Introduction to Pagan Studies 9780759108189, 0759108188, 9780759108196, 0759108196, 2006010885

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INTRODUCTION

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SCHOOL OF SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY AT AT CLAREMONT

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BARBARA

JANE-DAV® JANE DAVY

The Library Library of of Claremont School of School of

Theology

1325 North College College Avenue 1325 Claremont, CA CA 91711-3199

(909) (909) 447-2589 447-2589

Introduction to to

Pagan Pagan Studies Studies

THE THE PAGAN STUDIES SERIES

SERIES SERIES EDITORS EDITORS Wendy Griffin (California (California State State University, Long Long Beach) Beach) Wendy and Chas S.S. Clifton (University of Colorado) and Chas Clifton (University of Southern Southern Colorado) The label “Pagan “Pagan studies” marks the scholarly inThe the movement of of scholarly inquiry into religious expressions formerly formerly conquiry into aa diversity diversity of of religious sidered new religious of paganism paganism religious movements. The The definition of

by sociologist of of religion advocated by religion Michael York—“an affirmation of and polymorphic sacred relationships by by of interactive and individual or community with the the tangible, sentient, and and nonempirical”— these spiritual spiritual traditions have have in feeling for for emphasizes what these in common: aa feeling “the “the sacred” that that isis non-monotheistic, based on relationship rather than and often often includes an immanent dimension for for revelation and and scripture, and landforms, plants, plants, and and animals.

The of religions that formal reThe traditional approach toto the the study study of religions assumes that ligious traditions are normative, and so misses religious sects that inligious and religious that are inherently more fluid and more ambiguous. The approach taken by Pagan herently and approach by Pagan studies permits of highly highly dynamic dynamic and and mutable religious religious permits examination of communities within aa hypermodern society, society, and and demonstrates the the inincreasing religious pluralism of our times. This shift in perspective will be creasing religious pluralism of This shift in will be to the the intellectual endeavor to aa welcome addition to to understand and and give give meaning to to aa wide variety of religious religious experience. meaning variety of The Pagan Studies Series is in nature and aims to to include The Pagan is interdisciplinary in both junior into publishjunior scholars who seek toto turn strong strong dissertations into publishable monographs and and senior scholars who who are looking looking for kind of of atatable for the the kind tention a small academic press can give exciting feagive their work. The The most exciting feature of of the the series isis that that it take the the lead into it will will take lead in in building building Pagan Pagan studies into aa legitimate legitimate field field by by focusing focusing research on this unexplored topic. this topic. BOOKS IN IN THE SERIES

Researching Paganisms, edited by Blain, Douglas Ezzy, by Jenny Jenny Blain, Ezzy, Harvey and Graham Harvey and Her Her Hidden Children: The of Wicca and and Paganism in The Rise Rise of in America,

by by Chas S.S. Clifton

Introduction toto Pagan by Barbara Jane Pagan Studies, by Jane Davy Davy

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AA Division Division of of ROWMAN && LITTLEFIELD INC. ROWMAN LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham *¢ New York UK York * Toronto «* Plymouth, UK

Figures of Witchcraft Witchcraft by Figures 1,1, 11, 11, 13 13 are from Rebirth of by Doreen Valiente, copyright Phoenix Publishing; figure figure 88 isis from AA Witches’ Bible by Janet Janet and and Stewart Farrar, Farrar, copyright Phoenix Bible by Publishing; 14 Do by by Stewart Farrar, Farrar, copyright copyright Phoenix Publishing; 14 isis from from What Witches Do 15 from Eight Eight Sabbats for with permission. 15 is is from for Witches, copyright Phoenix Publishing, used with

ALTAMIRA PRESS Inc. AA division of of Rowman && Littlefield Publishers, Inc. The Rowman && Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. AA wholly wholly owned subsidiary of of The Group, Inc. 200 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 MD 20706 Lanham, MD www.altamirapress.com Estover Road Plymouth PL6 Plymouth PL6 7PY 7PY United Kingdom

Copyright 2007 by Copyright ©© 2007 by AltaMira Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may may be be reproduced, stored All rights No part of this in aa retrieval system, or transmitted in in any any form form or by by any in any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the the prior prior permission of the publisher. of the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing Publication Information Available British Library Cataloguing in in Publication Information Available Library of Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Davy, Barbara Jane, Davy, Jane, 1972Introduction to to pagan studies // Barbara p. p. cm. — (The (The pagan studies series) Includes bibliographical references and and

Jane Jane Davy. Davy.

index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7591-0818-9 (cloth alk. paper) paper) (cloth :: alk. ISBN-10: 0-7591-0818-8 (cloth (cloth :: alk. alk. paper) paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-7591-0819-6 (pbk. paper) (pbk. :: alk. alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7591-0819-6 (pbk. paper) (pbk. :: alk. alk. paper) 1. 1. Neopaganism. I. I. Title. Title. II. II. Series. BP605.N46D38 2006 2006 299'.94—dc22 299' 94—dc22

2006010885

Printed in in the the United States of of America

M ey @©™ The this publication meets the The paper paper used in in this the minimum requirements of of American National Standard for ences—Permanenc for Information’Sci Information’Sciences—Perma Paper nencee of of Paper for for Printed Library Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Z39.48-1992.

Contents

List of List of Figures Figures

Vil Vii

Introduction

Beliefs

13 13

Social Organization

33 33

Family Practices Individual and Family

| bil

Group Practices Group

69 69

Myths and Historical Origins Myths and Origins

89 89

ON DBD oO FPF

WB

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1il

Literary Origins and Literary Origins and Influences

105 105

Social and and Charismatic Influences

125 125

Denominations

145 145

Ethics and and Politics

165 165

jo©

Current Issues

183 183

11 11

Research in in Pagan Pagan Studies

203 203

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PSS) Ethics io} SR ep, Nh wok Noy

Glossary Glossary

221 221

Bibliography

227, 227

Index

237 237

the Author About the

245 245

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(press photo) photo) Starhawk (press

15 US)

The Goddess (Goddess altar, Kerr) The altar, photo photo by by Catherine Kerr)

18 18

Ol ME)

Gerald Gardner (from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of of Witchcraft)

The Horned God (Horned God altar, photo by by Lloyd Lloyd Keane) The altar, photo

20 20

Leaving offerings (photo by Jane Davy) Davy) Leaving offerings (photo by Barbara Jane

55 55

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ke Gah)

Figures Figures

Wheel of the Year (Northern Hemisphere) Wheel of the Year (Northern Hemisphere) (image created by Kerr) (image by Catherine Kerr)

og 7

Home altar altar (photo by Mandy Mandy Furney) Furney) (photo by

60 60

WOW fF oO NH N

NX

N

The Brigid The Goddess as mother atat Imbolc, wearing aa Brigid headdress of (from Farrar and and Farrar, of candles (from Farrar,

Bible) AA Witches’ Bible)

Va ZZ

Maypole (photo (photo by by M. Maypole M. Macha Nightmare)

73 73

10 10

Furney) Handfasting (photo (photo from Mandy Mandy Furney)

82 82

11 11

Maddelena (from Doreen Doreen Valiente’s Maddelena (from Valiente’s Rebirth Rebirth of of Witchcraft) Witchcraft)

109 109

12 12

The Ravenhearts Ravenhearts (photo (photo provided by Oberon Zell-Ravenheart) Zell-Ravenheart) The provided by

120 120

13 13

Witchcraft) Doreen Valiente (from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of of Witchcraft)

WAS) 129

14 14

Alex Alex and and Maxine Sanders (from (from Stewart Farrar’s What Witches Do) What Do)

130 130

Vil Vii

viii viii

5 15

Figures Figures

Janet and and Stewart Farrar (from and Farrar’s Janet (from Farrar and

Eight Eight Sabbats for for Witches)

132 132

16 16

Z. Budapest Budapest (photo (photo provided by by Z. Z. Budapest) Z.

133 133

17 le

(photo provided provided by Isaac Bonewits (photo by Isaac Bonewits)

138 138

18 18

by Wendy Contemporary Druid (photo (photo by Wendy Griffin)

17, 157

19 19

Altar with North Altar with multicultural elements, Samhain

20 20

21 21

22ak&b 22a&b

Spiral Dance celebration of of the the Reclaiming community Spiral in San (photo by by M. M. Macha Nightmare) in San Francisco (photo

170 170

Spontaneous ritual led led by at political by Starhawk at political demonstration against against G20 G20 meeting meeting in in Ottawa, Canada, 2001 (photo by Barbara Jane Jane Davy) (photo by Davy)

T77 177

Fox with of the Selena Fox with other members of the Parliament of the of Religious and of the World’s Religions Assembly of and Spiritual Leaders (photo (photo from from Circle Circle Magazine Magazine 91) 91) Spiritual

184 184

Andy Letcher, before and and after entering academia Andy after entering (photos by Andy Andy Letcher; latter is by (photos provided provided by is by Chris Holland) Chris

214 214

Introduction

middle-aged bookstore owner isis firmly firmly “in the broom closet” and re“in the veals himself as Pagan only to his most trusted coreligionists. AA Pagan only to his thirty-something lesbian polyamorist* is selectively out as gay gay and/or and/or is out Pagan to to people she trusts in college professor Pagan people she in different contexts. A A college professor near be “sitting “sitting on the the fence,” to be be Pagan to retirement seems to to be fence,” appearing to Pagan to Pagans, but who studies Pagans Pagans rather than a a practipractiother Pagans, but to to be be someone who tioner when delivering conference papers. AA conservative civil servant isis openly Pagan Pagan and exchanges working Day for taking the the winopenly and exchanges working Christmas Day for taking ter solstice as aa religious religious holiday. holiday. An An internationally known anarchist popoter litical activist self-identifies as aa Pagan, Pagan, a Witch, and aa practitioner of of femfemlitical Witch, and inist spirituality, depending on the in which she she finds herself. An inist the context in An

couple of of twenty-year-olds who like like to to display exhibitionist couple display their their BDSM at public public festivals, which they they see as aa safe for experimenfantasies at safe place place for

tation, are Pagan. Pagan. An An eight-month-old baby, newly welcomed to the Craft tation, baby, newly to the through a Wiccaning ceremony, is Pagan. through is being being raised Pagan. Pagans are found in all walks of of all all politpolitContemporary Pagans in all of life life and are of ical persuasions. Many Many Pagans Pagans are average people, people, but but some are ical markedly countercultural, preferring preferring lifestyles lifestyles alternative to to the the mainstream. Some practitioners are attracted to of its perto Paganism because of its perceived participation in in the that began the countercultural movements that began in in the the Being Pagan Pagan can mean living smoking up up 1960s. Being living aa modern hippy hippy lifestyle, lifestyle, smoking and the faeries, faeries, and and participating in in and communing with the in outdoor rituals in the also mean sitting sitting through through long boring meetings meetings in the nude, nude, but but it it can also long boring in that appear in in the *Terms that in bold are explained in the glossary.

in1

22

Introduction

background.! have a middle-class background.' Pagans have urban community centers. Most Pagans general of education than the general than the higher levels of tend toto have higher Although they they tend Although a at put them middlechoose lifestyles that a many population, below or at them put lifestyles choose many population, of Paganism emphasized its its early studies of living.2 Some early of living.? class standard of the secrecy of social misfits because of appeal to the teachof the of the to “outsiders” or social appeal marginal religion. religion. ings of its status as aa marginal of its and because of of some traditions, and ings part because of recently, in of the of Paganism, growth of the Internet-based growth in part More recently, the of an average Pagan has become more mainPagan practitioner has profile of the profile and younger, and there are more solitaries, which are practitionstream, and Pagans are becoming “sucPagan groups.’ ers who are not affiliated with Pagan groups.’ Pagans cessful, educated, and involved.”* They be liberal middle-class to be tend to They tend and involved.”4 cessful,

college-educated Caucasians, some of of whom choose to to live quite comlive quite to one. Patwo about by in religion outnumber men the fortably. Women Pato in the religion by fortably. gans are more politically active than average particularly Americans, than support aa number of to environmental issues, and of Pagans support and Pagans when itit comes to such as polyamory, even if they if they and practices, such countercultural attitudes and do daily lives.° in their daily do not enact such practices in The plural paganii, paganii, which the Latin paganus, plural from the “pagan” comes from The term “pagan” did not accept the the dominance of of peoples who did to rural peoples originally referred to Roman culture, preferring their local government or pagus. The original original pagans were people had not joined beand bethe Christian movement and joined the people who had come Roman citizens.° For For aa long long time, in signified nonbeliever in time, “pagan” signified Western culture and was used as a term for who did not embrace did not for those who Christianity or any of people the other monotheistic faiths. More recently, people of the have adopted of conthe revived religious traditions of to describe the the term to adopted the temporary Paganism, sometimes called Neo-Paganism. Practitioners generally call themselves “Pagan,” capitalizing the relito affirm that their relithe PP to erally call gion any other faith. Some practitioners emphasize just as legitimate as any is just gion is their links to “the Old Relifaith “the calling their faith to pre-Christian traditions, calling gion,” of modern times. it as a revivalist creation of gion,” while others embrace it Pagan in of Paganism asaa distinct religious tradition in study of the study is the Pagan studies is the prefer to to discuss “paganism” of world religions. Some scholars prefer the context of (preferring to global and historical world religion p) as a global to use a lowercase p) but this to commentary is restricted to this text is including indigenous religions,” but Pagans and their traditions. of contemporary self-identified Pagans study of the study on the With a lowercase p, all religions that have reto all usually refers to p, “paganism” usually sisted conversion to and conto monotheistic traditions, including historical and temporary peoples, peoples, while contemporary “Paganism” more often describes people who were raised in people in monotheistic traditions but but have rejected them in favor of of revivals and recreations of in of pre-Christian traditions. Contemporary Paganism does not have a missionary stance or project project to to convert everyone to to its its beliefs, so it it does not strive to to be be a world religion by by spreading ing throughout the the world, but Pagans Pagans are found across the the globe. globe.

Introduction

33

might suppose that Paganism isis not not a large enough religion religion to Some might that Paganism large enough to merit study in determinstudy as aa world religion. religion. There are two complications in ing “Pagan.” First, organized into into groups, ing who counts as “Pagan.” First, Paganism isis not not organized like that keep rolls, and and most countries, including the like churches that keep membership rolls, including the United do not include “Pagan,” “Pagan,” or aa comparable alternative, as an United States, States, do option on their forms, so compiling global numbers of option their census forms, compiling global of self-identified Pagans isis difficult. In In addition, some people idenPagans people feel feel aa need to to hide their their identification as Pagan Pagan from from governmental authorities, due due to to fears fears of religious of religious persecution. Second, there is “Pagan.” With is debate about what isis meant by by “Pagan.” the of indigenous indigenous religions, between 55 and and 66 percent the the inclusion of percent of of the world’s population is small-p pagan, which isisa a statistically significant porporis small-p tion of the the world’s population. By paganism more tion of By comparison, this this gives gives paganism adherents than than Judaism, Sikhism, Jainism, Jainism, and and Bahai, Bahai, which together together con-

stitute less less than 11 percent percent of of the and yet the world’s population and yet are routinely studied as world religions religions (perhaps (perhaps with with the the exception exception of Sikhism).§ WithWithof Sikhism). out the the inclusion of of indigenous religions, the the global global numbers of of contempoPagan adherents are far totaling less less than one million. rary Pagan far fewer, fewer, totaling Pagan populations are concentrated in AusPagan in Britain, North America, Australia, and and New but they they can also tralia, New Zealand, but also be be found in in smaller numbers

Europe and and scattered through through other parts the world. PaPathroughout Europe parts of of the ganism religion in in Iceland in in 1973 as Asatra. Asatru. Asatrtarganism became an official religion Asatriarfélagidr, Asatrt Society Society of of Iceland, had in 2000, out of félagidr, the the Asatrt had 500 500 members in 2000, out of aa

population of of 275,000, which amounts to percent. The The 2001 2001 cento about 0.2 0.2 percent. sus of of New Zealand recorded 5,862 people as Pagan, of aa population 5,862 people Pagan, out of of 3.7 million, million, which amounts to to 0.158 percent. This of 3.7 This appears toto be be somewhat above the for Canada and the percentages for and Australia, which also also publish publish census data data on Pagans. Pagans. The of 2001 found 21,080 21,080 Pagans Pagans The Canadian census of out of aa population population of to 0.071 There out of of 29,639,030, which amounts to 0.071 percent.’ percent.’ There

may actually be be more Canadians who are Pagan. In aa study study of Paganism may actually Pagan. In of Paganism

in Canada, when respondents respondents were were asked asked how how they they would would record record their rein Canada, when their religion on the 25 percent indicated that that they ligion the census, 25 they would choose something Pagan, despite despite the the fact fact that they self-identify as practithing other than Pagan, that they practiof a a Pagan denomination.'° tioners of Pagan denomination."° As in Canada, of Statistics does not include “Pa“PaAs in Canada, the the Australian Bureau of does not ganism” as aa choice on the forms, but but it people to to write ganism’” the census forms, it does does allow people in a choice, and it tabulates the results rather than simply classing them in a choice, and it tabulates the results rather than simply classing them

all as “other.” The The Australian census of 2001 recorded 24,156 24,156 adherents to to all of 2001 “nature religion,” a category in which they include Pagans, Wiccans, religion,” a category in they Pagans,

Druids, and and pantheists (those regard the the Earth as aa living living being (those who regard being and/or who wholly identify the Earth with divinity) as well wholly identify the divinity) well as animists (those who who believe that that all things are living possibly ensouled bebe(those all things living and and are possibly

ings). 0.13 percent populaings). According to to these numbers, 0.13 percent of of the the Australian population was Pagan Pagan as of 2001." tion of 2001."

44

Introduction

the number of Pagans in in the the United States in in the last few Estimates of of the of Pagans the last few decades have have varied from from 50,000 50,000 to to more than In 1985, there were than 750,000. In 1985, there

an estimated 50,000 to to 100,000 100,000 self-identified Pagans the United States, Pagans in in the States, according to to a practitioner-authored survey.'* practisurvey.!? Within ten ten years, practito 300,000.'° 300,000.'3 Scholars began tioner estimates had had risen to began producing survey data in 1999, 1999, estimating between 150,000 data in 150,000 and and 200,000 practitioners, with some researchers indicating that may be that many practitionpractitionthat there there may be twice that ers.!4 poll conducted in in 1999-2000 estimated ers.'4 AA practitioner-run Internet poll the American Pagan the Pagan population to to be be 768,400. This This disparity isis not necessarily due due to the difference between conservative academic estimates and sarily to the those of of enthusiastic practitioners, but also reflects the the explosive but also explosive growth growth of the latter half half of of the the Internet.'5 Internet.!5 IfIf there of Paganism in in the the 1990s, 1990s, fueled by by the are 200,000 Pagans in the population of 290 million, Pagans in the United States out of of aa population of 290 that percent. If there are 750,000 Pagans, Pagans, that that would would be that makes 0.069 percent. If there be 0.259 percent of the American population, which seems aa bit high in compariof the bit high in comparison with with actual from the the New Zealand, Australian, and and Canaactual statistics from

dian dian censuses. of Pagans Pagans in the United Kingdom. Estimates also also vary on the the number of in the In for the In 1996, 1996, 30,000 30,000 to to 50,000 50,000 was aa common estimate for the number of of Pagans Pagans

Kingdom.'® AA 1997 study study indicated that there are approxiapproxiinin the the United Kingdom.!° mately 100,000 Pagans in the As of estimately Pagans in the United Kingdom.!” Kingdom.’’ As of 1998, 1998, scholars estithat there are between 110,000 and and 120,000 practitioners of mated that of GodGoddess spirituality in in the the United Kingdom,'® dess Kingdom,'§ which would include some people who do Pagan orpeople do not self-identify as practitioners of of Paganism. A A Pagan recently paid paid to to have Pagan the 2001 ganization recently Pagan statistics tabulated from the

census in in Scotland, and and they they report report that 1,930 people that 1,930 people identified themPagan in in the the “other” category.!9 selves as Pagan Although contemporary Paganism Paganism is statistically as significant as Although is not statistically other world religions, religions, whether aa tradition or group of conof traditions isis considered as a world religion religion is is not purely purely aa matter of of number of of adherents. It also a matter of It is is also of differentiation regarding things like like theology, theology, cosregarding things mology, social mology, social organization, practices, and organization, ritual ritual practices, origins—the and historical historical origins—the type of of categories in type in which this this book discusses Paganism. ItIt is is not imporimportant here here toto prove that that Paganism is religion, but is aa world religion, to note that but rather to Pagan studies looks Pagan looks at Paganism as though at Paganism though it it is. currently unis. Paganism is is currently dergoing aa process of of routinization, creating creating institutions and and organizaorganizational structures. Some practitioners actively actively work against against this this formal inin-

stitutionalization of of their religion, rejecting the religion, rejecting the formation of of creedal statements, the of codes of the adoption of and the of practice, and the development of of structures that claim to to represent all Pagans. However, itit is all Pagans. possible to is possible disto dis-

tinguish tinguish Paganism as aa distinct religious tradition in the twentieth and in the twenty-first centuries without distorting distorting it it into aa more homogeneous apappearance than is is supported by Pagan texts and sociological and by Pagan ethnoand ethno-

Introduction

55

graphic The fact Pagans resist formal structures of graphic data. data. The fact that that Pagans of organization, systematization, dogma, and orthodoxy orthodoxy is, fact, a a marker marker of unique dogma, and is, in in fact, of aa unique family of religious family of religious traditions. be discussed as aa family family of of religious religious traditions rather Paganism must be than as a homogenous religion, this isis true of religions. PaPareligion, but but this of other world religions. ganism ganism includes Wicca, the the largest largest denomination within Paganism, as well as other other Witchcraft traditions; reconstructionist denominations including revivals of and Heathen traditions; and of Greek, Egyptian, Latvian, Druidic, Druidic, and and

aa variety variety of and eclectic denominations. Eclectic Paof other contemporary and Pagans draw on aa variety of sources in practices, rather gans draw variety of in creating creating their own practices, than exclusively exclusively following following aa preexisting tradition. Pagans Pagans can be be eclectic in in their religious religious practices for practices even within aa denomination. Many Many Wiccans, for example, in their their practices, practices, being being inspired inspired not only by British example, are eclectic in only by folklore and but also also by and mythology, but by traditions from other lands. Largely due due to marketing choices of of popular popular book pubpubLargely to the the marketing of aa number of lishers, Wicca isis much more readily readily identified as aa religious religious tradition than Paganism is. is. However, Wicca isis more properly properly aa denomination within PaPaganism than aa distinct religion. Referring to in place place of of Paganism isis ganism than religion. Referring to Wicca in like This usage of of the like taking taking Protestantism for for Christianity as aa whole. This the terms has has begun fairly analogous way begun to to occur among practitioners in in aa fairly to with Protestants who understand their their denomination as to how it it does with is: ifif one isis part the mainstream of what Christianity is: part of of the of a tradition, then one’s to be of, if not conone’s own denomination isis often often taken to be representative of, if not

gruent gruent with, with, the the religion religion as aa whole. Recent media and and publishing influhave lead larger numbers of generic Pagans Pagans referring referring to to themences have lead to to larger of generic that is, of Wicca. Historically, “Wicca” selves as Wiccan, that is, as practitioners of Pagans who are bitheistic, revering revering divinity in the the forms of refers to to Pagans divinity in of aa and a God. God. Pagans generally are polytheistic, acknowlGoddess and Pagans more generally edging the the existence of goddesses and often have edging of many goddesses and gods. gods. Individuals often special relationships with of these, particular pantheon, special with one or more of these, or aa particular such as the the Greek gods gods and of Olympus, or the of Norse such and goddesses of the deities of to the the tradition popularized by mythology. Wiccan traditions are traceable to by beginning in the 1940s and and 1950s in in Britain, Britain, while PaganGerald Gardner beginning in the Paganism more broadly broadly has ism has more diverse roots. ( ee first popularizer of of modern Witchcraft as erald Gardner was the the first

He called this spelling CG: a religion. religion. He this religion religion Wicca (or (or “Wica”—his spelling was inconsistent), and and itit has come to be known more specifically as has to be Gardnerian Wicca. For more information on Gardner and other imFor and other important figures the development of portant figures inin the of contemporary Paganism, see chapter 7.7. chapter

66

Figure Figure 1.1.

Introduction

Gerald Gardner (from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of Witchcrafe)

Historically, “pagan” has has referred to to the the peoples the land, peoples of of the land, as opposed opposed to the the peoples peoples of of the the book, meaning the the Koran. The The term “pa“pato book, meaning the Bible or the gan” has to “nonbelievers” in the God God of gan” has referred to in the of the the monotheistic traditions of of Christianity, Judaism, and and Islam. Generally, Pagans Generally, contemporary Pagans support the the association of of their religion religion with ancient traditions that that are support

historically referred to “pagan.” Pagans like to to as “pagan.” Pagans like to think of of themselves as people of the land, since their people of the land, their religion has has aa this-worldly focus, focus, celebrating the and as the the goddesses and ing the natural world as sacred and the home of of the and gods, of the the Goddess and the God. Pagans feel feel aa sense of gods, or of and the God. Additionally, Pagans of solidarity with with people people who have been persecuted for for holding holding to to their their inindigenous against colonization by by monotheistic cultures. However, digenous faith against Pagan religion religion is that itit is Pagan is different from ancient pagan traditions, in in that is conpublicly practiced practiced religion religion in the second half half of of temporary, becoming aa publicly in the the twentieth century. Reconstructionist denominations within Paganism the the connections between their their practices practices and stress the and those of of the the traditions from which they they draw their inspiration, but but they they are revivals and and reimagreimagfrom inings of of these traditions rather than than continuous outgrowths of inings of them. The twentieth-century origins origins of by some pracThe of Paganism are disputed by notably aa minority minority of of Wiccans who who believe that that Gerald Gardner titioners, notably

into an established group of in the the New Forest area was initiated into of witches in of Britain that directly from from witches persecuted in of that was descended directly in the the mehe had had found aa coven that dieval witch hunts. Gardner said said that that he that was aa remnant of of the the religion of those those who who were were persecuted. persecuted. However, However, it genreligion of it is is generally agreed by erally agreed by scholars of that the of Pagan people persecuted durPagan studies that the people ing the witch witch hunts were “witches” only ing the only in in the the anthropological sense of of someone accused of of practicing malevolent magic. magic. These “witches” are are

Introduction

7I

properly than as members properly understood as alleged alleged Christian heretics rather than of religion. Some Pagans Pagans identify identify as “Witches” in in solidarity solidarity of an organized religion. with those who were falsely falsely accused of of malevolent acts and and were killed killed during the witch hunts. These Witches use the for themselves as a during the the term for way of of reclaiming the the word. Connecting their contemporary practices practices with the the past past can create aa powerful of identity for modern Witches. powerful sense of identity for Pagans would like to distance themselves from any Some Pagans like to any association with of practicing “witchcraft,” in with those accused of in order to to differentiate themselves from Satanists who parody parody and and subvert the the Christian religion. religion. all Wiccans identify Pagans identify identify themNot even all identify as “Witches.” Some Pagans selves as “Witches” without identifying identifying with the the label label “Wiccan,” calling calling of feminist themselves non-Wiccan Witches. This This isis particularly true of Witches in in the the Reclaiming tradition. AA recent development is is practitioners preferring to call themselves “Wiccan” and their religion to call and their religion “Wicca,” as aa less calling oneself aa “Witch” and and saying less inflammatory alternative to to calling saying that that one practices practices Witchcraft. Others celebrate their tradition’s occult connections as aa way of challenging mainstream opinions. way of opinions. Scholars of of Pagan Pagan studies examine Paganism Paganism in in relation to to nature relireligion, the New New Age, of which shares some gion, Goddess spirituality, and and the Age, each of commonalities with Paganism but but isis aa distinct area of is, of study. study. Paganism is, in “an affirmain Pagan Pagan studies scholar Michael York’s respected respected definition, “an tion of by the tion of interactive and and polymorphic sacred relationship by the individual or community with with the tangible, sentient, and and nonempirical.”?° This This the tangible, that Pagans Pagans recognize and and interact with with the the sacred in variety of of means that in a variety forms, as material beings with less less substantial or quanbeings and and personalities with Paganism is tifiable material forms. Paganism is aa polytheistic this-worldly religion. As such, such, itit overlaps with, but is not religion, GodGodAs overlaps with, but is not identical with, with, nature religion,

dess spirituality, and and New Age religion isis religion religion in in dess Age traditions. Nature religion the location of of the the sacred, sacred, where transcendence of which nature isis the of nature

isis not dence

necessary for for divinity divinity to to appear. appear.*! Some Pagans affirm aa transcenof nature that does not fit religion, beof that fit this this description of of nature religion, believing in a sort of divinity that is not of this world. Goddess spirituality lieving in a of divinity that is of this overlaps extensively extensively with Paganism but but is goddess focused, sometimes in is goddess in aa monotheistic manner. New Age Age spirituality spirituality isis a a broad-based phenomethat cannot be any one religion. religion. Some Pagan Pagan activities non that be restricted to to any be understood as part part of of the the New Age, Age, but aspects of the New can be but other aspects of the Age, such angels, fit fit better into or Jewish of Age, such as aa belief in in angels, into aa Christian or Jewish view of the world. Pagan Pagan studies is the is the the study study of of Paganism as aa distinct religion religion with diverse denominations that variety with that can be be discussed in in relation to to aa variety of types of religion and of types of religion and other religious religious movements, but but which is is nonethe-

less less an identifiable world religion. This book book introduces the study of religion and and exThis the study of Paganism as aa world religion

plores religious, and and social plores how how Pagan Pagan studies researches the the intellectual, religious, social

88

Introduction

spheres of in terms of spheres of Paganism. ItIt examines Paganism in of some common categories in the the study study of religion, including including beliefs, ritegories in of religion, beliefs, practices, practices, theology, theology, ritual, history, and the role of texts and scriptures. Chapter 1 discusses what ual, history, and the role of and Chapter 1 what Pagans believe. Although belief belief isis not an important feature of their relireliPagans of their gion for many Pagan practitioners, it is a relevant category for the study gion for Pagan it is a for the study of and their deof Pagans Pagans and their religion. religion. There are certain commonalities across denominational borders in in Pagan Pagan cosmology concerning what what they believe they about the and nature of the universe and and the place of the structure and of the the place of humans and divinity within it. it. This chapter explains explains aa number of and divinity This chapter of relevant concepts Pagan theology theology and and thealogy, thealogy, the the studies of of divinity divinity in in its cepts in in Pagan its male male (theo) and im(theo) and female (thea) forms. The meanings of of thealogy, thealogy, cosmology, immanence, polytheism, animism, and in relaand shamanism are discussed in

tion to to Pagan Pagan beliefs. Other common beliefs of of Pagans the tion Pagans about magic, magic, the creation of sacred space, and healing are are also examined. creation of sacred and healing also examined. Chapter 22 looks at Paganism is Chapter at the the social organization of of Paganism. Paganism is not institutionalized in in the the same ways that religions are. Pagans Pagans that other world religions resist formal structures governing their their religion, religion, but but from a sociological point of of view, Pagans isis visible as aa form of of orpoint view, the the social organization of of Pagans ganization that that tends to to deconstruct itself: as structures form, form, they ganization they are

criticized, and and they they begin begin to lose their legitimacy as soon as people people feel to lose feel This chapter chapter looks at and against against rouconstrained by by them. This at trends toward and the fluid of the of PaganPagantinization, examining the fluid nature of the social organization of well as the the larger larger federated organizations that that deism inin small groups, as well develop as some Pagans Pagans seek to create more formal structures. Additionally, velop seek to this chapter chapter looks at in Pagan Pagan groups and and comthis at authority authority and leadership leadership in pares Pagan of clergy clergy with what has pares Pagan understandings of has been referred to to as “democratized shamanism,” participatory religion religion in any practipractiin which any and act as shaman or priest/ess. Finally, this tioner can become an expert expert and Finally, this also comments on the the public/private split chapter also split of of Pagan Pagan groups into into and outer “courts,” or closed and and public inner and public groups. Chapters 33 and and 44 discuss what Pagans Pagans do, do, beginning with with individual Chapters and family family practices in in chapter chapter 3, and extending into into group practices in in and 3, and chapter 4. Chapter Chapter 33 focuses on Pagan chapter 4. Pagan religious religious practices practices and the and rituals in in the home and and with their their families. It lifeways, the It explores explores Pagan Pagan lifeways, Pathe things things Pagans do that that make them identifiable as Pagans, gans do keeping home alPagans, such as keeping altars and and shrines, as well the sometimes more formal ritual well as the of ritual activities of

giving giving offerings, spells, pursuing divination, meditating, and doofferings, casting spells, doing trance work. The ing The tools, tools, accoutrements, and and techniques used used with these these activities are also also discussed. Chapter 44 discusses the that Pagans the activities that Pagans tend to conduct in tend to Many of of the in groups. Many the activities that that Pagans in inPagans engage in inalso come into dividually also into play play in in groups, but but they they tend toto be more strucbe tured. This This chapter chapter discusses the the Pagan Pagan festival cycle cycle and moon rituals that that

Introduction

99

structure the the Pagan Pagan year, year, as well well as rites birth, comrites of of passage, including including birth, ing of age, age, initiations, handfastings and and death. ing of and weddings, croning, croning, and Chapter 55 explores explores the the role role of of myth in Paganism Paganism and Chapter myth in and its its relationship history. There are aa number of of myths myths associated with Paganism, and with history. Pagans myths variously for for legitimation, inspiration, and and politpolitPagans use these myths ical ends. Those who use them for to feel feel ical ends. for a sense of of legitimation tend tend to threatened by but others prefer prefer to to regard regard by questions of of historical accuracy, but the myths that teach inspire. This This chapter chapter looks looks at the myths primarily as stories that teach and and inspire. at the various meanings meanings of “the Old Old Religion” Religion” in of papathe of “the in Paganism, the the theory theory of gan “survivals” once popular popular in in British folklore studies, interpretations of of gan the medieval witch witch hunts as the the “Burning Times,” and and feminist reinterthe pretations of of history, the myth myth of of the the history, including what isis sometimes called the also notes some prominent mythological stories in matriarchies. ItIt also in PaganPaganism that have less history, such as the the ism that less controversial relationships with history, Wild Hunt, Ceridwen’s cauldron, and and Odin’s hanging hanging on Yggdrasil, Ygedrasil, the the Wild Hunt,

world tree. Chapter 66 introduces the the major major literary the literary origins origins and and influences on the development of of Paganism. These literary literary sources include works from anthropologists, folklorists, poets, poets, and and novelists, as well well as early early prefiguraprefigura-

tions of of Paganism in in related religious religious movements such as spiritualism and ceremonial magic. magic. This such and This chapter chapter discusses how diverse figures figures such James Frazer, Charles Leland, Aleister Crowley, Rudyard Kipling, KenJames Frazer, Leland, Crowley, Rudyard Kipling, neth Dion Fortune, Margaret Margaret Murray, neth Grahame, Dion Murray, Robert Graves, Robert

Heinlein, and Bradley came to to influence the the developand Marion Zimmer Bradley development of Paganism. of Chapter 77 continues to to introduce figures figures of of interest in in the Chapter the development of Paganism, but with a focus on social and charismatic influences rather rather of Paganism, but with a focus on social and charismatic influences than literary sources. Thus, this chapter focuses on contemporary indithan literary Thus, this chapter viduals, social movements, and cultural trends. Beginning with Gerald and of a Pagan Pagan tradition in Gardner, the the first first popularizer of in Britain, this this chapter chapter Pagan revivals, revivals, introduces influential authors and and charismatic leaders in in Pagan including Starhawk, Z. Budapest, Doreen Valiente, Raymond Buckland, including Z. Budapest,

and Scott Cunningham. The The impact of social movements such as femifemiand impact of such as the the romantic fascination nism on Paganism, and and cultural trends such and imagery, in this chapter. with Celtic Celtic icons icons and imagery, are also also discussed in this chapter. Chapter and gives gives Chapter 88 introduces the the major major denominations of of Paganism and each. Specific Specific denominations covered aa short description and and history history of of each. Greek, Egyptian, Egyptian, Druidic, Heathen, and European reconinclude Greek, and Eastern European

well as other groups involving of structionist traditions, as well involving some degree degree of reconstruction as Wicca, Wicca, Odinism, Odinism, and and groups groups such such as reconstruction such such as and Asatru, Asatru, and as Reclaiming and the Church of of All All Worlds, other origins. Reclaiming and the Church Worlds, which which have have other origins. In In and solitary of Paganism are differentiated, differentiated, addition, eclectic and solitary traditions of

10 10

Introduction

and the overlaps overlaps between Paganism and and the the New Age and goddess goddess spirand the Age and spirituality are explored. ituality Chapter 99 discusses the the roles roles of politics in in Paganism. Pagan Pagan Chapter of ethics and and politics ethics are most fully fully developed in in relation to to the practice of magic the of magic but but have also also been articulated in relation to feminism, environmental probin to problems, and, to to aa degree, In addition, social lems, and, degree, issues of of cultural appropriation. In norms regarding sexuality, sexuality, social justice, and pluralism are discussed. justice, and While virtually virtually all political orientations are evident in in the the Pagan Pagan specspecall political trum, than others. trum, certain trends are more pronounced than

Chapter 10 10 speaks speaks to to aa number of of current issues in in Paganism and PaChapter and Pagan the existence of of the New Forest coven and gan studies. Within Paganism, the the New its possible historical antecedents continues to recently, its possible to be be debated. More recently, the public public display display of of lifestyle lifestyle choices such as BDSM and the and other sexual well as the the use of of illegal drugs, have become topics topics of of debate choices, as well illegal drugs, Pagan communities, particularly in the display display of within Pagan in relation to to the of these at public The growth growth of of Paganism on the the Internet and activities at public festivals. The and the influence of of popular popular media on the the growth growth of the of Paganism are important of Pagan Pagan studies, and to to a certain extent contemporary issues for for scholars of studies, and for of information on Paganism for practitioners. The The increasing availability of and access to has made made Paganism much more and to Pagan Pagan discussion groups has large cities than previously. Television programs, juvejuveaccessible outside large nile fiction, fiction, and featuring Pagan Pagan characters have contributed nile and movies movies featuring characters have contributed to to aa popular fascination with Wicca, Wicca, which some practitioners feel popular feel commercializes and and trivializes Paganism as aa religion. religion. Chapter 1111 gives brief history history of of Pagan Pagan studies, studies, discusses current Chapter gives aa brief of study, into future directions of methods of study, and and delves into of development for for the field. field. Many Many scholars of Pagan studies are also also practitioners, and this the of Pagan this has forced forced them to to become somewhat innovative in their methods of of has in their study. Participant observation, the the favored method of study. of anthropologists and ethnographers, has been found to to be to describe the and has been be inadequate to the worldviews and religious of contemporary Pagans. religious experiences of Pagans. EthnogEthnographers in in particular raphers particular are pioneering new ways of of accounting for for how PaPathe world, ways that gans see the that are fair fair to Pagans and are true to to Pagans to their actual experiences, rather than tual than dismissing dismissing them as as fraudulent, fanciful, fanciful, or

escapist fantasy. fantasy.

NOTES 1. this isis an introductory text, 1, Because this text, it it inevitably makes aa number of of generalizations. generalizations. Pagan traditions and Pagan and practitioners are quite quite diverse, and and counterexample counterexampless can undoubtedly be for any any generalization made about Pagans be found for Pagans or Paganism. This does not negate negate the the accuracy of of the the general general comments II make. ItIt should should be be noted, noted, however, that that the the general general comments II make about Pagans Paganism apply Pagans and apply primarily to and Paganism in the the EnglishEnglishto Paganism in

Introduction

11 11

speaking developed somewhat differently inin places speaking world. Paganism has has developed places such such as Eastern Europe. for example, Adrian Ivakhiv, Ivakhiv, “In “In Search Search of of Deeper Neopaganism and and Europe. See, See, for Deeper Identities: Neopaganism ‘Native Faith’ in in Contemporary Ukraine,” Nova Religio: Religio: The The Journal Journal of of Alternative and and Emergent Religions Religions 8, (March 2005): 2005): 7-38. gent 8, no. 33 (March Berger, Evan A. and Leigh Leigh S. Voices from the Pagan Na2.2. Helen Berger, A. Leach, and S. Shaffer, Voices from the Pagan Census: AA NaSurvey of States (Columbia: University of of South tional Survey of Witches and and Neo-Pagans inin the the United States Carolina Press, 2003), 31; 31; Sabina Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture: Folklore and and Neo-Paganism in in Press, 2003), University of Press, 2004), 2004), 62. 62. America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 3. R. Lewis, in The The Encyclopedia ofof Modern 3. James James R. Lewis, “Appendix: Numbering Neo-Pagans,” in Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, ed. ed. Shelly James Lewis, Lewis, 303-5 (New York: Witchcraft Shelly Rabinovitch and and James Citadel, 2002). 2002).

4. Lewis, Lewis, “Appendix,” “Appendix,” 303. 303. 4. See Berger, Berger, Leach, from the Pagan Census. 5.5. See Leach, and and Shaffer, Voices from the Pagan 6. The Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon: AA History 6. Ronald Hutton, The History of of Modern Pagan Pagan Witchcraft Witchcraft (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, 1999), 1999), 4. 4.

7. See, for Theology: Paganism as aa World Religion (New 7. See, for example, example, Michael York, York, Pagan Pagan Theology: Religion (New

York: New New York University Press, 2003). York: York University Press, 2003). See York, Pagan Theology, 10. 8.8. See York, Pagan 10. 9. For Iceland statistics, see Michael Strmiska, 9. For Strmiska, “Asatru in in Iceland: Asatruarfélagid,” Asatrtarfélagid,” in in

The of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and Shelley Rabinovitch and and James The Encyclopedia of and Neo-Paganism, ed. ed. Shelley James Lewis, 16 York: Citadel, 2002). New Zealand, Zealand, see Kathryn Kathryn Rountree, Embracing Embracing the the 16 (New York: 2002). For For New in New Witch and and the the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in New Zealand (London: Routledge, 2004), 2004), 7-8. 7-8. For 2001 Census, Statistics Canada website, For Canadian statistics, see Statistics Canada, Canada, 2001

http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/Religion/PR_Menul. http:/ /www12.statcan.ca/english/census01 /products/highlight/Religion/PR_Menul. 2004). cfm?Lang=E (accessed March 1, 1, 2004). 10. Sian Lee MacDonald Reid, Reid, Disorganized Religion: Religion: An of the Craft in 10. Sfan Lee An Exploration of the Neopagan Craft in Canada (Doctoral thesis, 2001), 71. thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ottawa, 2001), 71.

11. Hughes of Nature Reli11. Hughes Philip Philip and and Sharon Bond, Bond, “The status and and increased following of gions in Sepgions in Australia,” On On Line Line Opinion: Australia’s E-Journal ofof Social Social and and Political Debate, Debate, September 29, 29, 2003, 2003, www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=756 (accessed March 1, 1, 2004), 2004), of an article first first published published in the Christian Research Association bulletin, edited version of in the Pointers 13, not include indigenous indigenous animism, which has has 13, no. 22 (June June 2003). 2003). These numbers do do not

the census. On On the the 2001 2001 census form, form, 10,632 Pagan, aa distinct category category on the 10,632 self-identified as Pagan, and 8,755 and Bond did for Druids and 8,755 as Wiccan or Witch. Hughes Hughes and did not provide numbers for and Furney for for referring this pantheists. Thanks to to Mandy Mandy Furney this article to to me. 12. Margot her Drawing Down the 12. Margot Adler’s follow-up survey for for the the revised edition of of her the Today, revised and Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and and Other Pagans Pagans inin America Today, and expanded ed. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986). Press, 1986). 13. Aiden Kelly, James R. Religion and 13. Kelly, cited inin James R. Lewis, Magical Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft (Albany: (Albany: State Press, 1996), 1996), 2. State University of of New York York Press, 2.

14. Berger, A A Community of of Witches (Columbia: University of Press, 14. Helen Berger, of South Carolina Press, 1999), Magical Selves: Selves: Contemporary Pagans 1999), 9; 9; Sarah Pike, Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Pagans and and the the Search for for Community (Berkeley: University of of California Press, 2001); Jorgensen, Lin Jorgensen, and munity (Berkeley: University California Press, 2001); Danny Danny Jorgensen, Lin Jorgensen, and Scott Russell, “American Neopaganism: The Journal for the The Participants’ Social Identities,” Journal for the Scientific Study 38 (1999): 325-38. The latter researchers indicate that that there may be Scientific Study of of Religion Religion 38 be twice as the 200,000 they they estimate. as many practitioners as the 15. Lewis, Lewis, “Appendix,” 304. 15. 16. and Graham Harvey, eds., Paganism Today 16. Charlotte Hardman and Harvey, eds., Today (London: Thorsons [HarperCollins], 1996), 1996), ix. ix. 17. BBC BBC Online Network, Network, “UK “UK Pagans Pagans Celebrate as Soar,” BBC BBC Online Network, 17. as Numbers Soar,” Network, OcOc-

tober 31, 31, 1999, 1999, 16:06 GMT, tober GMT, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/500484.stm (accessed March 1,

12 12

Introduction

2004). Unfortunately the the news report report does does not cite cite the author, and and II have have 2004). the study study by by name or author, to identify identify it. it. Thanks to Cat McEarchern for for drawing to my been unable to to Cat drawing this this article to my attention. 18. Ronald Hutton, cited in Wendy Griffin, ed., of the the Goddess: Studies of of Healing, Healing, 18. in Wendy ed., Daughters of Identity, and and Empowerment (Walnut Creek, Creek, CA: 14. Identity, CA: AltaMira, 2000), 2000), 14.

19. 19. 20. 20. 21. 21.

BBC Online Network, “UK Pagans Pagans Celebrate.” York, Theology, 157. York, Pagan Pagan Theology, 157. Barbara Jane Jane Davy, Davy, “Nature Religion,” Religion,” in of Religion Nature, ed. in The The Encyclopedia of Religion and and Nature, ed.

2005). Bron Taylor, Taylor, 2:1173-75 (London: Continuum International, 2005).

ook ook Beliefs

co pas

has no standard standard creed or or official official system of doctrines, doctrines, and and PaPahas no system of gans tend to Pagans believe widely widely didigans to eschew dogma. dogma. Consequently, Pagans vergent things In part, part, this lack vergent things about the the world. In this diversity isis caused by by the the lack of any single founding the the religion. religion. Inof any single authoritative text or revelation founding Inof aa single single holy book, there there are hundreds of stead of holy book, of how-to books available for Pagan Pagan practitioners, some making to legitimacy or authority authority in for making claims to in the author’s Craft lineage, lineage, family family teaching, experiterms of of the teaching, or revelatory experialthough Pagan Pagan beliefs vary to anence. However, although vary from one individual to other, and there are general general trends in their basic basic other, and across denominations, there in their

cosmology, or worldview, concerning their their beliefs about the the universe and and cosmology, the place of humans and and others within within it. Probably the feathe place of it. Probably the most common feature of Pagan belief isis its its plurality: plurality: Pagans variety of of things things of Pagan Pagans believe aa variety and how about divinity, divinity, what forms it it can take, take, and how humans should relate with it, and they of aa diversity of opinion opinion about these things things it, and they are tolerant of diversity of among their coreligionists. Many Many practitioners feel feel that that what they they believe what they but itit is isis not as important as what they do do as Pagans, Pagans, but is useful to to examine beliefs in Paganism and and its in studying studying Paganism its practitioners.

In general, general, Pagans Pagans tend to to be be polytheists, meaning meaning that that they they believe diIn divinity to take They believe in in aa variety of goddesses and vinity to take multiple multiple forms. They variety of and gods and other other divine beings. beings. They They also also tend tend to think of of divinity divinity as imimgods and to think manent, dwelling dwelling within rather than is, outthan being being transcendent of—that is, side of of or apart apart from—the natural world. Although Paganism has has aa tenside Although Paganism dency toward dency

aa romantic

view

of Pagan worldviews of nature, Pagan

have

aa

number of in common with with late late modernity, particularly evident of features in in their their eclecticism and play, but also in democracy, in and sense of of play, but also in their their values of of democracy, 13 13

14 14

Chapter Chapter 11

feminist empowerment, ethnic diversity, and equality. Most Pagans and equality. Pagans ex-

hibit aa belief aspect hibit belief inin reincarnation and and conceive of of death as aa necessary aspect of the of Pagan of the cycles cycles of of life. life. Another common component of Pagan worldviews is is a belief in in the the efficacy of magic spell casting. casting. efficacy of magic and and spell Pagans think of divinity not not only only in in terms of of gods gods and and goddesses, but but Pagans of divinity also as appearing in Thus Paganism is well defined also in various other forms. Thus is well by as “an “an affirmation of of interactive and polymorphic sacred relationship by tangible, sentient, and and nonempirical.”? individual or community with the the tangible, nonempirical.”! The divine is that Pagans Pagans interact with in in aa variety variety of of ways, The is something that through its its various forms. In In Paganism, there are male and and female deities, through deities, and some deities for gender is not aa useful useful category, being being either and for whom gender is not having characteristics both both male male and and female, not beandrogynous and and having female, or not being gendered at all. In discussing Paganism, then, then, itit isis not accurate to ing gendered at all. In to speak of in general. speak of gods gods when discussing deities in general. “Deity” “Deity” isis aa nonspecific for divine beings, beings, goddesses and and the the God God and word for and gods, gods, and and the the Goddess. “Divinity” isis a a more generic sacred, not necessarily dess. generic word for for the the sacred, being or class class of quantifiable as aa distinct being of beings. beings. “Thealogy” and and “theology” are terms for for the the study of deity. ogy” study of deity. “Theology” is is the the more common term, initially meaning writings about about the the gods, and, later, later, god god in in the term, initially meaning writings gods, and, the of the the one and and only only God. “Thealogy” isis aa term used used by monotheistic sense of by and in religious studies, to to describe studies of practitioners, and in religious of female divinity.2 “Theoilogy,” or “polytheology,” are possible possible generic generic terms for the ity. for the study goddesses and gods in the plural. plural.? study of of goddesses and gods in the Pagan with divinity divinity are not focused on belief or worship. PracPagan relations with titioners generally feel that that belief in generally feel in divinity divinity is is not a useful way of of looking atat Pagan practice, pointing to to the the strangeness of of the idea that that ing Pagan religious religious practice, the idea in something to To demonstrate the the inapinapone must “believe” in to relate to to it. it. To of the of belief, to the the idea idea of propriateness of the question question of belief, Starhawk points points to of bebelieving in in rocks. They they are, regardless of hulieving They simply simply are what they of what humans This attitude toward belief can be mans think about them. This be explained, tongue in in cheek, cheek, by the popular popular novelist Terry by quoting the Terry Pratchett: “Most witches don’t believe in in gods. gods. They They know that that they of course. They They they exist, exist, of even deal with them occasionally. But But they in them. They they don’t believe in They know them too well. It It would be be like the like believing postman.”4 believing in in the postman.” While some Pagans Pagans suggest that respectful relations, rather than “worship,” that respectful “worship,” are appropriate, others do their god/desses. Some Asatruar and do worship their refer to to them as “the Druids refer “the high high ones” or “the “the bright bright ones,” feeling feeling that that it it isis appropriate to god/desses, to honor the the god praise /desses, to them, in to praise them, in order to to win win their friendship and support.> Many Many Pagans Pagans leave offerings offerings such as fruit, fruit, grains, and flowers, grains, and flowers, which might be which might interpreted as be interpreted worship, or as worship, or simply simply as as leaving leaving gifts. gifts. Theism, meaning meaning belief in in God (or /desses), thus may not be (or god god /desses), be aa very very useful way of of looking looking at at Pagan Pagan relations with divinity. divinity. Belief in in divinity divinity is

Beliefs Beliefs

Figure 2. Figure 2.

15 15

(press photo) photo) Starhawk (press

not necessary for being Pagan, Pagan, but but practitioners usually usually feel for being feel that that itit is is possible for anyone to meet a deity or to encounter the divine. Such encounsible for to a deity to the Such ters need not not be by clergy clergy or by by dogmatic dibe mediated by dogmatic ideas about what divinity should be like. Pagans trust their own experiences above all else. vinity be like. Pagans all else. In In general, Pagans believe that divinity occurs in many forms, which may all general, Pagans that divinity in forms, may all be of a single reality, or which may may each be unique beings, be expressions of single reality, be unique beings, not all of of them deities. Pagans all Pagans do do not necessarily conceive of of divinities as bebeing be “more than than human” ing supernatural or above humans. Divinities can be in the the way way that that a cat is Not all in is a a more-than-human being. being. Not all other-than-hubeings are gods these beman beings gods or goddesses. Pagans Pagans understand some of of these beings in boggarts, faeries, or “the “the good ings in other terms, such such as landwights, boggarts, good people.” Landwights are local local nature spirits, spirits, and and boggarts people.” boggarts are housedwelling spirits, might be be of of either type. beings are dwelling spirits, while faeries might type. These beings

tarhawk is of The The Spiral Spiral is aa prominent American Witch and and author of of the the most popular Paganism. For Dance, one of popular how-to books inin Paganism. For other prominent Pagans, Pagans, see more information on Starhawk and and other chapter chapter 7.7.

16 16

Chapter 11 Chapter

often understood to to be the same manner as humans. be corporeal, but but not in in the They might be be described as other-than-human persons. They might The anthropologist A. A. Irving Irving Hallowell developed the phrase “otherThe the phrase of persons by by the the than-human persons” to to describe the the understanding of Ojibwa people he studied. He suggested that, for the Ojibwa he studied, Ojibwa people he He that, for the Ojibwa he not everything isis always but many more things things could be peralways aa person, but be aa person for for them than for for most Westerners. He He once asked a man ifif all all stones

are alive. thought, the the man man replied, replied, “No! “No! But But some Halare alive. After After some some thought, some are.” are.” Halthus formed the the hypothesis that that the the people he was studying lowell thus people he studying bebe-

things have the be animate beings beings than lieved that that many more things the potential to to be than just Pagans often often see the the world as animate in in aa just humans.° Contemporary Pagans similar fashion. This sort of of perception of of the the world is is sometimes called “animism,” indicating aa belief that all things things are living living beings posthat all beings or may possibly be be “ensouled.” However, Pagans do not conceive of of “souls” as anisibly Pagans do mating material bodies in any consistent manner. In fact, mating in any In fact, soul isis repugnant to Pagans, since this matter needs aa soul to some Pagans, this of the the material world, world, as though to be be valuation of though itit needs to of it. it. something transcendent of Some Pagans Pagans perceive perceive nature spirits, spirits, or local local land land spirits, spirits,

the idea idea that the that implies deimplies a deanimated by by called “land-

in Norse traditions, as other-than-human people. wights,” or landvettir in people. beings who share aa human territory, helping or hinderNature spirits spirits are beings territory, helping ing depending on the the respect respect given to them them by by humans, and In ing given to and on whim. In the study study of religion, these these beings beings are sometimes referred to by the the Latin the of religion, to by genii loci, loci, meaning spirits spirits of of place. place. Pagans Pagans also also refer refer to to such term genii such beings beings as faeries, “little people,” people,” or “the “the good good folk.” folk.” These terms, as well well as the the faeries, English folklore.’ names “brownies” and and “boggarts” are drawn from English and boggarts tend to to be be associated with houses, while the Brownies and the othoth-

to be of ers are more likely likely to be found outside or are associated with features of the land, land, such as hills Some Pagans Pagans use the the hills or barrows. Some the Native American

meaning “little mysteries,” to to refer to to some nature spirits. term manitous, meaning spirits. In general, general, nature spirits spirits are associated with particular trees, rocks, or In trees, rocks, bodies of of water. Some practitioners call call water spirits spirits “nixies,” earth earth spirspirits rock spirits its “gnomes,” and and rock Believing in spirits “trolls.” Believing spirits makes in nature spirits the the world aa more meaningful place place for Pagans, aa world filled with mysfor Pagans, mystery than just tery rather than just real real estate and and suburbs. For Pagans, especially For some Pagans, Asatruar and and some Druids, nature spirits may be be just spirits may just as important important in in ritritual, than the the god/desses. Practitioners may ual, or more so, so, than may find find it it more nec-

essary, for example, to to invite local local nature spirits for example, to obtain the spirits and to the permispermission of of landwights to to hold aa ritual than itit isis to to address the the god god /desses.8 /desses.® How Pagans Pagans think about nature spirits spirits isis often influenced by by novels more than by by formal theology. theology. Terri Windling’s novel The Wife and The Wood Wife and Charles de de Lint’s short-story collection The and the the Horn, The Ivory Horn, for Ivory and for example, ple, describe relations with other-than-human other-than-human beings that have influenced influenced beings that

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my own thoughts about and of such entities. In In Windling’s my thoughts about and perceptions of novel, the the protagonist, Maggie, that the the extraordinary beings beings she she novel, Maggie, learns that meets are are not created created in her interaction with the form form they they take take in her with them, them, but but the depends who isis interacting with depends on who with them. Reading Reading this this novel encourages

Pagans spirits come into into being being in part through Pagans toto think about how nature spirits in part through one’s belief in them, while their existence isis not wholly wholly dependent on huhuin them, mans. Pagans Pagans might might believe in in part part simply they like in them in simply because they like the the idea, but this that nature spirits spirits are simply simply proidea, but this does not necessarily mean that projections of of the the psyche, psyche, even though though one’s thoughts about them contribute jections to to how one experiences them. Windling Windling conveys aa useful analogy analogy in in the the protagonist’s conversation with with aa character called Fox, Fox, between the the way way poetry describes aa landscape and and the way one perceives other-than-hupoetry the way way significance takes takes form through through ininman persons, emphasizing the the way teraction.’ spirits isis somewhat dependent on teraction.? The The perception of of nature spirits one’s belief in in them, this is fact part part of of everyday perception of other them, but but this is in in fact of other humans and in general. general. One One cannot interact with another if and the the world in if one does not regard real. does not regard them as real. In de set in in the the fictional city of Newford, the the characters In de Lint’s stories set city of learn who are sometimes animals, and and other “little “little mystermysterlearn to to see people people who ies.” In the “Bird Bones Bones and Ash,” one one character ies.” In the story story “Bird and Wood Wood Ash,” character asks asks another another if she has has to to believe in in the the fairies fairies to to see them, and the the other if she them, and other character

replies, They have to to believe in in you.” replies, “Land’s sakes no. ..... . They you.” She She explains, explains, “It’s like You don’t think of of them as prissy little creatures with with “It’s like this this .. . You prissy little wings. That’s plain earth spirits—and spirits—and they they don’t wings. plain wrong. They’re They’re earth don’t really really shapes of of their own; they just show up up looking looking the the way we expect have shapes they just expect to look.”!° As As in in Windling’s novel, the existence of of these entities isis them to novel, the not wholly projecnot wholly dependent on human belief—they do do not exist only only as projecthe mind, but but one’s beliefs about them do do influence how how one perpertions of of the them, or fails perceive them. ceives them, fails to to perceive Other Pagans Pagans feel feel differently differently about the of nature the independent existence of spirits and and other forms of of divinity. spirits divinity. There is is a certain amount of of ambiguity in Pagan thought about whether or not deities have have an existence external in Pagan thought

to what what humans humans think think about about them. them. The The divinities divinities are are understood, understood, even to even by by individual Pagans, and as independent forces. Pagans, as both both within humans and and naSome accept accept aa psychological explanation and regard regard god/desses and spirits as mental projections. projections. Some find find it to act ture spirits it appropriate to act as though the deities are real they might though the real because they might be, be, while others are certain that the god/desses have have external existences as individual personalities. that the

Pagans may practice practice a suspension of of disbelief during ritual, since particiPagans during ritual, participants are not required to faith or belief in and they ofpants not required to express faith in divinities, and they often skeptical.!! For For some practitioners, itit isis always to act ten are skeptical." always appropriate to act as though real, and and belief This is though the the divinities are real, belief isis largely largely irrelevant. This is

sometimes regarded regarded as “deep in which one pretends pretends or acts as as “deep play,” play,” in

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Figure 3. Figure 3.

Chapter Chapter 11

The Goddess (Goddess altar, by Catherine Kerr) Kerr) The altar, photo photo by

though the the divinities are real.!2 real.!? For though For many Pagans, Pagans, particularly women fofocused on the Goddess, the deities are also role models or as as cused the Goddess, the deities also understood as role

of strength strength within oneself. representations of The aspect or embodiment of the divine. She The Goddess isis the the female aspect of the She is is often envisioned in in the the triple of maiden, often triple form form of maiden, mother, mother, and and crone, corre-

sponding phases of This way way of of imagining the sponding to to the the three phases of women’s lives. This the Goddess isis significant for for female practitioners, as itit symbolically values including their experiences of and women’s bodies, including of menstruation and menopause, and and of of birth birth and lactation if if they they choose to to have have children. and other other connecGoddess images images also also value mother-daughter relations and tions between women. Female images images of of divinity divinity sanction women’s As feminist thealogian Carol Christ has the Goddess sympower. As has argued, argued, the “the acknowledgment of the legitimacy legitimacy of bolizes “the of the of female power as aa and independent power.”! the beneficent and power.”!> The The Goddess represents the strength within women, but but she she can also be an external source of of comfort strength also be and support. Starhawk explains, explains, “When II feel feel weak, She isis someone who and weak, She help and and protect me. When IIfeel feel strong, strong, She She is of my can help is the the symbol symbol of my own At other times II feel feel Her the natural energy in in my and the power. At Her as the my body body and the world.”'4 She this way way for for men as well, also repworld.”"4 She can function this well, but but she she can also rep-

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in more sexual terms, and deeply as mystery: “the “the resent the the female in and more deeply eternally desired Other, Other, the that he he isis not.’ not.”15 eternally the Muse, Muse, all all that

While there isis generally no creator god god in in Paganism, sometimes the the in this this capacity. More often, often, the the GodGoddess is is understood to to function in dess is the body the Earth. Otter G’Zell dess is understood as the body of of the the cosmos or the and Morning Morning Glory, of the of All Worlds, and Glory, of the organization called the the Church of All Worlds, speak Earth, and and Gaea, the “All-Mother,” in in what they speak of of Mother Earth, Gaea, as the they call call

“the Gaea thesis,” thesis,” an explicitly explicitly pantheist understanding of “the of the the Earth as aa living being akin to and Lynn Lynn Margulis’ more widely living being akin to James James Lovelock and widely known Gaia hypothesis.'° Lovelock and and Margulis’ Gaia hypothesis.!® Margulis’ Gaia hypothesis, aa thetheory that that the the planet planet is and in being, ory is aa self-regulating system and in effect aa living living being,

was first published published in in 1975, that he he had had aa vision vision of was first 1975, but but G’Zell G’Zell indicates indicates that of “the unity of the the Earth’s planetary biosphere biosphere as aa single single organism “the unity of organism on the the evening of of September 6,6, 1970.1” 1970.”17 evening The in Paganism.'® Paganism.'* The The comThe Goddess isis widely widely identified with nature in of the the Charge Charge of speaks of mon liturgy liturgy of of the the Goddess speaks of the the Goddess as “the soul of nature that life to the universe.” Use Use of of the phrase “the soul of that gives gives life to the the phrase “the earth in environmenour mother” is is commonplace among Pagans, Pagans, particularly in tally active groups like like Britain’s Dragon Dragon Environmental Group,'? Group,!? but but itit tally also occurs at at mainstream Pagan the Avalon East East festival. also Pagan gatherings like like the who participated in the festival addressed naCanadian Maritime Pagans Pagans who in the only as “Mother Earth” but also as “MARI, Mother Sea.””° In adadture not only but also Sea.”?° In dition, the only with dition, the Goddess isis identified not only with the the life-giving aspects of of nature in in regeneration, with “the “the power death.”?! She “is at at nature regeneration, but but also also with power of of death.”*! She “is once the unploughed field, field, the the full full harvest and the once the unploughed harvest and the dormant, dormant, frost-covfrost-covered Earth.”22 In In the the Wiccan denomination, nature is as “enered is conceived as “ensouled, alive, alive, ‘divine,’”*> souled, ‘divine,’”*3 but but not not only only as mother or even Goddess. Figures Figures such as the God, the Man, and God such the Horned God, the Corn Corn God, God, the the Green Man, and the the Sun Sun God

important. In In Wicca, nature tends to to be perceived in in terms of of ininare also also important. be perceived The cycle of the teractions between male and and female divinities. The cycle of the seasons isis linked to to the through alternately being being the Goddess’s relations with the the God through impregnated by him at at the spring equinox, raising raising him him as her her child child in in the by him the spring the

summer, and and mourning his his death atat harvest time. of the God with with the These relations of the God the Goddess in in Wicca are distinguished sometimes by by splitting splitting the the God God into the Holly King Oak King, the Holly King and and Oak King, as aspects of the Horned God. The Horned God is the lord of the forest, pects of the God. The God is the lord of the forest, sometimes portrayed portrayed as aa stag, similar to the in the the film film stag, to the horned deity deity portrayed portrayed in Princess Mononoke.24 The The Horned God God isis also also associated with with wildness, virility, and and the hunt. Unfortunately, Horned God God has has been been associated associated virility, the hunt. Unfortunately, the the Horned

with the Early Wiccans associated their image image of the God the Christian Devil. Early of the

with Margaret The Witch Cult Cult and The The with Margaret Murray’s accounts of of witchcraft in in The God of the the Witches, Witches, originally originally published published in and 1930s. These God of in the the 1920s and they had had a strong strong works were immediately criticized by by academics, but but they

20 20

Chapter Chapter 11

ibs:

Figure Figure 4.4.

The Horned God altar, photo photo by The God (Horned God God altar, by Lloyd Lloyd Keane)

emotional appeal portrayal of the God as aa sexual being. being. Murray Murray appeal for for their portrayal of the argued cult, aa surviving pre-Christian religion religion in in argued that that there was a Witch cult, the this cult in the the British Isles. She She presented this cult in in somewhat negative terms in the first in the to believe that that first book, book, but but celebrated itit in the second. Murray Murray came to witches worshipped aa deity, deity, the the Horned God, God, who was demonized into the by Christianity, while really religion was aa joyous, joyous, life-afthe Devil by really their their religion firming faith. The The Horned God God was initially with the firming faith. initially associated with the Greek god Pan in England by the the Celtic god god Cernunnos.* god Pan in England but but was eclipsed eclipsed by the Gallic or Celtic god god of with deer. deer. Cernunnos isis the of the the forest, forest, associated with Murray took of any any god god with horns across Europe and Murray took selective evidence of Europe and

Mex Murray EgyptoloMere! Murray was aa British academic, specifically an Egyptologist of Egyptian Egyptian culture were well well regist and and folklorist. Her Her studies of spected, but but her her work on folklore in spected, in Britain was less less academically writings on folklore were very very popular popular and credible. Nonetheless, her her writings and influenced the the 1940s. For For the early early revival ofof Witchcraft in in Britain in in the more information on Murray other literary literary influences on PaganPaganMurray and and other ism, see chapter chapter 6. ism, 6.

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the East and and said they were all all aspects God, whether the Near East said they aspects of of the the Horned God,

they had stag stag antlers or ram horns. She She assimilated the the invented witchthey had craft of the the witch hunts with with British folk folk traditions, linking linking Robin Hood craft of and church carvings carvings with paganism. Murray Murray interpreted female figures figures in in of fertility, fertility, which inspired Lady medieval churches as pagan goddesses of inspired Lady Raglan, a fellow member of Society, to to interpret the Raglan, of the the Folklore Society, the foliate and fifteenth-century churches as the god heads of of fourteenth- and the vegetation god described by James Frazer, Frazer, calling images “the “the Green Man.”26 Man.’”26 by James calling such images Even ifif the the Green Man and other images images of of the the God are largely largely modern creations, they Pagans. For and female practhey are meaningful to to Pagans. For both male and titioners, the the Horned God to patriarchal symbols God provides an alternative to symbols of masculinity. The male strength, strength, virility, and of masculinity. The Horned God reenvisions male virility, and

power with with gentleness gentleness and respect for for female power. He and respect He is is neither macho nor effeminate. In words, “He In Starhawk’s words, “He is is gentle, gentle, tender, tender, and and comfort-

ing, but He He is also the the Hunter. He Dying God—but his aling, but is also He isis the the Dying his death is is always in of the life force. force. He He isis untamed sexuality—but sexuality sexuality in service of the life as deep, holy, He is feeling, and the imas aa deep, holy, connecting power. He is the the power of of feeling, and the image they were liberated from of age of of what men could be be ifif they from the the constraints of patriarchal culture.”?’ culture.”?7 Images of Pan, Images of of the the Green Man, Man, and and those those of Pan, have have influenced contem-

of the God, but but Pagans Pagans stress that porary understandings of the Horned God, that the the Horned God with the the Christian Devil. Pan Pan is God should not be be associated with is the the Greek god god of of nature, aa figure with the the legs of aa goat, goat, the body of figure with legs of the upper body of aa man, and and ram’s ram’s horns. Pan Pan isis imaged imaged as wild, He wild, exciting, exciting, and and disturbing. disturbing. He

with “pandemonium” and and “panic,” “panic,” words derived from from the the isis associated with feelings he incites. He was relatively unimportant in modern times until feelings he He in he was celebrated in in the the poetry poetry of he of English Romantics such as Wordsworth, Keats, work, he he was presented as the Keats, and and Shelley. Shelley. In In their their work, the personification and and guardian guardian of the English countryside as imagined by by of the English urbanites on holiday: holiday: aa pleasant pleasant land where it is always summer and land it is always and where agricultural work is He appears in in Kenneth is invisible.?* He in this this form form in the popularpopularGrahame’s children’s book The The Wind inin the the Willows. Through Through the ity of of such such images in the early 1900s in in England, pantheism became Panity images in the early the belief in in the Pan as lord lord of nature.” In In the the 1900s, theism, the the god god Pan of nature.’ 1900s, Pan was imaged as aa horned god with goat goat legs and horns, imaged god of of nature, sometimes with legs and horns, stag. Goats, culture, have have long long been associsometimes as part part stag. Goats, in in Western culture, been associ-

ated with lust, thus served as aa challenge to to Victorian prudery, ated lust, and and Pan thus prudery, providing an alternative vision of of male divinity divinity to to the the nonsexual Christian God. God. Aleister Crowley's Crowley’s “Hymn to Pan,” for example, example, presents presents Pan in in ian “Hymn to Pan,” for terms of of ravenous sexuality.” sexuality.°° Pagans associate not only Pan with forests and nature, but but also also the Pagans only Pan the goddess following aa related evolution of of the the deity goddess Diana, following deity through through EnEnglish symbol of of chastity chastity and hunting in in glish Romanticism. Diana was a symbol

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Chapter 11 Chapter

as in which she she was known as in Greek culture, as in well as culture, in Roman culture, as well aniwild anithe moon, wild with the be associated with to be she came to Britain, she In Britain, Artemis. In enchanted as enchanted areas as of natural areas sense of British sense (the British greenwood (the the greenwood mals, and the mals, and

had 1810, she she had leafy By about 1810, by elves elves or faeries). By glades inhabited by leafy glades English the of works the in Romanfigure English the of mother-earth a evolved into figure in the into a night through in the tics, at night the moon, in the woods.*! woods.?! tics, most often approached at through the and Goddess the of Pagans understand name sometimes Diana a as Pagans of the and associate her her with goddess G. with Aradia, the named in Charles Leland’s the goddess in G. Aradia: or the Gospel of seriously as folkthe Gospel of the the Witches. Aradia, Aradia, never taken seriously of spells, spells, charms, charms, and or the Italy or States, isis aa collection of and lore in lore in Italy the United States,

liturgy, gathered 1886, Leland said, said, through in 1886, help of through the the help of aa hereditary liturgy, gathered in witch, Maddelena, witch,

who who

had collected lore lore from the strega, had from the strega, or Italian

story of of Diana fooling witches. ItIt includes aa creation story fooling Lucifer into fatherthe savior of ing Aradia, Aradia, who becomes the ing of the the witches. Eventually, Eventually, this this the Charge for the work provided inspiration for Charge of of the the Goddess, which was in verse form form by by Doreen Valiente. Starhawk adapted adapted this written in this comprose version of of the the Charge: mon prose Charge: Listen to the words words of of the the Great Great Mother, of old old was called Asto the Mother, who of called Artemis, Astarte, Dione, Dione, Melusine, Aphrodite, Ceridwen, Diana, Diana, Arionrhod, Brigid, Brigid, and and tarte,

by many other names: by many “Whenever you you have in the the month, and and better itit have need of of anything, once in be when the the moon isis full, full, you shall assemble in in some secret place place and and adore be you shall the spirit spirit of who is of all the Wise. You You shall be be free free from slavthe of Me Me who is Queen of all the ery, and and as aa sign sign that you be free free you you shall be be naked in your rites. rites. Sing, Sing, ery, you be in your feast, dance, make music music and love, all all in in My for Mine Mine is ecfeast, dance, make and love, My presence, presence, for is the the ecstasy of the spirit spirit and Mine also For My My law law isis the of stasy of the also is is joy joy on earth. For the cup cup of life that that isis the the Cauldron of that isis the the holy holy grail grail of imwine of of life of Ceridwen that of immortality. II give give the the knowledge of of the spirit eternal and beyond death II give give mortality. the spirit and beyond that have gone before. Nor do peace and and freedom and and reunion with those that do I| demand aught aught of of all all things things and of sacrifice, for for behold, II am the the mother of and My My the earth.” love isis poured poured upon the the words of the Star Star Goddess, the the dust of whose feet feet are the the hosts of of Hear the of the dust of heaven, whose body body encircles the the universe: “I the green earth and and the the white moon among the “I who am the the beauty beauty of of the the stars and and the the waters, II call call upon your soul soul to to arise and come the mysteries of of the arise and unto me. For For II am the the soul soul of of nature that gives life to Me gives life to the the universe. From Me all things proceed proceed and Me they be in in the all things and unto Me they must return. Let Let My My worship be the heart that that rejoices, for for behold—all acts of love and pleasure are My of love My rituals. Let be beauty beauty and and strength, strength, power and compassion, honor and Let there there be and humility, mirth and and reverence within you. you who who seek Me, know ity, you. And And you seek to to know Me, that your seeking and and yearning yearning will will avail you you not, you know the Mysthat your seeking not, unless you the Mystery: that which which you you seek, seek, you find not within yourself, you will will never tery: for for ifif that you find find behold, II have with you you from the find it it without. For For behold, have been been with the beginning, and and II am that that which isis attained at the end end of desire.” at the of desire.”22

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its origin, origin, the the Charge liturgy for Whatever its Charge isis an inspiring inspiring piece piece of of liturgy for many Pagans and can lead powerful experiences in in ritual. Margot Margot Adler rePagans and lead toto powerful lates that that when she first heard this of power and and emolates she first this liturgy, liturgy, “A “A feeling feeling of tion came over me. me.... . . . The The contents of of the the tape simply given pertape had had simply given me perpsyche that had denied for for years—and mission to to accept accept a part part of of my my own psyche that II had then then extend it.” For Asatruar, the the deities have more distinct personas and less likely For and are less likely than in in other other Pagan be seen as aspects of the God God or Pagan denominations to to be of the Goddess.

Odin, for for example, example, isis envisioned Odin,

as the the All-father, but other but other

gods in the the Norse pantheon are not usually of as aspects aspects of of him. gods in usually thought thought of Rather they they are friends, friends, lovers, or enemies. lovers, comrades, or

The gythia, The gythia, or

Asatru priestess, Diana Paxson describes Odin as one of of the the three three most

prominent gods the northern European pantheon (the (the others being gods in in the being Thor and Freyr). Freyr). Odin is god of of poetry and and ecis the the All-father, a multifaced god stasy, and the the giver giver of of the the runes.*4 However, Freya Freya Aswynn, an Asatruar stasy, and dedicated to has different aspects. aspects. She She prefers to to Odin, Odin, suggests that that Odin has prefers to call and she she regards regards the spellings as referring referring to to call him “Wodan,” and the different spellings different aspects of of the god. Aswynn Aswynn suggests that the god. that “Odin” isis “Wodan” “in “in mood,” aa god god of battle. She She describes Odin in three three forms: Odin, Odin, aa bad bad mood,” of battle. Odin in

Villi, his roles as warrior, shaman, Villi, and and Ve, Ve, corresponding respectively toto his and wanderer. wanderer.** However, she she does interpret other Norse deities as does not interpret aspects best known for for hanging the world tree, aspects of of Odin. Odin isis best hanging on the tree, Yggdrasil, of his his eyes; eyes; and gaining Ygegdrasil, for for nine days; days; sacrificing one of and thus thus gaining of the to say to knowledge of the runes (a(a magical magical alphabet) and charms (things (things to say to achieve goals goals magically). magically). Yggdrasil, as the the world tree, tree, serves as aa model of the cosmos in in Norse of the Pagans, having in commythology. Some Pagans, having been influenced by by writings writings in parative religion, principally those of of Joseph Eliparative Joseph Campbell and and Mircea Eliade, envision the organized into into three realms linked by by aa verade, the cosmos as organized tical axis, often symbolized by by aa tree. Eliade describes the the worldview of tical axis, often of in this this manner as aa three-tiered universe having shamanism in having aa dark unat the the bottom, the regular mundane human world in in the the midderworld at the regular dle, and and aa light-filled heavenly world above. Pagans be more dle, Pagans might might be likely to of these as the the underworld, middle earth, earth, and the aslikely to conceive of and the

tral plane, plane, with with fewer associations of for the tral of dark and and light light for the underworld and the astral. Some envision these as the three principle and the these the principle realms of of Norse mythology described in relation to the world tree Yggdrasil, in to the rooted in in earth, earth, standing standing in with branches reachin the the here here and and now, and with ing into the sky. In this cosmology, earth is the underworld, where the ing into the sky. In this is the the

dead go, at least least those who have not died in go, at in battle. (Norse mythology actually each of of actually has has aa cosmology composed composed of of nine realms, three in in each these basic divisions.) Many have an integrated integrated sense of the cosMany Pagans Pagans have of the mos, without making sharp separation between the the realm making aa sharp realm of of the the

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Chapter Chapter 11

the realm of of humans. Even Even in in the the Norse cosmology, the the god/desses and and the in all all the god/desses interact with people people in the realms.

Perhaps the the greatest unifying unifying feature of of Pagan Pagan beliefs about the the strucPerhaps ture of of the the universe is is immanence, the the belief that that divinity divinity isis embodied in in the world. Pagans believe that the sacred is inherent in the natural world, the Pagans that the is in the world, meaning that that divinity the physical physical universe. This in conmeaning divinity dwells within the This isis in trast toto aa cosmology of of transcendence, in divinity isis thought in which divinity thought to to reside outside or beyond the physical God isis a supernatside beyond the physical universe, so that that God ural entity. entity. The The sacred isis not understood as the the opposite of the profane profane in in ural of the To aa large large degree degree in Pagan worldviews, nothing nothing is profane, Paganism. To in Pagan is profane, and everything everything is and “extraordinary” are better and is sacred. “Ordinary” and for speaking way Pagans Pagans understand sacrality and and the the manterms for speaking of of the the way of divinity divinity than “profane” and and “supernatural.” When Pagans Pagans ifestation of than “profane” they mark itit as set set apart apart from the the ordinary, but but withcreate sacred space, they For examout devaluing the the ordinary ordinary or hypervaluing the the sacred space. For ple, Wiccans create sacred space in in ritual by by casting casting aa circle, circle, envisioned ple, sphere formed with with a circle traced on the floor as its its horas aa sphere the ground ground or floor horThis sphere in ritual ritual until izontal circumference. This sphere holds energy raised in until itit isis ready to be released, and the intention of the participants to ready to be and it it represents the of the to let of their their everyday concerns and and focus instead on the at hand. let go go of the ritual at the ritual ritual isis finished, the space again again becomes ordinary. ordinary. Some PaPaWhen the the space gans also describe the that has has intrinsic value, that gans also the sacred as something that value, that is, apart from or beyond beyond any any usefulness ascribed to by humans. is, value apart to it it by Starhawk, for for example, example, describes the the five sacred things, things, earth, air, fire, fire, five sacred earth, air, water, and spirit, in this manner.*° and spirit, in this

Pagans believe that that the divinity applies to the Pagans the immanence of of divinity applies to the Earth as well as to to human bodies. Many Many Pagans Pagans refer refer to to the the Earth as the the body body of of well the (or Gaea). Gaea). Pagans Pagans see all all bodies as dithe Goddess, sometimes called Gaia Gaia (or divine, body of of the Earth or the the cosmos, or human vine, whether the the body the Goddess as Earth

of human bodies isis sometimes expressed in bodies. The divinity of in the the ritual greeting art goddess.” goddess.” The The celebration of of the the body greeting “thou art art god” god” or “thou art body is is intended to to revalue embodiment and and the the natural functioning of of bodies, including sex, which Pagans Pagans feel have been denigrated by feel have the monotheisby the tic traditions. The tic in immanence similarly revalues the The belief in rest of the rest of the the natural world. world. IfIf divinity is natural inherent in in the the natural world, is inherent world, if if the the Earth isis the the Goddess, itit isis unacceptable to the body body of of the to damage damage ecosystems, to polto pollute natural systems, or to lute to exploit exploit natural resources. While Pagans Pagans largely largely agree that that the the Earth isis sacred and and commonly say say that that they they revere nature, what they they mean by by “nature” and their their practices in in differ. Practitioners more often understand “nature” as aa relation with it it differ. symbol symbol than as a a place place or as “the “the environment.” Pagans Pagans expect expect “nature”

to be to be an idea around which they bond, but they can bond, they often come into conbut they

flict over their their diverse understandin flict gs of understandings of what is is natural and how Pagans Pagans

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should relate with the the natural world. Pagans Pagans came into disagreement, for for example, at the particiexample, at the Avalon East Pagan Pagan gathering of of 1995 when some participants set pants roasted aa pig, pig, and and when Asatruar lit lit aa gasoline-doused raft raft and set in the the ocean as part part of of aa ritual. Some participants in itit adrift in in the the festival felt that of reverence for for nature requires requires vegetarianism, while felt that an attitude of some felt felt that that nonhuman others, others, such such as the the pig, be that itit is is sufficient that pig, be

shown respect.*” saying that that the and respect.*” While Pagans Pagans agree in in saying the Earth is is sacred and that nature nature should should be revered, they they exhibit diverse diverse behavior in their relarelathat be revered, in their tions with with nature.°6 nature.** Some of the differences in in Pagan Some of the Pagan relations with nature arise from from differences in divinity. While Pagans Pagans agree that that divinity in their their understandings of of divinity. divinity is in nature, they and in in what what is immanent in they differ in in how how they they think of of divinity divinity and they feel are appropriate relations with with deities. Some Pagans’ they feel Pagans’ understanding of the relation between divinity divinity and and the the natural world might might be be deing of the dethat all all isis divine (understood in scribed as pantheism, the the belief that in monotheistic religions all things). things). This This isis particularly true istic religions as all all is is God, God, or God is is in in all of those those who talk talk about the Gaia or Gaea. Some find the of the Earth Earth as Gaia find that that since the well as in in the sacred is is immanent in in humans as well the Earth and and is is not restricted to may not be to deities, then “worship” and “reverence” may be appropriate ways of relating with other-than-human persons. Many Pagans feel feel that that deities of relating Many Pagans and do not want praise, praise, but but respect.°? and other-than-human people people do respect. Pagans sometimes speak speak of though itit isis a distinct Pagans of an “otherworld” as though place natural world, world, in in aa way way that that makes makes itit seem like the the natural natural place from from the the natural seem like world is to access something supernatural that world is transcended to that isis not immain nature. This This otherworld or “otherland” isis understood as aa place place nent in where people people go go when they they meditate or dream, dream, and and sometimes as the the land guided meditations, strucland of of the the dead. Pagan Pagan meditations are often guided tured through to direct participants to to aa particular sort of of experithrough imagery to experience. Sometimes this this isis seen as aa method of of “deep “deep play,” play,” or or active imagiimagination in in the the sense intended by that the by Jungian Jungian psychology, so that the experience is imaginal but is perceived as imaginal but real. The The otherworld that that isis accessed is is not aa corporeal place place in the same way way that that New York or London are “real” in the places, but it place where things places, but it nonetheless isis a place things really really happen, with with real real repercussions. Some Pagans Pagans think of perception of the otherworld in of of the in terms of a state of wonder and being open to possibility. Some explain exof a of and being open to explain periences of the otherworld in of consciousness, periences of the in terms of of altered states of

saying that that one’s perception of reality is goes into saying of reality is altered when one goes into aa trance state. Eliade describes such such experiences as ecstasy, ecstasy, which he preshe presin terms of of the the soul soul standing of one’s body of the the world. ents in standing out of body or out of Pagans are just just as likely likely to such experiences as standing standing out Pagans to understand such

of oneself the sense of out of one’s one’s cultural than of oneself in in the sense of out of cultural preconceptions, preconceptions, rather rather than out of world. In In ecstasy, ecstasy, one stands out out of the ordinary, ordinary, but out of the the world. of the but not not necessarily out out of of the sarily the natural. natural.

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Many what might of the the uniuniMany Pagans Pagans hold hold what might be be termed aa monist view of the world. Monism isis often often verse based on scientific understandings of of the understood in to dualism, an understanding understanding of of the the universe understood in contrast contrast to dualism, an universe as as fundamentally divided between two types types of of things, things, such as the the natural and the the material and and the spiritual. Monism isis someand the supernatural, or the the spiritual. times described as an understanding of of the the universe as restricted to to the the Pagans tend tend to of the the natural world as not not restricted material, but but Pagans to think think of to the quantifiable. If present in in nature, nature does not need need to the If divinity divinity isis present to be transcended for to appear. The “the supernatto be for divinity divinity to The category of of “the spirits are beings beings in in and and of of the the natural ural” is is then irrelevant, since spirits Pagans who who subscribe to of the the universe accept accept the the world. Pagans to aa monist view of idea that the planet planet Earth and and the the physical physical universe started with that the with the the big big bang and according to to physical they tend to of bang and proceeds according physical laws, laws, but but they to think of the less limited than aa strict empiricist view of the physical physical world as less of the the world would indicate. Such Pagans Pagans note the the ambiguities of of quantum physics, indicating indicating that that we do the complexity of of the physics, do not fully fully understand the the physical workings of the universe. Thus, they conclude that that itit would not not physical of the Thus, they be appropriate to to say say that that the do not not exist exist simply simply be the god/desses or magic magic do not been proven. Scott Scott Cunningham, for for exbecause their existence has has not ample, says, says, “Magic “Magic is the practice practice of of moving (though littleample, is the moving natural (though energies to to effect needed change.”40 understood) energies change.”*° Pagan cosmologies might might be be more accurately than Pagan accurately termed “holistic” than

the Pagan Pagan sense that “monist” toto describe the that humans are not separate from nature but part of in the the personal or the but part of it, it, in the sense that that the the individual isis embedded in the cosmic or universal.4! in the universal.*! However, it it should be be noted that that

some Pagans Pagans do do espouse aa dualist understanding of of the the universe. GardGus diZerega, example, holds a panentheistic undernerian priest priest Gus diZerega, for for example, standing of of the the universe, which means that that he that divinity standing he believes that divinity isis in the also transcendent of it.42 Some practitioners immanent in the Earth, Earth, but but also of it.42 of that all the goddesses are ultimately of Gardnerian Witchcraft believe that all the one Goddess, all the God, and that finally one Goddess, that that all the gods gods are are ultimately ultimately one one God, and that finally even the the Goddess and God emanate from aa single single absolute reality reality or source of of divinity. divinity. Some Pagans Pagans see this this emanation as a process that time, that occurs through through time, so that that the the universe proceeds from one point and will conclude toward a point and final goal goal or end. This is is sometimes called a teleological view. Some Hea-

Ss Sc Cunningha Cunninghamm was an American aa prolific prolific writer, best for his best known for his Solitary Solitary Practitioner.

practitioner of of Wicca. He He was book Wicca: AA Guide for book for the the

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thens accept idea of of Raganok, Raganok, aa final thens accept the the Norse idea final destruction of of the the uniPagans understand time to to be cyclical rather than teleoverse, but but most Pagans be cyclical logical. A of time time is the cycling cycling of and logical. A cyclical cyclical view of is focused on the of the the seasons and

has no sense that history isis proceeding toward aafinal final end in has that history in destruction, final judgment, or redemption. Worldviews with aa cyclical cyclical conception of of final time often do do not have any any sense that that there was aa beginning of of the the uniunithey do do not have creation stories. verse, and and hence they

of Pagan tendency toward Another common feature of Pagan worldviews isis aa tendency Pagans tend to past, envisioned as a time romanticism. Pagans to idealize the the past, when people lived in the rest of people lived in harmony with one another and and with the of the the natural world and and were more in the divine. This time of in touch with the of greater harmony with nature is in is envisioned alternately as occurring in the rural past, such in the culture of of “Merrie Olde England”; England”; the the rural past, such as as in the folk folk culture “Merrie Olde the Neolithic, such such as the of Old Euthe matrifocal (mother-focused) cultures of Old Eu-

rope by the the Paleolithic, rope described by the archaeologist Marija Marija Gimbutas; or the the the advent of in the cultures of of prehistory, before the of agriculture and and living living in settled communities. The metaphor of settled The metaphor of coming coming “home” isis often connected to images of of the the past, and practitioners speak to these images past, and speak of of reclaiming their past past heritage. heritage. In this context, Paganism isis understood by by some their In this practitioners as aa revival of of “the “the Old that isis underOld Religion,” whether that stood as the religion of Britain, as the the folk folk religion of pre-Christian Britain, the more ancient religions of Greece and and Egypt, Egypt, or as the primal religious religious practices practices of ligions of the primal of shamanism (understood as the original or primal primal religion religion of of humanity, the original in prehistoric times). universally practiced practiced by by humans in The of Pagan not often often aa conscious aspect aspect of The romanticism of Pagan worldviews isis not of practitioners’ cosmologies; it it isis more often often an implicit implicit belief belief that is is more in Pagan Pagan studies than to practitioners. visible to to scholars involved in than itit is is to “late modern” in in terms Similarly, scholars identify identify Pagan Pagan worldviews as “late not commonly expressed expressed consciously by by practitioners. Paganism can be be not categorized as aa religion of late modernity because it embraces relativism, religion of late it globalism, and and skepticism. Pagans in the of an Pagans espouse relativism in the sense of acceptance of of ambiguity and and aa lack lack of certainty about truth. They tend to of They tend to accept a recognition that everyone perceives reality differently. Pagans enaccept a that reality Pagans gage in in globalism globalism in in the the sense that take symbols, gage that eclectic practitioners take deities, and the deities, and ritual practices practices from other cultures and and use them without the context of their original place. Pagan of their original time and and place. Pagan sources of of inspiration are global and to aa single single culture. This globalism isis part global and are not confined to part of of the the general of late general cultural milieu of late modernism. While Pagans Pagans exhibit aa postpostmodern sense of of play, play, create aa pastiche of cultural borrowings in in their ritritpastiche of uals, and to question rationality, they they are also skeptical in in the the sense uals, and tend tend to also skeptical

of applying doubt to Enlightenment rationalism, and they are of applying doubt to Enlightenment rationalism, and thus thus they are better better described in of late in terms of late modernity rather than postmodernism. However, Pagans Pagans also its incorporation of patriarchy also criticize rationalism for for its of patriarchy

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and its domination of of nature.“ Pagans embrace the the modern Western and its nature.*? Most Pagans of democracy, equality, and ideals of and respect respect for for diversity. In In addition, they they gender equality, and the the feminist value of of emsupport gender equality, sexual diversity, diversity, and do. powerment more than than average Americans do. In to their implicit and the late modIn contrast to implicit beliefs about romanticism and the late of their their worldviews, Pagans Pagans consciously articulate their beern character of their be-

liefs about pain, and they they have liefs pain, suffering, and and death, death, and have written aa fair fair amount of theology/thealogy about how how these feature in their worldviews. In of in their In an early essay discussing ethics, ethics, Starhawk provides early provides aa theodicy (or, (or, more accurately, a theadicy), theadicy), explaining explaining the the role role of of suffering and pain pain in her curately, suffering and in her how this to her her understanding of of the the Goddess. She She worldview and and how this relates to explains that that suffering and and pain of actions against against laws laws explains pain are a consequence of of nature. Pain Pain and and suffering suffering are not punishments for for aa violation of of God’s of law but but are natural consequences inherent to the structure of of the law to the the universe. She gives the following example: “if “if II ‘break’ the the law law of of gravity gravity by by jumpShe gives the following example: jumping out out of may break my my neck in in consequence, not ing of aa third-story window, II may the Goddess is punishing me for for my that because the is punishing my effrontery, but but because that the way the the law isis the law of of gravity gravity works. So, So, if if we continue to to spray our forests with mutagenic chemicals that that leach into with into local water supplies, we will will

in miscarriages and and birth birth defects.”“* defects.”*4 The continue toto see increases in The conseof ecological ecological damage damage are not necessarily felt felt by by those directly directly requences of sponsible for for the to the the harm done to the environment, but but Starhawk argues that that this does not indicate a lack of care for individuals on the part of the Godthis not of for the part of the dess. Rather, itit teaches us that we are collectively responsible for for creating creating justice in the world. This belief is in keeping with her cosmology, in justice in the This is in keeping with her in which the Goddess is immanent in the natural world, including humans: “We the Goddess is immanent in the natural world, including humans: “We must create justice justice and ecological and social balance; this is the prime conand ecological and this is the prime cern, the the bottom line, line, the the nitty gritty of that sees dedenitty gritty of ethics in in aa worldview that ity as immanent in human life and the world we live in.”45 Scott Cunity in life the live ningham presents a similar understanding of of suffering suffering and part of and pain pain as part of life and life and part part of of divinity, that humans need to to work with with didivinity, suggesting that divinity to try try to vinity to to make the place. He the world aa better place. He also indicates that for that for Wiccans, divinity divinity isis not not split into aa wholly split into wholly good good god evil god and and aa wholly wholly evil devil but isis mixed in devil but in all in humans. all deities, as in

He that the He indicates that the

god /desses have god/desses have their shadow sides sides as well. well.*6 Death does not require require so much explanation as suffering in does not in Pagan Pagan worldviews, since Pagans Pagans see death as aa natural and part of and necessary part the of the of life process of life in in the the natural world. The cycle of of life life requires death to The cycle to

make a complete and self-sustainin cycle. Starhawk describes life self-sustainingg cycle. life with-

out death as cancerous, and and death without life and genocide.*” life as war and genocide.*” Death is Pagan is honored in in Pagan worldviews, rather than being being envisioned as aa negative or destructive force, force, so old old age age is is celebrated because it it is is not so strongly associated with the fear of of death. In the fear myth, death is In Pagan Pagan myth, feais fea-

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tured in in stories of with the of grain. grain. of aa dying dying god god associated with the harvesting of Each being time, and in in turn passes on to to sustain others. being has has its its own time, Death isis not just end but point in in aa continuing cycyjust an end but also also aa beginning, aa point cle. Pagans commonly in reincarnation. The cyclical aspect aspect of of reinreincle. Pagans commonly believe in The cyclical carnation harmonizes with Pagan Pagan worldviews, but also expresses aa but it it also seemingly dualist belief belief in in aa spirit that is distinct from material bodies, spirit that is which isis hard hard to reconcile with beliefs about immanence and to and with with Pagans’ holistic cosmologies. The Pagan Pagan belief in in magic magic easily fits into Pagan beliefs about the the hohoThe easily fits into Pagan listic nature of the cosmos, and Pagans explicitly articulate these beliefs. listic of the and Pagans Pagans tend tend to to believe believe in interconnectedness of of all all things, and they they Pagans in the the interconnectedness things, and often use the the metaphor of of a web web to describe this aspect of their to this aspect of their cosmologies. Everything isis connected to to everything else, else, regardless of of our limited ability to fully understand all the connections, so changing ability to fully all the changing one part of the web has effects that may seem unrelated but part of the has that may but that that are connected through through the web of relations. Pagan belief in magic the web of Pagan in magic isis rooted in, in, or isis dependent upon, this this belief belief in the interconnectedness of of all all things things in the in the universe. People People who who practice in the practice magic magic use the the unseen or poorly poorly understood connections of of the the web web of of the their dedethe universe to to bring bring about their sired results. This This isis not understood as manipulating natural forces, forces, or as bending against their will, bending natural forces against will, but but as shaping a desired result the result through the help of others and and sult by by encouraging the through petitioning the help of by focusing by focusing one’s desire. Belief in magic isis also that the the future isis constituted in magic also based on the the idea idea that by probabilities, not predetermined outcomes: natural laws laws are not not so by laws as probabilities. These probabilities are consistent on the the large much laws large scale, but less less so on smaller scales, scales, such as in physics. Pagans scale, but in quantum physics. Pagans that magic but where even the the probprobsuggest that magic works on similar principles, but abilities are not well understood. Starhawk, for for example, example, describes the the of reality reality by saying that that “all things are swirls of nature of by saying “all things of energy, vortexes of moving forces.” Despite the appearance of of separateness and of Despite the and fixity fixity of of physical objects, objects, they congeal, temporarily, physical they are “field[s] of of energies that that congeal, into forms.” Things separate and and fixed because of of our (regular or Things appear separate of things things in in linear time. She She notes the ordinary) human perception of the conwith modern physics, arguing that that we can perceive nection with physics, arguing perceive the the world differently, in way of of perceiving the differently, in “extraordinary consciousness,” aa way the world holistically, as undifferentiated, and and seeing and connecseeing patterns and tions instead of of distinct objects.** objects. Like science, he he arCunningham remarks that that anyone can do do magic. magic. Like gues, itit isis a a matter of of knowing what to and how to to do do it. Pagans bebeto do do and it. Pagans lieve that that some of of the magic are based on the connections available to to use in in magic correspondences between things things like like certain certain colors, colors, herbs, herbs, images, correspondences between Based sounds, phases of the moon, and astrological phenomenon. Based other and the of sounds, phases

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such correspondences, some Pagans Pagans believe in in the the efficacy of sympaon such efficacy of larger whole. This thetic magic, magic, so that that action on aa part part can influence aa larger This isis sometimes explained in of the being able able to the in terms of the microcosm being to affect the macrocosm, like this: “as above, above, so below.” CunCunmacrocosm, symbolically symbolically rendered rendered like this: “as so below.” ningham to help pay aa hundred-dollar phone bill one ningham describes a ritual to help pay phone bill cannot afford. He He suggests using using green candles, patchouli patchouli oil oil and and aa selection of of money-drawing herbs such such as cinnamon and sage, parchment pation paper, and ink. After After lighting lighting the and burning burning the per, and green ink. the candles and the herbs and and spices, the the practitioner creates an image image of of the the phone Drawing aa spices, phone bill. bill. Drawing

the resulting image, the practitioner establishes contro] control square around the image, the it. S/he then draws aa large large X negate its over it. S/he then X across itit to to negate its existence, visualizing the the bill paid.*” izing bill as being being paid.” Starhawk describes how ritual can create a mood that helps one address that helps deeper or “Younger” self of scents, one’s deeper self through through symbolic associations of colors, images, and sounds, which are represented by by the the tangible tangible things things colors, images, and in the the ritual. (In (In her used in her tradition of of Witchcraft, the the conscious mind isis reto as as the “Talking Self,” Self,” and and the ferred to the “Talking the unconscious mind accessed in in

magic isis referred to to as the “Younger Self.) Self.”) Some Pagans’ betrance and and magic the “Younger Pagans’ beliefs about magic magic support support the the use of of alternative medicine, so Pagans liefs Pagans are likely than others to to practice practice and and utilize the the skills skills of of things things like like more likely and Reiki. Reiki. herbalism, naturopathy, and

FURTHER READING for the the Solitary Solitary Practitioner. St. Paul, MN: MN: Llewellyn Cunningham, Scott. Wicca: AA Guide for St. Paul, Llewellyn Publications, 1988. al. “The “The Nature of the Divine: Divine: Transcendence and and ImImD’Apremont, Anne-Laure Ferlat, et et al. of the

in Contemporary Pagan The Pomegranate: The The Journal of Pagan Studies manence in Pagan Theology.” The of Pagan

16 (2001): 16 (2001): 4-16.

Harvey, Harvey, Graham. Contemporary Paganism: Paganism: Listening Earth. New New York: York: New New Listening People, People, Speaking Speaking Earth. York University University Press, 1997. Press, 1997. Starhawk. The of the The Spiral Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of of the the Great Goddess. 10th the Ancient Religion of 10th anniversary niversary ed. ed. 1979. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989.

NOTES 1. 1. Michael York, York, “Defining Paganism,”

The Pomegranate: AA New Journal of The of Neopagan

Thought 1111 (2000): 9. 9. Thought Goldenberg introduced the 2.2. Naomi Goldenberg to religious the term to religious studies in the Gods in Changing of of the (Boston: Beacon Press, Press, 1979), 96. The term also 1979), 96. in the the 1979 also appears in of Isaac Bonewits’ 1979 edition of Real Magic Magic (Berkeley, (Berkeley, CA: Creative Arts Book Company, 1971). He used other forms of of the the term, such as “thealogian,” as early early as 1974, 1974, in in aa privately privately published document, “The Druid Chronicles (Evolved).” The The term is is an obvious coinage, coinage, and to have and itit seems to have developed spontaneously in in various groups. See Jayran, “Thealogy,” Wikipedia: The See Shan Jayran, The Free Free EncycloEncyclopedia, //en.wikipedia. pedia, http: http://en.wikip org / wiki/Thealogy edia.org/wiki/T healogy (accessed November 15, 15, 2004). 2004).

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31 Bl

3. Harvey suggests the 3. Graham Harvey the term “theoilogy” in in Contemporary Paganism: Listening Listening New York University Press, People, (New York: York: New People, Speaking Speaking Earth (New Press, 1997), 66. 66. Isaac Bonewits used the term “theoilogy” in uses the the the of Real in the the 1979 edition of Real Magic. Magic. Bonewits more frequently uses of divinity See Jayran, in the Jayran, divinity in term “polytheology” to to describe studies of the context of of polytheism. See “Thealogy.” 4. Quoted in in Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 160. about rocks, rocks, 4. Quoted 160. For For Starhawk’s comment about see Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, Paganism, 176. 176. 5. See, for example, Diana the Gods,” Gods,” Hrafnar website, 5. See, for example, Diana Paxson, Paxson, “Worshipping “Worshipping the Hrafnar website, www.hrafnar.org/norse/worship.html in www.hrafnar.org/norse/worship.html (accessed April April 22, 22, 2004), 2004), originally published in 20 (1993). Idunna 20 6. A. Irving Irving Hallowell, “Ojibwa “Ojibwa Ontology Ontology Behaviour and World View,” 6. A. View,” in in Primitive Views of the the World, 1969), 55. of World, ed. ed. Stanley Stanley Diamond (New York: Columbia University Press, Press, 1969), 55. 7. that belief belief in spirits survives in in English English folklore as 7. Graham Harvey Harvey suggests that in nature spirits Brownies and and boggarts. boggarts. See See Harvey, 56. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 56. 8. Meanings: Earth Religion Religion Practitioners and the the Everyday,” Everyday,” 8. Jenny Jenny Blain, Blain, “Contested Meanings: The Journal of of Neopagan Neopagan Thought Thought 12 12 (2000): 19. 19. The Pomegranate: A A New Journal 9. Wife (New (New York: York: Tor 1996), 99. 99. 9. Terri Windling, Windling, The The Wood Wife Tor [Tom [Tom Doherty Associates], 1996), 10. Charles Lint, The The Ivory and the the Horn York: Tor Doherty Associates], Associates], 10. Charles de de Lint, Ivory and Horn (New (New York: Tor [Tom [Tom Doherty

1995), ISIS) 11. 11. 1999), 1999), 12. 12.

171-72. WA72e Helen Berger, Berger, A A Community ofof Witches (Columbia: University of Press, of South Carolina Press,

33-34. Tanya M. the Witch’s Witch's Craft Craft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniTanya M. Luhrmann, Persuasions of of the

versity Press, 1989), 331-32. versity Press, 1989),

13. Carol Christ, “Why “Why Women Need the 13. the Goddess: Phenomenological, Essays on Political Reflections,” in in The The Politics of of Women's Spirituality: Essays Power within within the the Feminist Feminist Movement, Movement, ed. ed. Charlene Spretnak (Garden City, Power Charlene Spretnak (Garden City,

Psychological, and and the Rise Rise of of Spiritual Spiritual the NY: Anchor Books, Books, NY: Anchor

1982), 75. 75. 1982), 14. Starhawk, quoted inin Christ, Christ, “Why “Why Women Women Need the Goddess,” Goddess,” 76. 76. 14. Starhawk, quoted Need the 15. Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of of the the Ancient Religion Religion of of the Great Goddess, 10th 10th 15. The Spiral the Great anniversary ed. ed. (1979; (1979; New HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 99. anniversary New York: York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 99. 16. Glory, “Who on Earth IsIs the the Goddess?” in in Magical Religion Religion 16. Otter G’Zell and and Morning Glory, and Modern Witchcraft, ed. James R. R. Lewis (Albany: State University University of of New York Press, Press, and ed. James (Albany: State

1996), 28. 28. 1996), 17. Quoted in in Joanne Joanne Pearson, Pearson, Richard H. and Geoffrey Samuel, Nature Religion Religion 17. Quoted H. Roberts, and Geoffrey Samuel,

Today: Paganism in the the Modern World University Press, Press, 1998), 1998), 134. 134. Today: Paganism in World (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University G’Zell’s vision isis discussed in in Gordon J. An Iona Jona Anthology Anthology (Isle J. Melton’s An (Isle of of Iona, Iona, Argyll: Argyll: New Iona 183. G’Zell, Tim Zell, has more recently changed his his name Iona Press, Press, 1990), 1990), 183. G’Zell, originally originally Tim Zell, has recently changed to Oberon Zell-Ravenheart. For For the Gaia hypothesis, E. Lovelock’s Gaia: Gaia: A A New Look atat to the Gaia hypothesis, see J.J. E. New Look Life on Earth Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, 1982). 1982). Life 18. II have discussed divinity to Pagan Pagan ideas ideas of fully elsewhere, 18. divinity in in relation to of nature more fully and II draw on that that work here. here. See See Barbara Jane Jane Davy, Davy, “Nature,” in in The The Encyclopedia of of Modand ModWitchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, ed. ed. Shelly Shelly Rabinovitch and James Lewis (New York: York: Citadel, Citadel, ern Witchcraft and James

2002), 165-66. 2002), 19. Cited in Andy Letcher, Letcher, “’Virtual Road 19. in Andy “Virtual Paganism’ Paganism’ or Direct Action? The The Implications of of Road for Modern Paganism,” Diskus Diskus 66 (2000), Web edition, edition, http://web.unihttp://web.unifor Modern Paganism,” (2000), Web marburg.de/religionswissenschaft 16, 2001). 2001). marburg.de/religion /journal/diskus (accessed May May 16, swissenschaft /journal/diskus Protesting Protesting

20. and Pagan Pagan Identity,” Diskus Diskus 66 (2000), Web ediedi20. Marion Bowman, “Nature, the the Natural, Natural, and (2000), Web tion, http://web.uni-marburg.de/ tion, http:/ /web.uni-marburg.de/ religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed (accessed May May 16, 16,

2001). 2001). 21. 21. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, Dance, 92. 92. 22. Scott Cunningham, Wicca: A Guide for for the the Solitary Solitary Practitioner (St. (St. Paul, Paul, MN: Llewellyn Llewellyn 22. A Guide Publications, 2003), 2003), 11. 11.

32 32

Chapter 11 23. and Samuel, Nature Religion 23. Pearson, Roberts, and Religion Today, Today, 170. 170.

24. Miyazaki, Princess Mononoke (Miramax (Miramax Films, Films, 2000). 2000). 24. Hayao Hayao Miyazaki, Princess Mononoke 25. The Triumph 25. Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of of the the Moon: AA History History of of Modern Pagan Pagan Witchcraft Witchcraft (Oxford: University Press, Press, 1999), 196. Oxford University 1999), 196.

26. of the the Moon, 198. 198. 26. Hutton, Triumph of 27. Spiral Dance, 108. 108. 27. Starhawk, Spiral 28. Triumph of of the the Moon, Moon, 44. 28. Hutton, Triumph 44.

29. Hutton, Triumph of the the Moon, 45. 29. Triumph of 45. 30. Aleister Crowley, “Hymn to Pan,” Pan,” in in Liber Aba, 2nd 2nd rev. ed., (York Beach, Beach, ME: 30. “Hymn to Liber Aba, ed., 4:121-22 (York ME: 1997). Samuel Weiser, 1997).

31. Hutton, Triumph of of the the Moon, Moon, 33. 31. Hutton, Triumph 33. 32. 32. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, Dance, 90-91. 33. Margot Adler, Drawing Down Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess- Worshippers, and 33. Margot Adler, Drawing and Other Other Pagans inin America Today, Today, revised and expanded ed. Press, 1986), 1986), 20. 20. Pagans and expanded ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 34. Diana 34.

Paxson,

“The

Religion

of of

the the

North,”

Hrafnar

website, website,

1996, 1996,

www.hrafnar.org/norse/tract.html (accessed April April 22, 22, 2004). 2004). www.hrafnar.org/norse/tract.html (accessed 35. Freya Aswynn, Northern Mysteries 35. Freya Aswynn, Mysteries & & Magick: Magick: Runes & & Feminine Powers (St. (St. Paul, Paul, MN: Llewellyn 1998), 177, 184. Llewellyn Publications, 1998), 177, 184.

36. Jone Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The The Reclaiming Witches of of San 36. San Francisco (London: Routledge, 2002), 2002), 2. Routledge, 2. 37. Bowman, “Nature, the the Natural, and Identity.” 37. and Pagan Pagan Identity.” 38. See Down the 399, 400. 38. See Adler, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the Moon, Moon, 399, 400.

39. 39. 40. 40. 41. 41. 42. 42.

Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 174. 174. Cunningham, Wicca: A the Solitary A Guide for for the Solitary Practitioner, 6.6.

the term Helen Berger Berger uses, Community of Witches, 124. “Holistic” is is the of Witches, Gus diZerega, diZerega, Pagans Pagans && Christians: The The Personal Spiritual Spiritual Experience Experience (St. (St. Paul, Paul, MN:

Llewellyn 2001). Llewellyn Publications, 2001).

43. This in terms of of late late modernity from Berger. 43. This analysis analysis of of Paganism in modernity is is taken from Berger. See See especially Berger, Berger, Community Community of of Witches, 7,7, 123, 123, 125. 125. cially 44. Starhawk, “Ethics and and Justice Justice in in The of Women’s SpiritualSpiritual44. in Goddess Religion,” in The Politics of ity: Essays the Rise Rise ofof Spiritual Spiritual Power within the the Feminist Movement, ed. ed. Charlene Spretnak ity: Essays on the 1982), 417. (Garden City, City, NY: NY: Anchor Press [Doubleday], 1982), 417. 45. 421. 45. Starhawk, “Ethics and and Justice,” Justice,” 421.

46. the Solitary Solitary Practitioner, 18. 18. 46. Cunningham, Wicca: AA Guide for for the 47. Starhawk, Spiral Dance, 41. 47. Spiral Dance, 41. 48. Spiral Dance, Dance, 32-33. 48. Starhawk, Spiral

50. the Solitary Solitary Practitioner, 23. 50. Cunningham, Wicca: AA Guide for for the 23.

22 ook oot Social Organization

to cede religious authority to any |SBe eee most Pagans Pagans are reluctant to cede religious authority to any differently in in Paganism centralized structure, institutions develop develop differently than in religions. The unit of of organization in in Paganism than in other world religions. The basic unit

is less than a dozen people. people. Membership in in these small is small, usually usually less groups isis fluid, fluid, and and groups tend and disband relatively fretend toto form and relatively frequently. Any his or her quently. Any Pagan Pagan can act as his her own clergyperson or become aa priest /ess, /ess, so Pagans Pagans do belong to to aa religious religious organization priest do not not necessarily belong of any has more in in common with or group of any kind. Consequently, Paganism has religious activity activity that that has been described as “daily” “daily” or “democratized” religious has been of monotheistic traditions. shamanism than with the the institutional forms of The relative lack of formal religious religious institutions within Paganism The lack of Paganism has has led led and sociologists to to label it some ethnographers and it “disorganized” religion, religion, and to to comment on its its seeming seeming tendency to or even “pseudoreligion,” and to and institutions as soon as dismantle itself, itself, often dissolving structures and they form. they start to to form. currently undergoing aa process of of routinization, developdevelopPaganism is is currently ing religious institutions and and standardized practices as itit grows from a ing religious new religious religious movement into into aa world religion, religion, but there are active but there active coun-

tertrends against against the the normalization of Pagan religious of Pagan religious practice. practice. Forms of of social organization beyond beyond small groups do do develop, develop, but but some Pagans Pagans feel they become aware of of these these structures, and and bebefeel constrained as soon as they come intensely critical of them—hence Paganism seems to deconstruct itof to itself. However, some Pagans welcome the increasing organization because self. Pagans the they feel will increase the the legitimacy of the religion in the the eyes of the the they feel it it will of the religion in eyes of public and and will and protections for for Pagans. Pagans. public will lead lead to to further legal legal rights rights and 33 Be

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with physical physical components, such “Institutions” in in religion religion can be be things things with like synagogues or mosques, as well well as social structures like like as buildings like clergy (religious officials) and and laity (general participants who are not clerclerclergy laity (general gypersons). The The institutions of of Paganism have several structural differences from from the monotheistic religions. rarely forms sects in in the the religions. Paganism rarely the way of the usually develop develop as splinter splinter way of the monotheistic traditions, which usually groups on the the basis of differences in belief, so the overall structure of Paof in belief, the of Paganism is different as a world religion. Paganism is an umbrella term, ganism is a religion. Paganism is term, which includes multiple and types types of of Paganisms. Wicca, multiple denominations and Wicca, Asatru, and and Druidry, Druidry, for denominations within Paganism. Asatru, for example, example, are are denominations within Paganism. Eclectics, solitaries, and and practitioners of of Goddess religion types of of PaPareligion are types gans. The various types types and family resemblance to to gans. The and denominations have aa family one another but do not have single genesis. genesis. There isis no originating but do have aa single prophet the central story story or foundation of the religion. religion. prophet who revealed the of the (While Gerald Gardner isis an important important historical figure figure in in Gardnerian (While Wicca, his Book of of spells rituals, does have Wicca, his of Shadows, aa book of spells and and rituals, does not have

unique authority Paganism. Even within Wicca, each Gardnerian coven unique authority in in Paganism. creates its its own book, book, and and each each individual Wiccan adds to her/his own adds to

book.) Paganism has multiple points points of origin instead of of simply simply diffusing diffusing has multiple of origin from single source. Disparate groups appeared here here and and there throughfrom a single throughout North American and Europe, Europe, initially initially inspired inspired largely largely by by books, books, first first by the the German and English Romantics, other poets poets and and anby and English and novelists, and James Frazer and Murray, and and later later by by thropologists such as James and Margaret Murray, writings specifically on Paganism as aa newly newly revived religion. religion. writings specifically Pagan groups do do form as sects, or splinter beSome Pagan splinter groups, founded beof an internal disagreement in in aa group. However, sects in in monothecause of in beliefs about the istic traditions are generally formed due due to to divisions in the fundaments of of the the faith: faith: a dispute dispute about doctrine or orthodox tradition. regard each each other as heretics. This isis not the Sects often regard the the case between the different types types and and denominations of Paganism, because there isis no orof Paganism, thodox tradition, and and adherence to religion is to the the religion is not conceived in in terms of doctrine or beliefs. I I use the of the term “denomination” for for different groups within Paganism because itit seems less less connected to to the idea of the idea of divisions based on disagreements about doctrine. “Denomination” simply simply conveys that the groups have have different names for that the for themselves. Despite “witch wars,” which are emotionally charged local disputes disputes among Pagans, the Pagans, the denominations are not in in competition with one another the the way that that sects often are. Furthermore, unlike the the Protestant sects within Christianity,! Christianity,! Pagan Pagan denominations do tend to do not tend to poach poach members from one another. Participation in Pagan group does not preclude in one Pagan preclude participation in in othothers, and and having having multiple memberships in in various organizations isis common. Pagans Pagans do do not tend think that tend to that Paganism in to think general, let in general, let alone aa

specific specific denomination, is any more true than any is any any other religious religious tradition. tradition.

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Practitioners indicate that that Paganism Paganism provides aa symbolic symbolic language language for for relating with divinity, languages may be more suitable for for diflating divinity, and and various languages may be dif-

ferent people.” preferred by for other reasons, people.* Paganism isis preferred by practitioners for for the for divinity, divinity, for for the the resources it such as for the wealth of of female imagery imagery for it provides for for ritual and and for having religious religious experiences, for positive provides for having for its its positive of women and for the the celebration of of diversity diversity and valuation of and nature, and and for and religious tolerance within it. it. religious has no sacred text or scripture scripture on which to to base claims for for auPaganism has thority. For that serves the the same purpose as thority. For most Pagans, Pagans, there isis no book that the Christian Bible: most Pagans Pagans do do not regard any book as uniquely authe regard any revelatory.* Each Pagan can experience the the dithoritative, inspirational, or revelatory.° Each Pagan didirectly, so no single single book can speak speak for for all. vine directly, all. Additionally, personal personal authority than what one reads in in aa book. However, experiences have more authority than what something of of aa literary there isis something literary canon developing. Many Many groups have have simsimilar recommended reading lists often begin begin with the the works of of ilar reading lists. lists. These lists and Margot Margot Adler. In In particular, particular, The The Spiral Spiral Dance and and Drawing Drawing Starhawk and Moon, both published in in 1979, 1979, were frequently the the Down the the Moon, both originally published first introduction to to the the religion for people who became Pagan in the the first for people Pagan in 1980s and and early early 1990s. This isis perhaps perhaps less less true of of more recent converts the growth of the in the to late late 1990s. subsequent to to the growth of the Internet in the midmid- to That in the in virThat authority authority is is vested in the individual isis a teaching reiterated in virtually all all how-to texts produced produced by by Pagans. Pagans. Pagans Pagans are protective of the the tually protective of and self-determination of of the the groups in autonomy and in which they they participate. They often resist governance by by larger larger federations. Some create official They but others resist resist the the formation of of official official institutions that that “churches,” but

might try try to to dictate what the the smaller groups can do. Pagans fear might do. Many Many Pagans fear that the religion religion would lead to that centralized organization of of the to power imbalances. that all be equal, equal, that ances. They They feel feel that all Pagans Pagans should should be that Paganism Paganism is is aa of all all believers,” with no clergy clergy standing standing above the the laity. laity. In In “priesthood of the in the the hands of of every the words of of aa Wiccan practitioner, “The power is is in priests or priestesses who perform perform these practitioner, not specialized priests these feats feats for the masses. This is way of of life. life. We for the is what makes Wicca aa truly truly satisfying way We have direct links with with the Pagans fear fear that have the Deities.”4 Some Pagans that a centralized organization would lead lead to to the the dominance of of some Pagans Pagans over others, with aa consequent loss loss of of practice and belief. with of freedom of practice and Asa religion characterized by by a “priesthood of As a religion of all all believers,” Paganism

by shamanism, and practices described by religious practices bears some similarity to to religious and

practices with with shamanism. their religious religious practices Pagans identify identify their indeed some Pagans indigein practices to in indigeapplied practices generally certain is to applied The term “shamanism” is generally The

people live live inin small nous cultures, particularly those cultures wherein people of practices of with associated practices with usually is It foraging. It is usually by foraging. and subsist by groups and scholarly a is It world. scholarly a is It the more-than-human world.° with the healing and relating with and relating healing most by outsiders. Paganism isis most applied to to cultures by construct, aa term applied

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similar to in what some anthropologists refer refer to to as “daily “daily to shamanism in shamanism,” the the everyday everyday magical people that that occur outside magical activities of of people of the more spectacular shamanic rituals noted by early of the by early anthropologists.° anthropologists.® People practicing these these everyday everyday shamanic activities may be be recognized People having specific as having specific powers in in indigenous cultures, without formal status as In tribal societies, social roles are not as highly highly specialized as as in shamans. In in

modern culture, so it it is is unsurprising that that most adults in in these societies engage in that might might be for example, example, divgage in activities that be described as shamanic, for divmagic, and and the of dreams. In In the in which ination, magic, the interpretation of the cultures in

religion is shamanism appears, religion is not generally generally identifiable as something people who who live live within it. it. The The participants do do distinct from culture by by the the people not perceive perceive itit as something distinct from the the daily daily activities of not of hunting, hunting, fishing, and entertainment. Among the Nabesna of of British Columbia, fishing, and Among the religion exhibits characteristics of of daily daily shamanism, all whose religion all adults are expected to pay to their their dreams and communicate with the expected to pay attention to with the more-than-human world through through them, them, gaining they get gaining experience as they get older, until each becomes aa “sleep “sleep doctor,” aa gyenin, for older, until gyenin, the the Nabesna name for aa shaman (essentially, one who talks talks with the the spirits).” spirits).” Perhaps some Pagans Pagans would prefer prefer to to develop develop religious in Perhaps religious structures as in indigenous cultures, such as the the traditional religious religious practices of of the the Nabesna, where there Spiritual there are religious religious specialists but but not priests. priests. Spiritual power isis not not vested in in aa single single authority in shamanism, but with authority in but in in people people with particularly well-developed religious religious practices recognized as strong strong in in the the ways of of the the spirits. spirits. These people people are recognized as elders or shamans ways rather than priests. Some Pagan Pagan traditions have priests priests and and than as ordained priests. but these are generally generally initiated rather than than ordained. Pagans Pagans priestesses, but also religious authority authority because of their exalso recognize elders as sources of of religious of their perience. Pagans believe that that all all practitioners have have similar potenperience. Most Pagans tials to to develop develop spiritually. Pagans Pagans do do not generally feel tials feel that that priest priest /esses and have a special special relationship with with divinity divinity or greater greater access to to and elders have the the divine, divine, and and Pagan Pagan priest/esses do do not serve as intermediaries between practitioners and the divine.’ Each Pagan Pagan can have direct encounters with and the divinity, although although individuals may divinity, may develop specific spiritual spiritual skills to develop specific to a greater or lesser degree degree than other individuals. As greater As in the shamanism of in the of the Nabesna, Pagan Pagan practitioners may specialize in the in certain religious activities, such ritual leadership, singing, such as divination, ritual singing, writing writing liturgies, liturgies, administration, counseling, and and so on, without developing any any greater general authority among their their coreligionists. general Gardnerian Wiccan initiatory initiatory traditions are somewhat different from other Pagan Pagan denomination in this denominationss in this respect, since initiatory Wiccans have aa greater sense of of separation between clergy clergy and laity, laity, emphasized through through the the secrecy of priesthood.. Not all of their their priesthood..Not all secrets are revealed until until the third degree the degree of of initiation. Some other denomination denominationss have specific specific

Social Social Organization

37 By,

clergy training programs and typical of of aa clergy serving a clergy training and offer offer services typical clergy serving laity. the Fellowship of of Isis. In this this multifaith organizalaity. One such group isis the Isis. In organization Pagans, clergy clergy are trained at that tion that that includes Pagans, at Lyceums, or schools, that are chartered through through the the main college of Isis the Felcollege of Isis in in Ireland, where the Fellowship began. the Fellowship can found aa local lowship began. Members of of the local group, called an Iseum, and and offer offer religious religious services such and other other such as initiation and celebratory rituals. Each Iseum isis dedicated to deity chosen by by the to a deity the founder, and and this this deity thought to the development of of the deity isis thought to shape shape the the Iseum.? to practices of daily shamanism in not Similar to of daily in indigenous cultures, it it isis not only high festivals and showy rituals that in only the the high and showy that are religiously significant in Paganism. Pagans Pagans keep keep home altars and personal and shrines and and engage in in personal spell of the the celebration of of the In addition, spell work outside of the seasonal festivals. In the in daily daily life religious significance for for Pagans. For For the choices made in life have religious them, spiritual is just as the the personal personal is political.!° ItIt isis parparthem, the the spiritual is political, political, just is political.!° ticipation in in everyday Pagan that that makes one aa Pagan, everyday life life as aa Pagan Pagan, as much as doing ritual in in aa group or having having experiences mediated through doing formal ritual through others at at public public events. The way way one prepares one’s food, food, composts, recyrecycles, and shows respect respect for for the the more-than-human world on a daily cles, and daily basis is important as organized ritual. is as important At least all Pagan to aa group and and inAt least half half of of all Pagan practitioners do do not belong belong to instead practice as as solo stead practice solo practitioners, or solitaries." Solitaries, however, often often do the larger larger Pagan Pagan community. The The “community” do participate in in the “community” can serve in the the place place of of the in Christian traditions for for PaPain the church or congregation in gans. “Community,” in in this this context, isis understood in in aa parallel parallel sense to to the the “gay community,” as sharing a sense of alternative lifestyle, life world, and “gay sharing a of lifestyle, life world, and politics. physical community such neighpolitics. ItIt refers not to to aa physical such as aa town or a neighborhood, but to a shared life world or worldview, including a perception but to a life a of reality that that accepts the the efficacy The Pagan Pagan community can of reality efficacy of of magic.!* magic.!? The also be also be described as aa “community of of memory,” wherein aa sense of of community by identification with with those killed in in the the witch hunts.'? hunts.!° munity is is fostered by While Pagans city may may develop of comPagans in in aa particular town or city develop a sense of munity, they rarely have public public meeting Pagans usually usually meet in in munity, they rarely meeting spaces. Pagans parks for for rituals, rituals, or at local coffee shops shops or pubs pubs practitioners’ homes or in in parks at local for social events. To the lack of aa public public building building owned by by aa for To an extent, the lack of to make Pagan Pagan groups more transient. Owning Owning aa buildgroup functions to ing gives group aa focus focus and and requires requires setting amount of of buing gives aa group setting up up aa certain certain amount buto allow the the group to the building reaucratic overhead to to maintain the building despite despite public building, building, groups fluctuations in in membership. Without aa dedicated public

lose interest, move away, or leave more easily easily disintegrate as individuals lose in anger.'* AA few few larger such as Circle Sanctuary, own land. Pain anger.'4 larger groups, such Pa-

gans are generally land gans generally more interested in in purchasing wild wild or naturalized land than in opening and cities. Perhaps than in opening public public ritual space within towns and Perhaps over time, to their their patron patron deities, or perhaps perhaps time, wealthy wealthy Pagans Pagans will will build temples temples to

38 38

Chapter Chapter 22

not. Some Pagans public spaces, but but many preprePagans express aa desire for for such public

fer to meet meet their home or or in in parks and conservation conservation areas. fer to their god/desses god/desses at at home parks and areas. to collect money to to hold Pagan to gain Some groups try try to Pagan festivals, so as to gain than isis possible in renting renting campgrounds or camps for for these more freedom than possible in for events.!5 More commonly, though, though, money isis collected at at public public events for the specific specific event attended in to cover the of candles, incense, the in order to the costs of snacks, and beverages.

of Pagan circle, which isis called aa coven The basic structure of Pagan groups is is the the circle, in in other traditions of In Druidry, Druidry, itit is in Wicca and and in of Witchcraft. In is called aa in Asatru, itit isis sometimes called aa troth, although “troth” may may grove, and and in troth, although also refer refer to to aa federation of of smaller groups and and solitary solitary practitioners. PaPaalso gan circles tend to to be less than than aa gan be small and and intimate, usually usually consisting of of less people. Starhawk’s definition of of aa coven—“a Witches’ support dozen people. study center, clergy-training group, consciousness-raising group, psychic psychic study and religious program, College College of of Mysteries, surrogate clan, clan, and religious congregation all rolled into into one” one” '*—is !*—is descriptive not not only only of of Pagan cirall of covens but but of Pagan circles more generally. She uses the for looser-knit ritual groups cles generally. She the term “circle” for that may may form into covens,'’ covens,!” but but it also functions as aa generic generic term for for PaPathat it also gan groups. Some circles are affiliated with with larger larger organizations, such as gan the end lothose described atat the end of of this this chapter. chapter. Many Many circles, however, are local groups not affiliated with any cal any larger larger federation. The circle represents the the equality of the The equality of the participants: none stands above the others, and and there is of the the is no “front” of the circle. The The initiatory traditions of of to have have aa more hierarchical Gardnerian and and Alexandrian Wicca appear to structure than than feminist-oriented groups. In In Gardnerian and and Alexandrian covens, the by aa high high priestess priestess and who ideally the group isis lead by and priest, priest, who ideally act act as a voice for for the the group’s desires rather than dominating the the other coveners. The high in such such groups has the highest highest authority, followed by by The high priestess priestess in has the the high high priest. priest. They They are usually usually both initiates of the third degree. In femfemthe of the degree. In the ideal to run the but inist-oriented groups, the ideal isis often often to the group on consensus, but the of leaders is usually inevitable. This This sometimes leads to the emergence of is usually to anger and of covert control. and accusations of In and initiatory traditions, there isis often aa hierarIn both feminist groups and chy of status, if nothing else.'® This beyond chy of if nothing This hierarchy sometimes extends beyond the coven but operates primarily in terms of lineage rather than control the but primarily in of lineage over what “offspring” covens do. The organization of related groups in aa do. The of in tradition isis generally aa branching structure of filiation, not a power strucof a ture or an administrative structure. Paganism is that is decentralized, so that larger organizations or federations exercise little control larger over what indiindividual groups do. do. Some circles are part part of of traditions that that are structured as mystery relireligions. gions. In for example, there In initiatory Wicca, Wicca, for laity as such: all there is paris no laity all participants are either clergy clergy or potential clergypersons as initiates or neoticipants neo-

Social Organization

39 39

phytes training training for for initiation into into the the mysteries. AA neophyte beginner, phytes neophyte is is a beginner, The mysteries are protected protected by Gardan apprentice, or aa student. The by secrecy. Gardfor example, example, is open at at the the first first level to all interested perpernerian training, training, for is open to all sons over the of eighteen, eighteen, but but further training the age age of training isis restricted toto those who have have been initiated into the first degree. Some researchers have have been who into the first degree. been to attend further training, but but not with with unlimited access.!9 SecSecallowed to for initiation into into the the third third degree. degree. Most of of ond-degree training training prepares for the in this this training has has been made public, the information revealed in public, except except perhaps oral instruction. perhaps some details given given to to third-degree initiates as oral The rationale for for the the training training and and initiation is to The the secrecy surrounding the is to shield the the identity of coven members against persecution, but also to proidentity of against but also to protect people people from from the the mysteries. Secret knowledge can be be harmful if if revealed to to those who who are not not prepared prepared for it or who might misuse it. Sefor it who might it. Secrecy can also also help create a sense of trust in covens. Some sociologists note help a of in that creating an in-group and and an outthat secrecy fosters group cohesion, creating group.”° More generally, secrecy functions as a form of institutionalization group.° a form of in into levels of in Wicca, structuring it it into of status. Pagan circles, of Pagan circles often have aa structure of of concentric circles, of an inner court and an outer court, so that there are closed or private groups related and court, that private to public groups. A Pagan women’s group, for example, might have pubto public A Pagan for might have public monthly meetings, based on the phases of the moon, at a local booklic monthly the phases of the at local

store or magical magical supply supply shop, shop, which isis open open toto all all women. Some of of the the women who lead rituals in in the the public public group might might also also hold hold private private celeto which they belong. Many of brations of of the the festivals in in closed covens to they belong. Many of these women might might also also celebrate the in public these the festivals in public ceremonies open to men and perhaps atat larger larger regional regional gatherings. to and women, perhaps Participants in of the of in closed Pagan Pagan circles often often think of the circle in in terms of the closeness of of family, than friends.”! As As in in families, families, simithe family, more intimate than

lar sorts of lar of conflict develop develop between members. The The intensity of of the the relarelain covens, for example, can ultimately lead to the the disintegration of of tions in for example, lead to the coven. But But recombinations are frequent; closed the frequent; membership is is fluid fluid in in closed

in public public groups, but but relationships continue with the the degroups as well well as in development of of new covens. Some covens continue toto exist exist long long after after all all the the original the sometimes acrimonious partings original members have have left. left. Despite Despite the of the the ways between coven members, divided groups can re-form into of time, and and relationships developed in in covens remain imnew covens over time, important the larger larger community regardless regardless of of whether individuals conportant in in the tinue to to circle circle together.”” together.” The transience of of Pagan Pagan circles should not be mistaken for for superficial The not be bonds. In Wiccan covens, the the ideal ideal isis to to come together in perfect love and and bonds. In together in perfect love perfect The instability instability of of perfect trust, creating creating intense personal relationships. The

Pagan has led Pagan groups has led some sociologists toto regard regard Paganism as aa quasiquasireligion, but others suggest that covens should be at in in the religion, but suggest that be looked at the context context

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show trends does show and related associations.” Wicca does of extended networks and of sugreligion, which some sociologists suginto an institutionalized religion, of growing growing into of Some scholars theorize religion. Some the religion. of the the survival of for the gest gest isis necessary for

instito disintegrate without formal institend to that religious movements tend that new religious lack of toaa lack due to of ordo not continue due tutions. However, even ifif some groups do inclusive the inclusive least, the very least, the very at the though, at as though, ganizational ganizational structure, itit appears as of Wicca will survive. Wicca isis currently will survive.” of currently undergoing a process of groups of by routinization as children are being in the the traditions developed being raised in developed by in some cases, grandparents.” and in their parents, and However, there strong current in Paganism Paganism that that resists routinization However, there isis aa strong current in resists routinization the development in the religion of codified traditions. Some would and the in the religion of religious that that does not not rather see Paganism as a spontaneous way of of being being religious rely on a of ritual forms or on the of a burely a received tradition of the teachings of buYork, reaucratized clergy. clergy. Pagan Pagan studies scholar and and practitioner Michael York, for example, example, would seem to prefer that calls “paganism” be be aa for to prefer that what he he calls being religious, religious, that that itit serve as the the always upspontaneous way of of being always new upwelling of religious experience. For For York, York, this this isis aa human universal, visivisiwelling of religious ble in in folk folk customs worldwide, including things things like like tossing tossing coins in ble in aa fountain, making making wishes, and and leaving leaving offerings.” offerings.”° In this sense, “paganism” isis largely largely congruent with with Catherine AlAlIn this banese’s understanding of of nature religion religion as aa form of of religiosity that that isis

largely implicit rather than institutionalized. largely implicit institutionalized. Albanese, in in Reconsidering Nature Religion, says that she finds nature religion to dissolve almost as Religion, says that she finds religion to soon as it is identified.2” Nature religion deconstructs itself because it is religion itit isis implicit, something that people do largely unconsciously or on an ad hoc implicit, something that people do largely ad hoc basis, rather than a formally institutionalized religion with meeting d basis, a institutionalize religion meeting houses and and identifiable congregations. Nature religion religion thus ritthus appears in in rituals that develop spontaneously at environmental protests, and in some of uals that develop at and in of the folk practices of Pagans. Most of Albanese’s discussion of nature relithe folk of Pagans. of of religion is the intense communion with nature degion is about phenomena such as the described by by John John Muir, Muir, the religious experience of alone in the religious of an individual alone in nature, apart apart from community. She She explains explains that that in people ture, in such phenomena, people feel aa sense of of spirit than connections based on aa comfeel of kinship kinship of spirit rather than working on common tasks, tasks, so that that organized mon ethnic background or working religion isis less likely to develop as aa result.*8 result.?8 However, in in Paganism, more religion less likely to develop in the the broader religious religious expressions of religion, specifically than in of nature religion, community isis formed around things things other than than individual revelatory experiences in in nature. Shared experiences in the circle are important, but but for periences in the for some Pagans, Pagans, ethnicity ethnicity isis paramount to This is to their sense of of community. This is particularly true in in the of Pagan Pagan traditions in in Eastern Europe.” Europe.” the revival of In her of nature religion, religion, Albanese notes the the formation of of In her discussion of Wicca and Pagan groups, but but she that these and other contemporary Pagan she suggests that have the the status of of aa “movement” rather than She phenomena have than aa religion. religion. She

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changes frequently, that that groups are subject to fragnotes that that membership changes subject to fragmentation, and and furthermore that that the the development of of such groups is is atypatypical in Western culture. She She argues that that “without strongly ical in strongly institutionalized community, without clearly clearly demarcated history, history, itit exists as an inherently unstable construct, and into something inherently and itit easily easily deconstructs into The something else, else, she else.” The she says, says, is is politics, politics, or metaphysical sublimation through through things like New Age Age healing. lead tion things like healing. Nature religion religion does not lead of a “church of of nature.”*° toto the the development of nature.”%° Nature religion, religion, and and the Pagan groups expressive of of it, it, may may not not lead lead to the Pagan to the development of the Catholic Church, but this does not the of institutions like like the but this mean that that other forms of of religion religion will will not develop develop out of of nature religion. religion. Paganism follows aa different pattern of routinization, developing with a pattern of different sense of of community and and aa different sense religious religious custom through daily practice. Implicit Implicit religion religion isis just just as common worldwide as through daily practice. institutionalized religion, religion, but but it is much less it is less identifiable. In In indigenous traditions, for example, there are rarely words that translate into “reli“relifor example, rarely that into gion” or “church,” yet traditions develop and evolve without these gion” yet develop these explicitly recognized institutions. Religion does not require central authorplicitly Religion require ity as aa form form ity

of organization. of

Oral Oral

traditions,

tribal tribal

religions, religions,

and and

for example, example, perpetuate themselves without central authorshamanism, for ity. Religion Religion can be be perpetuated as aa nondistinguished aspect aspect of of cultural ity. Some of of the the institutions of tradition. Some of Paganism Paganism are identifiable, however,

such as the the resistance to hierarchy and and bureaucratization. This This is, is, paraparasuch to hierarchy doxically, an identifiable structure of of Pagan religion. doxically, Pagan religion. Pagans are often willfully in their their resistance to to bureauPagans willfully disorganized in to describe Paganism cracy and and hierarchy, which leads some researchers to as “a “a decentralized religious religious movement” and and aa “disorganized relireligion.”3! Such tendencies are especially evident in in feminist Paganism, in gion.”3! Such in overlap overlap with feminist spirituality in in groups such as Reclaiming, which is and attempts to reject centralized authority. The reis run on consensus, and to reject authority. The ligious Pagans, of of direct connection with divinity, counter ligious experiences of of Pagans, the of routinization as the the religion religion isis constantly renewed the processes of

through divinity. The through new encounters with divinity. The belief that that anyone can have such experiences makes it single person or organizait impossible for for any any single tion to to claim to legitito speak speak with authority about what experiences are legitiPagan experiences. This This belief that mate or about what are proper Pagan that all all PaPathe divine directly part of of how how Pagan Pagan religion gans can encounter the directly isis part religion itself: authority resides in legitimizes itself: in the the individual, not in in approval of of external clergy clergy or elders. Some Pagans Pagans reject reject the of “religion,” “religion,” preferring “spirituality,” in in the label of with more general in religiosity.°* Pagans Pagans often often reject common with general trends in reject “religion” by which they they usually “religion” or “organized religion,” by usually mean Christianity and Judaism. First-generation Pagans Pagans tend to out of tianity and Judaism. to be be converts out of

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those traditions. Their practice practice Christianity or Judaism and are critical of of those of Paganism is “religion” in in the the sense that they are now participating in in of is “religion” that they Paganism instead of organized religion religion to used to to bebePaganism of in in the the organized to which they they used long. Canadian legislation religion with with “a “a formal boundarylong. legislation conflates religion maintaining structure through through Pagan religion Pagan religion is is not like like this, this,

which that religion is that religion is administered.”°° so identification of of Pagans largely dedePagans isis largely pendent on their their identifying themselves as Pagan. Pagan. This creates a probThis a problem of to restrict who is Pagan among practitioners, as well well as how lem of how to is Pagan to identify identify practitioners for for scholars studying studying Pagans. Pagans. There is to is no creed to identify Pagans, and and individuals bear only only aa family family resemblance to to identify to one another. The for Paganism Paganism to to continue as “disorganized religion,” or to to The desire for develop formal religious religious institutions, divides Pagans. Within Paganism, there isis “tension between a desire to to appropriate the religious language language the religious and and instituand the the legitimacy itit confers, while repudiating the the cultural and baggage that that [practitioners] perceive to ‘religion’ tional baggage perceive as attached to generally.”*4 Some Pagans that for Paganism to gain recognirecognimore generally.”34 Pagans fear fear that for Paganism to gain tion as aa legitimate religion, will have to to change change to tion religion, itit will to resemble the the organized religions that people left left in in coming coming to to Paganism. They They want to to ganized religions that people of Paganism and and for retain the the countercultural tendencies of for it it to to challenge social norms and the social conscience of the surrounding culture and act as the of the in of the the environment and of ethnic and and lifestyle lifestyle in terms of and acceptance of diversity, example. Others want Paganism to to become unremarkable, diversity, for for example. just another world religions, with the the same legal rights rights and freejust another of of the the world religions, with same legal and freedoms as other religions.* always been been somewhat critical of of its its surContemporary Paganism has has always rounding culture. Wicca has has “always posed an implicit rounding “always posed implicit powerful powerful challenge to to social and and religious religious norms.”%° Wicca was inspired inspired in part by by the lenge in part the sexuality. HowRomantic movement against against the the Victorian repression of of sexuality. ever, rather than being being countercultural in in the the sense of of the the American movement of the 1960s, 1960s, this this Paganism rejected rejected modernity. “Pagan “Pagan witchcraft of the travelled from Britain to to the the United States as aa branch of of radical conservatism; itit returned as as aa branch of of radical socialism” after being influenced vatism; after being

by Starhawk and and other feminist witches.?” witches.°” The The tension between conservaby tives who who regard regard Paganism as aa private private matter and and those who who want itit to to change the world continues. change the Pagan parents are somewhat more likely Pagan than other practitioners to likely than to to be be accepted want Paganism to accepted by by the the surrounding culture as legitimate. ItIt is is primarily primarily in in the the context of that researchers talk of raising raising children that talk about the process of the in Wicca, and of routinization in and Paganism more generally. Some suggest that the birth of that the of the the second generation of of Pagans Pagans is is causing causing the the religious movement to ligious to mature.» mature. Based on the the supposition that are apthat there there approximately 200,000 adult Pagans in the Pagans in the United States, probably more more

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than 82,600 Pagans.” Raising 82,600 children are currently being being raised as Pagans.” Raising children in in the the religion and creating creating new traditions, dren religion requires requires teaching teaching them and

and, “because children enjoy enjoy repetition, the the rituals are likely likely to and, to become systematized.”*! This This routinization process causes some tension with the systematized.”4! the mystery religion, religion, Wicca isis somemystery religion religion aspect aspect of of Wicca. As As aa mystery what oriented toward gaining through the training and gaining new members through the training and inithe faith through through the the develtiation of of neophytes, rather than than maintaining the of family family traditions.” opment of Another motivation for desire of for institutionalization in in Paganism Paganism is is the the desire of rights and and protections, as well well as servsome practitioners for for greater greater legal legal rights ices.4* Some Pagans Pagans express concerns about freedom of of religion, religion, fearing ices. fearing having burning persecution through through things things like like having burning crosses erected on their in child custody cases. Pagans have also lawns and and discrimination in Pagans have also had had being allowed to to take religious religious holidays for for Pagan festiproblems with being Pagan festivals. Students have vals. have been refused permission to to write exams before for November 1.44 In Wicca, Wicca, NoNoSamhain when when the the tests are scheduled for 1.“ In vember 11 is like New Year’s Year’s Day the secular calendar, aa day day to to rerevember is much like Day in in the after the of the cover after the festivities of the night night before. Some Pagans Pagans want the the same services that that are available to to members of of religious groups, such such as formal seminary training training of of clergy other religious clergy and and lelegal recognition of chaplains for military and and correctional institutions (jails (jails gal of chaplains for military and penitentiaries). Some also also want to to be to perform legal marriages and be able able to perform legal (sometimes called handfastings in in Paganism). Other Pagans Pagans fear fear that that lelegal regulations of of services might might follow recognition of of legal legal status.* status.** The The gal legal recognition of of groups presents a problem problem for legal for administration on the the for practitioners, most of of whom do not belong belong government side, side, as well as for do not

to large problem in deciding who to large federated organizations. There is is also also a problem in deciding be awarded legal rights to to perform perform marriages. Many Many Pagans should be legal rights Pagans have legal legal status, ifif itit would mean that that othothwould rather that that no groups have it, since this this would create aa certain hegemonic auers would be be denied it,

thority in to the the spirit spirit of of ininthority in legally legally recognized groups, which isis contrary to dividual authority authority in in Paganism.** Paganism.” Perhaps more than than any in Canada, the Perhaps any other Pagan Pagan organization in the Wiccan Church of of Canada has has developed structures common to to other relireligious The Wiccan Church of of southern Ontario isis gious organizations. The of Canada of run with with a a central authority authority rather than than through regular coven structure. through aa regular The training of clergy is structured through a formal curriculum, and The training of clergy is through a and candidates are judged judged by a committee of priesthood.” This structure allows by a of This the development of a laity—people who want to participate in the relithe of a who to in the religious tradition but without becoming initiated into it. Yet even with these gious but into it. Yet concessions to to mainstream religion, of Canada continreligion, the the Wiccan Church of to be be denied tax-exempt status.** status.4* AA number of Pagan groups in in the ues to of Pagan the have achieved tax-exempt status. status. United States have

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In generally, the the In other branches of of Wicca, and in in Paganism more generally, of routinization does not follow the the familiar models of of the process of the Berger compares the the routinization of of Wicca as aa monotheistic traditions. Berger religious movement with with Max Max Weber’s writings on the the routinization of of religious charisma. In In Weber’s understanding of the teachings of of routinization, the of aa prophet or religious religious leader are standardized and by charismatic prophet and codified by

In Paganism, however, itit isis competent administrators her/his disciples. In who contribute most to to the the standardization of of religious who religious practice, practice, through things like producing newsletters and and organizing festivals.*? festivals.4? Paganism things like does such as Starhawk and and Fiona Fiona Horne, Horne, but but while while they does have celebrities, such they

are charismatic leaders, Pagans Pagans do the way do not follow them the way Weber dedescribes charismatics. The modern media, by by exposing all all the the foibles of of public personages, mitigates the influence of charismatic leaders, and the public the of and the context of of late general attitude of of skepticism skepticism in in late modernity contributes to to aa general regard to leaders, and to the rejection of hierarchy. regard to to the rejection of hierarchy.°° Pagan practices converge in in at at least three ways in Pagan practices in processes of of routinization and and standardization:

coercive, mimetic, and and normative

isoiso-

morphism.°! Isomorphism refers to to aa convergence of of diverse types types into into aa more homogenous type. type. Coercive isomorphism, a response to to outside pressures to to conform to to certain standards, isis the the least least active process of of homogenization in in Paganism. There are some legal legal requirements for obfor obtaining tax-exempt status and and the right to to conduct marriages, but taining the right but these pressures do do not form form aa significant impetus impetus to to conformity of of religious religious practice in Wicca.*? practice in Wicca.? Mimetic isomorphism, isomorphism, much much more more common in in Paganism, Paganism, is result is the the result of copying or mimicking of diverse groups learning learning from one another and and copying the practices of of other groups and and individuals. Homogenization in in PaganPaganthe with the the spread of chants and liturgies through individual ism develops develops with spread of liturgies through contact at at festivals.°? festivals. Festivals contribute to to mimetic isomorphism by by bringing of Pagans, Pagans, who who participate in bringing together together large large groups of in workshops, each other songs and chants, chants, and perform perform rituals. Almost half half of teach each of fesfestival participants in in one study large festivals.54 study attended large festivals.4 Another sort of of mimetic isomorphism occurs through print media. The The influence of through print of Starhawk’s books is is enormous, but also popular. but periodicals are also popular. There are more than than aa hundred Pagan the United States.55 However, the Pagan journals journals in in the the explosive growth in the growth of of Paganism in with advances in the 1990s coincided with in desktop desktop publishing and the popular growth of and the and this this has of the the Internet, and has become aa significant medium for for many Pagans to share their ideas and Pagans to communicate with one another. Normative isomorphism occurs through through the the growth growth of ism, of professional professionalism, including the the creation of of experts and and standards for for experts. The The growth growth of of seminaries and and training training programs for for clergy, clergy, such as Cherry Hill SemiCherry Hill nary nary in part of in Vermont, is is part of this this process of of normative isomorphism in in PaPa-

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ganism. The rapid growth growth of of Paganism contributes to to routinization, beganism. The rapid be-

of new practitioners, the the demand for forcause with increased numbers of for forto services increases. In In the the process, individmalized training training and and access to

uals have have less the development of This uals less control over the of the the religion. religion. This to divisions between those who who want Paganism to to be contributes to be counwho seek seek legitimacy for for it, tercultural and those who it, as well as between those who have been in Paganism for and those who who are new who been involved in for decades and

to the the religion. religion. to AA number of have developed in in Paganism in the of large large organizations have in the generally networking organizaform of of federations. These federations are generally tions, sometimes created to to conduct antidefamation work, work, to provide actions, to provide

to media people and curate information on Paganism to people and governmental and policing authorities, and to protect religious rights rights of Pagans. Mempolicing and to protect the the religious of Pagans. bership usually requires payment of of small annual fees, fees, which often bership usually requires often cover the cost of of producing a newsletter or publishing aa magazine or journal. journal. the The the United Kingdom, Kingdom, founded in in 1971, 1971, isis one The Pagan Pagan Federation in in the of the the oldest still-existing federations. ItIt produces aa journal journal called The of The PaPagan Dawn, Dawn, formerly formerly called The The Wiccan, and and holds an annual conference, as gan well as more frequent frequent regional all well regional gatherings. Membership isis open to to all the age age of eighteen who accept accept the the principles love and and kinkinadults over the of eighteen principles of of love ship with nature; who follow the of “if “if itit harms none, do ship the ethical principle principle of do who acknowledge both both female and male aspects aspects of of what you you will”; will”; and and who the divine. They They began began as an antidefamation organization and developed the and developed into aa networking organization. They They now also provide into provide some chaplaincy

The Pagan Pagan Federation is support. The is run by by an elected board of of directors The Pagan Pagan Federation International serves as an incalled “the Council.”° Council.”°* The international liaison between the the Pagan Pagan Federation in in the the United Kingdom

and related groups around the the Pagan and the world, such as the Pagan Federation/ In Australia, aa group Fédération Paienne Canada (PFPC) (PFPC) in in Canada.*’ Canada.” In the Pagan Pagan Alliance functions in the Pagan Pagan called the in much the the same way as the Federation, and and membership is of the principles outis based on acceptance of the principles lined by the the Pagan Pagan Federation. The Pagan Alliance, founded in lined by The Pagan in 1991, 1991, has has

in order to to become aa nationally incorporated networking organization in

produce the the magazine Pagan Pagan Times. Times.* in 1974 Selena Fox Fox and and Jim Jim Alan, Alan, isis the the Circle Sanctuary, founded in 1974 by by Selena

largest in the the United States. Circle isis based in largest Pagan Pagan organization in in Wisconsin and owns land has legal legal status as aa church, and land there. ItIt has and itit sponpaid clergy. News, aa magazine with sors paid clergy. Circle produces Circle Network News, with aa circulation 15,000, and and hosts hosts the annual Pagan Pagan Spirit Gathering festicirculation of of 15,000, the annual Spirit Gathering festival.5? The Covenant of the Goddess (CoG) is another American organizaval.5° The of the (CoG) is tion. It in 1975 and and isis based in to protect protect It was founded in in California. ItIt aims to the legal rights of various Pagans in a nondenominational manner. As a the legal rights of Pagans in a As federation, CoG does not not train train clergy clergy or conduct initiations. However, it CoG does

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legal status to to conduct marriages in in some states. can give give individuals legal has individual members and and coven members that training CoG has that conduct training and initiation. initiation.” and For the Covenant of of Unitarian Universalist Pagans Pagans (CUFor some Pagans, Pagans, the

UPs) larger organization. CUUPs formed within the the Unitarian UPs) serves as aa larger of the the Unitarian Universalists, they they can provide Church in in 1987. As As part part of provide the security security of including semithe of aa well-established church infrastructure, including nary training, training, church buildings, and aa money nary buildings, two publishing houses, and base. However, not all the Unitarian Universalist base. all congregations within the happy with the of CUUPs within it.°! it.* Church are happy the development of There are also explicitly Craft organizations that that serve as also a number of of explicitly One of the best best known of of these isis Reclaiming. Reclaiming federations. One of the formed in in the the late late 1970s in in San that grew out of of San Francisco as aa collective that classes taught by Starhawk and Diane Baker. It is an explicitly feminist taught by and It is Witchcraft organization and and isis open to men as well well as women. Reclaimopen to ing has continued to to offer organize public and produce produce ing has offer courses, organize public rituals, rituals, and

well as run weeklong weeklong Witch camps, which are aa quarterly newsletter, as well training Reclaiming Collective, as itit first training retreats. The The Reclaiming first existed, existed, was run

on consensus and and pursued through largely pursued projects projects through largely autonomous cells. Membership in in these cells was based on participation and and on getting to getting to know people in the the group. This created tension as the the group grew and and people in it to get get to to know people people in it became harder to in what became an inner circle. In 1997, the the Collective reformed itself, itself, creating an explicit explicit leadership In 1997, and center for the San San Francisco Francisco area, area, and and maintaining maintaining and administration administration center for the tax-exempt status. Reclaiming groups in in other areas operate completely but subscribe to to the the principles of of unity unity developed collecindependently but tively in in 1997.6 tively 1997. The of Canada (WCC) (WCC) isis based in in Toronto, Toronto, and The Wiccan Church of and its its mem-

bership to southern Ontario. Like Like the Aquarian Taberbership is is largely largely restricted to the Aquarian nacle Church (ATC) in the the United States, States, the the WCC isis not not an umbrella or(ATC) in

larger organizations in in Paganism. The ATC was ganization, unlike most larger in Washington in in 1979 1979 and and has spread into British Columbia, founded in has spread with an affiliate organization founded there in in 1994, 1994.6 EarthSpirit Community, another Wiccan organization, was founded in EarthSpirit in the the early early 1980s as aa network the Boston area by by Andras Corban Arthen in in the of in the has now disdisof covens originating in the Athanor Fellowship, which has solved, although although related groups continue. EarthSpirit had had aa structure of of an inner inner circle made up of of the made up the coven members of of Athanor Fellowship, who ran a magazine they used to to produce produce and they used and did did most of of the the organization public rituals; aa middle circle tion work for for public circle of and an outer cirof volunteers; and cir-

cle of of people people with a limited sense of cle of commitment to to the the organization. EarthSpirit attempted to to gather gather financial support for paying administrafor paying tive staff and buying land tive land to and for for buying Rites of of Spring to host host the the Rites the Spring festival, but but the

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plan failed, primarily due due to people who paid paid money would not not plan failed, primarily to fears fears that that people of the the fear fear that that aa have control over how it it was spent, spent, as well well as because of class of of paid clergy would develop. develop. Dissatisfaction with aa similar process paid clergy in Circle Sanctuary may may have contributed to the failure of to in to the of EarthSpirit to attain aa similar sort of of structural organization.“ There are also Ar nDrafocht nDraiocht Féin also Druid and Heathen organizations. Ar (pronounced “arn ree-ocht fane”) “Our Own (pronounced “arn fane”) isis Gaelic for for “Our Own Druidism,” but but

to as “A “A Druid Fellowship,” or by by the itit isis often referred to the acronym ADF. ADF is an international organization of Druids founded by is of by Isaac Bonewits.© Members of ADF practice Druidry or Druidism as a revived of practice Druidry religion based on up-to-date scholarly research on the Celts and religion the Celts and other Indo-European groups. ADF runs aa comprehensive training training program for for clergy through distance education. They also run guilds clergy through They also guilds for for teaching teaching various performing fine arts and and crafts, ious performing arts, arts, such as storytelling and and music, fine crafts, and magical arts. Until recently, ADF published the journal Oak Leaves. and magical recently, the journal They have rules rules for in the larger federation, including They for grove membership in the larger the payment of fees, maintenance of a membership list, the of fees, of a list, and the the requirerequirement to hold open rituals, due to legal requirements for maintaining taxto hold open rituals, due to legal for exempt status in the United States.© in the States.° The in Texas, The Troth is is an international Asatru organization based in Texas, where they are incorporated as “The “The Ring and have have tax-exempt status. they Ring of of Troth” and refer to they clarify clarify that that Their bylaws bylaws refer to them as aa “church” for for legal legal reasons: they “church” means “nonprofit religious religious organization.” The by The Troth is is run by “the High High Rede.” “Troth” means loyan elected board of of directors called “the loyalty to the gods, gods, specifically the of the Due to alty to the the deities of the Norse pantheon. Due to racist activities in in other other Norse-inspired groups, the the Troth isis explicitly antraining program, certifies elders, elders, and hosts an tiracist. The The Troth runs aa training annual gathering called Trothmoot. They They publish journal Idunna and publish the the journal and the newsletter Mimir’s Well, Well, as well the well as a a comprehensive website.” The Church of of All The All Worlds (CAW) isis another large large organization, whose mostly Pagan. Pagan. ItIt began in 1962, by Robert Heinmembers are mostly began in 1962, inspired inspired by lein’s novel Stranger Strange Land. Land. In In the Stranger inin aa Strange the novel, novel, a a human who was raised in in an alien culture comes back to and studies human culture to Earth and as an alien alien anthropologist. He He creates the the Church of of All to teach All Worlds to teach humans about how how he he was raised with with the the values of integrity, of ecological ecological integrity, recognizing divinity divinity in and ensuring that the necessities of in one another, and that the of life are available to to all. all. After reading this novel, Tim Tim Zell Zell (later (later known as life After reading this novel, Otter G’Zell more recently, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart) and Richard Richard Otter G’Zell and, and, more recently, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart) and Lance Christie decided to reality. CAW became aa fedto create the the church in in reality. fed-

erally recognized church in in the in 1970 1970 and and for for many years erally the United States in produced the popular Pagan Pagan magazine Green Egg. Egg. Some members are not produced the popular Pagan, but but their their magazine and and their their ritual practices practices related to to stewardPagan, ship of the Earth Earth have have been quite quite influential in in American Paganism. Paganism. ship of the

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FURTHER READING Berger, Helen. AA Community of of Witches. Columbia: University of of South Carolina Press, Press, 1999. Berger, 1999. Reid, Sian Sian Lee Lee MacDonald. Disorganized Religion: An Exploration of of the the Neopagan Neopagan Craft Craft in Reid, Religion: An in Canada. Doctoral thesis, University, Ottawa, Ottawa, 2001. thesis, Carleton University, 2001.

Salomonsen, Jone. Jone. Enchanted Feminism: The The Reclaiming Witches of of San San Francisco. London: Routledge, ledge, 2002. 2002.

NOTES Story of of Religion Religion inin Canada (Toronto: 1.1. See See Reginald Bibby, Bibby, Unknown Gods: The The Ongoing Ongoing Story (Yoronto: 44. Stoddart, 1993), 1993), 44.

Reid, “Disorganized Religion: Religion: An An Exploration of the Neopagan 2.2. Sian Lee Lee MacDonald Reid, of the Craft in in Canada” (Doctoral thesis, thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, 2001), 2001), 178. 178. Craft

Pagans in Europe regard regard written sources such as the the Book of Veles and and 3.3. Some Pagans in Eastern Europe of Veles the Maha Vira Vira as scripture. See Deeper Identities: Neopathe See Adrian Ivakhiv, “In “In Search of of Deeper Neopaganism and in Contemporary Ukraine,” Nova Religio ganism and ‘Native Faith’ in Religio 8,8, no. 33 (March 2005): 2005):

7-38. Solitary Practitioner (St. 4.4. Scott Cunnigham, Wicca: AA Guide for for the the Solitary (St. Paul, Paul, MN: Llewellyn Llewellyn Publications, 1988), 1988), 13. 13.

5. 5. The “more-than-human world” isis aa phrase phrase introduced by by David Abram in in The The Spell Spell of of the Perception and Vintage [Ranthe Sensuous: Perception and Language inin aa More-Than-Human World (New York: Vintage [Random House], 1996); 1996); itit refers to to the superficial human perception of the world beyond beyond superficial of itit as “na“nafilled with other ture” or “the “the environment,” to to an animate world filled other intelligences. See, for for example, example, Marie-Francoise Guédon, Le Le Réve Réve et 6.6. See, et lala Forét: Histoires de de Chamanes

chez les Nabesnas et de l’Université I’Université Laval, Laval, 2004). 2004). chez les et Leurs Leurs Voisins (Québéc: (Québéc: Presses de 7. 7. Guédon, Le Le Réve et et la la Forét.

8. Reid, “Disorganized “Disorganized Religion,” Religion,” 200. 200. 8. Reid, 9. Wendy Griffin, “Goddess Spirituality and and Wicca,” in in Her Voice, Her Her Faith: 9. Wendy Faith: Women Speak Speak on World Religions, Religions, ed. ed. Arvind Sharma and K. Young, CO: Westand Katherine K. Young, 243-81 (Boulder, CO: WestPress, 2004). view Press,

10. Helen Berger, Berger, A A Community of of Witches (Columbia: University of of South Carolina Press, Press, 10.

1999), 8.8. 1999), 11. Witches, 50. 11. Berger, Berger, Community of of Witches, 50. 12. Berger, Community of of Witches, 66, 66, 69. 69. 12. Berger, 13. of Witches, 70-71. 13. Berger, Berger, Community of 14. Berger, Community of of Witches, 55. 55. 14. Berger, 15. Berger discusses the failed plans plans of of EarthSpirit Community to land, in 15. Berger the failed to purchase land, in Community of Witches, 104-10. munity of Witches, 16. Starhawk, The the Ancient Religion Religion of of the the Great Goddess, 10th 16. The Spiral Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of of the 10th anniversary ed. ed. (New (New York: York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 1989), 49. 49. 17. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, Dance, 220. 17, 220.

18. See Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The The Reclaiming Witches of of San 18. See Jone San Francisco 42. Initiation isis an aspect of some feminist groups, such such as Re(London: Routledge, Routledge, 2002), 42. aspect of Reclaiming, but claiming, but itit is is not required and is required for for participation and is not structured the the same way Way as in in Gardnerian and Alexandrian groups. 19. See Berger, Community of of Witches, 56. 19. See Berger, 56. 20. Berger, Community of of Witches, 62. 62. 20. Berger, 21. Berger, Community Community of 50. 21. Berger, of Witches, 50.

Social Organization

49 49

22. Berger, Berger, Community ofof Witches, 62-64. 62-64. 22. 23. See, 23. See, for for example, Berger Berger Community of of Witches. 24. See See Berger, Berger, Community of She suggests that women’s only only groups are 24. of Witches, 13-14. She less likely toto survive. less likely 25. Berger, of Witches, 14. 25. Berger, Community of 14. 26. York, Pagan as aa World Religion Religion (New 26. Michael York, Pagan Theology: Theology: Paganism as (New York: New York York University versity Press, Press, 2003). 2003). 27. Catherine L.L. Albanese, Reconsidering Nature Religion PA: Trinity Trinity Press In27. Religion (Harrisburg, PA: International, 2002), 2002), x. x. 28. Albanese, Reconsidering Nature Religion, 28. Religion, 32. 32. 29. See See Michael Strmiska, “The the Past Past in Paganism,” Nova ReliReli29. “The Music of of the in Modern Baltic Baltic Paganism,”

gio: The of Alternative and Emergent Religions Religions 88 (2005). gio: The Journal Journal of and Emergent (2005). 30. Albanese, Reconsidering Nature Religion, 30. Religion, 31-33.

31. Reid, Reid, “Disorganized Religion.” 31. 32. 32. Essays Essays 33. 33. 34. 34. 35. 35.

See Reid, James, Locations of the Sacred: See Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” Religion,” 161; 161; William Closson James, of the on Religion, Religion, Literature, and and Canadian Culture (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 4. on Press, 1998), 1998), 4. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 169. Reid, Religion,” 169.

Reid, “Disorganized 177. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” Religion,” 177. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 193. Reid, 193.

36. Triumph of of the Pagan Witchcraft 36. Ronald Hutton, The The Triumph the Moon: AA History History of of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, 1999), 1999), 360. 360. 37. Triumph of Moon, 361. 361. 37. Hutton, Triumph of the the Moon,

38. Berger, Berger, Community of of Witches, 99. 99. 38. 39. Berger, Berger, Community of Witches, 86. 39. Community of Witches, 86. 40. Berger, of Witches, 133, 133, 83. 83. 40. Berger, Community of

41. Berger, Berger, Community of of Witches, 86. 41. Witches, 86. 42. Berger, Berger, Community of of Witches, 15. 42. 15. 43. See See chapter chapter 10 of these issues. 43. 10 for for further discussion of 44. See, See, for example, Reid, Religion,” 174. 174. 44. for example, Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 45. Reid, Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 193. 45. Religion,” 193. 46. Reid, Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 194-95. 46. “Disorganized Religion,” 194-95. 47. Reid, Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 197. 47. 197.

48. Reid, Reid, “Disorganized 48. “Disorganized Religion,” Religion,” 172. 172. 49. Berger, Berger, Community of Witches, xiv. xiv. 49. Community of 50. 50. 51. 51. 52. 52. 53. 53. 54. 54. 55. 55. 56. 56.

Berger, Community of of Witches, 101. Berger, 101. This analysis from Berger, Witches, 102-3. This analysis is is drawn directly directly from Berger, Community of of Witches, Berger, of Witches, 103. 103. Berger, Community of Berger, Community of of Witches, 103. Berger, 103. See Berger, of Witches, 72-75. See Berger, Community of Berger, Community of of Witches, 76. 76. Berger, See Pagan Federation, The Pagan Federation, 2003-2004, www.paganfed.org (accessed See Pagan The Pagan

May 14, 14, 2004). 2004). May

57. See PFPC, Pagan 2004, www.pfpc.ca (accessed 57. See PFPC, Pagan Federation/Fédération Paienne Canada, 2004, May 14, 14, 2004). May 58. See See Pagan Pagan Alliance, 58. Pagan Alliance, Pagan .net/index.html May 14, 2004). .net/index.html (accessed (accessed May 14, 2004). 59. of Witches, 110. 110. 59. Berger, Berger, Community of 60. Reid, Religion,” 216. 216. 60. Reid, “Disorganized “Disorganized Religion,” 61. Community of of Witches, 114-19. 61. Berger, Berger, Community Witches, 114-19.

Inc., 2001, Inc., 2001,

http://paganalliance.lasielle

62. Vibra Willow, Willow, “A “A Brief of Reclaiming,” Reclaiming Reclaiming website, website, 2000, 2000, www.re62. Vibra Brief History History of

May 14, 14, 2004). 76 claiming.org (accessed May 2004). Earlier version published inin Reclaiming Quarterly Quarterly 76

50 50

Chapter Chapter 22

(Fall 1999). 1999). See also Jone Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The The Reclaiming Witches ofof San (Fall See also San Francisco (London: (London: Routledge, Routledge, 2002). 2002). cisco 63. 63. Reid, Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 217. 217. 64. 64. Berger, Berger, Community Witches, 104-10. 65. the development of of contemporary Paganism isis further dis65. Bonewits’ influence on the cussed in in chapter 7. 7. 66. ADF, Ar Ar nDratocht 2004, www.adf.org/core (accessed May May 14, 14, 66. ADF, nDraiocht Féin/A Druid Fellowship, 2004, 2004). 2004). 67. Troth, The of Troth Troth Official Official Home Page, Page, 1995-2004, www.thetroth.org (accessed May 67. Troth, The Ring Ring of May 14, 2004). 2004). 14,

33

ook ook and Individual and Family Practices Family

Ithough Pagans general Ithough Pagans are in in many ways indistinguishable from from the the general population, there are certain practices practices and ritual activities that that they they population, and ritual engage in in that set them apart and make them identifiable as Pagans. This that set apart and Pagans. This chapter practices that that PaPachapter explores explores some of of the the more common religious religious practices gans in their their homes, and and with with their families, and and gans engage in in individually, in describes related tools and and accoutrements. For For some solitary solitary practitioners, these practices practices may be of their religious may these be the the sum of religious activities, but but others may also practice of the the group activities discussed in practice individual forms of in the the chapter for example, example, may may initiate themselves rather than chapter 4.4. Solitaries, for than be be The most obvious practice Pagans that that sets them initiated into into aa group. The practice of of Pagans apart from the their use of of magic spell casting. casting. apart the general general population isis their magic and and spell lifeways also changing of of the However, Pagan Pagan lifeways also include celebrating the the changing the seasons through through the the seasonal festival cycle, keeping home altars and shrines, cycle, keeping and shrines,

giving offerings, scrying scrying and and other divination, giving and trance work. and Pagans magic differently from Pagans understand magic the history history of religion. Western scholars, for the of religion. for

as well well as other meditation how itit has has been defined in in how the most part the part Christian or

post-Christian secularists, have interpreted interpreted magic magic as a “primitive” form form of of religion. and anthropology texts define magic magic in of religion. Early Early sociology and in terms of

and the the spiritual world to goals. “manipulating” deities and to achieve desired goals. Religion, in worship, involving involving requests requests rather Religion, in contrast, is is presented presented as worship,

than work of of influential scholars such as Emile Emile Durkeim than demands, in in the the work such as

and for Pagans, magic is integral to to the and Bronislaw Malinowski. However, for Pagans, magic is integral the practice of Pagans, magic magic isis aa means of growth practice of their religion.! For For Pagans, of personal personal growth and religion into into “superstition.”* and self-expression, not aa degeneration of of religion oH! 51

522.

Chapter 33 Chapter

The practices of of magic magic in in Paganism are expressive of of the the worldview of of The Paganism, an understanding that that everything is and that Paganism, is connected and that there Magic isis not something isis more to to the the world than humans understand. Magic the regular Pagans see everyday life as separate from the regular activities activities of of Pagans.? Pagans.? Pagans everyday life magical, “significant, imbued with value, value, sacred or paradoxically sufmagical, sufof this this sort of magic isis partly partly fused with transcendence.”* The The occurrence of of magic of interpretation. A A Pagan Pagan might might think, think, for for example, example, that a matter of that ifif aa calls just just when s/he s/he isis thinking of the the friend, this this is of friend calls thinking of is aa result of magic.> Pagans prefer to that magic.> Pagans prefer to live live inin aa meaningful world and and toto believe that there are no meaningless coincidences. Pagans’ practices practices of of magic magic are most often directed at at healing, healing, whether Pagans’

Pagan rituals do do not alaloneself, friends and family, family, or the the environment.® Pagan doing magic, magic, but but they do. Their rituals are generally ways involve doing they often do. directed toward creating creating aa specific specific sort of of experience in the participants, in the as opposed to to what they they perceive as “empty” “empty” rituals of of repeated repeated formulas going through the motions in in other religious religious traditions. Magic las and going through the Magic can be done as aa formal event in in ritual, ritual, but but also be done also as spontaneous, un-

scripted, and and unrehearsed acts. Pagan Pagan ritual isis often often conducted as aa perperscripted, in public public venues by but in in the the home itit isis less less perforformance in by groups, but perforthan aa spontaneous expression and of aa Pagan Pagan mative than and practice of into daily life. Magic Magic can be simple as stirring stirring worldview integrated into daily life. be as simple a pot of dedepot widdershins (counterclockwise), symbolically the the direction of crease, to to rid rid it of lumps, or planting seeds during the waxing of it of lumps, during the waxing of the the moon, symbolically aa time of of increase. Pagan practices practices of of magic magic are not like like the fairy godmothers of of animated Pagan the fairy Disney films or the special-effects magic of the witches in the Disney films the magic of the in the television shows Charmed and Buffy the Vampire Slayer, or the film The Craft. Pagans and Buffy the Vampire Slayer, the film The Craft. Pagans do not just wave a wand to make things appear or transform. Their pracdo just a to things tice of magic the belief that that all all things things in in the tice of magic isis based based on the the universe are connected, that that changing one thing can potentially change at aa thing change others, others, even at distance. AA thought, thought, for for example, example, can have have a physical outcome, not in the physical not in the sense of creating something out of nothing but of transforming a situation of creating of nothing but of a by working working with possibilities. Pagans Pagans believe that that magic magic works through through by hidden connections, correspondences, and sympathy. In their rituals, sympathy. In rituals, they they use correspondences, symbolic connections between sometimes seemsymbolic ingly disparate things, things, to to work with the the hidden connections, as in ingly disparate in the the spell to pay a phone bill described in chapter 1. spell to pay a phone bill in chapter 1. Pagans also also use ritual to Pagans to create metaphors for for accomplishing goals goals with remind something tangible them of tangible to their commitment to to to aa particular of their objective and to objective to take to encourage them to take pragmatic action in of it. in pursuit of it. At the spring spring equinox, for At the for example, aa group of of feminist Witches planted planted in conjunction with seeds in guided meditation in with aa guided in which each of of the the

Individual and and Family Family Practices

53 53

women focused on what she she wanted to life, such as a new job to grow in in her her life, job or aa quality herself, like After the quality in in herself, like assertiveness or patience. patience. After the initial ritritual, her potted seed home to to tend As the the women ritual, each woman took her potted seed tend it. it. As ritually plants, they they were reminded and to take take ually watered their their plants, and encouraged to practical steps steps toward accomplishing the they had had identified atat the the practical the goals goals they spring equinox, which symbolically and of renewal and spring and literally literally isis aa time of and growth. As As their their plants plants grew, they they visualized and and worked toward their growth. their goals becoming manifest. If the plant not flourish, or if the planned goals If the plant did did not if the goal did did not come to to fruition, the why, thinking thinking about goal the woman considered why, timing of the desired outcome might how how the the timing of the might be be inappropriate, or how her commitment, or lack of it, it, had had contributed.” her lack of

Magic is integrated into into the the regular Pagans that of Magic is so integrated regular activities of of Pagans that many of

religion as aa “way “way of of life.”* life.”® As As in religions, them describe their their religion in indigenous religions, Pagan religious religious practices practices are as much lifeways lifeways as they they are overtly overtly religious. Pagan Pagans do do not not see daily life as mundane or profane profane as opposed opposed some more Pagans daily life spiritual concern. For Pagans, spirit spirit and and matter are one in As one spiritual For Pagans, in Earth. As be done with practitioner remarks, “Nearly “Nearly everything we do do atat home can be Wicca in in mind. From rearranging aa room to brushing hair.”? Spirituality is to brushing is

integrated into into their and leisure. For imintegrated their daily daily life life in in work and For many Pagans, Pagans, an important aspect of this this is their relationship with the aspect of is their the natural world. Pauline Campanelli’s The The Wheel of the Year: Living Living the the Magical Magical Life of the Life describes the the pracpractices she she and her her husband have developed as solitaries, following the the seaShe gives for craft craft projects, recipes, and well as sons. She gives instructions for projects, recipes, and spells, spells, as well for and eating with spiritual for growing, growing, harvesting, and eating food food with spiritual awareness. For some Pagans, and harvesting some of of their own food For Pagans, growing growing and food is is an important part of For many, this important part of their religious religious observances. For this primarily primarily ininvolves gardening, gardening, but but some also raise raise livestock, livestock, and and some some find volves some Pagans Pagans also find gathering wild well as hunting, hunting, important. All All aspects of wild foods, foods, as well of gargardening religious significance in Pagan practice, practice, from dening can be be imbued with religious in Pagan planning the garden to the beds, beds, planting, planting, tending, tending, and and harthe garden to preparing the har-

vesting. garden grow. After the the vesting. Campanelli gives gives a charm toto make an herb garden soil been prepared, she she suggests walking walking sunwise (clockwise in in the the soil has has been Northern Hemisphere) around the asperging (sprinkling) the garden garden while asperging the edge with with a afir fir branch dipped fresh water. She suggests visualizing the edge dipped in in fresh She suggests lush and chanting, chanting, lush growth growth and Herbs that that charm charm Herbs that that heal heal Herbs Grow now Grow

Spring till till Fall.1° Spring Fall.!°

In general, general, Pagans Pagans tend tend to to talk to their plants, plants, encouraging them them to to grow. grow. In talk to

54 54

Chapter Chapter 33

potato into the carving aa potato into the potatoes, Campanelli describes carving For For harvesting potatoes, and fertility statues, and in ancient fertility envisaged as in the Earth Mother, envisaged of the shape of shape burying itit in burying in aa mound, saying, saying,

OO Great Great Earth Earth Mother Mother From whom we receive all all nourishment And the flesh And the flesh of of our bodies, bodies,

We your your loving loving children Make this offering in in your your honor this offering In love and and in in gratefulness gratefulness In Blessed be!" be!!!

She also also gives to say say when gathering gathering seeds for the next year’s year’s gives aa charm to for the planting: “From this this Life Life to to come.” Life // Life has particularly strong religious significance for Food preparation has strong religious for some Pagans, linking them to to their their ancestors and to to their their patron deities. Diana Pagans, linking how cooking Paxson, aa prominent Heathen practitioner, describes how cooking and and one’s kitchen can connect Heathen women

to the the disir, disir, female ancestral to

spirits. She She relates that that she spirit who was willing willing to to work spirits. she met an ancestor spirit her on the that she up her her kitchen: with her the condition that she clean up Helga, said she II encountered aa sturdy sturdy blonde woman who called herself Helga, she was and agreed agreed to be one of of my my disir and aa Frisian, and to be and help help me learn about Germanic women’s mysteries—but only my kitchen! In In true only if if II did did something about my Germanic tradition, she she refused to my threshold so long long as the the heart of of to cross my the house was aa grubby pocked walls and woodwork and and the grubby room with pocked tried to to clean the the floor, floor, itit would dissolve.!$ dissolve.}8 linoleum so ancient that that when II tried

Other Pagans might develop develop relationships with with the Pagans might the matronae, aa similar group of of deities in in Roman religion, religion, or connections to to Heartha, the the Roman goddess the hearth. Some Pagans talk to to their food food as they they are prepargoddess of of the Pagans talk ing example urging the yeast in making ing it, it, for for example urging the yeast to to grow in making bread. Campanelli gives with freshly sprouted wheat to repgives aa recipe recipe for for making making ritual bread with freshly sprouted to repthe regeneration of the dying with the the grain grain ground resent the of the dying god god associated with ground for the the bread. She She includes instructions for for blessing blessing the the loaf loaf by for by incising incising a with aa ritual knife, knife, saying, thee beloved Spirit Spirit pentagram on itit with saying, “I“I invoke thee of the Be present in in this this Sacred Loaf.”4 Loaf.’”"4 of the Grain // Be Pagans also use food food in in ritual as a means of Pagans also of grounding oneself, returning to to ordinary ordinary consciousness after after ritual activity. activity. Some Pagans Pagans say say aa ing blessing but more commonly on food food eaten in in blessing on food at at regular regular meals, meals, but also use food food for for offerings offerings to to deities and and nature spirits. spirits. Offerritual. They They also ings to to landwights and the city in rural ings and household deities, whether in in the city or in of human dependence on the Earth for food, air, air, areas, serve as aa reminder of the Earth for food,

and portion is given and water. Usually Usually before or after after eating eating during during ritual, aa portion is given

Individual and Family Practices and Family

55 5B

echnically, aa libation is offering, although although echnically, is aa liquid liquid poured poured as an offering, Pagans solid food well. Pagans often often put put solid food inin libation bowls as well.

‘

Figure Figure 5. 5.

eae

~

Leaving offerings (photo by by Barbara Jane Jane Davy) Davy) Leaving offerings (photo

For indoor rituals, the the offering offering might be left the altar as an offering. offering. For might be left on the altar in in later disposed disposed of). Pagans often pour the bit of aa libation bowl bow] (and (and later of). Pagans the first first bit of wine, beverage wine, mead (wine (wine made from from honey), honey), milk, milk, water, or whatever beverage is in a ritual, on the the ground ground for for the is used used in a ritual, the divinities, or collect itit in in aa libaliba-

tion be poured later. Pagans tion bowl to to be poured on the the ground ground later. Pagans often leave offerings outside, the understanding that birds, or raccoons will eat outside, with with the that squirrels, squirrels, birds, will eat

the offerings. Sometimes Pagans bury food Food isis probably the the offerings. Pagans bury food offerings. Food probably the most common offering, but sometimes cut cut flowers or branches serve as an offering, but offering. Pagans Pagans associate specific specific offerings with certain deities, such as offering. offerings with barley for Demeter, red wine for Dionysus, or roses for for Aphrodite. Some barley for red for Pagans also give votive offerings, offerings given to Pagans also give offerings, offerings given to consecrate a vow or oath, or in of an oath. oath. oath, in fulfillment of Pagans likely than than others in in the the modern secular Pagans are somewhat more likely population to lifestyles. Pagans Pagans tend population to embrace alternative lifestyles. tend to to pay greater

spiritual aspects aspects of of life. They have aa greater beattention toto spiritual life. They greater willingness toto believe to see significance in dreams, and and to lieve in in paranormal paranormal events, to significance in to pursue pursue

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Chapter 33 Chapter

healing. Some Pagan Pagan parents make dream pillows pillows for for their alternative healing. children’s use on nights the full full moon as aa way nights of of the way of of teaching them toto pay pay attention to Many Pagans to overto dreams. Many Pagans use herbal teas in in preference to and are more likely aspects of of naturopathic the-counter drugs drugs and likely to to use other aspects medicine, including, for example, therapeutic massage. Pagan Pagan mothers for example, prefer natural childbirth and of midwives, where tend toto prefer and the the services of

available. For some Pagans, Pagans, being politically active. Many Many PaPaFor being Pagan Pagan means being being politically gans live their politics politics on aa daily daily basis in in keeping live their keeping with what some scholars call call “life politics,” which are political that are “life politics,” political orientations and actions that played out in in daily of the played daily life life because of of one’s awareness of the connections bebelarger or global global political political issues. Life politics are the poltween oneself and and larger Life politics the pol-

of choice and and the the decisions of daily life.!° This sort of of life politics has itics of of daily life.5 This life politics has become integrated into Wicca and isis present to some degree throughout to degree Paganism, since integrity integrity isis aa central Pagan Many Pagans Pagan value. Many Pagans feel feel that that if ethics and politics are not lived, then hypocrisy results. if politics lived, hypocrisy Pagan life politics are particularly evident in in terms of of feminism and and enPagan life politics vironmentalism. Many Many Witches, Witches, as well well as other Pagans, feel that other Pagans, feel that reverence for the Goddess and nature requires living “a life for the and requires living “a life that is is consistent with the needs of the environment and to be aware of women’s issues.” the of the and to be of issues.”!¢!° suggest that that Pagans Some practitioners suggest Pagans should live live such that that anyone coming into into their will know immediately that they they practice practice an earth reing their homes will ligion, that that their their homes should reflect reflect the the environmental sensitivity ligion, sensitivity of of their religion.!”? their religion.” Such practitioners feel feel that that a a Pagan Pagan worldview requires requires ethics and and politics. politics. Living Living in with nature active participation in in ethics in harmony harmony with changing of of the the seasons, but but also also trying trying means more than celebrating the the changing to implement environmental ideals on aa daily daily basis. For to implement For some practitioners, this this harmony can be be expressed through for Lammas, through growing growing grain grain for or herbs in and “killing least occain pots, pots, and “killing and dressing dressing our own meat—at least Pagans, living sionally.”'® However, for for some Pagans, living environmental ideals on aa day-to-day basis requires vegetarianism.'° vegetarianism.'? As As discussed further in in chapter chapter 9, of feminism and and environmen9, while Pagans Pagans generally support aa degree degree of how they they put put their their politics into practice practice varies. talism, how politics into One of of who who isis Pagan their observation of the the more obvious markers of Pagan is is their of aa seasonal festival cycle. cycle. Many Many Pagans eight seasonal festivals, of Pagans celebrate eight sometimes called sabbats, which are linked to to the the changing changing seasons, one every six the year, year, but all Pagans the same festisix weeks over the but not all Pagans celebrate the val cycle. val cycle. Heathen practices in do not in particular do not follow the the same pattern as other Pagan Pagan groups, but the Wiccan wheel of but the of the the year year isis dominant in in Paganism. The The wheel of of the the year year is is called a wheel because the the festivals are represented through image of through the the image of an eight-spoked wheel, metaphorically emphasizing aa circular sense of time. Four of of time. of the the festivals are held at the at the solstices and and equinoxes and to as the and are referred to the solar holidays. The The exex-

and Family Individual and Family Practices

oF 57

SAMHAIN SAMHAIN

(HALLOWEEN) YULE YULE (CHRISHNIA8) (CHRISTMAS)

Mazon Mason

(HARVESt Home) Home) (HaRVESst (FALL EQUINOX) EQUINOX) (FALL

LUGNAS8ACH LUGNA8A0H

IMBOLC INBOLC

(FIRSt (First HaARVES8t HARVESt) )

(CATOLENIAS) (CANOLEMAS8)

LitHa LitHa (TMidSUNIMER) (Ilio8UMMER)

OEStARA OEStARA (SPRING EQUINOX) (SPRING Equinox)

BELTANE BELTANE (Tay Day) (May Day) Figure 6.6. Figure

Wheel of of the (image created by Kerr) the Year (Northern Hemisphere) (image by Catherine Kerr)

act dates of of the the festivals vary vary from year of discrepancies act year to to year because of varying relationship between the and between the the calendar and and the the varying the sun and the The other holidays, sometimes referred to to as the the Earth. The the “cross-quarter” holidays, are more fixed, fixed, although regional holidays, regional and and tradition-based differences exist. of Celtic origin. of the the solsolexist. This This festival cycle cycle is is of origin. The The celebration of has aa long history in in Celtic Celtic cultures, but equinoxes stices has long history but recognition of of the the equinoxes the Southern Hemisphere, where summer arisis aa modern addition.”° addition.” In In the in December, Pagans usually invert the the Celtic seasonal festival cycle cycle rives in Pagans usually to with the local seasons. to coincide with the local Pagans celebrate these festivals privately privately with with their their families, and and Some Pagans

some celebrate them individually apart apart from their their families. Some solisolitruly solitary, solitary, in in the that their their religious practice is intaries are truly the sense that religious practice is in-

tensely private, private, not shared with family, tensely family, friends, or coreligionists. Other Pagans who belong to circles may the sabbats with Pagans belong to may also also celebrate the with their their groups, or celebrate them only only through group practice. Within families through practice. and often aa few will take and groups, often few festivals will take precedence, involving more will be simply.*! In elaborate festivities, and and others will be recognized more simply.”! In Canada, for for example, fall equinox often receives little little attention, probexample, the the fall equinox often prob-

ably of the in ably because of the importance of of Thanksgiving as aa harvest festival in

58 58

Chapter Chapter 33

States, Thanksgivmainstream culture. (In (In Canada, unlike in in the the United States, but isis ing the founding of the nation but of the and the Pilgrims and is not associated with Pilgrims ing is essentially a celebration of of the fall harvest.) the fall The wheel of of the year begins proIrish Gaelic word probegins with Samhain, an Irish the year The the Northern Hemisphere, Samhain In the nounced “sow-ain” or “sow-een.” In is the evening of of October 31, Hallowe'en. Tradiwith Hallowe’en. 31, coinciding with is held on the tionally, Samhain is the beginning the Wiccan New Year’s celebration. ItIt isis the is the tionally, of winter in into two seayear isis divided into the year in Celtic traditions, wherein the of sons, winter and Pagans see it “the veil veil between time when “the it as aa time and summer. Pagans the worlds is thin,” a time when communication with the dead, the dead, the the with when time is thin,” a the

faeries, and/or spirits spirits is set up special altar to to up aa special Pagans set is easier. Some Pagans honor the the recently recently dead and/or their ancestors. Samhain marks the end the end

of begin to spending more time in in to turn inward, spending to begin and a time to the harvest and of the one’s house and contemplating one’s mental inner space. and Yule is the twenty-third, and the the twentieth and in December, between the is held in at the time of of the the longest longest night the year year in in the the of the night of the winter solstice, the at the Northern Hemisphere. Some Pagans celebrate Yule with with their their families through noting with Christmas, noting the common Western activities associated with through the that practices practices such bringing greenery into the and decorating the home and such as bringing that PaFor contemporary Patrees were originally pre-Christian pagan practices. For gans, Yule marks the and no sleeps, and the year. The Earth sleeps, of the the dreaming time of gans, life appears outside. ItIt isis a time of and introof meditation and new vegetative life spection. The to get the Earth setlonger even as the get longer begin to days immediately begin The days tles Pagans suggest that the but sleeps, but body sleeps, the body By association, Pagans tles into winter. By the mind isis active. the Imbolc (also in referfor “lactation,” in is Irish Gaelic for spelled “Oimelg”) is (also spelled ence to is also sometimes called Candleof lambs. This festival is the birth of to the mas, or the the Feast Feast of held about the Northern in the February 11 in about February is held and is Brigid, and of Brigid, mas, or is a it is the festival as Candlemas, it Hemisphere. For Pagans who observe the festival of of their homes. the windows of in the place candles in they place lights, and they of lights, These represent the the returning strength of the of the the wakening of the sun and the of the Earth. In spring. In In Canada and of spring. the beginning of Imbole marks the In Britain, Imbolec the but there are stirrings. yet visible, but spring isis not yet States, spring the northern United States, For Pagans, it springearly springby early of purification, often marked by is a time of it is cleaning. bethe bethe year and the of the of the contemplative time of the end of is the It is cleaning. It ginning of action. the time of of the ginning of Oestre or Oestara marks the the vernal (spring) equinox, which occurs around March 20 20 to to 23 23 in in the the Northern Hemisphere. As As aa time of of equal equal

day and equal equal night, day night, it the beginning of it represents balance. It It isis the of the the change change

of of season, but but balanced now between winter and summer. For For Pagans, it it

is is a time of of planning, when people people are eager for for action but but it it is is not quite quite time to to plant plant the the garden or start other new projects. Oestre is is related to to the Christian celebration of of Easter, and Pagans celebrate the the pre-Christian pre-Christian

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practices and associations of of Easter, eggs and and making making practices and Easter, such as decorating eggs or eating Both eggs eating chocolate rabbits. Both eggs and and rabbits are symbolic symbolic of of fecundity, which Pagans dity, Pagans celebrate at at this this festival. spelled “Beltane” and and “Beltaine”) isis Gaelic for Beltain (also (also spelled for “bright “bright held on April May 11 in In nafire.” ItIt is is held April 30 30 or May in the the Northern Hemisphere. In ture, it of bursting the buds swell with the running ture, it is is a time of bursting potential, potential, as the with the sap and having sex. For Pagans, sap and all all the the birds and and other wildlife seem to to be be having For Pagans, it time to to celebrate human sexuality. sexuality. it is is aa time The summer The

solstice, sometimes solstice,

referred

to as Midsummer, to

is the is the

longest day the year, occurring occurring around June June 20 20 to to 23 23 in the Northern longest day of of the in the Pagans celebrate itit as Litha. In In Celtic traditions, it Hemisphere. Some Pagans it is is the beginning Sun is but is to lessen in in the beginning of of summer. The The Sun is at at its its zenith but is about to strength. For For agriculturalists and rush of of activity activity of strength. and gardeners, the the rush of plantplanting will be followed by by aa time of time of of much physical ing will be of tending. tending. ItIt isis aa time physical work, but this this day Pagans sometimes associate this this work, but day isis taken to to celebrate. Pagans time of the year year with with the the Goddess as pregnant, aa time of yet time of the of fullness not yet come to to fruition. July 31 in the Lammas or Lughnasadh isis often held held on July 31 in the Northern Hemisphere, although date has has varied depending on the of sphere, although historically the the date the time of the first harvesting of grain. The The name “Lammas” comes from the first of grain. from the the Old Old English half-maesse, meaning “loaf “loaf mass,” to aa special English half-maesse, mass,” in in reference to special bread made from from the the first first fruits of the harvest. Pagans of year year as aa of the Pagans see this this time of time of and hence the of potentiality. Lammas of coming coming to to fruition, and the ending ending of celebrates the the first of the and the the festival festival often often includes aa first fruits of the harvest, and

symbolic representation of the sacrifice of the vegetative life life that of the of the that supports human life. life. Some Some Pagans Pagans use the folk character of of John John Barleycorn the British folk for focus on the the god Lugh at this time time and call for this this purpose. Other Pagans Pagans focus god Lugh at this and call the festival “Lughnasadh,” “Lughnasadh,” in in reference reference to to “the mourning of of the the festival “the mourning the manymanytalented God God Lugh.”” Lugh.”” The falls around SepSepThe autumnal equinox, sometimes called Mabon, falls 20 to to 23 in the the Northern Hemisphere. As the vernal equinox, tember 20 23 in As the equinox, itit isis aa time balance, of of equal equal day and night. The seasonal change day and night. The change from sumto winter begins. and thankfulness for for the the mer to begins. ItIt isis aa time of of harvest and plants and and animals sacrificed to to sustain human life. Many North Amerplants life. Many ican Pagans Pagans celebrate aa harvest festival with their ican their families at at Thanksgiving, in in October in ingiving, in Canada, and and in in November in in the the United States, States, instead of at the equinox. of at the equinox. Another recognizable feature of Pagans keep keep alalof Paganism is is that that most Pagans

tars in in their homes.”3 An place to to keep keep ritual tools, tools, and and a surface An altar isis a place to use in casting spells and conducting rituals. It often includes religious to in casting spells and It religious symbols, such such as an object representing each of the four elements or didiobject each of the four rections. AA rock bit of earth in pot might might represent north and rock or bit of earth in a pot and the the eleelefor example. example. Incense often and the ment of of earth, earth, for often represents air air and the east, east, and and

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Figure 7.7. Figure

Chapter 33 Chapter

Home altar altar (photo (photo by Mandy Furney) Furney) by Mandy

aa candle often represents the the south and and fire. fire. Seashells sometimes represent water and the the west on Pagan often use the the Pagan altars. While practitioners often

and “altar” interchangeably and and the terms “shrine” and the two often are not disdistinguished in dediin contemporary Pagan Pagan practice, practice, technically aa shrine isis dediparticular deity and often includes images images of of the the deity cated to to aa particular deity and deity or deities. Practitioners usually altar, but they may may proliferate to usually start with one altar, but they to of the the house or apartment. AA Pagan Pagan altar altar might might consist one in in each room of of a single single shelf or dresser top that holds ritual and and symbolic symbolic items. ToToof top that kens, or significant such as feathers, stones, and kens, significant found objects objects such and pinecones, kept on altars. Pagans often have aa personal altar in the bedroom for for are kept Pagans often personal altar in the individual use, and aa house in the the kitchen kitchen for family use. individual use, and house altar altar in for family use. Some Some ininand families have have aa ritual ritual room, temple, dividuals and temple, or meditation room set set

aside for magical aside for magical rites. The magic practiced practiced most by Pagans at at home isis probably simsimThe form of of magic by Pagans ple spell spell casting. designed to to improve one’s life, life, or ple casting. These are magical magical acts designed the of friends or family family members. Pagans Pagans may, may, for example, cast the lives lives of for example, spells for aa new job, job, or to to find spells for for money, for find aa new lover. However, as previpreviously Pagans ously mentioned, spells spells are most often directed toward healing. healing. Pagans often also also use rituals to to aid aid them in making life just in making life transitions, and and not just the of passage discussed in in chapter chapter 4,4, but also the the smaller transitions the rites of but also of such as moving moving into of life, life, such into aa new house or apartment. AA new residence can be be purified purified before moving moving in in by by ritually sweeping it in conjunction ritually sweeping it in with cleaning cleaning it. it. One how-to guide suggests creating a broom specifically guide creating a specifically for this purpose, taking a branch from a tree before dawn and for this taking a a and leaving leaving an offering of a coin or a semiprecious stone. To the branch, the practitioner offering of coin a stone. To the the ties aa bunch of sweeps ties of flowers to to fashion aa broom. The practitioner then then sweeps

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each room of of the the new residence, visualizing the the flowers absorbing negative influences out of the house or apartment, and disposes of the ritrittive of the and then disposes of the ual broom at a crossroads before the sun comes up.”4 ual at a the up.”4 One method of of spell spell casting talisOne casting used by by Pagans Pagans involves making making talismans. A A talisman isis an object object made to to protect protect an individual from aa parparticular sort of of harm, harm, or to of energy to to draw aa particular sort of to aa person. ItIt crystals or other other stones, feathers, bodily bodily fluids, fluids, and and herbs, herbs, and and can include crystals

may involve inscribing an object object with runes, aa bind bind rune, or aa sigil. sigil. Sigils may Sigils and bind runes combine letters or characters to to form form aa pattern pattern that that repreand sents aa desired outcome. Dragon Dragon Environmental Environmental Group, example, uses sents desired outcome. Group, for for example, uses bind rune for its logo, logo, incorporating the Laguz, Fehu, Fehu, Tiwaz, KauKauaa bind for its the runes Laguz, naz, Algiz, Algiz, and Isa, representing health, healing, love, love, protection, growth, naz, and Isa, health, healing, growth,

and harmonious relationships between humanity and and the and the rest of of nature. Talismans take take effect through through meditating on the during its the talisman during its creation, and, and, for talismans, wearing itit or or keeping keeping itit close to to where ation, for personal talismans, one sleeps. sleeps. For they may may be be left they will will For talismans aimed at at others, they left where they be others, or burned.” be seen by by others, Pagans often spells and and rituals rituals in how-to books, but Pagans often seek seek inspiration inspiration for for spells in how-to books, but they tend to be creative in ritual involves creatthey tend to be in designing them. AA basic basic ritual ing invoking divinities, raising raising and directing directing energy, ing sacred space, invoking grounding, thanking and dismissing dismissing divinities, and and returning space thanking and returning the the space and to ordinary life. life. First, First, the the practitioner prepares for the ritritand participants to for the ual, clothing. Often ual, sometimes with a a ritual bath bath and and by by putting putting on ritual clothing. the proceeds with grounding and centering (a(a short meditathe practitioner proceeds tion to focus on the ritual, leaving other concerns concerns of one’s life life aside for tion to focus on the ritual, leaving the the other of one’s aside for the offering outside the for the time being). being). Some Druids leave an offering the ritual area for those beings beings they they do to attend the the rite. rite. Wiccan practitioners credo not want to ate sacred space space by casting aacircle, circle, tracing tracing aa circle around the space used by casting the space for the ritual with aa ritual knife, finger, or by by simply simply walking for the knife, wand, wand, or finger, walking around the space. space. The circle isis visualized in three three dimensions, to make around the The circle visualized in dimensions, to make aa sphere the ritual space. The circle holds in in the until sphere around the the energy raised until ready to to be be released, and and itit keeps out distractions. itit isis ready keeps out

Next, the directions, usually usually the the four Next, the the practitioner invokes the four cardinal each associated with with an element: often, often, but always, north north directions, each but not not always, with earth, earth, east east with south with with fire, fire, and and west with The invoinvowith with air, air, south with water. The cation of of the the directions directions in circles tends tends toto be be verbal, repeating aa cation in Wiccan Wiccan circles verbal, repeating

liturgy or speaking some extemporized words. In In some ecologically foliturgy fosuch as Dragon Dragon Environmental Group, cused groups such Group, the the directions are ininthrough more performative actions, such the voked through such as actions to to mimic the of fire, fire, and the dance of of flames.” Some sound of and waving waving motions toto mimic the

vary this suit local local geography, and groups vary this to to suit and some follow other associations of of directions and elements and may include invocations of the addiand and of the tional directions above, below, and and center, or within. within. above, below, center, or

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Chapter Chapter 33

rite, ifif any, the rite, The practitioner invokes whatever deities are desired in any, in the The practitioner rituand sometimes the ancestors, particularly in Druid circles, rituHeathen in Druid circles, the and

als, and Next, the with the the proceeds with the practitioner proceeds the Reclaiming tradition. Next, and the als, work of of the ritual, whether whether it healing spell, spell, a spell gain or or rid rid oneto gain spell to it isis aa healing the ritual, work self of of something, a spell spell to to celebrate an spell to to create a talisman, or a spell self Energy is the work of This the ritual. This of the in the is generally raised in event or season. Energy be accomplished through like dancing, drumming, singing, singing, or things like through things can be the practitioner and then the work, and the work, into the is directed into Energy is meditation. Energy eating and part of the of the and drinking. This part by eating again, often by grounds her/himself again, and wine” but any but can include any ritual isis sometimes referred toto as “cakes and food and to the divinity invoked. the divinity given to usually given offering isis usually and drink. AA small offering Grounding, that that is, is, returning any the Earth, to the any remaining excess energy to helps return the the participant to ordinary consciousness. Dismissing those to ordinary helps divinities invoked ends the the rite. rite. Pagans variety of of tools in spells and in conducting more and in casting spells in casting Pagans use aa variety formal rituals. Some Pagans buying the curious idea that “when buying Pagans express the magical tools, tools, [one the price.”?’ price.””7 It often sugis often It is haggle over the [one should] never haggle magical gested that it tools whenever possible, possible, or that that to make one’s own tools is better to it is gested that bought tools. Unfortunately, this led has led this has “found” tools are better than bought people to tools, particularly Tarot cards, due to the belief to the cards, due steal ritual tools, to steal some people that if you buy they will is an oftenwill not work as well. While itit is buy them they if you that repeated bought tools do do not work as well as others, the the folk tradition that bought repeated folk solution is is not not to gifts. to receive them as gifts. them or to to make them but to them, but steal them, to steal

give ritual tools as gifts initiates.7* An An exception to the to the to initiates.78 gifts to Some covens give practice of giving befolk bethe folk to the for knives, due to is sometimes made for giving tools is practice of lief of a ritual recipient of the recipient Thus, the the friendship. Thus, giving aa knife cuts the lief that giving knife symbolically gives gives the giver aa coin coin to to pay pay for it.?? This practice is inis infor it.2° the giver verted in and traditions so that the coin with giver includes a coin the giver in other areas and the off the the relationship. to cut off the blade so as not to Ritual tools are often to ritual acand dedicated to often consecrated, blessed, and

tivity. Pagans first the Earth in the bury them in first bury tools, some Pagans To consecrate ritual tools, tivity. To for a time, or they place them in a box of salt, to regenerate the tool, to to retool, the in box of salt, to they place for time, move influences of any previous owner, or to purify manufactured tools. to purify of Consecration consists in blessing the earth, the elements earth, using the tool using the tool in then blessing air, fire, and water, and sometimes a pentacle, particularly in Wiccan pracin a and air, fire, and tice, and perhaps invoking the blessing of a deity or deities. Some Pagans Pagans perhaps invoking the blessing of deity tice, keep regular household tools. Others use the the keep ritual tools separate from regular same tools for multiple purposes, feeling that it consecrates daily life to daily life to feeling that it for use the the same tools in in the kitchen and at the altar. Pagans suggest that that Pagans at the the while magic, they help crethey can help doing magic, for doing the tools are necessary for of the while none of ate an appropriate mood in in ritual. AA few of of the the common tools Pagans use in in their religious practice are ofoften kept kept near, but but not on their altars. These include the the drum, drum, the the broom, broom,

and the the cauldron. For For some Pagans, drums are important tools for for trance trance

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work, used for ritual cleaning cleaning to to sweep work, as as discussed below. The The broom is is used for ritual

out “bad” energy, sometimes with help of of salt. For Wiccans, the the broom with the the help salt. For represents the the union and and female energies through through the the and balance of of male and of shaft shaft in Many Pagans Pagans favor favor aa type type of sexual symbolism of in thatch. Many of broom called aa “besom,” “besom,” an old English English word word for for broom. broom. These These brooms called an old brooms are are gengenerally round, with with the the way around the the shaft erally the bristles gathered all all the shaft ininof extending in inaa line line parallel parallel to to it. it. In In addition to to ritual cleaning cleaning or stead of the of space for for ritual, ritual, Wiccans use brooms in in handfastthe symbolic clearing of ing To jump jump the partner isis to to become handing ceremonies. To the broom with one’s partner fasted, commitment for for a year, year, or or as as long long as as the the love love shall shall last. fasted, making making aa commitment last. heavy round pot. pot. Pagan Pagan ritual cauldrons are often black, black, AA cauldron is is a heavy iron, and legs. The The typical are made of of cast iron, and are supported on three legs. typical round shape with with a narrowed neck isis symbolic of the shape symbolic of the womb of of the the Goddess. Celtic-influenced practitioners associate the the cauldron with the goddess the goddess Ceridwen’s cauldron of and with with the the cauldron of of wisdom, and of regeneration from stories in and Irish mythology. Pagans Pagans often use cauldrons to to from in Welsh and contain fires used in than for brewing potions fire becontain fires in ritual rather than for brewing potions with fire beneath. The The cauldron cauldron isis often too heavy to to store store on on an an altar, altar, but but aa similar similar too heavy symbolic to the chalice, aa ritual cup, which which isis usuususymbolic significance significance isis attached attached to the chalice, ritual cup, ally kept on the the altar. shaped, like wineglass. The ally kept altar. It It is is generally goblet goblet shaped, like a wineglass. The chalice is during ritual, ritual, to to represent that that element. is often filled with water during In ritual, salt salt is added to to the the water water in to represent the In Wiccan Wiccan ritual, is added in the the chalice chalice to represent the sea and of life. Salt isis also also used and the the waters of life. Salt used for for purification, and and sometimes in casting the the circle. Salt kept in bowl on the the altar in casting Salt kept in aa bowl altar represents the the element of earth. of earth. Pagans often often place and candles on the to represent the elPagans place incense and the altar altar to the elements of purifies and and scents the the air, and itit can facilfacilof air air and and fire. fire. Incense purifies air, and itate Pagans use candles of itate trance work. Pagans of various colors for for symbolic associations in in spell spell casting—for example, for passion, for love, love, white example, red red for passion, pink pink for for healing, and and green for and money. However, for cleansing and and healing, for fertility fertility and prefer to to use only only natural beeswax candles. Pagans some prefer Pagans sometimes ininscribe candles with with runes runes or symbolic figures, anoint them scribe candles or other other symbolic figures, anoint them with with oils, oils, and bless them for spell work. and for spell Some Wiccan Pagans keep keep an athame, aa double-edged ritual knife, knife, on their altars. It and the the blade is usually magnetized their It is is often often black black handled, and is usually to bring bring itit into into harmony with with the the Earth. Wiccans use the to cast the the to the athame to circle and and to to draw pentagrams in in the in invocation of each of of the the four four circle the air air in of each and in closing the the ritual. Some Pagans Pagans use a sword to their directions and in closing to cast their of such such athames and and swords are generally dull, and circles. The The blades of generally dull, and they are used only for ritual purposes, not for cutting. However, Pagans they used only for not for cutting. Pagans who do keep ritual tools regular working working tools might might use do not keep tools distinct from regular the same knife for the circle circle as for their spell spell the for casting casting the for cutting cutting materials inin their work, and for for chopping chopping vegetables in the kitchen. Some Pagans, Pagans, particuwork, and in the particularly Wiccans, have knife for cutting in in ritual activities, called a larly have aa separate knife for cutting

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bolline. This for inscribing inscribing and and This knife isis often white handled and and is is used used for for cutting cutting herbs. Some Pagans prefer sickle, sometimes for prefer to to use aa copper sickle, has aa curved blade the shape of aa crescent moon, or aa regular regular which has blade in in the shape of jackknife cut herbs. A A wand replaces the the athame, jackknife to to cut wand sometimes replaces athame, to to be be used

in ritual as aa pointing pointing tool and and to to focus intent, but but wands are often not in by Pagans Pagans who find of used by find them too stereotypical or too reminiscent of magical use in in popular popular culture. magical Despite this distaste for Despite this for stereotype, Pagans Pagans often wear robes for for rituals.

Ritual robes frequently have long long flowing sleeves, are sometimes hooded, and are often medieval in inspiration. Some Pagan simple gargarand in Pagan robes are simple ments sewn from bedsheets, but others are well tailored and elaborately but well and decorated. Many adopted the pentacle, aa five-pointed star Many Wiccans have have adopted the pentacle, enclosed in in aa circle, symbol of religious affiliation, and and they circle, as aa symbol of their religious they wear silver pendants in this shape as Christians wear crosses and in this shape and as Jews Jews wear the the Star of David. As As well well as being being a symbol Wicca, the the pentacle Star of symbol of of Wicca, represents earth and and protection. Medieval magical magical practitioners thought thought it it be drawn with line, prewas protective because it it can be with one continuous line, preventing evil influences from entering aa place place protected protected with it. venting any any evil it. Wiccans find find it it significant that that an apple apple cut crosswise reveals aa natural pentacle. Both Both the the apple pentacle are symbols of the the Goddess. tacle. apple and and the the pentacle symbols of Pagans may also keep tools tools for for divination on or near their their altars. PaPagans also keep Pagans use aa number of of different oracular devices and and systems to to prophesy, prophesy, that is, to predict the future, and understand the the that is, to predict the future, interpret the the present, and past. of the the more common divination systems systems in in Paganism isis the the past. One of The Tarot isis aa set of of seventy-eight cards, cards, similar to playing cards cards in in Tarot. The to playing having four four suits suits that ten, king, king, and and queen, but having that are numbered ace, two to to ten, but

with pages added, and and with knights knights in in place place of of jacks. The suits are cups cups with jacks. The (hearts),

wands

(clubs), (clubs),

swords

(spades), (spades),

and and

pentacles pentacles

(diamonds).

cards, called the up the the majority of of the the deck. These cards, the minor arcana, make up

The other twenty-two the major arcana, are are said to be The other twenty-two cards, cards, called called the major arcana, said to be dederived from from the of Hermes Hermes Trismegistus, Trismegistus, and and they they correspond correspond to to the rived the work of the the Hebrew alphabet. The major major arcana are numbered zero to to letters of of the alphabet. The each has has aa name, which, to an extent, describes the the spirspirtwenty-one, and and each which, to

itual growth growth of of an adept adept in the mystical mystical arts. The images on the itual in the The images the cards are following the of Western alalNeo-Platonic in in inspiration, following the traditions of

and Jewish Jewish mystichemists who were influenced by by Egyptian mythology and mystiThe images images contain highly There are cism. The highly overdetermined symbols. symbols. There many elements to to consider in in each picture, and and many possible each picture, possible meanings, so the the cards provide a structure through through which to apply one’s intuition for to apply for understanding the past, interpreting the the past, the present, and and predicting and didirecting the the future. recting Another type system that Pagans type of of oracular system Pagans use is is the the runes, either Germanic (Norse) or Celtic. Germanic runes are based on the althe Norse al-

Individual and and Family Family Practices

phabet, phabet, and and Norse runes or carved on ing the runes ing the

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alphabet. The Celtic on Ogham, sometimes called the the tree alphabet. The originally consisted of of twenty-four letters, letters, generally generally incised originally pieces of of wood or clay, clay, but but sometimes on stone or metal. Uspieces Usrequires a greater than requires greater knowledge of of symbolic symbolic associations than

the the simple not as evocative as the the Tarot does, does, because the simple letters are not the picpic-

tures on the not historically have been used used for for divinathe cards. Runes may may not tion for other magical purposes, such as for objects tion so much as for for enchanting objects by putting spells on them to to increase their their usefulness, for example, on aa by putting spells for example, weapon to true, or on aa cup to increase the to make itit strike true, cup to the drinker’s health. Druids often often use Ogham runes for during their rituals. for divination during Many Pagans practice practice some form of of scrying Many Pagans scrying for for divination purposes. Scrying crystal ball, of Scrying involves looking looking into into aa crystal ball, or more often into a pool pool of water, aa cauldron, or flames, focus one’s to water, flames, to to focus one’s intuition. Practitioners scry scry to see events at to interpret interpret the the situation at at hand, to see the the fufuat aa distance, to hand, to

ture, ture, and toto reveal what isis hidden. This This form form of of divination possibly possibly requires than do quires more facility facility with trance than do other divination techniques, since there less to to inspire inspire the scrying than in reading reading Tarot Tarot there isis less the imagination in in scrying than in cards or runes. Pagans use aa variety of means to to alter their consciousness to to go go into Pagans variety of alter their into and drumming. Pagans use guided guided trance. Two of of these are meditation and in Britain, more often often than they use meditation, called “pathworking” in than they For Pagans, Pagans, the the aim to guide the mind Buddhist-style meditation. For aim isis often to guide the to aa particular of experience or state rather than to to empty to particular sort of empty the the mind. Stilling the the mind is goal, though, though, in Stilling is still still aa goal, in order to to gain gain the the discipline discipline necto direct oneself to essary to to follow guided guided meditations or to to particular goals goals just sitting might pursue aa guided rather than just sitting and and daydreaming. One might guided journeys down aa path path and into into aa cave in in order to meditation in in which one journeys to become aware of of things hiding from one’s awarethings one’s conscious mind isis hiding

ness. Meditation facilitates problem solving solving in in aa different manner from thought, through call the conscious thought, through accessing what Pagans Pagans sometimes call the “Deep Self.” In usually begin begin “Deep Self.” In learning meditation techniques, Pagans Pagans usually with visualization. A A commonly used used exercise is try to to visualize an apapwith is to to try ple the texture, and and the ple with with one’s eyes eyes shut, shut, starting starting with the the shape, shape, the the color, then adding adding the the scent, and the revelacolor, and and then scent, the the sound sound of of cutting cutting it, it, and the revela-

tion the apaption of of the the pentacle pentacle within. The The practitioner next tries to to visualize the ple his or her eyes open. ple with his her eyes In a a guided guided meditation in In in a feminist Witchcraft group, the the women were

asked imagine themselves themselves “in to discover path asked to to imagine “in aa beautiful beautiful garden, garden, to discover aa path and to follow it, it, to to enter aa warm enveloping mist, and then and to mist, and then to to emerge on the side of the mist [they] met the the Goddess,” who the other side of the mist where [they] who gave gave them

each gifts such the Goddess and and each aa gift. gift. The The women described gifts such as meeting meeting the said, “In “In my my trance the the Goddess recognizing that she she was “me.” Another said, gave me mea a book. book. ItIt was the my life life and only half gave the story story of of my and it it was only half written. It

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Chapter 33 Chapter

dedicant is learning about aa Agen is one who has has expressed an interest in in learning and has oath dedicating dedicating her/himself to growing tradition and has made an oath to growing particular tradition. : inin that that particular

to write the the rest.” Such experiences in guided meditation give give was for for me to in guided

participants a strong sense of the sacred, as well as emotional experiences of the that feed feed their their work in that in ritual.*° Ar nDraiocht Féin, guided medAr Féin, a Druid organization, suggests using using a guided for practitioners to to identify patron deities, deities, and and they itation for identify their patron they include aa text to given to to text to use in in their their Dedicant Program Program handbook, the the manual given guide aa new those who are learning learning to to become Druids. AA coreligionist can guide also make an audio recording of of the practitioner, or the the practitioner can also the text of of the guided meditation. meditation. To To conduct the using the meditation, text the guided the ritual using the meditation, the practitioner first first makes an offering, offering, asking to be be shown the the way way to to the the asking to the Next, the her or his his meditation posture, aa patrons. Next, the practitioner assumes her position in in which the the practitioner isis comfortable and The mediposition and relaxed. The begins with aa metaphor of of descending through through mist, mist, and and proceeds, tation begins in the “At last last you great narrated in the second person: “At you drift drift down toward aa great rolling meadow.”*! The guides the the dedicant into rolling The narration guides into aa forest, forest, and and then into a temple, which contains contains all all the world’s deities. The The dedicant temple, which the world’s chooses her her or his the temple and places places their their imhis patrons from those in in the temple and ages in aa place place of at the the front the temple. temple. ages in of honor at front of of the Guided meditations such as this metaphor to this use metaphor to transform the the practipractitioner’s consciousness into into trance and then back into regular consciousand back into regular ness. Pagans Pagans often enhance this this process through through drumming. Starhawk suggests that the drum is frequently the the most important ritual tool in that the is frequently tool in groups, since itit provides an effective way way to alter consciousness through to alter through rhythm and easily keeps the together.** Some practitioners, followrhythm and easily keeps the group together.*? ing refer to that transing the the work ofof Michael Harner, refer to the the drum as the the vehicle that ports shamanic practitioners into the “Shamanic State of Consciousness.””3 ports the of Consciousness.”3 This singing. Like Like drumming, singing singing This can also also be be accomplished through through singing. facilitates group cohesion and and formation of of the the “group “group mind,” mind,” and it and it keeps keeps everyone together together on the the same “wavelength.” Dance isis also also used for this used for this purpose, particularly at chapter 4.4. at summer festivals, as discussed in in chapter

FURTHER READING Buckland, Raymond. Buckland’s Complete of Witchcraft. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Llewellyn PubliComplete Book of Witchcraft. St. Paul, MN: cations, cations, 1986.

:

Individual and Family Practices Practices Individual and Family

67 67

St. Paul, Paul, MN: MN: Llewellyn PubCunningham, Scott. Wicca: AA Guide for for the the Solitary Solitary Practitioner. St. lications, 2003. 2003.

of the the Ancient Religion the Great Goddess. 10th anStarhawk. The The Spiral Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of Religion of of the ed. San niversary ed. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989.

NOTES 1. Helen Berger, Evan A. A. Leach, Leach, and and Leigh Leigh S.S. Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices Voices from from the Pagan Census: Census: AA Na1. Helen Berger, Evan the Pagan Nathe United States (Columbia: University of tional Survey Survey ofof Witches and and Neo-Pagans in in the of South 39. Carolina Press, Press, 2003), 2003), 39.

Speaking Earth (New York: 2.2. Graham Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, People, Speaking University Press, New York University Press, 1997), 1997), 89. 89.

Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, Paganism, 101. 3.3. Harvey, 101. 87. 4.4. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 87. 5. See Leach, and and Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices Voices from from the the Pagan Pagan Census, Census, 38. 5. See Berger, Berger, Leach, 38.

Berger, Leach, Leach, and and Shaffer, Voices from the Pagan 37. 6.6. Berger, from the Pagan Census, 37. and the the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers 7.7. Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and Ritual-Makers inin New 2004), 175. 175. Zealand (London: Routledge, 2004), ~ 8.8. Margot Margot Adler, the Moon: Witches, Worshippers, and and Other Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the Witches, Druids, GoddessGoddess-Worshippers, Pagans in Today, revised and and expanded expanded ed. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), 372. Pagans in America Today, Press, 1986), 372.

in Helen Berger, of Witches (Columbia: University of of South Car9.9. Quoted in Berger, A A Community of Carolina Press, 1999), 96-97. olina Press, 1999),

10. Pauline Campanelli, Wheel of the Year: Living the the Magical Life (St. 10. of the Year: Living Magical Life (St. Paul, Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 1989), Publications, 1989), 62. 62. 11. Campanelli, Campanelli, Wheel of the 108. 11. Wheel of the Year, Year, 108.

12. Campanelli, Wheel of of the the Year, Year, 127. 127. 12. 13. Diana 13.

Paxson,

“The

Matrone,”

Hrafnar

website,

www.hrafnar.org/goddesses/

April 22, 2004), originally published in Sage Woman, Fall Fall 1999. matronae.html (accessed April 22, 2004), in Sage 14. Campanelli, Wheel of of the the Year, Year, 114-15. 14. Campanelli,

15. Berger applies applies Anthony Anthony Giddens’ concept to Wicca in in Commu15. Helen Berger concept of of “life “life politics” politics” to nity of nity of Witches, 78-79. 16. Berger, Community of Witches, 79. 16. Berger, of Witches, 79. 17. See, See, for for example, example, Chas Chas S. Clifton, “Witches “Witches and and the Earth,” in Today, Book Book 17. S. Clifton, the Earth,” in Witchcraft Witchcraft Today, One: The The Modern Craft Craft Movement, ed. ed. Chas S. (St. Paul, Paul, MN: MN: Llewellyn Publications, One: S. Clifton (St.

126. 1992), 126. 18. Clifton, “Witches and and the 18. Clifton, the Earth,” Earth,” 129-30. 19. See Marion Bowman, “Nature, the and Pagan edi19. See the Natural, and Pagan Identity,” Diskus Diskus 6, 6, Web Web edi-

tion, 2000, http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus tion, 2000, May 16, 2001). 2001). May 16,

(accessed

20. See See Ronald Hutton, Stations of of the the Sun: AA History of the Year in 20. History of the Ritual Year in Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, 1996). 1996). 21. Starhawk, Diane Baker, Raising Children in in Goddess Tradi21. Baker, and and Anne Hill, Hill, Circle Circle Round: Round: Raising Traditions (New York: York: Bantam, 1998), 1998), 19. tions (New 19.

22. Paganism, 12. 12. 22. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,

23. Berger, 32. 23. Berger, Community ofof Witches, 32. 24. Scott and David Harrington, The The Magical Spells && Rituals for for 24. Scott Cunningham and Magical Household: Spells the Home (St. 2003), 125, 127. the (St. Paul, Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2003), 125, 127.

25. 101. 25. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 101. 26. 26. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 103. 103.

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27. Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of of the of the Great Goddess, 10th 27. Starhawk, The The Spiral the Ancient Religion Religion of the Great 10th (New York: York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 76; Zsuzsanna Budapest, The Holy Holy anniversary ed. ed. (New 1989), 76; Budapest, The Book of Women’s Book of Women’s 28. 28. Starhawk, 29. 29. Starhawk, 30. Rountree, 30.

Mysteries (Oakland, (Oakland, CA: Wingbow Press, 12. Mysteries CA: Wingbow Press, 1989), 1989), 12. Spiral Dance, Spiral Dance, 76. 76. Spiral Dance, 227. ° Spiral Dance, 227. Embracing the the Witch and and the 153. Embracing the Goddess, Goddess, 153.

31. Ian Corrigan et et al., by Ar 31. Ian al., ADF Dedicant Program, document produced by Ar nDrajocht nDraiocht Féin: Druid Fellowship, 1997, 40. Féin: A A Druid Fellowship, 1997, 40.

32. Spiral Dance, 32. Starhawk, Spiral Dance, 227.

33. Way of York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990), 1990), 51. 33. Michael Harner, The The Way of the the Shaman (New York: 51.

44

ook ook Group Practices Group

he individual and family in chapter chapter 33 carry over he family practices discussed in into the practices of they may may be be more structured into the group practices of Pagans, Pagans, but but they to group celebrations of of the sabto facilitate group activities. For For example, example, group the sabbats, the the seasonal festivals, are more likely to keep keep everybats, likely to to have have aa script script to

one together. Pagan Pagan groups may conduct rituals in in closed or public public forforof the eight seasonal festivals, and and at full or dark phases phases mats for for each of the eight at the the full of the the moon, depending on the Pagans also also attend large of the group. Some Pagans large regional festivals in in the In addition, Pagans Pagans recognize rites rites gional the summer months. In of passage in in their birth, puberty, other coming-of-age of their groups, including birth, rites, initiations, handfastings, cronings, cronings, and and death. rites,

their circles, circles, or in in open open public Some Pagans Pagans celebrate the the sabbats with with their public rituals, as well well as in in their homes. Others celebrate the the sabbats only only at at rituals, privately, or, only through public rituals, home or privately, or, conversely, only through attending public only as loosely laity. Some solitaries atatsometimes participating only loosely affiliated laity. tend large large public public rituals to to gain gain aa sense of of belonging to tend to the the community, but Pagans celebrate all the sabbats. Heathens in in particular particular are but not all all Pagans all the more likely likely to to celebrate festivals more closely closely related to to their traditions than cycle. than those based on the the British festival cycle. Group rituals tend to to the designs Group to follow aa similar pattern pattern to the basic ritual designs discussed in in chapter chapter 3,3, but tend to be more perperbut group sabbat celebrations tend to be formative and private sabbat observances and and may may involve and theatrical than private props, costumes, and The ritual ritual may may be be planned and masks. The planned communally in in small groups, or by larger events. Sometimes ritual by aa committee for for larger scripts by one member of who isis then scripts are written by of the the group, who then responsible for organizing and and leading leading the single organizer might plan the for the ritual. AA single might plan the 69 69

70 70

Chapter 44 Chapter

to choose parts. people to parts. Alternatively, a and ask script, and ask people ritual, ritual, circulate aa script, group might might prefer to work from an outline around which they prefer to improthey improvise. Inspiration for for the the ritual structure and and ideas for for the event might might the

of the multitude of of the of Shadows or from any of from any from aa group’s Book of come from

and family family practices, practices, creatAs in in individual and how-to books on Paganism. As intensely creative process. Scripts ing in how-to books Scripts in be an intensely a ritual can be ing a usually suggest using using the the script script as a jumping-off point, of where idea of point, an idea usually applied by to be to start, rather than as something to by rote. be applied to In in aa large large open ritual called publicly celebrated in In Ottawa, Samhain isis publicly the “Witches’ Gathering,” usually usually held held on the the Saturday closest to to the to the the community, including including the to well as to public, as well the public, Samhain. ItIt isis open to those who who identify identify as part of the Pagan community. This festival is held is held the Pagan part of at Barrymore’s Music Hall, Hall, an atmospheric old has been conthat has old theatre that at verted into a bar. gilt mirrors, ornate of gilt has a Gothic ambience of bar has The bar bar. The plaster and chandeliers. Hundreds of the for the people come out for of people plaster moldings, and celebration dressed in in extravagantly elaborate costumes. The organizers, in Canada. Like Pagan event in largest Pagan the largest eclectic Pagans, describe itit as the many other public the number of is deterof participants is Pagan events, the public Pagan mined by The organizers indicate that Barryof Barrycapacity of the capacity that the the venue. The by the more’s isis 500, but the the booking agent the bar says 375.! The ritual itself for the agent for 500, but largely performative and isis conducted onstage with little audience parparisis largely ticipation. In largely of other festivals, largely atypical of is atypical this respect, Samhain is In this due to to the of Samhain events to public. Consegeneral public. the general to the the openness of quently, expect all the attendees to parto parto know how to all the quently, organizers cannot expect ticipate. of the each Spiral Dance rituals held each large Spiral the large ticipate. This isis similarly true of Samhain in the Reclaiming community. For For by the San Francisco organized by in San Ottawa’s with attendance, with for attendance, charge for cover charge is aa cover there is Gathering, there Witches’ Gathering, Ottawa’s Witches’ the Brighter the Ottawa Food Bank, Brighter to charities such as the the proceeds donated to Futures for the Wild Bird Care CenSingle Parents, or the Young Single of Young for Children of ter, the secular association of the in recent years. Because of ter, as have been chosen in of Pagans often use Samhain as an opportunity of witches with Hallowe’en, Pagans for to interview, seek out Witches to public education. Media representatives seek for public and some Pagans of dispelling stereotypes the intention of oblige them with the Pagans oblige and misconceptions about Paganism. Some groups mark Yule by up staying up vigils, staying by observing all-night vigils, through the longest longest night. night. Some groups, such as a closed women’s circle through the in do not they do by discarding items they the winter solstice by in Ottawa, celebrate the want to in which others who want any keep, sometimes as an exchange in to keep, of the them, with leftovers donated to in charity. Everyone in to charity. take them, the items may take of the group brings disto disis finished with or would like to she is object that she brings an object the

card card to to the can choose the circle, circle, and and each each can choose to to take take other groups, winter-solstice exchanges may other

whatever whatever others others leave. leave. In In be In be more metaphorical. In New Zealand, a group of of feminist Witches went to a cave for to for their winterwinter-

Group Practices Group

71 71

ritual to negative or unconstrucsolstice ritual to sacrifice unwanted, “outmoded, negative tive thoughts, the women later tive thoughts, attitudes, or behaviour patterns.” Some of of the later

wrote poems about their experiences: Senses totally the sea calling calling me inside myself. myself. The The totally stimulated—the power of of the safety of the and the and belonging belonging drawing drawing me close close to to safety of the cave and the sense of of love love and the other women. Feeling my baby stirring within my my womb, and and knowing knowing II the other Feeling my baby stirring have come home. have The journey beginning with with oneself The journey Among the the dunes of of Bethell’s Among Being Being inin one’s inner darkness Letting go feelings Letting go unwanted thoughts, thoughts, feelings Being there.... Being there .... At home in bosom of At in the the bosom of the the Great Mother. Mother.”

at which some groups make or anoint all Imbolc isis the the time at all their their candles for the year as part of celebrating the festival. Anglicans in Britain celdles for the year part of the in celebrate the the Christian festival of at this this time, and some Gardneof Candlemas at time, and

rians celebrate the similarly as aa festival of In Gardnerian the festival similarly of lights. lights. In ritual, a woman representing the Goddess as mother wears aa headdress ritual, a the with candles in the ritual celebration of Imbolc. The ritual involves sweepin the of The ing away “all that is old and outworn.” At the conclusion of the ritual, the ing “all that is old and At the of the ritual, the priest symbolically burns two evergreen twigs and says a ritual chant to priest twigs and says a to banish winter. Some groups reenact the the myth and Kore (or myth of of Demeter and (or Persephone) in in celebrating Oestre. In In this story, Kore disappears to the this story, to the underworld, and and her mother Demeter is that she cold her is so upset upset that she causes the the Earth to to become cold and barren, creating winter. Eventually an agreement is made that Kore and is that will her mother for half the each year, and and as Kore rewill return to to visit visit her for half the year each turns year, Demeter releases the bringing spring. spring. turns each each year, Demeter releases the Earth Earth from from winter, winter, bringing Some groups celebrate aa Pagan Pagan version of of the Jewish holiday holiday of the Jewish of Passover, or they they celebrate Passover with with their extended families each spring. ItIt is each spring. is often still still too cold cold to and the to celebrate Oestre outdoors in in Canada and the northern states, but do hold their outside, particubut sometimes groups do their sabbats outside, particularly when trying trying to to connect with the the local features of the land. For exlarly of the land. For ample, Red Maple Grove, aa Druid group affiliated with with Ar ample, Maple Grove, Ar nDraiocht Féin, spring equinox 2003 to Féin, held held an outdoor spring equinox ritual in in Ottawa in in 2003 to connect with the and its its history. ritual began began with offerings offerings to the with the watershed and history. The The ritual to the to petition petition the the local govRideau River and and included aa pledge pledge to local and regional regional gov-

of pesticides and and chemical fertilizers, and and toto help help ernments against against the the use of clean up garbage in in the held. The up garbage the park park where the the ritual was held. The group requested that that the the melting melting snow and ice gently pass through through the the quested the river let let the and ice gently pass city flooding, which had in the the area in past. city to to avoid flooding, had been aa problem in in the the past.

Chapter 44 Chapter

ieee:

Figure 8. Figure 8.

The Goddess as mother at Imbolc, wearing of candles The at Imbolc, wearing aa Brigid Brigid headdress of

(from Bible) (from Farrar and and Farrar, A A Witches’ Bible)

Beltain celebrations sometimes include aa Maypole festival, which ininvolves erecting erecting aa pole pole planted planted in in the and weaving weaving ribbons around the Earth and it. that men go it. Often the the group of of celebrants is is divided so that go in in one direction and women the the other, weaving the the ribbons into complex pattern around and other, weaving into aa complex

Group Group Practices

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the pole. pole. Some participants joke going “a-maying” after the the ritual, the joke about going ritual, spending the night out in in the with one’s partner partner or aa partner of of the the spending the night the woods with night. However, although of Marion Zimmer Bradley’s night. although most are aware of of such aa Beltain celebration in in her popular novel The Mists of description of her popular The Mists of Avalon, not many many celebrate celebrate itit in that fashion. fashion. Sometimes Sometimes celebrations celebrations of Avalon, in that of May Day to the political demonstrations held held on Beltain on May Day are connected to the political

the same date date called “M’aidez,” aa play play on the the French imperative phrase phrase the meaning “help meaning “help me.”

Figure Figure 9.9.

Maypole by M. M. Macha Nightmare) Nightmare) Maypole (photo (photo by

7474

Chapter 44 Chapter

In the place place to be for for the alIn Britain, Stonehenge is is the to be the summer solstice, although Pagans’ of the the site site has has been much contested with with heritage though Pagans’ use of heritage authorities. Stonehenge is protected as a a heritage heritage site, site, but but people people demand is protected access, not not just and other but hundreds of of other “traveljust Druids and other Pagans, Pagans, but

ers,” the the name given given to people who live in caravans or trailers and and move ers,” to people live in from place place to to place. place. Some travelers are Pagan Pagan and and see the from the annual journey journey as a sort of of pilgrimage. The celebration of of the the solstice at at Stonehenge consists of of an all-night all-night party party concluding with watching watching the up. The The sists the sun come up. People’s Free Festival was held held there there beginning beginning in People’s Free in the the early early 1970s but but was mid-1980s.* Access has has since been allowed again. banned in in the the mid-1980s.4 again. Group observances of of Lammas, or Lughnasadh, often Group often involve some

form of of aa god god figure. For Gardnerians, Lughnasadh of a sacrificial death of figure. For is the time of the rebirth of the Holly King and his his mating mating with with the the GodGodis the of the of the Holly King and dess, symbolically enacted in ritual by the high priest and priestess. Garddess, in by the high priest and nerians see the King as the the dark dark half half of of the the Horned God, the god god of the Holly Holly King God, the of the waning year.° Lughnasadh is the only time in Gardnerian groups that the waning year.> is the only in that the high high priestess invokes the the Goddess in of the the high high priest priest the in herself instead of invoking the Goddess in her.® invoking the in her.® Many fall festival around the time of of the Many Pagans Pagans celebrate aa fall the time the autumnal equinox through family gatherings of thankfulness for the equinox through family of for the harvest, particularly in North America, but some also conduct group celebrations. Paticularly in but also Pagan women in braid wool wool girdles, gan in New Zealand braid girdles, incorporating symbols symbols of of personal harvest or what they into the season.’ they want to to carry forward into the next season.” The fall fall equinox time to the Goddess in aspect and The equinox isis aa time to celebrate the in her her Crone aspect and to recognize the the value of of older older women. It also aa time to “do what isis necto It is is also to “do in one’s life.”® life.’”® essary to to achieve balance in In local circle-based or city-based celebrations of of the eight In addition toto local the eight festivals, some Pagan Pagan groups host large outdoor festivals in in the the seasonal festivals, host large summer

which often often do fall on the the sabbats. Wic-Can Fest, months, which do not fall Fest,

usually held usually held the the week before the the summer solstice, isis Canada’s oldest and Pagan festival. ItIt isis aa family-oriented festival held in longest-running Pagan in private campground. Attendance at southern Ontario, near Toronto, at at aa private at the festival isis restricted by by the the campground to the the capacity capacity of of the to about three people. Scheduled activities at at Wic-Can Fest Fest include workshops, hundred people. lectures, demonstrations, and rituals, as well lectures, and concerts and and rituals, well as aa market

area and and an impressive musical lineup. lineup. The large festival, festival, hosted by by the the EarthSpirit The Rites of of Spring Spring isis similarly aa large Community each May May at at aa camp near Boston, Massachusetts. Some parparticipants stay ticipants stay in in the the cabins of and additional participants stay of the the camp, and stay in in tents. Activities at the festival include rituals, at the rituals, workshops, workshops, and and socializing.’ develops a strong ing.’ The The festival develops village atmosphere, partly strong village partly through communal food communal food preparation and and aa common dining dining area. area.1°

Group Practices Group

79 75)

by the the Elf Lore Family they ELFest, aa festival sponsored by Elf Lore Family (ELF) (ELF) at at a place place they call has been described in in detail by by researcher Sarah Pike: Pike: call Lothlorien, has Clusters of of colorful tents were set set up the canopy of up under the of trees. Small and vans lined the the circular gravel gravel driveway. Festival goers were campers and roaming informally informally around campsites, gathering at roaming at tables covered with books on witchcraft and and long, for sale talking with and long, hooded robes for sale or talking and whose greeting friends. A A woman who smelled of of incense and and rose and body was more than half covered with tattoos of dragons, naked body than half of flowers and dragons, broadly at and dark smiled broadly at me. Two men wearing black leather boots and dark cloaks deep in in conversation. Farther along along the the road, road, aa young man with walked by, by, deep bronzed skin juggled balls balls as he he talked to wrapped at at the skin juggled to another man wrapped the waist in aa tie-dye carrying aa rainbow-colored parasol. The festival was in tie-dye cloth and and carrying parasol. The alive with quiet conversation, conversation, naked naked skin, and bodies adorned with alive with music, music, quiet skin, and bodies adorned with costumes and and elaborate jewelry."

Pagan festivals in in the Most Pagan the United States follow a common pattern pattern of of activities, including an opening opening ceremony, workshops during during the days, the days, ritrituals and performances in the evenings, and drumming and dancing at at uals and in the and and dancing night, as well well as a a community feast and closing ritual. night, feast and closing ritual.!2 Regional festivals are usually to all all who the registration fees. Regional usually open to who pay pay the At some festivals, registrants are expected to contribute some volunteer At expected to time with the festival, either with directing parking, looking chilthe directing looking after after children, or cooking. Festivals last anywhere from a weekend to a week, dren, cooking. last to week, and and vary in size, with the bigger festivals drawing a few hundred attendees.!% vary in size, with the bigger drawing a few attendees.'% Alternative dress isis common at and nudity frequent, although at festivals, and nudity isis frequent, although officially restricted to certain areas of the festival grounds, officially to of the grounds, such as the the beach and fire pit. people, including including men, wear sarongs. Cloaks are and fire pit. Many Many people, more common if is cooler. Robes are often in ritual, if the the weather is often worn in ritual, re-

gardless of the gardless of the temperature. Pagans attend large regional festivals, whether they they Almost half half of of all all Pagans large regional usually engage in in solitary solitary practice practice or are affiliated with circles.'4 Solitaries usually likely to to attend festivals: 43.1 percent of are somewhat less less likely 43.1 percent of attendees atat festivals belong to groups, and and 35.8 35.8 percent percent are solitaries. The largest segsegbelong to The largest ment of (33.9 percent), followed by of attendees are in in their thirties (33.9 by those in in their (26.7 percent) percent) and and those in their twenties (24.1 (24.1 percent). percent). There their forties (26.7 in their are more women than than men at but the the proportion of at festivals, festivals, but of men attending higher than in the Pagan population.’ population." ing festivals isis higher than in the general general Pagan Although festival participants tend tend to to be Although be more politically active than other Pagans, for political activity. PeoPagans, festivals are not popular popular forums for political activity. ple might mention pride and environmental concerns, but such ple might pride parades parades and but such issues are not Spiritual and and magical not central atat festivals. Spiritual magical concerns are more although political implicit in in rituals.’¢ rituals.'° Festivals Festivals important, although political views are often implicit

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Pagans, to to for re-creating themselves as Pagans, provide participants with aa forum for provide

the “broom closet,” Pagans who are deeply forge new identities.!7 in the deeply in identities.!” Some Pagans forge day-to-day their lives, openly PaPagan in Pais, that their identity hiding that is, hiding Pagan in their lives, are openly marginal festivals, gan while At not attending Pagans only festivals. are gan only At Pagans not marginal but are atat the of the The consensus reality reality of but the center of the community. The of aa festival

the world. At of the At festivals, Pagan understandings of community supports Pagan imagine they imagine of everyday interaction are suspended, they the rules “where the rules of finding an ideal and an ideal self.” ideal community and finding Some Pagans Pagans regard in anthropologist Victor regard festivals as liminal spaces, in of time. time. Summer festivals are aa “vacation” Turner’s sense of of being being outside of from participants’ usual usual lives, lives, and and some expect the judgment of of othfrom expect that that the othwill be be suspended around things things like like nudity, activity, gender ers will nudity, sexual activity, gender and sometimes drugs.!? drugs.'? However, festivals do do not not escape culboundaries, and cultural to the degree that hope and tural conditioning to the degree that some participants hope and expect: expect: expect festivals to their vision of of a more egalitarian, “festival goers expect to reflect their less and women’s identities within less sexist society. society. Construction of of men’s and this ritual space isis coded in in varieties of of bodily bodily expression. The The languages languages this of movement and body decoration reveal that that while while ritual ritual work within of and body play and and gender gender reversal, reversal, its Neo-Pagan festivals involves gender gender play its transformative effects are more limited than participants anticipate.”*° anticipate.”?? In In addiaddi-

tion, the perceived perceived freedom freedom and and license license of of the the festival festival atmosphere atmosphere has has been tion, the been by occurrences of sexual harassment atat some festivals, including including marred by of sexual of rude rude flirting flirting and and grabbing. grabbing. Women have have appealed appealed to incidents of to festival to prevent such activities. Some Some participants participants also also have have concerns organizers to drinking around fire fire pits, pits, preferring preferring to to preserve them as as about excessive drinking ritual spaces. However, while some participants express desires that that festifestiritual vals be aa “safe “safe space,” space,” others prefer goes” atmosphere.”! vals be prefer an “anything “anything goes” In addition to regional and festivals, some Pagans Pagans meet in in In to regional and seasonal festivals, phases of the moon. These meetings meetings are sometimes groups at at particular phases of the called esbats, esbats, particularly by by Wiccans. Esbats are the the “work” meetings of called meetings of Pagan circles, circles, as opposed to the more celebratory sabbats. Esbats are the the Pagan to the regular ritual meetings of aa coven in in Wicca. IfIf aa member wants to to conduct regular meetings of healing ritual, ritual, for for instance, itit would would more likely likely be at one of of these these meetaa healing be at

ings than than during during aa sabbat celebration (or (or they they might might do doaaritual ritual specifispecifiings cally for for aa healing). healing). Such Such meetings to the the public; that is, is, they they are cally meetings are closed to public; that to group members. In In the the Reclaiming Reclaiming community, esbats esbats tend tend to to restricted to be gender-segregate gender-segregatedd closed closed events, while while the the sabbats are public.” public.” be usually meet meet once aa month, month, when when the the moon isis full, full, as as specified specified Wiccans usually

in the the liturgy liturgy of of the Charge of of the the Goddess. Some Pagan Pagan groups regularly regularly in the Charge perform the the ritual ritual of of drawing drawing down perform down the the moon moon at at the the full full moon, and and itit is is often conducted conducted at regional festivals. often festivals. In In this at regional ritual, a a woman woman invites invites the this ritual, the to speak speak through her. In Goddess to Wicca, aa man either through her. either invokes the In Wicca, the GodGoddess in the priestess, priestess, or the dess the woman evokes the in the from within.23 within.23 the Goddess from

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this in in terms of of possession, and others in Some Pagans Pagans understand this in terms of the the woman becoming of the of becoming an incarnation of the Goddess. Some practitionprefer to to say they do the Goddess, but ers prefer say that that they do not “invoke” or “become” the but that they they manifest the part of of the the Goddess that that is already in in them.” them.”4 Durthat the part is already ing the the ritual, priestess goes goes into trance and and may may prophesy after the ing ritual, the the priestess the she may the liturgy liturgy of of the Goddess isis invoked, or she may speak speak the the words of of the the Charge of Charge of the the Goddess. Some say say that that the the words spoken spoken vary vary somewhat in practice, as appropriate to the occasion. In In some traditions, such in to the such as ReReclaiming, the Goddess may be drawn down into men as well as women.”° the be into women. The ritual the moon, and the liturgy liturgy of of the the Charge, Charge, The ritual of of drawing drawing down the and the spread from Gardnerian Wicca and was derived from Aradia. Doreen Vaspread and Valiente wrote the original verse version used in Gardnerian Wicca, and the in Wicca, and Starhawk wrote the the prose version that in common circulation. Wiccans that isis in suggest that some form of the ritual of drawing suggest that form of the of drawing down the the moon was practiced in in ancient Greece. Many Pagans associate the phases of the moon with with women’s menMany Pagans the phases of the strual cycles, which are of approximately the same length, the cycles, of the length, and and with with the three aspects aspects of of the Goddess. The waxing or new moon is associated with the The waxing is with the the the the

maiden, the the crone. There

full full is is aa

moon fourth

with the mother, and and the with with the the waning waning moon with phase of the moon, the dark moon, which phase of the the dark which isis

This isis sometimes also also associated with with the the crone. Some not visible. This women’s-only groups prefer prefer to to meet at at the of the the moon, or the the new the dark of who are menstruating during during such such meetings meetings moon. Sometimes women who of red red wool to wear bracelets of to indicate their their special special state so that that itit can be be and honored by the others present. Menstruation isis thought thought to recognized and by the to “psychic opening” and occasion a “psychic and to to increase women’s intuitive powers.”° powers.”6 Pagans also also conduct group ceremonies acknowledging rites of passage Pagans rites of for individuals in in their their communities. Rites Rites of of passage recognize recognize changes changes for in In general, require commuin social roles, roles, status, or identity. identity. In general, such rituals require nity recognition through As Paganism has has manity through aa group event of of some sort. As tured from aa movement into into aa world religion, religion, Pagans Pagans have have developed developed ritrituals for rites of of passage in in all all stages stages of from birth to to death. Most of uals for rites of life, life, from of these involve some community component, but but some rites rites of of passage are

Byrd of a a number of of popular oreen Valiente, author of popular books on Witchcraft, was aa member ofof Gerald Gardner’s coven beginning inin the the Dit extensively rewrote Gardner's Gardner’s Book ofof Shadows, parts 1940s. She She extensively parts of of have diffused into which have into contemporary Paganism without recognition of her of her authorship. More information on Valiente can be be found inin chapter chapter 7.7.

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more family family oriented, such of the the change to such as recognition of change from baby baby to child.2” Some puberty family than puberty rites are also also more oriented toward family group recognition. Many Pagans Pagans conduct formal rituals to into their Many to welcome babies into their communities, but they also speak of more spontaneous rituals to introduce inbut they also speak of to infants to to the world. Charlene Spretnak recounts a story of taking her the a story of taking her daughter outside for the first first time, time, into into a garden garden outside the the hospital, hospital, and daughter for the and her to to the the pine the stars, stars, and introducing her pine trees, the the flowers, the the moon, and and the and

her. She felt aa need to to welcome her her child child to to the inaa ritual them toto her. She felt the cosmos in fashion.”® Pagans Pagans tell of the the spontaneous impulse impulse to to introfashion.”8 tell similar stories of duce their their children or god/dess children to to the the natural world. Welcoming rituals for Pagan groups are for introducing new babies into Pagan variously called “Wiccaning,” “saining,” or “Paganing.” These rituals invariously introduce the the child child to to the the community and the the deities, to ask blesstroduce community and deities, to ask for for their their bless-

ings on the the child and the child to to ritual. No ings and to to introduce the No promises promises are made to to commit the the child to the religion, god/dess parents parents may may to the religion, although god/dess be appointed.” For For example, atat aa Wiccaning, aa Wiccan welcoming ritual, ritual, aa be in a suburban state park, park, where they they often often held held rituals, to to WicWicgroup met in can aa month-old child. Dressed in in the the family’s baptism gown, the family’s baptism the child child to the the four directions and and was introduced to and the the elements. The The afterbirth and birth blood, blood, frozen to to preserve itit and ritual, were used. used. The The birth and thawed for for the the ritual, and the the blood was used used to the child, child, as well well afterbirth was buried, and to anoint the

as aa white cord. cord. The to the the Earth, The cord cord symbolically linked the the child to Earth, just just as his cord had had linked him to his his mother in the womb. As As part part of of his umbilical cord him to in the the each of of the the group members made aa wish for the child, child, reprepthe ceremony, each for the by aa colored ribbon tied tied to to aa branch. After the the ritual, ritual, the the group resented by picnic lunch, lunch, and gifts were given given for shared a picnic and gifts for the the baby.*° baby.*° Pagans have have developed coming-of-age rituals for for two stages stages of of transiPagans tion into adulthood: puberty and leaving leaving home. Puberty Puberty rituals tend to to be be tion into puberty and limited to of the the youth’s for at at least of the to members of youth’s sex for least one stage stage of the ritual, ritual, but may subsequently involve welcoming by by both both men and and women into but into the community. Some male puberty puberty rites rites involve an ordeal as a symbolic the symbolic confrontation with mortality.*! The The influence of readings in of readings in anthropology of such Pagan Pagan puberty puberty rituals for for males. isis evident in in the the development of the onset of often include aa Rituals recognizing menarche, the of menstruation, often designed to to counter popular popular images of the the beauty beauty component designed images expressive of myth. Circle Round, myth. Round, a family family guide the Reclaimguide prepared by by members of of the ing ing community, includes aa number of of exercises to to use in in preparation for for puberty puberty rituals. ItIt includes, for for example, example, meditations on what to to leave bebehind and and what to hind to carry forward, meditations on accepting that that one will will be good good at not be at certain activities, and and meditations on refusing refusing to to accept accept prejudgments of of others about one’s capacities. The The authors suggest, for for example, perhaps deciding to perhaps deciding piano lessons if to quit quit taking taking piano if one is is not willwill-

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ing to to practice, or deciding deciding to to take singing again, again, dedeing to take take the the time to take up up singing spite the of aa teacher who criticized one’s voice. spite the inappropriate ridicule of also includes blessing Circle Round also blessing liturgies liturgies for for male and and female puberty puberty rites. These liturgies liturgies are symmetrical in and include wishes that that in structure and the adolescent always find her/his body “a temple of love and pleasure,” the always find body “a temple of love and use her/his reproductive powers responsibly, and and recognize her/his unique unique value.*° value. Rituals for leaving home tend and can be be as much for leaving tend to to be be family family oriented and about the parents letting go as about the youth coming of age. the letting go the youth coming of age. These riturituals recognize the separation of a youth the als the of a youth from her/his parents, and and the youth’s passage into full responsibility for her/his own life. In Circle youth’s into full for life. In Round, Calla Unsworth describes a coming-of-age ritual ritual for for her her son Tor. Tor. Round,

The family shared stories and and wishes for and ritually ritually tied The family for Tor’s future and tied aa cord between him and each of his parents to symbolize their bonds, alcord him and of his to symbolize their bonds, allowing him to cut the ropes when he was ready.* A similar practice can lowing him to the he ready. A practice be used as part part of the onset of of menstruabe of aa ritual toto recognize menarche, the tion In the the Reclaiming community, aa tion and and of of aa girl girl becoming aa woman. In who was celebrating celebrating menarche was anointed young woman named Sonia who world, marking her with waters gathered gathered from from around the the world, her forehead, breasts, belly, belly, and genitals, as Starhawk said, breasts, and genitals, said, “Remember,

nobody can nobody

give you you power. You You already already have have the the power within.” AA cord cord was tied give tied and her this around Sonia’s and her mother’s wrists. Sonia’s grandmother likened this cord to to Sonia’s umbilical cord, cord, saying saying that, it, the the cord cord needed to to be cord that, like like it, be cut the daughter daughter could could live her own, but their “bond of the cut so so that that the live on her but that that their of the

heart” would endure. Sonia and and her her mother were asked to to run for for as long long as they they could while tied together. Her mother eventually could not not keep keep tied together. up with Sonia’s youthful the cord with with aa ritritup with youthful speed. speed. Her grandmother cut cut the ual knife, knife, which was then presented to to Sonia as aa gift. gift.°° ual then presented

Pagans also also sometimes conduct rites of passage to to confer new or magiPagans rites of magical Adopting a magical magical cal names. These are rituals of of self-transformation. Adopting name, or changing changing it, it, can help prohelp one grow emotionally or spiritually, providing focus for working to to change the name viding aa focus for working change oneself.°° oneself.*° Recognizing the change help reinforce one’s commitment to to change. change. IfIf change in in community can help does itit alone, there is is no one to notice ifif one does not sustain the the one does alone, there to notice does not

change. Some Pagans magical or Craft of their legal change. Pagans adopt adopt magical Craft names in in place place of their legal Simos, isis aa prominent prominent example. Pagans names. Starhawk, born Miriam Simos, example. Pagans fun of of their tendency tendency to to adopt names,*” but but magical magical make fun adopt fanciful magical magical names,” personal growth. growth. To To change to change names can signify signify personal change one’s name isis to change recognize aa change, change, to to preserve it, it, or to it. For oneself, toto recognize to encourage it. For example, magical name from ple, through through an initiation ceremony, aa man changed his his magical from “White Water” to to recognize his his change change from bebeto “Three Blade Jaguar,” Jaguar,” to ing full like white water, early early in in his his religious religious pracing full of of undirected energy, like tice, to role of of protector of his wife wife tice, to perceiving himself as growing growing in in the the role of his

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and and child.38 Such gendered self, self, in in

uses of of magical magical names can foster a positive positive image image of of the the this case a romantic but positive image of masculinity.” this a but positive image of masculinity. Some Pagans Pagans participate in in initiatory denominations of of Paganism, which are traditions that require initiation into the group or tradition for for that require the full who do do not belong belong to to an iniinifull participation of of its its members. Even those who tiatory speak of of being the Goddess tiatory denomination sometimes speak being initiated by by the by their symbolic or by their patron patron deities. Initiation ceremonies often often involve aa symbolic and rebirth, and and they they usually usually require the make a comdeath and the initiate to to make to the his/her patrons, or to to the the tradition. Gardnermitment to the Goddess, to to his/her

ian and require initiation into “the ian and Alexandrian Wicca require “the mysteries.” Only Only into Wicca, and generally one must be be over eightadults can be be initiated into and generally eightto receive instruction leading leading up Pagans speak speak of of traineen to up to to initiation. Pagans

ing for for “a “a year this is phrase that ing year and and aa day,” day,” but but this is aa traditional phrase that indicates that initiation requires period of training that requires aa sustained period of training. training. Interest in in training does not automatically lead lead to to initiation. does Gardnerian and and Alexandrian Wiccans have three degrees degrees of of initiation. The first-degree ceremony involves being being nude, nude, including of The including the the removal of all jewelry, jewelry, as well as being and bound. The ritual ritual isis partly inall being blindfolded and partly inspired by the the Sumerian myth of Inanna’s descent into into the spired by myth of the underworld, her clothing and jewelry jewelry as symbols of of her where she she sheds all all her clothing and her social sta-

tus, in recognition of of the the equalizing power of tus, in of death. In In Gardnerian tradition, only be and vice versa. tion, men can only be initiated by by women, and

in Craft traditions, initiation ritualizes acceptance into into More generally generally in and ideally, personal growth.” growth.*° The Faery traaa coven, and ideally, ifif timed properly, properly, personal The Faery dition has the Reclaiming tradition adapts has two levels of of initiation, and and the adapts this to to one level, optional for in the the tradition. In In this level, which isis optional for practitioners in the ask for for initiation; itit is is not spontathe Reclaiming tradition, tradition, one must ask spontaneously offered.4! polarity is not necessary in in Reclaiming initianeously offered.*! Gender polarity is not tions, SO women tions, sO

can initiate women,

and men and

can initiate men.

The The

essence of of the the Reclaiming initiation isis the of one’s will the the surrender of will to to the Goddess, represented in in the the authority authority of In undertaking of one’s initiators. In the apprentice invites the that initiation, the the initiator to to challenge her/him, that is, to to help help her/him confront her/his “shadow,” in in the the Jungian is, Jungian sense of of the parts parts of of oneself that that one would like like to hide, ignore, ignore, or repress and the to hide, and deny.” The aim of the process is to help help the the apprentice grow grow so that that the the deny.” The aim of the is to initiation will will be personal transformation, recognizing a maturation of be a personal of the self self in the tradition. the in the The teaching phase of the Reclaiming The teaching or apprenticeship phase of initiation into into the last more than two years, and tradition can last and the the ritual itself very itself can be be very long—nine hours in the case of in the of aa woman called Catherine. Catherine five women to asked five to be be her The challenges they her initiators. The they specified specified for for her included participation in her in other Wiccan rituals: to be sky (nude) as to be sky clad clad (nude) much as possible, to to forgo forgo wearing wearing contact lenses or aa watch for and for aa year and

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aa day, day, to to develop develop ritual materials for and to explore her her shadow for children, and to explore through each of of the for the the ritritthrough rituals based on each the four four elements. Preparation for ual magical will magical tools for for her her ual involved writing writing her her magical will and obtaining obtaining magical to give give to her upon initiation. (She had not not previously previously used ritinitiators to to her (She had used ritual The ritual itself began began with her her going park in in the the ual tools.) tools.) The going alone toto aa park evening and meditating there by by herself for for aa few few hours. Her initiators evening and meditating then came and blindfolded her and took her to adthen and her and took her to the the ocean. There they they adof each of the four elements. Next, they took took her her back back to to ministered tests of each of the four Next, they one of of the initiator’s houses, where a bathroom was prepared as a temple. the a prepared temple. There she she took took aa ritual still blindfolded. Her There ritual bath, bath, still Her initiators left left her her alone

for and then then they led her her to for a while to to find find aa new name, and they led to the the circle to to be be welcomed as aa full initiate and allowed to know all the secrets. She made full and to all the She promises to the The promises and and experienced an emotional dedication to the Goddess. The ritual concluded with an exchange of gifts between the initiate and the of gifts the and the iniinitiators. After the initiation, Catherine felt that her relationship with her her tiators. After the initiation, Catherine felt that her relationship with lover and that with others who lover was transformed, and that her her relations with who were initiiniti-

ated had changed, but but that who had ated had that her her relations with with others who had not been iniinitiated She relates, relates, “The only tiated were unaffected. She only secret isis that that itit isis so intimate;

that’s what cannot be just that be shared. ItIt is is just that itit isis so personal’”* personal” Pagans recognize the the rite rite of of passage into loving relationPagans recognize into committed loving ships through through marriages or handfastings. Handfastings are ritual ritual recogships nitions of of love relationships that that involve a dedication of of the the partners to to aa commitment for for aa year and day, for as long long as the the love lasts. year and day, or for lasts. However, marriage in of making making aa perpermost handfastings are understood as marriage in terms of In some places places where Pagans Pagans have have the to bebemanent commitment. In the right right to be legal legal marriages. Rituals for come licensed clerics, handfastings can be for binding of the hands of of the parthandfasting generally include aa ritual binding of the the partthe symbolic unity unity or lasting of the the couple. couple. The The ners, representing the lasting bonds of ritual may questions to couple from other attendants. In In aa ritual may involve questions to the the couple Druid handfasting, for from each of the for example, questions were posed posed from each of the four directions or elements. The four The partners were questioned regarding facfacing “the “the difficulties difficulties of clear light day,’ ‘the ‘the harsh harsh fires ing of ‘the ‘the clear light of of day,’ fires of of change,’ change,’ ‘the ebb and flow of of feeling’ and ‘the and restriction.” ‘the ebb and feeling’ and ‘the times of of stillness and Following the the commitment of the couple, of the couple, each element blessed the the union.“ Some handfastings, particularly in in Wiccan traditions, include aa ritual of of “jumping the the broom” as aa symbol of sexual union. The may symbol of The cleric may ask the bride and and recognize goddess in in her, her, and and ask the the groom to to look at at the recognize the the goddess ask to look the groom and and recognize the the god god in in him.* In ask the the bride bride to look at at the In Britain, Beltain isis a a popular popular time for for handfastings.*° However, some other Pagans unlucky to to get in May, May, because the the Goddess Pagans say say that that itit is is unlucky get married in the God God atat Beltain in marriage of of Earth and and Sun. Sun. To get married marries the in aa marriage To get at the same time as the Goddess, they they say, say, would be and at the the Goddess, be presumptuous and would bring bring bad bad luck. luck.

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Figure 10. Figure 10.

Chapter Chapter 44

from Mandy Mandy Furney) Handfasting (photo (photo from

Handfasting can involve blessing of types types of love relationblessing aa variety variety of of love ships, including not only heterosexual pairings pairings but but also and ships, including not only also homosexual and (group marriages). Although few few polyamorous committed relationships (group Pagans practice group marriage, most support In some Pagans practice support its its legalization.” In countries, such such as Canada, homosexuals can be be legally legally married. Statistics on homosexual handfastings are not available, but but 4.8 percent of of Pagans 4.8 percent Pagans surveyed are married ritually, 33.3 percent percent are legally 13.8 perpersurveyed ritually, 33.3 legally married, 13.8 and 0.4 0.4 percent percent are part cent cohabitate, and part of of aa group marriage.*® Largely due due to its overlap overlap with feminist-influenced women’s spiritualLargely to its ity, Paganism has has developed aa rite rite of of passage to to recognize the the elderhood ity, of women, often often at at menopause, the the ending ending of These rituals, rituals, of of menstruation. These

the strength, strength, wisdom, and called “croning,” recognize the and power of of older

the patriarchal image of of the old woman as aa withwomen, challenging the patriarchal image the old ered useless hag. hag. Some Pagans Pagans associate croning croning with aa particular age age beered because some women

continue to to menstruate into sixties, and into their their sixties, and some

stop variety of of reasons in in their their thirties or sooner. Z. Z. Bustop menstruating for for a variety Budapest gives aa ritual for end of of menstruation, but also aa separate crondapest gives for the the end but also ing Budapest suggests that that a croning croning ritual should be be done done at age ing ritual.” Budapest at age 56, that the the ritual should be done when “Saturn 56, astrologically reasoning that be done has [the woman’s] natal point,” point,” which “happens “happens to has returned twice to to [the to at age everybody at age 56.” 56.”

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Budapest, commonly known as “Z.” Budapest, is A}Abies die Budapest, “Z.” Budapest, is a a Hun-

garian immigrant toto the has greatly garian the United States who has greatly influenced the development of Paganism and the of contemporary Paganism and feminist spirituality. For more information on Z. Budapest, see chapter chapter 7. For Z. Budapest, 7.

Croning rituals for for groups of Croning of women are sometimes held atat summer At one of both men and festivals. At of these, these, although although both and women

the attended the

festival, only women participated in in the the croning ritual. The festival, only The ritual fofothe strength of and their their connections with with other other cused on the of women and living in in aa culture that does women, discussing the the problems inherent in in living that does croning rituals are atatnot value women or their independence. Some croning women.°? AA Goddess-oriented group in in Calitended by by both men and and women.*? Caliof women to to “claim” their fornia conducted aa ritual for for aa group of their Cronethe Goddess as Crone. hood after a six-month series of of workshops on the The held in in late About aa hunhunThe ritual was held late October, inside aa rented church. About

dred people, mostly dressed in in black, the event, event, including dred people, mostly black, attended the men, women, and The crones were welcomed in, and children. The in, dressed en-

tirely in in black, with their their faces faces partially by black veils. The The proprotirely black, with partially covered by cession began began with large cauldron, as aa symbol symbol of of with two crones carrying carrying aa large death, and and regeneration. As As part part of of the the ritual, ritual, each wisdom, death, each introduced

herself, saying saying where she she was from and and what she the herself, she contributed to to the community.

said, “I “I am Marilyn, Marilyn, daughter daughter of of Dorothy, One woman said, granddaughter of of Judith, Judith, great great granddaughter of of Laura, who was aa

daughter If you would seek wisdom with with aa Crone, Crone, seek seek me.” me.” daughter of of Hecate. Hecate. If you would seek wisdom Some participants mentioned sexuality, which was aa revelation for for some of the younger women attending the the ritual. Breaking the the stereotype of of of the old the crones presented presented aging old women as useless and and weak, weak, the aging as something to to look look forward to. to. They thing They served as an example to to the the younger that each each could look forward to to “an “an old old age age where she she could be women that be respected and and valued valued by her community, an old age where where she she could respected by her community, an old age could be serious, playful, sexual, wise, and humorous, be serious, playful, sexual, wise, powerful, powerful, political, political, and

she so choose.”°! should she Croning of passage in religion Croning isis a new rite rite of in Paganism, developing as the the religion few ethnographic accounts published, but but new rituals are ages. There are few

with new liturgies liturgies being developing, with being written. There is, is, for for example, aa new Charge of the the Crone circulating on the the Internet, which begins, Charge of begins, Hear the the Grandmother of Time: Hear the words of of the of Time: She who has been known as She who has been Hecate, Erishkagel, Cerridwen, Kali-Ma, Hecate, Kali-Ma, Anna, Perenna, Spider Spider Woman, Woman,

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Chapter Chapter 44 and and many other names —some feared, and and some loved, —some feared, some loved, but but none ever ignored. ignored. She brings wisdom and and She itit is is who brings the eternity. the awareness of of eternity.>*

into Pagans to recognize the of men into the transition of also developing rituals to Pagans are also elders.° elders. The final rite of As Starhawk notes in to preface to her preface in her of passage isis death. As final rite The The Pagan Pagan Book of Living and Dying, when aa family dies, one family member dies, and Dying, of Living The does not have the to fall fall back on is easier to to create new rituals. ItIt is the energy to tradition, did not not exist exist when when her to began to she began her mother died. Thus, she which did tradition, which for aa book. The The result, The Dyand DyLiving and of Living Pagan Book of The Pagan collect materials for ing (1997), coauthored with M. and the the Reclaiming M. Macha Nightmare and ing script for for aa funeral or memorial service, only aa script Collective, includes not only

but also also resource material for for comforting the the dying the bereaved. and the dying and but The basic message of of the the book is part of life, a biological neof life, is part that death is is that cessity. Life isis aa cycle, Pagan traditions, somein Pagan is honored in cycle, and death is cessity. Life times even welcomed as an end Pagans feel is a feel that death is to suffering. Pagans end to transformation, not just just an ending. ending. The Reclaiming tradition, following

the of the that part self surof one’s self part of Faery tradition, teaches that the Faery the teaching of vives death. The Reclaiming tradition holds that there are three aspects the self, self, what Starhawk calls (one’s rational conSelf” (one’s “Talking Self” the “Talking calls the toto the sciousness), the and self), and and instinctive self), (the emotional and Self” (the the “Younger Self”

the “Deep is reinthey believe, that is Self, they Deep Self, the Deep is the core). ItIt is “Deep Self” (one’s core). the carnated.*4 This aspect of one’s self is not spirit as opposed to matter. ItIt to spirit self is carnated.™ This aspect of is part of extraordinary reality, not cut off or separate from ordinary reoff reality, is part of ality, of this this extraordinary respeak of Pagans speak always perceptible. Pagans but not always ality, but ality, sometimes called the the Celtic-influenced sense of of aa in the the otherland, in ality, place Isle the Isle the Summerland, Avalon, or the of Faerie, the the realm of place imaged as the

of Apples.°° The Pagan Book of the realm Dying suggests that the and Dying Living and of Living The Pagan of Apples. of is nonlinear; one’s ancestors remain available even when the dead is of the they reborn, because Deep Self timeless. is timeless.°6 Self is the Deep because the been reborn, have been they have

Following the Faery tradition, some Reclaiming Witches teach that the Faery one should align Deep) to into inand Deep) the three selves (Talking, Younger, and align the crease one’s health, health, but also so that that after after death no parts get self get of one’s self parts of

leBs Buddhists, many Pagans Pagans believe believe inin reincarnation, but but without the goal goal of of release from from rebirth. AA popular popular Pagan Pagan T-shirt proudly proudly dedethe clares that again Pagan.” clares that the the wearer isis a “born again

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left behind as ghosts.*” dogma in left ghosts.°” Because there isis no standard dogma in Paganism, Pagan denominations, practitioners’ acor even necessarily within the the Pagan

counts of and their their ideas of what what Pagan Pagan communities communities should do counts of death, death, and ideas of should do following aa death, vary. Some suggest that that the the rituals are more about death, vary.

the living living than than about guiding Deep Self Self into into the comforting the guiding the the Deep the afterlife, saying that the the Deep Deep Self Self needs no guide, guide, because it in exsaying it isis atat home in traordinary reality. reality. Diane Baker, in Circle Round, speaks of the miscarriage in Diane Baker, in Circle Round, speaks of the miscarriage of of aa baby baby in lost spirit, spirit, asking its journey, journey, but the terms of of aa lost asking the the ancestors to to help help itit on its but the of the the ritual remains on the the woman’s loss. focus of loss. Baker suggests addressing the goddess saying, “Lady, “Lady, the am empty. empty. You’ve You’ve ing the goddess Hecate, Hecate, saying, the reaper, reaper, I I am taken life life II wanted, life life II invited. Come now and taken life from from my my womb, life and com-

fort me.”°§ Elsewhere, the that “offerings of food, lighted fort the book suggests that of food, lighted the earth are tangible tangible gifts of energy candles, or libations poured poured out on the gifts of to help help bring dead to to aa place and that that the the expression of to bring the the dead place of of renewal,” and of grief gives the energy to to reach the grief gives the the dead the the otherland.* otherland.°? the Faery Faery tradition, taught taught that the soul Victor Anderson, of of the that the soul lingers lingers for for

three days, days, so so the body should should not not be be left left alone, alone, and the rooms rooms of the dedethree the body and the of the out during during that that time. This period gives the ceased should not be be cleaned out This period gives the to say to the over.® Anbereaved an opportunity to say last last things things to the one crossing over. stray in derson also instructed that souls can stray in cases of of sudden or violent death, or they may not not know that that they dead, and and he he suggested that that death, they may they are dead, prayer and and ritual help aa soul be aa lingerlingerritual can help soul move on. This This straying straying can be ing near the body or home, or aa failing failing to to find find the the desired aspect aspect of of the ing the body the otherland. Anderson felt images of the afterlife exist, exist, and he indifelt that that all all images of the and he cated that you you go expect to you imagine imagine you will will go cated that go where you you expect to go: go: if if you go to to hell, then then you you will go there, there, but but you you can proceed proceed to pleasant place, place, hell, will go to aa more pleasant such the land of of the the ancestors.°! ancestors.*! such as the The Pagan Book of Living and Dying Dying provides aa comprehensive guide for The Pagan Book of Living and guide for Pagans dealing with death. It includes prayers for palliative caregivers to Pagans dealing with It for palliative to say, as well as prayers for the dying to say. It also provides a healing ritsay, well for the dying to say. It also provides a healing ritual for for following for use in andaaritritual following an abortion, prayers for in assisted suicide, and ual for removing life support. Rituals for washing the body, a blessing ual for life support. for washing the body, a blessing to to say, and instructions for censing the body are also also supplied. say, and for smudging or censing the body In addition, The The Pagan Book of and Dying In Pagan Book of Living Living and Dying furnishes a complete complete ritual script, including including music, music, for be adapted adapted script, for aa funeral or memorial, which can be

for dealing as necessary or appropriate. It It provides instructions for dealing with non-

Pagan participants in in funeral services. The The funeral service begins Pagan begins with with ofofferings to to the the land, body. Offerings to the the ferings land, asking asking itit to to receive the the body. Offerings are made to asking them to the dead, and the the ritual leader tells tells the the ancestors, asking to guide guide the dead, and s/he isis dead. Then the the life life of of deceased that that s/he the attendees share stories of of the

the deceased. Finally, Finally, the ritually release the the deceased and the the attendees ritually and ask ask for her/his rebirth. for rebirth.

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FURTHER READING Pike, Sarah. Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans the Search for for Community. Pike, Pagans and and the Berkeley and Los of California Press, Press, 2001. Berkeley Los Angeles: University of

Starhawk, M. M. Macha and the the Reclaiming Reclaiming Collective. The Pagan Pagan Book Book of Living and Starhawk, Macha Nightmare, Nightmare, and Collective. The of Living and Dying: Practical Rituals, Prayers, and Meditations on Crossing Crossing Over. San San Francisco: Dying: Prayers, Blessings, and HarperSanFrancisco, 1997. and Anne Hill. Hill. Circle Circle Round: Raising Starhawk, Diane Baker, Baker, and Raising Children inin Goddess Traditions. New York: York: Bantam, 1998. 1998. New

NOTES 1. See the June 8, 2004); 1. See the Witches’ Gathering, www.witches-gathering.com (accessed June 8, 2004); June 8, Murielle Varhelyi, personal correspondence, June 8, 2004. 2. the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in New 2. Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and and the in New Zealand (London: Routledge, Routledge, 2004), 2004), 139, 139, 162. 162. 3. and Janet Bible: The The Complete 3. Stewart Farrar and Janet Farrar, AA Witches’ Bible: Complete 1996), 66-71. 66—71. (Custer, WA: WA: Phoenix Publishing, 1996),

Witches’ Handbook

4. Pilgrims and and Sedona 4. Adrian Ivakhiv, Claiming Claiming Sacred Ground: Pilgrims and Politics at at Glastonbury and (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Press, 2001), 2001), 13. 13. 5.5. 6. 6. 7. 7. 8. 8.

Farrar and and Farrar, Farrar, AA Witches’ Bible, Bible, Farrar and and Farrar, Farrar, AA Witches’ Bible, Farrar Bible, See Rountree, Embracing Witch See Embracing the the Witch Embracing the and Rountree, Embracing the Witch and

24, 24, 27. 27. and and the the

111. 111. the 155. the Goddess, Goddess, 155.

142. Goddess, 142. 9. of Witches (Columbia: University of 9. Helen Berger, Berger, A A Community of of South Carolina Press,

1999) 59. 59) 1999), 10. of Witches, 73. 73. 10. Berger, Berger, Community of 11. Sarah Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical and the for Com11. Pike, Earthly Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans Pagans and the Search for munity (Berkeley: University of Press, 2001), 2001), 1-2. munity of California Press, 1-2. 12. Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Selves, 3. 3. 12. Pike, Magical Selves, 13. Helen Berger, Berger, Evan A. Leigh S. from the the Pagan Pagan Census: AA Na13. Helen A. Leach, Leach, and and Leigh S. Shaffer. Voices from NaSurvey of the United States States (Columbia: University of of South tional Survey of Witches and and Neo-Pagans inin the Press, 2003), 2003), 203, 203, 206. Carolina Press, 206.

14. Berger, Community of of Witches, 75. 75. 14. Berger, 15. These statistics are from Berger, Berger, Leach, Leach, and and Shaffer, from the Census, 208, 208, 15. Shaffer, Voices from the Pagan Pagan Census, 205, 210. 205, 210. 16. and Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices from 215. 16. Berger, Berger, Leach, and from the the Pagan Pagan Census, Census, 215.

17. Sarah Pike, Pike, “Forging “Forging Magical Magical Selves: Gendered Bodies and Ritual Fires atat Neo-Pagan 17. in Magical Magical Religion Religion and R. Lewis (Albany: State UniFestivals,” in and Modern Witchcraft, ed. ed. James James R. State University York Press, Press, 1996), 1996), 121. 121. versity of of New York

18. Pike, Pike, “Forging Magical Selves,” 126. 18. 126. 19. Pike, Magical Selves,” Selves,” 123. 19. Pike, “Forging “Forging Magical 123.

20. Pike, 20. Pike, “Forging “Forging Magical Magical Selves,” 122. 122. 21. Pike, “Forging Magical 21. Pike, “Forging Magical Selves,” 134-36. 22. Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The 22. Jone of San San Francisco The Reclaiming Witches of Francisco (London: (London: Routledge, Routledge, 2002), 2002), 47. 47. 23. 23. Margot Margot Adler, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down Down the the Moon: Witches, Witches, Druids, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and and Other Pagans in in America Today, Today, revised and Pagans ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, and expanded ed, Press, 1986), 1986), 19. 19.

Group Practices Group

87 87

24. Wendy Griffin, “The Embodied Goddess: Feminist Witchcraft and 24. Wendy Griffin, and Female Divinity,” Sociology Sociology of of Religion Religion 56 56 (1995): 35-49, www.csulb.edu/~weriffin/embodied.html (accessed June 15, June 15, 2004). 2004). 25. Graham Harvey, Listening People, (New York: 25. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Speaking Earth Earth (New New York York University University Press, 1997), 41. 41. New Press, 1997), 26. the Goddess, 143. 143. 26. Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and and the 27. See See Starhawk, Diane Hill, Circle Circle Round: Raising Raising Children in in Goddess 27. Diane Baker, Baker, and and Anne Hill, Traditions (New (New York: York: Bantam, 1998), 1998), 306-10.

28. Charlene Spretnak, “Ecofeminism: Our Our Roots and and Flowering,” in in Reweaving the the World: 28. The Emergence of of Ecofeminism, ed. Irene Diamond and (San FranThe Emergence ed. Irene and Gloria Feman Orenstein (San 1990), 13. 13. cisco: Sierra Club Books, 1990),

29. 29. 30. 30. 31. 31.

Berger, of Witches, 90. 90. Berger, Community Community of Berger, Community of of Witches, 1-3. 1-3. Berger, See Berger, of Witches, 91. See Berger, Community of 91.

32. 32. 33. 33. 34. 34. 35. 35.

and Hill, Hill, Circle Circle Round, Starhawk, Baker, Baker, and Round, 316-17. and Hill, Hill, Circle Circle Round, Starhawk, Baker, Baker, and Round, 325-27. Starhawk, Baker, Hill, Circle Circle Round, Baker, and and Hill, Round, 331-33. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, Feminism, 33. 33.

36. Berger, of Witches, 35. 36. Berger, Community of 35. 37. for example, example, Lady Lady Pixie “Lady Pixie Moon37. See, See, for Pixie Moondrip’s Pagan Pagan name generator, “Lady drip’s Guide to to Craft Names,” Names,” Widdershins, www.widdershins.org /vol3iss4/m9710.htm (ac(acdrip’s www.widdershins.org /vol3iss4/m9710.htm cessed June 24, 2004). cessed June 24, 2004).

38. Berger, of Witches, Witches, 27. 38. Berger, Community of 27. 39. Berger, Community Community of of Witches, 36. 39. Berger, 36. 40. Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth ofof the the Ancient Religion Religion of of the Goddess, 10th 10th 40. Starhawk, The The Spiral the Great Goddess, ed. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 1989), 173. anniversary ed. 173. 41. 41. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 248-49. 42. 42. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 250-51. 43. 43. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 256-72.

44. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 202. 44, Harvey, Paganism, 202. 45. Berger, Berger, Community of Witches, 33. 45. of Witches, 33. 46. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, Paganism, 11. 11. 46. 47. Berger, Berger, Leach, and Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices from from the Census, 142. 142. 47. Leach, and the Pagan Pagan Census,

48. Berger, Leach, and and Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices from from the the Pagan Pagan Census, Census, 28-29. 28-29. 48. Berger, 49. Zsuzsanna Budapest, Budapest, The Holy Book Book of Mysteries (Oakland, CA: CA: Wingbow Wingbow 49, The Holy of Women’s Mysteries

Press, 1989), 1989), 77-78, 77-78, 85-86. Press, 50. Berger, Berger, Community of of Witches, 50. Witches, 38-40. 51. Griffin, Griffin, “The 51. “The Embodied Goddess.”

52. This This piece piece isis usually usually attributed to Charge of of the the Crone,” Tryskelion, ed. 52. to Gypsy, Gypsy, “The Charge ed. Lady Shayra, Shayra, www. www. Tryskelion.com (accessed June June 24, 24, 2004), 2004), but but other sites sites say Lady say that that itit was co-written by Hank Shadow in in about 1996. See, See, for for example, example, Amethyst, “The Charge Charge of of the the by Hank about 1996. Amethyst, “The Crone,” Amethyst’s Wicca, Wicca, www.angelfire.com/r www.angelfire.com/realm2/amethystbt/chargeofthecrone.html Crone,” ealm2/amethystbt/chargeofthecrone.html June 24, 24, 2004). 2004). (accessed June 53. See, for example, example, Drowynn Drowynn Forrest Torgerson, “Elder “Elder Ritual for for Men,” Men,” PanGaia 39 39 53. See, for

(2004): 57-59. (2004): 54. M. Macha Nightmare, Nightmare, and and the the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book Book of Liv54. Starhawk, M. The Pagan of Living and and Dying: Dying: Practical Rituals, Prayers, Prayers, Blessings, Blessings, and (San Franing and Meditations on Crossing Crossing Over Over (San 1997), 73. 73. cisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997), 55. Starhawk, Nightmare, Nightmare, and and the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book Book ofof Living Living and and DyDy55. the Reclaiming The Pagan ing, 80. 80. ing,

88 88

Chapter Chapter 44 56. the Reclaiming Collective, The The Pagan Book of Living and and DyDy56. Starhawk, Nightmare, and the Pagan Book of Living

ing, ing, 104. 104.

57. Starhawk, Starhawk, Nightmare, Nightmare, and the Reclaiming Reclaiming Collective, Collective, The The Pagan Book of Living and Dy57. and the Pagan Book of Living and Dying, 76. ing, 76. 58. Starhawk, Nightmare, and and the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book of of Living Dy58. The Pagan Living and and Dying, 300. ing, 300. 59. Starhawk, Nightmare, and Pagan Book of Living Living and 59. and the the Reclaiming Collective, The The Pagan Book of and DyDy-

ing, 81, 148. ing, 81, 148.

60. Starhawk, Nightmare, and and the Pagan Book Book of of Living and Dy60. the Reclaiming Collective, The The Pagan Living and Dying, 154. ing, 154.

61. Starhawk, Nightmare, and the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book Book of of Living and Dy61. and the The Pagan Living and Dying, ing, 154. 154. 62. Starhawk, Nightmare, and The Pagan Book of and DyDy62. and the the Reclaiming Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book of Living Living and ing, 161-72. 161-72. ing,

a5

ork oot Myths and and Historical Origins Myths Origins

Geet Pagan rituals and and gatherings, often often Ger celebrations, as well as other Pagan include allusions to, to, or retellings retellings of, of, certain stories, myths, and stories, myths, and understandings of their history. history. The The relationship of of myth myth with history is standings of their with history is often blurred in in the origin myths, myths, and this isis also the various world religions’ origin and this also true of be understood simply bad hishisof Paganism. However, myth myth should not not be simply as bad tory. “myth” is that itit isis something fictory. The common meaning meaning of of “myth” is that something false or fictional, history isis generally to be be aa more objective objective account of of tional, while history generally felt felt to what really in religious religious studies, “myth” what really happened. However, in “myth” isis understood in being aa sacred or significant story. Myths are inspiinspiin the the sense of of being story. Myths say with rational stories for for practitioners, some say with archetypal content. Pracmight argue that that myths myths are true and and describe aa more real real account titioners might of why the way way they in the of why things things are the they are in the same manner that that some people people say that tell more truth about human life any purported purported say that aa novel can tell life than than any nonfiction account. In religions, myths tools of of inspiration In Paganism, as in in other other religions, myths function as tools and legitimation and political ends. ends. These uses of of myth myth and and may serve other political are not but they why the not necessarily manipulative, but they indicate why the stories are retold: the tellers and and the the listeners. Some told: because they they mean something to to the practitioners feel by questions of of historical accuracy, while othfeel threatened by others prefer prefer to to regard regard the myths primarily primarily as stories that that teach and and inspire. the myths Questions of apply to to understandings of of Pagan Pagan religion of historical accuracy apply religion as “the “the Old of pagan “survivals,” interpreOld Religion,” beliefs in in the the theory theory of tations of the witch hunts as the the “Burning “Burning Times,” Times,” and feminist tations of the medieval medieval witch hunts as and feminist revisionings of history, including what is sometimes called the myth of the the of history, including is the myth of matriarchies. Other prominent mythological stories in in Paganism that that have 89 89

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Chapter Chapter 55

Wild the Wild of the history are the the stories of less controversial relationships with history less

Hunt, Ceridwen’s cauldron, Odin’s hanging hanging on Yggdrasil, and Inanna’s Yggdrasil, and the descent into underworld. into the Pagans have often repeated repeated aa story of historical origins origins story of Contemporary Pagans that presents their religion as “the “the Old Religion.” According to to this this story, story, Old Religion.” their religion that presents Wicca, or Paganism more generally, represents the of pre-Christian the survival of pagan traditions into into modern times. In Old Religion” often often “the Old story, “the this story, In this refers to to the the religion of the British Isles before Christian colonization, imagimagIsles religion of the ined to Age. AA typical typical 1970s expression of the of the the Stone Age. be unchanged from the to be ined myth in a Church of All Worlds pamphlet written by by Tim Zell, Zell, of All be found in myth can be titled “Neo-Paganism: An Old Religion for a New Age.” Zell there exAge.” Zell for a An presses the the belief that that “Pagan” “Pagan” properly properly describes a natural folk religion, an folk religion, religion of the original the Isles, the the British Isles, of the original inhabitants of of the indigenous religion “faeries” or “heathens” who were persecuted by by the the the church following the Saxon invasions. The also makes reference to killing the church killing to the The pamphlet also nine million people Times.”? the “Burning Times.”! in these persecutions, known as the people in Many Pagans have discarded any any claim to to continuity with pre-Christian Many Pagans that their religion is not a surreligion is saying that to academic criticism, saying due to traditions due of a revival and of and reconstruction of part of but part of pre-Christian traditions but vival of ancient religious but “the Old Religion” but phrase “the the phrase religious practices. Some retain the change refer to the religion of the culture of Europe from Old Europe of Old of the to the to refer its meaning to change its the of prehistory. period of the Neolithic period The Rothe German Roearly as the at least as early began at of “the Old Religion” began The idea of mantics, in the late of the development of long before the 1900s, long early 1900s, and early late 1800s and in the contemporary Paganism as aa religion. “the religion. The German Romantics saw “the Old Fall the Fall of humanity before the religion of original, natural religion the original, Old Religion” as the

(of of God in in the They present of Eden). They garden of the garden the grace of (of humanity from the religion poetry and mythology, and as aa religion of poetry but of of reason but religion not of itit as a religion that the for example, used the Friedrich Schlegel, for feminine. Friedrich ideal feminine. the ideal idolizes the that idolizes phrase “the old his in his of nature religion in this understanding of for this old religion” for phrase “the 1799 novel Lucinde, in Julius, encourages aa woman, Lucinde, in which aa man, Julius,

to and embrace her her passionate nature. The her social sensibilities and to discard her of a religion of free love. Luof free priest and priestess of to them as priest novel refers to cinde isis associated with with the in later the Goddess in is the the moon, as is of the light of the light developments of for light light the Latin word for to the of Paganism. Her name alludes to (lux) poin a poSchlegel writes in of birth. Schlegel the Roman goddess of to Lucina, the (ux) and to etic style Pagans: “The religion II to contemporary Pagans: is inspirational to style that is have returned to fire worship fire and simple. II worship the most childlike and the oldest, the is the to is being the the best best symbol as being symbol of of the the Godhead. And where is is there a lovelier fire fire than the the one nature has has locked deeply deeply into the the soft breast of of woman?”2 woman?”? For For Schlegel, as for for contemporary Pagans, this this religion religion is is at at once “the Old Religion” and new. It It is is the the original.nature religion, but newly newly imagimagined after the the embracing of of reason; it it is is a new religion religion following urbanurban-

Myths and Origins Myths and Historical Origins

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ization and and the of the the repression of the Victorian era. Schlegel’s presentation of of “the Old popular appeal appeal that that spoke the English “the Old Religion” had had aa popular spoke to to the English RoRowho, in in common with with the mantics who, the German Romantics, expressed expressed an ideide-

alized vision of life in that “in “in the of life in the the country. Schlegel Schlegel wrote that the country—if to be—lovely houses and cottages everything were as itit ought ought to and charming charming cottages could adorn the the green earth earth like like fresh plants plants and flowers, and make it and and it aa garden worthy of God.”° Popular nostalgia for rural England began at the garden worthy of God.” Popular nostalgia for England began at the

end the eighteenth with the rise of of urbanization, urbanization, it end of of the eighteenth century century with the rise it reached reached aa height in the 1850s, and it has continued ever since.* Contemporary Paheight in the 1850s, and it has since.t Paganism embraces this this popular nostalgia, especially in Britain. popular nostalgia, in The popular of romantic images of the the countryside in The popular appeal appeal of images of in Britain combined with the appeal of the idea of “Merrie Olde England.” This was with the appeal of the idea of England.” This a popular popular myth of the 1800s that “characterized pre-industrial England as myth of the that a land of of social stability and harmony, operating above all through comstability and harmony, all through munal festivity.”° festivity.”° ItIt idealized the of medieval and the culture of and Tudor England England as pagan, despite despite the fact that that itit was Christian. It presented “Merrie EnEnthe fact It presented gland” ignoring the the upheavals of of Christianizagland” as eternal and and changeless, ignoring tion and the the Reformation (the (the splitting the church into into Catholic and tion and splitting of of the and Protestant sects).° Pagans who created this myth, sects). ItIt was not contemporary Pagans this myth, but they have it, supported by of pagan survivals. In but they have embraced it, by the the theory theory of In the late Victorian and in England, England, the idea of the late and Edwardian eras in the idea of folk-religion survivals, the idea that fossils of of the the past, past, was the idea that folk folk traditions were living living fossils

popular. This This idea theory that that social strata could be be ininpopular. idea was based on the the theory terpreted that the thought to to terpreted as geological strata, so that the lower classes were thought

represent cultural fossils, fossils, survivals of This theory theory was of preliterate culture. This rejected in archaeology and and anthropology in of the the comparative rejected in in favor of method, but in studies of but it it continued in of folklore much longer.” longer.” The French historian Jules book of 1862, La La The Jules Michelet, in in his his anti-Catholic book of 1862,

Sorciére, presented witchcraft as a pagan survival. In it, he he argued that In it, argued that of a religion religion of women were the the natural representatives of of nature, and and he he symbol of of the the rights rights of of presented the the witch as aa symbol of spiritual spiritual freedom and and of and the the working working class. Michelet asserted that that those killed in in the the women and practiced aa pre-Christian fertility fertility religion.’ religion. The The American witch hunts practiced journalist and and folklorist Charles Godfrey Godfrey Leland claimed to have found exjournalist to have isting practices in in Italy of the religion described by by Michelet, isting Italy of the pre-Christian religion he says says his old religion.” This This was not an orwhich he his informants called “the “the old

ganized religion, religion, he said, but but aa set he described ganized he said, set of of magical magical practices, which he than aa sorcery, and than aa faith.”? as “something more than and something less less than faith.” Pagans unlikely to to be Pagans are somewhat unlikely be directly directly familiar with with the the writings writings of Michelet and Leland, but but they the theory theory of of Pagan Pagan of they are usually usually aware of of the through the of Margaret Murray. Murray. Murray survivals through the work of Murray was an anthropologist who specialized in the folklore of of pologist who in Egypt, Egypt, but but she she also also wrote on the Britain and and the the witch hunts. Murray Murray argued that the the ancient pre-Christian pre-Christian argued that

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Chapter 55 Chapter

religion of of Western Europe Europe was Witchcraft. In In The religion The Witch-Cult inin Western Europe, she contends that religion with with beliefs, beliefs, ritual, ritual, Europe, she that “it “it was aa definite religion

and highly developed as that of any other cult cult in in the the and organization as highly of any world.”1° She posits posits that that the.religion was organized organized into into a hierarchy, with world.””"° She with slight local differences, as in in other cultures, and slight and she she presented itit as aa ferfertility religion.!! adopted her her suppositions that religion was tility religion." Wiccans adopted that the the religion that of of the the “fairy” people survived up to that “fairy” or “primitive” race, that that these people up to less than three hundred years in the past, and that practitioners were less in the past, that known as witches.!2 Wiccans expanded her her argument into aa sacred myth, myth, beginning with Gerald Gardner. Gardner espoused the idea that beginning espoused the that the the the earlier settlers of of the the British Isles in his his book Witchcraft Witchcraft Tofairies were the Isles in Today, first first published published in 1954, aa book for which Murray Murray wrote aa preface. preface. This This day, in 1954, book for story is still current in for example, in Ly de Angeles’ story is still in Paganism, repeated, repeated, for in Ly de Angeles’ When II See See the the Wild Wild God: God: Encountering Urban Celtic Celtic Witchcraft.' Witchcraft. little resemblance to to the by Although Wicca bears little the witchcraft described by Murray on the the basis basis of trials, practitioners use terms found Murray of the the witch trials, in Murray’s work, work, such such as “esbat,” “sabbat” (or in (or “sabbath”), and and “coven.”

the early early developdevelopMurray’s theories were quite quite influential in in stimulating the and may have been directly responsible for for the the creation of ment of of Wicca and been directly of of the cult some British covens.'4 covens.'* Murray Murray changed changed her her presentation of the witch cult in Western Europe, Europe, first in 1921, 1921, between writing writing The The Witch-Cult in first published published in and The The God the Witches, first first published in of a and God of of the in 1933, 1933, from aa description of religion to to the the celebration of of aa fertility fertility relirelidemonic devil-worshipping religion gion that that worshipped Pan. She She adopted adopted the the phrase phrase “the Old Old Religion” gion Religion” in in The God of the Witches, possibly The God God of of the the The God of the possibly from Leland’s work.'5 work.'° The in the the 1940s, right right before the Witches became aa best best seller in the modern Craft movement emerged.!¢ emerged.!° Although Murray’s Murray’s work was criticized by by witch-trial specialists at at the time of of its its first first publication, her her argument that the witch hunts were the that the against a pre-Christian religion religion was accepted by many acaa persecution against accepted by into the the 1970s.!7 Murray wrote the the Encyclopedia ademics into 1970s.!” Additionally, Murray Britannica article on “Witchcraft” “Witchcraft” for 1929 edition, edition, which which gave gave her her aa Britannica for the the 1929 lasting of academia.'* Gerald Gardner, the first populasting influence outside of the first and promulgated Murlarizer of of modern Paganism as Wicca, accepted and ray’s arguments about the the survival of of pagan religion religion in in the the British Isles Isles ray’s into modern times. Gardner indicates that that “witchcraft isis simply simply the the reinto mains of of the the old old pagan religion religion of of Western Europe, dating back to the Europe, dating to the Stone Age, Age, and that the the reason for for the and that the Church’s persecution of of it it was that that itit was a dangerous rival.”!9 rival.”!? Gardner claimed to to have found remnants of of this this ancient religion and to have and to into an existing have been initiated into existing coven

in in 1939. However,

academic

historians

have never

taken this this taken

claim seriously, because his his description.of description of the the religion was so dissimilar

of English English folklore. folklore.29 from the the witchcraft of

Myths and Origins Myths and Historical Origins

93 95

The accepted as factual by by The myth myth promulgated by by Gerald Gardner was accepted publicly challenged beginning beginning in Wiccans for for some time but but was publicly in the the 1980s by Aiden Kelly. Kelly. Kelly Kelly circulated aa manuscript describing the the history of by history of Gardnerian Witchcraft, which has has since been through many revisions and through and titled “Inventing He presents some of of his in isis now titled “Inventing Witchcraft.” He his findings findings in Crafting the Art of Magic: A History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939-1964. Kelly Crafting the Art of Magic: A History of Witchcraft, Kelly applied of textual criticism that that have been applied applied to to applied the the same methods of the Bible to Gardner’s Book of Shadows and concluded that Wicca is the to of and that is a modern creation, not of an old not aa survival of old religion.?! religion.?!

Some Wiccans continue to to accept accept Gardner’s account of of his his initiation and the authenticity of his historical claims as factual, in a parallel and the of his factual, in a parallel fashion to the the belief belief of in the literal truth of of the of to of some Christians in the literal the biblical stories of Jesus. The The belief that that Paganism Paganism isis the into Jesus. the survival of of an ancient religion religion into modern times, times, rather than than something something created in the 1940s and and 1950s, in the 1950s, propro-

vides aa sense of of legitimacy for for some practitioners. ItIt allows them to to make similar claims to to those other world religions to a long long history history and and lastthose of of other religions to lasting fear that the religion religion isis new, then then itit is ing traditions. Some practitioners fear that ifif the is just made up, up, aa fantasy fantasy without substance, which will last. However, just will not last. others celebrate the the idea idea of religion that to papaof creating creating a new religion that is is not tied tied to triarchal institutions, that that freely freely allows experimentation and the developand the development of of rituals enabling religious experience. enabling religious of contemporary Paganism have long long described their their reliPractitioners of religion and new. As As previously mentioned, Tim Zell Zell wrote about gion as both old old and her use of of Paganism in in these terms in in the the 1970s. Starhawk has has reframed her these terms somewhat, from her early presentation of of Witchcraft as the her early the religion persecuted in in the the witch hunts, hunts, to the older older religion pre-Christian religion to the religion of “Old Europe.” She began by by making of She began making the the debatable claim of of an ancient heritage for for the the Craft, Craft, framing framing itit as the the Old Religion as Margaret Margaret Murray Murray heritage Old Religion

the beginning understood it.?2 it.2? However, she she has has also also maintained from from the that “Goddess religion but contemporary Witchcraft that religion is is unimaginably old, old, but accurately be be called the Religion. The The Craft, Craft, today, today, is could just just as accurately the New Religion. is than aa revival, itit isis experiencing a renaissance, aa reundergoing more than creation.”?3 Starhawk now prefers to cite cite the Marija creation.” prefers to the anthropologist Marija Gimbutas, and referent of of “the “the Old Old Religion” Religion” is blurred and and assimiassimiGimbutas, and the the referent is blurred

into the of what Gimbutas calls calls “Old Europe.” Investigating lated into the culture of the origins of her religion has the origins of her religion has never been as important toto Starhawk as the the politics of spirituality. She little interest in in the the recent history history politics of her her spirituality. She exhibits little of of Wicca and and Witchcraft.”4 Witchcraft.” of the the development of Some practitioners distinguish between spiritual spiritual roots and and historical the history history of of Wicca. While the of the the conroots in in discussing the the literal truth of tinuity of of forms of from pre-Christian times isis questinuity of religious practices practices from tionable, the past certainly certainly inspires of beliefs in in Wicca,> Wicca, and and the past inspires the the content of old practices inspire inspire the the creation of of new forms. Arguably, Prudence Jones Jones old practices

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and Nigel Nigel Pennick’s AA History History of Europe (1995) (1995) renders the the debate and of Pagan Pagan Europe about connections between ancient and contemporary Paganisms moot and by elaborating how how Pagan ideas have have persisted persisted in in Europe Europe and by Pagan ideas and North America.?6 folk practices persisted persisted with a America.”* Some Pagans Pagans feel feel that that pagan folk Christian veneer, and that this thin thin covering has has been shed by that this by aa number of people people who who have come to to identify identify with contemporary Paganism. ItIt is of is likely that there are no hereditary Witches in in the the sense of of being being raised in in likely that a survival of of Murray’s witch cult, and that cult, and that if if there are practices with prepreMurray origins, the the people people involved did Murray origins, did not call call themselves witches or the accoutrements of of modern Witches.?” Witches.”” However, it have the it isis possible possible that that those who describe themselves as hereditary Witches do do have family family traditions that that have been been passed passed on for for generations, and that these these people people and that sometimes become Witches by by shedding aa Christian symbol symbol system that that includes folkloric magical magical practices. Some of the practices described by of the by Raven Grimassi, Z. Z. Budapest, Budapest, and others who who have have claimed that that they they from family family members—such as techniques for learned their traditions from for removing or averting the evil eye, divination, healing, healing, and moving averting the evil eye, and tonics—may well be part of of folk folk traditions that any particular particular well be part that were not identified with any religious but were passed religious tradition but passed down within families and and have recently happily recently been interpreted as pagan survivals. Some practitioners happily fer to learning their craft craft from from an aunt or grandmother who read read tea fer to learning their tea leaves or Tarot cards, that the the fact fact that such relatives did did not know cards, saying saying that they does not invalidate the they were Witches does the teaching. teaching. Part of the stories that tell about pagan survivals is story Part of the that Pagans Pagans tell is the the story of the “Burning “Burning Times,” which links contemporary Pagans Pagans to to those who who of the were killed in in the the medieval witch hunts. In 1979, when The In 1979, The Spiral Spiral Dance was first published, Starhawk Starhawk described terrors of of the was first published, described the the terrors the “Burning “Burning Times,” citing citing the estimate of “nine million million Witches Witches executed.”28 executed.”?8 In In the the estimate of “nine the that she she added for for the the tenth-anniversary edition, edition, Starhawk indinotes that low estimates run at at about 100,000, and and that that the figcates that that low the 99 million fig-

ure is “probably high.”?? high.””? She also mentions the is “probably She also the development of of secrecy the practices of around the of Witchcraft during the “Burning Times,” during the Times,” without further clarification.*° The exaggerations of The of what happened in in the the witch hunts are not generally the ally Pagans but the creations of the result of of Pagans of long-standing misinforbut are the of data from trial mation. The volume of trial records isis enormous, and only since and only the 1970s have have academics started to the to examine it it in in detail. Early Early research on the the trial trial records examined only only “3% of of the the available evidence. And that that 3% 3% was vastly vastly different from the the other 97%.”3! Because no one had had methodically counted the the deaths resulting from the the witch hunts, hunts, some specspeculations were greatly greatly inflated. The The nineteenth-centu ry American women’s nineteenth-century rights rights activist Matilda Joslyn Joslyn Gage accepted Michelet’s account of Gage accepted of the the witch hunts, hunts, adding adding the that nine the speculation that nine million women were killed. killed.

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Her 1893 book, book, Woman, Church, and State, State, isis the that inflated Her 1893 Church, and the origin origin of of that

the then-current theory culnumber. Gage Gage connected these women to to the theory that that culof prehistory were matriarchal,” matriarchal,** providing food for later later developdeveloptures of food for ments of of myth myth in in feminist spirituality. the European witch witch hunts changed Academic understandings of of the changed with

the of the forgeries of of a few the revelation of the forgeries few famous medieval witch trials of of de Lamothe-Langon reported that southern France. Etienne Leon de reported falsely falsely that the ina a single single day. day. He the Inquisition killed four hundred women in He was not a historian

but aa sensationalist but

writer

of of horror

tales. tales.

However,

later later

nonacademic readers of of his not necessarily know this. this. His His achis work did did not count became frequently and while no one cites cites him him directly, directly, frequently mentioned, and the story story continues to to be him, for for example the be retold without reference toto him, example in in popular Z. Budapest’s The The Holy Women’s Mysteries popular books such as Z. Holy Book Book of of Women's Mysteries and The Wiccan Mysteries.°> Mysteries.?3 Scholars Norman Cohn and and and Raven Grimassi’s The Richard Kieckhefer exposed beginning in in 1972.%4 exposed the the fabrication beginning 1972.4 scholarly analysis analysis of of the trial records, probably probably not more than Based on scholarly the trial 100,000 people were actually killed in the witch hunts.* This is still aa lot lot people actually in the This is still of people, but it does not constitute a women’s holocaust, as some have of people, but it not a have claimed. Some Pagan Pagan accounts present present the the witch hunts as a a politically motivated campaign against against women’s power as midwives, healers, and and wisewomen, or witches. The majority of those killed (between 75 and The majority of 75 and 80 80 perpercent) were women but not healers. Between 2 and 20 percent, depending cent) but not 2 and 20 on the the region, region, were healers. Magical Magical practitioners were actually actually more likely to accuse their rivals than were doctors or church officials. In central likely to than In Europe, than men were accused, but but in Europe, many more women than in Scandinavia the and in in some areas, such Iceland, men the numbers were more balanced, and such as Iceland,

targeted more than than women, constituting 90 90 percent percent of the accused.* were targeted of the accused. The witch hunts were not part part of of an organized of persecution The organized campaign of but were aa sporadic sporadic series of of episodes. not the the Inquisition or other other but episodes. ItIt was not of the that were responsible for for the establishments of the Catholic Church that the majority of of the killings. Areas under the of the jority the killings. the control of the popes were relatively relatively free of of persecution. It in the with free It was in the areas more distant from the the papacy, with

religious identities, that that the the witch hunts were most vicious. less-certain religious Religious officials “based in the Italian states relentlessly harried people people in the reported to to it to magical magical practices holding unorthodox reported it for for resorting to practices or for for holding beliefs, with penances, fines, death.°*” Christbeliefs, with fines, and and imprisonment,” but but not death.?”

ian likely to their ian peasants (Protestant or Catholic) were more likely to accuse their neighbors than were church officials. Local secular courts did of the neighbors than did most of the killings, and had brokillings, and “the “the worst horrors occurred where central authority authority had broken down.”*8 The The Inquisition Inquisition rejected procedures recommended in in the ken down.” rejected the the procedures the

Malleus Maleficarum, the the “Hammer against against the the Witches,” aa work sometimes cited by Pagans as evidence of of church persecution. Secular courts by Pagans used this not religious religious ones.” ones.*? used this work, work, not

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Ages the Middle Ages in the the witch hunts occurred in popular perception, the In popular In witch the of period intense witch most the the of but period centuries), intense most the fourteenth to but fifth (the centuries), (the fifth to fourteenth areas, into new spreading into then, when church power was spreading new areas, hunts was not not then, of power power (in nor (in the but eleventh to fourteenth centuries), centuries), but to fourteenth the eleventh height of its height at its nor at Age of at this the time time described as the from 1550 to to 1650, 1650, the this It was at of Reason. It the Age and the of secular rationality and in favor of waning in time that church power was waning the Christian church was destabilized by the Reformation, the the splitting of by the the splitting of the Church into The worst persecutions “took sects.*? The and Protestant sects.4° into Catholic and where rival Germany, Switzerland and in like place areas rival Christian sects and like place in fought religious views on each other.”"4! each other.’”4! impose their religious to impose fought to of the appeal to to some contemporary Pagans Pagans in in the “Burning Times” appeal Stories of part alof moral superiority. ItIt althrough aa sense of part because itit legitimates them through lows them to to present themselves as victims, justifying justifying aa righteous hatred of oppressive Christianity. Some Pagans reject reject the the idea idea that those killed in in of the witch hunts practiced a pre-Christian religion, but they to they continue to religion, but the feel a sense of of solidarity solidarity with with the the victims, who were wrongly accused of of feel malevolent magical and other heresies. magical acts and Another aspect of the appeal the “Burning Times,” and and of the of stories of appeal of of the of many the desire of is the of pagan survivals, is theory of the theory to the other ideas related to Pagans to to be be in in continuity with the the Celtic past All things things of Britain. All past of Pagans “Celtic,” including clothes, jewelry, magical names, and the pantheon of of and the jewelry, magical Celtic deities, are immensely popular popular in Pagans feel feel nosMany Pagans in Paganism. Many talgia for aa supposed supposed golden age identified with with the imagis imagThis is the Celts. This golden age talgia for ined as a simpler of greater connection to land, with a stronger the land, to the simpler time of ined and community. Such images the of Celtic culture and the images of of fellowship and sense of Celts are part part of of the of the savage.”* The The noble the “noble savage.”4? appeal of the romantic appeal savage is to modern morally superior to of “primitive man” as morally is aa stereotype of humanity. It of humans when the innate goodness of of the symbol of It isis generally aa symbol

free of of the of the the noof civilization. The idealization of the corrupting influence of free ble with the the eighteenth of the the Romantics of is particularly associated with ble savage is and People conand nineteenth centuries, especially Jean-Jacques Rousseau. People tinue to to identify with such images, images, wanting to become noble savages, unwanting to derstood as a primitive ideal in the Just as the of modern civilization. Just in critique of stereotype of Peoples as livliv“the Indian” presents North American Native Peoples of “the ing in the Celt is is presented as an exemplary huin accordance with nature, the ing man in in the and healthy. the natural state: strong, heroic, stoic, and Some Pagans and all indigenous cultures into one category and collapse all Pagans collapse freely spirituality.** Some practitioners freely mix Celtic with Native American spirituality. seem to people that white people image that is an image Celt as noble savage is the Celt feel that the to feel adopt without issues of can adopt of appropriation. This This possibility of of indigenous roots without appropriation has to many North Amerihas a strong strong appeal appeal to cans of of European descent, all all of of whom: whom. are immigrants. However, Irish Irish and and Scottish people people are not so sure itit isis not appropriation when AmeriAmeri-

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cans, or even the the English, English, call call themselves Celts. The of the The romanticism of the

Celts homogenizes various peoples peoples into into aa pan-Celtic culture, supposedly led by wise Druids, in harmony with nature and and the Pagans led by in harmony the faeries. Some Pagans feel that there is a continuity of belief, practice, and worldview across feel that is a of belief, practice, and Celtic cultures, so that a myth or tradition from one place and time can be that a myth from place and be combined with that of others within pan-Celtic culture. Some Pagans emwith that of Pagans brace the the idea of pan-European Celtic culture, but practice regionidea of but some practice regionally traditions.“ Many ally specific specific reconstructionist traditions.“4 Many practitioners within Ar Ar nDraiocht Féin Féin (ADF), for example, example, prefer prefer to to focus on the the traditions of of (ADF), for specific and to to reconstruct aa more culturally specific specific tradition. specific regions regions and While ADF supports the idea of of broad similarities between all the idea all Indo-European cultures spanning spanning Europe Europe and and Asia, Asia, practitioners usually usually adopt adopt (or (or are adopted adopted by) by) a specific specific patron patron deity pantheon and deity or pantheon and work within that that specific in their their rituals. specific cultural milieu in The of the the Celts Celts is to the the past. past. Some New The romanticism of is not restricted to Age Pagan practitioners avow that inAge and and Pagan that contemporary Celts are more intuitive than than others. This leads to to a general general perception perception that that Celtic heritage heritage This leads greater magical abilities, such bestows greater such as clairvoyance, and and lends authenticity to religious practice. AA number of of practitioners suggest that that they they ticity to feel aa sense of to their spiritual home in in visiting visiting Scotland or Irefeel of returning to their spiritual Ireland, belief that lived there there in in a past past life life or lives. land, and and express aa belief that they they lived The of the the Celts Celts is part of The romantic view of is part of larger larger social trends in in Britain and North America, America, not not restricted to Paganism. In British Isles, Isles, the the lalaand North to Paganism. In the the British bel “Celt” used to to Gaelic speakers speakers (Scots (Scots Highlanders and and bel to apply apply only only to Islanders, and and the the Irish, Irish, Welsh, Welsh, Manx, Manx, and and Northumbrians).

More re-

cently, all all Scots Scots and and even all all the English, are perceived perceived by by some cently, and Irish, Irish, and the English, Celts. The and were the the Celts is changing. Inas Celts. The perception of of who are and is changing. Into be be seen as a quality creasingly, “Celticity “Celticity is is coming to quality or aa matter of of choice of history, history, geography, language rather than an issue of language or ethnicity; ethnicity; it it isis ‘a‘a thing of of spirit spirit not of of heritage.’”46 People People who self-identify as Celts in in this thing this may be Celts,” people people who “feel in their that sense may be called “Cardiac Celts,” “feel in their hearts that they are Celts,” Celts,” regardless regardless of of their genetic genetic heritage heritage and live.”” they and where they they live.*” They with Celticity Celticity and and the the British Isles their spiritual They identify identify with Isles as their spiritual home. People often express this identity through through consumerism. People often this sense of of Celtic identity Celticity intensely commodified: there are Celticity is is intensely commodified: there are not not only only Celtic Celtic Tarot, Tarot, books books on Celtic totem animals, deities, jewelry, jewelry, and and ritual animals, tree alphabets and and deities, tools, but but also magazines, coasters, watches, socks, clocks, clocks, mugs, mugs, T-shirts, T-shirts, tools, also magazines, watches, socks,

and mobility has has also also caused aa renewed interand ties. Modern geographic mobility est of great est in in pilgrimage to to “Celtic” sites, sites, which are often remote areas of great

natural beauty.” beauty.” Identifying as Celts allows practitioners to to distance themselves from the mainstream culture of of late-modern urban life life and to express their the and to disaffection (social, (social, political, political, or spiritual) the dominant culture.” culture.°? It spiritual) from the

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of indigenous provides them with aa sense of of legitimacy as practitioners of religion. Some practitioners seem to to feel feel that religion. that Paganism Paganism is is aa more proper

fitting religion for those of of the the British Isles Isles or those or fitting religion than than Christianity for of British ancestry, suggesting that that Paganism represents the the religion religion of of of the land and its its people (or Roman) colonization. Celticthe people before Christian (or ity isis sometimes held held up ity up as a a better alternative than Eastern mysticism, as the the proper mysticism of the West.>! West.5! Embracing Celticity has has an appeal appeal of the in with other Pagan Pagan revivals in in Europe, Europe, where ethnicity, ethnicity, hishisin common with tory, and nationalism are often more important than tory, and than the the environmental

and Paganism in in North America, Ausand feminist values supported by by Paganism tralia, and ethnicity tends to to be be tralia, and New Zealand (colonized areas where ethnicity more mixed). Embracing Celtic culture isis often more socially socially acceptable than Norse or Germanic culture because of of the the co-optation of of German folk culture by Germany. folk by Nazi Germany. Despite the the questions of of historical accuracy posed against practitioners’ Despite posed against interpretations of religion as “the “the Old Old Religion,” and their romantic of their religion interpretations of of Celtic culture and and nostalgia nostalgia for for “Merrie England,” these myths appeal people to to imagine imagine bebemyths appeal toto many Pagans Pagans because they they allow people ing part part of ing of aa culture other than the the consumerist modern industrial culture of the continuity of the the contemporary Western world. Even if if the continuity of of contemporary with medieval folklore and older traditions isis questioned rary practices with by scholars and to inspire by and practitioners, ideas of of the the past past continue to inspire conmyths root Pagan Pagan traditions spiritually, spiritually, if histemporary Pagans. Pagans. Such myths if not historically, creating of memory, aa sense of of aa shared history, history, torically, creating aa community of and aa common pool of cultural symbols. and pool of Even for those who do not specifically identity as Celtic, for do specifically adopt adopt an identity Celtic, stories of Celtic origin are popular in Paganism. Many of the myths ries of origin popular in Many of the myths with with enduring appeal in Paganism, such as the Wild Hunt and Ceridwen’s caulduring appeal in the Wild and cauldron, are of Celtic origin. The Wild Hunt is a widespread Celtic myth, dron, of origin. The is a myth, common in in folklore throughout Western Europe. Europe. Generically, itit is is aa terrifying pack pack of of hounds or men, or spirits spirits of of them, by the the Wild Wild Huntsfying them, led led by man. The Huntsman has historically been identified as Herne the The has the Hunter in southern England, England, Odin in Gwyn ap ap in in Scandinavia and and Germany, Germany, and and Gwyn Nudd, ruler of of Annwn, the the underworld, in Pagans in Wales. Contemporary Pagans identify the of the the Wild Wild Hunt as Herne the the Hunter as aa later later form identify the leader of of Cernunnos, the God, or as aa Celtic Pan, Pan, god and anof the Horned God, god of of nature and

imals.°* imals. Alternatively, some Wiccans equate

some Pagans Pagans say that the say that the goddess Diana, whom with Aradia, leads the the Wild Hunt. Some Pagans Pagans inin-

dicate that that the the Wild be summoned, albeit Wild Hunt Hunt can be risk, to to avenge “exalbeit at at risk, “ex-

treme wrongs against against the the earth.”%3 earth.”3 Ceridwen’s cauldron isis part part of of the the Welsh story story of of Taliesin. Ceridwen, aa the story, story, although witch in in the often understood as a goddess in although in Paganism, to give give wisdom to brews a potion potion to to her her ugly to help help him him attract a mate. ugly son to mate.

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The potion potion needs to to brew in in her her cauldron for for aa year year and and a a day, day, and and she she The asks aa child, child, Gwion Bach, to tend it. it. Three drops boil out out of of asks Bach, to drops of of the the brew brew boil

the pot and land land on his he puts in his the pot and his finger. finger. Being Being burned, he puts his his finger finger in his to soothe the pain and and immediately knows that will kill kill mouth to the pain that Ceridwen will him for magical understanding meant for for her her son. He flees, him for stealing stealing the the magical He flees, changing form to try to First, he hare, and Ceridwen changing to try to escape. First, he becomes aa hare, him as aa hound. He He changes changes into into aa fish, and Ceridwen pursues pursues him fish, and him as an otter. He He changes into aa bird bird and and she into aa hawk. He flies into him changes into she into He flies into and changes grain of of wheat, wheat, and and Ceridwen aa granary and changes himself into a grain changes herself into into a hen later, she gives birth changes hen and and eats him. him. Nine months later, she gives to aa child child so beautiful that she cannot bear bear to to kill kill him him as she she had had planned, to that she planned,

him into into aa leather sack and knowing it it was Gwion Bach Bach reborn. She She sews him sack and the sea. AA boy finds the child and pulls out, and he he sets him him adrift in in the boy finds the child pulls him out, becomes

the chief of his his adoptive tribe, who who name the chief bard bard of adoptive tribe,

him Taliesin, him Taliesin,

meaning “radiant brow.”*4 It perhaps because Ceridwen’s cauldron is It isis perhaps is associated with with the the rebirth of Taliesin that that some say also Ceridwen’s cauldron that that appears in of say itit isis also in of Welsh stoBranwen, the the second branch of of the the Mabinogion, aa collection of ries and and Celtic legends. in this this cauldron, which was drawn out of of aa ries legends. ItIt isis in lake in Ireland, that that fallen fallen warriors could be be regenerated overnight, overnight, albeit lake in Ireland, albeit able to to speak.°> speak.°> Ceridwen is said to to keep keep her of wisno longer longer able is said her cauldron of dom, named named Amen, Amen, at at the of Bala Bala Lake Lake (or North dom, the bottom of (or Llyn Llyn Tegid) Tegid) in in North Wales.** inspiraWales.°¢ Starhawk refers to to Ceridwen’s cauldron of of “rebirth and and inspiration” that that restored fallen warriors to to life.°” tion” life.5” popular myths the story story of of Odin’s hanging hanging on Other popular myths in in Paganism are the Yggdrasil, and the Ygegdrasil, the the story story of of Demeter and and Persephone, and the descent of of Inanna. Each of of these involves a journey to the the underworld to to gain gain occult journey to knowledge, and and thus the to describe initiathe stories are often understood to tion. in particular particular to to practitioners of of mystery traditradition. As As such, such, they they appeal appeal in tions in in Paganism. Odin’s hanging hanging on Yggdrasil is is aa Norse story story in in which the god Odin Odin sacrifices himself in the god in the the manner in in which sacrifice was ofoffered to to him. him. In In Norse myth, myth, Yggdrasil ash tree and isis the axis of the fered Yggdrasil isis an ash the axis of the world, in the the trunk world, aa symbol symbol of of the the cosmos. It It isis rooted in the underworld, the in middle earth, and and the the upper reaches are in the sky. sky. The The word “Yg“Ygisis in middie earth, in the gdrasil” refers to horse,” or, literally, the the horse (drasil) the gdrasil” to “Odin’s horse,” or, more literally, (drasil) of of the

terrible one (Ygg). nine nights, nights, (Ygg). Odin hung hung on Yggdrasil for for nine spear, to to gain gain wisdom. Being pierced with a spear dedicated Being pierced a spear

pierced by by a pierced his death to his to

Odin, sacrificing himself to to himself. He He isis also also said Odin, sacrificing said toto have sacrificed an eye to drink from the well of the underworld, to which he eye to from the well of the to he journeyed while hanging on the tree. There he learned nine charms or songs from his hanging the he nine his uncle, brother, the giant Bolthor. He also learned eighteen eighteen uncle, his his mother’s brother, the giant He also runes, which are not specified specified apart apart from to heal, heal, to to calm calm runes, which are not from their their uses: uses: to storms, to to seduce women, and and so on.*® on.*®

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The descent of of Inanna, originally aa Sumerian myth, myth, and and the the story story of The of Demeter and myth, both both involve aa seasonal trip trip to and Persephone, aa Greek myth, to the underworld. Starhawk recounts the the story story of of Inanna’s descent into into the the the and the story of of Demeter and and Persephone in Round.°° underworld and the story in Circle Round.° Both stories provide for the the division of the year into winprovide an explanation for of the year into ter both are associated with which lies ter and and summer, and and both with grain, grain, which lies dormant

in the ground for for the the winter, winter, sprouts sprouts and and grows in the summer, and and isis in the ground in the

cut down again They are myths myths of of dying dying and rising then cut again at at each harvest. They and rising again in in the cycle of of the the seasons, and Pagans associate these stories with again the cycle and Pagans with regeneration and rebirth, but but also also with with initiation initiation into the the mysteries. The regeneration and rebirth, The myth of part of of the myth of Demeter and and Persephone was enacted as part the Eleusinian in ancient Greece. These stories also also have appeal mysteries in have feminist appeal through the the importance of of female deities in of through in them: Inanna as Queen Queen of and Demeter as mother of of the earth. Similarly, Similarly, Ceridwen Heaven, and the fertile fertile earth.

figure as the the owner of of the the cauldron of and isis aa powerful female figure of “rebirth and Pagan women find find such such images images of of female inspiration.” Contemporary Pagan

gainaa sense of appealpower inspirational, and and some gain of legitimacy through through appealing to to stories of such as Inanna. ing of prepatriarchal goddesses such For some Pagans, particularly those whose religious affiliation overlaps overlaps For Pagans, those religious with Goddess religion and feminist spirituality, the ideas of prepatriarchal with religion and the of goddesses and to their sense of of identity. and prepatriarchal culture are crucial to identity. Some believe in in a golden golden age of matriarchy, when goddesses were revered age of goddesses and women were respected, until the destruction of their way of life by by and respected, the of way of life patriarchal invasion. This is sometimes referred to as the myth of the maThis is to the myth of the triarchies, and and itit serves as a myth myth of of origin for some Pagans. Pagans. However, origin for most practitioners of Goddess religion, feminist spirituality, and PaganPaganof religion, ism do do not believe in in the the historical existence of of matriarchal culture. The of the the matriarchies serves as the The myth myth of the feminist spirituality movehistory. ItIt provides an origin myth that that encapsulates the the ment’s sacred history. origin myth thealogy, ethics, and politics politics of of women’s spirituality, spirituality, telling telling the the story of ethics, and story of the past and the invasion of The feminist the sacred matriarchal past and the of patriarchy.© The to the the idea of matriarchal prehistory use of of this this myth myth gives gives aa revaluation to idea of first by early early anthropologists and in the the ninefirst espoused by and cultural historians in century, such such as J.J. J.J. Bachofen, Robert Briffault, and Erich Erich Neuteenth century, Briffault, and

mann. These non-Pagan writers suggested suggested that that human history history shows aa near-universal tendency tendency toward ancestor worship, worship, and and that the lack lack of that the of of the the male role role in in procreation would naturally have led led to to didiknowledge of naturally have vinization of of aa mother goddess. This This theory by Near East theory was supported by East archaeological findings findings after after World War II.& II.° prehistory Nineteenth-century proponents of of theories of of aa matriarchal prehistory presented it presented it as an inferior prelude prelude to to later civilizations. The myth of the myth of the matriarchies revisions the the history history of of human culture as “herstory,” and celcel-

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ebrates the the idea of prepatriarchal goddess goddess worship. According to the idea of worship. According to the myth, women in in prehistory were respected and honored. Most Pagans Pagans myth, and practitioners of of women’s spirituality spirituality do do not use the the term “matriand archy” the cultures of but some do in aa maarchy” to to describe the of prehistory, but do believe in triarchal culture controlled by of this this narrative inby women. Some versions of include the the idea idea that that women invented agriculture, and and they they present present peaceful. This past is preprepatriarchal societies as uniformly peaceful.® This mythic mythic past is presented as a paradise for women and and men, not as the the inverse of paradise for of patriarchy with women dominating dominating men, men, but but as as egalitarian. with Practitioners who value this this myth myth point point to to archaeologist Marija Marija Gimbutas’ theories about the of “Old “Old Europe” Europe” as evidence. Gimbutas’ tas’ the culture of of aa Neolithic culture in in Europe that was peacework presents an image image of Europe that ful and and egalitarian. Gimbutas describes the the symbolism of ful of this this culture, she calls Old Europe, than matriarchal, by by which she calls Old Europe, as matrifocal rather than

she means that Her research sugsugwhich she that itit was mother or women focused. Her gests that that Old Europe was matrilineal and matrilocal, meaning that degests Old Europe that descent was traced through the female line, line, with men moving to live live with with scent through the moving to

that the the culture of Old Europe Europe was chartheir wives’ people. people. She She indicates that of Old by Indo-Euroacterized by by aa Goddess of of regeneration and and was overrun by

of ininpean patriarchal society, society, which revered aa sky-god, sky-god, through through aa series of period of vasions over aa long long period of time. Through Through these invasions, the the of women and and nature was introduced throughout Europe. Europe. denigration of

take this this history of ancient matrifocal culture as aa narSome practitioners take history of that explains explains women’s oppression and and the the destruction of the envirative that of the the Indo-European revolution as the the origin of the ronment. Some point point to to the origin of the from nature and and the of nature coincident estrangement from the desacralization of with the the beginning of of androcentrism (male-centered culture) in Europe with in Europe around 4500 BCE. BCE.%

The idea that all all Neolithic culture was without war isis demonstrably The idea that false, the supposition of of an idyllic idyllic culture in people lived in false, and and the in which people lived in with the harmony with with one another and and with the natural world isis speculative. Even the the nature of Old Europe, Europe, and the manner of of its its endendof the the culture of of Old and the ing, are debatable. Some interpretations of the culculing, of the the data data indicate that that the Europe was Indo-European and change came from ture of of Old Old Europe and that that change from within rather than than through through foreign foreign invasion. However, the the usefulness of of the the myth is not in its historical truth but in its poetic appeal and its psychomyth is in its truth but in its poetic appeal and its logical and and political political value. The The validity validity of of the story depends depends not on arlogical the story chaeological evidence but but on its its usefulness to to contemporary women. Like the Christian myth myth of humanity from the grace of God in in the the the of the the Fall Fall of of humanity from the grace of story of the Garden of of Eden, Eden, the the story story of of prepatriarchal culture isis only only story of the partly historical in also metaphor and and myth. myth. Its in enpartly in nature. ItIt is is also Its power isis in visaging to patriarchal culture. culture. visaging an alternative to

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of aa matriarchal or matrifocal Practitioners continue to to repeat repeat stories of past because these these narratives have political political implications. Not Not all past all practipractithe stories in in the way. Some practitioners tioners use or understand the the same way. skeptical than than others. Some are well well informed about are more critical and skeptical changing theories based on current archaeological evidence, and and they they fofochanging

specific goddesses and of the the Midcus on what is is known about specific and cultures of dle East. East. For For some, itit isis good enough that that such cultures can be be imagined dle good enough for them them inspire inspire political political action. Practitioners suggest that that what what once was for be again, again, and and that of can be that what we can imagine imagine we can create. Supporters of the of a culture that that honors the myth myth draw inspiration from the the possibility of

In her Thing, Starhawk suggests that, that, ifif women. In her novel The The Fifth Fifth Sacred Thing, such aa culture existed once, “it “it isis possible.”® possible.”© Others similarly similarly comment such that “we have lived sanely do itit again.”® that sanely before, before, we can do again.” FURTHER READING Eller, Cynthia. The of Matriarchal Prehistory: Why Why an Invented Past Give Women aa Eller, Cynthia. The Myth Myth of Past Won't Give Future. Boston: Beacon Press, Press, 2000. 2000.

Gibbons, Jenny. in the Study of of the the Great European Witch Hunt.” The The Jenny. “Recent Developments in the Study Pomegranate: AA New Journal Journal of of Neopagan Thought Thought 55 (1998): 2-16. Rees, Kenneth. “The Tangled Skein: The The Role Role of Today, ed. Rees, of Myth Myth in in Paganism.” In In Paganism Paganism Today, ed. Charlotte Hardman and Harvey, 16-31. London: Thorsons (HarperCollins), 1996. 1996. and Graham Harvey,

NOTES in Chas Her Hidden Children (Lanham, MD: Press, 2006), 2006), 78. 78. 1,1. Cited in Chas S. S. Clifton, Clifton, Her MD: AltaMira Press,

Schlegel, Lucinde and 2.2. Friedrich Schlegel, and the the Fragments, trans. Peter Firchow (Minneapolis: University of of Minnesota Press, Press, 1971), 1971), 61. 61. versity 3. Schlegel, Lucinde Lucinde and and the Fragments, 108. 3. Schlegel, the Fragments, 108.

4. 4. Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of The Triumph of Modern Pagan of the the Moon: AA History History of Pagan Witchcraft Witchcraft (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, 1999), 1999), 117. 117. 5. the Moon, Moon, 118. 118. 5. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the

6. the Moon, 120. 6. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the Moon, 120.

7.7. 8. 8. 9. 9. 10. 10.

of the the Hutton, Triumph Triumph of Triumph of of the the Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Hutton, Triumph Margaret Murray, Margaret Murray, The The

Moon, Moon, 112-13.

Moon, 138-39. Moon, Moon, Moon, 144. Witch-Cult in Europe: AA Study in Western Europe: Study in in Anthropology (Oxford:

Clarendon [Oxford University University Press], Press], 1921), 1921), 12. 12. 11. Murray, The Witch-Cult in in Western Europe, Europe, 13-14. 11. Murray, The

12. Murray, The The Witch-Cult inin Western Europe, 12. Murray, Europe, 238. 238. 13. Ly de 13. Ly the Wild de Angeles, Angeles, When II See See the Wild God: Encountering Urban Celtic Witchcraft Witchcraft (St. (St. Paul, Paul, MN: Llewellyn Llewellyn Publications, Publications, 2004). 2004). MN:

14. Margot Adler, Drawing 14. Margot Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess- Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America America Today, Today, revised Pagans in revised and expanded ed. ed. (Boston: (Boston: Beacon and expanded Beacon Press, Press, 1986), 1986), 56. 56. 15. Triumph of of the the Moon, Moon, 196. 196. 15. Hutton, Triumph 16. Triumph of of the the Moon, 16. Hutton, Triumph Moon, 200. 200.

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17. Hutton, Triumph of Moon, 198; 17. Hutton, Triumph of the the Moon, 198; Jone Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The The Reclaim-

ing Witches of of San San Francisco (London: Routledge, 2002), 89. ing 2002), 89. 18. Clifton, Her Hidden Children, Children, 74. 18. Clifton, Her 74.

19. Gerald Gardner, The The Meaning Meaning of Witchcraft (New Magical Childe Publishing, 19. of Witchcraft (New York: Magical 1959), Ao: 9. 59) 20. Triumph ofof the the Moon, 20. Hutton, Triumph Moon, 206. 206. 21. Children, 85-86. 21. Clifton, Clifton, Her Her Hidden Children,

22. The Spiral Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of of the the Ancient Religion Religion of of the 22. Starhawk, The the Great Goddess, 10th ed. (New 1989), 16. anniversary ed. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 16. 23. 23. 24. 24. 25. 25. 26. 26.

Spiral Dance, Starhawk, Spiral Dance, 22. 22. Salomonsen, Enchanged Enchanged Feminism, 90. 90. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 90. 90. Hutton, Triumph of of the the Moon, Hutton, Triumph Moon, 381. 381.

27. ““An’ Ye Ye Will’: Neo-Pagans and 27. Shelly Shelly Rabinovitch, ““An’ Ye Harm None, None, Do Do What Ye and Witches in Canada” (Master’s thesis, thesis, Carleton University, 1992), 66-68. in University, Ottawa, Ottawa, 1992), 28. Dance, 20. 20. 28. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, 29. Spiral Dance, Dance, 214. 214. 29. Starhawk, Spiral

30. 50, 72. 30. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, Dance, 50, 72.

31. Jenny Jenny Gibbons, “Recent Developments in in the of the the Great European Witch 31. the Study Study of Hunt,” The New Journal Journal of Hunt,” The Pomegranate: AA New of Neopagan Thought Thought 55 (1998): (1998): 4. 4. 32. Triumph of of the the Moon, Moon, 141. 32. Hutton, Triumph 141. 33. 33. 34. 34. 35. 35. 36. 36. 37. 37. 38. 38. 39. 39. 40. 40. 41. 41.

Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” Triumph of Hutton, Triumph of the the Moon, Moon, 146. 146. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” Gibbons, “Recent Developments,”

6. 6.

5.5. 15. 15. 13. 13. 8-9. 8-9. 10-11. 6.6. 8. 8.

42. This argument isis developed developed in Images of Celts 42. in Marion Bowman, “Cardiac Celts: Images of the the Celts in in Paganism Paganism Today, ed. Charlotte Hardman and in Paganism,” in Today, ed. and Graham Harvey, Harvey, 242-51 (Lon(Lon-

don: Thorsons [HarperCollins], 1996). 1996). 43. 43. 44. 44. 45. 45. 46. 46. 47. 47.

Bowman, Bowman, Bowman, Bowman, Bowman,

“Cardiac Celts,” Celts,” 247. “Cardiac Celts,” 247. Celts,” 247. “Cardiac Celts,” 244. Celts,” 244. “Cardiac Celts,” Celts,” 245. 245. 246. “Cardiac Celts,” Celts,” 246. 48. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,” 249. 48. Celts,” 249. 49. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,” 246. 49. Celts,” 246. 50. Celts,” 247. 247. 50. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,” 51. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,” Celts,” 248. 248. 51. 52. and Janet Farrar, 52. Stewart Farrar and Janet Farrar, (Custer, WA: WA: Phoenix Publishing, 1996), 1996), 53. de Angeles, When II See See the Wild 53. Ly Ly de Angeles, When the Wild

Bible: The Complete AA Witches’ Bible: The Complete 81. 81. God, 75. God, 75.

Witches’ Handbook

54. See James ed., “Taliesin,” in of Celtic Mythology (Oxford: Ox54. See James MacKillop, ed., in Dictionary Dictionary of Oxford University Press, 1998), 353-54. For For aa Pagan retelling, see Starhawk, Diane Baker, and ford Press, 1998), Pagan retelling, Baker, and Anne Hill, Raising Children in 1998), Hill, Circle Round: Raising in Goddess Traditions (New (New York: Bantam, 1998),

134-37. 55. Alwyn Rees and Brinley Brinley Rees, 55. Alwyn Rees and Rees, Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in in Ireland and and Wales Wales (New York: York: Thames && Hudson, 1961), 1961), 47. 47. (New

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56. James of Celtic Mythology (Oxford: Oxford Uni56. James MacKillop, “Ceridwen, ” in in Dictionary of versity Press, 76. versity Press, 1998), 1998), 76. 57. Starhawk, Baker, and Hill, Hill, Circle Circle Round, Round, 97-98. 57. Baker, and

58. See The Penguin Penguin Book of Myths: Gods Gods of Vikings (Lon(Lon58. See Kevin Crossley-Holland, The of Norse Myths: of the the Vikings don: 1980), 15-17, 186-88. don: Penguin Penguin Books, Books, 1980), 59. Starhawk, Baker, Hill, Circle Round, Round, 237-40, 237-40, 151-56. 59. Baker, and and Hill,

60. Cynthia Eller, Eller, Living Living inin the of the the Goddess: The The Feminist Spirituality 60. the Lap Lap of Spirituality Movement in in 1995), 151. 151. America (Boston: Beacon Press, Press, 1995),

61. Eller, Living in the Lap Lap of of the the Goddess, 152. 152. 61. Eller, Living in the 62. Eller, Eller, Living Living in the Lap Lap ofof the the Goddess, 159. 159. 62. in the

63. See See Charlene Charlene Spretnak, Spretnak, “Ecofeminism: “Ecofeminism: 63.

Our Roots and Flowering,” Flowering,” in the Our Roots and in Reweaving Reweaving the

Emergence ofof Ecofeminism, ed. Irene Diamond and and Gloria Feman Orenstein (San (San World: The The Emergence ed. Irene Francisco: Sierra Club Club Books, Books, 1990), 11. ItIt isis somewhat ironic that that some practitioners blame 1990), 11.

Indo-European others embrace 64. Kathryn Kathryn 64.

for the the cultures of of matriarchal prehistory, prehistory, while culture for the destruction of of the it the ancient root of of Celtic culture. it as the Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and and the the Goddess: Feminist Ritual New Ritual Makers in in New

Zealand (London: Routledge, 56, 70, 70, 63. 63. Routledge, 2004), 2004), 56, 65. Starhawk, Starhawk, The Fifth Sacred York: Bantam, Bantam, 1993), 1993), 111. 65. The Fifth Sacred Thing Thing (New (New York: 111.

66. Charlene Spretnak, “Toward an Ecofeminist Spirituality,” Healing Healing the 66. the Wounds: The The of Ecofeminism, ed. ed. Judith Plant (Toronto: Between the the Lines, Lines, 1989), 1989), 131. Promise of Judith Plant 131.

66 ook ook Literary Literary Origins Origins and Influences and

Ithough Pagans do do not not regard regard any any particular text text as scripture, Ithough most Pagans scripture, Pagans are written sources are enormously important in in Paganism. Pagans of popular also of of acvoracious readers, not only only of popular texts on Paganism, but but also the disciplines of folklore, anthropology, and and religion. religion. ademic texts from from the of folklore, (This isis perhaps less true of Paganism who who have have (This perhaps less of recent converts to to Paganism learned more from Internet sources.) Some groups created themselves entirely out out of of literary literary and and academic sources, such the Witchcraft group tirely such as the in the Golden in California called the the New Reformed Orthodox Order of of the Dawn

(NROOGD).

In in the and 1950s, 1950s, Wicca developed In Britain in the 1940s and

largely out of of early writings in in anthropology and and folklore, the largely early writings the inspiration of and poetic myth, and and what is of poetry poetry and poetic myth, is sometimes called the the Western esoteric tradition. “Esoteric” means obscure, something understood only by those with only by those with special knowledge or training. In this context, it also usually means “ocspecial training. In this it also usually “occult,” which means hidden. Esoteric knowledge is kept hidden from the cult,” is kept from the mainstream. The The Western esoteric tradition is made up of a group of texts is up of of magic and magical practices on magic and occult groups that that developed magical practices based on their interpretations of previous works, particularly Neo-Platonism and and their of previous to Hermes Trismegistus. Some of be seen texts attributed to of these texts can be in folklore, folklore, as early early prefigurations of of Paganism. Other texts, texts, particularly in of Wicca as aa reinvention of of are believed to to have have inspired inspired the the creation of what were presented presented as survivals of pagan traditions. PoPoof pre-Christian pagan etry and inspire and Pagans’ unetry and novels continue to to inspire and inform contemporary Pagans’ of divinity their ritual practices. derstandings of divinity and and their

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ermes Trismegistus isis aa title thrice greatest.” greatest.” title meaning “Hermes thrice Heres and alchemy magic, and astrology, magic, Authorship of of numerous texts on astrology, Piet are attributed toto Hermes Trismegistus. Hermes is the messenger of the is the of the gods mythology. According to the Western esoteric tradition, gods inin Greek mythology. to the the the Egyptian Egyptian god god Thoth “scribe toto the gods,” the ancient Greeks called the the gods,” and attributed authorship of from Egypt and of sacred writings derived from Egypt toto him. Post-Christian writings, writings, some of of which may him. may originate originate in in translathis earlier material, tions ofof this material, were attributed toto Hermes Trismegistus in in writings form form a body of writings known as aa similar fashion. These writings body of Hermetic literature. '

The of folklore studies are entwined The histories of of Paganism and and of through their common purpose of the Enlightenment.” Enlightenment.* Pathrough of critiquing the Paganism began the early early twentieth century, after urbanganism began in in the the context of of the and changes in British culture resulting from from modern life life and ization and changes in and the the Enlightenment. “The Enlightenment” is to describe the peis aa term used to the period in in European history history when rationalism was coming to replace coming to replace unquestioned faith in in the the authority of of church and state. There was aa great great of faith faith put put into reason to to make people’s people’s lives lives better, better, but but at the deal of at the same time the changes toward democracy from from feudalism (rule (rule by by aristhe changes tocracy) destabilized European society. society. As As people to come tocracy) people were forced to to cities to to find work, work, some became nostalgic for to for a simpler simpler life. life. Some people people became critical of of the the Enlightenment and instead celebrated aspects of cultures that were perceived as “other,” including including non-Europects of pean cultures and and peasant- or working-class cultures within Europe. Europe. During the the Enlightenment, European writers developed relationships During with other peoples of racial and and class class differences.3 peoples based on the the idea of differences.? the Enlightenment was criticized, the the cultures of When the of those who were perceived as “other” were celebrated as possibly possibly better alternatives to to perceived the dominant views of of Enlightenment culture. In In folklore studies, this the this not only only North American Native traditions, but but also also the the folk included not folk

of working-class people people in in Britain. traditions of As discussed in in chapter chapter 5, and folklorists develAs 5, early early anthropologists and oped aa theory theory of of pagan survivals. This This was inspired part by by Charles oped inspired in in part theory of interpreted in Darwin’s theory of evolution, interpreted in terms of of cultural evolution. The theory theory suggested that that folklore preserved aspects aspects of of previous stages stages of of The development, so folk folk customs were interpreted as remnants of seasonal of fertility fertility rituals.* rituals.4 All be identified with witchcraft. As All folklore came to to be As some Pagans fond of of pointing out, Pagans are fond such as decorating out, folk traditions such decorating

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and Easter eggs to EuEuChristmas trees and eggs continued after after Christianity came to rope, acquiring aa “veneer of of Christianity.” Magical practices practices of of folk rope, folk traditions were often largely largely unchanged unchanged when Christian Saints’ names re-

placed the of folk folk placed the names of of pagan deities. There were indeed survivals of traditions, but but they they were pagan: “When they were as much Catholic as they

and his his followers railed against religion’ and Oliver Cromwell and against ‘the ‘the old old religion’ of popular popular year-cycle customs, they targetforbade the the performance of they were targeting the the practice practice of and customs associated with it, not the ing of Catholicism and with it, the actual observance of of pagan religions. religions. Nevertheless, for for the the reformers they tual they were practically one and the the same. AA connection, however ill-conceived, in European, and and especially British thought between the the was formed in practice of and customs and ‘paganism.’”® Protestant reformpractice of folk folk rituals and and ‘paganism.’”> all folk folk tradition and magic as “pagan “pagan contamers interpreted all and vernacular magic ination.”° Many contemporary Pagans Pagans later later embraced the idea that that folk ination.” Many the idea folk they continue to to view their their own relirelicustoms are pagan survivals, and they gious practices practices as being being in in continuity with pre-Christian traditions. gious One of important sources of One of the the most important of the the theory theory of of pagan survivals isis James Frazer’s The Bough. Frazer (1854-1941) was aa student of of E. James The Golden Bough. E. B. B. Tylor, an early espoused the the idea idea of of pagan Tylor, early anthropologist who originally originally espoused survivals. Frazer sought sought to to expose pagan survivals to to rational analysis in analysis in them, and and religion He wanted to that Euorder to to refute them, religion inin general. He to show that Eufolk traditions were no less less irrational than than foreign ropean folk foreign traditions, and all religion in nonsense. However, rather than convincthus that that all religion isis based in ing religion isis based on irrational superstiing contemporary Pagans Pagans that that all all religion supersti-

tion, he the basis for for the the Wiccan seasonal mythic mythic cycle. pretion, he laid laid the cycle. Frazer presented pagan traditions as fertility and argued argued that involving fertility cults and that rituals involving the dying and and rising god resulted from aa universal myth myth underthe idea of of aa dying rising god lying religion religion everywhere. Pagans Pagans later took took this this supposed universality as lying proof of the the myth’s legitimacy. proof of myth’s legitimacy. The Golden Bough in 1890 in in two volumes. Frazer The Bough was first first published in later expanded into twelve volumes and and finally abridged itit to to one vollater expanded itit into finally abridged volume, which was first first published published in in 1922. the 1911 third edition, Frazer 1922. In In the argues that that pagan traditions survive into into modern times. He He speaks speaks of of “spring and Europe prob“spring and midsummer rites which our rude forefathers in in Europe probably performed full consciousness of of their their meaning, and ably performed with aa full and which of their their descendants still up, though though the original intention of many of still keep keep up, the original of the rites rites has has been great extent, but by no means altogether, forgotthe been to to aa great but by forgot-

ten.” Frazer does does not identify identify these with witchcraft or with an organized ten.”” religion as Margaret Murray did. religion Margaret Murray later later did. Some aspects aspects of ritual common in in Wicca are visible in Bough, of ritual in The The Golden Bough, and some may be derived from it via later writers who used it as a source. and may be from it via later who it a The The “cakes and and wine” served as refreshments in in Wiccan rituals are present, present,

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used in aa ritual context. However, the the ritual itself little resembles what isis itself little used in

done in in Wiccan circles. Of Of aa Dianic festival, he dogs he recounts, “Hunting dogs were crowned and and wild wild beasts were not people went not molested; young people through in her her honour; wine was brought forth, brought forth, through aa purificatory ceremony in and the feast consisted of a kid, cakes served piping hot on plates of leaves, plates of piping hot of a kid, and the feast and apples still still hanging the boughs.”® boughs.”8 in clusters on the hanging in and apples Frazer’s work supports the the of conceiving the Pagan notion of the widespread Pagan Goddess as an overarching deity, than one goddess goddess among others. deity, rather than He asserts that that “Diana was not of wild wild beasts, beasts, aa mismerely aa patroness of not merely He lonely glades glades and sounding rivers; conceived of lonely hills, of and hills, of woods and tress of the yellow yellow harvest moon, it would seem, as the especially, it and especially, the moon, and as the

she filled the fruits, and heard the the prayers of of goodly fruits, the farmer’s grange with goodly she in travail.”° Frazer isis not referring to to aa religion here, of Witchcraft here, religion of women in but is. he is. though he his work as though easily interpret his but Wiccan readers can easily Frazer introduced the by Pagans, Pagans, and and Wiccans in particuin particuthe idea adopted by lar, god who isis sacrificed and He cycle. He yearly ritual cycle. in a yearly again in and rises again of a a god lar, of describes how this to be: that the godthe godthe principle that be: “Now on the god came to this god dess of of fertility fertility must herself be to have a male it behooved Diana to fertile, it be fertile, the testimony of be trusted, was that of Servius may be if the Her mate, if partner. Her in his embodiment, in perhaps rather his his representative, or perhaps Virbius who had his the at Nemi. The aim of be to to proof their union would be the Wood at of the King of the King of animals, and it and it of mankind; and and of earth, of the earth, of the the fruitfulness of mote the

might that this this object surely attained be more surely object would be thought that be thought naturally be might naturally if the divine of the parts of the parts the sacred nuptials were celebrated every year, the if the bride and by living living images or by by their images played either by being played and bridegroom being the Horned God, God, and is sacrificed the god who is this god call this persons.”!° Wiccans call they celebrate his Rite, the Great Rite, the Goddess through the his ritual mating with the they placing by placing usually performed symbolically by a ritual sexual union, usually which isis a an athame in of wine. in aa chalice of The New Golden Bough the twelve-volume of the Bough (1959), a later abridgement of The edition, more explicitly identifies the figure, a the Goddess as a mother-earth figure, belief supported by alis althe Goddess is of the by many Pagans. Frazer’s concept of tered in King the King God, or the the Horned God, off the the emphasis off taking the this edition, taking in this of Bough presents their relationship thus: the Wood. The New Golden Bough of the the personification of of all AA great great Mother Goddess, the all the the reproductive energies energies of nature, was worshipped under different names but of but with aa substantial simsimilarity by many people ilarity of of myth myth and ritual by of Western Asia; that associated people of Asia; that with her her was aa lover, lovers, divine yet lover, or rather series of yet mortal, with of lovers, with whom

she she mated year year by by year, year, their commerce being to the being deemed essential to the propagation of of animals and and plants, plants, each in agation in their their several kind; and further, fabkind; and further, the the fabulous union of pair was simulated and, of the the divine pair and, as itit were, multiplied multiplied on earth by by the real, though though temporary, union of the real, of the the human sexes at at the the sanctusanctu-

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ary of of the goddess for the sake of thereby thereby ensuring ensuring the the fruitfulness of the ary the goddess for the sake of of the ground and and the the increase of of man and ground and beast."

Despite dispel belief in Bough Despite his his intention to to dispel in religion, religion, Frazer’s Golden Bough continues to Pagan belief in in the the dying dying and rising god who who mates to inspire inspire Pagan rising god with the in seasonal festivals to to secure the of the with the Goddess in the fertility fertility of the land. The influence of of Charles Leland’s Aradia on the of Wicca The the development of of Frazer’s work. Leland isis perhaps perhaps more immediately obvious than that that of of Diana as the of the (1824-1903) wrote explicitly explicitly of the Goddess of the witches. Scholars describe Leland variously variously as an amateur ethnographer or amaproduced his in the the late late Victorian era, before teur folklorist. Leland produced his work in He was aa journalist journalist by trade but anthropology formed as aa discipline.!* He by trade but folk and and indigenous cultures in in Europe studied aa number of of folk Europe and and North America. He on folklore so he can be America. He attended attended some some classes classes on folklore in in Germany, Germany, so he can be folklorist.!% called an amateur folklorist." Like the the French historian Jules Jules Michelet, Leland presented witchcraft form of to the the Catholic as a pagan survival and and a form of peasant resistance to and aristocratic power. His His book book Aradia: The The Gospel Gospel of of the Church and the Witches, first published in story in in which Diana fools Lufirst published in 1899, 1899, includes aa creation story the savior of the witches. Accifer into into fathering fathering Aradia, who becomes the of the cording to to Leland, he in 1886, 1886, and and cording he met aa hereditary witch, witch, Maddelena, in

“employed her her specially specially to her sisters of the hidden spells spells to collect among her of the in many places all the traditions of the olden time known to them.”" He in places all the of the time to them.”'* He says that he drew on other sources in producing his book, but he did says that he in his book, but he did

Figure 11. Maddelena (from (from Doreen Figure 11. of Witchcraft) Valiente’s Rebirth of

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obtain aa handwritten copy of of the from Maddelena.'® Maddelena.!° He the “Gospel” “Gospel” from He indicated that that he was dealing with a member of the strega, “fortune-tellers or he dealing with of the strega, witches, who divine by by cards, cards, perform perform strange ceremonies in in which spirspirits are supposed to to be invoked, make and and sell sell amulets, and and in its be invoked, in fact, fact, comport generally as their reputed reputed kind kind are wont to to do, do, be they port themselves generally be they Black Voodoos in in America or sorceresses anywhere.” anywhere.”'¢ argued that that while he he did Leland argued did not not know for for certain whether Maddelena obtained her her knowledge of of strega lena strega traditions from oral oral or written sources, he chiefly from from oral magical prache believed it it was chiefly oral sources because magical titioners rarely their work.!” work.'” In In addition, he sugrarely make written records of of their he suggested that by gested that everything aa witch wrote would likely likely have been destroyed by priests or pious fear such such documents.'® documents.!* Some PaPapriests pious Christians, who who would fear gans similarly similarly argue argue that that there are few few written sources documenting the gans the practice of of low literacy levels, and because having having of witchcraft because of low literacy levels, and during the written material would have been been incriminating during the witch hunts. and spells. generally conAradia includes charms, invocations, and spells. These generally things relevant to to daily daily life: life: love, and good Many Pagans Pagans cern things love, luck, luck, and good wine. Many of spells may find find inspiration in in those recorded conduct similar sorts of spells and and may by Leland. Leland indicates that that his his book is “only the the initial chapter chapter of of the by is “only the ‘cantrips,’ incantations, and collection of of ceremonies, ‘cantrips,’ and traditions current in in

the fraternity fraternity or sisterhood, the in the the main to be the the whole of of which are in to be found in [his books] Etruscan Roman Remains and and Florentine Legends.”'9 found in [his Legends.” find inspiration in in these books by Some contemporary Pagans Pagans continue toto find by the “equation of Leland. More importantly, Leland’s work supported the of certain elements of peasant culture—legends, beliefs, beliefs, divination, and tain of peasant and folk folk

the practice practice of of witchcraft, so that the medicine—with the the presence of of the the forforproof of of the the existence of the latter.”2° The most significant mer stood as proof of the latter.”° The in Aradia, regarding regarding the of Wicca and passage in the development of and Paganism, isis

of the teaching of a section of the text containing the the teaching of Aradia, which later (through Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente) became the “Charge “Charge of of the the (through and the Goddess.” ItIt was through text that that Gardnerian Wiccans acquired acquired the the through this this text

habit of meeting atat the the full full moon, the of the goddess Aradia, of meeting the name of the goddess Aradia, and and possibly the the practice practice of in the and othpossibly of conducting rituals in the nude. (Gardner and others in in the the New Forest coven were naturists, or nudists, apart apart from their acfrom their

tivities with with Wicca.) Margaret Margaret Murray built directly Murray (1863-1963) built directly on Frazer’s description of of folk traditions as pagan survivals of folk of fertility fertility cults, cults, but but she she argued argued that that witchcraft had been an organized religion. had been religion. She She presented witchcraft as aa fertility fertility cult cult of persecuted of a horned god, by Christian Inquisitors who god, by wrongly wrongly interpreted him him as the the devil.) devil.71 Murray’s work has been used by has been by Gardnerians and and other Wiccans, primarily in and substantiin constructing and ating aa myth myth of origin. Murray’s The ating of origin. The Witch-Cult in Europe, first in Western Europe, first published in popular in in 1921 but in the the 1940s when Wicca was first but popular first forming forming

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as aa religion, seemed to give evidence of as to give of aa surviving witch cult. cult. More More recently, her account as part part of history or inspirational cently, Wiccans see her of sacred history myth. Her books have have been used for in the the writing writing of of myths myths of myth. Her for inspiration in of origin and in in reconstructing Witchcraft from origin and from aa perspective more sympathetic than than that that of of mainstream history. history. Murray contributed to to contemporary Paganism the theory that the Murray the theory that the in the the witch hunts was an organized religion. religion. She She witchcraft persecuted in presented fertilpresented this this religion religion as aa peasant or indigenous religion, religion, and and asaa fertility religion, which was aa common view of such religions. religions. ItIt was through ity religion, of such through her work that Pagans developed the the idea that her that Pagans idea that that Witchcraft isis aa tradition that stretches back to the Paleolithic era.2? era.2* Murray Murray linked the to the the “Devil” or with Paleolithic cave paintings in in southHorned God of of the the trial trial records with ern France in in her her Encyclopedia Britannica article on witchcraft.¥> witchcraft.” According According to that that encyclopedia article, article, the religion of of witchcraft survived into into the the to the religion

eighteenth century in in England, and into “the “the present day” (1929 isis the the and into day” (1929 publication date and Italy.”4 date of of the the article) in in France and Italy.”4 of her her evidence is from trial trial confessions, the the rituals rituals Because most of is taken from

she homage to the Devil,” she describes focus on aa male deity, deity, and and on “paying homage to the as she phrases it. it. She She deemphasizes the the importance of of the in her her she phrases the god god in later ways her of the Witches can later writings writings on Witchcraft, but but in in some ways her God God of the Witches be seen as a culmination of of Pan in the of modern RoRobe of the the cult cult of Pan in the writings writings of mantics in England.*¢ Rather than than the god name Pan, mantics in England.** Rather the Greco-Roman Greco-Roman god name of of Pan, Murray preferred call the the Horned God God by by the god name CerMurray preferred to to call the Gallic god CerEurope and the nunnos. She She collected evidence of of gods gods with horns across Europe and the Near East East and all as aspects of of the God, whether and interpreted them all the Horned God, he adopted her her he wore stag stag antlers or ram horns. Subsequently, Wiccans adopted idea of their primary identification of of male deity. deity. idea of the the Horned God God as their Murray’s work also inspired inspired the the idea idea of of “The Man,” later picked “The Green Man,” later picked up by Pagans. Murray Murray associated British folk folk traditions in in up by contemporary Pagans. general with including the the stories of Hood, and and she she general with witchcraft, including of Robin Robin Hood,

linked church carvings with with paganism. She She interpreted the the female figures figures in medieval churches as pagan goddesses of fertility, which, as previously in of fertility, which, previously discussed, inspired inspired Lady Raglan, a fellow member of of the the Folk-Lore SociLady Raglan, Society, to to interpret the the foliate heads of of fourteenth- and ety, and fifteenth-century rising vegetation god, Raglan churches as Frazer’s dying dying and and rising god, which Raglan “The Green Man.”?7 Man.”?” called “The also linked the with the the meaning know,” aa Murray also the word “witch” with meaning “to “to know,” false by some practitioners but by scholars.”® false etymology still still espoused by but not by scholars.” In her work gave gave Pagans Pagans the the idea idea of of dancing dancing in inaa circle as aa ritritIn addition, her ual for securing securing fertility fertility (of game), and the sense of of ual practice practice for (of land and and game), and the “Celtic.”? The The practice of of dancing in in aa circle circle has witchcraft as “Celtic.”2? has evolved into the ritual of the Pagan Pagan ritual of the the spiral spiral dance. Murray’s work mentions “cakes and wine,” but but she the practice practice as varying from feasts, to to and wine,” she describes the from feasts,

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homely and meat.*° She also that candles homely picnics, picnics, toto wine and cakes and meat.°*? She also notes that ritual,3! but but she does not suggest that they were used used at the were used in in ritual,! she does that they at the cardinal points points as they they are by by contemporary Wiccans. In she reIn addition, she ports that “the ‘fixed number’ of the witches of ports that of coven members among the of Great Britain seems toto have and their their offihave been thirteen: twelve witches and officer.”32 Many Pagans reject hierarchical structures and and regard regard covens as cer.”°2 Many Pagans reject optional, Murray’s influence is the often-repeated idea optional, but but Murray’s is evident in in the idea that that covens are “traditionally” made up up of of thirteen members. members.” In many ways, Murray In Murray made the the actual practice practice of of witchcraft as aa religion possible possible by the practices practices of explicit in in The The Witchligion by making making the of witches explicit Cult inin Western Europe. Europe. However, Gerald Gardner significantly changed changed Cult Murray’s and popularized itit as a religion religion that Murray’s work and that continues into into modto have derived many of his ideas about ritual ern times. Gardner seems to of his ritual from her work, the structure structure of of the cycle and and the the habit from her work, including including the the festival festival cycle habit of calling calling the of the festivals “sabbaths” or “sabbats.” Initially, Initially, Gardner adopted the the sabbaths Murray Murray described as the the four four sabbats of of Candleadopted mas, May May Eve Eve (Beltain), Lammas, and and Samhain. He He later later added the the so-

lar festivals, initially initially celebrated at at the the full full moon closest to to the the solstices lar and equinoxes. Wiccans meet at and esbats, as Murray Murray describes and at sabbats and

she suggests witches did did at at sabthem, but not necessarily publicly, publicly, as she baths in her suggestion that that “the “the in the the past.34 past.34 Some Wiccan groups follow her the Sabbath by by being primarily for Esbat differed from the being primarily for business, purely religious.”% whereas the the Sabbath was purely The influence of writings Murray is The of writings on folklore by by Frazer, Frazer, Leland, and Murray is notable, but but the understanding of deities in popular English the of in popular English culture more generally late Victorian generally derives from the the work of of scholars of of the the late and Edwardian eras. These scholars’ writings on religion focused on pripriand writings religion mal forces such such as Earth, Sky, Corn mal Earth, Sky, Corn (Grain), Vegetation, Nature, Mother, Mother,

and Father. Wicca’s sense of and polarity polarity between female and and and of tension and male isis probably scholarly writings writings about religion, male probably derived from such scholarly religion, since itit bears little resemblance to functional pantheons of indigenous little to of peoples peoples as described by by modern anthropologists. Some scholars take take this this as evidence that that British Witchcraft is is essentially post-Christian rather than pre-Christian.°6 pre-Christian.>°

The The influence of of English English Romantic poetry seems to to have tempered the the

of scholarly writings influence of writings about deities. Poetry, stories, and Poetry, short short stories, and novels have influenced the the development of of Paganism as aa religion religion through writings through writings that, that, while not necessarily Pagan, Pagan, approach Paganism in in sensibility. The of the The writings of the English English Romantic poets poets John John Keats, Keats, Percy Percy Bysshe Bysshe Shelley, Shelley, and and William Butler Yeats are filled with pastoral pastoral imagery and images of and images the greenwood (enchanting, leafy of nature as the leafy glades glades inhabited by elves or faeries). The ited by elves The greenwood isis also portrayed as being being pres-

ent ent in in single single trees, trees, stone circles, burial burial mounds, cathedrals, grottoes, and and

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pools.*”7 The later Victorians developed aa playful pools.*” The Romantics and and some later playful poetry and and stories. They They personified reenchantment of of nature through through poetry of all all Pan) Pan) but also wrote of pernatural forces (most (most of but also of other-than-human persuch as faeries, gnomes, goblins, trolls, nymphs, sons such goblins, dwarves, trolls, nymphs, mermaids, dragons, unicorns, elementals, and and various gods and goddesses. selkies, dragons, gods and In poetry poetry and literary characters, but In and fiction, these are accepted accepted as literary but conPagans may may understand them them as real, real, as imagined, images, temporary Pagans imagined, as images, as metaphors, or as archetypes. Pan in Britain until until he Pan was relatively unimportant in he was celebrated in in the the of English English Romantics. He He became not not just the forest, poetry of just aa god god of of the forest, but but the personification and guardian of the English This idea idea of of the and guardian of the English countryside. This the God God is the is distinct from Frazer’s idea idea of of aa dying dying and and rising rising vegetation

god, although although some Pagans Pagans later the two by the god, later combined the by splitting splitting the into the the Holly Holly King King and the Oak Oak King. may speak speak of of Horned God God into and the King. Others may the old old and and new stag, stag, but but many do do not conceive of of the God as the the Horned God split in The Romantics and and Victorians often presented presented Pan split in this this manner. The Pan as appeared at at twilight twilight playing of pipes. Percy Bysshe Bysshe Shelaa god god who appeared playing aa set set of pipes. Percy ley (1792-1822), for his “Hymn Pan,” ley for example, example, wrote in in his “Hymn to to Pan,” The light the dying dying day, The light of of the day, my sweet pipings. pipings. Speeded by by my The Sileni and Fauns, The and Sylvans Sylvans and and Fauns, And the the Nymphs Nymphs of of the the woods and waves, waves, And woods and To the edge of of the To the edge the moist river-lawns, And the the brink of of the dewy caves, the dewy And all all that attend and And that did did then then attend and follow, Were silent with love, as you you now, Apollo, Apollo, with love,

With envy of of my pipings.*® my sweet pipings.*®

Pan also in similar form in in aa later later story by Kenneth Grahame Pan also appears in story by

As mentioned in poetry and (1859-1932). As in chapter chapter 1,1, English English writers of of poetry and ficfiction of of the Pan as the the personification and and guardian tion the time often presented presented Pan guardian of the English countryside as it holiday: itit is of the English it was imaged imaged by by urbanites on holiday: is always and the the agricultural work of of peasants or the the lower always summer, and

classes isis unseen.*? Pan Pan appears in in Grahame’s book for for children, The The Wind in the the Willows, Willows, first first published published in in aa strange strange interlude where an unin in 1908, 1908, in

named god the forest appears. Mole and Rat are looking for one of of OtOtgod of of the and Rat looking for ter’s children, Portly, Portly, who who is missing. They stay out searching in their boat is They stay out in their boat all night, and and near dawn the landscape seems to to change: old all night, the landscape change: “Their old greeted them in slipped away and put haunts greeted in other raiment, as if if they they had had slipped and put on this this pure apparel and smiling as they they shyly shyly pure new apparel and come quietly quietly back, back, smiling to see if be recognized again again under it.”40 it.”4° They They hear hear waited to if they they would be someone playing playing pipes pipes and and are overcome by by aa feeling feeling of of awe. Mole sees “the Friend and and Helper,” Helper,” described as having “shaggy having “curved horns,” “shaggy

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but Portly, but find Portly, they find eyes.”4! Immediately afterward, they limbs,” and “kindly eyes.”4! and “kindly limbs,” forest. the of god the with the encounter of god their the with remember they cannot quite quite they that is way that in aa way inis infigures in mythic figures of other also wrote of other mythic The Romantics also The (1795-1821) about Keats wrote John Pagans. spirational for contemporary Pagans. John spirational for in his spirit in his poem “Lamia”: an enchanting female spirit Upon time, before the the faery faery broods Upon aa time, Nymph and and Satyr Satyr from the prosperous woods, Drove Nymph from the Before King King Oberon’s bright bright diadem, Sceptre, and dewy gem, gem, Sceptre, and mantle, mantle, clasp’d clasp’d with dewy Frighted away the the Dryads Frighted Dryads and and the the Fauns green, and and cowslip’d cowslip’d lawns, lawns, From rushes green, and brakes, brakes, and

The ever-smitten Hermes empty left The empty left His golden golden throne, bent warm on amorous theft: theft: His

high Olympus had he he stolen light, light, From high Olympus had On this side of of Jove’s Jove’s clouds, to escape escape the On this side clouds, to the sight sight Of his his great Of great summoner, and and made retreat Into aa forest on the of Crete. Crete.” the shore of

Keats based this poem on aa folktale of of a a man who was enchanted by this poem by aa lamia, a seductive female serpent serpent demon in in the the original original tale.® tale.% Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) wrote stories featuring aa romantic view of of Rudyard Kipling the English English countryside, fitting the then-popular image the fitting the image of of “Merrie Olde England” has subsequently been preserved Pagans. ConEngland” that has preserved by by some Pagans. temporary Pagans Pagans continue to enjoy Kipling’s Kipling’s Puck of Hill and to enjoy of Pook’s Hill and ReRewards and and Fairies, Fairies, collections of of stories, stories, many of of which are set in the the MidMidset in

dle Ages. Ages. These stories were purportedly written for but are also dle for children but also by adults. Kipling’s stories influenced the that some Paenjoyed by the practice practice that Pagans have of of swearing by by “Oak and and Ash and Thorn.” The protagonist of of gans Ash and

many of the stories, aa faery Puck, always always swears by of the faery named Puck, by these. Verses of “Puck’s Song” Song” appear in ritual, quoted quoted in the May Eve and and of in Gardnerian ritual, in the May Eve August Eve Eve celebrations in “Ye Bok origiAugust in “Ye Bok of of ye ye Art Art Magical,” Gardner’s original Book of and “A “A Tree Tree Song” Song” has has made its its way nal of Shadows,“ and way into into Pagan Pagan ritual, sometimes without awareness of of its its origin.*° origin. ritual, Pagan ideas about the the faeries are inspired inspired by by the the poetry poetry of of Some other Pagan William Butler Yeats (1865-1939). Yeats wrote “The Stolen Child,” aa poem that isis popular with Pagans Pagans and to many through through the that popular with and isis most familiar to the song recorded by by Loreena McKennitt.4© McKennitt.4° Many Pagans feel feel aa similar pull pull to Many Pagans to the land of of faery in his the land faery that that Yeats describes in his poem:

Come away, OO human child! child! To and the the wild To the the water and faery, hand in hand, With aa faery, hand in hand, For than you you can understand. understand. For the the world’s more full full of of weeping weeping than

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Where the glosses the wave of of moonlight glosses The dim dim grey grey sands sands with The with light, light, Far Far off off by by furthest Rosses We foot it all the night, We foot it all the night, Weaving dances.*” Weaving olden dances.‘”

of his his life in Ireland and by the the landlandYeats lived lived much of life in and was influenced by scape and and folk folk traditions there, by local myths. myths. He He spent spent aa sumthere, as well as by

mer with Lady Gregory, the Mabinogion, aa collection of of with Lady Gregory, who published the medieval Welsh stories. He He had religious temperament, but but his had aa religious his father skeptic and did did not not raise him to to have have faith. faith. Yeats searched through was aa skeptic through variety of in folklore, theosophy, spiritualism, and and aa variety of esoteric traditions in He eventually eventually became aa member of the occult group the Neoplatonism. He of the the of the deHermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, aa group that that later later influenced the the development of part of the Western esoteric tradition. velopment of Paganism as part of the tradition.® of the the Hermetic Order of of the the Golden Dawn also AA later member of also influmagician Aleister enced the the development of of Paganism: the the ceremonial magician Crowley (1875-1947). Raised in Crowley in aa conservative sect of of Christianity called the Plymouth Brethren, Crowley flouting the the conthe Crowley became infamous for for flouting of society styling himself “the The Wiccan Rede “An ventions of society and and styling “the Beast.” The “An thou will,” to be be derived from Crowley’s itit harm none, do do what thou will,” appears to The Book the Law: “Do what thou wilt statement in in The Book of of the wilt shall be be the the whole of of the “the Science and and Art the law.”#? law.” His definition of of magic magic as “the Art of of causing causing Change in conformity with Will” also also influenced Pagan Pagan underChange to to occur in of magic magic standings of of magic magic and some Pagans’ Pagans’ preference for for his his spelling spelling of as “magick.” “magick.” It long been been rumored that that Crowley part of the ritual texts in It has has long Crowley wrote part of the in original Book of of Shadows. Doreen Valiente indicates Gerald Gardner’s original that the the influence of of Crowley’s Crowley’s Book Book of of the the Law the original that Law was visible inin the original Book of of Shadows, but she reduced the the “Crowleyanity” in in it, it, retaining Book but that that she the spirit spirit of of the the passage from from Leland’s Aradia, Aradia, which she the she recognized as aa source text, in rewriting the Charge of Goddess.*° Crowley and Gardner text, in the Charge of Goddess.°° Crowley and met in in May of 1947 and exchanged a few letters afterward,°! May of and a few afterward,>! but but Crowley Crowley died later that year. Crowley gave Gardner a charter to operate aa chapter died later that year. gave to chapter of the Ordo Ordo Templis Templis Orientis, or Order of Temple of of the the Orient (OTO). (OTO).*? of the of the the Temple

It that Gardner consulted with Crowley in in creating creating texts for ritual, It appears that for ritual, or used Crowley’s written works. Valiente says says that that Gardner used Crowley’s work to ley’s to supplement the the fragmentary material he he received from the the New Forest coven, explaining that “he had felt felt that that Crowley’s writings, “he had they were, breathed the spirit of modern though though they the very spirit of paganism and and were expressed in splendid poetry.”°> poetry.”*? Valiente suggests suggests that that the the fact fact that expressed in splendid that Gardthe OTO charter may of the that ner paid paid Crowley Crowley for for the may be be the the origin origin of the rumor that paid Crowley to write the be noted noted Gardner paid Crowley to the witchcraft rituals. It It should be

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that Crowley was a magician than aa Witch. There isis no mention of of that Crowley magician rather than religion in in either his his published published or his his unpublished writings.” Wicca asa a religion writings.™ Another member of of the the Hermetic Order of has also of the the Golden Dawn has also

had had aa lasting lasting influence on Paganism. Dion Fortune (1891-1946) later later founded the the Fraternity Fraternity (now Society) of the Inner Light, and her work to(now Society) of the Light, and her together with Crowley’s forms the basis of the Western mystery tradition.°° gether with the of the Dion Fortune was the of Violet Mary who, like the magical magical name of Mary Firth, Firth, who, like Crowley, was not a Witch but a practitioner of ceremonial magic. The ley, a but a of magic. The rituals and imagery her novels The The Sea Sea Priestess, The and Avalon and imagery of of her The Goat-Foot God, God, and of the Heart have inspired inspired Pagans in creating Pagans continue to of the Pagans in creating rituals. Pagans to recommend her her Psychic for practical Psychic Self-Defense for practical purposes.°° the development Robert Graves (1895-1985) was not explicitly part part of of the of but he he appears to to have been a devotee of of the the Goddess, and and he he of Wicca, but gave Paganism aa lasting lasting mythic mythic vision of of the the the relationship between the Goddess and her consort. Graves was aa twentieth-century poet, and her poet, and and a good, if He isis best best known for for his his theory theory of of myth and popogood, if eccentric, scholar. He myth and etry presented in his 1948 The White White Goddess. This work was never etry in his 1948 book, book, The This work meant to history but but poetic metaphor.*” The The White Goddess isis to be be academic history poetic metaphor.*’ not just descriptive, but prescriptive. In In it, it, Graves advocates aa return return to just descriptive, but prescriptive. to worship and and matriarchal society to reinvigorate poetry. Goddess worship society to poetry. AA return poetry force force and and clear toto Goddess worship, he he thought, thought, would give give poetry clear mythic vision.°* felt that only true theme, “the for popomythic vision.** Graves felt that the the only “the Theme,” for etry the story story cycle of the her marriage with with the Sun etry was the cycle of the Goddess and and her the Sun God and and his his sacrifice. writing about the the Theme isis aa rich rich source for for the the seasonal Graves’ writing mythic cycle in Wicca. He He explains explains that that “the “the Theme, briefly, briefly, isis the antique mythic cycle in the antique story, which which falls falls into into thirteen thirteen chapters chapters and and an epilogue, of of the the birth, birth, life, story, an epilogue, life, of the of the Waxing Year; the central chapters death and and resurrection of the God of the Waxing Year; the chapters the God’s losing the God of the Waning Waning Year for love concern the losing battle with the of the for love of the capricious and and all-powerful all-powerful Threefold Goddess, their mother, bride of the capricious and layer-out.”°? layer-out.”*? Graves wrote of of the the Theme also also in to his his son who and in aa poem to was born born the the day day before the 1945, “To Juan at the winter solstice in in 1945, “To Juan at the the Winter Solstice”: ter She in hand bears aa leafy She in her her left left hand leafy quince; quince; her right right she smiling, When with her she crooks a a finger, finger, smiling, How may the the King hold back? King hold Royally then he life for for love... love..... Royally then he barters life Much snow isis falling, hollowly, falling, winds roar hollowly, The owl hoots hoots from from the elder, The owl the elder, Fear in your heart cries cries to the loving-cup: Fear in your to the Sorrow to to sorrow as the sparks fly fly upward. upward. the sparks The The log log groans and and confesses: There is story and only. is one story and one story story only.

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Murray. He He argues that that the Graves was apparently influenced by by Murray. the Theme was “secretly preserved as religious doctrine in the covens of in the of the anti-Christian witch-cult.”*! witch-cult.”°! Using Using poetry poetry as evidence, he he argues for for the the survival of of ancient goddess religion later times. For For example, example, he he the religion into into later states that that “Demeter as aa Mare-goddess was widely widely worshipped under the name or ‘the Three Eponae,’ Gallic Celts, Celts, and the name of of Epona, Epona, or ‘the Three Eponae,’ among among the the Gallic and there isis aa strange account in in Giraldus Cambrensis’ Topography of of Ireland which shows that that relics of of the the same cult cult survived in in Ireland until until the the twelfth century.”® Poetic themes do do not not indicate the existence of a practhe of ticing cult, yet yet Graves’ poetry for the the myth myth and and symbolsymbolticing cult, poetry isis aa fertile source for ism of ism of Wicca. The still recommended reading reading for Pagans, and The White White Goddess isis still for most Pagans, and Graves’ theory theory that that the Goddess will return to power as belief in her her rethe will to in turns is aa common from Graves, Graves, as as well as other other turns is common Pagan Pagan sentiment.® sentiment.® ItIt isis from well as literary sources, that Wiccans get their concept of the Goddess as triune. literary that get their concept of the The been presented in triple form, but but Graves The Goddess had been presented previously in triple form, was unusual in celebrating not just her mother and maiden forms, but but in just her also the Crone. He identified the Crone aspect of the Goddess with Ceridalso the He the aspect of the wen, whom he he interpreted as aa sow goddess her own young. goddess who eats her Graves used Frazer as a source for his mythic vision of and for his mythic of the the Goddess and her consort.® He split Frazer’s dying and resurrected god into the gods of her consort. He split dying and god into the gods of the waxing and and waning year, year, probably probably from the waxing from Welsh stories of of annual fights, Gwyn ap ap Nudd and and Gwythr Gwythr in the Mabinogion.® Graves’ fights, such as Gwyn in the of the the seasonal relationship between the the Goddess and the understanding of and the God became integrated into into the the Wiccan festival cycle. He constructed aa God cycle. He poetic myth that that contributed to explicit in in the the poetic myth to making Goddess religion religion explicit of Wicca. form of Literary sources continue to be important inspirations in Literary to be in reconstructionist traditions in often use the the in Paganism. Reconstructionist traditions often literature of of the religion they they are reconstructing. Norse rethe cultures whose religion constructionists, who sometimes identify themselves as Heathen or Asatru, for for example, find inspiration in the Icelandic Eddas and and the the Sagas. example, find in the Sagas. the Eddas and and the and reHeathens use the the Sagas Sagas to to learn learn about Norse deities and ligious practices. The The Poetic or Elder Edda isis a of poems about ligious practices. a collection of the god Odin and other figures mythology, probably probably recorded in the god and other figures in in Norse mythology, in the century. The the Prose the thirteenth century. The Icelander Snorri Sturluson composed the Younger Edda, poetry, in the thirthiror Younger Edda, which is is aa handbook on Icelandic poetry, in the The Sagas Sagas are epic of Viking Viking heroes recorded bebeteenth century. century. The epic stories of and fifteenth centuries. Heathens have developed a tween the the thirteenth and practice of of seidr out out of of a passage from the Erik shamanistic ritual practice the Saga Saga of of Erik the Red. Red. the Seidr isis an ecstatic ritual practice practice in goes into Seidr in which aa practitioner goes into trance (into the the underworld or otherland) with the the help help of (into of her her coreligionists and and

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from which The Saga ritual. The in ritual. Saga from questions from other participants in answers questions visiting a of seeress, aa descriptions visiting a gives of gives practices seidr reconstructed are practices seidr

She isis cloak. She and cloak. staff, and clothing, shoes, her clothing, shoes, staff, or volva, spdkona or including her volva, including spdkona

meal. ritual meal. eats aa ritual she eats the community, and asked to the future of of the and she to consider the day, she she sits The following special “high seat” while others sing The following day, sits onon aa “high sing aa special song to In aa contemporary she can go “the powers” trance.” In powers” so that into trance.* go into that she to “the song this practice, of this practice, reconstruction of the volva sits the high high seat holding onto her byaa circle the sits on the her staff, staff, surrounded by of singers. singers. The the volva into into an altered state of of awareness, in in of The sound carries the the spirit with spirits, spirits, gods gods and forces, and and puts the spirit world. There she she meets with and forces, puts forforher request for for help help or knowledge. When her her main task task isis complete complete and ward her and the song song dies the worlds” and and in this state the dies out [the] [the] volva is is still still “between the in this she can give give oracular answers to to questions from members of the group.® group.® she of the

practices derived from the the Sagas Sagas can be for Such practices be profound experiences for Jenny Blain, Blain, aa researcher and first participants. Jenny and practitioner, describes her her first in seidr: participation in seidr: II had had been What II did did ing and ing and as membering me, closed. closed. me,

hard, visualizing the and taking working hard, the journey journey and taking mental notes. not expect was the strong pull, the very very strong pull, experienced both as aa yearnthe pit pit of of my Reaa direct physical physical tug tug to to the my stomach, to to follow her. her. Rethe gates before the instructions, II concentrated on visualizing the the gates Diana had said said the seeress would would remain remain connected Diana had the seeress connected to to us, us, by by aa

silver cord. I| felt felt the the cord, cord, an umbilicus between myself myself and felt its and Winifred, felt its

tension. Questioners stepped and listening, that attachment, stepped forward, and listening, II felt felt that that pull. Some Some asked of jobs, jobs, some of of relationships, health, future meetings, that pull. asked of

One asked of of aa severe health problem problem and the need to to face face her her morrelatives. One and the tality, and and II listened in the gates, tality, in the the half-world of of trance, before the gates, profoundly left the seat, II felt felt my work, drawmoved. When Winifred left the high high seat, my body body doing doing work, ing her lending my my own strength.” ing her back, back, lending strength.

to the hymns and and to Greek reconstructionists look to the Homeric hymns to Hesiod’s also look look to to the the writings writings of The Homeric hymns writings. Some also of Sappho. Sappho. The hymns include long long verses honoring Demeter, Apollo, and Aphrodite. Apollo, Hermes, and Hesiod’s Theogony, in the the eighth eighth century BCE, BCE, tells story of Theogony, written late late in tells a story of the creation of of the and the the the universe and the god/desses. It It is is aa creative genealogy of the the god/desses—he adds god/desses to to fill in Greek mytholmytholof fill in in gaps in ogy, ogy, and and he possibly invented names for the muses. Hesiod’s story he possibly for the story begins begins with the union of with the of Chaos (or (or the the Chasm) and and Earth. ItIt tells their chilchiltells of of their dren, the the Titans, Titans, and dren, and the the subsequent war of the gods, of the and his gods, won by his by Zeus and

followers. The Theogony isis aa triumphalist celebration of The Theogony the importance of of of the Zeus. It It isis the the oldest source of the best-known Greek myths, of some of of the inmyths, in-

cluding the and Pandora.” Pandora.” cluding the stories of of Prometheus and

Literary Origins and and Influences Literary Origins Influences

119 119

Egyptian reconstructionists, and Egyptian and some Roman reconstructionists, find find inspiration in The Metamorphoses, better known as The in the the novel The The Golden Ass, written by by Lucius Apuleius Apuleius (c. Ass tells the Ass, (c. 123-180 CE). CE). The The Golden Ass tells the

story of of aa man who isis cursed by by aa witch and and turned into He isis story into an ass. He the goddess he becomes one of of her her eventually released by by the goddess Isis, Isis, and he priests. The but itit isis also used in priests. The novel is is from ancient Rome, Rome, but also used in the the reconof Egyptian religion religion because Isis Isis was an Egyptian Egyptian goddess. In struction of goddess. In the time of of the the Roman Empire, Empire, Isis Isis became an overarching goddess figure, figure, the

and she she isis presented as such in The Golden Ass. The the protagonist and in The The vision the has of and Roman rehas of Isis Isis isis particularly influential, not only only for for Egyptian and constructionists, but also for for Wiccans and and other Pagans, Pagans, as Isis Isis is but also is often often un-

derstood as the goddess among others. the Goddess, rather than as one goddess Contemporary novels have also also influenced Pagan Pagan traditions, particuparticularly the fantasy novels of R. R. R. Tolkien, Marion Zimmer Bradley, larly the fantasy of J. J. R. Bradley, Robert Heinlein, and, and, more Terry Pratchett Pratchett and Rowling. Robert Heinlein, more recently, recently, Terry and J. J. K. K. Rowling. Paganism has been influenced in a general way by fantasy novels in has in a general way by fantasy in magic isis commonplace and and effective, and which magic and in in which interaction with other-than-human persons isis possible. The most obvious or explicit with possible. The explicit influence isis Robert Heinlein’s novel Stranger Stranger inin aa Strange Strange Land, first pubpubLand, first lished in in 1961. 1961. This science-fiction novel inspired inspired the formation of the the of the Church of All Worlds (CAW), (CAW), modeled on the church of of the the same name of All the church

in the the novel. Practitioners derived the greeting “Thou art art Goddess” in the ritual greeting or “Thou art God,” and a liberal understanding of loving relationships, or “Thou art God,” and a liberal understanding of loving relationships, from the the book, generally in in the book, which became influential more generally the Paganism of the late 1960s and early 1970s. of the late and early In Heinlein’s novel, the Church of of All In novel, the All Worlds is is a religious religious organization founded by by aa man, who was raised by help humans overby Martians, to to help come their alienation from each other and and the the natural world. Local groups of in the the book, book, and and CAW follows that that strucof the the church are called “nests” in ture. Members share of communion in in the nests, aa ritual ritual of share aa rite rite of the nests, of water

sharing derived from the This involves aa ritual recognition of of the the sharing the novel. This necessity of water for all life, speak the the words “May you necessity of for all life, as members speak “May you never thirst” in in sharing sharing water. ItIt also also involves aa ritual recognition of of the the immanence, or indwelling, of of the each other, other, as participants adadthe divine in in each

dress each each other saying saying “Thou art art Goddess” or “Thou art art God.” The greeting “Thou art art God” appears in novel, but greeting in Heinlein’s novel, but CAW practipractihave modified tioners have

into female and and male male statements, and and itit has itit into has

passed into into common Pagan Pagan usage in also passed in that that form. form. Some CAW members also

practice group marriage, as in in the the novel, novel, including cofounder of of the the group practice along with his his longtime longtime partner, Morning Glory Oberon Zell-Ravenheart, along partner, Morning Glory Glory coined the the term “polyamory” to to describe Zell-Ravenheart. Morning Glory

such as they share.”) When CAW obobopen yet yet committed relationships such they share.”! in 1970, the first recognized tained tax-exempt status in 1970, it it became the first officially recognized

120 120

Chapter Chapter 66

ee

Figure 12. Figure

“.

Sodas

er

me

The Ravenhearts (photo provided by by Oberon Zell-Ravenheart) The (photo provided

Pagan religious religious organization in the United States. As As part part of his activities Pagan in the of his with CAW, CAW, Zell-Ravenheart edited the Pagan magazine magazine Green Egg, the Pagan Egg, which was influential on Pagans Pagans across North America, from 1968 to to 1975 and and 1988 to Through it, it, he the terms “Neo-Pagan” and from 1988 to 1996. Through he popularized the and “nature religion” religion” beginning in the 1960s. in the the influence of of novels on Paganism, of J.J. R. R. R. R. Regarding the Paganism, “the “the influence of is, of spawned Tolkien is, of course, inestimable.””? inestimable.”” Tolkien’s work essentially spawned the modern genre of of fantasy and gave the and terms for for faeries the fantasy and the language language and and to English His Lord the Rings, Rings, first first pubpuband other creatures to English culture.”? culture.” His Lord of of the popular aspects aspects of of European lished in in one volume in in 1968, 1968, encapsulates popular Earth that mythology and folklore. ItIt is is through through Tolkien’s vision of of Middle Earth that the mythology and many practitioners know the and folklore of of elves, elves, dwarves, and through its its indiand wizards—if not from reading reading his his work directly, directly, then then through rect influence on the the role-playing game Dungeons && Dragons, rect Dragons, which isis largely based on Tolkien’s universe. Tolkien’s influence was renewed in largely in the early century through through Peter Jackson’s trilogy trilogy of of films the early twenty-first century based on The Lord of the Rings. Rings. The Lord of the

Literary Literary Origins Origins and and Influences

121 121

Many find Marion Zimmer Bradley’s Bradley’s fantasy The Mists Many Pagans Pagans find fantasy novel The

of the the story King Arthur from ofof Avalon inspirational. ItIt isis aa retelling retelling of story of of King the point point of of the and isis set at at the of the the of view of the women involved and the time of the iniinitial tial confrontation between pre-Christian pagan traditions and and Christianity in in Britain. Its Its appeal including tianity appeal is is widespread among Pagans, including of Goddess religion, Wicca, and and others. Pagans practitioners of religion, Druidry, Druidry, Wicca, Pagans for initiation rituals use The The Mists of of Avalon as an inspiration specifically for and and men’s mysteries.”4 Terry Pratchett’s fantasy fantasy series of of Discworld novels, set in in aa parody of Terry Pratchett's novels, set parody of and populated populated by by trolls, regMedieval Europe Europe and trolls, dwarves, wizards, witches, regular humans, and the “lords and and ladies” (faeries), (faeries), describes aa worldview ular and the

familiar to to Pagans. Pagans learn about the Pagans. Pagans the nature of of other-than-human persons and and about the of magic the novels. Pratchett’s presthe use of magic through through the entation of of witches’ views on deity deity in in the easily applies the Discworld novels easily applies to Witches in in contemporary Paganism.” Just novels, Pagans Pagans are to Just as in in the the novels, somewhat ambiguous in in their ideas about the the existence of of the the god/ god/ desses. While Pagans Pagans do in the the god/desses as dededo not so much believe in velop relationships with them, them, as as in in Discworld, the fate fate of the deities deities are velop relationships with Discworld, the of the are somehow dependent on the faith of the faith of the the humans who believe in in them. A A god dwindles, as illustrated in in Pratchett's Pratchett’s novel novel Small god without without believers believers dwindles, as illustrated Small Gods. As products of of bebeAs one scholar explains, “Deities are fundamentally products lief. This This may may explain explain why like to do ifif lief. why deities do do whatever people people would like to do they had had the religion also they the power or the the ability. ability. Pratchett shares aa view of of religion also known to to devotees of of Monty Monty Python: Python: itit becomes dangerous when taken too seriously best engaged in or opposed too seriously and and isis best engaged in opposed with with humour.””6 The use of of magic magic in in Discworld isis also Pagan understandings also similar to to Pagan of magic, and some Pagans Pagans see Pratchett’s novels as aa teaching tool for of magic, and for the use of magic. Pratchett’s words, “People “People who used magic without the of magic. used magic knowing what they All over the knowing they were doing doing usually usually came to to a a sticky sticky end. All the room sometimes,””” communicate

aa Pagan Pagan sense of of interconnectedness

and an understanding that magical actions can have unexpected results. and that magical

might happen. happen. Pagans Pagans ofofPractitioners need need to to consider carefully carefully what might ten mention Ursula Le Le Guin’s Earthsea series of teaching tool tool ten of novels as aa teaching for the the ethical use of magic, while J.J. K. of fantasy for of magic, K. Rowling’s series of fantasy novels featuring Harry Potter, Potter, now series of feature films, inspires interest featuring Harry now aa series of feature films, inspires interest in in magic and and witchcraft more than itit influences ritual forms or practices practices magic within Paganism. Literary sources continue to to influence Pagan and beliefs. The The Literary Pagan practices practices and variety of popular books on Paganism and contemporary ready access to variety of popular and ready to the Internet may lead new Pagans in different directions than material on the lead Pagans in magic and folk traditions traditions did did in in the and 1950s, magic and folk the 1940s 1940s and 1950s, but but Pagans Pagans often often find their way back to the original sources that first inspired the developfind their way back to the original that first inspired the development of of Wicca and and other Pagan groups. Pagan groups.

122 122

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FURTHER READING Witching Culture: Folklore and and Neo-Paganism inin America. Philadelphia: UniMagliocco, Sabina. Witching versity of of Pennsylvania Press, Press, 2004. versity Clifton, Chas S., and and Graham Harvey. The Paganism Clifton, Chas S., Harvey. The Paganism Reader. New York: York: Routledge, 2004. 2004. Harvey, “Fantasy in in the the Study Study of Paganism as Observed and and Enhanced Harvey, Graham. “Fantasy of Religions: Paganism

by Terry Terry Pratchett.” Diskus 66 (2000), (2000), Web edition. http:/ http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionby /web.uni-marburg.de/religionJune 8, swissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed June 8, 2003). 2003). Hutton, Ronald. The The Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon: AA History History of Hutton, of Modern Pagan Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: Oxford University University Press, 1999. ford Press, 1999.

NOTES 1. Spence, “Hermes Trismegistus,” The The Encyclopedia of 1. Lewis Spence, of the the Occult (London: Bracken Books, 1988), 1988), 208-9. Books, Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture: Folklore and and Neo-Paganism inin America (Philadel2.2. Sabina Magliocco,

phia: University University of of Pennsylvania Press, phia: Press, 2004), 2004), 4.4.

3.3. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 37. 37. Witching Culture, Culture, 5. 4.4. Magliocco, Witching 5. Witching Culture, 32. 5.5. Magliocco, Witching 32. Witching Culture, Culture, 32. 6.6. Magliocco, Witching 32. 7.7. 8. 8. 9. 9. 10. 10.

James George James George Frazer, Golden Frazer, Frazer, Golden Frazer, Frazer, Golden Golden Frazer,

Frazer, Frazer, Bough, Bough, Bough, Bough, Bough, Bough,

The The Golden Bough, Bough, 3rd 3rd ed. ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911), 1911), 1:xix. 1:xix. 1:14. 1:14. 2:128. 2:128. 2:129. 2:129.

11. James Bough: AA New Abridgment of of the Work, eded11. James George George Frazer, Frazer, The The New Golden Bough: the Classic Work, ited by by Theodor H. (New York: Criterion Books, 299. ited H. Gaster (New Books, 1959), 1959), 299.

12. Chas S. Harvey, The Paganism Reader (New (New York: Routledge, 12. S. Clifton and and Graham Harvey, The Paganism 2004), 61. 2004), 61. 13. 13. 14. 14. 1974), 1974), 15. 15. 16. 16.

Magliocco, Witching Culture, 46. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 46.

Charles G. G. Leland, Leland, Aradia: Or Or the Witches (New (New York: Samuel Weiser, Weiser, the Gospel Gospel of of the the Witches York: Samuel vii. vii.

17. 17. 18. 18. 19. 19. 20. 20.

Leland, Aradia, Aradia, vii. Leland, vii. Leland, Aradia, Aradia, v.v. Leland, Aradia, Aradia, vii, viii. vii, viii. Leland, Aradia, xi, Leland, Aradia, xi, xii. xii. Leland, 109. Leland, Aradia, Aradia, 109. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, Culture, 46. Magliocco, 46.

21. 21. 22. 22. 23. 23. 24. 24. 25. 25.

47. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 47. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 47-48. and Harvey, Harvey, Paganism Clifton and Paganism Reader, Reader, 92. 92. Clifton and and Harvey, Harvey, Paganism Paganism Reader, Reader, 91. 91. Margaret Alice Murray, The Margaret The Witch-Cult inin Western Europe: Europe: AA Study Study in in Anthropology (Ox(Ox-

ford: Clarendon [Oxford University ford: University Press], 1921), 124. Press], 1921), 124.

26. 26. Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of The Triumph of the the Moon: AA History History of of Modern Pagan Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford:

Oxford University University Press, Press, 1999), 1999), 196. 196. 27. Hutton, Triumph of the the Moon, 27. Hutton, Triumph of Moon, 198. 198.

28. Clifton and Harvey, 28. Harvey, Paganism Reader, Reader, 90. 90. 29. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 48. 29. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 48.

Literary Origins Origins and and Influences Influences Literary 30. 30. 31. 31. 32. 32.

Murray, Murray, Murray, Murray, Murray, Murray,

Witch-Cult Witch-Cult Witch-Cult

in in in in in in

Western Western Western

Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe,

33. 33. 34. 34, 35. 35. 36. 36. 37. 37.

and Harvey, Clifton and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 90. 90.

123 123

139, 140. 140. 139, 144. 144. 191. 191.

Murray, Witch-Cult Witch-Cult inin Western Western Europe, Murray, Europe, 97. 97. Murray, Witch-Cult in Western Western Europe, Europe, 112. 112. Murray, Witch-Cult in See, for example, Hutton, Triumph of Moon, 130-31. See, for example, Hutton, of the the Moon, Graham Harvey, (New York: Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening Listening People, People, Speaking Earth (New

York University 164. New York University Press, Press, 1997), 1997), 164.

38. Percy Bysshe Shelly, English Verse: 1250-1900, ed. ed. Arthur Quiller38. Percy Bysshe Shelly, The The Oxford Oxford Book Book of of English Press, 1919), June 8,8, Couch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1919), www.bartleby.com/101/605.html (accessed June

2003). 39. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon, 44. 39. Moon, 44. 40. The Wind in in the 1994), 120. 120. 40. Kenneth Grahame, The the Willows (London: Puffin Books, Books, 1994), 41. Willows, 124. 124. 41. Grahame, Grahame, Wind Wind in in the the Willows,

42. M. H. Abrams, “John English Literature, 5th 42. M.H. “John Keats,” Norton Anthology of of English 5th ed. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), W. W. Norton, 1986), 2:827-28. 43. “John Keats,” 826. 43. Abrams, “John Keats,” 826.

44. of the the Moon, Moon, 233. 44. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of 45. and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 80. 45. Clifton and 80. 46. ON: Warner Music Canada, 46. Loreena McKennitt, “Stolen Child,” Child,” Elemental (Stratford, ON: Canada,

1994). 1994). 47. M. of English 5th ed. ed. 47. M. H. H. Abrams, “William Butler Yeats,” Yeats,” Norton Anthology Anthology of English Literature, 5th (New York: York: W. Norton, 1986), 1986), 2:1934. (New W. W. W. Norton,

48. and James Lewis, Lewis, eds., of Modern Witchcraft and Neo48. Shelly Shelly Rabinovitch and eds., Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and NeoPaganism (New York: Citadel, 2002), 170. Paganism (New Citadel, 2002), 170. 49. Crowley, The of the Beach, ME: Weiser, 1976), 1976), 23. 23. 49. Aleister Crowley, The Book Book of the Law Law (York (York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, 50. Doreen Valiente, Valiente, The The Rebirth of WA: Phoenix Publishing, 1989), 61. 50. Doreen of Witchcraft Witchcraft (Custer, (Custer, WA: 1989), 61. 51. of the the Moon, 51. Hutton, Hutton, Triumph Triumph of Moon, 221. 221. 52. Rebirth of of Witchcraft, 52. Valiente, Valiente, Rebirth Witchcraft, 16. 16. 53. of Witchcraft, Witchcraft, 57. 57. 53. Valiente, Rebirth of

54. of the the Moon, Moon, 220. 54. Hutton, Triumph of 55. and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 195. 195. 55. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia of 56. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 104-5. 56. 57. Margot Adler, the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and and Other 57. Margot Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the Witches, Druids, Pagans Today, revised revised and and expanded expanded ed. Pagans in in America America Today, ed. (Boston: (Boston: Beacon Beacon Press, Press, 1986), 1986), 60. 60. 58. M. H. H. Abrams, “Robert Graves,” Norton Anthology ofof English 5th ed. ed. (New 58. M. English Literature, 5th (New York: W. W. W. 1986), 2:2245. W. Norton, 1986),

59. of Poetic Myth Myth (London: Faber 59. Robert Graves, The The White Goddess: AA Historical Grammar of && Faber, 1948), 20. 20. 60. See Abrams, “Robert Graves,” 2250. 60. See

61. 61. 62. 62. 63. 63. 64. 64.

20. Graves, White Goddess, 20.

White Goddess, Goddess, 337. Graves, White 337.

Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon, 190. 190. Moon, 192. 192. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon,

65. Graves, Graves, White White Goddess, Goddess, 62. 62. 65. 66. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of Moon, 193. 193. 66. of the the Moon, 67. Jenny Blain, Nine Worlds of Ecstasy and North European European 67. Jenny Blain, of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy and Neo-Shamanism in in North Paganism Paganism (London: Routledge, Routledge, 2002), 2002), 31. 31. 68. K. to Nature: An with Annette Host,” Host,” Spirit Spirit Talk Talk 9,9, quoted quoted in in 68. K. Kelly, Kelly, “Close to An Interview with Blain, Nine Nine Worlds of of Seid-Magic, 44. Blain, 44.

124 124 69. 69. 70. 70. West West 71. 71.

Chapter Chapter 66 Blain, Nine Worlds of Blain, Nine Worlds of Seid-Magic, Seid-Magic, 76. 76. See M. L. West’s West's introduction introduction toto Hesiod, Hesiod, Theogony Theogony and Works and Days, trans. trans. M. M. L.L. See M. L. and Works and Days, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988). 1988).

Shelly Rabinovitch and James Shelly James Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and and Neo-Pagan-

ism (New York: Citadel, 2002), 2002), 122. 122. ism (New York: Citadel,

72. Clifton and 327. 72. and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 327. 73. Graham Harvey, in the the Study Study of of Religions: Paganism as Observed and and 73. Harvey, “Fantasy in Enhanced by by Terry Terry Pratchett,” Diskus 66 (2000), Web edition, http://web.uni-marburg.de/ (2000), Web 2003). religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed June June 8,8, 2003).

74. 74. 75. 75. 76. 76. 77. 77.

326. Clifton and and Harvey, Harvey, Paganism Paganism Reader, 326. See Harvey, “Fantasy in in the the Study Study of See Harvey, “Fantasy of Religions.” Harvey, “Fantasy in the Study Study of of Religions.” Harvey, in the Quoted in in Graham Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth Quoted People, Speaking

(New York University Press, Press, 1997), 1997), 105. (New York: New York 105.

77

ook ook Social and and Charismatic Influences

here is no single founder founder of few charismatic charismatic figures, here is no single of Paganism, Paganism, but but aa few figures, and authors have have had had disproportionate influences on popularizers, and the of Paganism. Characteristically, these individuals have the development of have had or more, impact impact through had as much, or through their published writings writings than they they the revival of folk trahave had in in person. Following the the cultural trend of of the of folk traditions and popularity of of magical magical techniques from from ceremonial magic magic and the the popularity in Britain, Gerald in Britain,

Gardner, Doreen

Valiente, and and Raymond Raymond

Buckland

brought Gardnerian Wicca to to public and North Amerbrought public attention in in Britain and ica. Z. Budapest Budapest were key key contributors to to the ica. Starhawk and and Z. the development of in California. Isaac Bonewits, Scott Scott Cunningham, of feminist Witchcraft in

and Diana Paxson have been influential in in the the diversification of Paganand of Paganism. While this chapter looks at their relations ism. this chapter at influential individuals and and their to social movements and and cultural trends in the development of to in the of Paganism, complete who’s who of of Paganism. There are aa number of itit is is not a a complete of con-

that can serve that that purpose. temporary encyclopedias that Gerald Gardner (1884-1964) is the first first great great public public figure in the the hishisis the figure in tory of contemporary Paganism. He tory of He popularized Wicca through his his writing, by and through the writing, by creating creating covens, and through the the Witchcraft museum on the Isle of Man, Cecil Williamson. Gardner became the Isle of Man, which he he ran with Cecil the

resident Witch, Witch, and he he used the publicity tool.! If there was the museum as a a publicity If there a surviving pagan religion in Britain or elsewhere before Gardner began religion in began popularizing Wicca, itit was well well hidden. Some Wiccans argue that alalthough public practitioners prior prior to though there were no public to Gardner’s publication of in 1954, 1954, there were witches who, who, fearing of Witchcraft Today Today in fearing persecution, remained hidden. These Wiccans refer to to the fact that that laws laws against against the fact 125 125

126 126

Chapter 77 Chapter

witchcraft in in Britain were not repealed repealed until until 1951 pos1951 as evidence. ItIt is is possible sible that that Wiccan groups existed before Gardner’s publication of of Witchcraft Today. Today. However, without any any concrete evidence, itit isis more reasoncraft able to assume that that there were no Wiccan groups preceding the coven able to preceding the that Gardner formed, formed, or or at at least least not not until until after after the the publication publication of of Marthat Gardner Margaret Europe in in 1921. There were garet Murray’s Murray’s The The Witch-Cult in in Western Europe practicing magical and there may even have been covens, but but magical groups, and they did Pagan or Wiccan until they did not regard regard themselves as Pagan until after exposure to may have to Gardnerian Wicca. ItIt appears as though though preexisting groups may modified their practices under the the influence of of the their practices the Gardnerian Craft, Craft, and later came to to identify Pagans. Victor and and later identify as Wiccans and and Pagans. and Cora Anderson, who developed the the Feri, Faery, tradition, for for example, read Feri, or Faery, example, read

Gardner’s work work in the 1950s. They with him, him, and and later later iniiniin the They corresponded with tiates in the tradition appear to have used his model as something of in the to have used his of a “style guide” guide” for its perceived perceived authenticity “style for Feri Feri practice, perhaps perhaps due due to to its as aa survival of of the the witch cult cult described by by Murray.” Murray.” Gardner was born born in in Blundellsands, England, England, in 1884, and raised in 1884, and was raised

in family with aa governess. Due to to recurring illnesses as aa in aa middle-class family child, he little formal education, but but he he traveled aa great child, he received little great deal, deal, va-

cationing in variety of of warm climates during the winter to his in a variety during the to calm his asthma. He became a civil servant, managing tea and rubber plantations He a civil tea and in Borneo, and in Malaysia. He He was in and later he he worked as aa customs officer in initiated as aa Freemason in in Ceylon and became interested in magic Ceylon and in magic in in Malaysia, and he started reading anthropology and folklore.* He retired Malaysia, and he and He civil service in in 1936 1936 and to England England with wife, from the the civil and returned to with his his wife, They lived in in London for and then to Highcliffe, Donna. They for two years and then moved to the New Forest area. Gardner joined joined a nearby nearby Rosicrucian Theatre near the (an group) and and began began meeting meeting with with local local occultists. He He alal(an amateur theatre group) leged that within the the Rosicrucian Theatre group there was aa group called leged the Crotona fellowship, through through which he he met “Old “Old Dorothy,” who the who to have have been Old headed the the New Forest coven.° He He claimed to been initiated by by Old Dorothy of 1939, 1939, and and to to have worked with her Dorothy in in September of her coven into the late late 1940s.° the 1940s.¢

Gardner indicates that 1946 he he received permission from from the that in in 1946 the New to publish publish some rituals in High Magic’s Aid, first first Forest coven to in his his novel High Magic's Aid, the pseudonym Scire.” Scire.”? After the of the the published in in 1949 under the the repeal repeal of laws against in Britain, Britain, Gardner began began to to give laws against witchcraft in in 1951 in give press ininterviews to the existence of At this terviews to advertise the of modern Witches.’ At this time, time, he he

also belonged to a naturist society, also belonged to society, or nudist group.’ had appargroup.? Gardner had ently long ently long been aa nudist, nudist, and and some Gardnerians continue his his practice practice of of “sky-clad” rituals. In 1954, Gardner’s book Witchcraft In 1954, Witchcraft Today Today came out. In In it, he names “Wica,” it, he the religion “Wica,” the of the wise. It religion of the wise. It seems likely likely that that Gardner

invented the (his spelling the word “Wicca” (his spelling was variable) and the religion and the religion

Social and and Charismatic Social Charismatic Influences Influences

127, 127

around 1950,'° 1950,'° although pracalthough he he had been involved in in various magical magical practices not known by that name previously. by that to have been into a preexisting coven has Gardner’s claim to been initiated into has been much debated. There is other first-hand account of reality of his iniiniis no other of the the reality of his tiation. Some Some continue continue to argue that that there there was was aa preexisting preexisting coven, coven, but but tiation. to argue “Old most scholars doubt the the existence of of the the New Forest coven." “Old Dorothy” has has been identified as Dorothy Dorothy” Dorothy Clutterbuck, but but Clutterbuck in the the New Forest region region who who appears not to was an upper-class woman in to have had had any any occult leanings leanings or any Gardner.!2 Gardner have any connection to to Gardner.'2 may have her to his actual initiator, aa may have named her to deflect attention from his the pseudonym “Dafo,” who belonged to to the the Crowoman identified by by the tona fellowship fellowship and Co-Mason.!° She She later later withdrew from from the the and was aa Co-Mason.' becoming uncomfortable with with Gardner’s publicity. group, becoming publicity. probably created Wicca out of of Gardner probably of Margaret Murray’s account of fertility religion religion and witchcraft as aa fertility and organized pre-Christian tradition, and and from other readings in anthropology and from readings in and folklore.'* Most Wiccan groups have appeared only since 1970, and none before 1950. However, itit isis inacappeared only 1970, and curate to to say say that that Gardner completely invented Wicca, because “much of of the already in place by early twenthe material in in revival Witchcraft was already in place by the the early tieth is, Gardner created and popularized Witchcraft as tieth century.”'> That is, an explicit explicit religious religious tradition based on preexisting groups and and writings writings in in the and folklore studies. And Gardner did the Western esoteric tradition and did meet

people the New Forest area who who were practicing magic, people in in the magic, such as Dafo. In although the the rituals Gardner used drew In addition, although drew on aa number of of difdif-

ferent written materials underlying the the ideas of and passages taken from of and Murray, Leland, Crowley, Kipling, and the Key of Solomon, Solomon, Doreen Doreen VaVaMurray, Leland, Crowley, Kipling, and the Key of liente suggests that she “found a basic structure” that was not derived that she a that not from from them.!¢ Gardner called the of Shadows.” What the ritual book he he used his his “Book of appears to early version of book, “Ye Bok of of ye ye Art Magical,” to be be an early of this this book, “Ye Bok filing cabinet in library. It may be be the the earwas found found behind aa filing in Gardner’s library. It may liest surviving copy of his his Book Book of look liest copy of of Shadows.'” Shadows." It It was constructed to to look like aa medieval grimoire, made up up of filled like of bound blank sheets and and then then filled in somewhat as a scrapbook. He from various sources, in He copied copied passages from left for of arranging them thematically, with spaces left for more material. Some of the copied copied passages came from Key of Bible, the the kabbalah the from the the Key of Solomon, the the Bible, (Jewish writings. It also includes rudirudi(Jewish mysticism), and and Aleister Crowley’s writings. It also rituals, with notes added in the margins for mentary versions of of initiation rituals, in the margins for stage directions. These marginal marginal notes are not not generally in later later stage generally included in copies of of Shadows, leads some to suggest that “he “he was copies of the the Book Book of Shadows, which which leads some to suggest that was existing practice,” because “if he had had invented commenting on an already already existing “if he the ritual ritual himself, there would been no no need need to to add add commentary the himself, there would have have been commentary and and stage used “Ye stage directions.”!8 '® However, itit seems more likely likely that that Gardner used “Ye

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later Witches have magical workbook, as later Magical” as a magical Bok of Art Magical” ye Art of ye Bok may therefore inpages may inThe blank pages of Shadows. The their Book of to use their tended to but as aa work in progress. work in that itit was not regarded as complete but dicate that

Stage scripts written by by pracStage directions sometimes accompany new ritual scripts praclikely to the marginal notes are just titioners, so Gardner’s marginal just as likely to indicate the their indicate newness of of the they are to age. the rituals as they to their age. Allyn Wolfe, Wolfe, a high high priest the New Wiccan Church of Allyn priest of of the of central CaliCalifornia, suggests that his group’s group’s Book of fornia, that comparisons between his of Shadows and Gardner’s notebook indicates that that both are derived from an earlier source. But even if such a text did exist, that GardBut if a did exist, itit would only only indicate that ner took took some material from aa preexisting British occult group, aa twentieth-century group rather than than aa pagan survival. Gardner may may have proproduced “Ye “Ye Bok” purely purely to substantiate his claim that he to his that he was copying previous tradition, just the “Craft Laws,” but but he previous just as he he invented the he could just just easily have that he as easily have believed that he had had found an ancient tradition, which was ry creation. IfIf Gardner thought in twentieth-century he had had found aa in fact fact aa twentieth-centu thought he remnant of of ancient tradition, and added what he he knew from folklore and and and added knew from

the materials he he would be of anthropology, supplementing the he found, found, he be part part of aa tradition of akin to the Grimm brothers’ collection of folklore reclamation, akin to the

and folk tales.! tales.!° and revisions of of folk religious tradition and and isis reGardner created modern Witchcraft as aa religious sponsible for for the the initial drive to He sought sought publicity, publicity, sponsible to popularize the the Craft. He and initiated people people into into what he he represented wrote books on the the subject, subject, and as a tradition of of Witchcraft continuous with with pre-Christian pagan traditions. He He introduced most of the core ritual forms of of Wicca from other traof the ditions with which he he was familiar, such as Masonry. The The development of Pagan Witchcraft in in the the United States can be of most Pagan be traced to to Gardner’s influence, and, and, as Druid Isaac Isaac Bonewits has has pithily pithily noted, noted, he he took took “mate-

rial from from any any source that fast to to get get away.”2° away.”?° Gardner was rial that didn’t run too fast successful in in popularizing Witchcraft in part because itit was sustained by by in part that supported supported popular popular interest in magic and folklore. cultural trends that in magic popular at at the the time, time, and there Margaret Murray’s work was popular there was interest in occult figures figures such such as Aleister Aleister Crowley. Crowley. As As Valiente Valiente notes, John in occult John of Aleister Crowley, Beast, published in in Symond’s biography biography of Crowley, The The Great Beast, 1951, was less less sensationalist than of his life, 1951, than previous previous journalistic accounts of his life, and it public interest in in magic.”! magic.?! and it renewed public Doreen Valiente (1922-1999) isis largely largely responsible for for developing developing the the version of the Gardnerian Book of in the the 1960s 1960s of the of Shadows that that circulated in and and 1970s. She She has of Paganism primarily primarily has influenced the the development of through her rewriting rewriting of through her of Shadows in of Gardner’s Book of She in the the 1950s. She form of wrote the of the the Charge the original verse form Charge of of the the Goddess based on aa passage from Leland’s Aradia, and and the liturgy commonly the Witches Rune, aa liturgy used in in Wiccan rituals to to raise power and and charge charge magical tools. Her Her role role

Social and Influences Social and Charismatic Influences

Figure 13. 13. Figure

129 129

Doreen Valiente (from (from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of of Witchcraft)

in largely unknown until until the the in the the development of of Gardnerian Wicca was largely 1970s and and 1980s. Verses she she wrote have often been reproduced, particuparticularly in larly in North America, as “traditional,”

without crediting her or the crediting her the

Gardnerian Book of of Shadows. Gardner initiated Valiente in in 1953, 1953, and and they they were ritual partners for for some time. time. She became high high priestess of of his his coven but held authority but held authority over the in name only. call ourthe coven in only. Valiente recalls, recalls, “We were allowed to to call selves High Priestesses, Witch Queens and similar fancy titles; but we selves High Priestesses, Witch Queens and similar fancy titles; but we in the position of and women doing were still still in the position of having having men running running things things and doing the men directed. As As soon as the seeking real real power, as the the women started seeking The Rebirth of Witchcraft, she trouble was brewing.” In In her her book The of Witchcraft, she discusses the early of Gardnerian Wicca. She validity of the early history history of She debates the the validity of Gardner’s claims, well as the the claims of another tradition based based on “the “the claims, as well claims of

Pickingill Material,” about which she to a lack she draws no conclusions due due to lack of She isis very very critical critical of Gardner and Sanders, aa later later of evidence. evidence. She of both both Gardner and Alex Alex Sanders, their good good points well as Witch. Ambivalent about both, both, she she recounts their points as well their bad points. points. Valiente later pseudotheir bad later circled with Robert Cochrane (a (a pseudonym) him until he died died aa few nym) and and worked with him until he few years later, later, inin 1966. Cochrane practiced aa shamanic form form of of Witchcraft, which later informed the practices practices of the of the the 1734 tradition.” tradition.”’ (“1734” refers toto a mystical number, rather than aa year.) year.)

DRO

—A r 4

wt t= ,

“

ay.

J

_,

Figure 14. Figure 14.

a.

‘

Alex (photo from Stewart Farrar’s What Witches Do) Alex and and Maxine Sanders (photo Do)

Social and and Charismatic Influences Influences

13] 131

of the Alex Sanders (1926-1988) proclaimed himself “King “King of the Witches.” With his wife wife Maxine, Maxine, styled styled as “Queen of of the the Witches,” Witches,” he he founded what With his as “Queen founded what came to to be be known as the The Alexandrian tradition the Alexandrian tradition. The largely Gardnerian, but from isis largely but with with additional elements and and emphases from and spiritualism. In In 1965 and ceremonial magic magic and and 1966, 1966, Sanders became a public figure, figure, and and his by prominent Gardneripublic his popularity popularity was challenged by him as aa false ans, who denounced him false Witch who lacked aa proper initiatory lineage. He he had had been initiated into Craft by his grandgrandlineage. He retorted that that he into the the Craft by his that itit was the lineage of of the the Gardnerians that mother and and that the lineage that was spurious. spurious. his wife wife claimed to to preside 127 covens in Sanders and his preside over 127 in northern England, and and they they became famous in in the the London underground in in the the 1970s.” gland, 1970s.

Alex 1926, as Orrell Orrell Alexander Carter, Carter, into into aa workAlex Sanders was born in in 1926,

ing-class family. His grandmother, said said to to be in the the cunning ing-class family. His be “skilled in cunning craft,” did did practice practice magic, magic, and and his craft,” his mother was interested in in spiritualism and introduced Alex to to the the occult. occult.”” He He sought and sought initiation into into Gardnerian Wicca in in the the early reports that early 1960s but but was refused. Patricia Crowther reports that he wrote to in November of of 1961 saying that he he had always been he to her her in saying that had always been ininhad seen her he wanted to terested in in the the occult and and had her on television, and and he to learn from from her her and her husband, Arnold. They but she took aa dislike and her They met, met, but she took

to him him and him. He He later began began circling to and refused to to initiate him. circling with Pat Pat Kopanski, had received first-degree initiation from the the Crowther’s coven ski, who had but developed aa dislike for for their their coven’s practice. practice. Sanders may have but had had developed may have the first the eventually obtained initiation to to the first degree degree from aa Witch with the magical Medea, but lineage and magical name Medea, but the the details of of her her lineage and Sanders’ contact with her her are sketchy.”6 sketchy.”° Janet (b. 1950) 1950) and and Stewart Farrar (1916-2000) were initiated into into Janet Farrar (b. “Alexandrian.””” They Sanders’ tradition, which Stewart coined “Alexandrian.”*” They wrote a number of of books, notably AA Witches’ Bible, popular manual in books, notably Bible, a a popular in Algard Algard tradition (which blends Alexandrian and and Gardnerian Witchcraft). This This text virtually virtually replaced the practice practice of of hand copying of text replaced the copying aa coven’s Book of Shadows in in some groups, as it it includes most of of that that material, as well well as commentary on the the origins of the text, including acorigins of of various parts parts of the text, knowledgment of to Ireland of Valiente’s contributions. The The Farrar’s moved to 1975 and Irish elements to to their They became estranged inin 1975 and added Irish their practice. practice. They from Sanders by by the the late late 1970s, and allied with Together from 1970s, and with Doreen Valiente. Together they the Book of of Shadows and conthey analyzed analyzed the the various versions of of the cluded that than being being that Sanders’ tradition was based on Gardner’s rather than

his family. The Algard Algard tradition has has been inherited from from his family.22 The been prominent in in some parts the Odyssean Odyssean tradition of the Wiccan parts of of Canada, through through the of the Church of of Canada.

Raymond Raymond Gardnerian in aa coven in

Buckland, with his his first wife, Rosemary Rosemary Buckland, Buckland, brought Buckland, with first wife, brought Wicca to to the the United States in in the the early early 1960s. They They formed the official representatives of the New York and and became the of the

132 132

Chapter Chapter 77

vet

Figure 15. 15. Figure

Janet and Janet and Stewart Farrar (from (from Farrar and and Farrar’s Eight Eight Sabbats for for Witches)

denomination denomination

in the United States, States, until until they they divorced divorced in in the the early early in the United 1970s. Gardner forwarded queries joining Wicca from Americans queries about joining to Ray Buckland, and Buckland ran ran aa Witchcraft museum like to Ray and Buckland like Gardner’s on Long initially held held that only Long Island. Buckland initially only initiated Witches with lineage were “real” Witches—that is, that only aa traceable lineage is, that only Gardnerian initiates were “real” Witches, disdaining “do-it-yourself” initiates. He He later changed his mind, though, and produced a number of books for later changed his mind, though, and produced of for popular consumption.” His “Big Blue Book,” Buckland’s Complete Book of popular His “Big Blue Complete Book of Witchcraft, introduced many American practitioners to to the Craft. the Craft. It It served as aa how-to guide guide for self-initiation, a training guide, for a training guide, and and aa coven manual for for those who existing coven to who could not find find an existing to train with. with. Buckland was born in 1934. His father was a Gypsy, and born in His a Gypsy, and Buckland studied Gypsy culture and and the the occult. He He read read Gardner’s work in ied Gypsy in the the 1950s and started corresponding with him, continuing after he moved to the and him, he to the United States. He and Rosemary returned to the United Kingdom to be He and to the to be initiated in in 1963.% 1963.°° In 1973, shortly after their divorce, Ray created a new In 1973, shortly after their Ray a denomination, the also called “Saxon Wicca.”3! It the Seax-Wica tradition, also It is is

less and more democratic than Gardnerian Wicca, and itit recognizes less rigid rigid and Wicca, and recognizes

Social and and Charismatic Influences Influences

133 11338)

self-initiation.*? It be accessible and It was designed designed to to be and new. It It isis not directly directly from Saxon origin origin but but is folkdescended from is rather newly newly created, with Saxon folk-

lore included.*8 included.*? lore Witchcraft also to the West Coast of in the also came to the West of the the United States in the 1960s and developed in in aa different more influential and 1970s, 1970s, but but itit developed different and and eventually eventually more influential way largely through the way in in combination with with feminist Goddess religion, religion, largely through the teachings of of Zsuzsanna Zsuzsanna Budapest and Starhawk. Zsuzsanna Zsuzsanna Budapest, Budapest, and Starhawk. and is commonly called “Z.” Budapest, isis an American feminist Witch and is largely responsible for for the of “Dianic” the tradition largely the re-creation of “Dianic’” Witchcraft, the presented in in Leland’s Aradia. She She initially initially advocated aa completely sepafor women, and and she be a lesbian and aa priestess rate practice practice for she continues to to be priestess of Diana, the goddess in Aradia. While some elements of of her of Diana, the goddess in her practice practice apappear to the Gardnerian Book pear to be be derived directly directly from Leland’s Aradia and and the of Shadows, she of she does not cite cite these works. Diana isis an appropriate godgoddess for Budapest because of her portrayal dess for Budapest of her portrayal as an emancipatory force in in Aradia, but the Roman goddess Leland’s Aradia, but also also because the goddess Diana was known for shunning the the company of of men.** men. Murray for shunning Murray had had described Witchcraft as “the but following have “the Dianic Cult,” Cult,”*> but following Budapest, women’s-only groups have

Figure 16. 16. Figure

Z. (photo provided provided by by Z. Z. Budapest Budapest (photo Z. Budapest) Budapest)

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Chapter 77 Chapter

largely called Dianic. Dianic Witchcraft largely been called religion.” However, Witchcraft as “women’s religion.”%°

became another

of the practice practice of the of Dianic group of

Buas Buthe same time about the time as developed about Dianics, developed the McFarland Dianics, Witches, the

well and itit recognizes male as well This group includes men, and dapest’s group. This dapest’s divinity.°” as female divinity.°’ ; to United she immigrated to and she Hungary, and in Hungary, 1940 in in 1940 Budapest was born in chiltwo chilhad two and had married and she married where she Chicago, where to Chicago, initially to 1959, initially in 1959, States in States role as her domestic role of her slavery of the slavery to view as the she came to left what she She left dren. dren. She femiwith femimeeting with began meeting she began Angeles, where she Los Angeles, to Los and moved to wife and aa wife pagan customs She knew many pagan at women’s liberation celebrations. She nists at nists she started 1970, she in 1970, but in folk culture, but of Hungarian folk the secular context of inin the with the and began sabbats in English with reading folklore other the celebrating began and English in folklore other reading Anthony coven, the Susan B.B. Anthony that became the in aa group that other women in other 1971.%5 in 1971.% founded in She ran the the Feminist Wicca, Wicca, an occult shop shop in in California, for time, She for some time,

leading her her to to participate in in her her first first large large allallwhich Starhawk visited, leading

ritual, led led by by Budapest.*? has claimed that women ritual, Budapest.°? Budapest has that seven hunhunher tradition in in the the 1970s.*° She She did did not not dred women were initiated into into her all who call call themselves Dianic Witches—man Witches—many had no direct cony had initiate all to Budapest—bu Budapest—but t nection to

in the the 1980s, 1980s, there there were hundreds of of Dianic Dianic in

operating as women’s-only groups.*! groups.*! These These women were inspired inspired covens operating by Aradia Aradia and and Budapest's Budapest's The The Feminist Book Book of of Light Light and and Shadows, later later pubpubby as The The Holy Holy Book Book of of Women’s Mysteries, book that that became aa lished as Mysteries, a a how-to book core text for for what came to to be be known as “feminist spirituality,” aa term coined by by Budapest.” Budapest.#

The Holy Holy Book Book ofof Women’s Mysteries Mysteries has has enough enough in in common with with GardGardThe nerian material that that itit appears to to be be derivative, but but Budapest Budapest denies denies havhaving ever read Gardner’s work. She indicates that the work of the scholar ing read work.* She that the work of the Greek culture Jane Jane Ellen Ellen Harrison was her her chief chief inspiration.” inspiration. ofof classical Greek She has claimed to be a hereditary witch, following the teachings of her her She has to be a witch, following the teachings of mother, an artist, altar builder, and psychic. She says her mother premother, artist, altar builder, and psychic. She says her presented her her art art and and psychic psychic skills skills as “peasant,” “peasant,” and and she she explains explains that that “peas“peasant” and and “pagan” “pagan” are the the same word word in in Italian. Italian. Budapest Budapest indicates that that ant” she was a Witch before she was a feminist, and that there have been many she a before she a and that there have been many herbalists and and healers healers in in her her family, family, documented documented back back toto the the year year 1270.% 1270. herbalists Budapest was arrested for fortune-telling in Los Angeles in 1975. She Budapest for fortune-telling in Los Angeles in She fought the charge on grounds of the right to religious freedom (providing fought the charge grounds of the right to religious counseling), but but lost. lost. Nine Nine years years later, later, after after many many appeals, appeals, the the law law was dedecounseling), feated and and struck struck down by by Rose Rose Bird, Bird, then then on the the California Supreme Supreme Court. Traditional Wiccan Witches Witches generally generally did did not not support support Budapest Budapest Court. against the the charges, charges, largely largely because of of her her feminist feminist politics, politics, but but some against other Pagans Pagans spoke spoke in in her her defense in in letters letters to to the the Pagan Pagan magazine magazine Green Green other Egg.#° Her Her trial trial brought brought Witchcraft to to public public attention in in California, and and Egg.*°

Social and and Charismatic Influences

135 135

drew attention to laws. The Los Angeles Angeles law law forbade fortuneto anti-occult laws. The Los telling, regardless not, and telling, regardless of of whether money was charged charged or not, and was against against any practice of magic, including clairvoyance and any practice of magic, and palmistry.*” In 1980, Budapest led led aa large large ritual ritual at the Pan-Pagan Festival in the In 1980, Budapest at the in the American Midwest, and for the first time time involved men in inaaritual, ritual, as and for the first

of the for women participating in sky-clad ritual. guardians of the perimeter for in aa sky-clad

For most of of the the women, itit was their ritual in in aa nonpolarized setting setting For their first first ritual (i.e., itit was women and (i.e., and goddess goddess focused, rather than bitheistic with prepreand female roles). for the scribed male and roles). ItIt was aa moving moving experience for the particparticipants, and “many “many of of these women were forever changed by their experiexperiipants, and by their ence.”45 Budapest contributed to to the and ence.”“8 the development of of separate men’s and women’s mysteries, and and to to aa decline in in animosity animosity toward gender-specific at Pagan Pagan festivals. Some Pagans Pagans regard regard separatist Dianic Witchevents at craft as a necessary stage stage in in the growth of of a more balanced view of craft the growth of women and and god Craft, and and practitioners dedeand men, and god and and goddess, goddess, in in the the Craft, bate about whether the has the need for for separate men’s and and women’s rituals has past.?? Budapest herself has and conflicts between feminist and past.” has mellowed, and and mainstream Craft have mostly subsided. have mostly and although although much of the wider naBudapest isis somewhat charismatic, and of the tional Pagan Pagan community rejected her, she she is by many rejected her, is loved and and respected by in respected for for her her creativity, for to inspire inspire in California.°° She She isis respected for her her ability ability to and craft rituals, and for leaving leaving historical historical questions to the academand craft new rituals, and for to the ics. She wrote the “We All From the the Goddess,”>! she ics. She the classic chant “We All Come From Goddess,”*! she

hosted aa television show in the 1980s, she has has a continuing public public in the 1980s, and and she in Paganism through the presence in through lecture tours, workshops, articles on the Goddess, and her website.°? and her

The Goddess-religion version of of Paganism espoused espoused by by Budapest Budapest and and The Starhawk attracted many women who had from orhad become estranged from ganized in the the second second wave of in the the late (the ganized religion religion in of feminism in late 1960s (the first being the the suffragist suffragist movement, which won women the the right right first wave being to vote). Feminist influences introduced aa questioning of of sexism and to vote). and papatriarchy within Paganism, the the idea idea that that “the “the personal personal isis political,” and and triarchy the consensus decision-making process, as well the well as aa sometimes counterto history history and and myth. myth.°? Practitioners following Buacademic approach to Budapest’s lead lead took took an attitude of of creative inspiration toward myth, myth, hisdapest’s history, and from tory, and tradition. Feminist practitioners often quote quote aa passage from Monique Wittig’s (The Wars): Wars): “There was aa time Monique Wittig’s novel Les Les Guérilliéres (The you were not not aa slave, remember that. to rewhen you that. . . . . . Make an effort to member. Or, failing that, invent.”°4 member. Or, failing that, invent.”°4 Starhawk, and an initiate of the Faery Starhawk, an an American American feminist feminist Witch Witch and an initiate of the Faery tratradition, is a cofounder of the Reclaiming tradition. Starhawk is an internais a of the is tionally known author and and spokesperson for tionally for the the Craft and and for for Goddess religion. Her Her books have religion. have been been translated into into German, Danish, Danish, Italian, Italian,

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Chapter Chapter 77

Portuguese, and and Japanese.®> Spiral Dance, one of of the the most The Spiral wrote The She wrote Japanese. She Portuguese,

to Paganism. commonly known how-to books introducing practitioners to

She has has been been influential in in Paganism through through embracing feminism while She the participation of of men. encouraging the

Starhawk is for her She became popopolitical activism. She her political also well known for is also litically against the War in in the the 1960s when she she the Vietnam War in protests against litically active in was in she has has never stopped. eventually became aa She eventually stopped. She and she high school, and in high prominent leader and in the and antiglobalthe peace, antinuclear, and organizer in and organizer that politics always and spirituality have always politics and says that She says ization movements. She gone together together for and this this combination isis integral to the the Reclaiming integral to her,>° and for her,5° tradition she in particular is inherent particular is she cocreated. Environmental awareness in to her practice of that spiritual inspires spiritual awareness inspires feels that She feels of Witchcraft. She her practice to political she says the Goddess is symbol but only a symbol is not only says that the and she political action, and also who “makes demands on us.”°” being who living being also a living Starhawk was born Miriam Simos in beShe befamily. She Jewish family. 1951, into a Jewish in 1951, gan to have a Pagan view of the world in the summer of 1968, as she she as 1968, of summer the in world the of view gan to have a Pagan hitchhiked and the coast coast of the She recalls, “For the of California. She along the camped along and camped hitchhiked first time I lived in direct contact with nature, day and night. I began to to began I night. and day in I first feel connected to the world in a new way, to see everything as alive, erotic, alive, erotic, to in a to the feel engaged in of mutual pleasuring, and myself special myself as a special in a constant dance of part In the 1968, she of the University of at the college at she started college of 1968, fall of the fall all.”°* In it all.”°8 of it part of California, Los Los Angeles class on Witchcraft with aa taught aa class and taught Angeles (UCLA), and friend as a project for They formed aa coven and and for an anthropology course. They began to improvise rituals. A short while later, she called she met what she later, she A began to “real Wiccan Witches” and found “a the exfor understanding the “a framework for periences [she] the Godof the Charge of the Charge hearing the already had” upon hearing [she] had already dess. She but She underwent some training with those “real Wiccan Witches” but was not inclined at the time to to follow their disciplined training program. program.? at the Starhawk met Z. but her, but early 1970s and learned from her, the early in the Z. Budapest in she She graduated from she did not become integrated into Budapest's circle. She UCLA and started writing novels. She moved to try to get to get to try to New York to published, but to California, her back to led her that led of dreams that had aa series of she had but she

where she practice and started writing began a more disciplined religious practice she began what was eventually published as The taught classes Spiral Dance. She taught The Spiral again on ritual and Vicof them. She met Victhe Compost coven out of and formed the again tor and she and she Faery tradition, and the Faery in the her in and Cora Anderson, who trained her tor

gained the of the being elected first officer of Pagan community, being the Pagan in the gained status in of the in 1976. the Goddess in Covenant of By political religious for a more political 1977, Starhawk developed a desire for By 1977, practice than Compost could provide. She She moved to to San Francisco and founded Raving, Raving, a coven for for women only, only, run on a nonhierarchical basis with no high high priestess.°! priestess.*! In In 1979, 1979, she started the the Reclaiming community, a feminist Witch group, with Diane Baker. Reclaiming began began as Goddess Goddess

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137 IBY,

religion, conducting emancipatory rituals as aa teaching teaching collective on religion, Witchcraft. Out first classes, students formed the the Holy Holy Terrors Out of of those first coven, and and the the Wind Hags. Hags. Starhawk and and others in in the the Reclaiming community put on the 1979, coinciding munity put the first first Spiral Spiral Dance ritual at at Samhain of of 1979, with the the publication of of Starhawk’s book book of of the the same name. Raving beRaving became the the Reclaiming Collective in 1980 and in 1980 and continues to to present an annual in the the Bay nual Spiral Spiral Dance ritual in Bay Area.© Area. In 1981, 1981, Starhawk was arrested at at aa demonstration against opening In against the the opening of plant atat Diablo Canyon. to support support anarof aa nuclear power plant Canyon. She She began began to chist politics and and direct action against against environmental destruction, and and ReRechist politics claiming opened to to male participants. She has been arrested many claiming was opened She has for demonstrating against against clear cutting cutting old-growth forest in in times since, since, for Clayoquot Sound, and in Genoa for for her and in her participation in in antiglobalization protests, among other protests, among other causes. causes. Starhawk’s influence has has been been primarily in adding adding an overtly primarily in overtly political political tone to to Paganism, Paganism, initially initially feminism, and action, and later later anarchism, direct action,

and and antinuclear and and antiglobalization sentiments. Her Her outlook might might be be described as the phrase the “California Cosmology” version of of Witchcraft, aa phrase used to to describe the of nineteenth-century American pantheism pantheism used the evolution of through Californian writers in in the the 1970s. They They included an eclectic mix mix of of through alternative ideas, the common belief “that “that everything in in the ideas, the the cosmos is is both sacred and and interconnected; that that humans in developed world both in the the developed

the cosmos; have become tragically—perhaps fatally—disconnected from the and that possible given only aa change change of of attitudes.” and that reconnection isis possible given only

The Spiral the best-selling book The Spiral Dance became the book on Paganism, replacing the model how-to text, text, largely largely because of of Gardner’s Witchcraft Today Today as the writing is and impassioned, and and Starhawk’s talent as a writer. Her writing is clear clear and she is with having the foundation of of hunshe is “popularly credited with having inspired the and North America.”® Some dreds of of groups of of witches all all over Europe Europe and that The Spiral Dance “created aa thousand women’s covens and and estimate that The Spiral spiritual groups,” than all the Gardnerians and and Alexanspiritual groups,” “perhaps more than all the although she she is original and taltaldrians combined.” Some say say that although is an original she isis not an original original thinker: “Her genius lay in in taking ented writer, she genius lay taking ideas ideas from others and and applying them in in powerful ways.”°” and combining and powerful new ways.” While Wicca was spreading into North America from Britain and was being transformed by its encounter with with feminist Pagan other being by its Pagan groups, other American Pagan began to to develop. At Carleton College, Pagan traditions began develop. At College, students formed the the Reformed Druids of of North America (RDNA) in 1963, in in in 1963,

protest of the school’s requirements that that students attend religious protest of the religious services. year later, and though ices. Although the the requirement was waived a year later, and though RDNA was not initially initially intended to to be bea a religious religious group, itit grew into into one, and into the the contemporary Pagan through Isaac Bonewits. and Pagan movement through his roommate at at Berkeley, Berkeley, and they Bonewits joined joined RDNA through his and they

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Figure 17. Figure 17.

Chapter Chapter 77

Isaac Bonewits (photo (photo provided provided by by Isaac Bonewits)

religious Pagan established aa grove there as an overtly overtly religious Pagan group. AA subsequent schism with lead to to the the formation of of quent with more-secular RDNA groups lead the New Reformed Druids of the of North America (NRDNA).® Bonewits later later

into aa much larger larger organfounded Ar Ar nDraiocht Féin (ADF), (ADF), which grew into than RDNA. He He has ization than has since run ADF as aa self-admittedly “benevo-

lent dictatorship,”®’ figure in in Palent dictatorship,” and has has sometimes been been a controversial figure Paganism, leading some to to describe him him as “extremely opinionated ganism, leading opinionated and and often even egotistical,” egotistical,” while while noting that “he “he remains one of the often difficult, even noting that of the most interesting interesting Pagans Pagans around.”” Born in from an early age. He in 1949, 1949, Bonewits was religiously inclined from early age. He to aa high seminary but reading about went to high school seminary but was at at the the same time time reading magic, and he he later public school system. system. He He isis perhaps perhaps magic, and later returned to to the the public best for earning earning aa bachelor’s degree degree in best known for in magic magic from from Berkeley Berkeley in in 1970 through their independent study study program, aa feat 1970 through their feat that that the the adminisrepeat. He get aa doctration subsequently made impossible to to repeat. He went on to to get doctorate in in anthropology from Berkeley. Publicity from his degree in magic from Berkeley. Publicity from his degree in magic

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led to to the Real Magic, Magic, which discusses ritual, ritual, magic, magic, and and led the publication of of Real psychic phenomena. He He has has been aa public public figure figure in in various branches of of psychic

since, and and continues to He has Paganism ever since, to produce books. He has been initiated into into the the Gardnerian Craft, Craft, NROOGD, NROOGD, and and the the Order of of the the Temple Temple of of ated the Orient, Orient, among other the other traditions.”!

been most influential through through his his disdisBonewits has has been his ideas on magic, magic, his the principles principles of magic, and and his of how magic cussion of of the of magic, his theory theory of magic works as the multiple multiple editions of Real Magic. Magic. He has discussed in in the of Real has also also promoted scholarship and general Pagan learning learning from from academic sources on PaPascholarship general Pagan ganism and and Pagan history. He He has has long long been been critical of Pagan acceptance ganism Pagan history. of Pagan of false false histories concerning the the witch hunts and and ancient matriarchies, of and he he greatly greatly contributed to the growing of historical and to the growing critical awareness of in Paganism in in the the mid-1970s.” He He angered angered issues in the United States by by the by calling calling the myth “the “the myth of the many by the Wiccan revival myth myth of the Unitarian, of Western Theosophical Brittany.””> Brittany.””? He He Universalist, White Witchcult of has been critical critical also of Robert Graves, calling calling him “a sloppy has also of him “a sloppy scholar” who “has bad anthropology to to occur among Wiccan groups who “has caused more bad

The problem than almost any other work.” The problem was not so much in in Graves for his of metaphor himself, whom Bonewits praises for his inspirational use of and myth, myth, but but in in practitioners who treated Graves’ and and Murray’s Murray’s writand ings as “sacred scripture.””4 ings A of people people find Pagans into into paleopaleoA number of find Bonewits’ categorization of of Pagans

inpagans, mesopagans, and and neopagans useful. Paleopaganism refers to to indigenous polytheistic traditions. Mesopaganism refers to to reconstructionist traditions that began under the influence of monotheistic and gnostic ist that began the of and gnostic ideas, such as some early forms of Druidism. Neopaganism (also ideas, such early of (also spelled spelled

“Neo-Paganism”) af“Neo-Paganism’) refers to to revivalist and and re-creationist groups formed after about 1960, under the influence of modern ideas about inclusivity and ter 1960, the of and equality, that that is, is, with equality, with political political consciousness.”° consciousness.” More specifically, Bonewits defines Neo-Paganism as “polytheistic (or (or conditional monotheistic) nature religions religions that are based upon the older that the older or Paleopagan religions; concentrating the humanistic, ecological and centrating upon an attempt to to retain the and creative aspects aspects of their occasional ative of these old old belief systems while discarding their brutal or repressive developments, which are inappropriate.”” inappropriate.””° In the the 1980s, 1980s, Paganism diversified further with with the the development of In of reconstructionist traditions drawing drawing from but Wicca from aa number of of cultures, but continued to to grow in popularity, particularly through the the development of grow in of solitary Scott Cunningham’s books, Wicca: AA Guide for for the the solitary practitioners. Scott Solitary Practitioner and and Living Living Wicca: AA Further Guide for PracSolitary for the the Solitary Solitary Practitioner, this development possible. possible. Cunningham (1956-1993) was titioner, made this of groups but but preferred preferred solitary His writinitiated into into aa number of solitary practice. practice. His ings made the the teachings of of Wicca widely widely available, providing access to to ings the religion religion for did not have have contact with teaching teaching the for practitioners who did

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in the States, or did to practice covens in the United States, did not want to practice within organized

groups. Along Along with with writers writers such such as as Heather O’Dell and and Marion groups. Heather O’Dell Marion Green, Green, who were not not interested in in Cunningham made Wicca accessible to to those who working in in covens.”” working By making the the teachings teachings of of Wicca available outside of teaching covens, By making of teaching to the beyond initiaCunningham contributed to the growth growth of of eclectic Wicca beyond tory traditions.”® traditions.” He religion, newly newly created tory He presented Wicca as a modern religion, and to possibility, but but inspired inspired by past traditions. Indirectly, Cunand open open to by past

ningham the increased role of festivals in in Paningham may have have contributed to to the role of Paganism the 1980s, solitary practitioners attend ganism beginning in in the 1980s, since some solitary such festivals in place of of regular regular group practice” to gain a periodic periodic sense such in place to gain of belonging. of Cunningham produced more than than thirty thirty books on Witchcraft and and toptopics related to the practice of Paganism. He is one of Llewellyn Publications ics to the practice of He is of Llewellyn most successful authors,®° authors,*° and and he he isis one of of the the best-selling Pagan Pagan authors for a popular audience. More than 400,000 copies of Wicca: for a popular than copies of AA Guide for for the the Solitary Practitioner were sold per year by 2000,°! and it is now available in Solitary per year by 2000,5! and it is in Spanish. Perhaps it is in part due to the success of Cunningham’s guide Spanish. Perhaps it is in part due to the of guide that his publisher, publisher, Llewellyn Publications, prefers its book titles titles to that his prefers its to include “Wicca” rather rather than than “Witchcraft” “Witchcraft” or or “Paganism,” decision that that contincontin“Wicca” “Paganism,” aa decision to influence the of these these terms by Paues to the use of by practitioners. Increasingly, Pagans identify with with “Wicca” as a generic generic term for gans identify for “Pagan.” major exception the tendency toward aa preference preference for AA major exception to to the for the the terms in Heathen and “Wicca” and and “Wiccan” isis in and Asatru groups, who sometimes the label “Pagan.” One of of the even refuse the the more prominent practitioners in in this area is of Hrafnar (“The this is Diana Paxson, leader of (“The Ravens”), aa Heathen/

in the in 1988. She She Asatru reconstructionist group in the United States founded in the Heathen/Asatru community and and has isis respected in in the has exerted an aesthetic influence on Paganism more broadly through the the Society Society for Crebroadly through for Creative Anachronism (SCA), (SCA), which she SCA, which which began began she cofounded. The The SCA,

at a party party in in Paxson’s backyard in in 1966, 1966," revives the the clothing and pracpracat clothing and tices of of the the Renaissance, as well well as as music, tices the Middle Ages Ages and and the music, herbalism,

and medieval cooking. cooking. Many Many practitioners find way into into local Pagan Pagan and find their their way

and the the medieval flavor of of their their praccommunities through through SCA events, and Pagan aesthetics. tices permeates Pagan Paxson was born born in in 1943 and and grew up She earned aa masup in in California. She degree in in comparative literature and and has pubter’s degree has had several novels published. She She trained as an Episcopal minister atat one time, time, which has has led led some to to jokingly jokingly describe some rituals of the Spiral of Fellowship of Path, to to of the Spiral Path, which she “High Episcopagan.”83 she also also belongs, belongs, as “High She was first Episcopagan.”*® She first initiated by the novelist Marion Zimmer Bradley. by her her sister-in-law, the Bradley. She She has has studied Wicca, neo-shamanism, and Wicca, other traditions, but and other but her her focus is is on Asatru,4 Asatru,*4

although she she remains aa member of of NROOGD and the kabbalistic group and the the Fellowship of the Spiral Spiral Path. Path.® the of the

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141 141

has been in of oracular seidr, seidr, or Paxson’s greatest greatest influence has in the the revival of

divination from high seat, she teaches workshops from the the high seat, about which she seidr “in “in its its present throughout the the United States and and Europe. Europe. Oracular seidr form was first today’s Heathenry Heathenry in in the US when Diana form first practised within today’s the US Paxson went looking for ‘something for the women to to do’ looking for for the do’ while men were involved in in performing ‘viking ‘viking games’ games’ and and drinking drinking beer, beer, playing playing out the . . . stereotype of the macho warrior.”®° She has authored out the of the warrior.”® She has aa number of novels with Pagan elements, and she contributes regularly to Pagan ber of with Pagan and she to Pagan magazines.* She also edits Idunna, a journal devoted to Heathenry. magazines.*’ She also edits Idunna, journal to Many be included in in aa list who have have made Many other people people could be list of of those who important contributions or played significant roles in the development of played in the of Paganism. Ed Fitch, for example, has been credited with creating the Ed Fitch, for example, has creating the “outer court” structure commonly used in in Wiccan and and other Pagan Pagan groups.°§ Gwydion DeLong) was aa prominent bard groups.*§ Gwydion Pendderwen (Tom (Tom DeLong) (musician and storyteller) storyteller) whose whose songs songs became became well well known known and be(musician and loved beyond of California. Lady Lady Sheba (Jesse (Jesse Wicker Bell) yond his his home state of Bell) pubpubthe Gardnerian Book of the first Sybil Leek bebelished the of Shadows for for the first time. Sybil to be be initiated into than came known for for her her claim to into aa tradition other than (formerly Tim Tim Zell Gardnerian Wicca. Oberon Zell-Ravenheart (formerly Zell or Otter greatly contributed to to the the Church of of All All Worlds and G’Zell) greatly and influenced Pagans more generally through Egg. Aiden Kelly Kelly Pagans through his his editorship of of Green Egg. became infamous for in the of Gardner’s for creating creating doubt in the authenticity of into aa preexisting religion. religion. Margot Margot Adler claim to to having having been initiated into well known to to practitioners as well well as scholars of of Pagan Pagan studies became well through her her thoroughly researched and of American through and unsurpassed survey of Drawing Down the has done Paganism, Drawing the Moon. More recently, recently, Chas Clifton has to foster the the growth the field field of Pagan studies, moderating moderating the much to growth of of the of Pagan the meetings at Nature Religion Scholars Network e-list, e-list, organizing meetings at the the of Religion, Religion, and and editing The Pomegranate: The American Academy of editing The The International Journal Journal of Pagan Studies. These people, and others, others, continue to to shape tional of Pagan people, and shape the of Paganism the development of Paganism into diverse traditions. FURTHER READING Clifton, Hidden Children. Lanham, MD: MD: AltaMira Press, Clifton, Chas. Her Her Hidden Press, 2006.

Hutton, Ronald. The The Triumph Triumph of of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: OxOxof the the Moon: AA History History of Pagan Witchcraft. ford Press, 1999. ford University University Press, 1999.

NOTES Margot Adler, Adler, Drawing Down the and Other 1.1. Margot the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, Goddess- Worshippers, and Pagans in in America Today, Today, revised and ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, Pagans and expanded expanded ed. Press, 1986), 1986), 62. 62.

Cora Anderson indicates that that the the main “trunk” of of the stemming from the the 2.2. Cora the Feri Feri tradition stemming but that that there there are branches of of the the tradition tradition Andersons did did not not rely rely on Gardnerian material, but

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that are more influenced by Cora Anderson, personal personal communication, by Gardnerian practice. practice. Cora August 23, 23, 2005. See also Chas Clifton, Her Her Hidden Children (Lanham, (Lanham, MD: MD: AltaMira, 2006), 2006), August See also Chas S. S. Clifton,

132. 3. and Neo-Paganism inin America (Philadel3. Sabina Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture: Folklore and phia: of Pennsylvania Press, phia: University of Press, 2004), 2004), 48-49.

4. Triumph of of the the Moon: AA History History of of Modern Pagan Pagan Witchcraft 4. Ronald Hutton, The The Triumph Witchcraft (Oxford: Oxford University University Press Press 1999), 1999), 205. Oxford 205. 5. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 49. 5. Magliocco, Culture, 49. Hutton, Triumph Moon, 206. 206. 6.6. Hutton, Triumph of of the the Moon, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down Down the 7.7. Adler, the Moon, Moon, 61. 61. Moon, 206. 206. 8.8. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon, 9. 9. 10. 10. 11. 11.

Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon, Moon, 61. Adler, Drawing Down 61. Clifton, Her Her Hidden Children, 75. 75. Her Hidden Children, 87. 87. Clifton, Her

12. 12. 13. 13. 14. 14.

Hutton, Triumph the Moon, Moon, Triumph of of the Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon, Tanya Luhrmann, Persuasions Tanya

211. 211. 212-13. of the the Witch's Craft of Craft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press, 1989), 1989), 42-43. Press,

15. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 15. Culture, 51. 51.

16. Valiente, The Rebirth of Witchcraft (Custer, (Custer, WA: WA: Phoenix Phoenix Publishing, Publishing, 1989), 16. Doreen Doreen Valiente, The Rebirth of Witchcraft 1989), 63. 63. 17. Magliocco, Culture, 51. 51. Magliocco does not not state state when when the book was was found, found, 17. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, Magliocco does the book but Hutton, following Aiden Kelly’s Kelly’s research, indicates that that “Ye “Ye Bok of ye Art Magical” Magical” preBok of ye Art precedes the the 1953 version of of the the Book of of Shadows. See See Hutton, Triumph Triumph of the Moon, 227. 227. It of the It isis held in in a collection of of Gardner’s papers in in Toronto by James. held by Richard and and Tamarra James. 18. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 18. Culture, 52. 52. 19. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 19. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 52-54. 52-54. 20. Adler, Drawing Moon, 70. 70. 20. Quoted in in Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon, 21. Valiente, Rebirth of of Witchcraft, 17. 21. Witchcraft, 17. 22. Valiente, Rebirth of of Witchcraft, 182. 22. Witchcraft, 182.

23. Chas S. Harvey, The (New York: Routledge, 23. S. Clifton and and Graham Harvey, The Paganism Paganism Reader (New 2004), 215. 215. 2004), 24. Hutton, Triumph Moon, 326. 24. Triumph of of the the Moon, 25. Hutton, Hutton, Triumph Moon, 330-31. 25. Triumph of of the the Moon,

26. Hutton, Triumph 26. Triumph of of the the Moon, 320-22. 27. Hutton, Triumph 329. 27. Hutton, Triumph of of the the Moon, Moon, 329. 28. Hutton, Hutton, Triumph Moon, 338-39. 338-39. 28. Triumph of of the the Moon, 29. and Harvey, Harvey, Paganism Paganism Reader, 209-10. 29. Clifton Clifton and Reader, 209-10. 30. Shelly and James James Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and and Neo-Pagan30. Shelly Rabinovitch and ism (New York: York: Citadel, Citadel, 2002), 2002), 30. ism (New 30. 31. Magliocco, Witching Culture, Culture, 70. 31. Magliocco, Witching 70.

32. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 31. 31. 32. Lewis, Encyclopedia of 33. Adler, Adler, Drawing the Moon, Moon, 93. 93. 33. Drawing Down the

34. Hutton, Triumph of of the the Moon, Moon, 344. 344. 34, 35. Adler, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down Down the the Moon, Moon, 121. 121. 35. 36. Jone Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The 36. San Francisco (London: The Reclaiming Reclaiming Witches of of San Routledge, 2002), 2002), 242. 242. Routledge,

37. 37. Wendy Wendy Griffin, “Goddess Spirituality and and Wicca,” in in Her ed. Arvind Her Voice, Voice, Her Her Faith, Faith, ed. and Katherine K. K. Young Young (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Press, 2003). Sharma and (Boulder, CO: 2003). 38. Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon, Moon, 77. 38. Adler, Drawing 77.

39. The Spiral 39. Starhawk, The of the Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of the Ancient Religion Religion of of the the Great Goddess. 10th

anniversary ed. 1989), 3. ed. (New (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989),

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143 143

40. Hutton, Moon, 344. 344. 40. Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon, 41. Adler, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down Down the Moon, 121. 41. the Moon, 121. 42. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of and Neo-Paganism, 32-31. The The 42. of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and

original of The The Feminist Book of Light and and Shadows credits the of the original publication of of Light the members of the SuSusan B. Anthony coven with authorship, but but Budapest of The The Holy Holy Book Book B. Anthony Budapest isis listed as the the author of of she notes others as contributors. of Women’s Mysteries, although she 43. The may be due to to both traditions using using LeLe43. The similarities with Gardnerian material may be due land’s Aradia as aa source. 44. 44. 45. 45. 46. 46. 47. 47.

also Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the Personal communication, July July 5, 5, 2005. See See also the Moon, Moon, 344. 344. Adler, Drawing the Moon, 76. Adler, Drawing Down the Moon, 76. Clifton, Her Hidden Children, 121. 121. Clifton, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the Moon, 187. 187. Adler, the Moon,

48. Adler, Adler, Drawing Down the 426. 48. Drawing Down the Moon, Moon, 426. 49. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 242-43. 49. 50. Adler, Adler, Drawing 50. Drawing Down the the Moon, Moon, 187. 187.

51. Hutton, Hutton, Triumph Triumph of 360. 51. of the the Moon, 360. 52. Personal communication, July July 5,5, 2005. See also Rabinovitch and and Lewis, 52. See also Lewis, Encyclopedia of of and Neo-Paganism, 32. Modern Witchcraft and 32. Budapest's website can be be found at at www.zbudapest.com. 53. Clifton, Clifton, Her Her Hidden Children, 121-22. 53. 54.- Monique Les Guérilliéres (Boston: Beacon Press, Press, 1985), 54. Monique Wittig, Wittig, Les 1985), 89. 89.

55. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern Witchcraft and 250. 55. and Neo-Paganism, 250. 56. Starhawk, Webs Webs of of Power: Notes from from the the Global Uprising Uprising (Gabriola Island, Island, British Co56. Columbia: New New Society Society Publishers, 2002), 2002), 4. 4. 57. Starhawk, Dreaming the Sex and and Politics, new ed. ed. (London: Mandala [Un[Un57. the Dark: Magic, Magic, Sex win 1990), xvi. win Paperbacks], 1990), xvi. 58. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, Dance, 2.2. 58. 59. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, Dance, 2-3. 2-3. 59. 60. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, 3-5. 60. 3-5. 61. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 39. 61. 39. 62. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 1.1. 62. 63. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 39-40. 63.

64. “The “The California Cosmology” is phrase developed developed by 64. is aa phrase by Alston Chase. Ronald Hutton that Starhawk learned this this perspective through through Carolyn at Berkeley. Berkeley. HutHutsuggests that Carolyn Merchant at ton, Triumph 350-51. ton, Triumph of of the the Moon, Moon, 350-51.

65. Triumph of of the the Moon, 347. 65. Hutton, Triumph Moon, 345, 345, 347. 66. Drawing Down the the Moon, 418. 66. Adler, Adler, Drawing Moon, 228, 228, 418.

67. Triumph of of the the Moon, 350. 67. Hutton, Triumph 350. 68. of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 26. 68. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and 26. 69. in Adler, Adler, Drawing Moon, 327. 69. Quoted Quoted in Drawing Down the the Moon, 327. 70. the Moon, 70. Adler, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the Moon, 327. 327.

71. and Lewis, Encyclopedia of and Neo-Paganism, 26. 71. Rabinovitch and of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and 26. 72. Witching Culture, Culture, 192-93; 192-93; Hutton, Triumph Triumph of of the the Moon, 369. 72. Magliocco, Witching Moon, 369. 73. Adler, Drawing the Moon, 45. 73. Adler, Drawing Down the 45. 74. Adler, Drawing the Moon, 74. Quoted in in Adler, Drawing Down the Moon, 59. 59. 75. Isaac Bonewits, “Defining “Defining Paganism: Paleo-, Paleo-, Meso-, Meso-, and 2.5,” Isaac Bonewits’ 75. Isaac and Neo- 2.5,”

Homepage, 2001, 2001, www.neopagan.net/PaganDefs.html (accessed August 2004). August 6, 6, 2004). 76. Quoted in Adler, Drawing 76. Quoted in Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon, Moon, 10. 10.

77. and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 69. 77. Rabinovitch and 69. 78. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 70. 70. 78.

79. Clifton Clifton and Harvey, Paganism Paganism Reader, 273. 79. and Harvey, Reader, 273.

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144 144 80. 80. 81. 81. 82. 82. 83. 83. 84. 84. 85. 85. 86. 86.

Harvey, Paganism 273. Clifton and and Harvey, Paganism Reader, Reader, 273. and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern Witchcraft and 70. Rabinovitch and and Neo-Paganism, 70. Clifton, Her Her Hidden Children, 117. 117. Magliocco, Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, Culture, 146. 146.

Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern and Lewis, Magliocco, 81. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, Culture, 81. Jenny Blain, Nine Worlds of of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy Jenny Blain, Seid-Magic: Ecstasy Paganism (London: Routledge, 2002), 2002), 143. 87. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern 87. 88. Rabinovitch and 88. and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern

Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 208-9.

and North European European and Neo-Shamanism inin North

Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 209. 209. Witchcraft Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 103. 103.

8 ook ook Denominations

types of to use aa n discussing the the forms and types of Paganism, it it is is necessary to flexible typology, fall neatly neatly typology, because practitioners do do not necessarily fall

into in PaganPaganinto distinct categories. There are identifiable denominations in ism, of Pagan Pagan practice, but but there are also also ism, named groups or traditions of forms of the denominations, such as as eclectic and of practice practice that that run across the and solitary solitary practice. practice. There are also also overlapping religious religious movements and and types of religious practice practice that of types of that generate cross-denominational forms of Pagan Pagan practice, practice, such such as shamanism, feminist spirituality, and and New Age Age practices. Shamanism, feminist spirituality and Goddess religion religion exist as religious they also overlap with Paganism as religious traditions in in themselves, but but they also overlap forms of Pagan practice. practice. Some traditions discussed as denominations can of Pagan also be be seen as forms of practice, such as specific specific family also of practice, family traditions and and reof constructionist traditions. The The generally diverse and flexible structure of Paganism makes Pagan to categorize. Paganism Pagan traditions difficult to

The of practitioners practice practice an eclectic form of of Paganism. The majority of Eclectic forms of of Paganism are traditions or practices practices that that draw from multiple traditions, blending blending them into into new forms, specific rituals or tiple forms, either for for specific to create new Pagan be eclectic, eclectic, an individto Pagan denominations. A A ritual can be ual’s solitary practice can be be eclectic, and be eclectic but but staual’s solitary practice and aa tradition can be stable over time in in an individual’s individual's practices practices or in in group practices. An indible An individual or group might, might, for example, construct a ritual on the basis of for example, the basis of what feels taking inspiration from from a folk in Luisah feels right, right, taking folk practice described in Teish’s Jambalaya, Jambalaya, using using aa reproduction of of aa Cretan goddess goddess figure, figure, and and playing during the the ritual, playing Cuban drum music during ritual, weaving multiple multiple elements into might develop develop relationships into aa new synthesis. synthesis. A A solitary solitary practitioner might 145 145

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with the goddess Hecate from the with the goddess the Greek pantheon, as well well as Brigid Brigid from bring together together elements of of both culCeltic mythology, and and consistently bring culin all all her/his ritual work. Some groups form an eclectic practice practice that tures in that develops into a denomination of of Paganism, such as the the New Reformed develops Orthodox Order Order of of the the Golden Golden Dawn Witchcraft dedeOrthodox Dawn (discussed (discussed with with other other Witchcraft of All All Worlds. nominations below), below), and and the the Church of

All Worlds, polyThe Church of of All Worlds, known as CAW, CAW, isis aa pantheistic, often often polytheistic eclectic denomination. Members are not necessarily Pagan, loPagan, as local cal groups are completely autonomous, but but many are. CAW practitioners share aa common recognition of share of divinity divinity as immanent, or within humans and the the rest of of nature. As As discussed in in chapter chapter 7,7, CAW is is modeled after the Church Church of of All All Worlds Worlds in the in the the novel Stranger inin aa Strange Strange Land, novel Stranger Land, but but Zell, Zell, Christie, and other early Christie, and other CAW also early members also drew members of on other of CAW other sources sources of drew on of inspiration. Despite Despite Ayn Ayn Rand’s antireligious stance, her her novels Atlas Shrugged The Fountainhead were also Shrugged and and The also important influences in in the forthe formation of of CAW, CAW, particularly in the context of in the of creating creating an alternative to the to the strict upbringing that that many experienced growing up up in in the the 1950s. Other important sources were emerging emerging research on ecology and ancient culecology and tures, and Abraham Maslow’s ideas about self-actualization.! tures, and

Many Many Pagans Pagans are solitary solitary practitioners, meaning meaning they they practice practice their their religion ligion singly singly rather than in in aa group. As As solitaries, they they are not members of of any particular group with an identifiable denomination, any denomination, but but they they may feel feel

an affinity affinity for for a particular tradition. They They forma “hidden majority” of of PaPa-

gans,* perhaps gans,’ perhaps constituting up up to 70 or 80 to 70 of practitioners, ac80 percent of cording cording to to estimates made by by an executive of popular publisher publisher of of aa popular of PaPagan books? and gan books’ and Witchvox.com cofounder Fritz Jung.t Jung. Academics report aa lower proportion of of solitaries, but but still still more than 50 percent.5 50 percent.° Pagans choose solitary Pagans solitary practice practice for variety of for a variety of reasons. Some are “in “in

the broom closet” and do the do not want coworkers or neighbors to to know they they are Pagan. Pagan. Others have not found aa group to to their liking, liking, or are temporarily porarily between groups. Some simply simply prefer prefer aa solitary solitary practice. Solitaries may may be be in in contact with with their their local Pagan Pagan community community through through friends but but not practicing together, or they they may have have contact with other Pagans Pagans through through online communities communities (listservs, chat chat groups, and web rings) rings) or through regional festivals. Solitaries are more likely likely than than other practition practition-to live in rural ers to live in rural areas and and small towns. They They tend to to be be in in their twenties correspondingly single. ties and and correspondingly They are also single. They also more likely likely than group practition practitioners ers to to be be heterosexu heterosexual, al, and, and, according to at least to at least one study, study, they they are less less likely likely to to be be politically active than than group practition ers.° practitioners.® The The general accepta nce within Pagani acceptance sm of Paganism of solitary solitary practice as aa legitilegitimate form of of practice is is perhaps structur ally unique structurally unique to to Pagan Pagan religion ,” religion,” but be less but itit may be less accepta ble or common in acceptable in some denomin ations of denominations Paof Paganism than in ganism than in others. Wiccans appear to to be be more likely to value group likely to group

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practice over solitary solitary practice, practice practice, with some practitioners viewing viewing coven training training as necessary to to becoming “a “a real real Witch.”8 Witch.”® Practitioners in in initiatory in particular are more likely tory traditions in likely to regard solitary solitary practice practice as to regard

inferior. The The individualism of of solitaries presents aa challenge or resistance

to the routinization and to the can initiate her/himself

institutionalization of of Paganism.’ Paganism.? A A solitary solitary Witch by by whatever means desired, but but in in an organized

tradition like Wicca, aa teaching like Gardnerian Wicca, teaching coven must be found, and and inibe found, ini-

tiation must be sought through through aa predetermined and highly be sought highly structured process. Solitaries do have to to agree with do not have with anyone about how to to conduct a ritual, ritual, and and they may have no interest in they may teaching others or in in teaching the in serving serving the larger Pagan community, whereas in larger Pagan in group practice, practitioners genergenerally ally learn from elders and and develop develop group norms as aa matter of of course. Paganism also also takes on a number of practice in of forms of its overlap overlap of practice in its with New Age Age spirituality, Goddess religion, religion, feminist spirituality, and and shamanism. Feminist spirituality can be be regarded regarded as aa form of practice of practice (feminist Paganism) and and aa denomination within Paganism, as with Dianic and spirituality and the Reclaiming tradition, but and the Witchcraft and but feminist spirituality Goddess religion religion are also that extend beyond Pabeyond Paganism. Paalso movements that ganism religion, feminist spirituality, and ganism isis interrelated with Goddess religion, and women’s spirituality more broadly through the the common use use of broadly through of of divinity divinity as understandings deity as Goddess, and metaphors, images of deity images of and understandin gs of and in in nature more generally. Practitioners in women’s bodies and immanent in emphasize the the equality, equality, and the superiority, of of women. and sometimes the of religions, religions, including Feminist spirituality spans aa number of including Judaism, Christianity, and and others. Rosemary Rosemary Radford Ruether, for for example, isis active Christian feminist spirituality, spirituality, as as isis Judith Judith Plaskow Plaskow in in Jewish Jewish femfemtive in in Christian inist spirituality. The The Fellowship Fellowship of of Isis Isis is and pluralist GodGodinist is an eclectic and dess group practicing They were founded in in dess practicing feminist spirituality. They in 1976 in quickly became an international group. The The Fellowship of of Ireland and and quickly Isis Pagan, but but multifaith.!° Like Like some other groups in in Isis isis not exclusively Pagan, religion, itit is in Goddess religion, is not restricted to to women. Some men participate in Goddess religion religion and and feminist spirituality, but but not when itit isis characterized as “women’s spirituality,” aa term that, that, ironically, ironically, is to be be ininized is meant to clusive of of non-feminist— non-feminist—identified religion isis someidentified women. Goddess religion of women’s spirituality, because practitioners may may or times seen as aa type type of

identify as feminist. Some practitioners of of women’s spirituality may not identify do not not use anthropomorp anthropomorphic metaphors such such as “Goddess” for for the do the didihic metaphors vine, or do do not perceive perceive the the Goddess as aa person external to to themselves. vine, Whether feminist spirituality, Goddess religion, or Paganism isis described as aa subset of of the the others isis often chosen based on what an author or speaker wants to speaker to emphasize. Feminist spirituality spirituality began began in in the the late late 1960s and and early early 1970s in in the the States, at at about the same time time on the the east east and west coasts. In In United States, about the and west

148 148 California, Z. Z. Budapest Budapest

Chapter Chapter 88 coined

Mary Daly Daly called on women Mary

the term in in 1972." In the In Massachusett s, Massachusetts,

to form form an “exodus community” in to in her her

1971 sermon at at Harvard Memorial Church, when she 1971 she called on feminists

to leave the the church and create aa new community outside patriarchal into institutions. The The feminist spirituality movement developed in in a variety variety of of small groups at at about the the same time. In In some feminist groups, a spirispiritual tual dimension evolved over time: some consciousness consciousness--raising raising groups became spirituality groups and began doing ritual as well began doing well as holding holding discussions in in circle. Some early early Pagan Pagan women’s spirituality meetings might be be described as a cross between Gardnerian ritual and might and a consciousness-raising sciousness-rais ing group, as women shared their personal experiences sitting in a circle and sitting in and brought brought spiritual practice into the the group by by creatof sacred space. ing aa sense of ing Various groups using using the the acronym “WITCH” in in the the 1970s were origioriginally nally wholly political in wholly political in focus, focus, but they picked but they up on the picked up that the the fact fact that the witch hunts had had targeted targeted women and that that modern women were also also opoppressed, and and they began to they began to reclaim the the word “witch” through feminist spirituality spirituality.. Those in in the the women’s movement who desired aa spiritual spiritual aspect pect to politics encourage to their politics encouragedd each other to to form covens and invent new traditions that that valued women if if they they did did not like like what they they found in in existing Pagan groups, some of existing Pagan of which used to be quite to be quite sexist and/or heterosexist. Some Pagans Pagans have have been critical of of practitione rs of practitioners of Goddess relireligion gion and feminist spiritualit spiritualityy for for their their use and understanding of and understanding of mythic history, particularl history, particularlyy their ideas about matriarcha matriarchall prehistory, but but liberal feminism has has largely largely permeated Paganism in in North America. Pagans have develop ed shamani developed shamanicc forms of of Witchcra ft, Druidry, Witchcraft, Druidry, and and Heathenry, thenry, creating an overlap overlap between Paganism Paganism and neo-shamanism. Pagans and neo-shamanism. Pagans create shamani shamanicc forms of of Wicca and Druidry Druidry through through the the work of of writers

such as Caitlin and and John Matthews. In John Matthews. In Heathen ry, Jenny Heathenry, Jenny Blain, Blain, Robert Wal-

lis, lis, and and Diana Diana Paxson Paxson have have develop ed shamani developed shamanicc forms of practice. practice. forms of “Shama nism” usually “Shamanism” usually refers to indigen ous religiou to indigenous religiouss practice practicess for for relating relating with spirits, the the otherwo rld, or extraor otherworld, dinary reality. extraordinary reality. “Neo-s hamanism” “Neo-shamanis m” generall generallyy refers to to contemp orary practices contemporary practices inspired inspired by, by, but but not in in continuity with, indigen ity with, ous practices indigenous practices of of shamani sm. Shaman shamanism. ism is Shamanism is aa categor categoryy of of religion religion created by by academi cs, initially academics, initially from reading reading reports of of traders and travelers travelers.. Academi cs first Academics identified shaman first identified ism with the shamanism the Tungus people of Tungus people of Siberia, from whom they they took the the word “shaman .” Subsequently, “shaman.” Subsequently, itit came to to be be associat ed with similar indigen associated ous practices indigenous practices in in other places. places. Western academics constru cted the constructed the idea of of “shama nism” initially “shamanism” initially from indigen ous indigenous groups, and and they they continu continuee to to associat associatee shaman ism with indigen shamanism ousness, alindigenousness, although though such practices practices may be be universal.,!2 universal.!2 Shamanism shares with Paganism Shamanism Paganism aa numbe numberr of of practi ces and beliefs, practices beliefs, such as magic, magic, trance trance,, posses sion, and raisin possession, raisingg energy energy.. Practi ces of Practices both are of are

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often directed toward healing, healing, and both involve relationships with otherthan-human persons. However, shamans usually undergo an initiation usually undergo process quite quite different from that Pagan that practiced in in Pagan groups. For For shamans, it it is is usually usually aa severe experience of of confrontation with one’s mortality, mortality, ofoften through through illness or aa trance experience of dismemberment. of dismemberme nt. Paganism overlaps overlaps with shamanism primarily in of neo-shamanism rather in the the form of than than indigenous shamanism. ItIt isis labeled “neo” because itit is is reconstructionist rather than in in continuity with with indigenous practices. Neo-shamani sm is Neo-shamanism called “urban shamanism,” usually is sometimes called usually in in the the context of of universalized universalized versions of of shamanic traditions removed their cultural origins,’3 from their origins, such as Michael Harner’s “core shamanism.”'* Indigenous critics of of neo-shamans have have called such practitioners “white shamans” and “plastic medicine men.”!5 Neo-shaman and “plastic Neo-shamanism ism isis sometimes “dismissed as nostalgic, and and challenged as having having reduced Shaman-

ism to to its its lowest common denominators denominators: ism essentially drumming, vision : essentially

quests and quests journeys. ItIt isis frequently marked by and Otherworld journeys. by typically typically

individualismm,, vague universalism and modern individualis woolly psychologiza psychologizaand woolly tion.”1° However, some shamanic practitioners tion.” practitioners,, particularly those those who who are reconstructionist indigetheir own they are practicing reconstruction argue that Pagans, argue ist Pagans, that they practicing their own indige-

in reviving reviving traditions of nous traditions in of their Saxon, Celtic, Norse, or Icetheir Saxon, IceCeltic, Norse, landic in nuanced in are quite practitioners are some practitioners In addition, landic ancestors. In addition, some quite nuanced

they are reconstructi and are poof how they reconstructinngg traditions, and understandin their understandi their pongg of of appropriation of issues of litically aware of appropriation..!” !” litically Despite the the desires of of many Pagan Pagan practitioners practitioners,, Paganism also overDespite Paganism also laps with with New New Age Age spirituality. spirituality. “New Age” Age” refers refers toto aa new era in in human laps consciousness. with the the “Age “Age of of Aquarius” Aquarius” as a a consciousnes s. ItIt isis sometimes associated with post-Christian Aquarius isis the the sign sign following following Pisces, Pisces, taken taken in in this this conpost-Christian era. Aquarius text to to represent represent Christianity, in in the the progression of of the (going text the Zodiac (going in relation to to the the order order of of the birth signs signs in in astrology). astrology). This This proprobackward in the birth gression of of ages ages isis aa reinterpretation of the the twelfth-cent twelfth-century Joachim de de gression reinterpretation of ury Joachim of history history into into the the ages ages of of the the Father, Father, the the Son, Son, and and the the Flores’ division of

Holy Spirit, Spirit, correspondin corresponding, to the the ages ages of of the the Hebrew Bible, Bible, Holy g, respectively, to the Christian Christian New New Testament, Testament, and and the the Holy Holy Spirit. Spirit. In In the the New New Age Age interinterthe pretation, the the three three ages ages are changed changed to to the the ages ages of of Aries Aries (the (the Father), Father), pretation, Pisces (the (the Son), Son), and and the the New Age Age of of Aquarius.'8 Aquarius.!® Pisces New Age Age spirituality spirituality exhibits aa tendency tendency toward millenariani millenarianism and New sm and apocalypticism, or the the belief belief in in a a coming coming inevitable cataclysmic cataclysmic change, change, apocalyptici sm, or with the the end end of of the the era of of Pisces and and the the beginning beginning of of aa New New Age. Age. This This with New Age Age isis thought thought toto be be an age age that that will will be be less less corporeal, corporeal, and and in in which New will ascend ascend to to aa higher higher consciousnes consciousness. New Age Age spirituality spirituality tends tends humans will s. New understanding of matter and and spirit, spirit, seeing seeing the the natural toward aa dualistic understandi ng of

world as as an illusion illusion or as somehow secondary to to the the spiritual spiritual material world (ethereal or or astral). astral). ItIt tends tends toto have have aa transcendent transcendental outlook, and, being (ethereal outlook, and, being al

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influenced by by theosophy, it it isis more universalistic than than Paganism, taking taking elements from and Christianity. Christianity. from Hinduism, Buddhism, and

Age spirituality isis a type New Age type of that is of religious religious outlook that in a is found in of religious number of religious traditions, and and isis often not identified with any any religion religion in particular. There are Buddhist, Christian, and in Pagan New Age and Pagan practiAge practitioners, for for example. The The New Age Age isis not easily easily delimited because it has no it has identifiable religious religious institutions, and and practitioners rarely identify themrarely identify selves as New Agers. Agers. Arguably, “New Age” Age” should be be understood as an adjective rather than aa noun, since itit isis not so much aa movement asaa set of set of

tendencies or characteristics found in religions and movements. in various religions Religious Religious traditions can be in terms of be examined in to what extent or degree of to degree they they can be be described as New Age, Age, rather than by by classifying them as part part of New Age of the the New Age movement, which does not exist as aa quantifiable entity.!9 entity.'9 Some researchers present Witchcraft as a subculture of of the the New Age Age movement, or use “Witchcraft “Witchcraft”” and “New Age” Age” interchange ably.”? In interchangeably.” In categorizing Paganism with the the New Age, Age, some researchers inaccuratel inaccuratelyy present Paganism as “world rejecting.”2! rejecting.”! Pagans Pagans almost invariably see the the divine as immanent within rather than transcenden transcendentt of of the the natural world. Pagans believe in Few Pagans in a radically radically transcenden transcendentt deity deity or godhead. Pagans Pagans often joke joke about the the difference between New Age Age and Pagan Pagan events, saying saying that that it it can be up in be summed up in two decimal points: points: if if three dollars admits one to to a Pagan Pagan workshop workshop,, a similar New Age Age workshop will cost three hundred dollars. Pagans Pagans tend to to portray New Age Age practitioners as “fluffy “fluffy bunnies,” superficia lly playing with belief in superficially in angels, angels, channelin g, spirit channeling, spirit helpers, and animal guides. Pagans helpers, and Pagans suggest that that New Agers Agers focus on good, good, “white” energy, without recogniti on of recognition the necesof the sary roles and importanc importancee of of death and darkness. N. N oting oting problems with the the New Age Age use of of such metaphor metaphorss of of white and light light in in terms of of racism, Pagans Pagans tend to to present New Agers Agers as more concerned with personal dedevelopment than Pagans velopment Pagans are, at at the the expense of of political political and environme environmental ntal awareness awareness.. Pagans suggest that that the the New Age Age focus on good good energy as white light light indicates a lack of of depth depth and aa failure to to recognize one’s shadow side. However, it it is is possible that Pagans Pagans themselve themselvess project what they they dislike about their coreligion ists onto New coreligionists New Agers Agers in in their presentation of of New Agers Agers as superficia superficiall practitioners practitioners who draw from too many, many, too diverse sources without awareness of of appropria of issues of tion. The appropriation. lack lack of of people who identify as New New Age Age practition ers is practitioners is conspicuo us. conspicuous. Witchcr aft can be Witchcraft be seen as a form of of practic practicee within Pagani sm, but Paganism, but also as a group of denominations. Generically, of denominations. Generically, practit ioners refer to practitioners to these traditions as “the Craft,” a term that origina lly referre originally referredd to to Masonr y, aa Wester Masonry, Westernn myster mysteryy traditi on that influe tradition nced some of influenced of the the early early forms of of Witchcr aft, Witchcraft, notabl notablyy Wicca. Practit ioners of Practitioners of the the Craft are called “Witch es” or “Wicca “Witches” ns.” “Wiccans.” Some of of these practit ioners wear a pentac practitioners le pendan pentacle pendantt or ring, ring, a five-p ointed five-pointed

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star star inside aa circle, circle, as aa marker of religious identification, as some of their their religious Christians wear aa cross, and and some Jews Jews the the Star Star of of David. Witches form the the

largest portion of largest portion of Pagan Pagan practitioners, but but of all are practitioners of these, these, not all of may be of Wicca. Wicca may be the and largest the most visible and denomination largest within Paganism, but but counting counting practitioners is by people is confounded by people meaning meaning different things by “Wicca.” In things by In Britain, refers exclusively to Britain, “Wicca” refers to Gard-

nerian and and Alexandrian traditions, while while in in the the United States it it is is often often

conflated with with Witchcraft and and Paganism more generally. Some call call Gardnerian and and Alexandrian Wicca “British Traditional Witchcraft,” but but in in Britain this family or hereditary traditions. Some practitioners use this refers to to family the label “Wicca” simply the label simply because they they prefer prefer itit to to “Witch.” Some who identify identify themselves as Wiccans regard Wiccans as as regard initiated Wiccans the most committed Pagans and suggest that only those trained in the Pagans and that only those in aa coven are “real” Witches, or that Pagans who do do not identify are “real” Witches, or that identify themselves as Witches are simply simply hiding identity as Witches. This has led hiding their their identity This has led some researchers to report that Witches are more committed to their religion to report that to their religion than than other Pagans.” However, some Pagans Pagans see this attitude as domineering. this Many reject the the labels “Witch” and and “Wiccan,” to to distance themselves eieiMany reject ther from from what history of Wicca, or from from the the ther what they they see as the the questionable history of Wicca, fabricated association with with heretics killed as “witches” in in medieval times. usually small Witchcraft groups are organized into into covens. These are usually local less than a dozen members, although outerlocal groups with with generally less court groups may include many many more people. people. Witchcraft has has generally generally the basic form and of Gardnerian Wicca. Perhaps Perhaps not followed the and structure of all Witchcraft traditions are derived from from Gardnerian Wicca, but all all seem all Wicca, but

to be in their their use of in the to be influenced by by itit in of the the seasonal festival cycle cycle and and in the of individual rituals. Other Witchcraft traditions are not not necesstructure of sarily bitheistic, as Wicca generally sarily generally is. is. The Gardnerian and and Alexandrian denominations of Wicca are initiatory The denominations of initiatory mystery traditions. Initiates are sworn to taking an oath oath not to mystery to secrecy, taking to reveal the secrets of of their initiation. Some Wiccans have have criticized others for for veal the revealing oath-bound material, particularly for for publishing versions of of the the revealing Book of be traced back back to Book of Shadows. Gardnerians and and Alexandrians can be to initiation by by Gerald Gerald Gardner Gardner and and Doreen Valiente, or or Alex Maxine initiation Doreen Valiente, Alex and and Maxine Sanders, and and sometimes both lineages, lineages, as in in Algard Algard traditions such such as the the Sanders, and the the Wiccan Church of of Canada. Mary Mary Nesnick coined the Farrars’ and the term “Algard” the tradition she she formed through joint initiation in in “Algard” to to describe the through joint

and Alexandrian Wicca. Wicca.** AA number of of practitioners have have Gardnerian and been initiated in in both both traditions. been and Alexandrian groups maintain aa hierarchy of status Gardnerian and hierarchy of based on levels levels of of initiation, lineage, how many practitioners one has has iniinibased lineage, how tiated, and how how many many covens have have hived off off from from one’s group. “Hiving “Hiving tiated, and off” is the process of when enough new off’ is the of forming forming aa “daughter” coven when enough new

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people have been trained and people have require the and initiated to to require the formation of of a sepaseparate group. Gardnerian and and Alexandrian covens are traditionally said said to to be made.up made up of be of between three and and thirteen members, but but more often they they include between five five and eight eight people. people. Sabbat celebrations open open to to the the public be much larger. public may be larger. There is is no laity laity within the the Gardnerian and Alexandrian traditions, but but practitioners make distinctions between neo-

phytes phytes or novices, who who are new students; first, first, second, and third degree and third degree

initiates; high high priests priests and priestesses (coven leaders); and and “witch queens” (high (high priestesses who have a number of daughter covens). of daughter Through the the publicati on of publication of how-to books on solitary solitary practice and books supportin supportingg self-initia tion, self-initiatio n, a variety variety of of traditions have emerged within Wicca. All forms of of Wicca, when distingui shed distinguishe d from Paganism more generally, erally, with the the exception of of some Dianic groups that self-ident ify as Wicself-identify

can, tend to to be be bitheistic, revering aa Goddess and aa God, God, sometime sometimess called

the “Lady” and the the the “Lord.” Individua Individuall covens often use more specific specific dedeity ity names, names, such such as s and Ceridwen, or Arianrhod and Lugh. as Cernunno Cernunnos Lugh. OfOften the the Goddess isis elevated in in importanc e, just importance, just as the the high high priestess isis elelevated in in relation to to the high high priest. priest. Wiccan groups emphasiz emphasizee balance of of the the sexes and and sometimes require require the the polarity polarity of and female ritual of male and partners. Wiccans typically meet at at the the esbats (based on the the cycle cycle of of the the

moon, usually usually at at the the full full moon, but but sometimes at at the the dark of of the the moon)

and at at sabbats (the (the eight eight seasonal festivals). Feri Feri (or (or Faery) Faery) Witchcr aft is Witchcraft is a a denomi nationn started by denominatio by Victor and and Cora Anders Anderson on in in the the United States in in the the 1950s or 1960s, 1960s, with possibl possiblee anteceden ts as early tecedents early as the the 1920s. It It began began as a mixture of of South Americ an American folk magic, Kabbala folk magic, h, Haitian Vodou, and a shamanic Kabbalah, shamanic interpr interpretatio etationn of of Hawaii an Huna traditio Hawaiian ns. There are a number of traditions. of branche branchess in in the Feri trathe Feri dition, dition, some of of which have been more heavily heavily influen influenced ced by by Gardne Gardnerian rian and Alexand rian Wicca than others. Feri Alexandrian Feri claims a non-Ga rdneriian non-Gardner an origin origin through through Victor Anders on’s reporte Anderson's reportedd member ship in membership in a coven known as the the Harpy Harpy coven in in souther southernn Oregon Oregon in the 1920s in the and 1930s. Anders on also Anderson also often told a poetic poetic story story of of his his initiati on in initiation in 1926 by by asmall a small African woman who told him he he was a Witch. Witch.24 He He came upon her her sitting sitting nude in in circle, surrou nded by surrounded by brass bowls of of herbs. She She initiate initiatedd him throug throughh sex and told him told him

the the secrets of of the the traditio n, and he tradition, he then had had aa vision of

of the the Horned God. Anders on indicat Anderson es that he indicates he decided to to start a coven many years later after reading Gardner ’s Witchcraft Gardner’s Witchcraft Today. Today.2> This would have been in in the the 1950s, 1950s, accordi ng to according to Cora Anders on’s memoir Fifty Anderson’s Fifty Years in in the the Feri Feri Traditio n, althoug Tradition, althoughh Victor had initiate initiatedd Cora by by 1944, 1944, shortly shortly after they they were married .26 Some of married.” of the the later version versionss of of the Feri traditio traditionn apappear to to have develo ped largely developed largely in in conform ity with Gardne conformity rian Wicca, Gardnerian Wicca, which some scholar scholarss suggest Anders on may have initiall Anderson initiallyy believe believedd to to be be an authent ic pagan survival authentic survival,, althoug althoughh Cora indicat es that indicates that Victor thought thought

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153 1s

Gardner was wrong, even if if he he did he could. In did the the best best he In the the original original

branch of of Feri, Feri, Hawaiian influences were more important than than Gardner-

ian ones. Anderson spoke ian spoke Hawaiian fluently, having having learned the language the language as a child.” He He connected the the menehune of of Hawaii with the Fairies of with the of Western Europe, Europe, believing believing both both to of little little people to be be a a race of people who spread spread out of of Africa thousands of of years ago.*8 Inspired by ago.’8 Inspired the Huna belief in by the in three souls, religious traditions that souls, and other religious support the that three the idea of of three souls, souls, as well as Max Max Freedom Long’s writings on the Long’s writings the unconsciou unconsciouss “Younger Self” and and conscious “Talking Self,” Feri Witchcraft supports the “Talking Self,” the

idea idea of of aa third third soul, is the the sacred soul, which which is or sacred or been taken up up by in the by many in the Reclaiming

“Deep “Deep Self.”2° Self.”2° This has This idea idea has tradition, through through Starhawk,

who studied with the Andersons and with the and was initiated into into the the Feri Feri tradition, tradition, which she, she, like as like many, refers to the “Faery” tradition. to the “Faery”

The New Reformed Orthodox Order of of the the Golden Dawn (NROOGD) isis an eclectic denomination denomination of of Witchcraft that that began began in in San San Francisco, CalCal-

ifornia, in in 1967. ItIt is is a coven-based initiatory mystery tradition inspired inspired by by literary literary and anthropologic al sources, particularly Robert Graves’ The anthropological The White Goddess. Aiden Kelly Kelly is is one of figures in of the the major major figures in NROOGD, and and his of Gardner’s claim to his criticisms of to have been initiated into into aa preexisting group may be be related to to NROOGD’s pride pride in in being being a modernly invented tradition. NROOGD NROOGD first first formed out of of a course assignment on designing a ritual. AA group of of friends performed the times, and they the ritual a few they few times, were surprised at at how much they their experience of they enjoyed enjoyed their raising of raising power, so they they formed a group in the late in the late 1960s. Other prominent memand Diana Paxson. bers in NROOGD are Don Frew and bers in NROOGD rituals emphasize poetry and artistry. They They are designed to to and artistry. be beautiful and the by appealing toto the bypass intellectual skepticism by to bypass and to be senses aesthetically. NROOGD rituals are often lead by three priestesses lead by and aa priest. in triple triple form and perform the Goddess in priest. Practitioners invoke the chanting and reinto, and of Persephone’s descent into, the theme of dancing on the chanting and dancing from, the spell work underworld.* Their rituals often also include spell the underworld.” turn from, and the the sharing has of food. Like other Witchcraft traditions, NROOGD has sharing of eight they hold fall equinox celebration, they the fall of the place of in place but in eight main festivals, but an annual ritual based on the Like the ancient Greek Eleusinian mysteries.3! Like other Pagan Pagan groups in in the of California, NROOGD regularly Bay Area of the Bay holds public private events within covens. to private in addition to public sabbats in Dianic Witchcraft is women-focused denomiis aa feminist, Goddess- and women-focused nation. Some Dianics practice in and in aa separatist fashion, excluding men and any in Z. practiearly practice. Some practiBudapest's early Z. Budapest’s deity, as in of male deity, any sense of tioners focus on the single overin a monotheistic manner as a single the Goddess in of variety of but Dianics are often polytheistic, drawing on aa variety deity, but arching deity, goddess figures. figures. Even when practitioners focus on Goddess in singuthe singuin the lar, crone. and crone. in three forms: maiden, mother, and recognized in be recognized to be apt to is apt She is lar, She

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Practitioners also also often recognize divinity divinity as immanent

in in themselves,

identifying with Artemis, for for example, as the “virgin” huntress, who is the “virgin” is

virgin in the the sense of virgin in of being being neither married nor a mother. Most Dianic groups are women’s-only groups, and they they often practice practice an eclectic form in covens. of of Witchcraft in Reclaiming is is also also aa feminist Witchcraft tradition but but isis egalitarian in foin focus, including both both men and women. ItIt is is aa nonhierarch nonhierarchiical cal denomination, and groups within itit run on consensus. Reclaiming isis distinctive for tion, for its of politics its blend of politics and and spirituality; its its activities are oriented toward empowerment and emancipatio emancipationn.. Reclaiming isis anarchist, organized into into largely largely autonomou autonomouss cells, cells, but but members also also practice in for ritual in covens for

work. Initiation isis available for who choose to for those who to undertake it, it, but but it it is is

not required for participation.. Reclaiming began for participation teaching collective began as aa teaching

in San in San Francisco, Francisco, California, California, offering offering courses in in Witchcraft and Goddess

spirituality. The The Reclaiming Collective obtained tax-exempt status in in 1990 after incorporati ng.*? incorporating The Reclaiming tradition grew in .*? The the Bay in the Bay Area, but but also also through through intensive weeklong apprentices apprenticeshhip ip courses in in the the summer, which came to to be be known as “Witchcamp “Witchcampss.” .” Reclaiming practitioners Reclaiming practitioners practice practice an eclectic ritual style, style, summari zed as summarized “EIEIO,” which stands for for ecstatic, improvis ational, improvisatio nal, ensembl e, inspired, ensemble, inspired,

and organic. In In San Francisc Francisco, o, Reclaim Reclaiming ing practiti practitioners oners tend to to use the the Celtic deity deity names Brigit Brigit and Lugh for the Lugh for the Goddess and God, God, followin followingg the the legacy legacy of of Starhawk ’s initiatio Starhawk’s initiationn into the the Faery Faery tradition tradition,, but but the the multicultural context of San Francisc of San Franciscoo also also influenc es Reclaim influences ing practiti Reclaiming oners.. practitioners They They celebrat celebratee Samhain Samhain,, for for example example,, in ion with the in conjunct conjunction the Day Day of of the the Dead, Dead, through the the influenc influencee of of Mexican American American tradition s.>3 Reclaiming traditions. Reclaiming groups elsewher elsewheree are autonom ous and take autonomous take ona variety variety of of different forms dependi ng on the depending the inclinat ion of inclination of practiti oners and their cultural contexts. practitioners Family Family traditi ons, practit traditions, ioners of practitioners of which are someti mes called heredisometimes hereditary Witches, Witches, constit tary ute aa form of constitute of practic practicee and a group of of denomi nationns. denominatio s. Family Family traditi on groups are founde tradition foundedd on the the claim of of a practit ioner to practitioner to have learne learnedd Witchc raft from a family Witchcraft member, stereot family member, ypicalllyy a grandm stereotypical other,, grandmother rather than from books or public public groups groups.. They They often indicat indicatee that that they they have have learne learnedd their practices from their practices from an an oral oral traditi on, and tradition, and that that this this is why is why there are no written records suppor ting their claims. These traditi supporting ons are traditions often largely largely based on the the practic es of practices of Gardne rian Wicca, Gardnerian Wicca, but but with further inspira tion drawn from the inspiration the culture of of the practitioner’ss ethnic backthe practitioner’ ground ground,, as in in Leo Louis Martel lo and Lori Bruno’ Martello Bruno’ss Italian Americ an American Witchc raft (Stregh Witchcraft eria). Martel (Stregheria). lo and Bruno formed the Martello the Trinac rian Rose Trinacrian Coven in in the the late late 1970s based in in part part on aa family family folk-h ealing traditi folk-healing on. tradition. Z. Budapest draws on Hungar 2. Budapest ian folk Hungarian traditions in folk traditions in her her practic practicee and has has descri described bed herself as a heredi tary Witch. Accord hereditary ing to According to some scholar s, scholars, Victor and Cora Anders on’s use of Anderson’s of folk folk magic magic in in the the Feri Feri traditi on they tradition they

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founded locates the also as aa family the Feri Feri tradition also family tradition.*4 tradition.24 The The claims of of family family traditions and and ancient mystical mystical heritage heritage have been dismissed by by some as a coping coping mechanism for lack of of substance in for aa lack in such traditions, but but embracing folk practices can also be aa form of also be of resistance against levagainst the the leveling of assimilation into eling process of into American culture and and the the secular devaluation of folk traditions. of folk While some denigrate practitioners such as Raven Grimassi (a(a pseudopseudonym) making questionable claims about family nym) for for making family traditions, Grimassi’s tradition of of Italian Witchcraft can be be viewed in in terms of reclaof “folklore reclamation and and ethnic identity identity creation.”°° His folklore-enhan ced practices His folklore-enhanced may be be interpreted as aa form form of may of resistance to to the the melting pot of melting pot of dominant American culture. Grimassi claims to have been initiated by his aunt into to have been by his into magical tradition of aa family family magical folk healing of folk healing that and that included divination and for removing removing the techniques for eye.3” He He claims that the evil evil eye.?” his Aridian tradithat his tion isis aa North American branch tion branch of of Tanarra, aa version of Old ReliReliof “the “the Old

gion” from from central Italy, gion” brought to to the the United States by Italy, brought by his his relatives. He He the Witchof Italian traditions aimed at describes itit as aa blend of restoring the at restoring by Aradia. Some scholars suggest that given by craft that his his tradition craft tradition given appears to to be be created out of of Leland’s Aradia and and from from generic generic Wicca, Wicca, with with

that dressing drawn from folklore, remarking Etruscan or Tuscan window dressing remarking that is poshis relatives. posrelatives.° ItIt is his sources, whether written, he does does not not name his he written, or his

that Grimassi’s practice practice of sible that Religione, “the of Stregheria as laIa Vecchia Religione, “the Old Old sible Religion,” isis based on aa family from Leland’s Aradia in inaa family practice practice derived from Religion,”

its resemblance Wicca suggests Gardnerian Wicca resemblance to suggests to Gardnerian but its generation, but previous generation, previous from that the the tradition isis derived from from Gardner’s practices practices as much as from that to be this isis unlikely Amerbe aa problem problem for unlikely to for Italian AmerItalian sources. However, this in folklore reclamation practitioners,, especially ican practitioners engaged in especially ifif they they are engaged ican identity creation. and identity and Reconstructionist Paganism isis aa form form of of practice, practice, and and aa group of of dedeReconstructi onist Paganism that reconstructs the the practices practices of of pre-Christia pre-Christiann traditions. nominations, that Reconstructionist differ from from family family traditions in in that that they they aim aim Reconstructi onist traditions differ the ancient traditions of of aa place place and and culture, culture, for for example example toto reconstruct the those of of Etruria, Etruria, rather than than using using the the later later folk folk traditions of of Tuscany Tuscany ina ina those largely Wiccan context, context, as as in in Grimassi’s tradition. Reconstructi Reconstructionists often largely onists often

explicitly stress that that their their practices practices are not not derived from the the traditions of of explicitly Wicca, New New Age Age spirituality, spirituality, or or ceremonial magic. magic. Most Most reconstructio reconstructionist Wicca, nist have aa high high regard regard for for scholarly scholarly knowledge knowledge of of their their traditions, traditions have and emphasize emphasize historical accuracy in in their their practices. Practitioners study study and

archaeology and and ancient ancient and and classical classical texts, texts, striving striving toto stay stay current current with with archaeology They tend tend toto idealize different eras of of the the past, past, dedeacademic research. They pending on the the time time of of Christianiza Christianization in the the location location of of the the culture they they pending tion in reconstructing. do not not necessarily live live in in the the geographic geographic are reconstructin g. Practitioners do with the the traditions they they are reconstructin reconstructing. However, areas associated with g. However,

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some do, and their traditions some do, and their be seen seen to traditions can to some can be degree as as indigenous some degree indigenous movements. Egyptian reconstructionis reconstructionistt Pagans Some Egyptian call their tradition KemetiPagans call cism, cism, from from “Kemet,” referring referring toto the Egypt. Practitioners regard the land of of Egypt. regard the the tradition as an African‘tradit ional religion, although African traditional although most practitionpractitionEnglish-speaking ers appear to to be be English-speaki ng white Americans. Some Kemetic practitioners focus on Ma’at (truth) and Netjer, Netjer, understood as the the single single divine that is force that is manifested through through aa number of and goddesses. The of gods gods and The Kemetic Orthodox tradition describes this this interpretation of of Netjer Netjer as “monolatry,” as distinct from from monotheism.2 monotheism.’° Some Kemeticists focus on

the the ancient Egyptian mythology of of Isis, Isis, Osiris, Osiris, and and Horus. Kemetic pracpractice tice includes priestly priestly and personal devotions, often through through elaborate group rituals, and and daily daily prayer. Practitioners also also engage in in ancestral dedevotions, giving giving offerings so that the the ancestors will will protect them. Greek reconstruct ionists, reconstructionis ts, who refer to their tradition as Hellenism who refer to their os or Hellenismos

Hellenism, revere the the Olympic pantheon of of gods gods and and goddesses. Votive offerings to to the the deities are important to to their religious religious practice, well as practice, as well hospitality in in relation to to other humans. “Hellenis mos” refers to “Hellenismos” to the the religion gion of of ancient Greece that the the Roman emperor Julian Julian attempted to to revive. Julian was a nephew of the emperor Constantin of the Constantinee and became emperor himself in in 361, 361, but he he was killed just just aa few few years later.*” later. The The Julian Julian Society, Society, an American group founded in the late in the late 1960s, 1960s, isis not exclusivel exclusivelyy Hellenist, but but is is instead aa nondenomi national nondenominati onal Pagan Pagan group. Hellenion is is an American group that that practices Greek reconstructionis reconstructionistt Paganism. They They obtained tax-exempt status in in 2002.*" 2002.4! Hellenists in in general take inspiration from ancient writings such as the the Homeric hymns hymns and other works at-

tributed to to Homer, as well well as those those of of Hesiod and and Julian. Julian. They They also also take take

inspiration from archaeolog y. archaeology. Reconst ructionists Reconstructioni sts of of Roman paganism paganism refer refer to tradition as Religioto their their tradition ReligioRomana, revivin Romana, the name of revivingg the of the istian religion the pre-Chr pre-Christian religion of of Rome. They They reconstru ct the construct the religion as it practiced from the it was practiced the foundi ng of founding of Rome in in 753 753 to the the beginni BCE to ng of beginning the Christi of the an Roman Empire Christian Empire in CE, but in 394 CE, but they they also also take inspira tion from pre-Roman inspiration pre-Roman Latin and and Etrusca Etruscann culture. 4? Reconculture.*? structio nist practit structionist ioners of practitioners of Religio -Romana, followi Religio-Romana ng ancient practice following practice,, value piety, piety, family, family, commun ity, and the community, the state. Practit ioners honor ancesPractitioners tors, tors, lares lares (gods (gods of of the the gate gate and househo ld), and di household), di penates (gods (gods of of the the hearth and granary ), as well as god/de granary), sses such as Iuppite god/desses luppiterr and Iuno, Iuno, more familiar to to English English speaker speakerss as Jupiter Jupiter and Juno. Juno. They They also also revere

others in in the the Roman panthe on such as Minerva pantheon Minerva,, Vesta, Vesta, Ceres, Diana, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Neptun Mars, Mercurius, us, and Neptunus, and Volcanu Volcanuss (the last three (the last three more fafamiliar as Mercury Mercury,, N eptune, and Vulcan) Neptune, Vulcan),, as well Apollo. well as Apollo.

Celtic recon structionism is reconstructioni is popul ar in popular Paganism throughout in Paganism throughout the Englishthe Englishspeak ing world in speaking in the the form of Druidry or Druidism. of Druidry Druidism. Druidic Druidic practi ces repractices re-

Denominations Denominations

157 187,

ys,

Figure 18. 18. Figure

Contemporary Druid (photo by Druid (photo by Wendy Wendy Griffin)

construct Celtic culture based on archaeological information about the the Celts in Britain and and Western Europe, Europe, and such as as TacCelts in and scant written sources such Tac-

itus’ incidental comments on the the Celts Celts of of Europe Europe in in Germania. Some itus’ Druidry not Pagan; “mesopaDruidry isis not Pagan; some, which Isaac Bonewits describes as “mesopagan,” isis monotheistic and with Celtic Christianity. The The ancient gan,” and isis syncretic with ancient

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Druids were aa priestly priestly class class in in Celtic culture made up up of of learned people people who held the lore (stories and genealogies) of the people in who held the lore (stories and of the people in their memories, and political leaders were drawn. Roman incursions and and and from whom political of Druid Christianization eliminated the the Druid class in in Britain. A A number of groups formed in in Britain beginning beginning in in the the eighteenth eighteenth and and nineteenth cencenturies for for various political political and religious reasons. Most members at at that that and religious time were Christian, but time in the and 1970s, but in the 1960s 1960s and 1970s, some Druid groups emerged as Pagan. Pagan. Some Pagan existing Druid groups, and Pagan Druids joined joined existing orders. others formed new orders.‘ Druids tend tend somewhat to to resemble the of bearded men in the stereotype of in long long white robes conducting ceremonies in in oak oak groves and and at at Stonehenge. Contemporary Druids are not necessarily bearded, but but there are more men than women in they do in Druidry, Druidry, and they do tend tend to to wear white robes for for rituals. They also tend tend to They also special fondness for to have aa special for trees, in particular, trees, and and oaks oaks in and have negotiated with Britain’s English English Heritage department to to gain gain to Stonehenge to access to to celebrate the the summer solstice. Druid groups are organized organized into into groves and and orders: groves are local local groups, while orders be national or international organizations. Traditionally, the tend to to be the orders

into bards, are divided into bards, ovates, and and druids. The The bards are storytellers and and

poets, the ovates are prophets and poets, the and seers, and and the the druids are priests priests and leaders. Both learning and performance are important in in Druidry. Druidry. Norse and and Germanic reconstruct ionist traditions are collectivel reconstructionist collectivelyy called Heathenry, sometimes referred to to as “the “the Northern Tradition,” or “Asatru” based on the the Icelandic word meaning meaning dedicated to the A&sir, to the Asir, aa group of of deities. Heathenry is is practiced as an indigenous revival tradition

in in Iceland, Germany, Germany, and Scandinavian countries. Asatru has and the the Scandinavian has been been an

officially officially recognized religion religion in in Iceland since 1973. More generally, Heathenry isis inspired inspired by thenry by northern European European traditions, sometimes more so

than it reconstructed, but it isis reconstructed, practitioners see themselves as reviving the but practitioners the

indigenous traditions of of northern Europe, or Anglo-Sax on and Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic culture. Practitioners Practitioners are not restricted to to northern Europe but are found Europe but throughou throughoutt Europe, Europe, as as well well as as in in North North American and Australia. American and Australia. MemMembership in Heathen groups is bership in is not generally restricted by by ethnic origin, origin, but but some groups are overtly overtly racist and do do restrict membershi membershipp in in this way. this way.

pi s: Tea s

the the Asir are the the deities of of war, which would imply that imply that the Asatru are dedica the dedicatted ed to to the the deities of of war. However, despite despite this this etymol etymoloogy, gy, practit practitiioners oners of of Asatru are not just just dedica dedicatted ed to to the the

deities of of war, but but also toto Norse deities more general generallly, y, includ includiing ng the the Vanir, Vanir, who are the the deities of of the the land. land.

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Racism and ethnic identity identity are ongoing issues in in Heathen groups, but but most mainstr mainstreeam am groups try try to to preserve aa sense of of openness and incluSivity sivity and are against against racist members joining. joining. Heathen groups seem to to have an overall tendency tendency toward right-wi politics, expressi right-winng g politics, expressinngg conser-

vative views on sex, politics, politics, and and history. history. Because of this, many Heathen of this,

groups take an explicitl explicitlyy antiracis antiracistt stance, although in in the the United States, States, Heathen Groups Groups called “Odinist “Odinistss”” do do not not necessarily renounce racism, and some are overtly overtly white supremac supremaciists. sts. Such groups take take inspiration from the the perceive perceivedd warrior mythos mythos of of the the Viking Viking era but but are rooted in in ideas from Nazi Germany Germany.. Asatru groups are more likely to Icelikely to to look to land for land for inspirati inspiratioon. n. Odinism in in Britain, for for example in in Odinic Rite groups, is is not associated with Nazism. Heathen groups began to form in began to in England in England early 1970s and in in the the early in North America in late 1970s, and the in the the late the racist/an racist/anttiracist iracist division originates in in that that formativ formativee period, period, continui continuinng g in some groups. be aa problem in to to be Local Heathen groups are called “kindreds “kindreds”” or “hearths,” the structure “hearths,” the and and organizatio organizationn of of which varies.“ varies.46 Local groups are most easily easily found through larger larger networking networking organizatio ns such as the organizations the Ring Ring of of Troth, started by by Edred Thorson in Texas, or Hrafnar, started by in Texas, by Diana Paxson in in California, California, both of of which are antiracist. The The Ring Ring of of Troth also also exists in in Britain, in in addition to to Odinic Rite groups, and and Hammarens Hammarens Orden Sallskap Sallskap is is in in Sweden. Some Heathens wear a hammer sign sign as a symbol of of their religious ligious affiliation, affiliation, either to to indicate their dedication dedication to to the the god god Thor or toto Heathenry general.’” in general.*” Heathenry in Heathen groups share a common cosmology cosmology of of nine worlds, linked through Yggdrasil, through Yggdrasil, the the world tree. Midgard, or “Middle Earth,” is is the the realm of of humans. There are also the the realms of of the frost giants, giants, the fire fire gigi-

ants, ants, and other giants that of giants (Jotnir); (Jotnir); that of (gods (gods of of the the land and fertility); fertility); and

the the the the

Zsir sir (gods (gods of of war) war) and the the Vanir land of of the the light light elves, elves, the the dark

elves (dwarves), (dwarves), and the the dead. In In addition to to gods gods and goddesses, goddesses, Heathens recognize a variety of human persons, including spirits of other-thanother-than-human spirits

of of the the land, land, called landvettir. landvettir. “Wight” “Wight” is is a general term for ufor other-than-h other-than-human persons in in Heathenry, Heathenry, indicating indicating sentient beings beings including gods, gods, lolocal cal and ancestral spirits, spirits, and others.** Heathens are more emphatically emphatically polytheistic polytheistic than Pagans Pagans in in some other traditions, traditions, and they they are more likely likely to to insist on the the ontological ontological existence of of the the gods gods and goddesses goddesses as actual beings beings rather than as metaphors metaphors or psychologica psychologicall forms.*? forms.*” The significantt Heathen The most most significan Heathen celebrations celebrations are are Winternights, Winternights, Yule, Yule, and and Sigrblot. Winternights Winternights is is a harvest festival honoring the the dead and the the bebeginning ginning of of winter. winter. Yule Yule is is the the winter winter solstice, solstice, celebrated celebrated as Year, as the the New New Year, and is is a time for for oaths. Sigrblot, meaning “victory,” is is a celebration celebration of of the the beginning beginning of may originally have been aa ritual to of summer and may to ensure “victory” in in the the coming coming raiding raiding season.*° season. Heathens also hold ritual events events

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the gods gods and with ancestors. Contemcalled blots blots to to exchange gifts gifts with the generally substitute the the blood offerings porary Heathens generally offerings of of traditional blots with offerings offerings of of mead.°! As As discussed in in chapter practices such as blots chapter 7,7, practices this and and seidr texts, such the Icethis seidr are reconstructed based on historical texts, such as the Ice-

landic Eddas and and Sagas. Sagas. The development of oracular seidr seidr isis attracting more women to The of to the the dedenomination, which was initially initially of of interest mostly mostly to male practitioners. to of Heathenry include galdr galdr and Galdr isis the Other magical magical practices practices of and taufr. taufr. Galdr the chanting of runes, to to attune practitioners to to the the rune and bring bring them into chanting of into resonance with it, it, and be combined with seidr.5* Heathens may, for for exand can be with seidr.52 ample, chant runes to bring themselves into into harmony harmony to the comample, to bring to pursue the mon purpose of of setting setting the the stage stage for go into for one among them to deeper to go into the the deeper trance necessary for for seidr. Some practitioners describe this this as the majority the majority of those participating going of the gate going as far the underworld, while far as to to the gate of of the the the one engaging in goes through through the the gate. in seidr goes to the practice gate. Taufr Tuufr refers to the practice of making making talismans, usually of carving runes onto objects, usually by by carving objects, aa practice evident from archaeological remains as well as from from stories and and poems. Pre-Christian folk have also folk traditions have also been revived in in the the Baltic countries of of Eastern Europe. Europe. The revived folk folk traditions of of Lithuania, Esto-

nia, nia, Latvia, and and other Eastern European European countries are most often pracprac-

by people people living ticed by living in in those countries, rather than in in aa multicultural diaspora context. Baltic Baltic reconstructioni sts tend to reconstructionists to identify identify as Pagans Pagans through ethnicity ethnicity rather than through through adherence to to other aspects of of contemporary Paganism such as polytheism or reverence for The for nature. The history of these reconstructioni history of st groups includes racism in reconstructionist in celebration of of ethnicity, ethnicity, but but contemporary groups do do not practice practice ethnic exclusivity. exclusivity. In practice, participation is In is generally restricted to to those who know the the relevant languages. Music isis important in in Baltic reconstructioni st Pareconstructionist ganism, ganism, with folk folk songs—dainas in in Latvia, and and dainos in in Lithuania— serving as resources for ritual.3 serving for ritual. Romuva is reconstructionist group that is a reconstructionist at the that began began at the end of of the the nineteenth century century in in Lithuania Lithuania,, with Vyduna Vyduna (Wilhelm Storosta) reviving reviving folk folk celebrati ons in celebrations ion with theosophy. in combinat combination theosophy. This This group continue continuedd into the the 1920s but into but was halted by by the the Soviet invasion of of Lithuania .»4 It Lithuania.» It was revived again the 1960s as a folklore group, which engaged in again in in the in the the colcollection of of folk songs and dances and the on of the re-creati of old re-creation old festivals, under the the name Ramuva. Despite the name change Despite the change and the the ostensible ostensible cultural rather than than religious religious focus, focus, it it was disbande disbandedd again the again by by the Soviets in in 1971, 1971, only to reemerge during only to during perestroi ka in perestroika in 1988. ItIt is is now led led by Jonas Trikuby Jonas nas, who has has been involved with the the group since the late 1960s. ItIt became the late Romuva again again in reviving the in 1991, 1991, reviving the earlier name and connection with preand connection preChristian religion rather than than just just folklore.5 folklore.555 Ethnicity and and national herher-

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itage important to to Romuva members, but itage are important harmony with with and but also and realso harmony spect for for nature. nature. Not all members identify identify as Pagan, spect Not all Pagan, but but many do. do. In Latvia, the the group Dievturi practices reconstructionist Baltic PaganPaganIn Latvia, ism. “Dievturi” refers to “those who hold hold by by the the god god Dievs,” aa high high god god ism. refers to of the sky. Practitioners also recognize Laima, the goddess of fate, and and of the sky. also recognize the goddess of fate, Mara, the the goddess goddess of but they tend to to regard regard them Mara, of material well-being, but they tend them as helpers of of Dievs. Dievturi was was founded in 1926 1926 by Brastins, who helpers Dievs. Dievturi founded in by Ernest Ernest Brastins, who by the the Soviets in in the the 1940s. Some members were exiled to was executed by to the United States States during and they they later the during the the Soviet persecutions, and later returned to Latvia. The The tradition gradually gradually reemerged reemerged with the erosion of to with the of Soviet in late Janis Silins Silins and and Olger currently lead the the group. control in late 1980s. Janis Olger Auns currently Under their their leadership, leadership, Dievturi isis not not anti-Semitic, but but Brastins was, and and

in closely linked with Fascist groups in in Latvia such in his his time Dievturi was closely as Perkunkrusts, meaning meaning “Thunder Cross.” Cross.”5¢ Dievturi’s practices practices are based on dainas, dainas, or folksongs give detailed descriptions of of ancient bebebased folksongs that that give liefs and and customs, and and which were developed specifically for for solstice and liefs developed specifically and equinox equinox rituals.°” Pagans in in Ukraine prefer prefer to to call call themselves yazychnyks or ridnovirs, and and Pagans their religion has no exact transreligion yazychnytstvo or ridnovira. Yazychnytstvo has lation but refers to to pre-Christian pre-Christian Slavic Slavic and and revived revived Slavic Slavic traditions, traditions, lation but refers while ridnovirs are practitioners of of “native faith.” Pagans and while Pagans in in Ukraine and in Eastern Europe Europe differ differ from from Pagans Pagans in in English-speaking elsewhere in in their their preference for for thinking thinking of of their their religion religion in in ethic ethic terms as countries in religion, and and inin their of texts such as the the Book ofof VeVeindigenous religion, their treatment of les and and Lev Lev Sylenko’s Sylenko’s Maha Vira Vira as scripture. In In addition, some Ukrainian les Pagan groups, such such as RUNVira, which began in the the 1960s, 1960s, are more Pagan began in than polytheistic, polytheistic, and and are led led primarily primarily by monotheistic than by men. “RUNVira” for Ridna Ukrains’ka Natsional’na Vira, Vira, meaning meaning “Native isis an acronym for Pagan group group in in Ukrainian National Faith.” Pravoslavia isis another Pagan refers to to “right “right worship,” worship,” in in contrast to to the the “right “right Ukraine, whose name refers practice” of orthodoxy orthodoxy in in Christianity. Pravoslavia was founded in in 1993 1993 practice” of by Volodymyr Shaian, and it takes the Book of Veles as scripture. In contrast by Shaian, and it the Book of Veles scripture. In Pagans in in English-speaking countries, Pagans Pagans in in Ukraine tend tend to to toto most Pagans support right-wing politics and ethnic nationalism, sometimes with overt support right-wing politics and ethnic with anti-Semitism.* Pagans may may joke joke “that “that Paganism Paganism isis now aa‘real ‘real religion’ religion’ like like other other didiPagans and divisive religions,” religions,”°’? but but Pagan Pagan denominations do do not not often often vided and

into conflict over doctrinal issues. Practitioners sometimes come come into into conflict when when they they think think an individual or or group isis trying trying toto speak speak for into for all Pagans Pagans and and they they feel feel misrepresented. Other Other conflicts can arise arise when all feel that that others are judging judging their their religious religious practices practices to to be be ininpractitioners feel that they they do do not not feel feel are appropriate. However, However, authentic based on criteria that

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Pagans hold it that they they are content to let others believe whatPagans hold it as an ideal that to let ever they they feel they want and and approach approach divinity divinity however they feel is is appropriate.

FURTHER READING Adler, Margot. Drawing Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Goddess-Worshippers, PaAdler, Witches, Druids, GoddessWorshippers, and and Other Pagans expanded ed. 1986. gans in in America Today. Today. Revised and expanded ed. Boston: Beacon Press, Press, 1986.

Harvey, Graham. Contemporary Paganism: Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth. New York: York: New Harvey, Listening People, Speaking Earth. York Press, 1997. 1997. York University University Press,

NOTES 1.1. Margot Margot Adler, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and and Other Other Pagans in Press, 1986), 1986), 287-288, 287-288, 293. 293. Pagans in America Today Today (Boston: (Boston: Beacon Press, 2. Helen Berger, 2. Helen Berger, Evan Leigh S. Evan A. A. Leach, Leach, and Voices from and Leigh S. Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices Nafrom the the Pagan Pagan Census: Census: AA Na-

tional Survey Survey of of Witches and and Neo-Pagans in in the the United States (Columbia: University of of South

238. 2003), 238. Press, 2003), Carolina Press, 3. See Chas Clifton and 3. See Graham Harvey, Chas S. S. Clifton Harvey, The The Paganism and Graham (New York: Paganism Reader Routledge, Reader (New York: Routledge,

2004), 273. 273. 4. Shelly Rabinovitch and 4. Shelly and James James Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and and Neo-PaganNeo-Pagan305. ism (New York: Citadel, ism (New Citadel, 2002), 2002), 305.

5. 5. 1999), 1999), 6. 6. 7. 7.

Helen Berger, of Witches (Columbia: University of Berger, A A Community of Press, of South Carolina Press, 50, 50.4 percent of 50, reports reports that 50.4 of practitioners are solitaries. Berger, Shaffer, Voices Berger, Leach, from the Leach, and the Pagan Pagan Census, and Shaffer, Voices from Census, 118-21. 118-21. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 252. 252.

8. Berger, Community of 8. Berger, Community of Witches, Witches, 51. 51.

9.9. 10. 10. 11. 11. 12. 12. 13. 13. 14. 14. 15. 15. 16. 16.

Berger, Leach, Leach, and and Shaffer, Berger, Voices from the Pagan Shaffer, Voices Census, 230. from the Pagan Census, 230. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft Lewis, Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 97, 97, 100. 100. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 97. 97. Graham Harvey, Harvey, Shamanism: AA Reader (London: Routledge, Routledge, 2003), 2003), 5-6. 5-6. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and 250. and Neo-Paganism, 250. See See Michael Harner, The The Way the Shaman (New York: Way of of the York: HarperSanFrancisco, HarperSanFrancisco, 1990). 1990). Rabinovitch and and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and 186. and Neo-Paganism, 186. Graham Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, People, Speaking Speaking Earth (New (New York:

110. University Press, New York University Press, 1997), 1997), 110.

17. See Robert J.J. Wallis, Shamans/Neo 17. See -Shamans: Ecstasy, Shamans/Neo-Shamans: Ecstasy, Alternative Archaeologies Archaeologies and and ConRoutledge, 2003. Pagans. London: Routledge, temporary Pagans. temporary 18. 18. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft Neo-Paganism, 177. Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 177. 19. 19. Douglas Ezzy, Age Witchcraft? Popular Spell Ezzy, “New Age and the Spell Books and Rethe Reenchantmen of Everyday enchantmentt of Everyday Life,” Life,” Culture and and Religion 44 (2003): (2003): 49. 49. 20. For 20. those who conflate Witchcraft and For examples of of those and the the New Age Age movement, see Tanya Tanya M. M. Luhrmann, Persuasions of of the the Witch’s Witch's Craft Craft (Cambridge (Cambridge,, MA: Harvard University University Press, Press,

1989), 30; Wouter J. 1989), 30; J. Hanegraaff, New Age Hanegraaff, New Age Religion Religion and and Western Culture (Leiden: Brill, 79. Brill, 1996), 1996), 79.

For For discussion of of the the issue, Ezzy, “New Age issue, see Ezzy, Age Witchcraft?” Witchcraft?” 50. 50. 21. Rabinovitch and 21. Rabinovitch Lewis, Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and and 22. See 22. Community of See Berger, Berger, Community 10, 51. of Witches, Witches, 10, 51. 23. Rabinovit 23. ch and Lewis, Rabinovitch Lewis, Encyclope dia of Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and and

Neo-Pagani sm, 176. Neo-Paganism,

Neo-Paganism, 6. Neo-Paganism,

Denominations

163 163

24. Cora Cora Anderson, personal personal communication, August, August, 23 23 2005. 24. 2005. 25. Margot Drawing Down the 25. the Moon: Witches, Druids, Margot Adler, Drawing Druids, Goddess-Worshippers Goddess-Worshippers,, and and Other Pagans in America Pagans in and expanded America Today, Today, revised revised and Beacon Press, expanded ed. Press, 1986), ed. (Boston: 1986), 78-79. (Boston: Beacon 78-79. 26. personal communication, August August 23, 23, 2005. 26. Cora Cora Anderson, personal 2005. 27. Cora personal communication, August 23, 2005. 27. Cora Anderson, personal August 23, 28. Chas S. S. Clifton, Clifton, Her 28. (Lanham, MD: AltaMira, 2006), Her Hidden Children (Lanham, 2006), 130. 130.

29. 29. phia: phia: 30. 30. 31. 31. 32. 32. 33. 33. 34. 34. 35. 35. 36. 36. 37. 37.

Sabina Magliocco, Witching Culture: Folklore and and Neo-Paganism in in America 2004), 178. Press, 2004), University of of Pennsylvania Press, 178. Magliocco, Witching 83. Witching Culture, Culture, 83. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia of and Neo-Paganism, and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and Rabinovitch and and Neo-Paganism, Neo-Paganism, and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 226. 226. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 70. 70. Magliocco, 214. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, 214. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 214. Witching Culture, 214. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, Culture, 213.

(Philadel188-89. 219-20. 219-20.

38. Children, 125. 125. 38. Clifton, Clifton, Her Her Hidden Children,

39. 39. 2001, 2001, 40. 40. 41. 41.

House of of Netjer, Netjer, “What IsIs Kemetic Orthodoxy?” Kemetic Orthodoxy website, July July 8,8, www.kemet.org/kemexp1.html (accessed August 2004). www.kemet.org/kemexp1.htmil August 16, 16, 2004). Clifton and and Harvey, Harvey, Paganism Paganism Reader, 22. Clifton Reader, 22. Epistates, Hellenion website, 2004, www-.hellenion.org (accessed August August 16, Epistates, 2004, www.hellenion.org 16, 2004).

42. 42. Nova Nova

Roma, Roma,

“Declaratio

Religionis Religionis

Romanae,”

Nova

Roma, Roma,

2004, 2004,

www.novaroma

.org/religio_romana/declaration_religio.html (accessed August August 16, 16, 2004). 2004). 43. Graham Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Paganism: Listening People, People, Speaking 43. Speaking Earth Earth (New (New York: New York Press, 1997), 1997), 18-19. York University Press, 18-19. 44. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Contemporary Paganism, Paganism, 65. 44. 65.

;

45. Jeffrey Jeffrey Kaplan, Magical ReRe45. Kaplan, “The Reconstruction of of the the Asatru Asatrt and Odinist Traditions,” Magical ligion Witchcraft, ed. R. Lewis (Albany: (Albany: State University University of Press, ligion and and Modern Witchcraft, ed. James James R. of New York Press,

1996), 1996), 46. 46. 47. 47. 48. 48. 49. 49.

200. 200. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of and Neo-Paganism, 127. 127. of Modern Witchcraft and Harvey, Paganism, 58-59. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, Rabinovitch and and Neo-Paganism, 126. and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and 126. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, Paganism, 67-68. 50. Paganism, 58. 58. 50. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 51. and Neo-Paganism, 127. 127. 51. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and 52. 52. Harvey, Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 61-62. 53. See Michael Strmiska, “The Music of of the in Modern Baltic Paganism,” Reli53. See the Past Past in Paganism,” Nova Reli-

gio: Journal of and Emergent Religions Religions 88 (2005). (2005). gio: The The Journal of Alternative and 54. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 180-81. 54. Lewis, Encyclopedia of 55. Strmiska, “Music of the Past.” 55. of the 56. Strmiska, “Music of the Past.” 56. of the Past.”

57. Rabinovitch and and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 182. 57. Lewis, Encyclopedia of 58. Adrian Ivakhiv, Ivakhiv, “In Deeper Identities: Neopaganism and and Native Faith in 58. “In Search of of Deeper Faith in

Contemporary Ukraine,” Nova Religio Religio 88 (2005). 59. Blain, Blain, Jenny, Ezzy, and Harvey. Researching Researching Paganisms: Religious Ex59. Jenny, Douglas Douglas Ezzy, and Graham Harvey. Religious Experiences and Creek, CA: CA: AltaMira Press, Press, 2004), 2004), 245. periences and Academic Methodologies (Walnut Creek, 245.

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ook oot Ethics and Politics Ethics and

Arryine different methods of of study study to to Paganism Paganism yields perArening yields various per-

the ethics and and politics politics of its practitionspectives on the of the the religion religion and and its Studying popular popular spell spell books and and articles in Pagan magazines reveals ers. Studying in Pagan than in by practipractidifferent concerns than in studying studying book-length works written by who approach approach Paganism with with an awareness of of scholarly scholarly writings writings tioners who politics, and on its its history, history, politics, and ethics. Still Still more perspectives appear from the the study of of Pagan Pagan practitioners through through Internet forums, forums, face-to-face interinterstudy views, through the the use of of surveys. views, and and sociological studies conducted through One gets of the of and to certain gets aa different sense of the popularity of and commitment to ethical perspectives such such as as feminism, and cultural cultural ethical perspectives feminism, environmentalism, environmentalism, and appropriation when one looks atat what Pagans Pagans say say and in different conand do do in and forums. Consequently, interdisciplinary study to texts and study isis necessary to gain of ethics and in Paganism. The gain aa nuanced understanding of and politics politics in The study of writings will not not necessarily necessarily give give aa sense of of the the politics politics emstudy of writings alone will the daily daily lives lives of and the the study Pagan practices will bedded in in the of Pagans, Pagans, and study of of Pagan will not necessarily yield yield aa sense of of Pagan not Pagan ideals.

Pagan of mainstream culture, so what Pagans Pagans Pagan ethics are often critical of say about ethics often has political component. However, ethics ethics say has an active political also to be Pagans’ daily daily lives, lives, expressed through through attialso tend to be embedded in in Pagans’ attitudes toward, toward, and sexuality, environmental issues, issues, and actions in in relation to, to, sexuality,

and justice, more than articulated in in rule-based ethics. Pagans and social justice, Pagans have developed formal ethics in the context of magic use and have begun to in the of magic and begun to dedevelop a discourse on environmental ethics. Feminist ethics are often imvelop a implicit and and are are thus thus more cultural plicit more evident evident in in actions actions than than in in words, words, while while cultural appropriation isis a more contentious issue. All political orientations are All political 165 165

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the Pagan but activist and and radical stances tend tend represented in in the Pagan population, but to than conservative perspectives. to be be more visible than Pagans than belief belief or the the articulation of of it, PaPagans value experience more than it, so Pagans do tend to to produce ofgans do not tend produce formal ethics as written arguments. They They often prefer prefer to to express their ethics through living living example, they tend to ten example, and and they tend to be be construed as preaching be uncomfortable with anything that that might might be preaching or telling others what to right. Starhawk, for for example, telling to do do or what isis right. example, suggests that ethics, ethics, as aa set set of of rules and and laws, laws, become necessary only ultithat only when ultiprojected outside the the natural world. Moral integrity, she mate meaning meaning isis projected integrity, she feels, listening to to immanent divinity divinity and and taking taking responsibilfeels, results from from listening ity ity for for oneself.! Pagans the idea idea of of applying applying universal prinprinPagans tend toto reject reject the ciples ciples of of ethics, ethics, preferring preferring situational ethics that that are responsive to to contexts, and and they they often emphasize personal responsibility and the and the of thinking thinking about the importance of the consequences of of one’s actions. More PaPagan writings on ethics are appearing as the gan writings the religion religion matures, although although magical magical ethics still still predominate, as in in the the recent book on ethics by by Shelly Shelly Rabinovitch and Meredith MacDonald, An An Ye Ye Harm None: Magical Magical Morality ity and and Modern Ethics. The ethic of of “do “do what you will, will, save you you harm none,” sometimes called the the Wiccan Rede (or (or “counsel”), is is a a common ethical principle in in contemporar contemporaryy Paganism, particularly among Wiccans and other Witches. As As previously noted, noted, it to Aleister Crowley’s stateit isis similar to ment “Do “Do what thou thou wilt wilt shall be the of the shall be the law,” the whole of law,” with with the the added

injunction of of harming harming none. Gerald Gardner may have derived the the Rede in in part part from the the Jain ahimsa, or nonharming. He Jain idea of of ahimsa, He appears to to have taken the the term “sky “sky clad” from the the Jains, Jains, from his his study of them in study of in InIndia. There is dia. is a sect of of Jains, Jains, called the the Digambaras, which means “sky “sky clad,” who clad,” who renounce clothing? clothing. Pagans usually Pagans understand the usually understand the Rede as an ethic for magic, as a restricfor magic, tion on what one should do in the the context of do in of casting casting spells. spells. Because magic magic works through the the logic logic that that everything isis interconnected, interconnected, spells and ritspells and rituals can have unexpected uals unexpected results, and and Pagans Pagans teach that that magical practitioners need to responsibility for to accept accept responsibility for their actions, including including any any unintended consequenc es. Ursula Le consequences. Le Guin’s series of of Earthsea novels illustrates the the ethics of magic use, and isis often recommen of magic ded as aa teachrecommended ing tool. tool. In ing In AA Wizard of of Earthsea, the the protagonist, protagonist, out of of pride pride in in response to to the the taunting of of aa schoolmate schoolmate,, casts aa spell to summon the spell to of aa the spirit spirit of dead woman and and accidentall accidentallyy looses a malevolent entity entity that that haunts him for many years. for Pagans Pagans often associate associate the the idea idea of of threefol threefoldd return with with the the Rede, Rede, which indicate indicatess that that what you do comes do back back to threefold. In to you you threefold. In this, this, they they are influenc ed by influenced the idea idea of by the karma, underst of karma, ood as the understood the “law of of reLeturns,” although although Pagans usually usually expect the the return to to occur sooner than than

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the the next incarnation. For at Pagans, itit isis consequence that at least some Pagans, that bya a deity. produces the produces the threefold return, not judgment judgment by deity. Starhawk makes this explicit but for in her explicit in might be be perceived this her writing,’ writing,’ but for others, others, judgment might that consequences to Pagans suggest that from aa deity. toto come from deity. Some Pagans to the the idea derived from Nabe considered, an idea next seven generations should be tive American traditions. tive The adoption adoption of of ideas ideas and and ritual practices from from Native American and The and lead to to accusations of appropriother indigenous traditions has has lead of cultural approprito the the borrowing, borrowing, use, or appropriaation. Cultural appropriation refers to tion of of tion of cultural traditions outside of of one’s ethnic background. Critics of such uses of of cultural traditions see itit as cultural theft theft and part part of such of the the continuing legacy legacy of of colonization. Given that Paganism tinuing that most practitioners of of Paganism

blending different cultural elements, appropriation isis an imimare eclectic, blending portant issue issue for for the the religion. religion. ItIt isis probably in terms of of portant probably most problematic in the appropriation of indigenous traditions, but some Gardnerians comthe of but plain that other Pagan from their their traditions. Howplain that Pagan traditions appropriate from ever, Raven Grimassi says that he developed Stregheria, Italian American ever, Raven says that he developed Stregheria, Italian Witchcraft, in in response to to Celtic practitioners who faulted him him for the for the cultural imperialism of of his his Roman ancestors.‘ Irish Irish practitioners sometimes express anger anger at at the the appropriation of of Celtic traditions by by North Pagans. American Pagans. Accusations of of cultural appropriation are most familiar in in terms of of the the use of of Native American traditions by by outsiders. Such Such practitioners are disdis-

paragingly referred to meaning those who who want to as the the “Wannabee Tribe,” meaning to be be Native American—white people people playing playing atat or to dians.” This includes “Indian” hobbyists in Europe, Europe, This hobbyists in bers in North America, as well as some Pagan and bers in well as Pagan and

pretending to to be be “In“Inand Bear Tribe memand Bear Tribe neo-shamanic practipracti-

Most Bear Bear Tribe Tribe members are white, white, and and the the current leader, leader, tioners. Most Wind, has has been been referred to to as as aa “whiteshaman.” Whiteshamans Wabun Wind,

pastiche of of “Indian” garb garb and and ritual ritual items, items, presenting themselves as as use aa pastiche “real Indians” in in contrast to to actual actual Native American persons. Another ex“real ample familiar to to many many Pagans Pagans isis the the popular popular writer Lynn Lynn Andrews, Andrews, who who ample claims to to be be have been taught taught by by aa Native American woman in in her her book book claims have been and others, others, while while the the tradition she she describes isis made made up up Medicine Woman and of aa variety variety of of indigenous indigenous practices practices and and beliefs. beliefs. One One might might be be tempted tempted toto of think of of these these practitioners as “jelly “jelly donuts”: flaky flaky white white on the the outside, outside, think

with artificial red red flavoring on the the inside, inside, in in terms opposite opposite toto the the labelwith ing of of assimilated Native Americans as “apples” “apples” (meaning (meaning red red on the the outing side and and white white on the the inside). inside). side Not all all Pagans Pagans are aware of of issues issues of of appropriation, but but many feel feel con-

it. Some Some of of their their defenses against against accusations ofof cultural apapflicted about it. charged because of of their their conflicted feelings.5 feelings.® propriation are emotionally charged They are defensive because they they feel feel threatened by by having having their their practices practices They

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exposed to challenges of Pagans have have exposed to of inauthenticity. Politically sensitive Pagans a general general sense that that practitioners need to develop reciprecipto seek seek permission, develop seek deep than superficial knowledge of of rocal relationships, and seek deep rather than in borrowing. Some feel feel that that blending blending isis not advisable, cultural traditions in while other other Pagans Pagans are unaware unaware of, of, or unconcerned with, with, issues of of apapwhile propriation. Some practitioners say say that that if they find find the of other cultures if they the idioms of “meaningful and and compelling,” then their use of of such idioms isis appropriate. Scott Cunningham, for ate.° for example, says, feel particularly atsays, “If “If you you feel attracted to to other sacred calendars, feel feel free free to adapt them. . . .. So to adapt So long long as the rituals are fulfilling and the why worry?”’ worry?”” Other practitioners and effective, why are more defensive, such A. Lizard, Lizard, who said such as A. in an Internet discussion said in

forum, “Use your dream catchers in forum, in good good health. There are plenty plenty of of native Americans using tive 486 based PCs using 486 PCs made in right now, and in Taiwan right the and the

fact that chip or a Taiwan assembly plant fact that the the i486 chip plant largely largely come from nonNative American cultural origins origins doesn’t affect their their usefulness to to their their Native American user base in in the the least. least. AA tool tool isis aa tool The questool is quesis aa tool. tool. The tion isn’t who invented it, it, it it is is DOES IT IT WORK FOR YOU???”8 Looking Looking at at who benefits in each of in of these cases isis useful. Where ritual activities and and

accoutrements come from matters. Would there not be be something offensive sive about using using a crucifix to to turn one’s compost, even ifif one regards regards it it as aa sacred task? The sense that that it it isis okay okay to te the to appropria appropriate the traditions of to serve of others to one’s own needs seems to be a specifical to be ly Western idea, specifically idea, based on aa conception of of knowledge knowledge as unrelated to ception to cultural context rather than embodied, ied, encoded, and and taught taught through through particular ethical relationsh ips and relationships and in in specific places. As specific places. As an outgrowth Western culture, culture, Pagans Pagans do emphasize do emphasize the the needs of the self self in of the in their defenses of of cultural borrowing.’ borrowing. Some practitioners suggest that that borrowing is is aa universal practice in in religion, religion, as new religions form through religions syncretism, but through syncretism, but this this defense can “effectively “effectively sisilence critical voices of of those cultures they themselves claim to they themselves to honor,” honor.”1° Some practit ioners have come into practitioners into dialogu dialoguee with Native Americ ans on Americans the the issue of appropriation of of Pagan Pagan appropriation of Native American American traditions. traditions. At At the the 1993 Parliam ent of Parliament Religions in of World Religions in Chicago Chicago,, Lakota elders criticiz ed criticized Paganis m, among other traditions, Paganism, traditions, for for appropr iation of appropriation of “practices “practices of worof shippin shippingg in in circle, invoking invoking the the four directio ns, and purifying directions, purifying with burning ing incense as imitati on of imitation of their own practices.” practices.” Represe ntatives of Representatives the of the Covena nt of Covenant of the the Goddes Goddesss argued argued that that the the origins origins of of these practic es within practices Pagani sm are in Paganism European magical traditions, in European traditions, which the the elders at at the the conference accepte d. Howeve accepted. r, Pagans However, Pagans do borrow other aspects of do borrow of Native Americ an traditio American ns, and traditions, and Native Americ ans continue Americans continue to .!! Practito criticize criticize." Practitioners in in New Zealand borrow element elementss of of non-We stern traditio non-Western ns, espetraditions, especially from Native Americ cially an traditio American ns. They traditions. They use drummi drumming ng for for trance trance

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journeys, they they employ practice of employ the the practice “power animals,” and of acquiring acquiring “power and they they use smudging for for purification. purification.!!2? Indigenous scholars have been parparticularly ticularly critical of New Age Age uses of of lucrative New of Native American traditions of sweat lodges, pipe ceremonies, and medicine wheels.13 of lodges, pipe wheels.”3 To be fair, fair, the To be adoption of of indigenous traditions and the the Pagan Pagan adoption the intermixing mixing of of other cultural traditions isis not necessarily motivated by by profit profit and consumerism, and consumerism , but but more often by and pragmatism. Pagans by aesthetics and Pagans are inspired by by an eclectic assortment of and they they mix of traditions, and mix them in in their to create beautiful rituals that their rituals to that work. However, Pagans Pagans also also use cultural traditions outside their their own ethnicity because they they often see these “other” traditions as spiritually spiritually more authentic than than mainstream culture. Those who borrow do do so because they integrate seemingly they want to to integrate seemingly more authentic traditions into into aa privileged privileged new culture. However, there there isis aa contradiction between wanting wanting those those cultures to be unchanging and fitto be and pure, fitting image of of ancient indigenous traditions, but ting their their image but also also insisting insisting on the the flexibility and adaptability of of those traditions in in their their own practices.!4 PeoPeople are attracted to to Native American traditions by ple are by their their perception of of these these cultures’ respect and their respect for their sense of for nature and of interconnect interconnecteedness dness of all of all things, and things, of Native American traditions as aa panacea and the the presentation of for problems in in modern culture.!5 and other problems culture.15 for environment environmentaall destruction and of indigenous cultures as repositories of Some practitioners continue to Some to see indigenous spiritual with such problem with The problem such roculture.!° The to Western culture.'® lost to spiritual knowledge lost roof indigenous traditions isis that that they they are fed fed by mantic views of by a a desire to to escontemporary genocide, and cape accountabilit problems of of and contemporar for racism, genocide, accountabilityy for cape y problems appropriatorss render abuse and abuse. Romantic appropriator and sterilization abuse. substance abuse contemporary for justice indigenous struggles struggles for contemporar justice invisible.!7 invisible.” y indigenous Some practitioners suggest suggest that that itit can be be problematic to to argue that that relireliSome gion should be be ethnically ethnically based. While itit isis easy toto sympathize with with argion guments of of Native Americans against against cultural appropriatio appropriation, guments n, itit becomes less so so when when Heathens and and practitioners of of Eastern European European Paganisms Paganisms less insist on an ethnic basis basis for for their their religious religious practices. practices. Such Such Pagan Pagan practipractiinsist immediately presented presented as racist ifif they they try try to to restrict their their inintioners are immediately digenous traditions to to those of of their their own ethnicity. ethnicity. The The difference of of digenous power in in these these situations isis important, important, and and itit should should be be noted noted that that the the balbalpower

of power can change change over time. time. Arguments Arguments against against appropriatio appropriation ance of n present ethnicities as as natural, natural, essential, essential, stable stable categories, categories, but but ethnicity ethnicity isis present

socially constructed. Ethnic Ethnic and and cultural differences are real, real, but but not ababsocially solute, and and the the biological biological basis of of race isis questionable. questionable.'8 solute, '8 Pagans are generally generally described as as “white,” “white,” but but they they often often do do not not idenPagans tify as white, white, citing citing aa variety variety of of European European ethnicities in in their their backbacktify ground.!? ItIt isis not not just just the the culture of of the the populations populations of of North North America, ground.!? Brazil, and and other other places places colonized by by Europe Europe that that are multimultiAustralia, Brazil, - cultural, cultural, but but often often the the individuals themselves. Pagans Pagans often often describe describe

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as “mutts,” “mutts,” and groups, particularly in larger as and Pagan Pagan groups, particularly in larger cities, cities,

of cultural backgrounds. IsIs it still appropriation if half aa mix of it still if half

the of Irish Irish descent, or if the members are of if two of of them them are African or Native

American? Some Pagans Pagans argue argue that that “gods “gods do do not respect cultural bound-

aries,” as Gus says of of his with Umbanda.” Umbanda.”° He He does aries,” Gus diZerega says his experience with not mix Umbanda Umbanda not

and Witchcraft, but but he he feels called to practice both. and feels called to practice

that because of Others suggest that of reincarnation, the the ethnicity ethnicity of of one’s curall important.”! Groups Groups like like Reclaiming Reclaiming have been rent incarnation isis not not all have been of cultural appropriation when they to include eleeleaccused of they have tried tried to ments from aa variety variety of of cultural backgrounds in in efforts to be inclusive, to be leading that “when it thorny issues of leading to to the the suggestion that it comes to to the the thorny of multiculturalism and and respect for for other cultural traditions, itit seems at at win for times that that Witchcraft cannot win for trying.” Respectful participation may be be possible when white people people develop develop with Native American communities (rather than individurelationships with als) and work in als) and solidarity with Native American groups on social justice in solidarity justice issues.” issues. Starhawk indicates that that borrowing borrowing entails responsibility “to “to parparticipate in very real struggles being in the the very real struggles waged for for liberation, land, being waged land, and and cultural survival.”*4 She She suggests that that practicing Paganism, as revived European

traditions, should obviate the to participate in the desire to in “Wannabee” activities.2> However, “it “it cannot be said that the movement be said that the

Figure Figure 19. 19. North North Altar Altar with multicultural elements, Samhain Spiral Spiral Dance celebration of of the the Reclaim Reclaimiing ng community in in San Francisco (photo (photo by by M. M. Macha Nightma Nightmare) re)

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as aa whole mobilizes for for such such causes. . ... . Whatever Starhawk says, says, one mix of senses aa mix of romantic nostalgia for for the the primitive or exotic with culcultural ignorance ignorance or naivety naivety when Pagans and proclaim the and witches proclaim the popotency of, for example, their tency their power animal or dream-catcher of, for .”26 Some dream-catcher.”° practitioners take take on aa strategy of of identifying themselves with Native

American critics and and distancing themselves from New Agers,’ Agers,2” seeming

to to project project unethical borrowing practices onto New Age Age practitioners their own practices. while defending their Appropriation Appropriati on isis an unresolved issue issue in in Paganism, especially in in relation to identity issues for to identity for people people of of mixed heritage, in colonized areas heritage, but but also also in where practitioners engage in in practices related to to the the bioregional bioregional idea idea of of rooting rooting in environmentalis in place place as an environmenta t strategy. For Pagans who practice list For Pagans practice their religion as nature religion, their religion religion, it to honor the it can be the spirits be important to of spirits of the land. land. Pagans Pagans sometimes seek the seek to to know these these spirits through contact spirits through with indigenous indigenous sources, sources, whether whether through with individuals, communities communities,, through individuals, and/or anthropological anthropological sources. Borrowing from indigenous traditions isis respect Maori cultural in New Zealand. Practitioners respect culturally sensitive in culturally try into to incorporate generally incorporate itit into do not but do spirituality but and spirituality knowledge and not generally try to practices their to any degree, unlike great of Native aspects spirAmerican their practices to any great degree, aspects of spirfor example, Pagans may, adopted. Pagans and example, acknowledge and may, for have adopted. they have ituality they ituality and/or honor local local local deities and rituals.”8 of outdoor tribes at beginning the /or local tribes at the beginning of rituals.” ethics are more integrated integrated into into Pagan Pagan practice than ethical senFeminist ethics practice than sibility regarding regarding cultural appropriatio appropriation. The vast vast majority majority of of American sibility n. The Pagans support gender gender equity, equity, with 88.1 88.1 percent in in favor favor of of passing passing an Pagans support to enshrine equal equal rights rights in in the the American constitution. amendment to Slightly more female than than male male practitioners support support this this initiative, but but Slightly male Pagans Pagans are much more likely likely to to support the the amendment than than the the male general American public.” public.” In In Pagan Pagan writings writings and and practice, practice, adherence to to general often assumed. The The Goddess isis given given priority priority over male male didifeminism isis often vinity, and and priestesses are given given priority priority over priests priests in in Wicca, Wicca, generally generally vinity, as aa compensatio compensation for the the pervasive pervasive patriarchy patriarchy in in mainstream monotheas n for istic traditions. The The elevation of of the the Goddess to to the the exclusion of of the the God God istic and men was more pronounced early early in in the the second wave of of feminism, alaland though itit continues in in some women’s-onl women’s-only circles. The The exclusion of of men though y circles. explicit in in Z. Z. Budapest’s Budapest’s Holy Holy Book Book ofof Women’s Mysteries, Mysteries, a a manifesto was explicit of spiritual spiritual politics politics and and radical separatist separatist feminism. Budapest's Budapest’s 1979 1979 book book of states, “We “We are committed to to winning, winning, to to surviving, surviving, to to struggling struggling against against states, patriarchal oppression,” and and “we “we are opposed opposed to to teaching teaching our magic magic and and patriarchal craft to to men until until the the equality equality of of the the sexes isis aa reality.’”°° reality.”°° In In the the 1989 1989 our craft edition of of the book, Budapest Budapest adds, adds, “We “We teach teach ‘Pan’ ‘Pan’ workshops workshops today today and and edition the book, work together together with with men who who have have changed changed themselves into into brothers.”31 brothers.”3! work The equality equality of of the the sexes isis implicit implicit in in Cunningham Cunningham’s Wicca: AA Guide Guide for for The 's Wicca: the Solitary Solitary Practitioner. Complementa Complementarity of the the sexes isis often often assumed as as the rity of

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part male and and female in Wicca, but but the the implementation part of of the the polarity polarity of of male in Wicca,

of the the equality equality of of the the sexes in largely of in practice practice came toto Gardnerian Wicca largely from the the United States. Doreen Valiente relates coming coming toto feminist conreading Starhawk and others.32 Many attribute the the sciousness through through reading others.*2 Many widespread feminist awareness in the influence of the sense in Paganism to to the of the of of feminist spirituality and and of empowerment and and emancipatory politics politics of religion in in Starhawk’s work. The The emphasis on the the Goddess, and and Goddess religion the the mass of of Paganism books written by by women or focused on women’s relationship to to the the Goddess, has has more recently led to at male male recently led to books aimed at practitioners, such such as When Angeles, Angeles, and and other works

II See the Wild God, written by by aa woman, Ly See the Wild God, Ly de de written by by and and for for men, such such as A. A. J. J. Drew’s

for Men. Men. Wicca for Practitioners and scholars tend to that Paganism, as nature reto assume that ligion, ligion, is is associated with environmentalism. Pagans with environmentalism. Pagans are much more likely to likely to support further government spending for for environmental proprothe general general American population: 92 tection than the 92 percent of of Pagans Pagans versus 55.7 55.7 percent of of the the general general American population. There isis less less agreement about other aspects aspects of of how environmental ethics should be be for some practitioners, environmentalism practiced, and for environmentalism is is not imporimportant, even for who see nature as sacred. tant, for those who Pagans Pagans often espouse the the idea idea that that environmen tal ethics consist in environmental in folfollowing nature or acting lowing acting in in harmony with nature, an idea idea that also comthat is is also mon in in general general writings about environmen talism. Some Pagans, environmentalism. Pagans, such as Starhawk, feel feel that that ethical action isis inspired inspired by by the the Goddess as incarnated in the living in the living cosmos, or as nature personified. Druids might that ethmight say say that ethical action ical action as inspired by as action action inspired by Awen, the force of the life life force nature. However, of nature. However, nature is the “greenwood is not just just the “greenwood”” where everyone gets and no one gets along along and gets gets eaten. Scientifically Scientifically minded ecologists indicate that nature is is not necessarily essarily harmonious but but isis unpredictab le, even chaotic. According to unpredictable, to postpostmodern thought, thought, the the meaning meaning of of “nature” is is not transparent transparent,, and itit is is necto consider with whose idea of essary to of nature one should try try to to be be in in harmony. harmony.** Some practitioner practitionerss see nature as Gaia in in James Lovelock’s sense of of a self-regulat ing system that, self-regulating that, although it it preserves life, life, expresses no favoritism in in terms of of supporting human life. life. Some see nature as mother earth, earth, but but others express concern that that this may have this may have undesirable implications for implications for what women are supposed to to be be like like if if they they are “natural.” Others regard regard nature in in terms of of the the sublime, something to to respect and admire, or even fear, admire, fear, as something more powerful than more powerful than humans. humans. Less Less commonly in in Paganism, some see nature as fragile fragile and in in need of of human protection or stewardship stewardship.. Some Pagans, Pagans, in in common with environmen environmen-talists, talists, see nature as something that that needs to to be be preserved apart apart from huhumans, sometimes as something pure and and pristine, as if if we have fallen from aa natural state, state, and natural areas need to to be be protected from certain certain

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kinds of of people people (sometimes the local poor). the urban poor, or local poor). Nature is is not simply simply identifiable as something to to follow; peoples’ peoples’ ideas of of nature and and to ethical action. they are inspired to divinity divinity influence how they However, to to say that all of nature are interpretive need not not deny all ideas of say that However, deny the reality reality of the of practitioners’ religious religious experiences of of inspiration of of ethical action, such as having having knowledge or understanding that that comes from Awen, or Adrian Harris’ argument for ecology. of ecology. for somatic knowledge of Dragon Environthe British Dragon of the and a founding founding member of Harris, a a Wiccan and unique role that Paganism may may have aa unique Group, suggests that mental Group, ecology, in ecology, role in back by putting reality by putting people providing people back of reality making sense of in making providing aa revolution in He argues that in touch with their bodies and the Earth. He (or emthat somatic (or and the in body as part of nature and the of nature can teach part of the body bodied) knowledge of He understands somatic things are ultimately one.” He all things people “that all people felt in and in in “powerful ritual.” sex” and ritual.”5 “good sex” in “good is felt that which is knowledge as that knowledge but of direct experience. but gut the result result of feeling, the gut feeling, is not cerebral knowledge ItIt is body rather through the body in the the intellect, itit does through the it isis experienced in Because it of action. Nonetheless, itit principles or program of set of yield aa set of ethical principles not yield Hill the campaigns to motivates environmental actions like Salisbury Hill like the to save Salisbury Twyford Down protest was road building. (The (The Twyford and Twyford Down from road and protected land. Degreenbelt land, protected land. park, greenbelt sites, aa national park, to save three Deland, and three sites, to of comto cut cut twelve minutes of the road spite built, to road was built, spite massive protest, the

through participation in in that direct experience through feels that muter time.) Harris feels in action toward then result in ritual can lead to empowerment, which can then lead to radical social change.*° change.* Written expressions of of environmental ethics in Paganism in contemporary Paganism can also also be the work of For Starhawk, and Carol Christ. For of Starhawk and in the be found in

environmental awareness isis inherent to practice of of Witchcraft. She She sees the practice to the her spirituality as an earth-based tradition, and only one that that isis celeceleand not only her bratory of change. for instigating communal change. force for also a force is also that is but that of nature, but bratory She suggests that the Pagan Pagan recognition that live interdependthat humans live that the She ently in community with other other animals, animals, plants, plants, and and other entities entities should should in community ently inspire the for social change.*” change.” Although of ethics isis more her sense of Although her the desire for inspire often implied she does indicate that that her strategies than explicitly stated, she in her implied in true vision inspires political action. For Starhawk, the Goddess is not only only is the inspires aa symbol, living being being who “makes demands on us.”38 us.”°8 She She recombut aa living symbol, but mends “picking “picking up you find path,” metaphoriin your path,” find in that you garbage that the garbage up the cally and literally, as “an ethical guide for a modern age.”°? age.”°? guide for cally and literally, as “an Carol Christ provides for ethics in in of aa theoretical foundation for provides more of religion in of the the Goddess. Godthealogy, Rebirth of her systematic thealogy, in her Goddess religion the writings writings take inspiration from the of Paganism take dess-focused practitioners of

of Christ, Christ, but is unclear herself as Pagan. as Pagan. identifies herself she identifies extent she what extent to what unclear to but itit is of Christ explains explains how the in humans and the the Goddess in of the the immanence of how the rest of of the of ethical relations. relations. the natural world undergirds aa natural sense of

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Humans who who are in in touch with being in being embodied experience empathy empathy in their others, including and are aware of their relations with with others, including nonhumans, and of their their

the Earth Earth and and of of the the total web of of dependence on the total interdependence of of the the web

life. The symbol of of the the Goddess, through through ritual, ritual, Christ argues, brings life. The symbol brings environmental values to than lacking of to consciousness. Rather than lacking aa principle of justice, as some critics have have claimed,’° claimed,*° the of the the Goddess in justice, the immanence of in

nature inspires inspires ethical action. Ethics does does not not require in transcenrequire aa basis in dence, Christ argues, if nature is “intelligent and loving” rather “brudence, Christ argues, if nature is “intelligent and loving” rather than than “brutal and blind.”4! While cautioning that ethics are necessarily context detal blind.”*! that dependent, she she provides aa list list of principles for Goddess religion: of for religion: ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ e ¢

life. Nurture life. Walk in in love love and and beauty. beauty. the knowledge that that comes through through the the body. body. Trust the Speak the conflict, pain, pain, and and suffering. Speak the truth about conflict, suffering. Take only you need. only what you Think about the the consequences of of your actions for for seven generations. Approach the the taking taking of of life great restraint. with great life with Practice great great generosity. Repair the Repair the web.” web.“

Although Christ’s systematic thealogy thealogy isis aa rare example of of highly highly articulated ethics in in Paganism, feminist and and environmental ist values are comenvironmentalist monly expressed in monly in Paganism Paganism through through things things like like their positive attitudes toward the the body, and nature, and their respect for body, sexuality, and for people people who choose to to live live different lifestyles. lifestyles. Many Many Pagans Pagans describe what they they do do as aa “way “way of than aa religion.” of life” life” rather than religion. Daily Daily life life for for Pagans Pagans is is not mundane or profane profane as opposed to to some more spiritual concern. Pagans Pagans integrate grate spirituality into into their daily daily lives in in their work and and in leisure, in their their leisure, but be a source of but this this can be of tension for Pagans who feel for Pagans their jobs feel that that their jobs entail tail complicity in in systems that that go go against against “nature.” Some Pagans Pagans undergo undergo aa sort of of compartmenta lization when the compartmentalization the ethics of of their religious practice religious practice in conflict with their job are in job requirements. requirements. Some Pagans Pagans are pacifists, pacifists, but but there are Pagans in the the military. Pagans in military.4 Other Pagans Pagans feel feel torn between the the dedesire to opt opt out of sire to of Western civilization and and the the responsibility responsibility to to engage with it it in in protest. Pagans’ Pagans’ attitudes about conformism and and blending into blending into mainstream culture are diverse. Some Some fear fear persecution or ridicule, ridicule, while others feel feel a need to to set themselves apart. apart. The The ethics of of the the daily daily practic es of practices of conserv ative Pagans conservative Pagans are largely largely ininvisible because they they blend into the the mainstr eam. Other ethics of mainstream. daily life of daily life embedded in embedded in Pagans’ lives lives are visible in practices around food in their practices food and appreciation of their appreciation the body of the and sexuality. body and sexuality. Some Pagans Pagans express their religious values through religious through growing growing and harvesting harvesting their own food. GarGar-

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dening dening makes makes them them aware aware of, of, and of, natural and appreciative natural cycles, appreciative of, includcycles, including ing rain and and cold periods periods of of dormancy. dormancy. Some practitioners see hunting as a sacred task, task, while others are vegetarian. Pagans Pagans generally see sexual expression as natural rather than sinful, sinful, and and they they tend body tend to to value all all body types, types, young and and old, old, because of of the of divinity the immanence of divinity in all bodies. in all Many also exhibit a preference for Many Pagans Pagans also for natural methods and products, and products, including herbalism and and other naturopathic medicine, such as therapeutherapeutic massage. Some Pagans Pagans leave offerings tic offerings to to landwights and and household deities, whether in deities, in the the city in rural rural areas, as aa reminder of city or in depenof their dependence on the the Earth for for food, air, and According to food, air, and water. According to some Pagans, Pagans,

their spirituality has has made it it impossible for litter, or not not to to recyfor them to to litter, and compost. cle and cle Reverence for inspire political awareness and for nature can inspire and action inteintegrated into into daily grated daily life. life. Some recent work in in environment environmental philosophy al points to to everyday environmental points everyday life life for for environment that indiindial solutions, suggesting that vidual complicity system of complicity inin the of industrial society—the cars we drive, the system drive, food we buy, the in overconsumpti be aa on—should the food buy, our participation in overconsumption—shou ld be of political political action. However, others argue point of not does not argue that that the system does the system point end by station, aa by individual action: “picking litter beside aa power station, “picking up end up litter putting an motorway isis as valuable as putting factory, a a quarry or aa motorway chemical factory, Elastoplast on aa severed arm.”*5 their politics integrate their arm.”* Pagans politics of Pagans integrate of everyElastoplast day life life with emancipatory politics. day with emancipator y politics. Pagans are active participants in in mainstream politics through voting, voting, but but Pagans politics through they are skeptical skeptical about about the the integrity integrity of of existing existing social institutions,* institutions,*°6 so they they also also participate participate in in activities such such as political political protests and and letter-writthey ing While Pagan identificationn with with environment environmental ing campaigns. While Pagan identificatio al activism 1977 and and 1986, 1986, itit still still constituted only only aa segment segment of of the the increased between 1977 Pagan movement as a whole. In that period, only about a quarter of Pagans Pagan as a In that period, only about a of Pagans felt that that Paganism Paganism in in general general was political.4” political.*” Pagans’ Pagans’ self-identific self-identification felt ation as apolitical may have had more to do with their distrust of mainstream poapolitical may have had to do with their of political institutions than than their their actual levels levels of of political political activity activity through through other other channels. According According to to more recent research, the the vast majority of of Pagans Pagans vast majority vote, albeit albeit more enthusiastica enthusiastically at the the national level level than than in in state state or or local local vote, lly at In addition, about about half half of of all all Pagans Pagans engage in in letter-writin letter-writingg camelections. In paigns, about about aa quarter quarter participate in in some sort sort of of local local grassroots political political paigns, activity, and and almost half half participate participate in in political political demonstrati demonstrations.** Social activity, ons.® Social protest may may not not be be aa majority majority position position within within Paganism, Paganism, but but activism isis protest highly visible amongst amongst practitioners. practitioners. highly

Pagans exhibit aa wide wide variety variety of of political political orientations.* orientations.4?? Pagan Pagan reverence Pagans for nature does does not not necessarily translate into into political political action inin defense of of for Celebrating “nature” does does not not necessarily necessarily lead lead toto environment environmental nature. Celebrating al One scholar practitioner, practitioner, for for example, example, reports reports that that at at aa fullfullawareness. One trip toto Avebury Avebury one winter, winter, she she found found “a “a collection of of ritual ritual litter, litter, moon trip

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primarily candles and and wax, that that indicated that in primarily that whatever was foremost in

the minds of of those who who had had performed their rituals around specific specific stones the of this great circle the the night night before, before, it of this great it was not environmental care—at least any way that envisaged practitioners’ own actions as potentially potentially not in in any that envisaged causing problems.”*° problems.”°” Ribbons, bits of string, and other small offerings causing bits of string, and might be for some Pagans, Pagans, but but when left bemight be inoffensive votive offerings offerings for left behind, they they can become eyesores for for others. Despite hind, Despite widespread expressions of reverence for for the Earth, researchers have found “a deep split of the Earth, “a deep split between Pagans whose commitment to to ecological principles was strong and practistrong and practical, and those whose commitment was limited to a religious vision.”>! cal, and to a religious slightly more politically politically active than than male pracpracWomen practitioners are slightly overall, but they are significantly more likely than males to titioners overall, but they likely than to take take part in demonstrations. Pagans in general general are much more likely likely to to participart in Pagans in participate in in such events than the general general American population.>? pate than the population.*2 While women than male practitioners, especially through through their their are more politically active than participation in in ecofeminism, practitioners of of the the Church of of All All Worlds and Feraferia also also tend to to be be politically active.53 and active.5? Some research indicates that practitioners of of women’s spirituality may may be be the the most radical Pagans, Pagans, that and that and that those practicing traditions emerging from from British initiatory witchcraft are the least politically active,*4 but itit appears that the influence of of craft the least active,“ but that the British initiatory initiatory traditions in in North America may be be more conservative than the than of those same traditions in the development of in the the United Kingdom. While Gardnerian and and Alexandrian groups may be be less less politically active than eclectic groups in in North America, some groups in the United KingKingin the dom, dom, such such as the the Dragon Dragon Environmental Group, Group, are more politically active than many North American groups. In In addition, Gardnerians note that the that the original original New Forest coven engaged in political engaged in political action, conducting aa ritual to to repel repel the the Nazi invasion of during the of Britain during the Second World War, War, alalthough though some academics suggest that may be that this be apocryphal. this story apocryphal.®> story may Using ritual to to achieve political Using political ends is Pagan strategy for is a a common Pagan for implementing ethics. Pagans Pagans also mix issues in also often often mix in political rituals, combining ecology and feminism in ecology and in ecofeminism. Pagans Pagans engage in in direct action using magic and using magic and ritual, ritual, as well as conducting these activities as parts parts of of demonstrations and and atat separate events. Direct action entails a didirect refusal to comply with with aa perceived wrong, and interference with to comply those carrying carrying out out such such a wrong. ItIt is to destabilize systems of is intended to of

control and to to undermine the the compliance of of enforcers, making making it it expen-

sive to to enforce control. It It is is effective because itit creates a a crisis of of legitilegitimacy as people people cease to to believe that the system is the system is working.* working. Direct action includes things things like like ecotage and and monkey monkey wrenching (destroying machines like like bulldozers at at road-building sites), sites), but but also also other confrontations with political political and corporate power through through activities like like sit-ins and tree sits. tree Most direct-action sits. Most direct-action protest protest is is nonviolent, nonviolent, despite despite mainstream mainstream

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URIS

IS

OOS

Figure 20. Spontaneous Pagan Pagan ritual led by Starhawk at political demonstration Figure 20. led by at political against G20 meeting meeting in Canada, 2001 (photo (photo by Davy) against in Ottawa, Canada, by Barbara Jane Jane Davy)

that highlights sensationalist violence. ItIt may may include civil news coverage that

disobedience, but but itit is not always always illegal. disobedience, is not illegal. Pagans and and environmentalists suggest that direct action has Some Pagans that direct has special of being out in in nature, away away from the shelter cial virtues. The The experience of being out from the of of home at at road-building protests, lends an awareness of of where water and food of human dependence on food comes from and and aa more immediate sense of the action, one isis also also forced to to confront one’s the natural world. In In direct action, one’s

fears of the state, state, of physical harm, harm, and and sometimes of of the of physical of heights heights (in (in tree sits) sits) of being being in in aa state of of anarchy. anarchy. In In addition, it or of it often works because it it is is evict protestors. This has been particularly successful expensive to to evict This tactic has in the the antiroad movement in Pagans participate. Howin in Britain, in in which Pagans ever, direct-action campaigns are generally generally reactive, they they focus focus on single single issues, and they can draw media attention away from ongoing long-term issues, and they long-term campaigning.*” campaigning.” Participation in in direct action may may be be less less visible in Pagan in contemporary Pagan discourse than than other sorts of environmentalist action because it tends to of it to be something one does rather than than writes about. In Pagan disdisbe In contrast toto Pagan activity. Starhawk continues to course, direct action isis highly highly visible as an activity. to in antiglobalization (or participate in (or global-justice) protests that that use the the of direct-action techniques that that she and others developed in same sorts of she and in Pagan groups and Starhawk antinuclear protests, as do do Canadian Pagan and others. Starhawk

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sends out regular regular updates her political her updates on her political activities via via e-mail and and her

website, www.starhawk.org. In Britain, also participates in In Britain, Dragon Dragon Environmental Group Group also in directwell as regular lobbying lobbying action campaigns, as well as other strategies, including including regular

to protect protect the the Earth and and eco-magic. Eco-magic isis designed designed to to use ritual to stop environmental destruction, and and itit involves contacting the spirstop the local local spirits of place. Dragon people how to to do do eco-magic, its of place. Dragon runs aa course instructing people organizes conservation work, work, and and conducts antiroad and and anti-GMO camorganizes paigns (against (against genetically genetically modified organisms). Dragon Dragon also biopaigns also offers a biomagic course that that involves the of coming to magic the study study of of woodland ecology, ecology, of coming to and of with them. Memknow trees, and of developing spiritual spiritual relationships with bership in in Dragon Dragon overlaps bership overlaps with with that that of of the the radical environmental group Earth First!, First!, which began began in in the the United States, Dragon camps offer States, and and Dragon offer Council of of All All Beings Beings workshops similar to those in Earth First! groups. to in Pagans use magic magic and to effect political political change primarily through through Pagans and ritual to change primarily changing individual consciousness, and, to a lesser extent, to act directly changing and, to lesser to directly on local local environments or the the Earth as aa whole. While “navel gazing” gazing” may may be aa stereotype of be apolitical mysticism, of apolitical some Pagans Pagans believe that private that private meditation isis directly directly beneficial to to the the Earth because everything isis conapply sympathetic magic nected. Others apply magic in in Earth-healing rituals. Some practitioners, for example, use homeopathic healing for example, healing for for watersheds by by blessing purified purified water and “inoculating” a body blessing In addition to body of to of water. In these these direct effects on the world, Pagans the natural world, magic, ritual, Pagans feel ritual, feel that that magic,

and and myth through changing human consciousness. Even a myth can work through statement can change change consciousness, Starhawk says: “If “If we call call the the world alive, we begin alive, bring her begin to back to to bring to life.”5* life.”58 Ritual can present a her back a richer alalternative pattern to to mainstream consciousness and and challenge challenge cultural patpatof domination. Starhawk argues that terns of that since the the basic cause of of environmental destruction is is our estrangement from the world, it the natural world, it can be be cured by by aa return to to a belief in immanence, which is in immanence, is essentially a change change in in consciousness.” A A political political ritual of raising the the dragon, of raising pubdragon, published by by Moonshine magazine, was effective in in consciousness raising raising for for the the antiroad movement in The dragon in Britain.*! The dragon subsequently became a symbol of of Pagan symbol Pagan environmentalism in in Britain. Symbols are an important means of of changing changing conscious ness and consciousness and maintaining alternativ taining alternativee worldview s. Carol Christ argues that worldviews. that we cannot just just

ie I: Council of of All All Beings Beings rituals, people take on the people take the roles roles of of various animals and and speak speak of of their their suffering. suffering. Some participants in rituin these rituals experience possession by als by endangered or persecuted animals who who call call on humans to to exercise greater iritervention against against exploitation.

Ethics and Politics Ethics and

179 179

reject symbols, such as that reject problematic symbols, that of of a radically transcendent masculine God. “Symbol “Symbol systems cannot simply be rejected,” rejected,” she she says. simply be says. “They “They must be be replaced. replaced. Where there isis not any replacement, the mind will any the will revert to at times of to familiar structures at of crisis, crisis, bafflement, or defeat.”® Padefeat.” In In Pa-

gan gan ecofeminist practice, the the Goddess and the symbol symbol of images of of the and images of Earth are used to motivate change. Worldviews can be changed through be changed change. to through art art and myth, particularly through motivates ritual, because through performance art myth, art as as ritual, because it it motivates can action. This This sort of of performance is is sometimes called “eco-drama.” It It can take the art form of take the form of performances such such as Rachel Rosenthal’s performance art appeals to to her and appeals she chastises and in which she heal the “Gaia,” in the to heal her audience to “Gaia,” Earth, during Earth,® as well as more carnivalesque activities and street theatre during for example, political demonstrations and and protests. protests. Anti-GMO activists, for political use aa giant giant “FrankenTony” costume to the Tony the Tiger Tiger characTony the parody the to parody that Kellogg’s uses to ter to market cereals containing genetically modified ter that used as part part of foods to of direct-action camto children. Eco-drama isis often used foods of celebration and paigns, but “info-tainment.” and “info-tainment.” to have elements of it tends to but it paigns, at the political at Patime. Pathe same time. and political fun, and be educational, entertaining, fun, ItIt can be gan eco-drama often efsinging, and and itit efand singing, dancing, drumming, and often includes dancing, gan from that of life protested. fectively models a way of that which isis protested. life different from of eco-drama is to prosimilarly designed to is somewhat similarly form of Rosenthal’s form through aesthetic performance. voke an ethical and political response through and political the most visible political perspecenvironmentalism are the and environmentalism Feminism and of Paganism, particularly through the overlap of Paganism with overlap of through the tives of ecofeminism. Feminist ethics are well well supported within Paganism, if if not currently often voiced. Magical Magical ethics are the developed highly developed the most highly ethics in through oral to and to teaching traditions, and oral teaching in Paganism, particularly through an extent in in PaPain written works. Environmental ethics are developing in ganism and issues in in cultural appropriation through current discourse, and ganism through be debated. Other contentious issues in Paganin contemporary Paganto be continue to ism are discussed in chapter 10. 10. in chapter ism

FURTHER READING Albanese, Catherine L. Religion and the to Metaphysics.” In L. “Nature Religion the Turn to In Reconsidering NaNature 2002. ture Religion. Religion. Harrisburg, Harrisburg, PA: PA: Trinity Trinity Press Press International, 2002.

Blain, Jenny. “Contested Meanings: Earth Religion and the Everyday.” The The Blain, Jenny. Religion Practitioners and the Everyday.” Pomegranate: A A New Journal of Neopagan Thought Thought 12 (2000): 15-25. Journal of 12 (2000):

NOTES 1. Jone Salomonsen, Salomonsen, Enchanted Enchanted Feminism: Feminism: The The Reclaiming Reclaiming Witches 1. Jone Witches of of San San Francisco Francisco (London: (London: Routledge, 2002), 2002), 81. 81.

180 180

Chapter 99 Chapter

Chapple, Jainism Jainism and and Ecology: Ecology: Nonviolence inin the Web of of Life Life (Cam(Cam2.2. Christopher Key Key Chapple, the Web bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 2002), xxxii. bridge, MA: University Press, 3. and Justice in Goddess Religion,” Religion,” in The Politics of Spiritual3. Starhawk, “Ethics and Justice in in The of Women’s Spirituality: Essays the Rise Rise of Spiritual:Power within within the ed. Charlene Spretnak ity: Essays on the of Spiritual.Power the Feminist Movement, ed. Spretnak (Garden City, 1982), 417. City, NY: NY: Anchor Press [Doubleday], 1982), Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture: Folklore and 4.4. Sabina Magliocco, and Neo-Paganism in in America (Philadelphia: University University of Press, 2004), 2004), 219. phia: of Pennsylvania Press, 219. M. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans Pagans and the Search for 5.5. Sarah M. Pike, Earthly Magical Selves: and the for Community (Berkeley, (Berkeley, CA: University of 2001), 137. Community CA: University of California California Press, Press, 2001), 137. 6. See Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, 139. 6. See Pike, Pike, Earthly Selves, 139. Guide for for the (St. Paul, Paul, MN: MN: Llewellyn Llewellyn 7.7. Scott Scott Cunningham, Wicca: AA Guide the Solitary Solitary Practitioner (St. 48. Publications, 1988), 1988), 48.

in Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 8.8. Quoted in Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 140. 140. Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 9.9. Pike, Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 137. 137. 10. Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 10. Pike, Bodies, Magical Selves, 144. 144. 11. Witching Culture, 216. 11. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 216.

12. Kathryn and the 12. Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in in New Zealand (London: Routledge, 2004), 2004), 165-66. Zealand (London: Routledge, 165-66. 13. Andy Smith, “For All in Ecofeminism and 13. Andy Smith, All Those Who Were Indian in in aa Former Life,” Life,” in Ecofeminism and the Sacred, Sacred, ed. ed. Carol J.J. Adams (New (New York: York: Continuum, 1993), 1993), 168. the 168. 14. Pike, Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 153. 14. Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 153. 15. Smith, “For All Those Who 15. Smith, “For All Who Were Were Indian,” 168. 168. 16. See Rountree, Rountree, Embracing the Witch Witch and and the 166. 16. See Embracing the the Goddess, 166. 17. Smith, “For All Those Who Who Were Indian,” Indian,” 169. 17. Smith, “For All 169.

18. Witching Culture, 209. 209. 18. Magliocco, Witching 19. Culture, 212. 212. 19. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture,

20. Magliocco, Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, Culture, 228. 20. 228. 21. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical 139. 21. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, Selves, 139. 22. Magliocco, Witching Witching Culture, Culture, 220-21. 22. 23. Smith, Smith, “For Who Were Indian,” Indian,” 171. 23. “For All All Those Who 171.

24, 24. Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of The Spiral of the the Ancient Religion of the the Great Religion of Great Goddess, 10th ed. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, anniversary ed. HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 214. 1989), 214.

25. 25. Starhawk, Spiral Spiral Dance, Dance, 214. 214. Starhawk echoes Andy Andy Smith’s comments on this this issue. See Smith, Smith, “For See 169. Indian,” 169. “For All All Those Who Who Were Were Indian,” 26. 26. Rountree, Embracing the the Witch Witch and and the the Goddess, 167. 167. 27. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 145. 27. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 145.

28. Rountree, 28. Rountree, Embracing the Witch Embracing the Witch and and the the Goddess, Goddess, 167-68. 167-68. 29. Helen Berger, Berger, Evan A. 29. Leach, and A. Leach, and Leigh Leigh S. from the S. Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices Pagan Census: A Voices from the Pagan NaA Na-

tional Survey and Neo-Pagans in Survey of of Witches and in the the United States (Columbia: University of of South

2003), 73-74. Carolina Press, Press, 2003), 73-74.

30. 30. Zsuzsanna E. The Holy E. Budapest, The Holy Book Book of of Women’s Mysteries, Part Part 11 (Oakland, CA: CA: SuSusan B. B. Anthony Anthony Coven No. No. 1, 9, 10. 1, 1979), 1979), 9, 10.

31. 31. Press, Press, 32. 32.

Zsuzsanna Budapest, The The Holy Holy Book of of Women’s Mysteries (Oakland, CA: Wingbow Wingbow 1989), 3.3. 1989), Doreen Valiente, The The Rebirth of of Witchcraft (Custer, WA: Phoenix Publishing, (Custer, WA: Publishing, 1989), 1989), 191. 191.

33. 33. Berger, Berger, Leach, and Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices from from the the Pagan Pagan Census, Census, 67. 67.

34. 34. Adrian Ivakhiv, “Whose Nature? The Transcend ental Signified of Transcendental of an Emerging Field,” Field,” The Pomegranate: AA New Journal The Pomegranate: Journal of of Neopagan Thought Thought 88 (1999): (1999): 16. 16. 35. 35. Adrian Harris, Harris, “Sacred Ecology,” Paganism Today, Today, ed. ed. Charlotte Hardman and Graham Harvey Harvey (London: (London: Thorsons Thorsons [HarperCo llins], 1996), [HarperCollins], 1996), 152. 152. 36. 36. Harris, Harris, “Sacred “Sacred Ecology,” Ecology,” 153. 153.

Ethics and Ethics and Politics 37. 37. Starhawk, Starhawk, Truth Dare: Encounters Truth or or Dare: 1987), 23. HarperSanFranciisco, 23. sco, 1987), HarperSanFranc

181 181

with Power, Authority, and Mystery with Mystery (New (New York: Authority, and York:

38. Starhawk, Dreaming the 38. the Dark: Magic, Magic, Sex ed. (London: Mandala [UnSex and and Politics, new ed. [Un-

1990), xvi. xvi. win win Paperbacks], 1990),

39. 39. Starhawk, “Ethics and in Goddess Religion,” in and Justice in in The The Politics of of Women’s SpirituSpirituality: the Rise ality: Essays of Spiritual Essays on the Spiritual Power within the Rise of the Feminist Movement, ed. ed. Charlene Spretnak City, NY: 1982), 422. (Garden City, 422. NY: Anchor Press [Doubleday], 1982),

40. See Carol Christ, Christ, Rebirth of 40. See Finding Meaning of the the Goddess: Finding Meaning inin Feminist Spirituality (Read(Reading, ing, MA: Addison-Wesley Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1997), 1997), 176. 176. 41. Christ, Christ, Rebirth of of the the Goddess, Goddess, 156. 156. 41. 42. Christ, Christ, Rebirth of of the the Goddess, 167. 167. 42.

43. Margot Adler, Drawing 43. Margot Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers Druids, Goddess-Worship pers,, and and Other Pagans Pagans inin America Today, and expanded ed. Today, revised and Press, 1986), ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 372. 1986), 372. 44. Chas Clifton has has discussed the 44. of pacifism and and Pagans the issue of military. Chas S.S. Pagans in in the the military. Clifton, Clifton, “Fort Hood’s Wiccans and the Problem of of Pacifism” (paper and the (paper presented at at the the annual meeting of of the the American Academy meeting Religion, Nashville, Tennessee, November 20, Academy of of Religion, 20, 2000). 2000).

45. Graham Harvey, 45. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, People, Speaking Speaking Earth (New York:

New New 46. 46. 47. 47. 48. 48.

York University Press, 1997), University Press, York 1997), 140. 140. Berger, Leach, Leach, and and Shaffer, from the the Pagan Pagan Census, 2003, 2003, 88. 88. Berger, Shaffer, Voices Voices from Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon, Moon, 412, 409. Adler, Drawing Down 412, 409. Berger, Leach, Leach, and and Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices Voices from Pagan Census, 55-57. Berger, from the the Pagan

49. Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the the Moon, 407; Marion Bowman, “Nature, “Nature, the 49. Adler, Moon, 405, 405, 407; the Natural, and and

Pagan Identity,” Identity,” Diskus 66 (2000), Web Pagan http://web.uni-marb Web edition, http://web.uni urg.de/religionswis -marburg.de/re ligionswis 2001). 16, 2001). (accessed May senschaft/journal/di May 16, skus (accessed senschaft/journal/diskus 50. Jenny Meanings: Earth Religion Religion Practitioners and and the the Everyday,” 50. Jenny Blain, Blain, “Contested Meanings: The New Journal Journal of of Neopagan Neopagan Thought 25. The Pomegranate: AA New Thought 12 12 (2000): 25. 51. 51. 52. 52. 53. 53.

Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the 400. Adler, the Moon, Moon, 400. Berger, Leach, Leach, and Voices from from the the Pagan Pagan Census, 59. 59. Berger, and Shaffer, Shaffer, Voices Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon, 414. Adler, Drawing Moon, 403, 403, 414.

54. the Moon, 54, Adler, Adler, Drawing Drawing Down the Moon, 415. 415.

55. the Moon: AA History History of of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford: 55. Ronald Hutton, The The Triumph Triumph of of the Pagan Witchcraft Oxford University University Press, Press, 1999), 1999), 208. 208.

56. Webs ofof Power: Notes Notes from from the the Global Global Uprising Uprising (Gabriola Island, British Co56. Starhawk, Webs lumbia: New New Society Society Publishers, 2002), 2002), 228. 228.

57. Andy Andy Letcher, “’Virtual “Virtual Paganism’ or Direct Action? The The Implications of 57. of Road Protesting (2000), Web Web edition, http:/ http:/ /web.uni-marb /web.uni-marburg Protesting for for Modern Paganism,” Diskus 66 (2000), urg .de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus May 16, 16, 2001). 2001). .de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed May 58. 58. 59. 59. 60. 60. 61. 61.

Truth or or Dare, Starhawk, Truth Dare, 8.8. Truth or or Dare, Dare, 98. 98. Starhawk, Truth Starhawk, Dreaming the Dark, Dark, 5,5, 9.9. Dreaming the Letcher, Paganism’ or Direct Action?” 4-5. 4-5. Letcher, “Virtual Paganism’ 62. Quoted Quoted in in Starhawk, Webs Webs of of Power, Power, 263. 263. 62. 63. Elinor Gadon, Gadon, “Gaia Consciousness: Ecological Ecological Wisdom 63. Elinor

for the the Renewal of of Life Life on for

Our Planet,” in in The The Once and and Future Goddess: AA Symbol for Our Time (San (San Francisco: Harper Harper && Symbol for Our Time Row, Row, 1989), 1989), 363. 363.

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10 10 ook oot Current Issues Issues

Gre in Paganism the public public image image of reli1h ae issues in Paganism center around the of the the religion and practitioners’ feelings feelings about how how Paganism should develop. gion Paganism to to grow into an inSome practitioners and and denominations want Paganism inreligion, while others would prefer that itit stay stay aa private stitutionalized religion, prefer that private and and decentralized practice practice conducted in in small groups. Some are conthe religion religion dulls dulls its its cerned that that developing institutionalized forms of of the countercultural tendencies, but to present Paganism as mainbut others want to stream to to gain gain the legal rights rights and and protections afforded other religions. the legal religions. The basic divide isis between those who want Paganism to to be The be an organized organized religion, and those who either because they they want it to be be counterreligion, and those who do do not, not, either it to

and do do not see how how this this feature can persist persist in in aa bureaucracy, or cultural and because they they want to to preserve itit as aa private private mystery religion. religion. Many Many PaPagans, particularly those who the religion religion for long gans, who have been involved in in the for aa long time, fear that the the contemporary mainstreaming and time, fear that and commercialization of it. Such practitioners are concerned that of Paganism Paganism somehow diminish it. that the of Witchcraft in and the recent popularity of in television programs, movies, and books encourages consumerism and and trivializes their religion. their religion. The most contentious issues arise from the the desires of The of some practitioners to religion as counterto flaunt their alternative behavior and and exhibit their religion hand, and and those cultural on the the one hand, those who are more concerned with foster-

ing mainstream acceptance and legal rights ing and pursuing legal rights and and protections on the other. other. This divide becomes particularly obvious at at festivals, festivals, where PaPathe

gans come into their identity identity as Pagan struggle to gans into conflict over their Pagan and and struggle to control how perceive their religion. However, it also evident in how others others perceive their religion. it isis also in relations

Pagans and other religions. Pagans are confrontational between Pagans and other religions. Some Pagans 183 183

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Chapter 10 10 Chapter

with members of of other religions, religions, while others pursue interfaith dialogue dialogue and cooperation with Christians and others on common issues such as and with the environment, and peace, the and social social justice. justice. The Pagan umbrella organizations began began as antidefamation groups, The first first Pagan to try try to to educate the the public public and to prevent reto and the the media about Paganism Paganism to ligious persecution. Such Such organizations have present Paganism ligious have tended to to present possible, to to make it that Paas being being as mainstream as possible, it appear harmless so that Pagans will gans will be be allowed the the same rights rights and and protections as members of of other religious groups. Some practitioners prefer prefer to avoid perreligious to remain hidden to to avoid peror as members of of groups that that are totally secution, either as solitaries or totally pripriand closed, closed, but but some practitioners participate in vate and in Pagan Pagan pride pride events, publicizing their their religious religious orientation and forcing it into the the mainstream. and forcing it into Paganism, ifif not not Interfaith work encourages mainstream acceptance of of Paganism, the mainstreaming of the Pagan practice. practice. Local interfaith councils are often of Pagan engaged in community relations, as well engaged in well as antiracism activities. Some PaPagan groups have obtained representation in gan in the the Parliament of of World Religions, gions, an international interfaith group of of scholars and the and practitioners of of the world’s religions. religions. The The Parliament has has met periodically since 1893 and has and has a mission to to foster harmony between religions and to religions and to work for for peace, jusjustice, and sustainability.| sustainability.! Pagan tice, Pagan groups that that send delegates include Circle Sanctuary, Sanctuary, Gaia’s Womb, EarthSpirit EarthSpirit Community, Covenant of of the the GodGoddess, Pagan Federation International, and dess, Pagan and Reclaiming. The first The first Pagan Pagan elected to to the the board of the Parliament was Angie of trustees of of the Angie Buchanan in in 2003, representing Circle Sanctuary. Sanctuary.” 2003,

Figure 21. Figure 21. Selena Fox with with other members of of the the Parliament of of the Religions the World’s Religion s Assembly of of Religious Assembly Religious and Spiritual Spiritual Leaders (photo (photo from Circle Magazine Magazine 91) 91) (Photo courtesy of of Circle Sanctuary, www.circlesanctuary.org, PO PO Box 9, 9, Barneveld Barneveld,, WI WI 53507 USA; 2216.) USA; 608-924608-924-2216.)

Issues Current Issues

185 185

Interfaith work is is hindered by by the the hostile attitude of of some Pagans Pagans toward Christianity. Some practitioners are angry and bitter about their their experiences with being being raised in in Christian families or communities. In In some cases, these practitioners identify identify with those killed in the “Burning in the Times,” conflating the the Inquisition, the burning of the burning and contemcontemof witches, witches, and porary fundamentalism, and they present this this image and they image as representative of of all Christianity.? Other practitioners label this all this as “Christian bashing,” bashing,” feeling that that acceptance of feeling Christianity as aa legitimate faith of Christianity faith perspective is is maturity. This aa sign sign of This is of maturity. point of is a point of conflict on Pagan and newsPagan listservs and in magazine letters forums.* groups, and and in forums. Some Pagans Pagans take take offence at at bebeing wished aa “merry ing “merry Christmas” and and decline to to attend office Christmas parties, while others delight parties, delight in in explaining the the pagan origins origins of of Christian festivals and and traditions such as Valentine’s Day the Roman festival of Day in in the of Lupercalia, or Christmas trees and and Easter eggs. Pagans Pagans who who are hostile to Christianity stress the to the continued animosity of people like like Pentecostal of people televangelistt Pat Pat Robertson and who blame feminists, “paand his his followers, who “pa-

gans,” for the the ills ills of gans,” and of American culture. Robertson isis the and gays for the founder of of the the Christian Coalition and and hosts the show The The 700 the television show 700 Club. The Washington Post has has cited cited him The him as saying, saying, “The “The feminist agenda not agenda isis not about equal anti-family political rights for for women. ItIt isis about aa socialist, anti-family equal rights political movement that to leave that encourages women to their husbands, kill leave their kill their their children, practice practice witchcraft, destroy destroy capitalism and and become lesbians.”5 children, feminists, gays, Falwell, blamed “pagans,” Jerry Falwell, gays, “pagans,” feminists, with Jerry Robertson, along along with on 11, 2001, September 11, on September 2001, on States on United States the United on the attacks on the attacks for the others for and others and

aired only only aa few days later. later. These of mainThese are not the the views of aa show aired few days stream Christians. Pagans embrace victim status because itit allows them them to to claim the the Some Pagans high ground ground in in relating relating to to Christians. In In addition, “Persecutio “Persecutionn stomoral high ries have more entertainme entertainment than accounts of of neighbors neighbors cooperatries nt value than

ing, and and they they sharpen sharpen the the boundaries of of one’s one’s own identity identity in in contrast to to ing, the ‘other.’””6 ‘other.’”° However, stories of of persecution are not the Although Pagans do have a number of legal legal rights rights Although Pagans do have a of gion without gion

harassment,

discrimination, discriminat ion,

without basis basis in in to practice their to practice their

fact. fact. relireli-

or persecution persecution, they do do not not , they

have the the same rights rights as practitioner practitionerss of of mainstream religions religions to to perform perform have marriages in all countries, or the same access to tax-exempt status. Edumarriages in all countries, or the same access to tax-exempt status. Educating employers and and actively actively pursuing pursuing rights rights to to take take religious religious holidays holidays cating and practitioner practitionerss are currently currently struggling to to exercise their their isis necessary, and rights in in the the military military and and in in correctional institutions. Pagans Pagans also also experiexperirights problems in in custody custody cases, and and more serious harassment ence occasional problems and persecution do do occur. and Some serious maltreatme maltreatment of Pagans Pagans involves accusations of of involveSome nt of with Satanism, as remnants of of misinforma misinformation and fear fear mongering ment with tion and of the the Satanic panic panic of of the the 1980s. 1980s. Occasional books, books, such such as William William of

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Lie, continue to Schnoebelen’s Wicca: Satan's Satan’s Little White Lie, to propagate the the myth that that Wiccans or Pagans generally practice practice Satanism. Schnoemyth Pagans more generally have practiced believing Wicca to be a belen purports to to have practiced as a Wiccan, believing to be

harmless nature religion religion when he he started, but coming to to believe itit was Sabut coming Sahe advanced through degrees. This sort of of propaganda isis proprotanist as he through the the degrees. duced by like Chick Publications and and isis not not taken by evangelical publishers like seriously by by scholars of religion. Pagan Pagan practitioners are quick quick to to point of religion. point out that that Satan isis aa character of of Christian tradition rather than than aa Pagan Pagan god. god. An extreme case of of persecution occurred in in the the hate hate crime committed An against aa Pagan of Austin Peay State University, Tennessee. Two Two against Pagan student of Peay State men allegedly allegedly ran down Brandon Morrison, aa Druid, Druid, with pickup truck, withaa pickup truck, him for for almost an hour, hour, cutting cutting him him from neck neck to to bound him, him, and and beat beat him

hip. His His assailants quoted quoted the saying, “Thou shalt hip. the Bible to to him, him, saying, shalt not suffer aa witch to to live,” live,” and indicated that they would stop only he repented and that they stop only ifif he repented and accepted God. They left him with a broken rib, tied and accepted They left a rib, tied to to aa tree. Police are currently currently investigating this this crime.” Less intense, although still Less still troublesome, problems with fesproblems associated with fes-

tivals are more common. The The owner of Pagan festival site site in in New York of aa Pagan called Brushwood found aa letter in his local paper warning people in his local warning people against against the the presence of of the the festival. The the letter The author of letter recounted his of the his supposed former involvement with with Satanism, drinking drinking blood, doing blood, and and doing drugs. He claimed to to have drugs. He have visited the and seen people the festival and people from his his former involvement with with Satanism, and and he he warned people against letting people against letting their get involved with Paganism, saying, their children get “They will will brain wash saying, “They them, into drug them, turn them them into drug addicts, addicts, show them all all the the immoral and and dede-

viant things you can dream of. things you Bet you you will of. . . . . Bet get in will not get during their their in during darkest rituals, but but your children might.” might.”® Circle Sanctuary, in in Wisconsin, to get get aa restraining order against Reverend Jeff sin, had to Jeff Fenholt, a fundamentalist who was harassing Pagans at harassing Pagans at their festival site of a site as part part of national campaign against Witchcraft.’ AA ritual site against Witchcraft.? site on private private property near Atlanta in in rural Georgia Georgia was systematically desecrated. First there

was minor vandalism and and the the theft of some ritual theft of ritual items, items, but but concerned

neighbors later dismantled the the site. site. Footage Footage of of this this was shown on local television after the the neighbors formed aa coalition and called a press conWitches.’””1019 “to stop ference “to the Witches.” stop the Festivals are usually usually held in rural areas, where neighbo in rural rs are less neighbors likely less likely to to be be friendly friendly or knowledgeable knowledgeable about Pagans Pagans and their actual religiou religiouss beliefs and and practices practices than their neighbo rs in neighbors in the the urban areas where most Pagans live. Pagans live. Some festivals respond toto infiltrat ion of infiltration of their festivals by by uneducate educatedd neighbors neighbors hoping hoping to to catch damning evidence on film film by by hiring hiring security forces and security and requirin requiringg festival particip ants to participants to wear plastic plastic tags, altags, although though particip ants are unhappy with this participants this solution. Secrecy Secrecy and and tightentightening ing of of security for for festivals can exacerba te site exacerbate site neighbor s’ fears, neighbors’ polarizing fears, polarizing

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Pagans and Pagans and Christians who each refuse to to see or accept accept that that the the average practices and beliefs of of each are more acceptable to to each other than are the the side." radicals on either side.” There seem to to be be more rumored fears fears about custody custody battles than than actual cases before the although Circle Magazine's the courts, although Magazine’s Lady Lady Liberty Liberty League League notes the the difficulties of of one couple couple in their grandchildren after in adopting adopting their the of the the death of the opponents of the parents, the their religious of which cited their afreligious af-

filiation.!? In aa recent divorce case in filiation.'? In in Indiana, Judge Judge Cale Cale J. J. Bradford ruled

that a child child should not be be exposed to to Pagan Pagan practices over the the objections of of the the parents, who are both both Wiccan.!3 Harassment and and occasional disdiscrimination seem more common, as in in the the eviction of of Terry Terry and and Amanda Riley, members of Riley, of the the Southern Delta Delta Church of of Wicca, Wicca, in in Jonesboro, Arkansas, in in 1993. Their landlord, accompanied by by two evangelical evangelical Church of of the the Nazarene ministers, told them that they needed to that they to vacate their occult bookstore for for the the protection of of children and and to the to preserve the identity of their town as Christian.'* identity Christian.'4 Wiccan priestess Cynthia Simpson of their won aa federal case in in Richmond, Virginia, on November November 13, 13, 2003. She She was

discriminated against against by by being being excluded from serving in prayer serving as clergy clergy in at the at the opening opening meetings of of the the Chesterfield County County Board because she she was not part part of of “the Judeo-Christian tradition,” thus thus violating violating the the American First Amendment separation of of church and and state.!5 For most Pagans, petty For Pagans, petty harassment is is the the most common problem. Loud pestering by bya a local preacher interrupted aa religious religious meeting meeting conducted at at aa local park by Lianna Costantino, high park by of the the Sylvian high priestess of Sylvian Hearth Pagan Temple Pagan Temple near Franklin, North Carolina, leading leading Costantino to to call call the to remove the the local sheriff to the protesters. The preacher denounced The same preacher her at at aa town meeting, accusing her her hosting aa left-wing left-wing website. After her of of hosting public-educatio against her to speak at her at speak against again tried to he again aa public-educ ationn campaign, when he Pagans to desist.16 city attorney asked him to meeting, the desist.'6 Pagans the mayor and city aa town meeting, also such as uninvited religious their workplaces, such litreligious litin their report harassment in also report erature in their their cubicles, broomsticks,, cubicles, jokes about broomsticks jokes at the water cooler about water cooler at the left in erature left sugproselytism.. New Witch contributor Michael Samhain sugand and aggressive proselytism practitionerss take gests that that practitioner for teaching teaching take proselytism as an opportunity for gests that practitioner recommends He recommend and dispelling stereotypes. He practitionerss not become and s that that they say that they have chosen and say but remain calm and aggressive or defensive but

also instructs that He also path after their path thought. He considerablee thought. after considerabl okay toto it isis okay that it their it, particularly ifif private and religion is say that to decline to to discuss it, and to is private their religion that their say Pagans use Hallowe’en as of listening.!7 the listening.!”? Some Pagans the person seems incapable of people routinely confor public an opportunity for public education, since media people duct of time of Pagans at with practicing Witches and at that that time and other Pagans duct interviews with in North America. Practitioner year in public-relations this as aa public-relat Practitionerss see this year ions opporstereotypingg of and to hags, and to separate tunity to to discuss the of witches as hags, the stereotypin tunity from Satanism in mind-set. public mind-set. the public in the themselves from

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An book, Pagans and the the Law, Law, by Dana D. D. Eilers, Eilers, provides provides aa An American American book, Pagans and by Dana practical guide guide for for bringing of religion bringing cases involving freedom of religion to to court, and what to to do do about libel.!8 In and indicates indicates what about harassment harassment and and libel.'® In Canada, Canada, Kerr Kerr Cuhulain’s Law Law Enforcement Guide to has long long provided provided aa resource to Wicca has for police.!? For part, Pagans Pagans do do have for practitioners and and police.'? For the the most part, have freedom of right to of religion, religion, excepting the the right to perform perform marriages, which isis denied in in some areas, but but they to use the law to to enforce their their rights. rights. A A number they need to the law of groups supporting religious religious freedoms for Pagans are currently of for Pagans currently active. Lady Liberty Liberty League; League; the These include Circle Circle Magazine’s Lady the Association of of Magical and and Earth Religion; and, through OnMagical Religion; and, through providing information, the the Onfor Religious Tolerance and and the the Pagan Pagan Federation/ tario Organization for Fédération Paienne in in Canada. The The Pagan Pagan Unity Unity Campaign Campaign was created the aim of of “protecting and furthering Pagan Pagan rights,” to “raise with the and furthering rights,” and and to and encourage political political participation” in political awareness and in America.” They began began an “I“I am” campaign in in 2001, to They 2001, encouraging practitioners to send postcards postcards of their local and cities to to elected officials, with with “I send of their local towns and “I amaPagan__”

on the the back. back. Practitioners were instructed to fill in the to fill in the

to say say “I blank to Pagan mother,” or “I“I am aa Pagan Pagan professional,” or “I am aa Pagan whatever they felt was appropriate, and and to they felt to include the the Pagan Pagan Unity Unity sloslogan: “I “I am free. We We are united.” Through this this campaign, the the group ininto gain tended to gain political for Pagans political recognition for Pagans as aa voting bloc. Across voting bloc. North America, Pagan projects and Pagan Pride projects and events, modeled on gay pride, gay pride, have similar objectives of of raising raising public public awareness of of their existence. The United States military The United States been aware aware of military has Wicca, if has been not Paganism of Wicca, if not Paganism more generally, since the when access the 1970s, 1970s, to in the to chaplains in military the military began began to to be be an issue. Conservative lobby lobby groups and members of of Congress have protested Fort Open Circle, Fort Hood’s Open Circle, and and when George W. Bush George W. was running running for for office in in 1999, 1999, he he said, said, “I “I don’t think witchcraft is is aa relireli-

gion and gion the military and II wish the military would take look at take another look at this this and decide against it,” but against it,” military has but the the military has consistently supported the the chaplains’ dedecision to to allow the the Wiccan group, defending defending the the American First First Amendment guarantee of of freedom of of religion.?! religion.”

Pagan Pagan and interdenominational chaplains who are knowledgeable and interdenominational knowledgeable about Paganism are becoming more common at at college college and university campuses, as well the military, well as in in the military, but ers in but practition in correction practitioners al insticorrectional tutions continue to have problems accessing religious to have religious services and and being being allowed to to practice their religion freely. their religion Practitioners report that freely. Practitioners that their their rights rights to to freedom of of assembly assembly and to possess religious items have been and to been denied. An inmate in in Texas reports that the chaplain chaplain at that the his institutio at his institutionn refuses to to let fuses his Pagan Pagan group meet and refuses to let his pass for to issue a pass for him to him to wear a pentagra pentagramm medallion medallion,, which he he regards regards as an emblem of of religious identifica tion.” Circle Magazine' identification.” Magazine'ss Lady Lady Liberty Liberty League League reports that volthat a volunteer clergy clergy person, Sarah Rydell, Rydell, in in the the Colorado Departme nt of Department of Corrections, has been discrimin has been ated against in discriminated being denied the in being the right to serve right to serve

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as a volunteer. AA policy of the the department disallows staff policy of staff members from also serving serving as volunteer clergy, also clergy, and and Rydell Rydell was ostensibly rejected rejected bebe-

cause she she isis also also aa staff staff member. However, Protestant volunteers who are

also staff members have been allowed toto continue. The also staff The department has has initiated an official investigatio investigationn into into this this matter. Similarly, the Lady Libthe Lady erty erty League League reports that that aa Protestant chaplain chaplain at at Lee Lee County County Correctional Institution in in Tennessee is is attempting to to disband aa Pagan Pagan group by by targeting geting religious religious volunteer Laurel Owen, slandering her her to to the the FBI, FBI, saying saying that she she was present during during a a beating in order to beating in to have her her barred from from participationn for participatio safety. The for her her own safety. The League League concludes that that “every “every case lof [of religious discrimination] that that Pagans have won in has been in California has followed by by an immediate transfer of of the the participants,” effectively disdisgroups. Within American state prisons, banding the the groups.”* Pagans are effecprisons, Pagans tively tively being being denied the right to the right to assemble to in religious to participate in religious services, ices, and there are also a number of also a of pending pending cases regarding rights to regarding rights to possess religious religious materials, such such as books and and pentacles. However, it it apappears as though the federal system may though the may be be more amenable to Pagans, and to Pagans, in the 2005, in the spring spring of of 2005, in in the the Ohio case of of Cutter v.v. Wilkinson, the the Supreme Supreme Court ruled in in favor of of allowing prisoners access to to alt.religion, an unmoderated public public electronic discussion list list with content on alternative reincluding Paganism.”4 ligious ligious views, including The The desire of for legal of practitioners practitioners for legal protections from harassment, perpersecution, and discrimination, and the discrimination, and to practice their the right right to freely, their religion religion freely, inevitably leads to to increasing levels of inevitably of organization. organization. When Pagans ask for for Pagans ask the same rights rights and the and protections as members/adher ents of of mainstream remembers/adherents ligions, government, police, and ligions, and military government, police, military officials inevitably ask, ask, “Who are your leaders?” and credentials?”” The and “What are their their credentials? of practiThe desire of practitioners for the clergy persons who are for clergy of chaplains, and for the services of tioners for legally allowed to the desire well as the perform marriages and funerals, as well to perform legally marriages and for bureaucratizaorganizations, for Pagan Pagan organizatio for tax-exempt status for ns, drives the the bureaucrati zathe religion. tion of of the religion. tion MM Me:

churches, synagogues, and and mosques are run as charitable

organizations in the United States, States, so they do not have pay in the they do have to to pay and can issue tax receipts for donations. Some Pagan Pagan organitaxes and receipts for organithe United States beginzations have have obtained tax-exempt status inin the beginning in the early early 1970s, 1970s, but but practitioners complain that the ning in the complain that the rules rules governing tax-exempt status are designed designed on the basis of of the the basis the organof Christian churches, and and that that maintaining charitable status ization of encourages the of Pagan the mainstreaming of Pagan traditions on aa Christian model. Of Of particular for some groups isis the of particular concern for the requirement of aa membership list. list.

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AA clergy clergy class isis evolving evolving in in Paganism, corresponding to to aa developing

laity “pastoral” services offered in in other relirelilaity that that increasingly wants the the “pastoral” gions. However, some Pagans Pagans resist the of the the religion in gions. the mainstreaming of religion in forms that of Christianity, “pastoral” that mimic the the institutional structures of counseling being being aa particular sore point. who object the counseling point. (Practitioners who object to to the use of of this this term say that Pagans are not a flock of sheep to be shepherded, say that Pagans a of sheep to be as the the term in pastoral counseling metaphorically suggests.) in Christian pastoral suggests.) As As

children are increasingly raised in in Pagan Pagan households, some practitioners in initiatory how this this isis changing their in initiatory traditions are concerned about how their tratraditions when the the religion is something one is born into rather than path religion is is into than a path one chooses as an adult. Some practitioners are happy happy to to become clergy clergy serving serving aa community of of laypeople. It be that that some like It may be having the the power and status that like having that comes with with being being a member of but some people of the the clergy, clergy, but people are just just natural organizers and would like ral like to to make a a living living doing doing what they enjoy and they enjoy and do well. Such practitioners have an interest in do well. in the the development of of institutional structures within Paganism for for clergy clergy training training and and the the collection of of money. In In some denominations of of Paganism, payment for for ritual services is is prohibited. Gardner’s Craft Laws, Laws, for for example, example, prohibit prohibit payment for for “the art,” magical work, art,” or magical but allow payment for work, but in benefor other services in fit of the fit of the Craft. Gardner felt felt that that payment for for “the “the art” would tempt tempt people to ple to use itit for for “evil purposes.”25 Given the of maintainin the cost of maintainingg the bureaucratic structures necessary for the bureaucratic for larger organizations, in larger organizations, in terms of time and money, some practitione of time rs practitioners question the the value of of such developme nts. As developments. As discussed in in chapter chapter 2,2, some actively oppose the actively the formation of institutional structures within Paganism. of institutional Paganism. Maintaining an organizati Maintaining on often requires that organization that a lot lot of of energy be be devoted simply to keeping the simply to the institution in in place. Committees form to place. Committees to handle fund-raisin g, someone fund-raising, someone has has to minutes, and to keep keep minutes, and someone someone has make has to to make that all the that sure all the other things things necessary to to maintain a public public corporatio corporationn and/or charitable status are looked after. Even renting renting aa space for for aa ritual event or public public festival requires some organizati on. organization. Some practiti oners fear practitioners fear that the the mystery or “juice” “juice” of religious expeof religious rience is lost is being being lost as Pagani sm is Paganism zed and is routini routinized and become becomess an organiz ed organized religion religion.. One One Wiccan elder commen ts, “As comments, its number “As its numberss have have grown, II fear it fear also become, on average, it has has also average, more superfic ial. I I wonder somesuperficial. times where the the Craft is headed.””6 For is headed.”6 For some, the the mystery of of the the tradition isis threate ned by threatened by exposin exposingg private private beliefs about history history and and origins origins to to public, public, and and academic, academic, scrutiny scrutiny.. Others are more concern ed that concerned that PaPaganism ganism will become filled with dead institut ions as the institutions the focus is is shifted from seeking seeking religiou religiouss experie nce to experience to maintai ning institut maintaining ions. This leads institutions. Chas Clifton to to argue that that “our model should be be the the tent rather than the the cathedra l. Cathedr cathedral. als are always Cathedrals always needing new roofs and plumbi ng replumbing re-

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pairs. pairs. Tents are packed up and moved to packed up to where they they are needed next.”27

He asks He asks whether the religion is the religion is about maintaining institutional structures or about celebration, meditation, spell spell casting, casting, and and spiritual spiritual development. If going to If it it isis going to happen happen in in community, it it will will probably have to to be about all all of of these things. be things. Not Not all Pagans see themselves as part all Pagans part of of aa religion. Like mystery religion. Like most religions, Paganism has has aspects of of both celcelebration and initiation, allowing for family allowing room for family participatio participationn and and community personal development. well as personal munity work as well For For some practitioners, practitioners, Paganism will will always always be mystery, the be about the the the mystery, juice of juice of alternative behavior, and and countercultu counterculturral al politics. politics. Some will will want their religion to be private private rather than aa publicly their religion to be religion, while publicly practiced practiced religion, others enjoy enjoy how how their religious religious practices challenge the the mainstream through the the concepts concepts of of female deity, through deity, ritual nudity, nudity, ritual sex, entheogen drugs, or anarchist politics. use, recreationai recreational drugs, politics. Such Such practitioners want social change change more than cial to challenge than social acceptance, to challenge the the mainstream rather it. Others want for rather than for their than join their religion join it. religion to be publicly publicly recognized to be as legitimate, and and for for being being Pagan Pagan to to be being Baptist. Baptist. be as unremarkable unremarkable as being Such basic differences of regarding Pagan of opinion opinion regarding identity often become Pagan identity apparent atat public public festivals. Festival participants have high high expectations about finding finding an ideal ideal sense of festivals—that of community at the commuat festivals—th commuat the nity self-definition of self-definiti will be nity will that the the festival will be unified and and that be aa time will be time of on Pawhile Paparticular because, because, while arise atat festivals inin particular and expression. Conflicts arise and ganism isis quite quite diverse, diverse, festivals symbolize community.” the entire symbolize the entire community.”8 ganism Most conflicts atat festivals are about about representati representation and identity, identity, or or how how Most on and Pagans understand themselves and and present present themselves to to each each other other and and Pagans to the public.” public.” The The organizers of of festivals often present present the the festivals in in to the as mainstream as as possible possible to to ease relations with the the surrounding terms as by presenting themselves as normal and and friendly. friendly. However, community by to be be able able to to express themselves at at festivals in in some participants want to ways that that are not not possible possible in in other other contexts, for for example, example, through through cosways and behavior. Some Some want festivals to to be be aa countercultu countercultural Pagan tumes and ral Pagan party zone.*° Some participants like like to to show all all their their tattoos and and smoke party marijuana freely freely atat festivals, but but others others are offended by by such such behavior.3! behavior.?! marijuana Struggles over meaning arise in ritual spaces at festivals, particularly in Struggles meaning arise in ritual at festivals, particularly in the main ritual area, which is shared by the greatest number of people. the main ritual area, which is shared by the of people. Practitioners come into into disagreemen disagreement of space, and and keepkeept over proper uses of ing it sacred. Festival participants exhibit diverse attitudes about how to ing it sacred. about how to do this and what constitutes keeping it sacred. Complaints about how do this and what keeping it how toto

keep aa fire fire pit pit sacred sacred center around drinking drinking alcohol (and (and leaving leaving beer beer keep cans) and and smoking smoking (and (and leaving leaving butts).** butts). Some Some participants participants complain complain cans) about loud loud drumming drumming that that goes goes on on all all night, night, but but others, others, such such as chaos chaos maabout

gician Maddog, Maddog, assert that that loud loud drumming drumming isis how how they they contact the the didigician _ vine.* vine.*? Festival organizers organizers have have additional concerns about about drumming drumming

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sites or in in when itit disturbs nonparticipants of of the the festival atat neighboring sites surrounding areas. These These sorts sorts of conflicts are are aired aired in in newsletters, such such as as surrounding of conflicts Manners column column in in the Elven Chronicle, Chronicle, which an opinion opinion aa Ms. Ms. Manners the Elven which offers offers an fire pit pit at The author writes against against about disputes disputes concerning the the fire at ELFfest. The (etc.); cooking hot dogs “loud, show-off blasts on congas; drying drying wet sox (etc.); cooking hot dogs over the Friday) . . .. overt sexual grabbing; grabbing; drinking the ritual fire fire (unless it it isis Friday) of how late itit isis and and isn’t isn’t it great to to be be part part of shift songs; exaltations of how late it great of third third shift li.e., up late]; getting falling down drunk; suggesting women have li.e., up late]; getting falling drunk; have no right to drum and should let the MEN do it; and lover’s quarrels.” right to and let the do it; and quarrels.”*4 Festival rules generally generally prohibit prohibit the of illegal illegal drugs, drugs, but such polithe use of but such policies are typically typically not enforced, and there is no consensus within the there is the festival illegal drug The use of of illegal drugs at val communities about illegal drug use. The illegal drugs at festivals is not widespread and is no more serious than what is typical at rock conis and is is typical at rock certs.° Pagans often often have an attitude of certs.*° Pagans of openness toward hallucinogens, sometimes called entheogens (meaning (meaning substances used used to to make contact with with divinity), some of illegal, but but some Pagans of which are illegal, Pagans are against against all all nontherapeutic drug drug use. Workshops on entheogens are offered at at some festivals, but but some practitioners complain that sort of thing can enthat this this sort of thing courage the the wrong impression about Paganism. A to Green Green Egg Egg comA letter to ments on an episode child of episode where a a child visiting non-Pagan friend found aa of aa visiting copy of of the the magazine with an article on drug drug use in in a a religious religious context and and said, said, “Hey, “Hey, man, these Pagans Pagans are sex fiends and addicts!’ and drug drug addicts!” Paganism is generally aa sex-positive religion, is generally religion, and and the the festival atmosphere in particular phere is in is permissive, but but some practitioners feel feel that that festivals should be be aa “safe “safe space.”*” any other segment of space.”°” As As in in any the population, sexof the ual ual predation can occur in in Paganism, and Pagans Pagans have expressed concerns over teachers and elders in in the the Pagan Pagan community who imply imply or require sexual access as part quire part of of initiation or mentoring relationships. relationships. However, most concerns about sex are related to to harassment at at festivals, festivals,

perhaps because some participants experience them as “temporary auperhaps tonomous zones” and expect aa carnivalesque atmosphere.*8 Festival organizers have created guidelines for dealing with with sexual harassment befor dealing because of occasional cause of incidents. For occasional incidents. For everyone everyone to to feel feel safe, safe, rules, their rules, and and their enforcement, are necessary, but but this this conflicts with with many participants’ ideals of of individualism and self-expression. and self-expression.29 Festival goers also Festivalgoers also come into conflict about how how much sexual activity activity it it ate to isis appropri appropriate to display display at at festivals. Nudity Nudity isis commonp lace at commonplace at festivals and unremark and able, but unremarkable, but some practitio ners exhibit BDSM behavior. Some practitioners Pagans object Pagans object to to seeing seeing these practices on display display at at festivals, particularly particularly when children are present, but but others contend that their sexuality is that their is part part of their spirituali of ty. Again, spirituality. Again, these activities generally generally do do not involve anyanything more extreme than is thing is apparent as rock concerts. 40 One Pagan concerts.49 Pagan group circulate circulatess a pamphle pamphlett for teenagers intereste for teenagers interestedd in in the the occult and concerned and concerned

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parents that that indicates roll roll in in an occult group age music.”*! AA recent age tivals, such such tivals,

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that that “a “a teenager seeking drugs and seeking sex, drugs and and rock and is more likely to is find hugs, hugs, home cooking likely to find cooking and new trend is is the the development of of “family-positive” fesfes-

as Awakening

Isis, held between Isis,

Ottawa

and and

Montreal,

Canada, as an alternative to to other Pagan Pagan events, which is be is designed to to be inoffensive, safe safe for for children, and and interfaith friendly. friendly.

Identity Identity conflicts within Pagan Pagan communities also through peralso arise through personal and and local disagreement disagreementss that can escalate into Witch wars. The The disdistinguishing features of of Witch wars are that that the the conflict isis publicly aired in in the the community, and the the effects of of the the conflict are so pervasive that practipractitioners feel feel compelled to to choose sides or withdraw from the the community until the the conflict is is resolved. Witch wars are largely of “comlargely the the result of peting peting visions of in situations that are perceived to of Witchcraft, in to involve authority thority or legitimacy.”* legitimacy.”*? Structural, personal, and ideological differences can all in the the development of all be be factors in of Witch wars. The structural organization of ganization of Witchcraft, with individual practice, practice, covens, and and network-

ing organizations, ing organizations, leads to of what Witchcraft practice is. to different views of is. The to contact larger larger organizations The media tends to organizations and present their their views

as representative representative of of all all Witchcraft or Paganism, which can polarize polarize com-

munities.*? Witch wars are often the munities. the result of of an escalation of of aa personal conflict “triggered by by some perception that that an individual or group isis atattempting to to impose the Craft hegemonicall hegemonicallyy,” ,” of the impose their particular vision of claiming practitioners.““ all practitioners. for all speak for to speak claiming to Witch wars can develop interpersonall issues of of ego, deception, develop from interpersona and rivalry, right way the right disagreements about what isis the rivalry, as well as from disagreements and to do do Witchcraft. Witch wars usually to usually begin begin with local gossip gossip that that bebethe label “Bitchcraft” or “Bicca.” Such conto the leading to comes venomous, leading for power, money, or of individuals for the desires of by the be sustained by flicts can be sex.® requirements of requirements in Witch wars often level accusations of sex.*° Participants in for sex for training, or the to of members to the obeisance of for training, for initiation, money for for one another, or rumors are spread spread that the disagreein the that other individuals in require these. ment require

be described as aa Witch war might be that might disagreement that long-running disagreement AA long-running Frost's of Gavin and Yvonne Frost’s exists between supporters and detractors of tradition of The Frosts gave a workshop on “Heretical Witchof Witchcraft. The

craft” at they they claimed that they in which they the 2004 Starwood Festival, in at the “were put of that Llewellyn, aa publisher of the community; that by the put on trial” by popular books, refused to of them; and that and that to allow any mention of Pagan books, popular Pagan they did exencyclopedias on Witchcraft. Llewellyn did they were excluded from encyclopedias clude them in the past for being too “controversial,” but current encyclo“controversial,” but in the past for being pedias The initial conflict was of Wicca. The and their Church of pedias mention them and over their seeming monotheism (expressed as belief in God) and their atin God) titudes toward sex. Particularly contentious were their recommendations recommendations

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the use of of aa “Baton de de Commandment” for for sexually regarding the sexually initiating initiating girls into into Witchcraft at at the the age age of and other practices practices related to to girls of fourteen, and the “virgin” removing the “virgin” status of of children as early early as possible, possible, through through circirhymen. These recommendations initially cumcision or breaking breaking thé thé hymen. initially apappeared Frost’s 1972 book The The Witch’s Bible, in in the sensapeared in in the the Frost’s 1972 book Witch's Bible, the midst of of sensationalist news coverage of also found the the of Satanic abuse. Some Pagans Pagans also Frosts’ advertisements in in tabloids for for the of Witchcraft” the “Magic “Magic Power of distasteful. As As aa result of of these these differences, in Pagans have have in some cases Pagans been denied access to to groups ifif they they were associated with the the Frosts. While many people people concur that that the the Frosts are “nice people” people” and and personable, and public able, their their attitudes toward sex and public relations continue to to occasion dissent.*¢ Reviews on Amazon.com indicate that that not all using dissent.4 all material on using dildos with young girls in the the new version of of the the girls has has been removed in Frosts’ book, Good Witch’s Bible. Bible. book, published as Good Local disagreements are often often due to but some to personality conflicts, but splits are caused by splits by denominational or sectarian differences that that are the the result of of differing ideologies. The The original original conflict between Alex Sanders and and practitioners of of Gardnerian Wicca began began as aa personal personal conflict but but The Gardnerian priestess Patricia Crowther disliked generated a new sect. The Sanders and and refused to to initiate him,4” in turn denounced Gardnerhim,” and and he he in

ian ian Wicca as inauthentic and and created what came to be known as the to be the Alexandrian tradition. Later rivalries between Gardnerian and and eclectic traditions are more the of ideological differences. Traditional practhe result of practitioners emphasize learning learning mysticism and esoteric teaching teaching from received tradition, while eclectics focus on creativity and celebratory aspects of of the pects the religion. religion. Eclectic practitioners tend to to see more traditional practitioners as “hidebound, hierarchical, and slavishly adhering adhering to and slavishly to received ceived material, while traditionals material, while traditionals view eclectics as view eclectics as fundamentally missmissing the the point ing point of of the the entire practice, diluting diluting the the mystery tradition to the to the point of of unrecognizability with ‘surface’ rituals.”48 point Related ideologica ideologicall difference differencess that that can contribute to the developm to the ent development of Witch wars are attitudes toward hierarchy of hierarchy and initiation. Eclectic PaPaganism is is generally less al than traditiona less hierarchic hierarchical traditionall initiatory Wicca. Sometime Sometimess aa hidden hierarchy hierarchy exists in in eclectic groups, where some members defer to bers to one person, or a group of of people people forming forming an inner circle in in the the group, but but others express dislike of of covert leadership leadership.. This has has been aa problem problem in in the the Reclaimin Reclaimingg tradition, which is is intended to to run on consensus, with equal equal input input from all all members, but but some perceive it to be be conit to trolled by by the the reputation of of Starhawk. *? Such instances of Starhawk.? of covert leadership ship can be be as much the the result of of members deferring to to those in in aa perceived position of of authority authority as an attempt attempt to to wield power on the part the part of of those in the inner circle. Disagreem in the ents about hierarchy Disagreements hierarchy and and leadershi leadershipp intensified when money isis involved, as in can be be intensified in the the purchase of land for for of land

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holding festivals. This This was an issue for for the the EarthSpirit community, in part in part because of of past in the past conflicts in the purchase of for Circle Sanctuary.°? of land for Sanctuary.*° Belief Belief in in the the necessity, or not, not, of still an debated of initiation is is still

issue

among Pagans. Pagans. As in PanGaia’s “Toe-to-Toe” column, some As discussed in practitioners feel practitioners feel that that initiation creates hierarchy hierarchy and breeds elitism, elitism, while others argue that that hierarchy isis not necessarily elitist, elitist, saying that the saying that the degree degree system system in in initiatory traditions is is merit based. Some support selfinitiation, while others argue argue that that it it must be be conferred by by another. Some feel feel that that self-initiation involves direct contact with the the Goddess and does not require require the the sanctioning of of an organized group. Others would distinguish guish between self-initiation and and divinity-originated transformative experiences that periences qualify as proper initiations. Some detractors of that do do qualify of initiation point point to to the the dangers dangers of of power-hung power-hungrry y practitioners in in positions of of power over initiates, citing citing pressures to to have sex, give give money, and/or idolize the the high high priest/ess. However, defenders of of initiation into into lineages lineages liken coven relations to to family family relations, saying saying that they they are not authoritarian based, but but loving loving relations. Some initiates regard regard noninitiates as lazy or undiscipline lazy uncommitted to d, or as uncommitted to the the religion, religion, while others see initiation as too often providing providing nothing nothing but but empty empty titles, titles, allowing allowing initiates to to elevate themselves over others.°! Witch wars arising arising from ideological differences seem to to particularly disturb Pagans, for difPagans, because practitioners espouse an ideal of of tolerance for difference. Practitioners can come into conflict when confronted with the acthe acpractice in in the tual diversity of of practice the religion. religion. Although Although Pagans idealize diversity, norms develop and personalities come into sity, develop within groups, and into conflict when people local commuat local together, as at with different practices come together, people with and regional festivals.°* nity Pagans see the “petty bickering” the “petty festivals.°? Some Pagans nity events and of Witch wars as an obstacle to to mainstream acceptance. They They criticize of to nitpick practitioners’ for speak for to speak that claim to any statements that nitpick any practitioners’ tendency to this. the Pagan community as a whole, do this. to do try to to try that seem to whole, or statements that the Pagan One practitioner, for public we present ourselves as “In public for example, laments, “In

aa disorganized trading in trading interested in more interested cranks, more and cranks, backbiters and of backbiters bunch of disorganized bunch working for might wonder good.”°? Others might the common good.” for the in working insults than in who defines the in seekPagans are interested in all Pagans good, since not all the common good, ing ing mainstream acceptance. Another source of is and should become of dissent about what Paganism is arises from political views. According to is practitioners, Paganism is to some practitioners, a private matter and politics, but but for for some groups, with politics, do with to do nothing to has nothing and has such as those in the Reclaiming tradition, politics and spirituality are in the such closely be about personal spiritual religion should be say religion closely entwined. Some say

development, is inherent to to justice is others, social justice for others, but for development, but ing this are regularly aired topics such as this ing views about topics in popular Pagan and feminist spirituality magazines. popular Pagan in

religion. religion. Conflictin letters forums in Sage for Sage Woman, for

196 196 example, has regular column, example, has aa regular

Chapter 10 Chapter 10 “The “The Rattle: Our Our Readers

Speak,” Speak,” for for

practitioners to to express differing differing views in in a respectful context. “The RatRattle” in Sage Woman discusses mixing and spirispiritle” in issue sixty-five of of Sage mixing politics politics and tuality or magic. magic. Issues around atound mixing politics and and spirituality are not tuality mixing politics to women’s spirituality and and Paganism. Academics and new to and practitioners debated it extensively in in the the late and into into the it extensively late 1970s and the 1980s.*4 1980s.°4 Researchers have noted aa political/apolitical division between “radical” and and “tradiAll the the letters in in “The Rattle” column in in Sage Sage tionalist” practitioners.*> practitioners. All Woman 65 65 support mixing mixing politics and spirituality, but but different attitudes politics and about mixing mixing politics politics and and spirituality continue in in Paganism. Some take oftake ofpolitical content in fense atat political in rituals, and and others are disappointed with aa such rituals as without substance, “airylack of of political political content, seeing seeing such “airyfairy,” real life, life, and and ungrounded. Some practitioners fairy,” out of of touch with with real who dislike political political content point point to religion to serious conflicts involving religion and politics in Ireland and politics in and the the Middle East.5¢ Pagans also have mixed opinions regarding regarding the the image image of of their religion religion Pagans also have that is being presented in popular media. Witches and other magical practhat is being presented in popular and magical practitioners are increasingly visible in in popular popular culture, appearing as characters on television shows such as Buffy Buffy the the Vampire Slayer, Slayer, Charmed, movies such and novels such as The such The Craft, Craft, and such as J. J. K. K. Rowling’s Harry Harry Potter series. Some Pagans Pagans see this this trend as positive. In In aa New Witch editorial, Dagonet Dewr says, “When aa neat ‘underground’ thing thing becomes mainstream, it’s it’s

not aa defeat for for our side, not side, it’s victory. Yes, it’s aa victory. be aa bummer to Yes, it it can be to lose lose our ‘outsider’ status, but but when the lifestyles we believe in the causes and and lifestyles in and and es-

pouse become mainstream they they can’t be ignored, and be persecuted, ignored, and slandered so easily.”*” easily.”*” Others are displeased with people people adopting adopting aa “Witch” identity identity because it trendy, and and feel it is is trendy, religion is feel that that the the religion is cheapened by by the the superficial adoption adoption of of Witchcraft as a style. They suggest suggest that style. They treating that treating Witchcraft and style reduces it and magic magic as a style it to to something that be bought bought that can be and sold. Such practitioners are disturbed by and by the the commercialism and and con-

sumerism of of “Witchcraft” as a commodity, but but others embrace images images of of

Witchcraft in in popular popular culture, and and some even construct pop pop culture altars. Some Pagans Pagans complain about practitione rs calling calling non-Pagans practitioners non-Pagans “mug“muggles,” after the the use of gles,” of the the term for for non-magic al practitione non-magical rs in practitioners Harry in the the Harry Potter novels. In In a a letter to to New Witch, Witch, Peter White says says that that the the adoption adoption of such trendy trendy slang of slang “cheapens our faith.” Other see it it as fun, fun, or, or, alternatively, as juvenile. tively, juvenile. In In the the same column, column, Paanntherr indicates that that “mug“muggle” is gle” is a fictional name for for the the existing existing term “cowan” for for non-magic al non-magical practitione rs.°° “Muggles” easily practitioners. easily conflates with “mundanes,” “mundanes,” another term in in usage among Pagans Pagans in in overlap overlap with the Society for the Society for Creative community. Anachroni sm community. Anachronism Many Pagans Pagans were angered by Many the recruitin by the recruitingg of of a Witch for for the reality the reality television game show Mad, television Mad, Mad House, and and by by the the agreemen agreementt of the wellof the well-

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known Australian Witch Fiona Horne to the show. Pagans to appear on the Pagans were disturbed that that the sought someone who was aa “full the producers sought witch, “full time witch, not aa lawyer lawyer by by night.” by day, night.” They day, witch by looking for They were looking for someone un-

usual, usual, “alternative,” to to create aa contrast between the the “alts” and the “alts” and the “nor-

mals,” who who were the mals,” the show. It the contestants on the It was designed as aa game show, show, so that one person would be be voted out of of the the house each episode. episode. Critics of of Horne’s participation said she treated said she Paganism as aa lifestyle lifestyle rather than as aa religion, even attributing those words to her. After viewto her. ing the the edited show, show, Horne says ing says she “no regrets” regarding her she has has “no regrets” regarding parher participation, although later episodes episodes were “edited in although later in such aa way as to to not rethe individuals involved.” of the the true nature of flect the flect Paganism Paganism started to to become commodified as it the seit emerged from the crecy of of initiatory traditions. Increased public of the the religion public acceptance of religion led to to glossy magazines, Witch characters on television led glossy magazines, television shows, and trainshows, and training courses that that charge ing in Paganism charge fees. Paganism became more easfees. Participation in ily ily available through through commercial channels than through traditional coven than through or apprenticeship apprenticeship instruction, since itit isis easier to to buy buy how-to books and and accessories than toto find find aa teacher. Commodifie teaching can be Commodified d teaching be differentiated from from traditional teaching on the basis of fee payment, reflecting the basis reflecting the of fee the for sale. not for sale. Practitioners feel belief that gift and teaching isis aa gift that traditional teaching belief and not feel and religion and the religion in the that consumerism encourages superficial superficial participation in that self-indulgence rather than personal growth than personal growth or mature cultural criticism. self-indulge nce rather sense of of lack, cultivate aa sense lack, of Paganism In addition, Paganism cultivate varieties of consumerist varieties addition, consumerist In that they the hope in the hope that to consume products encouraging practitioners to products in they can happy, less less lonely become happy, lonely or anxious, or better Pagans. As in conAs in better Pagans. desire to to consume more. In the desire In general, consumption creates the in general, sumerism in the illusion that Paganism create the that buybuyof Paganism addition, consumerist varieties of products or brands (or things ing certain products brands (or peothings associated with particular peowith particular ing such as the ple, such figure Deborah Gray) popular Australian figure only Gray) isis the the only ple, the popular their tradition. to their of access to means of Trendy spell spell books also also play playaa role role in in the the popularizati popularization and commodiTrendy on and of Witchcraft. Popular Popular spell spell books books encourage superficial superficial participaparticipafication of tion in in Witchcraft, and and “the “the wide distribution of of spell spell books books and and the the poppoption ularity of of Witchcraft television shows and and movies suggests that that New New Age Age ularity much more common than than traditional Witchcraft.”° Witchcraft.”6!! Some Witchcraft isis much the wide wide availability availability of of recent spell spell books books as as positive, positive, bebepractitioners see the provides aa safe safe environment for for experimentat experimentation, but popular popular cause itit provides ion, but spell books do do not not encourage learning learning from from other other sources. Popular Popular spell spell spell books such such as Athena Starwoman and and Deborah Gray’s Gray’s How How toto Turn Turn Your Your books Ex-Boyfriend into into aa Toad Toad and and Other Other Spells Spells for for Love, Love, Wealth, Wealth, Beauty Beauty and and Revenge, Revenge, Ex-Boyfriend Hocus Pocus: Pocus: Titania’s Book Book ofof Spells, Spells, and and Antonia Beattie’s Titania Hardie’s Hocus The Girl's Girl’s Handbook ofof Spells: Spells: Charm Charm your your Way Way toto Popularity Popularity and and Power Power tend tend to to The be weak weak on ethics ethics and and encourage practitioners to to hold hold self-centered views. views. be

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Spell girls can encourage aa positive positive self-image and Spell books aimed at at teenage girls and healthy and can contribute to to the the reenchantment of healthy self-esteem and of everyday everyday life. However, some reinforce images of of female beauty, beauty, and they life. reinforce idealistic images and they generally assume aa posture of not encourgenerally of heterosexism. These books do do not age but they age cultural change change through through countercultural living, living, but they can foster itit through personal empowerment.® empowerment. Not only scholars and and Pagan Pagan elders are critical of popular spell spell books Not only of popular and other aspects aspects of of commodified practice; youth are also also “frustrated by by and other practice; youth the rabid marketing of diluted diluted and and sugar-coated of [their] [their] relirelithe rabid marketing of sugar-coated versions versions of gion to to teens.”® Mattel’s attempt to to cash cash in the popularity popularity of magic gion in on the of magic Spells Barbie” backfired. They the product product from with “Secret Spells They removed the the United States due to Christian protests against the marketshelves in in the due to against the ing of of Witchcraft to only Christians who were disdising to children. ItIt was not only by the the marketing of of Secret Spells Barbie; Pagans turbed by Spells Barbie; Pagans were also also troubled by the presentation of of spell crafting to in the the bled by the spell crafting to young children in commercials promoting the the doll. doll. The advertisements presented love love spells as successful, but spells but without any any sense of The product product reof ethics.6! ethics. The mains available in and demand for in Canada, and for itit may increase from collecits being being withdrawn from tors because of of its from the the American market. While some Pagans Pagans express chagrin chagrin at find such toys at those who find toys apappealing, pealing, more often practitioners express embarrassment over people people buy such products or consumerist spell who buy spell books and like auand treat them like thoritative sources in in Paganism. Some Pagans Pagans see consumerist Paganism as “flaky” “flaky” and disdain itit as “New Age.” Age.” They They express embarrassment with “newbie,” “New Agey,” Agey,” or uninformed coreligionists who express express beliefs such as the the idea that that having having a blue of a crescent moon beblue tattoo of be-

tween one’s eyebrows isis an ancient practice practice of of Goddess practitioners, when it it isis derived from Marion Zimmer Bradley’s novel The The Mists of of Avalon. Some are embarrassed by by SCA-inspired clothing clothing or ostentatious accessories and and ritual tools, but others identify tools, but such pursuit of identify such of intellectual seriousness with “holier than thou” attitudes.© attitudes. Some practitioners practitioners react to to the the perceived flakiness of of consumerist consumerist trends with avowals of Paganism.” Dark of “Dark Paganism.” Dark Paganism Paganism includes those

who identify identify with the the “Left Hand Path” and the the practice of of “magick” ina ina

nonconformist manner to nonconformist to “light” “light” or “white” Witchcraft Witchcraft.. They They indicate that that they they do do not practice black magic magic in in the the sense of malevolence or evil, of malevolence evil, but they feel but they feel that that a dark version of of Paganism isis aa necessary balance to to the the “whitewa shed” and “sugarcoa “whitewashed” ted” practices of “sugarcoated” of mainstre am Wicca. One mainstream One form of of Dark Paganism is is Goth Paganism, such as that that espoused by by John John J.J. Coughlin in in his his book Out Out of of The The Shadows: An An Exploratio Explorationn of of Dark PaganPaganism Magick, which was one of ism and and Magick, of the meldings of the first first meldings of Goth and Pagan and Pagan culture. Goth subcultur subculturee started with with ambient, industrial, industrial, and and some pop pop

music of of the the early early 1980s that that explored themes of of taboo emotions, such as as

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feelings feelings about death and and tragic tragic love. love.% Some practitioner s see Goth or Dark Paganism as simply simply another species of flakiness, equally species of equally embarrassing as the ing the “fluffy-bunny,” “sweetness and and light” light” variety by New variety espoused by and marketed to Agey Pagans to teens. Pagans and Agey While some practitioners practitioners want Paganism to to be be aa creative alternative to to the mainstream,, and the mainstream enjoy disrupting and enjoy disrupting expectations of normal behavior, expectations of others feel feel that that mainstream acceptance isis important for for protecting their rights to religious freedom. One rights to religious One tactic for for preserving the the alternative nature of of Paganism while seeking seeking tolerance and equality equality in in mainstream ininstitutions is is to to seek seek “respect, “respect, not respectability .”°” Practitioners respectability.”°” Practitioners of of contemporary Paganism are diverse in in their their attitudes, beliefs, and and practices, practices, as

well as in well in their their feelings feelings about how, how, or if, if, Paganism Paganism should become an or-

ganized As the ganized religion. As practitionerss are seeking the religion religion matures, practitioner equal seeking equal rights rights to to practice practice their religion religion freely, freely, without discriminati discrimination, on, harassment, or persecution, persecution, while struggling to impulses that to preserve the the impulses to that led led them to the the religion. Although Although they they remain a minority religion, religion, and and practitioners practitioners differ differ in in their methods, and and sometimes their goals goals regarding mainstream acceptance, they claiming aa place they are claiming place among the religions. the world’s religions. FURTHER READING Eilers, Eilers, Dana D. D. Pagans Pagans and and the the Law: Understand Your Rights. Lakes, NJ: Rights. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Page Books, 2003. Lady League. Circle Sanctuary. www.circlesanctuary. www.circlesanctuary.org Lady Liberty Liberty League. liberty. org / /liberty. magazine. New Witch. “Rant && Rave.” Regular Regular column in in New Witch magazine. Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. www.religioustolerance.com. www.religioustolerance.com. Pagan Federation/ Federation/Fédération www.pfpce.ca. Pagan Fédération Paienne Canada. www.pfpc.ca. Pagan Pride. www.paganpride.org. Pagan PanGaia. “Feedback Loop: Loop: Letters Letters from from our Readers,” and and “Toe-to-Toe: A Forum for for ControControA Forum

versy and Opinion.” Opinion.” Regular in PanGaia magazine. magazine. Regular columns in Pike, Sarah M. Pike, M. Earthly Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans Pagans and and the Search for for CommuCommuMagical Selves: the Search nity. Berkeley: Berkeley: University of California Press, Press, 2001. 2001. nity. University of Sage Our Readers Speak.” Speak.” Regular in Sage Sage Woman magazine. Sage Woman. “The Rattle: Our Regular column in The Witches’ Voice. www.witchvox.com. The

NOTES of the Septem1.1. Council for for aa Parliament of the World’s Religions, Religions, 2002, 2002, www.cpwr.org (accessed September 28, 28, 2004). 2004). ber Fox, “Bridges: “Bridges: Pagans at the 91 (2004): 34. 2.2. Selena Fox, Pagans at the Parliament,” Circle Magazine 91 34. Bodies, Magical Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans Pagans and for Com3.3. Sarah M. M. Pike, Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, and the the Search for munity (Berkeley: University of of California Press, Press, 2001), 2001), 108-9. munity 4. Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, Selves, 111. 4. Pike, Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical 111. 5. Post, August 5. Washington Post, August 23, 23, 1993.

6. Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, 120. 6. Pike, Selves, 120.

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Report,” Circle Magazine 88, 88, 89 89 (2003), (2003), www.cir7.7. Circle Magazine, Magazine, “Lady “Lady Liberty Liberty League League Report,” clesanctuary.org /liberty /report (accessed September 24, clesanctuary.org/liberty/report 24, 2004). Quoted in in Pike, Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical 99. 8.8. Quoted Pike, Earthly Magical Selves, 99.

Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, 9.9. Pike, Pike, Earthly Selves, 99-100. 10. Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, Selves, 102-3. 10. Pike, 11. Bodies, Magical Selves, 100, 11. Pike, Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 100, 104-6.

12. Circle Magazine, Magazine 90 90 (2003), (2003), www.circle12. Magazine, “Lady “Lady Liberty Liberty League League Report,” Circle Magazine sanctuary.org/liberty/report 2004). sanctuary.org/liberty /report (accessed September 24, 24, 2004). 13. Kevin Corcoran, “Judge: Can’t Teach Pagan Pagan Beliefs,” Beliefs,” Indystar.com: the the online 13. “Judge: Parents Can’t edition of of the the Indianapolis Star, May 26, 26, 2005. This BrenStar, May This ruling ruling was subsequently overturned. Brendan Coyne, “Court Approves Wicca for for Kids, New Standard, Audan Coyne, Kids, Dodges Dodges Constitutional Issue,” New August 19, http:/ /newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2250&x=x /newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_itemé&itemid=2250&x=x gust 19, 2005, 2005, http:/ (accessed August 31, 2005.) August 31,

14. 14. 15. 15. 16. 16.

Pike, Pike, Circle Circle

Earthly Selves, xi-xii. Earthly Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, Magazine, “Lady “Lady Liberty Liberty League League Report,” 90. Report,” Circle Magazine 90. Magazine, “Lady 90. “Lady Liberty Liberty League League Report,” Report,” Circle Magazine 90.

17. 17. Michael

Samhain,

“Defending

the the

Craft,”

New New

Witch

66

(2004), (2004),

www

-newwitch.com/archives/06/read/defending.html 24, 2004). ‘newwitch.com/archives/06/read / defending. html (accessed September 24, 18. Pagans and the Law: Your Rights Rights (Franklin Lakes, Lakes, NJ: NJ: New 18. Dana Dana D. D. Eilers, Eilers, Pagans and the Law: Understand Your

Page Page Books, 2003). 19. Kerr Cuhulain, Law to Wicca (Victoria, British Columbia: Horned 19. Kerr Law Enforcement Guide to

Owl Publishing, 1989). 1989). Owl

20. Pagan Pagan Unity Unity Campaign, Campaign, 2004, 2004, www.paganunitycampaign.org (accessed September 28, 20. 28,

2004). 2004).

21. Chas S.S. Clifton, “Fort Hood’s Wiccans and 21. the Problem of of Pacifism” (paper and the (paper presented at the annual meeting at the Academy of meeting of of the Religion, Nashville, Tennessee, the American Academy of Religion, ber 20, ber 20, 2000). 2000). 22. Tom Tom Doyle 22. Pagans in Doyle Jr., Prison,” letter Jr., “More “More from from Pagans to the in Prison,” published in letter to the editor editor published in

39 (2004): 9.9. 39 23. 23. Windwalker, “Lady League Report,” “Lady Liberty Liberty League Report,” Circle Magazine 91 91 (2004): (2004): 54. 54.

Novem-

PanGaia PanGaia

24. 24. CNN (Time Warner), “Supreme Court: Prisons Must Accommodate Religions,” May May 31, 2005, 31, 2005, www.cnn.com/2 005/LAW/05/31/scotus.prison.religion (accessed September 5, www.cnn.com/2005/LAW/05/31/scotus.prison.religion 5,

2005).

25. 25. Chas S.S. Clifton, “Tents, Not Cathedrals: An An Argument against Paid Clergy,” View Clergy,” The The View from 1993). (March 1993). from Hardscrabble Creek 22 (March

26. Lammond, “Memories 26. Frederic “Memories of Frederic Lammond, of Gerald Gerald Gardner,” Gardner,” in the Pagan in Celebrating Pagan Soul: Celebrating the Soul: Our Our Own Stories of of Inspiration and and Community, ed. ed. Laura A. A. Wildman (New York: Citadel Press, Press, 94. 2005), 2005), 94. 27. Clifton, “Tents, Not Not Cathedrals.” 27. Clifton,

28. Earthly Bodies, 28. Pike, Pike, Earthly Selves, 53, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, 53, 116. 116. 29. Pike, 29. Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, xix. Selves, xix. 30. 30. Pike, Bodies, Magical Pike, Earthly Magical Selves, Earthly Bodies, Selves, 116-18. 31. 31. Archer, Archer, “Bumps “Bumps along the Pagan along the Pagan Path,” PanGaia 39 Path,” PanGaia 39 (2004): (2004): 22. 22.

32. Pike, Earthly 32. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Selves, Selves, 53-54.

33. 33. 34. 34. 35. 35. 36. 36. 37. 37.

Pike, Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, Selves, 213. 213. Quoted in Earthly Bodies, in Pike, Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Magical Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Pike, Earthly Magical Selves, Selves, 118, 118, See Pike, See Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, Selves, Pike, Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Earthly Bodies, Selves, 209. Magical Selves,

Selves, 212. Selves, 212. 101. 119. 119.

38. Chas Clifton, NatRel (electronic discussion group of 38. of the the Nature Religions Scholars 2004. Network), September 2004,

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39. Pike, 39. Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Magical Selves, Selves, 209, 209, 217. 217. 40. Pike, Pike, Earthly Magical Selves, Selves, 101. 40. Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical 101. 4]. 41. Quoted Quoted in Pike, Earthly Earthly Bodies, Bodies, Magical Selves, 102. in Pike, Magical Selves, 102.

42. Sian Reid, 42. Reid, “Witch Wars: Factors Contributin Contributingg to to Conflict in Neopagan Comin Canadian Neopagan munities,” The The Pomegranate: AA New Journal of of Neopagan Thought (2000): 11. Thought 11 11 (2000): 11. 43. Reid, Reid, “Witch Wars,” Wars,” 12. 43. 12. 44. Reid, 17. 44. Reid, “Witch “Witch Wars,” Wars,” 17. 45. 45. Fritz Fritz Jung, Jung, “What Is Is aa Witch War?” The Witches’ Voice, The January Voice, January www.witchvo x.com/wars/ www.witchvox.com/w ww_whatis.h tml (accessed ars/ww_wh September 20, atis.html (accessed September 20, 2004). 2004), 46. 2004. 46. NatRel, 2004.

4, 4, 1998, 1998,

47. 47. Ronald Hutton, The The Triumph Triumph of of Modern Pagan of the the Moon: AA History History of Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford:

1999), 320. 320. Oxford University Press, Press, 1999), 48. Reid, “Witch Wars,” 48. Reid, Wars,” 18. 18.

49. 49. See See Jone Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The Reclaiming Witches of of San The Reclaiming San Francisco

2002). Routledge, 2002). (London: Routledge, (London:

50. 50. Helen Berger, Berger, AA Community of of Witches (Columbia: University of Press, of South Carolina Press,

110. 1999), 110. 1999), 51. PanGaia, 51.

“Toe-to-Toe: AA Forum for for Controversy Controversy and and Opinion,” Opinion,” PanGaia 39 39 (2004): (2004):

13-16. 13-16. | 52. Reid, Wars,” 13. 13. 52. Reid, “Witch “Witch Wars,”

53. and Rave,” Rave,” New Witch 55 (2004): (2004): 5.5. 53. Lauryl Lauryl Stone, Stone, “Rant and New Witch

54. See, 94. See, in in particular, Charlene Spretnak, ed., of Women’s Spirituality (Garden ed., The The Politics of [Doubleday], NY: Anchor Books [Doubleday] City, NY: City, 1982). , 1982). 55. for example, example, Kevin Marron, 55. See, See, for Marron, Witches, Pagans Pagans && Magic in the the New Age Magic in Seal Age (Toronto: Seal Books 56. 56. 57. 57. 58. 58. 59. 59.

[McClelland-Banta 1989). m], 1989). [McClelland -Bantam], Archer, “Bumps “Bumps along along the the Path,” Path,” 22, 22, 25. Archer, 25. Dagonet Dewr, Dagonet Dewr, “The “The Vibe,” Vibe,” (editorial) New Witch 77 (2004): (2004): 1.1.

New Witch, and Rave,” Rave,” New New Witch Witch 77 (2004): (2004): 5-13. 5-13. New Witch, “Rant and See New Witch, “Rant and Rave,” New Witch Witch 77 (2004): (2004): 7-9. 7-9. See New Witch, and Rave,”

60. This This analysis analysis isis drawn from Douglas 60. Ezzy, “The Commodific Commodification Douglas Ezzy, of Witchcraft,” ation of Religion Studies Review 14 (2001): 31-44. Australian Religion 14 (2001): 61. Douglas Age Witchcraft? Popular Spell Books and and the 61. Douglas Ezzy, Ezzy, “New “New Age Popular Spell the ReReLife,” Culture and of Everyday enchantment 61. enchantmen Everyday Life,” and Religion Religion 44 (2003): (2003): 61. t of 62. This This analysis analysis isis drawn from from Ezzy, Ezzy, “New Age Age Witchcraft?” 62. 63. See “The “The Rattle: Our Our Readers Speak,” Speak,” Sage Sage Woman 65 65 (2004): 89. 63. See (2004): 89. 64. Phil Brucato, Brucato, “Chalice && Keyboard,” New New Witch Witch 77 (2004): 64. Phil (2004): 30. 30. 65. Archer, Archer, “Bumps “Bumps along along the the Path,” Path,” 26. 26. 65.

66. 66. Jason Jason Pitzl-Waters

and Jacqueline Jacqueline and

Coughlin,” New Witch 66 (2004), (2004), Coughlin,” cessed September 29, 2004). 2004). cessed September 29,

Enstrom-Waters, Enstrom-Wat ers,

“Dark

Paganism Paganism

with John John with

www.newwitch.com/archives/06/read/dark.html www.newwit ch.com/archives/06/read/dark.html

(ac(ac-

67. Macha Nightmare, NatRel (electronic discussion group group of of the the Nature Religions Religions Schol67. September 2004. 2004. ars Network), September

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