 1, no. 5: 322–55.

– 159 –

Bibliography

Bohlen, Charles. 1973. Witness to History, 1929–1969. London. Brandt, Willy. 1964. Begegnungen mit Kennedy. Munich. Buell, Raymond Leslie. 1939. Poland: Key to Europe. New York. Bullitt, Orville H., ed., with an introduction by George F. Kennan. 1972. For the President: Personal and Secret; Correspondence between Franklin D. Roosevelt and William C. Bullitt. Boston. Dherbier, Yann-Brice, and Pierre-Henri Verlhac, eds. 2003. John F. Kennedy: A Life in Pictures. New York. Dietrich, Marlene. 1981. Nehmt nur mein Leben . . . Reflexionen. Munich. Dodd, Martha. 1939. My Years in Germany. London. ———. 1939. Through Embassy Eyes. New York. Dodd, William E., Jr., and Martha Dodd, eds. 1941. Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 1933–1938. London. Du Bois, W. E. B. 1936–1937. “Forum of Fact and Opinion,” Pittsburgh Courier, September 18 to January 9. ———. 2022. “Along the Color Line”: Eine Reise durch Deutschland 1936. Edited by Oliver Lubrich. Munich. Frisch, Max. 1935. “Kleines Tagebuch einer deutschen Reise,” Neue Zürcher Zeitung, April 30, May 7, May 20, and June 13. Genet, Jean. 1949. Journal du voleur. Paris. Gunther, John. 1936. Inside Europe. London. Harris, Robert. 1992. Fatherland. London. Hauser, Heinrich. 1939. Battle against Time: A Survey of the Germany of 1939 from the Inside. New York. Hellman, Geoffrey T. 1961. “Pre-Presidential,” conversation with Kirk LeMoyne Billings, The New Yorker, April 1, 26–27. Henderson, Deirdre, ed., with an introduction by Hugh Sidey. 1995. Prelude to Leadership: The European Diary of John F. Kennedy, Summer 1945. Washington, DC. Hessen, Robert, ed. 1985. Berlin Alert: The Memoirs and Reports of Truman Smith. Stanford, CA. Huss, Pierre J. 1942. The Foe We Face. Garden City, NJ. Kennan, George F. 1967. Memoirs, 1925–1950. Boston. – 160 –

Bibliography

Kennedy, John F. 1940. Why England Slept. London. ———, ed. 1945. As We Remember Joe. Cambridge (privately printed). Kennedy, Rose Fitzgerald. 1974. Times to Remember. New York. Krock, Arthur, ed. 1970. Memoirs: Intimate Recollections of Twelve American Presidents from Theodore Roosevelt to Richard Nixon. London. Lindbergh, Charles. 1970. The Wartime Journals. New York. ———. 1976/1992. Autobiography of Values. New York. Lindbergh, Anne Morrow. 1994. The Flower and the Nettle: Diaries and Letters, 1936–1939. New York. ———. 1995. War Within and Without: Diaries and Letters, 1939– 1944. New York. Lubrich, Oliver, ed. 2007. Berichte aus der Abwurfzone: Ausländer erleben den Bombenkrieg in Deutschland, 1939–1945. Frankfurt. ———, ed. 2010. Travels in the Reich, 1933–1945: Foreign Authors Report from Germany. Chicago. ———, ed. 2020. Thomas Wolfe: Eine Deutschlandreise in sechs Etappen. Literarische Zeitbilder, 1926–1936. Munich. Mathews, Francine. 2012. Jack 1939: A Novel. New York. Millis, Walter, ed., with E. S. Duffield. 1951. The Forrestal Diaries. New York. Nevins, Allen, ed. 1964. John F. Kennedy: The Burden and the Glory. New York. Phayre, Ignatius. 1938. “‘Hitler’s Mountain Home’: A Visit to ‘Haus Wachenfels’ in the Bavarian Alps.” Homes & Gardens (November): 193–95. Richardson, Nan, ed. 1991. The Billings Collection. Boston. Sandler, Martin W., ed. 2013. The Letters of John F. Kennedy. London. Shirer, William L. 1941. Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934–1941. New York. Smith, Amanda, ed. 2001. Hostage to Fortune: The Letters of Joseph P. Kennedy. New York. Sorensen, Ted. 2009. Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History. New York.

– 161 –

Bibliography

Sorensen, Theodore C., ed. 1991. “Let the Word Go Forth”: Speeches, Statements and Writings of John F. Kennedy, 1947–1963. New York. Stern, James. 1990 [1947]. The Hidden Damage. London. Thompson, Dorothy. 1932. “I Saw Hitler!” New York. Vonnegut, Kurt. 1969. Slaughterhouse-Five or The Children’s Crusade. New York. Widmer, Ted, ed. 2012. Listening In: The Secret White House Recordings of John F. Kennedy. New York. Wiley, Irena. 1962. Around the Globe in Twenty Years. New York. Wolfe, Thomas. 1937. “I Have a Thing to Tell You (Nun Will Ich Ihnen ’Was Sagen).” New Republic, 10 March, 132–36; 17 March, 159–64; 24 March, 202–7.

FILMS Fatherland. 1994. Directed by Christopher Menaul. UK (106 minutes). Germania anno zero. 1948. Directed by Roberto Rossellini. Italy (78 minutes). Innenansichten: Deutschland 1937. 2012. Directed by Michael Kloft. Documentary based on Julien Bryan’s recordings. Germany (52 minutes). JFK: Reckless Youth. 1993. Directed by Harry Winer. Starring Patrick Dempsey and Terry Kinney. USA (2 parts, 183 minutes). Kennedy. 1983. Directed by Jim Goddard. Starring Martin Sheen. USA (3 parts, 282 minutes). The Kennedys. 2011. Directed by Jon Cassar. Starring Greg Kinnear and Katie Holmes. USA (8 parts, 345 minutes). Kennedys Liebe zu Europa. 2021. Directed by Kai Christiansen. Germany (52 minutes). PT 109. 1963. Directed by Leslie Martinson. Starring Cliff Robertson. USA (140 minutes).

– 162 –

Bibliography

SECONDARY SOURCES Beschloss, Michael. 1980. Kennedy and Roosevelt: The Uneasy Alliance. New York. Blair, Joan, and Clay Blair. 1976. The Search for JFK. New York. Bradlee, Benjamin C. 1975. Conversations with Kennedy. New York. Brinkley, Douglas, and Richard T. Griffiths, eds. 1999. John F. Kennedy and Europe. Baton Rouge. Burner, David. 1988. John F. Kennedy and a New Generation. Boston. Burns, James MacGregor. 1976. John Kennedy: A Political Profile. New York. Collier, Peter, and David Horowitz. 1984. The Kennedys: An American Drama. New York. Cooper, Ilene. 2003. Jack: The Early Years of John F. Kennedy. New York. Cross, Robin. 1992. J.F.K.: A Hidden Life. London. Crown, James Tracy. 1968. The Kennedy Literature: A Bibliographical Essay. New York. Dallek, Robert. 2003. An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963. Boston. Daum, Andreas. 2003. Kennedy in Berlin: Politik, Kultur und Emotionen im Kalten Krieg. Paderborn. Davis, John H. 1984. The Kennedys: Dynasty and Disaster, 1848–1983. New York. Donovan, Robert J. 2001. PT109—John F. Kennedy in World War II. New York. Giglio, James N. 1995. John F. Kennedy: A Bibliography. Westport, CT. Goodwin, Doris Kearns. 1987. The Fitzgeralds and the Kennedys. New York. Grossman, Maryrose. 2017. “Jack and Lem’s Excellent European Adventure, Summer 1937.” John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA, “An Inside Look,” accessible in https://

– 163 –

Bibliography

jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2017/10/18/jack and lems-excellent-europe an-adventure-summer1937/. Hamilton, Nigel. 1992. JFK—Reckless Youth. New York. Hamilton, Nigel. 1993. “The Influence of Europe on Young JFK.” New England Journal of Public Policy 9, no. 1: 5–17. Hersh, Seymour. 1998. The Dark Side of Camelot. London. Hoberek, Andrew, ed. 2015. The Cambridge Companion to John F. Kennedy. Cambridge. Hogan, Michael J. 2017. The Afterlife of John Fitzgerald Kennedy: A Biography. Cambridge. Hutchinson, Dennis J. 1998. The Man Who Was Whizzer White: A Portrait of Justice Byron R. White. New York. Kaplan, Howard S. 2004. John F. Kennedy: A Photographic Story of a Life. New York. Kempe, Frederick. 2011. Berlin 1961: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Most Dangerous Place on Earth. New York. Kennedy, John F. 2006 [1955]. Profiles in Courage, edited by Caroline Kennedy with a preface by Robert F. Kennedy. New York. Kenney, Charles. 2000. The Presidential Portfolio. New York. Koskoff, David. 1974. Joseph P. Kennedy: A Life and Times. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Leamer, Laurence. 2001. The Kennedy Men, 1901–1963: The Laws of the Father. New York. Leaming, Barbara. 2007. Jack Kennedy: The Education of a Statesman. New York. Lee, Bruce. 1964. JFK: Boyhood to White House. New York. Ling, Peter J. 2013. John F. Kennedy. New York. Logevall, Fredrik. 2020. JFK: Coming of Age in the American Century, 1917–1956. New York. Lowe, Jacques. 1993. JFK Remembered. New York. Mahoney, Richard D. 1999. Sons & Brothers: The Days of Jack and Bobby Kennedy. New York.

– 164 –

Bibliography

Maier, Thomas. 2003. The Kennedys: America’s Emerald Kings. New York. Matthews, Chris. 2011. Jack Kennedy: Elusive Hero. New York. McCarthy, Joe. 1960. The Remarkable Kennedys. New York. Meyers, Joan, under Goddard Lieberson, ed., with Ira Teichberg as art director. 1965. John Fitzgerald Kennedy: As We Remember Him. New York. Michaelis, David. 1983. “Muckers. K. LeMoyne Billings/John F. Kennedy.” In The Best of Friends: Profiles of Extraordinary Friendships. New York. ———. 1983. “The President’s Best Friend.” American Heritage 34, no. 4: 12–27. Montague, Charlotte. 2017. John F. Kennedy: The Life and Death of a US President. New York. Nagorski, Andrew. 2012. Hitlerland: American Eyewitnesses to the Nazi Rise to Power. New York. Nasaw, David. 2012. The Patriarch: The Remarkable Life and Turbulent Times of Joseph P. Kennedy. New York. O’Brien, Michael. 2005. John F. Kennedy: A Biography. New York. Parmet, Herbert S. 1980. Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy. New York. Perret, Geoffrey. 2002. Jack: A Life Like No Other. New York. Pitts, David. 2008. Jack and Lem: John F. Kennedy and Lem Billings; The Untold Story of an Extraordinary Friendship. New York. Rachlin, Harvey. 1986. The Kennedys: A Chronological History, 1823 to the Present. New York. Reeves, Richard. 1993. President Kennedy: Profile of Power. New York. Reeves, Thomas C. 1992. A Question of Character: The Life of John F. Kennedy. London. Renehan, Edward J. 2002. The Kennedys at War, 1937–1945. New York. Schlesinger, Arthur M. 2002. A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House. New York. Schoor, Gene. 1963. Young John Kennedy. New York.

– 165 –

Bibliography

Selverstone, Marc J. 2014. A Companion to John F. Kennedy. Hoboken, NJ. Sontag, Susan. 1974. “Fascinating Fascism.” In idem. 1991. Under the Sign of Saturn, 71–105. New York. Sorensen, Ted. 2009. Kennedy: The Classic Biography. New York. Swift, Will. 2008. The Kennedys Amidst the Gathering Storm: A Thousand Days in London 1938–1940. London. Waite, Robert G. 2010. “‘Ish bin ein Bearleener’—JFK’s 26 June 1963 Visit to Berlin: The Views from East Germany,” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 4: 844–65. Walker, Gerald, and Donald A. Allan. 1961. “Jack Kennedy at Harvard.” Coronet 50, no. 1 (May): 82–95. Wallace, Max. 2003. The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh and the Rise of the Third Reich. New York. Weil, Ursula, and Otto Weil. 1965. John F. Kennedy: Der 35. Präsident der USA. Berlin (GDR). Whalen, Richard J. 1964. The Founding Father: The Story of Joseph P. Kennedy. New York. White, Mark. 2013. “Apparent Perfection: The Image of John F. Kennedy.” History 98, no. 2: 226–46. Wills, Chuck. 2009. Jack Kennedy: The Illustrated Life of a President. San Francisco. Wills, Garry. 2002 [1981]. The Kennedy Imprisonment: A Meditation on Power. Boston. Wright, Alfred. 1962. “A Modest All-American Who Sits on the Highest Bench.” Sports Illustrated (10 December): 85–98, esp. 90–91.

– 166 –

index of names

A Adenauer, Konrad, 37 Arvad, Inga, 23–24 Attlee, Clement, 26 Auden, W. H., 29 B Beckett, Samuel, 10 Berry, Louise, 97, 114 Bevin, Ernest, 26 Billings, Francis, 52, 104 Blixen, Karen, 13 Blum, Léon, 48 Brandy, Willy, 36 Bryan, Julien, 11 Byrnes, James, 26 C Chamberlain, Neville, 3, 18 Charles III, 105 Charles VIII, 52 Chevalier, Maurice, 50, 102 Churchill, Winston, 16, 26 Cooper, Gary, 53 Corsica, Simone, 56, 110 Cortesi, Arnaldo, 8, 59, 61, 114, 118 Cosgrove, Freddie, 43, 68 Coyle, Dan, 97 D Da Vinci, Leonardo, 6, 58, 105, 112 Dempsey, Patrick, 22 Dietrich, Marlene, 22 Dodd, Martha, 14, 30 Dodd, William Edward, 14 Du Bois, W. E. B., 11

E Eisenhower, Dwight D., 26–27 F Farr, Tommy, 69, 129 Forrestal, James, 26, 29–30, 70–71, 131–32, 149 Franco, Francisco, 7, 54–55, 71, 107 Frisch, Max, 13 G Galeazzi, Enrico, 8, 59–60, 114–15, 118 Garbo, Greta, 112 Gardiner, Indra, 43, 68 Garrety, Joe, 65 Gellhorn, Martha, 29 Genet, Jean, 11 Göring, Hermann, 16 Gunther, John, 8, 50, 54–55, 58, 71 H Harding, Warren, 51, 103 Harris, Robert, 1–2 Hauser, Heinrich, 13 Hawley, Frank, 103 Hearst, William Randolph, 26 Heydrich, Reinhard, 24–25 Hitler, Adolf, 1–4, 7–11, 13–17, 19, 21–25, 30–34, 36, 54, 58, 64–65, 71, 113, 122, 125 Hoguet, Elie, 63–64, 120 Hoguet, Joe, 63–64, 124 Hollister, Ann, 65, 122 Hull, Cordell, 21 Huss, Pierre, 27

Index of Names

Murrow, Edward, 30 Mussolini, Benito, 8–9, 15, 25, 31, 57, 62, 65, 71, 112

Hutton, Barbara, 63, 120 I Irwin, Virginia, 29

N Napoleon I, 51, 103

J Joan of Arc, 99, 104 K Kauffmann, Jane, 57, 111 Kennan, George F., 19 Kennedy, Joseph (brother), 21, 22, 59 Kennedy, Joseph (father), 1–3, 8, 16, 19, 24, 59 Kirk, Alexander, 20 Kitchener, Beate, 23 L Lang, Anton, 7, 64, 122 Laski, Harold, 68 Latham, Paul, 70, 129–31, 133 Lerner, Al, 63, 120 Lerner, Bruce, 50, 102 Lindbergh, Charles, 16 Lipton, Thomas, 47 Lombard, Carole, 4 Loti, Pierre, 53 Louis XIV, 54, 108 Louis, Joe, 69, 129,

O Offie, Carmel, 5 P Pacelli, Eugenio, 8, 49, 60, 101, 115 Picasso, Pablo, 7 Pitts, David, 5 Playfair, Diane, 24 Pope Pius XII, 8 Press, J., 102 Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands, 67, 125 R Reid, Ann, 47, 49–51, 97, 101 Remarque, Erich Maria, 22 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 17 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 21, 24, 48, 52 Rossellini, Roberto, 29

M Macdonald, Torbert (“Torb”), 18–19, 23, 61 Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, 43, 51, 103–4 Marie Therese of Spain, 54, 108 Mathews, Francine, 24 Medici, Catharina di, 105 Menaul, Christopher, 1 Merrills, Sam, 68 Michelangelo, 6 Miller, Jack, 102 Mitford, Unity, 22 Molotov, Vyatcheslav, 26

S Schriber, Joe, 43, 68, 126–28 Schriber, Scotie, 43, 68 Semler, Ann, 50 Severance, Frank, 103 Shakespeare, William, 32 Shirer, William, 17, 20 Sontag, Susan, 32 Stalin, Josef, 7, 26 Stern, James, 29 Swift, Harlan, 123 T Thompson, Dorothy, 31 Truman, Harry S., 26, 30

– 168 –

Index of Names

V Van der Walt, Johannes, 135 Vonnegut, Kurt, 29 W Wagner, Richard, 19, 23 Welles, Ben, 43, 47 Wessel, Horst, 18, 23 White, Byron (“Whizzer”), 18–19 Wiegand, Karl Henry von, 31

Wilhelm II, 15 Wilkinson, Doug, 68, 128 Winer, Harvey, 22 Wolfe, Thomas, 10 Woolf, Virginia, 5–6 Z Zinn, Georg August, 37

– 169 –

index of places

A Angoulême, 41, 52–53, 105–6, 152, 154 Antwerp, 67, 126, 155 B Beauvais Cathedral, 6, 47, 97–98, 100, 151–52, 154 Belgrade, 20 Berlin, 1–3, 13–14, 17–18, 20, 24, 26–31, 33–37, 39, 54, 72, 156–57 Boulogne, 5, 68, 127, 155 Bremen, 28, 34, 156 Bremerhaven, 28, 156 Brenner Pass, 64, 121

Château Thierry, 99 Colosseum, Rome, 6, 41, 59, 114 D Chemin des Dames, 7, 47, 98, 154 Dome of Cologne, 6 Dome of Milan, 6 Doorn, 15, 67, 125, 155 E “Eagle’s Nest” (Hitler’s retreat), 31–32

C Calais, 68, 126–27, 155 Cannes, 56, 75–76, 109–10, 152, 154 Canterbury, 127 Capri, 61, 117, 155 Carcassonne, 56, 74, 109, 154 Castel Sant’Angelo, 6 Catacombs, Rome, 62, 118 Chartres, 51, 103–4, 151, 154 Château Amboise, 6, 51–52, 104–5, 152, 154 Château Chambord, 6, 51, 73, 104, 154 Château Chenonceau, 6, 41, 52, 105, 154 Château de Blois, 6, 52, 105, 154 Château de Versailles, 6, 50–51, 101, 103, 154

F Florence, 6, 62–63, 81–82, 97, 119, 153, 155 Fontainebleau, 6, 100, 154 Fort de la Pompelle, 7, 48, 154 Frankfurt, 10, 27, 34, 36, 66, 124, 155–56 G Garmisch-Partenkirchen, 7, 10 Genoa, 57, 111, 155 Ghent, 68, 126, 153, 155 I Innsbruck, 64, 121, 153, 155 Irún, 7, 41, 54, 107 K Kehlsteinhaus, Berchtesgaden, 31 L Le Havre, 47, 97, 151, 154

– 170 –

Index of Places

Prague, 19–20, 24, 156

Les Invalides, Paris, 6, 51, 103 Lourdes, 5–6, 55, 108–9, 152, 154 Louvre, Paris, 6, 50, 103

R Reims Cathedral, 7, 41–42, 47–48, 98–100, 151–52, 154 Rhine River Valley, 6–7, 10, 12, 66, 124 Rouen Cathedral, 6, 47, 97–98, 151–52, 154

M Marseilles, 55 Milan, 6, 57, 111–12, 152–53 Mont St. Michel, 47 Monte Carlo, 56–57, 110–11, 152, 154–55 Moulin Rouge, Paris, 49, 100

S Soissons Cathedral, 7, 47, 98, 154 St. Etienne, 100 St. Jean de Luz, 52–54, 106–8, 152 St. Marco, Venice, 63, 120 St. Paul’s Basilica, 118–19

N Nice, 56, 110, 154 Notre Dame, 5–6, 49, 100–101 O Oberammergau (Passion Play), 7, 10, 41–42, 64, 122, 155 Orléans, 6, 41–42, 51–52, 103–5, 151–52, 154 Ostend, 68, 92, 126, 155 P Piacenza, 57–58, 112–13, 152–53, 155 Pisa, 58, 78–79, 113, 155 Poitiers, 52, 106, 154 Pompeii, 6, 60, 116, 155 Pompernay, 41, 48

T The Hague, 67, 91, 125–26, 153 Toulouse, 55–56, 108–9, 152, 154 Trianon, 51, 104 V Vesuvius, 60, 116, 155 Vienna, 19, 24, 39, 156 W Wiesbaden, 37 Wuerttemberg, 155

– 171 –

index of subjects

Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), 30 communism, 2, 12, 14–15, 34, 37, 58, 71, 97 concentration camps, 14, 25, 30, 33 Condor Legion, 7 “Corporatism,” 8, 60, 62 Czechoslovakia, 10, 19, 22

A Abyssinia, 41, 57, 112 American Express, 49–50, 57, 59, 65, 67, 101–3, 112, 114, 123, 126, 133 American football, 11, 18, 51 American isolationism, 3, 16, 22, 36 American Legion, 33 Anschluss (Austria, 1938), 10 Anti-Semitism, 14, 21 Anti-Sovietism, 28, 35–36, 58, 113 appeasement, 16, 18, 37, 156 Auschwitz, 30 autobahn, 7, 11

D democracy in Britain and the United States, 12, 58 E Eiffel Tower, Paris, 7, 51, 103 Ethiopia, 8, 22, 62

B behavior of American GIs in Germany, 27–28 behavior of Red Army soldiers, 28, 33–34 Ben Hur, film, 56 Berghof, 31 Berlin Blockade, 1948, 36 Berlin Wall, 1961, 2, 36–37 Brandenburg Gate, 36 Buchenwald concentration camp, 30

F fascism, 2, 6, 8, 15, 23–24, 32, 111 “Free City of Danzig,” 17 “Final Solution of the Jewish Question,” 24 France, 2, 4, 7, 15, 17, 19, 21, 39, 48, 51, 56–57, 71, 77, 98–99, 104, 106, 110–11, 136, 151–52, 155–56

C Catholics, 118 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 24 Choate Prep School, 4, 154 Cold War, 3, 25, 72

G German Museum, Munich, 6–7, 65, 122 Germania anno zero, film, 29 Gestapo, 24 Gleichschaltung (Establishment of a one-party dictatorship), 8, 11, 17

– 172 –

Index of Subjects

Gleiwitz radio station, September 1939, 3, 17 global politics, 3 Guernica, destruction and Picasso’s triptych, 7 H Harvard University, 1, 4, 8, 14, 16, 65, 101, 154 Haus Wachenfels, Berchtesgaden, 31–32 Hiroshima, 30 Hofbräuhaus, Munich, 4, 64–65, 122 Hollywood, 4 Hotel Adlon, Berlin, 36 I IG Farben Chemicals trust, 30 Ireland, 33, 47, 97, 156 K Kennedy, John F. health problems, 6, 69, 128 in Naval Reserve, 26 presidency, 2, 10, 15, 25, 29 Kennedy, Joseph Jr., political attitudes, 22 Kleiner Wannsee, 32 L liberation of concentration camps, 25, 30 “liquidation” of Jews, 14 Luftwaffe, 16 M Madame Tussaud’s, Paris, 134 Munich Agreement, 1938, 16 N Nazi architecture, 7

Nazi Germany, 2, 5, 7–8, 13, 16, 72 Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg, September 1937, 11 Nazi terror, 14 “Nordic race,” 13, 66 Notre Dame, Paris, 5–6, 49, 100–101 O Olympic summer games 1936, 10 Olympic winter games, 7, 64 P pogrom against Jews in Germany, November 1938, 10 Poland, 3, 17, 21, 25 Polish Corridor, 18 Potsdam Conference of the Big Three, July/August 1945, 1, 26 Princeton University, 4, 50, 116, 133, 154 PT-109 and PT-59, 26, 156 R racism in Nazi Germany, 11, 13 Red Army, 25, 28 Reich Party Rally of Labor, September 1937, 9 S SA (Sturmabteilung/Brownshirts), 18 San Francisco conference, 1944/45, 26, 156 Schöneberg town hall, 36 Soviet Union, 7, 15, 20, 156 Soviet Zone of occupation, 28 Soviet-German Nonaggression Pact, 1939, 20 Spanish Civil War, 2, 15 SS (Schutz-Staffel), 28 Sudetenland, 10, 16, 19

– 173 –

Index of Subjects

V Virgin Mary, 23, 109

T Tegel Airport, West Berlin, 37 Third Reich, 3–4, 9–11, 19, 22, 25, 31, 149 totalitarian preparations for war, 2–3, 9 U United Nations organization, 26, 156 United States, 1–3, 10–11, 13, 15–16, 20–21, 24–26, 29–30, 34–35, 72, 134–35, 151 US Strategic Bombing Survey, 29 US Supreme Court, 18

W Weimar Republic, 8 West Berlin, 35–36 White House, 5, 37, 104 World Exposition, Paris 1937, 7, 9, 51, 102–3 Z Zyklon B, 30

– 174 –