Introduction to High-Speed Railway 9789819964222, 9789819964239

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Linya Liu Zifeng Zhong

Introduction to High-Speed Railway

Introduction to High-Speed Railway

Linya Liu · Zifeng Zhong

Introduction to High-Speed Railway

Linya Liu Department of Transportation Engineering East China Jiaotong University Nanchang, Jiangxi, China

Zifeng Zhong Department of Transportation Engineering East China Jiaotong University Nanchang, Jiangxi, China

ISBN 978-981-99-6422-2 ISBN 978-981-99-6423-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9 Jointly published with Southwest Jiaotong University Press The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Southwest Jiaotong University Press. © Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

As China’s economy continues to grow rapidly, living standards across the nation improve steadily. This progress results in a rise in travel demands, alongside an escalating expectation for high-quality travel experiences. Consequently, high-speed railways—notable for their safety, speed, and comfort—are fast becoming the transportation mode of choice for an increasing number of individuals. To this end, a high priority has been given to the development of high-speed railways under the national policy. The initiation of China’s high-speed railway journey can be traced back to 2004 with the introduction of the first Medium- and Long-Term Railway Network Plan. This development has seen China’s high-speed railway network grow exponentially. The updated Medium- and Long-Term Railway Network Plan of 2016 set new targets. By 2020, 30,000 km of high-speed railway infrastructure connecting more than 80% of China’s major cities will be constructed. By 2025, the plan forecasted the construction of 38,000 km of high-speed railway, expanding the coverage, enhancing the structure, and taking a dominant position as the primary mode of travel, thereby facilitating the support of railways to economic and social growth. By 2030, China will establish complete railway connectivity and county-level coverage. This network, built around the backbone of the “Eight Vertical and Eight Horizontal Lines”, aims to accelerate the establishment of a robust passenger transport network, developing swift, convenient, and high-capacity railway passenger transportation channels, with a gradual shift toward the separation of freight and passenger transportation. This illustrates that the high-speed railway is entering a new stage of accelerated development. This rapid evolution of high-speed railways, alongside the refinement of associated technologies, necessitates higher requirements on the cultivation of highly skilled professionals in the field. In response to this demand and the higher educational requirements of railway-related majors, the authors, drawing upon existing domestic and international research and their own practical teaching experience, have drafted this comprehensive book in alignment with educational reform initiatives. This book provides a comprehensive overview of infrastructures, communication signals, traction power supplies, electric multiple units, and transportation organization in the context of high-speed railways. It delves into basic concepts, theories, v

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and the latest technological advances over eight chapters, including Introduction, High-Speed Railway Lines and Infrastructures, High-Speed Railway Power Supply System, High-Speed Railway Electric Multiple Unit, High-Speed Railway Signals and Communication Systems, High-Speed Railway Transportation Organization, HSR Passenger Transportation Service, and Magnetic Levitation Railway. The book has been edited by Linya Liu and Zifeng Zhong, with proofreading accomplished by Xu Yuping. Additionally, Xu Yuping, Luo Shimin, Xu Guoquan, and Zhou Yanli have contributed to the drafting of the book. To specify, Chap. 2 was drafted by Linya Liu, Chaps. 1 and 3 by Zifeng Zhong, Chap. 4 by Luo Shimin, Chap. 5 by Zhou Yanli, Chap. 6 by Xu Yuping, and finally, Chaps. 7 and 8 by Xu Guoquan. Intended as a textbook for undergraduate students specializing in railway transportation, railway engineering, and related fields, this book serves as a comprehensive guide. Additionally, it functions as an enriching training resource for railway professionals and a substantial reference for postgraduates pursuing railway studies. In creating this comprehensive resource, we have consulted and referenced a breadth of domestic and international literature, including academic papers and textbooks. We extend our sincere appreciation to the authors of these referenced works. The publishing of this book is funded by the Publishing Fund of East China Jiaotong University. We extend our profound gratitude to them for their invaluable support to this scholarly project. We acknowledge that due to the breadth of the content and the ever-evolving landscape of high-speed railway advancements, theories, and technologies, there may be room for improvement in content preparation and reference selection. We warmly welcome constructive criticism and suggestions from our peers, experts, and readers both locally and globally. Nanchang, China April 2020

Linya Liu Zifeng Zhong

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Overview of High-Speed Railway Development in the World . . . . . 1.1.1 Railways Development History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 The Development History of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . 1.1.3 Concept of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 High-Speed Railway Development Situation Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 High-Speed Railways in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 High-Speed Railways in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 High-Speed Railways in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 High-Speed Railways in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.5 High-Speed Railways in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.6 High-Speed Railway Network in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.7 High-Speed Railways in Other Countries and Regions . . . . . 1.2.8 Countries Planning to Build High-Speed Railways . . . . . . . . 1.3 High-Speed Railway Development Situation in China . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Necessity of Developing High-Speed Railways in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Development History of High-Speed Railways in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Medium- and Long-Term Development Plan of High-Speed Railways in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Significance of High-Speed Railway Development in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Composition and Technical and Economic Characteristics of High-Speed Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Composition of High-Speed Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Main Economic and Technical Characteristics of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2 3 6 8 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 15 19 21 27 29 29 32 38

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2 High-Speed Railway Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Characteristics of High-Speed Railway Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 General Technical Requirements for High-Speed Railway Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 HSR Subgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Structure of High-Speed Railway Subgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Characteristics of High-Speed Railway Subgrade . . . . . . . . . 2.3 HSR Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Requirements for Track Structure of High-Speed Railway Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 HSR Track Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Track Inspection and Maintenance for High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 HSR Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Main Characteristics of High-Speed Railway Bridge . . . . . . 2.4.2 Classification of High-Speed Railway Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Requirements for Bridge and Culvert of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 HSR Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Tunnel Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Characteristics of HSR Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39 39 39

3 High-Speed Railway Power Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Overview of the Development of High-Speed Electrified Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Advantages of High-Speed Electrified Railway . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Power Supply System of High-Speed Electrified Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.4 Traction Power Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 HSR Traction Power Transformation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Power Supply Systems for Electric Traction Network of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Main Facilities of Traction Power Transformation System of High-Speed Electrified Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 HSR Overhead Contact Line System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Basic Requirements of Overhead Contact Line System . . . . 3.3.2 Power Supply Mode for Supplying Power from Traction Substation to Overhead Contact Line System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Composition of Overhead Contact Line System . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Types of Overhead Contact Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93 93

44 46 46 52 57 57 59 71 73 73 77 83 85 86 87 91

93 93 94 96 100 100 105 112 112

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3.3.5 Main Structural Parameters of High-Speed Overhead Contact Line System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 3.4 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 4 High-Speed Railway Electric Multiple Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 EMU Definition and Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Overview of High-Speed EMU Development at Home and Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Head Shape of High-Speed Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Car Body of the High-Speed Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Running Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Braking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5 Coupler and Draft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.6 Traction Drive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.7 Train Network Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 EMU Maintenance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Introduction to Maintenance Concept and Maintenance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Maintenance System of EMUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Distribution and Facilities of EMU Maintenance Bases . . . . 4.3.4 Main Facilities of EMU Maintenance Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145 145 145

5 HSR Signal and Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Overview of HSR Signal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Requirements for Railway Signaling of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 The Main Stipulations for Signal System of High-Speed Railway in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 HSR Signal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Basic Facilities of HSR Signal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Computer Based Interlocking System of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Train Control System of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 CTCS-3 Train Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Traffic Dispatching Command System of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Centralized Signaling Monitoring System of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 HSR Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Functions of HSR Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Requirements for Communication of High-Speed Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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148 158 158 160 163 167 177 179 183 186 186 188 190 193 197

199 201 203 203 209 210 216 219 221 223 223 224

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5.4.3 Communication Base Platform of High-Speed Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 Introduction of Bearer Services of the Communication System of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.5 GSM for Railway (GSM-R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 High-Speed Railway Transportation Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Passenger Flow and Train Types of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Characteristics of Transportation Organization of High-Speed Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Transportation Organization Flow of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 HSR Transportation Organization Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 HSR Transportation Organization Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 HSR Transportation Organization Modes in the World . . . . . 6.3 HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Elements of HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme . . . . . 6.3.3 Influencing Factors of HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4 HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme Formulation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 HSR Train Working Diagram and Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 HSR Train Working Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 HSR Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 HSR Comprehensive Maintenance Window and EMU Operation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Maintenance Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 HSR EMUs Operation and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Formulation of EMU Operation Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.4 Formulation of EMU Crewing Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Organization of HSR Station Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 HSR Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.2 Classification of HSR Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.3 Technical Facilities of HSR Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.4 HSR Station Passenger Transport Organization . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 HSR Traffic Dispatching Command System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.1 Characteristics of HSR Traffic Dispatching Command System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.2 Function of HSR Traffic Dispatching Command . . . . . . . . . .

224 225 226 229 231 231 232 236 238 239 239 239 242 242 243 246 249 250 250 256 263 263 267 273 277 278 278 279 282 289 294 294 295

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6.7.3 HSR Traffic Dispatching Command System Abroad . . . . . . . 296 6.7.4 DPL Dispatching System of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.8 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 7 HSR Passenger Transportation Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Characteristics of HSR Passenger Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 Content of Basic HSR Passenger Transportation Service and Post Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.3 Quality of HSR Passenger Transportation Service . . . . . . . . . 7.1.4 HSR Passenger Transportation Service Etiquette . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 HSR Station and Train Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 HSR Station Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 HSR EMU Train Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 HSR Passenger Transportation Service System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Overview of HSR Passenger Transportation Service System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 HSR Passenger Transportation Service System . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

305 305 305

8 New Development of High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Jet “Rocket” Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Pneumatic Cushion Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 Magnetic Levitation Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.4 Evacuated Tube Transportation and Capsule Train . . . . . . . . 8.2 Magnetic Levitation Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 History and Current Situation of Magnetic Levitation Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Classification of Magnetic Levitation Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Questions for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

331 331 331 332 333 334 338

306 306 310 311 311 317 323 323 323 330

338 341 344

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Overview of High-Speed Railway Development in the World Transportation is a general term for the economic activities involving the movement of people and materials on the transportation network by means of conveyance. It is the necessary condition for the smooth progress of production and life, the continuation of the production process in the field of circulation, and it participates in the creation of social material wealth. The history of human transportation, in a sense, is a history of technological development which takes transportation speed increasing as its main goal. Speed, to a great extent, often determines the rise and fall of a transportation mode or a transportation means, which not only reflects the level of social production technology, but also directly drives the development of social economy and the advancement of science and technology. Compared with other modes of transportation, railway transportation, taking fixed track as the transportation medium, is characterized by large capacity, fast speed, high safety, all-weather operation, energy-saving and environmental protection. As the basic condition for national economic development, the speed of railway transportation is an important indicator of its development. High-speed railway represents the trend of contemporary world railway development. It is a significant achievement of technical development in the field of transportation in the twentieth century, and is the outcome of human wisdom and our common wealth. It reflects the development and progress of a country in terms of railway traction power, line structure, vehicle technology, manufacturing technology, train operation control, transportation organization, and operation and management level, and also reflects the level of science and technology development and industrialization, as well as the organization and management level of railway transportation of a country. The economic and social benefits of high-speed railways are prominent in economically developed and densely populated areas, therefore, it has become a worldwide consensus to build fast, green, energy-saving, safe and convenient high-speed railways. © Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_1

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1 Introduction

1.1.1 Railways Development History 1. Emerging period (1825–1900) On September 27, 1825, at the unprecedented traffic opening ceremony, a train named “Locomotion” with a loading capacity of 90 tons, marshaling with a locomotive, tenders, 32 wagons and 1 passenger car, was operated by its designer Stephenson (UK), departing the Stockton Station at 9:00 a.m., and arriving at Darlington Station at 3:47 p.m., with a total traveling distance of 31.8 km. This was the first railway in the world using steam locomotive for traction, which indicated that land transport entered a new era powered by steam locomotives, and marked the beginning of modern railway transportation. Since the speed of a train was much higher than that of a ship or a carriage, and by virtue of various advantages including large capacity, high reliability, economic efficiency, convenience and all-weather operations, railways experienced rapid development throughout the world during the late nineteenth century and the early twentieth century, and became a dominant transportation mode around the world. The first development period for worldwide railways significantly promoted the development and prosperity of social economy at that time. 2. Booming period (1900–1945) During this period, due to the requirements of overseas colonization and wasteland reclamation of European and American countries, railways were developed rapidly as a dominant land transport mode. Moreover, its exclusivity made railway operators become the leaders of the transportation industry and enjoyed the sweet fruits of huge profits, therefore, a large number of investors began to build railways in various regions. Taking the United States as an example, in 1916, the total service mileage of railways in the United States hit a historic high, reaching 408,745 km, and there were 1085 railmen. By 1941, the total length of railways in the world had reached about 1,260,000 km, of which 47% were in America and 33% in Europe. 3. Recession period (1946–1964) After the Second World War, automobile and aviation industries emerged and developed rapidly, while the service provided by railways degraded day by day, coupled with its lower accessibility than roads, so railway development had been ignored by governments. Meanwhile, a large number of laws and acts restricting the railway operation had been formulated and released to prevent the railway practitioners from obtaining illegal profits. Under the influence of these adverse factors, railway traffic volume began to decline substantially. In the United States, for example, in 1955, the service mileage was reduced to about 350,000 km. In 1965, it was further reduced by another 40,000 km, and the number of railway operators declined to 552, and the railway passenger volume was only 20% of that in 1940.

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4. Recovery period (1964–) Since the 1950s, the world has entered the period of transportation means modernization and diversification. The rapid development of expressways and automobiles as well as the emergence of air transport have put railways at a disadvantage in terms of speed, and railway transport faces threats from both long and shortdistance transports. In western developed countries, railways first faced a passive situation and became a sunset industry, and even once fell into a stagnating state. Since then, people started to realize the importance of traveling speed for railway transportation. Improving the traveling speed was the only way for railways to survive and adapt to social and economic development, especially since the 1970s, when troubled by energy crisis, environmental pollution, traffic accidents and other problems, people had to reassess the value of railway. The inherent advantages of railways, such as large transport capacity, fast speed, low energy consumption, low pollution, high safety and reliability, cross-border connection, and all-weather non-stop operation, which are irreplaceable by other modes of transportation, once again have drawn people’s attention. Depending on high and new technologies, heavy haulage of bulk goods, and higher speed of medium and long- distance passenger transport, especially by virtue of the successful operation of Japan’s Tokaido Shinkansen, railway transport has stepped forward from recovery stage to revitalization stage and set up a new modern image full of vigor and vitality.

1.1.2 The Development History of High-Speed Railway Railway transport, as the dominant mode of land transport, had been in a monopolistic position in the transportation industry for over a century. Since the twentieth century, however, railway transport has been constantly impacted by the rapid development of the automobile, aviation and pipeline transportation. In order to improve the running speed of trains and adapt railway transport to social development, from the early twentieth century to the 1950s, Germany, France and Japan conducted a large number of theoretical researches and tests on high-speed trains. On October 27, 1903, Germany set a new test speed record of 210 km/h with an electric car; and on March 28, 1955, France used two electric locomotives to haul three passenger cars which increased the test speed to 331 km/h. However, it was not until the 1960s that high-speed railway technology was put into practical application. 1. First Wave (from the 1960s to the 1980s): The Shinkansen of Japan marked the new era of high-speed railways, and TGV of France reversed the decline of the worldwide railway industry

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Since the late 1950s, to prepare for the 18th Olympic Games held in Tokyo, Japan accelerated the research and construction of high-speed railways. In 1964, Japan completed the construction of the first high-speed railway in the world— Tokaido Shinkansen which was officially put into operation right before the opening of the Tokyo Olympic Games on October 1. This line started from Tokyo, passing Nagoya, Kyoto and other places, and ended at (new) Osaka, with a total length of 515.4 km and with an operation speed up to 210 km/h. It was the first commercial high-speed railway line in the world and broke the world record of railway operation speed at that time, doubling the travel speed between Tokyo and Osaka compared with the original railway. The completion of the construction of Shinkansen marked a new era of high-speed railways in the world. The success of Japan’s Shinkansen gave European countries a tremendous shock. Since then, different countries started to build their high-speed railways. Except North America, most economically and technologically developed countries in the world including Japan, France, Italy and Germany jointly promoted the first wave of high-speed railway construction boom, and the total mileage of highspeed railways reached 3198 km. 2. Second Wave (from the late 1980s to the mid-to-late 1990s): Europe picked up the baton Both Japanese Tokaido Shinkansen and French TGV-SUD-EST were great successes from all technical, commercial, financial, economic and political aspects. Tokaido Shinkansen became the main income source of railway passenger transportation of Japan, and the investment to TGV-SUD-EST was fully recovered within 10 years of operation. Japanese and French achievements in high-speed railway construction inspired many countries. Along with the world energy crisis in the 1980s as well as the growing environmental pollution problems, governments all over the world started reviewing the advantages of railways. At the same time, with the researches on new technologies, processes and equipment related to high-speed railways making breakthroughs and development, as well as the deepening of the reform of railway transport management system in many countries, the worldwide attention and researches on high-speed railway brew the second construction boom, which mainly happened in Europe in the 1990s, and the countries involved included France (1983), Germany (1988), Italy (1988), Spain (1992), Belgium (1997), United Kingdom (2003), and Netherlands (2009). They embarked on large-scale construction of domestic and crossborder high-speed railways, gradually forming the European high-speed railway network. 3. Third Wave (from the 1990s to the present): The high-speed railway construction has upsurged in Asia, spreading all over the world This wave of construction boom involves Asia, North America, Oceania and the whole Europe, which constitutes the revolutionary transformation and upgrading of the worldwide transportation industry. China, Russia, South Korea, Australia, UK, Netherlands and some other countries and regions have started their

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researches and construction of high-speed railways. To support the construction of European high-speed railway network, Eastern and Central European countries such as Czech, Hungary, Poland, Austria, Greece and Romania have been upgrading their main lines and train speed. Meanwhile, Asia (South Korea, China), North America (United States) and Australia also have set off the wave of high-speed rail construction. Besides, Turkey, United States, Canada, India and other countries have also initiated preliminary researches and practices on high-speed railways, and the train speed has already reached and even exceeded 300 km/h. The twenty-first century will be the century of great development of high-speed railways. In October 1998, at the third International High-Speed Railway Conference held in Berlin, Germany, the current high-speed railway development was deemed as the third wave of worldwide high-speed railway development. At the state level, China, Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Italy and South Korea rank the top seven in the world in terms of the operating mileage of high-speed railways. Among them, the mileage completed and put into operation in China have reached 35,000 km. It can be seen that China’s high-speed railway construction, surpassing the formers, takes the lead and becomes the “main battlefield” of high-speed railway construction. 4. Prospect Although the global high-speed railways have been experiencing steady development for more than 50 years, demands for high-speed railways will keep increasing, and the total mileage of high-speed railways will continue to grow steadily. According to the report entitled “High Speed Lines In the World” released by the International Union of Railways (UIC), the long-term planned mileage of high-speed railways in the world reaches 50,800 km, and Asia and Europe will be the main incremental markets of high-speed railways; Russia’s planned mileage of high-speed railways reaches 2978 km which exceeds two of Europe’s oldest high-speed rail giants France (1786 km) and Spain (1327 km), ranking first in Europe; India’s planned mileage of high-speed railways reaches 4630 km which exceeds Thailand (2877 km) and Vietnam (1600 km), second to China’s long-term plan of 18,000 km; besides, the planned mileage of highspeed railways in Africa and North America also reaches 2870 and 2619 km respectively, among which, the planned mileage of high-speed railways in South Africa reaches 2390 km, ranking first among all countries in the world except for Asia and Europe. The market scale in Africa, though smaller than those in Asia and Europe, cannot be ignored. It can be seen that emerging economies represented by BRICS countries including China, Russia, India, South Africa have a large development space and will be in a pivotal position in the global high-speed railway market.

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1.1.3 Concept of High-Speed Railway High-speed railway is an international and contemporary concept. The running speed of high-speed trains is an important technical index, and also the reflection of railway modernization level. 1. Railway classification The International Union of Railways (UIC) classifies railways by speed into the following classes: Normal-speed railway: 100–120 km/h; Medium-speed railway: 120–160 km/h; Quasi-high-speed railway: 160–200 km/h; High-speed railway: 200–400 km/h; Ultra-high speed railway: above 400 km/h. 2. Definition of high-speed railway Whether a railway line can be regarded as a high-speed railway depends on its generation, development and formation process. Different countries and regions have different definitions for high-speed railway at different stages, and the main definitions are as follows. (a) European Union In 1996, the European Union proposed a new definition for “high-speed railway”, and specified standards for “high-speed railway” and “highspeed railway locomotive and rolling stock”, which currently applies to EU member states. (1) High-speed railway The allowable speed of newly-built high-speed railways reaches 250 km/h or above, and the allowable speed of upgraded and reconstructed high-speed railways reaches 200 km/h. (2) High-speed railway locomotive and rolling stock On newly-built high-speed railway lines, the running speed shall be at least 250 km/h and, if possible, 300 km/h; on the existing lines or upgraded and reconstructed high-speed railway lines, the running speed shall reach 200 km/h. (b) International Union of Railways (UIC) (1) High-speed railway The design speed of newly-built high-speed railways shall reach 250 km/h and above, and the design speed of upgraded and reconstructed high-speed railways (subjecting to linearization and track gauge standardization) shall reach 200 km/h or even higher up to 220 km/h. (2) High-speed railway locomotive and rolling stock High-speed EMU trains reaching at least 250 km/h of the commercial operation speed.

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Trains running at relatively low commercial operation speed (200 km/ h) but with high service quality, such as tilting trains. Traditional locomotives and rolling stocks (locomotives hauling rolling stock) at the commercial operation speed of 200 km/h. (c) Japan As the pioneer of high-speed railway development, high-speed railways in Japan are well known as the “Shinkansen”. According to the Shinkansen Railway Construction Rules formulated by the Ministry of Transport of Japan in 1964, and No.71 Shinkansen Railway Preparation Law released by the Japanese government in May 1970: Shinkansen high-speed railway is defined as “main railway lines with a track gauge of 1435 mm on which a train can run at a speed higher than 200 km/h within the main sections of the railways”. This was the first time that the definition of high-speed railway had been specified in national law in the world. (d) United States Federal Railroad Administration in USA officially defines “high-speed railway” as railways with the maximum operation speed in excess of 145 km/h (90 mph). However, from a public perspective, “high-speed rail” is generally referred to rail services with operation speed exceeding 160 km/h in the United States. This is because there are no other passenger rail services in USA that operate at a speed higher than 128 km/h except Acela Express (the top speed of 240 km/h). (e) China According to the Regulation on the Administration of Railway Safety, which took effect in China on January 1, 2014, high-speed railway (HSR) refers to dedicated railways for passenger trains with design operation speed in excess of 250 km/h (including the reserved), and with initial operation speed in excess of 200 km/h. According to the above definition, “high-speed trains”, some “EMU trains” and “intercity trains” with train number starting with “G”, “D” and “C” belong to high-speed trains. The definition of “high-speed railway” by China Railway Corporation can be divided into the following two parts. (1) For existing lines (subjecting to linearization and track gauge standardization) with a speed of 200 km/h after reconstruction and newly-built lines with a speed of 200–250 km /h, trains operating on these lines at speed lower than 250 km/h are called EMU trains; (2) For newly-built lines with a speed reaching 300–350 km/h, trains operating on these lines at operation speed reaching 300 km/h and above are called high-speed EMU trains. For high-speed railways, in addition to the restriction on operation speed, all cars, tracks and operations shall be improved and upgraded accordingly. General definition applied currently: railways with the maximum (daily/ commercial) operation speed or design speed reaching 200 km/h or above. In the meantime, the requirements for newly-built high-speed railways and upgraded and reconstructed high-speed railways are different respectively:

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For newly-built high-speed railways, the design speed or the operation speed shall be in excess of 250 km/h; while for upgraded and reconstructed highspeed railways (subjecting to linearization and track gauge standardization), the design speed or the operation speed shall reach 200 km/h. With the advancement of science and technology and the change of objective conditions, the definition of high-speed railway is subjected to constant updates.

1.2 High-Speed Railway Development Situation Abroad 1.2.1 High-Speed Railways in Japan On April 5, 1959, the construction of JR Tokaido Shinkansen from Tokyo to Osaka was commenced. After five years of construction, the rail laying work was completed in March 1964. On October 1, the first high-speed railway in the world—Japan’s Tokaido Shinkansen was officially put into operation. This electrified standard-gauge double-track railway dedicated for passenger transport represented the world’s firstclass high-speed railway technology level at that time, and marked the advancement of the world high-speed railway from the experimental stage into the commercial operation stage. Its completion and opening to traffic indicated the arrival of a new era of high-speed railway in the world. Tokaido Shinkansen made a breakthrough in terms of running speed compared with traditional railways. After opening to traffic and putting into operation, by virtue of lower fare and lower transport cost (only 1/5) than air transport, it attracted a large number of passengers from air transport, and even led to reduced TokyoOsaka flight schedule. It is a classic example of the victory of railway transport over air transport in the world. Only 7 years after Tokaido Shinkansen was officially put into operation, the construction cost of USD 1 billion had been paid off with interest, with the internal rate of return reaching over 12%, gaining huge social and economic benefits. It can be regarded as the most successful high-speed railway in the world. The effect of promoting Japanese economic growth by Shinkansen after its construction is also one of the reasons that has caused worldwide high-speed railway construction boom. Shinkansen has become an important infrastructure supporting Japan’s economic take-off, which is known as “the backbone of economic take-off”. For the successful operation of Tokaido Shinkansen and the great economic benefits, the Japanese Parliament deliberated and passed the Law for the Construction of a Nationwide Shinkansen Railway Network in 1971, setting off a wave of high-speed railway construction. Shinkansen is the high-speed railway dedicated passenger line system in Japan, featured by mature technology, stable operation and high safety. In more than 50 years of operation, Shinkansen technology has made continuous progress, and there is no fatal accident ever occurring, so it is known as one of the safest high-speed railways in the world. Although the speed advantage of Shinkansen was soon replaced by

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France’s TGV, Japan’s Shinkansen possesses the most mature experience of highspeed railway commercial operation. For Japan, the primary goal of Shinkansen development is to improve passenger transport capacity, and the second being speed increase. Currently, the service mileage of Shinkansen high-speed railways in Japan is 3041 km, the mileage under construction is 402 km, and the planned track length to be constructed is 179 km, which has formed the backbone of Japan’s domestic railway network. Japan is one of the countries that have the longest mileage of high-speed railway in the world, only second to China.

1.2.2 High-Speed Railways in France TGV (train à grande vitesse), the high-speed railway system in France, was developed by Alstom and SNCF (state-owned), and operated by SNCF. TGV trains run among cities near Paris as well as some cities of its neighboring countries, including Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. Railway companies from Netherlands, South Korea, Spain, UK, and US purchase TGV trains or technologies produced or developed by Alstom from France. In 1971, the French government approved the construction of TGV Sud-Est from Paris to Lyon, with a total length of 417 km (in which, 389 km of high-speed railway was newly built), and the formal construction commenced in October 1976. The construction of the south section and the north section of TGV Sud-Est commenced in 1976 and 1978, and was completed in September 1981 and September 1983 respectively. In September 1983, the whole line was completed and opened to traffic. During the construction process, three specific principles including newly built highspeed railway line dedicated to passenger transport, newly-built high-speed railway line compatible with the existing railway network and the operation system with more trains and less transit, were adhered to. The maximum running speed of TGV high-speed trains is 270 km/h, which reduces the travel time between Paris and Lyon from 3 h and 50 min to 2 h, resulting in the rapid increase of passenger volume. Since TGV Sud-Est was put into commercial operation in 1981, the traffic volume had increased significantly, and by the end of 1991, revenues from TGV-Sud-Est operation had paid off all of its debt, including the purchase expenses of high-speed trains. The successful operation of TGV Sud-Est proved that high-speed railway was a competitive modern transport means and promoted the expansion of the railway network. Multiple new lines were constructed in the south, west and northeast of France. In the following years, TGV Atlantique, TGV Nord, TGV Méditerranée and other high-speed lines were built in France. From 1989 to 1990, TGV Atlantique from Paris to Le Mans and from Paris to Tours was constructed with the total length of 291 km and a maximum train speed of 300 km/h. It started making profits in a very short time, which was rare and commendable in Europe where railway transport, especially railway passenger transport, had been in depressing state.

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In 2006, LGV Est from Paris to Strasbourg was completed and opened to traffic, with a total length of 450 km and a maximum design speed of 350 km/h. The latest type of V150 ultra-high-speed train was tested on April 3, 2007, at a speed of 574.8 km/h. France has one of the largest high-speed railway transport networks in Europe. Currently, the service mileage of TGV high-speed railways is more than 3287 km. Inspired by the successful operation of TGV, neighboring countries such as Belgium, Italy, Spain, and Germany have followed suit and started building their high-speed railway systems. TGV is connected to Switzerland via the French railway network, connected to Belgium, Germany, and Netherlands via the northwest high-speed railway network, and connected to the UK via the Eurostar railway network.

1.2.3 High-Speed Railways in Germany Germany is a country with a long railway history, whose first railway line from Nuremberg to Furth was opened to traffic in 1835. Germany’s technology reserve on high-speed railways is not inferior to that of France. The high-speed trains in Germany (ICE) are known as the flagship high-speed trains of Deutsche Bahn, which access to all cities of Germany. Germany has a relatively well-developed railway industry with advanced technologies. In 1971, Germany started the construction of its first high-speed railway line from Hannover to Wurzburg (327 km). Shortly after that, the construction of the second high-speed railway line from Mannheim to Stuttgart (99 km) was commenced. Both these two high-speed lines opened to traffic in 1991. In 1998, the 264-km BerlinHannover high-speed line and the 180-km Koln-Rhein/Main (Frankfurt) high-speed line were constructed and opened to traffic. Different from the high-speed railways in Japan and France, the high-speed railways in Germany are designed to meet the needs of both passenger and freight trains. In Germany, in addition to 900 km of newly-built high-speed lines with the design speed of 280–300 km/h, there are 700 km of upgraded and reconstructed existing lines with a maximum allowable speed of 200 km/h. Therefore, the high-speed railways in Germany are composed of newlybuilt lines and existing lines with a speed reaching 200 km/h. ICE high-speed trains run not only on newly-built lines, but also on reconstructed or original existing lines (with a speed reaching or not reaching 200 km/h). All these lines for ICE high-speed trains running can be called ICE lines. At present, a high-speed transport corridor with a total length of 3287 km has been completed. Currently, the total length of the newly-built and the reconstructed high-speed railway lines reaches 3264 km, including six domestic lines and six cross-border lines.

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1. Six domestic high-speed railway lines (a) In 1991, the Mannheim-Stuttgart line was opened to traffic, which was located in Baden-Wuerttemberg, with a total length of 99 km. (b) In 1992, the Hannover-Wurzburg Line was completed, which is located in a strategic city of Bavaria–Wurzburg, directly connecting to the capital of Lower Saxony-Hannover, with a total length of 327 km. (c) In 1998, the Hannover-Berlin high-speed line was opened to traffic. (d) In 2002, the Koln-Frankfurt line was opened to traffic. (e) In 2006, The Nuremberg-Ingolstadt Line was opened to traffic. (f) In 2007, Hamburg-Berlin line was opened to traffic. 2. Six cross-border high-speed railway lines (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

To Amsterdam of Netherlands. To Copenhagen of Denmark. To Zurich of Switzerland. To Brussels of Belgium. To Salzburg and Vienna of Austria. The Frankfurt-Paris line was opened to traffic in 2007, directly from Frankfurt to Paris, the capital of France.

1.2.4 High-Speed Railways in Italy Italy is one of the first batch European countries which has built high-speed railways. It started researches on high-speed railways as early as the 1960s. In the middle of the twentieth century, Italy experienced rapid economic growth, and the traffic capacity of its north-south and east-west trunk railway lines was saturated. The construction of the Rome-Florence (Direttissima) high-speed railway officially commenced in 1970, and the whole line was opened to traffic in 1992, with a total length of 254 km, which is the only first-generation high-speed railway still in operation. The Rome-Florence high-speed railway adopted relatively low technical standards, allowing a maximum speed of only 250 km/h. Therefore, the maximum speed shall be improved to 300 km/h so as to match the second-generation high-speed railways. In 1986, Italian railways formulated a high-speed railway development plan, and according to the plan, the north-south trunk line from Milan to Naples and the eastwest trunk line from Turin to Venice should be upgraded and reconstructed into highspeed railways. In addition to the high-speed railway line from Milan to Genoa, it is planned that a high-speed railway network with a total length of over 1200 km will be constructed. This project will be carried out in two phases: Phase I involves the Turin-Milan-Naples line, with a total length of about 962 km; while Phase II involves the construction of a new east-west double-track high-speed trunk line from Genoa

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to Milan to Venice along the existing double-track railway. If the existing RomeFlorence high-speed railway line is called the first-generation high-speed railway, the high-speed railways mentioned above can be called the second-generation highspeed railway. Except for specific sections, the design allowable maximum speed of the high-speed railways under construction and to be constructed shall be 300 km/h, with a total length of 1130 km.

1.2.5 High-Speed Railways in Spain The technical level of railway engineering in Spain is not outstanding among western European countries. In 1984, the International Exhibition Bureau decided that the 1992 World Expo would be held in Seville, Spain. In response, Spain planned to build a high-speed railway from its capital Madrid to Seville. The construction of this railway officially commenced in 1987 and was completed by the end of 1991. The railway was opened to traffic in April 1992 right before the opening ceremony of the World Expo. This high-speed railway has a length of 417 km, adopting standard gauge (all the existing railways in Spain are broad-gauge railway), and is designed to meet the demands of both high-speed and medium-speed trains as well as passenger and freight trains. This railway is mainly used for the operation of AVE high-speed trains (running at 300 km/h), TALGO200 tilting trains (running at 160/200 km/h) and a few freight trains running at 140 km/h. In 1994, Spain decided to build its second high-speed railway from Madrid to Barcelona, and the construction officially commenced in 1995. After that, the Barcelona-Valencia-Alicante high-speed railway was constructed. In 2000, the Spanish government formulated the 2002–2007 national transportation infrastructure plan, proposing the guideline on railway construction, namely, to build a high-speed railway network, upgrade and reconstruct the existing railway network and construct regional railway networks. Based on the guideline, the Spanish national railway company of RENFE, the road network company of GIF and the Ministry of Public Services and Transport of Spain jointly formulated the Spanish national railway construction investment plan. To facilitate the future connection with the whole European network, all high-speed lines under construction and planned to be constructed adopt unified standard gauge (1435 mm), forming Y-shape national high-speed railway network. At present, the operating mileage of high-speed railways in Spain exceeds 3287 km.

1.2.6 High-Speed Railway Network in Europe In addition to the European countries mentioned above, other European countries also have started their high-speed railway construction. The UK is the birthplace of railways in the world, but it lags behind other European countries in high-speed

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railway construction. For the 633-km East Coast Main Line, the maximum speed of IC225 train operating at the London-York section of 303 km can reach 200 km/h. On the 850-km reconstructed West Coast Main Line (London—Glasgow), tilting trains run at the maximum speed of 225 km/h. The first newly-built high-speed line in the UK was the CTRL Tunnel Line connecting the English Channel, which was opened to traffic on 16 September 2003, with a top speed of 300 km/h. In Sweden, high-speed railways are mainly reconstructed from the existing lines, and used for the operation of its self-developed X2000 tilting trains, with the maximum speed reaching 210 km/h. The total length of existing lines for the operation of X2000 tilting trains reaches more than 2700 km, among which the total length of the Stockholm-Malmo line and the Stockholm-Goteborg line with the maximum speed reaching 200 km/h is 1080 km. Besides, Turkey currently has 594 km of highspeed railways, and 1153 km of high-speed railways under construction. Belgium and the Netherlands are also building their high-speed railways, which are connected with the high-speed railways in France, UK and Germany to form PBKA high-speed railway network for the operation of Thalys International high-speed trains, among which, the Brussels (Belgium)–France border high-speed railway (with a total length of 88 km) was opened to traffic in December 1997, and the Liege–Cologne (Germany) high-speed railway was opened to traffic in December 2002.

1.2.7 High-Speed Railways in Other Countries and Regions 1. South Korea To solve the Seoul-Busan corridor traffic problem, in 1990, the South Korean government decided to build the Seoul-Busan high-speed railway to expand the capacity of the transport corridor. For building the 412-km Seoul-Busan highspeed railway, the Korea High Speed Rail Construction Authority (KHRC) was set up to take full charge of the construction of high-speed railways, and the civil engineering and track construction were mainly undertaken by construction groups of South Korea. On March 31, 2004, South Korea’s first Seoul-Busan (to Daegu) high-speed railway was completed and opened to traffic, indicating that South Korea officially entered the era of high-speed railway, and became the fifth country being able to build 300-km/h high-speed railway after Japan, France, Germany and Spain. With the high-speed trains, only 1 h and 56 min will be taken for traveling from Seoul to Busan. Besides, two additional high-speed railways are planned: the Honam high-speed railway from Daejeon to Mokpo via Gwangju, and the east-west high-speed railway from Seoul to Kangleung. Currently, the mileage of high-speed railways in South Korea has reached 1105 km. 2. United States Although the United States is well developed in terms of economy as well as science and technology, it is a backward country with regard to railway-related technologies, especially high-speed train-related technologies. The Washington-

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New York- Boston Northeast Corridor line with a total length of 730 km contains section reconstructed from existing lines, and the high-speed trains operated on the line are provided by a group company jointly set up by Alstom (a French company) and Bombardier (a Canadian company). The trains are called Acela Express, marshaled with 2 locomotives and 6 trailers, with a total power of 9200 kW. The axle load of the locomotive is 22T and the top speed reaches 240 km/h. In addition to the Washington-New York-Boston Northeast Corridor, AMTRAK has worked with local governments to develop high-speed railway plans for five regional markets.

1.2.8 Countries Planning to Build High-Speed Railways 1. Russia In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union formulated the “Outline for the Development of High-Speed Transport Technology Without Causing Ecological Environment Pollution”, and studied and planned the construction of center-south and Moscow-west high-speed passenger dedicated lines, centering on Petrograd and Moscow and running along the main north-south and east-west transport corridors. Russia also proposed building high-speed railways, but with reduced scale, and the priority was given to the construction of Moscow-St. Petersburg highspeed dedicated passenger line. In 1991, The Russian High Speed Railway Corporation (PҗD) was established to be responsible for the preparation, construction and operation of high-speed railways, as well as the development and production of high-speed trains. The Moscow-St. Petersburg high-speed dedicated passenger line has a total length of 654 km, covering areas with population of about 30 million. The design speed of the line is 350 km/h, and the maximum slope is 9‰. The minimum curve radius is 7000 m, and the maximum running speed of the train is 250–300 km/h. While planning and designing the Moscow-St. Petersburg high-speed dedicated passenger line, Russia also developed new generation high-speed EMU trains named Condor. This high-speed train consists of 12 cars, using two power supply modes including 3 kV, DC and 25kV, AC, with a traction power of 10,800 kW and a design speed of 250 km/h. According to the long-term plan, Russia will further choose some major routes to build high-speed railways, such as Moscow-St. Petersburg-Helsinki, MoscowSmolensk-Minsk-Brest, and even involving Warsaw, Berlin, Paris and other places, so as to connect with the European high-speed railway network. Currently, the service mileage of high-speed railway lines in Russia reaches 845 km. 2. India Indian Railway also has a long-term plan of high-speed railway construction. According to the plan, high-speed railways will be constructed from New Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta and Madras to various regions, and feasibility studies will be

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conducted for New Delhi-Agra, New Delhi-Kanpur, New Delhi-Chandigarh, and Mumbai-Ahmedabad lines first. High-speed railway has become an important trend of the world railway development. Since the first high-speed railway in the world was opened to traffic and put into operation in the 1960s, various types of high-speed railways in nearly 10 countries have been put into operation, and high-speed railways in most countries have brought good social and economic benefits, injecting new vitality into the railway industry when the railway transport industry, especially the passenger railway industry, was in the depressing state.

1.3 High-Speed Railway Development Situation in China 1.3.1 Necessity of Developing High-Speed Railways in China China has a broad inland area, a large population and a vast territory, with a span of 5400 km from east to west and a distance of 5200 km from north to south. The large span for economic growth and connection determines that the demand for medium- and long-distance passenger and freight transport capacity is tremendous; therefore, a powerful and large-capacity transport mode is required to connect the whole country and link the national economy. As economic, efficient and important infrastructures, railways are the artery of China’s national economy, and also a popular way of mass transportation. Railways have overwhelming advantages in large-capacity and long-distance passenger and freight transport, and have strong competitiveness in large-capacity and high-density medium- and short-distance intercity passenger transport, which is a predominant transport mode in China. Compared with highway and aviation, high-speed railways have obvious technical-economical comparative advantages in terms of speed, safety, transport capacity, energy, environmental protection, land occupation and construction cost, which determines the predominant position and role of high-speed railways in the future transportation market. Developing high-speed railway technology is a major decision for railway development in China, and a strategic step for the transportation development of China in the twenty-first century, which has an important influence and far-reaching significance on economic and social development. 1. Developing high-speed railways is in line with the requirement of improving railway transport capacity With the steady and rapid development of the national and regional economy, the acceleration of personnel and materials flow is inevitable, and the requirement for the quality of passenger and freight transportation is getting higher. China’s railway development lags behind for a very long time, and the transport capacity cannot meet the requirement of national economic development. The transport capacity is extremely tight especially when it comes to special periods with concentrated passenger flow such as the Spring Festival travel season, the summer

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holidays travel season, and National Day holidays. High-speed railways, with fast speed and large transport capacity, are in line with China’s national conditions of striving to develop mass transportation. Therefore, it is of important and practical significance to accelerate high-speed railway construction, to connect most important economic zones with central cities, and to realize separated operation between passenger and freight transportation for those traffic corridors with the busiest passenger and freight traffic flow and great growth potentials, such as Beijing-Shanghai, Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Harbin, Lanzhou-Lianyungang (Xuzhou-Lanzhou) and Shanghai-Kunming, so as to improve the overall capacity of the railway network. 2. Developing high-speed railways is in line with the requirement of satisfying residents’ travel demands as well as economic and social growth In recent years, the travel demand of Chinese residents has begun to change from visiting relatives and friends to tour and other consumer needs, and our mass transportation service has been changed from “tolerable” to “fast” and “comfortable” high-quality transportation service. In the future, with the continuous improvement of material and cultural standards of living, people’s demand for the quality of transportation service will be higher and higher, and the travel demands for convenience, efficiency, comfortable environment, safety, reliability, high-quality service and personalized services will emerge, which cannot be satisfied with traditional means of railway transport. High-speed railways narrow the distance between regions, cities and between urban and rural areas, and improve our travel efficiency and comfort. Therefore, accelerating the construction of high-speed railways is an inevitable choice for China to adapt to the development of the times. China has 245 cities with a population of more than 500,000, the medium- and long-distance passenger flow is large, and among which 80% should be undertaken by railways. Therefore, accelerating the construction of high-speed railways and improving the service capability and level of railway transportation is of vital importance in promoting economic and social development and meeting the growing demand for passengers’ travel demand. Besides, high-speed railways, as infrastructures, can stimulate the economic and social development. With the continuous development of high-speed railways, it can bring benefits of electronic and social development not only to the regions along the lines, but also to the whole society. The construction of high-speed railways can directly or indirectly increase job opportunities, and increase local fiscal revenue and local residents’ income. On completion of the construction, it can bring direct economic and social benefits such as saving transport time, reducing transportation cost, improving transport safety, as well as indirect benefits including changing industry layout, accelerating urbanization, and forming transport and economic corridors. Moreover, high speed railway is the embodiment of the economic strength, modern civilization and technical advance of a country It can enhance people’s sense of pride, sense of modernity and national self-confidence, and the “urban integration” effect brought by high-speed railway changes people’s way of life,

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improves quality of life and brings about changes in culture, customs, concepts and other aspects. 3. Developing high-speed railways is in line with the requirement of promoting the coordinated development of the regional economy Currently, eastern regions of China are featured by large population, developed economy and resource shortage, while western regions of China are featured by small population, backward economy and rich resources. To change this imbalance, it is necessary to seek transportation development. Once being covered or irradiated by railways, these backward areas will be well integrated into the overall layout of national economic development, so as to improve the economic development level and accelerate economic development progress of these areas. Besides, railways provide the most effective carrier to promote the optimal allocation of resources, which is conducive to market exploitation and expansion, and enables people to compete in the market at a low cost. High-speed railways will provide a large-capacity, high-speed, and low-cost transport mode between eastern and western regions, which can not only serve as a medium for radiating from the east to the west, but also facilitate personnel circulation among east-central-west regions, so as to further improve the efficiency of economic resource allocation, and gradually form a new pattern of regional development in which eastern and western regions maintain their distinctive characteristics and complement each other’s advantages. Therefore, developing high-speed railways can improve the regional economic imbalance and optimize the rational allocation of resources. 4. Developing high-speed railway is in line with the urbanization strategy of China Since the reform and opening-up, China’s urbanization level has been constantly improving, which is expected to reach 72.9% by 2050. With the improvement of urbanization level and the development of urban agglomeration, both the population and the economic development opportunity will flow to the central cities, and the urban size will expand continuously. Therefore, the demand for passenger transport between central cities and within city agglomeration will experience robust growth, which will make higher demand for the carrying capacity of transportation infrastructure, while convenient and fast transportation in turn will promote the urban development and the expansion of urban size. To this end, it is necessary to accelerate the high-speed railway development, and to form a high-speed railway network combining passenger dedicated lines and intercity high-speed rails, so as to meet the passenger transport demand of large capacity, high density, and high speed, to lay a solid foundation for the expansion of regional development and the promotion of rational industry layout and health development of cities, and to provide residents with large-capacity, all-weather, convenient and comfortable transportation service. 5. Developing high-speed railways is in line with the requirement of improving the level of railway equipment and the overall level of industrial manufacturing in China

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High-speed railway is an epitome involving comprehensive advanced technologies from multiple disciplines, sectors and industries. It integrates the stateof-the-art technologies and management philosophy in connection with highpower traction, high-performance light-weight cars, smooth and level routes, high-standard train operation auto control system, high-efficient transport organization mode. Constructing high-speed railways not only needs a large amount of money, but also requires the introduction, absorption and digestion of the advanced processes, technologies and successful experience related to highspeed railways from developed countries, requires the research and development of multiple disciplines and multiple industries such as electronics, information, control, machinery, energy, chemicals, environmental protection, raw material and civil engineering, and requires the improvement of manufacturing technology level. Seizing the development opportunity of high-speed railway construction can not only accelerate the modernization of railway technology and equipment, improve the organization and service quality of railway transportation, completely change the passive situation of backward railway technology of China, but also promote the advancement of multiple high and new technologies and industries such as machinery manufacturing, information technology, chemical technology, electronic and electrical engineering, construction and engineering and environment protection, narrow the gap between China and developed countries, and lay a solid foundation for the takeoff of the national economy and advancement of social civilization of China. 6. Developing high-speed railways is in line with the requirement of building a comprehensive transportation system Developing high-speed railways can greatly improve the railway passenger and freight transport capacity, and improve the overall comprehensive transportation service capacity of China. It is of great significance in improving insufficient railway capacity in the comprehensive transport system, urging civil aviation, road transportation and other transportation modes to return to their areas of strength, optimizing the structure of comprehensive transportation system, improving the overall efficiency and level of transportation services, and reducing social circulation cost. The practical experience of high-speed railway development and operation in China shows that there is great space and potential for high-speed railway development in China, and we should make the most of our advantage as a late-mover to realize the leapfrog development in the field of high-speed railway. Therefore, in the next ten years, we should make every effort to develop high-speed railways, and catch up with the developed countries in terms of technology and management, so as to realize railway modernization in China. We can see that China needs high-speed railways, China’s economic development needs highspeed railways, and the prospect of high-speed railway development in China is promising.

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1.3.2 Development History of High-Speed Railways in China The proposal of building high-speed railways in China was first put forward in the middle of the 1980s. For over ten years, the competent department of the state has organized hundreds of experts and scholars to examine, analyze and demonstrate all aspects of the high-speed railway project in detail, and a consensus has been reached by all parties: the construction of high-speed railways is technically feasible and economically reasonable, and it can bring about huge social benefits and is affordable according to our current national strength. Therefore, “we should build it, and we should build it as soon as possible”. From December 1990, when the Ministry of Railways completed the “Report on Beijing-Shanghai High-speed Railway Line Plan”, to January 2008, when starting the construction of Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway was approved at the executive meeting of the State Council, the State Scientific and Technological Commission, the State Development Planning Commission, the State Economic and Trade Commission and the research team of the Ministry of Railways jointly conducted a long-term demonstration on the economic efficiency and feasibility of the construction of Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. On December 22, 1994, the Guangzhou-Shenzhen line was reconstructed, and the first domestic express passenger train of China with the initial running speed of 160 km started running on this line. This line became the first quasi-high speed railway with a speed of 160 km in China, marking that China has entered the era of high-speed railway. The Guangzhou-Shenzhen railway is known as the “test field” for the growth and maturity of China’s high-speed railways. In March 1998, the construction of high-speed railways was proposed by the National People’s Congress in the draft of the outline of the Tenth Five-Year Plan. On August 16, 1999, China started the construction of the first dedicated passenger line from Qinhuangdao to Shenyang, which was completed and put into operation in 2003. It was a new step for China to march towards high-speed railways, which accumulated experience in exploring the technical standards, construction methods, operation management and maintenance of high-speed railways suitable for China’s national conditions. In January 2004, the first “Medium- and Long-term Railway Network Plan” was discussed and passed in principle at the executive meeting of the State Council, boldly drawing a blueprint of 12,000 km of “Four- Vertical and Four-Horizontal” highspeed dedicated passenger lines network. On July 5, 2005, when the construction of Beijing-Tianjin intercity railway commenced, China strode into the high-speed railway construction in the world. On August 1, 2008, the Beijing-Tianjin intercity high-speed railway was opened to traffic. This is the first world-class high-speed railway in China to which China has full independent intellectual property rights, and also the first high-speed railway in the world with an operation speed reaching 350 km/h. The travel time between Beijing and Tianjin has been shortened from about 2 h to about 30 min, marking that China possesses world-class advanced high-speed railway technology.

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On December 26, 2009, the Wuhan-Guangzhou section of the Beijing-Hong Kong high-speed railway was opened to traffic and put into operation, which has the longest one-time constructed length and the most complex engineering type in the world, with a running speed of 350 km/h. It sets a series of world records, such as a meeting speed of 350 km/h in a tunnel, and double pantographs for current collection under the condition of two train reconnection. It shows China’s ability to build world-class large-scale and long-distance high-speed railways with complete engineering types, and marks that China is the first country that has made a major breakthrough in the construction of high-speed railways over 1000 km. On February 6, 2010, the Zhengzhou-Xi’an high-speed railway was opened to traffic and put into operation, which connects the central region and western region of China, with a running speed of 350 km/h, and is the first high-speed railway built on collapsible loess area in the world. It shows China’s ability to build world-class high-speed railways under special and complicated geological conditions unforeseen by other countries. On July 1, 2010, the Shanghai-Ningbo Intercity high-speed railway was opened to traffic and put into operation, which is the high-speed railway with the highest speed built in thick soft soil areas, forming a fast and convenient passenger rail transport passage between Shanghai and Nanjing, and greatly promoting the co-urbanization and economic integration of the Yangtze River Delta Area. On November 15, 2010, the construction of Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway with total length of 1318 km, design speed of 350 km/h, and initial operation speed of 300 km was completed. On December 3, 2010, CRH380A, a new generation of high-speed trains developed and manufactured by China, was tested on the line with the running speed up to 486.1 km at the section from Zaozhuang to Bengbu, which is the highest test operation record of high-speed rail in the world. On June 30, 2011, the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway was opened to traffic and put into operation, which is the high-speed railway with the highest standard, the largest scale and the longest one-time constructed line in the world. On December 1, 2012, Harbin-Dalian high-speed railway, the first high-speed railway line located in the alpine region in the world, was officially opened to traffic and put into operation. The high-speed railway with a total length of 921 km connects the major cities of the three northeastern provinces of China, and it takes only 5 h and 40 min to travel from Harbin to Dalian in winter. The Harbin-Dalian high-speed railway runs at the “Chinese Speed” of 200 km/h in winter, forming beautiful scenery in alpine regions. On December 26, 2012, the Beijing-Guangzhou high-speed railway with a total length of 2298 km was opened to traffic and put into operation, which is the longest high-speed railway trunk line in the world. Since 2013, as the Nanjing-Hangzhou, Hangzhou-Ningbo, Panjin-Yingkou, Xiangtang-Putian, and Shanghai-Kunming high-speed railway lines were opened to traffic one by one, the “Four-Vertical” trunk lines are basically formed. At 8:30 a.m., on July 15, 2016, a Chinese Standard EMU train representing the highest and latest achievement of the Chinese Standard EMU test mission, departed from Zhengzhou East Station for a new “trial run”. It was a Chinese Standard EMU

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independently designed and developed by China with independent intellectual property rights fully owned by China. At 11:19 a.m., two EMU trains met at a speed of 420 km/h on Zhengzhou-Xuzhou high-speed railway in Minquan County, Shangqiu, Henan, setting a new world record for the meeting speed of high-speed trains. On December 30, 2019, the Beijing-Zhangjiakou railway was opened to traffic, which is the first intelligent high-speed railway with design speed of 350 km/h in the world, and the first high-speed railway with a maximum design speed of 350 km/h in alpine and heavy sandstorm area in the world. For years, China’s railway system is based on the national conditions and the road condition of China. Focusing on the rapid expansion of railway transportation capacity, and the improvement of the standards of railway technology and equipment, China’s railways have made great progress in modernization, and have possessed world-class advanced technologies in connection with high-speed lines, locomotive and rolling stock, plateau railway, speed improvement of existing lines and heavy haul, with the transport efficiency ranking first in the world, which has made important contributions to economic and social development, among which, the biggest achievements is the development of high-speed railways. By adhering to the strategy of original innovation, integrated innovation and secondary innovation through introduction and absorption, China’s high-speed railways have made remarkable achievements, and China has made a historic leap from a chaser to a leader.

1.3.3 Medium- and Long-Term Development Plan of High-Speed Railways in China Since the middle of the twentieth century, with high-speed passenger transport as the breakthrough, the worldwide railway industry started a new round of renaissance. With the emerging of high-speed railways, new energy and vitality had been injected into the railway industry which was once known as the “sunset industry”. Highspeed passenger transport is the trend for worldwide railway development. In many countries, more and more passengers take comfortable and convenient high-speed trains as their first choice for travel. In 2003, grounding on the overall strategy of implementing the Scientific Outlook on Development and realizing sound and rapid development of the national economy, the Chinese government made an important decision of accelerating railway development. Since then, railway development in China has entered a historical stage of accelerating modernization. 1. Medium- and Long-term Railway Network Plan (2004 Edition) The high-speed railway development plan was determined based on the first Medium- and Long-term Railway Network Plan (hereinafter referred to as the Plan) discussed and passed in principle at the executive meeting of the State Council in January 2004. According to the Plan, by 2020, railway service mileage

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in China would reach 100,000 km; for major and busy trunk lines, separated operation between passenger and freight transportation would be realized; 12,000 km of "Four-Vertical and Four-Horizontal” high-speed dedicated passenger railway lines will be built; and the planned speed of passenger dedicated lines is 200 km or above. 2. 2008 Medium- and Long-Term Railway Network Plan In 2008, the Chinese government adjusted the Medium- and Long-term Railway Network Plan to meet the needs of the construction of comprehensive transportation system in China. According to the new Plan, by 2020, the service mileage of railways put into operation in China will reach 120,000 km, of which, newly-built high-speed railways will reach 16,000 km; plus other newly-built railways and reconstructed existing lines, the rapid passenger transport railway network in China will reach 50,000 km and above, connecting all provincial capitals and cities with a population of 500,000 and above, covering 90% of the population of China, achieving the goal of “convenient passenger transportation and smooth freight transportation”. According to the Medium- and Long-term Railway Network Plan, the high-speed railway development in China would mainly focus on "Four-Vertical and Four-Horizontal” lines, building the framework of the rapid passenger transport network, forming a fast and convenient railway passenger transport corridor with a large capacity, and gradually realizing separated operation between passenger and freight transportation. (a) Main differences between 2008 Plan (Adjusted) and 2004 Plan (1) The adjusted Plan changed the construction target of passenger dedicated lines from 12,000 to 16,000 km, which meant, based on the basic framework of “Four-Vertical and Four-Horizontal” passenger dedicated lines, 4000 km of dedicated passenger line were added. (2) The adjusted Plan expanded the intercity passenger transport system from the Bohai economic rim, the Yangtze River Delta Region and the Pearl River Delta Region to regions including Changsha-ZhuzhouXiangtan, Chengdu-Chongqing, Central Henan Urban Agglomeration, Wuhan Metropolitan Area, Guanzhong Urban Agglomeration, and Urban Agglomeration on the West Side of Taiwan Straits. (3) The adjusted Plan changed the planned newly-built line from 16,000 to 41,000 km. (4) The adjusted Plan expanded the construction scale of double-track lines from 13,000 to 19,000 km, and expanded the electrification construction scale of existing lines from 16,000 to 25,000 km. (b) Composition of high-speed railway network in China According to the current medium- and long-term railway plan, China’s highspeed railway network includes at least five types of lines: “Four-Vertical and Four-Horizontal” passenger dedicated lines, intercity passenger transport system, reconstructed existing lines, newly-built lines for improvement of railway network layout and development of western regions, and Taiwan Strait west coast railway. In the adjusted Plan formulated in 2008,

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Fig. 1.1 Tokaido Shinkansen opening ceremony

the Ministry of Railways no longer specifies targeted speed for passenger dedicated lines. Instead, the speed is to be determined according to the actual construction condition. (1) “Four-Vertical and Four-Horizontal” passenger dedicated lines “Four-Vertical and Four-Horizontal” passenger dedicated lines refer to long-distance high-speed railways between provincial capitals and large and medium-sized cities. According to the Medium- and LongTerm Railway Plan, by 2020, the total length of “Four-Vertical and Four-Horizontal” passenger dedicated lines network in China will reach 16,000 km, as shown in Fig. 1.1. Only passenger dedicated lines for passenger trains operation can reach a speed of 300 km/h or above, while for passenger dedicated lines for both passenger trains and freight train operation, the speed should be 200–250 km/h. The passenger dedicated lines for the operation of both passenger trains and freight trains are built in areas where no railway is available currently. If parallel freight railways are built in the future, the speed of such passenger dedicated lines will increase to 300 km/h. (I) Four vertical lines a. Beijing-Shanghai dedicated passenger line, with total length of 1318 km, connecting Bohai economic rim and Yangtze River Delta east coastal developed areas, and connecting Beijing, Tianjin and Yangtze River Delta east coastal developed areas. The existing Beijing-Shanghai line is a busy passenger and freight transport corridor in eastern China, which connects the four megacities including Beijing, Tianjin, Nanjing and Shanghai. b. Beijing-Wuhan-Guangzhou-Shenzhen (Hong Kong) dedicated passenger line, with a total length of 2350 km, connects North China, Central China and South China. The existing

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Beijing-Guangzhou line is a busy passenger and freight transport corridor running through the central region of China, which connects three megacities including Beijing, Wuhan and Guangzhou, and connects Shenzhen, Hong Kong and Macao to the south. c. Beijing-Shenyang-Harbin (Dalian) dedicated passenger line, with a total length of 1612 km, connects northeast China and areas to the south of Shanhaiguan. It is the most important passenger transport corridor from Beijing to northeast China. This corridor is composed of Beijing-Shanhaiguan line, Shenyang-Shanhaiguan line and Harbin-Dalian line, covering six megacities including Beijing, Tianjin, Shenyang, Changchun, Harbin and Dalian. d. Shanghai-Hangzhou-Ningbo-Fuzhou-Shenzhen dedicated passenger line, with a total length of 1650 km, connects Yangtze River Delta region, southeast coastal area and Pearl River Delta region. This corridor starts from Shanghai and runs along the southeast coastal area to Guangzhou, a central city of South China, covering Hangzhou, Ningbo, Taizhou, Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Shenzhen and other central cities. (II) Four horizontal lines a. Qingdao-Shijiazhuang-Taiyuan dedicated passenger line, with a total length of 906 km, connects North China and East China. This corridor is located in the northern region of China, connecting the three economic belts in the east, center and west of China, covering Qingdao, Jinan, Shijiazhuang, Taiyuan and other metropolitan cities. b. Xuzhou-Zhengzhou-Lanzhou dedicated passenger line, with a total length of 1346 km, connects northwest and east China. It is the main passenger transport corridor from east and central China to northwest China. The existing LanzhouLianyungang line is a busy passenger and freight transport corridor connecting the three economic zones in the east, center and west of China, connecting Xuzhou, Zhengzhou, Luoyang, Xi’an, Lanzhou and other megacities. c. Shanghai-Nanjing-Wuhan-Chongqing-Chengdu dedicated passenger line, with a total length of 1922 km, connecting southwest and east China and running through the three major economic belts in the east, center and west of China. It is the transport artery between coastal and inland areas and connecting eastern, central and western regions of China, covering Shanghai, Nanjing, Hefei, Wuhan, Chongqing, Chengdu and other megacities.

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d. Shanghai-Hangzhou-Nanchang-Changsha-Kunming dedicated passenger line, with a total length of 2264 km, connects central China, east China and southwest China. It is a major passenger transport corridor in southern China, covering Shanghai, Hangzhou, Nanchang, Changsha, Guiyang, Kunming and other central cities. (2) Intercity passenger transport system (intercity railway) Intercity passenger transport system refers to short-distance high-speed railways built within each metropolitan area, especially in densely populated areas (building intercity railways mainly in economically developed and densely populated areas such as Bohai rim, Yangtze River Delta region, Pearl River Delta region, central-southern Liaoning, Shandong Peninsula, Central China, Jianghan plain, eastern Hunan, Guanzhong region, Chengdu-Chongqing region, the west coast of the Taiwan Straits, covering main cities and towns in the regions). The length of the lines is generally < 500 km. For some lines, the speed can reach 200–250 km/h, such as the Qingdao-Yantai-Weihai-Rongcheng intercity railway, while for the others the speed can reach 300 km/h, such as the Beijing-Tianjin intercity railway. (3) Existing lines after reconstruction and speed increase Some urban belt trunk railways in densely populated and economically developed areas were reconstructed for speed increase, which is known as reconstructed existing lines. It mainly refers to the highspeed railway line after double-track electrification reconstruction from an existing railway trunk line through strengthened technical reconstruction and hub construction (such as Shanghai-Nanjing Railway in the Yangtze River Delta region). As of 2007, more than 6000 km of existing lines have been reconstructed into high-speed railways with speed exceeding 200 km/h, and the total length of the existing line with speed exceeding 250 km/h reached 846 km. These railways are for the operation of both freight and passenger trains. According to the adjusted Medium- and Long-term Railway Network Plan passed in 2008, 19,000 km of double-track lines would be built, and 25,000 km of existing lines would be subjected to electrification reconstruction. (4) Newly-built lines for improvement of railway network layout and development of western regions These lines refer to the 41,000 km of railway planned to be built for the purpose of expanding the railway network in western China to adapt to the economic development in the western region, which are planned to be built mainly in western provinces and cities such as Sichuan, Chongqing, Guangxi, Gansu, Shaanxi, Xinjiang. Most of these lines are used for the mixing operation of both passenger and freight trains, and some are designed as passenger dedicated lines. Since the western region of China is economically backward, and the geography condition of Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Xizang and

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Fig. 1.2 Final tour of Japan’s first generation of Shinkansen trains before retirement

other provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) in southwest China is complicated, the construction faces huge difficulty, and the progress is relatively slow. (5) Taiwan Strait west coast railway It mainly refers to the high-speed railway built in Fujian Province on the west coast of the Taiwan Strait. 3. Medium- and Long-Term Railway Network Plan (2016 Edition) In 2016, China issued the newly formulated Medium- and Long-term Railway Network Plan (see Fig. 1.2) for the period from 2016 to 2025, with a long-term outlook to 2030, and the objectives are as follows. (a) By 2020, a number of landmark projects would be completed and put into operation. The total length of the railway network would reach 150,000 km, among which, 30,000 km will be high-speed railways, covering more than 80% of big cities, laying a solid foundation for accomplishing the tasks set out in the 13th Five-Year Plan and for archiving the goal of bringing about a moderately prosperous society in all respects. (b) By 2025, the total length of the railway network will reach about 175,000 km, among which, about 38,000 km will be high-speed railways. The coverage of the railway network will be further expanded, the structure will be further optimized, and the role will become more prominent, so as to better support the development of social and economic development. (c) By 2030, internal and external linking, inter-region multi-line connection, provincial capitals high-speed railway linking, prefecture-level cities fast commuting, and basic counties covering will be realized. (d) Focus on “Eight-Vertical and Eight-Horizontal Lines”, accelerate the construction of the main framework of the passenger transport network, form a fast, convenient and large-capacity railway passenger transport channel, and gradually realize passenger and cargo transport by separate lines.

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At present, in the field of high-speed railways, China ranks first among other countries in the world in terms of development speed, integration ability, operating route length, operation speed and construction scale.

1.3.4 Significance of High-Speed Railway Development in China 1. Improving railway transport capacity and upgrade railway development level (a) Building passenger dedicated lines for busy trunk lines can realize separate operation between passenger and freight transportation, meeting the transport capacity requirement of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects. (b) Building passenger dedicated lines for busy trunk lines can greatly improve the operation speed and service quality, upgrading the railway development level of China. For passenger transport, the requirements of large capacity, high speed and high frequency can be met, and the travel time can be shortened greatly; especially in the peak transportation period, by increasing the dispatching frequency of operating trains, it can provide passengers with more convenient travel services. For freight transport, “direct delivery of bulk cargo and fast delivery of high-value goods” can be realized, and it can reduce the costs and meet the multi-level and diversified service requirement of consignors. In addition to creating good social and economic benefits, the transport efficiency and investment benefits will be further improved, and the ability of independent innovation of railway will be enhanced, which is conducive to the sustainable development of railways. As a new railway transport product, high-speed railways enrich and supplement the comprehensive transportation of China, stimulate healthy competition with highway and civil aviation, and improve the development level of railways. 2. Transforming the economic layout and driving the adjustment, optimization and upgrading of industrial structure The development of high-speed railways drives the adjustment of urban and rural structure, promotes the optimization of regional economic structure, improves the function of economic agglomeration of central cities along the lines and the function of economic radiation towards surrounding towns and rural areas, drives the development of rural areas, and speeds up the overall urbanization progress in China. Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway, Wuhan-Guangzhou high-speed railway, Shanghai-Nanjing high-speed railway, Shanghai-Hangzhou high-speed railway, and Beijing-Tianjin intercity high-speed railway form a highspeed circulation system among cities, which changes the “economic map” of China by means of fast connection.

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History has proven that developing and upgrading transportation is an important factor to promote local economic development and realize industrialization and urbanization. High-speed railways greatly shorten the time, space and economic distance between cities, and drive the adjustment, transfer, optimization and upgrading of the industrial division of cities within the economic circle. Particularly, it promotes the development of tertiary industries such as tourism and commercial trade. Many large modern passenger stations have become the center of local economic development. 3. Developing high-speed railways promotes ecological civilization and the construction of harmonious society The development of high-speed railways promotes the construction of resourcesaving society and environment-friendly society. High-speed railways have a significant advantage of energy-saving, because it uses electricity instead of oil, thus minimizing environmental pollution. Besides, the construction of high-speed railways requires a minimum land area compared with others. High-speed railways promote the economic and social development of areas along the lines, increase job opportune, and provide us with more efficient, comfortable and safe transportation services, and diversify our selection of life radius and lifestyle. It is sure to make a great contribution to the change of economic development mode and the construction of socialist harmonious society of China. 4. China’s high-speed railways “going global” boosts the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, and “high-speed railway diplomacy” ushers Chinese diplomacy “3.0” The great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation has been the goal of countless people with lofty ideals in the past centuries and also the great dream of the Chinese people today. “Going out” of high-speed railways provides a new and tremendous geographical space for the future development of China. High-speed railway is a modern and upgraded version of Silk Road. High-speed railway will bring and spread Chinese goods, industries, equipment, as well as culture and ideas throughout the world. China’s high-speed railway, together with strategic highend technologies such as China’s aerospace, China’s deep-sea submersibles, will boost the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. The peaceful rise of China calls for pragmatic, mutually beneficial and strengthbased diplomacy. The strategy of China’s high-speed railway “going out” opens a new era of Chinese diplomacy. “Going global” of China’s high-speed railway can promote the historic transformation from “Made in China” to “Create in China”. China has already possessed considerable strength in terms of high-speed railway production and export, with outstanding core technology advantages. Technology export is the first step of building our international advantages in the field of high-speed railways. It is of great significance and far-reaching influence for China’s high-speed railway to “go out”, which will lead the export of China’s high-tech industries, and will be sure to drive the take-off of a large number of high-tech industries. Today, “high-speed railway diplomacy” as a new business

1.4 Composition and Technical and Economic Characteristics …

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card of China, is a reflection of comprehensive abilities of technology integration, industry supporting, major equipment, international financing, foreign trade, and international relationship coordination, marking that China’s diplomacy has marched on the development path matching with its international status as the second largest economy in the world, and entered the era 3.0 of Diplomacy. The construction and development of China’s high-speed railways will bring enormous business opportunities to railway builders at home and abroad, promote the acceleration and development of the world and regional economy, and make great contributions to the takeoff of the world economy.

1.4 Composition and Technical and Economic Characteristics of High-Speed Railways Apart from the aerospace industry, high-speed railway is another large-scale and most complicated modern comprehensive system project in the world. In addition to the basic characteristics of common railways, the high-speed railway technology is also a comprehensive technology involving and introducing high and new technologies from multiple disciplines and multiple specialties such as machinery, chemicals, materials, processes, electronics, information, control, aerodynamics and environmental protection. The high-speed railway transport system is the product of technological innovation based on traditional railways by absorbing modern high-tech achievements, which upgrades the railway-related technology and equipment to a new level and enhances the competitiveness of railways. The high-speed railway system is composed of EMUs, bridges and tunnels along the line, communication signals, traction power supply, transportation organization and safety guarantee system and other systems. All these systems shall be physically and technically integrated so as to form a “large interlocking machine” under the centralized and unified command of railways. High-speed railway is the product of the development of modern high and new technology and advanced organization and management concepts.

1.4.1 Composition of High-Speed Railways The high-speed railway system is composed of six sub-systems including track maintenance works system, the traction power supply system, communication signal control system, EMU, operation dispatching system and passenger service system. All these systems operate independently from each other but interlink with each other, all of them playing important roles in the operation of high-speed railways. The composition of the high-speed railway system is shown in Fig. 1.3.

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1 Introduction High-speed railway system

Track maintenance works

Traction power supply

Communication signals

EMU

Operation dispatching

Passenger transportation service

Passenger transport organization management

Marketing planning

Ticket system

Passenger service system

Comprehensive maintenance Passenger traffic control Power supply management

Car management

Transport schedule

Running management

Brake system

Train network system

Traction system

Body

Bogie

Assembly

Communication system Centralized traffic control Interlocking subsystem

Ground subsystem

Remote monitoring system

On-board subsystem

Electric power system

Substation system

Overhead contact line system

Power supply system

Tunnel works

Station works

Track works

Bridge works

Subgrade works

Fig. 1.3 Composition of high-speed railway system

1. Track maintenance works system The track maintenance works system is a large system involving works of multiple disciplines including subgrade, bridge and culvert, tunnel and track, which is the base to ensure trains’ high-speed running. Compared with common railways, high-speed railways adopt many new technologies and techniques, with high design and engineering control standard. To meet the requirement of high-speed line operation, the track maintenance works system shall provide highly smooth and stable track conditions for EMUs trains running at high speed, and shall make sure the tightness and durability of all components of the lines. For high-speed railways, smooth spatial curve, large radius and smooth change of cross and vertical sections are required; the subgrade and the track structure have the advantages of high stability, high accuracy, small residual deformation, and low maintenance requirement. Moreover, a strict and scientific management system for detecting track conditions and ensuring track smoothness shall be established. 2. EMU system EMU is the power equipment for passenger transport, which is the core technology and the physical carrier of high-speed railways. It is the epitome of modern high and new technologies, which marks and reflects the science and technology level, innovation ability of manufacturing industry, comprehensive strength and modernization degree of a country. A high-speed EMU train refers to a train consisting of motor cars and trailers or all motor cars permanently coupled together in a specified manner to realize the specific function. It has a built-in power supply, with a fixed marshalling, and can be operated from both ends. It is a special train set in which the traction power supply device and the passenger carrying device are fixed as an integrity, and possesses the characteristics of both locomotives and passenger cars. Compared with a conventional railway train, a high-speed EMU train is featured by light-weight body, high-performance bogie and a composite technology-based brake system. Besides, it has been equipped with complex traction drive and control, computer network control and vehicle control system.

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3. Communication and signal system The signal and control system of high-speed railway is the basic guarantee of the safe and high-density operation of high-speed trains. Great importance has been attached to train operation safety and relevant supporting systems in the process of high-speed railway development by all countries. The signal and control system of high-speed railway is a comprehensive control and management system integrating computer control and data transmission, which is the latest comprehensive high technology applied to modern railways to adapt to the requirements of high-speed operation, control and management. It is generally known as Advanced Train Control System. The signal and control equipment of high-speed railway is a distributed control mode featured by centralized management and distributed control based on electronic devices or micro-electronic devices, which is composed of two parts including automatic traffic control and automatic train operation. The main functions of the communication system of high-speed railway are as follows. (a) To timely and accurately transmit various dispatching orders and information for train operation, so as to ensure high-speed and safe operation of trains. (b) To provide communications for passengers with various services. (c) To provide communications for equipment maintenance and operation management to meet the requirement of maintenance along the line. 4. Traction power supply system The main function of the traction power supply system is to provide stable and high-quality current for the operation of high-speed trains. Compared with the electric traction of a normal speed train, the electric traction of a high-speed train has the characteristics of higher traction power, greater resistance, more complex interaction between pantograph and contact line, faster pantograph moving speed, and frequent current fluctuation. The traction power supply system is mainly composed of traction power supply and transformation system, overhead contact line system, SCADA system, electric power system, and detection system. 5. Operation dispatching command system High-speed railway operation dispatching system is a modern comprehensive system integrating computer, communication, network and other modern information technologies. The main functions include assisting the railway management department in dynamic allocation and optimization of transport capacity resources, completing a series of tasks in connection with train plan, operation, maintenance, managing train operation management, reviewing, approving and managing infrastructure maintenance plans, etc. It supports the transportation organization, especially daily operation, of high-speed railway, and ensures the completion of transport production.

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1 Introduction

Dispatching command involves the dynamic allocation of resources according to the traffic plan, which reflects the specific execution process of transportation organization, and is the nervus centralis of the railway system. The selection of dispatching mode largely depends on the characteristics of transportation organization, the amount of workload and the level of technical equipment. The operation dispatching command system is composed of a plan dispatching subsystem, an operation management dispatching subsystem, an EMU dispatching subsystem, a comprehensive maintenance dispatching subsystem, a power supply dispatching subsystem and a passenger service dispatching subsystem. 6. Passenger service system The main function of the passenger service system is to handle the passenger service-related events, mainly including tickets sale, information acquisition, information release, daily complaints, emergency rescue, passenger evacuation, and passenger compensation, besides, the statistical analysis function is provided to support the management in decision making. The passenger service system is composed of a ticket ordering/selling system, a decision support system, an automatic fare collection (AFC) system, and passenger information service system. The passenger service system is serving passengers directly, whose first-class operation management requires high passenger service, which in addition to good management system and high-quality operation service personnel, also requires ticket management, passenger service, marketing planning, passenger transport organization and other technologies.

1.4.2 Main Economic and Technical Characteristics of High-Speed Railway High-speed railway, as a modern means of transportation, has superior advantages compared with other means of transportation. It has advantages in terms of the following technical and economic indicators compared with motorway transport and medium- and long-distance air transport expressway. 1. High speed Speed is the most important indicator of the technical level of high-speed railways. High-speed railway is the transport mode with the longest distance and fastest speed on land so far, therefore high speed constitutes a main technical and economic advantage of high-speed railways. Currently, the highest operation speed of high-speed trains can reach 350 km/h, and is praised as “aircraft running on the land”, nearly double that of a car, 1/3 of that of a jetliner and 1/ 2 of that of a short-haul aircraft.

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At present, the speed of high-speed trains in Japan, France, Germany, and Spain exceeds 250 km/h, and the speed of most of the trains operated on passenger dedicated lines in China exceed 300 km/h, among which “Fuxing” bullet trains reach a speed of 350 km/h. 2. High safety For high-speed railways, high safety must be guaranteed, for any accident would be devastating. Safety is always the primary consideration for people to choose their transport mode. For all modern enterprises engaged in the transportation industry, the top priority is always given to safety improvement so as to boost their competitive position in the transport market. High-speed trains run in a completely closed environment, and an advanced train operation control system is introduced to maintain a safe distance between two trains, so as to prevent accidents of rear-end and head-on collision. Almost all fixed facilities and mobile equipment related to train operation are equipped with highly informationized diagnosis and monitoring devices, with scientific maintenance system in place. For natural disasters that may endanger the safety of train operation, forecasting and warning devices are provided, so as to ensure the safety of high-speed train operation. High-speed railways have been put into operation for more than 50 years in the world. According to the statistics released by SNCF, calculated on a basis of 1 billion people · km, the number of casualties for aviation is 0.26, 0.18 for high-speed railway and 16 for highway. The accident rate and the casualty rate of high-speed railways are far lower than other modern transport modes. Therefore, high-speed railways can be regarded as the safest modern high-speed transportation mode in the world. Since high-speed railways have been officially put into operation, only four typical safety accidents have occurred, including the derailment accident on June 3, 1998 in Germany (death toll: 101), the Shinkansen derailment accident during Niigata earthquake on October 23, 2004 (death toll: 0), the rear-end collision accident between D301 EMU (from Beijing South to Fuzhou Station) and D3115 (from Hangzhou to Fuzhou South Station) at the section of NingboWenzhou line in Wenzhou, Zhejiang on July 23, 2011, and the derailment accident of a TGV (high-speed railway of France) test train in Strasbourg, a key town in northeast France that borders German, causing 5 people dead and 7 injured. 3. High comfort With the continuous improvement of people’s living standards, comfort has become an important consideration for people to choose their transport modes. High-speed railway lines are smooth, steady with large curve radius, so that trains can run on the line smoothly and steadily with small amplitude of vibration and oscillation. The trains are provided with luxurious interior decoration, equipped with advanced working and living facilities, and provided with sound shock absorption and insulation. Passengers travelling on high-speed trains feel

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1 Introduction

almost no discomfort, and passengers can enjoy the comfortable environment and large stretching room during the trip, which is impossible when traveling by airplane and car. 4. Large capacity High-speed railways, as a means of mass transport, inherit the basic characteristics of railways: large capacity. The minimum departure interval of high-speed railway passenger trains can be as short as 3 min, and the train density can reach 20 trains/h. If the power-distributed mode and double-deck passenger cars are selected, the carrying capacity of a train can reach up to 1200–1600 people. Theoretically, the transport capacity can reach 2 × 24,000 to 2 × 32,000 people per hour. For a four-lane expressway, the transport capacity is about 2 × 4800 people per hour, and for an airport with two runways, the transport capacity is about 2 × 6000 people per hour. It can be seen that the transport capacity of high-speed railways is incomparable to modern transportation modes such as expressway and civil aviation. The Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway is designed based on a time interval between trains spaced by automatic block signals of 3 min, the seating capacity of a long-consist high-speed train is 1200 people, which can complete a transport capacity of 2 × 65 million people per year, with a margin reserved for future transport capacity expansion. The long-term transport capacity of the BeijingShanghai high-speed railway will reach 2 × 55 million people per year or above, which is unimaginable with other modern transportation modes. 5. High on-time rate On-time rate is a comprehensive reflection of the reliability and the transportation organization of high-speed railway system equipment, which is a core indicator of transportation service quality and also a key factor that high-speed railways become so popular among travelers. On-time departure, running and arrival of trains is the foundation for passengers to manage their time effectively. All countries in the world attach great importance to the on-time rate of high-speed trains, and take it as a completive advantage of high-speed railways when compared with other transport modes. In Spain, it is stipulated that the ticket fare will be fully refunded to passengers if the delay exceeds 5 min. Since the high-speed railway put into operation, the on-time rate reaches up to 99.6%, the refund event is rare (only accounting for 0.2% of total revenue); According to Japan’s regulations, 1 min after the scheduled arrival and departure time constitutes delay, and if the delay exceeds 2 h, the express charge included in the fee should be refunded to passengers. The average delay time of Japan’s Tokaido Shinkansen is only 0.3 min. The on-time commitment to passengers by high-speed railways not only helps high-speed railways winning passengers in market competition, but also improves the management performance thereof. 6. Low energy consumption Transportation is a major energy consumer, and energy consumption is an important technical index to evaluate a transportation mode. According to the study, taking the energy consumption per kilometer per person of common railways as 1 unit, the energy consumption of high-speed railways is 1.3, 1.5 for

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35

buses, 8.8 for cars, and 9.8 for airplanes. The energy consumption of high-speed railways is only 1/5 of those of cars and airplanes. High-speed railways have lowest unit energy consumption, besides, high-speed railways consume secondary energy—electric energy, while cars and airplanes consume non-renewable primary energy—petroleum. With the development of hydropower and nuclear power, the advantages of high-speed railway in terms of energy consumption will become more prominent, especially nowadays as petroleum is in shortage, the prospect of developing high-speed railways is promising. 7. Low pollution Environmental protection is a global concern related to human survival. Transportation is closely related to the ecological environment. Currently, exhaust gas and noise are the main pollutions caused by transportation. From the perspective of environmental protection, road and air transports consume gasoline, diesel fuel and other fuels, which will produce exhaust gas and harmful solid particles and exacerbate the global greenhouse effect. Since high-speed railways have completed electrification transformation, dust, soot and other exhaust pollution have been eliminated, basically realizing zero pollution to the environment. Vibration, noise and electromagnetic wave are the main adverse impacts imposed by high-speed railways on the environment, which will influence a certain range of areas along the line. To solve these problems, a series of vibration and noise reduction measures have been taken, namely, ultra-long seamless rails are used and regular maintenance is conducted to ensure the smoothness of the rail surface; vibration cushions are provided on bridge decks and track structures for better coordination between trains and lines so as to reduce the vibration of trains, bridges and tracks and to reduce the noise generating therefrom; for aerodynamic noise produced due to friction between the high-speed train body and air, in addition to the provision of noise barriers, planting trees along lines, and arranging lines within cuttings, artificial tunnels can be constructed, as is conducted at the section on the TGV Atlantique line passing through downtown Paris. 8. Less land occupation Transportation, especially land transportation, occupies large areas of lands, mostly arable lands, due to the need of building roads and parking lots. The roadbed width of a double-track high-speed railway is 9.6–14 m, and the subgrade width of a 4-lane expressway reaches 26 m. The land occupation for a double-track railway, together with drainage ditches on both sides, is about 70 µ/km−1 , and by adopting elevated construction the land occupation can be further reduced, while the land occupation for a 4-lane expressway is about 105 µ/km−1 . The land occupation for a two-way four-lane expressway is 1.3–1.6 times that of a double-track railway. Besides, in addition to the road width, many sections of expressway may require landfilling, and some expressway facilities such as interchange occupy large areas of lands, while for high-speed railway, bridges account for a large proportion of the line, and high-speed railways have fewer stations, with small scale and low land occupancy. Compared with

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1 Introduction

expressways, the land occupation of high-speed railways is 1/3–1/2 less than that of expressways. According to statistics, the land occupation of high-speed railways is 20,000 mu less than expressway per 1000 km. From the perspective of equivalent land per unit transport capacity, the effect of land saving of highspeed railways is more prominent. Currently, most of the high-speed railways in China adopt elevated forms, which can reduce the occupation of arable lands and minimize the adverse influence imposed on the environment. Unlike air transport, high-speed railways do not need large airports, a large airport consists of runway, taxiway, parking apron, terminal building and other facilities, occupying a large area of land, and most of these lands are fertile farmland on the outskirts. The land occupancy of the TGV500km high-speed railway is equivalent to merely a large airport. 9. Low investment To some extent, project investment is a key factor restricting the rapid development of a transportation mode. Although the construction cost of high-speed railways is much higher than that of common railways, but is lower than that of expressways. According to the data released by French, compared with a 4-lane expressway, the construction cost of the infrastructure of high-speed railways is 17% lower, and the construction cost of each seat of TGV high-speed railway is only 1/10 as that of short-haul aircraft. All the above data show that the investment in high-speed railway projects is relatively low in the high-speed transport industry. 10. Good returns High-speed railways give a full play to the inherent technical and economic advantages of railways, although the construction investment is much higher than common railways, but on completion, it can attract and induce a large number of passenger flow. Compared with air transport and expressway, highspeed railways have advantages in terms of energy utilization, environmental protection, land development and utilization, safety, punctuality and comfortability. Moreover, the social cost of high-speed railways is far lower than those of other modern transports. High-speed railways abroad, especially Japan’s Tokaido and Sanyo Shinkansen have sound social and economic benefits. According to statistics, the total investment of Japan’s Tokaido Shinkansen is JPY 380 billion. after Tokaido Shinkansen was into operation, passenger flow increased rapidly, and the investment was fully recovered in the 7th year, from 1985, the annual net profit reached JPY 200 billion; the annual net profit of Germany’s ICE intercity high-speed train was DEM 1.07 billion; France’s TGV-Sud-Est began to make profits on its second year of operation (1988) with an internal rate of return reaching up to 15%, and the investment was fully recovered within 10 years, and the internal rate of return of TGV Atlantique reaches 12%. The benefits brought by high-speed railways are ignorable, so many countries and regions, including some developing countries, have developed plans to develop high-speed railways. According to the research by the State Scientific and Technological Commission and the Science and Technology for Development Research Center of China,

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high-speed railways can connect isolated and scattered economic zones within the range of 800–1000 km to form an economic belt or economic corridor, so as to promote economic and social activities and accelerate the development along the belt, and the social and economic benefits generated are significant and inestimable. According to researches, on completion of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway, the contribution of the average annual net benefit to the national economy is over CNY 16 billion, and the average annual social cost savings is over CNY 20 billion. In addition to good economic benefits, high-speed railways also have prominent social benefits. Moreover, high-speed railways can stimulate economic growth along the line, provide job opportunities and drive the growth of local fiscal revenue. 11. High-quality services High-quality services mainly involve the high-quality service facilities and operation organization. Reducing the amount of transfer is an important aspect to improve service quality. In order to reduce the inconvenience brought by transfer to passengers, France adopts the organization mode of the high-speed operation on high-speed lines and normal speed operation on transitional lines, while Japan reconstructs the railway line into standard rails or adds a third rail. BeijingShanghai high-speed railway connects more than 20 trunk and branch lines, and more than 40% of passenger flow is cross-line passenger flow. In order to save passengers from the trouble of transfer, cross-line trains with a speed of 160 km/ h and above are allowed to run on the high-speed lines. High-quality service shall be guaranteed by a perfect passenger service system. Passenger service systems refer to the facilities and systems set up to provide convenient and considerate services to customers during the trip. These facilities and systems can be divided into three types: station passenger service system, on-board passenger service system; and station square city supporting system, including: station building and platform service system, ticket selling and booking system, passenger information and indication system, passenger inquiry system, train arrival and departure announcement system, automatic fare collection system, automatic broadcast system, catering service system, on-board passenger service system and urban transport supporting system. It is necessary to make full use of various service facilities during daily operation and management, ensure passengers to buy tickets at anytime and anywhere, guarantee passengers’ orderly boarding and departing, and to provide catering service appropriately and various in-train services. 12. Low weather sensitivity and all-weather operation The safety guarantee system of high-speed railways not only ensures the running safety of high-speed trains, but also gives full play to the all-weather advantages of railway transportation, which ensures that the train can operate safely and normally 24 h a day without being affected by atmospheric and climatic conditions, except for natural disasters that may endanger running safety. In recent years, according to the experience of the transportation industry development, in case of heavy fog, snow, rainstorm and other severe weather, railway is the

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1 Introduction

most reliable transport mode among all means of transportation, thanks to its all-weather technical characteristics. The emergence of high-speed railways is a breakthrough in the history of transportation development in the world, which breaks the traditional concepts of time and space, by virtue of its technical advantages including high speed, efficiency, safety, environmental protection and high-quality service, high-speed railways have received worldwide recognition and become the first choice for transportation development among countries. The twenty-first century will be the century of great development of high-speed railways.

1.5 Questions for Review 1. Please briefly describe the development history of high-speed railway in the world. 2. Please briefly describe the similarities and differences of the definitions of highspeed railway given by European Union, Japan and China. 3. Please briefly describe the main characteristics of high-speed railways in Japan. 4. Please briefly describe the achievements regarding high-speed railway construction of Japan, France and Germany. 5. Please briefly describe the necessity of high-speed railway development in China. 6. Please briefly describe the achievements regarding high-speed railway construction in China. 7. Please briefly describe the composition of high-speed railways. 8. Please briefly describe the main economic and technical characteristics of highspeed railways. 9. What is the principle of high-speed railway layout in China? 10. Please briefly describe the differences between the first and the second Railway Medium and Long-Term Plan. 11. Please briefly describe the plan of Eight Horizontal and Eight Vertical Lines.

Chapter 2

High-Speed Railway Lines

2.1 Overview Railway lines refer to all infrastructures except for power supply, overhead contact line system and communication signals, including subgrades, tracks, bridges, tunnels and construction materials, which are the premise and foundation to ensure the safe, steady and uninterrupted operation of trains at the top speed. To meet the requirement of operation safety, high-speed railway lines shall not only provide highly regular and stable rail surface for high-speed trains running at high speeds, but also shall guarantee the stability and durability of each component of railway lines, so that the transport department can finish passenger and cargo transport tasks with high quality. Under the high-speed running condition, a high-speed railway line shall not only bear vertical forces resulting from the dead weight of high-speed trains operating on the line and loads carried by the trains, but also lateral forces imposed by wheel flanges on the gauge side of rail due to the hunting motion of high-speed trains, as well as longitudinal forces caused by the brake force and friction force between wheels and rails. Besides, with the increase of the lateral acceleration of high-speed trains, the attenuation distance of vibration will be extended, and the possibility of vibration superposition will also increase, which will degrade the traveling comfortability. Therefore, in the plane and longitudinal section design of high-speed railway lines, great importance shall be attached to line regularity, besides, higher railway line plane and longitudinal section technical standards and higher requirements for line structure, track and turnout shall apply, so as to ensure high-speed running, high safety, high stability and high traveling comfortability of trains.

2.1.1 Characteristics of High-Speed Railway Lines High-speed and high-density running of trains on high-speed railway lines puts forward higher requirements for railway lines. Compared with normal-speed railway © Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_2

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lines, high-speed railway lines, as a massive engineering structure under more complicated working conditions, have the following characteristics. 1. High regularity The core of high regularity is to maintain the track structure in the favored geometrical state, which is a controlled condition in the design and construction of high-speed railways, and also one of the main characteristics that distinguish high-speed railways from medium-speed and low-speed railways. High-speed railways require tracks with high regularity, while the high regularity of track depends on the regularity and smoothness of space curves, subgrades, bridges and other foundations of railway lines, therefore, measures shall be taken from aspects of railway alignment, roadbeds, ballast beds, rails and bridges, so as to meet the requirement of high regularity. According to theoretical studies on wheel-rail interaction, the wheel-rail dynamic interaction resulting from track irregularity as well as its influence on train operation safety, stability and ride comfortability will intensify as the running speed increases. As the speed increases, vibration will intensify and wheel-rail force will increase, which will not only influence the traveling experience of passengers, but also the wheels, rails and road environment. Any small short-wave irregularity can be the root cause of track geometry degradation leading to the breakage of wheels, rails and shafts, and also be one of the root causes of noise. Theoretical researches and practices on high-speed railways also show that, when a train runs steadily on a highly regular track at a speed lower than the critical speed, the wheel-rail dynamic load is quite low even though the running speed is high; on the contrary, when the line has poor regularity, the train vibration and the wheel-rail dynamic force induced by the railway line will be very high even though the track, roadbed and bridge structure fully meet the strength requirements, and the train runs at a speed lower than the critical speed. Table 2.1 shows the influence of different train speeds on the dynamic response of track irregularity. 2. High stability (a) Stable and smooth roadbed with low and even settlement is the foundation for the high regularity of tracks. Sound stability of subgrade is mainly Table 2.1 Dynamic response of track irregularity at different running speeds Track irregularity

Dynamic response and management Normal speed

300 km/h

With a continuous irregular wave length of 40 m and an amplitude of 10 mm

No management required

Generate continuous lateral vibration acceleration with a frequency of 2 Hz and an effective amplitude of 0.045 g

ISO2631 international standard on vibration environment control “Working ability impairment limit”: be able to work continuously for 3 h, otherwise, as the driver’s working ability impaired, and the judgment and emergency response ability will decrease

2.1 Overview

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ensured by controlling the post-construction settlement of subgrade, the uneven settlement, and the initial irregularity of subgrade top surface. Post-construction settlement of subgrade or uneven settlement may lead to frequent railway line repair and maintenance. For a railway line subjected to frequent maintenance, the stability and regularity of the same are sure to be poor, and it may affect the high-speed running of trains. Besides, uneven subgrade, large settlement, poor initial irregularity of track surface or degraded railway line condition may result in inconsistent thickness and uneven accumulative residual deformation of ballast beds. Given this, France released a regulation stipulating that on completion of rail-laying on the subgrade, the maximum allowable settlement within 5 years shall be 5 cm. (b) High stability depends on bridge structure, requiring sufficient stiffness of bridge structure. (1) The dynamic force imposed on bridges by a high-speed train is much larger than that imposed by a normal-speed train. The large deflection of a bridge will directly affect the regularity of the rail laid on the bridge, which may cause a large impact on the structure and greatly degrade passenger comfort, besides, failure to maintain rail stability may even threaten the running safety of trains. (2) The upwarp due to prestressed creep and the structural deformation due to uneven temperature differences of bridges shall be controlled, which put forward very high requirements for the structural stiffness and the overall performance of high-speed railway bridges, and impose high restrictions on the deflection of bridge span, rotation angle at beam end, torsional deformation, lateral deformation, natural vibration frequency of structures and longitudinal acceleration of trains. Although live loads on high-speed railway bridges are lower than those on normal-speed railways, but in actual practices, both the beam height and beam weight of high-speed railway bridges are greater than those of normal-speed railway bridges. (3) For continuously welded rail track, the stress condition on bridges is different from that on subgrades. Upwarp due to prestressed creep, structural deformation due to temperature difference and deflection of bridge structures will cause displacement of bridge along the longitudinal direction, which further results in additional stress imposed on the rail on the bridge. Overlarge additional stress will lead to stability degradation of continuously welded rail track on the bridge, thus impact the train operation safety. Therefore, the pier foundation shall have sufficient longitudinal stiffness, so as to minimize the additional stress on the rail and reduce the bridge-track displacement. For the construction of high-speed railways, many countries have stipulated strict requirements for longitudinal stiffness of pier, besides, in-depth researches have been conducted on how to avoid large longitudinal displacement of structures, and various control method and countermeasures have been put forward.

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(c) High accuracy, small residual deformation and less maintenance In the process of track laying, strictly controlling the track laying precision is the key to ensure high initial regularity of the track. Initial irregularity of track is the root cause of the generation, development and degradation of track irregularity during future operation. Tracks with sound initial regularity will have a long maintenance cycle and long-term levelness and smoothness, while tracks with poor initial regularity will result in a short maintenance cycle, and the “congenital defects” are hard to rectify by further maintenance. Therefore, the following methods are generally adopted to improve the precision, to reduce residual deformation and to minimize maintenance requirement: (1) Improve the measurement precision of railway lines. (2) Strictly control the straightness and levelness of rails as well as the regularity of welded joints. (3) After track laying and before putting into operation, carry out rail grinding so as to smooth minor irregularities during the rail rolling and construction process. This has been proved by foreign countries to be successful practice with significant technical and economic benefits, which not only ensures that trains run at the design speed and reduce wheel-rail noise since the day when the high-speed railway line is put into operation, but also prolongs the service life of rails and ballasts, greatly reducing the maintenance workload and prolonging the maintenance cycle. The strict control of track laying precision is only the first step to realize highly regular track. Since railway tracks consist of a variety of components, especially for ballasted tracks whose track panel is located on the crushed rock ballast, under the loads of high-speed trains, those parts are subjected to deformation. When the extent or the development speed of such deformation exceeds the limit, the regularity of railway tracks will be degraded. Therefore, in the design of components of highspeed railways, not only the strength but also low residual deformation shall be taken into consideration, so as to ensure high regularity and minimize the maintenance requirement. (d) Wide and exclusive railway line space. When a train runs at a high speed on the ground, it drives the air around the train to move, forming a particular unsteady flow field, which is called “train slipstream” and commonly known as “train-induced wind”. The train aerodynamic force generated by the train-induced wind may threaten the safety of workers by railway lines and passengers on platforms, and may cause damage to the buildings along the lines. Besides, debris raised by the train induced wind may impact train operation safety. When two trains on adjacent railway lines running toward opposite direction and passing each other, the air pressure impact wave may break the car windows, make passengers feel uncomfortable, and even degrade the running stability of the trains.

2.1 Overview

43

Therefore, a wide running space shall be provided to high-speed railways, which can be realized by increasing the distance between two railway lines and increasing the safety distance from the train on platforms. On platforms for high-speed trains, in addition to longer safety distance on the platforms, handrails shall be arranged along the safety line, and sliding gates shall be provided for getting on/off the trains. Moreover, high-speed trains have large kinetic energy and inertia force, any collision will be a fatal disaster, therefore, exclusive space shall be provided, i.e., a fully enclosed space with barriers arranged along the full length of the railway lines. Besides, when a high speed railway line crosses a road or an existing railway, grade separation shall be adopted so as to avoid collisions with cars and other objects at grade crossing, and save the high-speed trains from the trouble of frequent braking and decelerating. (e) High-standard environment protection High-speed railways, as an important modern transportation means, shall value modern civilization. To this end, all facilities shall be in harmony with the surrounding environment, and great importance shall be attached to environment protection. For example, in bridge design, great importance shall be attached to the structure appearance and color of the bridge. Take France as an example, in the railway bridge design process, architects and environmental engineers are invited to participate in design reviews. Eliminating noise pollution is an important task of environmental protection. When the train speed exceeds 250 km/h, the intensity of acoustic power of aerodynamic noise increases in direct proportion to the power of 6–8 of the train speed. Therefore, in high-speed railway construction, great importance shall be attached to noise reduction measures, as well as to the measures against train vibration and electromagnetic interference. (f) Trains operate at the design speed on the date when the railway lines are opened to traffic Currently, for all high-speed railways in the world, except for Japan’s Tokaido Shinkansen, trains are operating at the maximum design speed on the date when the railways are opened to traffic. If the running speed is limited due to the initial state of the railway line failing to meet the design standard, as trains run on these defective sections at low speed, the railway line will then suffer from “memorized” defects or irregularities, and the consequence would be that it would take multiple times of resources to repair the railway line to high-speed operation. This is the key difference between high-speed railways and normal-speed railways in project acceptance and handover. (g) Implementing scientific track management and strict disaster prevention and security monitoring during operation Under long-term train loads, highly regular tracks will be subjected to deformation and displacement. When the extent or the development speed of such deformation or displacement exceeds the limit, the high regularity of the track will be degraded, thus impairing the wheel-rail interaction,

44

2 High-Speed Railway Lines

and impacting the comfortability and safety of train operation. Therefore, for high-speed railways line in operation, strict track condition detections and scientific track management system shall be implemented to detect the extent and development speed of track irregularity during the railway operation process in a real-time manner and make timely rectification, so that the track can resume to the state with small residual deformation or to the initial high regular state, thus ensuring safe, stable and comfortable operation of high-speed trains. Safety is the priority for any transportation means, especially for high-speed railways. Therefore, in addition to ensuring equipment safety, disasters beyond the safety range of equipment such as natural disasters including rainstorms, heavy wind and earthquake, and accidental disasters including collapse, rock falling and foreign object intrusion, as well as the equipment operation state and faults, shall be monitored in a real-time manner so as to manage and control the train operation accordingly by limiting the running speed or stopping trains. To sum up, there is little difference between high-speed railway lines and normal-speed railway lines in terms of appearance and structure, but the difference is great in terms of the technologies and standards adopted by each component, as well as the connections between components. For a railway line that meets the requirement of uninterrupted and high-density operation for high-speed trains since the first date when it is opened to traffic, each component relies on the application and development of advanced technologies.

2.1.2 General Technical Requirements for High-Speed Railway Lines For high-speed train operation, the railway lines must meet the requirements of high stability, high safety and high comfortability. With the increase of the running speed of trains, the factors that may affect the stability, safety and comfortability will increase. Although the factors related to the performance and operating mode of high-speed trains play a predominant role in terms of the above performance, the parameters of railway lines are also key influence factors. This puts forward higher standards for railway line construction, including the standard for plane and cross section, and the specific requirements for line structure, tracks and turnouts proposed by highspeed train operation. Given this, the following general technical requirements for high-speed railway lines are proposed. 1. Subgrade deformation is one of key factors that affect the running speed of trains. Therefore, controlling the settlement and the longitudinal stiffness change is a key concern in the design and construction of subgrade for high-speed railways. For high-speed railways, post-construction settlement, uneven settlement and initial irregularity of subgrade shall be controlled strictly, and the subgrade

2.1 Overview

2.

3.

4.

5.

45

shall be designed and constructed as a geotechnical engineering structure. Highspeed railways propose very high requirements in terms of foundation treatment, subgrade structure and surface layer of subgrade, and the requirements and standards for filling materials, compaction, deformation control and inspection applying to high-speed railways are greatly different from those applying to the existing railways. Reliability, stability and regularity of track structure are the key to ensure the safe, stable, comfortable, economic and long-term operation of high-speed railways. The main design features are as follows: trans-sectional continuously welded rails laid in one time are adopted; ballastless tracks with less maintenance requirement is recommended, and large-sized high-speed turnouts for shunting sections are used. Since the construction and maintenance standards for high-speed railway lines are much higher than those for normal-speed railway lines, and allowable errors are much tighter, necessary measures must be taken, such as increasing the rail weight, and using welded long rails, novel resilient rail fasteners, high-quality liners and novel turnouts. Features of high speed, high density, uninterrupted operation and other features of high-speed railway put forward higher requirements for bridge structure in terms of stiffness and integrity. Since the speed is increased greatly, the dynamic force imposed on the bridge structure by high-speed trains is much higher than that imposed on a normal bridge structure by normal-speed trains. Large deflection of bridge will directly affect the regularity of the rails laid on the bridge, which may cause large impacts on the structure and greatly degrade passenger comfort. Moreover, failure to maintain rail stability may even threaten the running safety of trains. To ensure rail regularity, the upwarp due to prestressed creep and the structural deformation due to uneven temperature differences of bridges must be controlled. Therefore, in the design of bridge structure, great importance shall be attached to the durability and sound dynamic properties. Besides, the longitudinal and lateral stiffness, the fundamental frequency and the residual (post-construction) settlement of the bridge structure shall be strictly controlled, so as to meet the requirements of safe operation and ride comfort of high-speed trains. The technical requirements related to tunnels proposed by high-speed railways mainly lie in aerodynamic properties. When a high-speed train passes through a tunnel, a series of aerodynamic effects such as pressure surge and increased driving resistance will emerge, which closely influences the determination of tunnel cross-section. In tunnel design, aerodynamic effects must be taken into consideration. It is proposed that the effective sectional area of 100 m2 should be adopted, and buffer structures should be provided at tunnel portals if necessary. High-speed train operation brings about such obvious and complicated problems as vibration, noise as well as pollutions and hazards arising therefrom. Reducing and controlling those public hazards is a key factor determining the development prospect of high-speed railways. Therefore, high-speed railways shall be designed as environment-friendly green passages, and comprehensive measures such as setting noise barriers should be taken.

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2 High-Speed Railway Lines

Besides, in order to meet the requirements of high-speed operation and heavy transportation tasks, the detection, monitoring and maintenance of railway lines must be enhanced and advanced equipment must be used to ensure railway line quality and train operation safety.

2.2 HSR Subgrade Subgrade is the foundation of track and road surface, which is also called the substructure of railway line. It bears the static loads and dynamic loads imposed by tracks and high-speed EMUs, and transmits and diffuses the same to the depth of the foundation. Subgrade is mainly composed of the main body, subgrade protection and reinforced structures, as well as auxiliary structures of subgrade, as is shown in Fig. 2.1.

2.2.1 Structure of High-Speed Railway Subgrade 1. Main body of subgrade In all forms of subgrades, the part constructed for track laying in accordance with railway line design requirements is called the main body of subgrade. In the subgrade cross-sectional view, the main body of subgrade is composed of subgrade top surface, subgrade shoulder, subgrade bed and side slope, as is shown in Fig. 2.2. (a) Subgrade top surface The top surface of subgrade is the working surface for track laying that meets the operation conditions. The formation surface falling within the bottom of the supporting layer of ballastless track (or base) can be set horizontally, and a horizontal drain slope with a gradient not < 4% shall be set on both sides of the outer subgrade surface of the supporting layer (or base). The

Fig. 2.1 Sectional view of subgrade of high-speed railway

2.2 HSR Subgrade

47

Fig. 2.2 Subgrade of high-speed railway

profile of subgrade surface of ballasted track shall be in triangular shape, and a horizontal drain slope with a gradient not < 4% shall be made from the center to both sides of the subgrade surface. In case of curve widening, the subgrade surface shall be in triangular shape. By the shape of subgrade top surface, the subgrade can be divided into two types: subgrade with crown and subgrade without crown. The width of subgrade top surface refers to the distance from the edge of the shoulder on one side of the subgrade to the edge of the shoulder on the other side (see Tables 2.2 and 2.3). For the determination of the subgrade width, the following factors shall be taken into consideration: (1) Meeting subgrade stability requirement Especially the stability of side slope of embankment after being immersed in water. Table 2.2 Standard width of subgrade surface Track type Ballastless track

Ballasted track

Max. design speed (km/h)

Double track spacing/m

Single-track/m

Double-track/m

250

4.6

8.6

13.2

300

4.8

350

5.0

250

4.6

300

4.8

13.6

350

5.0

13.8

Table 2.3 Width of subgrade surface of straight sections Unit: m

Subgrade width ation surface

13.4 13.6 8.8

13.4

Double-track

Single-track Embankment

Cutting

Embankment

Cutting

8.8

8.8

13.8

13.8

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2 High-Speed Railway Lines

Table 2.4 Subgrade surface widening value for curve sections Unit: m

Curve radius

Subgrade outer side widening value

11,000 ≤ R < 14,000

0.3

7000 ≤ R < 11,000

0.4

7000 ≤ R < 5500

0.5

R < 5500

0.4

(2) Facilitating repair and maintenance For railway line repair and maintenance, sufficient width must be provided for the accommodation or passing of small railway line maintenance machinery and for carrying out the maintenance work; (3) Ensuring safety distance The subgrade surface of curve sections of main lines shall be widened from the outer side of the curve in accordance with the specific values specified in Table 2.4. Curve widening shall transit gradually within the transition curve. In general, the subgrade surface will not be widened in the curve section of ballastless track. Where special requirements are provided for the installation of the track structures, OCS poles and other facilitates, it shall be determined according to the specific situation. The subgrade surface of curve sections of the main line of ballastless track shall be widened from the outer side of the curve in accordance with the specific values set out Table 2.5. Curve widening shall transit gradually within the transition curve. (b) Subgrade shoulder Subgrade shoulder is the part of subgrade top surface without covered by ballasts, whose main functions are to prevent ballasts from scattering on the subgrade slope and to maintain the integrity of the ballast bed, to provide a passage for working, avoiding vehicles and storing materials and tools of railway so as to facilitate railway maintenance, to provide space for setting necessary markings and signal signs, and to prevent the core part of the subgrade from extrusion and deformation under the pressure, so as to improve the stability of subgrade. The width of subgrade shoulder on both sides of subgrade of ballasted track, for double-track, shall not be < 1.4 m, and for single-track, not < 1.5 m. (c) Side slope The slopes on both sides outside of the edge of subgrade shoulder are called side slope, which are provided to enhance the stability of subgrade. (d) Subgrade bed It is an upper part of subgrade subjected to a great influence of dynamic stress. In general conditions, the subgrade bed of high-speed railway is composed of the surface layer of subgrade bed and the bottom layer of subgrade bed. The thickness of the surface layer of subgrade bed (graded

2.2 HSR Subgrade

49

Table 2.5 Subgrade surface widening value for curve sections of ballastless track Max. design speed (km/h)

Curve radius/m

Subgrade outer side widening value/m

250

R ≥ 10,000

0.2

10,000 > R ≥ 7000

0.3

7000 > R ≥ 5000

0.4

5000 > R ≥ 4000

0.5

R < 4000

0.6

R ≥ 14,000

0.2

14,000 > R ≥ 9000

0.3

9000 > R ≥ 7000

0.4

7000 > R ≥ 5000

0.5

7000 > R ≥ 5000

R < 5000

0.6

350

R > 12,000

0.3

12,000 ≥ R > 9000

0.4

9000 ≥ R > 6000

0.5

R < 6000

0.6

300

crushed rock) is 0.7 (0.4) m, and the thickness of the bottom layer of subgrade bed (Group A and Group B filling materials or improved soil) is 2.3 m. (1) Surface layer of subgrade bed The surface layer of subgrade bed is the upper part of subgrade that bears train loads directly, which is also called the bearing layer or the supporting layer of subgrade. It is the most important part of subgrade, and the main functions include improving strength and stiffness of railway lines, controlling deformation of railway lines, diffusing dynamic stress imposed on the top of bottom layer of subgrade bed, preventing osmotic pressure between ballast and subgrade bed, becoming waterproof, anti-freezing, and improving stability and durability. The surface layer of subgrade bed of high-speed railway is generally of a two-layer structure. For countries using graded gravels for construction, the surface layer of subgrade bed is generally composed of two layers, i.e., the upper layer and the lower layer. The upper layer is thin at about 0.2–0.3 m, and it is required that the filling materials used shall have a large modulus of deformation, sometime it also required that the particles shall have sound abrasion resistance, therefore, quartzitic parent rocks shall be selected as filling materials. Moreover, to improve the stiffness of the layer, larger maximum grain size and higher content of coarse particles can be considered. The function of the lower layer mainly focuses on protection, and the grain size shall match with those of the fill materials for the bottom layer of subgrade bed. The maximum grain size for the bottom layer of subgrade bed shall be < 60 mm, and

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2 High-Speed Railway Lines

for the embankment under subgrade shall be < 75 mm, so that the filling materials of the bottom layer of subgrade bed cannot enter the surface layer of subgrade bed, besides, the osmosis coefficient shall be small, at least < 10–4 m/s. Where it is necessary to use improved cohesive soil as the filling materials for the bottom layer of subgrade bed, geosynthetics should be laid at the bottom of the surface layer of subgrade bed. If coarse particles water-permeable filling materials are used in the bottom layer of subgrade bed, the thickness of the surface layer of subgrade bed can be reduced and only one-layer structure is acceptable. For the subgrade of ballastless track, the surface layer of subgrade bed is composed of two layers, i.e., a 30 cm concrete supporting layer and a 40 cm graded crushed rocks layer (250 km/h); while for the subgrade of ballasted track, graded gravel or graded crushed rocks shall be used as filling materials for the surface layer of subgrade bed. In China, graded gravels and graded crushed rocks are used as the filling materials for the surface layer of subgrade bed for high-speed railways. (2) Bottom layer of subgrade bed The bottom layer of subgrade bed shall be filled with Group A and Group B filling materials or improved soil. The grain size of Group A and Group B filling materials shall comply with the stipulated compaction performance, and filling materials used in frozen impact areas in cold regions shall comply with the anti-frost heave requirement as well as the compaction standard. For the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway in China, the subgrade bed consists of a surface layer and a bottom layer, the surface layer has a thickness of 0.7 m, and the bottom layer of subgrade bed is filled with Group A and Group B coarse-grained soil or improved soil, with a thickness of 2.3 m. Preferably, the structure under the subgrade bed should be filled with Group A and Group B filling materials or improved soil. Using Group C fine-grained soil, silt or soft block stone soil but without providing improvement or other reinforcement measures is prohibited. The surface layer of subgrade bed consists of a 5–10 cm bituminous concrete layer and a 65–60 cm graded crushed rocks and graded gravel layer. 2. Subgrade protection and reinforced structures Subgrade protection and reinforced structures are the auxiliary structures of subgrade, which are the necessary and economically rational auxiliary engineering measures to ensure the stability of subgrade body. Subgrade protection facilities are used to eliminate or reduce direct or indirect adverse influences imposed on subgrade by natural factors such as wind, frost, rain, snow, temperature change and water flow scouring. Higher technical standards shall be adopted for subgrade reinforced and protection engineering based on the existing regulations. Common protective facilities include slope protection and scour protection.

2.2 HSR Subgrade

51

Slope protection is mainly provided to ensure the stability of side slope, preventing subgrade side slope and the toe of side slope from scouring by rainwater, preventing soil drying and watering cycle due to direct exposure to sunlight and rainwater, and preventing soil freezing and thawing due to temperature change. Common side slope protection measures include grass planting, sodding, tree planting, plastering, grouting, masonry revetments and retaining walls, which can ensure the stability of subgrade. For windy, sandy and severe cold areas, fences and protection forests shall be provided to prevent the railway from being covered by snow or sand, as shown in Fig. 2.3. Scour protection aims at preventing the side slope, the toe or the foundation of side slope from river water scouring. The protection position and the protection type adopted depend on water flow movement and protection requirements. For subgrade subjected to special conditions, more protections shall be provided, for example, in permafrost areas, to prevent drastic changes of railway lines due to freezing and thawing, various thermal insulation measures should be taken; in areas subjected to frequent debris flow, to prevent the main body of subgrade from being damaged by debris flow, various retaining and diversion facilities should be provided. In windy and sandy areas, to prevent subgrade from sand erosion or being buried by sand, sand control and sand retaining facilities should be provided. Subgrade reinforced facilities are effective engineering facilities provided to strengthen the subgrade body or the foundation so as to improve the stability of subgrade, and reinforcement engineering mainly involves the construction of reinforced structures or other facilities to ensure subgrade stability. Subgrade works mainly involves reinforcing dams, retaining walls, cribs, slide-resistant piles and other foundation reinforcement measures. Retaining walls are of retaining structures, as shown in Fig. 2.3, which are normally provided to sections with high-fill embankment, deep cutting, steep slope or subjected to adverse geological conditions to support and strengthen side slope and soil mass, so as to prevent landslide, collapse, river erosion and other hazards. 3. Subgrade auxiliary structures Subgrade drainage facilities are auxiliary structures of subgrade, which can be divided into surface drainage facilities and underground drainage facilities. Fig. 2.3 Subgrade side slop and masonry protection

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2 High-Speed Railway Lines

(a) Surface drainage facilities are used to intercept surface runoff, collect rainwater within the subgrade range and guide the same to the natural drainage gullies, so as to prevent the subgrade from being immersed and scoured by surface water. Longitudinal drainage ditches are arranged on both sides of the embankment for longitudinal drainage, so as to prevent the subgrade from being immersed by water; the drainage ditches on both sides of the subgrade surface in the cuttings are called side drains, which are mainly provided to drain surface water on the subgrade surface and cutting slope, so as to prevent the subgrade surface from immersed by water, to keep the subgrade dry and to ensure the track stability; overhead ditches (intercepting ditch) are provided to drain surface water on upstream face of sidehill that flows to the cuttings. (b) Underground drainage facilities are used to intercept and guide ground water and to reduce ground water level, so as to improve the working conditions of foundation soil and subgrade slope, and to protect the foundation and subgrade body from being adversely affected by ground water. In addition to surface water, ground water is also an important factor that may damage or degrade the condition of subgrade (especially in the cutting section). In order to intercept ground water and reduce ground water level so as to keep the subgrade dry, deep ditches, deep sinks, drainage ditches, horizontal drainage holes, blind drains, leaky pipes and other underground drainage facilities are generally used for ground water drainage.

2.2.2 Characteristics of High-Speed Railway Subgrade In order to realize high regularity of high-speed railway track, the subgrade serving as the foundation of track shall have high strength, high stiffness, even longitudinal change, long-term durability and smooth top surface, so as to ensure high speed, safe and stable running of rains. Compared with normal-speed railways, the subgrade of high-speed railway has the following characteristics. 1. The subgrade body is designed as a geotechnical engineering structure The subgrade body is designed as a geotechnical engineering structure, with designed service life of 100 years; for subgrade drainage facilities and structures, the designed service life is 30 years, and for subgrade side slope protection structure, the designed service life is 60 years. Subgrade works can support the geological survey, mapping, exploration and test work, identify the geotechnical structure as well as the physical and mechanical properties of the foundation, cutting slope, retaining structure foundation and others, and identify unfavorable geological conditions, as well as the properties and distribution of filling materials. The design shall be carried out based on reliable geotechnical data. For foundation treatment, embankment filling, side slope protection and drainage design, sufficient strength, stability and durability must be guaranteed, so that the

2.2 HSR Subgrade

53

subgrade can have good resistance to various natural factors, ensuring high-speed, safe and smooth operation of trains. 2. The subgrade of high-speed railway adopts strengthened multi-layer structure In respect of the subgrade of high-speed railway, instead of traditional track— ballast bed—soil subgrade structure, a great breakthrough has been made and a multi-layer structure has been adopted. Besides, higher technical standards are applied compared with normal-speed railways. Interim provisions on design, construction and acceptance have stipulated strict specifications and requirements for subgrade deformation, subgrade bed structure, filling materials, and foundation condition and treatment. For passenger dedicated lines in China, the subgrade bed refers to the upper part of subgrade directly bearing the dynamic force imposed by trains, which is composed of a surface layer and a bottom layer, with a total thickness of 3.0 m. For an embankment with a height less than the thickness of the subgrade bed, the subgrade bed consists of the embankment and a portion of the foundation; while the cutting consists of the range of subgrade bed thickness under the excavated subgrade. For the subgrade of ballastless track, the surface layer of subgrade bed is composed of two layers, i.e., a 30 cm concrete supporting layer and a 40 cm graded crushed rocks layer. For the subgrade of ballasted track, graded gravel or graded crushed rocks shall be used as filling materials for the surface layer of subgrade bed. The thickness of the surface layer of subgrade bed in China is determined based on the stress and deformation, considering the axle load and speed of trains, but not influence of frost heaving. In the case of cold climate, unfavorable soil and hydrogeological conditions, frost heaving deformation exceeding allowable may occur. 3. Higher subgrade filling standard and strengthened subgrade bed structure are adopted For high-speed railway subgrade filling, higher standards and strengthened subgrade bed structure are adopted. The subgrade bed is designed and constructed as a geotechnical engineering structure, so that the requirements for filling materials, compaction standard, deformation control and inspection adopted are much higher than those for the existing railways. Filling materials used in the surface layer of subgrade bed shall have high strength, good mechanical properties, and sound water stability and compactability. After fully compacted, the materials shall be able to maintain the stability under long-term dynamic force, prevent ballast from passing through the subgrade bed and subgrade soil and entering the ballast bed, and to prevent subgrade bed softening, mud pumping, frost heaving and other subgrade defects due to surface water invasion. The surface layer of subgrade bed shall be filled with graded crushed rocks, which mainly contains quarrying rubbles, natural pebbles or gravel subjected to crushing and sieving, and a strict grading curve is prescribed. A 5–10 cm thick bituminous concrete waterproofing layer is provided on the top of the surface layer, with the total thickness of the surface layer remaining unchanged; To facilitate the measurement of dynamic characteristics of the surface layer of subgrade bed, dynamic deformation modulus Evd is added to the graded crushed rocks compaction inspection

54

2 High-Speed Railway Lines

standard. For ballastless tracks, Ev2 shall be added, and the control standard shall be Ev2 ≥ 120 MPa, and Ev2/Ev1 ≤ 2.3. Strict requirements are stipulated for the type of filling materials used in the bottom layer and the lower embankment. In the compaction standard, coefficient of soil reaction, compacting factors K, and soil porosity n for different filling materials are specified, and double-index method is adopted for control. Great importance shall be attached to filling materials from the survey and design stage. Aanalysis on the physical and mechanical indexes of filling materials planned to be used shall be carried out, and field filling test shall be conducted for questioned filling materials, so as to gain practical experience, and ensure the correct selection of filling materials during the construction. 4. Post-construction settlement shall be strictly controlled during subgrade construction High-speed railway subgrade deformation control involves the control of postconstruction settlement, settlement rate and railway line longitudinal stiffness ratio. Post-construction settlement of subgrade refers to the difference between the settlement at the beginning of rail laying and the final settlement, which is the settlement caused by infrastructure after track laying is completed. Deformation and settlement after completion of embankment construction mainly involve the deformation of embankment (mainly the subgrade bed) under the train loads, the compaction and settlement of embankment under the influence of dead weight, and the compaction and settlement of the supporting foundation of subgrade. The post-construction settlement of subgrade shall be controlled within the allowable range, and the ground treatment measures shall be determined based on the comprehensive calculation and analysis of terrain and geologic conditions, embankment height, filling materials and construction duration. During subgrade construction, systematic settlement observation shall be carried out, analysis and evaluation shall be conducted based on the data obtained from settlement observation before track laying, and track laying is allowed only after the postconstruction settlement of subgrade is determined to be in line with the relevant requirements. Settlement rate refers to the rate of post-construction settlement of subgrade, excessive settlement within short time may bring about maintenance difficulty, thus endangering train operation safety. In China, strict requirements are stipulated for post-construction settlement and settlement rate of subgrade for high-speed railway. According to the stipulations, for general sections, the post-construction settlement of subgrade shall not be more than 5 cm, and the settlement rate shall be lower than 2 cm per year; for abutment tail transition sections, the post-construction settlement of subgrade shall not be more than 3 cm. For ballastless tracks, the post-construction settlement of subgrade shall meet the adjustment of rail fasteners and the requirement of smooth vertical curve of track. The post-construction settlement should not exceed 15 mm; in the event the settlement is even and the radius of vertical curve meets the relevant requirements after the adjustment of rail top elevation, the post-construction settlement of 30 mm is acceptable. Differential settlement at junctions between subgrades and bridges, tunnels or other transverse structures

2.2 HSR Subgrade

55

shall not be more than 5 mm, the break angle due to uneven settlement not more than 1/1000, and the post-construction settlement of subgrade shall be in line with the requirements set out in Table 2.6. 5. Uneven settlement of subgrade shall be strictly controlled Under the high-speed condition, track irregularity caused by cumulative settlement and uneven settlement due to repeated load imposed on the subgrade will significantly influence the running speed and ride comfort of trains, and increase the track maintenance workload. The purpose of adopting different subgrade structures is to provide high-speed tracks with a sub-rail foundation featured by high strength, high stiffness, high stability, sound durability and even longitudinal stiffness. Subgrade made from bulk materials is the weakest and most unstable link of the whole railway line structure, which is also the main cause of track deformation, and accumulated permanent settlement (residual deformation) of the subgrade occur under the influence of repeated load may result in track irregularity. Besides, the stiffness of the subgrade is a key factor that determines the elastic deformation of track surface. Therefore, it closely influences the highspeed running condition of trains. For the subgrade for high-speed railway, in addition to the basic performance of the subgrade for normal-speed railway, it shall also meet the requirements for foundation performance put forward by highspeed tracks, including both the static and dynamic track regularity requirements under unloaded and loaded conditions. 6. Transition sections are provided at positions where sub-rail foundation is subjected to stiffness change At the connections between subgrade and abutment, between subgrade and transverse structure (such as interchange frame structure and box culvert) and between ballasted track and ballastless track where the track foundation is subjected to longitudinal stiffness change, as well as for embankments, cuttings, and interfaces between soil, soft rock or heavily weathering hard rock cuttings and tunnels, transition sections are provided, so as to control the gradual change of track stiffness and minimize track surface deformation caused by uneven settlement of embankment and bridge, ensuring high-speed, safe and comfortable operation of trains, as is shown in Fig. 2.4. 7. Drainage, flood control, earthquake resistance, and retaining and protection designs for subgrade For the integral system of trains and railway lines, the subgrade and the substructure of high-speed railways adopt higher requirements. In order to ensure the safe Table 2.6 Control standards for post-construction settlement of subgrade Design speed (km/h)

Post-construction settlement of general sections/cm

Post-construction settlement of abutment tail transition section/ cm

Settlement rate/(cm/a)

250

10

5

3

5

3

2

300, 350

56

2 High-Speed Railway Lines

Fig. 2.4 Subgrade structure for transition section

operation of high-speed trains, all the subgrade retaining, reinforcing and protection engineering shall be in line with the requirements for safety and stability put forward by high-speed railway subgrade. For the protection of subgrade side slop, preferably, green plant protection should be adopted. Compared with normal-speed railways, higher standards shall be adopted for the design of waterproof, drainage, flood control, earthquake resisting, retaining and protection structures, which is of fatal importance to ensure the safety and stability of the subgrade. Interface design shall be enhanced. Cable troughs, cables over rail, OCS pole foundation, noise barrier foundation, integrated earthing and relevant facilities shall be arranged rationally, so as to prevent the same from affecting the drainage system, or influencing the strength and stability of subgrade.

2.3 HSR Track

57

For subgrade at both ends of super major bridges, major bridges and medium bridges crossing over flood discharge course, for reservoirs and riverside sections. For immerseable embankments in flood way and flood retarding areas, the elevation of subgrade shoulder shall be designed in accordance with the effective design specifications and based on the national standard for flood control. For the subgrade reinforced and protection engineering, higher technical standards shall be adopted based on the effective specifications. The subgrade drainage works, which demands timely implementation, shall be planned comprehensively and systematically, so as to ensure sufficient waterproof and water discharge capability. To minimize the damage or adverse influence induced by natural and human factors on subgrade, the performance of the subgrade of resisting flood, earth quick and other natural disasters shall be improved.

2.3 HSR Track Track is an important part of high-speed railway line, which is an integrated engineering structure mainly for guiding high-speed trains, directly bearing longitudinal, horizontal and vertical forces imposed by wheels, and transfer and diffuse such forces to the subgrade, bridge, tunnel and other structures. Track is composed of rails, sleepers, fasteners, ballast beds and turnouts, which is also called the super part of high-speed railway line. Under the dynamic force of high-speed trains, each component must have sufficient strength, stiffness and stability, so as to ensure that high-speed trains can operate at the stipulated top speed on the railway line safely, stably and uninterruptedly.

2.3.1 Requirements for Track Structure of High-Speed Railway Lines 1. High stability Track stability refers to the ability of tracks to maintain high regularity, even elasticity and component effectiveness and completeness under high-speed running conditions, which is realized by heavy duty of truck structure, high precision of track component and feasibility and evenness of track stiffness. For the track structure of high-speed railway, high stability must be ensured to the largest extent. Under the unstable repeated load, the bearing capacity of high-speed railway track may be unable to meet the requirements for high-speed operation of trains. In this case, the static strength of each component of the track is no longer a factor controlling the bearing capacity of the whole track structure. When a high-speed train operates on the railway line, the high-frequency impact and vibration generated will degrade the stability of track. In addition, the hunting motion and lateral vibration of the train will increase the transverse load imposed

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on the track, which may increase of possibility of transverse instability of the track (track buckling). Under the repeated loads imposed by high-speed trains, the components of the track may be subjected to fatigue damage, the accumulated residual deformation of the complete structure of the track may exceed the stipulated limit, and other severe consequences may occur, which puts forward higher requirements for the equipment and materials used in the track structure. The introduction of trans-sectional continuously welded rails is an important measure to improve the continuity, uniformity and stability of track structure. 2. High regularity High regularity is the basic requirement for tracks of high-speed railways, and also the controlled condition in high-speed railway construction, for track irregularity is the main factor causing train vibration and increased wheel-rail force. The core of high regularity is to maintain the track structure in the favored geometrical state, i.e., high precision and high reliability of track components, and high-quality track laying, maintenance and repair. As researches show that since the operating speed of trains on high-speed railways is high, track irregularity (welded joint irregularity and track irregularity caused by various factors) cause resonance of unsuspended mass, which will further result in the vibration of trains and tracks and generating noise, thus affecting the traveling stability and comfort. To ensure high regularity of high-speed railway track, the following conditions must be satisfied. (a) In subgrade design and construction, the requirements for subgrade of small post-construction settlement, uneven settlement, deformation under dynamic forces and high stability must be met, for a highly stable subgrade is the precondition to ensure high track regularity. (b) Dynamic deflection of bridges and other deformations must meet the requirement of high stability. (c) The ballast bed must be filled with hard and wear-resistant ballast, and leveling and compacting must be carried out before sleepers laying. This is widely adopted by foreign countries in the construction of heavy-haul and high-speed railways in the last decade. (d) Initial track irregularity must be controlled strictly, and high manufacturing precision and high laying precisions must be ensured. For ballastless tracks, residual deformation of subgrade, such as post-construction settlement and differential settlement, must be controlled strictly by referring to the experience of Germany and Japan, according to the control standards set out in Table 2.7. Table 2.7 Control standards for residual deformation of subgrade Post-construction settlement

Uneven settlement

Differential settlement

Break angle

≤ 30 mm

≤ 20 mm/20 m

≤ 5 mm

≤ 1/1000

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3. Sound track elasticity It is of great importance for high-speed railway tracks to have sound elasticity. A track with sound elasticity not only has better anti-vibration and anti-impact abilities, but also has relatively low noise. Therefore, better elasticity of track structure is the target for all countries to pursue in high-speed railway construction. Sound elasticity of track structure involves two aspects: one is the sufficient elasticity to absorb vibration produced in high-speed train operation, and the other is the evenness of longitudinal elasticity along the track. The elasticity of ballasted track is mainly provided by the granular ballast bed and the rail pad k, while the elasticity of ballastless track is mainly provided by emulsified asphalt cement mortar between concrete subgrade bed and track slab and the rail pad. 4. High reliability and long service life High reliability mainly refers to the ability to maintain track regularity and the normal operation of railway lines. The main load characteristics of high-speed trains are high-frequency impact and vibration. Such high-frequency load may cause fastener loosening, wear of the rail’s rubber pad, and rail supporting slot damage of concrete sleeper, especially, ballast crushing and chalking, as well as settlement and deformation of ballast bed for ballasted track. Long service life refers to long maintenance and overhaul interval of track structure. Since both the traffic density and the running speed are high on highspeed railways, no crew can enter the track during the train interval. Besides, the maintenance time is long and maintenance frequency is high. Therefore, the maintenance workload must be light and the maintenance interval must be long, so as to ensure uninterrupted and normal operation of trains. By structure, the tracks of high-speed railway can be divided into ballasted and ballastless tracks. Although the maintenance and repair method adopted for each structure is different, there are still some common requirements in terms of operation. In high-speed train operation, deviation out of technical standard is not allowed. Once such deviation is identified, prompt response and treatment are required. Therefore, in the research and configuration process of truck structure and components, maintenance convenience shall be considered.

2.3.2 HSR Track Structure As high-speed railway track is the basis of high-speed train operation, the structure shall comply with the maximum traffic volume and the maximum running speed of the railway line, which is mainly composed of rails, sleepers, turnouts, rail fasteners and sub-rail foundation. 1. Rail Rail is one of the main components of track structure. Rail is the part that directly interacts with train wheels, which supports and directs high-speed trains, directly bearing the dead weight of high-speed trains as well as the longitudinal and lateral wheel-rail forces. It transfers such forces to the sleeper and ballast bed,

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and diffuses the same to subgrade, bridge, tunnel and other structures. Moreover, it provides the surface with least resistance. Besides, for electrified railways and automatic blocking sections, rails also constitute a part of track circuit. In order to reduce the weight and ensure optimal flexural behavior of rails, the H-shape cross-section is adopted. The rail is composed of rail head, rail web and rail base, as is shown in Fig. 2.5. The quality of a high-speed railway depends on steel purity, internal and surface quality, external geometric and dimensional precision (allowable dimensional deviation) and straightness of rails, wherein, external dimensional precision proposes the requirements of allowable dimensional deviation and straightness. Dimensional precision and dimensional straightness of rails are the key factors to ensure track regularity. Table 2.8 stipulates the allowable dimensional deviations (mm) for the main parts of Beijing-Shanghai standard rail. Damages of high-speed railway tracks are mainly fatigue damages caused by internal impurities and defects. By improving steel purity, strictly limiting the Fig. 2.5 Sectional view of rail

Table 2.8 Allowable deviations (mm) for main parts of Beijing-Shanghai standard rail Item

Technical conditions

Rail height

± 0.5

Rail head width

± 0.5

Wheel tread profile

+ 0.6 − 0.3

Rail web thickness

+ 1.0 − 0.5

Rail base

± 1.0

Fishplate supporting surface

± 0.35

Fishplate mounting height

± 0.6

Rail base edge thickness

+ 0.75 − 0.5

Asymmetry of cross-section

Sunken ≤ 0.3

Thickness for the rail bottom edge 20 mm

Head ≤ 0.5 bottom ≤ 1.0

End face perpendicularity

≤ 20

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content of P, S, AI, H, O and other harmful elements, and stipulating the requirements for the content of residual elements, the mechanical properties, welding performance and other application performances have been improved, rail fatigue damage has been reduced, the reliability has been increased, and the service life has been prolonged as well. 2. Sleeper Sleepers are the support of rail, which are mainly provided to bear the pressure imposed by rail and transfer the same to the ballast bed. Besides, they can effectively maintain the shape and position of tracks, including rail position, alignment and gauge. At present, reinforced concrete sleepers are widely used in the ballasted tracks of high-speed railways in the world. In China, most of the existing railway trunk lines use reinforced concrete sleepers, and all high-speed railways use reinforced concrete sleepers. Advantages and disadvantages of concrete sleepers are as follows: (a) Advantages (1) Concrete sleeper has large longitudinal and lateral resistance, which is able to provide sufficient stability, meeting the stability requirement of high-speed railways. (2) Concrete sleepers have various sources of materials, which can realize the manufacturing of the same size and uniform elasticity, meeting the requirement of high speed and large traffic volume. (3) Concrete sleeper has high resistance to weather, corrosion, pest and fire, which is durable and has a long service life. (4) Concrete sleeper is featured by long service life, high stability and small maintenance workload, with low damage and scrap rate. For continuously welded rails, the track stability with reinforced concrete sleeper is 15–20% higher than those with wooden sleeper, which is suitable for high-speed passenger dedicated lines. Both Japan’s Shinkansen and Russia’s high-speed railway trunks adopt reinforced concrete sleepers. (b) Disadvantages Reinforced concrete sleeper is heavy. For example, the weight of a single reinforced concrete sleeper made in the United Kingdoms is 285 and 280 kg in the United States, 230 kg in Germany, though relatively light. Hence, the adaptability of reinforced concrete sleeper among countries is rather low. Integrated concrete sleepers used in China are basically divided into Type I, Type II and Type III. The length of Type I and Type II concrete sleepers is 2500 mm, which fails to meet the technical requirement, and the bearing capacity is insufficient for high-speed railway application. Therefore, Type III concrete sleepers with a length of 2600 mm are used on dedicated passenger lines in China. According to the Code for Design of High Speed Railway (Interim), for ballasted tracks of main lines, concrete sleepers with length of 2.6 m shall be used and 1667 sleepers shall be laid for every 1000 m. Therefore, transsectional continuously welded rail shall be adopted, and sleepers shall be

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laid evenly with a spacing of 60 cm. In this way, high-frequency impact can be reduced significantly. For switch sections, concrete switch ties shall be provided. 3. Rail fastening Rail fasteners are parts for connecting rails with sleepers to form track panels, which are key technologies determining the success of a ballastless track, and are of great importance in terms of stability and reliability of tracks. In addition to displacement restriction, it can prevent rail creeping, as is shown in Figs. 2.6 and 2.7. On high-speed railway, both the train running speed and the traffic density are high, which proposes extremely high requirements for track regularity. Therefore, compared with normal-speed railway lines, the technical requirements for rail fasteners proposed by high-speed railways are much higher, which are specified as follows: (a) Elastic parts of rail fasteners shall have sufficient clamping force to ensure the longitudinal and transverse stability and gauge stability of railway lines. Fig. 2.6 Pandrol(UK) fastening

Fig. 2.7 ω-shape clip fastening

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(b) Rail fasteners shall have sound noise and vibration reduction performance, i.e., rail fasteners shall be provided with buffer plates with better elasticity. (c) To ensure the operation safety of high-speed railway, it is required that rail fasteners shall have sound insulation, so as to improve the reliability of track circuit, extend track circuit length and to reduce the cost of track circuit. Two rails shall have sufficient impedance, so as to ensure normal function of the track circuit. (d) In respect of quality, the dimensional precision and internal purity shall meet relevant requirements. Besides, dye penetrant inspection and ultrasonic flaw detection shall be conducted to detect internal defects and magnetic particle inspection shall be conducted to detect surface defects. (e) Less maintenance, each part of rail fastening shall have sufficient stiffness, flexibility, bending resistance and durability, and the rail fastening shall have sound clamping force, so as to minimize the daily maintenance workload. For fasteners used in high-speed railway, in addition to sufficient clamping force to ensure longitudinal and transverse stability of railway line, the following requirements shall be met: sound elasticity to ensure sound vibration and noise reduction performance; sound clamping performance to minimize daily maintenance workload; sound insulation to improve the reliability of track circuit, to extend track circuit length and to reduce the cost of track circuit. 4. Ballast bed Ballast bed generally refers to the ballast cushion provided under sleepers and laid on the subgrade surface. In order to improve the resistance of railway lines and maintain track stability, railway lines with different conditions shall be provided with ballast beds with different cross-section dimensions. In automatic blocking section, to avoid losing track current, the top surface of ballast bed shall be 20– 30 mm lower than the top surface of sleepers. Besides, rails in China generally constitute track circuit and are used for signal current transmission, and the state of ballast bed can greatly affect the track circuit, therefore, specific requirements are stipulated for ballast bed materials. The thickness of ballast bed of highspeed railway lines shall be sufficient, so as to reduce the pressure and vibration imposed on the subgrade surface and prevent permanent deformation of the top surface of subgrade. (a) Ballasted track Ballasted track, commonly known as crushed rocks ballast bed track, refers to a track with gravel ballast bed as its subgrade, which is one of the main railway structures, i.e., the traditional railway track structure, as is shown in Fig. 2.8. (1) Functions (I) Support sleepers, and evenly distribute the pressure from sleepers to the subgrade; (II) Fix sleeper position, prevent sleepers from moving the rails longitudinally and transversely, and maintain track stability;

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Fig. 2.8 Crushed rocks ballast bed

(III) Improve track elasticity, reduce and absorb wheel-rail impact and vibration; (IV) Provide sound drainage, and reduce subgrade defect; (V) Facilitate track maintenance and repair. (2) Advantages Advantages include high stiffness, high pressure resistance, high wear resistance, sound elasticity, sound drainage, low water absorption, good noise absorption, low price, and convenient replacement and maintenance. (3) Disadvantages For ballasted tracks, shock excitation with a frequency under 120 Hz is severe due to uneven settlement of track, which leads to track damage and deformation. As a result, it is hard to maintain the geometrical shape of railway lines, and the service life is short. For ballasted tracks, the maintenance workload is heavy, and the maintenance interval is short. (b) Ballastless track The track structure which adopts an integral foundation constructed with concrete and asphalt mixtures, instead of granular crushed rocks ballast bed used in the traditional ballasted track, is called ballastless track, as is shown in Fig. 2.9. (1) Advantages (I) Sound structural continuity, regularity, immobility, durability and stability, with lightweight, balanced mass and small deformation; track geometrical shape can be maintained for a long time, thus minimizing the interference to train operation and ensuring high-speed running; with short structure height, thus reducing the tunnel cross-section area to be excavated. (II) Slow deformation accumulation, reduced maintenance and repair facilities, and small maintenance and repair workload.

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Fig. 2.9 Ballastless track

(III) Avoid the necessity of using high-quality ballast and environment damage, prevent ballast splashing under high-speed conditions, and reduce the demand for top-grade ballast of dedicated passenger lines. (IV) Track elasticity is provided by installing prefabricated rubber rail pads, rubber boots, or cast-in-situ CA mortar cushion layer and other elastic elements on the rigid integral concrete base, which can provide more even and uniform elasticity compared with the method of laying crushed rocks ballast bed on soil subgrade. It can improve operation smoothness and ride comfort of highspeed trains. (V) Long service life—with designed service life of 60 years: short track height, small secondary dead load of bridge, short tunnel clearance, and lower standards for plane and cross section of railway lines. (2) Disadvantages (I) High construction cost: the construction cost of ballasted track is RMB 1,800,000/km, while the construction cost of bi-block ballastless track is RMB 3,500,000/km, the construction cost of CRTS I slab type is RMB 4,500,000/km, and the construction cost of CRTS II is RMB 5,500,000/km. (II) The total investment in the construction phase is higher than that of ballasted track. Higher requirements for foundation increases the construction cost significantly. For the countries with matured construction processes and construction machinery for ballastless track construction, the construction cost is generally 15–25% higher than that of ballasted track, while for the countries with construction processes and construction machinery still under development and improvement, the ratio of construction investment of ballastless track to ballasted track is 2:1. For ballasted tracks, the allowable post-construction settlement is 15 cm, while

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for ballastless tracks, the allowable post-construction settlement is 3 cm, to meet this requirement, the investment in bridge construction (rather than laying track on the ground) and subgrade strengthening is huge. (III) Large vibration and noise: currently, ballastless tracks featured by reduced vibration and noise have not been developed successfully, and e type selection of ballastless tracks with reduced vibration is difficult. (IV) Ballastless tracks adopt rigid foundation, therefore, the overall elasticity of the track is poor. Once the residual deformation of the sub-foundation exceeds the adjustment range of rail fasteners or results in track structure damage, it is difficult to repair and rectify. (3) Classification By structures, tracks can be divided into sleeper ballastless track and slab ballastless track. The sleeper ballastless track can be further divided into single sleeper block type and integral sleeper type; while the slab ballastless track can be further divided into precast slab type and cast-in-situ slab type. Sleeper ballastless tracks are widely used in Germany, and slab ballastless tracks are widely used in Japan. (I) Slab ballastless track. Slab tracks can be divided into three types including the normal slab type, the frame type and the vibration reduction type, which is mainly composed of rails, elastic separated rail fasteners, filling pads, track slabs, rubber pads under slabs (only for vibration reduction type slab track), CA mortar adjustment layer, concrete stopper and concrete base. As is shown in Figs. 2.10 and 2.11. a. CRTS slab ballastless track CRTS I slab ballastless track: the track of unit slab structure, with precast track slabs laid on the cast-in-situ reinforced concrete base via adjustment layer of cement asphalt mortar, Fig. 2.10 Slab ballastless track

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Fig. 2.11 Longitudinally-coupled slab ballastless track

with concrete stopper provided for displacement restriction, adapting to ZPW-2000 track circuit. CRTS II slab ballastless track: the ballastless track of continuous track slab structure, with precast track slabs laid on the cast-in-situ concrete supporting layer or on the cast-insitu reinforced concrete base (bridge) with a sliding layer via an adjustment layer of cement asphalt mortar, adapting to ZPW-2000 track circuit. Beijing-Tianjin intercity railway line adopts CRTSII slab ballastless track. CRTS III slab ballastless track: the ballastless track of continuous track slab structure, with precast track slabs laid on the cast-in-situ concrete supporting layer or on the castin-situ reinforced concrete base (bridge) via an adjustment layer of cement asphalt mortar, with each slab subjected to displacement restriction and adapting to ZPW-2000 track circuit. b. Longitudinally-coupled slab ballastless track Longitudinally-coupled slab ballastless track is an effective solution to the problems such as thermal expansion, large bridge-track interaction force, the rotation angle overrunning at beam end, counter-force at the supporting point of fastening at beam joint out of limit encountered when laying ballastless track on long-span bridges. It is composed of rails, rail fasteners, longitudinal-coupled slabs, a high elasticity modulus mortar bed and a supporting layer. The ends of track slabs are coupled longitudinally with 6 connecting rebars, as shown in Fig. 2.11. c. Unit slab ballastless track It is composed of rails, fasteners, track slabs, a supporting layer, CA mortar and a base, as is shown in Fig. 2.12. On Wawu super major bridge in the Wuhan comprehensive test section, the vibration-reduction unit slab ballastless track structure is

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adopted, and elastic pads are provided between CA mortar and track slabs. For Gouhe River super major bridge (straight, with a length of 741 m) and Shanghe River super major bridge (curve, with a length of 740 m), slab tracks are adopted for trial (Fig. 2.13). (II) Sleeper ballastless track a. Long-sleeper embedded ballastless track A long-sleeper embedded ballastless track is composed of integral concrete sleepers and a cast-in-situ concrete ballast bed, including rails, rail fasteners, perforated concrete sleepers, a concrete ballast bed and a concrete base. The long-sleeper embedded ballastless track adopts prestressed long sleepers which are cast in reinforced concrete ballast bed slabs. To ensure the connection between sleepers and the ballast bed, 5 holes are reserved on the sleepers, and the longitudinal rebars on the top layer of ballast bed slabs are inserted into the reserved holes to improve the integrity of the track (Fig. 2.14). Fig. 2.12 Prestressed reinforced concrete unit slab track

Fig. 2.13 Long-sleeper embedded track in Yuzui No.2 Tunnel

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Fig. 2.14 Elastic support track in Qinling Tunnel

b. Supporting block ballastless track (solid concrete roadbed) Supporting block ballastless track refers to the cast-in-situ reinforced concrete ballast bed, with rails and rail fasteners and supporting blocks properly located. This track type is featured by simple structure, low construction cost, simple construction process and short construction duration. No side drain is provided, and the base of tunnel side wall is relatively high, which reduces the construction work amount. Blasting near side wall is not required, which ensures side wall stability. But it cannot meet the drainage requirement of tunnels with abundant ground water. Besides, the ballast bed concrete is largely weakened, and longitudinal cracks may appear. c. Elastic supporting block ballastless track The elastic supporting block ballastless track can be divided into elastic short sleeper track and elastic long sleeper track, wherein the elastic short sleeper track is also called low vibration track (LVT). This track type was developed in Switzerland in 1966 for trial laying in tunnels. The track has a sound vibration reduction effect, with vertical elasticity provided by the rubber pads under the track and the sleepers and lateral elasticity provided by the sheath wherein the stiffness of rubber pads under the sleepers varies between 6 and 160 kN/ mm. Compared with ballasted tracks, the vibration reduction effect of this track type can reach up to 6–8 dB; the track with elastic long sleepers with a 2.5 m long prestressed sleeper, the ballast bed is widened and the buried depth is reduced, which can effectively ensure the stability of elastic short sleeper track and solve the sheath seeper problem, as shown in Fig. 2.15.

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Fig. 2.15 Rheda ballastless track of Wuhan-Guangzhou high-speed railway

d. Bi-block ballastless track Germany’s Rheda 2000 ballastless track and Zublin ballastless track belong to bi-block ballastless track. In this track type, special bi-block sleepers composed of two truss-type reinforced bars are configured, which substitute the solid sleepers adopted by Rheda type track, besides, the trough plates in the original structure are removed, and the types used for tunnels, bridges and subgrades are unified, moreover, the track structure height is reduced from 650 to 472 mm, as is shown in Fig. 2.16. In China, high-speed railways generally adopt ballastless tracks. Big progress has been made in terms of ballastless track engineering technology design and construction. On the Qinhuangdao-Shengyang dedicated passenger line, Fig. 2.16 Turnout of high-speed railway

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Fig. 2.17 Switching device of high-speed railway

two ballastless track structures including the long sleeper embedded type and the slab type are adopted, and three comprehensive tests have been conducted. According to the test results, all the relevant requirements stipulated in applicable specifications and standards are met. It has accumulated valuable experience in ballastless track design and construction. Especially, the development and application of CA mortar formula used in slab ballastless track are approaching the word class, which lays a solid foundation for the largescale ballastless track laying for high-speed railway in China. For Wuhan-Guangzhou and Zhengzhou-Xi’an high-speed railways, bi-block ballastless track is adopted, and for BeijingTianjin intercity railway, slab ballastless track is adopted, showing that the ballastless track technology has been widely applied to high-speed railway projects in China. 5. High-speed turnout Turnout refers to the facilities provided for the connection and crossover of railway lines so that high-speed trains can transfer from one line to another or cross over another line during the operation, as is shown in Fig. 2.16. It is composed of switch rails, switches, fasteners, frogs and switch ties, as is shown in Fig. 2.17. High-speed turnouts can be divided into two types: Type I includes turnouts for passing high-speed trains straightly, while Type II includes large-sized turnouts for passing high-speed trains from both straight and lateral sides.

2.3.3 Track Inspection and Maintenance for High-Speed Railway High-quality railway equipment is the basic factor to ensure the safe operation of high-speed railways, while the improvement of railway equipment quality requires constant refining and improvement of inspection methods and maintenance means.

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Railway line inspection is the primary mean to obtain technical status data and master the change rule of railway line equipment, and serve as the main basis for preparing maintenance plans and analyzing equipment defect. In recent years, with the development of computer and testing technology, track inspecting cars provide technical support to railway line “repair on condition”, and the dynamic inspection data obtained serve as a scientific basis for railway line maintenance and repair. The inspection results are transmitted to relevant departments via a dedicated network, and a management system is set up to process these inspection data, so as to properly guide railway line maintenance. According to inspection methods, high-speed railway track inspection can be divided into dynamic detection and static inspection. 1. Dynamic detection The dynamic detection mainly involves the inspection with a comprehensive inspecting car and the inspection with a railway line detector. The comprehensive inspecting cars include No. 0 inspecting cars installed on Type V cars and No. 10 inspecting cars install Type II cars, with different inspecting items. The inspection frequency is 2–3 times per month. The reconstructed section of the existing line shall be subjected to the inspection of a track inspecting car with a running speed of 160 km/h coupled to a through train at a frequency of 2–3 times per month. There are two kinds of railway line detectors, including the onboard railway line detector installed on the train (or EMU) and the portable railway line detector carried by working crew The onboard railway line detector and the portable railway line detector, by sensing the bogie of car body to detect the vertical acceleration and the transverse acceleration of car body, and the waveform obtained in the range of 0.3–10 Hz can reflect the line state. The railway line detector can neither directly reflect the causes of defects, nor detect the track geometry, it can only support the determination of rectification scheme for specific defect points by analyzing the data obtained by the track inspecting car, and field survey shall be carried out. 2. Static inspection The static inspection is mainly completed with the help of a track detector, static tuning car and track gauge, string and other auxiliary inspection tools. The static tuning car is mainly used for ballastless track measurement, by setting up stations with a total station for precision measurement, so as to realize precision spatial positioning of track. The track detector, track gauge and string are mainly used to measure the track geometry. The track inspecting car is the main equipment used to detect dynamic track irregularity, it can detect both the dynamic track irregularity and the dynamic response of car. Inspection items mainly include lateral height difference, track lateral alignment, track gauge, levelness, twist of track, curvature, curve superelevation, curve radius, car body transverse and vertical vibration acceleration, left and right axle boxes vertical vibration acceleration, wheel load decreasing rate and derailment coefficient. For the latest track inspecting car, testing items

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73

including rail cross-section, corrugation, cross-section wear, rail cant, surface abrasion, ballast bed cross-section, railway line environment are added. Track inspecting cars evaluate track status comprehensively based on track dynamic irregularity and dynamic response of car.

2.4 HSR Bridge Bridge is an important part in the civil engineering of high-speed railways. Highspeed railways, featured by high-speed operation, high comfortability, high safety and high-density continuous operation, propose higher requirements for bridges. Since the running speed is increased greatly, the dynamic force imposed by a highspeed train on a bridge structure is much higher than that imposed on a normal railway bridge. Besides, the bridge structure is subjected to deformation and vibration when live loads of trains pass through the bridges, and when the bridge is under the influence of wind power, sunlight, brake, prestressed concrete creep upwarp, uneven temperature difference and other factors, which will degrade the regularity of the railway line laid on the bridge. Given this, higher requirements for stiffness and integrity of bridge structure of high-speed railway are proposed. High-speed railway adopts the fully closed operating mode. Since the parameters of the plane and vertical cross-sections of railway lines are strictly limited and controlled, and the requirement for track regularity is high, the proportion of bridges in a railway line is increased largely, especially in areas with dense population or bad geological conditions. In order to cross over the existing traffic network, save farmland and avoid uneven settlement of high-filled roadbeds, Elevated railway lines are adopted in the construction of high-speed railways in various countries and regions in Asia.

2.4.1 Main Characteristics of High-Speed Railway Bridge High-speed railway bridges mainly have two structures including the concrete structure and the prestressed concrete structure, and all these two structures are widely adopted in bridge design. The characteristics of high-speed railway bridges are as follows. 1. Large dynamic effect of structure The force imposed on bridges by a moving train is higher than that imposed by a stationary train, and the ratio (1 + μ) is called dynamic factor (impact factor). The main factors causing dynamic effects include the speed effect of moving loads and car swaying due to track irregularity. The speed effect of high-speed railways is greater than that of normal railways, and the corresponding dynamic effect of bridge is larger. For normal rigid

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Fig. 2.18 α − L relation curve

concrete beams, the relation curves at running speeds of 130, 160 and 300 km/h are as follows (Fig. 2.18). For simply-supported beam bridges of high-speed railway with a span shorter than 40 m, when α > 0.33, equivalent to n < 1.5v/L, intensive dynamic effect will occur, and even result in resonance. Given this, an appropriate structure natural vibration frequency greatly different from the excitation frequency when a train passes through shall be selected. If the vertical acceleration of bridge exceeds 0.7 g ( f ≤ 20 Hz) when a highspeed train passes through, the stability of ballasted bed will be degraded, ballast will get loose and collapse, which will influence the train operation safety. 2. Adopting medium- and short-span Since high-speed railways propose a strict stiffness requirement for railway lines, bridges, tunnels and other civil works, therefore, long-span bridges should be avoided for high-speed railways, and medium- and short-span bridges shall be selected. Most of the bridges of Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway are of medium or short span, and the commonly used bridge type is the equal-span double-track full-span simply-supported beam, with spans of 24, 32 and 40 m, wherein, most of the bridges adopt a span of 32 m. Bridges with a span shorter than 20 m are composed of 4–5 T-beams. The simply supported beam commonly used on Qinhuangdao-Shenyang High-speed Railway are 20 and 24 m doubletrack full-span box girders and 32 m single-track full-span box girders, as shown in Fig. 2.19.

Fig. 2.19 Bridge of high-speed railway

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3. Interaction between continuously welded rail track and bridge For high-speed railway construction, trans-sectional continuously welded rail tracks shall be laid in order so as to ensure track regularity and stability. Continuously welded rail tracks can be regarded as fixed line structures, with a stress status differing from that of the subgrade. Under the influence of train loads, braking and temperature change, the relative displacement between beam and track system may occur, which will result in additional stress on rails laid on bridges, and overlarge additional stress will degrade the stability of continuously welded rail track laid on the bridge, and affect the train operation safety. Therefore, for bridges of high-speed railways, bridge-track interaction must be considered, so as to minimize the additional stress imposed on rails as well as the bridge-track displacement and deformation, thus ensuring the stability of continuously welded rail tracks laid on bridges and ensuring the train operation safety. 4. High stiffness and sound integrity The operation characteristics of high-speed railways propose strict requirements for the stiffness and the integrity of bridge structure of high-speed railways. In order to ensure high speed and safe operation of high-speed trains on bridges, the bridge shall have sufficient stiffness and sound integrity, so as to avoid large deflection and amplitude. In general, stiffness is the main control factor in the design of high-speed railway bridges. Preferably, the superstructure should be of high-stiffness prestressed concrete structure, girders shall have sufficient vertical, transverse and torsional stiffness, so as to prevent upwarp deformation due to temperature difference and concrete creep, to ensure high regularity and stability of railway line, and to prevent unfavored train-bridge dynamic response. In the selection of bridge type, additional expansion joints for continuously welded rail track shall be avoided as far as possible. 5. Meeting the requirement of ride comfort Different from normal railways, high-speed railways require high ride comfort when a train passes through bridges. Bridges shall have an appropriate natural vibration frequency, so as to ensure that no severe vibration will occur when a train is running within the designed speed range. The ride comfort is evaluated in accordance with Table 2.9. 6. High bridge proportion, with more viaducts, long bridges, and bridges with long span and special span construction High-speed railway bridges generally cross over traffic trunk lines, river ways, plains and farmlands. Reinforced concrete composite girders, continuous beams, Table 2.9 Ride comfort evaluation standard

Ride comfort

Vertical acceleration (m/s2 )

Excellent

1.0

Good

1.3

Acceptable

2.0

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cable-stayed bridges, steel braced arches and other long-span beam bridges with special structures are widely adopted, so that the engineering technology is complex and the construction is difficult. The design parameters are strictly controlled, large curve radius and small gradient are required, and fully-closed operation is required, so that the number of bridge structures is much larger than that of normal railways. For the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway, bridges account for 87% of the total route length, among which, the longest viaduct reaches 84 km (Figs. 2.20 and 2.21). 7. Focusing on structure durability improvement, and facilitating inspection and maintenance High-speed railway bridges are important transportation facilities, and any operation interruption will cause great economic loss and large social influence. Therefore, on one hand, bridge structures shall adopt less-maintenance or maintenancefree design, in the design process, improving structure durability shall be regarded as the main design principle, and rational structure layout and construction details shall be considered and planned as a whole, while in the construction process, strict control shall be implemented so as to ensure high quality. The durability requirement for high-speed railway bridge is proposed for the first time, according to the requirement, the main bridge structure and the layout, when operating for the intended purpose under preset maintenance and operating conditions, shall Fig. 2.20 Nanjing Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge

Fig. 2.21 Wuhan Tianxingzhou Bridge

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have a service life of 100 years. On the other hand, due to dense traffic and highspeed operation of trains on high-speed railways, bridge repair and maintenance is difficult and the cost is high. Therefore, the bridge structures shall be designed to facilitate daily inspection and maintenance, and easy inspection and maintenance of structure shall be emphasized so as to ensure safe operation of bridges (guarantee in all the design stage, the construction stage and the maintenance stage). 8. Emphasizing harmony between structures and environment High-speed railways, as important modern transportation facilities, shall pay attention to the harmoniousness between bridge structures and environment, and shall attach great importance to ecological environmental protection, which mainly means that the shape of bridge shall be in harmony with the surrounding environment, and great attention shall be paid to the appearance and color of bridge structures. Besides, for bridges near residential areas, noise reduction measures shall be taken, and protections shall be provided to prevent sewage on bridge surface from polluting the ecological environment.

2.4.2 Classification of High-Speed Railway Bridges 1. By purpose (a) Viaduct A viaduct is used to cross over the existing traffic railway network, as well as areas with dense population or bad geological conditions. It usually has a short pier body, with a short span, but a viaduct is long and often stretches more than 10 km. (b) Valley-crossing bridge A valley-crossing bridge is used to cross over a valley, with a large span and relatively high pier body (Figs. 2.22 and 2.23). (c) River-crossing bridges River-crossing bridges refer to general bridges cross over rivers. Fig. 2.22 Valley-crossing bridge

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Fig. 2.23 River-crossing bridge

2. Classification by bridge type (a) Simply-supported beam bridges Simply-supported beam bridges refer to bridges whose superstructure is composed of main bearing girders with both ends simply supported on the abutment. Simply supported beam belongs to statically determinate structure, with adjacent spans bearing stress separately, and the structure stress condition is simple without subjecting to the influence of support displacement, which is applicable to all geological conditions; besides, the structure is also simple, so that standardized parts and assemblies can be used, which facilitate manufacturing and installation. It is one of the most widely used beam bridges. However, the mid-span moment of a simply supported beam increases sharply with the span, therefore, the long-span structure has low economic efficiency (Figs. 2.24 and 2.25). (b) Long-span continuous beam bridge It refers to a long-span continuous beam bridge with two or more spans and belongs to statically indeterminate structures. The hogging moment at supporting points generated by the continuous beam under the influence Fig. 2.24 Simply-supported beam bridge of Zhengzhou-Xi’an high-speed railways over Guanzhong Plain

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Fig. 2.25 Long-span continuous beam bridge over the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal

of constant live load provides an unloading effect for mid-span sagging moment, which ensures even and rational internal stress. Therefore, the beam height can be reduced and the clearance under the major bridge can be increased, which can not only save materials, but also provide high stiffness, sound integrity, large overload capacity and high safety, and reduce the expansion joints on bridge decks. Besides, the bending moment of the midspan section is reduced, so that the bridge span can be increased. (c) Long-span composite steel truss bridge It refers to the composite structure bridge with the main structure composed of steel truss spans, that is, after the two or more systems are overlapped, the property of counter-force of the whole structure is still the same as that of the beam under the bending load. The main characteristic of this bridge type includes heavy design and calculation workload, complex structure details and complicated internal force (Figs. 2.26 and 2.27). Fig. 2.26 Long-span composite steel truss bridge—Yellow River Bridge

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Fig. 2.27 Beijing-Shanghai New Qinhuai River long-span cable-stayed bridge

(d) Long-span cable-stayed bridge It refers to a large-span bridge with the girder connected to the bridge tower with stayed cables, which is a structural system composed of a bearing tower, stressed cables and bending force bearing beams. It can be regarded as a multi-span elastic support continuous beam configured with stayed cables instead of piers. (e) Long-span steel braced arch bridge It refers to a long-span arch bridge composed of a solid web section in the middle and arch trusses at both ends, and the truss arch sheets are connected into an integral structure with the bridge floor system and the transverse bracing system (transverse bracing frame and cross bracing). The characteristic is that the solid wed section and the arch truss at both ends are provided for stress bearing, and a horizontal force is imposed on the arch springs, which can reduce the mid-span moment. This bridge type has more rational stress conditions than that of a ribbed arch bridge configured with an arch structure, which can save materials, reduce dead weight, and is applicable to scenarios with weak foundation conditions (Figs. 2.28 and 2.29). (f) Long-span tied-arch bridge The tied arch can also be called “simply-supported beam arch”. Similar to a simply supported beam, the horizontal force produced by the axial force in the arch is balanced with the axial force of the tied beam in the system, therefore, the piers bear vertical force only, without bearing any horizontal force, just like the role of simply supported beams to piers. Tied-arch bridge eliminates the large thrusting force imposed by arch rib on the foundation, so that in the pier or abutment design process, thrusting force can be ignored and only the vertical load needs to be considered, and the pier and abutment can be constructed with the same method as that for normal simply supported beam or continuous beam, solving the difficulty of building arch bridges in the plain areas, so that tied-arch bridges can be built under various foundation condition.

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Fig. 2.28 Yongjiang double-track super major bridge of Nanning-Qinzhou high-speed railway

Fig. 2.29 Xiaolan waterway super major bridge of Guangzhou-Zhuhai intercity railway

(g) Long-span tied-arch continuous beam bridge The continuous beam-arch composite bridge is a novel composite structure, and the whole bridge is composed of arch ribs, tie beams, suspenders and a bridge floor system. The continuous beam-arch structure overcomes the disadvantage of arch bridges (high requirement for foundation) and of continuous beams (high requirement for materials), improves the insufficiency of high bending moment and shear force of continuous beam bridge, and gives a full play to the advantages of arch-concrete continuous beam structure. It has advantages including good dynamic stability, high structure stiffness, sound span capacity, convenient construction, artistic appearance, as well as good engineering practicability and economic benefits (Figs. 2.30 and 2.31). (h) Continuous steel truss girder bridge A continuous steel truss bridge is a structural system falling between beam and arch, which is formed by connecting the solid-web steel plate girder bridge together and carrying out hollow-web treatment in accordance with

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Fig. 2.30 Songhua River Super Major Bridge of Harbin-Qiqihaer Dedicated Passenger Line

Fig. 2.31 Steel truss bridges on both sides of the main bridge of Yellow River Major Bridge of Zhengzhou-Xinxiang Intercity Railway

certain rules, and consists of the upper bending force bearing beams and the lower stress-bearing piers. Due to the rigid connection of beams and piers, the load imposed on beams can be offset by the bending rigidity of piers. The complete system is a structure subjecting to both bending force and thrusting force, which is the main bearing form for the beam, i.e., the main structure bears the bending moment and shear force, composed of a brake bracing system, bridge decks, supports and piers (abutment). (i) V-shaped continuous beam bridge It refers to the continuous beam bridge with two or more spans whose superstructure is simply supported at first and then supported with continuous precast box girders. The substructure is composed of V-shape piers (Figs. 2.32 and 2.33). (j) Slant-legged rigid frame continuous beam bridge A rigid frame structure with two slant legs, and hinges are provided at the lower section of slant legs, which is generally made from reinforced concrete

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Fig. 2.32 Yanshi V-shape pier super major bridge

Fig. 2.33 Gushan major bridge - slant-legged rigid frame bridge

or prestressed concrete, and some are made from steel. Provision of hinges at the lower section of slant legs can prevent a large bending moment being imposed on the lower sections so as to ensure the long-term safety of slant legs. In addition, with the support of slant legs, the midspan, the beam height, the material and the structure height are reduced, the advantages are predominant for the application in grade separation bridges.

2.4.3 Requirements for Bridge and Culvert of High-Speed Railway 1. General requirements (a) The bridge and culvert structure shall be designed to have a simple and standardized structure, artistic appearance, and facilitating construction and maintenance. The structure shall have sufficient vertical stiffness, lateral stiffness and torsional stiffness, so as to minimize deformation. It shall have sufficient durability and sound dynamic property, so as to realize high track stability and regularity, thus meeting the requirements of safe operation of high-speed trains and ride comfort.

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(b) The designed service life of bridge and culvert main structure shall be 100 years, and all engineering materials used in bridge and culvert structures shall comply with the effective national and industrial standards, and the concrete structures of bridges and culverts shall comply with the relevant requirements stipulated in the Code for Durability Design on Concrete Structure of Railway (TB 10005-2010). (c) In the selection of bridge superstructure, the intended purpose of the bridge, hydrologic conditions of river, engineering geological conditions, track type, construction equipment and other associated factors shall be considered. Preferably, the superstructure should be of prestressed concrete structure, and reinforced concrete structure, steel structure and steel–concrete composite structure are also acceptable. For the prestressed concrete simplysupported beam structure, preferably, box girders should be selected, however, other section types with sound integrity and high structural stiffness can also be used according to the specific conditions. For simplysupported beams with spans < 40 m, appropriate natural vibration frequency shall be selected so as to avoid resonance or intensive vibration when a train passes through the bridge. (d) The bridge structure shall adopt the orthogonal design. When skew design is unavoidable, the included angle between the bridge axis and the supporting line should not be < 60°, and the edge line of the skew abutment tail should be perpendicular to the middle line of the railway line. Otherwise, special measures for transition to subgrade should be taken, so that the structure can meet the durability requirement and facilitate inspection. (e) Common bridges shall adopt standardized design and simplified specifications and type. For long bridges, rail expansion joints shall be avoided as far as possible. The layout of bridge deck shall match with the track type and deck facilities arrangement, and facilitate future repair and maintenance. (f) Bridges and culverts shall be properly connected with the natural water system and local drainage and irrigation system, and comply with the railway subgrade drainage requirement. Where the railway line is located in areas with special terrain, landform and geologic condition, such as in incised gully, a comparison between the bridge scheme and the culvert scheme shall be conducted so as to determine the optimal crossover mode. Preferably, the culverts should be of reinforced concrete rectangular frame type. (g) The length of the embankment between adjacent bridges and culverts shall be determined by comprehensively considering the regularity requirement of high-speed trains, the bridge (culvert) transition section construction process, construction cost and other factors. The length of embankment between abutment tails of two bridges shall not be < 150 m, and the length of embankment between two culverts (frame structure) and between abutment tails and culverts (frame structure) shall be < 30 m. In special cases, when the embankment length fails to meet the above requirements, the subgrade shall be subjected to special treatment.

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(h) Reference points shall be set up for systematic observation and analysis of bridge and culvert deformation and foundation settlement of ballastless track, the reference point arrangement and the observation interval shall comply with the requirements proposed based on the evaluation of ballastless track laying conditions. 2. Requirements for bridge deck layout (a) The thickness of ballast under sleeper of ballasted track laid on bridge shall not be < 0.35 m. (b) A ballast wall or a protection wall shall be provided on bridges, and the height shall be flush with the adjacent rail level. For a ballasted track bridge, in straight sections, the clear distance from the central line of track to the inner side of the ballast wall shall not be < 2.2 m. (c) The height of bridge railing shall not be < 1.0 m. (d) The distance between the central line of the track and the inner side of the OCS poles shall not be < 3.0 m. Where an OCS pole shall be arranged on the bridge deck, it should not be located in the mid-span of the beam. 3. Requirements for waterproofing and drainage of bridge (a) Surfaces of beams or piers shall facilitate water drainage, and surfaces exposed to rainwater and subjected to seeper shall be designed into included planes. Preferably, the top of the bridge should be provided with a horizontal drain slope with a gradient not < 2%, and the top of bridge piers shall be provided a drainage slope with a gradient not < 3%. (b) Effective waterproof structures and measures shall be provided and taken at the ends of bridge, so as to prevent the contamination of surfaces of supports and beam ends due to sewage backflow. (c) The bridge decks for ballasted tracks and CRTS I bi-block ballastless tracks shall adopt two-row drainage mode, while bridge decks for CRTS I slab ballastless track and CRTS II slab ballastless track shall adopt three-row drainage mode.

2.5 HSR Tunnel A high-speed railway tunnel is a structure provided for railway passing through mountains or straits, which is composed of main structures and auxiliary structures. Main structures are constructed to maintain the stability of portals and tunnels and to ensure operation safety of high-speed trains, which is mainly composed of tunnel body, tunnel lining and tunnel portal. Auxiliary structures are constructed for operation management, repair and maintenance, water supply and drainage, power supply and generation, ventilation, lighting, communication and safety, including large and small refuges, side heading slopes, drainage gutters, waterproof equipment, drainage equipment and ventilation system.

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2.5.1 Tunnel Construction 1. Portal structure The portal shall be designed based on the terrain, geology and environment conditions and landscape requirements shall be taken into comprehensive consideration, following the design principle of “start early and end late”. Preferably, the tunnel portal should adopt bevel-type and brim style structure, so as to minimize the excavation of side heading slope at portal. Where buildings exist near the tunnel portal or in case of special environment requirement, a buffer structure of tunnel portal should be provided, and for the provision of buffer structures, factors including type and length of train, length of tunnel, effective clearance area of tunnel, track type of tunnel, terrain and resident conditions shall be taken into consideration. The buffer structure of tunnel portal shall be designed in accordance with the following requirements: (a) In the determination of buffer structure type, attention shall be paid to artistic appearance, and terrain conditions near the portal shall be taken into consideration. Preferably, a hole-type structure similar to the shape of the internal contour of tunnel lining should be adopted, but other structures are also acceptable. (b) When the cross-section of the buffer structure is fixed, pressure-reducing holes shall be provided on the side or top surfaces, and the hole area shall be determined according to the actual conditions, preferably be 1/5–1/3 of the effective clearance area of the tunnel. (c) Preferably, the buffer structure should be of a reinforced concrete structure. (d) For a tunnel portal with reserved buffer structure space, the retaining wall (if any) shall be set outside of the buffer structure. When there is a highway crossing over the tunnel portal, the highway shall be provided with guardrails and monitoring devices. When the distance between the portals of two tunnels is < 30 m, an open-cut tunnel shall be provided for the connection of the two tunnels, so as to improve train operation safety and ride comfort. 2. Tunnel lining structure Mined tunnels shall adopt composite lining, while open-cut tunnels shall adopt monolithic lining; for the waterproof secondary lining of tunnel, the influence of hydrostatic pressure on structure stress shall be considered; for Class I and Class II surrounding rock tunnel lining, the structure of curved wall with base should be adopted, and for Class III–Class VI surrounding rock tunnel lining, the structure of curved wall with inverted arch should be adopted. The internal contour of lining should have a round cross-section, while for while single-track tunnel, a three-centered cross-section can be adopted, and the side wall and the inverted arch shall be connected smoothly. For tunnel lining, the strength grade of concrete shall not be lower than C30, and the strength grades of

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reinforcement concrete shall not be lower than C35. The thickness of base slab of Class I and Class II surrounding rock tunnel lining shall not be < 30 cm, the strength grades of concrete shall not be less than C35, and double layers of rebars shall be configured. The strength grades of concrete for invert filling shall not be lower than C20. For the secondary lining for Classes IV–VI surrounding rock sections, reinforced concrete should be used, and for Classes I–III surrounding rock sections, concrete should be used, a certain proportion of fiber can be added so as to reduce crack on concrete surfaces. 3. Auxiliary structures in tunnel A special tunnel chamber for equipment shall be provided and arranged in accordance with relevant requirements, and the refuge for maintenance personnel is not necessarily required. Cable troughs shall be arranged on both sides of tunnels, and the covers of cable troughs shall be laid smoothly and securely. The distance from the outer edge of the ditch or the cable trough to the center line of the track on the same side shall not be < 2.2 m., and for the ditch (trough) near the ballast bed, structural rebars shall be provided. For tunnels longer than 500 m, excessive power cable chambers shall be provided in the tunnel (can be designed jointly with the special chambers), and the excessive power cable chambers shall adopt a staggered arrangement along both sides of the tunnel. For tunnels between 500 and 1000 m, only one excessive power cable chamber arranged in the middle is required. For tunnels longer than 2000 m, anchor sections can be provided and arranged in the tunnel according to the overhead contact line system design requirements, and the anchor sections should be arranged in sections with good geological conditions. When embedded sliding chutes are used for the fixed structures of the overhead contact line system in the tunnel, necessary strengthening measures must be taken for the tunnel lining structures, and associated facilitates of the integrated earthing system shall be embedded in the tunnel lining structure in accordance with relevant requirements. Embedded crossover pipes shall be used as passages for cables to pass through tracks. In the design of auxiliary structures in high-speed railway tunnels, the influence of pressure changes and train-induced wind generated when a highspeed train passes through the tunnel on the stress bearing conditions of auxiliary structures and accessories shall be considered, and the worst combination shall be considered in the design.

2.5.2 Characteristics of HSR Tunnel The biggest difference between high-speed railway tunnels and normal-speed railway tunnels is that a series of aerodynamic effects will be produced when high-speed trains pass through tunnels, such as pressure surge, micro-pressure wave at the exit, and increase of driving resistance in the tunnel. When a high-speed train passes through a tunnel, the air inside the tunnel will be displaced rapidly, the air displaced cannot flow along both sides and the top of the train timely and smoothly as it does

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outside of the tunnel due to the viscosity of air and the frictional resistance of the tunnel and the trail surfaces, so that the air in the front of the train is compressed while negative pressure formed at the train tail, as a result, pressure surge is formed and transmitted to the tunnel opening at the velocity of sound, and reflection wave is formed and transmitted back and overlapping, generating a series of negative aerodynamic effects that influence train operation. The micro-pressure wave in a tunnel is the pressure wave formed when a train enters the tunnel at a high speed, which transmits in the tunnel, and releases pulse pressure waves when reaching the exit. The occurrence and size of micro-pressure waves are related to many factors, including train speed, cross-sectional area of train, length of train, shape of train head, cross-sectional area of tunnel, length of tunnel, and type of ballast bed in tunnel, as is shown in Fig. 2.34. In high-speed railway tunnel engineering, the adverse influence on ride comfort, train structure strength, environment and other aspects imposed by aerodynamic effects generated as a train entering the runnel must be considered. Although the adverse impact of aerodynamic effects in tunnel on train operation can be mitigated and alleviated by changing the shape and airtightness performance of trains, the basic alleviation method is to change the tunnel structure. To alleviate the aerodynamic effect, the following engineering measures can be taken, including increasing the effective cross-sectional area of tunnel, reducing the clogging ratio (crosssectional area of train/effective cross-sectional area of tunnel), improving portal shape, building buffer structures at tunnel portals to improve the portal shape, and adding auxiliary tunnels. 1. Increasing cross-sectional area of tunnel An effective way to alleviate aerodynamic effect is to increase the effective clearance area. To determine the inner contour of cross-section of tunnel, the requirements for track spacing, construction clearance and effective cross-sectional area of tunnel, as well as the space required for maintenance, repair, rescue and other

Fig. 2.34 Micro-pressure wave action

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uses shall be considered. On the premise of meeting the above conditions, optimize the cross-section from the aspect of structure stress condition to minimize the surplus space. In general, the construction clearance shall conform to dynamic standard construction clearance and extended standard construction clearance. The track spacing is related to train speed and train type, and generally, it should be > 4.0 m. For Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway, under the train speed of 350 km/h, a track spacing of 5.0 m is adopted. For a curved tunnel, curve widening is not considered in principle. When the tunnel is < 10 km, the single-hole double-truck tunnel scheme is generally adopted. When the tunnel is between 10 and 20 km, the double-track tunnel scheme and the parallel-hole scheme shall be conducted. When the tunnel is more than 20 km, the double-hole single-track tunnel scheme shall be adopted, so as to facilitate hazard control and rescue. 2. Building buffer structure at tunnel portal One of the main measures to reduce the influence of micro-pressure waves is to set up a buffer section at tunnel portal, as shown in Fig. 2.35. The main structural forms of buffer section at portal include: the cross-sectional area remains unchanged while a certain length of buffer section is provided; the cross-sectional area is increased, and a certain length of buffer section with side opening is provided. The structural form of buffer section mainly depends on the terrain and geologic conditions at portal, the surrounding environment as well as the facility installation condition in the tunnel. The train speed and the length of buffer section shall be balanced properly. Fig. 2.35 Site photo of buffer structure at tunnel portal

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The buffer structure of tunnel portal at tunnel portal shall comply with the following requirements: (a) Factors to be considered to determine the buffer structure at tunnel portal include type and length of train, length and cross-section clearance area of tunnel, track type in tunnel, terrain and resident condition near tunnel portal. (b) The type of buffer structure at tunnel portal shall be determined based on the principle of being practical and artistic, and geographical conditions near tunnel portal shall be taken into consideration in combination. (c) Pressure relief holes shall be provided on the side or top surface of buffer structure at tunnel portal, and the hole area should be determined according to the actual conditions, in general, the hole area should be 0.2–0.3 times of the effective cross-section area of tunnel. (d) Preferably, the buffer structure at tunnel portal should be made from reinforced concrete. (e) For a tunnel portal with reserved buffer structure space, the retaining wall (if any) shall be set outside of the buffer structure. 3. Other measures to reduce micro-pressure wave (a) Use inclined shafts and vertical shafts. A vertical shaft can be excavated in the portal section with small buried depth to reduce the gradient of pressure wave; while for a long tunnel, inclined shaft and vertical shaft are generally used, the shafts can be used as the transmission passage for pressure waves to reduce the gradient of pressure waves. (b) Build a protective shed with an opening. (2) Build a protective shed with an opening. (c) Measures set up on tunnel wall and facilities installed in tunnel shall adopt concealed arrangement as far as possible, so as to ensure the flatness and smoothness of wall surface of tunnel, and protect facilities from being damaged by resistance generated during train operation. (d) Optimize track structure to improve the stability and ride comfort of trains when passing through the tunnel. Under the high-speed running condition, the condition of track foundation is very important. Therefore, in most cases, an inverted arch shall be provided for tunnel lining, and the quality control shall be enhanced in track foundation engineering. (e) Train-related measures involve using enclosed trains, and improving the shape and appearance of EMUs or locomotives to obtain sound aerodynamic properties. To reduce the cross-sectional area of tunnel and the resistance of train during operation, the cross-sectional area of the body of locomotive or rolling stock and the shape of locomotive head must be improved.

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2.6 Questions for Review 1. What are the characteristics of high-speed railway line? 2. What are the requirements for plane and vertical cross-section of railway line proposed by high-speed railway? 3. Why should the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway stipulate the standard for the maximum radius of curve? 4. How to determine the length of transition curve of a high-speed railway? Please give a brief description. 5. What are the requirements for the minimum lengths of intermediate straight line and of circular curve proposed by high-speed railway? Please give a brief description. 6. What are the requirements for the minimum length of ramp section and the maximum gradient proposed by high-speed railway? Please give a brief description. 7. Under what circumstances should a high-speed railway set up a vertical curve? How to determine the radius of the vertical curve? 8. Please briefly analyze the problem of the overlapping setup of vertical curve, transition curve, circular curve and turnout of high-speed railway lines. 9. What are the requirements for track proposed by high-speed railway? 10. What are the characteristics of high-speed railway subgrades? 11. What are the requirements for subgrade proposed by high-speed railway? 12. What are the characteristics of high-speed railway bridges? 13. How many types of high-speed railway bridges are there? What are they? 14. What are the characteristics of high-speed railway tunnel? 15. What are the measures for alleviating the aerodynamic effect in a high-speed railway tunnel?

Chapter 3

High-Speed Railway Power Supply System

3.1 Overview 3.1.1 Overview of the Development of High-Speed Electrified Railways High-speed electrified railways refer to railways configured with the electric traction power supply system which provides the operating ability to high-speed EMUs without onboard power supply. In 1964, the first high-speed electrified railway line in the world—Tokyo-Osaka Shinkansen was completed and opened to traffic. This line adopts the 60 Hz, 25 kV AC power supply system, with the top running speed reaching 210 km/h, opening a new chapter for high-speed electrified railway construction. In China, Qinhuangdao-Shenyang dedicated passenger line was completed and opened to traffic on December 31, 2002, which indicates that China has stepped into a new era of high-speed electrified dedicated passenger railway, changing the situation of high-speed rail technology monopoly by foreign countries.

3.1.2 Advantages of High-Speed Electrified Railway Electric traction is the optimal traction mode for high-speed railway transport, and the main advantages are as follows. 1. Electric traction has greatly improved the transport capacity of high-speed railways Electric traction can meet the transport requirements of high speed, high efficiency and large traffic volume of high-speed railways, reduce the train running time, and increase the number of trains, so as to greatly improve the carrying capacity and transportation capacity of railway lines. © Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_3

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2. Electric traction can save and comprehensive utilize energy, and minimize environmental pollution Among different traction modes of railway transportation, electric traction has the highest heating efficiency and total power efficiency. The total power efficiency of AC electric traction is 30%, diesel traction is 20%, and steam traction is 6%. Electric traction can make full use of secondary energies such as hydraulic power, coal, petroleum, natural gas, atomic power and geothermal power, minimizing environmental pollution. 3. Electric traction is featured by low operation cost and high productivity Featured by high power and high efficiency, high-speed EMUs greatly improve the running speed, reduce the turnaround time of high-speed trains, shorten the servicing and repair time, and improve productivity. 4. Electric traction facilitates automation With the development of electronics and computer technologies as well as the automatic control theory, a large number of new technologies, power supply remote control technologies, and fault detection and diagnosis technologies are widely adopted, which makes electric traction more predominant. Of course, the electric traction also has some disadvantages, such as high one-time investment to electrified railways, electromagnetic interference to communication lines along the line, asymmetrical impact on the three-phase power system, and the low load power factor.

3.1.3 Power Supply System of High-Speed Electrified Railway The electric power for high-speed electric traction comes from power plants. The power supply system of high-speed electrified railways is composed of an electrical power system, a substation system, a traction power supply system, an overhead contact line system, and a remote control and monitoring system (SCADA). 1. Electric power system It receives electric power from an external power supply system, and supplies power to the train operation equipment such as communication signals, and to the living facilities such as elevators and lighting in stations and track sections, which is mainly composed of a distribution substation and power transmission lines. An unattended distribution substation is realized. For extra-large stations, preferably, two lines of power supply with voltage class of 110 kV and above should be used. For 10 kV power transmission lines, non-magnetic armored single-core copper cables should be used. In distribution substations, single GIS switchgears shall be selected as high-voltage switchgears, and dry-type maintenance-free voltage regulators and transformers shall be selected (Fig. 3.1).

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Fig. 3.1 Distribution substation

2. Traction power supply system It receives power supply from the state power grid and supplies power to railway lines, and is mainly composed of substations, sub-feeder switching posts and section posts. Preferably, two lines of separate and reliable 220 kV power supply from the power system should be used, each line shall serve as the hot backup for the other. The main line adopts the 2 × 25 kV auto-transformer feeding system. Distance between AT feeding substations can reach 60 km, and for the direct feeding system, the distance shall be 25 km (Fig. 3.2). 3. Power transformation system It transfers 220 kV or 110 kV external power supply into 25 kV or 27.5 kV, and supplies the power to the overhead contact line system. It is composed of traction transformers and circuit breakers. The substation is of unattended type. 2 × 25 kV (27 kV) and 1 × 25 kV (27 kV) equipment adopt gas insulated switchgear (GIS), the upstream and the downstream feeder circuit breakers of the traction substation shall serve as the backup of each other.

Fig. 3.2 Traction power supply station and substation

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4. Overhead contact line system It supplies electric power to high-speed EMUs uninterruptedly through the contact wire, and it is mainly composed of overhead contact line devices (messenger wire, contact wire, and dropper), support structures (cantilevers, etc.), registration devices, pole devices, and foundations. 5. Remote control and monitoring system of traction power supply (SCADA) SCADA system is an important subsystem of the comprehensive dispatching system based on computer and modern communication technologies, which encodes operating commands, data and information, modulates the codes to electric signals suitable for transmission, and then transmits the same via channels to terminals which modulate the signals back to codes for execution or display, so that operation states of the traction power supply system, the power distribution system, the running signal power supply system, the communication power supply system can be monitored and managed uniformly from the traffic control center of the SCADA system.

3.1.4 Traction Power Supply System High-speed EMUs do not configure any onboard power source, and the power required is supplied by the electric traction power supply system, therefore, complete power supply equipment that uninterruptedly supplies power to high-speed EMUs shall be installed along high-speed electrified railways, with electric power as the main traction power. The system composed of the complete set of power supply devices that transmits the traction power from the electric power system to EMUs is called the traction power supply system of electrified railways. 1. Composition of traction power supply system The traction power supply system is mainly composed of traction substations and overhead contact line systems. The traction power supply circuit is a closed circuit composed of traction substation, feeder, overhead contact line system, high-speed EMU, rail and return wire and grounding grid of traction substation. In the circuit, the circulating current is called traction current. In general, overhead contact line systems, rail circuits (including the ground), feeders and return wires are collectively referred to as the electric traction network, and the composition is as is shown in Fig. 3.3. (a) Traction substation The traction substation is the core part of the traction power supply system, which receives electric power from the electric power system, transfers the electric power according to the standard of electric traction power supply, and then feed the electric power to the overhead contact line system for the use of high-speed EMUs. In the traction substation, for the electric power receiving and feeding process, multiple power supply modes are provided, and for the electric power transmission process, multiple electric power transmission modes are provided.

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Fig. 3.3 Traction power supply system of electrified railways

(b) Overhead contact line system The overhead contact line system is installed in the open air along the railway line, by sliding contact with the pantograph, which transmits electric power to the power supply facilities of high-speed EMUs. (c) Feeder Feeders are conductors used for the connection between the traction substation and the overhead contact line system, feeding electric power from the traction substation to the overhead contact line system. Most of them are copper stranded wires. (d) Rail Under the non-electric traction condition, rails are used to support and guide trains. For electrified railways, rails are also used to conduct return current, and the current in the rails will be fed back to the traction substation by the return wire connecting the rail and the substation. Besides, rails serve as the conductor of track circuit for signal transmission. (e) Other equipment Negative feeder (the return wire, the electrical wire for the connection between rails and traction substations, serving as the electrical path for return current), boosting wire, BT, AT, positive feeder, protective wire, earth wire, power supply line, section post, sub-feeder switching post, and AT station. (1) Section Post (SP) To improve power supply flexibility and to improve operation reliability, section posts are set up at the connection of two feeding sections between two substations of large stations or marshalling stations to divide the electric traction network of electrified railways into different power supply sections, for double-end feed with the electric traction network or single-end feed with the electric traction network of doubletrack section; switchgears are equipped. According to the operation requirements, the section post can be connected to the up-direction and down-direction electric traction networks of the same feeding section for parallel power supply, which has improved the power supply quality

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of the traction network. Besides, in case of failure of the electric traction network, the power failure range can be shortened, and when all adjacent substations fail, section posts can supply power to adjacent sections, under special circumstance, series connection and operation of the feeding sections on the left and right of the section post can be realized (in this case, the up-direction and down-direction overhead contact lines are no longer connected in parallel). For section posts of the direct feeding system, only breakers and switchgears are configured, for section posts of the AT feeding system, autotransformers are provided, as is shown in Fig. 3.3. (2) Sub-feeder Switching Post (SFSP) Technically, the SFSP of the electric traction system is a “high-voltage distribution station”, which is provided for power distribution only, realizing circuit power supply and double lines of power supply. It is generally used for the division of overhead contact line systems and branch feeding (sometimes for shortening the failure range of a long feeding section) in hubs. If a hub adopts two power supply modes including “from the inside out” and “from the outside in”, for the former, a traction substation shall be provided in the hub, and for the latter, no traction substation needs to be provided in the hub. Generally, to improve the power supply reliability and to shorten the failure affected range within hubs, SFSPs are provided. For the AT feeding system, since feeding sections are long, SFSPs should be provided in the middle of feeding sections. SFSPs shall have two incoming lines from different traction substations (single-track section), or from different feeding sections of the same traction substation (double-track section). SFSPs should be arranged in the load center of a hub as far as possible, so as to shorten feeders and reduce the crossing disturbance between feeders and the overhead contact line system. An SFSP shall at least have two incoming lines, one from the adjacent substation, and the other from the overhead contact line system, for separate power supply control of each platform track group in the station. Both the incoming line and the feeder pass through a circuit breaker, realizing flexible power cutoff and power supply of the overhead contact line system in each section. With the circuit breaker, short-circuit protection can be realized, so as to shorten the power failure range. The AT electric traction network is generally constructed in conjunction with the ATP, so as to improve the flexibility of the power supply to feeding sections. (3) AT Post (ATP) For the AT feeding system, in addition to substations, section posts, and sub-feeder switching posts, posts for arranging autotransformers shall be provided in the traction network, which is used to connect autotransformers to a section between the overhead contact line system and the positive feeder, so as to reduce the load current in the overhead contact line system, and prolong the power supply distance of substations. If the

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autotransformer feeding system is adopted, an autotransformer shall be arranged along the railway line every 10–15 km, preferably, autotransformers should be arranged in the stations and integrated with section posts and sub-feeder switching posts as far as possible, so as to facilitate operation management. The center point of autotransformers must be connected to the rails (through N line). Otherwise, autotransformers cannot function normally. 2. Function of traction power supply system The main function of the traction power supply system is that the traction substation reduces the high-voltage electric power sent by the electric power system through transmission lines from 220 kV (or 110 kV) to 25 kV or 27.5 kV, and then the voltage-reduced electric power is transmitted via the feeder to the overhead contact line system which is arranged over and along the railway, by lifting the pantograph high-speed EMUs can receive electric power from the overhead contact line system, ensuring uninterrupted, high speed, reliable and safe operation of trains. Electric traction loads are primary loads that propose high requirements for power supply reliability. In general, a traction substation is equipped with two transformers, and the external power supply connected to the traction substation shall be two separate and reliable power supply systems that serve as the hot backup for each other, and auto switching is realized. 3. Traction power supply modes of high-speed electrified railway Traction power supply of high-speed electrified railway involves the types of electric current on overhead contact line systems, voltage class and power supply mode of electrified railways. Different countries adopt different power supply modes, while in China, two AC power supply modes including 25 and 27.5 kV single-phase industrial frequency (50 Hz) power supply modes are adopted for electrified railways, which adopts the same frequency as the current frequency applied in industrial production (industrial frequency for short), ensuring the optimal traction power. From the overhead to the ground, a complex and integrated system is provided to ensure the smooth operation of electrified trains. (a) Types of traction power supply modes Currently, four power supply modes are widely applied in the world. (1) DC mode The DC mode supplies DC electric power to electric locomotives via the overhead contact line system. (2) Three-phase AC mode The three-phase AC mode is a three-phase power supply system composed of two contact wires and one rail: locomotives are equipped with three-phase asynchronous motors. It has advantages of simple equipment configuration and easy maintenance, and the disadvantages of difficult speed regulation, and complex and unsafe overhead contact line system structure.

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(3) Low-frequency single-phase AC mode The low-frequency single-phase AC mode adopts a single-phase AC power supply system with a frequency lower than the industrial frequency for power supply. (4) Industrial-frequency single-phase AC mode The industrial-frequency single-phase AC mode refers to the power supply system that supplies single-phase AC power at the industrial frequency with a supply voltage of 25 kV. In China, this power supply mode has been adopted since the first electrified railway (BaojiFengzhou) was constructed in 1958, which is the only current system adopted for electrified railways in China. (b) Advantages of industrial-frequency single-phase AC mode (1) The traction power supply system has a simple structure, the distance between traction substations is large thus reducing the number of traction substations, and high-speed EMUs have sound viscosity and traction performance. Therefore, the traction power has been significantly improved, laying a solid foundation for high-speed operation. (2) It can realize high-voltage power transmission, it can reduce the number of substations, thus lowering the initial investment in electrification, and it can reduce the energy consumption by 1/3, thus lowering the operation cost. (3) It can greatly reduce the consumption of nonferrous metals (by 60%). (4) It can prevent underground facility corrosion by direct current.

3.2 HSR Traction Power Transformation System The traction power transformation system of high-speed railway is mainly used to determine the traction power supply scheme and the layout of power supply facilities based on the railway conveying capacity and train operation organization mode, to convert the voltage of electric power received from the public power grid to the nominal voltage matching with the traction power supply used, and transmit the same to the overhead contact line system, so as to ensure fully matching of traction power supply capacity of railway transportation.

3.2.1 Power Supply Systems for Electric Traction Network of High-Speed Railway There are generally four power supply systems for the electric traction network of high-speed railways, including the direct feeding system, the direct feeding system with return wire (TRNF), the BT feeding system, and the AT feeding system.

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1. Direct feeding system For the direct feeding system, the power is supplied to the traction network from the traction substation directly without requiring the traction network to take any measure, in the system, one feeder is connected to the overhead contact line system, and the other feeder is connected to the rail, while return current is transmitted back to the traction substation via the rail. Besides, no special protections are provided between the traction substation and the overhead contact line system, as is shown in Fig. 3.4. (a) Advantages The simplest power supply system, with minimum investment, besides, the impedance of traction network is low, with low power consumption. (b) Disadvantages Since no good insulation is provided between rails and the ground, a large amount of traction return current will leak to the ground. Besides, AC loads will generate alternating electromagnetic fields around the overhead contact line system, causing large electromagnetic interference to communication facilities and radio devices near and along the railway. Generally, this feeding system is only used in mountainous areas with few communication lines. Mannheim-Stuttgart line, Nuremberg-Ingolstadt line, Hannover-Wurzburg line, Hannover-Berlin line, Frankfurt-Cologne line and Nuremberg-Ingolstadt line of Germany adopt the direct feeding system, with the operating speed of 250– 330 km/h. 2. Direct feeding system with return wire (TRNF) In order to prevent the hazard of current leakage to the ground and avoid electromagnetic interference, an overhead return wire connected in parallel with the rails is hung on the poles of the overhead contact line system, so that the return current in the rails can be transmitted back to the traction substation through the return wire as much as possible under the mutual inductance between the return wire and the rails. The return wire is connected to the rails at a regular distance,

1 - power transmission line; 2 - traction substation; 3 - feeder; 4 - contact wire; 5 - rail; 6 - electric locomotive; 7 - section post Fig. 3.4 Direct feeding system without return wire

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1 - traction substation 2 - overhead contact line system (T) 3 - return wire(NF) 4 - electric EMU 5- rail(R)

Fig. 3.5 Direct feeding system with return wire

which greatly reduces the track-earth potential, and partially offsets the interference of the overhead contact line system to the nearby communication lines, besides, the impedance of the traction network of this system is much lower than that of the direct feeding system, so that the feeding section is prolonged by 30% and above, as is shown in Fig. 3.5. Current flows from the feeder of the traction substation to high-speed EMUs via the overhead contact line system, and then flow to the rails through the EMUs. The return current is diverted into three flows: One part, accounting for 40%, returns to the substation along the rails; Another part, accounting for 30%, flows from the rails to the negative feeder through a boosting wire and then returns to the substation through the negative feeder; The rest leaks to the ground and flows to the traction substation along the ground, and returns to the rails or the grounding grid of the substation near the substation. This improved direct feeding system is featured by simple and reliable overhead contact line system structure, reliable power supply equipment, low fault rate, small maintenance workload, simple feeding circuit, small circuit impedance, high economic efficiency, and low one-time investment and operation cost. Since the power supply performance and power supply quality have been improved, it has been widely applied to the electrified railway in China, and the main feeding system adopted in China. For the direct feeding system with conduct wire, a part of train current returns to the traction substation through the rails and the ground (about 70%), and the rest returns through the return wire (about 30%). Although the current value on the overhead contact line system is different from that on the return wire, the flowing direction is opposite and the installation elevation is similar. Therefore, the electromagnetic interference to the communication facilities is roughly offset, which has a certain anti-interference effect. In respect of earthing, overhead contact line system holes adopt centralized earthing through the return wire, and the return wire is connected to neutral points of signal choke coils every other block section. 3. BT feeding system BT feeding system, also called boost transformer feeding system, is a feeding system integrating boost transformer—a return wire device into the traction power supply system, which is applied to electrified railways in the early stage in China.

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1 - traction substation 2 - overhead contact line system (T) 3-boost transformer 4 - return wire(NF) 5 - electric EMU 6- rail(R)

Fig. 3.6 BT feeding system

For this feeding system, boost transformers are installed on the overhead contact line system at a regular spacing. The boost transformers installed are 1:1 autotransformers, with the primary coil connected to the overhead contact line system in series at a spacing of 1.5–4 km, and the secondary coil connected to the return wire (also called negative feeder) in series. The boost transformers are arranged on the field side of OCS poles at the same elevation as the overhead contact line. A boosting wire is provided between every two boost transformers to connect the return wire with the rail, so that the return current in the rail can boost and flow back to the traction substation via the return wire. The BT section where a train is located is subjected to the “half-section effect”, that is, in this BT section, the current value on the overhead contact line system is different from that on the return wire, thus the anti-interference effect is poor, while in other BT sections, the current values on the two lines are the same with opposite flow direction, providing sound anti-interference effect, as is shown in Fig. 3.6. The BT feeding system has a complicated traction network structure, has high construction cost, and is unable to eliminate electromagnetic interference due to the “half-section effect”; As the impedance of the traction network increases, the feeding section is shortened, which increases voltage loss and electric energy loss, besides, as transformers and electrical sections are added to the overhead contact line system, the structure is getting complicated and the maintenance workload is heavy; The BT feeding system is a system adopting serial connection, with low reliability, when an electric locomotive passes through BTs, electric arcs may be produced and result in burn and damage of overhead contact line system and the pantograph strips, therefore, it is not suitable for high-speed and heavy-load and other large current operations. The original main purpose is to improve the antiinterference ability of traction network, however, with electric cables and optical cables are widely used as communication lines, the anti-interference problem is of less importance so that the application is reduced. At present, for electrified railway lines adopting the BT feeding system in China, most BT transformers have been removed from operation. 4. AT feeding system AT feeding system is also called autotransformer feeding system. For this system, an autotransformer is connected in parallel between the overhead contact line system and the positive feeder every 10–15 km, with the neutral point connected to the rail. Besides, two protective wires, one along the up direction and the other along the down direction, are laid and connected in parallel with the rail (via the

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choke coil) for network protective earthing of the overhead contact line system or the positive feeder. Theoretically, except for the AT section (subjecting to “half-section effect”) where high-speed EMUs are located, the current values on the overhead contact line system and on the positive line are the same in other AT sections, the flow direction is opposite, and the current value is only half of that of high-speed EMUs. For the AT feeding system, the output voltage of the main transformer of the traction substation is 55 kV, the electric power is supplied to the overhead contact line system via ATs. One end of an AT is connected to the overhead contact line system, the other end is connected to the positive feeder, and the center tap is connected to the rail. The supply voltage of the traction network is doubled by autotransformers, but the supply voltage to high-speed EMUs remains unchanged, therefore, the electric power is transmitted at the rated voltage on the overhead contact line system. The presence of autotransformers enables the current return from the rail to flow back to the substation through the winding of autotransformers and the positive feeder. When the current on the winding of the autotransformer flows through the transformer, the induced current will be produced on the other winding and then supplied to high-speed EMUs. For the AT feeding system, since the output voltage from the traction substation is high, the distance between substations can be doubled, which facilitate the site section of traction substation and the cooperation among power sectors, besides there are fewer phase separation points, and the voltage at network end can be increased appropriately, as shown in Fig. 3.7. 5. Coaxial cable feeding system The coaxial cable feeding system (CC feeding system for short) is a novel feeding system, wherein, coaxial cables are laid along the railway, the inner core, serving as the feeder, is connected with the overhead contact line system, and the outer conductor, serving as the return wire, is connected with the rail, and the whole cable is divided into sections by 5–10 km (Fig. 3.8). (a) Advantages (1) The feeder and the return wire are in the same cable, with small spacing and adopting coaxial layout, which increases the mutual inductance coefficient, besides, the impedance of coaxial cable is much smaller than that of the rail, so that almost all the traction current and the return current flow through coaxial cables.

1-traction substation 2-autotransformer 3-overhead contact line system(T) 4-posistive feeder (AF) 5rail(R) 6-electric multiple unit

Fig. 3.7 AT feeding system

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Fig. 3.8 Coaxial cable feeding system

(2) The current value on the core is the same as that on the outer conductor, with current flowing along opposite direction, so that the magnetic fields generated offset each other, which imposes almost no interference to the nearby communication line, besides, since the impedance is small, the power supply distance is long. (b) Disadvantages The construction cost of coaxial cables is high, so the investment is large, so currently, it is only adopted in areas with unfavored conditions.

3.2.2 Main Facilities of Traction Power Transformation System of High-Speed Electrified Railway The traction power supply system of high-speed electrified railways is a complete system that receives electric power from the electric power system or the primary power supply system, through voltage transformation, phase change and current conversion (convert three-phase alternating current to industrial-frequency singlephase alternating current), supplies electric power of the required current mode to high-speed EMUs, and completes various functions including traction power transmission and distribution, wherein, the traction power transformation system is the key part of the whole system, and the traction substations are important links of the traction power transformation system, which is responsible for functions including voltage transformation, phase change, and power supply to the traction network, and realizes the conversion from the public three-phase electric power system to single-phase electric power traction system. 1. Traction substation The traction substation is the heart of the traction substation system, which is an electric power substation built along railway lines for supplying power to high-speed EMUs. In China, high-speed electrified railways adopt industrialfrequency single-phase 25 kV AC mode, but the electric power system is of a

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three-phase AC system, therefore, voltage transformation and phase change from three-phase to single-phase are required, besides, negative sequence and higher harmonics produced by high-speed electrified railways may impose various adverse impacts on the electric power system, which should be treated with traction substations. The main functions of traction substations are to receive 220 kV or 110 kV threephase alternating current from public electric power systems, convert the power reserved to 25 kV or 27.5 kV single-phase alternating current suitable for highspeed EMU with transformers, and then supply power to the traction networks along the up-direction and the down direction of the railway. Besides, the traction substations are also used for power supply protection, measurement, electrical equipment control, improving power supply quality, reducing the influence of power traction loads on public power supply networks. In order to ensure reliable traction power supply, all traction power supply systems adopt the “dual backup” mode. Two sets of equipment are provided with each serving as the backup for the other and always in the “standby” state for emergency use. (a) Main equipment of traction substation Generally, the equipment of traction substations can be divided into primary equipment and secondary equipment. Primary equipment refers to the electrical equipment involved in high-voltage operation used for power conversion, supply and distribution, mainly including step-up and step-down power transformers, which are the key equipment of substations, in case of failure of the main transformer, the backup transformer will be put into operation; high-voltage switchgears for circuit connection and disconnection, such as circuit breakers, disconnectors, fuses, and contactors; reactors and arresters for limiting fault current and overvoltage protection; and buses, cables and other current-carrying conductors for electric power transmission. Secondary equipment refers to the relay protection devices, monitoring instruments and operation circuits and other equipment without being involved in the high-voltage operation and is used to control, monitor, measure, meter and protect the primary equipment, mainly including voltage transformers, current transformers, reactive power compensation equipment, and pressure regulating devices. With the development of science and technology, the integration degree and intelligent level of secondary equipment are improved, forming the traction substation automation system which enables the remote control of traction substations (Fig. 3.9). (1) Primary equipment of substation Primary equipment of substations refers to the high-voltage side equipment for electric power receiving and conversion, circuit connection and disconnection, and over-voltage protection. (I) Transformer (see Fig. 3.10): common electrical equipment, a traction transformer is mainly used for voltage transformation from high voltage to low voltage, which transforms 110 kV (220 kV) high-voltage electric power received from a power plant to 27.5 kV

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Fig. 3.9 Traction substation

electric power suitable for high-speed EMUs operation through a step-down coil. It is mainly composed of iron core, coil, oil conservator, sleeve, anti-explosion pipe (pressure release device), oil cleaner, radiator, breather, and thermometer. Transformers, based on the electromagnetic induction principle, can transform alternating voltage from one value to another value of the same frequency, it can also change the value of alternating current, change the impedance or change the phase. It is a power transformer used to transmit electric power or signals from one circuit to another circuit, and is used for voltage boosting or bucking. It is the key equipment of the substation, in case of failure of the main transformer, the backup transformer will be put into service. The capacity of the traction transformer is determined based on the current collection of a single train and the number of trains on the feeder. (II) High-voltage electrical appliances and switchgear In the high-voltage system, high-voltage switchgears used to connect and disconnect circuits, to cut off and isolate fault sections Fig. 3.10 Transformer

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and to monitor, protect and measure the circuit operation condition are called high-voltage electrical apparatus, including, circuit breakers, disconnectors, fuses, high-voltage load switches, and contactors. a. Disconnector (see Fig. 3.11) For isolation only, without load connection and disconnection and short-circuit protection functions. In a high-voltage power network, when a circuit breaker disconnects the circuit, the external indication of the contact position of the circuit breaker is not clearly visible, and in some cases, the indication is inconsistent with the actual contact position. The disconnector, serving as an auxiliary switch, can physically isolate the high-voltage equipment from the power supply, thus ensuring the safety of the maintenance personnel. b. High-voltage circuit breaker (see Fig. 3.12) It is an important control and protection electrical apparatus. High-voltage circuit breakers can be classified as bulk oil circuit breakers (rarely used nowadays), minimum oil circuit breakers, SF6 circuit breakers and vacuum circuit breakers. Fig. 3.11 Disconnector (220 kV)

Fig. 3.12 55 kV circuit breaker

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A circuit breaker is mainly composed of conductive part, arc extinguishing part, insulation part and operating mechanism. Circuit breakers can disconnect and connect no-load current and load current of a high-voltage circuit, besides, in case of system failure, it can work with protective devices and automation devices to cut off fault current immediately so as to reduce the power outage range, prevent failure propagation, and ensure the safe operation of the system. Circuit breakers are suitable for high-voltage operation, vacuum and sulfur hexafluoride are generally used as media, providing sound arc extinguishing ability. The main circuit breaker is connected between the pantograph and the primary winding of the main transformer, which serves as the master switch and main protection of the power supply to high-speed EMUs. When the main circuit breaker is closed, an external power supply is connected to high-speed EMUs. c. Fuse Fuses are the simplest and earliest adopted current limit elements, which are connected in series to the electrical apparatus to be protected in the circuit. In case of overload or short circuit of the circuit, the fuse will blow and disconnect the circuit so as to protect other equipment in the circuit. d. High-voltage load switch It is used to connect a circuit for normal operation or to disconnect a circuit in case of overload, and it cannot connect/ disconnect fault current. A load switch is generally used for control and overload protection purposes. I. Reactors for limiting short circuit and preventing overvoltage in limiting circuits. II. Buses, cables and current-carrying conductors for electric power transmission. (2) Secondary equipment of substations Secondary equipment is the equipment used to indicate the working state of the primary equipment and to monitor, dispatch, measure and protect the primary equipment, including measuring meters, monitoring devices, signal devices, control devices, relay protections, automation devices and remote control devices. (3) Lightning protection devices and earthing devices These devices are used in the electric power system to protect equipment and personal safety. In the traction substation, the same circular grounding grid is used for protective grounding and working grounding. The earth terminal at the traction side of the main transformer is connected to the earthing mat, and connected to the rail and the return wire, so as to form a return path for traction current. In order to prevent lightning hazards, lightning rods and arresters are installed.

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(4) Power capacitors and static compensators for voltage regulation and reactive power compensation The power factor of the electric traction power supply system is low, therefore, power compensation is needed. Capacitor protection can protect power capacitor and compensation circuit from overcurrent, short circuit, inrush current, harmonic, overvoltage and other faults. Commonly-used compensation methods include series capacitor compensation, parallel capacitor compensation and series–parallel capacitor compensation. Power capacitors as the main electric parts of reactive power compensation devices are widely used. Since a capacitor is generally in the load carry state, it is subjected to the frequent impact of over-current caused by various abnormal factors in the power grid. When the voltage and current in the system exceed the rated values of the capacitor, the internal dielectric loss will increase, which will result in overheating, thus accelerating insulation aging and reduced service life, in serious cases, dielectric breakdown may occur, thus resulting in grave accidents. 2. Integrated automation system of traction substation The integrated automation system of traction substation, based on advanced computer technology, modern power electronic technology, communication technology and signal processing technology, integrates and optimizes the functions of the secondary equipment of the substation (including instruments, signal systems, relay protection, automation devices and remote control devices), it is connected with various intelligent equipment and the main control system, and coordinates the exchange of data and commands among these devices, so as to monitor, measure, control and coordinate the operating conditions of the main equipment and circuits of the whole substation. The integrated automation system of traction substation replaces the conventional secondary equipment of substation, and simplifies the secondary wiring of substations. With the development of microelectronic technology, computer technology and communication technology, the substation integrated automation technology has experienced rapid development. (a) Composition and function of integrated automation system of traction substation The integrated automation system integrates independent protection, measurement and control devices into a complete system via the communication network, realizing the protection, local monitoring and remote data transmission of traction power supply facilities. The system is composed of protection, measurement and control units, local monitoring units, remote communication units, safety (video) monitoring units and others. The modules adopt the object-oriented design, and are classified into three categories including bay layer equipment, communication layer equipment and background monitoring equipment. The remote monitoring, the fire control

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and the security control are realized from the video security monitoring and control subsystem, while the remote monitoring and control, and the information management are realized from the dispatching station monitoring system, so as to realize centralized control, monitoring and measurement of equipment, centralized data management, and remote maintenance. For the integrated automation system, both the independence of important protections as well as the economic efficiency and flexibility of the network shall be considered, so as to realize resources sharing, to maximize the utilization of system resources, to realize auxiliary protection function and automatic control through the network, to optimize protection configuration, and to reduce the fault elimination time and to improve operation reliability. The system is applicable to various types of traction substations, section posts and sub-feeder switching posts. The integrated automation system is responsible for the local operation management of the substation. The protection, measurement and control of all stations are realized with the integrated automation system, and the monitoring of the traction substation is realized through the integrated automation system of traction substation, besides, the integrated automation system realizes remote control through the remote control channel and the dispatching equipment interfaces, and is integrated into the traction power supply dispatching subsystem of the integrated dispatching system. 3. Substation-service power systems (a) AC substation-service power system Electric power for ventilation, lighting, main transformer cooling, operating mechanism heating and DC system charging of traction substations, section posts and AT posts are supplied by the AC substation-service power system. The substation-service electric power belongs to primary load, therefore, two AC power sources shall be provided for power supply to the substations and posts, wherein, one single-phase substation-service transformer is powered by 2 × 27.5 buses, while the other substation-service transformer is powered by a 10 kV non-traction line, and the two power sources shall be provided with automatic connection devices. The monitoring unit of the AC substation-service power system shall be included in the integrated automation system of the substation so as to realize remote monitoring. (b) DC substation-service power system The DC power supply system is an important power supply system of the substation, and storage batteries are used as the backup of the DC power supply system. For traction substations, section posts and AT posts, leadacid maintenance-free intelligent DC systems are used, and high-frequency switching power supply modules are used for intensified charging, equilibrium charging and float charging of storage batteries and for power supply for normal operation. Two lead-acid maintenance-free batteries are used as the storage batteries of the DC power supply, and the capacity of the storage batteries shall meet the discharge capacity requirement of 2 h in case of

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power outage of the substation and shall meet the requirement of maximum impact load capacity. The DC output voltage is 110 V. The monitoring unit of the DC substation-service power system shall be included into the integrated automation system of the substation so as to realize remote monitoring.

3.3 HSR Overhead Contact Line System The overhead contact line system of high-speed railways is a special power supply line for electrified railways, which is installed along the track to supply electric power to high-speed EMUs, and is an important part of the high-speed electrified traction power supply system. There are two types of overhead contact line system systems: overhead type and third-rail type. The third rail type applies to subways, closed urban rails and light rails only, while the overhead type applies to dedicated passenger lines, railway trunks, urban ground transportation and electric traction railway lines for industrial and mining electric locomotives. The overhead contact line system is installed along the track with wide distribution, therefore, it is impossible to provide a backup, which determines the vulnerability and importance of the overhead contact line system. The overhead contact line system will interact with surrounding facilities. The lightning and other meteorological conditions greatly affect the electro-mechanical parameters of the overhead contact line system.

3.3.1 Basic Requirements of Overhead Contact Line System The overhead contact line system is one of the main power supply equipment of the traction power supply system of high-speed electrified railways, it is responsible for delivering the electric power from traction substations to high-speed EMUs running on high-speed railway lines. The quality and working condition of overhead contact line systems will directly influence the carrying capacity and operation safety of high-speed electrified railways. Different from common electric power transmission lines, the overhead contact line system must be erected right over the high-speed railway line, and high-speed EMUs receive the electric power by lifting the pantograph on the top to contact with the overhead contact line system. The working condition of the overhead contact line system is complicated, for the overhead contact line system is erected in the open air over the railway line without a backup, it is subjected to the influence of severe weather, contamination, corrosion and abrasion by pantograph, and it’s working state changes with the operation of high-speed EMUs, once failed, train operation will be suspended, bringing about huge loss, therefore, strict requirements are proposed. Given this, for the overhead contact line system used for the current collection of high-speed railway, the following requirements shall be met:

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(1) The overhead contact line shall have the same elevation, have a stable and flexible mechanical structure, and be able to supply power uninterruptedly under severe environmental conditions within the operating speed range, so as to ensure the normal current collection of high-speed EMUs. (2) The insulation of overhead contact line system equipment to the ground shall be safe and reliable, and the equipment installation shall facilitate conducting live work. (3) The equipment and parts of the overhead contact line system shall have sufficient mechanical and electrical strength, have sufficient abrasion and corrosion resistance (including electrolytic corrosion resistance), and have a long service life. (4) The equipment of the overhead contact line system shall have a simple structure and minimized cost, it shall save nonferrous metals and steels, and use standardized and series parts with good interchangeability as far as possible, so as to ensure reliability and flexibility during the engineering and operation service and maintenance processes, and facilitate emergency repair and power transmission recovery in case of failure. (5) In respect of the overhead contact line of the overhead contact line system, the elastic semi-compensated overhead contact line with catenary suspension and the elastic completely compensated contact line with catenary suspension applied to normal-speed trains cannot meet the requirement of high-speed trains, and more advanced overhead contact line devices are required. To sum up, the overhead contact line system shall be able to function normally under any meteorological condition and shall meet the requirement of safe and high speed operation of high-speed EMUs on the railway line. On the premise of satisfying the above requirements, it should have high economic efficiency and rational structure, be easy to maintain and facilitate the application of new technologies.

3.3.2 Power Supply Mode for Supplying Power from Traction Substation to Overhead Contact Line System The overhead contact line system is a special power transmission line used for supplying power to high-speed EMUs. There are four power supply modes for supplying power from the traction substation to the overhead contact line system. 1. One-way feeding The substations are independent from each other. The power is supplied to the power supply section of the overhead contact line system from a single end by a traction substation, and two adjacent traction substations are disconnected. The power supply section of the overhead contact line system is commonly known as the feeding section, the overhead contact line system of the two feeding sections between two traction substations is divided into two power supply sections, and the feeding sections of two adjacent traction substations are insulated from each

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other, so that an EMU can collect power from one traction substation only, called one-way feeding. For two traction substations with out-phase traction port, phase breakers are installed on the overhead contact line connected with the two feeders at the outlet of the section and on the overhead contact line of the section. In case of power failure of one traction substation, the switches of the section posts on both ends can be closed for over-zone feeding. This power supply mode is featured by high electric power quality (small voltage and electric power loss), even equipment (OCS contact wire, transformers) loads, complicated relay protection, and over-zone current will flow through the overhead contact line system, currently, this power supply mode is widely applied to single-track railways (Fig. 3.13). Advantages: two feeding sections are electrically independent, ensuring operation flexibility, in case of overhead contact line system failure, only the corresponding power supply section will be affected, with a small fault influence range; the feeder protective device of the traction substation is simple; with high electric power quality (small voltage and electric power loss) and even equipment (OCS contact wire, transformer) loads. Disadvantages: complicated relay protection, and the over-zone current will flow through the overhead contact line system. Application: it is the main overhead power supply mode applied in China. 2. Two-way feeding If the switchgear is installed at the disconnecting point, two power supply sections can be connected, and the position where the switchgear is installed is called section post. When the switch in the sectioning post is closed, the two overhead contact line system power supply sections between two adjacent traction substations can receive current from the two traction substations simultaneously, called two-way feeding (Fig. 3.14). Characteristics: the power comes from two area substations, and the transmission line for railway power supply serves as a connecting path of the two area substations, it can be further divided into the single circuit power supply mode and the double circuit power supply mode, the construction cost of the single circuit power supply mode is lower than that of the double circuit power supply mode, but the power supply reliability of the double circuit power supply mode is better than that of the single circuit power supply mode. This feeding mode

1 - power transmission line; 2 - traction substation; 3 - feeder; 4 - contact wire; 5 - rail; 6 - high-speed train; 7 section post

Fig. 3.13 One-way feeding

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1 - power transmission line; 2 - traction substation; 3 - feeder; 4 - contact wire; 5 - rail; 6 - high-speed train; 7 section post

Fig. 3.14 Two-way feeding

can improve the voltage level of the overhead contact line system, and reduce electric power loss, but the protections and switchgears of the feeder and the section post are complicated. Application: rarely applied in China. 3. Over-zone feeding In case of failure of a traction substation, the feeding section of the failed traction substation is connected to the adjacent feeding section through the switchgear of the section post, and the power will be supplied by the adjacent traction substation temporarily, this is called over-zone feeding (Fig. 3.15). Application: for over-zone feeding within a short time only, it is a temporary measure to prevent traffic suspension. 4. Parallel feeding For the up and down tracks of the feeding section on the same side in double-track sections, parallel feeding via switchgear (or electric connecting wire) is applied. Characteristics: parallel feeding can increase the voltage at the ends of feeding sections, but in case of overhead contact line system failure, the influence range is large, and the operation and maintenance are not flexible (Fig. 3.16). Application: in China, the Harbin-Dalian railway line and some other railways adopt parallel feeding, for high-speed railway lines, preferably, separated feeding for up and down tracks should be adopted.

Fig. 3.15 Over-zone feeding

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Fig. 3.16 Parallel feeding in double-track section

3.3.3 Composition of Overhead Contact Line System The overhead contact line system is the core part of the electric traction network of high-speed railways, which is responsible for supplying power to high-speed EMUs uninterruptedly. It is composed of poles and foundations, support structures, registration devices and overhead contact line devices, as shown in Fig. 3.17. 1. Poles and foundations Poles and foundations are important mechanical facilities of the overhead contact line system, which bear all mechanical loads of overhead contact line, support structures and registration devices and transfer the loads to the ground. Besides, they also serve as support facilities to fix the overhead contact line to the specific position and height. It is required that poles and foundations shall have high strength, light weight, and simple structure; shall be constructed with materials with high economic efficiency, with sound corrosion resistance, and facilitate engineering, operation and maintenance; and shall be in harmony with the surrounding environment, with artistic appearance, as shown in Fig. 3.18.

Fig. 3.17 Overhead contact line system

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Fig. 3.18 Poles and foundations

Foundations are mainly provided for steel poles, i.e., the steel poles are fixed on the foundation made from reinforced concrete. The foundations shall bear all loads transferred by the poles, and shall ensure the stability of the poles. 2. Support structures Structures used to hang and support the overhead contact line and to transfer various loads to poles, bridges and other large structures. (a) Structure type According to the position and function of the overhead contact line system, support structures of different structures should be provided: (1) Cantilever structures are mainly used in sections. (2) For a station with 3 platform tracks and above, the head-span structure and the portal structure are generally used, among which, portal structures also belong to cantilever structures. (3) For tunnels, bridges and other large structures, the supporting structures shall be designed specifically according to the internal structure, and special structures shall be adopted as necessary (such as large clearance frame, and multi-track cantilevers). Cantilevers are the most widely employed supporting structures in the overhead contact line system, which have two structure forms flexible support and rigid support. For the overhead contact line system of high-speed railway, the rigid support structure is employed, which, compared with flexible support structure, has the following advantages. (1) Messenger wires are of the base type, the deviation of messenger wires can be adjusted by adjusting the position thereof, so as to reduce the installation and adjustment time, and improve work efficiency. (2) Messenger wires are supported instead of suspended, which ensures system stability and eliminates the swaying problem of messenger wires and contact wires, providing sound stability and current collection performance. (3) Rigid and level cantilevers simplify the cantilever assembly structure, and greatly reduce the number of assembly parts, thus facilitating the standardization of the design and engineering (Fig. 3.19).

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Fig. 3.19 Support structure

(b) Composition and function (1) Insulator Insulators are used to ensure electrical insulation of overhead contact lines to the ground. Since insulators are connected to the support structures or the overhead contact line in series, they should be able to bear certain mechanical loads. (2) Cantilever Cantilevers are installed on poles to support the overhead contact line and to transfer loads. Generally, cantilevers are made of circular steel tubes, and some are also made of channel steels or angle irons. The length of a cantilever depends on many factors such as the number of tracks it crosses over, the height of the overhead contact line, the distance between the track center and the inner side of poles, and the position of poles (straight line or curve line). By the number of tracks crossing over, the cantilevers can be divided into single track cantilevers, double-track cantilevers and triple track cantilevers; and by electrical performance, cantilevers can be divided into insulated cantilevers and non-insulated cantilevers. (3) Span structure (I) Head-span structure Head-span structures are the transverse support structure for stations with multiple platform tracks, which is composed of head-span wire, upper and lower fixing rope, and fasteners. In respect of head-span structure poles on both sides, for crossing over 3–4 platform tracks, reinforced concrete head-span structure poles are used, for 5 platform tracks and above, steel poles are used, and the number of platform track crossing over should not exceed 8 (Figs. 3.20 and 3.21).

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Fig. 3.20 Head-span structure of insulator

Fig. 3.21 Portal structure

(II) Portal structure The portal structure is composed of a beam and side poles, which is used as the steel support structure for the overhead contact line system in stations or along railway lines with more than two tracks. The portal structure is generally welded with profile steels to form a beam structure crossing over the railway line, for supporting the overhead contact line. On a portal structure, the overhead contact line employs suspended swivel cantilevers as the supporting structure, with characteristics as follows: the overhead contact lines of different platform tracks are mechanically and electrically independent without interference with each other, the fault influence range is small, the structure is stable, and the current collection performance is as good as that of sectional overhead contact lines; it has sound vibration resistance, wind resistance and long service life; it has high stiffness, sound stability, low wear, and can improve current collection performance and

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reduce the contact loss rate; it has modular structure, good interchangeability, and facilitates machining and mechanical installation; and it has a uniformed, simple, even and artistic appearance. Guangzhou-Shenzhen Line employs the portal structure, and the advantage of stable high-speed current collection quality has been fully demonstrated. In France, UK and Japan, all overhead contact line systems of high-speed railways employ the portal structure. In China, there is also a tendency to use the rigid portal structure for the overhead contact line system of high-speed railways. 3. Registration device In order to ensure that the pantograph strips of high-speed trains can well contact with the contact wire for current collection during operation, the contact wire should be positioned according to the operation requirements of the pantograph, and the device for positioning the contact line is called the registration device. The registration device is used to fix the transverse position of the contact wire, and the main functions are as follows: to fix the contact wire according to the special position required for the current collection of the pantograph, so that the relative position of the contact wire and the center of pantograph always fall within the working range of the pantograph strip, ensuring proper current collection of high-speed trains, and avoiding hazards due to contact wire damage caused by dewirement of pantograph from the contact wire; to transfer the “Z” force in straight sections and the horizontal force in curve sections of the contact wire, as well as the wind force to cantilevers and poles; and to ensure even wear of pantograph by the contact wire. Mechanical properties (special posture and position, vibration characteristics, stability) of the registration device determine the operation safety and current collection quality of pantographs and contact wires. Registration devices shall ensure that the contact wire is fixed in the required position; in case of temperature change, the registration arm shall not affect the movement of the contact wire along the railway direction; restoration points shall have sound elasticity, so that when the pantograph of a high-speed train passes through, the contact wire shall be able to be lifted evenly without forming hard sports or colliding with the devices; besides, registration devices shall have simple and reliable structure, so as to ensure the operation safety and reliability, with fewer and light-weight parts, with sound corrosion resistance, without concentrated load, and easy assembly and adjustment. (a) Composition and function The registration device is composed of registration arms, steady arms, steady clamps and fasteners (Fig. 3.22). (1) Registration arm Registration arms are used to fix steady arms, to facilitate horizontal adjustment or gradient adjustment of steady arms, to improve the flexibility of registration devices, and to improve the elasticity of registration points.

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Fig. 3.22 Registration device

Registration arms can be divided into two types: normal registration arm and T-shape registration arm (Figs. 3.23 and 3.24). (2) Steady arm The steady arm is used to fix the contact wire in a specific position according to the specified stagger with steady clamps, and to bear the horizontal force of the contact wire. The characteristics of the steady arm of high-speed overhead contact line system are as follows: simple structure, easy installation, without forming hard spots on overhead contact line; high strength, sound Fig. 3.23 Registration arm

Fig. 3.24 Steady arm

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corrosion resistance, made from light-weight alloy, small loop resistance, without electrical damage; the ends adopting hinged connection, providing sound flexibility, configured with elastic limit structures to prevent excessive uplift of contact wire under certain circumstances; configured with windproof droppers or windproof devices to improve the stability of the overhead contact line. The registration arm adopts the bow-shape or bent-tube structure, so as to prevent the collision between the steady arm and the pantograph. Mechanical properties of the registration device determine the operation safety and current collection quality of pantographs and contact wires. The registration device shall have simple and reliable structure, so as to ensure operation safety and reliability; it shall have fewer and light-weight parts, so as to facilitate assembly and adjustment; with simple structure, without concentrated load, and without forming hard spots on the overhead contact line; it should be made from aluminum alloy, with light weight, sound corrosion resistance and sufficient strength; it shall have small loop resistance, without causing electrical damage; in case of temperature change, the movement of the contact wire along the railway direction will not be affected. 4. Overhead contact line Overhead contact line refers to the structure composed of contact wires and suspension parts, which is mounted on the support structures and registration devices of the overhead contact line system and directly involved in current collection for completing electric power transmission. The overhead contact line is composed of messenger wires, contact wires, droppers, compensation devices, suspension parts, mid-point anchors and other elements. The overhead contact line is mounted on the poles through support structures, and its function is to supply the electric power obtained from the traction substation to high-speed EMUs. (a) Technical requirements (1) The elasticity of the overhead contact line should be uniform, the height of the contact wire relative to the track top shall be equal, and the gradient of the contact wire shall be limited. (2) The overhead contact line shall have sound stability under the pressure imposed by pantographs and under the influence of wind force. (3) The overhead contact line and the parts thereof shall have light weight, have a simple structure, and be reliable and standardized. (b) Composition and function (1) Messenger wire Messenger wires are copper alloy stranded cables of the overhead contact line system, which are used to hang up the contact wire through droppers and to transmit current, without directly contacting the pantograph of high-speed EMUs. The main functions are to increase support points on the contact wire without adding poles so as to improve the

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stability of the overhead contact line; to reduce contact wire sag, to improve the elasticity of contact wires, and to realize parable feeding with the contact wire. Besides, by carrying a certain amount of current, messenger wires can reduce the impedance of the traction network and reduce voltage loss and energy loss. The basic requirements for messenger wire selection are to ensure that the linear expansion coefficient of the messenger wire matches with the contact wire, and the messenger wire shall be able to withstand large stress, have high fatigue resistance, high corrosion resistance, low temperature sensitivity, high mechanical strength, and high conductivity (Figs. 3.25 and 3.26). The messenger wire selected shall meet the following conditions: the linear expansion coefficient of the messenger wire matching with the contact wire, high mechanical strength, high fatigue resistance, high temperature resistance, high conductivity, etc. Fig. 3.25 Messenger wire

Fig. 3.26 Contact wire

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(2) Contact wire Contact wires are the copper alloy conductors in the overhead contact line system that directly contact the pantograph of high speed EMUs and are frequently subjected to friction for electric power transmission, which greatly determines the current collection performance of the overhead contact line system-pantograph system. A large number of performance indexes of the current collection system are directly determined by the contact wires, such as wave transmission speed, uplift of contact wire, wear of contact wire, and safety factors. Therefore, it is required that in addition to high tensile strength, wear resistance and corrosion resistance, contact wires shall also have good thermal softening resistance, meet the energy-saving requirement and have sound conductivity. Compare with other power supply wires, the working conditions for contact wires are the worst, they are subjected to impact, vibration, temperature change, environmental corrosion, wear, electric spark erosion and large working tension under normal operation, and the performance thereof directly affects the safe operation of high-speed trains. Sound pantograph-contact wire interaction is a key factor to ensure that high-speed trains can receive electric power uninterruptedly from the traction power supply system during high-speed operation. One of the important means to improve the pantograph-contact wire interaction is to increase the tension of the contact wire, so that the contact wire vibration can be attenuated rapidly, thus minimizing the influence of vibration on current collection. Therefore, it is required that contact wires of high-speed railways shall be able to withstand large working tension. (3) Dropper Droppers are the connecting parts between the messenger wire and the contact wire in the overhead contact line with catenary suspension. The main function is to hang the contact wire onto the messenger wire with dropper clamps. By adjusting the length of droppers, the system height, the distance to the rail top and the sag can be controlled, by adding the support points on the contact wire, the elasticity of the overhead contact line can be improved, thus improving the current collection quality of the pantograph. Droppers are generally divided into four types: ring dropper, elastic dropper, sliding dropper and integrated dropper. The overhead contact line system of high-speed railways must have uniform elasticity, with higher installation accuracy and larger current carrying capacity, and messenger wires are also involved in power conduction.

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(4) Anchoring and tensioning device (I) Anchoring Two ends of messenger wires and contact wires must be anchored, called anchoring. The wire anchoring compensation methods can be divided into semi-compensation and complete-compensation. (II) Tensioning device The tensioning device, also known as the tensioner, is a key component arranged at both ends of tensioning sections on the overhead contact line system, which can automatically compensate the stress in contact wires or messenger wires, and is a generic term for the automatic tensioners and braking devices for contact wires and messenger wires. In case of ambient temperature change, wires will be subjected to extension or shrinkage, in this case, balance weights hung at ends of a conductor through tension pulleys and tension ropes will adjust the tension of messenger wires and contact wires automatically under the action of gravity of balance weights, so that the set tension of the conductor can be maintained at a constant value, and ensure the sag of the wires can meet the technical requirements. Tensioning devices are composed of tension pulleys, tension ropes, ball-end bars, balance weight bars, and balance weights. Balance weights are generally made from concrete or grey cast iron (HT10-26) with a single weight of 25 kg, in a round shape with an opening in the middle. There are several types of tensioning devices, including pulley tensioner, ratchet tensioner, drum tensioner, spring tensioner, hydraulic tensioner, and pneumatic tensioner. For the overhead contact line system of high-speed railways, three automatic tension compensation devices are provided: a. Oil-free large pulley block automatic compensation device Oil-free large pulley block automatic tensioning devices are widely applied to electrified railways in China, which are composed of tension pulleys (pulley blocks), tension ropes, ball end bars, balance weight bars, balance weights and fasteners. The oil-free large pulley block is composed of tension pulleys and tension ropes, among which the tension pulleys are further divided into fixed pulleys and movable pulleys, the fixed pulleys are used to change the direction of the force, while the movable pulleys are provided for labor saving. The large pulley has a diameter of 300 mm and the small pulley has a diameter of 195 mm. Three pulleys with different diameters

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are used to form pulley blocks with different reduction ratios, providing large reduction ratio range, which is composed of aluminum alloy pulley block, stainless steel ropes, connecting frame and wedge-type dead-end clamps; three reduction ratios including 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 are available, meeting different tension requirements. The pulley body is made of highstrength and corrosion-resistance aluminum alloy, cast with low-pressure metal dies; the pulley body is connected with the shaft with 2 rolling bearings, the tension ropes are stainless steel ropes, the wedge-type dead-end clamps are made from cast aluminum bronze, with sound corrosion resistance. The advantages are as follows: maintenance-free or less maintenance, high transmission efficiency and flexible rotation. It is widely employed on dedicated passenger lines with an operating speed of 200–250. Balance weights are generally made from concrete, with a single weight of 25 kg, in a round shape with an opening in the middle. Balance weights are placed on balance weight bars and then hang on the tension rope. The balance weight bar is made from ϕ16 mm round steel, the upper end is welded with a single-hole ring, and the lower end is welded with a base plate (Figs. 3.27 and 3.28). Fig. 3.27 Pulley block automatic tensioning device

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Fig. 3.28 Spring tensioning device

b. Ratchet tensioning device The tension pulley is the key part of a pulley tensioning device, which is generally cast with aluminum alloy. The transmission efficiency of tension pulleys directly affects the performance of tensioning devices, which should at least be 98%. Compared with pulley tensioning devices, ratchet tensioning devices have advantages of small space occupancy, flexible rotation, high transmission efficiency, sound corrosion resistance and long service life. However, since pulley tensioning devices have complicated structures, large wheel diameter, multiple thin-wall positions, they propose high requirements for manufacturing equipment and process, and the price is relatively high. c. Spring tensioning device The spring tensioning device is generally used for tension compensation for the upper and the lower cross-span wires. Sometimes, it is also used in tunnels. In case of temperature change, wires will be subjected to extension or shrinkage. Under the action of gravity of balance weights, wires can move along the direction of railway line so that the tension of the wires can be adjusted automatically to maintain at a constant value, and ensure the sag of the wires can meet the technical requirements. The advantages are as follows: simple structure, easy field installation; artistic appearance, harmonious with the surrounding environment; large application range, with the maximum tensioning section length reaching up to 1800 m; high mounting elevation, good anti-theft performance; good

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adaptability, able to adapt to various anchoring angles; light weight, without balance weight, which can greatly reduce the stress imposed on poles. (5) OCS fittings All connecting parts between the conductors of the overhead contact line system, between conductors and support structures, and between support structures and poles are collectively called OCS fittings. (I) Tensioning section The overhead contact line is erected along the railway line. At sectioning stations, according to the power supply and mechanical requirements, the overhead contact line system is divided into sections, which are composed of several spans and equipped with independent mechanical and electrical functions, and the sections are called tensioning sections. The tensioning section is the basic mechanical and electrical unit of the overhead contact line system. Each tensioning section is composed of several spans. Generally, the overhead contact line system in tunnels will not be divided into tensioning sections. However, if the tunnel length exceeds 2000, such division is required. Sectioning the overhead contact line system into tensioning sections can reduce the fault influence range, facilitate the installation of tensioning devices, and reduce the outage range during repair and service; besides, it can facilitate the setting of phase breaks. With the insulated overlaps, out-phase current of different sections can be separated, so as to meet the requirements of the feeding system (Fig. 3.29). (II) Overlap The transition structure in the joint section (overlap part) of two adjacent tensioning sections is called overlap. Overlaps realize the mechanical and electrical sectioning of the overhead contact line system, meeting the requirements of power supply and current collection. The presence of overlaps ensures the rapid, smooth and safe transition of the pantograph from one tensioning section to another and facilitates the insulation of mechanical and electrical equipment in the overhead contact line system.

Fig. 3.29 Tensioning sections and overlaps

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(III) Mid-point anchor The device used to anchor the contact wire against the messenger wire and anchor the messenger wire against the anchor masts (or fixing ropes) in the middle of tensioning sections of the overhead contact line with catenary suspension is called mid-point anchor. For a tensioning section with tensioners provided at both ends, a mid-point anchor must be installed. The purpose of the midpoint anchor is to prevent the tensioners of the overhead contact line from sliding towards one side under external forces (such as wind force, pantograph friction force, force generated due to slope and gravity) during the tensioning process. The mid-point anchor must be installed especially for a line with a certain gradient, and the function and effect thereof are even more obvious, it can reduce the fault influence range (in case of line breakage at one side of the center tensioning section, the line on the other side will not be affected, which facilitate emergency repair or reduce the emergency repair time, ensure the line can be restored to normal operation rapidly), minimize the tension difference of wire caused by temperature change, improve the uniformity of elasticity of the overhead contact line, and ensure the overhead contact line is in good working conditions. (IV) Point wiring When a high-speed train arrives at the intersection of two railways, a turnout should be provided to transfer from one track to the other. In a station within the high-speed electrified railway section, in order to ensure the pantograph of the high-speed train can smoothly transfer from one track to the other, two contact wires crossing each other shall be provided over the intersection of the two railways, and the device installed at the intersection of the two contact wires to connect and fix the two wires is called point wiring, also known aerial converter. The point wiring is provided to ensure that when the contact wire of one overhead contact line is lifted by the pantograph; the contact wire of the other overhead contact line can be lifted simultaneously, resulting in an elevation difference. The elevation difference will narrow as the pantograph moves towards the initial contact point, when it reaches the initial contact point, the elevation difference is basically eliminated so that the pantograph can transfer smoothly without pantograph trapping, in this way, the pantograph of high-speed trains can transfer smoothly and safely from the contact wire over one track to the contact wire over the other track, realizing track switching.

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The point wiring of the contact wire is composed of a limit tube, steady clamps and fixing bolts, wherein, the limit tube is used to let two contact wires getting close to each other, and both ends of the limit tube are fixed to the contact wire below with steady clamps and bolts. (V) Disconnector Disconnectors on the overhead contact line system are switching devices without arc-control device, which are provided to connect or disconnect the circuit between feeding sections of the overhead contact line system, and to improve power supply flexibility, so as to meet the requirement of repair service and meet the requirement of implementation of different power supply modes. Disconnectors are generally installed at two ends of large structures (such as long tunnels and major bridges), and at positions subjected to electrical sectioning, such as dedicated lines, EMU depot tracks, service sidings, insulated overlaps, sections and phase breakers. On cantilever masts, disconnectors are installed on the top of masts through disconnector brackets, while on the poles of head-span structures, disconnectors are installed in the middle part of the pole through disconnector brackets (Figs. 3.30 and 3.31). (VI) Safety devices: arresters, protectors and earthing wires installed on the overhead contact line system are called safety devices, which are used to conduct the atmospheric over-voltage or short-circuit current to the ground immediately in case of atmospheric over-voltage or insulator breakdown, so as to protect the electrical equipment and personal safety. a. Arrester Arresters are provided as overvoltage protection for electrical equipment on high-speed EMUs. When lightning Fig. 3.30 Disconnector

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Fig. 3.31 Earthing wire

strikes the overhead contact line system during thunderstorms, extremely high overvoltage will be generated on the over-voltage system, which will result in insulator breakdown and cause damage to the equipment. Arresters are used to prevent the impulse over-voltage generated due to atmospheric lightning induction or transmitted from the overhead contact line system due to the trip, short-circuit or earthing of the power supply system from flowing to highspeed EMUs, so as to avoid electrical equipment damage due to the insulation sparkover. Currently, arresters commonly used in the overhead contact line system include valve-type arrester, zinc oxide arrester, tube-type arrester and horn gap arrester. b. Spark gap In order to prevent the leakage of traction current and signal current flowing through the rail, spark gaps are installed on the earthing wires between OCS poles and the rail. Generally, the spark gaps insulate the rail from the poles. In case of high voltage due to insulation damage of the overhead contact line system and resulting in spark gap breakdown, the OCS poles will be connected to the rails, the shortcircuit current will return to the traction substation through the rail, and the protective devices of the traction substation will react. c. Protector Protectors are generally installed at places where steel poles are erected on station platforms. They are connected in series between the aerial earthing wire and the protective wire (or return wire), which are mainly provided to protect passengers from the overlarge current on aerial earth

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wires and steel poles. Generally, the discharge electrode gap inside protectors insulates the electrodes from each other. If high voltage is generated between the aerial earth wire and the protective wire (or return wire) and result in discharge gap breakdown, the accident will be fed back to the traction substation through the protective wire (or return wire), and the protective devices will react. d. Earthing wire For the overhead contact line system of high-speed railway, the power supply return current is increased greatly, and the signal device, structure of ballast bed, and distribution of traction current are changed. If the return current through the track and the track-ground resistance cannot be reduced, the rail potential will be high, which may threaten the personal safety of passengers in the station and track maintenance personnel, or even burn out prestressed rebars, degrade concrete strength, damage the insulation of signal devices, and threaten train operation safety. Therefore, necessary measures must be taken to reduce the track potential and leakage impedance. To this end, in the overhead contact line area, all enclosures and conductive parts of the electrical equipment are connected to the earthing system of the railway, so as to avoid hazardous contact voltage during operation or short circuit; all earthing systems of bridges, tunnels, substations and pole foundations are connected to the return circuit, so as to form the integral earthing system of the electrified railway. In case of insulator flashover, the leakage current will directly flow to the rail through the earthing wire, and the protective device of the traction substation can trip in immediately, so as to ensure the equipment and personal safety. There are three types of earthing wires including pole earthing wire, tunnel earthing wire and equipment earthing wire. (VII) Electrical connection The function of the electric connection is to connect the circuit between the section power supplies of the overhead contact line to ensure smooth power transmission. Through electrical connection, parallel feeding can be realized, which can reduce power loss, increase terminal voltage and improve power supply quality. Electrical connection wires are used for the reliable connection between the electrical equipment and the overhead contact line system, so as to avoid burning accidents, and meet the requirement of various feeding systems and the requirement of repair and service.

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By installation positions, electrical connection can be divided into transverse electrical connection, longitudinal electrical connection, overlap electrical connection, disconnector electrical connection, arrester electrical connection and others. (VIII) Feeding section of overhead contact line system of high-speed railways In order to improve the power supply flexibility and safety of the overhead contact line system, reduce the power failure influence range, and meet the requirements of power supply, repair and service, and other special needs, the overhead contact line system is divided into several feeding sections according to the distribution of stations or yards and the power supply condition of the feeders of substations, such electrically separated sections of the overhead contact line system are called electrical sections. The electrical sections of the overhead contact line system are electrically independent, which are connected through insulators, sectioning insulators, disconnectors, insulated overlaps and other facilities and structures. (IX) Sectioning insulator Sectioning insulators are overhead contact-type insulated elements provided at places such as loading and unloading sidings, train service sidings and depot tracks in electrical railway stations, which are installed between two adjacent feeding sections of the overhead contact line system to facilitate maintenance and service works and ensure personal safety (Figs. 3.32 and 3.33). Fig. 3.32 Sectioning insulator

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Fig. 3.33 Sectioning section

(X) Sectioning insulator Sectioning insulators are used to separate the electrical power of different phases on the overhead contact line system, so as to prevent interphase short circuit, and also serve as mechanical connections to connect the overhead contact line system.

3.3.4 Types of Overhead Contact Line The overhead contact line is the basic structural form of the overhead contact line system, which reflects the space structure and geometric size of the overhead contact line system. Different types of overhead contact lines have different engineering costs, current collection performances and safety performances. Besides, the requirements for the design, construction and operation and maintenance of the overhead contact line system are also different. The overhead contact line of the overhead contact line system shall meet the following requirements: the current collection performance shall meet the requirement of railway operation, have a simple structure, high good safety and reliability, easy to maintain, and have low construction cost. By structures, the overhead contact lines can be divided into the trolley-type overhead contact line and the overhead contact line with catenary suspension. These two structures have different performances and characteristics and apply to different occasions. 1. Trolley-type overhead contact line A type of overhead contact line with one or two parallel contact wires fixed on pole support structures.

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(a) Type By the wire fixation mode, the trolley-type overhead contact line can be divided into the following two types: (1) Trolley-type overhead contact line (without tensioner): contact wires are directly fixed on support points. (2) Trolley-type overhead contact line with stitch wire (with tensioner): a trolley-type overhead contact line with stitch wires installed at support points and tensioners installed at the anchor points on both ends is called the trolley-type overhead contact line with stitch wire. The trolley-type overhead contact line with stitch wire improves the elasticity of support points, reduces contact wire sag, and can be applied to railway lines with an operating speed lower than 80 km/h. (b) Advantages Sample structure, small pole height and capacity, light load for supporting structures, easy construction and maintenance, and low construction cost. (c) Disadvantages Tension and sag of wires changing greatly with temperature, non-uniformed wire elasticity, poor stability, not suitable for the current collection of highspeed railways (Figs. 3.34, 3.35 and 3.36). 2. Overhead contact line with catenary suspension Overhead contact line with catenary suspension is an overhead contact line type with good operation performance, in which, contact wires are hung on messenger wires through droppers (or auxiliary ropes). The structural characteristics are as follows: contact wires are hung on messenger wires through droppers, and

1—pole; 2—stay; 3—insulator chain; 4—contact wire; 5—cantilever; 6—rod insulator.

Fig. 3.34 Trolley-type overhead contact line (without tensioner)

1—balance weight; 2—tension pulley; 3—contact wire; 4—steady arm; 5—elastic dropper.

Fig. 3.35 Trolley-type overhead contact line with elastic dropper

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Fig. 3.36 Trolley-type overhead contact line with stitch wire

messenger wires are hung on cantilevers of support structures through hook end clamps, support clamps of messenger wire or suspension pulleys. Contact wires are hung on the messenger wires, so that the support points are increased without adding the poles, by adjusting dropper length, the distance from the contact wire to the rail top can be maintained at a constant value within the whole span. Since contact wires are hung on messenger wires, hard spots at the support points are basically eliminated, so that the overhead contact line can have a uniform elasticity throughout the span, besides, the overhead contact line with catenary suspension reduces contact wire sag in mid-span, increase the weight of the overhead contact line, and improve the stability, meeting the requirement of the current collection of high-speed trains during operation. Compared with the trolley-type overhead contact line, the overhead contact line with catenary suspension has better performance, but the structure is more complicated, the investment is higher and the construction, maintenance and adjustment are more difficult. By the number of suspensions, the overhead contact line with catenary suspension can be divided into single catenary suspension type and double catenary suspension type. (a) Single catenary suspension type The overhead contact line with contact wires hung on messenger wires through droppers. By the type of droppers at support points, it can be divided into the overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension and the overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension. (1) Overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension (representative country: France) It refers to an overhead contact line with contact wires hung on messenger wires through ring droppers at support points, and no elastic dropper is provided at the support points. Advantages: simple structure; safe and reliable; easy installation, adjustment and maintenance; meeting the requirement of high-speed

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current collection; and the overhead contact line system can reach its expected service life (2,500,000 times of pantograph contact). Disadvantages: small elasticity at the anchor points and large elasticity in mid-span, resulting in large pantograph uplift in mid-span; hard spots may easily form at anchor points; high abrasion; non-uniform static elasticity, higher standard deviation of dynamic contact force compared with the stitch catenary suspension type and the double catenary suspension type. Steady arms with rational structure and sound performance can offset the above deficiencies, besides, China has rich experience in terms of design, construction and operation, therefore, this overhead contact line type is the main type applied in China. (2) Overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension (representative country: Germany) Elastic droppers are provided at support points, and contact wires are hung on messenger wires through elastic droppers at support points, and by the structure of elastic droppers, it can be divided into ∏-shaped overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension and Y-shaped overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension. Advantages: based on the structure of overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension, stitch wires are provided at points, which improves the elasticity at anchor points, so that the elasticity at anchor points and in mid-span are generally the same, realizing uniform elasticity throughout the overhead contact line system, meeting the requirement of high-speed current collection (Figs. 3.37 and 3.38). Disadvantages: adjustment and maintenance of stitch wires are difficult; there is a large dynamic uplift of contact wire at the anchor points, Fig. 3.37 Overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension

1-messenger wire; 2-dropper; 3-contact wire Fig. 3.38 Overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension

4-Π shaped elastic dropper; 5-Y shaped elastic dropper

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Fig. 3.39 Overhead contact line with double catenary suspension

which may result in fatigue; installation and adjustment of stitch wires are required, and the emergency repair is more difficult; the requirement for installation gradient of steady arm is strict. (b) Overhead contact line with double catenary suspensions (representative country: Japan) The overhead contact line with double catenary suspension refers to the overhead contact line type with contact wires hung on the messenger wire through auxiliary ropes, as shown in Fig. 3.39. Advantages: it has the most superior performance, the overhead contact line system has large tension and uniform elasticity; the contact wire has the minimum dynamic uplift, with sound wind resistance, and small contact wire sag; besides, it has excellent current collection stability and wind resistance, which facilitate current collection of high-speed EMUs during operation. Disadvantages: an auxiliary messenger wire is added, so that the structure is more complicated, the construction, operation and maintenance is more complex, and the emergency repair is more difficult. In China, it is only applied in some sections for trial. In Japan, most of high-speed railways lines, such as Tokaido Shinkansen, Sanyo Shinkansen, Tohoku Shinkansen and Joetsu Shinkansen, employ the overhead contact line with double catenary suspension (Fig. 3.40). In France, TGV-Sud-Est from Paris to Lyon employs the overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension, while TGV Atlantique from Paris to

Fig. 3.40 Overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension and overhead contact line with double catenary suspension applied to high-speed railways in Japan

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Fig. 3.41 Overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension for high-speed railways in France

Fig. 3.42 Overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension for high-speed railways in Germany

Le Mans/Tours employs the overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension, with pre-sag contact wire. In Germany, the railway lines with an operating speed lower than 160 km/ h employ the overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension, while the railway lines with an operating speed of 160 km/h and above employ the overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension. In China, the completely compensated overhead contact line with vertical (semi) included catenary suspension is mainly employed (Figs. 3.41 and 3.42).

3.3.5 Main Structural Parameters of High-Speed Overhead Contact Line System 1. Height of contact wire The height of contact wire refers to the vertical distance between the contact wire and the rail top. The height of contact wire is adjusted by adjusting the dropper

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length. On the premise of meeting the requirement of structural clearance, the height of the contact wire of high-speed railways should be as low as possible so as to minimize the influence of aerodynamics on current collection quality. The height of the overhead contact line system in stations and in sections shall be the same. Generally, the height of contact wire of high-speed railways is lower than that of normal-speed electrified railways, the pantograph base falls below the top of the train roof, and the working height of the pantograph is low. Generally, there is no train out-of-gauge loading operating on high-speed railways, and the car clearance is 4800 mm. On the other hand, lower height of contact wire can reduce the air resistance and minimize the influence of aerodynamic force on the pantograph. The design specifications are as follows: (a) The height of contact wire of high-speed railway is generally about 5300 mm, and the distance between the contact wire (under the maximum sag) and the rail top shall not exceed 6500 mm. Minimum height: (1) Sections, stations and yards: for intermediate stations and sections, the height shall not be less than 5700 mm; for marshalling stations, district stations and large intermediate stations equipped with a shunting team, the height shall not be less than 6200 mm, where it is impossible to meet the above height requirement, in any case, the height shall not be less than 5700 mm. (2) Inside tunnels (including tunnel portals and cross-track structures with reduced height): under normal conditions (live-line, 5300 mm out-ofgauge cargo), not less than 5700 mm; under difficult situations (liveline, 5300 mm out-of-gauge cargo), not less than 5650 mm; in special cases, the height of contact wire shall not be less than 5250 mm, and the allowable construction height deviation of contact wire is ± 30 mm. The contact wire heights stipulated by foreign countries are as follows: Japan: 5000 mm. France: 5080 mm. Germany: 5300 mm. In China, for dedicated passenger lines, the car and structural clearance is 4800 mm, considering the insulation distance, wire sag, construction error and other factors, the height of contact wire support points is determined to be 5300 mm, and the height of the lowest point is 5150 mm. In addition to overlaps and switch positioning, the height of contact wire at each anchor point on the main line should be equal. The height of the support points of the working branch of contact wire of passenger dedicated lines for double-deck container transportation (Shijiazhuang-Taiyuan, Hefei-Wuhan, Hefei-Nanjing Railway, etc.) is 6450 mm, and the lowest point is not less than 6330 mm.

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(b) The contact wire sag shall meet the requirement of installation curve, with a deviation of ± 15%. (c) In case of gradient change of the working part of the contact wire, the gradient should not be greater than 3‰ for general sections and 5‰ for the difficult sections. (d) The working surface of the contact wire shall be straight and level, without being twisted or bent, all wire clips shall be set properly, and a ring dropper shall be provided at contact wire splice. 2. System height The structure height refers to the distance between the messenger wire and the contact wire at anchor points, which is determined by the minimal dropper length. In China, the structure height is stipulated to be 1.1–1.6 m. (a) Generally, the system height of the overhead contact line system for the main line of high-speed railways is 1.6 m. (b) In the restricted section with cross-track structures, the system height can be reduced appropriately, but should not be less than 1.1 m, and for some difficult points, should not be less than 0.8 m. The system height mainly depends on the allowable minimal dropper length. When the operating speed is greater than 250 km/h, the minimum dropper length shall not be less than 600 mm; when the operating speed is between 200 and 250 km/h, the minimum dropper length shall not be less than 500 mm. (c) Generally, the system height of the liaison line and other newly built lines is 1.4 m. 3. Zigzag, stagger and span Fixing the contact wire in the right position with the steady arm is called locating, the fixing points between steady clamps and the contact wire are called anchor points, the horizontal distance of the moving trajectory from anchor points to the center of the pantograph, in straight sections, is called zigzag, and in curve sections, called stagger. The function of zigzag and stagger is to ensure smooth working of the pantograph strip and prevent pantograph dewirement and pantograph trapping. Zigzag, stagger and span depend on curve radius of railway line, maximum wind speed and economic factors. In China, the span length and the stagger are determined based on the condition that the mid-span wire and anchor points will not fall beyond 300 mm from the center of the pantograph under the maximum wind speed. The standard span length of main lines is 50–55 m, and the maximum span length of the section with overhead contact line with stitch catenary suspension is 60 m, with an allowable construction error of ± 1 m; The span length on a bridge should be determined according to the form of hole span of the bridge, which is generally 48 m, while for difficult areas, the local maximum span can be 56 m, and the difference between adjacent spans shall not be more than 10 m; in order to prolong the service life of pantograph strips, the stagger should not be too small, and the

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stagger in adjacent sections for both straight sections or curve sections of the main line should adopt pull-off and push-off staggered arrangement. In straight sections, the center of pantograph coincides with the centerline of railways, and zigzag of the contact wire adopts centrosymmetric arrangement on a basis of a standard value of ± 300 mm. After speed improvement reconstruction, it will be 200–250 mm; the stagger is between 350 and 450 mm, and for curve sections, not exceeding 400 mm; In order to prevent excessive horizontal force, for straight sections with a span less than 50 m, and for joint and turnout areas, the stagger of the overhead contact line should be reduced to 200 mm, and in curve sections, the stagger should be determined based on the radius of curve. 4. Length of tensioning section For the determination of the length of tensioning section, consideration is mainly given to the following: the tension increment of contact wires and messenger wire should not exceed 10%, the tensioner should work within the effective working range, and the length of tensioning sections of the overhead contact line system of high-speed railways should be generally the same as that of normal electrified railways. (a) For the main lines, the length of tensioning section of the overhead contact line system should not exceed 2 × 700 m in general, in some difficult cases, not exceed 2 × 750 m, and the length of tensioning sections with single-end compensation should not exceed 750 m. (b) For station tracks, the maximum length of tensioning section should not exceed 2 × 800 m, in some difficult cases, not exceed 2 × 900 m, and the length of tensioning sections with single-end compensation should not exceed 850 m. (c) The tensioning direction of two overhead contact lines at turnouts of main lines of high-speed railways must be the same, and the tensioning direction of two overhead contact lines at other turnouts should be the same as far as possible. (d) Tension difference between the messenger wire and the contact wire calculated based on the above tensioning section length shall not exceed ± 5% of the rated tension. (e) Generally, the length of tensioning section of additive conductors should not exceed 2000 m, and in difficult cases, shall not exceed 4000 m. 5. Distribution and spacing of dropper Dropper spacing refers to the distance between two adjacent droppers within the same span, which may affect the current collection performance of the overhead contact line system to some extent. By changing the dropper spacing, the elastic uniformity of the overhead contact line system can be adjusted. For dropper distribution, isometric distribution, logarithmic distribution, and sinusoidal distribution are available, and for the convenience of design, construction and maintenance, the simplest isometric distribution is generally adopted.

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6. Distance between track center and the inner side of pole The distance between track center and the inner side of OCS poles of main lines, for general subgrade sections, shall not be less than 3.0 m, for bridges, not less than 3.0 m; For poles between the main line in stations and station track, the distance between the main line track center and the inner side of pole shall not be less than 2.5 m, and as the condition permitted, such distance should be increased to not less than 3.0 m. 7. Tension of messenger wire and contact wire According to the experience of foreign countries, for the high-speed railway with the maximum operating speed of 350 km/h, the tension of messenger wires and for contact wires shall not be less than 20 kN and 25 kN respectively.

3.4 Questions for Review 1. What is high-speed electrified railway? What are the advantages of high-speed electrified railways? 2. What are the feeding systems of the traction network of high-speed electrified railways? What are their characteristics? 3. Please briefly describe the composition, function and traction power supply circuit of the traction power supply system. 4. Please briefly describe the composition and function of the integrated automation system of traction substations. 5. How many power supply modes for power supply from traction substations of high-speed electrified railway to the overhead contact line system? What are they? 6. Please briefly describe the composition and function of the equipment of the traction substation of the high-speed power supply system. 7. Please briefly describe the composition of the overhead contact line system and the functions of each component. 8. How many types of poles are there by materials? What are they? What are their advantages and disadvantages? 9. Please briefly describe the structure, function, setting and characteristics of the head-span structure and the portal structure. 10. What is an overhead contact line? Please briefly describe the composition, setting and functions of each component. 11. Please briefly describe the composition of the registration device and the common registration methods, and draw schematic diagrams of these registration methods. 12. Please briefly describe the composition and function of protectors.

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13. How many types of overhead contact line with catenary suspension are there by the number of catenary suspension? What are they? Please briefly describe the advantages and disadvantages thereof respectively. 14. Why does the high-speed overhead contact line system employ the integrated earthing system? 15. Please draw a schematic diagram of the completely compensated overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension, and mark at least 5 parts and components. 16. Please briefly describe the characteristics of the current collection of high-speed railways.

Chapter 4

High-Speed Railway Electric Multiple Unit

4.1 Overview 4.1.1 EMU Definition and Type A high-speed EMU refers to a modular train marshalling with motor cars and trailers or with multiple motor cars permanently coupled together in a specified manner to realize the specific function, which has an onboard power supply, with a fixed formation, and can be operated from both ends. The operation method and maintenance system are different from locomotive and rolling stock. Generally, an EMU consists of motor cars and trailers, both motor cars and trailers can carry passengers, the main difference is that a motor car is equipped with traction motors and other traction power units, while a trailer is not equipped with any power unit. By the power distribution and drive equipment layout, high-speed trains can be divided into the power-distributed type and the power-concentrated type; and by the bogie layout and the coupling mode, high-speed trains can be divided into independent (bogie) type and articulated (bogie) type. Combining the two power distribution modes and the two coupling and bogie layouts, there are totally four types of high-speed trains, as shown in Fig. 4.1. 1. Power-concentrated EMUs Refers to EMUs with one end or both ends marshalled with motor cars (or one end marshalled with motor car the other end marshalled with control car) and the middle marshalled with trailers, and with all electrical apparatus and power units are centralizedly instilled on both ends of trains; only the wheelsets of motor cars are power wheelsets, the motor cars do not carry passengers, and multiple trailers are coupled between motor cars, realizing push-pull traction. Typical representatives include Germany’s ICE1 and ICE2, and France’s TGV-PSE and TGV-A. © Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_4

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Fig. 4.1 Type of high-speed train

Advantages of power-concentrated EMUs are as follows (a) Low manufacturing and maintenance costs Similar to conventional trains, the traction power is mainly located on two motor cars, with less traction motor and electrical apparatus, and the manufacturing and maintenance costs are relatively low. (b) Comfortable passenger compartment Since no electrical and power mechanical equipment for traction are installed in trailers, the noise and vibration in passenger coaches are relatively low, ensuring high comfortability. (c) Strong adaptability to different railway conditions Motor cars can be easily changed to other models according to railway conditions. By decoupling the tractors, a train can enter the existing railway lines, and by replacing the same with a diesel locomotive, the train can enter a non-electrified railway for operation. Disadvantages of power-concentrated EMUs are as follows (a) Small passenger-carrying capacity Since motor cars do not carry passengers, the passenger-carrying capacity is relatively small. (b) Large wheel-rail force Since the power concentration layout is adopted, the axle load of motor cars is relatively large, therefore, which greatly increases the wheel-rail force during high-speed operation. (c) Poor adhesion utilization Adhesion utilization and other indexes are inferior to the power-distributed type.

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(d) Unsatisfactory braking performance Only the head motor car can implement dynamic braking, therefore, the braking capacity is limited, and brake shoes or brake linings are subjected to severe wear and need to be replaced frequently. 2. Power-distributed EMUs For power-distributed EMUs, multiple motor cars and trailers form a unit and multiple units form a train, and almost all the main electrical and mechanical equipment of the train are suspended under the underframe of the train. Typical representatives include Japan’s Shinkansen EMU, Germany’s ICE3, and France’s AGV. The main advantages of the power-distributed EMUs are as follows (a) The power units are distributed in different positions of trains, and all cars can carry passengers, ensuring large seating capacity, large total passenger carrying capacity, large traction power, large passenger volume and high efficiency. (b) Sound start acceleration, more powered axles, large adhesive weight and lower adhesive coefficient requirement, it is easy to ensure wheel-rail adhesion and can give full play to traction force to adapt to the requirement of high-speed operation. (c) Flexible formation, multiple power units, high redundancy, high operation reliability, without requiring commutation, high utilization, high economic benefit, suitable for public passenger transport. (d) Draw gears of bogies are distributed under the train; small size, light and evenly distributed axle loads, lower requirement for body strength, and lower influence on railways, facilitate the realization of light weight and light axle load. (e) Electrical braking is mainly used, which reduces the wear of mechanical braking parts and improves the braking performance, besides, the combination electrical brake and mechanical brake ensures stable performance and high safety. Disadvantages of power-distributed EMUs are as follows (a) High manufacturing and maintenance costs Conventional operation, maintenance management systems and common practices are not applicable, therefore, a new maintenance system must be established; each EMU is equipped with a complete set of traction motors and electrical apparatus, which increases the manufacturing cost and maintenance expense. (b) Large noise and vibration Power units are suspended under the underframe of each motor car, therefore, the vibration and noise may degrade the ride comfort in the car.

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4.1.2 Overview of High-Speed EMU Development at Home and Abroad 1. Overview of high-speed EMU development abroad (a) High-speed trains of Japan In Japan, power-distributed EMUs are mainly employed, featured by long consist, high power and light axle load. Compared with European countries, Japan has a larger population density and densely distributed cities, and EMUs mainly serve the commuting needs, therefore, the proportion of the first-class seats is lower than that of EMUs employed in European countries. It has been more than 50 years since Japan’s Tokaido Shinkansen Line was put into operation in 1964, there are four generations totally 13 models of EMUs, as shown in Fig. 4.2. Japan’s 0 series high-speed trains are the first high-speed trains with a commercial operating speed exceeding 200 km in the world. All 16 units marshalled are motor cars, belonging to the full power-distributed type. The research and development were started in 1958 and the trains were finally put into operation on the Tokaido Shinkansen in 1964. Japan’s 100 Series high-speed trains consist of 16 cars, including 12 motor cars and 4 trailers, i.e., 12 M + 4 T, belonging to the powerdistributed type. The 100 Series trains (double-deck car) were introduced to Sanyo Shinkansen in 1985. This model is generally marshalled with both single-deck and double-deck cars and is mainly used for long-distance transportation, with a maximum speed of 230 km/h. In 1992, new generation 300 Series high-speed trains were successfully developed. 300 Series high-speed trains had made several technical breakthroughs: AC traction motors and variable frequency variable voltage speed regulation devices were first introduced in Shinkansen cars; the car body was made from aluminum alloy, which greatly reduces the train weight; novel running gear structure was adopted and novel regenerative brakes that convert braking energy into electrical energy and return it to the power grid

Fig. 4.2 Japan’s Shinkansen high-speed trains

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were configured; and the train head is designed to an oblique nose shape, which reduces air resistance and increases the maximum operating speed to 270 km. Technical breakthroughs made by the 300 Series high-speed trains have a profound influence on design of subsequent Shinkansen trains. The 500 Series high-speed trains were put into operation on March 22, 1997. The most obvious features include the adoption of a 15 m long-nose shape train head to minimize the running resistance and pressure wave, and the adoption of a super lightweight “brazed honeycomb + extruded profile” aluminum alloy body and circular body section design. Compared with the 300 Series high-speed trains, the running resistance is reduced by 31%, realizing a maximum running speed of 300 km/h. The 700 Series high-speed trains are the latest and most advanced EMUs of Japan, which adopt 12 M + 4 T marshalling mode, with the power reaching up to 13,200 kW, and was officially put into operation on March 11, 1999. The 700 Series trains have a total length of about 400 m, and a carrying capacity of 1323 passengers, with a maximum operating speed of 285 km/ h. The car body of a 700 series train is a hollow shell made from aluminum alloy and filled with sound-absorbing and shockproof composite materials. Train models are as shown in Fig. 4.3. (b) High-speed trains of France France is in the leading position in the development of high-speed trains. Since the first TGV high-speed train was put into operation on TGV-Sud-Est

Shinkansen 0 Series high-speed train

Shinkansen 300 Series high-speed train Fig. 4.3 Shinkansen high-speed trains

Shinkansen 100 Series high-speed train

Shinkansen 700 Series high-speed train

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Fig. 4.4 High-speed trains in France

in 1981, the high-speed trains of France have experienced the development of four generations include totally nine models, as shown in Fig. 4.4. TGV is short for Train à Grande Vitesse (French) TGV-PSE high-speed trains have a maximum speed of 270 km/h, and were put into operation in 1981. They are famous for their orange color. They have a commercial operating speed of 270 km/h, and set a world record of 370 km/h in 1981. TGV-A high-speed trains were put into operation in 1989. In 1990, TGV Atlantique was officially opened to traffic, where AC transmission was introduced for the first time, with the maximum operating speed reaching up to 300 km/h. On May 18, 1990, TGV-A high-speed trains has increased the test speed to 515.3 km/h, creating the speed record of wheel-rail adhesion transportation vehicle at the time. AGV is short for Automotrice a Grande Vitesse (French), which means “high-speed EUM”. The main difference between AGV and TGV (powerconcentrated type) is the adoption of distributed drive, this design advantage enables AGV to achieve higher operating speed than TGV on the same route. Its target operating speed is 360 km/h. On April 3, 2007, AVG-V150 (France) set a new world record with a speed of 574.8 km/h on Paris-Strasbourg LGV Est. See Fig. 4.5 below for various types of high-speed trains in France. The characteristics of high-speed trains of France are as follows (1) Except for the first-generation TGV-PSE trains which use DC drive, all other high-speed trains use AC synchronous drive. The multiple current mode for power supply and the overhead contact line with simple catenary suspension are adopted, both 1500–3000 V DC power supply for normal railway lines, and 25 kV AC power supply for highspeed railway lines can be used. (2) All high-speed trains employ articulated bogies, with fewer axles, higher stability and overturn protection, but the average axle load is large.

4.1 Overview

TGV-PSE high-speed train (France)

TGV-2N high-speed train (France)

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TGV-R high-speed train (France)

AGV high-speed train (France)

Fig. 4.5 High-speed trains of France

(c) High-speed trains of Germany The high-speed railway of Germany is called ICE, i.e., Inter City Express. Since the first generation ICE1 was put into operation in 1991, there have been three generations totaling four models of high-speed EMUs in Germany, as shown in Fig. 4.6. ICE1, the first generation of high-speed EMUs of Germany, adopts the power-concentrated mode, which consists of 2 motor cars and 14 passenger cars, with a maximum speed of 280 km/h. It was put into operation in 1991, and the actual maximum operating speed is 250 km/h, while in the sections reconstructed from the existing railway line, the running speed is 200 km/h. Fig. 4.6 High-speed trains of Germany

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ICE-2 high-speed EMU was put into operation in 1998, which adopts the power-concentrated mode, and is marshalled with 1 motor car vehicle and 7 trailers, with the maximum operating speed reaching 280 km/h. ICE-3 high-speed EMU was put into operation in 2002, which adopts the power-distributed mode, and is marshalled with 4 motor cars and 4 trailers, with the maximum operating speed reaching 330 km/h. ICE-350E high-speed train was put into trial operation in 2006 and was put into official operation in 2010. It adopts power-distributed mode, and is marshalled with 4 motor cars and 4 trailers, with the maximum operating speed reaching 350 km/h (Fig. 4.7). 2. Overview of high-speed EMU development in China In China, the construction of the first high-speed railway QinhuangdaoShenyang Dedicated Passenger High-speed Railway was commenced in 1999 and completed in 2003, and “Blue Arrow”, “Star of Central Plain” and “Star of China” EMUs are developed. In April 2004, the State Council of China issued Minutes of Meeting on the Study of Railway Locomotive and Rolling Stock Equipment, which clarified the basic principles of “introducing advanced technology, carrying out joint design and production, and building Chinese Brands”. Based on the policy of “advanced, mature, economic, practical, reliable”, and following the process of “introduction—digestion—absorption—re-innovation”, the “Fuxing” EMU technology and production system covering all speed levels with independent intellectual property rights fully owned by China has been formed, as shown in Fig. 4.8. (a) Independently developed models in the early stage China started the research and development on EMUs as early as the 1950s. In 1958, Sifang Machinery Factory completed the design and manufacturing of the first double-decker motor train of China, named “Dongfeng”. This train is marchalled with 2 motor cars and 4 double-decker passenger cars. In the 1990s, China has developed DMUs “Lushan”, “New Dawn” and “Shenzhou”, and EMUs “Chuncheng”, “Blue Arrow” and “Xianfeng”, accumulating certain technologies for EMU design and manufacturing.

ICE-1 high-speed train (Germany) Fig. 4.7 High-speed trains of Germany

ICE-3 high-speed train (Germany)

4.1 Overview

“New Dawn” DMU

153

"Star of China” EMU

Fig. 4.8 “New Dawn” DMU and “Star of China” EMU

However, due to the lack of traction drive technology, train control technology and other key technologies, the safety and reliability cannot meet the requirements of high-speed operation. Therefore, the combination of technology and trade, and the developing process of “introduction—digestion— absorption—re-innovation” is an inevitable choice for China to realize the modernization of railway equipment. (b) First generation models based on introduction, digestion and absorption In October 2004, the Ministry of Railways of China signed the purchase contracts for 140 EMUs with an operating speed of 200 km/h, and successfully introduced the advanced EMU technologies from Kawasaki, Bombardier and Alstom. In 2005, a 300 km/h EMU purchase project was completed (Fig. 4.9). Through “introduction, digestion and absorption”, an EMU product system consisting of four EMU series including CRH1, CRH2, CRH3 and CRH5, with an operating speed of 200–350 km, consisting of 8 or 16 cars, with both seating cars and sleeping cars, is formed. For the unified naming system, CRH stands for China Railway high-speed. (1) CRH1 Manufactured by BOMBARDIER SIFANG (QINGDAO) TRANSPORTATION LTD. the prototype is Regina provided by AB (Sweden). CRH1A adopts AC drive and power-distributed mode, with a nominal speed of 200 km/h, a continuous operating speed of 200 km/h, and a maximum operating speed of 250 km/h. (2) CRH2 EMU CRH2 EMU is jointly produced by CRRC QINGDAO SIFANG CO., LTD. and KAWASAKI HEAVY INDUSTRIES LTD., which introduced foreign technologies and realized localization gradually. The prototype is Japan’s Shinkansen E2-1000, with the power configuration changed from 6M2T of E2-1000 to 4M4T. CRH2 Series are distributed-power and AC drive EMUs, with the car body made of hollow aluminum alloy profiles.

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CRH1 high-speed EMU

CRH5 high-speed EMU

CRH2 high-speed EMU

CRH6 high-speed EMU

Fig. 4.9 CRH EMU

(3) CRH3 EMU The prototype of CRH3 is ICE-3 of German Railways (Siemens Velaro), which was manufactured by CRRC TANGSHAN CO., LTD. and CRRC CHANGCHUN RAILWAY VEHICLES CO., LTD. in China by introducing and absorbing advanced technologies from Siemens. CRH3C EMU is of a power-distributed type EMU, consisting of 8 cars including 4 motor cars and 4 trailers T + M + M + T + M + T + M + M + T. It adopts electric traction AC drive mode, and consists of 2 traction units, and each traction unit is composed of two motor cars and one trailer. The EMU has a good aerodynamic profile, with an operating speed of 350 km/h. (4) CRH5 EMU CRH5 EMU is a high-speed train model introduced from Alstom of France and manufactured by CRRC CHANGCHUN RAILWAY VEHICLES CO., LTD. in China. This model adopts the power-distributed design, based on the wide-body tilting train Pendolino manufactured by CRRC Changchun, and the prototype is the SM3 EMU of Finland Railways, with an operating speed reaching above 200 km. The first generation EMUs based on introduction, digestion and absorption are as shown in Fig. 4.10.

4.1 Overview

CRH380A high-speed EMU

155

CRH380B high-speed EMU

Fig. 4.10 CRH380 Series High-speed EMU

(c) Second Generation CRH380 Series EMU In February 2008, the Joint Action Plan for Independent Innovation of China High-Speed Trains was approved, aiming at building high-speed trains with independent intellectual property rights. It is proposed that high-speed trains meeting the operational requirements of Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway should be developed, and based on relevant technologies digested and absorbed, CSR group and CNR Group should work together to increase the running speed of EMUs from 250–300 to 350 km and above, to provide strong equipment support for Beijing-Shanghai HighSpeed Railway, and to establish and refine China’s high-speed railway technology system with a running speed 350 km/h and above which China possess independent intellectual property rights and has strong international competitiveness. In September 2010, the Ministry of Railways issued the Notice on the Model, Car Number and Seat Number of the New Generation High-speed EMUs, officially changed the model name of CRH380 EMUs manufactured by CRRC Qingdao SiFang, EMUs consist of 8 cars were named CRH380A, and derivative models include CRH380A, CRH380B, CRH380C, CRH380D and others. Before China’s standard EMU, the CRH380 Series EMU is the farthest EMU in the world adopting the most advanced technology and the best system configuration, with a continuous operating speed of 350 km/h and the maximum speed of 380 km/h and above. As shown in Table 4.1, it mainly includes CRH380A, CRH380B, CRH380C and CRH380D. CRH380A(L) is produced by CRRC QINGDAO SIFANG CO., LTD., CRH380BL is jointly produced by CRRC CHANGCHUN RAILWAY VEHICLE CO., LTD. and CRRC TANGSHAN CO., LTD., besides, CRRC CHANGCHUN RAILWAY VEHICLE CO., LTD. has developed 380B short-marshalling alpine train and CRH380CL, while CRH380D is produced fully based Bombardier’s technology.

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Table 4.1 Main types of CRH380 Series EMUs CRH380A

CRH380B

CRH380C

Manufacturer

CRRC QINGDAO SIFANG

CRRC TANGSHAN

CRRC CHANGCHUN RAILWAY VEHICLE

Marshalling mode

6M2T

4M4T

4M4T

Power configuration

T +M+M+M+ M+M+M+T

M+T +M+T +T + MM + T + M

M+T +M+T +T + M+T +M

Motor standard frequency power

400 kW

600 kW

600 kW

Total power

9 600 kW

9 200 kW

9 200 kW

Pantograph model

Stemmann DSA380

Faiveley CX-PG

Faiveley CX-PG

Total length

203 m

200.3 m

200.8 m

Width over sides of car body

3380 mm

3265 mm

3265 mm

Roof height

3700 mm

3890 mm

3890 mm

Power supply mode

AC25 kV

AC25 kV, 50 ~ 60 Hz

AC25 kV, 50 ~ 60 Hz

Capacity

490

510

502

On December 3, 2010, new generation high-speed train CRH380AL set a world record of railway operating speed of 486.1 km/h in the Zaozhuang— Bengbu Test Section of Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway. (d) Third-generation China Standard EMU In order to adapt to the high-speed railway operation environment and conditions of China, to meet more complicated, long-distance, long-time and continuous high-speed operation requirements, to build an EMU design and manufacturing platform suitable for China’s national conditions and railway conditions, and to realize full independence in terms of ECU technologies. Since 2021, under the leadership of China Railway Corporation, and with the support of enterprises, universities and scientific research institutes, the China standard ECU research and development program has been initiated. On January 3, 2017, the National Railway Administration issued China Standard EMU (CEMU) type certificates and manufacturing licenses to CRRC CHANGCHUN RAILWAY VEHICLES CO., LTD. and CRRC QINGDAO SIFANG CO., LTD. This indicates that China Standard EMU is qualified for mass production and commercial operation, marking the beginning of a new era of high-speed EMUs of China. On June 26, 2017, China Standard EMUs—“Fuxing”, two trains numbered G123 and G124, were first put into operation and started their first journey from Beijing South Station and Shanghai Hongqiao Station respectively (Fig. 4.11).

4.1 Overview

CR400AF by CRRC Qingdao Sifang “Feilong”

157

CR400BF by CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles - “Jinfeng”

Fig. 4.11 China Standard EMU

China Standard EMU, can be interpreted either as China-Standard EMU, meaning that Chinese standards are adopted, or as China Standard-EMU, meaning that all performance facilities are standardized. Standards adopted by China Standard EMU cover wide aspects, including EMU general specifications, car body, running gear, layout and equipment of driver’s cab, traction motor, brake and air supply, train network standard, operation and maintenance. Various technical standards including Chinese national standards, industrial standards, and enterprise standards of China Railway Corporation, as well as a number of international and foreign advanced standards are adopted, ensuring good compatibility of China standard EMU. During the development process of China standard EMU, scientific and technological innovations have been made in terms of operation safety, energy saving and environment protection, reduction of life cycle cost and further improvement of safety redundancy. China Standard EMU is named as CR400/300/200, CR stands for China Railway, while 400/300/200 stands for the maximum speed of 400, 300 and 200 km/h. The three speeds meet different market demands. For high-speed railways in China, the operation speed is generally 350 and 250 km/h, while for fast railways, the operating speed is generally 200 and 160 km/h. To prepare for the 2022 Winter Olympics, Beijing-Zhangjiakou High-Speed Railway, as the first intelligent high-speed railway based on BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (independently developed by China) with a design speed of 350 km/h in China, and as the first high-speed railway with the maximum design speed of 350 km/h in alpine and heavy sandstorm areas in the world, was completed and opened to traffic on December 30, 2019. The intelligent EMUs used on Beijing-Zhangjiakou High-Speed Railway are determined to be “Fuxing” Intelligent, which based on the existing “Fuxing” CR400BF EMU, introduces the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System independently developed by China for the first time, realizing automatic pilot at an operating speed of 350 k/h (first in the world).

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4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains A high-speed train is mainly composed of a head car, car body, bogie, traction system, braking system and network control system (as shown in Fig. 4.12), as well as various subsystems including auxiliary power supply, air conditioning, door and window, car end coupling, catering services, water supply and sanitation, passenger information service, interior decoration, electrical, smoke and fire alarm and lighting.

4.2.1 Head Shape of High-Speed Train High-speed trains have spatial free-form surfaces, and there are various influence factors, therefore the structural shaping is difficult, among which, head shape design is the complex and demanding comprehensive task, and has become the bottleneck for the research and development of new MEU model. With the continuous increase of running speed, the aerodynamic effect of high-speed train has gradually become an important factor affecting the safety, comfort, energy saving and environmental protection characteristics of the train, especially for the aerodynamic performance of head shape, the influence is even more predominant.

Fig. 4.12 Basic structure of high-speed train

4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains

159

1. Design index of head shape (a) Safety Safety is the primary factor to be considered in the design process. The main factors affecting the safe operation of high-speed trains include aerodynamic lift, crossing lateral force and crosswind effect, which will degrade the operation stability; surface pressure and crossing pressure wave, which will influence the strength of car body; tunnel effect; and crosswind effect. The influences of high-speed trains on the surrounding environment include the influence of train-induced wind on workers and railway facilities along railway lines; the influence of tunnel effect on the facilities in tunnels and trains running through tunnels. (b) Comfortability With the increase of train speed, ride comfort has become a prominent problem. The main factors that degrade the ride comfort include noise, the vibration of local structures of car body and the vibration of the equipment in the car, pressure surge inside the car and the impacts induced by passing trains, or when the train passes through tunnels or encounters strong wind. (c) Energy saving The aerodynamic resistance increases sharply with the increase of running speed. When the running speed reaches 300 km/h, the aerodynamic resistance accounts for 75% of the total resistance of the train. With the further increase of the running speed, the aerodynamic resistance will become more predominant in the whole resistance of the train. An ideal aerodynamic shape design can effectively reduce the aerodynamic resistance, which is an effective measure to reduce energy consumption for high-speed trains. (d) Environmental protection The influence imposed by trains on the environment has always been a highly concerning problem. The influence of high-speed trains on the environment includes aerodynamic noise, micro-pressure waves at tunnel exit and traininduced wind. It is an important subject to be considered in the design of high-speed train head shape to realize the maximum increase of running speed with the minimum environment influence. The influences on the surrounding environment include the influence of train-induced wind on workers and railway facilities along railway lines; the influence of tunnel effect on the facilities in tunnels and trains running through tunnels. 2. Relationship between head shape parameters and aerodynamic performance of high-speed trains The head shape parameters of high-speed trains mainly include slenderness ratio, cross-sectional area, sectional change rate, longitudinal profile, cross-section

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Head length/m

0 Series 4.4

100 Series 5.5

300 Series 6.0

700 Series 9.2

Fig. 4.13 Different models of Japan’s Shinkansen high-speed trains

profile, etc. The head shape limiting factors of high-speed trains mainly include driver’s vision, equipment layout, interior space, auxiliary equipment space, design and manufacturing process cost, manufacturing technology, etc. The influence of the slenderness ratio on the aerodynamic performance of highspeed trains is significant. In the head shape streamline design, it is generally required that the slenderness ratio should be > 3. Figure 4.13 Slenderness ratio of Japan’s Shinkansen high-speed trains

4.2.2 Car Body of the High-Speed Train The car body is the carrier to accommodate transport objects, and also the foundation to install and connect other parts of the trains, which is generally composed of an underframe, side walls, a roof, end walls and other components (Fig. 4.14).

Fig. 4.14 Composition of car body

4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains

161

Compared with conventional locomotive and rolling stocks, the operating speed of high-speed trains is increased greatly, therefore, the following factors shall be taken into consideration in the design of the car body. To reduce air resistance, the car body should be designed to have a streamlined shape. To improve ride comfort, the car body should adopt an airtight structure. To reduce energy consumption, the car body should adopt a lightweight design. 1. Lightweight design The three typical structures used in modern high-speed EMUs include thin profiles (monoshell), hollow profiles (double shell) and honeycomb profiles (as shown in Table 4.2). The advantages of double-shell structures are as follows (a) Provide high rigidity, and increase noise transmission loss. (b) Greatly reduce the number of parts, and increase the automatic welding range, thus reducing manufacturing costs and improving manufacturing quality. In general, the double-shell structure is regarded as the best car body structure for high-speed EMUs at present. In China, the car body of high-speed EMU is welded with large hollow extruded aluminum alloy profiles, which meets the requirements of lightweight and high bearing capacity, as shown in Fig. 4.15. 2. Streamline design China’s high-speed EMUs adopt a streamlined head shape, as shown in Fig. 4.16. The car windows, sliding doors and the car body form a flat and smooth surface; Table 4.2 Typical structures used in high-speed EMUs Extruded profiles with reinforcing rib

Characteristics Reinforcing ribs are used for shell plating reinforcement, and side columns should be provided; and the side columns should be welded with reinforcing ribs

Large hollow thin-wall extruded profiles

Vacuum brazing socket aluminum plates

Internal trusses are used for shell plating reinforcement; side column is not required

Honeycomb structures are used for shell plating reinforcement, and side column is not required; and honeycomb structures should be connected with shell plating

STAR21 300X 700 series

STAR21 300X 500 series

Type

Application

300 series E2 series

162

Aluminum alloy car body structure of EMU

4 High-Speed Railway Electric Multiple Unit

Hollow profile (double-shell) structure

Fig. 4.15 Aluminum alloy car body structure of EMU

cars are connected with inner and outer windshields; the equipment and pipelines under the floor are arranged in the equipment compartment; and the lower part of the car body is covered with aprons, so that the car body is in a smooth box shape, as shown in Fig. 4.17. In this way, the adverse effects of air resistance, aerodynamic noise, tunnel micro-pressure wave and train-crossing pressure wave can be minimized. 3. Adopting airtightness structural design Since high-speed trains are running on the ground, pressure waves produced on train surfaces during train crossing or when passing through tunnels will cause external pressure change. By improving the strength and airtightness of the car body, the pressure change in coaches can be controlled and the change rate can be kept at the minimum level, so that passengers may not feel eardrum pressure pain when traveling with high-speed EMUs. In China, it is required that the time for pressure drop from 4 to 1 kPa in EMU coaches shall be longer than 50 s, so as to ensure that the pressure fluctuation in coaches will not degrade the ride comfort.

Fig. 4.16 Streamlined appearance of head car

4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains

163

Fig. 4.17 Streamlined car body design

4.2.3 Running Gear The running gear is the part that supports the car body, bears the tare weight and payload of high-speed trains, and runs on the rail (see Fig. 4.18). The independent structure composed of two or more wheelsets, bearings, a frame, bolster spring damping devices, brake rigging and other parts is called bogie. Bogie is the running mechanism of high-speed trains, which is responsible for train bearing, guiding, damping, traction and braking. By the configuration of the drive device, bogies can be divided into power bogie and non-power bogie, as shown in Fig. 4.19; a high-speed bogie mainly consists of wheelsets, axle box device, primary suspension, frame, secondary suspension, drive device (for power bogie) and brake gear. Take CRH2 high-speed EMU bogie as an example, we are going to introduce and analyze the functional modules of bogie.

Fig. 4.18 Bogies support EMU

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Fig. 4.19 Basic structure of high-speed bogie

1. Bogie bearing module The basic function of bogie is to carry the car body, and the frame and wheelsets are the main bearing parts. Besides, the connecting air springs between the car body and bogies, and the central traction seat are also important parts of the bearing module (see Fig. 4.20). 2. Bogie power module Bogies of railway locomotives or motor cars should provide kinetic energy for car moving. The drive device (motor and gearbox) and wheel axle structure of the bogie are the key parts to realize electric energy–kinetic energy transformation. Electric energy drives the motor rotating and outputting torsional moment

Fig. 4.20 Bogie

4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains

165

through the output shaft, the gearbox then effectively transfers such driving force to the axles which drive the wheel rotating at high speed. The axle boxes on both sides of wheelsets transform the rolling motion of wheelsets along the rail into the translational movement of the frame along the railway. The translational movement of the frame, through the traction rods and the central traction seat, drives the whole car body forward. 3. Bogie motion control module A significant difference between railway rolling stocks and other means of transportation is that no direction control device is required for railway rolling stocks, the rail can guide wheels running automatically, and the key to ensuring such motion is the clever wheel-rail shape design (see Fig. 4.21). Wheels are rigidly connected with the axle at a certain angle, realizing automatic alignment of wheelsets. The protruding part at the inner side is called wheel flange, which is an important part to prevent derailing. The perfect wheel-rail engagement ensures the high-speed running of trains. As the roughly conical-shaped wheelsets roll forward on the rail, the motion trajectory of the wheelset center is a zigzag curve. Since the shape of the trajectory curve is like a snake, this phenomenon is called “snake motion” (hunting motion). The hunting motion of wheelsets will be transferred to the frame, resulting in yawing motion of the frame in the horizontal plane, and then transferred from the frame to the car body, resulting in swing of car body (see Fig. 4.22). Hunting motion is closely related to the running speed. The higher the running speed, the more intense the hunting motion, and the more likely the train will derail. In order to reduce the dynamic influence of wheelset running on the car body, elastic suspensions are provided between the axle box and the frame, and between the frame and the car body. The former is called primary suspension, the

Fig. 4.21 Bogie motion control module

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Fig. 4.22 Hunting motion of wheels

latter is called secondary suspension. The primary suspension consists of steel springs (two helical springs), vertical shock absorbers and rubber positioning devices, which is mainly provided to suppress the hunting motion of wheels, and to preliminarily reduce the vibration transmitted from the rail top; the secondary suspension mainly consists of air springs, transverse shock absorbers, rubber stops, and anti-hunting motion dampers, which is mainly used to suppress the hunting motion of the frame, and to further absorb vibration, so as to ensure the stability of the car body, and provide larger relative rotating angle and transverse movement between the car body and the bogie when the train is passing through a curve. The primary and the secondary suspension systems can properly control the movement during power transferring, make full use of the favorable kinetic energy, and restrain and dissipate the unfavorable kinetic energy. The suspension system plays an important role in guaranteeing steady running and smooth curve passing of trains, and in ensuring train operation safety. 4. Bogie brake module In addition to high speed and safe running of trains, rapid and safe stop of trains also must be ensured. This is the kinetic energy conversion goal of the brake module. Kinetic energy of trains is converted to electric energy for recycling or to thermal energy and dissipate, corresponding to the commonly-adopted electric braking and basic braking of EMUs, in general, these two modes are working together. For electric braking, the motor is reversed into a generator, which converts kinetic energy of EMUs into electric energy and sends the same back to the power grid, realizing kinetic energy-electric energy conversion; while brake rigging is mainly composed of brake disc and brake caliper, and kinetic energy–thermal energy conversion is realized through high-speed friction (see Fig. 4.23).

4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains

167

Fig. 4.23 Bogie brake rigging

4.2.4 Braking System The braking system is a key subsystem of high-speed trains, which provides braking force for deceleration and stop of trains under normal operation, and ensures safe stop of trains within the specified emergency braking distance in case of accidents or other emergencies. Since the kinetic energy of the train is proportional to the square of the running speed, with the increase of the running speed, the braking energy to be absorbed by the braking system increases significantly, which puts forward higher requirements for the braking capacity and reliability of high-speed trains. 1. Basic requirements for braking system The action of actively decelerating a moving object (train) or preventing the acceleration thereof is called braking. The braking system is a system composed of a complete set of parts and components installed on the train to implement the braking action, and the external force generated by the braking system along the opposite direction of the train running direction is called “braking force”. The essence of braking is the conversion and transfer of kinetic energy of trains. Conversion refers to the conversion from kinetic energy to other forms of energy, while transfer refers to the transfer and dissipation of kinetic energy between braking systems. High-speed train braking can be divided into speed control braking and park braking, which is frequently applied under various circumstances, such as parking at stations, keeping train stationary, decelerating during the running process, preventing train acceleration when going downhill and emergency stop in case of emergency, etc., it is a key system to ensure the operation safety of high-speed trains. The requirements for the braking system are as follows (a) Requirement for braking capacity Where stop is required, the braking system must be able to brake the highspeed train stop within the specified braking distance. For a small wheelsmall friction coefficient, the advantage is that a smaller traction force is

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required. However, the small wheel-rail friction coefficient also brings the disadvantage of long braking distance. The performance of braking system of high-speed trains is mainly reflected in the emergency braking distance. The emergency braking distance is the stipulated distance within which the train must brake stop in case of emergency. The designed emergency braking distance is mainly determined based on the maximum braking capacity allowed by the utilization of wheel-rail adhesion, thermal capacity of brake riggings, braking control performance and various factors, besides, necessary safety margin shall be considered, especially the emergency braking capacity under poor dynamic braking condition. Currently, the standard emergency braking distance for high-speed trains with a maximum running speed of 300 km/h is generally stipulated to be 3000–4000 m (see Table 4.3). (b) Reliability requirement Once the braking system of high-speed train fails, the consequences will be devastating. To ensure the reliability of the braking system, all parts and software control systems used in the system must be reliable, and for important subsystems or key parts, sufficient redundancy must be reserved. Besides, the principle of “fail-safe” shall be adopted in system design. (c) Comfortability requirement No matter how good the braking capacity is, if train braking will result in passenger fall over, the high-speed train will be regarded as unqualified. The Table 4.3 Braking distance and braking mode of high-speed trains Model

Operating speed/km/h

Brake mode

Number of brake disc of trailer/axle

Standard brake distance/m

Braking distance under unfavored condition/m

300 Series (Japan)

270

Regenerative + brake disc

2

4000

4960

ICE1 (Germany)

300

Regenerative 4 + brake disc + magnetic rail

3450

—

TGV-A (France)

300

Motor car: resistance + wheel tread Trailer: brake disc

4

3500

4500

TGV-PSE (France)

270

Motor car: resistance + wheel tread Trailer + brake disc

4

3000

3700

4.2 Structures and Key Technologies of High-Speed Trains

169

train braking comfortability is mainly reflected by the deceleration rate, i.e., the differentiation of deceleration. According to researches: (1) For a deceleration change rate < 0.6 m/s3 , no discomfort will be felt by passengers. (2) For a deceleration change rate between 0.6 and 0.75 m/s3 , the braking experience is acceptable by passengers. (3) For a deceleration change rate more than 1.0 m/s3 , standing passengers may fall over. During the high-speed train braking process, the maximum deceleration change rate occurs at the initial stage of braking, during the process of braking mode switching, and at the point when the train stop. In order to ensure high comfortability, a specific requirement for the deceleration change rate during high-speed train braking has been stipulated. 2. Braking mode and braking function The braking force coordination of high-speed trains is usually carried out in the braking unit formed by several motor cars and trailers. In a unit, the braking force is generally a composite force consisting of braking forces provided by multiple braking modes. (a) Adhesion braking and non-adhesion braking The braking mode refers to the kinetic energy transfer mode or the braking force obtaining mode during braking. The braking mode is divided according to adhesion condition, and the classification is as shown in Fig. 4.24. (1) Adhesion braking Taking the brake shoe braking as an example, there are usually three states for analysis among wheel, brake shoe and rail, i.e., an ideal pure rolling state which is hard to realize, “skidding” state which should Tread braking Disc braking Fluid friction braking Adhesion braking

Resistor braking Spiral eddy current braking Regenerative braking

Braking mode

Flywheel energy storage braking Magnetic rail braking Non-adhesion braking Track eddy current braking

Fig. 4.24 Classification of braking modes

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be avoided, and “adhesion” state which is a common state in practical applications. (I) The static (without relative skidding) friction resistance between rolling wheels and the rail produced at the point when the wheels contact the rail is used as the braking force, and the wheels will slow down to stop as they roll along the rail. In this process, the friction between the wheels and the rail is static friction, and the friction between wheels and brake shoes is dynamic friction. This is an ideal state which is hard to realize. If this state can be realized, the maximum braking force produced is approximately the static friction resistance limit between the wheels and the rail. (II) The second case is just the opposite of the first one. That is, the friction between the wheels and the brake shoes is static friction, and the friction between the wheels and the rail is dynamic friction. Therefore, the wheels slow down to stop as they roll along the rail in the first case is changed to the wheels slow down to stop as they skid (before the train stop, i.e., before fully locked by brake shoes, the wheels slide on the rail) along the rail. This is a fault state that must be eliminated. In this case, the dynamic friction resistance between wheel and rail is the braking force during skidding. (III) In practice, when wheels roll on a rail, the contact state between the wheel and rail is neither stationary nor skidding. In the field of railway, the term “adhesion” is used to refer to this state. The braking mode using the adhesion force produced at adhesion points as the wheels adhesive rolling on the rail for locomotive and rolling stock braking is called adhesion braking. During adhesion braking, the maximum braking force obtained will not exceed the adhesion force. From the aspect of braking force formation, all brake shoe braking, disc braking, hydraulic braking, resistor braking, eddy current braking, regenerative braking, and flywheel energy storage braking belong to adhesion breaking. The braking forces produced thereof are limited by the adhesion force. (2) Non-adhesion braking Track electromagnetic braking and track eddy current braking belong to non-adhesion braking. During braking, the braking force provided by the rail does not apply on the train through the wheel-rail adhesion points, instead, it is directly applied on electromagnets hanging on the bogie by the rail. The braking force is not limited by the wheel-rail adhesion force, which is a braking mode to obtain braking force other than adhesion force. Therefore, it is also called off-adhesion braking. At present, non-adhesion braking is mainly applied to high-speed trains with insufficient adhesion braking force, as an auxiliary braking mode.

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171

(b) Friction braking and power braking High-speed train braking refers to the process to absorb or convert the kinetic energy of a train with the braking system so as to realize the deceleration or stop of the trains. The braking modes of high-speed train can be divided into the adhesion braking mode and the non-adhesion braking mode based on whether the braking force comes from the wheel-rail adhesion force; and by the power absorption or conversion modes, the braking modes can be divided into the friction braking and the power braking. Currently, the main braking modes adopted by commercial high-speed trains in the world include brake shoe braking, disc braking, resistor braking, regenerative braking, disc eddy current braking, magnetic rail braking and track eddy current braking. Among them, disc braking and regenerative braking are most widely adopted. (1) Disc braking Disc braking is as shown in Fig. 4.25. Clamp brake linings onto the brake discs mounted on axles or web plates of wheels with the braking clamps, so that friction is generated between the brake linings and brake discs, converting kinetic energy into heat, heat is then transferred to the brake discs and brake linings, and finally discharged into the atmosphere. (2) Regenerative braking Regenerative braking is as shown in Fig. 4.26, which converts kinetic energy of the train into electric energy for recycling. Electric locomotives or electric cars can adopt regenerative braking, sending electric energy back to the power grid,

Fig. 4.25 Disc braking. 1—Wheel set; 2—brake disc; 3—unit brake cylinder; 4—brake clamp; 5—traction motor

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Fig. 4.26 Regenerative braking

(c) Classification by functions Based on the running states of trains, braking functions executed by the braking system of high-speed trains mainly include service braking, quick braking, emergency braking, auxiliary braking and snow-proof braking. Service braking is a braking function used in normal commissioning or when a train is parking at a station, among all braking functions, service braking is the most frequently used braking function. Quick braking is a braking function implemented to stop the train quickly under abnormal circumstances. The same composite braking mode as that of the serve braking is adopted, which can provide a braking force 1.5 times that of the maximum service braking. Emergency braking is the braking function implemented to slow the train down quickly and brake the train to a stop in the shortest distance in case of emergency. Auxiliary braking is the air braking enabled in case of braking system failure, braking command circuit breakage or abnormal transmission, which can produce the braking effect equivalent to service braking and quick braking at different levels. Snow-proof braking can prevent snowflakes from entering between brake discs and brake linings. When the brake is applied, the brake cylinder will gently push brake linings out to eliminate the gap between brake linings and brake discs, so as to prevent the snow from entering. 3. Composition of braking system and control principle thereof (a) Composition of braking system The braking system of a high-speed train is composed of subsystems including driver brake controller, train control system, brake control device, air source device (including main air source device and auxiliary air source device), air lines, brake rigging, regenerative brake device and electronic anti-skid device.

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(1) The driver brake controller serves as the high-speed train brake signal generator. (2) The train control system collects and transmits the brake instructions, and receives the braking state instructions. (3) The braking control device receives braking instructions and implements braking force control. (4) The air source device is used to produce compressed air for gasconsuming equipment such as braking and pantograph lifting devices, which mainly include the main air compressor, auxiliary control compressor, drying device, oil filter, air cylinder and safety valve. (5) The brake rigging is composed of brake discs (including disc and lining), brake boosters and braking clamps. For trailers, the axle-disc type (2 brake discs on 1 axle) and the wheel-disc type (a disc is arranged at every wheel position) are adopted, while for motor cars, only the wheel-disc type is adopted. (6) The regenerative braking device works just like the traction drive system, during the braking process, the traction motor will be reversed as a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the train into three-phase alternating current, through the main converter, the threephase alternating current will be converted into single-phase alternating current which after being boosted by the traction transformer will be fed back to the power grid through the pantograph, thus realizing the recycle of braking energy. (7) The electronic anti-skid device includes anti-skid for electric brake and anti-skid for air brake. When sliding is detected, adhesion regaining control will be implemented by reducing regenerative braking force or reducing the pressure of the brake cylinder. (b) Principle of braking system control High-speed EMUs adopt the composite brake system, i.e., a comprehensive braking system composed of air braking, power braking and non-adhesive braking. For high-speed EMUs, under normal circumstances, power braking should be used as the dominant braking mode and air braking should serve as an auxiliary braking mode; under special circumstances, air braking shall be used as the main braking mode; in case of emergency braking, in addition to air braking and power braking, non-adhesion braking shall also be used. As shown in Fig. 4.27, when the service braking is applied, the driver brake controller will release the braking instruction, which through the network control system, will be sent to all brake control devices of the train, then the brake control devices will carry out calculation based on the brake instruction, running speed and loading condition, output the braking force required, and allocate the regenerative braking force and the mechanical braking force appropriately. First, the traction control unit receives the braking force instruction from the brake control device, controls the traction drive system, outputs the regenerative braking force, and sends the regenerative braking force result back to the brake control device. The brake

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control device receives the regenerative braking force feedback from the traction control device, and the insufficient braking force will be provided by the air brake. For air braking, by controlling the current of the electricpneumatic valve (EP valve), the pre-control pressure signal is given; the compressed air, after being amplified by the relay valve and pressurized by the pressure cylinder, will push the braking clamps to apply the braking force to the braking disc for braking. When a high-speed train applies the emergency braking, the compressed air, through the control air cylinder, the pressure regulating valve, and the emergency braking electromagnetic valve, will directly control the relay valve to adjust the pneumatic pressure transmitted, after pressurized through the air cylinder, drives the disc brake to act for braking. 4. Anti-skid control For the adhesion braking, the problem of wheel skid during braking is inevitable. Wheel skid can not only increase the braking distance, but also cause wheel tread damage and result in train operation accidents. Moreover, with the increase of running speed, the wheel-rail adhesion coefficient will decrease thus the risk of wheel skid will get higher. Therefore, to ensure high-speed operation safety, the problem of wheel skid must be solved. There are two ways to prevent wheel skid: one is to take the initiative to eliminate conditions that may result in wheel skid, so as to reduce the risk of wheel skid, called active anti-skid; and the other is to take measures to prevent wheel skid when wheel skid is identified, called passive anti-skid.

Fig. 4.27 Braking system control process

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(a) Active anti-skid According to the adhesion conditions, skidding is generally caused by the following two reasons: excessive braking force and reduced adhesion. In general, the limitation by design adhesion coefficient has been considered in braking force design, therefore the possibility of sudden increase during braking is small. The only reason that may cause excessive braking force is improper electro-proportional coordination control, however, the risk of excessive braking force can be eliminated as long as the electro-pneumatic control is properly designed. Therefore, the primary cause of skid is reduced adhesion. The main measure of active anti-skid focuses on adhesion. (1) Adopt deceleration control technology The adhesion coefficient is greatly affected by the train running speed, climate conditions and wheel-rail surface state, among which, the influence of running speed is predictable and is given by the design adhesion coefficient. When the deceleration control technology is adopted, the braking force of the train will not exceed the design adhesion condition. (2) Improve adhesion by adopting adhesion improvement technology Tread cleaning is an effective way to improve adhesion. During braking, push the tread cleaning pads to contact the wheel treads for cleaning, so as to restore the initial wheel-rail adhesion state; besides, the cleaning pads are made of special adhesion improvement materials, in the cleaning process, a small amount of adhesion improvement material will attach to the wheel thread to increase the wheel-rail adhesion coefficient, so as to effectively improve the adhesion state. (3) Adopt head car braking and deceleration mode According to the relevant researches, most train skid appears in the front of the train, especially the head car. Further researches show that since the head car is easily subjected to the influence of water and oil on the rail, the adhesion coefficient thereof in high-speed sections is greatly lower than that of the following cars. Therefore, in high-level braking control, the braking capacity of the head car should be proportionately lower than the average braking capacity, and the reduced braking capacity of the head car will be compensated by following cars. (4) Spray sand to improve adhesion According to researches, increasing the wheel-rail surface roughness can break the water film or oil film formed between wheel and rail, thus improving the adhesion condition. Spraying sand between wheel and rail to improve adhesion is an ancient technique (see Fig. 4.28), and the innovation lies in the material of “sand”. According to researches conducted by foreign countries, the adhesion improvement effect of special ceramic particles is much better than ordinary sand particles. The sand spraying method is simple, and the adhesion improvement effect is good. The disadvantage is that ten sand tanks and control parts thereof should be installed on high-speed trains, hindering weight

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Fig. 4.28 Sanding device

reduction. If this method applies to the head car or even the first axle only, both adhesion improvement and weight reduction can be realized. (b) Passive anti-skid The main measure of passive anti-skid is to use anti-skid devices to improve the running state of wheels. An anti-skid device is composed of a speed sensor, a skid detector and an anti-skid electromagnetic valve. The basic principle of the anti-skid device is as shown in Fig. 4.29. The microcomputer-controlled anti-skid device can dynamically detect and control the whole process of braking, pre-skid, alleviation and adhesion regaining. The control principle of the digital anti-skid device is shown in Fig. 4.30. In the braking process, the skid detector will carry out calculation, analysis and adjustment based on the rolling pulse signal of each axle sent from the

Fig. 4.29 Basic principle of anti-skid device Fig. 4.30 Tight-lock central coupler and draft gear

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speed sensor, if it determines that the skid extent (wheel speed difference or deceleration) exceeds the stipulated limit, it will command the anti-skid electromagnetic valve to act to reduce the braking force applied on the wheels, and the anti-skid electromagnetic valve will stop acting until the wheel resume rolling (adhesion regaining). Even if the braking force is reduced during skidding, there will be no braking force loss, since the limit of adhesion has been exploited. The ideal situation is that the braking torque can increase at the adhesion regaining point of the wheel, but in the actual control process, the control method of adhesion regaining point is determined based on the relationship between the brake force and the adhesion force and considering the lag brake force control, therefore, it is difficult to have the braking force increased at the ideal point. However, in order to prevent the extension of braking distance, the section line part in the figure should be reduced as far as possible, i.e., the anti-skid control method with minimum braking force loss should be adopted.

4.2.5 Coupler and Draft Gear The coupler and draft gear is one of the most basic and important parts of the car, which is used to couple and keep a certain distance between the cars, and to transfer and dissipate the longitudinal force and impact force generated during the running or shunting processes. High-speed railway cars generally used tight-lock central coupler and draft gears (see Fig. 4.30) which integrates traction, buffer and coupling, with cars moving slowly towards and colliding with each other, the coupler will act and realize automatic mechanical, electrical and pneumatically connection between two cars. Safe and automatic coupling can be realized even there is a height difference between two couplers, or when the train is in the slope or curve section, and decoupling can be realized either pneumatically or manually. Figure 4.31 shows the coupler structure of the tight-lock central coupler and draft gear as well as the principle of coupling and decoupling 1. Pre-coupling state The preparation state before coupling, at this point, the coupler knuckle locating rod is fixed to the pre-coupling position, the lock spring is in the maximum stress state, the lock coupling rod is retracted into the convex cone, and coupler mouth on the coupler knuckle directs at the coupler head. 2. Coupling status The convex cone of a coupler inserts into the concave cone hole of the adjacent coupler, and pushes the locating rod block, which further pushes the coupler knuckle locating rod to leave the pre-coupling position. The restoring force of the lock spring drives the coupler knuckle rotates counterclockwise, which further pushes the lock coupling rod into the coupling mouth of the adjacent coupler knuckle, coupling and locking of two couplers completed. At this point, the

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Fig. 4.31 Working principle of automatic coupler. 1—Shell; 2—coupler knuckle; 3—central axis; 4—lock coupling rod; 5—lock spring; 6—coupler knuckle locating rod; 7—coupler knuckle locating rod spring; 8—locating rod block; 9—locating rod block spring; 10—decoupling air cylinder

lock coupling rods connecting two couplers and the coupler knuckle form a parallelogram, when the traction force applies on the coupler, the tension is evenly shared by the two lock coupling rods, so that the coupler knuckle is maintained in the locking position. In case of impact, the pressure will be transferred through the connecting flanges on the shells of two couplers. 3. Decoupling state Drivers operate the button and control the electromagnetic valve to charge the decoupling air cylinder, the piston of the air cylinder pushes the coupler knuckle to rotate clockwise, then the lock coupling rod of the adjacent coupler will pull the coupler knuckle away, meanwhile, the lock coupling rod of its own coupler overcomes restoring force of the lock spring and retracts back to the convex cone, so as to disengage with the knuckle of the adjacent coupler. At this point, the locating rod block controls the coupler knuckle locating rod to keep the coupler knuckle in the decoupling state. After disengagement of the two couplers, the locating rid block will be reset to the original position under the restoring force of the spring, the locating rod of the coupler knuckle will return to the pre-coupling position, and the coupler will restore to the pre-coupling state.

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4.2.6 Traction Drive System In the field of transportation, an electric drive unit that uses an electric motor for car traction is referred as electric traction system. Since the birth of high-speed trains and along with the development of the power electronic technology and the control technology, the traction and control technologies for high-speed trains have undergone constant upgrading and refining, with the traction mode upgraded from DC drive to AC drive, the main switch of traction converter from GTO to IGBT and IPM (intelligent power module), and the control mode of traction motor from slip frequency control to high-performance vector control. 1. System composition and function The traction system of a high-speed train is mainly used for the energy conversion of the train, which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy for driving the train running in the traction mode, and converts mechanical energy to electric power and sends the same back to the power line in the regenerative brake mode. The composition of a traction system is as shown in Fig. 4.32. It is mainly composed of OCS-side high-voltage electrical equipment, traction transformer, traction converter and traction motor, wherein, the traction converter further consists of three parts including a four-quadrant converter, an intermediate DC link and a traction inverter. The traction drive system shall complete energy conversion with the support of the traction control system. Worldwide, high-speed railways generally use a 25 kV, 50/60 Hz single-phase alternating current mode as the power supply. In a traction system, the pantograph first transmits high-voltage alternating current from the overhead contact line system to the traction transformer, and the voltage-reduced single-phase

Fig. 4.32 Photo of ATM9 traction transformer. 1—Hot oil outlet pipe inlet cooler; 2—electric oil pump; 3—oil cooler; 4—hot oil suction pipe; 5—transformer winding; 6—cooling air inlet; 7—oil cooler radiation fin and hot air outlet; 8—oil flow relay; 9—temperature relay; 10—primary side bushing; 11—wiring terminals

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alternating current from the transformer is then supplied to the traction converters which convert CFCV single-phase alternating current to VVVF three-phase alternating current and supply the same to the AC traction motors, finally the traction motors complete electrical energy-mechanical energy conversion, with the torque output transmitted to the wheelset through the gear system and converted to tractive effort at the wheel rim. A traction converter usually adopts the “AC–DC– AC” structure, i.e., the four-quadrant converter converts single-phase alternating current to direct current and outputs direct current through the intermediate DC link to the traction inverter which then outputs three-phase alternating current with controllable voltage and frequency. To ensure proper energy conversion by the traction drive system, the traction control system shall control and monitor the main equipment mentioned above. 2. Main electrical equipment of the system The basic power unit of CRH2C and CRH3C multiple-unit trains (see Fig. 4.32) consists of one traction transformer, two traction converters and four traction motors, wherein, one traction transformer supplies power to two traction converters, and one traction converter supplies power to four traction motors of a car, belonging to the car control mode. In general, all the power units of a multiple-unit train can be connected in parallel through the extra-high-voltage cable on the car roof, and in the case of failure of one power unit, the high-voltage disconnector will be applied to isolate the failed power unit so as to ensure the normal operation of the others. (a) OCS-side high-voltage electrical equipment OCS-side high-voltage electrical equipment is the equipment for current collection and control of high-speed trains from overhead contact line systems, including pantograph, line vacuum circuit breaker, arrester, highvoltage transducer, high-voltage cable, high-voltage connector, protective earthing switch, high-voltage disconnector, earthing resistor and other equipment that are used for controlling the connection and disconnection between the overhead contact line system and the traction transformer, OCS-side voltage and current detection and protection. Based on the marshalling mode of a high-speed train, single pantograph for current collection and double pantographs for current collection are generally adopted. The pantograph is responsible for completing current collection and ensuring the current collection quality during the high-speed running process of a train, and how to ensure the stable and reliable current collection with double pantographs under the high-speed condition is a key concern. Figure 4.32 shows the SSS400+ high-speed pantograph used by CRH2C and CRH3C trains, and the main technical parameters are shown in Table 4.4. Other high-voltage electrical appliances other than the pantograph can either be installed in the equipment compartment under the car or mounted on the roof. The vacuum main circuit breaker not only serves as the master power switch of EMU, but also serves as a protective circuit breaker in case of

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Table 4.4 Main parameters of SSS400 + high-speed pantograph Adaptive speed (km/h)

300

Max. speed (km/h)

350

Rated speed/V

25,000

Rated current/A

700

Skid material

Carbon

Pantograph weight/kg

150

Static pressure applied on ski/N

40–120 (adjustable)

over-current, short circuit and other fault conditions. Arresters are mainly used to absorb overvoltage in case of a lightning strike or maloperation, so as to protect the traction transformer and traction converter from damage; high-voltage disconnectors are mainly used to isolate failed power units, so as to ensure normal operation of high-speed trains; voltage transformers and current transformers are used to detect the voltage and current at the highspeed side, so as to provide real-time data to the traction control, monitoring and protection units. (b) Traction transformer The traction transformer is used to transform the 25 kV high-voltage power obtained by the pantograph from the overhead contact line system into power with a lower voltage suitable for the traction converter, and to realize electrical isolation. The working principle thereof is the same as that of an ordinary power transformer. A traction transformer is mainly composed of a primary winding, a secondary traction winding, a cooling system, a cabinet, detection sensors and protection devices. Figure 4.32 shows the ATM9 traction transformer for high-speed trains, the rated parameters thereof are set out in Table 4.5. ATM9 transformer adopts single-phase shell type, which is sealed without pressurized, with the oil conservator installed in the central part of the traction transformer, and connected to the main oil tank through a connecting hole for insulation oil transmission. The bellows adopt a stainless steel welding structure, with oil stored at the outer side and the inner sides connected to the atmosphere. (c) Traction converter The traction converter is the core part of the traction drive system, which realizes the flexible conversion of electric energy by switching on or off the power electronic device. The main circuit of a traction converter consists of a four-quadrant converter, an intermediate DC link and a traction inverter, which complete the electric power conversion under the traction drive control system. At present, the power electronic devices in traction converters mainly use IGBT or IGBT-based intelligent power modules integrating driving and protection functions. Currently, 6500 V IGBT is widely used in high-speed trains. In addition to the main circuit, the traction converter shall also include a drive circuit, a protection circuit, a detection circuit, a radiator, a fan, a control power supply and other parts. These devices are generally installed in the

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Table 4.5 Maintenance cycle of CRH Series EMUs Maintenance class

Content

Class-1 maintenance

Routine inspection

Class-2 maintenance

Maintenance cycle/outage time CRH1

CRH2

CRH3

CRH5

4000 km or 48 h 4000 km or 8h

4000 km or 48 h

4000 km or 48 h

Key parts inspection

12,500 km or 15 days

30,000 km or 30 days

20,000 km or 10 days

60,000 km or 15 days

Class-3 maintenance

Bogie inspection

1,200,000 km or 10 days

600,000 km or 1,200,000 km 15 days or 15 days

1,200,000 km or 15 days

Class-4 maintenance

System breakdown inspection

24,030,000 km or 20 days

450,000 km or 2,400,000 km 20 days

2,400,000 km

Class-5 maintenance

Overall break-up overhaul

4,800,000 km

2,400,000 km or 30 days

4,800,000 km

4,800,000 km

Note The EMU maintenance cycle is calculated mainly based on running mileage, supported by time period, the early one shall prevail

same cabinet. For example, in the central position of the traction converter cabinet for CRH2C EMU, four-quadrant converter power modules (2 sets) and inverter power modules (3 sets) are installed. (d) Traction motor In the high-speed train running process, the conversion between electric energy and mechanical energy is completed through the traction motor. In the traction mode, the motor works, converting electric energy into mechanical energy, while in the braking mode, the generator works, converting mechanical energy into electric energy. At present, DC motors are replaced by AC motors, some train models may use AC synchronous motors, but most trains select three-phase squirrel-cage asynchronous motors as their traction motors. Compared with ordinary motors, traction motors have the following characteristics. (1) The voltage applied by the traction inverter to the traction motor is highfrequency pulse voltage, therefore the traction motor shall be provided with an insulation system with high corona resistance and low dielectric loss. (2) Under the influence of pulse voltage generated by the traction inverter, the motor current contains large harmonics, which will lead to harmonic oscillation torque. Therefore, the leakage inductance of the traction motor is generally high so as to reduce the harmonic current. (3) The rotor guide bar is made of copper alloy with low resistance and high temperature coefficient.

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Fig. 4.33 Photo of asynchronous traction motor

(4) Since the traction motor is suspended on the bogie or car body, it must have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand wheel-rail impact and vibration generated during high-speed operation. Figure 4.33 shows the MT205 asynchronous motor used in CRH2C EMUs and the installation position thereof on a bogie. The main parameters of the motor are as follows: (1) Rated power: 342 kW, rated voltage: 2000 V, rated current: 106 A. (2) Rated speed: 4140 r/min, maximum speed: 6120 r/min, maximum test speed: 7040 r/min. (3) Mass: 440 kg. power-mass ratio 0.68 kW/kg. (4) Forced ventilation cooling mode is adopted, with an efficiency of 0.94 and a power factor of 0.87.

4.2.7 Train Network Control System The train network control system is the “brain and nerves” of high-speed EMUs. The train network control system is responsible for the control, monitoring and diagnosis of the traction system, braking system, bogie system, auxiliary power supply system, door system, air conditioning system. 1. Function overview The general functions of high-speed train network control system are as follows: (a) Remote centralized control, send high-speed train or equipment operation control commands to the equipment of the high-speed train on the man– machine operation interface of the same end, after receiving the commands, each equipment executes the commands according to relevant requirements.

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(b) Remote centralized monitoring, the network equipment status data of each coach is sent to the main control computer and man–machine operation interface through the network for centralized display to the driver and crews. (c) Real-time information diagnosis. The specific functions are as follows: (a) Execute power supply connection and disconnection commands. (b) Execute traction and braking instructions. Such as accelerate, decelerate, stop, etc. (c) Realize the communication with the ground signal system, so as to ensure operation safety of high-speed trains. (d) Transmit signals to each device/system, such as turning on the air conditioning, opening the door, turning on the light, etc. Read their state data at time intervals. (e) Monitor and diagnose the equipment status data, and generate alarm or fault treatment hints and display on the man–machine operation interface. (f) Record historical data, regularly record the data from each device for future reference. (g) Self-diagnosis and test. A self-diagnosis switch is configured, and it sends the self-diagnosis command to the high-speed train control system, the equipment will start to collect data and status information, then the information collected will be transferred to the high-speed train main controller and man–machine operation interface, and the status of each equipment can be checked and displayed, thus ensuring the train and operation safety. A test switch is configured for testing the power supply and brake functions, facilitating equipment service and fault identification. 2. System composition and main modules The train network control system is based on a computer network, which integrates computer technology, control technology, equipment fault diagnosis technology and network communication technology. (See Fig. 4.34) Through the network, the commands can be transmitted to each coach, so as to realize the control of the whole train. Through the network, various control commands can be transmitted to any device of any car, and the execution results can be fed back to the driver. (a) Central control unit/car control unit Mainly responsible for the network management, coordination and control, safety protection, fault diagnosis and treatment, and train monitoring data processing of a power unit or the train. In the event a bus or network equipment communication fault is detected, it can generate warning messages or take necessary measures to prevent the safe operation and guiding of high-speed trains from being affected; besides, it can monitor or control the running direction, pantograph, main

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Fig. 4.34 Bathtub curve (fault rate)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

circuit breaker, roof disconnector, traction system, brake system, auxiliary converter, charger, door, air conditioning and other functional subsystems of the high-speed train. Intelligent display unit It is mainly responsible for information exchange between drivers and the train network control system. Through this module, drivers input the necessary information to the train network control system, while the train network control system provides information including the target speed, target distance, system action, system working state and system failure state to drivers. Gateway It is provided for protocol transfer between train bus and vehicle bus, it is provided with initial operation function, and can complete address allocation to each node and direction identification for a train in case of recoupling and remarsharlling. Input/output unit The parts for digital input/output or analog input/output, which can collect state information of systems such as the traction system, braking system, bogie system, fire alarm system and the safety circuit system, and output according to the control instructions of the central control unit/car control unit. Relay The connecting devices on the physical layer of the network, which are used to extend network transmission distance through regeneration and shaping of data signals. In case of failure of a network section, the rest part of the train bus shall not be affected.

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4.3 EMU Maintenance System 4.3.1 Introduction to Maintenance Concept and Maintenance System 1. Maintenance concept Maintenance concept is also called maintenance principle, maintenance vision or maintenance philosophy. The complete set of provisions and systems (including maintenance plan, maintenance category, maintenance mode, maintenance level, maintenance organization and maintenance indicators) developed under the guidance of a certain maintenance concept is called maintenance system. The maintenance concept and maintenance system can be roughly divided into three systems, namely, the “breakdown maintenance” concept; the “preventionoriented” maintenance concept and the “scheduled maintenance” system; and the “reliability-centered” maintenance concept and maintenance system. (a) The “breakdown maintenance” concept is to carry out maintenance only after equipment failure is identified. (b) The “prevention-oriented” maintenance concept and the scheduled preventive maintenance system. The “prevention-oriented” maintenance concept is based on the wear theory and takes the bathtub curve (failure rate curve) (see Fig. 4.34) as the maintenance guidance. Replacement, repair and other maintenance work should be carried out before reaching the wear limit or damage of equipment and components, i.e. before entering the wear failure period (point a in Fig. 4.34). The specific implementation can be summarized as “regular inspection, on-time maintenance, and scheduled repair”. The key of the planned preventive maintenance system is to determine the repair cycle of the equipment and its main parts, i.e. the position of point a in the figure, to determine the maintenance level and maintenance cycle structure rationally, and to formulate maintenance rules and specifications. (c) The “reliability-centered” maintenance concept and maintenance system is developed based on the “prevention-oriented” maintenance concept and the scheduled preventive maintenance system. It is believed that the reliability of equipment depends on the design and manufacture thereof and is irrelevant to time, and the basic content of maintenance is to maintain and restore the inherent reliability of equipment. Under the guidance of this concept, the maintenance system developed requires to determine the maintenance mode, maintenance type, maintenance cycle, and maintenance level with the logical decision analysis method based on the reliability condition of the equipment and part, and to formulate the maintenance outlines, so as to realize the purpose of improvement and maintenance with minimum maintenance resources.

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2. Maintenance mode Maintenance mode refers to the control of equipment maintenance timing. That is to say, the control of maintenance timing is realized by adopting different maintenance modes. At present, for general mechanical equipment, there are mainly three maintenance modes: periodic maintenance (also known as scheduled maintenance), on-condition maintenance (also known as conditionbased maintenance) and breakdown maintenance (also known as corrective maintenance). (a) Scheduled maintenance refers to the mandatory preventive maintenance which takes the operating time as the maintenance indicator, once the preset time is reached, the maintenance must be conducted regardless of the technical condition of the equipment. The key to periodic maintenance is how to determine the maintenance period. The proper maintenance timing should be the end point of the accidental failure period, before the bathtub curve goes up sharply. The advantages of periodic maintenance include easy maintenance timing control, simple and clear maintenance plans, and easy organization and management. The disadvantage is that failure modes other than wear are not considered, such as fatigue, rust, and failure due to material or service conditions. In addition, the large-scale disassembly for periodic maintenance may affect the inherent reliability of equipment and parts. (b) On-condition maintenance requires determining the maintenance timing according to the actual technical condition (state), which is also called condition-based maintenance. It neither stipulates the maintenance period for equipment and parts nor specifies a fixed disassemble range, and the best maintenance timing is determined on the basis of the technical status obtained from inspections and tests. For this maintenance mode, the maintenance time and items are determined on the basis of constant quantitative analysis and monitoring of certain parameters and status data of the equipment and parts. This is the maintenance mode of maintaining as required, which can give full play to the working performance of equipment and parts, improve the effectiveness of maintenance, and reduce maintenance workload and human error. However, the cost of this maintenance mode is high, and certain test and diagnosis capacities and professionals are required, which is suitable for the maintenance of large, expensive and critical equipment and safety-related machinery and parts. (c) Breakdown maintenance is the maintenance mode to carry out maintenance after a failure is identified, maintenance timing control is not required. Practices have proved that the failure of some parts will not endanger the safety or result in hazards, therefore, the adoption of breakdown maintenance is more economical. For machines and parts with redundancy design, in the event one machine is failed, the backup will take over and start working automatically, in this case, the breakdown maintenance mode shall be adopted.

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From the characteristics of the above three maintenance modes, it can be seen that periodic maintenance and on-condition maintenance belong to preventive maintenance, while breakdown maintenance belongs to non-preventive maintenance. The three maintenance modes have their own characteristics and apply to different occasions. There is no good or bad, and the key problem is to select the appropriate maintenance mode according to the specific maintenance conditions. For modern complex technical equipment, the three maintenance modes are often adopted together and cooperate with each other, so as to make the most of the inherent reliability of each machine and part. In maintenance practice, how to choose maintenance mode is very important. For the section of maintenance mode, consideration shall be given to the consequence of failure, i.e., the impact of equipment failure on safety. The procedure for selecting maintenance mode is as follows: first determine which parts of complex equipment are important functional products (i.e. important maintenance items), as well as the (safety, economy and environment) consequences in case of failure of these parts. In the selection analysis, only the important functional parts and components mentioned above need to be analyzed, and it is not necessary to analyze all components one by one. For the determination of important maintenance items and selection of maintenance modes, the Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMFA) for reliability engineering is generally adopted. The above three maintenance modes (i.e., periodic maintenance, oncondition maintenance and breakdown maintenance) have their own characteristics, and apply to different occasions. There is no good or bad, and the key problem is to select the appropriate maintenance mode according to the specific maintenance conditions. For modern complex technical equipment, the three maintenance modes are often adopted together and cooperate with each other, so as to make the most of the inherent reliability of each machine and part.

4.3.2 Maintenance System of EMUs The basic content of EMU repair class and system include maintenance procedures, maintenance standards and maintenance rules (process). Maintenance procedures specify the provisions on maintenance system, maintenance cycle and scrap limit; maintenance standards specify the provisions on inspection range, operation limit, standard values, and adjusting values for each maintenance class; and maintenance rules (process) specify the operating procedures (process) in the maintenance base. The basic framework of EMU repair class and system mainly refers to the maintenance system of EMUs, which can be generally divided into preventive maintenance, breakdown maintenance or corrective maintenance. Preventive maintenance can be

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Fig. 4.35 Basic framework of EMU repair class and system

further divided into periodic maintenance (also known as scheduled maintenance) and on-condition maintenance (also known as condition-based maintenance), and the main difference lies in the control of equipment maintenance timing. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 4.35. Periodic maintenance of EMU also refers to as scheduled preventive maintenance, which mainly includes operation maintenance (appearance inspection, and car inspection), important parts maintenance (bogie maintenance, etc.) and break-up maintenance. For on-condition maintenance (i.e., condition-based maintenance), the advanced on-board fault detection and diagnosis equipment is used to monitor the status of key components of EMU in real-time to determine the necessity and method of maintenance. Breakdown maintenance is to carry out maintenance after a fault is identified. In China, EMU repair class and system is divided into five classes, of which, classes 1–2 are operation maintenance, while classes 3–5 are periodic maintenance. 1. Class-1 maintenance (a) Replace, adjust and supplement wear and consumable parts of the EMU. (b) Carry out routine inspection and detection of the technical state and some technical performance of EMUs by means of visual check and using on-board fault diagnosis system, especially focusing on the installation condition of suspension parts and the working condition of bogies. (c) Handle and eliminate temporary faults. 2. Class-2 maintenance (a) Some maintenance items are added based on class-1 maintenance, and the maintenance extent is enhanced, and inspections and performance tests shall be performed on all equipment on the train with the on-board fault diagnosis system.

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Table 4.6 Average preventive maintenance time for each maintenance class

Maintenance class

Average preventive maintenance time

Class-1 maintenance

1h

Class-2 maintenance

4h

Class-3 maintenance

2 days

Class-4 maintenance

4 days

Class-5 maintenance

20 days

(b) Carry out axle ultrasonic flaw detection, tread shape correction, electrical circuit insulation inspection, and traction motor insulation inspection, and clean filters and other parts of the electrical apparatus installed under the car according to the corresponding maintenance cycle. Class-2 maintenance adopts the comprehensive maintenance + special maintenance” mode. 3. Class-3 maintenance Based on Class-2 maintenance, replace bogies, and carry out break-up maintenance on bogies and main parts removed from the car. 4. Class-4 maintenance Carry out break-up maintenance on each main system of EMUs, carry out characteristic tests, and carry out car body painting. 5. Class-5 maintenance Based on Class-4 maintenance items, carry out break-up maintenance on the complete EMU, replace parts and components in a wide range, and carry out car body painting. For the interim provisions on the maintenance cycle of CRH Series EMUs, please refer to Table 4.6, for the average preventive maintenance time of each maintenance class, please refer to Table 4.6.

4.3.3 Distribution and Facilities of EMU Maintenance Bases 1. Classification of maintenance organizations (a) High-speed railway EMU depot (HSR EMU depot for short): with EMUs assigned, be responsible for the operation, service and preparation for passenger transport, and storage of EMUs, and be responsible for routine inspections, maintenance and unscheduled repair of different classes (Classes 1–3). (b) High-speed railway EMU operation and maintenance post (HSR EMU operation and maintenance post for short): with EMUs dispatched, be responsible for the operation, service and preparation for passenger transport, and storage of EMUs, and be responsible for routine inspections, Class-1 maintenance and some unscheduled maintenance as required.

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(c) High-speed railway EMU post (HSR EMU operation post for short): with a small number of EMUs dispatched, be responsible for the service and preparation for passenger transport and storage of EMUs. 2. Layout of EMU maintenance post EMU maintenance posts are set near railway line terminals, near intersection stations of multiple railway lines and near stations with large traffic flow. According to the railway leapfrog strategic deployment, based on railway network layout and development planning, and combined with the EMU release, assignment and operating schemes, China has decided to build 12 EMU maintenance bases - EMU depots in Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, Guangzhou, Shenyang, Chengdu, Fuzhou, Xi’an, Zhengzhou, Harbin, Qingdao and Nanjing. EMU depots are production stations set up after the EMUs in operation reached a certain number, which are directly subordinated to the railway administration. They are generally equipped with several EMU posts, and are responsible for Class-1 and Class-2 routine maintenance. The seven EMU depots in Beijing, Wuhan, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang, Chengdu and Xi ’an cover all EMU intensive areas in Northeast China, North China, East China, Central China and South China regions. They are equipped with high-class (Class-3 and Class-4) maintenance capacity, and are responsible for periodic maintenance of EMUs. 3. Main functions and equipment of EMU maintenance base China’s EMU maintenance base should have the following basic functions. (a) EMU management An EMU maintenance base shall have the overall management capacity to manage the base, connect surrounding areas and cover the whole railway line, and shall carry out comprehensive management covering EMU operation, technical servicing, maintenance test and operation safety. Through the information center, EMU maintenance bases shall carry out effective management covering EMU dispatching, servicing, operation maintenance, parts and equipment management. (b) Inspection and servicing The content of EMU inspection and servicing includes servicing, Class-1 and Class-2 maintenance and unscheduled maintenance. Servicing mainly includes operational and technical servicing and passenger transport servicing. The work content includes water supply and drainage, grease and lubricant refilling, interior cleaning, ground collection and treatment of closed toilet system, train surface washing, garbage collection and transfer, etc. Sand refilling and catering and food preparation can be carried out as necessary. Class-1 maintenance mainly involves carrying out EMUs inspections, tests and fault part replacement. Class-2 maintenance includes key parts state inspection, key parts appearance check, interior inspection, functional inspection, break-up inspection and repair, and train control device state inspection.

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Unscheduled maintenance: mainly involves EMU accidental failure elimination, repair of main parts, EMU under floor wheel lathe processing, and replacement of main equipment out of maintenance range of all maintenance classes, including bogies, wheelsets, pantograph, air conditioning facilities, main converters and main transformers. (c) Maintenance (an operation post is not equipped with this function) The maintenance mode adopted by EMU maintenance is focusing on preventive maintenance, inspection, part replacement, and assembly and commissioning; EMU management is conducted based on the lifecycle management method so as to reduce the down time, improve maintenance efficiency, and improve the reliability and availability of EMUs. The parts removed from EMUs are subjected to centralized repair and maintenance by professional manufacturers. Maintenance capacity: Class-3, Class-4 and Class-5 maintenance. Class-3 maintenance, based on Class-2 maintenance, also includes jacking up EMU (16 or 8 cars) for bogie replacement, carrying out break-up inspections on traction motors, power drive devices, brake devices and other main parts, and performing trail running on the test track of the base after bogie inspection. Class-4 maintenance, based on Class-3 maintenance, adds car body internal inspection and repair, and coupling part inspection and repair; break up EMU into cars, remove all equipment on, in and under the cars for inspection, and carry out main parts interchanging and repairing. Carry out withstand test on high-voltage lines on the car, and carry out car body airtightness test. Conduct the performance test on the whole train, carry out running test in the base, and carry out on-line running test. Class-5 maintenance involves car body break-up inspection, important part replacement, car body airtightness inspection; train performance test and running test. (d) Spare parts storage and distribution The base shall be equipped with facilities for storing large EMU spare parts and accessories, including materials store, materials shed and spare parts store, etc. For spare parts and materials storage, stereoscopic storage is adopted, the information management thereof is incorporated into the EMU information system, and automatic distribution management is realized based on maintenance information. (e) Information management Information support systems include production dispatching command system, EMU operation management system, field operation monitoring system, parts lifecycle management system, parts distribution support system, receiving line inspection and management information system and onboard information ground collection and processing system. Devices are connected through a wide area network (WAN), realizing centralized management and information sharing.

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(f) Sewage treatment The maintenance base is equipped with closed toilet system ground collection and treatment facilities. The vacuum closed toilet system adopts fixed-type. The vacuum toilet collection line shall be combined with the routine inspection line and arranged in the workshop. The main sewage disposal facilities are arranged under the work platform of the inspection workshop, which can be connected with the sewage discharge port on the train through pipes and quick couplings; besides mobile sewage disposal carts are provided.

4.3.4 Main Facilities of EMU Maintenance Base 1. Maintenance Workshop Three-layer work face overhaul tracks shall be provided in the overhaul workshop, the track spacing shall be 12 m, and the distance from the outer track to the axis of the side wall of the maintenance workshop shall not be < 6.5 m. For overhaul, the whole train jacking up mode is adopted, and part replacement shall be carried out. A through gantry crane is provided, and for the overhead contact line system over the track in the workshop, a movable rigid overhead contact line system lateral movement and control equipment can be provided. In order to realize parallel operation and improve the maintenance efficiency, there or four layers of work surfaces are provided in the maintenance base for high-speed train maintenance, The first-layer work surface is set at an elevation 0.95 m below the rail top, which is the basic work platform for the inspection, maintenance and material delivery of the running gear and facilities installed under the train; the second layer is set at an elevation 1.25 m above the rail top, which is the work platform for the maintenance of interior space and side walls of cars; the third layer is set at an elevation 3.8 m above the rail top, as a work platform for roof maintenance. The edges of the roof platform without involving roof maintenance are generally provided with protective facilities to protect maintenance personnel from falling. 2. Wheelset tread inspection device The wheelset tread diagnosis device is the most important maintenance and diagnosis equipment in the maintenance bases and operation posts, which is used to check cracks and starches on treads, measure the shape and dimensional size of treads, and determine scratch condition and concentricity of treads. The equipment is also equipped with the function of data acquisition and processing, and is connected with the communication computers for data storage, display, printing and transmissions. The accuracy of the inspection device directly affects the maintenance efficiency of the whole train (Fig. 4.36).

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Fig. 4.36 Wheelset tread inspection device

3. Wheelset flaw detection and under floor wheel lathe Maintenance base and operation posts shall be equipped with wheelset inspection and processing equipment, so as to carry out flaw detection checks on hollow axles of wheelsets and wheel treads, carry out overall flaw detection checks and size measurement on all wheelsets after wheel drop, and carry out wheel repairing and dynamic balance inspection and processing as necessary. An under floor wheel lathe workshop shall be provided in the maintenance bases and operation posts, Where an under floor wheel lathe shall be installed. A 30 m solid bed shall be set respectively in front and behind the foundation of under floor wheel lathe. The radius of curves at both ends of the under floor wheel lathe work section shall not be < 400 (Fig. 4.37). 4. Car body surface washing facilities EMU surface washing equipment is essential equipment in maintenance bases and operation posts, which is provided for automatic surface washing before a train entering to the workshop or a line section, special cleaning agent shall be used; To meet the requirements of environmental protection and energy saving, water recycling treatment facilities must be provided (Fig. 4.38).

Under floor wheel lathe

Ultra sonic fl aw de tectio n equipme nt

Fig. 4.37 Wheelset flaw detection device and under floor wheel lathe

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Fig. 4.38 Car body surface washing facilities

5. Ground sewage cleaning equipment It is used for car servicing. There are two working modes. The first mode requires to set up a sewage treatment workshop in the maintenance base, and sewage collected shall be subjected to direct chemical treatment in the workshop, for this mode, complex undergound treatment facilities must be built; the second mode is to transfer sewage collected from various EMUs to a sewage car with the sewage cleaning equipment, then the sewage car will deliver sewage to the disposal center for centralized treatment (Fig. 4.39). 6. Wheelset and bogie replacement equipment In case of failure of wheelsets and bogies of motor cars or trailers of high-speed trains, the fault parts shall be replaced. Bogie replacement equipment is the important equipment in the maintenance base and operation posts. There are two replacement modes: bogie lowering with movable track bridge and EMU jacking up (Fig. 4.40).

Fig. 4.39 Ground sewage cleaning equipment

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Fig. 4.40 Wheelset and bogie replacement equipment

7. Main parts distribution center Maintenance bases shall be equipped with a main part distribution center. The main parts distribution center shall be arranged at a convenient position in the maintenance workshop, and the distribution is coordinated and managed by the information management system. The parts distribution shall follow the principle of facilitating further delivery of the parts to the actual replacement point. The parts distribution center shall be built based on the EMU maintenance tasks undertaken by EMUs maintenance bases and operation posts, and the capacity shall meet the maintenance requirement. 8. EMU management information center The realization of EMU information management is an important symbol of a modern EMU maintenance base. The EMU information management system shall integrate EMU technical management, production management, logistics management, dispatching command, and safety monitoring of EMUs, and shall be able to carry out overall and real-time EMU information management from all aspects; through information acquisition, remote diagnosis, network transmission and centralized processing, it shall summarize and analyze various information in a real-time manner, so that the management personnel at all levels can be informed of the production, safety and operation condition of EMUs in time, thus ensuring effective management and scientific decisions. Through information sharing, staff at all posts can be informed of their job content and standards in time, so that they can carry out work and conduct quality control properly. EMU information system network is composed of the base center and production units, which are connected with each other via local area network and wireless broadband in the base. The base center and the superior command center are connected via a wide area network. Information exchange between EMU information system and the existing railway information systems shall be realized; besides the EMU information system shall meet the requirements of information transmission and transfer of the ground diagnosis system and the EMU fault information system; and shall be able to provide relevant information in time to professional manufacturers and maintenance factories. The information center

4.4 Questions for Review

197

is equipped with minicomputers and adopts dual-computer hot backup mode, and security measures such as storage backup, user authentication, and security protection are taken.

4.4 Questions for Review 1. By power configuration, high-speed EMUs can be divided into two types, what are they? What are their advantages and disadvantages? 2. What is a tilting EMU? What are the advantages? 3. What are the technical characteristics of the car body of high-speed EMUs? 4. What are the technical characteristics of the bogie of high-speed EMUs? How many typical types are there? What are they? 5. What are the technical requirements for hook buffer devices of high-speed EMUs? What are the typical models? 6. What are the characteristics of the traction system of high-speed EMUs? What are the main components of a typical traction system? What are the functions and basic working principles of each component and subsystem? 7. What are the characteristics of the brake system of high-speed EMUs? What are the main components of a typical brake system? What are the functions and basic working principles of each component and subsystem? 8. What are the main components of the network system of high-speed EMUs? What are the functions and basic working principles of each component and subsystem?

Chapter 5

HSR Signal and Communication Systems

5.1 Overview of HSR Signal System The signal system of high-speed railway is the important technical equipment to ensure operation safety and to improve operation efficiency of high-speed trains, which, through effective and reliable technical means, can monitor the operating speed and the headway of trains in a real-time manner and provide overspeed protection, and also can reduce the workload and improve the working conditions for drivers, and improve the ride comfort for passengers. The signal system of high-speed railway is mainly composed of signal facility, computer based interlocking system, train control system, traffic dispatching command system, and centralized signaling monitoring system.

5.1.1 Requirements for Railway Signaling of High-Speed Railway 1. Requirements for signal facility of train For high-speed railways, it is very difficult for drivers to recognize lineside signals due to the high running speed of trains, so relying on drivers to ensure operation safety is impossible. Therefore, the train speed control system must be strengthened. During high-speed train operation, the speed grade provided by cab signaling is the direct command for train operation, so it must be highly reliable and safe, without being affected by environmental factors, and with high anti-interference ability. It will be used as the main signal to ensure 100% accuracy rate of receiving information in the whole train operation process. In terms of hardware and software design, fail-soft and fail-safe technologies should be considered, and train stopping command issued at the top speed grade in case of equipment failure © Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_5

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should be avoided as far as possible, so as to avoid unnecessary emergency braking and endangering train operation safety. 2. Requirements for station interlocking equipment For station interlocking equipment, computer based interlocking shall be adopted, and in order to ensure high-speed operation safety, large-sized turnouts with the lateral passing speed of above 160 or 200 km/h must be used, so as to solve the key problems such as switching capacity, switch closure and locking of switch equipment. To adapt to the needs of high-density operation, automation of route control must be realized and manual operation shall be avoided as far as possible. In order to enable the smooth release of station interlocking equipment as a train passes through, a primary release circuit can be used. Track circuits of the same mode in sections should be used in stations to continuously send information to trains. 3. Requirements for automation dispatching system In order to improve operational efficiency, optimize management and reduce dispatchers’ workload, an automatic dispatching system must be employed, which shall have the functions of automatic route setting, automatic train operation chart generation, automatic operation adjustment and passenger guide service, etc. In addition, an information management system shall be provided, which shall have the functions of train management, building facilities management, electrical equipment management, passenger transport and train operation management, etc. It aims at improving operation efficiency, and is a supporting system to ensure stable operation, maintenance management and strengthening maintenance of high-speed railways. The automatic traffic command system shall be set up with a comprehensive dispatching office for operation, traffic, train, communication signal, and electric power dispatching, which centralizes the management and dispatching work of all departments, facilitating sending treatment instructions to on-site units and trains under abnormal conditions, reducing downtime, and improving transport efficiency. 4. Requirements for safety equipment supporting system The safety equipment supporting system is a supplementary facility to the train control system, with functions of detection, alarm, fault diagnosis, etc. The inspection of lineside signal facilities involves the inspections and alarms of section equipment, station equipment, switch closure, etc.; the inspection of onboard equipment involves the inspections of onboard signals, train speed control system, hot box, and brake system. The train operation record system is used to detect the actual train control and operation condition and store the results thereof. The natural disaster forecast analysis and process system is a system provided to analyze and process natural disaster forecasts including earthquake, collapse, debris flow and rainstorms, and to determine the influence thereof on high-speed railways, so as to ensure that necessary countermeasures can be taken to prevent the occurrence of train operation accident.

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5.1.2 The Main Stipulations for Signal System of High-Speed Railway in China The signal system of high-speed railways in China is mainly composed of computer based interlocking system, train control system, centralized dispatching system, and centralized signaling monitoring system. Signals that may affect the operation safety shall be transmitted along a redundant special channel with different physical paths. The signal system of high-speed railways shall have certain compatibility and be suitable for the operation of both the trains running at the maximum running speed of the line and the over-line trains. The signal system shall employ advanced, mature, economical, applicable, safe and reliable technologies and equipment, and shall conform to the relevant provisions stipulated in the effective national standard Railway Applications—Specification and Demonstration of Reliability, Availability, Maintainability and Safety. The signal system and circuits concerning operation safety shall be designed in accordance with the fail-safe requirement. In case of failure, false release of a route, false switching or wrong indication of a turnout, and wrong clearing or upgrade display of a signal is not allowed; faults shall be identified in time, in any case, no later than the next use, otherwise, the circuit shall be redesigned based on the principle of failure accumulation. Besides, in terms of circuit design, the possibilities that may threaten the operation safety in case of coexistence of a fault and wrong handling shall be considered at minimum. 1. Computer based interlocking High-speed railways have high informatization level and complicated system interfaces, and the station interlocking equipment, as the basic information source, shall adopt computer based interlocking. Therefore, computer based interlocking equipment should be used in stations, block posts, MU depots (workshops), and hardware redundant structure should be adopted. For large stations with multiple yards, in order to reduce the failure face and to reduce the impact on transportation by equipment transformation, it is more reasonable to set up separate computer based interlocking equipment to each yard. The computer based interlocking equipment can be integrated with other signal systems and equipment or adopt standalone mode. 2. Train control system (a) Selection of train control system High-speed railways shall employ Chinese Train Control System (CTCS). For railway lines with an operating speed of 300 km/h and above, the line side train control system shall be designed based on CTCS-3 standard; for railway lines with the operating speed exceeding 250 km/h but with a relatively low traffic density, on the premise of ensuring sufficient information capacity of track circuit based on calculations and with the unified information definition satisfied, CTCS-2 train control system is acceptable; for railway line with an operating speed of 250 km/h, lineside train control

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(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

system shall be designed based on CCTS-2 standard; for a case that the subrail engineering is designed for an operating speed higher than 250 km/h, while the rail engineering is designed according to the 250 km/h standard, the train control system shall be designed based on CCTS-2 standard, however, in the engineering design, for determining the length of station track circuit and block sectioning, the reserved design condition for an operating speed of 250 km/h shall be considered. Automatic blocking For automatic blocking of double track section, the operation function of normal direction automatic blocking and reverse direction automatic station blocking shall be realized. The design of the signal system shall meet the requirements of the prescribed headway of trains, and a CCTS-3 train control system shall meet the requirements of an operating speed of 350 km/h and headway of trains of 3 min. Block sectioning shall meet the requirements that the CTCS onboard equipment realizes train control in the distance-to-go mode and train operation in the four-aspect automatic blocking mode. The track circuit in reverse direction sections shall send codes in tracing code sequence, with the same code sending principle as that of the normal direction section adopted. Reverse direction operation shall ensure that the onboard equipment operates in the full supervision mode. Train control center In all stations, section relay stations, block posts, MU depots (workshops) of CTCS-2 and CTCS-3 railway lines, a train control center shall be set. The train control center shall be equipped with interfaces for the connection with the station interlocking system, temporary speed restriction server, track circuit, lineside electronic unit (LEU), CTC/TDCS station equipment, centralized signaling monitoring system and adjacent train control centers. In CTCS-2 sections, train control shall be realized with CTCS-2 onboard equipment, while in CTCS-0/1 sections or CTCS-2 sections in case of CTCS onboard equipment failure (except for cab signaling failure) or CTCS lineside equipment failure, train control can be realized with LKJ. Train operation monitoring and recording device (LKJ) For railway lines employing CTCS-2 train control system, the onboard equipment shall be configured with LKJ; for train control with CTCS-2 onboard equipment, the LKJ shall be able to display and record railway line data, operation status, and driver operation and control data. For trains controlled with LKJ, the maximum running speed of trains shall be 165 km/h. Radio block center (RBC) For railway lines employing a CTCS-3 train control system, a radio block center (RBC) must be provided, and the hardware of the radio block center shall adopt the redundant safety structure. RBC shall have interfaces for the connection with computer based interlocking system, CTC, temporary

5.2 HSR Signal System

203

speed restriction server, centralized signaling monitoring system, GSM-R network and adjacent radio block centers. (f) Temporary speed restriction server (TSRS) TSRS is used for the centralized management of temporary speed restriction commands of dedicated passenger lines, which can store, verify, withdraw, split, set and cancel temporary speed restriction commands throughout the railway lines, and prompt the temporary speed restriction setting timing. TSRS receives temporary speed restriction commands from CTC or a temporary speed restriction terminal, verifies and splits the commands, and sends temporary speed restriction information to the relevant RBC (when CTCS-3 train control system is adopted) or train control center. 3. Centralized traffic control In traffic control offices, stations and block posts, the automation of train dispatching and commanding is realized with the CTC system. In order to facilitate the centralized management of MU depot (workshop) entry and exit of EMUs, the MU running track and the throat area of MU depot (workshop) near the running track shall be included in the centralized monitoring scope of the CTC system of high-speed railways, and the route setting for running track entry and exit will be controlled automatically by the CTC system. 4. Centralized signaling monitoring system High-speed railways shall set up a centralized signaling monitoring system, which shall be connected to the network all the time, so as to realize remote diagnosis and fault alarm. The centralized signaling monitoring system shall be connected with CTC, RBC, TCC, computer based interlocking system, signal safety data network management server, section track circuit, intelligent power supply panel, intelligent filament burn-out warning unit and other systems to collect corresponding monitoring information.

5.2 HSR Signal System 5.2.1 Basic Facilities of HSR Signal System The basic signal facilities of high-speed railways include signal, track circuit, switch machine, balise and so on. These facilities for high-speed railways are basically the same as those for the existing lines, and they are designed based on the operation requirements of high-speed railways, so as to meet the requirements of high safety and high reliability standards of high-speed railways. 1. Signals of high-speed railways High-speed railways use the same signals as those for normal-speed railways, and the signals are arranged based on specific situations.

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(a) Color-light signal For a color-light signal, signals are indicated by means of color, number and lighting status. In the past, multi-lens color light signals are commonly used, which is featured by simple structure, safety and convenience, while the combined color-light signals used nowadays are novel signals developed to improve the range of signals in curve sections. (b) Signal indication In speed-improved existing line, the setting and indication of signals remain unchanged; for mixed passenger and freight high-speed railways with an operating speed of 200–250 km/h, the same setting and indication of signals as those for the existing line shall be adopted; for dedicated passenger high-speed railways with an operating speed of 200–250 and 300–350 km/ h, no block signal will be provided within sections, and home and starting signals at stations shall be normally-off. (1) Normally-off and normally-on When ATP onboard equipment works normally, drivers will operate the train according to onboard signals, and turning on trackside signals is unnecessary. Therefore, signals in stations and block posts shall be normally-off and serve as an indication of parking point. For high-speed railways for EMU operation only, if a train is not equipped with onboard train control equipment (such as maintenance cars and rail cars) or if the train control equipment is out of service, the corresponding train signals shall be switched to the lighting state after being confirmed manually. When starting signals at stations (including station without receivingdeparture track) and block signals at the turnout of protective sections clear a proceed signal, the section cleared condition in open line shall be checked. Shunting signals and MU depot (workshop) signals shall be normally on. (2) Display of trackside signals When a trackside signal displays proceed signals, it only indicates that trains or train sets may pass through the signal, and starting signals do not distinguish route direction. For a link-up station between high-speed railways with and without block signals in sections, the signal mechanism shall be set according to the main receiving-departure direction of the platform track. For platform tracks with block signals in sections along the main receivingdeparture direction, normal signal mechanisms shall be used and the signal shall be in the normally-on state, while for platform tracks without block signals in sections along the main receiving-departure direction, high-speed railway signal mechanisms shall be used, and the signal shall be in the normally-off state.

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2. Track circuit of high-speed railway Track circuits of high-speed railways are mainly used to monitor train occupation, and to transmit train operation information. For speed improved sections of existing lines, ZPW-2000A jointless track circuit is used in sections, and the 25 Hz phase-modulated track circuit is used in stations. For newly-built high-speed railways, ZPW-2000A/K jointless track circuit is used in sections for detecting train occupancy and providing information of unoccupied block sections ahead to trains. In principle, track circuits with rail insulated joints (also called integrated track circuit) of the same mode in sections shall be used for the main line in stations, and the throat areas of intermediate stations and overtaking stations is simple, in order to reduce the type of track circuit modes and to simplify engineering design. Track circuits with rail insulated joints of the same mode as the main line are used in other railway sections in stations. For main lines and receiving-departure tracks of large stations, track circuits with rail insulated joints of the same mode in sections shall be used, and for other track circuit sections in stations, 25 Hz phase-modulated track circuits shall be used. ZPW-2000A track circuit for dedicated passenger line of the same mode in sections shall be used in stations, and the track circuit structure of “one transmission line plus one collection line” connected in parallel with straight tracks shall be adopted for curve tracks in switch sections. No matter in sections or stations, if the track circuit section is longer than 300 m, compensation capacitors should be provided in principle to improve the transmission condition of rail lines for track circuit signals. Highly reliable full-closed capacitors (model: ZPW:CBGM) shall be used as compensation capacitors. 3. Turnout switch and turnout facilities Switch facilities include switch machines, external locking devices, switch closure detectors, pull-down devices and snow-melting equipment, which are used for turnout switching and locking and for providing switch indication. (a) Switch machine setting A group of turnouts driven by one switch machine is called single-switch traction, double-switch traction if it is driven by two switch machines, and multi-switch traction if it is driven by more than two switch machines. The number of switch machines to be provided for a group of turnouts is determined according to specific conditions. For high-speed railways, 18# speed-up turnouts are used in main lines, and 30#, 38# or 42#, 62# turnouts are used in liaison lines. All speedup turnouts adopt external locking mode, and are driven by AC switch machines. S700K, ZYJ7 and ZDJ9 switch machines are available, which are subjected to “multi-point for multi-point” inspection. Other turnouts employ ZD6 series electric switch machines.

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The number of switch machines to be configured depends on the turnout number, switch type (fixed frog or movable point rail), and machine model (S700K or ZYJ7). Turnout locking can be divided into internal locking and transfer external locking. (b) S700K electric switch machine S700K electric switch machine is a switch machine developed through digestion, absorption and improvement from equipment and technologies introduced from Siemens (Germany) to meet the requirement of speed improvement, which is quickly popularized and applied in the main lines of railways. S700K electric switch machines have a complete range of specifications, which can not only meet the requirement of single-switch traction of turnout switch rails and movable point rails, but also meet the requirement of doubleswitch traction and multi-switch traction. The body of the S700K electric switch machine adopts a universal design, and different configurations are available through assembling with different accessories. For different switch machines, the stroke of throw rod, the stroke of indication rod and the switch force are different from each other, and these can also be recombined to form new types of switch machines according to the specific requirements. By different installation methods, each type can be further divided into leftmounted mode and right-mounted mode. The left-mounted switch machine (facing the switch rail or point rail, the switch machine is installed on the left side of the railway line) is indicated with the letter A plus odd numbers, such as A13, A15. The right-mounted switch machine (facing the switch rail or point rail, the switch machine is installed on the right side of the railway line) is indicated with the letter A plus even numbers, such as A14, A16. S700K electric switch machines of different types are not interchangeable. 4. Balise Balise is one of the main equipment for train-ground information transmission in the CCTS-2 train control system. With the continuous improvement of train speed, sending blocking information through the track circuit alone can no longer meet the requirement of safe and high-speed operation of trains. Therefore, balises should be added to provide a large amount of fixed and variable information to CTCS onboard equipment. Lineside balise includes switchable balise, fixed balise, balise lineside electronic unit (LEU) and balise programming tool. In order to realize system functions, the CTCS lineside equipment is connected to the station interlocking system and CTC/TDCS field equipment through the station train control center.

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(a) Functions of balise Functions of a balise are as follows: receive electrical energy signals, detect and demodulate remote energy signals; generate uplink signals and transmit telegraph to CTCS onboard equipment via interface A1; select the startup mode and determine whether to send stored telegraphs or telegraphs from interface C; crosstalk protection; manage operation/programming mode; receive data from interface C; and control the characteristics of I/ O interfaces. Balise transmits the following information to CTCS onboard equipment: (1) Basic parameters of railway lines, such as the line gradient, the track section length and other parameters. (2) Railway line speed information, such as the maximum permitted speed of railway line, the maximum permitted speed of trains, etc. (3) Temporary speed restriction information: provide temporary speed restriction information to trains in the event the train operation speed is limited due to construction or other reasons. (4) Station route information: provide railway line parameters such as “railway line gradient, “railway line speed” and “track section” to trains according to the arrive-departure route of stations. (5) Turnout information: provide the speed on diverging track of the turnout ahead. (6) Special positioning information: pantograph lifting, tunnel entry and exit, whistling, train positioning, etc. (7) Other information: fixed obstacle information, train operation target data, link data, etc. Generate “train passing through” signals. The balise sends information in the form of telegraphs, therefore, the format and meaning of telegraphs should be defined. In CTCS, balise telegraphs adopt European standards. Each balise telegraph consists of a 50-bit telegraph frame header, several information packets and an 8-bit end packet, 830 bits in total. Each information packet has its own format and definition. In order to ensure the security and reliability of transmission, scrambling encoding is carried out according to European standards to form 1023-bit transmission telegraphs. (b) Classification of balises Depending on whether the telegraphs transmitted from balise are variable, balises can be divided into fixed data balises (passive balises) and switchable balises (active balises). Each fixed balise generates a response telegraph in advance, when a train passes the balise, it will send the telegraph generated in advance. Fixed balises are used to send fixed data. A fixed balise is set at the entrance of block sections and at the entrance and exit of stations, which is used to

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transmit static data such as the length of block section, the railway line speed, the railway line gradient and the location of train to CTCS onboard equipment. A switchable balise is set at the entrance and exit of stations and is connected with LEU through special balise cables, which transmits dynamic balise telegraphs to trains based on the telegraphs sent by LEU, mainly involving route information and temporary speed limit information. Telegraphs of switchable balises are prepared according to the balise coding rule, and the content covers the number, link relation, temporary speed restriction (the distance to the start point of speed restriction, the length of speed restriction section, the speed limit), route length, coding and railway line carrier frequency, railway line fixed data, etc. (c) Working principle of balises The balise system is a high-speed intermittent data transmission equipment based on the electromagnetic induction principle, which realizes the groundtrain communication at a specific position. For lineside balises mounted on center timber sleepers between two rails, no additional power supply is required, and the lineside balises are normally in the sleep state. When onboard antenna approaches a balise, the coupling coil of balise senses a magnetic field of 27 MHz which is converted into electric power by the energy receiving circuit, producing the power supply to the balise, then the balise starts working and sending out 1023-bit data telegraph circularly until the electric energy goes out. Onboard antenna transmits data telegraphs received to the balise transmission module (BTM), and through filtration, amplification and demodulation, BTM decodes data telegraphs received into user telegrams and sends the same to CTCS onboard equipment. By connecting with LEU, the switchable balise can change data telegraphs transmitted in a real-time manner. In case the communication with LEU failed (interface “C” failure), the switchable balise can switch to the fixed balise working mode automatically and send the default telegram stored in the balise. In case of communication failure between LEU and balise, the switchable balise shall send the default telegraph to ensure the operation safety. When the starting switchable balise communication is failed or the train fails to receive the telegram sent by such balise during passing route handling, if a temporary speed restriction forecast is received from the home balise, the onboard ATP will control the train to run in the section at the speed of 45 km/h, otherwise, it will control the train to run at the specific operating speed of the railway line. With the wireless balise programming tool, data telegraphs can be written into the lineside fixed balise, and through interfaces, the train control center, station interlocking and other equipment can provide variable train information to the lineside electronic unit (LEU) which then sends the corresponding transmission telegraphs to the lineside switchable balise.

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5.2.2 Computer Based Interlocking System of High-Speed Railway Computer based interlocking system is the technical equipment to ensure train handling in station, and is one of the most important signal systems of high-speed railway. High-speed railways shall employ safe and reliable computer based interlocking system. The computer based interlocking system, combined with the train control system and centralized dispatching system, constitutes the complete signal system of high-speed railway. 1. Overview of computer based interlocking With the rapid development of computer technology, especially the in-depth study of reliability and fault-tolerant technologies, computer based interlocking emerges, which is getting mature and being put into practical application. Computer based interlocking uses general industrial control microcomputer and employs special software to realize the interlocking among station signals, routes and turnouts and to carry out logical operation and judgment of the interlocking relationship. The system automatically collects and processes the information from the signal, turnout and track circuit, inputs the train operation control command and all kinds of field information into the computer which processes the interlocking relation according to the fixed condition in the computer, and then outputs the action information to the actuator, realizing the control and supervision of the station signal equipment. 2. Computer based interlocking of high-speed railway Stations, block posts, and MU depots (workshops) of high-speed railways shall adopt computer based interlocking, and in order to ensure the reliability of computer based interlocking system, stations and block posts shall adopt double 2-vote-2 computer based interlocking, and MU depots (workshops) can adopt double-computer hot backup computer based interlocking. For high-speed railways, the computer based interlocking system must be configured with interfaces for the connection with the centralized traffic control or train dispatching command system (CTC/TDCS), radio block center (when CCTS3 train control system is employed), train control center (TCC), centralized signaling monitoring system and other equipment. Computer based interlocking completes the station interlocking function, and receives and executes commands from CTC. The double 2-vote-2 computer based calculating interlocking system is configured with two sets of interlocking machines, and each set is provided with double CPUs, meeting the “fail-safe” requirement. Currently, double 2-vote-2 computer based calculating interlocking systems available include EI32-JD computer based interlocking developed by BEIJING JIAODA MICROUNION TECH CO., LTD., DS6-K5B computer-based interlocking developed by CRSC RESEARCH and DESIGN INSTITUTE GROUP CO., LTD., iLOCK computer based interlocking

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developed by CASCO SIGNAL LTD., and TYJL-ADX computer based interlocking developed by CARS SIGNAL and COMMUNICATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE. All the above models have been applied to high-speed railways in China.

5.2.3 Train Control System of High-Speed Railway The high-speed railway train control system (HSR train control system for short) is the control system to control and protect high-speed train operation, aiming at ensuring the safe and efficient operation of high-speed railways. The core functions are to provide accurate and sufficient train operation commands and information to drivers (or ATO subsystem) to avoid over-speed and collision with the train ahead, and to avoid overrunning ban signals, so as to ensure safe operation of trains. It is the brain and nerve center of high-speed railways. The train control system can monitor and control the operating speed and the brake mode of trains based on the objective and actual operating conditions of trains on railway lines. The main feature is that the train obtains lineside information and commands, calculates the train control curve, controls train operation, and adjusts the distance to the train ahead, so as to ensure the safe distance between two trains. The primary purpose of the train control system is to ensure the train operation safety. When a factor that may endanger operation safety occurs, the train control system will immediately issue a deceleration or stop command to the train, so as to ensure that the operating speed of the train is lower than the allowable speed of the section or to ensure the train will not enter the hazardous section. The second purpose is to improve transport efficiency. The train control system determines the minimum safe brake distance of trains based on the operating speed, braking performance and other conditions of trains, and controls the trains running at the minimum headway on the railway line, so as to maximize the carrying capacity of the railway line. CTCS is the abbreviation of Chinese Train Control System. Considering China’s national conditions, based on the actual needs, and following the principle of designing onboard equipment and lineside equipment as a whole based on lineside equipment, CTCS can be divided into five levels by system configuration and function. 1. CTCS application level CTCS is divided into five application levels by functional requirements and equipment configuration, including CCTS-0, CCTS-1, CCTS-2, CCTS-3, and CCTS-4. (a) CTCS-0: CTCS-0 is the current status of the existing lines, which is composed of general cab signaling and operation monitoring and recording devices.

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(b) CTCS-1: CTCS-1 is composed of main cab signaling and enhanced train operation monitoring and recording devices, which applies to sections with an operating speed below 160 km/h. (c) CTCS-2: CTCS-2 is a train control system that transmits information through track circuits and intermittent information equipment. CTCS-2 train control system applies to speed-improved trunk lines and dedicated passenger lines, and is suitable for sections of various operating speeds. It adopts onboard-lineside integrated design, and lineside passing signals are not necessarily required. It is a point-continued type train control system with complete functions, and in line with the national conditions of China. In the sixth speed improvement in 2007, CTCS-2 train control systems were first installed in sections with an operating speed of 200 km/h. (d) CTCS-3: CTCS-3 train control system is a train control system that realizes train-ground two-way information transmission based on GSM-R radio communication. The radio block center generates movement authority, the track circuit completes train occupancy detection, and the balise completes train locating, and a train control system equipped with all functions of CCTS-2 systems is configured. (e) CTCS-4: CTCS 4 is a train control system that realized information transmission based on radio communication (GSM-R), and the track circuit is not necessarily required. The lineside radio block center (RBC) and CTCS onboard equipment complete train occupancy detection and integrality inspection, and the intermittent information equipment provides location reference information for distance measurement correction, realizing virtual block and moving block. CTCS-4 adopts distance-to-go control mode, and trains operate in the moving block mode or the virtual block mode. CTCS-4 train control system is the trend for future development, and it is not yet put into practical application. 2. CTCS-2 train control system CTCS-2 train control system applies to speed-improved trunk lines and high speed newly-built lines, which is a train control system that realizes information transmission through track circuits and intermittent information equipment, and lineside block signals are not necessarily required. The distance-to-go curve is used to monitor and ensure the train operation safety. The pre-moving block mode is adopted, and the headway of trains is smaller than that of the fixed block mode. Main technical principles of CTCS-2 train control system: (a) CCTS-2 train control system can meet the requirement of an operation speed of 300 km/h. (b) For recent high-speed railways for mixed passenger and freight transportation, the CCTS-2 train control system can meet the headway requirement of 4 min for passenger trains and 5 min for freight trains. For high-speed railways for the operation of EMUs only, the CTCS-2 train control system shall meet the headway requirement of 3 min for normal operation.

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(c) CCTS-2 system adopts unified equipment configuration and application principles, and has interconnection operation ability. (d) CCTS-2 train control system meets the requirements of automatic blocking fleeting operation in the normal direction and automatic station blocking operation in the reverse direction. (e) CTCS-2 train control system meets the requirements of cross-line operation. (f) The onboard equipment of the CTCS-2 train control system monitors and controls train operation safety by adopting the distance-to-go control mode and granting ATP with high priority. (g) CCTS-2 train control system serves as the backup system of the CCTS-3 train control system. (h) CCTS-2 train control system adopts unified interface standard, and for safety-related information, safety communication protocol in accordance with IEC62280 standard is adopted. (i) The security, reliability, availability and maintainability of the CCTS-2 train control system meet the requirements stipulated in IEC62278 and other relevant standards, and the key equipment is designed with redundancy. For EMUs with the operating speed of 200–250 km/h, CCTS-2 onboard equipment and LKJ are installed as onboard equipment, realizing the organic combination and systematic integration. For sections installed with CTCS-2 and CCTS-3 lineside equipment, the CTCS-2 train control conditions are met, and the mode of train control with CTCS onboard equipment is adopted. After a train stops, the driver can operate and switch between CTCS onboard equipment train control and LKJ train control. For CCTS-0 and CCTS-1 sections, LKJ train control mode is adopted, and the maximum speed is 160 km/h. CTCS-2 train control system consists of two parts: onboard equipment and lineside equipment. The structure is shown in Fig. 5.1. (a) Lineside equipment Lineside equipment includes switchable balise, fixed balise, lineside electronic unit (LEU), ZPW2000 track circuit, train control center (TCC) and temporary speed restriction server. (1) Balise Balises transmit railway line location, level transition and other information to the onboard equipment, and transmit railway line parameters, temporary speed restriction and other information to the onboard equipment with CTCS-2 functions. (2) Lineside electronic unit (LEU) LEU receives data from other control devices (such as TCC), and transmits variable signal data to switchable balises (Fig. 5.2). (3) ZPW-2000 track circuit ZPW-2000 track circuit completes train occupancy and integrality detection, and continuously transmits the number of unoccupied block sections and other information to trains with CCTS-2 functions.

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Fig. 5.1 Structure of CCTS-2 train control system

Fig. 5.2 Train control center Balise LEU BEPT

(4) Train control center (TCC) TCC can carry out track circuit coding, and can generate and send balise telegraphs. It generates the movement authority of the CTCS-2 train control system according to the track circuit, route status, temporary speed restriction and other information, and transmits the same to the CCTS-2 onboard equipment through the track circuit and switchable balises. (5) Temporary speed restriction server (TSRS) TSRS is used for the centralized management of temporary speed restriction commands, which can store, verify, withdraw, split, set and cancel temporary speed restriction commands throughout the railway lines, and prompt the temporary speed restriction setting timing.

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(b) Onboard equipment Onboard equipment consists of vital computer (VC), track circuit antenna, track circuit reader (TCR), balise receiving antenna, balise transmission module (BTM), driver-machine interface (DMI), train interface unit (TIU), speed and distance measurement unit, and data record unit (DRU). (1) Vital computer (VC) The vital computer generates continued speed monitoring curves based on the train control information, railway line data and train parameters transmitted from lineside continued and intermittent devices, so as to monitor train operation safety. (2) Track circuit reader (TCR) and antenna Track circuit reader (TCR) serves as a track circuit information decoder, which reads track circuit signals through the receiving antenna of track circuit, processes the signals received and obtains carrier frequency and low frequency information. The TCR antenna is provided to receive track circuit information, which is installed right above the rail in front of the first wheelset of the EMU head. (3) Balise transmission module and balise antenna The balise transmission module continuously sends signals to the ground through the balise antenna. When a train passes the lineside balise, the lineside balise will be activated and send the stored telegraph to the balise transmission module. The BTM antenna is installed on the transverse centerline of the bottom of the EMU body within a certain range from the locomotive head, and no metal or magnetic materials shall be installed around the antenna within a certain range. When a BTM antenna passes through the balise, it receives the information from the lineside balise and provides the decoded balise telegraphs to the onboard vital computer. (4) Driver-machine interface Driver-machine interface is the display and operation device of onboard equipment, which displays the train speed, distance, working status, railway line conditions and other information according to the commands of the onboard main processor unit, realizing sound-light alarms, driver operation and other functions. (5) Train interface unit For the connection with EMUs, relay interfaces shall be used. When relay interfaces are used for the connection with EMUs, the onboard equipment collects digital signals from trains through the digital input/output unit, and realizes the connection with trains by controlling the relay output. Both the emergency brake and the maximum service brake adopt fail-safe brake logic.

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When MVB interfaces are used for the connection with EMUs, the onboard equipment collects train interface information and sends train interface commands through the MVB bus, and the emergency brake employs the relay interface and adopts the control logic triggered by power failure. (6) Speed measurement and distance measurement unit The speed measurement and distance measurement unit collects signals from each speed sensor and carries out safety processing. It calculates the train speed and the traveling distance and identifies running direction, and transmits relevant information to the onboard main processor unit. (7) Operation record unit The juridical record unit is used to record the data related to the train operation safety, and to download such data for analysis as necessary. The failure of juridical/data recording unit shall not affect the normal operation of onboard equipment. (c) Main functions of onboard equipment: (1) The speed measurement, distance measurement and speed monitoring functions of the onboard equipment shall meet the requirement of the maximum train operating speed of 300 km/h. (2) The onboard equipment can monitor train operation by outputting common brake and emergency brake. (3) The onboard equipment can prevent the train from moving without authority. (4) The onboard equipment will execute automatic protection after overspeed of train is monitored. (5) The emergency brake output by the onboard equipment can only be released manually after parking. (6) The integrated measurement error of the onboard equipment within the speed measurement and distance measurement system is not more than 2%. (d) Main working modes of CCTS-2 train control system The onboard equipment of the CCTS-2 train control system mainly has 8 work modes, including the stand-by mode, the partial supervision mode, the full supervision mode, the calling-on mode, the on-sight mode, the shunting mode, the cab signaling mode and the isolation mode. (e) Principle of distance-to-go control CTCS-2 train control system employs the distance-to-go control mode. The onboard computer will draw a speed control monitoring curve. The distanceto-go curve is the primary brake mode curve generated based on the target speed, the target distance, the railway line conditions and the train characteristics to ensure train operation safety, providing the authority for moving to the target point, and realizing primary braking. For the target distance, the track circuit provides the number of unoccupied block sections, the balise provides the length and allowable speed of the railway line, and the onboard

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computer comprehensively calculates the target distance. When the train is running, the onboard computer will draw an actual driving curve in the same coordinate system based on the operation position and operation speed of the train. When the actual driving curve meets the speed monitoring curve, the train will generate an alarm and automatically trigger the service brake or emergency brake to force the train to slow down, and after the speed drops below the monitoring curve, the train will release the brake automatically and resume to normal running.

5.3 CTCS-3 Train Control System CTCS-3 train control system is a train control system that realizes train-ground twoway information transmission based on GSM-R radio communication. The radio block center (RBC) generates movement authority, the track circuit completes train occupancy detection, the balise completes train locating, and a train control system equipped with all functions of the CCTS-2 system is configured. The CTCS-3 train control system is constructed on the basis of CTCS-2 train control system, with a lineside radio block center (RBC) added to form the CTCS-3 lineside system. Based on the technology introduced, the onboard equipment integrates CCTS-2 train control module for dedicated passenger lines, realizing the offline compatibility of high-speed trains operating at 350 km/h, and realizing the integration of the train control system and GSM-R radio communication platform. 1. Main technical principles of CCTS-3 (a) CCTS-3 train control system meets the requirements of an operation speed of 350 km/h and the headway of trains of 3 min. (b) CCTS-3 train control system meets the requirements of automatic blocking fleeting operation in the normal direction and automatic station blocking operation in the reverse direction. (c) CTCS-3 train control system meets the operation requirements of interoperability. (d) The onboard equipment of the CTCS-3 train control system monitors and controls train operation safety by adopting the distance-to-go control mode and granting ATP with high priority. (e) CCTS-2 serves as the backup system of CCTS-3. In case of failure of radio block center or radio communication, the CTCS-2 train control system will control the train operation. (f) The radio block center (RBC) equipment along the railway line can adopt either centralized arrangement or distributed arrangement. (g) GSM-R wireless communication covers all stations along the whole railway line, including large stations. (h) CTCS-2 train control system lineside equipment are installed in both EMU deport and liaison line.

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(i) No train operation monitoring device (LKJ) shall be installed for EMUs with an operating speed of 300 km/h and above. (j) On railway lines with an operating speed of 300 km/h and above, according to the speed tolerance stipulated for CCTS-3 onboard equipment, in case the operating speed is 2 km/h above the speed limit, an alarm will be generated; in case the operating speed is 5 km/h above the speed limit, the service brake will be applied; in case the operating speed is 15 km/h above the speed limit, the emergency brake will be applied. (k) The radio block center (RBC) will send the neutral section information to trains equipped with C3 onboard equipment, and the balise will send the neutral section information to trains equipped with C2 onboard equipment, realizing automatic passing over of neutral section. (l) CCTS-3 train control system adopts unified interface standard, and for safety-related information, safety communication protocol in accordance with IEC62280 standard is adopted. (m) The security, reliability, availability and maintainability of the CCTS-3 train control system meet the requirements stipulated in IEC62278 and other relevant standards, and the key equipment is designed with redundancy. 2. Structure of CCTS-3 train control system CTCS-3 train control system is composed of onboard equipment and lineside equipment. (a) Lineside equipment CTCS-3 lineside equipment includes balise, lineside electronic unit (LEU), track circuit, radio block center (RBC), station train control center (TCC) and temporary speed restriction server (TSRS), and the functions of the lineside equipment are as follows. (1) Balise The balise is the intermittent transmission equipment that sends telegraphs to onboard equipment. (2) Lineside electronic unit (LEU) LEU is the electronic equipment that generates telegraphs for balise based on the information provided by lineside equipment. (3) Track circuit: the track circuit realizes train occupancy detection and provides unoccupied section information to the CTCS-3 backup system. (4) Radio block center (RBC) RBC generates messages to the train based on information provided by external lineside equipment and information generated from interaction with onboard equipment; The primary purpose of these messages is to provide movement authority, so as to ensure safe operation of trains on the railway lines within the jurisdiction of RBC; RBC can transmit movement authority, railway line descriptions and other information to

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the onboard equipment of trains within the control range of the RBC via the train-ground radio communication system. (5) Train control center (TCC) TCC realizes the function of track circuit coding and transmits the train occupancy information to RBC. The TCC shall be able to transmit temporary speed restriction information and route information to the CCTS-3 backup system (CCTS-2 level) via LEU and switchable balise. (6) Temporary speed restriction server The temporary speed restriction server is provided for the centralized management of temporary speed restriction commands, and it transmits temporary speed restriction information to RBC and TCC respectively. (7) Signal safety data network The safety data network of the signal system of dedicated passenger lines is used for the data transmission of CTCS-2 and CTCS-3 train control systems, therefore, high safety and reliability must be ensured. For the structure of the data network, the redundant double-loop network composed of industrial Ethernet switches (hereinafter referred to as the switch) is adopted, the physical isolation is provided between the double-loop network, and switches are connected with each other with special single-mode optical fibers. (b) Onboard equipment Onboard equipment: vital computer (VC), track circuit reader (TCR), balise transmission module (BTM) and balise antenna, radio transmission module (RTM), GSM-R onboard radio station, driver-machine interface (DMI), train interface unit (TIU), speed and distance measurement unit, and juridical record unit (JRU). The main functions of each unit are as follows: (1) Vital computer (VC): monitor the train operation safety based on the information obtained from the interaction with the lineside equipment. (2) Track circuit reader: receive track circuit information. (3) Balise transmission module and balise antenna: by connecting with the balise antenna, the balise transmission module receives information from lineside balises. (4) Radio transmission module: by connecting with GSM-R onboard radio station, realize train-ground two-way information transmission. (5) Driver-machine interface: the driver-machine interface realizes the information exchange between drivers and the onboard equipment. (6) Train interface unit: provide the interfaces for the connection between the vital computer and the train related equipment. (7) Speed measurement and distance measurement unit: receive signals from speed sensors and other equipment, and measure the operating speed and operating distance of trains. (8) Recorder unit: record the data related to train operation safety, and download such data for analysis as necessary.

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(9) GSM-R onboard radio station: realize Um interface protocol stack specified by GSM-R network, and complete the functions of mobile terminal (MT) equipment defined by GSM-R network. 3. Main working mode of CTCS-3 train control system The CCTS-3 train control system mainly has 7 working modes, including the safety monitoring mode, the on-sight mode, the calling-on mode, the shunting mode, the isolation mode, the stand-by mode and the sleeping mode. The modes applicable to CCTS-2 systems are partial monitoring mode and locomotive signal mode.

5.3.1 Traffic Dispatching Command System of High-Speed Railway The centralized traffic control (CTC) system is the basic equipment to ensure train operation safety and to improve transport efficiency of high-speed railways in China. The main function of the centralized dispatching system is that the control center (dispatcher) carries out centralized control over the signal equipment in the section under its jurisdiction, and directly commands and manages the train operation. The CTC system transmits the train operation adjustment plan from the dispatching and command center to the station autonomous computer for automatic execution; based on the train operation adjustment plan, the conflict between train operation and shunting operation in terms of time and space can be solved, realizing the unified control over train operation and shunting operation. The CTC system has two working modes including the decentralized autonomous control and the emergency station control mode, which apply to sections and hub areas with different traction powers, running speeds, traffic volumes and railway line types. 1. Composition of CTC system The CTC system is composed of central equipment, station equipment and network equipment. (a) High-speed railway traffic control center The high-speed railway traffic control center system consists of the traffic control center application system, the equipment installed in the main machine room, and the maintenance subsystem. The control center of the decentralized autonomous CTC is generally arranged in the traffic control office of the railway administration, which is responsible for the train operation control in the whole train dispatching section. The control center is mainly composed of a database server, an application server, a communication front server, a large-screen display

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system, a traffic-shunting workstation, an assistant dispatcher workstation, a comprehensive maintenance workstation, a CTC maintenance workstation, a network management workstation, printing equipment, remote maintenance access, a TMIS interface computer, LAN and other equipment. (b) Station subsystems CTC station system of passenger dedicated lines is an important part of the centralized dispatching system. It is the basic function node of the whole network system. The station system completes its core functions such as route selection and arrangement, conflict detection, output control and status displays based on the train operation adjustment plans. The station system is mainly composed of traffic terminals (workstations of watchman and signalman), CTC communication signal maintenance machines, autonomous computers, network equipment, power equipment and lightning protection equipment, etc. CTC extension equipment dedicated passenger is arranged in the station machinery room. The traffic terminal equipment is arranged in the station operation office, which is used to display railway line status and arrange routes. (c) CTC data network The CTC system uses a separate network and adopts a dual-network structure, including the dual-LAN of the traffic control center, the dual-LAN of stations, and the dual-E1 dedicated digital channel network there between. All servers and workstations in the traffic control center are equipped with two network cards, which are connected to different switches to form two LANs. The two switches in the dispatching system are connected to the two routers through the network firewall, and then to the WAN in the station. Two stations are connected by two channels, and each station has two routers, which forms two sets of completely independent networks composed of several loops, without any physical interface. When the data exchange between the station equipment and the traffic control office equipment is realized through WANs, the path will be selected according to the communication quality of the two WANs to maintain transmission load equalization in the WANs. 2. Basic functions of CTC system (a) Monitor station signal equipment and train operation status in a real-time manner, realizing transparent display between stations and sections; (b) Follow up the train running position and the arriving and departing time, and automatically generate the train operation diagram; (c) Use a computer to prepare and adjust train operation plan, realizing computerization of dispatching command; (d) Issue planning and scheduling commands to stations through the system network;

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(e) Issue traffic control commands, shunting operation orders, running tokens and receiving route notices through the system network and radio communication to locomotives; (f) Automatically prepare station train operation logs, and generate operation statistics reports 2 and 3; (g) Follow up train formation status; (h) Remotely control all interlocking equipment buttons, and realize the manual remote control of train operation, shunting and abnormal operation; (i) The autonomous computer controls the train route automatically based on the train operation plan and the Detailed Rules for Railway Operation; (j) According to the shunting operation plan, the autonomous computer will automatically control the shunting route and monitor and alarm the shunting condition according to the locomotive request and the train operation conditions; (k) Realize comprehensive management, remote registration and cancellation of maintenance operations; (l) Equipped with complete network security protection function; (m) Realize the combination and information exchange between TMIS and TDCS.

5.3.2 Centralized Signaling Monitoring System of High-Speed Railway The centralized signaling monitoring system of high-speed railways is the important train operation safety-related equipment of railway transportation. Centralized signaling monitoring is the “black box” for communication signal safety, and it is a necessary means to realize “repair on condition” for signal equipment, and also an important indication of signal technologies development towards high safety, high reliability, networking, digitization and smartening. The centralized signaling monitoring system is equipped with the self-diagnose function. It can monitor the operation status and quality characteristics when the signal equipment is operating, and can test, store, print, query and reproduce parameters of the main equipment in a real-time or regular basis; it can monitor the main electrical performance of signal equipment, and generate timely alarm in the event the electrical characteristics deviate from the preset limits; it can identify signal faults and fault warning signs, and provide reliable information to prevent accidents and realize preventive maintenance of signal equipment; and it can carry out realtime monitoring, data processing, fault diagnosis, thus greatly improve signal system safety. The centralized signaling monitoring system is equipped with the memory function. It can memorize and store the operating process of the signal equipment, and make intelligent judgments according to specific logic, which facilitates capturing transient and intermittent faults, overcomes “difficult and complicated defects” and

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improves the reliability of the signal system; it provides important means and basis for accident analysis through historical record replay. The main functions of the centralized signaling monitoring system are as follows: • • • • • •

Provide a reliable basis for repairs on condition of signal equipment Help maintenance personnel to reduce fault delay Distinguish fault responsibility Realize maintenance management and information sharing Make centralized repair possible Facilitate the combination with other special systems

1. Functions of the signal computer monitoring system (a) Test part The functions of the test part are as follows: analog real-time values, report curve, and others. (b) Monitoring part The functions of the monitoring part are as follows: post-query of various data related to communication signals, trains and electric power and civil engineering, alarm query, and system management. 2. Centralized signaling monitoring involves the monitoring of analog value and digital value Analog values refer to a large number of physical values that appear in nature and change continuously in time and value, such as pressure, weight, temperature, density, flow, speed, displacement, voltage, current, etc. 3. Alarms of the centralized signaling monitoring The alarms and early warnings generated by the monitoring system can be classified into three types by the nature of equipment failure: Level 1 alarm: message alarms concerning train operation safety. Alarm mode: sound-light alarm; the alarm will stop after manual confirmation, and will be uploaded to terminals at all levels through the network. Level 2 alarm: message alarms that affect the normal operation of trains or equipment. Alarm mode: sound-light alarm; the alarm will stop after a certain delay, and will be uploaded to terminals at all levels through the network. Level 3 alarm: electrical characteristics out of limit or other alarms. Alarm mode: red indicator alarm; the alarm will stop automatically after the electrical characteristics return to the normal state, and will be uploaded to workshop/working area terminals through the network. Early warning: carry out logical judgment and give early warning based on electrical characteristics change trend, equipment status and application trend. Alarm mode: blue indicator. The warning can be uploaded to workshop/working area terminals through the network. 4. Structure of the centralized signaling monitoring system For the construction of the centralized signaling monitoring system, WAN mode based on TCP/IP protocol is adopted, which is composed of the China Railway

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electrical monitoring center, railway administration electrical monitoring center, communication and signal depot monitoring center, station monitoring network and WAN data transmission system. 5. Network of the centralized signaling monitoring system The network of the centralized signaling monitoring system adopts TCP/IP protocol based WAN, and is composed of the station acquisition system, the communication and signal depot central server management system, the upper network terminal (including workshop machine, communication and signal depot monitoring terminal, railway administration monitoring terminal, China Railway monitoring terminal, etc.) and the WAN data transmission system.

5.4 HSR Communication System The communication system of high-speed railway is an important and basic infrastructure provided to transmit automation traffic dispatching command information, train operation control information, radio block information and other traffic control equipment monitoring information, to provide traffic dispatching command telephone, service communication telephone, professional telephone, video and telephone conference, IP data, video monitoring, emergency communication and other communication services, and to ensure train operation safety, improve transportation efficiency and realize management informationization.

5.4.1 Functions of HSR Communication System Under normal circumstances, the communication system is provided for the transmission of voice, data, images and other information for the high-speed railway operation management system, traffic dispatching command system, traffic equipment monitoring system, disaster prevention alarm, and other systems. Under abnormal circumstances, the communication system serves as the communication means for emergency rescue and disaster relief. Firstly, the HSR communication system works in conjunction with the signal system to complete traffic dispatching command, and provides information transmission channel and standard time signal for other subsystems of high-speed railway. Secondly, the communication system is the main channel for service communication of railways, so that all subsystems on the high-speed railways can be closely linked, thus improving the operation efficiency of the whole system. Thirdly, in the case of disasters, accidents or terrorist activities, the HSR communication system serves as the main communication means for emergency treatment, disaster relief and anti-terrorism action.

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5.4.2 Requirements for Communication of High-Speed Railways The requirement for the communication system of high-speed railways is the ability of rapid, accurate and reliable transmission and exchange of information. 1. For the organization of train operation, the communication system shall be able to ensure the accurate and rapid transmission of information including passenger flow of each station, working conditions and operating conditions of trains on railway lines to the control center. At the same time, it shall be able to timely and reliably transmit the traffic control commands and control signals issued by the control center to each station and the moving trains. 2. For the organization and management of high-speed railway operation, the communication system shall ensure smooth, effective and reliable information exchange and communication among all parts and between upper and lower levels. 3. The communication system shall ensure convenient and smooth communication between the system and external systems. 4. The main equipment and modules of the communication system should have a self-diagnosis function, and with appropriate redundant configuration. It shall realize automatic switching or alarm triggering in case of failure, and the control center shall be able to monitor and collect the operating and inspection results of station equipment.

5.4.3 Communication Base Platform of High-Speed Railways The communication base platform of high-speed railways mainly consists of an IP network, a GSM-R network and a service network. 1. Optical cable line: provide physical media service for some safety operation network from the business center to stations and sections, for station base informatization, and for the backbone transmission network and the access network. 2. Backbone transmission network: provide physical layer and data link layer services at three levels from China Railway, railway groups to stations to the information application system. 3. Access network: provide physical layer and data link layer services (from stations to section posts, yards and sections) to the information application system. 4. IP network: provide three-level (China Railway, railway groups, stations) network-layer services to the information application system, and provide network-layer comprehensive business access and transmission service (from stations to section posts, yards and sections) to the information application system.

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5. GSM-R network: provide a dedicated mobile communication base platform and comprehensive mobile communication service for railway transportation and management. 6. Business network: provide access and transmission services including telephone, telegraph, fax, image and emergency communication for manual train operation command, and transportation and production organization of high-speed railways.

5.4.4 Introduction of Bearer Services of the Communication System of High-Speed Railway The communication system of high-speed railway generally consists of the transmission system, the service communication system, the special communication system (traffic control telephone, special-purpose telephone, video monitoring, broadcasting, radio, clock, power supply, etc.) and other subsystems, forming the integrated service digital network for the transmission of voice, data, image and other information. 1. The communication system concerning train operation safety and efficiency improvement (a) Communication of train operation control system It is used for the information transmission of the train operation control system. The safety data communication network is formed by optical fibers and industrial Ethernet switches, and the communication system is composed of GSM-R mobile communication network and onboard ATP equipment. (b) Communication for the centralized dispatching system (CTC) The information transmission system that connects the traffic control office and the train operation monitoring rooms along the railway line, which is used for the centralized traffic control, the arrangement of train routes for all stations along the railway line and the transmission of traffic control commands. (c) Train dispatching telephone It is the traffic control telephone used for the communication between traffic controllers and station duty officers, between traffic controllers and train drivers, and it is a special functional telephone that can make broadcast calls, voice group calls or selective calls. Services are provided by FAS (digital dispatching system) and GSM-R digital mobile communication system. (d) Interstation train operation telephone It is a through telephone used when the blocking train operation mode applies in case of failure of the centralized dispatching system (CTC) or the train control system. Services are provided by FAS (digital dispatching system).

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(e) Communication for wind speed and rainfall monitoring When a high-speed train passes through the complex terrain, local climate monitoring is required so as to ensure operation safety. Anemometers should be installed on bridges over rivers and valleys to send rainstorm alarms to the traffic control offices, therefore, a communication system for wind speed and rainfall monitoring is required. (f) Communication for remote control of substation Power SCADA system, as one of the most important subsystems of the energy management system, is able to provide complete information, improve efficiency, report accurate system operating status, accelerate decision-making, and assist in system fault state diagnosis. It has become an indispensable tool for power dispatching. 2. Communication systems for passenger service (a) Ticket presale communication It is the communication between the ticket center and the equipment in the ticket booking windows of each station. (b) Communication for information and indication for passengers in station The communication for the indication of the arrival and departure time of trains, the parking platform number and other information and for the broadcasting equipment. (c) Public telephone The communication between passengers on the train and local telephone users. 3. Communication system for equipment maintenance and operation management (a) Special dispatching telephone It is the special dispatching telephone used by special civil engineering, power supply and signal dispatchers for service communication with the maintenance organizations alone the railway line, and it is a special functional telephone that can make broadcast calls, voice group calls or selective calls. Services are provided by FAS/digital dispatching system. (b) Service communication telephone It is the telephone communication system used by railway staff for service communication. Services are provided by the railway fixed telephone network, the user telephone access network and the GSM-R digital mobile communication system.

5.4.5 GSM for Railway (GSM-R) GSM-R (GSM for Railway) is a digital mobile communication system based on GSM technology and specially designed for railway communication. It provides a

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comprehensive communication service platform for railway applications, realizes radio train dispatching, intersection mobile communication and other voice functions, and undertakes radio data communication tasks including the transmission of train number verifying information, traffic control command and train control information. It plays an important role in ensuring railway operation safety. The successful application of GSM-R in Europe provides a good technical reference for the development of railway mobile communication technology in China. China has started the research on special mobile communication technology since 1994, and believes that GSM-R has the functional advantages of adapting to the characteristics of railway transportation with mature technologies, and is in line with the needs of the development of communication signal integration technology. Therefore, at the end of 2000, GSM-R was officially determined as the development trend of railway mobile communication in China. At present, GSM-R technology has been popularized and applied in many trunk railway lines, high-speed railways and passenger dedicated lines in China. The practical application forms of GSM-R in railways are as follows: 1. Traffic control communication Services provided by the traffic control communication system include train dispatching communication, freight train dispatching communication, traction substation dispatching communication, other dispatching and special communications, emergency communication, construction and maintenance communication and crossing communication, etc. At present, the railway dispatching communication network is mainly the GSM-R + FAS (fixed user access switch) wireless/wired hybrid network, which realizes point-to-point communication, voice group call, voice broadcasting, multi-party communication and other dispatching service communication within the dispatching section. 2. Transmission of train number and standstill information The GSM-R train number and standstill information transmission system is composed of GSM-R network GPRS, monitoring data acquisition and processing device, GSM-R locomotive integrated communication equipment, and TDCS/CTC equipment, which realizes the wireless transmission of train number verifying information and train standstill information through GSM-R network. 3. Traffic control command transmission The dispatching command system is composed of GSM-R network GPRS, GSM-R locomotive integrated communication equipment (including operation display terminal, and printing equipment), TDCS equipment, and other equipment. The system establishes the IP address file corresponding to the train registration number of the running section based on the car number. When dispatchers and station duty officers send a traffic control command, TDCS searches for the corresponding destination IP address according to the train registration number contained in the traffic control command, and sends the traffic control command to such IP address.

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4. Information transmission of train tail device For the information transmission of train tail device, GSM-R communication modules are installed on the driver query device in the head car and the wind pressure detector installed in the tail car, and through the data communication function of the GSM-R circuit switch, the transmission of wind pressure data from the tail car is realized. 5. Shunting locomotive signal and monitoring information system transmission: the shunting locomotive signal and monitoring information transmission system provides the shunting locomotive signal and monitoring information transmission channel, realizes data transmission between lineside equipment and multiple onboard equipment, and can store the information related to the shunting mode entry and exit. 6. Locomotive synchronous control and transmission In the multi-locomotive traction mode, GSM-R network is used to provide a reliable data transmission channel to realize synchronous locomotive operation control, such as simultaneous start, acceleration, deceleration, braking, etc. 7. Train control information transmission GSM-R is used to realize train-ground two-way wireless data transmission. It replaces the current color-light signal transmission mode with track circuits and is a key technology of the communication technology-based train control system, which provides a train-ground two-way safety data transmission channel, and meets the requirement of response time for train control. 8. Mobile civil engineering communication in section All departments of water and electricity supply, civil engineering, signal department, communication, power supply and bridge protection within the section use GSM-R operational purpose handhelds for internal communication, realizing the communication with the station duty officers, dispatchers of each department or automatic telephone users as necessary. In case of emergency, the staff can also establish communication with the driver. 9. Voice and data services for emergency command communication: establish a voice, image and data communication system between the site and the command center through the GSM-R network. The voice service for emergency command is set with a high priority to ensure fast and smooth communication. 10. Mobile information service channel of passenger trains: with the train-ground data transmission system (based on GSM-R circuit switching), mobile information services of passenger trains, such as ticket purchase service, ticket booking service and train schedule query can be realized.

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5.5 Questions for Review 1. 2. 3. 4.

What are the basic facilities of the signal system of high-speed railways? What are the signal systems of high-speed railways? Please describe the classification of the train control system. Please describe the structure and functions of the traffic dispatching command system of high-speed railways. 5. What are the similarities and differences between CTCS-3 and CTCS-2 train control systems? 6. What are the services provided by the communication system of high-speed railways? 7. Please briefly describe the application of GSM-R in railways.

Chapter 6

High-Speed Railway Transportation Organization

6.1 Overview High-speed railway is the product of modern economic and social development and transportation market competition. Its emergence and development have promoted the development of national and regional economies and the process of urban integration. In economically developed and densely populated areas, its economic and social benefits are even more prominent. Transportation organization of high-speed railways involves the studies on technical problems of transportation organization of high-speed railway which are different from that of normal railways based on the characteristics of high-speed railways. Transportation organization of high-speed railway determines whether the high-speed railway can give a full play to its technical and economic advantages, whether it can attract the passenger flow to the maximum extent, and whether it can obtain the software environment producing best economic and social benefits. It is an important part of high-speed railway technology. The conditions for building high-speed railways in China is favored: first of all, building high-speed railways is in line with China’s national conditions; secondly, building high-speed railway can improve passenger service quality; last but not least, building high-speed railway is conducive to the improvement of railway equipment standard and to the advancement of science and technology in China. When formulating the transportation organization mode, in addition to the actual situation including the demand of railway transportation, the current condition of the railway network, and the technical and economic conditions, consideration shall also be given from the aspect of passengers, analyzing the characteristics of passenger flow, so as to ensure the rational and effective design of the high-speed train operation mode or the transfer mode.

© Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_6

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6.1.1 Passenger Flow and Train Types of High-Speed Railway 1. Passenger flow (a) Concept of passenger flow Passenger flow refers to the social and economic phenomenon that passengers, for the purpose of production, work and living, move along the transport corridor towards a certain direction in a certain period and space by a certain transport means selected based on the purpose and distance of the travel. For the purpose of this chapter, the passenger flow mainly refers to the people moving along transport corridors by certain transport means. The concept of passenger flow belongs to the economic category, which involves five basic elements including flow volume, flow direction, flow time, flow distance and structure. (b) Classification of passenger flow (1) By passenger status It can be divided into workers, farmers, businessmen, civil servants, students, soldiers, teachers and others. (2) By traveling purpose It can be divided into passenger flow for meetings and business trips; passenger flow for visiting relatives and friends; passenger flow for goods purchase and sales; and passenger flow for sightseeing and traveling, etc. (3) By spatial range By the spatial range of passenger flow, the passenger flow on a transport corridor can be divided into local-line passenger flow and cross-line passenger flow based on whether the arrival and departure points fall on the corridor. The main difference between the local-line passenger flow and the cross-line passenger flow lies in whether the origin point and the destination point of passenger flow fall on the high-speed railway line. (I) Local-line passenger flow The passenger flow with both the origin point and the destination point falling on the current railway line is called local-line passenger flow. Take Wuhan-Guangzhou High-speed Railway as an example, as shown in Fig. 6.1, when both the origin point and the destination point (OD points) of passenger flow fall on Wuhan-Guangzhou Line, it is called local-line passenger flow. (II) Cross-line passenger flow Cross-line passenger flow refers to the passenger flow partially or fully crossing the corridor, which can be divided into the following three situations. a. The passenger flow with the origin station not on the corridor but the destination station on the corridor.

6.1 Overview

233 Passenger flow survey

Passenger flow forecast

Equipment condition

Train operation scheme

Operation strategy

Comprehensive transportation and production plan

Passenger transportation service

Daily operation command

Fig. 6.1 General flow (process) of transport organization

b. The passenger flow with the origin station on the corridor but the destination station not on the corridor. c. The passenger flow with both the origin station and the destination station not on the corridor but is conveyed along the corridor. (4) By passenger flow composition By the composition of passenger flow, the passenger flow on highspeed railway corridor can be divided into three types: basic passenger flow, induced passenger flow and transfer passenger flow. (I) Basic passenger flow The basic passenger flow is transferred from the passenger flow that satisfies the high-speed condition on the existing line, which is the main passenger flow undertaken by the high-speed railway and the main basis for building high-speed railways. (II) Induced passenger flow Induced passenger flow refers to the passenger flow newly added due to the expansion of corridor transport capacity, the upgrade of transportation quality and the improvement of transportation environment. (III) Transferred passenger flow The transferred passenger flow refers to the passenger flow transferred from one transport mode to another due to the competition among various transport modes in the transport corridor. Highspeed railways may attract a certain proportion of the passenger flow from other transport modes within its favorable transport distance; meanwhile, due to the multiple choices for passengers, some passengers may choose other transport modes for reasons such as the high-speed trains has fewer stations than others. Twoway transfer reflects the competitiveness of high-speed railway in the passenger transport market.

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(5) By conveying mode of cross-line passenger flow By the conveying mode of cross-line passenger flow, the passenger flow can be divided into direct passenger flow and transfer passenger flow. (I) Direct passenger flow The passenger flow of high-speed railway line undertaken by cross-line trains (high-speed direct passenger flow), without requiring any transfer. (II) Transfer passenger flow It refers to the passenger flow that can arrive at the destination only after transfer at the junction station between a high-speed line and an existing line, and by the transfer direction, it can be divided into the normal-speed train to high-speed train passenger flow and the high-speed train to normal-speed train passenger flow. (6) By traveling distance of passengers and jurisdiction of railway administration (I) Through passenger flow The passenger flow with the travel distance crossing two or more railway companies or dedicated passenger lines. It has long travel distance, long travel time, and higher requirements for service standards and comfort. High-speed railway is attractive to the through passenger flow. (II) Regional passenger flow The passenger flow with traveling range falls within the range of one railway company. (7) By passenger flow location (I) Section passenger flow: the passenger flow passing through sections of railway lines. (II) Station passenger flow: the passenger flow getting on and off the train or transferring at the station. (8) By other aspects (I) By the volume of passenger flow, the passenger flow on the corridor can be divided into large passenger flow, medium passenger flow and small passenger flow. (II) By the direction of passenger flow, the passenger flow on the corridor can be divided into upward passenger flow, downward passenger flow, etc. (III) By the time of passenger flow, the passenger flow on the corridor can be divided into peak passenger flow, flat passenger flow, valley passenger flow. (IV) By the distance of passenger flow, the passenger flow on the corridor can be divided into long-distance passenger flow, medium-distance passenger flow, and short-distance passenger

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flow. Generally, the passenger flow with a travel distance longer than 800 km is classified as long-distance passenger flow; shorter than 200 km, short-distance passenger flow; 200–800 km, medium-distance passenger flow. (c) The main factors affecting the change of passenger flow (1) Social, political, economic and cultural development. (2) Changes in distribution of productive force, development of economic zones, and establishment and development of local industries and township enterprises. (3) Changes in national or regional policies during a certain period. (4) Natural growth of population. (5) National and regional group activities. (6) Technical reconstruction of existing railways, construction of new railway lines, and the expansion or reduction of passenger flow attraction. (7) The development of various modern transport means and the change of rational labor division. (8) Changes in fares of different means of passenger transport. (9) Natural disasters and seasonal and climatic changes. (10) Development and change of tourism industry. 2. Types of high-speed trains To meet the requirement of different types of passenger flow and different conditions of railway line equipment, trains of corresponding classes shall be deployed and operated on the high-speed railway to meet various needs. According to the railway train working diagram, high-speed passenger trains are divided into the following types (see Table 6.1). 3. Train numbers of high-speed passenger trains (a) Definition In order to distinguish trains in different directions, types, sections and times, an identifier should be assigned for each train, and it is the train number. (b) Up- and down-direction determination rules (1) Up-direction (I) The direction heading to Beijing. (II) The direction from branch line to trunk line. (III) The direction designated as up-direction. (2) Down-direction (I) The direction departing Beijing. (II) The direction from trunk line to branch line. (III) The direction designated as down-direction. (c) Train numbering rules (1) Up direction trains are assigned with even train numbers. (2) Down direction trains are assigned with odd train numbers.

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Table 6.1 Train numbering scheme S. No.

Train type

Train number range

1

High-speed EMU passenger train

G1—G9998

Wherein Cross

G1—G5998 (G4001—G4998 are reserved for extra passenger trains)

Local 2

Intercity EMU passenger train

C1—C9998

Wherein Cross

C1—C1998

Local 3

EMU passenger train

D1—D9998 D1—D4998 (D4001—D4998 are reserved for extra passenger trains) D5001—D9998 (D9001—D9998 are reserved for extra passenger trains)

EMU inspection train

DJ1—DJ1998

Wherein 300 km/h inspection train

DJ1—DJ998

250 km/h inspection train 5

C2001—C9998 (C9001—C9998 are reserved for extra passenger trains)

Wherein Cross Local 4

G6001—G9998 (G9001—G9998 are reserved for extra passenger trains)

DJ1001—DJ1998

EMU clearance inspecting train

DJ5001—DJ8998

Wherein Through clearance inspecting train

DJ5001—DJ6998

Regional clearance inspecting train DJ7001—DJ8998 6

7

Trail test train

G55001—G56998

Wherein 300 km/h and above EMU

G55001—G55998

250 km/h and above EMU

D56001—D56998

EMU train stock ex- and in-factory deadheading

001—00298 “00” are numbers

6.1.2 Characteristics of Transportation Organization of High-Speed Railways High-speed railways are greatly different from conventional railways in terms of technical equipment, transportation service and transportation organization. In worldwide, different transportation organization modes of high-speed railways are adopted based on the actual national conditions, and the basic characteristics are as follows. 1. The transportation service system covers the whole process of passenger travel service, and meets different levels of passenger travel needs to the maximum extent. 2. The transportation organization of high-speed railways should adapt to the changes of passenger flow, and traffic plans and passenger train operating schemes shall be formulated. High-speed railways are mainly constructed to

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meet the requirement of high-speed travel of passengers. Therefore, the types, the quantity, the arrival, departure and intermediate stations and the parking time specified in the train working diagram should meet different levels of passenger needs to the maximum extent, and overall plans should be made by taking all factors into consideration, making rational arrangements, and paying attention to the followings. (a) Carefully investigate and determine the basic passenger groups and the “golden time range” within the high-speed railway network, and provide high-frequency and high-quality train services within such time range. (b) Adjust and optimize the train operating plan. In addition to the domestic and regional high-speed trains of different speeds, different routes and different stop stations that adapt to seasonal passenger flow, weekly passenger flow and passenger flow change within a day, interline transportation between high-speed lines and existing lines and between international high-speed rails are developed, and high-speed shuttle trains with special wagons for car transport are provided. (c) Pay attention to the coordination and cooperation with the existing railways and other means of transportation to facilitate passengers transfer. In addition to the general characteristics above, the high-speed railway train operating plan of each major country has its own characteristics: Japan’s high-speed railways are not connected with the existing lines, thus, the highspeed railway train operating plan involves the overall optimization and coordination between high-speed railways and existing lines, and between high-speed railways and other means of transportation in terms of transfer points and time. 3. Establish the safety assurance system based on advanced technology. The increased operating speed and operating density proposed higher safety requirements for technical equipment, such as track stability, train structure and material, braking technology, detection, monitoring and protection devices of electric traction power supply system, and main line arrangement. Especially, human-machine-environment detection, control and management systems are established, including the automatic train control and operation command system, the technical equipment detection, control, service and maintenance system, the automatic fault diagnosis, alarm and protection system, the environment detection and alarm system, the accident and disaster response, rescue and recovery system, and natural disaster forecasting, monitoring, warning, protection and disaster alleviation systems. High-speed safety technology is a leading and integrated technology that permeates and merges with a series of high and new technologies, and is the symbol of railway modernization. 4. Establish the overall operation management system centered on the traffic control center. The traffic dispatching command system of high-speed railways is the management center for organizing daily transportation activities of high-speed railways, and also the command center for real-time supervision and adjustment of the

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transport process. It plays an important role in coordinating various departments, improving train operation quality, ensuring train operation safety, and maintaining the orderly operation of the overall transportation system. The main task of high-speed railway traffic dispatching command system is to formulate and execute day-to-day traffic plans, and to conduct real-time traffic dispatching command. In order to ensure the operation order, to coordinate multi-department joint operation and to adapt to external disturbance, the traffic dispatching command system shall be equipped with three basic functions including control, coordination and adjustment. In order to give full play to these three basic functions, the basic principle of centralized leadership and unified command must be adhered to during traffic dispatching command, and appropriate organizations must be set up.

6.1.3 Transportation Organization Flow of High-Speed Railway The purpose of transportation organization of high-speed railway is to meet the transportation needs of passengers and to maintain good transportation order and operation effect based on efficient use of railway fixed equipment, mobile equipment and human resources. For this purpose, the basic flow of transportation organization of high-speed railway is shown in Fig. 6.1. Firstly, by carrying out passenger flow survey, correctly analyze and forecast the demand of passenger transport market; secondly, comprehensively consider the conditions of railway lines, stations, signals, EMUs and other technical equipment, calculate and determine the train operation parameters, and determine the operation policy and strategy based on the actual conditions of the transport system and the market demands; finally, formulate the framework passenger transportation plan, i.e., the train operating plan, and specify specific provisions on origin–destination points, types and quantities of trains, and the stopping plan of stop stations based on passenger flow forecasts, equipment conditions and operation strategies. Specific transportation organization is arranged based on the comprehensive traffic plan, and the comprehensive traffic plan of high-speed railway mainly includes train working diagram, EMU operation plan and crewing plan. The train working diagram specifies in detail the arrival, passing and departure time as well as the operation duration of all trains at each station; the EMU operation plan specifies EMU routes; and the crewing plan specifies the driver duty arrangement. Therefore, the quality of high-speed railway train operation mainly depends on the comprehensive traffic plan. For daily transport organization, the involved departments of high-speed railways shall carry out their work in strict accordance with the specified time and content in the comprehensive traffic plan. In case of deviation of train operation from the train working diagram, the daily traffic dispatching command department shall formulate a traffic control adjustment plan and direct relevant departments and personnel to

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restore planned train operation based on the train working diagram as far as possible, so as to reduce the impact on passengers and operation order. Therefore, establishing a safe, reliable and easy-to-use high-speed railway traffic dispatching command system equipped with advanced equipment and complete functions is a key to ensuring the quality of high-speed railway transport.

6.2 HSR Transportation Organization Modes 6.2.1 HSR Transportation Organization Modes The transportation organization modes of high-speed railways refer to the train organization forms and methods undertaken by high-speed railways under certain social, economic and technical development levels, railway network functional structure and operation management system. It mainly involves the determination of type, speed and proportion of trains operated on high-speed railways, and the selection of the organization method of cross-line passenger flow and the operation method of cross-line trains in terms of different development stages, different passenger flow characteristics and different railway network conditions, and on a basis of rational work division between highs-speed railways and existing lines. The transportation organization mode is the premise and basis for determining the main technical schemes and technical standards for high-speed railways, which is formed under a certain management system and is subjected to the restriction by various factors such as national condition, railway condition, technology level, cultural and geographical environment, and economic environment. When these restrictions change, the transportation organization mode of high-speed railways will change accordingly. Besides, the passenger flow composition, market positioning, network layout, passenger transport hub layout, EMU depot layout, traffic control center arrangement, and transfer system maturity of high-speed railways also have a certain influence on the transportation organization mode of high-speed railway. Therefore, the transportation organization mode must be selected and determined in the railway planning and design stage, for it determines the structural relationship between dedicated passenger lines and the existing network, the setting of stations, the type and quantity of trains, the preparation of train working diagram, the passenger transfer mode and other important matters.

6.2.2 HSR Transportation Organization Modes in the World So far, high-speed railways have been developed in many countries in the world, and building high-speed railways has become the trend of railway development throughout the world. Different counties have different national conditions, therefore,

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the transportation organization modes adopted vary. For example, the high-speed railways in France, Japan and China are high-speed dedicated passenger lines, while the high-speed railways in Germany, Italy and Spain are mixed passenger and freight lines. 1. “Full high-speed—transfer” mode The so-called “full high-speed—transfer” mode refers to the traffic mode in which only high-speed trains are operated on the high-speed railway lines, without any cross-line train and with large through passenger flow, and line crossing is realized by means of transfer. High-speed trains operate in the daytime, and are maintained at night. This mode is suitable for self-contained high-speed dedicated passenger lines. Japan Shinkansen adopts “full high-speed—transfer” mode, and the main advantages include high operating speed, small train headway, relatively simple transportation organization, convenient management and large traffic volume. However, the disadvantage of this mode is that the cross-line passenger flow needs to transfers at junction stations for once or several times, which increases the traveling time, reduces the traveling efficiency, and brings inconvenience and difficulty to passengers. Therefore, partial passenger flow may be diverted to other transport means, thus affecting the operation benefit of high-speed railways. 2. “Full high-speed—offline operation” mode The so-called “full high-speed—offline operation” mode refers to the traffic mode in which both local high-speed trains and cross-line high-speed trains are operated on the line, when the cross-line high-speed trains operate at the stipulated speed on the high-speed line, and then operate at the permitted speed by the normalspeed railway line after exiting from the high-speed line. This mode is applicable to dedicated passenger lines connected with a normal speed line. Most high-speed railways in France adopt this mode. Since the operating speed of high-speed trains on railway lines are basically the same, there will be no deduction coefficient generated by low-speed trains to high-speed trains, thus the operation can be carried out according to the parallel train working diagram, which can greatly increase the carrying capacity of block sections. Besides, highspeed trains can operate off the existing lines, which increases the traffic network and operating distance of high-speed trains, expands the service scope of highspeed railway lines, attracts more passenger flow, improves the utilization rate of high-speed railway lines, reduces passenger transfer, and better solves the problem of cross-line passenger transport. For the transportation organization mode adopted by railways in France, appropriate numbers of trains are deployed according to the passenger flow volume, and the number of trains operated is determined based on the passenger flow volume of a specific period of the day. This mode satisfies the market demands, and ensures the reliability of high-speed railways and the whole railway network, and grantees a high occupancy rate of trains. Fewer stop stations ensure shortened train start and stop time and higher average speed of trains, providing good overall economic benefits.

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The disadvantage of this mode is that the operation headway of trains is irregular. Besides, in order to meet the requirement of maximum carrying capacity, the number of the trains must be increased, the scale of storage yard must be expanded, and the number of maintenance depots along the line must be increased, so as to reduce the deadhead trains. For railway operators, the total investment scale increases, but the railway line utilization rate decreases, so that the repayment period of capital cost will be extended. In addition, it proposes a high compatibility requirement between high-speed dedicated passenger lines and existing lines. 3. “Mixed passenger and freight line, time-sharing operation” mode The so-called “mixed passenger and freight line, time-sharing operation” mode refers to the traffic mode in which two types of trains will operate on high-speed railway lines, including high-speed passenger trains, and low-speed freight trains, namely mixed passenger-freight lines. Generally, this line mode is composed of reconstructed existing lines (with a maximum speed of 200 km/h) and the newlybuilt high-speed lines (with a maximum speed of 250 ~ 300 km/h). For the “mixed passenger and freight line, time-sharing operation” traffic mode, not only highspeed trains, but also freight trains and regional and short-distance passenger trains will be operated on high-speed railway lines. The advantage of this mode is that it can provide balanced trains for most passengers throughout the day, and the pitch time is easy to remember, which facilitates train number selection by passengers. For railway operators, fewer trains are needed, and the trains operate regularly, which reduces irregularities in the operation process. Besides, the improved service procedure reduces deadheading of trains, and the train working diagram with fixed departure interval facilitates the coordination with other transport means, facilities passengers’ transfer and shortens the time passengers staying in station. In addition, the investment in railway line engineering is relatively low and the railway line meets the requirement of both passenger transport and fast freight transport. However, this mode also has obvious disadvantages. Due to the large speed difference between passenger trains and freight trains operating on the line (generally, the speed of passenger train is 200 km/h, and the speed of freight cars is 100 km/h), the deduction coefficient of passenger cars is large; the carrying capacity is small; the train operation organization is complex; the maximum speed of passenger trains is generally limited to 160– 200 km/h; the traveling speed is reduced; passengers’ travel time is prolonged. Besides, the operating speed must be in line with the train working diagram, resulting in reduced average train operating speed, and mixed passenger-freight operation on the line is impossible when the headway is small. Germany’s ICE adopts the carrying capacity-based transport mode, and the train operation is organized on a basis of a fixed time interval. Wuhan-Hefei Highspeed Railway in China also adopts this mode. 4. “Mixed transport” mode The “mixed transport” mode refers to railways designed and constructed for mixed operation of high-speed passenger trains, normal-speed passenger trains and high-speed freight trains, which are mainly used for the operation of

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medium and long-distance high-speed trains. Among these high-speed trains, some operate on high-speed lines only, while others may be required to operate off high-speed railway lines, extending to some large cities that are not on highspeed railway lines. Non-high-speed passenger trains may also operate on highspeed railway lines, and normal freight trains may not operate on high-speed railway lines, but some high-speed freight trains for conveying fresh and perishable goods can operate on high-speed railway lines. Besides, in the daytime, non-high-speed IC trains and EC (Euro City) trains can operate on high-speed railway lines. Spain’s Madrid-Seville High-speed Railway is also designed to meet the requirement of mixed operation of high- and medium-speed passenger trains, and like France, the dedicated passenger transportation organization mode is adopted.

6.3 HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme 6.3.1 HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme 1. Concept The HSR passenger train operating scheme involves the scientific and rational arrangement of class, type, OD points, quantity, route and formation of passenger trains, stop station scheme, train passenger seats utilization and train stock utilization based on passenger volume and according to the nature, characteristics and laws of passenger flow, and it is the organization scheme related to passenger flow and train flow. The HSR passenger train operating scheme serves the important basis of passenger transportation organization, and the scheme shall clearly reflect the management strategy and service quality of HSR passenger transportation, and shall facilitate high-speed railway transportation organization. 2. Function and significance (a) It is an important part of passenger train operation organization. It serves as the basis for the preparation of HSR train working diagrams and EMU operation plans, and it is a core problem of passenger transportation organization. (b) It reflects the management strategy and service quality of railway passenger transportation, and is conducive to the improvement of management efficiency and competitive strength of railway passenger transportation. (c) The quality of the HSR passenger train operating scheme directly determines the service level of high-speed railway transport and the economic benefit of transport enterprises, and it plays a very important role in realizing the safe and efficient transportation of HSR passenger flow, the preparation of train

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working diagram, the rational deployment of high-speed EMUs, the coordination of transportation organization, the planning of high-speed railway passenger transport product, and the improvement of passenger transport efficiency and service quality.

6.3.2 Elements of HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme 1. Train class and type Due to the constant update of high-speed train stock, high-speed trains of different speeds are operated on some high-speed lines. In this case, trains are classified based on the operating speed, and the higher the operating speed is, the higher class the train will be. When only high-speed trains with the highest operating speed operate, the trains are classified based on stop stations, and the fewer stop stations there are, the higher class the train will be. The types of trains in operation refer to different types of trains operated to meet the travel needs of different passengers. Currently, there are 7 models of high-speed trains operated in China, including CRH1, CRH2, CRH3, CRH5, CRH380, CRH6 and Fuxing CR400. For different models, the operating speed, the number of cars and other technical characteristics are different. Operating different types of trains on a railway line can provide passengers with diversified passenger transport products, thus meeting the needs of passengers of different levels. Reasonable determination of the proportion of different train types is of great significance to improve the economic and social benefits of railway enterprises. 2. Train origin and destination points The origin and destination points are the originating station and destination stations respectively, which are generally determined by the political and economic factors, cultural background, tourism resources and other factors of cities. Generally, the origin and destination points of trains should be set in stations or transit and transfer hub stations with large passenger flows and the ability of handling train arrival and departure services, or in stations reserved as the origin and destination points. For concentrated short-distance passenger flow, short-distance trains will be deployed generally, and dense operation is required in the morning and at night. For the selection of origin and destination points of high-speed trains, in addition to the passenger flow structure, the utilization of train stocks shall also be taken into account. The ability of train stock application depends on the receiving and departure ability of stations, carrying capacity of block section, train stock servicing, and EMU turn-back. Passenger trains not only serve the passengers from the originating station and the destination station, but also the passengers getting on and off the trains from the intermediate stations. Therefore, the train operating scheme shall not be determined merely based on the forecast passenger flow at OD points, instead, a train shall be deployed when a

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certain passenger flow volume is reached between two points (when a certain passenger flow volume is reached between two points, a passenger train is therefore added). 3. Train operating section The train operation section is determined based on the principle of shortest line mileage. The HSR passenger train operation section involves two parts including the origin and destination points of train operation and the operating route. The operating route refers to the running path of trains during the operation process, which is usually the shortest path between the origin point and the destination point. In order to meet the travel needs of passengers along the line, appropriate operating routes shall be selected for the train according to the actual operation condition of the railway line. Besides, the specified route passing through specific stations and the diverting route for shunting purpose shall be determined based on specific conditions. 4. Number of operating passenger trains The number of operating passenger trains refers to the number of passenger trains to be operated in a day and night to meet the travel needs of passengers in a direction or in a section calculated based on certain traffic volume, under rational formation condition, and based on passenger flow volume, passenger seating capacity and passenger travel fluctuation coefficient. It is determined based on the density of passenger flow in the section. During the passenger train operation process, the number of up-direction trains and down-direction trains are the same. Therefore, the number of trains running in a certain direction or section is called the number of train pairs, which is mainly determined by the passenger flow plan. The determination of the number of train pairs is the process of converting passenger flow into train flow. Generally speaking, whether the determined number of train pairs is rational, i.e., whether the train operating scheme is reasonable is one of the measures to determine the compliance of operating quality. In addition to meeting the passenger flow transport requirement, a reasonable number of train pairs can also improve the efficiency of railway transport, reduce the transport cost of railway transport enterprises, ensure good transportation service quality, guarantee the operation efficiency of railway transport enterprises, and improve the market competitiveness. Besides, it is an important link for the preparation of train operating scheme. 5. Train operating frequency The train operating frequency refers to the number of trains available for selection by each passenger in a certain direction in a day. The train operating frequency is the important content to be determined in the train operating scheme, and is the key index of transportation resource allocation. More trains available to passengers in a day will bring convenience and shorten the train waiting time for passengers. When the train operating frequency is more than 18 trains, as the train operating frequency keeps increasing, the increasing amplitude of traffic volume is small; however, the short-distance passenger flow

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is particularly sensitive to the service frequency, meaning that the operation density of short-distance high-speed trains should be increased. 6. Stop station scheme The stop station scheme refers to the train stop station sequence determined based on the requirement of passenger flow and the condition of train coordination after the route, type, number of cars and operating frequency are determined, which is the summary of stop stations of trains. Stopping at intermediate stations is to meet passengers’ need of getting on and off the train in midway. For intermediate stations with fewer arrival and departure demands, passenger transport is realized by letting a train stop at such stations. The train type directly affects the stop station plan of a train. For trains of higher class, to meet the travel time requirement, the number of stop stations is relatively small, while for trains of a lower class, in order to meet the transport demand of passenger flow along the line, the number of stop stations is relatively large(more). The more trains stopping at stations, the more convenient it is for passengers to travel. However, the arrangement of stop stations for a train must be reasonable, for the increase of stop stations will inevitably decrease the travel speed and increase the travel time, and when the train operating expenses increase, the carrying capacity of the operating line will decrease. In China, there are various stop station schemes for high-speed railways, and high-speed trains of different speeds (such as 300 km/h and above or 250 km/ h) are operated at the same time on the line. It is similar to Japan’s Tokaido and Sanyo Shinkansen. Japan divides its high-speed trains into three types including “Nozomi”, “Hikari” and “Kodama”. There are 90 stop station modes in total, and more than 450 trains are operated in a day. 7. Station dwell time The station dwell time refers to the period from door open to door closed of a train. The station dwell time of high-speed trains is an important factor that determines the passenger capacity of a line, and also an important control parameter for train operation adjustment. The station dwell time of a train is closely related to the station class, the working efficiency of station equipment, the passenger flow, the getting on and off speed of passengers, and others. 8. Train formation content and seating capacity The train formation is related to passengers’ economic level, the demand level, the traveling time, the fluctuation of passenger flow during holidays, the nature of trains, and the nature of passenger flow. In the determination of the number of cars, the station organization ability and the passenger flow volume shall be taken into account comprehensively, so as to minimize passengers’ waiting time. The number of cars depends on the train nature—the operating distance. For short-distance trains operated on highspeed railway lines, the short-consist and high-density mode will be adopted generally, so as to increase the number of trains available for selection to attract passengers; for long-distance trains, the long-consist mode shall be adopted, and trains will operate at a certain time interval, so as to make full use of the carrying capacity of block sections. The train formation plan shall be determined

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based on the statistics of passenger flow, and the technical parameters of cars, railway line conditions and other factors shall also be taken into comprehensive consideration, so as to ensure rational train formation. Seating capacity refers to the total available seats of a train. Seating capacity shall be determined based on various factors; overlarge seating capacity will not only reduce the service frequency, but also require a higher train traction power at the same operating speed, because if the seating capacity is small, it may be unable to meet the demand of the predicted traffic volume. The rationality of train formation and seating capacity directly determines the feasibility of the train operating scheme and the train operation quality. 9. Number of EMUs required Factors that influence the number of EMUs include EMU traveling time and technical operation schedule, operating diagram layout scheme, and EMU operation mode. 10. Train operating range The train operation range refers to the train operation time range. The DPL passenger train operation range shall be determined based on the principle of “for the convenience of passengers”, in line with the arrival and departure time requirements, and taking into account the arrival time at major intermediate stations, train stock turn-back time, comprehensive maintenance window period and other factors.

6.3.3 Influencing Factors of HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme For the factors influencing HSR train operating schemes, the consideration can be given from two aspects: demand and supply. The main purpose of high-speed railway passenger service is to meet the demand of spatial displacement of passengers, so the passenger flow is sure to be one of the influencing factors of the operating scheme; from the perspective of supply, the supply is limited, and it is impossible to provide unlimited passenger transport products to meet passengers’ demands. Therefore, the existing equipment capacity must be taken into consideration in preparing the operating scheme. 1. Passenger flow volume and property (passenger flow nature) Passengers are the main object of the passenger services provided by railway enterprise. The volume and the nature of passenger flow reflect the travel needs of passengers, which are the base and foundation for preparing the passenger train operating scheme and carrying out railway passenger transport work, i.e., “operating trains based on passenger flow”. In the operating scheme, the number of operating trains and the operating sections are determined directly based on passenger flow volume, and the proportion of different train classes depends on the number of passengers of different consumption levels. The design of

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the stop station scheme is related to the balance between the interests of riding passengers and alighting passengers. It can be seen that passenger flow is a factor that influences all aspects of the passenger transport organization work. Before formulating the operating scheme, it is necessary to investigate and understand the volume, distance, direction, time and speed of passenger flow, as well as the fluctuation of the passenger flow in special periods, so as to determine the number of trains based on passenger flow and ensure all passenger flow can be carried by trains. For determining the number of trains based on passenger flow, in actual situations, the passenger flow has certain uncertainties and is subject to change with regional economic development, transport supply and other factors. Therefore, it is required that the department of railway enterprises responsible for scheme formulation shall fully understand the social and economic development of the section, calculate and estimate the potential passengers who are likely to purchase railway passenger products through investigation and data analysis, and then scientifically predict and calculate the passenger flow by taking errors in data analysis into consideration. The passenger flow are dynamically correlated to the operating scheme. The operating scheme is prepared based on passenger flow, and the passenger transport products produced based on the operating scheme will interact with passengers. Depending on the quality of the operating scheme, two kinds of interactions may occur: a good operating scheme can improve passenger satisfaction, directly increase the social benefits of railway enterprises, enhance the reputation of HSR passenger transport products, and from a long-term perspective, it can attract more passenger flow, which can be converted into direct economic benefits, thus forming a virtuous circle; while a poor operating scheme will cause extremely bad influence to railway enterprises. 2. Train formation and seating capacity Train formation refers to the fixed train stock consisting of the fixed number and type of cars; the seating capacity is the sum of the marked seats of passenger cars in the train formation, namely the total number of seats of a train. The contents of train formation are determined by the economic level and the demand level of passengers in the cities where the origin and destination points of the trains are located, the travel time of passenger trains, the fluctuation of passenger flow in holidays and festivals and other factors. Theoretically, only when a certain service frequency is reached, can the predicted traffic volume be completed, which is the basis for determining the seating capacity. When the number of cars is small, the number of train pairs shall increase appropriately. Besides, the number of cars is also related to the travel distance of trains. The short-consist and high-density mode can greatly improve the service frequency, thus attracting more passenger flow; however, when the traffic capacity of railway lines is tight, the long-consist mode can make full use of the traffic capacity of railway lines.

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3. EMU operation mode and configuration The deployment of EMU is related to the investment, costs and revenue of fixed equipment and mobile facilities. On the premise of meeting passenger flow demand and operation requirements, the number of EMUs should be reduced as far as possible, so as to reduce the non-operative time of EMUs and improve the availability of EMUs. 4. Fluctuation coefficient of passenger flow and utilization rate of train seats Subject to the influence of season, time, environment and other factors, the passenger flow volume changes every day. The ratio of the average daily passenger flow of the peak month to the average daily passenger flow of a year is the fluctuation coefficient of passenger flow. Seat utilization ratio, also called seat occupancy rate or passenger load factor, is the ratio of the number of occupied seats to the total number of seats of a train. 5. Dedicated passenger line linkup and transfer 6. Limits of facility capacity In the formulation of the operating scheme, the limits of facility capacity shall be taken into account. Otherwise, the operating plan divorced from reality is unfeasible and useless. 7. Transportation organization mode The transportation organization mode involves the assignment of train types to different classes of railway lines within the high-speed passenger transport network, and the organization of train operation. It especially involves the selection of transport mode between the direct mode or the transfer mode for the cross-line passenger flow. In the event the direct mode is adopted, should the mode of high-speed trains operating off line or medium-speed trains operating on dedicated passenger lines be selected? How is the passenger flow distributed on the dedicated passenger line and the existing line where these two lines are laid in parallel? Is there any principle of operating on different types of railway lines to be followed by trains with different stop station scheme? Whether localline trains and cross-line trains are operated on the same line? All above may affect the train class, the formation mode, and the stop station scheme in the train operating scheme. 8. DPL passengers travel revenues and costs The travel cost is an important considering factor for passengers when choosing the means of transportation. Given this, it is an important factor to be considered when formulating the train operating scheme. Passengers’ travel cost mainly includes the ticket fare and the time consumption, among which, the time consumption mainly includes the travelling time, the time required for buying ticket, the waiting time, and the transfer time. The origin and destination points, the number of stop stations, the train class, and the train operating frequency stipulated in the train operating scheme directly determine the above travel time spent by passengers.

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9. Social development of intermediate stations of dedicated passenger lines The political, economic, cultural, geographical and other factors of the station also affect the operating scheme, and sometimes, for political purposes, the government will adjust the operating plan. (a) Social and economic development level The social and economic development level is in direct proportion to the travel demand of passengers. They promote each other and complement each other. (b) Residents’ consumption level Passengers’ travel demands come from the needs of production, work and living. 10. Costs and benefits of railway enterprises The revenue of the railway sector, i.e., the difference between operating income and operating cost, is an important factor that affects the operating scheme. 11. Operating benefits of passenger trains Operating benefits of passenger trains mainly include social benefit, market benefit, and economic benefit. Under the market cultivation, social benefit and market benefit will gradually develop into economic benefit. Therefore, to determine the specific train operating scheme, relevant staff should consider not only the operating efficiency of railway enterprises, but also the travel benefit and the travel cost of passengers, so as to better improve the social benefit and market benefit of the train operating scheme.

6.3.4 HSR Passenger Train Operating Scheme Formulation Process The formulation of HSR passenger train operating scheme is a key content of HSR transportation organization. Besides, it involves the organization scheme for the conversion from passenger flow to train flow. Firstly, prepare for the operating plan. Estimate the passenger flow between the origin point and the destination point with the passenger flow estimation method, conduct passenger flow data statistics, and comprehensively analyze the passenger flow characteristics obtained. Then conclude the specific law of passenger flow change, make a rational forecast on passenger flow, and formulate the passenger flow plan, thus realizing “operating train based on passenger flow”. The whole process is the basis for formulating the operating scheme. Secondly, formulate the operating plan. Adjust the passenger flow based on the estimated passenger flow volume according to the actual condition, build a mathematics model based on the train formation, the speed, the passenger seat utilization and the section carrying capacity, and then analyze and calculate the specific number of trains, the stop station plan and other elements of the operating scheme.

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6 High-Speed Railway Transportation Organization OD passenger flow estimation Social, economic and political conditions, characteristics of passenger flow, layout of EMU maintenance facilities

Origin point and destination point

All operating conditions satisfied YES Train class, number of train, station stop scheme

Service frequency, seat utilization rate

All operating conditions satisfied

NO

Specific parameters of passenger flow, train properties, equipment capacity utilization parameters NO

YES Output train working scheme

Fig. 6.2 Flowchart of passenger train operating scheme formulation

Finally, implement the operating scheme. The flowchart for formulating a specific passenger train operation scheme is as shown in Fig. 6.2. The process of formulating the passenger train operating scheme involves various factors from all aspects, and special attention shall be paid to the matters of principle. “Operating train based on flow” is the basic and prior principle to be considered for preparing the operating scheme. Besides, the requirements of convenience, reduced transfer times and reduced traveling time shall also be taken into full consideration. To sum up, the completion of the passenger train operating scheme is a foundation to ensure the normal operation of passenger trains. We should improve both the economic benefit and the social benefit, which is the basic condition in the preparation and optimization of the passenger train operating scheme, and also the basis for the formulation and optimization of the passenger train operating plan.

6.4 HSR Train Working Diagram and Carrying Capacity 6.4.1 HSR Train Working Diagram 1. Definition of HSR train working diagram The HSR train working diagram is a coordinates-based graph used to indicate the operating condition of high-speed trains, which is a technical document showing the train operation condition in sections, the train arrival and departure in stations and the passing through time. It stipulates the order in which each train occupies

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the HSR section, and shows the arrival and departure (or passing through) time of trains at each station from the originating to the destination station, the travel time in HSR sections, the station dwell time, EMU routes, and weight and length of trains, which is a comprehensive plan guiding the organization of high-speed railway transport and operation, and the supply and sales of products, a foundation of train operation organization, and a bridge connecting railway transport and operation with social life. The HSR train working diagram divides the X-axis in a certain proportion into equal sections with vertical lines which represent the hours and minutes of a day and night, and divide the Y-axis in a certain proportion with horizontal lines which represent the centerline of stations, which constitutes the basic format of the HSR train working diagram. The intersections of the train paths (diagonal lines) and the station centerlines (horizontal lines) in the HSR train working diagram are the times when trains arrive, depart or pass stations. 2. Role of HSR train working diagram The HSR train working diagram is the foundation of train operation organization and is the basis for traffic dispatchers to command train operation. Besides, HSR stations shall arrange train receiving and departure and organize passenger transport according to the train working diagram. It has a direct and decisive influence on the production efficiency and economic benefit of operating enterprises. (a) The HSR train working diagram is a technical document of train operation for internal use of operating enterprises, and a comprehensive plan of operating enterprises for organizing transportation and production as well as product supply and sales. (1) HSR train working diagram is a production plan: it specifies the application of equipment such as railway lines, stations and EMUs, so as to ensure the smooth progress of production activity. (2) HSR train working diagram is the product supply plan, the train operation scheme, represents the operating service quality for various highspeed trains (grades, services, etc.) and transportation products, and the HSR passenger train timetable is the catalog of HSR transportation products. (b) The train working diagram is also a comprehensive work plan for maintaining operation order, ensuring operation safety and coordinating all railway departments, and is the main basis for the cooperation and coordination of traffic staff of all departments and units. (1) The traffic control department control train operation according to the train working diagram. (2) EMU depots determine the number of EMUs required in a day and the operating time, and formulate the EMU maintenance system and the crew and driver working system based on the train working diagram.

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(3) The power supply, communication and signal, mechanical and electrical, and civil engineering departments formulate construction and maintenance plans based on the requirement of the train working diagram. Formulating the train working diagram correctly is of great significance to ensure train operation safety, to accelerate EMU turn-back, to improve transport efficiency and carrying capacity, and to fulfill or overfulfill the passenger transport task. 3. Elements of HSR train working diagram (a) Section travel time of high-speed trains The section travel time of high-speed trains refers to the travel time standard of high-speed trains between two adjacent stations, which is checked and determined by the EMU department through the method combining traction calculations and practical tests (Figs. 6.3 and 6.4). (b) Station dwell time of high-speed trains The station dwell time of high-speed trains is the time required to perform necessary technical operation and passenger transport operation, and waiting time for train meeting and crossing at stations. (c) High-speed EMU routing (1) Locomotive arm routing EMU is responsible for train traction in sections adjacent to the home depot. In addition to turn-back depot servicing, EMU shall enter the depot for servicing every time it returns to the station where the home depot is located (Figs. 6.5 and 6.6).

Fig. 6.3 Section travel time of high-speed trains

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Fig. 6.4 Station dwell time of high-speed trains Fig. 6.5 Locomotive arm routing

Fig. 6.6 Half circular system of locomotive routing

(2) Half circular system of locomotive routing The EMU is responsible for train traction in the two sections adjacent to the home depot. In addition to turn-back depot servicing, it shall not enter the depot when returning to the station where the home depot is located for the first time, instead, it shall pull the train to the section ahead and continue operating until it returns to the station where the turn-back depot is located for the second time. (3) Circular system of locomotive routing EMU is responsible for train traction in the two sections adjacent to the home depot. In addition to turn-back depot servicing and entering the home depot for intermediate technical inspection, the EMU shall be subjected to servicing at the station every time it returns to the station where the home depot is located (Figs. 6.7 and 6.8).

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Fig. 6.7 Circular system of locomotive routing

Fig. 6.8 Annular system of locomotive routing

(4) Annular system of locomotive routing EMU is responsible for traction of two or more trains in a section or a hub before entering the depot for servicing, and turn-back of the locomotive is not required. (d) The standard of high-speed EMUs’ dwell time in stations where the home depot and the turn-back depot are located It refers to the total time required for a high-speed EMU train to stop at the destination station or to complete the turn-back operation at intermediate stations. It Includes the signal confirmation time, the turn-back track entering and exiting time, the route handling time, and the driver walking and shift changing time. tTurn-back = tArrival + tDepot enter + tServicing + tDepot exit + tDeparture (min) (6.1) (e) Headway of train in high-speed railway stations It refers to the minimum time interval for handling the reception-departure or passing of two trains at a high-speed railway station. (f) Train headway In automatic block sections, there may be two or more trains operating towards the same direction in a block section between stations. This phenomenon is called fleeting operation. The minimum time interval between the two trains is called train headway I. (g) EMU depot dwell time The minimum time required for EMU servicing. 4. Main characteristics of HSR train working diagram Since high-speed railways are significantly different from non-high-speed railways in terms of the train operation organization, the train operating speed and the maintenance window arrangement, the method for mapping high-speed train

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path is greatly different from that for mapping the double-track non-high-speed train working diagram. High-speed train working diagrams of foreign countries are featured by regular operation time (periodic train working diagram is adopted) with full consideration given to passenger flow fluctuation, and the main characteristics are as follows: (a) Prominent peak hours The formulation of HSR train working diagrams and the arrangement of train paths must be in line with the law of passenger traveling demand. High-speed railways should check and calculate the carrying capacity (such as the carrying capacity of receiving and departure track) and the power supply capacity in peak hours, and calculate the number of EMUs required in peak hours. (b) Strict travel speed limit When operating on high-speed railways, a certain commercial speed requirement will be imposed on the passenger trains, and under certain technical conditions, the commercial speed is related to the number of stop stations and station dwell time. (c) Highly flexible operating route arrangement In order to ensure the high punctuality of trains, the train working diagram must be variable, i.e. with high flexibility. (d) Appearance of effective time range In general, 0:00–6:00 a.m. is the maintenance window period for highspeed railways, when the maintenance and repair of railway lines and traction power supply equipment are performed. Before the high-speed railway network is formed, the operating time of high-speed trains is relatively short, and there is no passenger in this period. Since the maintenance window is generally rectangle, and a train can only depart at 6 o’clock or later, and arrive at 0 o’clock or before, an effective time range is formed for trains of different operation distances. (e) Integrated design Similar to the integrated design concept of the train operating scheme, the computer mapping software developed by some western European countries can clearly display the distribution of passenger flow on each train after a train working diagram scheme is designed. In the event seat overbooking or low seat occupancy rate, or improper distribution of passenger flow in first-class and second-class couches is identified, the train working diagram will be adjusted in time and calculations will be carried out until a rational scheme that meets the passenger flow demand and provides good economic efficiency has been developed. (f) Train working diagram parameters determined based on operation quality requirement and actual operation condition Thanks to the proper design of train working diagrams, the high-speed trains in Western Europe have a high percentage of punctuality. On one hand, enough redundant time has been reserved in the train working diagram; on

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the other hand, the operating time of the train in the train working diagram is strictly determined according to the actual operating time of the train, rather than roughly set according to the scale (average value). (g) Customer-oriented train working diagram formulation In foreign countries, the marketing department is generally responsible for the formulation of train working diagram, so as to facilitate selling the train working diagram to customers. The staff responsible for formulating train working diagram is also responsible for receiving customers, settling accounts with customers, constantly revising the train working diagram according to customers’ requirements, and coordinating the relationship with customers. Therefore, their work is closely related to finance, and directly determine the income of the company.

6.4.2 HSR Carrying Capacity 1. Definition It refers to the maximum number of reference trains passing on a railway line in a certain direction or section in the unit time (usually refer to one hour or a day and night) marshaled with a certain number and type of motor cars, adopting a certain train operation organization mode, and under the condition of the existing technical equipment (such as main lines in section, section length, profile of track, stations, EMU operation equipment, signals, interlocking, blocking mode, type of train working diagram and power supply equipment of electrified railways). A reference train refers to a train that operates at the maximum speed in the section subjected to carrying capacity determination without stopping in the midway. The carrying capacity depends on the train operation organization level, the railway fixed equipment and the rational EMU deployment to some extent, which is not a fixed value, but can improve with the upgrade of technical equipment and operation organization methods. To calculate the passing capacity, it is generally required to calculate the carrying capacity in the parallel train working diagram first, and then calculate the carrying capacity in the non-parallel train working diagram. 2. Characteristics of utilization and calculation of HSR carrying capacity Since high-speed railways are greatly different from normal railways in terms of train operation organization, they have their own characteristics in the utilization and calculation of carrying capacity. (a) Capacity utilization in the daytime and in the nighttime is imbalanced. High-speed railways are mainly used for passenger transport, and passenger travel activities at the departure station generally take place in the daytime. The generation and change rules of passenger flow in different seasons are different; the characteristics of passenger flow on workdays and on weekends are different; and the passenger travel frequency in different hours is

6.4 HSR Train Working Diagram and Carrying Capacity

(b)

(c)

(d) (e)

(f)

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different, which forms the peak and valley hours or periods of travel activities. The capacity in the daytime and in the nighttime is imbalanced, and the capacity in different hours in the daytime is also imbalanced. Theoretically calculated capacity largely deviates from actual available capacity. The characteristics of passenger flow and imbalanced day-night capacity lead to the difference between the actual attracted and transported passenger volume and the estimated passenger volume. Therefore, a large backup capacity shall be reserved. Although it is theoretically possible to draw multiple train paths on the HSR working diagram, in fact, due to different time periods, the passenger transport volume attracted and transported by each line is greatly different. The capacity deduction of Class B trains is also an important factor to be taken into account in carrying capacity calculation. When the transportation organization mode of mixed operation of trains of different speeds is adopted, compared with Class A trains, Class B trains operating on high-speed DPL have a lower operating speed and have more stop stations. Therefore, the train working diagram occupancy time will be longer. That is to say, operating Class B trains will adversely influence the carrying capacity. In the calculation of HSR carrying capacity, if the deduction coefficient method is adopted, such influence can be indicated with the deduction coefficient of medium-speed trains. Therefore, in the study of the deduction coefficient method for HSR carrying capacity calculation, analysis and simulation shall be conducted to determine the deduction coefficient of medium-speed trains. Long-distance carrying capacity is insufficient while the short-distance carrying capacity is excessive. Calculation of carrying capacity of dedicated passenger lines is complicated with certain uncertainties. For the calculation of the carrying capacity of dedicated passenger line, the carrying capacity of each possible long-distance line and short-distance line contained (in a length order, from long to short) shall be determined on a basis of the maximum passenger flow section reachable by high-speed trains in the direction; thus forming different combinations of long-distance line and short-distance line carrying capacity with different characteristics, satisfying different passenger flow demands. The carrying capacity of a high-speed dedicated passenger line is calculated on a basis of the passenger flow section. If passenger stations are taken as the main originating station and the destination station, and the railway section between the main originating station and the destination station of passenger flow is defined as the passenger flow section, the passenger train working diagram shall be formulated on a basis of passenger flow sections, i.e., on a high-speed dedicated passenger line, passenger trains are only operated between passenger stations. Therefore,

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the carrying capacity of the passenger section shall be calculated on the basis of passenger sections. (g) For low-speed trains, deduction of carrying capacity is required. When a train with a relatively low operating speed and more stop stations operates on high-speed railways, it will occupy the train working diagram for a relatively long time and impose an adverse influence on the carrying capacity. Therefore, in contrast to the capacity detection of the existing lines, on high-speed railways, the capacity deduction is made to higherclass trains based on lower-class trains. On dedicated passenger lines, the influence caused by station dwell time plus the additional time for stopping generally exceeds the influence of headway, and the capacity deduction caused by stopping at stations has become an important content in capacity calculation. High-speed trains may stop in the midway within a passenger flow section to handle the passenger transport business. Compared with high-speed trains without stopping in the midway, it will prolong the time it occupies the train working diagram and imposes an adverse influence on the carrying capacity. (h) Setting of maintenance window greatly influences the train working diagram and the capacity. In order to make sure that the technical equipment of high-speed railways is always maintained in good quality and condition to ensure train operation safety, a certain time period of “maintenance window” should be reserved for the daily repair and maintenance of equipment in the HSR train working diagram. The “maintenance window” not only shortens the time period available for train operation, but also divides the train working diagram into two separate time periods. As a result, it is impossible to organize 24 h cycle operation of trains in the train working diagram, which impose a large and adverse influence on the carrying capacity. (i) The carrying capacity varies in different periods. For passenger trains operating on high-speed railways, to meet the requirements of market demands and passenger travel habits, the train paths are not evenly distributed. Train operation is dense in a period and sparse in another period, so that the carrying capacity of high-speed railway varies in different period. In the formulation of train working diagram, appropriate arrival and departure time shall be specified. For HSR dedicated passenger lines, the arrival and departure of trains are generally arranged between 6:00 and 0:00 a.m. in passenger flow sections. Limited by the arrival and departure time, in addition to the period of “maintenance window”, there will be a certain period called invalid time period in the train working diagram, which will also influence the carrying capacity. 3. Main factors influencing carrying capacity of high-speed railways (a) Different transportation organization modes have different influence on carrying capacity.

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(b) Speed difference and station dwell time of various trains operating on highspeed lines. First, the capacity deduction due to the different number of stop stations and different station dwell time between different high-speed trains; second, the capacity reduction due to different traveling speeds (essentially, the section traveling time) of trains. The higher the speed difference is, the larger the capacity reduction will be. (c) DPL train operating diagram mapping mode. The mode of centralized mapping in different train sections is adopted; Trains with the same speed can be mapped in parallel, and the mutual influence on section capacity occupation between trains with different speeds is small. If the balanced mapping mode is adopted, the conditions are opposite to the above. Stage-balanced mapping mode: the stage-balanced mapping mode between the above two modes, which is determined based on the train number proportion and the speed difference for different types of trains. It is a mapping mode indicating the space-time distribution for trains of different types in the layout, and the interlaced connection of operating lines. This mapping mode can adapt to the capacity of dedicated passenger lines in different development stages. (d) Unequal distance between stations, unequal section length, and number of stations. When there is a huge difference of the traveling speed of trains, the influence can be significant. In general, under the condition of ensuring certain highspeed capability, reducing the distance between stations can improve the carrying capacity of trains operating at a lower speed. (e) Comprehensive “maintenance window”. Firstly, the 4–6 h of maintenance window period interrupts the train operation and results in capacity loss; secondly, this mode of maintenance window forms special triangle zones at the four corners of the train working diagram, which differentiates the utilization of carrying capacity into two conditions including “long distance” and “short distance”. The longer the railway route is, the smaller the long-distance carrying capacity will be. As a result, the longer the railway route is, the greater differences it will be between the directional carrying capacity of the dedicated passenger lines and the carrying capacity of each section it contains. (f) Effective arrival and departure time period of passenger trains in the originating station and the destination station. 4. Method for calculating carrying capacity of high-speed railway (a) Calculation of carrying capacity of parallel train working diagram The formula used is as follows: N=

60S 1440 − Tw − I VI

(6.2)

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wherein, N—the carrying capacity set out in parallel train working diagram (number of train pairs or trains); Tw —time period of maintenance window (min); I—minimum headway of trains (min); S—length of passenger transport section (km); V —average operating speed of passenger train (km/h). (b) Calculation of carrying capacity of non-parallel train working diagram The carrying capacity in the non-parallel train working diagram refers to the maximum number of reference train pairs passing through the section in a day and night under the condition with the given number of trains of different speeds. For high-speed railways adopting the transportation organization mode of mixed operation of various trains, the carrying capacity is complicated. There is no accurate and simple calculation method, and the calculation method needs to be updated. To sum up, there are three methods for calculating the carrying capacity of high-speed railways. (1) Graphic method According to the mapping order and principles of the operating diagram, first, draw the paths for the given number of non-reference trains, and then draw the paths for the reference trains within the interval between two trains (operating at the top speed, without stop station). The sum of the maximum number of reference trains and the maximum number of non-reference trains that can be drawn on the train working diagram is referred to as the carrying capacity of the non-parallel train working diagram of the high-speed railway section. The graphic method is more accurate but the procedure is complicated, so it is only used in special cases. (2) Analysis and calculation method It summarizes the capacity occupation of trains under various conditions into a certain model. For the normalized train working diagram, this method is simple and intuitive. However, in an actual train working diagram, the overtaking mode is highly flexible, resulting in various combination schemes if summarizing the same into certain models is required. For different structures of train working diagram, the applicability of this method is bound to be limited, thus it can only be used to roughly calculate the carrying capacity of the non-parallel train working diagram. The mapping for cases with excessive overtaking and refuging requirements is shown in Fig. 6.9. By calculation principles, it can be divided into the deduction coefficient method and the average minimum interval method.

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Fig. 6.9 Mapping for cases with excessive overtaking and refuging requirements

(I) Deduction coefficient method The deduction coefficient refers to the number of reference trains or train pairs to be deducted from the parallel train working diagram for drawing the train path of a high-speed train stopping at midway, a low-speed train, a cross-line train or a freight train. It is the capacity deduction from the highest speed trains operating in the railway section for the low-speed trains. The deduction coefficient method is a static calculation method. It can provide correct results only when the train is operated in strict accordance with the train working diagram, the equipment is free of failure, there is no interruption, with equal train occupancy time, and without any operation delay. The carrying capacity calculated with this method is generally larger than the actual value, thus it is hard to realize, and the increased carrying capacity is generally obtained at the cost of quality of passenger-freight transport. (II) Average minimum interval method The average minimum interval method is a dynamic and uncertain calculation method. It calculates the carrying capacity of block sections based on the analysis and study of the actual train operating state in each section, based on the probability of train delay, the average train delay time and the average minimum train interval, and based on the total value of allowable train after-effect delay time which reflects the required level of train operation quality. This method focuses on the quality of service. Compared with the deduction coefficient method, it is more practical, without subjecting to any ideal conditions. It solves the problems of uneven distribution and poor flexibility. Considering the delay time, the carrying capacity obtained with a certain degree of adjustability is more competitive in the transport market.

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(3) Computer simulation method The computer simulation method is a method to accurately determine the carrying capacity of high-speed railway sections or the whole railway line by drawing train paths of class A and class B trains strictly according to the scales of the diagram with a computer. The determination of the carrying capacity of sections or the whole line with the computer simulation method is carried out under certain conditions, based on certain principles, and with a fixed number of trains of a certain type. The train working diagram is completed through computer simulation. The calculating process for determining the carrying capacity of HSR sections or the whole line with the computer simulation method is as shown in Fig. 6.10. Since there are a large number of feasible schemes satisfying the constraint conditions of scale, the processes of scheme comparison and calculation optimization are quite complex. These problems are unstructured or semi-structured problems, which are generally handled by using the expert system or by means of man-machine dialogue, so as to seek the approximate optimal solution or satisfactory solution. Data input

Generate the mapping scheme for Class A trains

Mapping Class B train path

Satisfied

NO

YES Obtain passing capacity set of Class B trains

Continue

NO

Determine passing capacity set of Class A and Class B trains

Stop

Fig. 6.10 Calculating process of computer simulation method

Adjust the mapping scheme

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6.5 HSR Comprehensive Maintenance Window and EMU Operation Management 6.5.1 Maintenance Window 1. Definition In order to ensure the good condition of the equipment and the safe and stable operation of the train, a stipulated time period without allowing train operation in sections or on the main line of stations, i.e., the time period reserved for construction and maintenance work without drawing any train path or adjusting or reducing train paths in the train working diagram is called maintenance window. 2. Maintenance window arrangement mode and characteristics (a) Vertical rectangular maintenance window In the whole section, the blank areas in both the up and down directions in one or more sections of the train working diagram are reserved for maintenance. Vertical maintenance windows are arranged in both up direction and down direction, and the whole section of two railway lines are blocked from 0:00 to 6:00 a.m., forming vertical rectangular maintenance window. Reserve a blank section in the train working diagram (when drawing train paths in the railway network, cross-line normal trains shall be arranged first), so that the cross-line normal trains can avoid the maintenance window of high-speed dedicated passenger lines, ensuring the comprehensive maintenance of both up and down direction lines with the power supply cut off. The diagram of a vertical maintenance window is shown in Fig. 6.11. (b) V-shape maintenance window In the whole section, reserve a blank area for both the up and down direction lines in the train working diagram. When one line is under maintenance and construction, the other line will be used for two-way train operation. The diagram of V-shape maintenance window is shown in Fig. 6.12. Fig. 6.11 Vertical maintenance window

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Fig. 6.12 V-shape maintenance window

Fig. 6.13 Y-shape maintenance window

(c) Y-shape maintenance window The whole section is divided into two sections, when one part is arranged with a rectangular maintenance window and the other with a V-shape window, i.e. the rectangular maintenance windows overlapped each other on up and down direction. This type of maintenance window is mainly used on the existing lines, as shown in Fig. 6.13. (d) r-shape maintenance window In the whole section, arrange the maintenance window on up direction line and down direction line respectively, arranging a rectangular window on one line and a bottom overlapped stepped-shape maintenance window on the other line. The arrangement of this type of maintenance window on existing lines is as shown in Fig. 6.14. (e) X-shape maintenance window In a certain time period, a certain section of the high-speed dedicated passenger line or the whole railway line is divided into two parts, and a V-shape maintenance window is arranged on each part respectively. This type of maintenance window possesses the advantages and disadvantages of V-shape maintenance window, but the time period between two adjacent maintenance windows is shorter than that of V-shape maintenance window, thus it is suitable for long-distance railway lines or sections, as shown in Fig. 6.15.

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Fig. 6.14 r-shape maintenance window

Fig. 6.15 X-shape maintenance window

(f) Parallel rectangular maintenance window In a certain time period, two non-overlapping rectangular maintenance windows are formed in the up direction and the down direction in a certain section, as shown in Fig. 6.16. Although it can solve the problem of crossline train path layout and realize all-day train operation, the two separated rectangles occupy too much time suitable for train departure in the daytime, thus adversely influencing the transportation organization of local trains in the daytime. Besides, during the repair and construction process, the track maintenance and train operation on two lines are affected to some extent, and the problem of crossover maintenance is not solved. Fig. 6.16 Parallel rectangular maintenance window

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(g) Single-line alternate-day rectangular maintenance window The maintenance window will be alternately arranged on either the updirection line or down-direction line during the night period from 0:00 to 6:00 a.m., while train operation on the other line will be properly organized as a single-track line during the maintenance window period. It can be seen that this type of maintenance window possesses the advantages of both the rectangular maintenance window and the parallel rectangular maintenance window. This type of maintenance window has overcome the shortage of the parallel rectangular maintenance window of a wide occupancy range which may influence the train departure time, and control the maintenance window period within 0:00–6:00 a.m. Besides, the other line is properly organized for the train running in the reverse direction, and the problem of drawing cross-line train working diagram is solved. However, mutual interference between the maintenance operation and train operation exists, and the problem of crossover repair is not properly solved. (h) Two-way separated rectangular maintenance window “Two-way separated rectangular maintenance windows” are set during the night period from 0:00 to 6:00 a.m. on both the up direction line and the down direction line, i.e., 1 h will be reserved on both the up and down direction lines for necessary train operation during the maintenance window from 0:00 to 6:00 a.m., and the rest of the time is for comprehensive maintenance. It can be seen that this type of maintenance window possesses the advantages of both the rectangular maintenance window and the V-shape maintenance window. It has overcome the shortage of V-shape maintenance window of wide occupancy range which may influence the train departure time, and solved the problem of drawing cross-train paths, controlling the maintenance window period within 0:00–6:00 a.m. The arrangement of maintenance on one line and train operation on the other line is adopted, which solves the problem of drawing cross-line train working diagram. However, mutual interference between the maintenance operation and train operation exists, and the provision of train operation period proposes a higher requirement of train arrival distribution. 3. Comprehensive maintenance window Comprehensive maintenance window refers to the time reserved for carrying out service and routine maintenance of lineside equipment, signal facilities, power supply equipment and other fixed equipment by the civil engineering department, the communication and signals department, the power supply department and other operation departments in accordance with the railway engineering and maintenance requirements, when the train operation is prohibited. It is a technical measure to solve the contradiction between train operation and equipment maintenance and engineering. Under the high-speed and high-density train operation conditions, the determination of the type and time of comprehensive maintenance window greatly influences the carrying capacity and transportation organization of high-speed railways.

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The content of comprehensive maintenance window generally includes maintenance of civil engineering facilities, maintenance and service of signal facilities, inspection and maintenance of contact power supply equipment, and technical reconstruction of stations and railway lines. For dedicated passenger lines, a 4– 6 h comprehensive maintenance window shall be arranged for equipment maintenance, wherein, the maintenance of overhead contact line system generally accounts for 90–180 min. Considering the influence of the time of train operation and of comprehensive “maintenance window” on the carrying capacity of passenger dedicated line, preferably, the comprehensive maintenance “window” of dedicated passenger lines should be arranged within 0:00–6:00 a.m. The duration of comprehensive maintenance window of ballastless track dedicated passenger line is not more than 2 h to realize longer operation time for high-speed railways.

6.5.2 HSR EMUs Operation and Management 1. EMU operation and management system (a) China Railway purchases EMUs, and each DPL company rents EMUs. Characteristics: (1) Highly efficient and economical, and unified dispatching is adopted and automatic train control system is employed; (2) The number of spare EMUs is reduced, which is conducive to the centralized purchase of maintenance equipment and facilitates maintenance scheduling; (3) DPL companies do not have the autonomous EMU utilization right, which may impair the initiatives and efficiency of business activities; (4) Renting EMUs from China Railway requires additional settlement procedures. (b) DPL companies purchase EMUs and are responsible for train paths arrangement for their own EMUs. Characteristics: (1) Realize the optimum matching between transport capacity and other resources of the companies, and improve the initiatives of companies; (2) EMUs are expensive, and purchasing EMUs will result in investment risks and increase the operating pressure of companies; (3) EMU maintenance becomes a difficulty. The companies have to build maintenance bases and purchase maintenance equipment. The investment cost is high and it may result in resources waste, while outsourced maintenance requires additional settlement procedures and costs; (4) Purchasing EMUs of different models and systems may result in unified train standards, which makes it more difficult to coordinate with other companies, and even leads to safety accidents.

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(c) Both China Railway and DPL companies purchase EMUs. PDL companies are only responsible for purchasing EMUs operating on local lines, while cross-line trains are purchased by China Railway. This mode possesses the advantages and makes up for the disadvantages of the above two modes. 2. Characteristics of EMU operation and management (a) Operational efficiency is improved The operation time for locomotive replacement and coupling is reduced, which can not only improve the train traveling speed, but also simplify work procedure and improve the work efficiency; The management of the traction power (locomotive) and of the transport carrier (passenger train stock) is combined and integrated, which reduces the number of management organization and corresponding management personnel, and improves operational efficiency. Instead of long routing of conventional railway locomotives, the interline routing scheme is developed and employed. (b) Servicing and maintenance systems are upgraded Novel servicing and maintenance systems are employed, which improves the quality and efficiency of servicing and maintenance operation, and ensures the high-quality, high-reliability and high-efficiency operation of EMUs. (c) Integration of utilization, servicing and maintenance of EMUs EMU operation and maintenance plans are formulated and arranged unifiedly, so that the utilization and management of carrier equipment are transformed from the decentralized mode of conventional railways to the centralized mode, and the fixed passenger train stock utilization scheme is improved to provide better efficiency. Formulate the rolling utilization scheme according to the number of EMUs, the equipment status, the location, the accumulated operating mileage and the regular inspection deadline, so as to maximize the utilization efficiency on the premise of ensuring the completion of transport tasks and regular depot service. 3. Main content of EMU operation and management (a) EMU operation mode The EMU operation mode refers to the operating mode for EMUs on the railway line, which determines the operating sections for EMU. The EMU operation mode is one of the factors that affect train connection. There are mainly three EMU utilization modes, including the fixed section utilization mode, the unfixed section utilization mode and the semi-fixed section utilization mode. (1) Fixed operating section utilization mode The fixed operating section utilization mode is as shown in Fig. 6.17. In this mode, EMUs operate in the fixed operating section on a given

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Fig. 6.17 Fixed operating section utilization mode

railway line. This mode can be further divided into the fixed turnround mode and the two-section mixed operating turnround mode. EMU exits from EMU depot and undertakes train transport tasks of a certain section. The EMU will return to the depot only when the deadline of the repair cycle is reached, otherwise, when it returns to the station where the EMU depot is located, only servicing at the station is required. (I) Advantages a. Facilitate EMU management and different train formation schemes can be adopted based on the change of passenger flow; b. The EMU operation organization is simple, and is especially suitable for high-speed railways with a large number of same routes and balanced arrival and departure times. (II) Disadvantages It is not conducive to the improvement of the maintenance and operation efficiency of high-speed EMUs as follows. a. A certain number of spare EMUs are needed during the EMU maintenance period. If the spare EMUs are separately deployed by each section, a large number of spare EMUs are required and the utilization rate is relatively low; b. The EMU maintenance technology is complex, and the equipment required is expensive. Therefore, EMU maintenance shall be conducted centralizedly in the maintenance center, and for sections not adjacent to the maintenance center, EMUs subjected to maintenance must be sent to the center for inspection and maintenance and then sent back to the section after the maintenance. (2) Unfixed operating section utilization mode As shown in Fig. 6.18, on the premise of assuming that there is no difference among EMUs, the operating section of each EMU is not fixed, and after completing a train transport task, there is no operating section restriction for the next task. An EMU can be used for multiple train numbers and long consist and short consist should be used separately in principle.

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Fig. 6.18 Unfixed operating section utilization mode

(I) Advantages a. According to the operation state, an operating line to the maintenance center will be arranged for EMUs to be maintained, which flexibly solves the coordination problem between train operation and maintenance; b. As long as the connection time requirements are met, EMUs can undertake transport tasks of different lines, so as to improve the utilization efficiency of EMU and reduce the number of EMUs. (II) Disadvantages a. The EMU connection arrangement is tight, thus in case of disturbance, the influence on EMU operation is huge; b. EMU formation cannot be adjusted according to the characteristics of passenger flow in different sections, resulting in transport capacity waste. (3) Semi-fixed operating section utilization mode The semi-fixed operating section utilization mode refers to the mode that some EMUs employ fixed operating section utilization mode while the other employ the unfixed operating section utilization mode. It falls between the two modes and possesses both the advantages and disadvantages thereof. (b) EMU service (repair) (1) EMU repair class and system In the railway transport operation, timely repair and maintenance are required so as to keep EMUs in a good operating state, and to ensure EMUs can complete the transport tasks safely and efficiently. EMU is a special train stock consisting of traction power units and passenger carrying units. Its service mode is different from that of locomotives and cars of passenger trains currently employed in China. Therefore, a new EMU service mode suiting the train stock utilization characteristics shall be formulated. (2) Layout of EMU service facilities In order to meet the requirements of EMU operation, maintenance and regular service, service facilities like EMU depots and EMU operation posts must be set, which are respectively responsible for the following:

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EMU operation post: with EMUs dispatched, responsible for the operation, service and preparation for passenger transport, and storage of EMUs, and responsible for Level I and Level II maintenance and some unscheduled maintenance as required. EMU depot: with EMUs assigned, mainly responsible for the operation, service and preparation for passenger transport, and storage of EMUs, and responsible for Level III and Level IV maintenance and unscheduled repair. The layout of EMU depots shall be rational. In case of insufficient EMU maintenance bases, timely EMU service and maintenance will be unable to realize, or additional train deadheading is required for train service and maintenance, thus reducing the operation efficiency of EMUs; while excessive EMU maintenance bases will result in labor and equipment waste, thus increasing the operation cost. Therefore, the layout and capacity of the maintenance base should be reasonably matched with the utilization of EMUs, so as to realize overall optimization. 4. EMU operation state (a) Operating EMUs refer to EMUs or hot-backup EMUs undertake passenger transport (including inspecting trains) or test tasks, i.e. EMUs operating with passenger train number assigned. (b) Hot backup EMUs refer to EMUs parked in EMU bases or EMU storage points, which are in good technical condition, used as an emergency backup and ready for online operation at any time. (c) Spare EMUs refer to EMUs parked in EMU base or other EMU storage points which are not put into operation. (d) Overhaul EMUs refer to EMUs undergoing Level I to Level V maintenance, incidental repair or technical transformation, or waiting for repair. 5. EMU crewing organization (a) Composition of EMU crew EMU crew is composed of EMU driver, passenger service staff, passenger train inspector, train police, onboard cleaning and catering service staff, referred to as “train crew” for short. The train crew must work together under the unified leadership of the train conductor (except for train operation and rescue commands), completing their own job duties and cooperating with each other, so as to provide good passenger service. (b) EMU crew working system The working system of EMU crew can be divided into the residency system of locomotive crew and the rotating system of locomotive crew. (1) Rotating system of locomotive crew The rotating system of locomotive crew refers to a crew working system applicable to railway sections with high train density and the trains operated in the section are of similar type and formation. In this mode, in order to organize crew routing and shift efficiently, mixed use of locomotive crew is adopted, and the crew does not reside and service a

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specific train; the crew does not be assigned to a specific train stock, and the passenger service staff is not assigned to a specific coach, instead, the crew serves different trains in turn in the departure order, and a crew can serve any EMU. Advantages: the single shift system is adopted, and the crew generally serves the trains of the company, thus the crew is familiar with the route, passenger flow and traffic geography, facilitating work communication. Besides, dormitory cars are not required, which saves transport energy. The rotating system of locomotive crew can improve the utilization efficiency of EMU, reduce the number of assigned stations, and reduce EMU purchase costs. Besides, it can also improve the daily operating mileage of trains and improve the work efficiency of crews and drivers. Disadvantages: additional handover procedures between crews are required, and it may influence train maintenance and service facilities maintenance, and impact service quality. (2) Residency system of locomotive crew The residency system of locomotive crew refers to a crew working system that, according to train operating sections and train number, the crew resides and services a fixed passenger train stock, i.e., two crews reside and service a train stock. In this mode, the crew is assigned to a fixed train stock, and the passenger service staff is assigned to a fixed coach. According to the condition of train stock utilization, this mode can be divided into the residency system by train stock or the residency system by train number. In the residency system by train stock, the locomotive crew is assigned to a fixed section, a fixed train number and a fixed train stock (for long-distance train crew, two shifts are arranged for service). Advantages: (1) It can strengthen drivers’ sense of responsibility for EMU operation and maintenance, ensure that driver can be more familiar with the performance characteristics and state of EMU, and is conducive to the maintenance of train facilities and spare parts; (2) The train crew is familiar with the operating condition of trains, knows the nature of passengers and the riding-alighting law along the railway. Besides, it is convenient for the arrangement of crew shift and rest hours, thus improving the service quality. Disadvantages: the facility utilization rate is reduced and training resources are wasted during the service period. The residency system of locomotive crew limits the train operation, so that the EMU operating time cannot be fully utilized, thus reducing the EMU operation efficiency and train drivers’ labor productivity. The residency system by train number refers to the mode that several crews reside and service a train number (generally called line), but not assigned to a fixed train stock. The advantages of this mode are that the crew working hours can be ensured, and the crew is familiar with the conditions along the railway

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and passengers’ riding-alighting law, which facilitates the management and ensures service quality; the disadvantages of this mode are that it is not conducive to the management of spare parts and facilities, nor to the maintenance of train stock, and the handover procedures are complex and time-consuming. Currently, hardly any high-speed railway lines in foreign countries employ(adopt) this low-efficient residency system of locomotive crew.

6.5.3 Formulation of EMU Operation Plan 1. EMU operation plan (a) Definition of EMU operation plan The train working diagram specifies the originating station, the destination station, the departure time from originating station and the arrival time to the destination station, and all these train operating tasks must be undertaken by a specific EMU. The EMU operation plan refers to a comprehensive plan for EMU turnround and maintenance, which arranges the departure and arrival time, the originating station, the train number, the maintenance time, the maintenance place, and the maintenance type of EMUs based on the given train working diagram, relevant EMU inspection and maintenance schedules and the condition of maintenance base, so as to ensure the EMU is in good condition, operates in line with the train working diagram, and completes transport tasks efficiently. In case of changes in the train working diagram, the EMU operation plan shall be adjusted accordingly. (b) Types of EMU operation plans (1) Weekday operation plan and holiday operation plan (2) Single-base or multi-base EMU operation plans If the train working diagram is undertaken by EMUs assigned to one EMU base, the corresponding operation plan belongs to a single-base EMU operation plan. If the train working diagram is undertaken by EMU assigned to two or more bases, the corresponding plan belongs to a multi-base EMU operation plan. (3) Single-type and multi-type EMU operation plan If a single type of EMUs is used to undertake the tasks in the train working diagram, the corresponding operation plan is called the singletype EMU operation plan; If various types of trains are used to undertake the tasks in the train working diagram, the corresponding operation plan is called multi-type EMU operation plan. (c) Composition of EMU operation plan An EMU operation plan mainly consists of an EMU turnround plan, an EMU deployment plan and an EMU maintenance plan.

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(1) Turnround plan: it mainly stipulates the sequence of train operating tasks, but it does not specify specific EMUs to be used. (2) Deployment plan: it assigns specific EMUs to undertake specific routings in the turnround plan, ensuring every routing is undertaken by an EMU in good condition. The EMU turnover plan arranges the continuation of the train turnover plan to form a turnround routing, but it does not specify specific EMUs to be used. The EMU deployment plan is generally formulated on a basis of a simulating future operation plan, by taking EMU location, accumulated travel kilometers, and all completed maintenance, etc. into full consideration. (3) Maintenance plan: it is formulated for the purpose of EMU base maintenance, which stipulates the time, content, and maintenance track for EMU maintenance in the base. The EMU maintenance plan is formulated based on the routing plan, train deployment plan, EMU equipment historical records, repair class, repair system, EMU traveling statistic data, train failure condition, maintenance base capacity and other actual conditions. The EMU maintenance plan is mainly formulated based on long-term EMU maintenance plan, maintenance base capacity, and actual EMU state. The EMU maintenance and deployment plans must be formulated in an appropriate form, specifying EMU number, maintenance item, maintenance place, maintenance time and other content. The EMU operation plan is mainly evaluated based on factors including the number of EMUs in use, the number and mileage of deadhead trains, the number of periodic maintenance and routine maintenance. First, to complete the same train working diagram, the fewer number of operating EMU the better. Second, the fewer times of deadheading the better, for a deadhead train cannot carry passengers, which not only cannot bring operating income but also requires the consumption of manpower, electricity and other resources. Third, on the premise of complying with relevant regulations, the less periodic maintenance and routine maintenance the better. 2. Formulation management mode of EMU operation plan If the description of EMU operation mode extends to the EMU operation mode on the whole dedicated passenger line, the fixed section operation mode means that EMUs undertake transport tasks within a fixed section, and the non-fixed section operation mode can be applied to the whole railway line according to the actual formulation requirement. However, when an EMU is operated in any of these modes, the undertaken train shall fall with the scope of authority of the EMU. Therefore, when formulating the EMU operation plan, the management mode of EMU operation within the scope of EMU operation should be determined. The EMU operation plan is formulated based on the train working diagram, and these two documents are closely related, so the management mode of the EMU operation plan shall be in consistent with the management mode of the train working diagram, and time period set out in the EMU operation plan shall

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also be in consistent with that set out in the train working diagram. Different EMUs adopt different management systems, thus the management mode of the corresponding EMU operation plan will also be different. (a) Formulation mode of whole-line centralized EMU operation plan The formulation mode of whole-line centralized EMU operation plan is based on the condition that all EMUs are ordered and purchased by China Railway and under the centralized operation of China Railway. Since all EMUs are under the centralized deployment and operation of China Railway, DPL companies only have the right to make suggestions to the EMU operation plan but do not have to right to make decisions. China Railway formulates the EMU operation plan based on social benefits by taking the wholeline dedicated passenger train operation plan into comprehensive consideration, realizing the connection among various lines of EMUs, and the results will be sent to each DPL company for discussion and modification before making the final decision. (b) Formulation mode of DPL company management EMU operation plan In case EMUs are purchased by and assigned to DPL companies for operation, DPL companies are only responsible for managing their own EMUs and for the part without overlapping and crossing with other companies. Therefore, DPL companies shall formulate the EMU operation plan based on the train operating scheme of their own. (c) The management mode combining whole-line centralized management and DPL company management When this mode is implemented, both China Railway and passenger transport companies purchase EMUs, and both have their own train operating schemes. Therefore, it is unreasonable to have either party to prepare the EMU operation plan solely. Reference to the current train working diagram formulation mode of China Railway and railway administration, an EMU operation plan formulation center can be set in China Railway to be responsible for preparing EMU operation plans for cross-company trains, and the EMU operation plan of each passenger transport company should be formulated based on the crosscompany EMU operation plan. EMUs of China Railway operate on crosscompany train lines, while EMUs of DPL operate on train lines within the jurisdiction of their own company, and the mode of alternation among dedicated passenger lines and cycle on local lines is adopted. This mode can give full play to the advantages of the first and second management modes, and avoid the disadvantages thereof. 3. Formulation process of EMU operation plan China Railway and DPL companies formulate their EMU purchase plan based on passenger flow forecast and development strategy, and then formulate EMU operation plan based on the EMU purchase plan. The formulation process of high-speed railway EMU operation plan is as follows:

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(a) China Railway and EMU operation department of DPL companies (railway administration) communicate with EMU depots and posts to determine the maintenance mode, maintenance system, work division and maintenance standards, and sign relevant agreements. (b) DPL companies (railway administration) submit their train working diagrams and relevant data to China Railway, and China Railway organizes and analyzes such data. (c) Each company reports the number of available EMUs, the number of spare EMUs, and EMU model and configuration. (d) China Railway organizes EMU operation personnel and dispatching personnel of each EMU depot (post) to draft the cross-company EMU operation plan, and then the plan will be announced, discussed, adjusted and approved before being distributed to each company. (e) The EMU operation personnel of each DPL company (railway administration) shall formulate its own EMU operation scheme based on the scheme released by China Railway and submit the same to China Railway. (f) China Railway summarizes the schemes of all DPL companies, and distributes the same to the dispatching department, all DPL companies (railway administration) and EMU depots, then releases and implements the scheme and endows it with legal effect. In case of a minor change to the EMU operation scheme in the normal operation of each DPL company, the adjusted scheme shall be submitted to the dispatching department and the maintenance department of China Railway for records before implementation. Adjustment of cross-DPL EMU operation shall be carried out in accordance with the above process. For the relatively independent intercity dedicated passenger line system, the EMU operation plan formulation process is relatively simple as follows: (1) The EMU operation department of the company communicates with EMU depots and posts to determine the maintenance mode, maintenance system, work division and maintenance standard, and sign relevant agreements. (2) The company collects the train working diagrams required for the formulation of EMU operation plan. (3) Draft the EMU operation plan, and organize relevant personnel of the company to discuss and approve the plan. (4) Submit the EMU operation scheme to China Railway, and carbon copy to relevant companies and railway administration for records. (5) Distribute the EMU operation scheme to the dispatching department and EMU depots (posts) for implementation.

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6.5.4 Formulation of EMU Crewing Plan High-speed train crew includes motor car crew (i.e. drivers) and train crew (i.e. train attendants). The EMU crewing plan is a comprehensive crewing plan for EMU crew, which, based on the train working diagram, crew working procedure, crew base conditions and other conditions, makes the detailed arrangement on the time and place for the crew to get on the train, the time and train for the crew to service, and the time and place for the crew to get off the train, so as to ensure the smooth implementation of train operating plan. The crewing plan is mainly divided into daily crewing plan and monthly crewing plan. The daily crewing plan consists of crew routing, which specifies the number of crew members required and crew routing of each crew member for completing a daily train working diagram. Crew routing refers to the daily working plan for a crew member. In the train working diagram, each line is a crew routing, and the indication on the line segment is the train number. 1. Definition of EMU crew deployment The EMU crewing plan is a comprehensive crewing plan for EMU crew, which, based on the train working diagram, crew working procedure, crew base conditions and other conditions, makes the detailed arrangement on the time and place for crew to get on the train, the time and train for the crew to service, and the time and place for crew to get off the train, so as to ensure the smooth implementation of train operating plan. 2. Classification of EMU crew deployment Crew routing: the daily working plan for a crew member. Each line is a crew routing, and the indication on the line segment is the train number. Crewing plan: mainly divided into daily crewing plan and monthly crewing plan. The daily crewing plan consists of crew routing, which specifies the number of crew members required and crew routing of each crew member for completing a daily train working diagram. Monthly plan: monthly crew routing and rest plan for crew members. 3. Formulation process of crewing plan (a) Prepare basic data Preparations include determining the crew base (the department of crew members, generally be originating and destination stations), the transfer stations (or crew turn-back place) and the service scope, formulating the train working diagram and the EMU turnround diagram, specifying the crew working time standard and other crewing rules, and determining the tasks of each crew base (breaking down the working diagram to each crew base). (b) Divide crewing sections To avoid long working time of the crew and considering the requirement of crewing organization, taking possible transfer stations as the break points,

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(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

all operating lines in the working diagram will be divided into crewing sections. The possible transfer stations refer to the designated stations with a dwell time longer than the time required for crew transfer. Formulate crew routing According to crewing rules such as the total crew working time, crew turnback time, and continuous crew working time, combine crewing sections into different feasible crew routings which are used as alternatives of final crew routing. Determine the evaluation criteria for crew routing selection According to the deviations between ideal values and actual values of total crew working time, net crew working time, continuous crew working time and crew working interval, establish the evaluation criteria for crew routing selection. Compare and select the optimal crew routing Based on the above evaluation criteria, select optimal crew routings as the primary crew working content. All selected crew routings must cover all whole crewing sections, and the number of crew routings is the number of crew teams required per day. A crew routing constitutes a unit of crewing work. Determine feasible crew routing scheme set Under the restriction that the crew routing cannot be interrupted or the crew team cannot be replaced in the midway, different combinations of crew teams and crew routings produce different feasible crew routing plans. Determine monthly crewing plan In the crew routing scheme, the crew working time and the stationing times among crew teams are imbalanced. It is necessary to adjust the combination of crew teams and crew routing for a long time, try to balance the working hours and the stationing times among crew teams, and meet the monthly total crewing time and related work regulations. Generally, the satisfactory results obtained shall be subjected to multiple iterations in accordance with Steps 4, 5 and 6 above. Through comparison and analysis, filter out unfavorable routings, and then regenerate new routing sets, carry out comprehensive comparison and adjustment, and form the final monthly crewing plan.

6.6 Organization of HSR Station Work 6.6.1 HSR Stations HSR stations are the places for handling high-speed train arrival, departure and transfer, which are the basic production units that coordinate production activities of high-speed train operation related departments including the operation department, the civil engineering department, and the communication and signal department, and are also the links between high-speed railways and passengers. Stations are equipped

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with passenger transport facilities, various technical facilities related to train operation, as well as staff responsible for passenger transport, operation command and other works. HSR stations play an important role in the high-speed railway passenger transport process.

6.6.2 Classification of HSR Stations In China, the operation mode of high-speed railways varies depending on the condition of railway lines. Both high-speed trains and medium-speed trains may operate on high-speed railways, and high-speed trains will operate on both high-speed railways and the existing lines. Therefore, in China, HSR stations can be divided into four types as follows. 1. Overtaking station Overtaking stations are unique stations that can only be found on China’s highspeed railways, which are set in sections with a long section distance, and are used to handle high-speed train overtaking. Generally, overtaking stations do not handle the passenger transportation service, and only two receiving-departure tracks and a small platform for the use of duty officers are provided. In Japan, France and other countries, stations undertaking both overtaking service and passenger transportation service are set, but there is no station for handling overtaking service only. The layout of overtaking stations (as shown in Fig. 6.19) on railway lines are determined based on various factors including the proportion of trains of different speeds, the train operating scheme and the carrying capacity of high-speed lines. The main line is mainly for high-speed train passing, while the receivingdeparture track is mainly used as refuge siding, and the platform is provided for the use of duty officer. 2. Intermediate station with passenger transportation service Intermediate stations with passenger transportation service are generally set in the midway of high-speed railways for handling train receiving-departure, passing through, as well as for passenger getting on and getting off trains, and passenger transfer, sometimes they may serve as originating or destination stations or handle quick turnaround. Intermediate stations will not serve as originating stations or destination stations.

Fig. 6.19 Layout of overtaking stations

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Fig. 6.20 Layout of HSR side intermediate station

Intermediate stations have two basic layouts as follows. (a) Layout of side intermediate stations The layout of side intermediate stations is as shown in Fig. 6.20. Intermediate platforms are arranged outside of receiving-departure tracks or between receiving-departure tracks. Platforms are not set adjacent to the main line. Four tracks are set between two platforms. Considering the possibility of four trains meeting, two refuge tracks are provided. This layout is applicable to intermediate stations with more passing through and less train stopping. Advantages: since the platform is not adjacent to the main line, a highspeed train passing through the main line will not threaten the safety of passengers on the platform, so there is no need to extend the safety distance of the platform. In a side intermediate station, train passing through will not influence boarding and alighting of passengers, and the train headway will not be affected, thus ensuring the train passing capacity. Disadvantages: an island intermediate station may impose a certain impact on passenger safety and train passing capacity, with relatively small receiving-departure capacity. (b) Layout of island intermediate station The layout of island intermediate stations is as shown in Fig. 6.21. Intermediate platforms are arranged between the main line and the receivingdeparture track, and one side of the platform is adjacent to the main line and the other side is adjacent to the receiving-departure track. The mainline is used for high-speed train passing, and the receiving-departure track serves as a refuge track. This intermediate station type is applicable to stations where many passenger trains will stop, which can make full use of the platform. Advantages of island intermediate stations include all tracks can be used for riding-alighting operation, and the passenger receiving and departure capacity is large. Disadvantages include when a train stop at the station on the main line, passing through of subsequent trains will be affected, which may reduce the carrying capacity of block section; Due to the train-induced wind generated as high-speed trains pass through, the safety distance of platform should be extended to ensure the safety of passengers, and protection fences should be erected.

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Fig. 6.21 Layout of HSR island intermediate stations

3. Junction stations Junction stations are generally set in railway hubs in large and medium-sized cities along high-speed railways or in provincial capitals and municipalities directly under the central government. A junction station usually serves as the originating and the destination station for a large number of trains, but it does not undertake EMU routine inspection and other technical operations, and normal railway trunk and branch junction is generally provided. A junction station mainly handles passenger train passing through, and may also serve as the originating and destination station. For example, Nanjing Station (Fig. 6.22). 4. Originating and destination stations Railway hubs set in megacities for handling train arrival and departure, which have the largest passenger capacity along the whole line, and serve as the main maintenance base and operation command institution headquarters of the whole railway line, and high-speed EMU depot and management institutions are set in the station in general. Originating and destination stations are located at the origin or destination points of high-speed railways for handling large amounts of trains arrival and departure and EMU technical operation, and dense passenger transfer should be considered, such as Beijing South Station. According to another view, stations can be divided into three types, with intermediate stations and junction stations being collectively referred to as intermediate stations. On this basis, passing through stations are added.

Fig. 6.22 Layout of HSR originating and destination stations

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Besides, for mixed passenger-freight high-speed railways such as ShijiazhuangTaiyuan, the stations may also handle a small amount of freight transport operations, and the operation is similar to that of the existing lines. According to the relationship with the existing line stations, stations can also be divided into newly built high-speed stations, high-speed stations adjacent to or parallel to the existing line, high-speed stations elevated above the existing line stations, high-speed stations using the existing line and so on. The main considerations are transfer convenience and full utilization of carrying capacity of the existing lines. In China, due to the shortage of land resources, the demolishing and resetting cost of areas surrounding existing stations is high, so the mode of newly-built high-speed stations is generally adopted.

6.6.3 Technical Facilities of HSR Stations Technical facilities of HSR stations mainly include station square, station building and station yard. Facilities, equipment and work staff for operating command, operation management, living and service are equipped with. 1. High-speed station and yard Various tracks for special purposes are arranged in stations and yards for train receiving, departing, and parking and for passenger transportation service and other technical operations. Station tracks, passenger platforms, canopy, cross-line facilities and other facilities shall be set in stations and yards. (a) Station track According to the operation requirements, main line, receiving-departure track, liaison track, running track, depot (post, and section) and other private sidings shall be set in stations and yards. (1) Main line The main lines for both up and down directions in a station are generally in parallel, straight and connected with the sections at both ends. In a few cases, the outsourcing main line mode is adopted. However, the outsourcing main line mode is not recommended for a reverse curve which may affect the operating speed will be formed at the entry and exit, and the station will be in horizontal arrangement. (2) Receiving-departure track The passenger train receiving-departure track is used for passenger train receiving, dispatching and parking, which is arranged in parallel with the main line. According to the station type, the number of receivingdeparture tracks to be provided shall follow the following principle. (I) For overtaking stations and intermediate stations, 2 receivingdeparture tracks will be provided. (II) For intermediate stations, 2 receiving-departure tracks will be provided in general. However, if the passenger traffic volume is

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large and reaches up to 5 million people and above, or if quick turnaround or serving as origin and destination station is required, 3–4 tracks can be provided. For originating and destination stations, the number of receivingdeparture tracks is determined based on various factors including the number and nature of passenger train, the train operating scheme, the number of lead-in tracks and station technical operations, and shall meet the requirement of dense train receiving and departure in peak hours. (3) Liaison track In stations where a high-speed line is introduced to a station of the existing line and a high-speed yard is set, in order to improve the coordination between high-speed and normal-speed train operation, it is required that the relevant equipment shall be interchangeable and flexible, and a liaison track can be set between the two systems. (4) Running track The running line between the EMU depot and the station should be arranged on both sides of the main line as far as possible, and one track shall overpass the main line. (5) District post connecting track For other EMU operation and maintenance posts, operation posts and comprehensive maintenance and management zones, connecting tracks can be set according to their own characteristics. Preferably, grade separation connection should be adopted. (b) Passenger platform Platform (see Fig. 6.23) is a necessary facility for riding-alighting of passengers, and a reasonable layout of the platform can improve the riding-alighting speed. (1) Width of platform The factors that determine the width of platform are basically the same as those of normal-speed railways, except for platforms adjacent to the

Fig. 6.23 HSR station platform

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main line for high-speed train passing through. High-speed railways have a large passenger density, but the number of passengers getting on and off each train is less than that of normal-speed railways. Therefore, the width of platform is similar to that of normal-speed railways. The width of the basic passenger platform should not be less than 20 m for special and first-class stations, not less than 12 m for second class stations and county stations, and not less than 6 m for other stations. The widths of different platforms for different city classes are as shown in Table 6.2. In general, the safety line should be 1000 mm away from the platform edge and the width of the white line should be 100 mm. For a train passing speed not more than 120 km/h, 1000 mm; for a train passing speed between 120 and 160 km/h, 1500 mm; for a train passing speed between 160 and 200 km/h, 2000 mm, and a fence can also be erected 1 m from the platform edge. (2) Length of passenger platform The length of passenger platforms is determined by the length of passenger trains, including the total length of EMUs. Although the total length of high-speed trains is shorter than that of normal-speed trains, the length of high-speed platforms can refer to the standard stipulated for normal-speed platforms, i.e., the length of the passenger platform should be 550 m. The length of station platform with a maximum parking capacity of 8 EMUs should be 230 m, and in difficult cases, not less than 220 m. The length of platforms on receiving-departure track for high-speed train use only should be determined based on the specific train length standard. (3) Height of passenger platform According to the height difference between the platform and the rail top, passenger platforms can be divided into three types: low platform, with a height difference of 300 mm; normal platform, with a height difference of 500 mm, and the platform plane is roughly flush with the lowest step of trains; high platform, with a height difference Table 6.2 Width of platforms for different city classes Capital cities

Prefecture-level cities

County station

Island platform

12.0 ~ 12.5

10.0 ~ 11.0

8.0 ~ 9.0

One-sided platform

11.0 ~ 11.5

10.0 ~ 11.0 viaduct station 9.0

8.0 ~ 9.0

One-sided platform (adjacent to the main line)

9.0

7.5

6.0

One-sided platform (not adjacent to the main line)

8.0

7.0

6.0

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Fig. 6.24 View of platform canopy from platform pedestrian bridge

of 1100 mm, and the platform is flush with the bottom floor of train carriages; for high-speed railway station platform, the height difference is 1250 mm. (c) Canopy and cross-line equipment (1) Canopy (see Fig. 6.24) In order to ensure high service quality, a canopy must be provided over the passenger platform. The length and width of the canopy should be consistent with the length and width of the platform. For the county station with a small passenger traffic volume, the length of the canopy can be reduced to 200–300 m. (2) Cross-line facilities (I) Passages between station building and platform or between platform and platform. (II) Cross tracks passage is the most simple cross-line facility. (III) Most common grade separation cross-line facilities include pedestrian bridges and underground paths. Medium stations shall be equipped with a grade separation cross-line facility; and large stations and above shall be equipped with two grade separation cross-line facilities. The width of pedestrian bridge and underground path shall not be less than 4 m. Top-class and first-class stations shall have a special place for delivering luggage and parcels. For super-large and large high-speed railway stations, the width of pedestrian bridges and underground paths shall not be less than 10 m, and the height shall not be less than 3.6 m. For medium and small high-speed railway stations, the width of pedestrian bridges and underground paths shall not be less than 6 m, and the height shall not be less than 3 m. The layout of pedestrian bridge of HSR stations is shown in Figs. 6.25 and 6.26.

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Fig. 6.25 HSR platform pedestrian bridge

Fig. 6.26 Ticket entrance

2. HSR station building and station square (a) Station building HSR operation organization will change the behavior pattern of passenger significantly. Station buildings, as facilities serving passenger directly, show the image of high-speed railways, fully reflect the characteristics of highspeed railways of high efficiency, safety, convenience and high speed, and reflect the new pattern of high-speed railways in terms of functions and forms, which shall be designed and arranged based on the principle of “complete function, systematization, advance, culture rich and economic efficiency”. HSR station building should be designed by taking station passenger activity platform, station platform, canopy, cross-line facilities, and relevant functional building into comprehensive consideration, so as to form a passenger transportation service centered station building which is in harmony with

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the square, city traffic facilities and main building around the station. The station building shall be an organic link between railway and city, and reflect the regional characteristics and culture of the city. Station building is the main body of passenger station. Generally, the location is comprehensively determined based on the layout of railway line, topographic and geological conditions and comprehensive urban planning. It includes all buildings and rooms directly used for passenger service, being the main body of the passenger station, and it mainly consists of entrance and exit, ticket office, luggage and parcel office, waiting room, general service hall and ticket entrance. The layout of buildings and rooms shall be based on a principle of ensuring a smooth path for passenger in stations, and shortening the walking distance as far as possible. (1) Waiting room A waiting room shall have restrooms, drinking stations and other service facilities, and shall be equipped with security inspection equipment, train information display screen, seats, air conditioner, lighting, firefighting and other equipment, while for an elevated waiting room, escalators shall be provided. Besides, VIP seats, soft seats passenger waiting lounge, and waiting rooms for mothers and infants and for soldiers should be provided as necessary. In addition to regular service equipment, an HSR waiting room shall be equipped with automatic gate machines, automatic ticket checking machines, electronic display screens and other service equipment. (2) Ticket office The ticket office is the place for passengers to buy tickets, to get refunds for tickets, or to change tickets. The ticket office of small and medium passenger stations should be arranged at the entrance, so as to avoid the conflict between entering and exiting passengers. The ticket office of a large passenger station should be arranged at the front of the entering passenger flow line, and directly connect to the station square. With the improvement of the ticket system, purchasing tickets at a ticket office in a station is no longer the main way to get tickets. The function of the ticket office which was once the main part of the station building is weakened. The ticket window mainly services passengers who buy tickets directly before their journey or some passengers who need transfer. It mainly sells the ticket of the current day, and automatic ticket vending is adopted. Considering the peak hours of railway transport, temporary ticket booths should also be set. (3) General service hall High-speed railways generally do not provide luggage and parcel service, so there is no luggage and parcel office. The passenger transport building is mainly composed of a general service hall and waiting rooms. For traditional stations, the general service hall is a transitional space mainly used to distribute passenger flow, and passengers rarely stay in the hall for a long time. High-speed railways emphasize service.

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In addition to distributing passenger flow, the general service hall also integrates multiple functions. On the premise of serving as a passenger passage, various functional areas such as ticket sales, checking office, post and telecommunications office, bank, business center, commerce center, newspapers and periodicals reading area and rest lounge can be set, which greatly improves the space utilization efficiency. It is the core structure of station building. Passengers can choose to pass through the general service hall quickly, go through relevant formalities, and carry out business activities or leisure shopping. (4) Ticket entrance It is the connecting point between the station building and the platform, the only way for passengers to enter and exit the station, and also an important link of passenger flow line organization. The arrangement of ticket gates shall follow the principle of shortest walking distance for passengers after checking in. The number of ticket entrances shall be determined according to the number of passengers entering (exiting) the station through ticket entrances as well as the passing capacity of ticket entrances. The ticket checking mode at ticket entrances of HSR station is largely different from the conventional ticket checking mode. Advanced equipment is equipped to partially or fully replace the manual ticket checking mode, which improves the ticket checking efficiency, and increases the passing capacity of the ticket entrance. With the development of high-speed railways, ticket entrances will eventually be replaced (cancelled). (b) Station square The station square (see Fig. 6.27) shall have sufficient spaces for the distribution and stay of passengers and various vehicles, and it shall have passenger activity zones and green belts. Long-term land use planning shall be considered. A station square is mainly composed of the following three parts. (1) Parking lots for various vehicles. (2) Passenger activity zone, including pedestrian path, traffic safety island and passenger activity platform. (3) Passenger service facilities, including hotels, shops, post offices, bus stations, and toilets, etc. (Fig. 6.28). The commercial property of HSR station is gradually developed with the continuous development of high-speed railways, which mainly uses the underground floor and spaces between waiting rooms, and provides catering, daily goods and food services.

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Fig. 6.27 Nanjing South station square

Fig. 6.28 High-speed railway commercial zone

6.6.4 HSR Station Passenger Transport Organization 1. Work organization content HSR stations will reform the traditional passenger transport organization mode, and form a new organization mode that integrates ticket selling, train waiting, ticket checking, riding and alighting, entering and exiting and onboard service, so as to improve the travel convenience and comfort for passengers to the maximum extent. In the actual working process, by referring to the advanced experience from subway and foreign railway passenger stations, on the basis of the extensive application of the existing computerized railway ticketing and reservation system, and by introducing advanced information management system including

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the automatic fare collection system (AFC), the automatic information inquiry system, and the station automatic guidance system, our goal is to change the current waiting room-centered organization pattern into a new general service hall-centered organization pattern; and change from the “waiting mode” to the “passing mode”; reform the current passenger transport organization mode of “ticket selling → waiting train in waiting room → manual check-in → riding → onboard service → alighting → manual check-out” into a new organization mode of “auto ticket selling → auto check-in → waiting train on platform or in waiting room → riding → on-board service → alighting → auto check out”, so as to guide passenger entering and exiting stations quickly, simplify the check-in process and reduce the station staying time. According to the passenger volume of the station, a certain number of automatic ticket vending machines, automatic ticket check entrances, train information release and passenger flow guidance systems can be provided in stations, so as to facilitate ticket booking and boarding of passengers, and reduce the time required for passengers to buy tickets and to enter or exit stations. All passengers entering or exiting the station are required to pass ticket-checking machines, which avoids the problems of miss checking, ticket evasion, checking at the time of selling, and selling at the time of checking, and cancels the onboard ticket checking system bothering passengers for a long time. The automatic fare collection system can collect and analyze passenger flow volume, passenger ticket revenue and other general service information, thus improving the ability of passenger flow analysis and forecast of railway enterprises, ensuring rational allocation of trains, and providing real-time and accurate statistical analysis reports and decision-making basis for operation management. Conspicuous and clear electronic passenger guidance devices should be provided throughout the whole way from the station entrance to the platform, and electronic train information bulletins shall be arranged in several positions. When arriving at the platform, passengers shall be able to find the coach and boarding gate against the ticket conveniently, and passengers shall be able to “board the train from the right door and seat in the right seat” without help, so as to reduce the time required to finding the boarding gate. To this end, it is required that accurate and eye-catching signs indicating the train number and the gate position shall be set on the platform, and high-speed trains, with the help of train control system or driver control, shall stop at the exact position as the platform sign indicating, so that passengers can board the train as soon as possible. According to the introduction, the parking position error of Japan’s Tokaido Shinkansen is controlled within 5 cm. Cleaning, waste treatment, water supply and goods supply of turn-back trains are organized and completed rapidly. 2. Organization of ticket selling and checking (a) Ticket selling In foreign counties, there are various ticket sales channels for high-speed railways, passengers can buy their tickets at ticket windows, automatic

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ticket vending machines, onboard handheld terminals, through phone call, Internet, travel agency system, or from airline companies, and passenger can buy or book railway tickets in cash or by credit cards. Ticket selling at station accounts for only a small fraction of the ticket selling task. Ticket vending systems in high-speed stations have a high automation level, which matches with the train receiving and departure capacity of the station, and adapts to the needs of large flow, high density and rapid passenger flow collection and distribution. Ticket selling at station is mainly based on automatic ticket vending machines and supported by manual ticket selling. With the automatic ticket vending machines, it is convenient for passengers to check the ticket available condition of each train, to select the train, seat and different transport product wanted. The ticket office of a passenger transport company will sell train tickets of other companies and receive certain commissions from the company. For the number of ticket windows and automatic ticket vending machines to be configured, the consuming habit and adaptability of passengers shall be considered. In the initial stage, more ticket windows and fewer automatic ticket vending machines shall be set, and with more and more passengers buying tickets from ticket vending machines, the number of ticket machines should be increased gradually, ensuring that the queuing length in front of ticket machines is shorter than that in front of ticket windows, or ensuring that queuing is not required except for peak hours, so as to guide passengers to accept automatic ticket vending machine gradually. Considering the service characteristics of high-speed railways, it is recommended that the number of ticket booths shall be flexible, so as to control the queuing length and minimize the queuing time for travelers. Ticket booths shall be set near the general service hall as far as possible, and an appropriate number of automatic ticket vending machines should be set in the general service hall, along passenger passages, on intercity train stations and at junction points with other transport means, so as to divert some passenger flow from ticket booths, realizing better passenger service quality. If the transfer-based organization mode is adopted, automatic ticket vending machines and ticket windows shall be set on the transfer platform or in the general service hall. There are various kinds of high-speed railway tickets, so the ticket windows and automatic ticket vending machines shall be designed to meet different functional requirements, such as long-term ticket check-in and paper ticket printing. (b) Checking in The automatic fare collection system is generally used for ticket checking for high-speed railways, and the types of ticket gate machines are as follows: (1) Blocking rod type The passing capacity of this ticket gate machine is relatively small, and it may result in congestion and accidents (see Fig. 6.29).

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Fig. 6.29 Blocking rod type ticket gate machine

(2) Door leaf type It can evacuate passenger flow rapidly and safely, and avoid congestion and accidents. However, the gate-type machine also leads to troubles. The open time is relatively long, thus some passengers who ignore rules may steal a ride (see Fig. 6.30). (3) Flap type It is suitable for large passenger flow, large baggage and disabled scooters, and attendants must be assigned (see Fig. 6.31). Ticket gate machines can be set in two positions: at the station entrance, or between the waiting room and the platform. For conventional railways, since there is a large number of seeing-off people and for the sake of safety, the second type of gate machine is widely used; while in foreign countries, the first type gate machine is generally used for high-speed railways, and some countries do not even set ticket gate Fig. 6.30 Door leaf type ticket gate machine

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Fig. 6.31 Flap type ticket gate machine

machine. In China, both ticket gate machine position arrangements are adopted in different railway station design schemes. However, from the perspective of service characteristics and passenger flow characteristics of high-speed railways, the second arrangement is recommended. In China, waiting rooms generally adopt elevated design due to large HSR passenger flow volume, and entrances and exits are generally set separately. There is no clear conclusion on whether it is necessary to set automatic ticket gates at the station exit. In foreign countries, ticket checking is not required at the exit, so as to facilitate the rapid evacuation of arrival passenger flow. For high-speed railways in China, the situation is different, and the necessity of setting ticket gates at the exit remains to be discussed. Redundant ticket gate machines shall be provided, so as to ensure smooth passenger flow in peak hours. If flap-type ticket gate machines are selected, in order to reduce the number of service personnel, some ticket gate machines should be closed other than peak hours. 3. HSR station riding-alighting organization Compared with the existing lines, the riding-alighting organization for high-speed railways are relatively simple due to the adoption of entrance ticket checking mode and due to no obstacle between the waiting room and waiting platform. The main content involves the correct guidance of passengers to get on and get off trains and management of passengers who wait for trains on the platform. The correct guidance of the passengers mainly relies on the automatic passenger guidance system (indication system). The passenger information and indication system collects information by means of extracting data from the dispatching system as well as manual inputs, then processes such data in the station into information source, and releases the same to the passengers in the audio and video form. The passenger information and indication system is mainly composed

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of four subsystems, including the off-station information service subsystem, the in-station information service subsystem, the on-board information service subsystem and the online service subsystem. With these services, passengers can get to know all the train operation information including the arrival and departure time, the originating station/stop station/destination station, train formation, ticket available condition, and train operation condition (train in operating section, on-time or delay, reason for delay), as well as in-station service information, such as waiting room, service place, paths to enter or exit station, and city communication information. Service computers can be provided for passengers to search for other relevant information or complete relevant operations such as ticket booking, hotel booking, etc. The passenger guidance system is widely distributed near all entrances and exits, exchange halls, ticket halls, ground and underground elevators, and all kinds of fixed guidance markers and electronic display should be eye-catching and clear. It is recommended that a camera should be installed at each entrance and exit gate to closely monitor passengers’ behavior. Once an abnormal condition is observed, the staff shall respond immediately and handle the problem. For passengers waiting for trains on platforms, facilities rather than service staff shall be used for the management. For example, different trains should be marked with different colors for distinguishing, the waiting safety line should be painted in bright colors, and indications of door location for each train type shall be marked on the floor of platforms, and queuing markers shall be provided to guide passengers to queue up and get on trains. Passenger transport duty officers can be assigned on the platform so as to ensure passengers’ safety during train waiting. For CRH operating on the existing lines in China, ticket checking staff is assigned at each car door to avoid ticket evasion, but this is not suitable for high-speed railways.

6.7 HSR Traffic Dispatching Command System 6.7.1 Characteristics of HSR Traffic Dispatching Command System High-speed railways are greatly different from normal-speed railways in terms of technical equipment, transportation service and transportation organization work. The objective of high-speed railway transportation organization is to realize high speed, high safety performance, high density, high on-time rate, high-quality service, as well as high social and economic benefits. In order to ensure the operation order, to coordinate multi-department joint operation and to adapt to external disturbance, the traffic dispatching command system shall be equipped with three basic functions including control, coordination and adjustment. In order to give full play to these three basic functions, the basic principle of centralized leadership and unified command

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must be adhered to, and appropriate organizations must be set up during traffic dispatching command. The HSR traffic dispatching command system is the central system for highspeed railway transport management and daily train operation control, and also the command center for real-time supervision and adjustment of the transport process. It plays an important role in coordinating various departments, improving train operation quality, ensuring train operation safety, and maintaining the orderly operation of the overall transport system. It is the concentrated reflection of high and new technologies of high-speed railways, and also the symbol of modernization, automation, safety and high efficiency of operation and management of high-speed railways. It formulates the train operating plans, gives centralized commands on train operation, and coordinates various railway transport departments according to the configuration and dynamic characteristics of locomotive and rolling stocks, the station configuration and operation, the conditions of track and facilities along the line, personnel deployment, the train operating state of adjacent lines, etc. Therefore, an efficient and modern traffic control and information management system is a key to giving full play to the carrying capacity of high-speed railways and ensuring the operation safety and service quality of high-speed railways. The characteristics of the traffic dispatching command system are as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Simple operation, with high regularity and conducive to centralized control. High safety performance and high speed. High density. High on-time rate. People-oriented passenger service. Comprehensive maintenance.

The characteristics of “high safety performance, high speed, high density, high on-time rate, high service quality and comprehensive maintenance” of high-speed railways are the premise and core of high-speed railway traffic dispatching command, and shall be key factors to be considered for HSR traffic dispatching command system.

6.7.2 Function of HSR Traffic Dispatching Command (1) It is the core of high-speed railway operation management and train traffic control, and undertakes the important task of organizing high-speed railway train operation and daily transport activities. (2) It can accurately identify all kinds of risk factors that influence traffic dispatching command decision-making and operation safety, and it has the functions of risk warning and control, intelligent decision-making and management. (3) It is a basic guarantee to give full play to the transport efficiency of highspeed railways, and to coordinate various departments thus ensuring safe train operation and high-quality service.

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(4) It is a modern railway control and management system to ensure the safe, punctual and efficient operation of high-speed railways, and it is a complex integrated system that has the functions of real-time control and information transmission.

6.7.3 HSR Traffic Dispatching Command System Abroad The HSR traffic dispatching command mode in foreign countries can be basically divided into three types. The first type, represented by Japan, is to build a professional comprehensive dispatching system to adapt to the characteristics and requirements of high-speed dedicated passenger lines, and the integrated traffic dispatching command system constructed based on new design concepts is referred to as “integrated” system for short. The second type, represented by Germany, is to build a dispatching center based on regions rather than high-speed lines. The third type, represented by France and Spain, is to build the control center based on railway lines, which basically inherits the traditional mode of the existing railway. 1. HSR traffic dispatching command system of Japan (a) Development of HSR traffic dispatching command system of Japan In 1964, Tokaido Shinkansen was opened to traffic, which adopts the centralized traffic control (CTC) mode. In 1972, Japan Railway put the computer aided dispatching system COMTRAC into operation, and subsequently, the system has been improved and extended constantly. Currently, the improved and extended system manages 1100 km Tokaido and Sanyo Shinkansen. Japan’s high-speed trains lead the world in operation density, traffic volume, safety, punctuality and convenience. The comprehensive dispatching system is used, ensuring the highest operation density, top safety and highest on-time rate among all passenger transport railways in the world. After Great-Hanshin-Awaji in 1996, Central Japan Railway Company and West Japan Railway Company jointly built a COMTRAC backup center in Osaka. In 1999, JR Kyushu Railway Company merged the seven existing railway traffic control offices to establish the Kyushu Integrated Traffic Control Center where COMTRAC system is used, managing more than 2000 km of existing railways. Based on COMTRAC, East Japan Railway Company developed a new comprehensive centralized dispatching system COSMOS (Computerized Safety Maintenance and Operation System). The system was put into operation in 1995, and is a comprehensive operation management information system that integrates train operation control, power control, train operation

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management, generation and change of train working diagram, information system (disaster information, passenger information, etc.), maintenance operation management, station operation management and other functions, which effectively connects 8 plans of the operation headquarter, management departments and operation sites (station, crew station, train base, etc.) through an information sharing structure. Compared with COMTRAC, COSMOS system has an expanded management and control range and strengthened functions. About 500 computers constitute the wide area autonomous decentralized system, ensuring the normal railway transport order in case of system failure or interruption. COSMOS introduces the latest computer and communication technologies of the 1990s, realizing integrated and systematic transport management. (b) Characteristics of HSR comprehensive dispatching system of Japan (1) For Japan’s Shinkansen, separate traffic dispatching command systems are established by railway lines (Tokaido, Sanyo) and regions (East Japan Railway Company), and there is no state-level centralized dispatching command center; Tokaido and Sanyo Shinkansen are completely independent from the existing lines, which is equipped with a fully independent dispatching system, and a backup center; For some high-speed trains of East Japan Railway Company, the trains’ operating speed on the existing line is relatively low due to the fact that the existing lines are in need of line reconstruction, which shall be coordinated with the dispatching command system of the existing lines. (2) The high risk associated with high-speed operation and the dependency of train operation safety on the dispatching system are fully considered, and great importance has been attached to safety. (3) Based on different requirements for reliability, real-time performance and safety, different subsystems are connected with different network channels. According to the broad concept of transportation system, the transportation system is regarded as a huge and complex humanmachine-environment dynamic system involving multiple departments, which takes safe, stable and order transportation as the primary goal, and aims at establishing an informationized, integrated and intelligent comprehensive traffic dispatching command system. (4) The system is designed based on the jurisdiction, and the capacity is limited, which may hinder future expansion. Besides, the system is developed based on Japan’s technical conditions and technical standards, which is not universally applicable. (5) Based on the operation plan, centered on train operation management (traffic control) and grounded on sound facility state, the system is highly integrated with power functions. For the functional structure and business scope of the comprehensive traffic control center of Japan’s Shinkansen, in addition to traditional traffic control services, dispatching for management, repair and maintenance of railway equipment, monitoring and remote control of power

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supply system, monitoring and repair of communication and signal equipment, and emergency repair and treatment in case of disasters and accidents are realized (Fig. 6.32). The comprehensive system is an informationized, integrated and intelligent advanced system based on the latest modern technologies. Japan’s comprehensive traffic control center, based on centralized traffic control (CTC), is also configured with a computer management system, forming a comprehensive and centralized operation management system centered on traffic control automation system COMTRAC and Shinkansen information system SMIS, and integrates a series of highly automated functions including mobile data communication, equipment monitoring, train operation auto control, accident warning, disaster prevention, ticket service, and service management. 2. Dispatching command system of Germany (a) The HSR dispatching command system is incorporated into the dispatching system of existing lines. The workload of coordination between railway network traffic control and passenger-freight traffic control is huge, and the coordination of train working diagram is difficult. (b) Railway traffic control centers are set in 7 large hub areas including Berlin, Hannover, Duisburg, Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Frankfurt and Munich, among which, Frankfurt Traffic Control Center is a national supervision center (NLZ), which is responsible for coordinating and monitoring the traffic dispatching command of the entire railway network, and mainly focus on monitoring the connection between passenger and freight trains with the international trains of neighboring countries, monitoring regional and central railway network problems, generating central schedule reports for the council, carrying out process analysis and optimizing railway network transport. Frankfurt Traffic Control and Command Center implements the headquarters—regional traffic control office—station duty officer threelevel management, and for traffic controllers, the two-shift system with 12 h for each shift is implemented. Director of Comprehensive Dispatching Center

Information duty director assistant

Train dispatching

Passenger crew dispatching

Operation dispatching

Safety duty director assistant

Center duty director

Electric power dispatching

Communicat ion dispatching

Signal dispatching

Facility dispatching

Plan dispatching

Fig. 6.32 Schematic diagram of functional structure of comprehensive traffic control center

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(c) In respect of hardware, the display mode and the operating environment of existing lines are adopted, realizing good connection and coordination therebetween. (d) Centralized train operation control is adopted, and the basic configuration is as follows. (1) A traffic control center is set in Berlin and Mainz respectively to coordinate the traffic control work among regional control centers. (2) Seven regional control centers are set in the national railway network. (3) The base control system is composed of a remote control center and station signal equipment. No special traffic control center is set for high-speed railways. Instead, highspeed railway traffic control is incorporated into the existing dispatching system in the corresponding region by adding workbenches for traffic control of high-speed railways. In Germany, BZ2000 dispatching system is used, including a planning system, an information system, a fault handling system, and a monitor and display and route control (manual) system. The BZ2000 system has the following functions: formulation of train work diagram, prediction and detection of operation conflict, automatic adjustment of train work diagram, train operation status monitoring, train tracking and locating, automatic train route arrangement, equipment fault monitoring, safety and disaster prevention information monitoring, and receiving and release of various information. 3. HSR traffic dispatching command system of France (a) A relatively independent HSR traffic dispatching command system is established. (b) The system adopts a two-stage or a three-stage structure, i.e., national traffic control center, branch traffic control center (not applicable to two-stage structure) and CTC command center. (c) Regional branches shall be set up as administrative organs. (d) There is a close connection and data exchange between the dispatching system of dedicated passenger lines and the dispatching system of existing lines, especially in the up and down line stations, including train operation and equipment operation information. (e) Train operation on high-speed railway shall be subjected to the centralized command by the national traffic control center and traffic control organization set up for high-speed railway.

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6.7.4 DPL Dispatching System of China 1. Objective and principle of establishment of DPL comprehensive traffic control center (a) Guiding concept of DPL traffic dispatching command system Guided by Scientific Outlook on Development, according to the general plan of leapfrog development strategy and the requirement of “first-class management, first-class technology, and first-class service”, following the construction concept of “people-oriented, service transportation, strengthen the fundamental and weaken the trivial, system optimization, focus on development”, centering on railway network completeness and centralized and unified traffic dispatching command, focusing on safety, efficiency and service quality improvement, and adopting modern information technology, the goal is to realize the modernization of operation management, traffic control and technical equipment. (b) The principle for the construction of integrated dispatching command system for dedicated passenger lines (1) Advanced Adopt advanced and mature technologies at home and abroad; learn, refer to, digest and absorb advanced HSR operation management concepts from abroad, and make innovations based on such concepts. (2) Practical Meet the work needs at all levels and meet the requirements of system extendibility and maintainability. (3) Systematic Railway network integrity, centralized traffic control, and well coordination with the operation of existing lines must be ensured. Adhere to the principle of “centralized leadership, centralized planning, unified standard, centralized construction, centralized management and implementing in step”, and ensure system integrity and operation efficiency. (4) Economic Comprehensively consider construction and operation costs, formulate rational and elaborate plans, make full use of existing resources, reduce investment cost and minimize investment risk. (5) Attaching equal importance to development and introduction, and combining research with engineering Increase science and technology inputs, focus on independent development, and introduce key technologies, so as to develop a comprehensive da with independent intellectual property rights. Meanwhile, construction duration and quality must be ensured. (c) Goal of construction of DPL comprehensive dispatching system Realize the overall DPL construction goal of “first-class engineering quality, first-class equipment level, and first-class operation management”. By introducing modern information technology equipment, based on train operation

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Fig. 6.33 Composition and functional coverage of DPL dispatching system

command, and integrating various functions including traffic plan, operation command, EMU operation, infrastructure, passenger service, safety monitoring, provide technical means to realize DPL operation management and to optimize transport capacity resources, and establish a first-class comprehensive dispatching system that is in line with China’s national conditions and featured by advanced technology, complete functions, reasonable structure, high economic efficiency, high applicability, high safety and high reliability. The composition and functional coverage of the DPL dispatching system are shown in Fig. 6.33. 2. Characteristics of HSR traffic dispatching command system of China (a) Centralized traffic dispatching command (1) Set up two-stage traffic dispatching command system. An HSR traffic dispatching command center shall be set up in China Railway to coordinate and command the operation of high-speed trains on the whole lines. Each railway administration shall be responsible for traffic dispatching command of the high-speed railway lines within its jurisdiction. (2) In view of the characteristics that HSR route lineside signals are automatically generated and controlled by the CTC system, the train traffic controllers are responsible for direct command and handling of train operation. No operation staff is assigned at the station, and the driver shall drive the train directly according to the signal system. In case of abnormal circumstances that field route preparation is required, the on-site emergency response personnel shall be responsible for route preparation. (b) Integration of traffic dispatching command A six-in-one command system integrating train operation, EMU, passenger service, power supply, construction and emergency response should be set up, and through remote monitoring, information sharing, remote control and other information means, unified train operation command and centralized information collection and transmission of the whole railway line should be realized.

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(c) Automation of traffic dispatching command An advanced dispatching system shall be used, so as to realize the coordination and linkage of plan formulation, operation management, EMU management, passenger transportation service, power supply management, comprehensive maintenance, passenger-freight marketing and other functions. (d) Refinement of traffic dispatching command The goal is to realize high-density operation, and satisfy the requirement of high punctuality. Allocation of transport capacity is basically transparent and is controlled directly by traffic controllers. China’s HSR traffic dispatching command adopt the localized and regional centralized second-stage traffic dispatching command system structure. HSR traffic controllers include HSR duty deputy-director, plan dispatcher, train dispatcher (assistant dispatcher), EMU dispatcher, EMU driver dispatcher, power supply dispatcher, customer service dispatcher and comprehensive facility dispatcher. All dispatching services implement professional management. The EMU department is responsible for providing professional guidance and training for EMU dispatching, and is responsible for the professional management thereof, the locomotive department for EMU driver dispatching, the power supply department for power supply dispatching, the passenger transport department for passenger service dispatching, and the engineering department and the communication and signal department for comprehensive facility dispatching. 3. Composition of HSR dispatching system of China (a) Physical structure of dispatching system The HSR dispatching system employees staged management and centralized command based on the actual condition of dedicated passenger lines. For the traffic control organization in China, the two-stage management mode is adopted, i.e., a DPL traffic dispatching command center is set in China Railway, and 4 DPL traffic control offices are set in Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan and Guangzhou. Beijing Traffic Control Office has jurisdiction over Beijing-Harbin dedicated passenger line, Beijing-Shanghai dedicated passenger line, and Bohai economic rim intercity dedicated passenger line; Shanghai Traffic Control Office has jurisdiction over Yangtze River Delta intercity dedicated passenger line, Zhejiang-Jiangxi dedicated passenger line, and Lanzhou-Lianyungang dedicated passenger line; Wuhan Traffic Control Office has jurisdiction over Beijing-Guangzhou dedicated passenger line, Shanghai-Wuhan-Chengdu dedicated passenger line; Guangzhou Traffic Control Office has jurisdiction over Pan-Pearl River Delta intercity dedicated passenger line and southeast coastal dedicated passenger lines.

6.8 Questions for Review

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Traffic plan Basic plan Implementation plan Operation management Plan automatic adjustment Route automatic control Operation status monitoring Train number management Traffic control

Train management EMU operation management EMU operating status monitoring

Comprehensive maintenance Comprehensive maintenance management Equipment status monitoring Disaster prevention and safety information monitoring

Power supply management Power supply control Equipment status monitoring

Passenger transportation service Crew management Service quality supervision Service information release

Fig. 6.34 Functional structure of dispatching system

(b) Functional structure of dispatching system By functions, the dispatching system can be divided into six functional subsystems including traffic plan, operation management, train management, comprehensive management, passenger transportation service, and power supply management. The functional structure of China’s HSR dispatching system is shown in Fig. 6.34. (c) Hierarchical structure of dispatching system Departments are connected through a dedicated network for transmitting various information needed for transportation. The traffic control office gives direct commands on train operation, and the EMU base, the crew base and the maintenance base are under the control of the traffic control office, and will carry out their work according to the arrangement made by the traffic control office. In general, the traffic control center only supervises each traffic control office and coordinates cross-office services. In special cases, the traffic control center can take over the work of traffic control offices and give direct command on train operation.

6.8 Questions for Review 1. Please briefly describe the procedure of transportation organization of highspeed railways. 2. Please briefly describe different HSR transportation organization modes and the characteristics thereof. 3. Which transportation organization mode should be chosen and employed for passenger dedicated lines in China? Please specify the reason. 4. What are the characteristics of the HSR train operating scheme?

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5. What are the main characteristics of HSR train working diagram of foreign countries? 6. What are the differences among designed carrying capacity, existing carrying capacity and carrying capacity required? 7. What is the EMU operation plan? 8. What is the crewing plan? What are the differences between the rotating system of locomotive crew and the residency system of locomotive crew? 9. Please describe the principle of arranging HSR EMU depots (posts, yards) and comprehensive maintenance bases. 10. How many types of HSR stations are there by nature of technical operation, and what are they? Please describe the layout features and operation characteristics respectively. 11. What are the advantages of integrating a high-speed station with an existing station? 12. Please describe the characteristics of each high-speed station and existing station integration scheme. 13. How many ways are there to lead a high-speed railway to an existing hub? Please describe the characteristics of each way and compare the advantages and disadvantages among them. 14. What are the characteristics of HSR station operation and service? 15. Please describe the composition of HSR dispatching system of China. What are the functions of each subsystem?

Chapter 7

HSR Passenger Transportation Service

7.1 Overview 7.1.1 Characteristics of HSR Passenger Transport 1. High requirement for onboard service Passengers travelling by high-speed train, who generally prefer relatively higher time value and have higher affordability, usually have high requirements for not only ride comfort, but also for entertainment, catering and communication services on the train. Therefore, high-speed trains should be equipped with complete service facilities. 2. Short riding-alighting time High-speed trains are featured by short station dwell time, and fast stop and start speed. The station dwell time can be as short as 0.5 min, not exceeding 2–3 min at most, which largely shortens passengers’ riding-alighting time. Therefore, prominent and clear riding-alighting indication signs shall be provided on the platform. If the indication signs are unclear, it will be difficult for passengers to find the passage or coach from the platform, which will delay train operation, reduce transport efficiency and bring inconvenience to passengers. 3. Short collection and gathering time In fact, through efficient and reasonable transportation organization, high-speed railways can realize the goals of “short waiting time in stations and boarding and leaving shortly after arriving at stations”. Passengers must be able to enter or exit HSR stations more quickly with easier procedures. Besides, the arrival and departure frequency of high-speed railways is relatively high, resulting in the increase of passengers entering and exiting the station per unit time. Complicated procedures for entering and exiting stations and unsmooth passage will degrade the service level of HSR stations, reduce the operation efficiency, and impair the reputation of high-speed railways.

© Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_7

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Based on the main characteristics of high-speed railway mentioned above, in addition to promoting the development of high-speed railway technology, relevant countries are also striving to develop and improve the HSR passenger transportation service system that meets passengers’ requirements, so as to provide passengers with convenient and quick transportation service and comprehensively enhance the competitiveness of high-speed railway passenger transport.

7.1.2 Content of Basic HSR Passenger Transportation Service and Post Setting HSR passenger transportation service is an important part of high-speed railway transportation. The HSR passenger transport process involves the coordination and cooperation of multiple departments and posts. Stations and trains, as main departments of railway passenger transport, play important roles in passenger transportation services. The setting of basic posts for HSR passenger transport depends on the basic work flow of HSR passenger transport. HSR passenger transportation service received by passengers usually consists of three links: departure, traveling and arrival. The specific process is shown in Fig. 7.1. (1) Departure services include inquiry, ticket booking, waiting room service, ticket checking, and boarding. (2) Onboard services include transit ticket endorsement, and train service. (3) Arrival services include alighting service, and ticket checking. The relevant process in Fig. 7.1 is completed by passenger transport staff from different posts, mainly including the basic operation posts and management posts. The operation posts include railway passenger agent, comprehensive control room passenger agent, passenger transport planner, income agent, billing supervisor, ticket seller, water supply personnel, porter, luggage planner, luggage safety inspector, train attendant, train broadcaster, train duty officer, dining car chief, train catering staff, and train porter. Management posts include passenger transport duty officer, ticket duty officer, water supply duty officer, luggage duty officer, and conductor. The basic post structure for HSR passenger transport is shown in Fig. 7.2.

7.1.3 Quality of HSR Passenger Transportation Service Quality of HSR passenger transportation service refers to the degree to which the services provided by HSR passenger transportation service departments meet the stipulated and potential requirements of passengers, among which, stipulated requirements refer to the passenger requirements stipulated in technical specifications or service specifications. For example, timely announce the station name, the arrival and departure time and the dwell time timely (by broadcasting or electronic display

7.1 Overview

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Enter HSR passenger transport system

Information inquiry

Ticket, train number, stations, etc.

Ticket booking

Online ticket booking, telephone ticket booking, in-station ticket booking etc.

Waiting for train

Waiting environment, service facilities, etc.

Boarding

Automatic check-in, direction indication etc.

Traveling

Operating condition, catering, entertainment information service, etc.

Alighting Exiting from station quickly, convenient transit, etc. Exit from station

Exit from HSR passenger transport system

Fig. 7.1 HSR passenger transportation service process

screen), and organize special passengers to wait in front of the coach gate in advance before arriving at a station. Potential requirements refer to the actual passenger requirements for passenger transportation services which are not specified in the technical specifications or service specifications, i.e., the requirements of passengers that are difficult to express clearly or obvious and basic requirements, and the special requirements of some special passengers, such as voice guidance and barrier-free passage for the blinds. From the perspective of passenger perception, the quality of HSR passenger transportation service can be summarized into two aspects: firstly, what passengers have got from services, i.e., service results, generally referred to as the technical quality of service; secondly, how passengers consume services in the transportation process, i.e., the process of service, usually called the functional quality of service. The passenger transportation service quality of HSR transport service quality is reflected

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7 HSR Passenger Transportation Service Railway passenger agent Passenger transport duty officer

Comprehensive control room passenger agent Passenger traffic volume planner Income agent

Ticket duty officer

Billing supervisor

Station Ticket seller

Water supply duty officer

water supply staff

Basic passenger transport posts

Porter Luggage duty officer

Luggage planner Luggage safety inspector

Train attendant Train broadcaster Train duty officer Train

Conductor

Dining car chief Train catering staff Train porter

Fig. 7.2 Basic post structure for HSR passenger transport

not only in the unification of transportation service technology and function, but also in the unification of transportation service process and result, as is shown in Fig. 7.3. It can be seen from Fig. 7.3, the technical quality of HSR passenger transportation service is mainly reflected in four aspects: speed, safety, punctuality and economic efficiency. “Speed” requires that HSR trains shall operate at a high operating speed according to the technical standard so as to save the travel time for passengers. Besides, the convenient and efficient service process is also included. “Safety” requests that passengers shall not face any mental and physical injury or property damage when they are buying tickets or waiting for trains at stations or during the traveling process. “Punctuality” requires that passengers shall be able to arrive at the destination within the time specified on the ticket without any delay, and “Economic

7.1 Overview

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Passenger Perceive

HSR passenger transportation service quality

Technical quality

Speed

Safety

Punctuality

Functional quality

Economic efficiency

Comfort

Convenience

Civilization

Fig. 7.3 HSR passenger transportation service quality from the perception of passengers

efficiency” requires that passengers can get high-quality services at an economic (reasonable) price. Technical quality can generally be measured by certain indicators. For example, the punctuality of HSR trains can be measured by the operating time, the departure and arrival time of trains. The functional quality of HSR passenger service is mainly reflected in three aspects: comfort, convenience and civilization. “Comfort” requires that the highspeed railway should meet the comfort requirement of passengers, and passengers should receive warm, considerate and courtesy services, so as to improve the travel quality. “Convenience” requires that HSR transport enterprises should provide passengers with convenient and efficient services, so as to reduce the waiting time before and after the travel for passengers, and meet the requirement of time-saving of passengers. “Civilization” requires that HSR transport enterprises shall meet the spiritual needs of passengers in the passenger service process. In general, technical quality is a key concern of passengers, including whether the high-speed train can arrive at the destination on time, and whether their luggage is free of damage. Passengers are also very sensitive to functional quality. An unpleasant experience during the journey may leave a bad impression on the passenger, and after that, even if the high-speed train arrives at the destination safely and on time, the passenger satisfaction on service quality will be low.

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7.1.4 HSR Passenger Transportation Service Etiquette HSR passenger transportation service etiquette is an indispensable part of the railway passenger transportation service work, which penetrates all aspects and the whole process of passenger transportation service. Modern railway service etiquette is not only the work requirement for HSR passenger transportation service personnel, but also the requirement of building a good railway enterprise image. The example of HSR passenger transportation service etiquette is shown in Fig. 7.4. 1. Appearance etiquette In order to show the good image of HSR passenger transportation service personnel, the consciousness of decent appearance must be built and attention shall be paid during passenger service to ensure that every movement including standing, seating, walking, squatting, gestures and bowing are graceful. 2. Language etiquette For HSR passenger transportation service personnel, good language etiquette is a necessary condition to ensure high-quality service. The way the HSR passenger transportation service personnel talk will directly affect the service quality as well as the reputation of the railway department. Therefore, HSR passenger transportation service personnel must follow the language etiquette requirements, making sure languages used are standardized, courtesy, complete, accurate, logical and strategic, and the speaking tone are gentle, kind and modest. No foul language, vulgar words and cynical remarks should be used, and irritating or insulting passengers with vulgar words is extremely prohibited.

Fig. 7.4 Greeting guests

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7.2 HSR Station and Train Service 7.2.1 HSR Station Service 1. HSR station passenger transport posts HSR station passenger transportation posts include those of station agent, station director, duty director, passenger transport duty officer and station passenger agent, among which the staff directly providing services to passengers is called station passenger agent. Generally, in large and medium-sized HSR stations, passenger transport departments that directly contact with passengers include the ticket department, the passenger transport department and the security check department, and posts that directly contact with passengers include ticket seller, ticket entrance passenger agent, platform passenger agent, exit passenger agent, information office passenger agent and security check passenger agent. Security check passenger agent can be further divided into security check guider, security check monitor, security check body inspector and security check handler. 2. HSR station passenger transportation service procedure (a) Ticket selling work procedure Ticket selling shall be carried out in strict accordance with the relevant operating standards, i.e., “ask”, “input”, “collect”, “print”, “verify” and “deliver”. (1) Ask Ask passengers the purchasing mode, the traveling date, the train number, the origin and destination stations, the ticket type, the seat class, the number of tickets, and the payment method (cash, bank card, Alipay, etc.). (2) Input Input the traveling date, and the train number, and select the origin and destination stations, the ticket type, the seat class, and the number of tickets. (3) Collect Collect and check the money, and verify the ticket information with passengers (for the traveling date, the 24 h system must be used for verification). (4) Print Print tickets, and if passengers choose to pay the ticket fare by bank card, press “Ctrl+F4” to enter the bank card payment interface. (5) Verify Verify and confirm whether the ticket numbers on the upper and lower parts of the ticket are consistent and the price is correct, and make corrections if the ticket number is inconsistent or the certificate number is wrong.

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(6) Deliver Deliver ID certificates used for ticket booking, tickets, and changes (bank card, POS voucher cardholder stub) to passengers. (b) Check-in work procedure (1) Ticket entrance passenger agents arrive at the ticket entrance 20 min before train departure. Two agents shall be assigned to each ticket gate machine to check the condition of the ticket gate machines, the automatic gates, the escalators and the check-in screen equipment. (2) Ticket entrance passenger agents introduce the methods for using ticket gate machines, escalators and other equipment, as well as the safety precautions to passengers, guide passengers holding soft tickets and magnetic medium tickets to queue up separately, and guide special passengers to the front of the queue to check in first. (3) The passenger service system starts the “ready to check-in” broadcasting 18 min before train departure, and the check-in screen displays “ready to check-in”. (4) The passenger service system starts playing “start check-in” broadcasting 15 min before train departure and cycles the broadcasting every 5 min, the check-in screen displays “start check-in”, and the passenger transport duty officer shall check and confirm that the operating terminals of the ticket gate machines are in the check-in state. (5) Ticket entrance passenger agents inform platform passenger agents of “start check-in” with a walkie-talkie, “Platform X, Train No. X starts check-in”, and platform passenger agent reply, “Train No. X starts check-in, Platform X copy that.” (6) Ticket entrance passenger agents start check-in, guide passengers to pass through ticket gates properly, suggest passengers carrying largesize luggage to pass through the special ticket gate for large-size luggage, guide passengers holding soft tickets to manual check-in gates, verify the ticket information and cut the ticket. (7) The passenger service system starts the “stop check-in” broadcasting 3 min before train departure. Ticket entrance passenger agents check and confirm that the ticket gate machines are switched to the OFF state, and the ticket screen displays “stop check-in”, close and lock the manual check-in entrance, and stop check-in. (8) After check-in, ticket entrance passenger agents shall guard the ticket entrance and stop passengers who fail to check in to enter the station, and guide them to the ticket office to go through change or refund procedures.

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(9) After informed by the platform of train departure, ticket entrance passenger agents shall check the state of equipment and facilities, inform the cleaning personnel to clean relevant areas, and then line up to leave the post. (c) Platform work procedure (1) Work procedure of originating station platform (I) Platform passenger agents shall carry walkie-talkies, loudspeakers and whistles, and arrive at the platform 20 min before train departure. The number of platform passenger agents shall not be less than 2 (and the position is to be determined by each station). (II) After arriving at the platform, platform passenger agents shall check and confirm the track, the platform and the escalator are in good condition, check and confirm whether the information on platform screen and the clock is correct, and eliminate the hidden hazards in time. (III) Ticket entrance passenger agents inform platform passenger agents of “start check-in” 15 min before train departure, and platform passenger agents shall stand at the designated position to guide passengers. (IV) Platform passenger agents introduce relevant notices to passengers on the escalator and guide passengers to their coaches. (V) Complete handover procedure on special passengers and important work with the conductor. (VI) After receiving the “stop check-in” notice from ticket entrance passenger agents, platform passenger agents shall remind passengers who have not yet got on the train to board the train in time and inform the conductor of “stop check-in”. (VII) For trains subjected to power supply operation and high-speed express parcel transport operation, on completion of such operation, platform passenger agent shall inform the conductor of operation completion. (VIII) After the train doors are closed, platform passenger agents shall step on the white safety line and face the train. In case an abnormal condition is identified, make responses in time. (IX) After the train departs, platform passenger agents should turn with the train and watch the train leave the station. After confirming that the train has left the platform, inform the passenger transport duty officer and ticket entrance passenger agent of train departure. (X) After the train leaves the platform, platform passenger agents patrol the platform, clear passengers on the platform, and line up to leave the post.

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(2) Work procedure of destination station platform (I) Platform passenger agents should arrive at the platform 10 min before the train arrives, and prepare for train arrival. (II) After arrived at the platform, platform passenger agents shall check and confirm whether the track, the platform and the escalator are in good condition, whether the information on platform screen and the clock is correct, and eliminate the hidden hazards in time. (III) After a train arrives at the station, inform the comprehensive control room duty officer of the train arrival time and inform the exit passenger agents to get ready for ticket checking with a walkie-talkie. (IV) Complete the handover procedure with the conductor of the arrived train. (V) Guide passengers to exit the station via the exit flow line, and give priority to special passengers. (VI) After confirming that all passengers have left the platform, inform the exit passenger agents with a walkie-talkie. (VII) Clear up the platform. (d) Work procedure for exit ticket checking (1) Five minutes before the train arrives, exit passenger agents shall check the conditions of the ticket gate machine, automatic gate, escalator and other equipment and facilities, check and confirm whether the content on the exit display screen is correct, and eliminate any potential safety hazards identified in time. (2) After being informed by platform passenger agents of train arrival, exit passenger agents shall stand at the designated position to greet the passengers and guide them leaving the station. (3) When passengers exit the station, exit passenger agents shall introduce the method for using the ticket gate machines to passengers holding magnetic media tickets, and guide passengers to pass through the ticket gate and exit the station; guide passengers holding soft tickets to pass through the manual ticket gate, and check passengers’ ticket carefully. (4) For passengers who do not have tickets or carry luggage exceeding the allowable limit, complete excess fare and additional fee charging procedures. Where going through the excess fare and additional fee charging procedure is required, inform the passenger transport duty officer to cover the post temporarily. (5) During ticket checking, exit passenger agents shall also pay attention to the work condition of the ticket gate, and eliminate any problem identified in time. If the problem cannot be eliminated, report the case to the comprehensive control room duty office immediately.

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(6) After being informed by platform passenger agents that all passengers have left the platform, exit passenger agents shall organize passengers to pass through ticket gates or the manual ticket checking gate to exit the station, and then lock the station exit. Inform the cleaning personnel to clean the station exit in time. (e) Work procedure for special passenger reception of information office (1) After receiving the special passenger reception task, information office, information officer passenger agents shall check the train number of the special passenger and understand the services required, and report the information to the passenger transport duty officer. (2) If a special passenger needs to use wheelchairs, the information office passenger agent should keep a record and provide wheelchairs (if there are seeing-off passengers, complete relevant procedure and collect the ID card and deposit), and then arrange the special passenger to a designated waiting room, pay special attention and provide high-quality services. (3) Information office agents shall be familiar with the operation condition of the train where a special passenger is riding, and assist the special passenger’s family members in guiding the special passenger to the ticket entrance. (4) Ticket entrance passenger agents shall communicate with platform passenger agents, and after obtaining the consent of platform passenger agents, organize special passengers to check in and enter the platform in advance, and pay attention to take every protection measure to ensure passenger’s safety during riding or alighting. (5) Platform passenger agents complete the special passenger handover procedures with the conductor. Complete the station-train handover procedure carefully without missing any item, complete all procedures, and both parties shall affix signatures. (6) On completion of station-train handover procedure, platform passenger agent shall withdraw the wheelchair, and on completion of the train reception and departure work, send the wheelchair back to the information office. (f) Work procedure for security check (1) Security check guiders are responsible for verifying the tickets and certificates of passengers according to the real-name system, and verifying “tickets, certificates and persons” consistency. If the verification passed, guide passengers to accept the security check; if the verification failed, refuse the passenger entering the station and inform the passenger of the relevant policy. (2) Security check guiders guide passengers to place their belongings on the conveyor belt for security check, propagandize the common sense of security and the risks of bringing hazardous goods into the station or onto the train, and prevent security check passage from being blocked by passengers.

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(3) In case of an alarm generated when a passenger passing through the security check door, the security inspector shall check the passenger thoroughly with a handheld metal detectors, and if the handheld metal detector generates an alarm, the inspector shall touch the corresponding body part of the passenger for inspection, so as to prevent passengers from carrying (concealing) any hazard or banned articles onto the train. Body check shall be carried out in strict accordance with the provision of “male inspector inspecting male passenger only”. (4) Security body inspector shall carry out body check from top to bottom, from left to right, from front to back manually and with a handheld metal detector, and the inspection method combining visual observation and touch will be used for checking. Special attention shall be paid to shoulder blade, chest, armpit, waist, hip, crotch, inner side of thigh and lower leg, ankle and upper part, coat pocket, trouser pocket and other parts. (5) On completion of security check, release the passengers without carrying any hazard and banned article; while passengers found to be carrying hazardous and banned articles should be handled on a case-by-case basis; passengers who conceal and carry hazardous and banned articles on purposes shall be regarded as committing the crime of deliberately concealing hazardous and banned articles and handed over to security police for handling according to law; for passengers carrying hazardous and banned articles unintentionally, propaganda and introduction of common sense of security shall be carried out. (6) Security check attendants screen the baggage of passengers to identify dangerous articles as well as banned and restricted items with the security check equipment. Once a suspected dangerous article is found, security check attendants shall immediately inform the security check handler to open the baggage for inspection. (7) Security check handlers shall open the baggage suspected of containing dangerous and banned articles for inspection. When opening baggage for inspection is required, passengers shall open the baggage themselves, and the safety check handler will check and determine whether the suspicious article belongs to a hazardous or banned article, and have the right to refuse passengers to carry items of unknown nature into the station and board the train. (8) For the inspection, the provision of “opening baggage manually, and female’s baggage shall be checked by female inspector” shall be followed. When opening the baggage manually, check the items inside the baggage one by one from outside to inside and from top to bottom, so as to screen any suspicious items. Pick up and lay down every item gently, and place the item back to its original position after inspection.

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(9) Where hazardous items are found, the security check handler shall fill in the hazardous article inspection register and hazardous article temporary storage register, write down the time and place the hazardous article is found, inspector’s name involved passenger’s name, sex, contact number, and the name and relevant information of the article. If the passenger agrees to abandon the article and affix signature, attach a label on the article (indicating inspector’s name, time, passenger’s name and other information). The dangerous article inspection register and the dangerous article temporary storage register shall be kept properly. (10) Immediately hand over the restricted items and other hazardous articles found to the public security police for handling, and fill in the Banned and Restricted Article Confiscation Form.

7.2.2 HSR EMU Train Service The content of HSR EMU crewing work is complex. Since HSR EMUs have high operating speed, the requirement for work quality of each link is high. Therefore, it is necessary to learn the EMU crewing work process and the requirements thereof so as to complete each link with high quality. 1. EMU crew and personnel requirement (a) Crew The EMU crew is composed of the conductor, train attendant, train police and onboard machinists. If cleaning and catering services on EMUs are undertaken by social professional companies, the employees of such companies are regarded as crew members. Under the unified leadership of the conductor, crew members of the train shall perform their own duties and functions in passenger service. On the EMU trains, the system of division of work responsibility under the leadership of train conductor is implemented. (b) Personnel allocation For EMU crewing, the rotating system of locomotive crew and the residency system of locomotive crew should be selected and applied according to the actual routing requirement. The EMU crew consists of 1 conductor, 2 train attendants and 2 catering clerks. Some EMUs are also equipped with sales clerks and cleaning clerks as needed. For double-heading EMU, two crew teams will be deployed and only one train conductor will be assigned. For example, an EMU consisting of 16 cars will be equipped with 1 train conductor and 4 train attendants. For EMUs with long operating time, more crew members can be deployed appropriately. An EMU will be equipped with one driver, each crew team will be equipped with 1 passenger train inspector (onboard machinist), and no train guard will be assigned. The crew readiness rate is 7%.

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(c) Train crew’s work duties The train crew is responsible for providing passenger services, handling ticket affairs, and checking train cleaning conditions and catering service quality. In case of any condition endangering the safety of passengers, the train crew shall take effective measures immediately to ensure passengers’ safety. (d) Train broadcasting For trains with a traveling time within 3 h, broadcast welcome speech and farewell speech, service facility introduction, safety notices, station name and background music only. For trains with a traveling time over 3 h, on the premise of not disturbing passengers, additional broadcasting content can be added appropriately. The contents played by the train passenger information service system and the audio and video system shall be provided by the passenger transport department and recorded by the EMU department. EMU broadcast shall be in both English and Chinese. Safety notices will be played within 5 min before departing from the originating station, welcome speech, safety notices and background music will be played within 5 min after train departure, and farewell speech will be played within 5 min before arriving at the destination station. The broadcasting content shall be provided by the passenger transport section, examined and approved by the publicity department and the passenger transport department of the railway administration, and recorded by the EMU department. The onboard machinists shall operate the automatic broadcasting device in accordance with the stipulated requirement before train departure. In case of automatic broadcast device failure, the passenger crew shall announce the content manually. 2. Detailed work content of EMU crew (a) Prepare before work (1) Preparations by the conductor (I) Arrive at the personnel deployment room in person or contact the personnel deployment room duty officer by telephone to accept orders and instructions, confirm daily work duties, fill in the crewing report, and board the train and start crewing work on time. Before starting the work, accurately record the orders and instructions, check and confirm there is no omission and all crewing tasks are clarified. (II) Check and confirm all communication equipment, as well as crewing documents and items are in place. Crew documents include telegrams, passenger transport records, and necessary information for handling ticket affairs. Make sure all materials are in place and all facilities are in good condition. (III) Wait for the train at the platform 40 min before train departure, hold the crew meeting, check the appearance and suit of passenger attendants and assign crewing tasks. Receive the train on time, make sure crew members’ appearance is up to standard,

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spare parts are complete, all commands are conveyed accurately, and tasks are assigned clearly. (IV) Patrol all coaches, check and confirm all coaches are clean, and all spare parts and potable water are in place and available, supervise and urge cleaning clerks to clean the coaches and keep relevant records, carry out acceptance inspection in accordance with the hygienic standard, and make sure the hygienic quality is up to standard and the portable water is sufficient. (V) Check the schedule with the driver and onboard machinists, discuss related matters, so as to get familiar with the conditions of equipment. (2) Preparations by train attendants (I) Dress up properly, check and confirm walkie-talkies, other equipment and documents are in place, make sure the clothes and make-up are up to standards, all documents are carried, and all facilities are in good condition. (II) Wait for the train at the platform 40 min before the train departure, attend the crew meeting, take orders and instructions from the train conductor, accept the train on time, and clarify the crewing task. (III) Patrol all coaches, check and confirm all coaches are clean, and all spare parts are in place, supervise and urge cleaning clerks to further clean the coaches, carry out acceptance inspection in accordance with the hygienic standard, and report the inspection results to the train conductor. (b) Crewing work (1) Before train departure (I) The train conductor shall arrive at the designated position, preferably, near the working position of onboard machinist (the monitoring room of onboard machinist of CRH5 EMU is arranged in Car No. 6, the monitoring room of onboard machinist of CRH2 EMU is arranged in Car No. 7, the monitoring room of onboard machinist of CRH1 EMU and CRH3 is arranged in Car No. 5), complete the handover procedure with the station passenger transport duty officer, get to know the ticket booking condition, and make sure all necessary information and important matters are clearly disclosed. (II) The train conductor checks the preparation condition of catering supplies. The catering clerks shall dress up properly, make sure commodities and foods are sufficient and orderly placed in accordance with relevant requirements, prices are marked clearly, and all foods are up to the hygienic standards.

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(III) The train conductor shall guide special passengers boarding the train, broadcast the pre-departure information within 5 min before departure. Guide passengers to board the train orderly, make arrangement rationally and broadcast the notices in time; contact with train attendants, check and confirm passenger riding and alighting are completed, then inform the driver to close train doors (for some EMUs, onboard machinist is responsible for door closing). Make sure the work is completed accurately, and all notices are sent out timely. (IV) Train attendant shall stand at the other end of the train (relative to train conductor) to guide passengers riding-alighting orderly, and make proper arrangement for special passengers; on completion of passenger riding-alighting, report to the train conductor accurately and timely. (2) During train operation (I) The conductor shall broadcast the welcome speech and relevant information (station name, service facilities introduction, safety notice etc.) within 10 min after the train departs the station, and then background music can be played. Timely broadcasting and appropriate broadcasting volume must be ensured. (II) The train conductor shall patrol all coaches, check tickets, check and confirm the luggage is properly placed, remind passengers to place large luggage, iron items, sharp tools and other items not suitable for placing on luggage racks to the designated locations and passengers themselves shall be responsible for the custody, make sure the luggage is placed steadily, and the aisle is clear and unblocked. (III) The train conductor shall patrol coaches and know the condition of each coach, deal with all kinds of problems encountered during train operation, answer passengers’ inquiries patiently, and make proper explanation. The train conductor shall be familiar with the information of special passengers and offer them help actively, handle special cases properly, and report the case accurately and timely. (IV) The train conductor shall inspect the quality of cleaning work, and record the inspection results. (V) The train conductor shall broadcast the post-departure and prearrival announcements and notices. If the delay exceeds 15 min, the train conductor shall broadcast and make apologies to passengers. The train conductor shall organize passenger riding and alighting at stop stations, and make sure the broadcasting content is accurate and the passenger riding and alighting is organized orderly.

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(VI) At stop stations, the train conductor shall complete the handover procedure with the station passenger duty officer, disclosing all matters that need attention and completing all procedures. (VII) The train conductor shall patrol coaches and know the condition of each coach, deal with all kinds of problems encountered in the service process, answer passengers’ inquiries patiently, and make proper explanation. The train conductor shall be familiar with the information of special passengers and offer them help actively, handle special cases properly with a friendly attitude, implement rules and provisions proficiently and accurately, and minimize the disturbance to passengers. (VIII) The train attendants and cleaning clerks shall keep the coaches clean and tidy up to hygienic standards. (IX) The train attendant shall assist the train conductor in pre-arrival broadcasting within 5 min before the train arrives at the station, informing passengers of the station name and the arrival and departure time, and reminding passengers to get ready to get off the train. The stop station ahead and other relevant information (station name, introduction to service facilities, and safety notices) shall be announced within 5 min after train departure. (X) Before and after arriving at the destination station, the train conductor shall solicit for passengers’ opinions and suggestions in a sincere attitude and keep records in detail, broadcast train arrival notices, announcing the station name and the farewell speech, reminding passengers to get ready to get off and asking for passengers’ cooperation to get off the train as soon as possible. When the train arrives at the station, say goodbye to passengers and assist special passengers in getting off the train; make sure to use standardized languages, smile and greet customers, take initiative to provide hospitable services, and help with special passengers. (XI) After all passengers get off the train, the train conductor shall patrol all coaches and check for items left behind by passengers, acting quickly, checking carefully, and eliminating all problems identified according to the specifications. The train conductor shall complete the handover procedure regarding special passengers and lost and found with the station passenger duty officer at the designated position, disclosing all matters that need attention and completing all procedures. (XII) Train attendants shall assist the train conductor in reminding passengers to get ready to get off the train when the train is about to arrive at the destination station, and asking for

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passengers’ cooperation to get off the train as soon as possible. When the train arrives at the station, train attendants shall say goodbye to passengers and assist special passengers in getting off the train, make sure to use standardized languages, smile and greet customers. After all passengers get off the train, train attendants shall check for items left behind by passengers, and immediately report any problem identified to the train conductor, making sure to act quickly, check carefully, and report promptly. (c) Off-shift stage (1) The train conductor shall hold the off-shift meeting, review the work of the day, and fill in the crewing report, making sure to review the work comprehensively and keep records in detail. (2) The train conductor shall evaluate the cleaning condition of the train accurately. (3) The train conductor leads the crew to get off the train, and the crew shall dress up properly and line up to get off the train. When cash delivery is required, the cash shall be sent to the designated place escorted by train police (train attendants shall provide assistance if no train police is assigned), and the accounts shall be in consistent with the cash. (4) Train attendants shall attend the off-shift meeting, and report the crewing work of the day, making the report concise and accurate, and assist the train conductor in delivering cash payment at the designated place. (d) EMU cleaning work Train cleaning is undertaken by professional cleaning companies that have signed cleaning contracts with the railway administration. Enterprises providing cleaning services for EMU trains shall pass the ISO 9000 quality certification. The cleaning clerks shall take good care of train facilities when doing cleaning work. The detergent used shall be certified by the certification authorities. The relevant railway transport departments shall inspect and direct the cleaning work, and ensure that the cleaning work is up to hygienic standard and appropriate attention is paid to take care of train facilities during the cleaning work. The train shall extensively propagandize environmental protection and nosmoking regulations to passengers by means of broadcasting, images, electronic display screens and text signs, and remind passengers to keep the train clean.

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7.3 HSR Passenger Transportation Service System 7.3.1 Overview of HSR Passenger Transportation Service System HSR passenger transportation service system is a comprehensive and complete service system constructed based on modern high-speed railway management concept, service philosophy and the latest information technology, which is featured by information sharing, high efficient utilization of resources and safe and reliable operation. China’s HSR passenger transportation service system is intended to provide railway passengers with whole-process, all-round and hierarchical information services, such as inquiry, ticket booking and purchasing and travel guide in all links from entering station, waiting for train, boarding, transfer, exiting station to transit. The passenger transportation service system is composed of ticket subsystem, passenger service subsystem, call center subsystem and Internet service subsystem.

7.3.2 HSR Passenger Transportation Service System 1. Ticket subsystem The ticket system is based on seat management and transaction processing, which establishes broad selling channels, and adapts to various ticket selling modes, multiple payment modes, and flexible marketing strategies, including self-service sales and automatic ticketing real-time trading system. (a) Ticket fare system The HSR ticket fare system is established based on the actual conditions of railway development and passenger market competition of each country. It shall not only meet passengers’ travel needs and facilitate railway transportation organization, but also be in line with the economic laws and adapt to market competition. Therefore, HSR ticket fare systems of different countries vary and have their own characteristics. (1) HSR ticket fare system abroad In 1987, after the privatization of Japan railway, 6 railway operation companies including Central Japan Railway Company, West Japan Railway Company, JR Kyushu Railway Company, Hokkaido Railway Company, Shikoku Railway Company and East Japan Railway Company and a freight transport company, Japan Freight Railway Company, were established, among which, Central Japan Railway Company, West Japan Railway Company, East Japan Railway Company and JR Kyushu Railway Company own the Shinkansen. The passenger ticket fare of Japan’s Shinkansen is composed of two parts:

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base fare and supplement fee, among which, the base fare is the ordinary passenger ticket fare calculated according to the operating mileage by Japan’s existing railways, while the supplement fee is the additional fee charged by Shinkansen considering the reduced traveling time and higher service quality. The ticket fare of France’s high-speed railway is composed of two parts: base fare and additional fee. Its structure is shown in Table 7.1. The base fare is calculated based on the base fare rate and the transport mileage, which is subjected to change with the price index. The additional fee is irrelevant to transport mileage, but depends on improved service quality, passengers’ selection and relevant discounts. The French national railway system, SNCF, based on supply-demand relation, and passenger flow composition and change rules, establishes different ticket fare strategies to attract passenger flow. Compared with the traditional pricing method based on operating mileage in Japan and France, the ticket pricing method of Germany’s high-speed railway is more complicated. The ticket fare in Germany is determined comprehensively by considering all operating characteristics and other factors including saved traveling time, improved riding comfort, and competition with other transport means. In order to attract passengers, Deutsche Bahn AG (DB) has also developed railway preferential cards, regional passes, and preferential measures for specific groups. In terms of flexible pricing, the HSR ticket fare system of the above three counters have the following common points: (1) Providing rail pass for passengers who travels frequently within a certain period, such as the railway pass provided in Germany and Japan; (2) According to the needs of different passengers, passengers are divided into different groups commonly including children, students, the elderly, workers and so on, and different discounts are provided to different groups; (3) If the travel is planned in advance, the riding times is determined and tickets were booked in advance, a certain discount can be provided; (4) The passenger flow in different periods varies, which will influence the ticket price, for example, ticket price in low and peak tourism season and ticket price in weekend; (5) For a large group of passengers, they can pay attention to the group ticket price to get a better discount; Table 7.1 Ticket fare composition of Japan’s Shinkansen and France’s TGV Country

Shinkansen in Japan

TGV in France

Base fare

According to operating mileage

According to operating mileage

Additional fee

Reduced traveling time, and improved service quality

Operating time, service quality, passenger flow, airlines in the same section, highway transport fee

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and for family outings, children accompanied by parents can enjoy a certain discount; (6) High-speed railway companies usually establish a cooperative relation with other public transport companies, hotels, and travel companies, so purchasing railway ticket from these agents is convenient and passengers may get a certain discount. Different countries have different pricing strategies and the strategies are complex. However, the railway pricing department of each country or region will provide a series of fare discount options based on passengers’ needs. (2) HSR ticket fare system of China In China, since the railways are constructed and put into operation, they have been serving as social welfare transport means, and the policy of low ticket fare is implemented. For a long time, the ticket pricing strategy and relatively fixed seat distribution mode as directed by the government are adopted. Regardless of the passenger flow, the train ticket fare basically remains unchanged. The ticket fare of highspeed railway is determined according to speed class, seat type and tariff distance, but the ticket fare remains unchanged no matter in peak season or low season, which results in frequent low traffic volume and low seat occupancy rate, thus influencing the income of the railway operating department. In March 2013, a reform to separate government administration from enterprise management is implemented in the railway sector in China. After the separation of government administration from enterprise management, the operational autonomy of China Railway is enhanced, and it becomes an objective demand to relax the control over freight rate and implement flexible freight rate strategy. The National Development and Reform Commission announced that starting from 2016, China Railway Corporation (hereinafter referred to as China Railway) will be responsible for determining the ticket fare, and be vested with the right to offer certain discounts according to the market competition and the passenger flow distribution. The current railway passenger transport ticket fare system is based on the fare rate of hard seats of normal-speed passenger trains. On this basis, specific ticket prices are determined considering the seat class, the train speed class and the train model, and in combination with the traveling distance, based on the principle of “decreasing rate with increasing distance”. As high-speed railways are constructed and put into operation in China, based on the existing ticket fare system of normal-speed train, a new ticket fare system is formulated for highspeed railway based on the train speed class and the seat class. At present, the benchmark fare rate of second-class seats of high-speed trains with an operating speed of 200–250 km/h in China is RMB 0.35/ person km, and that of high-speed trains with an operating speed of 300–350 km/h is RMB 0.45/person km. The specific ticket fare of highspeed railways and intercity dedicated passenger lines can be flexibly adjusted based on this single fare right.

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According to the current situation, the characteristics of the reasonable plan for HSR ticket fare reform in China can be summarized as floating ticket fare, from line to network, mileage incentive, and gradual promotion. (I) Floating ticket fare Viewing the high-speed railway throughout the world, the floating ticket fare mechanism is an important means to cope with the demand change in the transport market and to improve the operation performance of transport enterprises. In view of the public welfare nature of China’s railways, China Railway cannot take profit maximization as the goal in fixing the ticket fare, and the base fare will remain unchanged for a long time. The unit transport cost of high-speed railways is low, so in the low season when passenger flow declines with low traffic volume, lowering the ticket fare appropriately should be considered to attract passengers. As long as the ticket fare is not lower than the passenger transport cost, the lowered ticket fare within a certain range will also contribute to the total revenue. (II) From line to network In China, since the distribution of revenue from high-speed railways is complex, the ticket fare reform should start from the medium- and short-distance intercity lines and regional highspeed railways under the jurisdiction of a single railway administration. Grant railway administrations with the right of fare price fixing, so that each railway administration can fix the ticket price scientifically and reasonably according to the actual market demand and feedback, and then promote the relevant ticket fare fixing strategy to the whole railway network after it becomes mature. (III) Mileage incentive Currently, the cumulative mileage incentive mechanism is not considered in the HSR ticket selling system in China. In Europe, Japan and other regions that implement the marketization of high-speed railway operation earlier, a cumulative mileage incentive mechanism using mileage to redeem the ticket fare is established, which greatly improves the competitiveness in a highly open transport market. In China, the real-name ticket purchasing system is implemented. On this basis, calculating the accumulative mileage of each passenger, and offering corresponding discounts or ticket subsidies based on the accumulative mileage will have a significant effect on attracting passengers from other transport means and building passengers’ loyalty. (IV) Gradual promotion The scale of the railway network in China is large, and the daily transport involves the coordination of various departments.

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Fixing the HSR ticket fare is not only technologically complex, but also involves certain social policies, therefore the ticket fare strategy is sensitive, and the policy of step-by-step evolution and gradual promotion must be followed. Where necessary, some lines can be selected for trial implementations, so as to gradually find the HSR ticket fare fixing strategy in line with China’s national condition. (b) Ticket sales channels The main HSR ticket selling channels include ticket windows in stations, automatic ticket vending machines, Internet booking (such as 12306 platform, Wechat and relevant APPs), telephone booking, purchasing from agents, or buying tickets onboard. 2. Passenger service subsystem The passenger service system is intended for providing all-round information services to passengers. It realizes station information automatic broadcasting, guidance, information and indication, information service, monitoring and other functions, provides Internet, call center, wireless LAN communication and other information services, and uses various service means to provide passengers with high-quality services, so as to realize the informatization of passenger service. The passenger service system is designed to reflect the people-oriented concept. It provides all-round information service to passengers in all links from entering the station, waiting for train, transfer, to exiting the station, and forms a unified passenger service platform integrating guidance, indication, broadcasting, monitoring, inquiry, help, emergency complaints, storage, platform ticket selling, disabled passengers service, extended service and other services. The passenger service system is mainly composed of 8 subsystems including the guidance and information system, the public broadcasting system, the monitoring system, the information service system, the clock system, the complaint system, the help system and the extended service system. (a) Guidance and information system The guidance and information system is used to provide accurate dynamic and statistic information services to passengers in all links from entering the station, buying ticket, waiting for train, during traveling, to exiting the station. Information provided includes train schedule, ticket information, train arrival and departure announcement, station space instruction, service facility introduction, city traffic, weather, and travel information. The guidance and indication system is a station-based system, with display screens and arrival and departure information terminals arranged at different places to display dynamic and static graphic, image, text and video information. (b) Public broadcasting system The HSR public broadcasting system adopts digital audio control and transmission technology, and transmits multi-channel information sources to different sections at the same time, so that passengers and staff can

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(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

receive clear audio information in the whole station area, and realize emergency broadcasting in case of special circumstances. The public broadcasting system broadcasts railway announcements, train schedules, ticket information, station facility introduction, station environment introduction, passenger boarding information, safety notice and travel information. In the public broadcasting system, sound equipment is an indispensable and important part. The selection and arrangement of loudspeakers determine the quality of the system, because improper arrangement can make beautiful background music just as annoying as noise. Therefore, the selection and arrangement of sound equipment must be fully considered in the early stage of system application. Video monitoring system The video monitoring system, also called CCTV system is an important system based on multimedia technology, computer network technology, audio and video technology, which is used to monitor all service objects and service facilities within the HSR station, so as to improve the comprehensive management and service standard, and to ensure station organization and safety. The system is provided to enable command officers in the monitoring center to monitor the passenger flow condition, the safety condition and the site working condition in passenger staying areas such as the station square, entrance and exit, ticket hall, waiting area, check-in area, and platform. The system is useful in terms of effectively evacuating and guiding passenger flow and handling problems, so as to ensure the safety of stations, locomotives and passengers. Besides, it is also an important auxiliary tool to improve the transparency of traffic control for traffic controllers and station duty officers. In case of an emergency, the monitoring system can be used as an important tool by management personnel to direct emergency rescue. Inquiry system The inquiry system, taking the passenger service system data platform as the main data source, and adopting touch screen, computer, multimedia, network, interface and other technologies, aims at providing a channel for passengers to actively obtain travel information. The station control center system can collect, process, classify and manage the information provided for passengers. The inquiry system can provide the following information for passengers: train working diagram, train schedule, ticket information, station environment introduction, station service facility introduction, city traffic, weather conditions, travel information, etc. Clock system The clock system acquires the standard time from the unified clock source, realizes the synchronization of all sub-clocks and related systems in the station with the unified clock source, and provides accurate time for passengers and station staff. Complaint system The complaint system is the platform for handling complaints arising from high-speed railway passenger services. Passengers can make complaints

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or propose suggestions through the Internet, telephone, E-mail, letters and other forms. The complaint center collects (records), classifies, archives and stores complaint information. For information that cannot be collected automatically (such as letters, phone-call records, etc.), manual editing and input tools are provided. (g) Help system The help system is based on computer telephone integration technology, with pickup intercom extensions or help buttons, and supported by the monitoring system and the inquiry system. It is used to respond to passengers’ urgent help requests, so that passengers can get help from station staff in time. The main functions of the help system include dial-free call, multi-channel call queuing, event recording, phone-call recording, switch fault detection and automatic alarming, and real-time line monitoring. (h) Extended service Extended service refers to the use of Internet, TV, LED display screen, broadcasting, multimedia terminal, computer, telephone and other means to provide customers with information, Internet access, tourism information and other information services that are irrelevant to the high-speed railway business. 3. Call center subsystem The call center subsystem provides all-round inquiry, consultation, booking, complaint, suggestion and other services by means of phone calls for passengers in their whole traveling process, which is an important communication and interaction channel between passengers and railways. Through the call center, companies can also carry out publicity, information release, market research and other businesses. The call center subsystem provides a unified external service approach for the HSR ticket system and the passenger service system. The DPL call center system in China is composed of four subsystems including the platform management system, the customer service system, the business management system and the service support system. A nationwide unified call center system has been set up to provide phone call access services for passengers. Passengers can complete ticket booking, inquiry, complaint, suggestion and other related affairs through the call center system. (a) Platform management The platform management subsystem is provided for the management of the call center system and the resources thereof, and the main functions include, clock synchronization, platform monitoring, data backup, dump and recovery, platform anomaly handling, identity management, access management, system monitoring and management, interface management, and load balancing. (b) Customer service The customer service subsystem is responsible for providing comprehensive information services to passengers or travel service providers,

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including inquiry, consultation, ticket booking, complaint, publicity, and market research. (c) Business management The main functions of the business management subsystem include recording management, customer information collection, release and feedback, customer service process management, service data maintenance, queuing strategy management, and customer service statistics and analysis. (d) Service support The service support subsystem is mainly used to provide basic conditions and service support for customers. Through service interface, information navigation, workflow and other means, make sure that call services can obtain service support information effectively and efficiently. Control the automatic service and realize billing management. 4. Internet service subsystem The Internet service subsystem focuses on meeting passengers’ needs, and aims at establishing a communication and interaction channel between customers and railway service providers based on high information security. By means of Internet access, it provides all-round inquiry, consultation, booking, complaint, suggestion and other services for passengers in their whole traveling process. The railway carries out publicity, information release, market research and other business through the Internet. The Internet service subsystem provides a unified external service approach for the HSR ticket system and the passenger service system. Take the China Railway Customer Service Center website (www.12306.cn) as an example. It is an important customer service window of railways that integrates passenger-freight transportation information through the whole line, which provides passenger-freight transportation service and public information inquiry service for the society and railway customers. On the website, customers can check passenger train schedule, ticket fare, punctuality, ticket available condition, ticket agent, freight rate, train technical parameters and applicable passenger and freight transport regulations.

7.4 Questions for Review 1. Compared with normal-speed railways, what are the characteristics of passenger transportation service of high-speed railways? 2. What are the main factors to measure the passenger service quality of high-speed railways? 3. What are the main contents of on-board passenger transportation service? 4. What passenger transportation services can the railway department provide based on 12306 Platform?

Chapter 8

New Development of High-Speed Railway

8.1 Overview High-speed traveling has long been the dream of human beings, and it is also one of the goals pursued by railway operators. On the basis of developing high-power traction locomotives, various countries in the world have been actively exploring and developing various new trains to adapt to the constantly changing situation.

8.1.1 Jet “Rocket” Train In 1966, the first jet train, named M-497, was developed in the United States, which was tested on a straight track from Butler (Indiana) to STRYKER (Ohio), and set a speed record of 295.54 km/h. In 1970, the Soviet Union built a high-speed test train (SVL) based on ER22 trains by adding two YAK-40 rocket propellers. With turbofan engine configured, the performance of SVL was weaker than M-497 configured with a turbojet engine, and the top speed during the test period was only about 288 km/h, as shown in Fig. 8.1. “Rocket” trains, both the M-497 developed by the United States and the SVL developed by the Soviet Union, have realized high-speed ground traveling. However, operating such trans on complicated normal railways is unrealistic, and the fuel consumption of turbojet engine is quite high with low economic efficiency. Eventually, both of them were abandoned.

© Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9_8

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M-497 developed by the United States

SVL developed by the Soviet Union

Fig. 8.1 “Rocket” train

8.1.2 Pneumatic Cushion Train A pneumatic cushion train is configured with a high-power aero-engine which injects compressed air onto the track to form a few millimeters thick air cushion between the train body and the track, so that the entire train can be lifted and levitated on the track, and propellers are installed on the back to propel the engine forward, as shown in Fig. 8.2. France is the first country to research and develop pneumatic cushion trains. In the 1960s, two pneumatic cushion railways were built in the suburbs of Paris and Orleans, with a route length of 18 km and 6.7 km respectively. France has built four test train models successively, among which Model No. 4 Aérotrain I80 as the most influential one. Aérotrain I80 had a designed speed of 250 km/h and a seating capacity of 80 seats, and it was powered by two engines with a total capacity of 1610 HP and propelled by a 7-blade ducted-propeller with a diameter of 2.3 m. On March 5, 1974, the operating speed of the train reached up to 430.4 km/h, setting a new rail traffic speed record. Like “rocket” trains, pneumatic cushion trains employed fuel-powered aeroengine, which consumed a large amount of fuel with low economic efficiency and was not environmentally friendly, so most of them were abandoned or sent to the history museum after the experiment.

Fig. 8.2 Pneumatic cushion train

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8.1.3 Magnetic Levitation Train The basic principle of magnetic levitation trains is simple, i.e., the electromagnetic principle of “like charges repel and opposite charges attract” is adopted, letting the magnet defy gravity, so that the train can be suspended (generally no more than 1 cm), and then use electromagnetic force to guide and propel the train move along the track. Superconducting magnets are installed on cars of magnetic levitation trains and magnetic coils are installed at the bottom of the tracks. The polarity of electromagnets installed on the car is the same as that of the lower side of the track coils, producing repelling forces, and is the opposite with the upper side of the track coils, producing attractive forces, which together make the train levitated. Conventional trains are powered by locomotives, while magnetic levitation trains are powered by tracks. Magnet coils are installed on both sides of track, and alternating current turns the coils into electromagnets, which interact with the magnets installed on the train. During train operation, the magnets installed on the train head (the N-pole) are attracted by an electromagnet ahead (the S-pole) and repelled by an electromagnet behind on the track (the N-pole)—so that the train is “pulled” from the front and “pushed” from the back, and moves forward, as shown in Fig. 8.3. Magnetic levitation trains are levitated above the track by magnetic force without contacting the ground during running. Therefore, except for air resistance, there is no other resistance, and the vertical load imposed on the railway line is small, which is suitable for high-speed operation. Magnetic levitation trains have advantages of high speed, low consumption, environmental protection and safety. Its advantages are mainly reflected as follows. With high operating speed, it is superior to airplanes for a traveling distance between 1000 and 1500 km. Since there is no wheel and no friction, magnetic levitation trains

Fig. 8.3 Principle of magnetic levitation train

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8 New Development of High-Speed Railway

have lower electric energy consumption than the current advanced high-speed trains. Besides, it reduces the workload of daily maintenance as well as the maintenance costs. At the speed of 500 km/h, the energy consumption per kilometer per seat of magnetic levitation trains is only 1/3–1/2 of that of airplanes, and is 30% lower than that of cars. It is environmentally friendly, since there is no mechanical vibration and noise during operation, and there is no exhaust gas emissions and pollution. Since the magnetic levitation system adopts the guide rail structure and the train is levitated from the ground, there will be no derailment and overturn accidents, which greatly improves the operation quality, safety and reliability of the train. Magnetic levitation railways also have some disadvantages, for example, the construction cost is high and the existing lines cannot be used. Besides, magnetic levitation railways propose higher maintenance requirements for trains and rails.

8.1.4 Evacuated Tube Transportation and Capsule Train So far, magnetic levitation trains are the fastest transport means of rail transportation. However, air resistance is the barrier that prevents the further increase of the operating speed of magnetic levitation trains, which increases in direct proportion to the square of the speed. This means that to develop the next generation of high-speed delivery means based on magnetic levitation trains, consideration must be given to reducing or eliminating air resistance. A logically feasible concept is to build evacuated tubes, so that trains can run inside the tubes without contacting anything and without producing any resistance. In this way, the operating speed can increase by times compared with magnetic levitation trains. This concept of transport means is called Evacuated Tube Transportation (ETT). As early as 1922, German engineer Hermann Kemper had proposed the idea of evacuated tubes when putting forward the concept of magnetic levitation trains. Mechanical engineer Daryl Oster put forward the concept of evacuated tube transportation in the 1990s and applied for a patent in 1999. Since then, Oster has been trying to find investors to build such transportation system. In 2010, Oster establish ET3, a company engaged in the development of evacuated tube transportation projects. According to ET3’s concept, trains operate inside evacuated tubes, and capsule carriages are loaded inside evacuated tubes and launched to the destination like cannonballs. The train runs continuously in a resistance-free environment, and the speed can reach up to 6500 km/h. In terms of energy, evacuated tube transportation will adopt the self-powered design, with solar panels installed on the top of tubes to generate electric energy for the operation of trains and other equipment. For evacuated tube transportation, despite the super-high speeds, passengers will not feel the high acceleration. It will be safer, cheaper and quieter than trains and planes. In this concept, the key problem is how to realize the vacuum environment inside the tubes. In 2013, SpaceX’s CEO Elon Musk, a well-known science and technology lover, enriched the concept of “Evacuated Tube Transportation” and proposed the

8.1 Overview

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Fig. 8.4 Principle of SpaceX hyperloop

concept of “hyperloop”, as shown in Fig. 8.4. In Musk’s design, a closed tube will be built on or under the ground, and vacuumized with a vacuum pump. Another feature of Musk’s hyperloop is levitation technology. The levitation technology aims at eliminating the resistance produced from contact friction. With magnetic levitation or pneumatic levitation technologies, carriages are levitated in evacuated tubes and run without contact and friction, realizing point-to-point transport. For trains running in such an environment, the driving resistance is minimized, which significantly reduces energy consumption, as well as aerodynamic noise. As for the highest speed of evacuated tube transportation system, according to reports, the theoretical speed of Evacuated Tube Transportation can reach up to 20,000 km/ h; ET3 announced a target speed of 6500 km/h, while Musk’s SpaceX set a speed target of 1200 km/h. Evacuated tube transportation brings the hope of intercontinental travel in the future. Since the concept of was put forward, many companies and institutions are actively committed to the research and development of such projects. Among them, ET3 is the most representative company that first started the research and development. In June 2015, SpaceX, a company invested by Musk, announced to hold a hyperloop design competition to encourage people to submit their own designs of shuttle carriages. In May 2016, Hyperloop One tested the propulsion system for the first time on a desert test field in the suburb of Las Vegas, Nevada, and the test target was archived, as shown in Fig. 8.5. In April 2017, Hyperloop One proposed the “Vision of America” plan (as shown in Fig. 8.6) in the United States, which planned 11 potential high-speed railway lines, including a 42 min line from Las Vegas to Reno and a 29 min line from Chicago to Columbus. In July 2017, Hyperloop One completed its first complete system vacuum environment test. In the test, the pneumatic tube reached an acceleration of 2G and a speed of 70 ni/h (1 ni = 1.01 km), bringing the hyperloop technology one step closer to reality.

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Fig. 8.5 Propulsion system test of Hyperloop One

Fig. 8.6 Vision of America of Hyperloop One

As early as in the 1970s, some Chinese newspapers reported on the concept of evacuated tube transportation system put forward by American scientists, and relevant comments were published subsequently. In 1988, professor HAO Ying, an expert in railway engineering, introduced and described the evacuated tube transportation system as a mode for future railway development in his book titled Railway Construction in China. In 2001, Chinese researchers contacted Daryl Oster and introduced the concept of “evacuated tube transportation” to China. At the end of 2002, Daryl Oster was invited to China to give lectures and reports on ETT and relevant researches at former North Jiaotong University (current name: Beijing Jiaotong University), Institute of Electrical Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences, Southwest Jiaotong University, Beijing Teyun Science and Technology Co., Ltd., Professional Design Institute of the Ministry of Railways and other institutions. As an external expert, Daryl Oster worked at Southwest Jiaotong University for three months and discussed and exchanged ideas on the construction of evacuated tube transportation test tracks of high-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation mode. In 2002, the Institute of Evacuated Tube Transportation was established in Southwest Jiaotong University,

8.1 Overview

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Fig. 8.7 High-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation ring test line

which indicates the official startup of the research and development of evacuated tube transportation in China. It is the first evacuated tube transportation research institute set up by a university or government department in the world, showing that China has taken the lead in this field. In 2014, China’s first high-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation ring test line for manned evacuated tube transportation (as shown in Fig. 8.7) was built in the State Key Laboratory of Traction Power of Southwest Jiaotong University, and the first track test was completed successfully, laying a solid foundation for the research on evacuated tube transportation in China. For the research of evacuated tube transportation, in addition to Southwest Jiaotong University, OEMs of CRRC and some scientific research institutes under the Chinese Academy of Sciences are also actively engaged in hyperloop research. In August 2017, CASIC announced at the 3rd China (International) Commercial Aerospace Forum that it had started the supersonic ground transportation system research and development project. The system combines the supersonic flight technology with the rail transportation technology and employs the superconducting magnetic levitation technology and evacuated tube, aiming at realizing supersonic ground traveling of trains. Capsule train is a transportation means based on “evacuated tube transportation”, which is featured by super high speed, safe, low energy consumption, low noise and low pollution, attracting worldwide attention. Both magnetic levitation trains and evacuated tube transportation are dreams of human beings for pursuing higher speed travel. “Science is ideal, technology is progressive”. From an idea to a final engineering application, any invention or technology is improved and accepted gradually. For magnetic levitation train and evacuated tube transportation, this improvement and acceptance process may be long, but we believe that capsule train will bring revolutionary changes to the mode and the pattern of transportation, and is also the most effective way to get rid of the traffic dilemma mentioned above. Our pursue will never stop, cars and trains may be abandoned, and capsule trains will not be the final option of transportation.

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8.2 Magnetic Levitation Railway 8.2.1 History and Current Situation of Magnetic Levitation Railway In 1842, Samuel Earnshaw, a British mathematician and physicist, proposed the concept of magnetic levitation. In 1922, Hermann Kemper, a German engineer, proposed the principle of electromagnetic levitation, and patented magnetic levitation train in 1934. After the 1970s, with the continuous strengthening of the economic strength of the industrialized countries in the world, in order to improve the traffic capacity, adapt to economic development and meet people’s needs of improving the train operating speed, developed countries such as Germany, Japan, the United States, Canada, France, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union have invested lots of manpower, material resources and financial resources in research and development of magnetic levitation railway technology. For various reasons, the United States and the Soviet Union gave up the research and development of magnetic levitation railway technology in the 1970s and 1980s. The final conclusion made by the United States is that according to the current technical level, neither pneumatic levitation trains nor magnetic levitation trains are practical and applicable. Therefore, most countries withdrew from the competition of levitation train development, for either believes that wheel-rail type is more competitive, or is limited by economy, technology, industrial manufacturing capacity and other factors, except for Germany and Japan. Only a few countries, including Germany, Japan and China, continue their researches on magnetic levitation railways, and have made remarkable progress. For Germany, the research on magnetic levitation railway began in 1968. In the beginning, researches were conducted on both normal conducting railway and superconducting railway. By 1977, electromagnetic suspension and electro dynamic suspension test trains had been developed successively, with a maximum speed reaching up to 400 km/ h. Through analysis and comparison, it was considered that the technical requirement for superconducting magnetic levitation railway was too high to make great progress in a short term. Therefore, it was decided to give priority to the development of normal conducting magnetic levitation railways. In 1980, the construction of the 31.5 km Emsland Test Line commenced. In 1984, the maximum train test speed reached up to 400 km/h. So far, Germany has developed 8 models of high-speed normal conducting magnetic levitation systems. Japan started the research on normal conducting magnetic levitation railway in 1962, then, due to the rapid development of superconducting technology, from the early 1970s, it changed its research orientation toward superconducting magnetic levitation railway. In 1972, the first superconducting magnetic levitation train test was carried out and completed successfully. In November 1982, the manned magnetic levitation train test was carried out and completed successfully. To carry out the feasibility study on the construction of a magnetic levitation railway from Tokyo to Osaka, the Yamanashi magnetic levitation railway test line was constructed in 1990, as shown in Fig. 8.8. By 2013, the construction of a 42.8 km magnetic levitation train

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Fig. 8.8 Yamanashi magnetic levitation railway test line

comprehensive test line was completed. On April 21, 2015, Central Japan Railway Company (Central JR) set the world record for manned traveling speed of 603 km/h on the Yamanashi magnetic levitation railway test line, and it remains the traveling speed record for rail transportation by far. China started the research on magnetic levitation train technology in the 1980s. In 1986, Southwest Jiaotong University held the magnetic levitation technology and magnetic levitation train technology research conference, and it became one of the pilot universities and research institutions that carried out researches in this field in China. In 1988, the magnetic levitation team of Jiaotong University completed the single-degree-of-freedom iron ball levitation experiment, and gained an essential understanding of the principle of electromagnetic levitation. In March 1989, National University of Defense Technology developed China’s first test magnetic levitation train. In 1995, the construction of China’s first magnetic levitation train test line in Southwest Jiaotong University was completed, and tests of stable levitation, guidance, drive control and manned operation at a speed of 30.0 km/h were carried out successfully. The completion of the construction of the test line in Southwest Jiaotong University indicates that China has mastered the magnetic levitation train manufacturing technology. In 2001, the construction of the 430 m Qingcheng Mountain magnetic levitation train engineering test line commenced. Figure 8.9 shows the magnetic levitation test line in China. As for the commercial application of magnetic levitation trains, by the end of 2017, there are six commercial magnetic levitation railway lines in the world, among which, three lines are in China. In December 2001, the high-speed magnetic levitation transportation demonstration line from Shanghai Pudong Longyang Road Subway Station to Pudong International Airport was opened to traffic, which was the only magnetic line in the world that was put into commercial operation at that time. The line had a total route length of 30 km, and the top running speed of trains could reach up to 43 km/h, taking only 8 min for traveling from the start point to the destination point. The average speed

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Fig. 8.9 Magnetic levitation test line in China

of 380 km/h was close to half of the cruising speed of commercial airplanes, which exceeded the take-off speed of airplanes, and was regarded as ground flight. To further promote medium–low-speed magnetic levitation train engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University signed a strategic cooperation agreement with the former CSR Zhuzhou Locomotive Co., Ltd. in 2011 to participate in the research and manufacture of Zhuzhou medium–low-speed magnetic levitation trains. On January 20, 2012, a medium–low-speed magnetic levitation train was rolled off the production line at CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive Co., Ltd. It was a magnetic levitation train designed for commercial operation, with an operating speed of 100 km/h, and it could meet the requirements of various curves and slopes of the test line. On May 6, 2016, China’s first medium–low-speed magnetic levitation railway to which China has fully independent intellectual property rights—Changsha Magnetic Levitation Express Line was officially opened to traffic for trial operation. Changsha Magnetic Levitation Express Line connects Changsha South Railway Station and Changsha Huanghua International Airport. The whole line adopted the elevated design with a total length of 18.55 km. 3 stations were constructed in the initial stage and 2 stations were reserved. The design speed was 100 km/h. The Changsha Medium–Low-Speed Magnetic Levitation Project is the first medium–low-speed magnetic levitation project independently designed, manufactured, constructed and managed by China, marking that China has mastered full coverage of magnetic levitation technology from research and development to application, becoming one of the few countries in the world that are equipped with such ability, as shown in Fig. 8.10. Scientists initially believed that a magnetic levitation train would travel faster than a wheel-rail high-speed train which has a traveling speed of 300 km/h, and the maximum speed can reach up to 500 km/h. With the rapid development of human science and technology, the prediction was proven wrong. On April 21, 2015, Central Japan Railway Company set new world records for traveling speed of 603 km/h and for traveling mileage of 4064 km/day on the Yamanashi magnetic levitation test line, as shown in Fig. 8.11.

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Fig. 8.10 Changsha magnetic levitation railway line

Fig. 8.11 New era L0 magnetic levitation train

8.2.2 Classification of Magnetic Levitation Railway There are different classifications of magnetic levitation railways when viewing from different perspectives. For example, by the application scope, it can be classified into trunk line, intercity railway and urban magnetic levitation railway; by different running speeds, it can be classified into low-speed, medium-speed, high-speed and ultra-high-speed magnetic levitation railway; by refrigerant and different working temperatures, it can be classified into high-temperature and low-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation railway; by the length of stator of linear motor, it can be classified into long-stator and short-stator linear motor magnetic levitation railway; by the drive mode, it can be classified into guide rail drive magnetic levitation railway and train drive magnetic levitation railway; by the levitation mode, it can be classified into electro magnetic suspension railway and electro dynamic

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suspension railway; by the structure of guide rail, it can be classified into “T” shape, “⊥” shape, “U” shape, and “-” shape guide rail magnetic levitation railway. In the following content, the classification by the material of coil conductor of linear motor, including EMS and EDS magnetic levitation railway (see Table 8.1) is introduced. 1. Electro magnetic suspension The Electro Magnetic Suspension, EMS for short, refers to magnetic levitation trains configured with normal conducting magnets (i.e. ordinary magnets) and with guide rail working as magnetizer, in which the train is levitated by the magnetic force generated by the normal conducting magnets installed on trains through excitation. The clearance between the train and the rail surface is inversely proportional to the size of the attraction. To ensure levitation reliability, train operation smoothness and high power of DC motor, the current in electromagnets must be controlled accurately, thus to maintain a stable magnetic field strength and levitation force, and ensure the gap between the car body and the guide rail is always maintained within 10–15 mm. The manufacturing and operating costs of this train type are low, and the levitation control thereof is unstable. By the type of linear motor used for train driving, EMS trains can be divided into two types. First, EMS trains that propelled by long-stator linear synchronous motor. This train type provides higher efficiency and higher speed, it is mainly applied to high-speed operation, and the train speed can reach up to 400–500 km/ h. Germany’s TR series are typical representatives of this train type. Second, EMS trains that propelled by short-stator induction linear motor. This train type provides lower efficiency and lower speed, it is mainly suitable for low-speed operation, and the train speed is generally 50–100 km/h. Japan’s HSST series magnetic levitation train is a typical representative. 2. Electro dynamic suspension The Electro Dynamic Suspension, EDS for short, refers to magnetic levitation trains that are levitated above the track by the force produced by superconducting magnets based on the principle of like charges repel (as shown in Fig. 8.12). Since the magnetic field is particularly intensive, the train levitation height is large, and is generally up to about 100 mm. Long-stator synchronous linear motor is used as propelling device. The operating speed of this magnetic levitation train type is high and generally reaches 500–600 km/h. Therefore, the cost is relatively Table 8.1 Classification of magnetic levitation system Electro magnetic suspension (EMS) (electromagnetic type)

Electro dynamic suspension (EDS) (electrodynamic type)

Long-stator synchronous linear motor (high speed)

Germany’s TR series (450 km/h)

Short-stator synchronous linear motor (medium–low speed)

Japan’s HSST series (110 km/h)

Low-temperature superconducting (high speed)

Japan’s MLX series (58 km/h)

High-temperature superconducting

In experiment stage

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high. However, the levitation control is stable. Table 8.2 shows the technical and economic comparison between normal conducting and superconducting highspeed magnetic levitation railways. By the superconducting material use, Electro dynamic suspension can be divided into low-temperature and high-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation. For low-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation, − 269 °C liquid helium is used for cooling. Japan’s MLX low-temperature superconducting

Fig. 8.12 Principle of levitation of EDS train

Table 8.2 Technical and economic comparison between normal conducting and superconducting high-speed magnetic levitation railways Item

Normal conducting magnetic levitation system (Germany’s TR series)

Superconducting magnetic levitation system (Japan’s MLX series)

Suspension mode

EMS

EDS

Levitation magnet

Normal conducting magnet

Low-temperature superconducting magnet

Levitation height

8–10 mm

About 100 mm

Traction motor

Long-stator linear synchronous motor

Long-stator linear synchronous motor

Maximum test speed

450 km/h (June 10, 1993)

581 km/h (December 2, 2003)

Maximum operating speed

430 km/h (Shanghai Airport high-speed magnetic levitation line)

Not in operation yet

Applicable speed range

High speed, medium speed and low speed

High speed

Body support at low speed

Levitation magnetic force

Wheel

Magnetic levitation, guide control

Accurate closed-loop control

Self-stabilization, without requiring control

Key technical points

Accurate control of magnetic levitation and guide clearance

Low-temperature superconducting

Operating costs

Low

High

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8 New Development of High-Speed Railway

magnetic levitation train is a typical representative of this train type, whose test speed has reached up to 581 km/h. For high-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation, − 192 °C liquid helium is used for cooling. This is a more prospective superconducting mode, but it is still in the laboratory experiment stage.

8.3 Questions for Review 1. Please briefly describe the classification of magnetic levitation railway. 2. Compared with wheel-rail high-speed railway, what are the advantages of magnetic levitation railways?

Bibliography

1. Li X (2010) Introduction to high-speed railway. Beijing Jiaotong University Press, Beijing 2. Peng Q, Yan H, Wen C (2009) Foundation of transportation organization of high-speed railway. Southwest Jiaotong University Press, Chengdu 3. Li X (2009) High-speed railway technology. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 4. China Railway Corporation (2014) Regulation on railway technology management (high-speed railway part). China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 5. Chen Y (2008) High-speed railway line and station design. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 6. Yang G (2006) High-speed railway subgrade design and construction. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 7. Wu J (2006) Introduction to high-speed railway traction power supply system. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 8. Liu J (2014) High-speed railway line. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 9. Jia L (2010) High-speed railway safety assurance technology. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 10. Mo Z, Zheng S (2016) High-speed railway train operation control technology—CTCS-3 train operation control system. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 11. Li K (2016) High-speed railway train operation control technology—CTCS-2 train operation control system. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 12. Tang T (2015) Train operation control system. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 13. Zhang T (2009) Train operation control system. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 14. Xu X (2007) Train control lineside equipment. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 15. Zhang S (2008) General technology scheme for CTCS-3 train control system. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 16. Li Y (2012) High-speed railway signal technology. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing 17. Chen D, Wu G, Li Y, Zhang Y (2017) Review on railway service management. J Transp Eng Inf 6 18. Cao G (2015) Good service concept leads railway transport. People’s Rail 5 19. Huang L (2014) Research on evaluation of high-speed railway passenger service quality based on customer perception. Beijing Jiaotong University 20. Liu B (2012) Research on passenger service quality of Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway line 21. Lan Y, He P (2017) High-speed railway passenger transport organization. Beijing Jiaotong University Press, Beijing 22. Huang H, Huang K (2017) Research on pricing strategy of high-speed railway. Railw Econ Res 6 23. Liu J (2009) Introduction to high-speed railway. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing © Southwest Jiaotong University Press 2024 L. Liu and Z. Zhong, Introduction to High-Speed Railway, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6423-9

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