Introduction to Life Science 9781774074923, 1774073099, 9781774073094

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INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

Edited by:

Smitha Nair

www.delvepublishing.com

Introduction to Life Science Smitha Nair Delve Publishing 2010 Winston Park Drive, 2nd Floor Oakville, ON L6H 5R7 Canada www.delvepublishing.com Tel: 001-289-291-7705 001-905-616-2116 Fax: 001-289-291-7601 Email: [email protected] e-book Edition 2020 ISBN: 978-1-77407-492-3 (e-book)

This book contains information obtained from highly regarded resources. Reprinted material sources are indicated and copyright remains with the original owners. Copyright for images and other graphics remains with the original owners as indicated. A Wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data. Authors or Editors or Publishers are not responsible for the accuracy of the information in the published chapters or consequences of their use. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or grievance to the persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or thoughts in the book. The authors or editors and the publisher have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission has not been obtained. If any copyright holder has not been acknowledged, please write to us so we may rectify. Notice: Registered trademark of products or corporate names are used only for explanation and identification without intent of infringement.

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ABOUT THE EDITOR

Dr. Smitha Nair was born in kerala, India. She completed schooling from Doha, Qatar. She passed out as BSc. Gold medallist in Biotechnology from U.C. College, M.G.University in 2002 and further her MSc. in Biotechnology from P.S.G. College, Bharathiar University in 2004. In 2005 she worked as guest lecturer at the Department of Biotechnology ,Cochin University. In 2007 she worked as lecturer at Thakur College of Arts and Science in the department of Biotechnology. In 2009 she joined as junior research fellow with Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai. She went on to complete her PhD at the same centre in the field of phytoremediation using transgenic technologies by 2014. Currently she is attached with the Department of Biotechnology, Mumbai University working on bioremediation projects and also delivering lectures.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ........................................................................................................xi Preface........................................................................ ........................................xv Chapter 1

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective........................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 2 1.2 Biomolecules ....................................................................................... 3 1.3 Macro And Micro Evolution ................................................................. 5 1.4 Photosynthesis ..................................................................................... 9 1.5 Genetics ............................................................................................ 13 1.6 Bioenergetics Metabolism .................................................................. 17 1.7 Cell Structure and Function ............................................................... 18 Review Questions .................................................................................... 20 References ............................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2

History and Evolution Of Life Science ..................................................... 23 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 24 2.2 The Molecular And Cellular Biology Evolution ................................... 26 2.3 History And Evolution of Physiology ................................................. 31 2.4 History And Evolution of Botany ........................................................ 34 2.5 History And Evolution of Zoology ...................................................... 37 Review Questions: ................................................................................... 40 References ............................................................................................... 41

Chapter 3

Fields in the Life Sciences........................................................................ 43 3.1 Agrotechnology ................................................................................. 44 3.2 Animal Science ................................................................................. 46 3.3 Food Science .................................................................................... 49 3.4 Environmental Science ..................................................................... 51

3.5 Molecular Biology ............................................................................ 52 3.6 Implications of the Convergence of Biology and Chemistry .............. 57 Review Questions .................................................................................... 63 References ............................................................................................... 64 Chapter 4

Basic and Applied Science....................................................................... 65 4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 66 4.2. Basic Science.................................................................................... 77 4.3. Applied Science ................................................................................ 81 Review Questions .................................................................................... 87 References ............................................................................................... 88

Chapter 5

Theory of Life Sciences............................................................................ 89 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 90 5.2 Present Day Scenario of Theory of Life Science .................................. 92 5.3 History, Philosophy And Theory of The Life Sciences .......................... 95 5.4 Development of The Theory of Evolution.......................................... 101 5.5 Challenges In The Life Science Industry ........................................... 104 Review Questions .................................................................................. 105 References ............................................................................................. 106

Chapter 6

Spectroscopy in Life Sciences ............................................................... 109 6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 110 6.2 History of Spectroscopy ................................................................... 111 6.3 Spectroscopy of Biological Systems ................................................. 113 6.4 Types of Spectroscopy ...................................................................... 115 6.5 Applications of Spectroscopy .......................................................... 119 6.6 Spectroscopic Imaging For The Life Sciences.................................... 122 6.7 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 125 Review Questions .................................................................................. 127 References ............................................................................................. 128

Chapter 7

Chromatography and Its Principles ....................................................... 129 7.1 Introduction to Chromatography ...................................................... 130 7.2 Column Chromatography................................................................. 134 7.3 Paper Chromatography .................................................................... 136

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7.4 Thin Layer Chromatography ............................................................. 138 7.5 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ...................................... 140 7.6 Affinity Chromatography ................................................................. 142 7.7 Life Science Applications Of Chromatography ................................. 144 Review Questions: ................................................................................. 149 References ............................................................................................. 150 Chapter 8

Microscope and its Significance In Life Sciences ................................... 153 8.1 Introduction: Anatomy of The Microscope ....................................... 154 8.2 Different Types of Microscopes ........................................................ 161 8.3 Importance of The Microscope In Biology ........................................ 171 8.4 Case Study: Scanning Acoustic Microscopy ..................................... 171 Review Questions: ................................................................................. 175 References ............................................................................................. 176

Chapter 9

Safety In The Life Science Laboratory ................................................... 179 9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 180 9.2 Safety Measures While Performing Lab Activities ............................ 181 9.4 Lab Techniques And Safety............................................................... 189 Review Questions .................................................................................. 192 References ............................................................................................. 193

Chapter 10 Future Aspects of Life Sciences ............................................................. 195 10.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 196 10.2 Present Day Scenario of Life Sciences ............................................ 198 10.3 The Future of Life Sciences In The Year 2100 .................................. 201 10.4 Role of E-Infrastructures In Life Sciences ........................................ 206 10.5 Challenges In The Life Science Industry ......................................... 208 10.6 Future of Life Sciences And Data Tsunami ..................................... 212 Review Questions: ................................................................................. 214 References ............................................................................................. 215 Index ..................................................................................................... 217

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Cell Figure 1.2: Organic chemistry Figure 1.3: Mutation Figure 1.4: Photosynthesis Figure 1.5: Genetics Chromosomes Rna Figure 2.1: Statue of Hippocrates in London Figure 2.2: Representation of Molecular and Cellular Biology Figure 2.3: William Harvey made Notable Contributions Figure 2.4: Anton von Leeuwenhoek significantly Improved Microscopes that Helped Life Sciences Immensely Figure 3.1: Machinery and technology involved in the farming practices have made it even worse acting as external elements in the agrotechnology Figure 3.2: Animal Science provides the system to look after the domestic animals as well Figure 3.3: Food science lab in a functional state Figure 3.4: Environmental Science helps in conserving the lands and plants in the surroundings of people Figure 3.5: Molecular labs help in discovering those aspects in science that lie beyond the reach of naked eye Figure 4.1: Diagram of An Animal Cell Figure 4.2: Diagram of Plant A Cell Figure 4.3: Types of Tissue Figure 4.4: Different types of Solutions Figure 4.5: Diagram of Photosynthesis Figure 4.6: Solar System Figure 4.7: Life cycle of a butterfly Figure 4.8: Elements of Astronomy

Figure 4.9: Elements of Ecology Figure 4.1: Geology – Plate Tectonics Figure 5.1: The theory of life science focuses on the evolution of life which is changing every second Figure 5.2: There are many scientists who are working on the theory of the life sciences Figure 5.3: There are many theories that have said that life started from the lightning Figure 5.4: DNA and RNA are the most basic forms of the life that has started the life Figure 5.5: There are many scientists which have worked on the development of the magnetic field Figure 6.1: Joseph Fraunhofer is the father of spectroscopy Figure 6.2: Representation of Image Produced by X-ray Figure 6.3: Representation of a Machine Used for Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Figure 7.1: Mikhail Semenovich Tsvett: a Russian-Italian botanist who developed adsorption chromatography Figure 7.2: Column chromatography Figure 7.3: A basic configuration of high-performance liquid chromatography Figure 7.4: Affinity chromatography Figure 7.5: Presence of additives in fruit juices can be easily detected by the application of chromatography Figure 7.6: Different kinds of biological molecules are identified by chromatography technique Figure 8.1: Anatomy of the microscope Figure 8.2: Several numbers of applications of the microscope Figure 8.3: Various types of microscopes Figure 8.4: The compound light microscope Figure 8.5: The stereomicroscope Figure 8.6: Patented Digital Micro-Imaging Adaptor with SAGLO Soft Software for Microscopy: A type of digital microscope Figure 8.7: The USB computer microscope Figure 8.8: The Pocket microscope Figure 8.9: The Electron microscope xii

Figure 8.10: The scanning probe microscope (SPM) Figure 8.11: The acoustic microscope Figure 9.1: Wearing Gloves before the experiments Figure 9.2: Hand wash after the experiment is over Figure 9.3: Carefully using Chemical Substance Figure 10.1: Life Sciences has been on an ever-evolving mode which shows that there is a hidden treasure of knowledge in the future of Life Sciences Figure 10.2: There have been many experiments going on in the present times to unlock the mystery of the development of the Life Sciences Figure 10.3: Many organizations across the world have started to conduct studies that help in understanding the development of the cell structure Figure 10.4: The future of the Life Sciences has so much to discover than it is ever discovered in this field Figure 10.5: The introduction of the nanotechnology has helped a lot developing the Life Sciences Figure 10.6: The establishment of the proper infrastructure in Life Science is very important for exploring future aspects. Figure 10.7: There has been an increase in the number of people opting for treatment through Life Sciences rather than the conventional treatment processes

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PREFACE

Subject and Purpose Life sciences are a field of study that is directly related to the people and their surroundings. The life sciences deal with all the elements of an environment and explain the phenomena that go on within the organisms and outside of them as well. Life science is a broad topic under which there are several different parts of study that may concern various elements of the ecosystem and their existence, such as plants, animals, humans, microorganisms, sea creatures, abiotic elements and other important components of the environment that in any direct or indirect way may support life or any of its forms. The study of life sciences and the insights into the subject may help humans to get information to find solutions to the various problems that are developing in the field from time to time. The life sciences also may provide a gateway into understanding the processes of the life-related activities of the various unexplored species and organisms. The book dwells upon the possibilities that life sciences present to the humans in discovering the unheard and unexplored life forms and also lists down the importance of various life science fields in numerous ways and detailed descriptions. Salient features of the book: The book opens to the readers by explaining them some basic terms that are used in the life sciences on a regular basis. It explains the readers the meaning of biomolecules and the process of photosynthesis. It informs them about genetics and the role it plays in deciding the genes in a cell. The book explains the readers about the cell structures and the function they perform in an organism. It also elaborates on the bioenergetic metabolism. The book moves further to dwell upon the evolution of life sciences and puts down the history of life science in detail. It dwells upon the evolution of cellular biology and the study of molecules that have been developing over the years. It further explains the development of various other fields of life sciences like physiology, botany, and zoology.

The book moves further to involve and explain the various fields come under the scope of life sciences. It explains several important fields that have their application in the modern world. It elaborates in detail on agricultural technology, food science, molecular biology, animal science and environmental science. The book also dwells upon the prospect of integrating the different fields of life sciences and the challenges and opportunities that may arise in doing so. The readers are further informed about the process of chromatography. They are explained about the procedure of column chromatography and also several other kinds of chromatography such as paper chromatography, thin layer chromatography, affinity chromatography and so forth. The book points down the various applications of life science chromatography in various sectors like the food industry and forensics. The book further goes on to explain the meaning of the microscope and its importance and relevance in the life sciences. It elaborates on the use of microscopes. It discusses the different kinds of microscopes with the readers and also lists their application in the various experiments or processes in life science. The readers are updated about the importance of microscopes in biology and the discoveries that are done in it. This book has been compiled so as to provide in-depth insights on the subject of life science and explain the readers the relevance it holds with the lives of the humans and other living organisms. With the medium of this book, the readers can help themselves chose a field in which they feel interested and take it as a relevant field to dwell upon.

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CHAPTER 1

LIFE SCIENCES: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• • • • • • • • • •

In this chapter, you will learn about:

Life Science; Non-Living Matter; Cytology; Immunology; Ethology; Ecology; Biomolecules; Proteins; Carbohydrates; Maladaptive differences

• • • • • • • •

• •

Life science as global perspective. Biomolecules and their availability. Macro and micro evolution and how they came into play. Mutation and the process which leads to mutation. Photosynthesis the basic process in the wide branch of life science. Different stages of photosynthesis. Genetics and what are they. Bioenergetics metabolism and different process which helps in explaining the nature of life. involving it. The most fundamental unit of life and the structure as well as functions of cells. The explanation of the famous cell theory.

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Introduction to Life Science

1.1 INTRODUCTION The term life sciences or biological sciences are the branches of science that deals with the scientific study of life and organisms which includes topics such as microorganisms, plants, and animals and also covers human beings. Life science is basically evolved from the two chief sectors such as natural science, the other one being physical science, which basically focuses on the non-living matter. Alternatively, the field of biology is a key branch of natural sciences that deals with the study of life and living organisms, with the different life sciences being its sub-divisions.

Figure 1.1: Cell.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/2000px-Celltypes.svg.png Some fields of life sciences have their attention on an exact kind of organism. For instance, zoology is the branch which deals with the surveying as well as the studying of animals, while botany, on the other hand, is the study as well as the surveying of plants and the plant kingdom. Other fields of life sciences have their attention on aspects quite usual to all or different life forms, which includes anatomy and genetics. Some have their attention on the microscale, for instance, molecular biology, biochemistry, while other on larger scales, for example, cytology, immunology, ethology, ecology. Another chief branch of life

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

science that deals with the study of brain and its functions is termed as neuroscience. Life sciences studies are obliging in refining the excellence and standard of life, and have roles in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.

1.2 BIOMOLECULES A living system develops, withstands and replicates itself. The greatest astonishing thing about a living system is that it is self-possessed of non-living particles and molecules. The information related to the chemical reactions taking place within a living system is obtained by the study of biochemistry. Living systems are specifically created of numerous multifaceted biomolecules like starches, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc. Proteins and carbohydrates are important components of our food. These biomolecules generally interact with each other and establish the molecular logic behind different life processes. In addition, some simple molecules like vitamins and mineral salts also play a significant role in the functions of various living organisms. Complex structures and purposes of some of these biomolecules are discussed in this chapter.

Figure 1.2: Organic chemistry.

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Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.

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Introduction to Life Science

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Maitotoxin_2D_ structure.svg/2000px-Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg.png

Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which water is used to break down the bonds of a particular substance.

Carbohydrates are chiefly produced by plants and form a very big collection of natural occuring carbon-based compounds. Some common examples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc. Most of them have a general formula in accordance with organic chemistry Cx (H2O) y, and were considered as hydrates of carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived. For instance, the scientific formula of glucose is denoted as C6H12O6 and fits into this general formula, C6 (H2O)6. But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be always considered as carbohydrates. For example, acetic acid which is scientifically denoted by CH3COOH fits into this general formula, C2 (H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate. Likewise, rhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition. A large amount of their reactions has projected that they consist of specific functional groups. Chemically, the carbohydrates may be explained as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce such components on hydrolysis. Some sweet tasting carbohydrates are also called sugars. The most common sugar, used in our domestic houses is named as sucrose while the sugar present in milk is known as lactose. Carbohydrates are also called saccharides which basically in the Greek language is termed as sakcharon means sugar.

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

1.3 MACRO AND MICRO EVOLUTION Through most of the twentieth century, reserachers developing the synthetic theory of evolution primarily had their attention on microevolution, which is a little molecular genetic change over a few generation in a population. Until the year of the 1970’s, it was usually supposed that these changes from generation to generation designated that past species changed slowly into other classes over millions of years. This model of long-term steady alteration is typically known as gradualism or phyletic gradualism. It is fundamentally the nineteenthcentury Darwinian ideology that species change gradually at a more or less stable rate. Usual importance of this type of macroevolution would be the s gradual change of one class into the following in a line. Beginning in the early 1970’s years, this methodology was being challenged by famous researcher Stephen J. Gould, Niles Eldredge, and most other foremost paleontologists. They declared that there is adequate fossil indication to demonstrate that some class stayed basically the same for lots of years and formerly experienced short periods of very quick, chief change. This led to the concept of punctuated equilibrium.

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Introduction to Life Science

Figure 1.3: Mutation.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Benzopyrene_DNA_ adduct_1JDG.png The interrupted, or quick-change periods, were seemingly the output of main ecological changes in such things as predation pressure, food supply and weather. During these durations, natural assortment can promote diversities that were before at relative disadvantage. The output can be a faster rate of variation in gene pool frequencies in the course of the diversities that turn the most favored by the new environmental conditions. It would be predictable that long severe drought, major volcanic eruptions, and the start and ending of ice ages would more likely cause rapid evolution. In such demanding circumstances, inhabitants would be likely to

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

diminish first and then become isolated. Genetic drift would then possibly quick up the degree of evolution. If by chance, nature preferred fruitful adaptations, the populace would again hike in numerous amounts as a radically changes species. Equally, if it preferred maladaptive differences, the populace would plummet in numbers more and possibly even become nonexistent. Chance alterations give differences that help a species thrive. Mutations in regulatory genes in basic can vastly end up in very new alterations in the organization and stricture of the body. Importantly, shifts in these genes can end up in a better probability that at least some persons will have differences that will make them survive during times of extinction level events. As a result, the consecutive population would be different from the population prior to the period of natural selection. In simpler words, regulator genes most basically portray an important part in the quick-change stages of punctuated evolution. . Short-lived class with faster generation spare times typically evolve at a faster rate than do big, long-lived species. This is solely varied only because of new genetic variations usually appear each generation as a result of mutation in sex cells. Those differences may be selected for or against depending on the environment at the time. As a result, fast reproductive cycles usually speed up the species divergence. It is not so remarkable that there is a great number of species of insects as well as microscoping organisms

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Microscopic organisms are tiny life forms, often consisting of a single cell, and very sensitive to change.

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Introduction to Life Science

as compared to species of big trees as well as animals like horses, elephants and humans. Tropical species also usually transform at a quicker rate than do those from colder temperate weathers. Then, tropical forests are more varied ecosystem than forests in colder areas. This is most basically because warm surroundings indorse shorter generation times and higher rates of mutations. A comparatively novel but very significant issue in moving rates of evolution has been people. There are now nearly seven billion of humans, and their numbers are growing at a faster rate. Humans have already harshly altered most surroundings on the earth to meet their requirements. In addition, humans are the super predator around the world, bringing a large number of species to the brink of extinction and beyond. As a consequence, humans have intensely changed natural selection. The living animal and plant species have replied to this pressure in a range of different ways. For example, exploited fish species now typically have smaller bodies as grownups and start reproduction at an earlier age. It is also likely that since humans progressively live in urban surroundings and rely on ever more technology, the development of our species has become faster and altered in ways that are yet to be discovered. It is apparent that the transformation history of human life on this earth is very complex. Different species have changed at dissimilar rates that have varied through time in response to complex structures of communication with other species and other environmental issues.

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

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In total, it is evident that most species bloodline has already become extinct as an output of their incapability to familiarize to altered circumstances.

1.4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is the first process by which plants, some bacteria, and some protozoans help themselves to acquire energy from sunlight to produce glucose with the help of carbon dioxide and water. This glucose can be then converted into pyruvate which gives off adenosine triphosphate which is the full form used in place of ATP by the process of cellular respiration. Oxygen is also produced in the reaction. Photosynthesis may be summarized by the word equation: carbon dioxide + water

glucose + oxygen

The change of sunlight energy into chemical energy is related to the action of the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a multifaceted molecule. Numerous alterations of chlorophyll happen amongst plants and other photosynthetic creatures. All photosynthetic creatures have chlorophyll a. Accessory pigments trap energy that chlorophyll a does not absorb.. Accessory pigments comprise chlorophyll b as well as the other types c, d, and e in algae and protistans, xanthophylls, and carotenoids also containing such as beta-carotene.

Chlorophyll is a green photosynthetic pigment found in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.

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Introduction to Life Science

Figure 1.4: Photosynthesis.

Sources: https://cdn.pixabay.com/ photo/2018/06/26/00/02/photosynthesis-3498260_960_720.jpg Chlorophyll a captures energy from the violet-blue and roseate orange-red wavelengths and slight from the middle which is basically green-yellow-orange wavelengths. All chlorophylls have: • a lipid-soluble hydrocarbon tail which is scientifically denoted by (C20H39 -) • a flat hydrophilic head with a magnesium ion at its center, different chlorophylls have dissimilar sidegroups on the head • The tail and head are linked by an ester bond.

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

11

1.4.1 Leaves and Leaf Structure Plants are the only photosynthetic creatures to have leaves and not all plants have leaves. A leaf may be considered as a solar collector crowded full of photosynthetic cells. The raw materials inputs of photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide, enter the cells of the leaf, and the end products of photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, leave the leaf. Water gets admittance into the root and is then being transported up to the leaves through particular plant cells known as xylem vessels. Land plants must secure against drying out and so have changed particular structures known as stomata to allow gas to enter and leave the leaf. Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the defensive waxy layer covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter the leaf through the stoma (the singular of stomata), flanked by two guard cells. Similarly, oxygen evolved throughout photosynthesis can only pass out of the leafthrough the opened stomata. Inappropriately for the plant, though these gases are moving between the inside and outside of a leaf, a great deal of water is also lost. Cottonwood trees, for instance, will eventually lose a hundred gallons of water which is almost about four hundred and fifty dm3 of water per hour during hot desert days.

1.4.2 The Structure of the Chloroplast and Photosynthetic Membranes The thylakoid is the physical component of photosynthesis. Both photosynthetic prokaryotes

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some protistans use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water.

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Introduction to Life Science

and eukaryotes have these compressed sacs/ vesicles comprising photosynthetic chemicals. Only eukaryotes have chloroplasts with an enveloped membrane. Thylakoids are considered as stacked like pancakes in masses recognized together as grana. The areas between grana are referred to as stroma. While the mitochondrion has two membrane systems, the chloroplast has three, forming three sections.

1.4.3 Stages of Photosynthesis When chlorophyll a absorbs light energy, an electron acquires the energy and is ‘excited’. The excited electron is then transported to another molecule (called a primary electron acceptor). The chlorophyll molecule is oxidized which is basically a loss of electron and has a positive charge. Photoactivation of chlorophyll a result in the lysis of water molecules and the transfer of energy to Adenosine Triphosphate and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate which is the full form used in place of NADP. The chemical reactionsconsist of: • concentration reactions – which is responsible for splitting out of water molecules, with phosphorylation which is the addition of a phosphate group to an organic compound • oxidation/reduction (redox) reactions involving electron transfer Photosynthesis is a two-stage process The Light dependentreactions area lightdependent series of reactions which usually

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

13

takes place in the grana, and require the direct energy of light to make energy-containing molecules that are used in the second process: Light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to make Adenosine Triphosphate (photophosphorylation) at the same time water is split into oxygen, hydrogen ions and free electrons: 2H2O --> 4H+ + O2 + 4e- (photolysis) The electrons then react with a carrier molecule nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), altering it from its oxidized state (NADP+) to its reduced state (NADPH): NADP+ + 2e- + 2H+ --> NADPH + H+ The light -independent reactions, a lightindependent series of reactions which happen in the stroma of the chloroplasts, when the products of the light reaction, Adenosine Triphosphate, and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, are utilized to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide by reduction; originally glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate a 3-carbon atom molecule is formed.

1.5 GENETICS The field of genetics is defined as the study of heredity. Heredity is a kind of biological process in which a parent transfers some genes onto their offspring. Heredities is the study of inheritance. Inheritance is an organic procedure where a

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, e.g. muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis.

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Introduction to Life Science

parental permits sure gene onto their children or offspring. Every child receives a genetic code from both of their biological parents and these genes, in turn, express particular traits. Some of these characters may be physical for example hair and eye color and skin color etc. On the other hand, genes may also transmit the danger of diseases and disorders s that may pass on from parents to their offspring.

1.5.1 Genes in the cell The hereditary information lies inside the chromosomes of each of the living cell in the body. The information can be considered to be retained in a book for example. Part of this book with the genetic information comes from the father while the other part comes from the mother.

1.5.2 Chromosomes The genetic factor lies within the chromosomes. Humans have twenty-three pairs of these small thread-like complex physical form in the nucleus of their cells. Twenty-three or half of the total forty-six comes from the female parent while the other twenty-three comes from the male parent. The chromosomes comprises genes just like pages of a book. Some chromosomes may consist of thousands of important genetic factors while some other may carry only a few. The chromosomes, and so the genetic factor, is made up of the chemical material called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). The chromosomes

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

are very long thin strands of Deoxyribonucleic Acid, coiled up tightly.

Figure 1.5: Genetics Chromosomes RNA.

Source: https://cdn.pixabay.com/ photo/2013/07/13/09/58/genetics-156404_960_720.png At certain point along the length of chromosomes, each of them has a kind of constriction which is known as centromere. The centromere divides the chromosomes into two ‘arms’: a long arm and a short arm. Chromosomes are baasically numbered from one to twenty-two and these are common for both sexes and called autosomes. There are also two chromosomes that have been given the letters X and Y and termed sex chromosomes. The X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome.

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Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that encodes an organism’s genetic blueprint.

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Introduction to Life Science

1.5.3 Chemical Bases The genetic factor is additionally made up of chemical bases including A, T, C, and G which are the denotations used in place of Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine. These chemical bases make up the combination with permutations and combinations. These are similar to the words on a page. These chemical bases are part of the Deoxyribonucleic Acid. The words when stringed composed act as the genetic maps that gives off the cells of the body when and how to develop, mature and perform various functions. With age, the genes may be pretentious and may be damaged due to environmental and endogenous toxins.

1.5.4 Genes and Genetics Chromosome is a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule with part or all of the genetic material (genome) of an organism.

Each genetic factor is a piece of hereditary information. The Deoxyribonucleic Acid in the cell makes up for the human genome. There are about twenty thousand genes being located on one of the twenty-three chromosome pairs found in the nucleus. To date, about 12,800 genetic factors have been charted to specific locations (loci) on each of the chromosomes. This database was started as part of the Human Genome Project. The scheme was officially finished in April in the year 2003 but the exact number of genes in the human genome is still not known to researchers.

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

1.6 BIOENERGETICS LISM

METABO-

Bioenergetics is the section of biochemistry concerned with the energy invokved in the process of forming as well as bfreaking of chemical bonds in the molecules that are found in biological creatures. Energy metabolism is usually characterized as the total of an organism’s processes. These chemical processes usually take the form of intricate metabolic pathways inside the cell, usually characterized as either catabolic or anabolic. In living organisms, the analyses of how energy moves and processed in the body are called bioenergetics and is mainly concerned with how macromolecules such as fats, proteins, and carbohydrates break down to deliver useful energy for development, repair and personal activity. Anabolic pathways use chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate which is the full form used in place of ATP to energy cellular work. The structure of macromolecules out of smaller constituents’ particles, such as the synthesis of proteins from amino acids, and the use of adenosine triphosphate to energy muscular contractions are instances of anabolic pathways. To vigor anabolic methods, adenosine triphosphate gives a single phosphate molecule, releasing stored energy in the process. Once an employed cell’s supply of adenosine triphosphate is exhausted, more should be developed by catabolic energy metabolism for the cellular work to last. Catabolic pathways

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Introduction to Life Science

Aerobic metabolism is the way your body creates energy through the combustion of carbohydrates, amino acids, and fats in the presence of oxygen.

are those that break down large materials into their basic components, releasing energy in the process. The human body is accomplished to manufacture and stock its own adenosine triphosphate through both anaerobic and aerobic energy breakdown. Anaerobic metabolism takes place without oxygen, and is related with short, strong bursts of energy. The aerobic metabolism is the breaking down of macromolecules in the presence of oxygen and is allied with an inferior strength workout, as well as the ordinary work of the cell. Anaerobic energy metaboilsm happens in two sections, the adenosine triphosphatecreatine phosphate system and very fast glycolysis. Aerobic metabolism place in one of two courses, very quick glycolysis or fatty acid oxidation.

1.7 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 1.7.1 Cell Theory The celltheory established in the year 1839 by famous microbiologists Schleiden and Schwann describes different properties of cells. It illustrates the association between cells and living things. The theory states that: • all the living things are considerably made up of cells and their Products • new cells are developed by old cells dividing into two. • cells are the usual basic building blocks of life.

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

The cell theory applies to all living things, though big or small. The contemporary understanding of cell theory spreads the ideas of the original cell theory to consists of the following: • The action of an organism usually depends on the total activity of independent cells. • movement of energy happens in cells by the breaking down of carbohydrates by respiration. • Cells comprises the information essential for the formation of new cells. This information is recognized as ‘hereditary information’ and is present within Deoxyribonucleic Acid. • The cell contents from the similar species are essentially similar. • Cells are the smallest form of life. the useful and physical units of all alive things. Human body comprises numerous billion cells, organized into over two hundred major types, with hundreds of cell-specific functions. Some functions performed by cells are so important to the existence of life that all cells do them, for instance, cellular respiration. Others are extremely specialized in processes such as photosynthesis.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS How can you explain life sciences as a global perspective? Explain and discuss biomolecules. What do you understand by macro and micro evolution? What do you figure out from the term ‘Mutation’? What do you understand by photosynthesis also explain different parts of the photosynthesis process? 6. What are genetics? 7. Explain bioenergetics metabolism. 8. Explain cell structure and its function. 9. Explain cell theory. 10. Explain the stages of photosynthesis. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Life Sciences: A Global Perspective

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REFERENCES 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Biomolecules. (n.d.). 6th ed. [ebook] New delhi: NCERT, p.1. Available at: http://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lech205.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Dr. Ananya Mandal, M. (2019). What are Genetics? [online] NewsMedical.net. Available at: https://www.news-medical.net/lifesciences/What-is-Genetics.aspx [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Mina, U. and kumar, p. (2014). Pranav Kumar Former faculty, Department of Biotechnology Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India Usha Mina Scientist, Division of Environmental Sciences Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India Pathfinder Publication New Delhi, India Life Sciences Fundamentals and Practice. 4th ed. [ebook] New Delhi: Path Finder Publication, p.1. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/19269221/Life_Sciences_ Fundamentals_and_Practice_Part_-I [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Omicsonline.org. (n.d.). Bioenergetics Metabolism Bioenergetics: Open Access. [online] Available at: https://www.omicsonline.org/ bioenergetics-metabolism-peer-reviewed-open-access-journals.php [Accessed 23 May 2019]. O’Neil, D. (2012). Modern Theories of Evolution: Micro and Macro Evolution. [online] Www2.palomar.edu. Available at: https:// www2.palomar.edu/anthro/synthetic/synth_9.htm [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Rsc.org. (n.d.). Chemistry for Biologists: Photosynthesis. [online] Available at: https://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/ cfb/Photosynthesis.htm [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Siyavula.com. (n.d.). Cell Structure and Function | Cells: The Basic Units of Life | Siyavula. [online] Available at: https://www.siyavula. com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/cells-the-basic-units-oflife/02-cells-the-basic-units-of-life-03 [Accessed 23 May 2019].

CHAPTER 2

HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE SCIENCE

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• • • • •

Life Sciences comprises of various fields, which have evolved considerably since the ancient times. There are various branches of life sciences and this chapter traces the history of a few of the important ones. This chapter should help gain an understanding of the following:

• • • •

Physiology Medical Issues Botany Zoology Golden age of molecular biology Vegetable Staticks Protein Data Bank Dominican Friar Plant metabolism

• • • • •

An overview of how life science was establishes as a discipline History and evolution of Molecular biology History and evolution of Physiology History and evolution of Botany History and evolution of Zoology

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2.1 INTRODUCTION Hippocrates of Greece was the pioneer in the development of medicines. From 5 to 4 B.C he contributed immensely to this field by discarding superstition. Basically, Hippocrates paved the way for establishing medicine as a science. It was Aristotle who later founded life sciences. Aristotle established the difference between living and non-living things on the basis that living things had souls. Among the living things, Aristotle classified objects that showed movement and reacted to stimuli as animals. While things that did not display these characteristics were classified as plants. He further differentiated between humans and animals based on reasoning ability, which humans possess, and animals do not. Despite the findings of Aristotle, life sciences did not receive the recognition of science.

Figure 2.1: Statue of Hippocrates in London.

Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/4311/35812794840_78bee91dc3 _b.jpg In the 17th century there was a breakthrough when Hans and Zacharias Janssen invented the microscope. This enabled the observation of an increasing number of organisms around. This

History and Evolution of Life Science

invention gave the required impetus to the field of life sciences and it started showing rapid progress. For example, William Harvey, an Englishman founded the field of physiology. It was the discovery of the fact that blood circulates in the human body which led him to pursue this field. Robert Hooke observed cells through the microscope in 1665. In the 18th century Carl Linnaeus first explained the concept of species. He sought to classify organisms based on the binomial nomenclature. The next development was the discovery of vaccination by Edward Jenner. Other developments followed. In the 19th century, the concept of constancy of the internal environment was propagated by Claude Bernard. Later, Walter B. Cannon introduced the concept of homeostasis. This concept explains the central characteristic of living organisms. It refers to the tendency of the internal parts of a living being to remain unaffected by the changes in the environment, both internal and external environment. It was homeostasis that led to the concept of health. It was during the same time that, Darwin put forward the theory of evolution which revolutionized life sciences. Mendel’s discovered the laws of heredity which also made an important contribution to this field. At this point, a strong foundation of modern life science had been laid. When life science was founded, it mainly extended only to humans. Over time, it evolved remarkably and encompasses all living organisms on the planet. At present, life science research covers a wide range of topics ranging

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Binomial Nomenclature is the biological system of giving scientific names to the organisms.

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from evolution, genomes on one hand and food, medical issues, health and basically the whole body and mind. Lifesciences today also encompasses environmental issues of the Earth that all living-beings habitat. It addresses the coexistence of humans with other organisms. With the advancement in this field, there are ethical issues as well that have cropped up, like genetic testing, cloning, etc. In the 21st, the genomes of various livingbeings have been sequenced, which is enabling to solve problems using the same practices and methods irrespective of the type of organism under observation. However, conventional biology alone cannot aid in the study of functions of cells at the molecular level, the behavior of the ecosystems, the tendencies that individual organisms display and the evolution of all living beings. It has to be supported by other fields like biochemistry, physical chemistry, earth science, molecular biology and psychology. The research also needs an amalgamation of the various fields at the different temporal and spatial levels. Balanced opinions can be gained not just by concentrating on individual academic disciplines, but by studying a combination of the different disciplines.

2.2 THE MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY EVOLUTION In the last 50 years, a dramatic development in the field of life sciences is a revolution of molecular and cellular biology. Molecular biology is the field that is at the intersection of biochemistry, cellular biology and genetics and also a bit of

History and Evolution of Life Science

microbiology and virology. The term molecular biology was first coined by Warren Weaver in 1938. He was an American mathematician and scientist from the Rockefeller Foundation. It was established as an ideal chemical and physical explanations of life and not a comprehensible discipline. The Mendelian-chromosome theory of heredity was propounded in the 1910s. Following this, the atomic theory and quantum mechanics matured in the 1920s. The ideal of physical and chemical explanations of life now seemed more within reach. Weaver and other researchers stimulated and even provided funds for carrying out research in the fields of chemistry, biology and physics. On the other hand, eminent physicists like Erwin Schroedinger and Niels Bohr diverted their efforts to biological speculation.

Figure 2.2: Representation of Molecular and Cellular Biology.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Animal_Cell_Unannotated.svg/2000px-Animal_Cell_Unannotated.svg.png

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Atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms.

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However, during the 1930s and 1940s, it was not very clear which cross-disciplinary research would yield results. There was significant work being carried out in biophysics, radiation biology, colloid chemistry, crystallography, and other evolving fields looked promising. Between the molecules studied by chemists and the tiny structures visible under the optical microscope, such as the cellular nucleus or the chromosomes, there was an obscure zone, “the world of the ignored dimensions,” as it was called by the chemical-physicist Wolfgang Ostwald. The notable development in this field in the last century is as follows: • 1929: Phoebus Levene, an American biochemist at the Rockefeller Institute identified the elements of DNA, the four sugar bases, the phosphate chain, and the sugar. He demonstrated that these components were lined in the order phosphate-sugar-base. • 1940: Edward Tatum and George Beadle proved that there exists a Bacteriophage is definite relationship between proteins a type of virus that and genes. infects bacteria. • 1944: Oswald Avery, first molecular biologists, at the Rockefeller Institute of New York, proved DNA makes up genes in the body. • 1952: Martha Chase and Alfred Hershey further reinforced that the genetic material of bacteriophage is composed of DNA. A bacteriophage is the virus which infects bacteria.

History and Evolution of Life Science

•

1953: It was in this year that Francis Crick and James Watson revealed that the DNA molecule is composed of a double helical structure. • 1957: Crick presented a powerful presentation where he laid out the “Central Dogma”. It explained the connection between RNA, DNA and proteins. Crick also articulated the “sequence hypothesis.” • 1958: Meselson-Stahl conducted experiments and demonstrated that DNA replication was semiconservative, a critical confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure. • 1961: Jacques Monod and Francois Jacob put forward the hypothesis that there exists RNA, an intermediary between DNA and its protein products. In the same year, the genetic code was deciphered. It was Crick and Brenner who contributed to this decipher by identifying the triplet codon pattern. Heinrich J. Matthaei and Marshal Nirenberg of NH also made significant contributions by cracking the codes for the first 54 out of 64 codons. It was in the early 1960s that Jacob and Monod proved how some proteins stick to DNA at the edges of the genes. These were referred to as regulative proteins and it controlled the transcription of the genes it latches into messenger RNA. This way they are able to control

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Molecular biology is a branch of biology that concerns the molecular basis of biological activity between biomolecules in the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA, proteins and their biosynthesis, as well as the regulation of these interactions.

the “expression” of the genes. These events are the basic science underpinning molecular biology as a branch of science. At its center is the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology. It is here that genetic material is transcribed into RNA. It then translates into protein. Although this is an overgeneralized view of molecular biology, it still gives a good insight to understand the subject. As new emerging roles of RNA are being identified, this field is still evolving. Central Dogma has basically brought about the revolution in biological sciences. In recent times, a lot of research has been done in bioinformatics and computational biology at the intersection of computer science and molecular biology. In the early 2000s, molecular genetics emerged as an important sub-field of molecular biology. It is the study of the structure and function of a gene. There are many other fields of biology that concentrate on molecules. Development biology and cell biology directly observe the interactions of the molecules in their own right. Indirect study in this field comprises of the use of techniques of molecular biology to understand the historical attributes of species and populations. Some of these fields involved in the indirect study are population genetics and phylogenetics which are known as evolutionary biology. Another conventional method of studying biomolecules in biophysics is “from the ground up”. The study of protein structures and folding has garnered much interest in molecular biology for a long time. This study gained momentum in 1910 when the prominent paper C.J Martin and

History and Evolution of Life Science

Henrietta Chick demonstrated that flocculation of protein was comprised of two separate processes. Denaturation is a process that occurs before the precipitation of protein from solution. In this process, the protein losses much of its solvency property became devoid of enzymatic activity and became more reactive to chemicals. Linus Pauling later propagated the idea that it was hydrogen bonds that provided stability to protein structures. In 1933, William Astbury had first conceived this idea. Although Pauling’s theory about H-bonds was inaccurate, it led to his corrected models for the secondary elements for protein which was the alpha helix and beta sheet. Since then, there has been a huge amount of research to understand how proteins fold and maintain the structure. The studies are based on every physical and chemical property of proteins that are known. As of 2006, almost 40,000 atomic resolution structures of the protein are present with the Protein Data Bank. Due to the remarkable advancements in this field, some biologists have labeled the era from the 1960s till present as the “golden age of molecular biology”.

2.3 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF PHYSIOLOGY The study of physiology depicts the study of life. It establishes findings of the internal functions of organisms and their interaction with the environment. This field covers many areas from microscopic organelles in cell physiology

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up to broader topics like ecophysiology. Ecophysiology considers the entire organism and the way they adjust to their surroundings. Today the most important sub-field is applied human physiology. It is concerned with biological systems at the level of cell, system, organ, system, anatomy, organism and all the areas in between. The field as we see today is the culmination of various developments spanning over several decades. The roots of the discipline of physiology can be traced back to ancient Egypt and India around 420 BC. As a medical discipline, Hippocrates was the pioneer and referred to a “father of medicine”. Hippocrates founded the theory of four humors. It was based on the fact that the body has four bodily fluids that are distinct, namely- phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile. Illness in the human body is caused when their proportions get altered. Claudius Galenus also referred to as Galen, made changes to the theory propounded by Hippocrates. He was the first to start experiments as a means to gain more knowledge about how the body functions. For this reason, he is recognized as the founder of experimental physiology. Jean Fernel, a French physician coined the term “physiology”. It is derived from Ancient Greek and means “study of nature, origins”. He was the first person to identify how spinal canal looks and described it. The spinal canal is the space through which the spinal cord runs. His contributions to the field led to his widespread recognition. Fernelius, a crater in the moon is named after him.

History and Evolution of Life Science

In 1628, William Harvey’s book titled ‘An Anatomical Dissertation Upon the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals’ was published which threw more light on the field of physiology. It was Harvey, who explained how blood was systemically circulated through the brain and body and the role of the heart in blood circulation.

Figure 2.3: William Harvey made Notable Contributions.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/William_Harvey-Foto.jpg Till the 1800s, most of the medical practice was based on the four humors. There was a deviation from this practice in 1838, due to discoveries made by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. They put forward the cell theory which explained the idea that body was comprised of small individual cells. This discovery was a breakthrough for this field.

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Coagulation is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot.

Thereafter, it witnessed rapid progress: In 1858, Joseph Lister gained an understanding of how coagulation and inflammation happen when the body is injured. This led to the discovery of antiseptics that proved as life savers. • In 1891, Ivan Pavlov conditioned the physiological responses in dogs. • In 1910, August Krogh was awarded the Nobel prize for his work in explaining the regulation of blood flow in capillaries. • In 1952, Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin were the first to understand the iconic mechanism which transmits nerve impulses. • In 1954, Hugh Huxley and Andrew Huxley made significant contributions to the study of muscles. They discovered the sliding filaments that are present in skeletal muscles.

2.4 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF BOTANY Botany is sub-field of life sciences concerned with the study of plants. It encompasses the study of algae, mosses, ferns, lichens and fungi. It is also concerned with vital processes that affect plants like respiration, photosynthesis and plant nutrition. It also includes the study of the evolution of leaves, stems, roots. Today, the study of botany is only a part of the ecology, which is concerned with the environment. Plant ecologists study the impact of the environment on plants. The roots of botany can be traced in the fourth

History and Evolution of Life Science

century B.C when Aristotle and Theophrastus started identifying plants and describing them. Aristotle gained more recognition for his work on animals. Theophrastus came to be known as the “father of botany”. It was during this time that botany emerged as a science, however, a practical interest can be traced before that. The plant was not only the source of food but also medicines. As agriculture became more popular, so did the interest in plants. Better cultivation methods were developed, ways to protect them from weather and pests were also devised. Plants were also important as medicines in ancient civilizations like India, Egypt, Greece and others. Theophrastus raised questions that were more theoretical in nature, besides practical interests. Post this period, there was not much advancement in this field until Theophrastus’s writings were discovered during the dawn of Renaissance in the fifteenth century. The study of plants during ancient times was not limited to Western cultures. The Chinese were also engaged in the study of botany during the same time the Greeks were. In A.D 60, Dioscorides, which was a book on medicines and comprised majorly of those derived from plants. It was a guide for medicines in many western countries for almost 15 centuries. It was in the late sixteenth century that the microscope was invented which facilitated the observation and analysis of plant anatomy. In the seventeenth century, more experiments were started with plants. During the 1640s, Johannes van Helmont discovered how the quantity of water absorbed by trees. In 1727 Stephen Hales, an Englishman published

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Plant metabolism is defined as the complex of physical and chemical events of photosynthesis, respiration, and the synthesis and degradation of organic compounds.

his work titled Vegetable Staticks. It contained his experiments with respect to respiration and nutrition of plants. He is known to have established plant physiology as a science. He was the one who made it possible to measure mass, area, volume, gravity, pressure, and temperature in plants. It was during the second half of the eighteenth century that Joseph Priestley created interest in chemical analysis of plant metabolism. During the 1840s, potato blight destroyed potatoes in Ireland. Post this, the nineteenthcentury witnessed rapid progress in the study of plant diseases. After 1900, the work of Gregor Mendel in the field of genetics was applied to plant breeding. This paved the way for the development of modern plant genetics. It was during the early nineteenth century that the study of plant fossils advanced. This led to the establishment of ecology as a science during the latter half of the nineteenth century and early half of the twentieth century. In the present day, advancement in technology has helped botanist to gain knowledge about the three-dimensional nature of cells. This has made advancement in genetic engineering in plant possible which has led to an increase in agricultural output. The research in the field of the plant is still in progress as experts try to gain knowledge about the behavior, structure and cellular activities in the plant. This is important for developing improved crops, find out new drugs and establish ways to maintain and restore the natural environment of Earth so that it can continue to support all living things, plant as well as animals.

History and Evolution of Life Science

2.5 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF ZOOLOGY People started developing an interest in knowing about animals long before zoology was established as a branch of science. Humans study the behavior and habits of animals and acted as zoologists in a way. The written history of zoology can be credited to Aristotle who started his work around the 4th century. He used to observe animals and write it down. It laid the foundation for the studies of Saint Albert Magnus during the 13th century. Magnus was a Bishop at a Catholic church and a Dominican friar. He spent his life adding to what Aristotle had found in his observations and dabbled in early zoology. His works was considered very advanced till the 1800s, in zoology as well as the entire life science filed. Many prominent European universities came up during the 1500s and people started expressing interest in knowing about animals. In 1651, the German Academy of Sciences was set up which was entirely dedicated to animal and plant research. A decade later, the Royal Society of London set up a similar school, which was followed by another institute in Paris, France. This interest was further nurtured in the 1700s. President Thomas Jefferson also expressed interest during this period. Later, the advanced microscope was invented by Anton von Leeuewenhook’s which helped many fields of life sciences including zoology, immensely. It enables the expansion of the findings made by Aristotle and Magnus.

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Figure 2.4: Anton von Leeuwenhoek significantly Improved Microscopes that Helped Life Sciences Immensely.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Jan_Verkolje_-_Antonie_ van_Leeuwenhoek.jpg

Zoology is the scientific study of animals. This discipline can include animal anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, evolution, ecology, behaviour and conservation.

The golden period of zoology us the 19th century where considerable progress was made. It was during this time that cells were identified as the building blocks of life. It was the invention of the microscope which had made this possible. It enabled the study of life processes at a microscopic level. This meant that animals could now be studied at the microscopic level. The 19th century was also characterized by the remarkable contribution made by Charles Darwin. His works led to the evolution of modern zoology as it is known today. His theory of evolution was published in 1859, which revolutionized all life sciences including zoology. It led to the revision on the basis which

History and Evolution of Life Science

the animals belonging to the animal kingdom are classified. It also changed the modern taxonomy, which is integral to the study of the subject of zoology. In the 1990s, there was a breakthrough in DNA research which changed the face of zoology, similar to the way the invention of the microscope did. Zoology has evolved much, and it is now a multifaceted field. It comprises of animal behavior, their genetics, physiology. It also includes specialization of single groups of animals like mammals and reptiles. It now comprises of various sub-fields. Paleontology is a branch of zoology that is concerned with the evolution and history of animals. Another branch is geography which studies the geographical distribution of animals. Zoology has a long and eventful history. It has evolved considerably from its primitive origins. From the observation of animals for survival to the establishment of various branches of study, the journey of evolution of this science, like other sciences is a remarkable one.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS: 1. Who was the pioneer in the development of medicines and during which period did he make active contributions? 2. What was Aristotle’s notable contribution to life Sciences? 3. What was Darwin’s most important contribution to the field of life sciences? 4. Explain in brief the history and evolution of The Molecular and Cellular Biology Evolution. 5. What was the important finding of Francis Crick and James Watson and in which year did they establish this finding? 6. How did the study of proteins evolve in molecular biology? 7. Explain William Harvey’s contribution to the field of physiology. 8. Explain in brief the history and evolution of the field of botany. 9. Which were the first two prominent institutes that were established to study the field of zoology and when? 10. Which was the golden period of zoology and what developments were noted during this period?

History and Evolution of Life Science

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REFERENCES 1.

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4.

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Actforlibraries.org. (n.d.). A brief History of Zoology. [online] Available at: http://www.actforlibraries.org/a-brief-history-ofzoology/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Bitesize Bio. (n.d.). History of Molecular Biology - Bitesize Bio. [online] Available at: https://bitesizebio.com/10283/history-ofmolecular-biology/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Csls-text2.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp. (n.d.). Chapter 1 How Did Life Science Begin? | Introduction to Life Science | University of Tokyo. [online] Available at: http://csls-text2.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/inactive/01_00.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Newman, T. and Deborah Weatherspoon, C. (2017). Introduction to physiology: History, biological systems, and branches. [online] Medical News Today. Available at: https://www.medicalnewstoday. com/articles/248791.php [Accessed 23 May 2019]. Science.jrank.org. (2019). Botany - History of botany. [online] Available at: https://science.jrank.org/pages/996/Botany.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. The Convergence Revolution. (2016). Timeline — The Convergence Revolution. [online] Available at: http://www. convergencerevolution.net/timeline [Accessed 23 May 2019].

CHAPTER 3

FIELDS IN THE LIFE SCIENCES

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• • • • • • • • • •

In this chapter, you will learn about:

Agrotechnology Molecular Biology Convergence Animal Science Food Science Environmental Science Food Engineering Physiology DNA Cloning

• • • • • •

Different fields that exist under the umbrella of life sciences The meaning of Agrotechnology The concept of animal science The meaning of food science The existence and study of molecular biology The effects of combining all the sciences together under life sciences

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3.1 AGROTECHNOLOGY In the previous five decades that have gone by, the policies and technological developments in the agriculture sector have been aimed at improving food production. This phenomenon has resulted in the increase in the sale of inorganic fertilizers, usage of pesticides, the feeding material for the animals and the machinery component related to the field of agriculture. The external factors that are being discussed, have quite emphatically replaced the organic elements that served certain purposes in the field of agriculture and the mechanical methods that were used to irrigate the fields and control the spread of pests. The inorganic fertilizers have replaced the natural nitrogen-fixing crops and other such manures.

Figure 3.1: Machinery and technology involved in the farming practices have made it even worse acting as external elements in the agrotechnology.

Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/7863/46564453304_ eeb1c4777b_b.jpg The basic challenge that agriculture has at its hands, involves making better usage of the internal resources and the natural elements in the field. This can be overcome only by minimizing the use of external or inorganic elements. This fact is now being proven by certain evidence received from the field that also emphasizes on the fact that introduction and adoption of the internal elements will

Fields in the Life Sciences

improve the benefits of all kinds for the farmers, including the economic and environmental ones. The introduction of technology that involves the usage of renewable energy and organic elements, can help significantly in the enhancement of production in the agriculture sector and help achieve sustainability in the process. In pursuing such goals, the farmers are increasing the use of best management practices on their farms now. The farmers are now reducing the use of broad-spectrum pesticides, which, in fact, use a greater number of sprays, which results in increased investments. They are shifting to the use of disease-resistant hybrids, biological pest control, and other cultural practices that will certainly help in reducing the occurrence of pests. The use of technology has improved farmers’ life by good margins. This is reflected in the use of GIS and various crop models in addition to the remote sensing technology, to get precise information on their agricultural status, by data based on the actual yields from the farms. These technologically advanced tools have a significant role to play in a way that they enable the farmers to manage their fields to be able to be used for both wildlife and agriculture. These facts can further be proven by the evidence that comes from the lands of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, that still fall behind in terms of chemical use in the farms. The farmers in these regions are dependent on the resource conservation technologies which may include integrated pest management, nutrient recycling, soil and water conservation,

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Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat.

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and water reuse and its proper harvesting. The farmers are well supported by the external governments and the various NGOs, who have endeavored hard to meet the needs of the local people and work on their capabilities. Though, there are certain policies that are still made to support the external farming elements and technologies.

3.2 ANIMAL SCIENCE Animal science is the combined study of animals in domestic purposes. This incorporates each element, from origination to death, behavior to management, physiology to food, and reproduction to the circulation of goods. Animal science portrays an aggregation of information that started with perceptions of those hunters and collectors who started the procedure of keeping domestic animals a long time before in the past. As animal researchers have found out increasingly more about animals, the combined amount of data has turned out to be hugely expanded for any one individual to understand in a proper way.

Figure 3.2: Animal Science provides the system to look after the domestic animals as well.

Fields in the Life Sciences

Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/7629/16732 161017_53ab388667_b.jpg Out of need, its study is categorized into various smaller fields, or specialties, as a method for making reasonable pieces of information that can be joined later. These disciplines might be separated in a few different ways, but the following ones outline the point: • Genetics is the study of heredity and the variety of acquired attributes. Animal breeding is the utilization of biometry and genetic qualities to improve farm animal gene by modification. Genetics is an extending field due to a great extent to gradual advancement in comprehending the genetic code. • Nutrition is the study of how the various creatures take in and use food or feed for body requirements. The point whether animals build up their genetic potential relies upon their surroundings. The most significant environmental factor is the feed. Food is the science that joins nourishment with feeding management to achieve the effective creation of domesticated animals and additionally health and long life to animals. • Physiology is the study of the working of life from the single biochemical responses in cells to the synchronized combination of specific cells that comprise a living animal. Since physiology is unpredictable, the people more often than not, relate the study to the activities of physiological

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Heredity is also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents.

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•

•

•

•

frameworks. Some of the examples incorporate regenerative physiology, renal physiology, and exercise physiology. Animal health is the study of how ailments, parasites, and environmental components influence efficiency and animal welfare. Disease or ailment is characterized as any state other than a condition of health. Animal behavior and welfare created alongside the livestock industry’s expanded reliance on confinement raising frameworks, which give more noteworthy authority over animals, decrease work and feed expenses, and help boost genetic potential. Animals in these systems regularly present issues in their behavior. It incorporates animal welfare evaluation, improving production, behavior control, behavioral issue, and behavioral genetics. Meat science manages the dealing with, conveyance, and promoting of finished meat items. Meat is characterized as the consumable flesh of animals that are utilized for food. Meat by-products are the majority of the items other than the body meat, some of which are palatable and some of which are most certainly not. Dairy product science manages the grouping, processing, and promoting of milk in its numerous forms to the customers who are using it.

Fields in the Life Sciences

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Biotechnology includes innovative uses of science. This field has gotten new consideration in animal science as a result of recombinant DNA. Each one of different fields of animal science has profited by biotechnology and will keep on performing as such at a regularly increasing rate.

3.3 FOOD SCIENCE Food Science can be termed as the utilization of the essential sciences and engineering to contemplate the key physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the standards of food processing. Food innovation is the utilization of the data produced by food science in the determination, safeguarding, processing, packaging, and circulation, as it influences the utilization of safe, nutritious and healthy food. All things considered, food science is a wide field which contains in it, numerous specializations, for example, in food microbiology, food engineering, and food chemistry. Since food communicates legitimately with individuals, some food researchers are likewise intrigued by the psychology of food decisions.

Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms that inhabit, create, or contaminate food, including the study of microorganisms causing food spoilage.

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Figure 3.3: Food science lab in a functional state.

Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/2327/24238 74947_327679ccec_b.jpg These people work with the tactile properties of foods. Food engineers manage the change of crude rural items, for example, wheat into increasingly finished food items, for example, flour or heated products. Food handling contains a considerable lot of indistinguishable components from synthetic and mechanical building. For all intents and purposes, all foods are gotten from living cells. In this manner, foods are generally made out of “palatable biochemicals,” thus organic chemists frequently work with foods to see how handling or capacity may synthetically influence foods and their environmental chemistry. Similarly, nutritionists are engaged with food manufacturing to guarantee that foods keep up their normal dietary chemical. Other food researchers work for the administration so as to guarantee that the foods the people purchase are protected, healthy, and actually spoke to.

Fields in the Life Sciences

3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Environmental science is the study of the communications between the chemical, physical, and organic parts of the natural world, including their consequences for a wide range of animals and how people affect their environment. The environment is everything that influences a living being amid its lifetime. Thus, all animals, including individuals, influence numerous segments in their Environment. From a human perspective, environmental issues include the apprehensions about science, nature, health, business, benefits, law, governmental issues, morals, fine arts, and economies. Accordingly, environmental science tends to be a multidisciplinary area of study. The word environmental is generally comprehended to mean the encompassing surroundings that influence individuals and different animals.

Figure 3.4: Environmental Science helps in conserving the lands and plants in the surroundings of people.

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Source: https://media.defense.gov/2019/ Apr/19/2002118634/-1/-1/0/190411-FAL359-1004.JPG

Conservation is the preservation or efficient use of resources, or the conservation of various quantities under physical laws.

A few people think about themselves as people in charge of conservation. A preservation ethic centers around sustainable use of resources, their distribution, and safety. The essential concern is on keeping up the health of surroundings and the bioscientific diversity present in it. Other individuals might be named environmentalists. The environmental ethic is a wide range of scientific, social, and political developments. An environmentalist is somebody who effectively attempts to safeguard nature from pollution or contamination. Decision making about environmental prospects naturally includes bargain. A choice that might be sustainable from a scientific or financial perspective may not be sustainable from a political perspective or the other way around. By and large, the groups included discussion and contend their perspectives. Eventually, when choices are made, each group may have given grounds, however, ideally, all gatherings are eager to acknowledge the deals and promises they have made.

3.5 MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Molecular science is the study of living things at the point of the molecules which move them and make them up. While customary science focused on contemplating all the living life forms and

Fields in the Life Sciences

how they collaborate inside populations, which is a “top-down” approach, molecular science endeavors to comprehend living things by looking at the segments that make them up, indicating a “bottom-up” approach. The two ways to deal with science are similarly legitimate, in spite of the fact that enhancements to innovation have allowed researchers to focus more on the molecules of life as of late.

Figure 3.5: Molecular labs help in discovering those aspects in science that lie beyond the reach of naked eye.

Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/2487/40751 49731_381af77c5c_b.jpg Molecular science is a particular part of organic chemistry, the study of the science of molecules which are particularly associated with life-related activities. Of specific significance to molecular science are the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and the proteins which are built utilizing the genetic guidelines found in those molecules. Different biomolecules, for example, sugars and lipids may likewise be considered for the connections they have with

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Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life.

nucleic acids and proteins. Molecular science is naturally isolated from the field of cell biology, which focuses on cell structures (organelles and so forth), molecular pathways inside the cells and cell life cycles. The molecules which make up the fundamental element of life, give researchers an increasingly analytical and predictable tool to study. Working with complete living beings, or even simply complete cells, can be erratic, with the result of studies depending on the cooperation of thousands of molecular pathways and external components. Molecular science furnishes researchers with a toolbox with which they may “tinker” with the manner in which life works. They may utilize them to decide the capacity of single qualities or proteins, and discover what might occur if that gene or protein was missing or broken. Molecular science is utilized to look at when and why certain qualities are exchanged “on” or “off”. A comprehension of every one of the variables has allowed researchers a more profound comprehension of how living things work and utilized this information to create medicines for when living things don’t work so well.

3.5.1 Basic Molecular Science Techniques The following points cover a portion of the more widely adopted molecular science procedures, though there may be more procedures in use. • Electrophoresis – a procedure which isolates molecules, for example, DNA or proteins out as per their

Fields in the Life Sciences

•

•

•

•

size, electrophoresis is a backbone of molecular science research centers. While knowing the size of a molecule probably won’t appear such important data, it very well may be utilized to distinguish molecules or pieces of molecules and as a check to ensure that the people have the right one present. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) – a procedure used to intensify little amounts of DNA to sums which can be utilized in further studies. It is utilized as a fundamental device in molecular science to guarantee that the people have adequate DNA to do advanced strategies, for example, genetic change, anyway it has more extensive handy uses, for example, in crime scene study (distinguishing proof utilizing DNA profiling) and ailment conclusion. PCR can likewise be utilized to bring little point transformations into a gene in a procedure called site-coordinated mutagenesis. Restriction Digest – the way toward cutting DNA up into smaller pieces utilizing chemicals which just act at a specific genetic arrangement. Ligation – the way toward joining two bits of DNA together. Ligation is valuable while presenting another bit of DNA into another genome. Blotting – a procedure used to particularly recognize biomolecules

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Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance.

following electrophoresis. The molecule of interest is shown utilizing either a labeled experiments (a corresponding strand of nucleic chemical) or a named counteracting agent raised against a particular protein. • Cloning – the procedure of bringing another gene into a phone or life form. This can be utilized to perceive what impact the statement of that gene has on the living being, to transform the living being into a plant which will create enormous amounts of the gene or the protein it codes for, or (inside the consideration of a label) to show where the results of that gene are communicated in the living being. Inclusion of genetic material into a bacterium is called transformation, while addition into a eukaryotic cell is called transfection. On the off chance that a virus is utilized to present this material, the procedure is called transduction. Every one of these methods is utilized related to different systems to enable researchers to tackle a specific research question. For instance, following utilizing PCR to make huge amounts of a specific gene a researcher may ligate a gene for a specific protein into a plasmid vector (a short roundabout strand of DNA which goes about as a bearer), play out a fast restriction digest and electrophoresis to guarantee that the gene has been embedded appropriately, and after that utilization that plasmid to change a bacterial cell which is utilized to create huge amounts of the vector.

Fields in the Life Sciences

After decontamination of the vector from the microorganisms, it is then used to transfect a mammalian cell in culture. The researcher at that point utilizes protein electrophoresis and western blotting to study the kind of the gene product.

3.6 IMPLICATIONS OF THE CONVERGENCE OF BIOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY Bioactive molecules, for example, bioregulators and biotoxins fall into a center range of operators running from established chemical weapons, (for example, nerve gases) toward one side to traditional organic weapons, (for example, viruses and bacteria) on the other, and bioregulators specifically have been depicted as “prototypic nontraditional danger specialists” (Kagan, 2006). As the life and chemical sciences keep on progressing quickly, this potential mid-range region of cover between the BWC and CWC (Biological Weapons Convention and Chemical Weapons Convention, respectively) may keep on extending in a few different ways: • Developing knowledge will result in more molecules that fall inside territories of cover, (for example, poisons and regulators) being found and described; • Ongoing studies to comprehend the components of activity of significant organic molecules, their roles in physiological frameworks, and their guideline will create improved

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comprehension of how such molecules could be utilized; • Enhancements will keep on being made in environmental and chemical creation innovation, for instance, that makes it simpler to deliver proteins, peptides, and medications in transgenic animal and plant frameworks, in little scale, cell culture bioreactors, and by chemical combination; • Enhancements in conveyance innovation will keep on tending to constraints, for example, fast corruption and requirement for focused conveyance to cells and tissues (counting to the focal sensory system), in this way conceivably rendering it increasingly possible to convey operators, for example, bioregulators; and • New study fields that embody scientific combination, for example, synthetic biology, will keep on being developed. The report of an advisory panel that met in 2011 by the Director General of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) on future needs for the CWC notes: “This convergence calls for a closer interaction in the implementation of the [CWC] Convention, and the Biological Weapons Convention. Convergence in the sciences does not in itself lead to convergence of the regimes, but exchanges of experience and joint technical reviews could be helpful to understand how it af-

Fields in the Life Sciences

fects the implementation of both treaties at the interface between chemistry and biology. That is particularly pertinent as there is an overlap between the two treaties with regard to the prohibition of toxin weapons.” (OPCW, 2011b:20) The combination of scientific fields, including science and science, was featured at the global scientific workshop met in 2006 preceding the Sixth BWC Review Conference (Royal Society, 2006b) and at the 2007 universal scientific workshop gathered by the International Combination of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) before the Second CWC Review Conference (Balali-Mood and others, 2008). This report attracts consideration regarding it again in light of the fact that it remains a huge element of the present study in the life sciences and chemical sciences. In April 2011 the Scientific Advisory Board of the OPCW prescribed the foundation of a Temporary Working Group to consider the ramifications of chemical environmental assembly for the CWC (OPCW, 2011c).

3.6.1 Challenges and Opportunities Related to the Integration of Disciplines in the Life Sciences The increasing joining of the physical, designing and numerical sciences with the organic sciences keeps on extending the extent of exchanges of pertinent S&T zones for the BWC. This proceeding with development of important zones of S&T may represent a few challenges for the BWC and for established researchers.

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Toxin is a poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms; synthetic toxicants created by artificial processes are thus excluded.

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As research in the life sciences draws progressively on information and methods from different fields, the scope of ability important to follow the Environment of scientific improvements and to evaluate their potential ramifications additionally grows. The BWC has been trying endeavors to draw in individuals from the life sciences network through its intersessional gatherings and through introductions at scientific conferences. These endeavors are proceeding to cultivate attention to the BWC and of the standards and necessities, it contains. Given the decent variety of possibly important fields that are meeting up to address Challenges in the life sciences, a growing effort to new scientific partners who have not generally been a piece of the “life sciences” network may be considered. Past reports have noticed the institutional, monetary, and instructive Challenges related with combination between the life and physical sciences, including the structures of customary scholastic divisions, frameworks of motivating forces and advancement that may not adequately credit multi-creator and community ventures, and the requirement for upgraded crossdisciplinary training as a major aspect of center processing prerequisites (NRC, 2010a; Sharp and others, 2011). An extra challenge is the making of moral systems for capable science that connects networks that might be familiar with examining comparable moral topics in various ways, and have distinctive social standards in regards to the inspiration for trials, where they are distributed,

Fields in the Life Sciences

and how they are assessed (NRC, 2011a). For instance, on account of manufactured science, many rehearsing cell scholars and microbiologists center around the final result (“it would seem that what the people as of now do”) and not the architects’ accentuation on the way that the procedure to arrive was unique. So also, a bioengineer may distribute a paper on building up a reproducible adaptable procedure to advance cell-based creation of a compound. Conversely, customary science is typically centered around seeing “how it works,” not “how would I use it to achieve X?” Thus, despite the fact that mindful lead across fields, for example, designing and science is probably going to address basic themes, for example, respectability, irreconcilable circumstances, the security of appropriateness data, and basic leadership steady with open health and welfare, the precedents used to delineate these ideas may contrast. Eventually, the combination of fields may present Challenges to the activity of routines like the BWC and the CWC. New scientific advancements may modify or extend the sorts of agents that could be of worry as environmental or synthetic weapons or potentially may adjust or grow the meanings of which molecules fall under the domain of the two agreements. One conceivable job for established researchers might investigate and clearing up the specialized issues encompassing these Enhancements in science and science, to educate endeavors to more readily characterize the nature and extent of the challenges they present. Continuous scientific debates just as the kinds

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of strategy exchanges proposed by the OPCW warning board (OPCW, 2011b) might add to the thought of challenges to come to the two settlements presented by enhancements in S&T, including future risk agents and their strategies for creation. Notwithstanding these potential challenges, the intersection of different points of view and the assembly of numerous fields in the life sciences remains an energizing pattern. The model of integration in the life sciences is one that may give numerous innovative new opportunities to address challenges across territories like health, vitality, agribusiness, and the environment.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS What do you mean by agrotechnology? How can agrotechnology help the farmers? What is meant by animal sciences? In what way animal science contributes to the other life sciences? 5. What can be understood by the term food sciences? 6. How can food sciences be used to contribute to science development? 7. Explain the term molecular biology. 8. What are the various elements of molecular biology? 9. Explain the implications of combining biology and chemistry. 10. What are the challenges related to the integration of various disciplines in the life sciences? 1. 2. 3. 4.

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REFERENCES 1.

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An Introduction to Environmental Science. (n.d.). [ebook] Available at: https://www.ed.gov.nl.ca/edu/k12/curriculum/documents/ science/highschool/ES3205_student_text_chapter_1.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Di.uq.edu.au. (2017). Introduction to molecular biology. [online] Available at: https://di.uq.edu.au/community-and-alumni/sparqed/cell-and-molecular-biology-experiences/dna-restriction-andelectrophoresis/introduction-molecular-biology [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. (2011). Integration of Multiple Disciplines in Life Sciences Research. [online] Available at: https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK91469/#ch4.s8 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Potter, N. and Hotchkiss, J. (1995). Introduction: Food Science as a Discipline. Food Science Text Series, [online] pp.1-12. Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-4985-7_1 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Rehman, A., Hussain, I., Jingdong, L. and Khatoon, R. (2016). Modern Agricultural Technology Adoption its Importance, Role and Usage for the Improvement of Agriculture. [ebook] IDOSI Publications. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299033123_ Modern_Agricultural_Technology_Adoption_its_Importance_ Role_and_Usage_for_the_Improvement_of_Agriculture [Accessed 24 May 2019]. The Place of Animals and Animal Science in the Lives of Humans. (n.d.). [ebook] Available at: https://www.pearsonhighered.com/ assets/samplechapter/0/1/3/4/0134436059.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2019].

CHAPTER 4

BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCE

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• • • • • • •

In this chapter, you will learn about:

• • •

Biotechnology Biology Cell-Biology Biochemistry Homeostasis Photosynthesis Bio-Chemical Reactions Animal Cell Plant Cell Diversity

• • • • •

Introduction to life science. What is basic science. Major concepts of basic science. What is applied science. Branches of applied science.

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4.1. INTRODUCTION The study of a living organism and life processes can be referred to as ‘Life Science’. Life science is a science that involves cells and their components, products and processes. Life sciences can be defined as all the sciences that are related to organisms like plants, animals and human being. Examples of Life sciences includes Animal-Science, Genetics and Genomics, Agrotechnology, Nanotechnology, Bio-engineering, Biotechnology, Biology, Cell-Biology, Biochemistry, Ecology, Food-Science, Molecular-Biology, Tissue Engineering and Plant Science, etc. In order to study Life Sciences thoroughly, it is much needed to cover some topics: • Structure of plants and animal cells and functions of their components. • Tissues • Anatomy • Osmosis • Homeostasis • Important Bio-Chemical reactions

4.1.1. Structure of Plants and Animal Cells and Functions of Their Components The most important fundamental level in the organization of the living world is the cellular level. So, it is important to study the plant and animal cell.

Basic and Applied Science

Figure 4.1: Diagram of an Animal Cell.

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Simple_diagram_of_animal_cell_(en).svg Components within the structure of cells include Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Golgi bodies, Ribosomes, Lysosomes, Plasma Membrane, Mitochondria, Cell wall and Plastids, etc.

Figure 4.2: Diagram of A Plant Cell.

Sources: https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Plant_cell •

Nucleus: Nucleus is a spherical cellular component which is located

Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane toward a higher concentration of solute (lower concentration of solvent).

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Cytoplasm is all of the material within a cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus.

at the center of any cell. A fluid is filled in it which is called cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is present in a nuclear envelope which is bounded by two nuclear membranes. The innermost layer of it is named as endoplasm and outermost later is named as cell cortex or ectoplasm. The space in between the nuclear envelope is connected to the ER that is Endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic reticulum has pores in it which contain a liquid known as nucleoplasm. ER separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. Nucleoplasm is embedded with two structures namely the nucleolus and chromatin material. • Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a part of a cell which is in between the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope. The cytosol is an aqueous substance which is contained in the cytoplasm. In cytosol, a variety of cell organelles and has other inclusions like storage products (starch, lipid, etc.) and insoluble waste. There is a membranous network inside any cell which contains fluid lumen and this almost fills the intracellular cavity. This is known as Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER). Endoplasmic Reticulum that is ER forms a supporting skeletal framework of the cell and also provides a routeway for distribution of nuclear material from one cell to another. Endoplasmic Reticulum i.e., ER is of two types: i. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): The Endoplasmic Reticulum which does not contains

Basic and Applied Science

ribosomes are known as Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER). It is meant for secreting lipids. ii. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): The Endoplasmic Reticulum which contains ribosomes that are attached on its surface and hence used for synthesizing proteins are known as Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER). • Golgi Bodies: Golgi bodies consists of a set of membrane bounded, fluid filled vesicles, vacuoles, and flattened cisternae (closed sacs). Its main function is secretion. The material that is been synthesized inside the cell, Golgi bodies packages it and dispatches them. It is not present in blue-green algae, mature sperms, bacteria and red blood cells of mammals and other animals. It produces secretory vesicles or vacuoles which contain cellular secretions like enzyme etc. And also, it is involved in the excretion of lysosomes, plasma membrane and cell wall. • Ribosomes: Ribosomes are spherical, granular and dense particles which are found in cytosol and it remains attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Ribosomes do play a key role in protein synthesis. • Lysosomes: Lysosomes are tiny spherical pouch-like structure which is evenly distributed in the cytoplasm. Lysosomes contains cells which digest bacteria, viruses and foreign proteins. And hence it can also be referred to as a kind of disposable system of the

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Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products.

cell. Whenever cells get damaged, lysosomes break and the enzyme contained eat-up their own cells. So, it can also be named as suicidal bags. • Plasma membrane: Plasma membrane is the outer membrane of each cell. This plasma membrane is present in the cells of plants, animals and microorganism. It is a living, flexible, thin and a selectively porous membrane. The plasma membrane is made up of proteins, lipids and a small number of carbohydrates. Its main function is to hold the cellular contents as well as controlling the passage of materials in and out of the cell. • Mitochondria: Mitochondria are the tiny bodies distributed in the cytoplasm and are of various shapes and sizes. It is restricted by an envelope of a double membrane. The inner membrane contains folds which are referred to as cristae which have rounded particles known as oxysomes or F1 particles. The outer membrane is porous. Considering that mitochondria produce energy-rich compounds (ATP), and therefore also called as powerhouse of the cell. • Cell wall: Cell wall is present outside the plasma membrane and are found in plants. Cell wall is thick, nonliving and rigid but it is generally permeable. Its major function is to provide strength and protection to the cell. The cell wall is made up of

Basic and Applied Science

cellulose, pectin and hemicelluloses. • Plastids: Plastids are the membranebound organelles which is found in plant cell and is absent in the animal cell. They have their own genetic material and contains the power to divide. Plastids are of three types: i. Chromoplasts: These are the colored plastids which impart different colors to flower in order to attract insects for pollination. ii. Chloroplasts: These are greencolored plastids that trap solar energy and utilizes it in the manufacturing of food for plants. iii. Leucoplasts: These are colorless plastids that store food in carbohydrate form (starch), proteins and fats.

4.1.2. Tissues The building block of an organism either in animal or in plants is referred to as a tissue. And the study of tissues is known as histology.

Figure 4.3: Types of Tissue.

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Sources: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Four_types_of_tissue.jpg

Neurons are similar to other cells in the human body in a number of ways, but there is one key difference between neurons and other cells.

Tissues are the group of cells that are grouped together as per specific structures and in a highly organized manner. the group of tissues hence form organs and various part of the body. They are generally of four types of tissues found in the human body: • Epithelial Tissue: Epithelial cells make up the epithelial tissue. These cells can be of any shape like either flat, cuboidal or columnar. Epithelial tissues are tightly joined and hence makes up a single stacked continuous sheet. Epithelium makes a protective cover for the body, in the form of skin. • Nervous Tissue: Tissue found in the nervous system is referred to as nervous tissue. It is made up of uniquely specialized cells. The nervous system passes on signals from nerves to the brain and spinal cord. Some cells conduct these impulses which makes our senses to work and these cells are known as neurons. • Muscle Tissue: Muscle tissue is made up of long and threadlike cells. When some tension activates in the body, these cells contracts and hence it becomes possible to move our body parts. They are packed and are organized in parallel lines and so makes our muscles strong. • Connective Tissue: Tissues that make up a connective mesh inside the

Basic and Applied Science

body. It helps in holding our body parts together and provide support. Connective tissues are filled in between the spaces inside the body.

4.1.3. Anatomy The field that studies the structure of living things is called anatomy. It majorly targets on the structure, composition and location of the parts of organisms such as organs, systems and tissues and also focuses on the correlation between different parts. Anatomy can be classified into two parts namely macroscopic or gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. • Gross or macroscopic anatomy: Gross or macroscopic anatomy is the study of the biological structures that are visible to the naked eye that is the study of larger structures of organs and organ systems. • Microscopic anatomy: Microscopic anatomy can be referred to as histology as well. It is generally the study of cells and tissues of plants and animals that are too small and can not be seen by the naked eye. When tissues are seen under a microscope, it becomes easy to learn about the architecture of cells and their correlation.

4.1.4. Osmosis Osmosis is a kind of diffusion and is correlated with cells. When molecules or atoms

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move from an area of high concentration to low concentration, this process is called diffusion. When a substance passes through a semipermeable membrane so that it can balance the concentration of other substance, it is referred to as osmosis. Osmosis is a spontaneous process that does not possess any energy on the part of the cell. Osmosis deals with chemical solutions. Solutions contain two parts that is a solvent and a solute. A solution is made when a solute dissolves in a solvent. For example, Salt water, in which salt is the solute and water is the solvent.

Figure 4.4: Different types of Solutions.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosis

Hypertonic refers to a solution with higher osmotic pressure than another solution.

There are three types of solution: Isotonic solutions: When the concentration of the solute on both the side that is inside and outside is the same, that solution is isotonic. Hypertonic solutions: When the concentration of solute outside the cell higher than inside then it is hypertonic. Hypotonic solution: When the concentration of solute inside the cell is higher than outside then it is hypotonic.

Basic and Applied Science

4.1.5. Homeostasis Homeostasis is the ability of cells, tissues and organisms which allows them to maintain and regulate steadiness and stability needed to function properly. This maintenance is done by the constant adjustment of physiological and biochemical pathways. These adjustments allow the maintenance of blood pressure that is required for the body.

4.1.6. Important Bio-Chemical Reactions Biochemical reactions are the reactions that take place inside living things. The two of the most important biochemical reactions are cellular respiration and photosynthesis. These two most important processes provide energy to almost each and every organism living on earth. i. Photosynthesis: In this process plants and other organisms use carbon dioxide, water and sunlight and produces glucose and oxygen. The chemical equation for photosynthesis is: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy (from sunlight) → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

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Figure 4.5: Diagram of Photosynthesis.

Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/photosynthesis-3498260/

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

This process of photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy. The bonds of glucose molecules store chemical energy. For energy, cells use glucose. Plants synthesize their own glucose while other organisms on earth consume plants in order to get glucose. ii. Cellular respiration: The process in which the cells of living things disintegrate glucose with oxygen in order to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. The chemical reaction for cellular respiration is: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Heat and Chemical Energy Some energy in glucose is released by cellular respiration as heat. Many smaller molecules are

Basic and Applied Science

formed by using the rest of the energy. Energy is contained in these smaller molecules to power chemical reactions inside the cells. Science can be categorized into two types: ‘Basic’ and ‘Applied’. Basic science is the source of most of the scientific theories. For example, A scientist who is doing research on how a particular disease is caused or how the body makes cholesterol is performing basic science. Using scientific discoveries to solve practical problems is applied science. For example, applied science based on basic science is medicine, as it knows how to treat patients well.

4.2. BASIC SCIENCE The study related to basic inventions and discoveries in the field of science is known as basic science. It is knowledge of knowing about facts acquired which do not have anything to do with its application and uses in the future. The basic aim is to expand and evaluate knowledge in a particular field. For example, research is done on how glucose is turned into glucose energy or finding out how elevated levels of blood glucose is harmful to the body. Basic Science includes three major concepts: • Organizations and Systems • Cycles • Constancy and change • Scientific Process • Scales

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4.2.1. Organizations and System

Organ system is a group of organs that work together as a biological system to perform one or more functions.

When the objects or phenomena are organized into a logical order, it helps individuals to understand the complexities of the subject or any place in the list of hierarchies. Scientists also organize various components into the systems. The collection of parts that work together and manipulate each other. Some examples of systems are organ system, ecosystem, solar system, etc. The cells, tissues and organs of any individual work altogether for a specific purpose in an organ system. The system in which all the living and non-living things interact with each other is the ecosystem. Furthermore, example of an ecosystem can be a fish tank at homes. The plants are getting enough light and nutrient int eh ground, therefore, they are alive and so fishes anticipate on plants for oxygen and food. The system in which the gravity of planets, sun and moon affect each other is the solar system. The gravitational pull of the moon influences the intensity of tides on earth.

Figure 4.6: Solar System.

Basic and Applied Science

Source: System

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_

4.2.2. Cycles A repeated series of connected events can be referred to as a cycle. Some examples for cycles can be, life cycle, water cycle, etc. All creatures living on this planet have a life cycle. For example, when an adult butterfly lays an egg. The caterpillar or larva incubates from the egg. After that when the caterpillar is ready, it builds a cocoon around itself. And ultimately, a butterfly emerges from the cocoon, after some time it lays eggs again and the process gets repeated all over again.

Figure 4.7: Life cycle of a butterfly.

Source: https://www.fws.gov/news/blog/index. cfm/2016/9/14/Monarchs-North-Americas-Butterfly The water on our planet is continuously recycled again and again and this cycle is referred to as the water cycle. The water contained in lakes or oceans evaporates into the atmosphere and then precipitates into clouds.

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The water vapors in the air become more than the ability in the air of the atmosphere to hold the water vapors, the water falls back in the form of rain on the Earth. The rain fills the lakes or oceans again and the process repeats itself again and again.

4.2.3. Constancy, Changes and Diversity Homeostasis is the state of steady internal physical and chemical conditions maintained by living systems.

The steady state or can say the state that does not change is constancy. For example, equilibrium, homeostasis. Whenever a system is in equilibrium condition, the forces acting on it becomes balanced. When variation occurs in any element then that helps individuals to understand the typical properties found in objects. Individuals can better forecast the outcome from the modification occurred, once it gets to understand the variation that took place. For example, the boiling and freezing temperatures of water can be predicted, which will cause water to expand and freeze and evaporate when boiled. Once the individual gets to understand diversity taking place in the natural world, it gives a better knowledge about how ecosystems work and what are factors on which it depends in order to carry out their particular functions.

4.2.4. Scientific Process The scientific process starts off with proposing a question, then creating a theory and after that making educated projections. The scientific process is followed by scientific results that must

Basic and Applied Science

be measurable and observable and repeatable as well. Scientists get to learn and enhance their knowledge by observing and performing experiments. The scientific process removes personal biases and changes believed decisions of others. Hence the scientific process is important.

4.2.5. Scales The scales are used in order to measure the measurable items. There are various scales and so each type of scale has its own respective measurement units. Let’s take an example of thermometers. It is used to measure temperature and measurement units used are Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin. Second example can be rulers. Rulers are used to measure the size of an object and it uses the metric scale or US customary units such as inches as its measurement units.

4.3. APPLIED SCIENCE Applied Science is basically the utilization of basic science that is the practical application of existing scientific knowledge. It uses the acquired knowledge (knowledge learned from basic science) and hence solves the practical problems. Scientific discoveries from basic research are used to solve the practical problems, this is what referred to as applied science. An example of applied science can be a doctor prescribing medicine in order to treat a person’s disease. Applied science can also develop new technology

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based on basic science. In order to impart or help in learning practices, the disciplines using the scientific skills and methodology is referred to as branches of applied sciences. The branches of applied science are Astronomy, Ecology, Geology, Meteorology, and Oceanography.

4.3.1. Astronomy Astronomy is considered the scientific study that deals with celestial or heavenly bodies. In this, application of mathematics, physics and chemistry is done in order to explain and evolution of those objects and phenomena. Astronomy is believed to be the oldest of the natural sciences.

Figure 4.8: Elements of Astronomy.

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/14598339617 Astronomy deals with the apparent and real motions of celestial bodies. The classification of these celestial bodies is done on the basis of their nature, constitution and physical state. Many exciting discoveries have been made

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by scientists and still, they are making their contribution. This science consists of laws that direct the motion of the celestial bodies in definite bodies. And also, the effect that these celestial bodies have on the nearby elements.

4.3.2. Ecology The science that deals with the relationship between the organisms with one another and with their physical surrounding. These physical surroundings are referred to as the environment. The environment of any organism is made up of various components. These components include the other organisms and their collaborative effect on the climate.

Figure 4.9: Elements of Ecology.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_fitting Those amateurs who study ecology are referred to as Ecologist and they continuously try to understand how organisms adapt their surrounding environment. The environment is

Organism is any individual entity that propagates the properties of life.

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Ecology is a branch of biology that studies the interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components.

a key factor in an organism for its capability to exist. All relationships are correlative in this ecology. Whether the factor is either biotic or abiotic in nature, they interact with each other and hence maintains a balance. For example, without the gas, we exhale that is the carbon dioxide, the bacteria’s, algae’s and plants will not get it from the atmosphere and the biochemical processes that these organisms possess will be incomplete.

4.3.3. Geology Geology is the science that deals with the structure of Earth, its system of developments, development of lands, soil, seas, rocks and mountains. The study of the Earth, the materials with which it is made up of, the structure of those materials and the processes which are acting upon them is referred to as Geology. It also includes the study done on solid features of any natural satellite or terrestrial planets such as Mars or the Moon. The scientists involved in the study of geology are referred to as geologists. Geology also provides various tools in order to determine the approximate and absolute ages of rocks found in any location. It also helps in describing the history of these rocks. By the help of these tools, geologists become able to narrate out the history of the Earth as a whole and also to demonstrate the age of the Earth. Geology provides the evolutionary history of life, the Earth’s past climates and the primary evidence for plate tectonics.

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Figure 4.1: Geology – Plate Tectonics.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology

4.3.4. Meteorology The study of the weather is referred to as Meteorology. Basically, it studies the science of the atmosphere. The amateurs studying meteorology are called as Meteorologists and they use science and mathematics in order to understand and foresee weather and climate. The first people who debated over the actual cause of weather were the Greeks and the name ‘meteorology’ name was also given by them. The Greeks also added other factors except the meteors are clouds, snow, hail, fog, rain, rainbows and thunder.

4.3.5. Oceanography The study of the oceans and their relationship with the atmosphere above as well as the underlying sea floors, ocean crust and sediments. It is the science that deals with the interactivity between the biological layers and chemical components and their physical properties. Oceanography also incorporates the geology of ocean crust,

Oceanic crust is primarily composed of mafic rocks, or sima, which is rich in iron and magnesium.

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how they are created, their past history and development, their present condition and the future plate movements. The basic scientific disciplines of various subjects like physics, biology, mathematics and chemistry are used in this subject. Oceanography heavily reckons upon various technologies such as optics, computing, acoustics and electronics which helps the scientists to make observations and sample the remote ocean depths.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS Define Life Science. What is Endoplasmic Reticulum? Briefly define its types. What is tissue? Describe the types of tissue. Name the two important biochemical processes and write chemical reactions for both the processes. 5. Define Basic Science. 6. Explain the life cycle of a butterfly. 7. What are the units used by a thermometer in order to measure the temperature? 8. Define Applied Science. Give an example of applied science. 9. What are the branches that are studied under applied science? 10. Define astronomy. 1. 2. 3. 4.

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REFERENCES 1.

Chegg.com. (2019). Basic And Applied Science. [online] Available at: https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/basic-andapplied-science-6 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 2. Edurite.com. (2007). Edurite.com - 5 Branches of Applied Science. [online] Available at: http://www.edurite.com/kbase/5-branches-ofapplied-science [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 3. Foundation, C. (2019). 9.4 Biochemical Reactions. [online] CK12 Foundation. Available at: https://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12Physical-Science-For-Middle-School/section/9.4/ [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 4. Goyal, S. (2016). Structure of Plant and Animal Cell. [online] Jagranjosh.com. Available at: https://www.jagranjosh.com/generalknowledge/structure-of-plant-and-animal-cell-1453457602-1 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 5. Melissa Conrad Stöppler, M. (2019). Definition of Homeostasis. [online] MedicineNet. Available at: https://www. medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=88522 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 6. Nordqvist, C. (2017). Anatomy: What is it and why is it important?. [online] Medical News Today. Available at: https://www. medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248743.php [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 7. Richards-Gustafson, F. (2017). Key Concepts in Basic Science. [online] Sciencing. Available at: https://sciencing.com/keyconcepts-basic-science-15676.html [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 8. Ruis, J. (n.d.). Definition of Life Sciences. [online] Fractal.org. Available at: http://www.fractal.org/Life-Science-Technology/ Definition.htm [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 9. Study.com. (2019). Basic Science Concepts & Terminology | Study. com. [online] Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/basicscience-concepts-terminology.html [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 10. Study.com. (2019). What is Human Body Tissue? - Definition, Types & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com. [online] Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-humanbody-tissue-definition-types-examples.html [Accessed 24 May 2019].

CHAPTER 5

THEORY OF LIFE SCIENCES

KEYWORDS • • • • • • • •

Ice Age Theory Amino Acids Fossil Fuels Darwinian development Deoxyribonucleic acid Ribonucleic acid Theory of Uniformitarianism Self-Replication

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

•

•

•

•

•

•

To understand the importance of the Theories of Life Science and the associated parts of study. To access the knowledge about the modern times scenario of the Theory of Life sciences. To acquire the knowledge of the different theories that have been developed with the passage of time. To gain knowledge about the valid theories that have been persistent in the scientific world. To know about the challenges that the Theories of Life Sciences have been facing in the modern-day scientific world. To know about the certain possible philosophies of the valid theories in context with the Life Science. To know the about the certain changes that are being taken place in relation with the genetic engineering and the theories of life Sciences

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5.1 INTRODUCTION In the modern world, the natural life diversity on Planet Earth is the consequence of development. On Planet Earth, it is predicted that human life started near about four billion years from today. As a matter of fact, human life has been evolving and evolution is being carried out with the passage of every second.

Figure 5.1: The theory of life science focuses on the evolution of life which is changing every second.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/6/61/Microorganisms_%2825258710384%29.jpg/749px-Microorganisms_%2825258710384%29.jpg In the initial phase, all living things that were existing on the earth were the organism with a single cell. After some of the years, the organisms with multiple cells grew after that diversity in life on earth enlarged on a daily basis. Thus far the theory of life science plays a principal part in the field of biology. The famous instances of theory in the field of biology is, of course, the theory of evolution by natural selection. Charles Darwin

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may have been a great traveler with the practical ground experience on naturalist and geologist, but his extraordinary contribution to the field of science was hypothetical. Basing on the practical experience and fieldwork, history of the fossil fuels as well as the history of the breeding of domestic animals and plants, he detected that the differences rise up and that much of this difference was genetically carried forward. After the interpretation of the Malthus’ essay on the consequences of exponential development in population, Charles Darwin advocated that a fight for the survival must have carefully chosen for the variants that were most adapted to their local environment. As the varied populations modified to diverse surroundings, Charles Darwin claimed that these dissimilarities gathered over a period of time, sooner or later creating new and different classes or species. In spite of the victory of the theory that he projected, Charles Darwin on no occasion tried to present his theories in the form of mathematical formulas and terms. On the other hand, Charles Darwin stated that he has profound remorse that he did not try to proceed farther than the current theory. He said that if he should have at least to tried to go farther in his experiments to comprehend some knowledge of the major and pioneering laws of mathematics. This would have led to an extra sense of understanding of the Theory of Life Science that has been formulated for the study of the evolution of life. Although it is not necessary to formulate or transform theory in the form that can be represented as a mathematical prototype

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Life sciences comprise the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life and organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings.

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to be valuable, the growth of such a prototype is a trademark of a maturation concept. The cause of natural life is one of the countless unexplained technical difficulties that has been presented in the present times. Considering the origins of life includes discovery responses to queries relating to the cosmological and terrestrial framework of the origins of life, the expansion of prebiotic interaction, the assemblage of the initial cells, the beginning of Darwinian development, and the most primitive symbols of the natural life and initial forms of human life on the Planet Earth. The modern dispute in contradiction of Darwinism philosophy is recognized as intellect project.’ Supporters of intellectual plan reason that the development of life is therefore multifaceted that it is not capable of being enlightened by the accidental mechanisms of usual collection. As an alternative, if development happened at all it might only have stayed or absorbed by an inventor.

5.2 PRESENT DAY SCENARIO OF THEORY OF LIFE SCIENCE 5.2.1 Theories Are Created When researchers are inquisitive about some issue, they practice the technique to derive and come up with believable philosophies. The methodical technique is valuable for the reason that it is a prearranged method of learning something. This procedure continuously initiates

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with the primary stages, which are enquiring requests and noting down the remarks.

Figure 5.2: There are many scientists who are working on the theory of the life sciences.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_ Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/800px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg The inquisitiveness of the scientist would direct them to the subsequent stage of the technical process. This stage or process is also known as the stage of creating a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a concept that can be put through the stages of testing. For instance, a researcher that have faith in the theory that the dinosaurs were erased out by an ice age. The belief of the scientists or researcher in this theory could

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Hypothesis is an idea or explanation that you then test through study and experimentation.

advance into a hypothesis. This hypothesis will state that if the event of an ice age happened near about sixty-five millions of years ago, then it possibly will have instigated the extermination of dinosaurs. The inventor might then seek for proof to examine the theory by conducting tests like examining samples of the levels of the earth. After the information was placed together and calculated, the expert scientist would form an assumption. If the scientist finds the required proofs or evidence that advocated the hypothesis that he has devised, then his hypothesis will be graded as the correct hypothesis. It has been more than fifty years while the famous scientist Stanley Miller initially discovered electrically influenced biochemical responses that may transform simple gases into the form of minor organic fragments of atoms of forming chemicals. The construction of amino acids was particularly effortlessly established. In the more recent times, the extremely dipping surroundings that were utilized by the scientist Stanley Miller has fallen down out of favor as illustrative of the probable surrounding on the primitive Earth. Even though another scientist Kasting has given away that the influence of huge cosmic bodies with the content of iron reasons for a temporary dipping surrounding. Even with additional modern representations of initial terrestrial surroundings, though, electrical expulsion, infrared radiation, and supplementary causes of energy are appropriate for generating biological types. Here and now this is the point where there arises a difference amongst a hypothesis and a

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theory. There might be slight variations in the assumption of two researchers or scientists. One of the researchers may be enough for him to depict that the hypothesis that has been formulated by that scientist is accurate; yet, philosophies require prevalent reception from the entire methodical society. For a hypothesis to be successfully converted into a theory, all the researchers or scientists are required to examine the same hypothesis and have to devise out the same consequences. This is how we got the Ice Age Theory to explain the demise of the dinosaurs. Many experts have discovered the proof that an era of ice age happened from place to place at the same time that the entire species of dinosaurs was converted into a nonexistent or extinct species. Eventually, the entire scientific community has to accept this hypothesis as a lawful philosophy.

5.3 HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY OF THE LIFE SCIENCES 5.3.1 It started with an electric spark It has been proposed that the lightning might have been provided the lightning spark might be required for the life to initiate.

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Figure 5.3: There are many theories that have said that life started from the lightning.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lightning_14.07.2009_20-42-33.JPG/1280px-Lightning_14.07.2009_20-42-33.JPG

Atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.

Electrical or lightning sparks can create amino acids and sugars that are generated from the clouds in the atmosphere which are overloaded with water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen. This was observed and depicted in the wellknown Miller-Urey experimentation which reportedly took place in the year 1953. This experiment recommended that thunder and lightning may have aided in forming the major and primary building phases of the natural life on planet Earth in its initial times. With the passage of millions of ages, higher and additionally compound molecules were created. Even though there have been many studies in the meantime which have made visible that the initial atmosphere of the planet Earth was essentially deprived of hydrogen. Now the experts and researchers have recommended that volcanic exhausts in the initial phases of the

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atmosphere were capable of holding the gases like methane, ammonia, and hydrogen and must have been occupied with thunder lightning in addition.

5.3.2 Molecules of Life Met on Clay The initial molecules or the early groups of the atoms of the natural life may have come in contact with the earth, rendering to an impression explained by biological scientist Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith at the University of Glasgow, which is situated in the country of Scotland. These exteriors may not solitarily contain focused these biological complexes in accordance with each other. But these compounds also helped in establishing them into designs abundantly similar to the pattern of the human gene display now. The primary role of DNA is to gather the data on how other particles should be organized. Hereditary series in DNA is fundamentally directions on how amino acids should be organized in proteins. Cairns-Smith recommended that mineral crystals in clay could have settled organic particles into arranged patterns. After some time, organic particles took over this work and arranged themselves.

5.3.3 Life Began at Deep-sea Vents The deep-sea vent theory recommends that natural life may have started at submarine hydrothermal vents spewing main particles which are rich in hydrogen. Their stony corners could then have concentrated these particles

Gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

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together and offered mineral catalysts for the serious responses. Even today, these vents, that are rich in biochemical and thermal energy, preserve the lively environments.

5.3.4 Life had a Chilly Start According to some of the experts, it has been observed that the thick layers of ice might have enveloped the major water bodies like oceans, seas nearby 3 billion years ago, as the sun was near about a third less glowing as compared to the present times. This coating of ice, which is probably hundreds of feet dense in size, might have conserved the delicate organic composites in the water which is under the level of ultraviolet light and out if the reach from the devastation that is caused by the cosmic influences. The cold might have also helped these particles to exist even longer, enabling important responses to occur.

5.3.5 The Answer Lies in Understanding DNA Formation At the present time, there is a requirement of protein in Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in order to form, and proteins need DNA to form, so how could DNA and protein be formed in the absence each other? The response may be Ribonucleic acid (RNA), which can gather data similar to that of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), it is applied as an enzyme like proteins, and assists in making Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as well as proteins. In the future, DNA, as well

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as proteins, prospered this “RNA world,”. This is because DNA and protein are more effective. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) still occurs and does various operations in organisms, involving acting as an on-off switch for some genetic factor. The query still remains how Ribonucleic acid (RNA) got here in the initial place.

Figure 5.4: DNA and RNA are the most basic forms of life that have started life.

Source: https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/ pictures/40000/nahled/--1359709322C31.jpg And while there are some experts who assume that the particles could have impulsively risen on Earth. On the other hand, there are some experts who suggest that there also particles that were very unlikely to have occurred. There also exist other nucleic acids other than Ribonucleic acid (RNA) that have been recommended as well by some of the experts, like the more mysterious PNA or TNA (Peptide nucleic acid and Threose nucleic acid, respectively).

5.3.6 Life had Simple Beginnings In its place of evolving from complex molecules like Ribonucleic acid (RNA), life might have

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started with smaller particles intermingling with each other in chains comprising of the reactions. These might have been obtained in simple tablets akin to cell membranes, and with time more complicated particles that did these reactions better as compared to the smaller ones could have progressed, situations called “metabolism-first” prototypes, as opposed to the “gene-first” prototype of the “RNA world” hypothesis.

5.3.7 Self-replication

Replication is an essential process because, whenever a cell divides, the two new daughter cells must contain the same genetic information, or DNA, as the parent cell.

The process of the Self-replication (or reproduction, in living context), initiates the progression of life on Earth, is one such methodology by which a system might disperse a cumulative quantity of energy with time. There are many countries who stated that “A great way of dissipating more is to make more copies of yourself.” There are many scientists who stated the hypothetical least quantity of release that can happen at the time of the process of the selfreplication of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) particles and microbial cells and displayed that it is very near to the real quantities these systems disperse during the process of replication. There are many experts who also displayed that Ribonucleic acid (RNA), the nucleic acid plays the role of the catalyst or served as the precursor to DNA-based life, is a mainly cheap building material. As soon as Ribonucleic acid (RNA) arose, there are many experts who stated that its “Darwinian takeover” was perchance not astonishing.

Theory of Life Sciences

5.3.8 Evolution by Natural Selection: Charles Darwin, 1859 Charles Darwin presented that the complicated difficulty of natural life and the complicated connections between the forms of the natural life could evolve and last from natural procedures, with no requirement for a designer or an ark. He propelled the human mind in following natural science unaffected by paranormal preconceptions. His theory was so transforming that some individuals are still uncertain regarding the theory.

5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION The modern-day life sciences are based on numerous combining frameworks, comprising the cell philosophy, genetics and legacy, theory of vital creed of information movement and Darwin and Wallace’s philosophy of development by natural assortment. The Ancient Greek theorist Anaximander (611-547 B.C.) and the Roman thinker Lucretius (99-55 B.C.) invented the idea that all existing living beings were connected and that they had transformed with the passage of time. The traditional discipline of their time was observational which was slightly different from the experimental. Another ancient Greek academic, Aristotle established his Scala Naturae, also known as the Ladder of Life, to clarify his idea of the progression of living organisms from lifeless substance to vegetations, then wildlife and in

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conclusion the human being. This notion of the human as the «summit of formation» still waves contemporary revolutionary scientists. In the era where the “scientists” started the studies after the era of Aristotle, were forced by the usually supposed designs of the Middle Ages. This was observed during the inerrancy of the scriptural volume of Origin and the singular formation of the biosphere in an accurate six days of the twenty-four-hour variety. Moreover, Archbishop James Ussher of Ireland, in the era of late 1600s planned the oldness of the Planet earth founded on the descents from Adam and Eve which was listed in the historical and biblical book of Origin.

Figure 5.5: There are many scientists which have worked on the development of the magnetic field.

Sources: https://live.staticflickr. com/8588/16654493311_e62f35cf1a_b.jpg

Theory of Life Sciences

According to the calculations of the Usher, the planet earth was created on the date of October 22, 4004 B.C. These computational were the segment of the book of the Usher, History of the World. The sequence of events which Usher predicted was occupied as truthful and was even published in the obverse sheets of bibles. Ussher’s thoughts were willingly acknowledged, in share for the reason that they modeled no danger to the communal instruction of the eras; contented thoughts that would not disappoint the related applecart of clerical and state. There are some geologists who had for some period disbelieved the “truth” of five-thousandyear-old earth. Leonardo da Vinci (painter of the Last Supper, and the Mona Lisa, architect and engineer) evaluated the sedimentation rates in the Po River of Italy. Da Vinci stated that it took two hundred thousand years to make some close rock deposits. Galileo, sentenced heretic for his disagreement that the Earth was not the midpoint of the Universe, observed fossils fuels, the indications of the ancient times and concluded that they were actual and not just lifeless artifacts. On the other hand, some other expert named James Hutton, who is considered as the Father of modern geology, established the Theory of Uniformitarianism, the foundations of the field of the modern geology and paleontology. In accordance to Hutton’s work, there are certain geological procedures that have functioned in the previous times in much the same fashion as compared to the present times, with negligible exemptions of rates, etc. Therefore,

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Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier.

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there exist several geological structures and procedures that cannot be described if the earth was just a mere five-thousand-years old.

5.5 CHALLENGES IN THE LIFE SCIENCE INDUSTRY The data is the exchange of life. Just a single description of data is the capability to make forecasts with a probability better as compared to chance. This is what any living creature wants to be able to perform, because the living creature cannot do that than the organism is living at a higher rate. The lower creatures create forecasts that there exist carbon, water, and sugar. On the other hand, the higher creatures make forecasts about, for instance, whether a living organism is after another organism and that organism needs to escape. There are many conditions which have posed many serious challenges to the Theory of Life Sciences.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. How did the evolution of life begin on Earth? 2. What are the different theories of the Evolution of Life Sciences? 3. Elaborate the present-day condition of the Theory of Life Sciences and the developments that are projected to happen in the Future. 4. What are the philosophies of the Theory of Life Sciences that has helped the scientists in studying the basic form of life on Earth? 5. Explain the role of the Darwin Theory in establishing the basic understanding of the life forms on Planet Earth. 6. How did the alterations in the environment in the modern world has created an obstacle for the study of Life Sciences? 7. What are the challenges that the Theory of Life Science is facing in the modern world? 8. What is the role of the Charles Darwin in formulating the Theory of Evolution which has been the base of all the Theories of Life Sciences? 9. How does Information Technology has come in accordance with the Theory of Life Sciences? 10. Explain the Genome reflection Theory and how it has been used in context with Information Technology. 11. Explain the different Theories of Life Sciences and how they contradict each other?

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REFERENCES 1.

Ashraf, M. and Sarfraz, M. (2016). Biology and evolution of life science. ncbi, [online] 23(1). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4705322/ [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 2. Choi, C. (2016). 7 Theories on the Origin of Life. [online] Live Science. Available at: https://www.livescience.com/13363-7theories-origin-life.html [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 3. Gillaspy, R. (2019). Life Science Theories - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com. [online] Study.com. Available at: https:// study.com/academy/lesson/life-science-theories.html [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 4. Grotzinger, J. and Sutherland, J. (2019). Origins of Life. [online] Simons Foundation. Available at: https://www.simonsfoundation. org/life-sciences/origins-of-life/ [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 5. HERRERA, A. (1942). A new theory of the origin and nature of life. Science, [online] 96(2479), pp.14-14. Available at: https:// science.sciencemag.org/content/96/2479/14. 6. Howell, E. (2019). Time Travel: Theories, Paradoxes & Possibilities. [online] Space.com. Available at: https://www.space.com/21675time-travel.html [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 7. Huneman, P., Reydon, T. and Wolfe, C. (n.d.). History, Philosophy and Theory of the Life Sciences. Switzerland: Springer Nature. 8. Norman, K. and Hartnett, K. (2015). The Information Theory of Life | Quanta Magazine. [online] Quanta Magazine. Available at: https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-information-theory-oflife-20151119/ [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 9. Palgrave.com. (2019). History, Philosophy and Theory of the Life Sciences | Springer. [online] Available at: https://www.palgrave. com/in/series/8916 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 10. Shou, W., Skinner, F., Bergstrom, C. and Chakraborty, A. (2015). Research: Theory, models and biology. [online] eLife. Available at: https://elifesciences.org/articles/07158 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 11. Siegfried, T. (2013). Top 10 revolutionary scientific theories. [online] Science News. Available at: https://www.sciencenews.org/ blog/context/top-10-revolutionary-scientific-theories [Accessed 24

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12.

13.

14.

15.

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May 2019]. The Limits of Organic Life in Planetary Systems. (2007). National Academies Press. [online] Available at: https://www.nap.edu/ catalog/11919/the-limits-of-organic-life-in-planetary-systems [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Theory, fact and the origin of life. (2005). Nature Structural & Molecular Biology. [online] Available at: https://www.nature.com/ articles/nsmb0205-101 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Wolchover, N. (2014). A New Physics Theory of Life. [online] Scientific American. Available at: https://www.scientificamerican. com/article/a-new-physics-theory-of-life/?redirect=1 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Www2.estrellamountain.edu. (2019). Introduction: The nature and Science of Biology. [online] Available at: https://www2. estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookintro.html [Accessed 24 May 2019

CHAPTER 6

SPECTROSCOPY IN LIFE SCIENCES

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• • • • • •

Spectroscopy is a technique that is widely used in science that is used to acquire information about the characteristics of a sample using radiation. The learning objectives of this chapter are:

• • •

Spectroscopy Biological systems Ultraviolet Rays Infrared Near Infrared Nuclear Magnetic Resonance X-Ray Cancer Atomization

• • • • •

Learn about the origin of the techniques of spectroscopy Gain an understanding of spectroscopy in biological systems Know the types of spectroscopy used in science Understand the applications of spectroscopy Learn about spectroscopic imaging in life sciences

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6.1 INTRODUCTION Biology is largely dependent on various types of machines. Each of it performs specific functions. The understanding of living systems has been developed by gaining a thorough knowledge of the structure and functions and characteristics of molecular and macromolecular systems. Spectroscopy offers various techniques that enable the investigation of the structure and function of the biological systems. However, biological systems are much more complicated than the ones encountered in the field of physics and chemistry. This poses a challenge for spectroscopy. In order to address this challenge, many advancements have been made to spectroscopic methods to increase the sensitivity, information content, specificity and also the spatial resolution. The modern spectroscopy has various applications in the field of biological sciences that has helped to gain an understanding of the living systems. Spectroscopy comprises of various techniques that use radiation to acquire data on the characteristics and structure of a matter. This data is used in resolving various analytical problems. The term spectroscopy is derived from the Latin word “Spectron” which denotes a ghost or spirit. The roots of this term can also be traced to the Greek word “skopein” meaning observing the world. In other words, spectroscopy includes techniques that deal with measurement and interpretation of spectra that are formed as a result of the interface between electromagnetic radiation and matter. Electromagnetic radiation is a type of energy that spreads in the form of electromagnetic waves. Spectroscopy deals with absorption, release or scattering of electromagnetic radiation by atoms or molecules. This technique came into existence in the second half of the 19 century. It was established to encompass all the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum including every attainable molecular or atomic process. Hence most of the scientists have to have a knowledge of spectroscopy since they will have to work directly or indirectly with it at some point in their job. th

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6.2 HISTORY OF SPECTROSCOPY The advancements in the field of spectroscopy are noteworthy. Its roots can be traced to the studies of crude spectra of sunlight by Sir Isaac Newton in 1672. Other contributions and achievements in this field followed. In 1802, W. H. Wollaston demonstrated the significance of employing a narrow slit in place of round aperture or a pinhole or produce spectral lines. Each of them is an image of the slit and represents a different color or wavelength. The same was also demonstrate by Joseph Fraunhofer in 1814. William Hyde Wollaston was the first scientist who observed that sun’s optical spectrum consisted of dark absorption lines. However, it was Fraunhofer who could think of its wider scope. For his contributions, he is regarded as the father of spectroscopy. Fraunhofer made discoveries in optics and spectroscopy. He was the first to observe stellar spectra and subsequently discovered and built transmission diffraction gratings. His other contributions included measuring the wavelengths of dark lines present in the solar spectrum accurately and the invention of the achromatic telescope. In 1859, G. R. Kirchhoff also reinforced the presence of dark lines in the solar spectrum. He based his work on the absorption of the continuous spectrum by the particles present in the cooler Sun’s atmosphere. The spectrum is emitted by the interiors of Sun which is hot. Kirchhoff and R. Bunsen conducted further research that proved that spectroscopy is a useful tool for chemical analysis.

Electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.

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Figure 6.1: Joseph Fraunhofer is the father of spectroscopy.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Joseph_von_ Fraunhofer%2C_engraving_by_Christian_ Gottlob_Scherff.jpg Spectrum is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary, without steps, across a continuum.

They methodically compared the Sun’s spectrum to spark or flame spectra of metals and salt. This way they succeeded in conducting the first chemical analysis of the Sun’s atmosphere. In 1861, they were probing alkali metal spectra and, in the process, discovered two new alkali metals which were rubidium and cesium. These findings of Bunsen and Kirchhoff provided a breakthrough to spectroscopic researches. In 1910, the first international standards of wavelength were adopted which helped spectroscopy to grow further. This adoption and subsequent standards which were

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established enabled the measurement of wavelengths of all electromagnetic radiation with extraordinary precision. This was followed by extraordinary developments in spectroscopy in instrumentation. This has been possible mainly because of advanced in electronics and manufacturing technology. Today the commercial instruments provide many features like direct reading, improved sensitivity with good stability, automatic recording, extended capabilities and simplicity of operation. These developments were instrumental in enabling widespread use of the techniques of spectroscopy and had a huge impact on advancements in theoretical and applied spectroscopy.

6.3 SPECTROSCOPY OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Spectroscopic tools are always developed for specific purposes. A tool that is used to observe and analyze a particular compound and resolve a specific question may not be relevant for observing other compounds. In order to understand the applications of the spectroscopic tool, it is important to know the fundamental limits in terms of selectivity, sensitivity, and resolution. The more the sensitive a method is, the more effective it is in investigating small concentrations of the analyte. Selectivity enables to identify the attributes of the analyte being investigated in the presence of others. However, the scope of the method will be narrow if a large set of the analyte is not available for study. Resolution is a fundamental

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issue which governs the information content in all spectroscopic method. Heisenberg’s principle is the limiting factor ultimately. In order to determine how worth, the chosen method is the relation between a biological question, the chosen spectroscopic method and the limitations of the method have to be assessed.

6.3.1 The Challenge of Complexity Biological systems are large and very complex, in comparison to systems investigated in physics and chemistry. Moreover, the complexity ranges across different sizes, from meters to picometers. Living organisms’ functions are entirely managed by the building blocks they are made up of. They must be in the right place and function properly on two scales, namely, the meter scale of the human body and nanometer scale of the proteins. There are two main challenges that spectroscopy faces. First, to identify the building blocks in the biological systems and establish their attributes. Second, to determine the position in the system and their distribution. The biological systems, as mentioned are perhaps the most complex ones ranging in all sizes. All the vital organs must be positioned in their correct positions, the mitochondria and cell nucleus must be its exact location in the cell, the prosthetic groups or active site must have appropriate structure and the peptide strands which compose the proteins must fold precisely.

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6.4 TYPES OF SPECTROSCOPY There are various types of spectroscopy which find its application in various branches of science and most importantly life science.

6.4.1 X-ray X-rays use energy in appropriate quantity as required to excite the inner shell of electrons. This causes a movement in the electrons to the outer orbitals followed by vacated inner shells. The energy that is released in the process is in the form of radiation. This helps in determining X-ray frequencies. X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy help in estimating the composition of elements and their bonding. X-ray crystallography is used to analyze crystalline particles by analyzing the manner in which they disperse X-rays that are passed through them. Knowledge about the wavelength of the incident X-rays enables calculation. Also, the intensity by which X-ray is dispersed reveals their atomic position and their placement in the crystal structure.

Figure 6.2: Representation of Image Produced by X-ray.

Source: https://cdn.pixabay.com/ photo/2017/09/19/10/30/xray-xray-2764828_960_720.jpg

Emission spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique which examines the wavelengths of photons emitted by atoms or molecules during their transition from an excited state to a lower energy state.

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6.4.2 Flame Generally, the analyte is in the form of a solution, if not it is converted into a solution. Further, it is converted to a free gaseous form through multiple stages known as atomization. A flame is common in case of metallic element analytes that have low levels of concentration.

6.4.3 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AE) Polychromator is an optical device that is used to disperse light into different directions to isolate parts of the spectrum of the light.

This technique makes use of heat from a flame to produce light. High-resolution polychromator can be used to generate an emission intensity vs. wavelength spectrum. This helps in spotting the presence of various elements at the same time.

6.4.4 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AA) In comparison to AE spectroscopy, a flame is used at a much lower temperature so that it does not trigger the atoms. Lamps are used to excite analyte atoms which can be adjusted as per requirement. The rate of absorption of light when the flame is passed determines the quantity of analyte present.

6.4.5 Spark or Arc (Emission) Spectroscopy This technique facilitates the analysis of solid metal elements and even non-metal ones which are made conductive by mixing with graphite powder. An electric spark excites the atoms enabling analysis. A monochromator is used to

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detect the light which is generated by the excited atoms and has a characteristic wavelength.

6.4.6 Visible/Ultraviolet (UV) Ultraviolet uses the fact many atoms possess the property to emit or absorb visible light. The atoms must in the gas state so that a spectrum can be acquired in the manner similar to flame spectroscopy. Generally, visible absorption spectroscopy is combined with UV absorption spectroscopy. UV spectroscopy is useful in measuring the amount of protein and DNA present in the sample. Most of the amino acids absorb light in the range of 280 nm, whereas DNA absorbs light in 260nm. This information helped in arriving at the ratio of 260/28 nm which acts as a determinant of the relative purity of solution of these units. This technique is useful in the analysis of fluorescence by using absorption spectroscopy.

6.4.7 Infrared (IR) and Near Infrared (NIR) IR spectroscopy reveals the types of bonds that are there in the sample. It measures the various kinds of inter-atomic bond vibration that occur and had various frequencies. It makes use of the fact the absorption of specific frequencies varies as per their chemical structure. There are various factors that determine this, such as masses of atoms. NIR also displays greater ability to penetrate a sample when compared to mid-infrared

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radiation. This demonstrates that it has low sensitivity. But it enables the measurement if bigger samples in NIR spectroscopy scan. Moreover, it does not require much sample preparation. Its applications include medical forensic lab application biotechnology, various analyses (genomics, proteomics) and chemical imaging of intact organisms, textiles, diagnosis pharmaceuticals, and many military applications.

6.4.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Nuclear magnetic resonance is a commonly used method that enables the investigation of organic compounds. This is possible because it determines the physical and chemical properties of atoms by using the magnetic characteristics that some atomic nuclei display. It generated a vast array of information regarding the dynamics, structure and chemical environment of atoms. Moreover, even different functional groups are distinguishable, and identical functional groups in differing molecular environments still give distinguishable signals.

Figure 6.3: Representation of a Machine Used for Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

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Source: https://www.wpafb.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/Article/818582/diagnostic-imaging-vital-to-patient-care/

6.5 APPLICATIONS OF SPECTROSCOPY Spectroscopy has wide applications and is useful in almost every domain of science. It encompasses environmental analysis and biomedical sciences. The applications of spectroscopy are discussed below.

6.5.1 Spectroscopy in Environmental Analysis Spectroscopic methods have been around for years and have been used by environmental scientists. This includes both visible and ultraviolet spectroscopic methods. Simple kits are available that helps investigate properties of water. They comprise of colorimetric tests that use visual color matching also called portable colorimeters. Emission spectroscopy or atomic absorption is used to determine the presence of metals in solids and liquids in both, visible and ultraviolet regions. In these methods, analyte has to be immersed in a solution and only after that analysis is possible. Some solid and semi-solid samples allow direct analysis with atomic absorption spectrometry. It makes use of electrothermal atomization. Another important technique is the infrared spectroscopy which is an important tool for environmental analysis. The more notable

Atomic absorption spectrometry is a technique in which free gaseous atoms absorb electromagnetic radiation at a specific wavelength to produce a measurable signal.

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discovery is the long-range infrared sensors that are useful in detecting the presence of certain compounds in air mass. Besides, ultraviolet long-path methods are also being used widely, although not as frequently as infrared spectroscopy is used. X-ray methods like X-ray fluorescence are often used to determine what solid materials are made up of i.e. their atomic composition. They are also used to determine the presence of metals in particulate matters, both in soil and air samples. Some other techniques that are used in the environmental analysis are magnetic resonance spectroscopy and microwave region spectroscopy, however, these are not used extensively.

6.5.2 Spectroscopy in Biomedical Sciences In the field of biomedical sciences, spectroscopy has various diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Photon time-of-flight spectroscopy is useful in case of therapeutic methods, for example, photodynamic therapy. It supplies them with data concerning the optical properties governing tissue response. Absorption and scattering spectroscopy is a reliable technique. It is provided by the timeof-flight spectroscopy. It can aid greatly in diagnostics and the same can be evidenced in its inclusion in the field of microbiology. Also, near-infrared spectroscopy in its steady state is a crucial technique in the field of pharmaceuticals. The greatest benefit of this tool is that it is fast and in non-destructive in nature. Consequently, it eliminates the need for sample

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preparation, and even if required, it is minimal. Moreover, the emergence of chemometrics has made it possible to sense even the slightest variations in complex datasets. Chemometrics is the extraction of information using data-driven means. There was a significant advancement in recent times in holographic micro-spectroscopy. It is a technique which uses optical coherence tomography or quantitative phase imaging. It has the potential to facilitate label-free and non-invasive optical detection and also the measurement of certain molecules in human cells and tissues. For example, hemoglobin protein. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy is a diagnostic imaging technique which relies on detection of metabolites in tissues. It is also called nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy is in a way connected to magnetic resonance imaging. It makes use of the same machine. The difference is that while magnetic resonance imaging measures blood flow, magnetic resonance spectroscopy measures the concentration of certain chemicals like the neurotransmitters. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy has the potential to achieve a breakthrough in diagnosing diseases of the brain and also other parts and detect even cancers of prostate, cervix, and pancreas. It helps in measuring the molecular and metabolic changes of the brain which helps in gaining valuable information about its development. It helps in detecting diseases like Alzheimer, Autism, Schizophrenia, and stroke.

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The main advantage of magnetic resonance spectroscopy is that it is non-invasive. Hence it is ideal for investigating how a disease progresses or responds to treatment.

6.6 SPECTROSCOPIC IMAGING FOR THE LIFE SCIENCES Scientists have since long tried to understand the various complex process that sustains living beings. The scope includes microbes on one hand and humans on the other. The biomedical field has shown remarkable progress to gain an understanding of living processes and finding a cure for ailments that affect the living. An extremely promising area which may hold the key to many remarkable discoveries about the human body is microspectroscopic imaging. Microscopic imaging has been instrumental in the development of biological research, the first invention is the optical microscope. The recent experiments include confocal laser scanning, fluorescence imaging, atomic force microscopy and electron microscopy which have improved the imaging capabilities; however, they still have their limitations. The main drawback is that they cannot characterize the biological system’s molecular composition. This gap is filled by spectroscopic techniques. One such spectroscopic technique is laser Raman spectroscopy. It probes the interaction between light and individual bond vibrations. The result is environmentally sensitive and information-rich spectrum that sheds light on

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what the sample being tested is made of. X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) is another technique that uses x-ray beam to reveal elemental information by observing the atomic interactions. Both of these techniques are used widely for micro-analysis. For example, a bench top Raman microscope enables a spatial resolution of 1 μm. On the other hand, x-ray beams with diameters less than 10 μm is extensively found on benchtop XRF systems. In order to harness these micro-spectroscopic tools for imaging, automated samples are used. Observing the sample enables the construction of a complex hyperspectral data array which is composed of a full spectrum at all positions on the sample. Thereafter detailed spectral images can be created which reveal a clear elemental or chemical distribution across the sample. This is analysis does not involve invasion and soon can be used to provide solutions for cancer diagnosis, bacteriology, skin care, etc.

6.6.1 Zinc Mediation in Ulcer Healing Micro-CRF is useful to establish findings regarding elemental accelerations in tissue. One advantage is that it provides high spatial resolution. Another key aspect is that it is capable of analyzing at atmospheric pressure, even in case of light elements like magnesium, aluminum and sodium which have a biological significance. This is a significant improvement over older technology, which makes use of vacuum conditions which causes the biological tissues containing high water content to

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dehydrate and get destroyed. The micro-xrf process has enabled researchers to identify the healing properties of zinc in gastric ulcer. This was possible observing the ulcer regions, one where zinc was applied and one where it was not. Mapping experiments allowed the zinc distribution within rat gastric tissue to be quickly characterized, particularly in the marginal regions of the ulcer. In other words, zinc concentration increased in regions affected by an ulcer. This observation led to the inference that the body utilizes zinc from natural sources to enable the healing of zinc. Examination of tissue obtained from a rat which was treated using zinc medication, revealed that in the ulcer region, the concentration of element increased. This was clear in the ulcerated tissues beside the marginal regions. These experiments demonstrated that zinc can make a positive contribution to curing ulcer.

6.6.2 Cancer Diagnosis XRF has been useful in gaining elemental information. On the other hand, the molecular information yielded by Raman facilitates the enables the investigation of complex biochemistry within tissues. This has helped reveal useful information on many typical species that cells contain. These include DNA, RNA, lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The precise balance of these species is determined by health state, tissue type, etc. Hence Raman is appropriate for gaining more information on this subject. In the case of cancer research and treatment, conventional methods that are used for diagnosis rely on histopathological training

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and inspection by a trained eye. However, these methods can only differentiate between health states that are clearly distinct. The emergence of Raman has enabled the extraction of detailed chemical information. This facilitates the identification of distinctions that are subtle and cannot be perceived by other means. This technique is apparently going to witness significant success in the near future. The main objective of this technique is to help in cancer diagnosis. It is expected that this analysis will enable to identify clearly whether tissue is cancerous or not. More importantly, it is also expected to reveal the stage of the tumor’s development and its malignancy. Researchers are channelizing their efforts to improve this technology so that its full potential can be harnessed for life sciences. The most recent work has been directed towards the diagnosis of glioma tumors. This disease is an aggressive form of brain cancer and affects other tissues in the body very fast. Traditional surgery techniques do not prove very useful in removing the tumor.

6.7 CONCLUSION Spectroscopy is a technique used to investigate the matter through its interaction with various components of the electromagnetic spectrum. In its simplest form, it can help breakdown light into the colors that compose it using a prism. It helps in measuring light and study the spectrum resulting as a result if the splitting up of colors. The scope was later expanded to include any feasible interaction with radiative energy as a

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function of its frequency or wavelength. There are various spectroscopic techniques that are applied in almost every field of science. Its contribution to biomedical sciences has been remarkable. Micro-spectroscopic techniques are making rapid advancements. They are developing as crucial tools for life sciences. They provide an opportunity for researchers to gain an in-depth knowledge of all biological systems. They have added a new dimension to the information that the scientists have obtained overtime which is based on actual biochemistry and composition. They hold unlimited potentials for the future.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Who is known as the father of spectroscopy and what were his contributions to this field? 2. What is the challenge of spectroscopy in its application in biological systems? 3. What are the types of spectroscopy? 4. Describe any four types of spectroscopy. 5. Explain nuclear magnetic resonance and atomic absorption spectroscopy. 6. What are the applications of spectroscopy in environmental analysis? 7. What are the applications of spectroscopy in biomedical science? 8. What does spectroscopic imaging for the life sciences mean? 9. Describe two applications of spectroscopic-imaging. 10. What were the contributions of G. R. Kirchhoff in the field of spectroscopy?

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REFERENCES 1. Anon, (2017). A brief history of spectroscopy. [online] Available at: https://www.accessscience.com/content/a-brief-history-of-spectroscopy/BR0213171 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 2. Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Magnetic resonance spectroscopy | medicine. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica. com/science/magnetic-resonance-spectroscopy [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 3. Ferreira, B. (2014). Spectroscopy Is the Rosetta Stone to the Universe. [online] Vice. Available at: https://www.vice.com/ en_us/article/nzengq/spectroscopy-is-the-rosetta-stone-tothe-universe [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 4. FitzGeralda, S. and le Bourdonb, G. (2005). Spectroscopic imaging for the life sciences–more than just a pretty picture. [ebook] HORIBA Jobin Yvon. Available at: http://www. horiba.com/fileadmin/uploads/Scientific/Documents/Raman/ sels0805.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 5. Khetrapal, A. (2018). Spectroscopy Types. [online] NewsMedical.net. Available at: https://www.news-medical.net/ health/Spectroscopy-Types.aspx [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 6. Meštrović, D. (2019). Spectroscopy Applications. [online] News-Medical.net. Available at: https://www.news-medical. net/life-sciences/Spectroscopy-Applications.aspx [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 7. Meštrović, D. (2019). What is Spectroscopy? [online] NewsMedical.net. Available at: https://www.news-medical.net/ health/What-is-Spectroscopy.aspx [Accessed 24 May 2019]. 8. Schultz, T. (2009). Spectroscopic methods for biology and medicine. [ebook] Available at: http://staff.mbi-berlin.de/ schultz/biomed/script_1.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2019].

CHAPTER 7

CHROMATOGRAPHY AND ITS PRINCIPLES

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• • • • • • • • •

In this chapter, you will learn about:

Chromatography Principle Life Science Solutes Mobile phase Stationary phase Molecule Separation Detection

• • • •

The concept of chromatography History and principle of chromatography Different types of chromatography and their procedures Applications of chromatography in life sciences

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7.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHROMATOGRAPHY Chromatography is defined as a technique which is used for the separation of components of a mixture based on the relative amounts of each component distributed between a constantly moving fluid stream which are known as mobile phase. The mobile phase can be either a liquid or a gas. On the other hand, the stationary phase can be either a solid or liquid. The kinetic molecular motion exchanges the solute molecules between these two phases in a continuous manner. For a specific component or solute, if the distribution is in the favor of moving fluid, the molecules will devote most of their time moving with the stream. The molecules will then be transferred away from some other species whose molecules are reserved for a long period of time by the stationary phase. In a chromatography technique, a mixture of solutes is inserted into the system in a narrow zone or restricted region, at which point distinct kind of species is transported at distinct rates in the fluid flow direction. The driving force for the movement of solutes is the moving fluid and the relative force for the stationary phase is the solute affinity. The union of these forces produces the separation as altered by the analyst. Chromatography has several applications in the chemical as well as biological fields. It is greatly applied in the biochemical research mainly for the identification and separation of chemical compounds that are of biological origin. Being a method of separation, chromatography has a lot of advantages as compared to conventional techniques such as solvent extraction, crystallization, and distillation. In addition, it is able to separate all of the components of a chemical mixture without the requirement of deep knowledge of the number, identity or relative amounts of the components present in the mixture. There are few forms of chromatography that can easily detect the components present at the level of attogram (10−18 gram) and therefore, makes the chromatography method an excellent analytical technique. This technique is mainly used for the recognition of chlorinated pesticides present in the biological materials, in forensic

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science, the environment, and in the detection of therapeutic as well as abused drugs.

7.1.1 History of Chromatography Mikhail Semenovich Tsvett (1872-1919), a Russian botanist invented the first chromatograph. During his working days in Poland, he was looking for a significant method of separating components from a mixture of pigments of plants that are chemically similar to each other. For the isolation of different kinds of chlorophyll, Tsvett dropped a mixture of dissolved pigments by a glass tube, which was packed with the calcium carbonate powder. As the mixture washed in a downward direction, every single pigment was stacked to the calcium carbonate powder, each with a different level of strength and created a sequence of colored bands. Each color band represented a distinct substance.

Figure 7.1: Mikhail Semenovich Tsvett: a Russian-

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Italian botanist who developed adsorption chromatography.

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Mikhail_Tsvet.jpg

Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal.

He referred to colored bands as ‘chromatogram’. In addition, he recommended that the chromatography method could be utilized to separate colorless components. This technique is now known as adsorption chromatography. However, he published a report of his research in the early 1900s but the chemists did not pay the required amount of attention to it. There were some reasons behind the ignorance of chemists. First of all, the report was written in the Russian language, which can only be read by a few of the western chemists. Second is that the technique may have appeared very simple to chemists who at that times used to depend on complex and lengthy processes such as crystallization, extraction, distillation, etc. for the separation of components. After some years, the technique given by Tsvett was rediscovered. Richard Martin Willstatter (1872-1942), a German organic chemist was behind the rediscovery. By introducing the technique of chromatography to Western European scientists, Willstatter aided in the establishment of one of the most adaptable or multipurpose analytical techniques known to chemistry.

7.1.2 Principle of Chromatography The technique of chromatography is mainly

Chromatography and its Principles

based on the principle where the molecules or components present in the mixture are applied onto the surface or into the fluid stationary phase is separated from each other with the support of mobile phase. The factors that are found to very effective in this technique of separation are molecular characteristics concerned with adsorption, partition, and differences amongst their molecular weights. Due to these differences, some of the component or molecule present in the mixture stays in the stationary phase for a longer time and further they move slowly in the chromatography arrangement. On the other hand, several other components pass very quickly into the mobile phase and exit out the system quicker. Based on such kind of approach, three key components form the basis of the chromatography method. These are: • Stationary Phase: This phase is always made up of a “solid” phase or “a layer of a liquid adsorbed on the surface solid support”. • Mobile Phase: This phase is always made up of “liquid” or a “gaseous component.” • Separated Molecules or Components In every type of chromatography methods, there is always a stationary phase and a mobile phase. The stationary phase is defined as the phase that does not move from its position, while the mobile phase does move. The mobile phase generally moves over the stationary phase and picks up the components of a mixture that are required to be tested.

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As the mobile phase continuously travels through the stationary phase, it takes the component along. At distinct points in the stationary phase, a distinct type of components of the compound are absorbed and at the end will stop moving with the mobile phase.

7.2 COLUMN PHY

Chemical compound is a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules (or molecular entities) composed of atoms from more than one element held together by chemical bonds.

CHROMATOGRA-

Column chromatography is a kind of chromatography technique, which is used to separate out the mixture of chemical substances into their individual compounds. It is an extensively used technique for the separation as well as purification of the mixture of a chemical compound in the laboratory. The technique of column chromatography usually consists of two phases, one of which is a contiguous stationary phase and another one is the mobile phase. The stationary phase is solid while the mobile phase is liquid. The compound mixture travels along with the mobile phase over the stationary phase and separates the components based on the different level of adhesion of every component present in the compound mixture.

7.2.1 The Procedure of Column Chromatography Step 1: the mobile phase can either be solvent or solvent mixture. The upper level of the mobile phase must be similar to the stationary phase. This means that the stationary phase must be wet with the solvent. On this level, the mixture

Chromatography and its Principles

of the compound is added from the top of the column in a way that the top level of it is not disturbed. By turning on the tap, it is allowed to be adsorbed on the silica surface. Step 2: Then the mixture of solvent is added in such a way that it touches the glass column carefully and slowly in such a way that the top level of the stationary phase is not disturbed. The solvent is continually added as many times as required in the process. Step 3: The compounds then move along with the eluent based upon the polarity of the sample molecule. The non-polar components used to travel at a faster rate as compared to the polar ones. Let us suppose if any of the compound mixtures consists of three compounds red, blue and green. As per the polarity, the order of these compounds is blue > red > green. This means that blue is the most polar compound and hence, will have very less affinity to move along with the mobile phase. Step 4: the compound of green color will move first as it is less polar as compared to the other two. When it is near the end of the column, a clean test tube is used to collect the green sample. After this, the red colored compound is collected followed by the most polar blue compound. Hence, a compound mixture is purified or separated with the use of column chromatography.

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Figure 7.2: Column chromatography.

Source: http://chromatographyscience. blogspot.com/p/theory-of-chromatography. html#.XOaJRMgzbIU

7.3 PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity.

Paper chromatography is one of the major types of chromatography, which is performed using a piece of paper. Cellulose filter paper is used as a stationary phase on which the separation of components takes place in a kind of planar chromatography system. The principle of paper chromatography is partition chromatography in which the components are distributed between liquid phases. One of the phases in the water, which is detained in the pores of filter paper while another is the mobile phase, which travels over the paper. The compounds present in the mixture are separated because of the differences in their affinity towards the water in stationary phase and the mobile phase solvents during the movement of mobile phase in the capillary action of pores in the filter paper.

Chromatography and its Principles

7.3.1 The Procedure of Paper Chromatography The experimental method consists of: • Selection of suitable kind of development: this mainly depends on the intricacy of the solvent, mixture, paper, etc. In general, radial type or ascending type chromatography is applied, as they are not so tough to use, perform, handle and provide the chromatogram quickly. • Selection of suitable kind of filter paper: filter paper is mainly selected based on the size of pores, the quality of the sample that is required to be separated and the mode of development. • Preparation of sample: preparation of sample consists of sample dissolution in a suitable solvent, which is used in the making of the mobile phase. The solvent, which is used in the process, must be inactive with a sample that is under analysis. • Sample spotting on the paper: samples are then required to be spotted on the paper at a specific position, if possible, by using a capillary tube. • Development of chromatogram: the paper on which sample is spotted is then subject to the development by introducing it in the mobile phase. The mobile phase eventually moves over the paper-containing sample under the capillary action of paper.

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•

Paper drying and detection of the compounds: once the development of the chromatogram is done, the paper is carefully held at the borders to avoid any contact with the sample spots and dried by using an air drier. At times, the detecting solution is sprayed on the developed chromatogram and dried to recognize the sample chromatogram spots.

7.4 THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY Thin layer chromatography is a type of planar chromatography. At large scale, the researchers of photochemistry use it and biochemistry fields to identify the components present in the mixture of a compound such as amino acids, alkaloids and phospholipids. It is a kind of semiquantitative technique comprising analysis. High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) is known as the more refined or more accurate quantitative version of thin layer chromatography. Same as several other methods of chromatography, thin layer chromatography is based on the principle of separation. The separation largely depends on the comparative affinity of compounds towards the mobile as well as the stationary phase. The compounds that are under the influence of mobile phase move over the surface of the stationary phase. At the time of movement, the compounds having a higher affinity towards the stationary phase move at a slow rate while others

Chromatography and its Principles

move faster. Therefore, components separation in the mixture is done. Once, the separation takes place, the individual components are observed as spots at a particular level of travel on the plate. Their character or nature is recognized by the means of precise techniques of detection.

7.4.1 The Procedure of Thin Layer Chromatography •

•

•

•

•

The stationary phase is first applied onto the TLC plate in a uniform manner and then allowed to stabilize after drying. However, these days ready-made plates are usually preferred. A thin mark is made with a pencil at the bottom of the TLC plate at which the sample spots are applied After that, sample solutions are applied to the spots made with a pencil on the line in equal distances The mobile phase is introduced into the chamber of TLC to a level few centimeters overhead of the chamber bottom. After that, a moistened filter paper is placed on the inner surface of the chamber to maintain identical humidity. Now, the plate made with sample spotting is introduced in the chamber of TLC so that the side of the plate with the sample line faces the mobile phase. Then the chamber is closed by using a lid.

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•

•

Then the plate is immersed in such a way that the sample spots are above the level of the mobile phase. Allow enough time for spot development. After the development of spots, remove the plates and let them dry. Now, the sample spots can be observed in a UV light chamber.

7.5 HIGH-PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY Gravity is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy— including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light—are brought toward (or gravitate toward) one another.

In general, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a highly upgraded form of column liquid chromatography. Rather than allowing the solvent to drip through the column under gravity, it is forced under very high pressures of around 400 atmospheres. This makes it very fast.

Figure 7.3: A basic configuration of high-performance liquid chromatography.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/ figure/A-Basic-HPLC-System-Configuration_ fig1_312019034

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All types of chromatographic separations comprising high-performance liquid chromatography work under the same basic principle. Separation of components from a mixture due to differences in their affinities for the mobile phase as well as the stationary phase used in the separation process.

7.5.1 Types of HPLC There are following types of high-performance liquid chromatography based on the type of phase system present in the process:

1. Normal Phase HPLC This method is used to separate out analytes on the basis of their polarity. NP-HPLC uses a non-polar mobile phase and polar stationary phase. As a result, the stationary phase is silica and the mobile phases are chloroform, hexane, diethyl ether, methylene chloride and sometimes mixtures of these. Thus, the polar samples are retained on the polar surface of the column.

2. Reverse Phase HPLC In RP-HPLC, the stationary phase is nonpolar in nature. On the other hand, the mobile phase is polar such as the mixture of water and acetonitrile or methanol. It basically works on the principle of hydrophobic interactions. Therefore, the more the component is nonpolar, the longer it will be retained.

3. Size-exclusion HPLC In this type of HPLC, the column is filled with the material having exactly controlled sizes of

Chloroform is a colorless liquid with a pleasant, nonirritating odor and a slightly sweet taste.

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the pore, and the particles are separated out on the basis of their molecular size. The molecules having large size are washed down through the column at a faster rate while the smaller ones penetrate inside the pores of the packing particles and later are eluted.

4. Ion-Exchange HPLC The stationary phase entails an ionically charged surface consisting of opposite charges to the sample ions. This type of HPLC technique is exclusively used with the ionic samples. The stronger is the charge present on the sample, the stronger it will be fascinated to the ionic surface and therefore, the longer time it will take to elute out. On the other hand, the mobile phase is a kind of aqueous buffer where ionic strength, as well as pH, is used for controlling the time of elution.

7.6 AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPHY Affinity chromatography was introduced around five decades back. It is considered as a prevailing tool used for the separation and purification of the biologically active molecules such as proteins. This method has an utter impact on advance biological sciences such as biotechnology, biology, medicine, and biochemistry. The method usually exploits molecular recognition principle of a biological compound, which is required to be separated by the precise ligand to purify it from a mixture of compounds. The affinity chromatography is a kind of liquid

Chromatography and its Principles

chromatography used for the separation and detailed analysis of sample components.

Figure 7.4: Affinity chromatography.

Source: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/102103017/ module6/lec6_slide5.htm

7.6.1 The Procedure of Affinity Chromatography •

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Sample injection: the column must be pre-equilibrating with 3-5 volumes fresh buffer before the injection of components into the column. Adsorption of components of interest: the molecule under study can be adsorbed to the ligands under a slow flow rate when they move through the column. Some other components that have no affinity to the ligands will be pushed at the column end by the solvent. If there are a great number of components that have the affinity to the stationary phase, then there will

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•

•

be a kind of competitive adsorption on the ligands. The component having the strongest affinity for the ligand will replace the components having a weaker affinity for taking the sites of adsorption. Washing or removal of impurities: in this step, the treatment is done to remove the impurities by washing the column with 3-5 volumes of buffer. Elution of components: Generally, people remove the adsorbed component of interest from the column by replacing the previous solvent with some other solvent such as a solution of higher salt concentration.

7.7 LIFE SCIENCE APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY Chromatography is used in numerous life science applications on a very large scale. Some of the significant applications of chromatography in food, forensic and molecular biology are discussed below.

7.7.1 Food Industry Spoilage Detection Chromatography can be used for the detection of spoilage present in different food items. Identifying the amount of organic acids present in food provides the main information related to the quality of food. Column chromatography is generally applied for the detection and

Chromatography and its Principles

quantification of the spoilage indicators, for example, the presence of pyruvic acid in milk. The same method of separation can be used to evaluate the total organic acid profile of milk and to calculate the amount of lactose, which shows the level of sweetness. The chromatography technique enables quick analysis when compared with other techniques that take several days to give results.

Additive Detection Additives are generally added to the food products to improve their flavors and physical appearance. For instance, the presence of added malic acid in apple juice is quite tough for detection, as apple juice naturally comprises malic acid.

Figure 7.5: Presence of additives in fruit juices can be easily detected by the application of chromatography.

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Spoilage is a natural process in which seafood deteriorates, starting with a loss of color and taste and followed by changes in texture and color as well as the development of off-flavors.

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Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/apple-apple-juice-beverage-bottle-3767650/ Although, synthetic malic acid consists of fumaric acid as an impurity. Therefore, its level in apple juice is an indicator of synthetic malic acid. Chromatography has been effectively used for the detection and quantification of fumaric acid in apple juice.

Determining Nutritional Quality Depletion of vitamin C in foods can be an indicator of depletion of several other nutrients and hence the content of vitamin C in foods is closely observed during every stage of food processing by the application of column chromatography. This kind of analysis can be done by using modern acid analysis columns together with electrochemical detection in complex samples.

7.7.2 Forensics Crime Scene Testing Gas chromatography is a common type of chromatography used in analytical chemistry for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition.

Gas chromatography is mainly used to test evidence such as hair or blood found from a crime scene. This allows the investigator to understand the crime in a much better way and to develop certain theories on what exactly took place at the site based on the materials or evidence found.

Forensic Pathology Gas chromatography has been extensively used in forensic pathology for the purpose of

Chromatography and its Principles

identifying the type of compounds as well as fluids present in the human body after death. This testing can help to detect the presence of drugs or alcohol or any other poisonous stuffs in the body at the time of death, as a result of assisting in identifying the possible cause of death.

Arson Investigation Gas chromatography is an economic technique, which is used to identify ignitable liquids from the debris of fire. In contrast with a list of ignitable liquids available publicly, the exact type of liquid used can be detected. Mass spectrometry (MS) classification of the separated components produces better and accurate results.

7.7.3 Molecular Biology Studies Hybrid techniques that associate electrochemistry and mass spectroscopy with the technique of chromatography are prevailing tools used in the study of redox reactions comprising different kinds of bioorganic molecules. ESIMS is combined with liquid chromatography separation for the classification of the reaction mixture.

Figure 7.6: Different kinds of biological mol-

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ecules are identified by chromatography technique. Source: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324248.php

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REVIEW QUESTIONS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Define Chromatography. Enlist all twelve types of chromatography techniques. Who invented the first chromatogram? Discuss the history of chromatography. Explain the principle of chromatography. On what basis, filter paper is selected in paper chromatography? 7. State the names of fields in which thin layer chromatography are widely used. 8. What are the different types of high-performance liquid chromatography? 9. How chromatography can be used in forensics? 10. Define: • Stationary Phase • Mobile Phase

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REFERENCES 1.

Chemistry Dictionary. (n.d.). Column Chromatography Definition, Principles, Procedure and Theory. [online] Available at: https:// chemdictionary.org/column-chromatography/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 2. Cheriyedath, S. (2018). Life Science Applications of Chromatography. [online] News-Medical.net. Available at: https:// www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Life-Science-Applicationsof-Chromatography.aspx [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 3. Chromatography. (2019). [ebook] p.5. Available at: https:// www.soinc.org/sites/default/files/uploaded_files/forensics/For_ Chromatography3.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 4. Coskun, O. (2016). Separation Techniques: CHROMATOGRAPHY. Northern Clinics of Istanbul, [online] pp.156-160. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206469/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 5. Keller, R. and Giddings, J. (2019). Chromatography | chemistry. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www. britannica.com/science/chromatography [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 6. Khan Academy. (n.d.). Principles of chromatography. [online] Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/ chemical-processes/separations-purifications/a/principles-ofchromatography [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 7. Kumar Dubey, D. (n.d.). Lecture 6: Affinity Chromatography-I. [ebook] p.6. Available at: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/102103017/ pdf/lecture%206.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 8. Laboratoryinfo.com. (2019). High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Principle, Types, Instrumentation and Applications. [online] Available at: https://laboratoryinfo.com/hplc/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 9. Owlcation. (2015). Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC): Principle and Procedure. [online] Available at: https://owlcation.com/stem/ tlc-thin-layer-chromatography-Principle-Procedure [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 10. Owlcation. (2018). What Is Paper Chromatography: Principle, Types, & Uses. [online] Available at: https://owlcation.com/stem/

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What-is-Paper-Chromatography-Principle-Uses-experiment-video [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 11. Principles of Chromatography. (n.d.). [ebook] p.12. Available at: https://faculty.psau.edu.sa/filedownload/doc-14-pdfdac5b5a1ad1d10738bd305065fdceec1-original.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 12. Rpi.edu. (n.d.). 3 The procedure of affinity chromatography. [online] Available at: https://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/ ForShekhar/CHROMO/Chen/part_3.htm [Accessed 23 May 2019].

CHAPTER 8

MICROSCOPE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN LIFE SCIENCES

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

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In this chapter, you will learn about:

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Microscopes Compound Light Microscopes Stereo Microscopes Digital Microscopes USB Computer Microscopes Acoustic Microscopes Micro-Imaging Photographic images Field Lens

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Basic principle and anatomy of the microscope. Different uses of the microscopes. Importance or significance of the microscope. History of the microscopes. The compound light microscopes. The stereo microscope. The digital microscope. The USB computer microscope. The pocket microscope. The scanning probe microscope. The electron microscope. The acoustic microscope.

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8.1 INTRODUCTION: ANATOMY OF THE MICROSCOPE Microscopy act as an important role in most of the life sciences. Microscopes have taken participation with a considerable amount or an important factor in the areas of cell biology as well as histology where great encounters have been made over the span of several numbers of years. The finding of blood cells in the human body covered the technique for higher studies in the field of cell biology. Early finding of genetic factor which takes participation in the development of human by the researchers named as Edward Lewis, Christine Nusslein and Eric Wieschaus in the year of 1995 is a vibrant explain the significance of simple microscope in the field of life sciences. The biological systems are made of a huge range of complications, which can be better understood with the help of the application of the microscopes. A microscope permits scientists to view thorough or comprehensive connections among the structures and functions at several degrees of determination.

Figure 8.1: Anatomy of the microscope.

Source: https://images.pexels.com/photos/256262/pexelsphoto-256262.jpeg?cs=srgb&dl=analyzing-dark-dof-256262. jpg&fm=jpg

Microscope and Its Significance in Life Sciences

Microscopes are the devices which are designed to create enlarged graphics or photographic images of objects which are small in size. The microscope must achieve three tasks, which are used to create an intensified image of the example, separate the details in the image, and concentrate the details which are observable to the human eye or camera. This collection of the number of devices which includes not only multiple-lens designs with the goals and condensers, but also it is a very simple device which contains a single lens that is sometime hand-held, for example as a magnifying glass. A British microscopist named as Robert Hooke invented the simple compound microscope in the year of 1660s. This attractively manufactured microscope has an objective lens near the sample and is converged by turning the body of the microscope to shift the objective closer to or far from the sample. An eyepiece lens is put in at the top of the microscope and in several numbers of cases, there is an internal “field lens” within the container to intensify the size of the view field. The microscope with the help of oil spots and spherical reservoirs which are based on the water, also Light from the lamp is diffused when it passes from the reservoir and is then converged onto the sample with a lens which is attached to the container. This early microscope suffered from the chromatic (and spherical) aberration and all images viewed in white light which contains “halos” that were either in blue color or red in color. In the meantime, several numbers of microscope users depend upon direct

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Intensity is the power transferred per unit area, where the area is measured on the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the energy.

observation, it is very significant to recognize the connection between the microscope and the eye. Human eyes have the potential to differentiate the color in the visible portion of the spectrum: from the rang of violet to blue to green to yellow to orange to red, the human eye cannot perceive ultraviolet or infrared rays. The human eye also the potential to sense the variation in brightness or concentration which ranges from the black to white and all the gray shades in between. Therefore, for an image to be seen with the help of the human eye, the image must be obtainable to the human eye in colors of the visible spectrum and/or varying degrees of light intensity. The eye receptors of the retina which is used to sense the color of the cone cells; the cells for characteristic levels of intensity, not in color, are the rod cells. These types of cells are situated on the retina at the back side of the eye. The front of the eye, which is consist of the iris, the curved cornea, and the lens are corresponding to the mechanisms for allowing light and concentrating it on the retina. For an image to be seen clearly, it must spread on the retina at an enough visual angle. Except the light falls on non-adjacent rows of retinal cells (a purpose of the intensification and the dispersal of the image), the human eye does not have the potential to differentiate closelylying details as being separate (resolved). In addition, there must be enough contrast between the adjacent details and/or the background to reduce the magnified, resolved image visible. Because of the restricted capability of the lens which is placed at the eye of the microscope

Microscope and Its Significance in Life Sciences

to alter its shape, objects transported very near to the eye cannot have their images transported to convergence on the retina. The recognized conventional viewing distance is near about ten (10) inches or maximum to twenty-five (25) centimeters. As already been researched almost more than five hundred years ago, magnifiers for the simple glass were established. These were convex lenses (which are much thicker in the center as compared to the periphery). The sample or object could after then be concentrated with the help of the application of intensifier which is located between the object and the eye of the microscope. These “simple microscopes” could feast the image on the retina by magnification with the help of increment in the angle of vision on the retina. The “simple microscope” or enlarging the glass reached its maximum state of perfection, in the year of 1600s, in the work of Anton van Leeuwenhoek who has the potential to see singlecelled animals (which he called “animalcules”). The image which is produced with the help of such an intensifier, held very near to the eye of the observer, give the impression as if it were on the same side of the lens as the object itself. These types of image, seen as if it were ten inches away from the eye, is known as a virtual image and cannot be captured on film. Around the beginning of the time period of the 1600’s, with the help of work attributed to the Janssen brothers in the Netherlands and Galileo in Italy, the compound microscope was manufactured. In its very simple form, it be made up of two convex lenses which are aligned

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Magnification is the process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of something.

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in series: an object glass (objective) near to the sample or specimen; and an eyepiece (ocular) which is near to the eye of the observer (with means of altering the position of the sample and the lenses of the microscope). The compound microscope accomplishes a two-stage intensification. The objective displays an intensified image into the body tube of the microscope and the eyepiece additionally enlarges the image and shows with the help of the objective.8.2 Use of Microscopes When most of the people contemplate of microscopes, biology and medicine probably come to mind. And the wish to pick up about alive things was maximum to be expected the key purpose for the development of the microscope. At the moment, never the less, microscopes are applied in several numbers of other areas. For instance, geologists practice the microscopes to observe the rocks, as well as minerals and materials scientists, apply the microscopes to observe plastics and polymers. Engineers applies microscopes to observe surface properties and structures of metals. Forensic science is the education of wrong doing divisions for the determination of giving indication or proofs in law lords of law. Proof for example dust, glass, body fluids, hair, inks, and micro-organisms can be examined with the help of microscopy. Microscopes are also applied in the provision, industrial, and medicinal industries to make sure the safety and superiority of the goods. Scientists in these businesses inspect their goods with the help of a microscope to recognize any type of faults or impurities.

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Microscopes support the scientists to examine the microbes, germs and bacteria, the cells, the crystalline structures and the molecular structures, they are one of the utmost significant apparatuses for the analysis when the doctors inspect the samples of the tissue.

Figure 8.2: Several numbers of applications of the microscope.

Source: https://c.pxhere.com/images/6c/97/ c7033cae35bcb8af8d0d86162b52-1457639. jpg!d Microscopes have unlocked up an entirely new measurement in the field of science, with the help of Microscopes, scientists now have the potential to determine the reality of the microbes, germs and bacteria, education the construction of cells, and see the minimum parts of plants, animals, as well as fungi. Electron microscopes give the facility to produce the very small electrical circuits which are found on the Silicon microchips, scanning microscopes are very more cultured, and they have advanced intensifications as compared to the light-refracting microscopes. Microscopes are applied in the analysis of

Fungi is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms.

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the infection or disease in the hospitals and the health center all across the globe, Microscopes enlarges or expands the samples of the blood, consequently, The doctors can see the malaria parasites which are aggressive for the red blood cells. Microscopic inspection approves the research laboratory examinations that may be optimistic for the illness, Specialists or experts sum total the number of red blood cells which is diseased by malaria to provide the doctors knowledge of how progressive the infection or illness is in a patient. Microscopes apply the simple visible light refracting lenses, Electrons, x-rays, and infrared rays, They are used to sense the minor and minor structures, Scanning electron microscopes have the potential to determine the infection or bacteria which are far smaller as compared to the any of the other cells. The microscope magnifies the view of the smallest bacteria or infection, which permits the experts to create the inoculations, injections, and treatments with respect to the infectious illnesses in the humans as well as in the animals. Scanning electron microscopes have the potential to intensify up to several million times to view the smallest areas of molecules, the viruses, and the nanoparticles, the Scanning electron microscopes use the counteractive software to elevate the enlargement and the firmness of the images, the computers support the nano-technologists utilizes the highpowered electron microscopes to interpretation the objects only a few molecules thick.

Microscope and Its Significance in Life Sciences

8.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MICROSCOPES There are several various types of microscopes which are applied in the light microscopy, and there are four most general kinds of microscopes are Compound microscopes, Stereo microscopes, Digital microscopes, and the Pocket microscopes or handheld microscopes. Some kinds which are best well-matched for the biological uses, where others of the microscopes are best for teaching space or individual hobby usage. Outside of light microscopy are the exhilarating growths with the help of electron microscopes and in scanning probe microscopy.

Figure 8.3: Various types of microscopes.

Source: https://cdn.pixabay.com/ photo/2018/07/06/04/38/technology-3519747_960_720.jpg There is a descriptive introduction of the several different kinds of microscopes which are available in the present time.

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8.2.1 The Compound Light Microscope Usually binocular (which are two eyepieces), the compound light microscope is the type of microscope which integrate the power of the lenses and light which helps to magnifies the sample or specimen which is being under the inspection or analysis. Conventionally, the eyepiece itself permits for ten times (10X) or fifteen times (15X) intensification and when it is integrated with the three or four objective lenses, and those lenses can be rotated into the area of view and helps to create a much higher intensification to a maximum of near about a thousand times (1000X) usually.

Figure 8.4: The compound light microscope.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Compound_Microscope.JPG/800px-Compound_Microscope.JPG The compound light microscope is very common between the plant scientist or

Microscope and Its Significance in Life Sciences

phytologist (botanists) for reviewing the cells of the plant, in biology to the interpretation of bacteria and parasites as well as a several numbers of human cells as well as animal cells. The compound light microscope is a very beneficial microscope in the field of labs who deals with the forensic for the evaluation or analysis of structures of the drug. Compound light microscopes are one of the microscopes which have the most used to structure of the various types of microscopes as they are most frequently found in the field of science and teaching space of biology. Due to this reason, simple models are eagerly obtainable and are cheap with respect to the cost. As well, various microscopy imaging techniques provide profit to the scientists as well as researchers with the help of the compound microscope and are worth discovering.

8.2.2 The Stereo Microscope The Stereomicroscope is also called a dissecting microscope. The Stereomicroscope has two optical paths at to some extent, an, unlike angle which permits the image to be viewed in the form of three-dimension under the lenses. The stereo microscopes enlarge at low power, most characteristically between the range of ten times (10X) and two hundred times (200X), or more commonly below the range of hundred times (100x).

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Light microscope is an instrument that uses visible light and magnifying lenses to examine small objects not visible to the naked eye, or in finer detail than the naked eye allows.

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Figure 8.5: The stereo microscope.

Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/8607/15737 691777_36231f370d_b.jpg

Microsurgery is a surgical discipline that combines magnification with advanced diploscopes, specialized precision tools and various operating techniques.

With the help of Stereo microscope, scientists or researchers usually have the option of purchasing the fixed or zoom variety from a manufacturer and this variety of microscopes are comparatively are cost effective in nature. Application for this type of microscope which is Stereo microscope consist of looking at surfaces, microsurgery, and manufacturing of watches, plus building as well as inspection of circuit boards. Stereo microscopes permit the students to detect the process of photosynthesis in the plants in action.

8.2.3 The Digital Microscope Let’s have attention into the twenty-first century with a digital microscope and understand a world of amazing part.

Microscope and Its Significance in Life Sciences

The digital microscope, discovered in Japan in the year 1986, uses the power of the processor to observe substances not observable to the naked eye. Amongst the varying types of microscopes, this form can be pointed out with or without eyepieces to noble into.

Figure 8.6: Patented Digital Micro-Imaging Adaptor with SAGLO Soft Software for Microscopy: A type of digital microscope.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Patented_Digital_Micro-imaging_Adaptor_with_SAGLO_ Soft_Software_for_Microscopy_developed_by_ Inventor_Sachin_G_Lokapure_%28_SAGLO_ Research_Equipments%29_3.jpg It relates to a computer monitor with the help a Universal Serial Bus cable, much like having relation a printer or mouse. The processor software makes the monitor to projects the exaggerated specimen. transporting images can be then saved into a file or single images being saved in the computer’s memory. A benefit of digital microscopes is the aptitude to email different jpegs, as well as securely

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Digital microscope is a variation of a traditional optical microscope that uses optics and a digital camera to output an image to a monitor, sometimes by means of software running on a computer.

watch poignant images for a long duration. The admiration of the digital microscope has augmented at schools and amongst hobbyists.

8.2.4 The USB Computer Microscope Though not well right to the similar technical requests as other light microscopes, the Universal Serial Bus Processer microscope, amongst the dissimilar kinds of microscopes, can be used on almost any item and needs no preparation of the sample.

Figure 8.7: The USB computer microscope.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Usbmicroscope3.jpg It is fundamentally a macro lens being used to inspect images on a processor screen being inserted into its Universal Serial Bus port. However, the exaggeration is limited and is not similar to one’s normal multiple light optical

Microscope and Its Significance in Life Sciences

microscopes at only up to the range of two hundred times 200X zoom with a comparatively small depth of arena. Great for hobbyists and kids, it is an inexpensive device with an acquisition price usually under $200 United States Dollars.

8.2.5 The Pocket Microscope In investigative the dissimilar types of microscopes readily available on the market, the pocket microscope may be small, but its aptitudes are imposing.

Figure 8.8: The Pocket microscope.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b7/Opticron_8x42_DBA_monocular. jpg This is an instrument which is a great gift for a child or a scholar. It is being used by experts for hand-held imaging of a diversity of examples/ objects in the region or in the laboratory. It is quaint, durable and easily carriable with zooming ranging from 25x to 100x. There are many dissimilar concepts are available.

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Electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to create an image of the target.

8.2.6 The Electron Microscope Amongst the dissimilar kinds of microscopes, the Electron Microscope which is the full form used in place of EM is an powerful microscope readily available and being used presently, making researchers to project an example at nanometer scope. The transmission electron microscope which is the full form of TEM, the first type of EM, is capable of producing images 1 nanometer in size.

Figure 8.9: The Electron microscope.

Source: https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2017/04/12/02/42/scanning-electron-microscope-2223457_960_720.jpg The TEM is a popular choice for nanotechnology as well as semiconductor analysis and production. The second type of electron microscope is the scanning electron microscope (SEM) are about ten times less powerful than TEMs, they create high-resolution, sharp, black and white three dimensional images.

Microscope and Its Significance in Life Sciences

The Transmission Electron Microscopes and Scanning Electron Microscopes have applied requests in such turfs as biology, chemistry, gemology, metallurgy, and industry as well as deliver info on the topography, morphology, composition and crystallographic data of samples.

8.2.7 The Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) Amongst the dissimilar kinds of microscopes and microscopy methods, skimming probe microscopy is used nowadays in theoretical and industrial surroundings for those subdivisions connecting physics, biology, and chemistry. These tools are second-hand in research and development as standard analysis tools.

Figure 8.10: The scanning probe microscope (SPM).

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/SPM_overview.jpg Images are extremely exaggerated and are pragmatic as three-dimensional-shaped-samples in real time. SPMs employment a subtle probe to scan the superficial of the example removing

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the limits that originate in electron and light microscopy. Optical microscope is a type of microscope that commonly uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small objects.

8.2.8 The Acoustic Microscope The Acoustic Optical microscope is fewer about resolve and additional about discovery responsibilities, cracks or errors from examples during the industrial procedure. With the usage of high ultrasound, this kind of microscope is the calmest intra-cavity imaging tool obtainable. It is an optical microscope that is below used chiefly due to the fact that it is less known for its capabilities.

Figure 8.11: The acoustic microscope.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/75/Atomic_Force_Acoustic_ Microscopy_%28AFAM%29.png Scanning acoustic microscopy, or SAM, is the most present kind of acoustic microscopy readily available to present’s scientists. They can be observed it view a model internally without discoloration it or producing it any

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injury all falls on the shoulder to point focusing technology, which relies on a beam to scan and Acoustic microscopenetrate the specimen while it is in water.

8.3 IMPORTANCE OF THE MICROSCOPE IN BIOLOGY Deprived of the aids of microscopes, researchers today still wouldn’t know about diseases and bacteria; also, many medicines would have never been coming into light. New versions of electron microscopes have been employed to create images of molecules and atoms. With electron microscopes, one can see the reediest of cell walls, providing the observer with a greater example of how diffusion, eased diffusionand lively acceptance are used to deliver molecules across a cell wall, energetic for living organisms. Greatest of the explained and researched work in molecular biology solely dependent on the information of the construction of cells. Without microscopes, we wouldn´t be able to explain even the simplest biological processes, such as where Deoxyribonucleic Acid is stored and where Deoxyribonucleic Acid is translated.

8.4 CASE STUDY: SCANNING ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPY Scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) utilizes advanced imaging software and precision motors to transform ultrasonic testing data into easily understandable, high-resolution images of discontinuities in the material being scanned. Ultrasonic testing is based on the transmission

py is microscopy that employs very high or ultra high frequency ultrasound.

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of ultrahigh-frequency sound waves through a material. The system measures and interprets the amplitudes and locations of any reflected sound to produce “AScan” data, “C-Scan” testing maps these A-Scan data to correspond to the areas being tested. The C-Scan imaging technology has been used for decades, but recent advances in software and hardware have increased the capabilities of C-Scan testing to the point that it can appropriately be called “acoustic microscopy.” However, this microscope has the ability to see inside apart, not just on the surface.

8.4.1 How Ultrasonic Imaging Works Ultrasonic imaging, or any type of ultrasonic testing, consists of two methods. In “Pulse-echo” methods, a transducer emits a pulse of ultrasonic energy and reads the reflection itself. This allows for inspection from one side of a part and permits evaluation of the depth of the reflection, in addition to the area. Pulseecho C-Scan generally produces images in which the “good” areas are dark, and the flaw indications show up in shades of gray and white, or as a designated color palette. Through-transmission methods have two different transducers, one to send and the other to receive the ultrasonic pulses. This produces an image much like that of an X-ray. Wellbonded regions transmit sound and appear white. Regions that are not bonded well enough to allow sound to pass through appear dark in the image. This allows for a simple “Go/No-Go” test result and for faster inspection of materials.

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8.4.2 From Traditional UT to SAM Scanning acoustic microscopy is a recent advance in ultrasonic C-Scanning, and has evolved due to advances in high-precision motion guidance electronics, data acquisition speed, and software. Together, these technologies produce CScan images with a resolution of about five microns. SAM is based on the fact that sound travels at a constant speed through a given material. A mismatch in acoustic impedance between two materials coupled together causes the sound to reflect, and the amplitude of that reflection corresponds to the magnitude of the acoustic impedance mismatch. This means that brazed, soldered, diffusion bonded, welded, or epoxyjoined materials exhibit a reflection at the bond line. However, an even more significant reflection appears in discontinuity areas such as cracks, porosity, voids, or other discontinuities, because of the local acoustic impedance mismatch. Ultrasonic C-Scan takes these principles a step further. A computer-controlled scanning platform takes millions of A-scan data points and digitizes the amplitudes of the sound received by the acoustic transducer. The platform maps them relative to their precise locations on the part via computer-based tomography. The data are then plotted as grayscale or color to indicate the amplitude of the reflected sound. The result is an image of the joint interface, or of a particular cross-sectional layer in the part. The quality and ability of any such image are determined by a number of factors.

Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer.

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The size, type, and frequency of the transducer are crucial. A 25 mm (1 in.) diameter, straightbeam, 5 MHz transducer does not provide the same sensitivity or resolution as a 6 mm (0.25 in.) diameter, focused, 50 MHz transducers. Furthermore, the higher the frequency and the shorter the focus of the transducer, the greater the sensitivity of the ultrasonic A-scan data, and therefore the greater the resolution of the image produced. For some acoustic microscope systems, such as the Matec system at MRI, transducers with frequencies as high as 250 MHz are appropriate. However, the ability to take advantage of such high-frequency transducers effectively depends on the accuracy and repeatability of the motion system, which includes both the software and the hardware that moves the transducer around the immersion tank. A transducer that can detect a ten-micron flaw coupled with a motion system that is only accurate within 10 mm does not offer the repeatability of an acoustic microscope with a higher-precision motion guidance system. Today’s best acoustic microscopes have magnetically driven linear servomotors that guide the search tube and its transducer, allowing for control, accuracy, and repeatability within a few microns.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS: What do you understand by the microscope? Explain the anatomy of the microscope. What are the uses or application of the microscope? What is the importance or significance of the microscopes? Explain the various types of microscopes. Define the compound light microscope. Explain the significance of the stereomicroscope. Define the USB computer microscope and the digital microscope. 9. Explain how the scanning probe microscope (SPM) works. 10. Define the acoustic microscope, the electron microscope, and the digital microscope. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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REFERENCES 1. Abramowitz, M. and W. Davidson, M. (n.d.). Anatomy of the Microscope - Introduction | Olympus Life Science. [online] Olympus-lifescience.com. Available at: https://www. olympus-lifescience.com/en/microscope-resource/primer/ anatomy/introduction/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 2. Google Classroom (2019). Microscopy. [online] Khan Academy. Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/ science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-introduction-tocells/a/microscopy [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 3. JOHN, S. (2018). Impacts of the Microscope on Science. [online] Sciencing.com. Available at: https://sciencing. com/impacts-microscope-science-7813495.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 4. MicroscopeMaster. (2019). Life Sciences Under the Microscope - Histology and Cell Biology. [online] Available at: https://www.microscopemaster.com/life-sciences.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 5. R. Spring, K., Ernst Keller, H. and W. Davidson, M. (n.d.). Microscope Objectives - Introduction | Olympus Life Science. [online] Olympus-lifescience.com. Available at: https://www.olympus-lifescience.com/en/microscoperesource/primer/anatomy/objectives/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 6. Shaw, A., stefan, v. and owl, m. (2014). Why is the microscope important to the study of biology? | Socratic. [online] Socratic.org. Available at: https://socratic.org/ questions/why-the-microscope-is-important-to-the-studyof-biology [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 7. Soffar, H. (2014). What are uses and importance of Microscopes? | Science online. [online] Science online. Available at: https://www.online-sciences.com/technology/ what-are-uses-and-importance-of-microscopes/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 8. Taylor, S. (2019). How Do Microscopes Improve Our Lives Today? [online] Sciencing.com. Available at:

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https://sciencing.com/do-microscopes-improve-lives-today-5761872.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 9. Teacher.scholastic.com. (2019). Science Explorations: Classify Insects: Zoom in on True Bugs: Microscopes | Scholastic.com. [online] Available at: http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/explorations/bug/libraryarticle.asp?It emID=113&SubjectID=129&categoryID=4 [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 10. Wiki Books (2016). Methods and Concepts in the Life Sciences/Microscopy - Wikibooks, open books for an open world. [online] En.wikibooks.org. Available at: https:// en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Methods_and_Concepts_in_the_ Life_Sciences/Microscopy [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 11. Danial, J., Aguib, Y. and Yacoub, M. (2016). Advanced fluorescence microscopy techniques for the life sciences. Global Cardiology Science and Practice, [online] 2016(2). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC5642830/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 12. Elliott, G. (2019). The Importance of the Microscope in the Study of Cells. [online] Career Trend. Available at: https:// careertrend.com/info-10017889-importance-microscopestudy-cells.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 13. Life Science (2019). Life Science Research. [online] Leica-microsystems.com. Available at: https://www.leicamicrosystems.com/applications/life-science/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 14. Santander, C. (2013). Different Types of Microscopes Exploring the top four and others. [online] MicroscopeMaster. Available at: https://www.microscopemaster.com/ different-types-of-microscopes.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 15. Siyavula.com. (n.d.). Molecular Make Up of Cells | Cells: The Basic Units of Life | Siyavula. [online] Available at: https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/cells-the-basic-units-of-life/02-cells-the-basicunits-of-life-02 [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 16. Swedlow, J. (2012). Innovation in biological microscopy:

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Current status and future directions. BioEssays, [online] 34(5), pp.333-340. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/bies.201100168 [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 17. USE OF THE MICROSCOPE. (2019). [ebook] Available at: http://delrio.dcccd.edu/jreynolds/microbiology/2420/ files/use%20of%20microscope.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 18. M. Nelson, T. and W. Smith, R. (2004). SCANNING ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPY. [online] Asminternational. org. Available at: https://www.asminternational.org/documents/10192/1893695/amp16212p029.pdf/237a7c51a9c1-44fa-abbf-180ed67761dc [Accessed 24 May 2019].

CHAPTER 9

SAFETY IN THE LIFE SCIENCE LABORATORY

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• • • • • • • • • • •

In this chapter, you will learn about:

Biotechnology Dissection Disposal Equipment Preservative Specimen Organisms Formaldehyde Rinsing Procedures Tissue homogenizers Incubators

• • • •

Know the rules while performing the lab activities. Performing lab activities with safety equipment’s Techniques for keeping safe from chemicals Techniques of using the equipment’s

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9.1 INTRODUCTION There are some biological safety issues and there are two major principles which are applied in the science laboratory are dissection safety and sterilization and aseptic technique and they are also safety issues associated with biotechnology with field activities and so on. Dissection is an important part of biological lab activities, life science courses and properly planned dissection activities are wonderful for teaching students, the principles of anatomy and physiology. Contingent on the logical research being led, a lab can be loaded up with risky synthetic substances, radioactive substances, organic examples, sharp instruments, brittle dish sets, and combustible articles. Therefore, those working in labs should be acutely mindful of the numerous risks related with these things. The general guideline is to provide a rationale that why the person is doing a dissection activity and its best, if this is provided in written form to address any concerns or issues that students or their parents might have it and secondly preserve materials and preserved specimens, are very important. The greatest concern, of course, is the origin of some of these preserved specimens and always purchase preserved materials from reputable suppliers because they can guarantee that all of those specimens are obtained in accordance with all department of agriculture regulations for them. Almost all by preserved specimens are initially preserved using formaldehyde but then all of that formaldehyde is removed by rinsing and so that even something that was initially preserved in formaldehyde is guaranteed to be 99.7 percent free of residual formaldehyde. The formaldehyde is necessary to fix the tissues to crosslink the protein so no further tissue deterioration occurs. Rinsing procedures are usually specified with the specimens follow those directions carefully in order to preserve the life of those specimen. There is a certain degree of preservative odor that may linger so it has been recommended that all as dissection activities be performed in a well-ventilated lab only. Some additional safety precautions for dissection procedures appropriate personal protective equipment including gloves, apron

Safety in the Life Science Laboratory

and safety glasses and make sure that dissection tools are quality instruments and that they are free of rust and so on so it is necessary to inspect all of those beforehand. Most of the accidents that occur with cuts during dissection activities are from either poor quality or old rusty dull scalpels and so on.

9.2 SAFETY MEASURES WHILE PERFORMING LAB ACTIVITIES It is necessary to rinse all formaldehyde specimens with water before dissecting by using a small amount of a formaldehyde-free preservative to keep the specimen moist. It is mandatory that the students should be wearing gloves while performing the dissection activity and the teachers should warn them about inadvertent contamination of parts of their body if they touch their face while they are wearing gloves and they have been working with the preserved materials and so on.

Figure 9.1: Wearing Gloves before the experiments.

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/unmeer/16270154927

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Dissection is the dismembering of the body of a deceased animal or plant to study its anatomical structure.

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Look for the gloves safety symbol to identify when hand protection should be worn for handling hazardous materials, even in small quantities. It is imperative to pick the proper kind of glove for the risk present, for example, chemical and heat safe gloves, and so on. Know Hygiene is a series of that no compound safe glove ensures against practices performed to every substance risk. preserve health. At the end of the activity before leaving the laboratory as for proper chemical hygiene for any lab activity or biological lab activity is to wash both the hands, Cleanup and disposal want to make sure that the teacher has planned enough time in the lab activity so that the students have time at the end to clean up properly to wash their scalpels and also wash the dissection equipment as well as wash the trays when the person is done with the dissection activity at that point then the specimens should be double bagged for disposal .

Figure 9.2: Hand wash after the experiment is over.

Source: https://www.verywellhealth.com/ common-infections-that-happen-in-the-hospital-3156860

Safety in the Life Science Laboratory

It is necessary to consult the local guidelines in terms of the proper disposal of that solid waste, what the guidelines are, what the regulations are and what’s allowed and follow all those biological waste disposal guidelines that are necessary. There is a lot to talk about dissection activity and it is also important to discuss sterilization and aseptic technique and this would be for microbiology type lab activities. These are popular labs where all students have a throat culture at one time or another so it’s helpful to relate what that throat culture is to something that they would study in the laboratory. People are sure that they are working only with known pathogenic microorganisms. Bio level safety 1would be considered standard microbiology to call practices, standard biological hygiene also. A most important rule of standard biological technique is to wash the hands thoroughly with soap and water and frequently during the activity before handling any more microorganisms and certainly after removing the gloves and then also at the conclusion of the microbiological activity. The research center boots required wellbeing image demonstrates when road shoes are not satisfactory for certain lab-related undertakings. Safe overshoes or boots ought to be utilized to maintain a strategic distance from conceivable introduction to corrosive chemicals or enormous amounts of solvents or water that may enter ordinary footwear. Biological hygiene is the same as chemical hygiene such as no eating, no drinking, no smoking, no chewing gum, no handling contact lenses the students are wearing

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Throat culture is a laboratory diagnostic test that evaluates for the presence of a bacterial or fungal infection in the throat.

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safety glasses as well as don’t apply cosmetics and don’t store food there and anything else in the laboratory work areas that the students are working with microbiological organisms. There should be policies and procedures for the disposal of any sharps that might have been used and the person has to perform all the procedures for being careful to minimize aerosols because the people don’t want to create a few more a dispersion of microorganisms and also decontaminate all work surfaces after the procedure anywhere that the person has touched with or worked with the microorganisms and the decontamination utilizes. The students should observe their gloves especially if they are working with anything sharp and make sure that there are no puncture holes and so on in the gloves. Sterilization procedures before and working with it, the students need to sterilize on any of the glassware that they are using and so on that can best be done with dry heat. It is important for the students as well as the teachers to understand the safety rules so they may not hurt themselves or cause someone else to be hurt. There are not too many safety rules in the laboratory to learn or keeping in mind but small types of errors may create big problems. Common sense and behavior are also lying under the category of the science laboratory safety rules because it has been seen that many students that misbehave in the science labs and may play with the lab equipments. Leather shoes will in general assimilate synthetic compounds and may must be disposed of whenever contaminated with an unsafe

Safety in the Life Science Laboratory

material. In a lab, dropping a corrosive will damage a conventional pair of shoes. Particular research center footwear is intended for explicit applications and settings. The protective clothing safety symbol demonstrates that a sterile garment or other defensive apparel should be worn. It is necessary from the student’s point of view to keep their eye open and keep their area clean at the time of performing and they will not dependent on others that someone will come and clean their desk because when other students will come then those chemicals will react to their body so it important for those students that whosoever is performing should have the duty to clean up. Everything cannot be teaching to the students because there is some common sense for performing the lab activities. Anyone cannot do anything in the lab unless its specifically designed as an experiment and they don’t see what will happen if they mix things together which is not going to be good. The chemicals are not easily going to the hands if they wash it once or twice so that is why gloves are helpful in keeping protected from these chemicals. For Example, it has been observed that the dentists always do the treatment while wearing the gloves and they perform their activity inside the mouth of the person because both the dentist and person will be safe from the chemicals or bacteria. The students are strictly not allowed to play with the chemicals for their own safety. Many laboratories become the victim of the accidents because the students may not have performed very carefully and may not follow the rules

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Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium.

and regulation that are required in the science laboratory. Since synthetic materials can hold fast to the skin when consuming, cotton is the most favored research center material. Wool ensures against liquid materials, little amounts of corrosive, and small fires. Engineered filaments secure against flashes and infrared or bright radiation. Synthetics ensure against radiance.9.3 Important Lab Safety Rule It is necessary for the students to follow their instructors and listen their instructions carefully while performing the lab activities. It is important for the students to pay attention in the lab and the activities can be performed step by step and they should know how to start the process as well as finish the process. Performing lab activities are different and it’s a hands-on class where the students get into the lab and do experiments whereas science is a class where people do stuff but is required to be safe. The teacher has the responsibilities for safety and the students have responsibilities for safety. The students should not enter into the labs and their attire that they do not bring into lab such as their bag sleeves, open-toed shoes, stylish jeans and goggles posing the neck protection but the student with coming to lab with the closed toes shoes as well as lab apron and no baggy clothing and for girls, the hair tied up with every student in the lab wearing the goggle properly and that students are definitely ready for the lab. The eye protection safety sign indicates there is the possibility of chemical, environmental, radiological, or mechanical irritants and hazards in the laboratory. Eye shields, also called safety

Safety in the Life Science Laboratory

glasses, goggles, or spectacles, not only provide protection against flying debris and chemical splashes in the lab, but may also protect against visible and near visible light or radiation from UV rays, depending on the lens material. In the lab, all they need is a calculator, pencil, lab sheet and any appropriate materials as instructed by the teacher and everything else could be a safety hazard. The behavior of the students should be appropriate in the lab and the students do not have the rights to have pranks in the labs for the safety measures. In the lab, they always handle the lab equipment and preserve specimens in a respectful manner. No drinking and eating is permitted in the science laboratory because there can be some kind of residual chemicals that have been left in the hands. It has been observed that there is chemical spill that had never been cleaned up and then the students put their hands on the table so the residual chemicals also take place that is why drinking and eating should not be eaten in the science laboratory. It is mandatory whosoever enter into the labs to follow the lab instructions and it is imperative that they follow all written and verbal instructions given by the teacher. Suppose there are two students in the lab and both of them are unsure of what to do next where one student correctly waits and asks for help while the other student proceeds without caution and the results are very different so make sure that they ask for the help. The most prevalent lab security eyewear is polycarbonate. This material has not exactly a large portion of the heaviness of glass, making

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the eyewear increasingly agreeable to wear. The student should never perform any unauthorized experiments or take chemicals from a stockroom or from a lab or never work alone and never work without the teacher’s permissions for the safety. It is important to use safety equipment properly like it has two types of safety equipment’s such as classroom safety equipment and personal safety equipment.

9.3.1 Things Required for Performing Personal safety equipment includes goggles, aprons and gloves. These are examples of personal safety equipment. Classroom safety equipment may include a fire blanket, fire extinguisher, first aid kit, an eye wash station and a safety shell. If the student gets something in their eye during the science experiment then they may need to use the eye wash station and it is important to wash for 15 to 20 minutes. In science class, the students have to deal with a lot of exciting yet dangerous materials and don’t taste anything. The students may have to deal with the various chemical substances and sometimes they found the color of the chemicals is safe and sound similar but reacts very differently so it is extremely important to read the labels very carefully. In a science class, sometimes it is necessary to identify a substance according to its smell and there are many ways to do it.

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Figure 9.3: Carefully using Chemical Substance.

Source: https://sdtimes.com/agile/guest-viewagile-chemistry-mix-matters/ Noise in laboratories has become a growing concern that calls for maintenance of discipline. It is also caused by instruments such as cell washers , motors and homogenizers. If the substance were an acid or possibly ammonia than those vapors would have gone up into the nasal passages and possibly caused death and this is the wrong way of smelling the substance but it can be done simply by smelling a small amount of vapor in front of the nose in order to identify the smell. In lab science, the students should necessarily listen to their teachers’ instructions about the handling, the transporting and the safe disposal of chemicals.

9.4 LAB TECHNIQUES AND SAFETY It has been observed that the most common thing that happens in the lab is breaking of glass so the students should know how to pick up the broken glass with their hands only by wearing protective gloves and rest are picked up with the

Substance is matter which has a specific composition and specific properties. Every pure element is a substance.

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room in a dustpan and place it in an appropriate container. The microscopes are always available in the science laboratory and there are proper techniques for carrying a microscope. The students also may get a chance to work with live animals and they always handle live animals with care and respect. The students are not allowed to open the cage because the animals may come out and harm the students and teachers always try to teach the students that they should never try to tease the animals or remove them from the science laboratory and if they have touched the animals or even the glasses then make sure that they should wash their hands. It is necessary to take great care when handling sharp objects so the students always carry tip down and never try to catch a falling sharp object. There are also other safety measures which are needed in the science laboratory like how to use the heat carefully so the students often use a Bunsen burner, hot plate or maybe even an alcohol burner and to exercise extreme caution when heating things up. It should never have flammable liquids near a heating device. The location of the eyewash station should involve easy access with smart design near the safety shower to allow for combined access. The students should pay attention that how the teacher will properly light some model of Bunsen burner. Many students may not follow the procedures and perform the lab activities in the wrong way which can lead to causing injury or death. It is necessary to be very cautious in the lab, hot and cold glassware looked exactly the same. Clothes play a very important role in

Safety in the Life Science Laboratory

the science laboratory and it should cover as much as the body as possible. Every lab should have a handicap-accessible workstation so that way students with a wheelchair or other disabilities will be able to have the full educational experience beyond that they should be a handicapped-accessible so those students should be having access to those pieces of safety equipment. There are some pieces of safety equipment that is absolutely to have in the science laboratory. The students can perform only in the lab activities where they can use all the lab equipment’s and safely perform but there can be a problem if they take the lab equipment’s with them in their home. The teachers also want the students will only perform in the science labs because there is some safety in the labs and are taken care of by their teachers. It has been seen that there are some equipments in the science labs which are dangerous to the life of people. The optimum use of lab safety symbols and signs can circumvent accidents that should be followed by the staff as well as visitors. The aforementioned points and dos and don’ts should be clearly stated .

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REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. How the students should perform in the science laboratories? 2. What are the safety measures required for performing the lab experiments? 3. What the student should do after leaving their science labs? 4. Will the students able to perform the lab activities at home? 5. What are the important things that the students should be careful? 6. What is the role of the teachers? 7. What type of things they can carry in the Science labs? 8. How difficult is for the students to learn the safety tips? 9. What type of dress is required at the time of entering the science labs? 10. How can the students perform a task with safety?

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REFERENCES 1.

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3.

4.

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Helmenstine, A. (2018). The 10 Most Important Lab Safety Rules. [online] ThoughtCo. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/ important-lab-safety-rules-608156 [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Lab Manager. (2017). Science Laboratory Safety Symbols and Hazard Signs, Meanings | Lab Manager. [online] Available at: https://www. labmanager.com/lab-health-and-safety/2017/09/science-laboratorysafety-and-hazard-signs-meanings#.XOezO4gzZPY [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Meier, R., Murdick, N. and Lytle, C. (2019). The Safety of Science Activities in an Inclusive Elementary Classroom. 1st ed. [ebook] p.1. Available at: https://file.scirp.org/pdf/JSS_2014091616085950. pdf [Accessed 24 May 2019]. Safety Rules & Lab Safety Contract. (n.d.). [ebook] p.2. Available at: http://petersonscience.com/petersonscience/Table_of_Contents_ files/Lab%20Safety%20Contract%202015.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2019]. SCHOOL SCIENCE LABORATORIES A GUIDE TO SOME HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES. (1984). [ebook] p.1. Available at: http://file:///C:/Users/Admin/Downloads/cdc_12078_DS1.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2019].

CHAPTER 10

FUTURE ASPECTS OF LIFE SCIENCES

KEYWORDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• •

In this chapter, you will learn about:

• • • • • • •

Biomedical Experts Composite cohesive genetic arrangements Self-care Gears Genetic Discipline Treatment-trusting sick people Peripheral invention Nanobots Cross-functional corporations ‘Black box’ Issue

• • •

•

•

•

To understand the importance of the Life Science and the linked areas of study. To gain the knowledge about the presentday scenario of the Life sciences. To gain the knowledge of the ventures that are supporting different areas of sciences in context with the Life Sciences. To access the information linked to the modern-day experiments that have been carried out in the Life Science. To know the importance of the e-infrastructure in context with the Life Science. To know the certain challenges that the field of Life Sciences is facing at the present time.

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10.1 INTRODUCTION The life sciences have permanently been situated for decrypting genetic complication. By means of the gears at the disposal all through the twentieth century, biomedical experts ought to usage a deductive method, where difficulties were considered in a unique manner, one at a time. Through the speedy growth in the current periods of innovative technology and original approaches to examining information, the field of Life Science has now arrived in the twenty-first century. In this century, the field of Life science in a situation where the composite cohesive genetic arrangements can be considered holistically.

Figure 10.1: Life Sciences has been on an ever-evolving mode which shows that there is a hidden treasure of knowledge in the future of Life Sciences.

Source: https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2013/07/18/10/55/dna163466_960_720.jpg Huge plans that have been plotted as the structuring slabs of natural life, such as the Human Genome Venture and the Human Protein Graphics, have rendered the vital foundations for considering natural life, but have as well donated to the development of technological progress. Innovative technology has provided a quicker, inexpensive sequencing system, amplified computational influence, developments

Future Aspects of Life Sciences

in big data analysis and sophisticated resolution image capturing abilities. This has permitted an unheralded upsurge in the thoughtfulness of the scientists about human biology in the some of the past years. For instance, scientists of Life Science are now capable of observing the entire human genome in bulky models of persons. This has remained as immensely significant for genetic investigation as a complete, and an innovative field, which is known as systems biology, has been utilized as a consequence. The digital insurgency, which has rendered amplified linkage and big data analytics, composed with an arrangement’s medication method, allows important variations to healthcare schemes. The characters of both the medicinal specialists and sick people might transform in the future; sick people will have the chance to access additional governance of their personal well-being. Digital gears will initiate the authorization of the sick people and provides them admission to medicinal papers, self-care gears, online maintenance sessions, and friendly societies. In fact, the information technology organizations have understood the probability and are correspondingly inward bound to the healthcare area. For example, these organizations are contributing forward-thinking conclusion sustenance for healthcare specialists and digital services to allow sick people to be able to handle long-lasting circumstances at home-based. Genetic Discipline consist of education of complete breathing procedures exist on the ground and life procedures thereof. It includes

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Human biology is an interdisciplinary area of study that examines humans through the influences and interplay of many diverse fields such as genetics, evolution, physiology, anatomy, epidemiology, anthropology, ecology, nutrition, population genetics, and sociocultural influences.

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education of building, purpose, development, progress, and biology of microorganisms, plants and creatures. Generally, Genetic Discipline has as well abundant and a massive variety of education and, from now, is separated into diverse divisions resulting to be proficient in specific area and development thereof. Grounded on instruction and welfares, there are a diversity of profession specialisms that genetic experts can partake, such as zoology, ecology, botany, biochemistry, microbiology, biotechnology, physiology, marine biology, genomics, bioinformatics and subsequently much more. Biotechnology and Microbiology are the twofold maximum developing and progressive areas of biological science.

10.2 PRESENT DAY SCENARIO OF LIFE SCIENCES In the year 2019, the life sciences segment will perceive a planned increase of the digital mindset and additional acceptance of changing technologies. While traditional investment vehicles, such as, mergers and acquisitions are more inclined towards the adoption of transformative technologies, it is the external innovation that would bring a significant culture change-agent by the formulation of creative partnerships with the people or the companies entering into the market. The digital phase has made it necessary to have a transparent system which would lead towards real relationship-driven partnerships as it will also comprise stakeholders from almost all the sectors, like, advocacy, regulators,

Future Aspects of Life Sciences

patients, and other groups including vendors who get paid for the outsourced projects and are mostly critical to the supply chain. In future, it has been analyzed that data will play an important role in the market as data would be helpful for the new revenue model. This will further help in delivering an exceptional patient experience..

Figure 10.2: There have been many experiments going on in the present times to unlock the mystery of the development of the Life Sciences. Source: http://res.publicdomainfiles.com/pdf_ view/195/14021892013854.jpg Continued pricing pressures, growing access to medications, development of genetic factor and cell treatments, and indeterminate business strategies will additionally alter the subtleties of the marketplace. There are many types of research that have provided identifications into the international natural life sciences financial status and evaluates the tendencies affecting the trades as they visualize to quicken modification

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Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital (i.e. computer-readable) format, in which the information is organized into bits.

and raise the experience of the patients. As the process of digitization endures to develop every field of pharma, a novel generation of startups as well as tech giants have eventually evolved, disturbing the status quo and legacy culture of the pharma industries. Though the pharma giants are making huge investments in the therapeutic solutions based on genes, more than 250 startups are already working on these therapies and using them for the treatment of patients. These startups could merge and then form a complete new company with different kind of culture revolving around innovations and life sciences. In the year of 2019, the major issues related to the next generation therapy is still the ‘lack of manufacturing capacity’.

Figure 10.3: Many organizations across the world have started to conduct studies that help in understanding the development of the cell structure.

Source: https://media.defense.gov/2008/ Nov/12/2000664156/780/780/0/081104-D1852B-004.JPG Developments in genome sequence formation have directed towards a better understanding of reasons that initiates the evolution of ailment.

Future Aspects of Life Sciences

Treatments founded on changing policies sensibly aim the devices causing the ailment. The right kind of medication, helps the patient to recover at an early stage with no complications. Businesses that are grounded in India but have considerable operations in the United States of America are seamless samples of such modernizers. Such corporations are determining innovative, leading-edge accuracy drugs by means of up-to-the-minute skills, and speeding up investigative scientific educations in teamwork with main medicinal hubs in many developing countries that deliver exclusive admission to treatment-trusting sick people. Public-private companies are moreover solving the latent of the biomedical investigation and expansion in many developing countries.

10.3 THE FUTURE OF LIFE SCIENCES IN THE YEAR 2100 Typically, the science of biotechnology still upholds the adjacent,, association with the human civilization in the era of 2100s. Drug development together as biologics and nonbiologics, food production and dispensation, scientific submission of hereditary analysis and action, and bionics all of them are gradually developing. The startups related to such drugs are also growing and are now well-established in the market place.

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Medication is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease.

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Figure 10.4: The future of the Life Sciences has so much to discover than it is ever discovered in this field.

Source: https://images.pexels.com/photos/1253003/pexels-photo-1253003. jpeg?cs=srgb&dl=3d-illustration-3d-rendering-anatomy-1253003.jpg&fm=jpg

10.3.1 Drug Development in 100 Years In the area of drug development, the marketplace shares of biologics, such as monoclonal antibodies and DNA-based injections, have occupied over important advertising helping from old-style medicinal crops. Large-scale manufacture of biopharmaceuticals, together in the procedure of tissue ethos and transgenic creatures, deliver vital medicinal substances before individually will be gifted to be obtained from persons such as Factor Xa and exact sorts of body fluid cells for embattled transfusion. Though, out-of-date, unimportant moleculebased medication still preserves a substantial helping of the marketplace. As a consequence of enormously-augmented digital energy

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resulting from the manufacturing submission of significant calculating, the early broadcast of minor molecule applicants is substituted by a processor simulated, a purpose-driven design of exact compounds, which importantly condensed the Level One phase of medication research and development procedures.

10.3.2 Genetically Modified Food Feeds the Broader Population In diet production and dispensation, the amount of genetically-modified (GM) harvests endures nurturing. Even though the actual primary genetically modified harvests have previously approved the examination for an age-group, communal sentiments on genetically modified crops are still extremely disruptive, which makes a bilateral food marketplace. In accumulation to genetically modified harvests, genetically modified animal goods have remained as extensively advertised, which meaningfully condensed the merchandise series distance and completed protein obtainable to a wider population at discounts.

10.3.3 Western Countries Ban Gene Therapy The inherited analysis and the application of the derivative big information have been an essential part of culture, which is not just restricted to medical resolutions but it has also been used as significant referencing aspects in the area of health assurance, birth risk examination, and even the calculation of individual recognition,

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Gene manipulation is also sometimes called the genetic engineering. It is a general term for any method which manipulate with the genetic material.

serving as the positive as well as the negative aspects. Clinically, gene treatment is able to disturb, eliminate, and repair the parts that are not wanted in the genome on a personal level, which allows full regaining of retrovirus-associated illnesses and genetic-borne flaws. Though, the customs of such kind of gene manipulation on reproductive body part and gametes is still being highly uncertain, which consequences in its prohibition in many of the Western countries.

10.3.4 Stem Cells and Nanobot Technology Lastly, after just about a century of expansion and maturing, bionics and the associated technologies bloom widely in the 2100s. The progressive bionic implants, which employ neurosensory connectors, have been used in patients who have totally lost the ability to see or listen at the body part level. The entrenched computational components, which put on the portion of the neural system inside the brain, provide assistance to the patients to attain back their usual brain actions post trauma. In the same way, stem cells can be loyally pre-programmed prior to the administration to guarantee them to distinguish into a wanted group of cells or body part. This will enable the reparation and rejuvenation on a cellular side. The only illfated portion is that the much-anticipated bloodinfusible nanobot technologies are still not recognized enough to allow its human request, like for the handling of atherosclerosis. This

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is mostly because of the absence of a wellorganized control structure to direct the exact performances of the nanobots in vivo.

Figure 10.5: The introduction of the nanotechnology has helped a lot in developing the Life Sciences.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/DNA_tetrahedron_white. png In order to bring together all this, the department of the biotechnology in the 2100s is satisfying as well as inspiring. The progression of troublesome technologies significantly enhances several numbers of areas like that of farming, medical science, and the incorporation in between humans as well as computers, but it also makes new challenges and disagreements, like the capability to announce transferrable genetic alterations in humans and the entire renovation of old-style life and the medicinal protection business.

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10.4 ROLE OF E-INFRASTRUCTURES IN LIFE SCIENCES It is distinct that life science research structures and e-infrastructures must function thoroughly all together to be able to recognize the latest challenges that are associated with the melodramatic rise of information that is being produced. Though, looking to it more carefully, it is not insignificant to recognize definite needs and how these needs may be addressed. This comes from the detail that so far; the included players do not share a similar mechanical language. To some level, there is excessive alteration relating to the information and likely methods even amongst diverse trails of the life science such as the genomic and imaging data. There are many agencies that are addressing this communication break with a sequence of aimed workshops bringing e-infrastructure governments and employees from the developing life science research infrastructures on the road maps of many companies altogether.

Figure 10.6: The establishment of the proper infrastructure in Life Science is very important for exploring future aspects.

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Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/4060/51607 71733_9106f3bf9e_b.jpg These aimed workshops paid attention to challenges and potentials all over the “data surge” that is confronted in life sciences in the nearby forthcoming time consisting of the loading, transmission, and study, and evolving appropriate information approaches for research substructures. Moving ahead, each of the various diverse groups inside the life science domain must more and more consider what information is rated fit for loading and retrieving, and afterward describe their requirements. The progressions in the biomedical have made it conceivable to recognize and manipulate aspects of living organisms, results in developments in community health, farming, and several other fields. The globalization of logical and mechanical skill also means that several numbers of experts and other persons all over the world are making advances in the life sciences and the associated technologies. The dangers that are postured by bioterrorism and the propagation of biological arms competencies have enlarged issue about how the quick developments in the field of genetic engineering and biotechnology could allow the manufacture of biological arms with exclusive and random features. At the present times, the challenge that is faced by the e-Infrastructures is how to offer Information and communications technology (ICT) services that are aiding high-volume life science data examination. In this method, the

Biotechnology is technology based on biology - biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop technologies and products that help improve our lives and the health of our planet.

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IT infrastructure is now delivered, summing up to the size like that of computable storing to manage local information operations is a blockage. Resolving this challenge is a serious part of the substructure for Europe’s life science research sector. By reliably constructing on nationwide strong point and approaches all over the regions of Europe, a uniform procedure of carrying out large scale calculations from the local bioinformatics sizes to the EU-level e-infrastructure will launch the method to drive life science onward. This conference will explore the skills required for a thriving life sciences sector in the UK and will highlight the creative ways that the future skills needs are being addressed.

10.5 CHALLENGES IN THE LIFE SCIENCE INDUSTRY The famous biologist Charles Darwin Once stated: “It is not the Strongest of Species which will survive and not the Smartest, But the One adaptive to change.” To providing assistance in directing towards this ever-changing industry landscape, there are many associations that have emphasized numerous of the biggest concerns facing the life sciences industry. Some of the measure changes are listed below:

10.5.1 Change is a Good Thing The desktop computers were developed into the laptops. In the same way, cell phones are

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developed into smartphones. Every single technical landmark highlights the trail to the subsequent landmark of the achievement. Even in the past ten years, the life sciences industry has faced troublesome inventions in the field of data science, genomics, and immunotherapy. Moving in the onwards directing, the fruitful establishments in life sciences will hold frontline technologies such as the machine learning and artificial intelligence, though experts and managers of the organization must make for a continuously unstable landscape.

10.5.2 Less Hierarchy, More Autonomy The kind of top-down decision orders will become less and less efficient in the close upcoming times. Evading alliance in service of an approach set by an only administrative decision maker will become progressively obsolete. The associations must hold new, super flexible communication standards and use them in order to nurture the new concepts. The associations that do so will relish extraordinary advances in efficiency and influence. The life sciences association of the upcoming times will depend on highly-skilled teams with more self-sufficiency as ever experienced in the past. These teams gather the aptitude and assets from all over the world, depending on combined digital communication and workflows excluding the involvement of the paper to work together at any time, anyplace, by means of a range of tools. They mechanize procedures each and every time of the probability and assemble

Probability is a measure quantifying the likelihood that events will occur.

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vital human skills with technology in order to progress implementation.

10.5.3 Growth through Partnerships Success is not the aim of a single person. The technology has always helped asset-based corporations, but that will not be sufficient in the upcoming times. The associations and the group staffs will continue to explore the new, unpredicted methods to connect and work together. The organization will enlarge beyond siloed investigation, constructing, and sales players to involve associates from the field of academic, development, and data examination teams. The tough, cross-functional corporations will help life sciences establishments in order to nurture without buckling under the heaviness of new guideline and ferocious opposition. The associates will help with participating technology into workflows, preserving complete agreement in the face of enlarged supervisory examination, and predicting accountable fundings of time and assets. The utmost fruitful corporations will not just enhance the entire values of an association but also decrease the operative and distributive costs.

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10.5.4 Focus on Patient Trust in Pharma

Figure 10.7: There has been an increase in the number of people opting for treatment through Life Sciences rather than the conventional treatment processes.

Source: https://media.defense.gov/2013/ Oct/28/2000901344/-1/-1/0/131021-F-WA211097A.JPG The connections between the pharmacological corporations and patients continue to be the most significant aspect in making a fruitful future. Investigators, medics, and caretakers must all pay cautious consideration to the sensitive influence of technical progression on members in medical prosecutions as well as the ultimately targeted patient inhabitants. The poor digital literateness and low stages of logical knowledge can really decrease the superiority of attention, leading to ill-fated and needless resistance.

10.5.5 Data Integrity Loading and distribution information on the

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paper-based sources discards huge quantities of time and currency. Automatic dealings and loading processes are a bonus to effectiveness, veracity, and obtainability. The calculated risks, prices, and inactivity related to the bodily, paper-based procedures will eventually become nonexistent as innovative technical skills remain to transfer old-fashioned methods of operations.

10.5.6 Culture of Ethics Modernizers necessarily adjust to a phase where the real life is vague from television screens, technological gadgets, and information. Morals must infuse the expansion of medicinal gadgets and the process of well-being schemes as in the initial stages. Justifying cybersecurity danger and removing discretion leakages needs not solitarily technical proficiency, but ethics of accountability and honesty.

Neuroinformatics is a research field concerned with the organization of neuroscience data by the application of computational models and analytical tools.

10.6 FUTURE OF LIFE SCIENCES AND DATA TSUNAMI The important point that has to be considered by various researchers is that how will the Life Science evolve in the future. There have been many conferences being held and studies that are being undertaken to discuss the future of the Life sciences. Many experts and scientists have already shared their thoughts and findings to propel the discovery of the future of the Life Sciences. As the field of neuroinformatics is propelled forward along with the various projects in the

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study of the Human Brain, which is predicted to produce yottabytes of information, and the upsurge of the usage of big data image perceiving in parts like zoology, genomics will never be the lone zone of the biological disciplines confronting a ‘data tsunami’. Even though the easy-to-use digital calculation gears may demonstrate valuable in the short term, these gears or tools are not capable of being replaced for factual knowledge. But maybe it is the ‘black box’ issue. This is so because it is laid bare to those tools and gears that really symbolize fairly a few expectations resulting to the mistakes. There is a possibility that these mistakes or errors are capable of resulting in the major revolutions in the future of Life Science.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS: 1. What is the role of Life Science in the present world? 2. Explain the present-day scenario of the Life Sciences and the experiments that are being carried out in the present times. 3. What would be the condition of the Life Sciences as the technology in the future? 4. Explain the role of the stem cell and nanotechnology in the development of the Life Sciences. 5. How did the establishment of the e-infrastructure help in the progress of the Life Sciences? 6. What are the challenges that the Life Science Industry is currently facing? 7. What is the role of the organizations across the world in conducting studies for cell structure? 8. How does the Data Integration pose as an obstacle for the Life Sciences? 9. Explain the ban on Gene Therapy that has been inflicted by the Western Countries. 10. What is the role of the Life Science in Drug Development and future prospects?

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REFERENCES 1. Berra, Y. (2014). Making predictions: The future of biology - Research in progress blog. [online] Research in progress blog. Available at: https://blogs.biomedcentral. com/bmcblog/2014/08/05/making-predictions-the-futureof-biology/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 2. Deloitte. (2019). 2019 Global life sciences sector outlook | Deloitte. [online] Available at: https://www2.deloitte. com/global/en/pages/life-sciences-and-healthcare/articles/ global-life-sciences-sector-outlook.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 3. Duarte, A., Psomopoulos, F., Blanchet, C., Bonvin, A., Corpas, M., Franc, A., Jimenez, R., de Lucas, J., Nyrönen, T., Sipos, G. and Suhr, S. (2015). Future opportunities and trends for e-infrastructures and life sciences: going beyond the grid to enable life science data analysis. Frontiers in Genetics, [online] 6. Available at: https://www.frontiersin. org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2015.00197/full [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 4. Globalization, biosecurity, and the future of the life sciences. (2006). Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 5. Jain, S. (2019). Future Prospects of Biological Science. [online] The Knowledge Review. Available at: https:// theknowledgereview.com/future-prospects-of-biologicalscience/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 6. Life Sciences Future - It’s Here. (2019). Life Sciences Future - Life Sciences Future - It’s Here. [online] Available at: http://lifesciencesfuture.com/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 7. Namslauer, A. and de la Torre, J. (2017). Where is Life Science heading in the Future. [ebook] Stockholm: Stockholm Science City Foundation, p.1. Available at: https:// ssci.se/sites/default/files/Where%20is%20life%20science%20heading%20in%20the%20future.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 8. Royalsociety.org. (2019). Future skills for the life sciences | Royal Society. [online] Available at: https://royalsociety.

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org/science-events-and-lectures/2019/03/tof-skills-lifesciences/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 9. Sipos, G., Suhr, S., Psomopoulos, F., Duarte, A., Blanchet, C., Bonvin, A., Corpas, M., Franc, A., Jimenez, R., Lucas, J. and Nyrönen, T. (2015). Future opportunities and trends for e-infrastructures and life sciences: going beyond the grid to enable life science data analysis. Frontiers in genetics, [online] 6, p.197. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4477178/ [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 10. Staff, S. (2019). 7 Trends Shaping the Future of Life Sciences. [online] Signix.com. Available at: https://www.signix.com/blog/7-trends-shaping-the-future-of-life-sciences [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 11. Stoeckli, K. (2017). India and the future of life sciences innovation. [online] https://www.livemint.com. Available at: https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/DOlDi0nGhJVWUX1NFlHOrK/India-and-the-future-of-life-sciences-innovation.html [Accessed 23 May 2019]. 12. Suman, S. (2019). There is Future in Biotech / Life Sciences Industry, here is the Proof! - BioTecNika. [online] BioTecNika. Available at: https://www.biotecnika.org/2016/05/ there-is-future-in-biotech-life-sciences-industry-here-isthe-proof/ [Accessed 23 May 2019].

INDEX A Achromatic telescope 111 Adenosine triphosphate 9, 17, 18 Adsorption chromatography 132 Affinity chromatography 142, 143 Agrotechnology 66 alkali metal spectra 112 Amplified linkage 197 Animal behavior 39 Animal breeding 47 Animal-Science 66 Aseptic technique 180, 183 Atherosclerosis 204 Atomic nuclei 118 Atomization 116, 119

B Behavioral genetics 48 Big data analysis 197 Bilateral food marketplace 203 Biochemistry 2, 3, 17, 26, 38, 65, 66 Bio-engineering 66 Biological hygiene 183 Biological origin 130 Biological pest control 45

Biological safety 180 Biological speculation 27 Biological Weapons Convention 57, 58 Biology 65, 66 Biomedical investigation 201 Bioscientific diversity 52 Biotechnology 65, 66

C Cell-Biology 66 Cell cortex 68 Cell nucleus 114 Cell philosophy 101 Cellular biology 26 Cellular respiration 9, 19 Cellulose filter paper 136 Chemical analysis 36 Chemical hygiene 182, 183 Chemical Weapons Convention 57 Chemometrics 121 Chloroplast 12 Chromatogram 132, 137, 138, 149 Chromatography 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 137, 139, 143, 144, 146, 149, 150, 151

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Colloid chemistry 28 Compound microscope 155, 157, 158, 163 Compound microscopes 161 Compound mixture 134, 135 Computational biology 30 Conventional biology 26 Crystalline particles 115 Crystallization 130, 132 Crystallographic data 169 Crystallography 28 Cytology 2 Cytoplasm 67, 68

D Darwinian development 89, 92 Darwinian ideology 5 Deep-sea vent theory 97 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 98 Diet production 203 Digital insurgency 197 Digital microscopes 161 Disease-resistant hybrids 45 Dissecting microscope 163 Dissection activity 180, 181, 182, 183 Dissection safety 180 Distillation 130, 132 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) 14 Domestic animals 91 Drug development 201, 202

E Ecology 2 Ecophysiology 32 Ectoplasm 68 Electrical expulsion 94 Electromagnetic radiation 110, 111 Electromagnetic spectrum 110, 125

Electromagnetic waves 110 Electrophoresis 55, 56, 57, 64 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 68 Ethology 2 Evolutionary biology 30 Experimental physiology 32

F Feeding material 44 Forensic science 158 Fumaric acid 146

G Gas chromatography 146, 147 Genetically-modified (GM) 203 Genetic code 47 Genetic Discipline 195, 197 Genetic drift 7 Genetic investigation 197 Genetic material 28, 30 Genetics 66 Genetic testing 26 Genetic variations 7 Gene treatment 204 Genome sequence formation 200 Genomics 66 Golgi bodies 67, 69 Gradualism 5

H Handheld microscopes 161 Hemicelluloses 71 Hemoglobin protein 121 High-performance liquid chromatography 140, 141, 149 High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) 138 High-powered electron microscopes 160

Index

Homeostasis 65, 66, 75, 80, 88 Human Genome Venture 196 Human Protein Graphics 196 Hydrogen ions 13

I Ice Age Theory 89, 95 Iconic mechanism 34 Immunology 2 Inadvertent contamination 181 Inexpensive sequencing system 196 Inflammation 34 Information and communications technology (ICT) 207 Infrared rays 156, 160 Inherited analysis 203 Inorganic fertilizers 44 Integrated pest management 45 Intensified image 155, 158 Inter-atomic bond 117 International Combination of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) 59

K Kinetic molecular motion 130

L Life Science’ 66 Ligation 55 Light intensity 156 Light microscopy 161, 170 Light-refracting microscopes 159 Living being 25 Living organism 66 Living organisms 2, 3, 17 Living system 3 Lysosomes 67, 69

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M Macromolecular systems 110 Magnesium ion 10 Magnetic resonance imaging 121 Mammalian cell 57 Mass spectrometry (MS) 147 Maturation 92 Medication method 197 Mendelian-chromosome theory 27 Microorganisms 2 Mid-infrared radiation 118 Mitochondria 67, 70, 114 Mobile phase 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142 Modern geology 103 Modern taxonomy 39 Molecular biology 2 Molecular structures 159 Monochromator 116 Morphology 169 Mutation 1, 7

N Nanotechnology 66 Natural life 196, 199 Neural system 204 Neuroscience 3 Next generation therapy 200 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) 13 Non-living matter 2 Nuclear magnetic resonance 118 Nucleoplasm 68 Nucleus 67 Nutrient recycling 45

O Optical microscope 28

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Optical spectrum 111 Organic chemistry 53 Organic composites 98 Organic compound 12 Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) 58

P Paleontology 103 Paper chromatography 136 Pathogenic microorganisms 183 Peptide nucleic acid 99 Personal protective equipment 180 Photodynamic therapy 120 Photosynthesis 1, 9, 10, 11, 12, 21 Photosynthetic prokaryotes 11 Phylogenetics 30 Physical chemistry 26 Physical science 2 Planar chromatography system 136 Plant kingdom 2 Plant Science 66 Plant species 8 Plasma membrane 68, 69, 70 Pocket microscopes 161 Polar blue compound 135 Polyhydroxy aldehydes 4 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 55 Prebiotic interaction 92 Probability 7 Protective clothing safety 185 Protein synthesis 69

Q Quantitative phase imaging 121

R Radiation biology 28 Radioactive substances 180 Reasoning ability 24 Regenerative physiology 48 Rejuvenation 204 Remote sensing technology 45 Reparation 204 Residual formaldehyde 180 Retinal cells 156 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) 98, 99, 100 Ribosomes 67, 69 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) 69

S Safety hazard 187 Scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) 171 Scanning Electron Microscopes 169 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) 168 Scanning probe microscope (SPM) 169, 175 Scientific community 95 Semi-quantitative technique 138 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) 68 Solvent extraction 130 Species divergence 7 Spectroscopic method 114 Spectroscopy 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 127, 128 Stationary phase 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143 Stereo microscopes 161, 164 Sterilization 180, 183 Synthetic malic acid 146

Index

Synthetic substances 180

T Therapeutic methods 120 Thermal energy 98 Thin layer chromatography 138 Threose nucleic acid 99 Throat culture 183 Thylakoids 12 Tissue deterioration 180 Tissue Engineering 66 Topography 169 Transduction 56

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Transmission Electron Microscopes 169 Triplet codon pattern 29

U Uniformitarianism 89, 103 Universal Serial Bus Processer microscope 166

V Virtual image 157

X X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) 123 Xylem vessels 11