Introduction to Group Counseling: A Culturally Sustaining and Inclusive Framework [1 ed.] 0826186068, 9780826186065

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A Culturally Sustaining and Inclusive Framework Sam Steen, PhD, LSC Rachel Vannatta, PhD, NCC, LCPC Kara Ieva, PhD, NCC, NCSC The only group counseling text to embrace multicultural and social justice considerations This innovative text is the first to integrate the constructs of multiculturalism, social justice, intersectionality, and advocacy within fundamental group counseling principles. Infusing culturally sustaining group theory and application with antiracist pedagogy, this clear and concise book is distinguished by a multitude of real-world case studies covering a broad spectrum of group leaders, co-leaders, and group members in different settings to demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and practices required for effective group counseling in all arenas. These case studies underscore the nuances of group counseling dynamics through an antiracist, multicultural lens. Challenging antiquated theories and models, the text focuses on the strengths of innovative group counseling models and programs.

Key Features: n Integrates

multiculturalism competencies and social justice concepts with fundamental group counseling principles

n D  elivers

multiple real-life case studies illustrating nuances of group counseling in different settings

n P  rovides

a convincing argument for the value of group work along with a specific chapter on the training group experience

n O  ffers n

balanced coverage of group counseling skills and group development theory

Champions innovative group counseling models and programs

11 W. 42nd Street New York, NY 10036-8002 www.springerpub.com

Introduction to Group Counseling A Culturally Sustaining and Inclusive Framework

Steen • Vannatta • Ieva

Specific discussions of ethical considerations and multicultural and social justice counseling competencies for group workers are included in each chapter, along with multiple opportunities for experiential learning including discussion questions, small group activities, skill application, journal starters, and homework activities. An extensive suite of ancillaries includes an Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoints, and Video Podcasts.

Introduction to Group Counseling

Introduction to Group Counseling

Sam Steen Rachel Vannatta Kara Ieva

INTRODUCTION TO GROUP COUNSELING

Sam Steen, PhD, LSC, is an Associate Professor, licensed Professional School Counselor, and Director of the Diversity Research and Action Consortium, who specializes in school counseling, group work, and cultivating Black students’ academic identity development. Dr. Steen was a school counselor for 10 years and these practitioner experiences shaped his research agenda, approach to teaching, and service. Currently, two objectives guide his scholarship: to further develop creative and culturally sustaining school-based counseling interventions that improve student achievement, including The Achieving Success Everyday Group Model (ASE Group Model) designed to promote social emotional and academic development for students of color, and to explore issues related to the training and preparation of pre-service counselors and school counselors in the local, regional, and national community. Dr. Steen is a Fellow for the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW), a division of the American Counseling Association. Recently, Dr. Steen received the Al Dye Research Award and the Professional Advancement Award both from ASGW recognizing his outstanding efforts advancing the field of group work through research and development of new and innovative strategies for schools, families, and underrepresented communities. Rachel Vannatta, PhD, NCC, LCPC, has been in the counseling/counselor education field since 2010. She frequently tells students that she had no interest in group counseling when she started her first master’s course, and that she walked out of that same course knowing that group work would be a huge part of her professional life. Since then, she has engaged in numerous writing projects around group work, teaching in counselor education, and teaching group work. Dr. Vannatta has been actively involved in the Association for Specialists in Group Work for a number of years, and considers this to be her professional home in the counselor education world. Presently, she is a Senior Training Specialist at the Institute for Innovation and Implementation at the University of Maryland, Baltimore, where she engages in workforce development to support socioemotional learning and to promote positive mental health outcomes in children and families. Kara Ieva, PhD, NCC, NCSC, (she/hers) holds many identities. In addition to being a wife, mom, school counseling advocate, and co-conspirator in working to dismantle oppressive educational practices, policies, and systems, she is an Associate Professor in the Counseling in Educational Settings program at Rowan University. Her educational career spans over 22 years as a former Spanish teacher, administrator, and professional school counselor, and counselor educator. Dr. Ieva uses her research for advocacy by using asset-based approaches to empower student agency while promoting equity and wellness (academic and mental health). Her specific interests include social emotional development (with students, in classrooms, embedded in content, educator social-emotional learning, and systemic tiered interventions centered on promoting healthy identities), group counseling, and post-secondary/career development (First Gen & STEAM). She consults and delivers professional development nationally to PK-12 school counselors, teachers, and administrators on strategies for cultivating a safe, equitable, and inclusive mental health and neurodiverse culture in schools.

INTRODUCTION TO GROUP COUNSELING A CULTURALLY SUSTAINING AND INCLUSIVE FRAMEWORK Sam Steen, PhD, LSC Rachel Vannatta, PhD, NCC, LCPC Kara Ieva, PhD, NCC, NCSC

Copyright © 2023 Springer Publishing Company, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Springer Publishing Company, LLC, or authorization through payment of the appropriate fees to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, [email protected] or at www.copyright.com. Springer Publishing Company, LLC www.springerpub.com connect.springerpub.com/ Acquisitions Editor: Rhonda Dearborn Compositor: Exeter Premedia Service Pvt Ltd ISBN: 978-0-8261-8606-5 ebook ISBN: 978-0-8261-8607-2 DOI: 10.1891/9780826186072 SUPPLEMENTS: Instructor Materials: A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected]. LMS Common Cartridge With All Instructor Resources ISBN: 978-0-8261-8608-9 Instructor Manual ISBN: 978-0-8261-8602-7 Instructor Test Bank ISBN: 978-0-8261-8603-4 (Also available on Respondus®.) Instructor PowerPoints ISBN: 978-0-8261-8604-1 Video Podcast Transcript ISBN: 978-0-8261-8605-8 22 23 24 25 / 5 4 3 2 1 The author and the publisher of this Work have made every effort to use sources believed to be reliable to provide information that is accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The author and publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance on, the information contained in this book. The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Steen, Sam, 1975- author. Title: Introduction to group counseling : a culturally sustaining and inclusive framework / Sam Steen, PhD, LSC, Rachel Vannatta, PhD, NCC, LCPC, Kara Ieva, PhD, NCC, NCSC. Description: New York, NY : Springer Publishing Company, [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022013053 (print) | LCCN 2022013054 (ebook) | ISBN 9780826186065 (paperback) | ISBN 9780826186072 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Group counseling. | Leadership. | Social interaction. Classification: LCC BF636.7.G76 S82 2023 (print) | LCC BF636.7.G76 (ebook) | DDC 158.3/5--dc23/eng/20220513 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022013053 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022013054 Contact [email protected] to receive discount rates on bulk purchases. Publisher’s Note: New and used products purchased from third-party sellers are not guaranteed for quality, authenticity, or access to any included digital components. Printed in the United States of America.

I dedicate this book to my wife Joy, three thriving children Maddi, Tristan, and Nathanael, constructively critical siblings, loving parents, my group counseling trainees over the years, Sunnie Chu for shining her light on this project in the midnight hour, and the Lord God Almighty for the gifts, talents, and time to finish this work. —Sam Steen

I dedicate this book to my infinitely supportive husband, Seth and our children Riley Joy and Walker Corwin. In addition, I dedicate this book to all of the students who have challenged and expanded my thinking about this important work. —Rachel Vannatta

I dedicate this book to my supportive wife Stacy and our two children Avery Nicholas and Rylan Summer who continue to inspire us daily. Additionally, I would like to dedicate this book to Dr. Lynn Muller for inspiring my love of group, the many softball teams that shaped my group experience, my former group members and trainees through the years who continue to teach and inspire me, and the Aim High family who embraced the group counseling process and continued to pass on to each new generation. —Kara Ieva

CONTENTS Foreword  Christian D. Chan, PhD, NCC xi Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxi Video Podcast List  xxiii Springer Publishing Resources  xxv

1. How Are Groups Present in Our Lives?  1 Introduction 5 Group Experiences  5 First Group Experience  7 Why Are Groups Important to Us?  9 Why Groups Work  14 Ethical Considerations for the Group Course  24 2. The Group Experience for Counselor Trainees  31 Introduction 35 Professional Training Standards  35 History 35 What It Is and Is Not  36 Benefits 37 What It Looks Like  40 Experiential Groups at a Distance  45 Ethical Issues  46 3. Group Counseling Fundamentals Within a Multicultural Counseling Context  55 Introduction 60 Group Dynamics  60 vii

viii  Contents Types of Groups  71 Group Leadership Style  76 Group Delivery in Multiple Settings  78 Group Assessment and Evaluation  80 Ethical Considerations  81 4. Ethical Practice and Cultural Competence  87 Introduction 94 Standards 95 Ethical Considerations  96 Intersection of Ethical and Clinical Issues  111 5. Group Planning and Logistical Considerations  121 Introduction: Establishing the Purpose of Group Work  126 Schools 126 Topics 132 Clinical Mental Health Setting  136 Choosing the Type of Group  137 Group Goals and Objectives  137 Logistical Considerations for Online Groups  144 6. Moving From Individual Developmental Counseling Theories to Advancing Multicultural Competence and Social Justice  149 Introduction: Brief Historical Overview of Traditional Individual Counseling Theories  153 Individual Counseling Theories and Group Work Application  155 Group Developmental Theories to Conceptualize Group Work  155 Using Culturally Appropriate Theories to Conceptualize Group Work 161 Conclusion 176 7. Culturally Sustained Group Counseling Skills  183 Introduction 188 Basic Group Leadership Skills That Foster Inclusive Environments  188 Begin Reflecting on Group Leadership Skills  189

Contents  ix

Effective Group Leadership Skills  191 Combating Racism and Discrimination  195 8. The Stages of Culturally Sustained Groups  205 Introduction 209 Beginning Phase  210 Middle Phase  214 Ending Phase  218 Ethical Practice and Concerns Across Group Phases  221 9. Beyond Traditional Group Counseling: Moving Toward Healing, Catharsis, and Social Action  229 Introduction 235 Healing-Centered Engagement  236 Emerging Groups and Considerations  237 Courageous Conversations and Enhancing Community Building  239 Antiracist Group Facilitation Skills  248 10. Research, Assessment, and Evaluation of Group Effectiveness  259 Introduction 265 Ethical Obligations  265 Current Group Counseling Research  267 Conducting Your Own Assessment and Evaluation  268 Commonly Used Group Assessments  270 Limitations 274 Racial and Ethnic Equity in Research  277 Funding for Group Work Research  279 11. Current and Future Culturally Sustained Group Supervision Considerations  285 Introduction 289 Supervision 290 Supervision of Group Leaders  298 Additional Supervision Considerations  303 Online Supervision  305

x  Contents 12. Applying Culturally Sustained Group Leadership and Future Directions  311 Introduction 313 Guiding Documents  315 Group Dynamics  319 Putting Principles Into Practice  320 Future Directions  328 Appendix: Resources for Codes of Ethics  335 Index 337

FOREWORD Reading this brilliant text has prompted me to reflect deeply on crucial insights for the field of group work and the counseling profession. Notably, I started writing the reflections at the close of another semester teaching the group counseling course. The timing could not have been more fitting, given the insights the text provokes in my professional practice, but also the urgency of multiculturalism and social justice in the counseling profession. We are faced with social, political, and historical dilemmas that pervade racial and ableist disparities of COVID-19, anti-Blackness, anti-Asian violence, xenophobia, anti-trans policies in schools, and zero tolerance policies for migrant and undocumented communities. Many of these forces are culminations of harmful and violent histories that professional counselors will need to address among clients and students and reconcile within the profession. To this end, Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva distinctively carve out a sorely needed contribution, and it is such a gift to offer these reflections in conversation with their text. The counseling profession has often found itself in a vexing position of emphasizing the elements of multiculturalism and social justice and striving for effective implementation and strategies. Theoretically, group work scholars have paid significant attention to the call instilled by advocates of multiculturalism and social justice. A number of models have surfaced over the last decade to realize the essential nature of culturally responsive practice and social justice values, including intergroup dialogue (Moss et al., 2017), intercultural communication (Okech et al., 2015), and intercultural conflict (Okech et al., 2016). Group work leaders have explicitly incorporated the language of multiculturalism and social justice into their standards for practice (see American Counseling Association, 2014; American Group Psychotherapy Association, 2007; Singh et al., 2012; Thomas & Pender, 2008), notably with the most recent Association for Specialists in Group Work Guiding Principles for Group Work (McCarthy et al., 2021). As Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva indicate, the practice of group work is at a compelling epoch. Despite the increasing visibility of culturally responsive models and scholarship, group workers can suffer from a variety of conundrums, including (a) a heavy concentration on theory rather than action; (b) counselor education programs treating the multicultural counseling course as a silo; and (c) counselor educators and practitioners separating

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xii  Foreword multiculturalism, social justice, and group work as mutually exclusive commodities. Without intentionality and reflexivity, group workers can easily fall into the trap of discussing culturally sustaining group work without actually making an impact. In even more alarming circumstances, group workers could enact serious harm to historically marginalized communities. In the text, Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva carefully introduce a series of activities that encourage group workers to attend to their own positionality and take stock in the systemic influences that dictate their social location within privilege and oppression. Their approach makes the textbook markedly unique from other comprehensive textbooks in that many counseling textbooks isolate culturally sustaining practice to a single chapter or place the content at the end of the textbook. Contrary to this pattern, each chapter in the current text features a myriad of activities, exercises, and case examples that reinforce the foundation of culturally sustaining practice. As a reader, you can easily discern how numerous chapters explicate a facet of culturally sustaining practice and illustrate the viability of the framework across practice settings (see Chapters 6–12). Because group workers can no longer ignore cultural factors and social justice, Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva implore us as counselor educators, supervisors, and practitioners to ensure that culturally sustaining group work will remain front and center. The reality is that the professional practice of group work has constantly intertwined with a history in social justice and activism (Cook & Krueger-Henney, 2017; Guth et al., 2019; Picower, 2012; Singh et al., 2012). Group work was born in collective action, community organizing, and movements of solidarity (Knight & Gitterman, 2018). As Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva review key group work concepts with this mindset, they remind readers that group work practice already infused culturally sustaining elements and that culturally sustaining practice is not simply a specialty to attain. It is foundational to the core of group work. This ideology is visibly reflected in the organization of the content, as Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva map group work constructs in Chapters 1 to 5 in tandem with philosophical underpinnings of multiculturalism and social justice. Readers may typically find these examples in group counseling scattered throughout the profession across scholarly outlets, but the authors unify a vast array of constructs with the overlay of culture and equity. As a result, the authors challenge readers to remember that group work can serve as a springboard to make cultural factors and social identities meaningful, healing, and asset-based. As another notable hallmark of the text, Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva elaborate on crucial theories that have gained visibility within the last decade or that have been siloed outside of group work. I distinctly found the theories chapter (Chapter 6) to be essential as a direct challenge to the pre-existing theories popularized across the counseling profession. Many counseling theories commonly adopted in the group modality invest in individualistic growth and achievements, which presents a counterintuitive endeavor to the collectivist nature of group work. Additionally, it is another logic that seeks to remove culture from the equation by focusing on tasks,

Foreword  xiii

symptom relief, and problem reduction. This issue is relevant with the critiques presented in Chapter 10, which show the lack of representation in samples used for pre-existing measures. Instead, Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva offer an in-depth overview of theories and models that center healing, activism, solidarity, and coalitions. Chapter 9 includes a remarkable description of contemporary group models (e.g., affinity groups, racial healing circles, antiracism, participatory action research) that encourage group workers to perceive the group as a driver for transformation and social change. Combined with the insights from Chapter 6, Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva elaborate on salient theories to be readily applied to the group modality, including intersectionality, racial identity development, relational-cultural theory, ecological systems, and critical race theory. The inclusion of these models and theories are timely as group workers and scholars routinely refer to the group as a microcosm of society (Cook & Krueger-Henney, 2017; Knight & Gitterman, 2018), which beckons the question: Why have we centered individualistic theories all this time? As a response, Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva give us permission to refuse the conditions set forth by individualistic theories and reinvest in culture and equity on a much larger scope. In the spirit of culturally sustaining practice, I must highlight the authors’ approach in the delivery of the content within each chapter. I felt as if each chapter spoke to me personally, and the text intentionally reaches a wide audience of practitioners. In an effort to realize the implementation of culturally sustaining practice, group workers attempt to reach a destination when this work entails an ongoing journey, which the authors note at the beginning (Chapter 1) and end of their text (Chapter 12). Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva invite us to move beyond a mere gesture of steps to complete by accessing a deeper praxis within group practice, even if the reflections become unsettling (Guth et al., 2019). It is at this nexus where practitioners will discover a litany of moments to wake, grow, and heal (West-Olatunji et al., 2015). Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva’s personal examples lead us to real-world practice as exemplary role models of humility and vulnerability, which serve as qualities to enact culturally sustaining practice successfully. I commend the authors for creating a product that leads with accessibility and purpose and for living and breathing what they are calling for in this textbook. As I read the text repeatedly, I remind myself of how much I have been yearning for this exact textbook and how it speaks to me professionally and personally. Textbooks that prioritize multiculturalism, social justice, and culturally sustaining practice unknowingly lean on the dominant center, emphasize the needs of privileged groups, and reinforce prevailing social structures of inequity. We can and must move beyond those implications. As Steen, Vannatta, and Ieva share, the intentional shift to the language of “culturally sustaining” more cogently frames the lifelong journey imbued upon each practitioner, highlights each person’s access to cultural meaning, and reflects the hearts of historically marginalized groups, including Black, Indigenous, and People of Color; LGBTQ+ communities; and people living with disabilities (see Chapter 9). As much as group work can serve as a vehicle for

xiv  Foreword activism and advocacy, it, too, can serve as a catalyst for love (Bemak & Epps, 1996). What this book ultimately grants us is a prominent way to cultivate a long-term impact of healing, love, and community, and for that, I will be eternally grateful. Christian D. Chan, PhD, NCC The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

REFERENCES American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA code of ethics. Author. https://www.counseling.org/ resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf American Group Psychotherapy Association. (2007). Practice guidelines for group psychotherapy. Author. https://www.agpa.org/docs/default-source/practice-resources/download-full-guidelines -(pdf-format)-group-works!-evidence-on-the-effectiveness-of-group-therapy.pdf?sfvrsn= ce6385a9_2 Bemak, F., & Epp, L. R. (1996). The 12th curative factor: Love as an agent of healing in group psychotherapy.  Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 21(2), 118–127.  https://doi. org/10.1080/01933929608412240 Cook, A. L., & Krueger-Henney, P. (2017). Group work that examines systems of power with young people: youth participatory action research.  Journal for Specialists in Group Work,  42(2), 176–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2017.1282570 Guth, L. J., Nitza, A., Pollard, B., Puig, A., Chan, C. D., Singh, A., & Bailey, H. (2019). Ten strategies to intentionally use group work to transform hate, facilitate courageous conversations, and enhance community building. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 44(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1080 /01933922.2018.1561778 Knight, C., & Gitterman, A. (2018). Merging micro and macro intervention: social work practice with groups in the community. Journal of Social Work Education, 54(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1 0437797.2017.1404521 McCarthy, C. J., Bauman, S., Choudhuri, D. D., Coker, A., Justice, C., Kraus, K. L., Luke, M., Rubel, D., & Shaw, L. (2021). Association for Specialists in Group Work guiding principles for group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 1-12, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2021.1950882 Moss, L. J., Pennamon, R. E., Springer, S. I., & Singh, A. A. (2017). Intergroup dialogue and social justice group work: A call for increased research attention. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 42(3), 231– 242. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2017.1339753 Okech, J. E. A., Pimpleton, A. M., Vannatta, R., & Champe, J. (2015). Intercultural communication: An application to group work. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 40(3), 268–268. https://doi.org/10 .1080/01933922.2015.1056568 Okech, J. E. A., Pimpleton-Gray, A. M., Vannatta, R., & Champe, J. (2016). Intercultural conflict in groups. Journal for Specialists in Group Work,  41(4), 350–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2 016.1232769 Picower, B. (2012). Teacher activism: enacting a vision for social justice.  Equity & Excellence in Education, 45(4), 561–574. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2012.717848 Singh, A. A., Merchant, N., Skudrzyk, B., & Ingene, D. (2012). Association for Specialists in Group Work: Multicultural and social justice competence principles for group workers. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 37(4), 312–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2012.721482

Foreword  xv

Thomas, R. V., & Pender, D. (2008). Association for Specialists in Group Work: Best Practice Guidelines 2007 Revisions. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 33(2), 111-117. https://doi. org/10.1080/01933920801971184 West-Olatunji, C., Henesy, R., & Varney, M. (2015). Group work during international disaster outreach projects: A model to advance cultural competence. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 40(1), 38–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2014.992504

PREFACE Dear readers, this book is a labor of love that started as a brief passing conversation on the way to a triadic supervision meeting for Dr. Rachel Vannatta, who was a doctoral student at the time, and Dr. Sam Steen, who was headed to teach another section of group counseling to master’s level students at a major university in Washington, DC. This conversation literally took place about 10 years ago and went something like this: “Hey, Rachel, I have an idea for a book that stems from the last group class I taught, your forthcoming dissertation, and a need that seems to be emerging every time I teach the group counseling course.” Rachel emphatically agreed that she would “love to hear more about it!” However, we didn’t actually sit down to discuss a proposal for this book until many years later. After shopping around for a publisher, the initial goal was to produce a book for doctoral students that would essentially inform them as to how to actually teach master’s students this content. We submitted a few proposals and landed with Springer Publishing Company. Our committed and courageous representative from Springer, Rhonda Dearborn, loved the proposal but challenged us to focus more on producing a product for master’s students and to compete squarely with the other salient and longstanding experts on this topic. After a bit of hesitation, honest and compelling discussions, the great blessing of having Dr. Kara Ieva’s keen and critical feedback on earlier versions of the proposal, a willingness to add more creativity, critical discourse, current language and terminology that fosters inclusivity, social justice, advocacy and collaborative lenses from her feedback, we were able to agree that engaging in a painstaking task of producing everything one needs to know when taking their first and likely only group counseling course during their master’s program was exactly what we planned to do. This collaborative agreement and book idea were approved by Springer February 13, 2020. Literally one month before the entire world shut down. Fortunately, we had already made up our minds from the earlier conversation that started years ago, the constructive feedback we received from elite scholars on the topic, and the addition of our new writing partner; therefore, we persevered. This book primarily is founded upon the credence gleaned from Dr. Vannatta’s published dissertation (Vannatta & Steen, 2019) that demonstrated through a

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xviii  Preface rigorous systematic content analysis of group counseling course syllabi used to prepare students at the graduate level to conduct group counseling programs and interventions, while learning group leadership skills, and understanding group dynamics and so forth, minimally included evidence of multiculturalism being incorporated in the courses. What was lacking even more were discussions of social justice, racism, oppression and privilege. The texts described in the course syllabi that were used, often implied that the readers were White and the students and families being served were either White, or when diversity was mentioned, automatically these “others” were seen from a deficit perspective. Perhaps this finding could be attributed to the current state of the textbook market, the current state of our society prior to March 2020, and other ongoing westernized ideals that riddle academic writing and publishing within counselor education. In other words, there were limited examples of texts that intentionally infused topics related to cultural competence, cultural relevance, cultural sustainability that includes both race and the intersections of identity throughout the discussion of group leadership skills and tasks. As we complete this writing project, the market is burgeoning with fresh innovative ideas on racism, antiracism, White supremacy, intersectionality within counseling, yet there still remain very few that discuss these crucial ideas within the context of group counseling. This book aims to provide content, experiential activities, strong case applications in group leadership across every chapter. Early in the text a detailed case illustration will be provided that includes a solid foundation of the goals, purpose, membership, and other group dynamics. Each subsequent chapter will use different examples to bring to life the learning objectives of the chapter. These cases attempt to provide a broad spectrum of group leaders, co-leaders, and group members. The use of multiple cases affords the reader some consistency of engaging in the material while reflecting on applying specific aspects of group leadership. Additionally, this book has an entire chapter that includes a variety of creative and thoughtful case illustrations to highlight special topics centered on a myriad of multicultural considerations. These topics are based on a culmination of the authors’ practical experience and are presented to illustrate the nuances associated with infusing multicultural competencies and social justice principles in group work. It is important to note, we critique the use of individual counseling theories, offer group development theories, and also an emerging idea of our take on a group counseling theoretical framework. Furthermore, we are diligent at including short explanations of ethical considerations, either applicable to the cases or the content that is examined in each chapter, along with another separate chapter on ethics as this aspect of group work is often glossed over. Finally, this book pays particular attention to providing information on leading groups, like most group counseling texts on the market; however, as mentioned this book expands the market by offering counselor educators, doctoral students, and early career professionals strategies on providing supervision to master’s level practitioners. This remains an important part of the earlier conception of this book

Preface  xix

as supervision within the context of group counseling is not found in other foundational group counseling texts and therefore we made the decision to include these important and salient chapters. This is important not only for counselor educators and current doctoral students, but also for current master’s students who will, very likely, one day conduct either group supervision or be supervising clinicians who are leading groups. We are proud to say that our take on innovative and current groups that are engaged in community advocacy, participatory research, healing engagement, and other emerging strategies combating racism and fostering environments that are inclusive of Whites, non-Whites, dominant, and nondominant identities alike have been gleaned from the current literature on this topic and we offer this for those who plan to use group work as a core strategy to engage in the fight for equity well beyond their master’s program. Finally, the authors’ vision of the future is revealed in the concluding chapter with a nod to considerations for virtual groups. In sum, we do hope that the sharing of our personal and professional experiences in all of the various aspects of group counseling are well received, critiqued, pondered, and built upon in your own personal and professional endeavors. We honestly see this conscientious effort to produce a group counseling textbook we can use in our own teaching as a major contribution that we hope to build upon in the coming years. We encourage you to boldly reach out and offer your own unique impressions of this book during your preparation program or as you begin engaging in your own professional work. We are open to the ongoing critical discourse. Sam Steen, Rachel Vannatta, and Kara Ieva

REFERENCE Vannatta, R., & Steen, S. (2019). Pedagogical practices in CACREP accredited group counseling courses: A content analysis. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 44(2), 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 01933922.2019.1599477

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to acknowledge all of our professors, students, and colleagues who have helped us understand groups, group dynamics, group research, and group practices in a way that allows a comprehensive platform to share this insight with others.

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VIDEO PODCAST LIST Organized by chapter, the Connected Video Podcasts are available to support ­readers. Chapters 1–11 include a video podcast that helps place the chapter content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-world application. Readers would benefit from listening and viewing the podcast after reading each chapter. All video podcasts are hosted by Kara Ieva. Chapter 1 Video Podcast 1.1: Author Introductions and Group Influences Guests: Sam Steen, Rachel Vannatta, and Kara Ieva Chapter 2 Video Podcast 2.1: Exploring Experiential Groups Guests: Ashley Elmes, Justice Harris, Mustafa Abdus-Sabuur, and Emily Vendetta Chapter 3 Video Podcast 3.1: Navigating Content Versus Process Guest: Linwood Vereen Chapter 4 Video Podcast 4.1: Ethical and Virtual Considerations in Schools Guest: Jennifer Grimaldi Chapter 5 Video Podcast 5.1: Logistics in Hospital Versus School Settings Guest: Adrianne Robertson Chapter 6 Video Podcast 6.1: Maximizing Self-Disclosure Guests: Sam Steen, Rachel Vannatta, and Kara Ieva

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xxiv  Video Podcast List Chapter 7 Video Podcast 7.1: Co-Leadership and Culturally Sustaining Groups Guest: Christian Chan Chapter 8 Video Podcast 8.1: Growth Through Group Stages Guest: Ana Puig Chapter 9 Video Podcast 9.1: YPAR as Group Counseling Guests: Ian Levy and Natalie Edirmanasinghe Chapter 10 Video Podcast 10.1: Experience in Group Evaluation Guest: Jordon Beasley Chapter 11 Video Podcast 11.1: Supervision in Group Context Guests: Sandra Logan-McKibben and John Super

SPRINGER PUBLISHING RESOURCES A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

AVAILABLE RESOURCES INCLUDE:

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LMS Common Cartridge With All Instructor Resources

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Instructor Manual

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Instructor Test Bank

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Chapter-Based PowerPoint Presentations

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Video Podcast Transcript

1 How Are Groups Present in Our Lives?

Learning Objectives ■

Recognize the groups that we have belonged in, and the ways in which groups impact our lives.

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Illustrate the interaction of group and multiple identities.

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Identify some of the dynamics present in previous group experience, whether the experience was clinical or not.

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Describe the practice of group work and the commitment necessary for developing strong group leadership skills.

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Review some ethical considerations raised when taking a group counseling course.

See Table 1.1 for the professional standards we will address in this chapter.

1

2  Introduction to Group Counseling

TABLE 1.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.F.6.c

Therapeutic factors and how they contribute to group effectiveness

2.F.6.g

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for designing and facilitating groups

A.9.b

In a group setting, counselors take reasonable precautions to protect clients from physical, emotional, or psychological trauma

C.2.a

Counselors practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervision experience, state and national credentials, and appropriate professional experience. Whereas multicultural counseling competence is required across all counseling specialties, counselors gain knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity, dispositions, and skills pertinent to being a culturally competent counselor in working with a diverse client population

A.1.f.

School counselors respect students’ and families’ values, beliefs, sexual orientation, gender identification/ expression, and cultural background and counselors exercise great care to avoid imposing personal beliefs or values rooted in their religion, culture, or ethnicity

A.7.a

School counselors facilitate short-­term groups to address students’ academic, career and/or social/emotional issues

A.7.h

School counselors practice within their competence level and develop professional competence through training and supervision

ACA Code of Ethics

ASCA Code of Ethics

(continued )

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TABLE 1.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

ASGW Professional Training Standards

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

STANDARD

DEFINITION

B.3.i

School counselors monitor and expand personal multicultural and social justice advocacy awareness, knowledge, and skills to be an effective culturally competent school counselor. School counselors understand how prejudice, privilege, and various forms of oppression based on ethnicity, racial identity, age, economic status, abilities/ disabilities, language, immigration status, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity expression, family type, religious/ spiritual identity, appearance, and living situations (e.g., foster care, homelessness, incarceration) affect students and stakeholders

II.D.1.c

Identify and describe: therapeutic factors within group work and when group work approaches are indicated and contraindicated

II.G.1.a

Identify and describe: ethical considerations unique to group work

II.G.1.c

Identify and describe: diversity competent group work

B.1

Group Workers are aware of and monitor their strengths and weaknesses and the effects these have on group members. They explore their own cultural identities and how these affect their values and beliefs about group work

B.8

Group workers practice with broad sensitivity to client differences including but not limited to ethnic, gender, religious, sexual, psychological maturity, economic class, family history, physical characteristics or limitations, and geographic location. Group workers continuously seek information regarding the cultural issues of the diverse populations with whom they are working by interaction with participants and from using outside resources (continued )

4  Introduction to Group Counseling

TABLE 1.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

I.1

Demonstrate movement toward being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality are impacted by their own experiences and histories

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

I.2

Knowledge: privileged and marginalized counselors possess an understanding of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

I.4

Action: privileged and marginalized counselors take action to increase self-­ awareness of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs;

CASE STUDY 1.1 Ashanti is a 28-­year-­old, biracial, cisgender female, counselor education master’s student. As part of her group counseling course work, she is required to participate as a member in an experiential group. Her university provides an ancillary group to her class that operates as a personal growth and wellness group facilitated by doctoral students who receive supervision in their Advanced Group Work Course. One of the introductory activities required Ashanti to think about groups with which she identifies and that have shaped her to be in graduate school, in group class, at that moment in time. As Ashanti (continued)

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CASE STUDY 1.1 (CONTINUED) reflected, she shared that she identifies with many groups through her lifetime: family, women, educators, teams (former college athlete), and parents of #minigoldendoodles on Instagram. Upon reflection and listening to others, Ashanti shares with the group, “I have heard some of you say, ‘Black women,’ or ‘Latinx.’ I am curious why I don’t hear anyone say ‘White.’ I ask because I never identified as either of my races or ethnicities; in fact, I am not sure my family even mentions race. I have always just felt left out of the equation. To be honest, I feel like there is something I am in search of and just not sure what it might be, but now I am wondering if it is truly about racial identity.” As you read through the chapter, keep this case study in mind. We will revisit the case study at the end of the chapter.

INTRODUCTION We participate in groups many times throughout our lifetime. Each experience gives us greater insight into who we are, and who we are in relation to others, that continues to build on our own identities. We may experience, identify with, and interact with groups, with a variety of people, and within a myriad of settings. However, we may not see how these group interactions have influenced our personality, our thinking, our inter- and intrapersonal skills over time, how we might view others, and, more importantly how they have impacted our identity formation. Groups that we are members of could potentially affect our world lens, including supporting a racist or antiracist mindset, how we view mental health and diagnoses, and the multitude of potential-­isms (e.g., racism, sexism, heterosexism) that exist. Think about that for a minute. Groups are a powerful tool that shape individuals. How have they shaped you? Each of our short- and long-­term experiences in groups gives us a way to see ourselves in the lens of others, such as how we communicate, react to conflict, and respond to certain personality types or topics. Overall, groups have exposed us to multiple ways of being, responding, and operating in our everyday lives. This chapter will provide you with an overview of groups and will help you reflect on the influence groups have had on you at this stage in your personal and professional development.

GROUP EXPERIENCES What constitutes a group? Groups in general can be defined in multiple ways depending on context. Operationally, a group is defined as two or more individuals assembled

6  Introduction to Group Counseling together or having some unifying relationship. Consider the following groups: (a) Alicia Keys Fan Club; (b) people attending church; (c) people enrolled in your class; or (d) a triathlon club. Shaw et al. (1981) as well as Forsyth (2010) offer definitions that state that in order to be considered a group, two or more people must be interdependent and must interact and influence one another. Look at the previously mentioned groups: Do each of those fit that definition? The answers depend on how you see those groups in context. Take a look at Box 1.1 to explore previous group bias. For example, membership in the Alicia Keys Fan Club might not be considered a group; however, if you are a member who interacts on social media with others in the fan club on a variety of topics, then that might constitute a group by the interaction and influence. Now look at the definitions of a group: What are some examples of groups that you have belonged to or experienced? How have your experiences in these groups influenced you?

BOX 1.1  Exploring Previous Group Bias

In preparation for participating as a group member within your group counseling course it is helpful to explore any previous group experience that might transfer into this new experience. Let’s explore. Imagine you are enrolled in a course that requires you to complete a group project that entails both a cohesive final paper and a presentation (all group members must present). The topic of your assignment is focused on the juvenile justice educational system. There are five people in your group with varying mindsets, background knowledge, interests, personalities, work ethic, and communication styles. At your first meeting, one of your pre-­assigned group members states, “I hate group projects, no one ever shares responsibility! Plus, I don’t even agree with the topic. I think these students lost their rights to an education.” QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What is your initial reaction to hearing about the group project? 2. How do your previous group experiences shape your reaction? 3. What is your reaction to your group member’s response? 4. Given your reaction to the group project and your group member’s response, how might you proceed? 5. What background knowledge, interests, personalities, work ethic, and communication styles would influence how you operate in the group? Given the same for your group members, how might that influence how you participate?

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FIRST GROUP EXPERIENCE For some of us, when we were born, we were immediately part of a group, (family), and for those who were not born into a family, there was an immediate search to find a family group. Families are the first group that we belong to and they set the landscape for our social and cultural foundation including cultural values, self-­ identification, social roles, gender expectations, and communication. It is important to note that the intersection of these social and cultural foundations can also lead to how we might be conditioned through a racist developmental framework, even if unknowingly. Let’s examine this, starting with communication. Families have systems of communication unique to the family unit and functioning that serve as the building blocks of social interactions throughout the lifetime (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005). One aspect that shapes communication is culture. In this case, different cultures have different beliefs about how families should and should not communicate. Keep in mind that communication includes verbal messages, nonverbal messages, tone, and pacing that contribute to the meaning of communication. From an early age, communication is modeled by your family or those that were guardians of your care. Communication habits within families fall along a continuum of communication orientation, or degree of interaction among family members. For example, some families have high conversation orientation. This means communication is (a) unrestricted among various family members, regardless of age or position in the family; (b) most decisions are made together; (c) and everyone feels comfortable discussing a wide range of topics together. In contrast, some families have low conversation orientation where communication between family members is (a) restricted; (b) certain topics may not be discussed; (c) parents may not be as open with children; and (d) frequent communication is not the goal. See Box 1.2 to reflect on your own communication orientation foundation. BOX 1.2  My Communication Foundation

Think about your own immediate family. Make a list of each of the members. As you reflect on each family member individually, including yourself, describe each person’s communication style. Also, describe how the family collectively communicates. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. Where does your family fall along the communication orientation continuum? Where do you? 2. How were your communication habits shaped by the culture of your family? What are some of the communication habits you recognize? (continued)

8  Introduction to Group Counseling

Box 1.2  My Communication Foundation (continued)

3. How would you describe the characteristics of communication in your family? 4. How have your family’s communication patterns influenced your communication with others? 5. To what extent has your family’s communication patterns influenced how you communicate within groups?

The reality is, family experiences have shaped our entire lives, beyond communication patterns. We are or were dependent on family, interacted daily, and are greatly influenced by our family group. In fact, the influence of family shapes how we individually operate within the family structure. That influence transcends to how we might operate in other group settings. When it comes to functioning in groups, our family might have influenced us to “go with the flow,” take charge, be the main communicator, avoid conflict, pacify everyone with the voice of reason, silence others, minimally interact, or provide influence in countless other ways. The role we play in our family might be the very same role we play in group settings. Sometimes in a group setting we have strong reactions, and there is the potential that our responses have to do with previous experiences that we had with the group that influenced us the most, the family. Therefore, it might be worth the time exploring your familial influence. Table 1.2 describes some roles within families. Box 1.3 includes reflective questions regarding your own role in the family. TABLE 1.2  Potential Group Roles Within Families POTENTIAL ROLE

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Influencer

The family member(s) who provide information about topics to explore or what might be important areas of concerns; they may simply broach a subject

Gate Keeper

The family member(s) who controls the discussion; they may drive the narrative or challenge ideas that counter what was initially broached

Decider

The family member(s) who makes the decision based on the discussion; they may or may not necessarily provide a rationale for the decision, but they are clearly the one making the decision

Preparer

The family member(s) who ensures the decision is followed through; they provide the materials or information to give the best chance on bringing the decision to fruition (continued )

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TABLE 1.2  Potential Group Roles Within Families (continued) POTENTIAL ROLE

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Maintainer

The family member(s) who remind others of the decision that was made; they bring to light that a decision was made and help others continue to operate under the premise of what was already agreed upon

Disposer

The family member(s) who decides when it is time to move on; they know when the decision no longer applies or when it has run its course

BOX 1.3  Questions for Reflection

1. Which role(s) do you connect with the most? 2. In what way do(es) the role(s) serve you well, and in what way might the role(s) get in the way for you sometimes (e.g., in your family, friend groups, groups for school or work)? 3. Is there another role you might like to try out? If so, what might that look like for you?

WHY ARE GROUPS IMPORTANT TO US? By nature, we are social beings. As we grow and develop across the life span, we continue to join other groups related to interests or hobbies (e.g., dance, soccer, robotics, books), school-­related groups (e.g., Debate Club, Student Council, Gay Straight Alliance [GSA]), and friends/peer groups. As we move through school and the workforce, there are many more opportunities for interactions with groups. As a human species we have a high need to belong with others, and groups provide a structure to fulfill that need. Research suggests that our social need is one of a conditioned response (Marginson & Dang, 2017; Wiggert et al., 2017). We learn early on that our lives are associated with positive outcomes from groups and individuals within these groups. As previously mentioned, family is our first group, and provides us with physical and emotional/psychological support. Developmental research supports the need for contact and love to have healthy brain development. Throughout our lives, we use groups to get food, shelter, love, and friendship (Baron & Kerr, 2003). Ultimately, groups can offer a potential emotional safe space for individuals to interact, process, learn, and grow.

10  Introduction to Group Counseling The Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-­ Behavior (FIRO-­ B; Hammer & Schnell, 2000; Schutz, 1958) assessment is a useful tool to see how much you desire inclusion, control, and affection versus how much you express or want certain involvement or interactions from others. Inclusion is identified as recognition, belonging, participation, contact with others, and how you relate to groups. Control is identified as influence, leadership, responsibility, and decision-­making in relation to groups. Affection is identified as closeness, warmth, sensitivity, openness, and relating to others. The FIRO-­B assessment measures both the extent to which you prefer to express or initiate inclusion, control, and affection, as well as the extent to which you want others to initiate the same behaviors. Because a critical outcome of participating in a group is increased interpersonal awareness, it is helpful to consider the constructs measured in the FIRO-­B as you prepare to participate in your own group experience. See Box 1.4 for FIRO-B reflection questions. BOX 1.4  FIRO-­B QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

1. Consider the extent that you express and desire inclusion, control, and affection. How does this impact the way you relate to others? 2. How are the ways you express and desire inclusion, control, and affection related to your cultural or familial values? 3. What feedback would be helpful to you related to the way you express and desire inclusion, control, and affection?

Identity Formation As we socialize in the world, we interact and learn from others in a way that either confirms or contradicts the foundation our families may have set. With each interaction, we either take that information at face value (assimilate), reject it entirely, or choose to alter our thinking based on new experiences/ information (McLeod, 2018). One way to conceptualize these interactions is through Bronfenbrenner (1979)'s Ecological Systems Theory (1979), which refers to human development and its reliance on biological, social, and environmental factors which interplay at multiple systemic levels (Becker & Todd, 2018; Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000; Bronfenbrenner, 2001). The theory establishes five system layers (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem) which nest within each other, with the individual at the very core (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000). The Ecological Systems Theory is concerned with the evolving relationship between the developing individual and how this development is conditioned in response to the systems that surround the individual and the other systems (Bronfenbrenner, 2005). Figure 1.1 highlights the

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continuous cycle of multiple systems, settings, groups, and individual interactions and experiences that shape our identity development across the life span, including this moment in time and in this course, group counseling. For example, you might learn at home that expressing feelings is a weakness. When you go to school and “act out” to express feelings, you are sent either to the principal or the school counselors, potentially either confirming that it is not acceptable, or offering support for expressing your feelings. On the weekends, you might go to church and through music and scripture you are taught to express love and emotions. As a developing child or young adult, these are a lot of mixed messages. Which message is true? Which message do you choose to accept? Which of those explanations do you decide to reject, assimilate, or accommodate? Now imagine eight people in a group, each with their own sphere, similar to Figure 1.1, which shows eight different ways of seeing, interpreting, and interacting with the world. In a group setting, those eight individuals have the ability to influence one another in the same safe emotional space. How then might their worldview forever change? That is the possibility with a group. CHRONOSYSTEM

Macro

Ex fa tend m e ily d

Le

ga

lm

Meso

an

da

Home

rk Wo g in sett

Micro Friends

ing

ch

ar

an m u se nity rv he ice a s lth

Co

m

er

Ov

n atio uc Ed stem sy

Family School Spirituality/ religion

d

You

Cu

Media

ltu

ral

And societal

s

rm

No

[Changes in person or environment over time]

State policies and law

te s

Chronosystem

Exo

inte Hi rge stor ne ical rat an ion d al t rau

ma

MACROSYSTEM

Systemic racism Parents’ workplace Neighbors

EXOSYSTEM

MESOSYSTEM

MICROSYSTEM Teachers

Peers

Foster care system

Mass media Colorism

Cultural strengths Extended family and fivtive kin

Mentors

Parents

Racial-ethnic ID attachmen Social Health IWMst media providers Spiritual community

Physical and mental health systems

Juvenile justice system

School system Public policy

Black Lives Matter movement

FIGURE 1.1  Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Bioecological Model, Adapted to Focus on Black Youth Development and Attachment Processes in Context. Source: (Right) Reprinted with permission from Stern, J., Barbarin, O., & Cassidy, J. (2021). Working toward anti-­racist perspectives in attachment theory, research, and practice. Attachment & Human Development, doi: 10.1080/14616734.2021.1976933.

Developing a Counselor Antiracist Lens While Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory offers a glimpse of the multiple influences on identity formation, it might also provide insight into some of our conditioned thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. As the authors write this text, we are in the midst of multiple pandemics stemming from the coronavirus (COVID-­19). We

12  Introduction to Group Counseling are experiencing crises of public health, economic health, mental health, and racial inequality. It is extremely clear, that currently there are multiple racial disparities across various systems for Black and Brown people. Consider the healthcare system: Native Americans and Alaska Natives are 1.4 times more likely to die from COVID-­19 compared to White people; Black people are 2.1 times more likely to die from COVID-­19 compared to White people; and Hispanic/ Latinx people are 1.1 times more likely to die from COVID-­19 compared to White people (​covid​.cdc​.gov). The criminal justice system is another example. Black people are incarcerated in state prisons at a rate 5.1 times higher than White people, and Hispanic/Latinx people are incarcerated in state prisons at a rate 1.4 times higher than White people (Nellis, 2016). In addition to such drastic disparities in incarceration, between September 2015 and April 2022, there were 38 per million of the Black population who experienced fatal shootings by police, while there were 15 per million of the White population who experienced fatal shootings by the police (Statista, 2022). Frequently, access to resources is lower for Black and Brown people compared to their White counterparts. For example, access to basic necessities, as in 2016, 31% of Black children and 26% of Hispanic/ Latinx children under the age of 18 lived in poverty, compared to 10% of White children (de Brey et al., 2019). These few examples give you a sense of the multiple ways various systems in the United States are set up to advantage people who are White and to disadvantage people who are not. By understanding the systemic issues more thoroughly, we hope to help you solidify your antiracist lens such that you will be able to see more clearly how these issues impact you, your individual group members, and the dynamics of your groups. See Box 1.5 for self-reflection questions.

BOX 1.5  Reactions and Self-­Reflection

If you have reactions to these data, or the conclusion that there are systemic factors that disadvantage Black and Brown people, take a few moments and consider your reaction. It might be helpful to think back to your family of origin and how topics related to race and racism were discussed (or not discussed). QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. How were race and racism discussed in your family? 2. Have your ideas about race and racism changed as you have gotten older, and if so, what changes have occurred and what do you think has contributed to these changes? 3. To what extent do you think it is important to understand how systems systematically oppress non-­White people, and how might this understanding contribute to your work as a group leader?

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Critical reflection and discourse can be explored further in light of one champion counselor educator acting on the urgent need for our counselor preparation programs to embody antiracist frameworks. Dr. Renae Mayes (2020), Associate Professor (School Counseling) in Counselor Education at the University of Arizona, explains this best with an antiracist statement she includes in her course syllabi, informed by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs (2016) standards, the American Counseling Association (ACA) (2014), and the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Professional Standards and Competencies (2019): Counselors, regardless of setting, readily acknowledge that inequities and systemic barriers exist in schools, communities, and beyond that impact individuals’/students’ holistic development. As such, counselors are charged to ensure the success of all individuals/students by playing a role as leaders, systemic change agents, and advocates who dismantle and remove barriers while providing antiracist, systemic prevention and intervention practices that bring about equity in communities/schools. Thus, social justice, antiracism, and advocacy are at the core of the training experience. Actively developing an antiracist framework requires work that you will need to do on your own, and work assigned during your counseling programs. As you move through this course and your counseling program, you will explore concepts of power, privilege, implicit bias, systemic racism, and complacency. Further, you will explore the many layers of identities that form you as an individual. Exploring these dynamics will optimize your experience as a group member and group facilitator. Therefore, it is important to take some time to reflect and process your own personal and professional experiences. According to the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014, A.4.b) counselors must be aware of and avoid imposing their own values. Further, counselors must seek training on their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and respect the diversity of clients. Crenshaw (1989, 1991), a civil rights advocate and leading scholar of critical race theory, coined the word intersectionality to describe how race, class, gender, and other individual characteristics “intersect” with one another and overlap. It provides a lens through which one can see where power comes and collides, where it interlocks and intersects. The book We Want to Do More than Survive: Abolitionist Teaching and the Pursuit of Educational Freedom (Love, 2019) is a powerful resource that fosters an internal view and examination of oneself in order to see in one’s own life where power comes and collides, where it interlocks and intersects within one’s self, family and community. The ACA Code of Ethics also highlights the importance of culturally sensitive counselors aspiring to utilize culturally appropriate counseling skills and techniques. Specifically, counselors are charged to “communicate information in ways that are both developmentally and culturally appropriate” (ACA, 2014, A.2).

14  Introduction to Group Counseling Furthermore, and to illustrate, cultural sensitivity ensures that counselors: ■

■

■

Use clear and understandable language when discussing issues related to informed consent. Provide necessary services (e.g., arranging for a qualified interpreter or translator) to ensure comprehension by clients. Collaborate with clients to know and adjust counseling practices accordingly.

When it comes to group counseling in particular (ACA, 2014, A.9.b.), culturally sensitive counselors protect clients in a group setting by taking reasonable precautions to protect clients from: ■ ■ ■

physical, emotional, or psychological trauma.

In our current climate, this is more imperative than ever. Group counseling spaces can be used for racial healing and engagement as we will describe in Chapter 9, but they also have the capacity and power to perpetuate White supremacy and cultural destruction. For example, when microaggressions are made in group and dismissed or unattended to by the facilitator due to lack of awareness or knowledge, it sends a message that it is “okay,” and therefore perpetuates a “less than” mentality of White supremacy and furthers internal oppression.

WHY GROUPS WORK When engaged in groups, there are multiple things that can be unpredictable as a result of human dynamics; however, ongoing research supports that groups provide a variety of positive outcomes. Scholars have noted group can be a means for enhancing children and adult clients’ (Hines & Steen, 2020) ability to resist and counteract difficulties including racism, sexism, isolation, depression, and identity issues (Malott & Paone, 2016; Muller, 2002; Steen et al., 2014) . However, the body of research needs to continue to grow, as there is an art and science to group work. Integrative frameworks and within-­group experiences for culturally diverse students and clients are sorely lacking.

Johari Window The Johari Window is a useful tool for illustrating self-­awareness, and mutual understanding among individuals within a group. Additionally, it highlights the process of offering and receiving feedback. Figure  1.2 shows a common window with four panes. Two of these panes represent awareness of self and the other two

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represent the parts unknown to self. The information transfers from one pane to the other as the result of mutual trust that can be achieved through socializing and through the feedback received from other members of the group. KNOWN TO SELF Socialization

NOT KNOWN TO SELF “Coffee Talk”

“I’m really talking about me” Feedback is about the sender

KNOWN TO OTHERS

Appropriate for all groups

“I-Thou” Here & Now

AREA OF FREE ACTIVITY 1

RISK AREA 3 Unconscious

Free association

NOT KNOWN TO OTHERS

To be explored only when volunteered

PRIVATE LIFE SPACE 2

AREA OF THE UNKNOWN 4

FIGURE 1.2  The Johari Window.

1. Open/self-­area or arena: Here the information about the person, their attitudes, behavior, emotions, feelings, skills, and views will be known by the person as well as by others. This is mainly the area where all the communications occur and the larger the arena becomes, the more effectual and dynamic the relationship will be. “Feedback solicitation” is a process that occurs by understanding and listening to the feedback from another person. Through this process the open arena can be increased horizontally by decreasing the blind spot. The size of the arena can also be increased downward, thus reducing the hidden and unknown areas through revealing one’s feelings to another person. 2. Blind self or blind spot: Information about yourself that others know in a group but you are likely unaware of. Others may interpret these parts of you differently than you expect. The blind spot is reduced by efficient communication through seeking feedback from others. 3. Hidden area or façade: Information that is known to you but will be kept unknown from others. This can be any personal information that you feel reluctant to reveal. This includes feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets, and

16  Introduction to Group Counseling so on. We keep some of our feelings and information private as it may affect our relationships. The hidden area can be reduced by moving the information to the open areas, though this may not always be desirable or necessary. 4. Unknown area: The information that is unaware to yourself as well as others. This includes information, feelings, capabilities, talents, and so on. This can be due to traumatic past experiences or events that can be unknown for a lifetime. The person will be unaware until they discover their hidden qualities and capabilities or through observation of others. Open communication is also an effective way to decrease the unknown area. As a result of participating in a group, members nearly always experience a reduction in their blind spots. This allows members to have more awareness of how others experience them, which empowers them to choose whether or not they are satisfied with how people experience them. If they are not satisfied, they are able to make other choices regarding their interpersonal behavior. As social beings who are always in relation with others, what a gift it is to better understand how we interact with others, and to be able to make modifications if it will lead to more effective relationships.

Group Outcomes There are a number of benefits that the authors know from both personal experience teaching group counseling courses and professionally from our clinical work in school and community settings. These benefits includes things such as: ■ ■

■

■

■

■

Authenticity: gaining a more genuine and valid sense of oneself and others Empathy: being able to understand and share feelings, emotions, thoughts and actions with others Racial healing: a therapeutic process that leads to relief or amelioration of the damage associated with living in and experiencing a racist society Perspective taking: being able to understand and articulate one’s own point of view and that of others Conflict resolution: being able to voice dissenting views, engage in contentious interactions, yet maintain harmonious interactions as things unfold overtime Building trusting relationships: giving members an opportunity to be vulnerable while remaining confident that the personal and sensitive information shared will be kept confidential from folks outside of the group

Therapeutic Factors Following are the fundamental curative factors that have been presented within the group counseling scholarship by one of the most renowned group psychotherapist,

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Dr. Irvin D. Yalom (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005). See Table 1.3 for descriptions of the therapeutic factors with reflective questions through an intersectionality lens. These healing factors, referred to as therapeutic factors, are accepted as the drivers of change within groups. The presence of therapeutic factors will indicate an optimally developing group where members individually and collectively are meeting goals. Although not all of these factors will be present in all groups, nor will they be present all the time, a leader might wonder about the development of the group if they are not frequently seeing evidence of the therapeutic factors over the life of the group. It is important to note these factors that have been well established within the group counseling literature have been conceptualized based on clients who have been largely White adults from clinical settings that were primarily middle and upper middle-­class backgrounds. Recently, the author (Sam) has been exploring how these therapeutic factors have shown up in group interventions within school settings. The initial findings are that most published group counseling articles targeting children and adolescents in school settings do not focus on presenting these traits and those that do, primarily have included interpersonal learning, development of socialization techniques, and cohesion. The demographics of the student participants in these few studies that do provide details associated with therapeutic factors are largely White students (Steen & Melfie, unpublished manuscript). That being said, as these components are reviewed in the following, consider how a client’s intersecting identities may impact the extent to which the therapeutic factor may go against the cultural norms of some members. TABLE 1.3  Considering Therapeutic Factors in the Context of Intersectionality THERAPEUTIC FACTOR

DEFINITION

ATTENDING TO INTERSECTIONALITY

Instillation of Hope

Clients trust the possibilities of group counseling by developing and sharing optimism

Do all cultures value hope/ optimism?

Clients initially believe they are the only one with their unique problem(s). When this is disconfirmed in a positive way, members experience enormous relief

How is universality impacted by seeing someone who has a similar identity having the same experience?

Universality

Is it reasonable to expect a group member who does not see other members who look like them or identify in the same way to be hopeful about the group experience?

How can universality enhance empathy and understanding across multiple identities? (continued )

18  Introduction to Group Counseling

TABLE 1.3  Considering Therapeutic Factors in the Context of Intersectionality (continued) THERAPEUTIC FACTOR

DEFINITION

ATTENDING TO INTERSECTIONALITY

Imparting Information

Sharing of information among group members, or psychoeducation provided by the leader

How might psychoeducation provided by the leader, for example, around symptoms of anxiety or grief, represent cultural conceptualizations about mental health issues that some clients may not connect with?

Altruism

The act of helping others; helping others can help you by giving and receiving confirmation that others have something valuable to give

How might members agree on a definition of altruism? What cultural insights might members have about how altruism is valued/not valued according to their experiences? How might members demonstrate altruism in the group?

Corrective Recapitulation of the Primary Family Group

Understanding hang-­ups from the past as often the group resembles their initial group: the family (deep and intimate and hostile and competitive); authority/parental figures;

How might family values influence members in participation? How might you explore familial roles/origins in a group with multiple cultures?

peer siblings Development of Socializing Techniques

Skills learned directly and indirectly through the group process and member interactions

How might appropriate socialization techniques look different across identities and backgrounds? As the leader, what do you know about how you will model socialization techniques, and in what ways are these ways of interacting culturally bound? (continued )

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TABLE 1.3  Considering Therapeutic Factors in the Context of Intersectionality (continued) THERAPEUTIC FACTOR

DEFINITION

ATTENDING TO INTERSECTIONALITY

Imitative Behavior

Group members may begin to model other members’ and facilitators’ behaviors

What is deemed appropriate and facilitative interpersonal behavior is culturally defined. What leaders’ (or members’) behaviors can you imagine that might be appropriate in some cultures, but not others?

Interpersonal Learning

Group members, through feedback and self-­ observation become aware of significant aspects of their interpersonal relationships such as strengths, limitations, distortions, and maladaptive behaviors that elicit unwanted responses from people

In order for interpersonal learning to take place, feedback is typically necessary. What power dynamics are at play in a feedback exchange and how could this impact feedback among members with different backgrounds and experiences?

The feeling of warmth and comfort, the feeling of belongingness, the value of the group on the individual member, and the feeling of worth that the individual member brings to the group

How do you see the composition of the group impacting the development of cohesiveness?

Group Cohesiveness

“We-­ness” instead of “I-­ ness”

What are some ways in which you can imagine someone’s background or experience impacting how they are able to offer and receive interpersonal feedback from others?

How might members’ intersecting identities impact their experience of warmth, comfort, and feeling of belongingness in the group? As the leader, how can you influence the development of cohesiveness in your diverse groups? (continued )

20  Introduction to Group Counseling

TABLE 1.3  Considering Therapeutic Factors in the Context of Intersectionality (continued) THERAPEUTIC FACTOR

DEFINITION

ATTENDING TO INTERSECTIONALITY

Catharsis

Being able to express true and sincere feelings which leads to a sense of liberation. Strong expression of emotion helps to build cohesiveness, can lead to change

To what extent is valuing catharsis culturally bound?

We all must confront the givens of our existence: our freedom and responsibility, death, isolation, and creating meaning in our lives

In what ways might members’ religious or spiritual beliefs clash with existentialism?

Existentialism

For members for whom emotional expression is not valued or considered culturally normative, how might you help them participate while honoring their values?

From an existential perspective, we all have great freedom to choose in our lives (and with this freedom, comes our own responsibility for the outcome of our choices). In what ways might the idea of ultimate freedom conflict with members’ lived experiences?

Group Development (The U) If you can recall previous groups or teams that you have been a part of where there is a distinct beginning, middle, and end (e.g., a sports team playing during a season), you probably recognize that the way members of the group engage with one another changes and the group or team develops. The same is true in a counseling group. As a result, it is critical for the leader to understand where the group is developmentally in order to effectively conceptualize member and group interactions, and in order to respond effectively. We like to think of group development as a “U” (see Figure 1.3). At the beginning of the group, the members are at the top left side of the U. Here, conversation is somewhat superficial, members are testing the waters and trying to figure out what they are supposed to do, and there is often a fair amount of anxiety in the room.

1  How Are Groups Present in Our Lives? 

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Termination Reflections Encourage Feedback

Introductions Safely Touch on Subject Earning Trust

Storming Testing Boundaries

Practicing Interpersonal Skills Introduction of Coping Skills Reminders of Termination Working Stage Building Cohesion Heavy Participation and Feedback

FIGURE 1.3  The Group Development Process: “The U”

As the group moves along, there is often a period described as a “storming” stage (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). At this time, there can be some unrest in the group as there may be disagreement about the purpose, disparity in the amount and willingness to share of oneself, and general fears about vulnerability in the group. The bottom of the U is often described as the working stage (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). This is where much of the hard work gets completed in the group. At this point in the group’s development, members are freely exchanging feedback, interpersonal growth is occurring, and there is likely a sense of cohesion (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005) in the group. As the group moves up the right side of the U, members are crystallizing their learning and considering how to take what they have learned and implement it outside of the group. Finally, at the top right of U is the termination period. During this time, members are reflecting on their experience and saying goodbye to one another. The leader discourages any new material from being discussed and the group members have an opportunity to say goodbye to one another and the group leader in a way that is therapeutic. A solid understanding of the group development “U” helps group leaders in a number of ways. First, it helps the leader conceptualize what is happening in the group. For example, sometimes new leaders especially can be very eager for the group to “take off” at the beginning. If this is the case, the leader may mistakenly conceptualize the beginning stage where members are disclosing in a more superficial way as resistance, or as members who do not care about going deeper. As a consequence, perhaps the leader intervenes in a way that is blaming members of the group for not disclosing. In contrast, a leader who conceptualizes this as a normal

22  Introduction to Group Counseling part of the group development will intervene more supportively. Thus, understanding of group development also helps the leader to lead more effectively because their interventions take into consideration where the group is in its lifecycle.

Authors’ Experiences as Group Workers and Counselor Educators Each of the authors have multiple different experiences in participating, delivering, teaching, researching, and supervising group counseling. Since you will be hearing from us throughout this book, we thought we could share with you some things about our family influence as well as our experiences, and some recommendations for you as you progress through this book, this course, and into professional settings.

Kara Ieva I identify as a White, cisgender female, who has been married to a woman for over 21 years and together we have two kids. For me, I didn’t realize how much my family dynamics and my love of groups were present in my everyday personal and professional life, until I was enrolled in Advanced Group Counseling, one of the first courses in my doctoral program in counselor education. Somehow I recalled a memory of being in a group for children whose parents were divorced in middle school. I remembered the setting and the circle and realized that I have always been the pacifier in my family. I wanted everything to be copasetic for everyone. That reflection coupled with supervising personal growth groups for master’s students provided insight to witnessing therapeutic factors at play. Previously, I had run numerous groups as a school counselor, which further spawned my love of groups, but personal growth groups were so new. The lack of structure and curriculum was so foreign to me. Additionally, it was a first row seat to see resistance and challenging the leader. However it also made me realize that regardless of content, the group process is what members benefit from. Since then I have taught master’s and doctoral level group counseling and supervised numerous experiential groups on a variety of topics for the past 14 years, with direct access to members’ insights through journals. Each semester reaffirms how intentionally sitting with a group of people with a specific focus can lead to sharing ideas, thoughts, and beliefs that they never thought possible and assisting in so many “aha” moments. The emotional connections that others are able to make continues to fascinate me and keep me invested in this work. In the past 3 years, I have begun to recognize the importance of multiple identities in group spaces and how that has reshaped norms and processes differently than how I was taught. It is my recommendation to view everything you read through that lens. That level of awareness will assist in your development as a group facilitator with the ability to create an inclusive environment where everyone feels safe enough to engage, learn, and take away something from the group experience.

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Sam Steen As an African American cisgender male, who identifies as a Black man, my family of origin continues to be important to me. Now as I am leading and co-­leading my own family with my wife and children, my first family and now emerging family are interconnected in a myriad of ways. As an African American within this country, my family has maintained a foundation for me that I have been able to stand upon within my career. As a counselor educator who specializes in group work teaching research and practice, I am thrilled to present to you a unique experience about the power of groups, the true impact it has made on me, my students, clients, and colleagues over the years. I have taught groups, led group interventions and ancillary programs for kids, parents, and co-­workers. I have studied and researched group interventions for children and adolescents in school settings in particular. I have created training videos and now co-­authored a couple of books for motivated and less motivated students alike. One of my favorite things though, is for a counselor trainee to say to me that “before this course groups seemed: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Intimidating Unnecessary Easy Overwhelming, and Boring

Now after taking this course I am very much interested in: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Learning more Using groups in the future Facilitating culturally appropriate interventions Asking colleagues at work to engage more in group work, and Finding school or clinical site placements for practicum or internship that uses group work.”

To me, this never gets old. I am hoping some of these experiences will align with your sentiments as well!

Rachel Vannatta I identify as a White, cisgender, heterosexual female. Although I did not consider it until I was a counselor in training, I have been heavily involved in groups for most of my life. I grew up playing sports and was also very involved in extracurricular activities throughout high school and college. I never really thought about the roles I take on in groups, or how these groups have shaped me until I took group counseling as a master’s student. At the time, perhaps like many of you, my understanding of group counseling was very limited. To say that I was unenthusiastic about

24  Introduction to Group Counseling taking the course is an understatement! What changed my perspective was being in a training group as a member during that class. I quickly saw how my personality outside of the group came out in the group. Prior to this experience, I thought my type A personality, task orientation, and focus on goals served me well. And certainly in some ways it had. But until the training group, I had not considered the ways in which this part of my personality could be experienced as cold and unfeeling, which is exactly how it was experienced by some other members in the group. In reflection, this was some of the most powerful interpersonal feedback I have ever received and I do not think I would have gotten it without the group experience. The group process, and in particular the interpersonal learning that can exist, came alive for me in that group and I have not looked back since.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE GROUP COURSE There are a number of ethical considerations when it comes to group counseling training within counselor education programs. Following are a few questions that students have often asked at the very beginning of the semester after the syllabus is reviewed. Take a look at these, and see which ones resonate with you, and then jot down a list of other questions or concerns beyond these that you still have.

CASE STUDY 1.2 Student A: Professor, what we share within this class seems to have the potential to be very personal. Will any of this information be held against me within our counselor education program? Will you share with the other faculty sensitive information that we share? How can you assure me that this will not happen? Faculty: What is shared within this class and any of the ancillary activities and experiential experiences, will in no way be held against you. And the sensitive information that might emerge will not be discussed with anyone. [This might be different from program to program; some might use this information early on for or of the profession.] That said, if there are any concerns that are raised by students that imply imminent danger with you or others or any abuse within our state’s statute of limitations, I will let you know immediately. In my experience, thus far there have been no issues. Student B: I see on the syllabus that sometimes we will actually practice sessions in class apart from our breakout experiential groups. Should we hold a (continued)

1  How Are Groups Present in Our Lives? 

25

CASE STUDY 1.2 (CONTINUED) personna and role play certain experiences, or should we bring in our authentic experiences? Faculty: This is a great question. I personally would ask that you do what is most comfortable for you. In other words, we will all agree and sign a document that demonstrates our willingness to maintain confidentiality. However, when in-­class activities and sessions are facilitated, I believe the more realistic you can be, the better off the experience for all involved. But please be sure that whatever decision you make, you are comfortable withit and there’s really no need to tell others what is actually true or based on some of your experiences with friends and family members. Student C: I have to be honest, I am having a hard time having you lead this course as the professor and also later facilitating our break out experiential sessions later on in the course. What is up with that? Faculty: I have actually heard that so many times. Often this is something that seems unreasonable, but it is quite common in counseling training programs outside of ours as well, due to the resources needed to avoid this. For instance, we don’t have a PhD program so we don’t have advanced level students to conduct these groups. We also cannot afford to hire outside group leaders because this is quite expensive to sustain each semester. That being said, I want you to understand that in your future role as counselor you will have to learn how to manage dual and multiple relationships with your students, clients, and families just like I have had to do and now do with my faculty colleagues. You have my word, that I am able to compartmentalize these roles and I will do my best to continue maintaining these ethical standards and professionalism. If concerns come up throughout the semester related to my dual role, I hope you will let me know so that we can talk about them together. Student D: Please clarify, will I receive a grade for the experiential component or breakout groups for this course? Faculty: Nope. You will be asked to attend every session, unless there is a good reason not to. But you are not being graded in any way on what occurs within these sessions. Just remember, attendance is mandatory because as the group builds cohesion and gets closer with one another, when someone is not present we all are impacted by the missing member. Over time, this will become clearer to you and others. Just wait and see!

26  Introduction to Group Counseling

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

■

We have all belonged in groups throughout our lives, and they have impacted our lives in myriad ways. Our experiences in different types of groups (sports teams, work groups, theater groups, etc.) will be impacted by our intersecting identities. Group experiences, even if they are not clinical groups, include group dynamics. We hope you have gained enthusiasm for the practice of group work and the commitment necessary for developing strong group leadership skills while exploring some early ethical considerations that could cause some concerns.

CASE STUDY 1.1 REVISITED Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. 1. How can you directly answer Ashanti’s questions? 2. As a group leader, what are some additional questions that might need to be explored? 3. As a group member in Ashanti’s class, which aspect of her concerns resonate with you? 4. When you think about your own concerns taking this course, what are some that are still outstanding? 5. What are some things that you might be looking toward concerning this course or the expectations?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. What did you know about groups that were contradicted in this chapter? 2. What do you still want to learn now that you have read this chapter? 3. When you compare and contrast your understanding of individual counseling and group counseling, what are the strengths of each approach? What are some limitations?

1  How Are Groups Present in Our Lives? 

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4. What kind of leader do you desire to become at this stage of your development and what are you willing to do to work toward that goal?

In-Class Small Group Activity In small groups, discuss your understanding and come up with a group consensus definition of the following words: power, privilege, implicit bias, systemic racism, and complacency. Engage in a discussion about the importance of counselors exploring this topic.

Discussion Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

To what extent did the group come to consensus on these words? How many people participated in the discussion? Who took the lead? Who spoke first?

Process Questions 1. Describe what was said when participating in this activity by your classmates, and what were some underlying things that you picked up on that were not said? 2. How did you initially feel when engaging in this activity? As you reflect back, how are you feeling now? If there’s a difference, what do you attribute this difference to? 3. If you were to participate in a similar activity in the future, how might you respond next time?

Journal Starter 1. Think about your upbringing, taking into account your family’s race(s), ethnicity(ies), worldview, values, and beliefs. Besides communication, how else has family shaped your cultural values, self-­identification, social roles, and gender expectations? How might that shape you as a group member and/ or group leader?

28  Introduction to Group Counseling

Homework Ideas 1. Create a list of the many groups you have joined or identified with over your lifetime. In reflections, for each group think about the following: a. How would you classify the groups? b. What do you remember most about the group? c. How might the group have influenced you? d. What did you contribute to the group, or members? e. Given your family dynamics growing up, what role do you play? f. Is there a pattern to the roles you played in those groups? 2. Groups are made up of individuals with their own thoughts and values. Using Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System as a model. Draw your own spheres. Who or what groups would you place in your spheres of interactions throughout your life span. Once you have labeled them, list what has contributed to your overall development including cultural values, self-­identification, social roles, and gender expectations. Think of two or three examples per systemic level that might have influenced your current thoughts, behaviors, or values.

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 1.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA code of ethics. Author. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​ 9781119221548 Baron, R., & Kerr, N. (2003). Group process, group decision, group action (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Education (UK).

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Becker, A. B., & Todd, M. E. (2018). Watching the evolution of the American family? Amazon’s transparent, ecological systems theory, and the changing dynamics of public opinion. Journal of Homosexuality, 65(9), 1120–1137. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1406212 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (2001). The bioecological theory of human development. In N. J. Smelser & P. B.Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (Vol. 10, pp. 6963–6970). Elsevier. Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 143–152. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1348/​ 026151004X21134 Bronfenbrenner, U., & Evans, G. W. (2000). Development science in the 21st century: Emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs, and empirical findings. Social Development, 9(1), 115–125. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​1467​-9507​.00114 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs. (2016). 2016 CACREP standards. Author. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics (p. 139). University of Chicago Legal Forum. Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2307/​1229039 de Brey, C., Musu, L., McFarland, J., Wilkinson-­Flicker, S., Diliberti, M., Zhang, A., Branstetter, C., & Wang, X. (2019). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic Groups 2018 (NCES 2019-­ 038). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/ pubsearch Forsyth, D. R. (2010). Group dynamics. Wadsworth. Hammer, A. L., & Schnell, E. R. (2000). FIRO-­B® technical guide. CPP, Inc. Hines, E. M., & Steen, S. (2020). Group work with Black/African American males. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 45(2), 97–98. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2020​.1745496 Love, B. L. (2019). We want to do more than survive: Abolitionist teaching and the pursuit of educational freedom. Beacon Press. Malott, K. M., & Paone, T. R. (Eds.). (2016). Group activities for Latino/a youth: Strengthening identities and resiliencies through counseling. Routledge. Marginson, S., & Dang, T. K. A. (2017). Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory in the context of globalization. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(1), 116–129. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​02188791​.2016​.1216827 McLeod, S. (2018). Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology, 1–9. Muller, L. E. (2002). Group counseling for African American males: When all you have are European American counselors. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 27(3), 299–313. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1177/​0193392202027003005 Nellis, A. (2016). The color of justice: Racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. Schutz, W. C. (1958). FIRO: A three dimensional theory of interpersonal behavior. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Shaw, M., Robbin, R., & Belser, J. (1981). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior. McGraw-­Hill. Statista. (2022). Rate of fatal police shootings by ethnicity U.S. 2015-­2022. https://www.statista.com/​ statistics/1123070/police-shootings-rate-ethnicity-us

30  Introduction to Group Counseling Steen, S., Henfield, M. S., & Booker, B. (2014). Using the ASE group counseling model to prepare school counselors for group work. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 39(29), 46. Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977). Stages of small-­group development revisited. Group & Organization Studies, 2(4), 419–427. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​105960117700200404 Wiggert, N., Wilhelm, F. H., Boger, S., Georgii, C., Klimesch, W., & Blechert, J. (2017). Social pavlovian conditioning: Short- and long-­term effects and the role of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12(2), 329–339. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1093/​scan/​nsw128 Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (5th ed.). Basic Books/ Hachette Book Group.

2 The Group Experience for Counselor Trainees

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Recognize what the training group experience is and how it provides an opportunity to explore students’ identities within this activity.

■

Identify multiple ways in which the training experience may be executed, depending on program factors

■

Analyze ethical concerns inherent in the training group experience, and how students may navigate this experience successfully.

■

Recognize the role technology can play in these training group experiences.

See Table 2.1 for the professional standards we will address in this chapter.

31

32  Introduction to Group Counseling

TABLE 2.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.6.h

Direct experiences in which students participate as group members in a small group activity, approved by the program, for a minimum of 10 clock hours over the course of one academic term

ACA Code of Ethics

B.1.c

Counselors protect the confidential information of prospective and current clients. Counselors disclose information only with appropriate consent or with sound legal or ethical justification

B.4.a

In group work, counselors clearly explain the importance and parameters of confidentiality for the specific group

F.8.c

Self-­growth is an expected component of counselor education. Counselor educators are mindful of ethical principles when they require students to engage in self-­growth experiences. Counselor educators and supervisors inform students that they have a right to decide what information will be shared or withheld in class

F.10.e

Counselor educators do not serve as counselors to students currently enrolled in a counseling or related program and over whom they have power and authority

B.3.i

School counselors monitor and expand personal multicultural and social-­justice advocacy awareness, knowledge, and skills to be an effective culturally competent school counselor. Understand how prejudice, privilege, and various forms of oppression based on ethnicity, racial identity, age, economic status, abilities/ disabilities, language, immigration status, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity expression, family type, religious/ spiritual identity, appearance, and living situations (e.g., foster care, homelessness, incarceration) affect students and stakeholders

ASCA Code of Ethics

(continued )

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33

TABLE 2.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Professional Training Standards

I

Core training shall include a minimum of 10 clock hours (20 clock hours recommended) observation of and participation in a group experience as a group member and/or as a group leader

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

NA

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

I.1

Demonstrate movement to being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality, are impacted by their own experiences and histories

III.11

Directly address issues of personal statuses of privilege and oppression and oppressive systems that arise in group worker facilitation

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: Privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

I.2

Privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

I.4

Privileged and marginalized counselors take action to increase self-­awareness of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

III.1

Privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, biases, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselors Association; ASGW, ­Association for Specialist in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and ­Related Educational Programs.

34  Introduction to Group Counseling

CASE STUDY 2.1 Sofia, a biracial student who is questioning her sexuality, is a master’s student enrolled in a CACREP-­accredited clinical mental health program. This is a conversation between Sofia and the program coordinator Dr. Linwood. Dr. Linwood: Thank you for scheduling this meeting with me to discuss the email you sent about your concerns regarding your group counseling course. Sofia: Yes, thank you. I am really struggling to feel safe in participating in the experiential group this semester. I am emotionally afraid, and I realize I would fail the class if I didn’t participate. And I really want to become a counselor. Can’t I just specialize in individual counseling? Dr. Linwood: You appear to be anxious. Can you tell me more about not “feeling safe?” Sofia: I am anxious. I am an anxious person normally. I just don’t think I can share about myself and feel comfortable doing so. Dr. Linwood: So you are anxious about sharing, and you want to become a counselor in which you are asking people to share their authentic selves with you. Sofia: Yes, I want to help people. Dr. Linwood: Have you considered why we may have this requirement? Sofia: I guess I haven’t. I just know personally, it is not something I want to participate in for fear of being judged as a person and not as a counselor. Dr. Linwood: To what extent are you concerned about this group experience being tied to a course grade? Regardless, how open are you to others in your cohort helping you experience and feel what the counseling process is like in an established supportive environment? As you read through the chapter, keep the above case study in mind. We will revisit the case study at the end of the chapter.

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INTRODUCTION As part of your training to lead culturally relevant groups that attend to intersecting identities effectively, you will participate in a group experience of some sort. The goals of this chapter are to provide context for this experience, to discuss the purpose of having this experience (e.g., to gain a deeper understanding of oneself and others), and to identify some of the ethical concerns that are important to think about as you embark on your group leadership training. Furthermore, there are numerous ways in which instructors can choose to set up this part of the course. Examples of these different structures are identified in this chapter, as well as some of the advantages and disadvantages of each. It is important to note that even though most students love their experiences with this process, all of those who participate do not (Bore et al., 2010; Goodrich & Luke, 2012). This group experience has been called a number of different things over its lifetime: T group, training group, experiential growth group, experiential group, and even a process group are all monikers for the group exercise that is a requirement of CACREP-­accredited programs.

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING STANDARDS The Council for Counseling and Related Educational Programs(CACREP) requires that students graduating from CACREP-­accredited programs have an experience wherein they participate as group members for at least 10 hours during one academic term (CACREP 2016, 2.6.h). In addition, the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) Professional Standards for the Training of Group Workers requires at least 10 hours (and a recommendation of 20 hours) of observation and/ or participation in a group as either a member or leader (McCarthy et al., 2022). Moreover, these ASGW Professional Standards for Training Knowledge and Skill Objectives for Ethical Practice, Best Practice, and Diversity-­Competent Practice emphasize evidencing ethically sound and culturally relevant group activities (McCarthy et al., 2021). Therefore, both in terms of accreditation and best practice guidelines, we see that training should include a group experience of a minimum of 10 hours as well as an emphasis on fostering inclusive environments for all those involved.

HISTORY Goodrich and Luke (2012) provide a succinct overview of how the experiential training group has come to be and has evolved over time. It started with a survey

36  Introduction to Group Counseling by the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) in the early 1980s, which revealed that counseling programs were attending to developing basic group counseling skills, but not more advanced skills for students. After this, ASGW modified their standards to include both instructional and experiential requirements for group worker training. Later, CACREP adopted these same standards. As a result, the experiential training group has become a standardized element in CACREP-­accredited programs specifically, but in other counselor preparation programs as well.

WHAT IT IS AND IS NOT

What It Is Traditionally, the experiential group is an opportunity to engage in a group experience as yourself—not as a role-­play persona. The focus is often process oriented, and a place for student members to experience some of the key elements of the group, such as stages of development, roles of leader and members, and the here-­ and-­now (Markus & King, 2003). As Shumaker et  al. (2011) noted, experiential groups by definition limit self-­disclosure because the focus is on the process and other common features of group development. That said, others believe intentional use of self-­disclosure by the group leader and others is welcomed as it may enhance the therapeutic alliance (known within groups as cohesion) that emerges during this process. However, the expectation is that this focus on process will reduce the likelihood of students feeling pressured to reveal information that they would prefer to keep private.

What It Is Not As will be explored further, the group experience requirement can take many forms, including having students participate in a group that is completely disconnected from their counseling program. For the purpose of this chapter, we will be mainly focusing on the types of group experiences that do take place within the students’ counseling program. In this context, the experiential group is not a counseling or therapy group, and it is not generally an opportunity to explore significant emotional concerns (Markus & King, 2003). Yet at times, the interactions that arise within the sessions occurring within the course or experiential component may become therapeutic. As a result, when you think about your own participation in your training group, you can rest assured that the purpose or objective of the group does not include resolving personal concerns that you prefer to keep

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confidential. In fact, you can expect that your group counseling instructor will discuss appropriate use of self-­disclosure in order to ensure that you are discouraged from any disclosure that would make you feel uncomfortable within an academic setting.

BENEFITS

Dynamics A key reason that the group experience is a necessary component of training is the increased knowledge and appreciation for what group dynamics feel like for the group member (Markus & King, 2003). Understanding group dynamics and group development is tricky, and can feel quite conceptual when reading about these ideas from a book. For example, reading that a leader can expect a stage of conflict (e.g., storming) before the group finds an effective working stage may be fairly easy to grasp from a cognitive perspective, but this does nothing to help leaders-­in-­training understand what it feels like to experience a storming or transition stage. As one group leader-­in-­training explained, “Experiencing the stages is better than reading them in a book” (Ieva et al., 2009, p. 361). As a student participating as a member in a training group, you will experience the different group dynamics that are present in groups, even though your group is different from a counseling or therapy group. Your ancillary group experience will provide you the opportunity to encounter group firsthand and simultaneously reflect on the process to inform your practice.

Appreciation An important outcome of the training group for many is an appreciation for group counseling as an effective modality to use in clinical work. This sentiment was expressed by a leader-­in-­training, who stated that the experiential group “encourages me to use groups more because of my experience . . . I want them [clients] to experience the growth I experienced in the group” (Ieva et al., 2009, p. 361). Another participant in the Ieva et  al. (2009) study also commented on “the tremendous value of the group experience” (p. 361). Hopefully, most if not all students who are entering a counselor training program believe in the value of individual counseling, and individual counseling is often the modality conceptualized when students are thinking about being a counselor. But students may be less well versed in the use of group counseling, or may have limited awareness of or belief in the benefits and utility of a group approach. Therefore,

38  Introduction to Group Counseling it is particularly important that students have an opportunity to experience the powerful work that can take place in a group so that counselor trainees have open minds about using groups with their clients in the future. It is possible that counselors-­in-­trainings’ first group experience can influence their desire and ability to run groups in the future. Ask yourself: Will you go in with an open mind? Will you be open to an experience that informs you as a counselor and that may offer you personal and professional growth? It is important to note that all students who go through the group experiential component do not enjoy or appreciate the experience. There is some risk that goes along with it for everyone. Some students actually encounter uncomfortable interactions, some students have negative experiences and never share these aspects as it is less common or less acceptable. Some students take on roles and attitudes that demonstrate a determination to make others uncomfortable. Students of color and other minoritized communities can be at greater risk if race and culture are not broached and explored as a strength within these experiential groups.

Skills Another benefit of participating in an experiential group is the opportunity to see skills discussed in books and readings executed in practice. Although students participating in their group are generally asked to participate as a member, it is nearly impossible to take off one’s “student hat.” As a result, student members learn group leadership skills through the modeling of their leader. It is important to note that this learning occurs in situations where students like or agree with the skills being demonstrated, as well as those situations where students do not like or agree with the leader‘s actions. For example, if the group leader believes, as we do, in the importance of exploring race and culture early and often within the group, then this could cause some stress for the student and be construed as a lack of skill. In fact, some students would prefer to avoid engaging in conversations about race and culture for fear of being labeled racist, biased, or angry. Either way, student members are able to use skills and leadership approaches that they appreciate as a member in their work as leaders, and they learn what approaches work and do not work as a member as well. It is possible that, as part of your group experience, you will be tasked with writing reflection journals. The journals are a place for you to process your personal experience as a member, evaluate how the skills utilized affect you as a member, and reflect on the leadership and facilitation skills. We urge students in these journal entries to engage in reflections on one’s personal and professional identities and the intersection of these aspects that are developing. Exploring race and culture in groups can play an important role for the members involved. (See example reflection questions in Box 2.1.)

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Nonetheless, participating in a group experience results in student members feeling more prepared and equipped to lead their own groups in the future (Ieva et al., 2009). In fact, research shows counselors-­i n-­t raining who participated in either a personal growth group or a psychoeducational group experience significant increases in group leader self-­e fficacy (Ohrt et al., 2013).

Empathy Counselors-­in-­training are frequently encouraged to participate in counseling while they are in their training program if they have not done so before. This is important not only because we all have important issues to work on, but also because it is helpful to know what it is like to sit in the other chair. Similarly, participating in a group increases students’ empathy for future members’ reactions to being in the group (Ieva et al., 2009). For example, we often tell our clients that counseling is a safe space, that people can feel comfortable to share their feelings, and that the group leader will block or cut off any behavior from other members that would be experienced as harmful. However, it can still be difficult for members to want to participate. Without having been a member oneself, the leader might conceptualize this difficulty as resistance, or otherwise as poor member behavior. After having participated in a group experience where the counselor has also struggled with how to contribute as a client, thinking about what to contribute, and navigating feelings of safety in the group, the counselor/leader will be much more likely to conceptualize this challenge as a normal part of the development of the group, which will lead to more effective interventions.

Self-Awareness Self-­a wareness is a critical component of being an effective counselor and group leader. An important outcome of participation in a training group is increased personal awareness, particularly in regard to how one relates to self and others (Robson & Robson, 2008). Just as the group can be a powerful way for our clients to understand their interpersonal interactions, so too it can be a powerful way for leaders-­i n-­t raining to increase their awareness of their own interpersonal interactions. As Robson and Robson (2008) describe, the group experience is sometimes “the most powerful experience of [their] counselor training” (p. 371). As counselor trainees, individuals have the opportunity to receive interpersonal feedback and to gain perspective on how they function in a group. This is invaluable in their development as a person and as a counselor. In addition, groups have great therapeutic value. As mentioned in Chapter 1, Johari’s Window Theory (top right quadrant) provides a visual on “blind spots” counselors might have; feedback from others in the group might draw your attention to these blind spots, and therefore increase your

40  Introduction to Group Counseling self-­a wareness. See Box 2.1 for prompts to consider what you know about your own interpersonal style, and how this impacts your future group leadership. BOX 2.1 Interpersonal Style

It can be helpful to think about your interpersonal style as you develop as a counselor and group leader. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What would you like to know about how you impact others, especially those from various racial and cultural backgrounds? 2. How might you use your group experience to increase your awareness of your own intersecting identities in a way that would be beneficial personally and professionally? 3. What concerns come up for you as you think about learning more about your interpersonal style via receiving feedback from others, particularly people with whom you may not feel comfortable or have implicit biases against? 4. What awareness might you like to gain related to your competence as a leader of racially and culturally diverse groups?

WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE There are a number of different methods a counselor education program may employ in order to deliver the training group experience. Oftentimes, how a program delivers the training group will be related to the number and types of resources that are available, as well as the size of the class. There are pros and cons to each method of offering the group, which are discussed in the following section.

Group Separate From Class Some programs have students participate in a group that is completely separate from the class; for example, a group that is being offered through a community agency or through the university counseling center. In this situation, the student is typically asked to bring to their course instructor some sort of verification from the leader that the student participated in a group. However, aside from this verification, there is no other connection between the group and the course. The most significant advantage of this setup is that the group experience is completely separate from the class, which reduces the concerns about the dual role of the professor

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almost entirely. The group leader and the professor do not have communication aside from the group leader letting the professor know the student attended, thus maintaining the student’s privacy. Although the benefits of reducing concerns about the dual role of the instructor and the safeguarding of students’ confidentiality cannot be ignored, there are a number of challenges in having students participate in a group that is separate from the class. For one, students may have difficulty finding such a group if the expectation is that the student identifies an appropriate experience. Second, even if a student is able to find this type of group, students would likely need to pay for and have transportation to get to the group. These expectations may be especially burdensome for graduate students, and particularly for students who live in rural areas where resources are more limited. Third, the group counseling experiences will be so vast and wide that maintaining ongoing accountability may be limited for the training program. Neither what occurs in these settings nor the impact on the students can be controlled.

Group With Outside Leadership Another option is for students to participate in a group that is run within the department, but is led by someone who is either outside the department or who is not teaching the class. For example, a program may hire an outside clinician to come in specifically to run the group. Institutions that have doctoral programs in counselor education and supervision often require their doctoral students to engage as group leaders as part of their training. Or another faculty member from the program who is not teaching the group course may lead the group. Any of these options address the concern noted earlier of students being able to find, pay for, and have transportation to a group, since the group is offered within the program. This option also addresses concerns about dual relationships between the professor and the class. A notable disadvantage of having the group run by an outside leader is availability of resources. If the group is to be run by a clinician from outside of the program, the program must have the financial resources to pay this person. Although there are a number of universities with both master’s programs and doctoral programs, this is certainly not the norm, making the option of using a doctoral student only a possibility in select programs. Finally, if another faculty member within the program is going to lead the group, decisions must be made regarding how that impacts the faculty member’s teaching and service load, and there must be enough faculty members within the department who are trained group leaders to serve in this role. In addition, although having a faculty member who is not teaching the course as a group leader does eliminate the dual relationship concern of the instructor of record both grading the assignments and leading the group, it is likely that students who are in the group will either have had the group leader faculty in the past, or will have them in the future. Therefore, there are still some dual relationship concerns in this scenario.

42  Introduction to Group Counseling

Group Facilitated or Co-Led by the Instructor Another example is the group experience that is facilitated in some way by the instructor of the course. There are a couple of variations of this, where the instructor may lead the group themselves, or the instructor may be present while members take turns leading the group in order to practice their skills. Either way, the professor is present in the group. Certainly, this option is the least cumbersome from a logistical perspective: Students do not need to find their own group or find a way to pay for it or get to it, and programs or instructors do not have to find outside resources to come in and lead the group. Further, the instructor will have assurance that the group will be planned a certain way, although there’s never a guarantee that the group runs as intended. The instructor can also provide commentary on concepts that are being reviewed in class that are also coming up in the group, which can be helpful for students in making connections with course material. While having the instructor lead the training group, or at least being present to facilitate students taking turns leading the group, helps to address many of the logistical factors noted in other scenarios, it does introduce the most challenging situation from a dual relationship perspective.

Peer Facilitated Group Experience A final scenario is one where members take turns leading the experiential process. In context, the class demographics include counselors in educational settings (e.g., school counselors, school psychologists, and higher educational professionals). For this class, there are four specific course assignments that are connected to this group experience. More specifically, for the first half of the semester, students are randomly assigned to work in a group of six students to develop a psycho-­ educational group curriculum of their choice, with the understanding, however, that later in the semester they will be a member of the group dedicated to that topic. Students develop a proposal that includes a literature review, rationale for group intervention, and a logistical section. While the group is responsible for creating the goals and developmentally appropriate objectives for the group curriculum, individual students are responsible for lessons for which they will be the leader. Therefore, the overall curriculum is coherent regardless of the leader. Some example topics include social skills development, test-­ taking strategies, stress management, parents of divorced children, and girl empowerment groups. Experiential groups meet for six sessions for approximately 1-­1/2 hours, for eight total sessions. As an example, imagine a group counseling class where participants are training to be school counselors, school psychologists, and professionals in higher education.

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Throughout the experiential group experience, students are tasked with two assignments. If they are a member of the group for the session, they complete a semi-­structured group reflection journal, with a leader feedback evaluation. When students serve as group facilitators, they hand in a detailed copy of the lesson and complete their own leader feedback self-­evaluation. All leader evaluations are placed in one document to ensure the feedback remains anonymous. The group counseling instructor is responsible for providing journal feedback to students.

Other Training Options While these examples detail ways of delivering a traditional training group experience, there have been several ideas put forth where the group experience is conceptualized slightly differently, in an effort to avoid some of the concerns associated with the training group. For example, in the Simulated Group Counseling (SGC) Model, students take turns practicing their leadership skills while their peers role-­ play group members, rather than participating as themselves (Romano, 1998). This model has students role-­playing group members, co-­facilitating sessions, and debriefing with process observers. Romano describes the activity as “offering a level of intensity and training somewhere between in-­class simulated exercises and an actual group experience as a member or facilitator” (p. 122). In addition to the SGC Model, other training options have included students role-­playing (Akos et al., 2004) and using actors as members (Fall & Levitov, 2002).

A Vehicle to Expand Awareness of Power and Privilege In addition to the discussed previously, frequently used modalities for offering the group experience, an important way the group can be used is to foster increased cultural competence and to enhance social justice consciousness (Paone et al., 2015; Yee et al., 2016). Because the group is a social microcosm of the “real world” (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), the same power and privilege dynamics that are at play in life outside of the group will also be present in the experiential training group. Therefore, this experience offers an opportunity for students to “examine their experience of oppression, marginalization, and privilege” (Yee et al., 2016, p. 91). Paone et al. (2015) developed a model using an experiential group to intentionally explore race, racism, and privilege. The authors conducted a 15-­week, advanced, race-­based course that was offered as a group experience for White students. The purpose of the experience was to help students “develop their racial awareness and antiracist skills and as a response to the call for increased social justice advocacy

44  Introduction to Group Counseling of mental health practitioners in eradicating racism that affects clientele” (p. 208). Topics of the group experience included ethnic and racial identity, racism, privilege, antiracist action, and sustaining future antiracist action. After participating in this group, members experienced increased awareness of White privilege, increased awareness of racial privilege and systemic racial discrimination, and increased antiracist attitudes. Results from this experience indicate that group experiences where the topic of race, racism, and potentially other “-isms” are present can lead to positive outcomes for counselor trainee students. Our anecdotal experience is that when students think about racism, sexism, ableism, or heterosexism being present in a counseling group, they conceptualize it as overt statements that are clearly racist, sexist, heterosexist, and so on. However, more often the types of comments people make are microaggressions or microinsults. Microaggressions are subtle, unconscious statements that are typically not meant to be insulting, while microinsults are comments that invalidate the experiences of members who are not from the dominant group (Sue, 2010). Coming back to the notion of the group as a social microcosm (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), there will undoubtedly be microaggressions and microinsults present in an experiential training group. When members are able to receive feedback regarding microaggressions and microinsults, an important opportunity exists for students to increase their awareness of their use of microaggressions and microinsults, as well as the impact these statements have on their fellow group members, and potential future clients. See Box 2.2 for questions for reflection around your power and privilege as a future group leader. BOX 2.2 Courageous Conversations

One way students can increase their awareness of power and privilege in the context of the training group experience is to engage in courageous conversations (Singh et al., 2020; Singh & Salazar, 2010). These are conversations specifically aimed at increasing understanding of members’ varying experiences of oppression and privilege. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. When you consider engaging in courageous conversations in your training group, what feelings come up? 2. What concerns would you have about discussing issues of privilege and oppression with your counselor trainee peers? 3. In what ways do you imagine having courageous conversations with your counselor trainee peers would increase your level of cultural competence and ability to work effectively with group members who have different experiences with privilege and oppression than you have had?

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EXPERIENTIAL GROUPS AT A DISTANCE The presence of online and hybrid counseling programs continues to expand, with at least 90 CACREP-­accredited online programs at the present time (www.cacrep​ .org). Some of these programs conduct their experiential group as part of a residency requirement, where students come to campus for a certain period of time, while other programs offer the experiential group remotely. In addition, regardless of standard delivery format, many programs were forced to pivot to online learning as a result of the COVID-­19 pandemic that began in the spring of 2019. Therefore, it is critical to explore the nuances of the training group experience that take place in an online environment. The existing literature around online counseling groups is small (Kozlowski & Holmes, 2014), and the existing literature around online experiential training groups is even smaller. In one of the only available empirical studies on online training groups, Kozlowski and Holmes (2014) identified that participants experienced the online group as noticeably different than a face-­to-­face group. More specifically, participants reported difficulty with lag time in conversation due to technology, a tendency to wait for their turn to talk, and energy spent worrying about what other members saw in the background of their homes. Further, members expressed concern about confidentiality and the reality that someone could be covertly recording the group or taking screenshots of members. Unsurprisingly, then, members ultimately had a difficult time developing cohesion and reported a sense of disconnection from the group. Given some of these concerns, it is critical for students to think about some of the nuances that will be present if the experiential group is conducted online rather than in person. It is important to note that numerous studies have indicated online counseling groups can be very effective for members (Holmes & Kozlowski, 2016), and include benefits such as convenience, accessibility, and connection. However, there has been some qualitative findings from one study of 12 master’s level students participating in a virtual (e.g., videoconferencing) process group that resulted in some members feeling disconnected, superficial in their interactions, and confused about the roles they should play (Kozlowski & Holmes, 2014). From personal experience during the COVID-­19 pandemic, all three authors taught group counseling synchronously online. One of the beneficial aspects of being online was the option for break-­ out rooms, which provided an immediate private space for the group experience. Additionally, the running chat allowed all members to expand on their thoughts, feelings, and reactions in real time, which increased participation. Finally, the students welcomed the chance to engage with others, even though it was only virtually, as the entire country had been shut down for months due to the pandemic. That said, some of the challenges included the natural barrier the “mute” button caused, the mixed feelings about using a video camera during sessions, and uneasiness some felt

46  Introduction to Group Counseling because of their living arrangements resulting in an inability to maintain a confidential experience for themselves and others. Therefore, in our personal experiences, it is reasonable to expect that an online experiential group could be beneficial but not without some unavoidable logistical and other hurdles to overcome. See Box 2.3 for questions prompting reflection about online groups. BOX 2.3 Online Group Experiences

We encourage students and instructors alike to have some additional conversations specifically about the online environment that may help students feel more comfortable when engaging in an online group experience. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. As a student, what concerns you the most about participating in an online experiential group? 2. How can you minimize any outside distractions (e.g., surfing the internet, having the TV on, pets, other family members in the house, etc.) while you are participating in the group experience? 3. Some students reported feeling more comfortable at home in their own spaces, and this has led to greater group cohesion. What if you don’t feel comfortable at home; how can you rectify this situation? 4. Confidentiality is a cornerstone of being able to develop trust in a group. What concerns do you have about confidentiality as it pertains to holding the group online, and how might these concerns be addressed? 5. How might you utilize the group chat? Is that helpful or a distraction?

ETHICAL ISSUES

Dual Relationships Across the board in counseling, counselors are very careful about having dual relationships with clients. By dual relationships we mean a relationship that is outside of the bounds of a professional counselor–client relationship. For example, counselors are not friends with their clients, they do not date their clients, and they do not have their clients babysit their children. In fact, counselors have an ethical obligation to be extraordinarily careful about taking clients with whom the counselor has had a previous relationship, and it is against the ACA Ethical Code (2014) to engage in counseling with someone with whom they have had a previous romantic relationship. If counselors are going to extend the boundaries of the counselor–client relationship, counselors are responsible for obtaining consultation or supervision

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from other clinicians, obtaining informed consent from the client, and documenting the reason for the decision (ACA, 2014). Counselor educators are similarly responsible for ethical behavior with their students and supervisees. Counselor educators do not provide counseling services to their students, and they are also cautious about boundary extensions in the same way counselors are cautious of boundary extensions with clients. A frequent concern discussed in the group counseling literature is the dual role that a counselor educator has if they are both teaching the group counseling class (and, therefore, assigning students a grade), and also engaging as the group leader, where they are asking students to participate in an experiential group as themselves and not a role-­play. As a student, you can likely see how students might feel that this is a tricky situation, where a person who has the power to assign grades is also asking you to disclose personal information. Rightfully so, you may be concerned whether your instructor is able to separate what you disclose in the group from the rest of your graded efforts in the class. To be sure, although the instructor teaching your class and leading your group may ask you to participate authentically, they should not be purposefully asking you to disclose information that is sensitive, nor should they require participation, aside from being present in the group. Finally, your participation (e.g., what you say or do not say) should not be calculated as part of your grade. Please see Box 2.4 for questions for reflection about the experiential group you will be participating in as part of your training as a group leader. BOX 2.4 Experiential Groups

Take a few moments to think about your own participation in an experiential group as part of your development as a group leader. Keep in mind that although you will likely be asked to “be yourself,” you also will not be asked to divulge private information or anything you do not feel comfortable divulging. However, you may find that you in fact do share personal information in order to have a deeper experience. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What concerns do you have about participating in an experiential group? 2. What will your instructor/group leader need to do in order for you to feel it is safe to participate in an experiential group? 3. What are the personal and professional benefits you foresee for yourself in participating in an experiential group? 4. If your advisor is the person leading your group, how do you see this impacting your advisor/advisee relationship? 5. What additional considerations should be addressed regarding dual relationships if your advisor is the leader?

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Privacy Furthermore, the ACA Code of Ethics (2014) notes that although personal growth is an expected outcome of counselor training, counselor educators allow students to have autonomy on what they decide to share or maintain private during class. Although there may be an intention to use the training group to help facilitate growth or awareness in some way (fe.g., increased awareness regarding racial identity development), students are not expected to share in the group in a way that makes them feel as though their privacy has been violated. Please see Box 2.5 for questions for reflection about developing trust in your experiential training group. BOX 2.5 Trust in Group Experiences

It is important to feel a sense of trust in order to be willing to engage in the group experience in a way that will allow you to learn more about yourself and your classmates (Robson & Robson, 2008). QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What will need to be present in your training group in order for you to feel a sense of trust? 2. To what extent does it feel likely to you that you will be able to feel a sense of trust in your training group? What experiences, values, or beliefs impact this? 3. As you reflect on groups (of any variety) you have participated in, what can you identify that led to either feeling trust in the group or lacking a feeling of trust in the group?

Confidentiality Confidentiality is a cornerstone of the counseling process, whether you are participating in individual or group counseling. The ACA Code of Ethics (2014) addresses confidentiality in general, explaining “counselors protect the confidential information of prospective and current clients. Counselors disclose information only with appropriate consent or with sound legal or ethical justification” (B.1.c.). Confidentiality in groups is further explained: “In group work, counselors clearly explain the importance and parameters of confidentiality for the specific group” (B.4.a). The group leader is bound by the confidentiality stipulations in the ACA Code of Ethics (2014). However, within the training group experience, if the group leader

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is a faculty member, they will often explain that if there are concerns that come up regarding a students’ disposition to be a professional counselor, the leader reserves the ability to consult with other faculty about their concerns. This should be made explicit as part of the informed consent process, discussed in more detail in the following section. As a result, it is critical for the development of safety and cohesion within the group that each person in the experiential training group agrees to also maintain confidentiality of the group.

Informed Consent Informed consent is a critical element to ethical counseling practice. Informed consent is a process whereby counselors explain what counseling services will involve, including but not limited to issues such as techniques that may be used, risks and benefits to the therapeutic process, and information about the counselor, such as education, licensure status, and related clinical experience (ACA, 2014). The purpose is to provide clients with enough information that they can make an informed decision about whether or not they would like to proceed with treatment. Although as noted the training group experience is not a clinical experience, it is a situation where students are often asked to participate as themselves. Therefore, just as in the counseling process, a critical element in the training group experience process is discussion of informed consent. As your training group gets started, your leader will review important elements of the process that you should be aware of in order for you to make the best decision for yourself regarding what you disclose. In most programs, participation in the group will be mandatory. However, the participation will not be graded and it will be up to you to determine the extent to which you want to share.

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

The purpose of the small group experience is to provide students with a lived experience of being in a group, which will increase their understanding of some of the common dynamics present in a group. The small group experience can be facilitated in a number of different ways. It is critical that students understand who is leading the group and how the group is being conducted. Concerns regarding dual relationships are the most frequently cited concern regarding the small group experience. Students should ask any questions they have about the dual role of their leader prior to engaging in the group.

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■

Informed consent is a critical element in the experiential group. As a student, make sure you understand the risks, benefits, purpose, and limits of confidentiality prior to engaging in the group experience

CASE STUDY 2.1 REVISITED Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. 1. How might you relate to Sofia? 2. What do you think might be going on for Sofia? 3. How might Sofia benefit from the group experience? 4. What information from this chapter would you share with Sofia to make her feel more comfortable with the group experience? 5. How was Dr. Linwood trying to increase Sofia’s self-­awareness?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. What concerns do you have about participating in a training group experience? 2. What is your sense of the importance of this experience, and how do you imagine engaging in this experience? 3. What do you hope to get out of your training group experience? 4. How do you think this experience might help you in leading groups in the future?

In-Class Small Group Activity Self-­Awareness and Anticipation: As mentioned in the chapter, one of the benefits to the experiential group experience is increasing self-­awareness, a critical component of effective counselors. Using the top quadrants of the Johari Window Model (see Table 2.2), fill out the following boxes. In the first box: List the things that you know about youself and feel comfortable sharing. In the second box: List feedback you have received before, or what feedback you anticipate getting from others.

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TABLE 2.2  Applying the Johari Window KNOWN TO SELF/KNOWN TO OTHERS

NOT KNOWN TO SELF/KNOWN TO OTHERS

After completing the two quadrants. Break into pairs or small groups to discuss the following discussion questions.

Discussion Questions 1. Is the information you are willing to share, information that you would tell strangers? a. What makes you comfortable sharing this information? b. Does that information include thoughts and emotions? 2. In anticipation of feedback of how others perceive you, a. What is your worst fear? b. How might feedback you have received in the past help or hinder your openness to hearing from others?

Journal Starters 1. When I receive feedback from others (e.g., family, teachers, significant others), in the moment I feel … ; after I feel…. 2. When I give feedback to others, I provide it by …; after, I provide feedback, I feel… 3. From my experiential group experience, I am anticipating … and I am looking to receive … 4. What happens when you don’t see yourself in a group? a. How do you feel? b. How would you like your leader and facilitator to change to meet these needs? c. How would you as a future leader facilitate a group to meet these needs? 5. When you see yourself represented in a group, how do you feel and how do you take that knowledge to create an inclusive experience for all?

Homework Ideas 1. Go to a place (e.g., park), or watch a group interact on TV (e.g., Family Feud). After spending some time observing: a. What ways do the individual members contribute to the group?

52  Introduction to Group Counseling b. How do they show it (verbals, nonverbals, feedback)? c. What do you wonder about as you observe them? d. Do you believe the group interactions to be helpful? 2. Create a virtual (e.g., Padlet, Google Slide) or hand-­made collage. Include pictures of people and/or groups (e.g., teams, friends, social media groups) in which you have participated. If you are unable to find pictures, select pictures of objects or words that illustrate memories from those experiences. As you reflect on those interactions: a. What was memorable about those experiences? b. What conflict might have arisen? Why might that be? How did it resolve itself? c. What types of feedback did you give one another? d. How do those encounters end? e. What do you gain from them?

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 2.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES Akos, P., Goodnough, G. E., & Milsom, A. S. (2004). Preparing school counselors for group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 29(1), 127–136. American Counseling Association (2014). ACA Code of Ethics. Alexandria, VA: Author. Bore, S. K., Armstrong, S. A., & Womack, A. (2010). School counselors’ experiential training in group work. Journal of School Counseling, 8(26), 26. Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs. (2016). 2016 CACREP standards. Author. Fall, K. A., & Levitov, J. E. (2002). Using actors in experiential group counseling leadership training. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 27(2), 122–135.

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Goodrich, K. M., & Luke, M. (2012). Problematic student in the experiential growth group: Professional and ethical challenges for counselor educators. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 37(4), 326– 346. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2012​.690834 Holmes, C. M., & Kozlowski, K. A. (2016). A group counseling collaboration model: Support for virtual high school students. Vistas, Article, 60(1), 12. Ieva, K. P., Ohrt, J. H., Swank, J. M., & Young, T. L. (2009). The impact of an experiential groups on master students’ counselor and personal development: A qualitative study. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 34(4), 351–368. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933920903219078 Kozlowski, K. A., & Holmes, C. M. (2014). Experiences in online process groups: A qualitative study. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 39(4), 276–300. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2014​.948235 Markus, H. E., & King, D. A. (2003). A survey of group psychotherapy training during predoctoral psychology internship. Professional Psychology, 34(2), 203–209. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​0735​-7028​ .34​.2​.203 McCarthy, C. J., Bauman, S., Choudhuri, D., Coker, A., Justice, C., Kraus, K. L., & Luke, M. (2022). Association for specialists in group work guiding principles for group work. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 47(1), 12–21. Ohrt, J. H., Robinson III, E. H., & Hagedorn, W. B. (2013). Group leader development: Effects of personal growth and psychoeducational groups. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 38(1), 30–51. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2012​.732982 Paone, T. R., Malott, K. M., & Barr, J. J. (2015). Assessing the impact of a race-­based course on counseling students: A quantitative study. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 43(3), 206–220. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​jmcd​.12015 Robson, M., & Robson, J. (2008). Explorations of participants’ experiences of a Personal Development Group held as part of a counselling psychology training group: Is it safe in here? Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 21(4), 371–382. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​09515070802602153 Romano, J. L. (1998). Simulated group counseling: An experiential training model for group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 23(2), 119–132. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933929808411385 Shumaker, D., Ortiz, C., & Brenninkmeyer, L. (2011). Revisiting experiential group training in counselor education: A survey of Master’s-­level programs. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 36(2), 111–128. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2011​.562742 Singh, A. A., Appling, B., & Trepal, H. (2020). Using the multicultural and social justice counseling competencies to decolonize counseling practice: The important roles of theory, power, and action. Journal of Counseling & Development, 98(3), 261–271. Singh, A. A., & Salazar, C. F. (2010). Six considerations for social justice group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 35(3), 308–319. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2010​.492908 Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. John Wiley & Sons. Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2020). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (6th ed.). Basic Books. Yee, T. T. L., Stevens, C. R., & Schulz, L. L. (2016). Exploring master’s students’ social justice consciousness through experiential group: An adlerian approach. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 72(2), 90–103. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1353/​jip​.2016​.0008

3 Group Counseling Fundamentals Within a Multicultural Counseling Context

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Recognize group dynamics, and group phases.

■

Identify leaders’ intersecting identities that inform group leadership styles.

■

Discover groups in school and clinical mental health settings.

■

Discuss culturally appropriate assessment and evaluation of a group practice.

■

Analyze ethical considerations in relation to group work

See Table 3.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

55

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TABLE 3.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.6.b

Dynamics associated with group process and development

2.6.f

Types of groups and other considerations that affect conducting groups in varied settings

A.9.a

Counselors screen prospective group counseling/therapy participants. To the extent possible, counselors select members whose needs and goals are compatible with the goals of the group, who will not impede the group process, and whose well-­ being will not be jeopardized by the group experience

A.9.b

In a group setting, counselors take reasonable precautions to protect clients from physical, emotional, or psychological trauma

C.2.a

Counselors practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervision experience, state and national credentials, and appropriate professional experience. Whereas multicultural counseling competence is required across all counseling specialties, counselors gain knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity, dispositions, and skills pertinent to being a culturally competent counselor in working with a diverse client population

A.7.h

School counselors: practice within their competence level and develop professional competence through training and supervision

A.7.i

School counselors: measure the outcomes of group participation

II.A.1.a

Identify and describe: the nature of group work and the various specializations within group work

II.D.1.c

Identify and describe: therapeutic factors within group work and when group work approaches are indicated and contraindicated

ACA Code of Ethics

ASCA Code of Ethics

ASGW Professional Training Standards

(continued )

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TABLE 3.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

STANDARD

DEFINITION

II.D.1.d

Identify and describe: principles of group dynamics including group process components, developmental stage theories, group member roles, group member behaviors

II.F.1.a

Identify and describe: methods for evaluating group process in group work

II.F.1.b

Identify and describe: methods for evaluating outcomes in group work

II.G.1.a

Identify and describe: ethical considerations unique to group work

A.3.a

Group workers actively assess their knowledge and skills related to the specific group(s) offered. Group workers assess their values, beliefs and theoretical orientation and how these impact upon the group, particularly when working with a diverse and multicultural population

A.4.e

Group workers have an evaluation plan consistent with regulatory, organization and insurance requirements, where appropriate

B.3.a

Group workers apply and modify knowledge, skills and techniques appropriate to group type and stage, and to the unique needs of various cultural and ethnic groups

B.7

Group workers include evaluation (both formal and informal) between sessions and at the conclusion of the group

B.8

Group workers practice with broad sensitivity to client differences including but not limited to ethnic, gender, religious, sexual, psychological maturity, economic class, family history, physical characteristics or limitations, and geographic location. Group workers continuously seek information regarding the cultural issues of the diverse population with whom they are working both by interaction with participants and from using outside resources (continued )

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TABLE 3.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

I.1

Demonstrate movement to being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality, are impacted by their own experiences and histories

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselors Association; ASGW, ­Association for Specialist in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

CASE STUDY 3.1 GRIEF GROUP FOR MIDDLE SCHOOLERS The following excerpt is from a grief and loss group that takes place in a middle school setting with eighth graders. The group was created for those who have lost parents or other significant family members in their lives. This is the fourth session. Emma, (Group Facilitator): Now that you have all had time to complete the activity. Let’s discuss the mask that people don’t see. Who would like to share? Rodney: So for me, I don’t think people see the pain and anxiety in my head. Really all of the questions I just keep asking. There are really no answers to those questions as well. So it feels like no one is participating in the conversation in my head and heart. Mya: I get that. It’s like a one way conversation. But for me, I think my face says it all. Meaning I can’t hide or fight it. Emma: How do you know when people see below the mask? (continued)

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CASE STUDY 3.1 GRIEF GROUP FOR MIDDLE SCHOOLERS (CONTINUED) Mya: People always ask me if I am okay if I am having an emotional reaction. Doesn’t matter if it’s angry, sad, or even surprised. They always say they can read it on my face. Rashid: Nah, I am going to call you out on that Mya. You mean to tell me that people are mind readers?! That they know exactly what’s in your head? They might be able to tell that something is different emotionally, but I am willing to bet that you don’t share. Mya: (Rolling her eyes and staring down.) Emma: Let’s check that out with Mya. If you don’t mind, please share with Rashid what it’s like for you to hear that from him. Mya: For starters, who are you, Rashid, to tell me how I do or do not feel, or share or don’t share. This just pissed me off. Rashid: Truth hurts sometimes. Emma: So to what extent does this make you angry? Mya: Of course I am angry. I am outraged. Rashid: Are you angry at me for saying this, or are you angry because it might somehow be true. (Group sits in silence for a moment.) Mya: I really don’t know. Emma: I am wondering what everyone else is experiencing in this group as we further this conversation? Adriana: Numb. It’s like watching my brain having the same conversation as Mya and Rashid internally, and I just don’t know how I feel about it. As you read through the chapter, keep this case study in mind. We revisit the case study at the end of the chapter.

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INTRODUCTION Groups are instrumental in helping others experience themselves and their peer members in ways that can enhance their overall relationships outside of the group. The type, purpose, goals, objectives, and desired outcomes of the group play major roles in what happens within the group. However, the group leader(s), individual members, physical location, and professional setting also impact the group’s ability to live up to its potential to impact participants in powerful ways. But what dynamics and processes allow some groups to function, others to function well, and some groups to, simply put, just exist without much success at all? Although we can never guarantee the outcome of a group, a commitment to learning and exploring group development, ongoing group leadership skill development and experience, and intentionally attending to and infusing as often as needed an exploration of race, culture, gender, and spirituality, to name a few important topics, will help set up the group for the best possibility of success.

GROUP DYNAMICS Group dynamics are defined as the character and traits of the group, the changes that occur in the group and between the group members throughout the life of the group (Conyne, 2014). Group dynamics include the movement, incidences, growth, and setbacks that happen over the course of the group’s life and how they impact the group leaders and group members in a myriad of ways. Additionally, group dynamics help us understand the core of racism, sexism, and other forms of social prejudice and discrimination that are mirrored within groups as microsoms of society (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020). Consider the following scenario in Box 3.1. BOX 3.1  Black Lives Matter

You are leading a group at a university counseling center and one of the members brings up attending a Black Lives Matter rally over the weekend. As the conversation continues, one of the members utters under their breath, “This is so annoying. Obviously, all lives matter. Why are we still talking about Black lives?” QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What is your initial reaction to the topic of the Black Lives Matter movement coming up in a group you are leading? How can you connect this to the idea of the group being a social microcosm? (continued)

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Box 3.1  Black Lives Matter (continued)

2. What is your initial reaction to the member’s response? 3. Why might this member’s response contribute to feelings of marginalization on the part of Black members of the group? 4. Brainstorm (with your peers if you would like) two or three appropriate ways the leader could intervene in this scenario

Content Versus Process Group dynamics are present in all types of groups, not just counseling groups. There are dynamics at play in your family groups, your friend groups, groups in which you work, group projects for courses, and even your current group counseling class. One way of thinking about dynamics is to shift your attention from what is being said that might be based on the topic of the group (the content), to focusing on everything that may be bubbling under the surface (the process). A routine example in Box 3.2 highlights this concept: BOX 3.2  Classroom Dynamics

You are in a class where one student always has something to say; perhaps what they have to say is relevant, but sometimes this student has a difficult time wrapping it up or really connecting it directly to the content being discussed. At the beginning of the semester, the student gets the benefit of the doubt from most or all of the other students, and perhaps even some gratitude from others for speaking up so they do not have to. But as this continues over the course of the entire semester, the other students in the class become increasingly irritated by this student. Now when this “talker” student starts talking, and even if the student has something valuable to add, others sigh heavily, make eye contact and share a chuckle, or obviously pull out their cell phones and start scrolling. Other students in the class are not directly confronting the talker, nor are they overtly rude, but there is a subtle change in how it feels to be sitting in the room when this happens. This dynamic in the class may impact the class in a number of ways. Other students may feel frustrated that the instructor does not cut the talker off, and they therefore “check out” from the rest of the experience inspite or irritation. Perhaps when it is time to get into smaller groups to have in-­class discussions, the talker is left looking around with no one who wants to join their group. Maybe one (continued)

62  Introduction to Group Counseling

Box 3.2  Classroom Dynamics (continued)

or two students feel bad for the talker and try to rescue them from the other students’ disdain by cutting the talker off or trying to make important connections to course material for them. The outcome of this is a classroom with an “us against them” vibe. Now imagine if the talker was the only one in the group with a visible disability or was the only Black person. It is not always clear why, but there would certainly be an impact in the way the class is experienced for all of the students as a result of these underlying dynamics. It is important to note that in some cases these underlying issues are directly related to racial, ethnic, and cultural factors. Therefore, even if the talker did not have a visible disability or was not a person of color, the interactions of the group leader and members will begin to match how one might act outside of the group. Some people avoid confrontations or challenging one another altogether thinking this is appropriate, but groups are created to provide a safe place to learn how to give and receive feedback even when the information is not always positive.

Norms The dynamics of the group are considerably impacted by the unwritten or unspoken “rules” of the group, often described as group norms (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005). Keep in mind that these group norms are heavily influenced by the members that make up the group and, therefore, attending to race, culture, gender, and so forth is imperative. For example, in a culturally diverse support group for women who have lost their partners to terminal illness, one White member brings up some feelings of anger toward their deceased wife because she elected not to participate in a trial medication due to the side effects that may have extended her life. As this member (Sylinda) expresses her deep emotional feelings that are also very angry, a Korean woman responds by saying “Sylinda, let’s stay focused on the happy memories we have of our loved ones. Haven’t we felt enough pain already?” If this comment that attempts to distract oneself or others from experiencing this true pain, is not acknowledged by the group leader or other member(s), the norms in the group may become that expression of anger or other negative emotions toward the deceased partner is not acceptable, and therefore, members may not be willing to express these emotions in the group. Over time, this could prevent the group from building cohesion (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005) and moving toward the working stage of the group (Corey et al., 2018). Fostering environments that facilitate an openness and acceptance of multiple viewpoints regarding difficult and sensitive topics while considering underlying cultural implications is imperative. One way to do this is to

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ensure that group norms, also known as ground rules, are explicitly negotiated and decided at the onset of the group and periodically referred to, to ensure that they continue to be acceptable to all of the participants. Confidentiality must be one of the norms in every case, although the limits to confidentiality will need to be shared with the members as this is ethically appropriate. It may be impossible to anticipate every ground rule that will be needed to guarantee an environment conducive to growth, but co-­creating these with group members will help to provide a good foundation.

Member Roles The roles and behaviors that group members take on also contribute to the development of a group‘s dynamics. Yalom and Leszcz (2005) identify a number of group roles and behaviors that come up in groups, including but not limited to, the silent member, the monopolizing member, the rescuer, the storyteller, and the help-­rejecting complainer. To be clear, there are other roles and behaviors members can take on beyond those described here, and not every group will include a member who takes on each of these roles and behaviors. Therefore, the presence or absence of these types of roles and behaviors, as well as how group members intersect, greatly contributes to the overall group dynamic.

Member and Leader Identities Lastly, groups and group dynamics are impacted by the different intersecting identities of the group leaders and members. A person’s identity is made up of a myriad of commonly accepted categorical factors that have two components: personal identity (self-­concept, or the way in which one perceives oneself based on one’s identities) and social identity (collective self, or how one may be defined by one’s group membership and general characteristics in relation to social belonging; (Hogg & Williams, 2000). Members have multiple individual and group identities. Hays’ (2001) ADDRESSING Model (see Table 3.2) helps to highlight some of these factors; the acronym stands for Age, Developmental and acquired Disabilities, Religion, Ethnicity, Socioeconomic status, Sexual orientation, Indigenous heritage, National origin, and Gender. It is not uncommon that people identify with the plural form “identities,” simultaneously or as fluid due to the potentially shifting nature as people move through developmental stages in their lives (see the In-­Class Small Group Activity at the end of this chapter to further examine what might emerge in a group by exploring intersecting identities). The intersection of identities shape how group members communicate within the group settings. For example, how group members experience trust; give, receive, or reject feedback; and challenge one another,

64  Introduction to Group Counseling may all be impacted by members’ identities. Further, the role that you play or have played in your family through the years influences how you as a group member and leader may contribute to the overall group dynamics. See Box 3.3 for questions about the role you typically take on within your family group. BOX 3.3  Family Dynamic

Though students do not always think about it this way, the first group that we are members of is our primary family group. As a result, when thinking about how you function in a group, it can be helpful to think about your role in your family. With that in mind, take a moment to think about the role you have had in your family historically, as well as presently. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. To what extent are you the one who takes charge and coordinates everything? 2. To what extent are you the one that mediates so that everyone gets along? 3. What role do you play when others need information or someone to talk to when they are upset? 4. If members of your family avoid others at times, how do you manage these conflicts? Exploring your own family dynamic is something that you might want to continue to reflect upon as you learn about being a group leader and have practical experiences in your group activities. It might provide some insight and a growth perspective as you move through the various stages of a group.

TABLE 3.2  Multiple Identities That Shape Group Member Role ADDRESSING CULTURAL INFLUENCES

Cultural Influence

Dominant Group

Nondominant or Minority Group

Age and generational influences

Young and middle-­ aged adults

Children, older adults

Developmental or other disabilitya

Nondisabled people

People with cognitive, and psychiatric disabilities

Religion and spiritual orientation

Christian and secular

Muslims, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, and other religions (continued )

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TABLE 3.2  Multiple Identities That Shape Group Member Role (continued) ADDRESSING CULTURAL INFLUENCES

Ethnic and racial identity

European Americans

Asian, South Asian, Latino, Pacific Islander, African, Arab, African American, Middle Eastern, and multiracial people

Socioeconomic status

Upper and middle class

People of lower status by occupation, education, income, or inner city or rural habitat

Sexual orientation

Heterosexuals

People who identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual

Indigenous heritage

European Americans

American Indians, Inuit, Alaska Natives, Metis, Native Hawaiians, New Zealand Maori, Aboriginal Australians

National origin

U.S.-born Americans

Immigrants, refugees, and international students

Gender

Men

Women and people who identify as transgender

Note. Adapted from Hays, P. A. (2008). Addressing Cultural Complexities in Practice: Assessment, ­Diagnosis, and Therapy, Third Edition. Copyright © 2016 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved. a With the increase use of the term intellectual disablility, the term developmental disability is being used less often, particularly within the disability communty; however, it is included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-­5) and the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition, Clinical Modification (ICD-­10-­CM; see chapter 4).

Group Models Similar to individual counseling theories that help clinicians conceptualize what the client is experiencing in individual counseling, there are a number of group models or theories that help group leaders conceptualize how and why the group is unfolding in specific ways over time. These group models serve as a road map to help group practitioners plan, implement, and evaluate groups. They also provide direction upon which group leader(s) can draw. Within each group model there are specified phases. These phases help leaders have a sense of what they might be able to expect in the group. For example, in the beginning phase, the self-­disclosure of group members looks much different than the self-­disclosure in the middle and ending phases. Similarly, the leader can anticipate more challenging behavior from the members and

66  Introduction to Group Counseling more group conflict during the transition phase. By understanding how the group phases impact how interactions in the group play out, the leader can have some ideas of what to expect, as well as intervene in a way that is appropriate for the phase of the group. The group phases are easily defined, yet difficult to observe in many cases because every group does not go through every phase of a group model. Furthermore, group phases can recycle, where the group revisits a previous developmental stage. This might be a result of, for example, adding new members to the group. A very popular developmental model was created by Tuckman (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman & Jenson, 1977). This model is frequently cited in both academic and popular literature, and contains phases titled: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning. Corey et al. (2018) describe group development as including a Pre-­group phase, Initial phase, Transition phase, Working phase, and Final phase. Steen et  al. (2014) describe groups going through phases titled: Assessment, Review, Acquaintance, Challenge, Empower, and Support. Another example comes from Conyne et  al. (2008), who describe in detail the Purposeful Group Techniques Model (PGTM), which includes five steps: Identify, Analyze, Review, Select, Implement, and Evaluate. Table 3.3 provides an overview of how a few of these models are conceptualized. Each group model discussed in Table 3.3 identifies phases that the group moves through. Group phases are the general descriptions of the group that are noticed. In order to ensure a clear understanding of a group model and its phases, think of a group model, in many cases, as a snapshot of what members and leaders could experience in the group phases that will unfold. These models provide leaders with a loose structure for what they can expect before the group starts, early on during the life of the group, during the middle of the group, and as the group is coming to a close. Group curricula may be created to developmentally meet the needs of members and to assist in moving through group phases. Another influence can be how leaders fluctuate between a focus on the content versus the process of the group. To illustrate, think for a moment about the following example. If an artist were to desire to paint a mural on the wall, then the model would be the outlined sketch of what is to be painted and of course where this painting will take place. The artist will also need to plan out the choices of color and the scheduling of the when the painting might occur. The artist will be responsible for getting the painting started; however, the mural is designed to engage others in the artwork, but it will not be clear how each contributing artist will impact the mural until the mural is in progress. In this example, the lead artist is the group leader, and the contributing artists are the group members. The group phases are the paint that will fill in the various parts of the sketch. When group leaders take breaks between each painting session, the mural is not always filled in the manner in which the lead artist might have anticipated, yet there will be color. Some parts of the sketch might have plenty of paint, other aspects lighter strokes, or others no significant amount of paint at all. Some components of the mural might have a richer infusion of paint, implying that more attention was given in that area. The artist must review the mural throughout its life to take account of what has occurred and areas that could need more paint! Communicating this reflection to the other participating artists is imperative to develop the best mural possible.

Forming

Pre- ­Group

Assessment

Tuckman and Jensen (1977)

Corey et al. (2018)

Steen et al. (2014)

PHASE 1

Norming

PHASE 3

Review

Acquaintance

Exploration/Transitions/Orientation

Storming

PHASE 2

TABLE 3.3  A Comparison of Group Development Models

Challenge

Working

Performing

PHASE 4

Empowerment

Consolidation/ Termination

Adjourning

PHASE 5

(continued )

Support

Evaluation/ Follow-­Up

PHASE 6

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Member’s Goals and Needs

Control/power

Learn attitudes/ respect

Build safe environment

Facilitate the building of trust

Learn responding

Learn empathy/ caring

Acceptance

Learn how to participate

PHASE 3

Learn how to express so others with listen

PHASE 2

Learn expectations

PHASE 1

Feel helpful that they can change

Feel supported in their attempts to change

Trust and cohesion are high

PHASE 4

TABLE 3.3  A Comparison of Group Development Models  (continued) PHASE 6

Say goodbye/closure

Involved in evaluation

Rehearse new skills for relating effectively

Express fears, hopes, concerns for one another

PHASE 5

68  Introduction to Group Counseling

Member’s Behaviors

Concerns of acceptance

Test leaders and members

Safe vs. risk

Struggle for control

Risk and run

Observe leader

Low risk taking

Tentative exploration

Trust is gradual

Concerned with place in group

Negative feelings may surface

Trust vs. mistrust

Moments of silence

Anxiety, defensive resistance

Test, get acquainted

Feel hopeful that they can change

Members-­work outside group

Feedback given freely and acceptance

Conflict recognized & dealt with

Members interact freely

Communication open

(continued )

May request for follow-­up meetings

Fear of separation

Decide what action to take

Likely pull back

Sadness of group end

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Leader’s Main Tasks

Provide encouragement

Challenge members to face conflicts

Teach value of dealing with conflict

Help recognize patterns

Be a model

Avoid labeling

Assist in autonomy Encourage to express reactions to here and now

Develop rules and norms

Assist in expressing fears

Model facilitative dimensions

Be open/present

Clarify responsibility

Help establish personal goals

Deal openly with concerns

Provide structure

PHASE 3

Intervene when needed

PHASE 2

Teach how to participate

PHASE 1

Promote behaviors that foster cohesion

Translate insight wants action

Ask for members want

Interpret behavioral patterns

Support risk-­taking

Provide balance

Model

Shared leadership

PHASE 4

TABLE 3.3  A Comparison of Group Development Models  (continued) PHASE 6

Assess Resources

Provide opportunities to give one another feedback

How each can apply new skills

Reinforce changes

Help deal with termination

Assist in generalizing meaning of experiences in group

PHASE 5

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Experienced group leaders (artists) understand that the time spent on examining what is taking place within the group is crucial and can help to inform each session moving forward. It is important to note that the mural will have paint, but there is no guarantee that it will become a masterpiece. Inevitably the time spent on this project will eventually come to an end. But what was planned to occur and what actually took place are always different. Perhaps the paint color desired runs out, or the paint did not dry as anticipated so it runs over into other parts not intended in the sketch. To clarify, some groups never get to a working phase, and some groups are terminated early or unexpectantly for any number of reasons and do not experience true closure. Regardless, using a group model or integration of models, and understanding the group phases that make up the model, can help to anticipate what could unfold within a group, therefore giving a group leader the chance to modify the initial game plan and strategies as things get going and to know how to make modifications as needed. See Box 3.4 for questions for reflection about planning a group and group development. BOX 3.4  Group Phases

Take a moment to think about your current understanding of group phases. Consider the importance of taking group development into account as you conceptualize what is occurring in the group, and as you plan for how you want to engage as the leader. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. As you reflect, what must you do to plan for a group, deliver the group, and evaluate the group? 2. Think specifically about your intersecting identities and how you see yourself. What impact do these aspects of your identity make on your process of planning, delivering, and evaluating the group? 3. How might your identities shape how you see or blind yourself from seeing the underlying group dynamics? 4. Will your thinking also be shaped by the potential clients or students who will make up your group? What if you do not know who these members will be? How could you begin to ensure that an intentional infusing of multiculturalism occurs in every phase of your group work?

TYPES OF GROUPS A cursory review of group counseling literature will demonstrate that groups have been used to work with clients on a number of concerns, from grief, to anxiety and depression, to self-­esteem, to organizational skills, and everything in between. So,

72  Introduction to Group Counseling while there are endless presenting concerns or life issues that may be relevant to center a group around, the first choice a leader needs to make is about the topic they would like to explore in relation to type of group (e.g., task, psychoeducational, counseling, psychotherapy). Jacobs et al. (2016) emphasize the importance of the leader knowing the purpose of the group, and being able to communicate this purpose clearly. This point is well taken, and identifying a topic first helps leaders to start thinking about the purpose. On the other hand, Yalom and Leszcz (2005) suggest a more general focus on the interpersonal interactions of a group, and posit that regardless of the goal or topic bringing someone to a group, the goal should be related to enhancing interpersonal interactions. The idea is that most presenting problems, such as anxiety and depression, have an interpersonal foundation, and addressing the interpersonal concern will indirectly address the presenting problem. We propose that it is necessary to have a clear idea of what topic(s) you are interested in addressing in your group (content), while also recognizing that the distinct power of the group process lies in members’ abilities to increase their awareness of how they relate to others interpersonally (process). Therefore, regardless of the topic of the group, we propose that an important goal is for members to develop more effective patterns of interpersonal interaction. In addition to the topic of the group, the leader must also think about the type of group they plan to run. The ASGW (2000) and a myriad of other scholars (e.g., Conyne, Erford, Jacobs) identify four different types of groups: Task, Psychoeducation, Counseling, and Psychotherapy, listed in order of increasing depth. Although the boundaries between types of group are not always clearly defined, it can be helpful to have a general conceptualization of what each type of group may look like. For example, the purpose of Task groups is typically to complete some type of short-­term or long-­term activity. If you have worked on a group project for a course you took in school, you have been part of a Task group. Psychoeducation groups are generally very topic specific; for example, stress management, study skills, anger management, or social skills. Psychoeducation groups are a step up in terms of depth of exploration from Task groups, but the purpose is usually to teach members some specific skills that will translate to enhanced efficacy out in the world. Counseling groups typically focus on interpersonal concerns among members who may be experiencing a period of increased adjustment difficulty. Finally, Psychotherapy groups allow for exploration at the deepest level, and are often used with members who may experience chronic difficulties or mental health concerns. Although there is much commonality regardless of the type of group you are choosing to run, having an idea of whether you are planning to lead a Task, Psychoeducation, Counseling, or Psychotherapy group will help inform how you plan and facilitate the group. See Table 3.4 for the different types of groups a leader can facilitate, as well as some of the considerations of each. Finally, group leaders must identify where they will find their members. In some settings, your members will be readily available. For example, if you are running a group in a hospital, your members will already be there. However, if your group is to take place in a community agency or private practice, for example, you will need to think about who your referral resources might be and how you will

Time Duration

Characteristics

TYPE OF SMALL GROUPS

Manage work conflict

Implement decision-­ making

Focus to complete a task

Goal oriented

Varies according to task or goal

■

■

■

■

TASK/WORK/ FUNCTIONAL

(Open & Closed) Inpatient/Outpatient

inpatient/outpatient

Can be long term

(open and closed);

Receive constructive feedback

Process problems

predominantly closed groups

■

■

Designed for specific diagnosis (DSM)

Long-­term and deep level change (e.g., personality)

Affective

Focus on behavior change

Relationship building

Process oriented

Three to six months

Educational and therapeutic

Focus on adjustment issues

■

■

■

■

■

■

PSYCHOTHERAPY

Six to ten sessions;

■

■

Skill building

■

Remedial

■

Growth oriented

■

Structured

Preventive

Work on interpersonal skills

Affective

Promote behavioral change

Relationship building

Process oriented

■

■

■

Balance of education and process

Planned curriculum

■ ■

Skill oriented

■

Developmental

■

■

■

■

■

COUNSELING

Educate on specific topic

Can be remedial

■ ■

Growth oriented

Preventive

■

■

PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL

TABLE 3.4  Types and Characteristics of Groups

Receive feedback

Specific commonality/interest

Support focused

(continued )

some maybe short term (e.g., related to book)

Ongoing;

■

■

■

VIRTUAL GROUPS

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Wide range of professionals

Process consultant

Facilitated By

Role of Facilitator

Help group complete task/ function

TASK/WORK/ FUNCTIONAL

TYPE OF SMALL GROUPS

provide perspective;

facilitate communication

facilitate therapeutic factors

facilitate communication;

creator of safe environment;

build a safe environment;

less directivel

facilitate changed perspective; content expert;

Move group through appropriate stages;

Licensed/certified mental health specialist with a minimum of a master’s degree

COUNSELING

Presenter of knowledge;

licensed /certified mental health specialists

school psychologists;

social workers;

student assistance counselors;

nurses;

teachers;

School counselors;

PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL

TABLE 3.4  Types and Characteristics of Groups  (continued)

Facilitate personality change

Facilitate therapeutic factors

Create a safe environment

Assist in group and individual goals

Expert in pervasive emotional issues and group

Advanced Group Work Training and Supervision in Psychotherapy

Licensed/Certified Mental Health Specialist with a minimum of a master’s degree

PSYCHOTHERAPY

consultant

moderate what is posted/and or approve postings;

remind participants of group rules;

Maintain emotional safety;

Wide range of people who sign on to administer/ moderate

VIRTUAL GROUPS

74  Introduction to Group Counseling

Examples

choosing officers of a club/ organization

task/project specific group;

Work group-­ climate committee; children of divorce group

social skills;

grief and loss;

Organizational skills;

relationship skills

teenage pregnancy;

Personal growth group;

Specific Behavioral Disorders

Substance Abuse

Depression

Higher Education Online Learning Collaborative (created in response to COVID-­19)

Facebook group: Moms who have had miscarriages;

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76  Introduction to Group Counseling attract members to your group. If you are running a group in schools, you will need to identify members from multiple data points and needs assessments. While the common principles of group are applied in all settings, types of groups and how to identify group members may look vastly different.

GROUP LEADERSHIP STYLE Group leadership style is fluid and constantly in development. As one’s leadership style matures it will become clearer how to describe it. The more experience you have the better able you will be to determine your own style and what works best with the particular clients or students you are serving. Nonetheless, group leader skills, dispositions, and experiences are what in turn make up a group leader’s style. One way of conceptualizing variations in style is the level of structure provided by the leader. Jacobs et al. (2016) describe this as having a leader-­directed style versus a group-­directed style. Highly structured leaders (or a leader-­directed style) put a lot of effort into planning the sessions and fostering the group environment during implementation to follow their plan with less flexibility. On the other end of the continuum, highly unstructured leaders will still plan the sessions; however, the sessions will have much more flexibility in how they unfold. The leader will be more willing to follow what is presented during the session. There obviously are pros and cons to both of these variations. For instance, with the highly unstructured leadership style there is more risk for going substantially off topic, but there are also greater opportunities that may emerge that could have not have been known when plans were made. Whereas the highly structured sessions are more easily replicated (not the outcomes per se) and therefore more easily able to be researched and studied. One point to consider is that, when thinking about the different phases of groups such as the early, middle, and ending, regardless of personal style, the leader tends to provide more structure early on, and then (hopefully) can provide less structure as the group unfolds. It is important to note that most of the basic counseling skills you have learned during introductory counseling courses within graduate school are the foundation for group counseling leadership and can consist of the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■

Active listening—reflecting content and emotions Questioning—emphasizing open-­ended prompts Challenging—confronting discrepancies, giving and receiving feedback Silence—allowing the group space for reflection Self-­disclosure—sharing hidden parts of oneself by modeling and then encouraging others to do the same Immediacy—bringing to light both verbal and nonverbal occurrences in the “here and now”

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Dispositions are made up of personality characteristics and can include elements such as temperament, mentality, patience, humor, flexibility, and so on. These personality traits are likely those that you were born with. While dispositions are not easily changed because these aspects are part of one’s personality, a leader’s awareness of their natural dispositions and how they might need to adapt their dispositions to effectively serve the group is crucial for good leadership. An aspect of the leader’s disposition can be useful within a group at times and less useful at others. For instance, humor can help to energize members or to shed light on another perspective if the mood has been overly serious. At other times, humor could be inappropriately timed or even harmful especially if coupled with sarcasm that is misunderstood. As you learn more about group leadership and group development, you are encouraged to think about how you can enhance your natural dispositions to best meet the needs of the group. Group experience is another big influence on one’s leadership style. Group experience is made up by the lessons learned from prior participation in groups as a member or leader. These groups can be clinical groups but also personal groups (e.g., sports teams, work teams) or familial groups. All of your experiences in any type of group will impact the way in which you view groups and the manner in which you lead your own groups. The important thing to note here is that over time your experience will continue to grow as you engage in more groups. Group experience can play a major role in how one adjusts to the unexpected, how one deals with the unknown, and how one anticipates what could happen over the life span of a group. Assessing one’s group leadership within the context of one’s multicultural awareness and competence will allow group leaders to know themselves and how their cultural competence can impact group development. Remember, group leadership skill development is not static, but can ebb and flow based on the frequency in which groups are led. Following graduate school, group leaders will have a basic understanding of how to plan, deliver, and evaluate a group in a particular setting. This information does not always easily transfer from setting to setting, and therefore additional training can be gained during a professional conference, webinars, and ongoing continuing education. See Box 3.5 for prompts to consider your own personality style. BOX 3.5  Personality and Leadership

Take a few moments and think about your personality style and characteristics. For example, you might think about the extent to which you are introverted or extroverted, your sense of humor, your general level of patience for others, and how comfortable you are giving and receiving feedback. It may also help to bring to mind situations where you have been in a leadership position (continued)

78  Introduction to Group Counseling

Box 3.5  Personality and Leadership (continued)

previously—perhaps on a sports team, a community project, or a group assignment for a class. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. How would you generally describe yourself? 2. As you think about your natural personality characteristics, where do you see your natural leadership strengths and where are some areas of growth for you? 3. What will you need to take into consideration about your natural personality style in order to make sure you are effective at working with diverse members in your group? 4. If you have trouble identifying past leadership experiences in other areas of your life, how might this impact your development as a group leader?

GROUP DELIVERY IN MULTIPLE SETTINGS As previously mentioned, the types of groups, length of time, and membership may differ from setting to setting. There are contextual (e.g., location, leadership, clients, systems) and specializations (e.g., mental health, marriage and family, career, school) factors that contribute to how a group may be planned, implemented, and evaluated. Let’s take a look at two of those settings and factors.

Schools Schools are complex environments. Therefore, the following information is presented in a general manner recognizing that all of these concepts do not apply in every school setting. Also, a school setting could involve different group leaders from different disciplines with different training; therefore, the manner in which a group in a school could be set up may differ. For the purposes of this section, we focus primarily on school personnel who work within the school building to set up the counseling groups in particular. In schools there are a number of individuals apart from just the student participants who will be involved in the groups that you run. For instance, school administration, teachers, staff members, students, parents/guardians, and other mental health personnel are all potential stakeholders for these groups in school. Specifically, before the group begins you may be responsible for seeking approval to implement the group intervention. This could entail receiving approval from the

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principal at your school or a mandate from central office administrators. Next, the teachers will be instrumental in helping with student selection and staff members such as a secretary or other support staff may help you find a secure location in which to run these groups. Furthermore, the students may self-­select for participation or be involved in anonymously referring their peers for participation. Parental and/or guardian permission will need to be solicited and these individuals are great resources for discovering what their child’s strengths and areas for improvement entail in regard to the goals and outcomes desired. Last, but not least, if the school you work in has a large mental health team, you may have the luxury or privilege to co-­lead groups in school with others who could provide a unique perspective to this work. The point is, setting up, running, and assessing a group is not something that you will do in isolation; however, you may be the only one who has a clear idea of what you would like to accomplish because of your solid knowledge and skills learned about groups.

Clinical Mental Health Settings In clinical mental health settings many times the agency will have a focus or foci that they target to meet the needs of their clients. This is often based on the vision and mission of the organization. Take for instance, the Valuing Life clinic (fictitious name), a well-­established nonprofit organization that has a mission to provide service to people in need, to advocate for justice in social structures, and to challenge the community to help those who are less fortunate. This organization, located in many major cities around the country, provides counseling services using a variety of modalities in order to connect with clients in the community. The major focus is providing access to those who are less fortunate and to provide work-/job-­related support to those in need with the goal of reducing poverty. They also provide counseling services to individuals and families and many times these sessions are free of charge. If you were a counselor or intern at a Valuing Life clinic, setting up a group within the clinic will likely involve getting approval from the leadership. The clinic director will help you determine the needs of clients and the capacity to meet them using groups. In particular, the group format and structure as well as the type of group will need to be explored before its commencement. Following this approval process, advertising and recruitment of members, screening members, and confirming the schedule for the sessions are necessary. You will also need to decide the curriculum and the supplemental assessment and evaluation tools in addition to those used during intake to establish some tentative treatment goals. When the group members come together, you and your co-­leader will spell out for them the goals and objectives of the intervention. The group will work on identifying each person’s individual goals and these will be revisited periodically throughout the life of the group.

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GROUP ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION The words assessment and evaluation are frequently used interchangeably, but there are subtle and important differences. When we use the term evaluation, we are thinking broadly about the extent to which the group as a whole accomplished its purpose, individual members met their goals, and examining any other indicators of either positive or negative experiences in the group. When we use the term assessment, we are referring to using a specific instrument, or measure. In terms of their relation to one another, counselors use assessments (formal or informal) to arrive at a larger evaluation. Regardless of the topic of the group, Professional Standards for the Training of Group Workers (Association for Specialists in Group Work, 2000) identify as a core training standard the ability of leaders to “identify and describe: (a) methods for evaluating group process in group work, (b) methods for evaluating outcomes in group work” (II.F.1). In the context of the group models discussed earlier in the chapter, the evaluation component often comes at the end of the group; for example, during the adjourning (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977), the final phase (Corey et al., 2018) or the evaluation phase (Conyne et al., 2008). Although the evaluation of the group often takes place at the end, the leader must determine how they are going to evaluate the group prior to the start of the group. Often, pre- and post-­assessment of some variety are helpful in order to look at members’ change over the course of the group. When you think about assessment, you want to consider whether or not members in your group experienced change, as well as what occurred that allowed for the change to happen. Typically, to answer whether or not members in the group experienced change, you will need to think about what, specifically, you are expecting to change. For example, you may want to measure a change in members’ symptoms of a mental health diagnosis, such as anxiety, depression, substance use/abuse, or eating disorder. Similarly but on a slightly different note, you may want to measure something that is more general, such as self-­esteem, self-­efficacy, or assertiveness. To understand member change in these types of areas, you will likely want to use an instrument that has been developed specifically to measure these constructs. On the other hand, you may want to get a more general sense of not just whether there has been a change, but what has been impactful or stood out to group members over the course of the session or over the course of the life of the group. If this is the case, you may want to look at something like a Critical Incident Questionnaire (Kivlighan & Goldfine, 1991), where members note the interactions or experiences that have impacted them the most. Another option is to consider measuring how members (and/or leaders) are experiencing the group environment. This can be helpful for the leader to get a

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more general sense of how members are feeling in the group, and the extent to which members feel connected to the group process as a whole. Assessing the group environment or therapeutic factors can encourage members to reflect on their experience in the group, as well as provide valuable data to the leader regarding issues of group process. Finally, it is possible that you review the available assessments and determine there is nothing that quite fits your specific needs, or that something critical is being left out. In this case, the leader may develop a questionnaire that is specific to the group they are running. When the leader is considering assessment ideas and tools, the leader must take into consideration the cultural background of their group members. As counselors, we have an ethical responsibility to use assessment procedures that are appropriate for the cultural backgrounds of our clients and group members. Section E.8 of the 2014 ACA Code of Ethics addresses culture in assessment, reminding counselors to be cautious when using assessment tools that are normed on populations that are different than their clients. Further, counselors must take into consideration how cultural variables impact administration and interpretation of the results within school settings. For instance, section B.2.n in the ASCA Code of Ethics states a responsibility to the school by adhering to educational/psychological research practices, confidentiality safeguards, security practices, and school district policies related to distribution of findings.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS In addition to the ethical consideration of assessment, there are a number of other ethical concerns related to group leadership. As a student learning how to set up, implement, and evaluate a group, you may often feel as though you are practicing beyond your scope of experience, especially when you are a counselor trainee or early in your career and you have very little or no leadership experience. Therefore, the following must be accounted for when engaging in this work early on, and as you get more experience and therefore begin to work with more difficult scenarios, over one’s professional lifetime: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Seeking supervision Attending professional conferences Engaging in reflective practice Collaborating and consulting with others Discovering cultural brokers Engaging in self-­care Pursuing additional training

82  Introduction to Group Counseling Taking steps to remain involved in these important tasks can help to ensure that any work you do is meeting minimum requirements. As one’s experience grows, taking these steps can help you become a competent and successful group leader.

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

■

■

■

Understanding group dynamics is a critical element in your role as a leader. Group dynamics include identifying content versus process, setting facilitative norms, understanding member roles, identifying member and leader identities and how these impact the group, and using group development models to select appropriate interventions. Prior to starting the group, the leader must consider the purpose of the group and the type of group they wish to run. These decisions will inform the way in which the leader engages with the group. Understanding one’s own personality style and how this informs leadership is critical to being an effective leader. In addition, leaders must consider how their personality features may be experienced by diverse membership. The setting of the group (e.g., school or clinical mental health) will inform decisions by the group leader, such as where referrals will be obtained, who the stakeholders are, and when and where the group can take place. Assessment is a critical element of the group process, and formal and informal methods of assessment should be identified prior to the group commencing There are a number of ethical considerations to attend to when facilitating a group. First and foremost, group leaders should not practice beyond the scope of their knowledge.

CASE STUDY 3.1 REVISITED: GRIEF GROUP FOR MIDDLE SCHOOLERS Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. 1. What type of group is this? What evidence suggests the type? 2. What stage of the group do you think they are in? What evidence suggests that stage of the group? 3. What might be some of the identities of the members? If unsure, why might that be? 4. How might you evaluate this group? What might you use? 5. How do you attend to different identities when discussing grief and loss? 6. What might be some of the ethical considerations for this specific group?

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END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. A group member accuses another member of being racist. What should the group leaders do within the session? What about between this session and the next? 2. A group of students discuss aspects of the group outside of the session. Is this appropriate? Why or why not? 3. Parents want to know what is being discussed in groups with the group leaders. What are some ethical considerations concerning this? 4. Teachers are refusing to let the students participate in groups because they are not clear on whether or not these groups are helpful. What should the group leaders do to address these concerns? 5. One member never shares in a group. She is also the only Latina within the group. Should the group leaders present a discussion on social isolation within the group and/or in our personal lives? 6. What is your group leadership style? You may not have any specific counseling group leadership, but think about class projects, work groups, teams, and so on that you have been a part of and had some leadership role in. What are some areas for improvement? What do you bring in the room with you, in terms of your cultural background and intersecting identities, and how might this impact your leadership style?

In-Class Small Group Activity On one side of an index card, have each member of the group list their intersecting identities. On the other side of this card, have the group member provide strengths associated with these identities and challenges associated with these identities. Once each group member has completed both sides ofthe index card, have the group take turns discussing their identities, strengths, and challenges associated with these identities.

Discussion Questions 1. What are some of the themes or categories of identities that came up in your group?

84  Introduction to Group Counseling 2. As you discussed different identities of your classmates, what identities (either of your own or of others) came up that you had not thought to consider previously?

Process Questions 1. How did learning about your classmates’ different identities help you get to know them better? 2. What was it like to talk about your strengths and challenges and your classmates’ strengths and challenges with different parts of your/their identities? 3. What elements of your identity or your classmates’ identities did you find easier and more difficult to discuss with your classmates? What do you make of this? 4. If you think about populations or settings in which you may be working in your future as a counselor, how might this activity be modified to fit your needs?

When doing such an activity, you may have identified some of the categories mentioned earlier, such as race, ethnicity, and gender. But other aspects such as parental status, athletic involvement, personality traits (e.g., happy, humorous), master’s student and so forth could also be noted. The point is, identity is relative, fluid, contextual, and subjective. Understanding one’s own intersecting identities and allowing members to explore them and refer to them during a group and over the life of a group can, in fact, maximize group dynamics.

Journal Starters 1. How do you distinguish between an area of group work that is a stretch in terms of your level of competence, but still appropriate with the right support versus an area of group work that may be beyond your area of competence and not appropriate for you to lead? Can you think of any specific topics that may fit into either of these categories for you? If the group is a stretch but still appropriate, what type of support would you need to enlist? For groups that may be quite beyond your level of competence, what are some concrete strategies that you could employ to enhance your level of competence in this area?

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Homework Ideas 1. Start brainstorming ideas for topics of groups you may be interested in facilitating. Think about how your setting (e.g., school, community agency, substance abuse facility, hospital, eating disorders clinic) will influence the topic you choose and the type of group (e.g., task group, psychoeducation group, counseling group, or psychotherapy group)? 2. Spend a few minutes on your school’s library database examining the literature around a group topic of your choice. What kind of literature is available on your topic of interest? As far as you can tell, are the groups being described in the literature task, psychoeducation, counseling, or psychotherapy groups? What helps you make your determination?

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 3.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES Association for Specialists in Group Work. (2000). ASGW professional standards for group counseling. Author. Conyne, R. K. (2014). Group work leadership: An introduction for helpers. SAGE Publications. Conyne, R. K., Crowell, J. L., & Newmeyer, M. D. (2008). Group techniques: How to use them more purposefully. Pearson Education. Corey, M. S., Corey, G., & Corey, C. (2018). Groups: Process and practice (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. Hays, P. A. (2001). Addressing cultural complexities in practice: A framework for clinicians and counselors (pp. 3–16). American Psychological Association, vii, 239 pp. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​10411​-000

86  Introduction to Group Counseling Hogg, M. A., & Williams, K. D. (2000). "From I to we: Social identity and the collective self". Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4(1), 81–97. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​1089​-2699​.4​.1​.81 Jacobs, E. E., Schimmel, C. J., Masson, R. L., & Harvill, R. L. (2016). Group counseling: Strategies and skills. Cengage learning. Kivlighan, D. M., & Goldfine, D. C. (1991). Endorsement of therapeutic factors as a function of stage of group development and participant interpersonal attitudes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(2), 150–158. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​0022​-0167​.38​.2​.150 Steen, S., Henfield, M. S., & Booker, B. (2014). Using the ASE group counseling model to prepare school counselors for group work. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 39(29), 46. Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​h0022100 Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977). Stages of small-­group development revisited. Group & Organization Studies, 2(4), 419–427. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​105960117700200404 Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (5th ed.). Basic Books/ Hachette Book Group.

4 Ethical Practice and Cultural Competence

Learning Objectives ■

Identify the various professional organizations and accreditation bodies that heavily influence group work practice.

■

Review creative ideas that promote ethical practice in multiculturally focused group counseling.

■

Analyze group-­related incidents at different phases of a group’s life that may elicit ethical decision-­making by group leaders.

■

Apply accessible and inclusive language in groups.

See Table 4.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

87

Counselors are aware of—and avoid imposing—their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Counselors respect the diversity of clients, trainees, and research participants, and seek training in areas in which they are at risk of imposing their values onto clients, especially when the counselor’s values are inconsistent with the client’s goals or are discriminatory in nature

Counselors screen prospective group counseling/therapy participants. To the extent possible, counselors select members whose needs and goals are compatible with the goals of the group, who will not impede the group process, and whose well-­being will not be jeopardized by the group experience

In group work, counselors clearly explain the importance and parameters of confidentiality for the specific group

Counselors inform parents and legal guardians about the role of counselors and the confidential nature of the counseling relationship, consistent with current legal and custodial arrangements. Counselors are sensitive to the cultural diversity of families and respect the inherent rights and responsibilities of parents/guardians regarding the welfare of their children/charges according to law. Counselors work to establish, as appropriate, collaborative relationships with parents/guardians to best serve their clients

Counselors practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervision experience, state and national credentials, and appropriate professional experience. Whereas multicultural counseling competence is required across all counseling specialties, counselors gain knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity, dispositions, and skills pertinent to being a culturally competent counselor in working with a diverse client population

A.4.b

A.9.a

B.4.a

B.5.b

C.2.a

ACA Code of Ethics

Approaches to group formation, including recruiting, screening, and selecting members

2.6.e

CACREP

DEFINITION

STANDARD

GUIDING DOCUMENT

TABLE 4.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter

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School counselors: are knowledgeable of laws, regulations, and policies affecting students and families and strive to protect and inform students and families regarding their rights

School counselors: inform students of the purposes, goals, techniques, and rules of procedure under which they may receive counseling. Disclosure includes informed consent and clarification of the limits of confidentiality. Informed consent requires competence, voluntariness, and knowledge on the part of students to understand the limits of confidentiality and, therefore, can be difficult to obtain from students of certain developmental levels, English-­language learners, and special needs populations. If the student is able to give assent/consent before school counselors share confidential information, school counselors attempt to gain the student’s assent/consent

School counselors: explain the limits of confidentiality in developmentally appropriate terms through multiple methods such as student handbooks, school counselor department websites, school counseling brochures, classroom lessons, and/or verbal notification to individual students

School counselors: keep information confidential unless legal requirements demand that confidential information be revealed or a breach is required to prevent serious and foreseeable harm to the student. Serious and foreseeable harm is different for each minor in schools and is determined by students’ developmental and chronological age, the setting, parental rights, and the nature of the harm. School counselors consult with appropriate professionals when in doubt as to the validity of an exception

A.1.g

A.2.b

A.2.d

A.2.e

(continued )

School counselors: respect students’ and families’ values, beliefs, sexual orientation, gender identification/expression and cultural background, and exercise great care to avoid imposing personal beliefs or values rooted in one’s religion, culture, or ethnicity

A.1.f

ASCA Code of Ethics

DEFINITION

STANDARD

GUIDING DOCUMENT

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GUIDING DOCUMENT

DEFINITION

School counselors: recognize their primary ethical obligation for confidentiality is to the students but balance that obligation with an understanding of parents’/guardians’ legal and inherent rights to be the guiding voice in their children’s lives. School counselors understand the need to balance students' ethical rights to make choices, their capacity to give consent or assent, and parental or familial legal rights and responsibilities to make decisions on their child’s behalf

School counselors: screen students for group membership

School counselors: communicate the aspiration of confidentiality as a group norm, while recognizing and working from the protective posture that confidentiality for minors in schools cannot be guaranteed

School counselors: practice within their competence level and develop professional competence through training and supervision

School counselors: inform parents/guardians and/or appropriate authorities when a student poses a serious and foreseeable risk of harm to self or others. When feasible, this is to be done after careful deliberation and consultation with other appropriate professionals. School counselors inform students of the school counselor’s legal and ethical obligations to report the concern to the appropriate authorities unless it is appropriate to withhold this information to protect the student (e.g., student might run away if he/she knows parents are being called). The consequence of the risk of not giving parents/guardians a chance to intervene on behalf of their child is too great. Even if the danger appears relatively remote, parents should be notified

School counselors: report suspected cases of child abuse and neglect to the proper authorities and take reasonable precautions to protect the privacy of the student for whom abuse or neglect is suspected when alerting the proper authorities

School counselors: recognize and mitigate the limitation of virtual/distance school counseling confidentiality, which may include unintended viewers or recipients

STANDARD

A.2.f

A.7.c

A.7.e

A.7.h

A.9.a

A.11.b

A.15.d

TABLE 4.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter  (continued)

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ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

ASGW Professional Training Standards

GUIDING DOCUMENT

Group workers screen prospective group members if appropriate to the type of group being offered. When selection of group members is appropriate, group workers identify group members whose needs and goals are compatible with the needs and goals of the group

A.7.a

(continued )

Group workers maintain awareness and sensitivity regarding cultural meaning of confidentiality and privacy. Group workers respect differing views toward disclosure of information. They have a professional disclosure statement that includes information on confidentiality and exceptions to confidentiality, theoretical orientation, information on the nature, purpose(s), and goals of the group, the group services that can be provided, the role and responsibility of group members and leaders. Group workers have the qualifications to conduct the specific group(s), the specific license, certifications, and professional affiliations, and the address of licensing/credentialing body

Identify and describe: diversity competent group work

II.G.1.c

A.6

Identify and describe: ethical considerations unique to group work

School counselors: refrain from refusing services to students based solely on the school counselor’s personally held beliefs or values rooted in their religion, culture or ethnicity. School counselors respect the diversity of students and seek training and supervision when prejudice or biases interfere with providing comprehensive services to all students

B.3.j

II.G.1.a

DEFINITION

STANDARD

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ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

GUIDING DOCUMENT

Group workers define confidentiality and its limits (e.g., legal and ethical exceptions and expectations; waivers implicit with treatment plans, documentation, and insurance usage). Group workers have the responsibility to inform all group participants of the need for confidentiality, potential consequences for breaching confidentiality, and that legal privilege does not apply to group discussions (unless provided by state statute)

A.7.d

Demonstrate movement to being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality are impacted by their own experiences and histories

Group workers facilitate informed consent. They communicate information in ways that are both developmentally and culturally appropriate. Group workers provide in oral and written form to prospective members (when appropriate to group type): the professional disclosure statement; group purpose and goals; group participation expectations including voluntary and involuntary membership; role expectations of members and leader(s); policies related to entering and exiting the group; policies governing substance use; policies and procedures governing mandated groups (where relevant); documentation requirements; disclosure of information to others; implications of out-­of-­group contact or involvement among members; procedures for consultation between group leader(s) and group member(s); fees and time parameters; and potential impacts of group participation

A.7.b

I.1

DEFINITION

STANDARD

TABLE 4.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter  (continued)

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Knowledge: privileged and marginalized counselors possess an understanding of how their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

Action: privileged and marginalized counselors take action to increase their understanding of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, biases, social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, biases, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

Knowledge: privileged and marginalized counselors possess knowledge of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, biases, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

Action: privileged and marginalized counselors take action to increase their understanding of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, biases, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

I.2

III.4

II.1

II.2

II.4

Use culturally appropriate pre-­group screening mechanisms. Group members should be carefully selected based on type, focus, and purpose of the multicultural group

II.a.14

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

Demonstrate movement toward being increasingly aware of and sensitive to the multiple dimensions of the multicultural and multilayered identities of group members

I.2

I.1

DEFINITION

STANDARD

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

GUIDING DOCUMENT

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CASE STUDY 4.1 This outpatient group is for parents who are experiencing strain in their relationships with their adult children. The group is in the second session, and they are discussing some of the recent tensions in their relationships. Susie: I just cannot believe my son Eric and his partner are talking about adopting a baby! He told me last night on the phone and we got into a huge argument about it. He told me that I needed to mind my own business, and that he and his partner will be great parents to a baby. Can you believe that? Alberto: What is it that you can’t believe about that, Susie? Susie: I mean, a baby needs a mother and a father. It would be so confusing to have two dads! Plus, I can’t imagine they would be able to nurture a baby in the same way a mom could. If Eric had not chosen to partner with a man, I would be thrilled at the idea of a grandbaby. But a grandbaby with two dads just makes me worried, not excited. Dominique: I don’t think it was a choice for Eric to partner with a man, Susie. Susie: Of course it’s a choice! He could have just as easily chosen to date his cute female neighbor who lives right next door, just like I chose to be with his dad. Farrah: I don’t know if I think it’s a choice or not, but I understand you not wanting your son and his partner to adopt a baby. I agree that this is not a good idea at all. Keep this case study in mind as you read through the remainder of the chapter. We will revisit it at the end of the chapter.

INTRODUCTION In order to protect members and provide the best treatment possible, it is crucial for leaders to understand the ethical challenges inherent in group work. Certainly, there is crossover in ethical concerns related to individual counseling, for example, confidentiality, but there is also nuance that is specific to leading groups. In addition, group leaders have an ethical responsibility to use skills and interventions that are informed by the intersecting identities of group members. Throughout this chapter, we identify ethical standards that inform the practice of group work, frequent ethical issues that group workers need to attend to, and how ethics and cultural competence intersect as a group leader.

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STANDARDS

The Association for Specialists in Group Work The Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) is a division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that attends specifically to group work. ASGW in the past published The Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers (MSJCPGW; Singh et al., 2012), the Professional Standards for the Training of Group Workers (Wilson & Rapin, 2000), and the Association for Specialists in Group Work: Best Practice Guidelines revisions (Thomas & Pender, 2008) separately. More recently, an elite group of group work experts collaborated to consolidate these documents in order to provide clarity to practitioners and counselor educators. As a result they created the ASGW Guiding Principles for Group Workers (McCarthy et al., 2022). These guiding principles aim to integrate ethical practice, contextual perspectives, and organizational values that offer a map for group scholars and practitioners across varied disciplines and purposes. This consolidation, in time, will help to address complex issues within a contemporary society. In light of the fact that these guiding principles just arrived on the scene, we summarize in the following the documents that have been used by the authors in our teaching and scholarship up to this point.

The Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers The Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers (MSJCPGW; Singh et al., 2012) identifies three areas of focus: awareness of self and group members, strategies and skills, and social justice advocacy. Examples of awareness of self and others include concepts such as being aware of one’s own multicultural identity, as well as group member’s identities; awareness of different ways of connecting and communicating with others; and understanding how systems of oppression may impact group members. The MSJCPGW identifies strategies and skills, which are broken down by planning skills and performing and processing skills. Examples of planning skills include the ability to show respect for members’ multicultural worldviews; demonstrating relationship skills that help facilitate connection among diverse members; using culturally grounded interventions and conceptualizations appropriate for the members; and identifying how group dynamics are impacted by multicultural elements. Examples of performing and processing skills include establishing norms within the group that “accept, value, and respect cultural differences” (p. 5); addressing cultural conflicts within the group; and meeting the language needs of the group members. The final section of principles addresses social

96  Introduction to Group Counseling justice advocacy for group leaders. Examples of these actions include identifying opportunities for activism; volunteering leadership skills for community activism; and willingness to intervene at the institutional level.

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines The authors of the ASGW Best Practice Guidelines revisions (2008) noted, “It is incumbent upon group workers to give considerable attention to the intent and context of their actions because the attempts of group workers to influence human behavior through group work always have ethical implications” (Thomas & Pender, 2008, p. 112). In other words, when we are leading groups we need to be very attuned to the ethical implications of our behavior.

The American Counseling Association The ACA provides broad guidance regarding ethical issues that are specific to group work in the 2014 Code of Ethics. Namely, the Code references the importance of screening members (A.9.a) and taking reasonable precautions to ensure that clients will not experience emotional, physical, or psychological trauma (A.9.b). In theory, screening members is fairly straightforward, where the leader is intentional about selecting members for the group who are likely to benefit from the group experience, who are unlikely to prevent other members from having a positive experience, and who are unlikely to experience adverse effects from participating in the group. However, sometimes it can be tricky to discern via a brief conversation the extent to which a potential member is a good fit for the group. Screening as an ethical issue is discussed later in the chapter.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Informed Consent Obtaining informed consent is a critical piece of individual counseling as well as group counseling, but it is worthwhile to spend time discussing some of the particulars of informed consent in the context of group counseling. The purpose of informed consent is to give clients enough information about what the group will entail, as well as the risks and benefits, in order for potential members to make an informed choice about whether or not they want to proceed with participating. In

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accordance with the ASGW Best Practice Guidelines (2008), the leader should include the following in their disclosure statement: confidentiality and the exceptions to confidentiality, theoretical orientation, information on the nature, purpose(s) and goals of the group, the group services that can be provided, the role and responsibility of group members and leaders, group workers’ qualifications to conduct the specific group(s), specific licenses, certifications, and professional affiliations, and address of licensing/ credentialing body. (pp. 113–114) In providing information about what the group will entail, you do not necessarily need to offer a play-­by-­play of what each week will look like. However, you do need to provide some general expectations of what it means to be a group member. For example, you might let potential members know that there is usually the expectation that members disclose in some way, although the level and type of disclosure will be left to the group member. Further, it is also important to let members know that feedback between members, and from leader to member is encouraged. This is critical because receiving constructive feedback can be difficult, and sometimes giving constructive feedback is experienced as even more difficult. If you anticipate using any specific activities that may be uncomfortable for members—for example, engaging in a ropes course, conducting activities where touch is necessary, or engaging in some sort of exposure to address anxiety—this is critical information to convey to potential group members. Certainly, if situations come up where group members do not want to participate, you will not force them to do so. However, it can be helpful for members to have as much information as possible on the front end so that they do not end up in a potentially precarious place of either participating in something that feels overly uncomfortable, or abstaining from participating and feeling uncomfortable about abstaining. Although informed consent is often thought about as something that occurs at the beginning of the counseling process, it should be conceptualized as ongoing throughout the life of the group. You will endeavor to provide important information about what the group experience will entail at the outset, but the experience is ongoing and members should be reminded that they are always empowered to choose whether or not to participate in a specific discussion or activity, and the extent to which they would like to disclose. However, it is important for the leader to remember that there is always a power imbalance, where the leader holds more power than the members. As counselors, we work to narrow this power imbalance, but as someone who is strategic in deciding when and how to disclose to ensure the focus remains on the members, and as the person who has the most knowledge about the group counseling process, there is no way to avoid some power differential. In fact, acknowledging this within session can aid in developing a space that is conducive for others to engage. That said, this imbalance can

98  Introduction to Group Counseling be particularly significant if multiple facets of the leader’s intersecting identities are from traditionally privileged groups, and if one or multiple facets of the members’ intersecting identities are from traditionally marginalized groups. Another scenario is where only one or two members hold identity statuses from traditionally marginalized groups, while most of the other members hold statuses from traditionally privileged groups. In these and other complex scenarios, the power imbalance increases (Figure 4.1).

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FIGURE 4.1  Amplify restorative justice. Source: Reproduced with permission from Amplify Restorative Justice. (2021). Wheel of Power & Privilege. Retrieved from https://www.instagram.com/p/CMvTMWCBDn5/

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Use the questions in Box 4.1 to reflect on concerns related to power and privilege as a group leader. Box 4.1  Power Differentials in Groups

As noted, an important ethical consideration is providing enough information about what the group will entail (or what a specific activity will entail) so that members can make an informed choice for themselves about whether or not they want to participate. However, just as in the world outside of the group there are power differentials, so too are there power differentials within the group that you will want to consider. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. As you think about your own intersecting identities, how do you understand the ways in which you may hold power over other members in a group setting? What about the marginalized identities you hold: How might they impact your leadership style or disposition? 2. What are some concrete ways you can think of to attend to the power imbalance between yourself as a leader and your members? 3. Imagine a situation where the majority of the group is comprised of White, heterosexual, cisgender members. How can you imagine members who identify otherwise might be impacted in terms of (a) their interest in participating in the group and (b) their ability to feel free to choose whether or not to participate? 4. Imagine a situation where the majority of the group is composed of non-­ White, nongender-­ conforming individuals and your intersections of identity overlap with the group members. How can you be certain that you remain open to the reality that your experiences may still very well be quite different from the group members?

Risks of Group Counseling Although there is ample evidence to support the use of group counseling as a modality for a number of different presenting concerns and populations, participating in a group is not free from risk. As part of the informed consent process, group leaders should discuss the risks inherent in being in a group. Although the following list is not exhaustive, good examples of the risks that may be present, regardless of the type and setting of the group, are presented. We believe that a defining feature of a group experience is the focus on understanding how we relate to one another, and the ways in which our interpersonal style are effective for us, and the ways in which our interpersonal style may be getting in the

100  Introduction to Group Counseling way for us. As such, regardless of the type of group, we believe an important function of the group is for members to experience interpersonal learning (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020). Oftentimes, when people identify how the ways in which they interact with others are not healthy or effective for them, they work toward interacting differently. For example, consider the member who starts the group with no understanding of what boundaries are, why they are important, and how to set and hold them. Throughout the group, this member may experience increased awareness of the importance of boundaries, and will therefore hopefully start practicing setting and holding boundaries with others (e.g., their boss, partner, friends, family). Although this is likely ultimately healthy for the member, it may lead to disruption in these relationships. For example, the boss who once asked the member to work overtime without pay, may be less than thrilled when the member sets the boundary of being willing to work overtime but only if they are compensated appropriately. Change can be difficult, both for the member and for the people with whom the member is in a relationship. Therefore, it is important that members are aware of the possibility of hiccups in their interpersonal relationships as they modify their interpersonal style to be more effective for them. Further, increased awareness of self is also a goal and frequent outcome of group counseling. Although, in the long term, having increased awareness of one’s blind spots can lead to healthier and more effective functioning, an increase in awareness often comes with discomfort. See the transcript in Box 4.2 for an example of increased awareness in a group member that, while ultimately helpful, can feel uncomfortable in the moment. BOX 4.2  Dialogue Addressing Members’ Increased Awareness of Self

Here is an excerpt from a conversation during the middle stage of the group. The group is taking place in the summer of 2020, in the wake of the murder of George Floyd who was an unarmed Black man who lost his life during public humiliation and to police brutality. The group has been recently engaged in discussions around their racial identity and how they understand their racial identity impacts their day-­to-­day lives. Allan (White, cisgender, heterosexual male): I am really embarrassed to admit this, but I just had never really thought that being White was also considered part of my culture until everything that has happened recently. I know I have a lot of confusion but I am also wanting to more fully understand my Whiteness and I am not totally sure where to start. Samantha (Black, cisgender, heterosexual female): I appreciate your sharing, Allan. While I understand what it means to be a Black woman in this society, I am having some new emotional experiences and also some issues of trust with all types of people. (continued)

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Box 4.2  Dialogue Addressing Members’ Increased Awareness of Self (continued)

Deba (Indochinese, cisgender, lesbian) I want to say, I think it’s so great you’ve figured that out, Allan. I used to be like that too but now I’m an ally for Black and Brown folks. Trevor (biracial, cisgender, homosexual male): What are some things you do to be an ally, Deba? Deba: What do you mean, some things I do? Trevor: Well, to be an ally requires action. Deba: Oh. Well ... I don’t know, I was thinking about it more as a belief system. Like, I definitely don’t believe society should be any different for anyone. I am also committed to learning. One example I can give is that last week I posted a black square on my Instagram feed and muted myself for the day so I could amplify non-­White voices. Allan: I still don’t know that I get it. Whose voices were amplified and what good did it do to post a black square? I am sorry if this is ignorant, but I don’t understand. Marcus (Black, cisgender, heterosexual male): Allan, it makes sense that you don’t understand. Samantha, I appreciate that you are sharing. I am also having more skepticism about White people. And, when I hear people wanting to be an ally, for me it is beyond a belief system and it definitely requires more than posting a black square on your social media feed. Without more tangible action, that feels kind of performative. It seems phony, temporary, and even pacifying. Deba rustles in her seat, her face is flushed and she looks to the floor. Ji Woo (Korean, cisgender, heterosexual female, leader): (directly) Deba, what’s going on for you right now as you listen to others in the group? Anything in particular stand out to you? Deba: I don’t know. I guess I am pretty embarrassed. I also am not sure what to do next because I thought I was doing the right things. In fact, as a lesbian woman, who appears White but holds some status as a minority in this country, it feels isolating to me at times. I feel like even when I try to do the right thing my intentions are misunderstood. (continued)

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Box 4.2  Dialogue Addressing Members’ Increased Awareness of Self (continued)

After receiving feedback from some of the members of the group who hold minoritized statuses that her allyship was experienced as performative, Deba felt a little bit lost. Prior to this group experience, Deba, who holds marginalized identities herself, was feeling solid in her identity as an ally, but she had never received feedback about how people who hold other minority statuses experienced her. On the one hand, Deba described feeling appreciative of the feedback because this was not something she knew. On the other hand, this increased awareness resulted in feelings of uncertainty, embarrassment, misunderstanding, and guilt. This is a good example of how increased self-­ awareness, while ultimately good, can also be painful. Processing in a supportive environment allows Deba and others time, feedback, and space so that members are not left to reflect and internalize on their own. Yet another risk of participating in a group is the potential for feeling emotionally hurt by another member in the group. As the leader, we work hard to create a space that is safe and nonjudgmental, and where members exchange feedback that is constructive, but not hurtful. However, as a leader we cannot assure members that another member will not express judgment, or that a member will not experience a comment as judgmental. More specifically, because the group is a social microcosm (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), we can expect that the same systemic issues (e.g., racism, sexism, ableism, heterosexism) that exist in the world outside of the group, will also come up within the group. This presents a significant risk of retraumatization for these members. So, while we cannot stop harmful comments before they happen, we must be able to see these comments for what they are, and be willing and able to intervene in a therapeutic way. It will be important when leading difficult conversations to challenge members to focus inwardly to search for areas of growth and development instead of telling others areas in which they can change. Ultimately, goals will be set by each member individually, and the group offers a space to work on these goals with the help and assistance of others, but this feedback must not be forced upon members. Inviting people to share and drawing members in to reflect on what they are experiencing in the moment can mitigate some of the risk that is inevitable in groups.

Confidentiality As in individual counseling, the maintenance of confidentiality is an ethical and legal obligation for group leaders. However, confidentiality is nuanced in the context of a group because while you, as the leader, can face serious repercussions if you break

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confidentiality (e.g., the status of your license to practice could be in jeopardy), the other participants in the group do not have the same ethical and legal requirements to keep what is said in the group confidential. As a result, we need to communicate a few important elements about confidentiality to our group members. The first is that we as the leader cannot ensure member’s confidentiality. In other words, as the leader you cannot guarantee that no one else in the group will share something that another member has shared. However, you want to get buy in from members at the first meeting, and throughout the life of the group, that they will maintain one another’s confidentiality. Therefore, an important part of the beginning stage of the group is to discuss the leader’s requirements for confidentiality and to also ask members to agree to maintain the confidentiality of one another. At the same time, it is important that the leader does not make the promise that “everything that is said in the room, stays in the room” because although the leader can ensure their own confidentiality, they cannot definitively ensure the members’ confidentiality. With many older teenagers and adults, discussing confidentiality is pretty straightforward. The leader can say something like, “You own what you say in this group, so if you want to share that with others in your life, that is your choice. However, you do not own what other people say, so I ask that you keep what others say confidential.” However, sometimes confidentiality is more complicated. For example, we may need to think differently about how we discuss confidentiality with children or anyone who has cognitive limitations that may impact the way they understand what it means to keep information confidential. Confidentiality can also be more complicated in a group with adolescents and teenagers. In this situation, your members will want to know that you are not talking with their parents about everything they say in the group. At the same time, often parents or guardians want to have some idea of what is going on in the therapeutic process. Transparency about what you will discuss with guardians and what will be kept private is crucial, both for increasing members’ sense of safety and for maintaining open lines of communication with the guardians. Another example is participants who are mandated to come to counseling. In these situations, it is crucial for the leader to be very clear about what information will be kept private, and what information may be given to, for example, a client’s probation officer. An example of a nuanced situation regarding confidentiality can be found in Case Study 4.2.

CASE STUDY 4.2 CONFIDENTIALITY CONSIDERATIONS WITH ADOLESCENTS The following is an excerpt from an outpatient group of adolescents aged 13 and 14. This is the third session for the group. The group members are discussing current stressors and coping skills. (continued)

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CASE STUDY 4.2 CONFIDENTIALITY CONSIDERATIONS WITH ADOLESCENTS (CONTINUED) Alexandra (Leader): Let’s spend a few minutes sharing ideas about healthy coping skills you sometimes use to get through these stressful periods. Damon: What do you mean by “healthy”? Alexandra: Well, things that make you feel better, but are also good for you. Things like listening to music, exercising, or talking things out with a friend Ivy: Uh, none of those things really help Alexandra: Okay, those are just some examples, but I hear that they don’t quite work for you. Are there other ideas you have? Ivy: I don’t think you’d call what I usually do, “healthy,” but it definitely makes me feel better. Jerod: I agree, Ivy. Nothing else works for calming be down more than a few hits of weed. Ivy: I don’t really like smoking, but sometimes I cut my thighs a little bit. If I do, I can usually forget about all the other stress and awful stuff going on. That’s the only thing that helps. No way can music make me feel the same type of relief. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. If you were the leader, how would you respond in the conversation? 2. Members in the group are 13 and 14 years old. To what extent do Ivy’s and Jerod’s parents have a right to know about the cutting and marijuana use? 3. What about the other parents/guardians? Even though their children may not have suggested that they participate in similar risky behavior, how much information should they receive about this session? 4. What would you take into consideration in determining whether or not you would talk to their guardians about these issues? 5. How might your response differ if you are working in a school versus working in a clinical setting (e.g., community agency)? 6. In Jerod’s case, as marijuana becomes accepted recreationally or for medicinal purposes, how do you proceed in session and with the parents/ caretakers?

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It is important to remember that what it means to maintain confidentiality may be influenced by a member’s cultural background and family expectations around sharing. In some families, there may be more expectation for the member to discuss their experience in the group. Regardless of group composition, it is worthwhile to facilitate discussion with members around how they define confidentiality regarding the group experience, and how they can both honor the expectations around sharing their experience if there is one, while keeping the confidentiality of other members. The setting in which you are working may also impact the discussion with members around confidentiality. For example, while working at a university counseling center, the author (Rachel) always asked members if it would be okay for others in the group to acknowledge knowing one another outside of the group; for example, if they ran into one another in the dining hall. This was to guard against members having to explain to others they are with how they know the group member who has approached them and said hello. Some members may be comfortable saying they know the other person from a group. For other members, this could put them in the uncomfortable spot of having to choose to disclose they are in a group, or to say something dishonest so they do not have to explain. Therefore, it is recommended to address the nuances and expectations around confidentiality with the group members.

Limits of Confidentiality As in individual counseling, there are limits to a group leader’s maintenance of confidentiality. If a member is a threat to themselves or someone else, if they disclose child or elder abuse or neglect, or if the counselor’s records are subpoenaed, the counselor may be required to break confidentiality. It is important for the leader to be aware of state laws surrounding these ethical concerns, as this is a place where ethics and the law come together. For example, state laws differ regarding reporting requirements for abuse if the client is an adult and discussing historical abuse. As the leader, it is your responsibility to know what the reporting requirements are in your state, and to clearly articulate them to your group members.

Confidentiality in Online Groups Confidentiality is further complicated in online counseling groups. For example, in order for trust to develop in an online group, each member will need to be able to assure the group that other people (e.g., roommates, partners, extended family) will not be able to hear the conversation of the group, or see the screen where members are displayed. In chat-­based groups, members will also need to be reasonably assured that other members are not, for example, copying and pasting discussions to later be shared with others. In a qualitative study of online process groups for counselor trainees, participants noted a connection between their awareness of how technology could be used to break confidentiality and difficulty developing trust within the group (Kozlowski & Holmes, 2014). Use the activity in Box 4.3 to practice discussing informed consent, and confidentiality more specifically, as a group leader.

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BOX 4.3  Confidentiality and Informed Consent

Get into small groups with peers and practice discussing confidentiality and broader issues relating to informed consent. First, identify a setting, population, and type of group you envision leading in the future. Then, take turns practicing the leader role while other peers in your small group engage as group members. Consider the following as you think about how you would talk about this with your members: 1. The age of your members 2. The setting in which you envision working (e.g., school, hospital, community outpatient) 3. Any special considerations; for example, working with clients who are court ordered or plans for activities that may be challenging for some members to participate 4. If you were in this group, based on what was discussed in your small group, what might you need in order to feel safe surrounding confidentiality? After facilitating discussion with your peer group around confidentiality and other important elements of informed consent, take a few minutes to receive feedback from your group mates.

Dual Relationships Traditionally, counselors are careful about having non-­counseling roles and relationships (ACA, 2014, A.5.) with clients. This is often referred to as having a dual relationship with a client. However, what about seeing a client in group counseling who you also see in individual counseling- does this fall under the category of “dual relationships?” And if so, is it a problematic dual relationship? Jacobs et al. (2016) assert that because our end goal is to help clients, if seeing one of your group members for individual counseling will be helpful for them, we have an ethical obligation to do so. Furthermore, in some settings, for example, in hospitals, substance abuse treatment, and eating disorders treatment, there is likely the possibility that you will have some clients who you see individually who you also see in groups that you lead. A notable ethical issue for working with a client in both individual counseling and group counseling concurrently, is difficulty for the counselor/group leader to remember what is said in individual counseling, and what is said in

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the context of the group. This can be problematic if the leader inadvertently breaks confidentiality by revealing something the member has said in individual counseling to the group. As in many areas of counseling, seeing someone in individual counseling and in group counseling at the same time is not a black-­ and-­white issue. As a result, we encourage you to have open conversations with your clients about confidentiality if you are seeing them both individually and in a group.

Practicing Within One’s Scope of Experience/Expertise Counselors are required to Practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, state and national professional credentials, and appropriate professional experience. Whereas multicultural counseling competency is required across all counseling specialties, counselors gain knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity, dispositions, and skills pertinent to being a culturally competent counselor in working with a diverse client population. (ACA, 2014, C.2.a) Practicing within one’s scope of expertise is also referenced in the ASGW Best Practice Guidelines, section A.2 including “Group workers limit their practice to those areas for which they meet the training criteria established by the ASGW Training Standards” (Thomas & Pender, 2008, p. 112). According to the ASGW Professional Standards for the Training of Group Workers, core training in group work includes basic competencies that all group leaders who have graduated from a master’s program should have obtained. In contrast, specialization training in group work, “includes knowledge, skills, and experiences deemed necessary for counselors to engage in independent practice of group work” (Wilson & Rapin, 2000). Specialized training in group work can consist of additional training beyond the master’s level coursework in task groups, psychoeducation groups, counseling groups, and psychotherapy groups. You may be asking yourself, “What is within my scope of experience?” Particularly in the early part of your training and experience, it can be difficult to discern what topics, populations, and types of groups fall within your scope of experience or competence, when you may not have much, or any, experience. This is a line you will navigate throughout your career. Certainly, when you complete your current training program you will have more experience and competence than when you started, but no training program prepares you for every topic, setting, and population that you may encounter in your professional career. Use the questions in Box 4.4 to reflect on your own growing competence as a group leader.

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BOX 4.4  Competence

Consider how you define what it means to be “competent” in the context of your role as a counselor. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are some topics, populations, or settings in which you feel strong in the development of your competence? What experiences inform this sense of competence? 2. What are some topics, populations, or settings in which you feel a lack of competence? What experience, or lack thereof, informs this sense of lack of competence? 3. What might help you discern whether or not you have enough competence to facilitate a certain group? 4. Regardless of the setting or type of group we are running as a leader, we are ethically required to demonstrate cultural competence. What is your sense of (a) what it means to be a culturally competent group leader and (b) where you are in your development of cultural competence as a group leader? 5. When you are facilitating groups that are at the edge of your competence and experience, what support could you seek out in order to ensure you are leading the group ethically and effectively?

Leader Values According to the ACA Code of Ethics (2014): Counselors are aware of—and avoid imposing—their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Counselors respect the diversity of clients, trainees, and research participants and seek training in areas in which they are at risk of imposing their values onto clients, especially when the counselor’s values are inconsistent with the client’s goals or are discriminatory in nature. (A.4.b) In the context of the group, leaders are responsible for refraining from imposing their own values on members, as well as being attentive to situations where members may be trying to impose their values on one another, and stepping in to block these value impositions as well. First, let us consider being aware of our own values and refraining from imposing these on our members. Generally, counselor trainees understand the idea that we

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should not intentionally try to influence our members to conform to our beliefs. For example, if a client finds out she is pregnant and desires to have an abortion, if the counselor does not believe abortion is acceptable, it is not their place to explain all the reasons why the client should refrain from terminating the pregnancy. However, in our experience, both understanding our values and refraining from imposing them are more complicated than this simplistic example. Part of why understanding our own values can be difficult is that we often view them as “Truth” as opposed to “our truth.” As a result, we are not always able to step back far enough from our values to see them as such. I (Rachel) have a distinct memory of a clinical situation where I first became aware that something considered self-­evident, was really only a value I held. It was in the context of working in a university counseling center, and a student scheduled an appointment because they were thinking about leaving school. As someone who attended school for 22 years, nearly all of them voluntarily, I obviously enjoyed school and valued education. However, it was not until this student, and several more to follow, that I recognized that the necessity of obtaining a college degree is a personal value and not a universal “Truth.” For many of the students I saw who were considering stopping their pursuit of a college degree, whether temporarily or permanently, this was absolutely the right choice for them, given their situation and beliefs. For me to try to subtly persuade them to remain in college because obtaining a college degree is important to me would be inappropriate and an example of imposing my values on the client. This can be tricky because (a) we are often unaware of some of these values and (b) even if we are aware of them, it can be easy to view our subtle imposition of them as “for the benefit of the client.” Relatedly, often it can be easier to see our own values around topics that are considered moral issues—things like abortion, the death penalty, environmental issues, and who should be allowed to marry. However, our values are much more complex than this. Our values are influenced by our family of origin, our broader cultural background, and the multiple systems with which we interact. Use the prompts in Box 4.5 to consider some of your own values, as well as what has contributed to the development of your values.

BOX 4.5  Values

Spend a few minutes brainstorming a list of your values. Try to be broad and inclusive, even if you do not think certain values will impact your work as a group leader. Then, get into pairs or small groups to discuss the values you identified and what it will be like to work with clients who have different values than you. (continued)

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Box 4.5  Values (continued) QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are the values you hold dearest? 2. What are some of the familial, cultural, and societal influences that have impacted the development of your values? 3. In what ways can you identify that your values are culturally bound? 4. Can you think of a time someone offered a suggestion that went against your value system? If so, what was that experience like? 5. What are the values that will be the most difficult for you if they are challenged (or not embraced) by a group member?

In addition to being careful about imposing our own values, leaders also need to be able to recognize when other members are responding to a fellow member through the lens of their own values. Consider the transcript in Box 4.6, which is a transcript of a discussion of senior college students about to graduate. BOX 4.6  Counselor Scenario

Mamie: I am really struggling with my relationship with my parents because they want some things from me that I don’t want. Sarah (counselor): Can you say more about what they want? Mamie: They want me to move back home after I graduate so I can help out with the family, which basically means, helping to take care of my younger siblings. I want to rent an apartment with my friends! I have been living away for 4 years and it has made me see how much I want more independence than what my parents want to give me. But there is no way they’ll give in. In our culture, the expectation is for women to live at home and contribute to their birth family until they are married. And my parents are really traditional like that—that’s what they expect. Josh: That’s ridiculous! You are a grown woman, you should be able to make decisions on your own. As you said, you have been living away for 4 years. What’s the difference in moving in with your friends now? I think you should go for it. Your parents will come around. (continued)

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Box 4.6  Counselor Scenario (continued) QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. If you were to lead this group, how might you intervene? 2. What values of yours are activated while reading this scenario? 3. If you hold similar values as Josh, how would you go about bracketing them so they did not get in the way of facilitating the discussion in an effective and ethical way? 4. How might you respond to Josh’s comment such that he does not continue encouraging Mamie to adopt his values?

INTERSECTION OF ETHICAL AND CLINICAL ISSUES

Screening ASGW Best Practice Guidelines (Thomas & Pender, 2008) include screening members to ensure they are appropriate for the group that is being planned. As Corey et al. (2018) explain, screening is completed to ensure safety of the members, not comfort of the clinician. As a result, it is critical that when you are screening your members, you are considering the extent to which they are a good fit for the group as opposed to whether or not you like them interpersonally. The screening process serves both clinical and ethical functions. Clinically, it helps prepare clients for the group, it allows them to answer questions about what it will be like to participate, and it helps you start to get to know your members. Further, as Yalom and Leszcz (2020) note, if we can screen out those members who are unlikely to remain in the group, this can have positive clinical implications. Member dropout results in lower cohesion, which results in increased dropout. Therefore, if we are able to ascertain that a potential member is unlikely to be a good candidate for the group being formed, or if the potential member is able to determine they are not interested once they find out more about what the group will entail during the screening process, not including these potential members in the group will likely have a positive impact on the clinical outcome of the group. Ethically, screening is the starting point for conversations around informed consent. In addition, a thorough screening allows the leader to determine whether or not a homogeneous or heterogeneous group is most appropriate for that participant. Groups that are homogeneous can be homogeneous in different ways. For example, they could be homogeneous in regard to presenting concern of the members, such as a group for members experiencing depression. They can also be homogeneous in regard to some aspect of members’ intersecting identities. For example, you might

112  Introduction to Group Counseling have a group of members who all identify as part of the LGBTQ+ population, or a group with members who all identify as BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color). Heterogeneous groups are those that include members experiencing diverse concerns, and/or membership comprising diverse identities. However, it must be noted that all groups are homogeneous in some ways and heterogeneous in some ways. In other words, it would be impossible, or at least impractical, to try to put together a group where members are homogeneous in all elements of their experience and identity. And it would be equally challenging to put together a group where members are heterogeneous in all elements of their experience and identity. Therefore, the question becomes: How do we conceptualize what we mean by homogeneous and heterogeneous with regard to the particular group being developed? Further, how do you see the connection between ethics and group composition?

Suicidality If a group member expresses suicidal ideation in a group, we have an ethical responsibility to further assess the risk. However, this can be challenging in the context of a group for a number of reasons. We have a responsibility to both the member expressing suicidality and to the group, although the member’s safety is of utmost priority. It may be difficult for the member to speak further about their suicidal ideation with the group present, and hearing of another member’s suicidal ideation could also be very challenging for other group members. Therefore, suicide assessment and then determining next steps is both an ethical and clinical issue. In Box 4.7, you can review a scenario where a member expresses a concerning comment regarding suicidality, and consider how you would want to respond as the group leader. BOX 4.7  Suicide Assessment

Imagine you are working in an outpatient community mental health center and in response to a group member stating their partner has decided to leave them, says, “Life just isn’t worth living without them. I don’t think I can bear to go on.” QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. How would you assess the member’s risk in this situation? 2. What would be indicators to you that you would need to end the group session and work with the member individually at that time? 3. Regardless of whether you decided to end the group session or not, how would you address the situation with the group in real time and at the following group session? (continued)

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Box 4.7  Suicide Assessment (continued)

4. How might the way in which you intervene change depending on the setting in which this occurred (e.g., in a hospital, school, substance abuse facility)? 5. On a different note, what about when a member brings up an inquiry as to whether or not someone else has felt suicidal after a member shares a personal experience? How should the leader react? Who should the focus be on: the member who shared, or the member who brings up the topic as a form of validation or sympathy? As you first begin leading groups, we encourage you to speak with your supervisor regarding how you should handle a member expressing suicidal ideation, as the population you are working with and setting you are working in will contribute to the action you will take. Additionally, you might want to talk to your supervisor about the protocol that is specific to virtual groups.

Accessibility and Inclusion in Group Counseling Group counseling can be a powerful intervention for the isolation clients often feel, whether they’re going through a medical diagnosis, addiction, or a range of other concerns. Central to the theme of this book is creating spaces that are inclusive and situate oppression and or power dynamics at the forefront. Inclusivity is paramount and provides an atmosphere that affords clients safety to be present and their true authentic selves. This starts with acknowledging power, privilege, oppression, and so forth by fostering inclusive language and addressing the many isms, including ableism.

Ableism Ableism is discrimination and social prejudice against people with disabilities and/ or people who are perceived to be disabled. Ableism characterizes people who are defined by their disabilities as inferior to the non-­disabled. Additionally, due to implicit biases people often perceive that the most important life task of a person with a disability is to “overcome” their disability. However, people with a disability see their disability as part of the diverse world, or even part of their identity. To dismantle ableism is to challenge perspectives that see a disability as a problem rather than the physical and attitudinal barriers that keep those with disabilities from full participation in certain spaces.

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Inclusive Language Inclusive communication is an intentional process that involves an attempt at using language that includes people, regardless of identity (e.g., gender, language, culture, religion, race, ability, family structure, marital status, sexuality, origin). It is essentially utilizing language that limits words, expressions, or assumptions that intentionally or unintentionally exclude people. An example of inclusive language is using “parent/guardian/caregiver” as opposed to “mom or dad” to be more inclusive of genders and family structures. Person first language is also a part of inclusive language for people with disabilities. When referring to a person with a disability, one should put the person first, rather than the disability. For example, “a person who is blind or visually impaired” rather than “a blind person.” Use the questions in Box 4.8 to reflect on how you can increase your use of language that is inclusive. BOX 4.8  Questions for Reflection

1. How is the language I use informed by my implicit biases? 2. How do I use inclusive language in my daily interactions? 3. What personal and professional documents, websites, other artifacts can I change to use more inclusive language? 4. What can I do to include more inclusive language in the planning, implementing and evaluating of my group facilitation?

Accessibility and Inclusion When designing your in-­person or virtual space, office, classroom, and group, there are other important aspects to remember for access. Use the questions in Box 4.9 to consider how to make your group accessible for all members. BOX 4.9  Questions for Reflection

1. If you would like the group to sit in a circle, what physical accommodations should be present for clients who may need different seating or will bring their own (e.g., wheelchair, specific seat)? How might I know that information? (continued)

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Box 4.9  Questions for Reflection (continued)

2. If you are meeting in person or in a virtual setting, what accommodations might I need to make to be inclusive (e.g., hearing or visually impaired)? How might I know what information? 3. What technology assistance programs are out there, and what might be appropriate to utilize to create a more inclusive climate? Are they HIPAA compliant? 4. If someone has a translator present, how might you introduce and address confidentiality? 5. When thinking about members who might have sensory issues, what should you avoid in the space (e.g., sounds, scents)? 6. How might you address service animals and emotional support pets in a group setting?

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

■

■

Although there is much overlap in the ethical issues that might be present in individual counseling, it is critical for leaders to be aware of additional ethical concerns that impact their group. Group leaders are ethically required to practice within the scope of their experience and expertise. Regardless of the setting or population involved, leaders are ethically required to demonstrate cultural competence in order to be considered working within the scope of their expertise A critical ethical consideration is for the leader to not only be able to refrain from pushing their values onto their group members, but also to be aware of, and respond appropriately to, members trying to push their values onto one another. A critical piece of practicing ethical group leadership is obtaining informed consent. This includes discussing confidentiality and the limits thereof, speaking honestly about the risks of participating in the group, and discussing generally how the group will be conducted. What is considered inclusive language today may change tomorrow. It will be important to know that working toward using inclusive language will take intentionality and that it will be an ongoing process.

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CASE STUDY 4.1 REVISITED Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. What are some possible ways in which the group leader could intervene in this scenario? 1. What feelings would come up for you if you were the leader of this group? How would you manage them in order to intervene effectively? 2. What are some of the ethical concerns that would be highlighted during this interaction? 3. To what extent do you believe the counselor should try to persuade Susie (and perhaps Farrah as well) that homosexuality is not a choice? Is there a way to both honor their beliefs while not perpetuating heterosexism? If so, how so? If not, how should the leader proceed? 4. To what extent do you believe the counselor should try to persuade Susie that her son and his partner will be able to provide the nurturance Susie is so concerned about? 5. If, other members join Dominique in saying homosexuality is not a choice, how might the leader facilitate the conversation among group members?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. A group member accuses your co-­leader of being racist; what do you do? What if they accuse you of being this way? 2. You heard from a colleague that a group of students do not like attending the group you and your co-­leader are leading. Do you explore this issue with your co-­leader, colleague, the group members, or all? If you chose to discuss with the group members, what should you and the co-­leader include in the group session discussion? 3. Parents want to know what is being discussed in groups. What should you and your co-­leader tell them if the members are minors? What if they are 17 years old? 4. Ethically speaking, how would group leaders decide on who to keep in a group where a couple of the members are disruptive? Specifically, of the three disruptive members, two are Latina females, and one is a queer Black male. 5. If a group member is asked to leave a group intervention, should the counselors provide individual counseling services?

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6. How do you address the individual and/or group if suicidal ideation is mentioned within the group setting? 7. If you are working with minors, and a group member discloses that they self-­ medicate with substances, what are your options?

In-Class Small Group Activity 1. Break into pairs and create short sentence stems (e.g., group leadership statements) that you can use as strategies to help members feel included without being riddled with your own values. For example, “I hear you,” “I am glad to see all of you,” “Welcome to our space.” Try to also point out those that might seem like good statements at first, but after digging further might not be appropriate. 2. Break into groups of six or seven. You will take turns being the leader, and when you are not the leader, you will participate as a group member. One member is responsible for being the “-ist” member (i.e., racist, sexist, heterosexist, ableist). The leader is responsible for opening up a conversation about members’ intersecting identities and facilitating this discussion to the best of their ability. The -ist member is responsible for inserting an -ist comment at some point in the discussion, to which the leader should intervene to the best of their ability. Rotate who is being the leader, the member making an -ist comment, and those participating as regular members. After several opportunities, please discuss the following in your group: a. For those students who participated as leaders, what was it like when you identified the -ist comment? To what extent do you feel you responded effectively? Members, please also provide feedback to how the leader responded b. What was it like being in a group with -ist comments being made? How do you imagine similar comments impacting the development of a counseling group? c. What is your biggest take away from this experience?

Journal Starters 1. As you consider the populations and settings in which you might want to work, what are some of the ethical challenges you foresee, now that you understand more about ethical issues in group counseling? 2. What are some areas related to your own values that you know you will need to be attentive to as you imagine leading groups in the future? Further, what are some concrete steps you can take to ensure that you do not (consciously or unconsciously) encourage group members to take on your own values? How would you know if some of your values came out in the group?

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Homework Ideas 1. Each state has slightly different parameters around reporting requirements for mental health practitioners related to child or dependent abuse and neglect. Take a few minutes to look up the law surrounding your state’s requirements. Select another state—perhaps one you think about moving to, a state you have lived in previously, or just a state you are curious about—and look up that state’s requirements as well. Are there any differences between the two states? 2. Think about a population you would be interested in working with, and a setting in which you would be interested in working. Then, consider a group you might run with this population, in this setting. Write a list of seven to ten questions you identify as important for the screening process to determine whether or not a potential member would be a good fit for the proposed group.

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 4.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers will benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES American Counseling Association (2014). ACA Code of Ethics. Alexandria, VA: Author. Corey, M. S., Corey, G., & Corey, M. (2018). Groups Process and Practice. Cengage. Jacobs, E. E., Schimmell, C. J., Masson, R. L., & Harvill, R. L. (2016). Group counseling strategies and skills (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. Kozlowski, K. A., & Holmes, C. M. (2014). Experiences in online process groups: A qualitative study. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 39(4), 276–300. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2014​.948235

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McCarthy, C. J., Bauman, S., Choudhuri, D. D., Coker, A., Justice, C., Kraus, K. L., Luke, M., Rubel, D., & Shaw, L. (2021). Association for specialists in group work guiding principles for group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 47(1), 10–21. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2021​.1950882 Singh, A. A., Merchant, N., Skudrzyk, B., & Ingene, D. (2012). Association for specialists in group work: Multicultural and social justice competence principles for group workers. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 37(4), 312–325. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2012​.721482 Thomas, R. V., & Pender, D. A. (2008). Association for specialists in group work: Best practice guidelines 2007 revisions. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 33(2), 111–117. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 01933920801971184 Wilson, R. F., & Rapin, L. S. (2000). Association for specialists in group work professional standards for the training of group workers. Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2020). Theory and practice of group psychotherapy (6th ed.). UK. Basic Books.

5 Group Planning and Logistical Considerations

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, readers will be able to: ■

Identify general considerations when setting up groups.

■

Recognize specific logistics for groups in schools or clinical mental health settings.

■

Evaluate how cultural factors impact the way a leader prepares members for a group experience.

■

Identify informed consent as an important ethical issue when setting up a group.

See Table 5.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

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TABLE 5.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.F.6.g

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for designing and facilitating groups

ACA Code of Ethics

A.9.a

Counselors screen prospective group counseling/ therapy participants. To the extent possible, counselors select members whose needs and goals are compatible with the goals of the group, who will not impede the group process, and whose well-­being will not be jeopardized by the group experience

ASCA Code of Ethics

A.7.a

School counselors facilitate short-­term groups to address students’ academic, career, and/or social/ emotional issues

A.1.h

School counselors provide effective, responsive interventions to address student needs

A.3.a

School counselors collaborate with administration, teachers, staff, and decision-­makers around school-­ improvement goals

A.3.d

School counselors use data to determine needed interventions, which are then delivered to help close the information, attainment, achievement, and opportunity gaps

A.7.a

Group counselors facilitate short-­term groups to address students’ academic, career and/or social/ emotional issues

A.7.c

School counselors screen students for group membership

II.C.1.a

Identify and describe: environmental contexts, which affect planning for group interventions

II.C.1.c

Identify and describe: principles of planning for group work

II.D.1.a

Identify and describe: principles of group formation including recruiting, screening, and selecting group members

II.G.2.a

Demonstrate skill in: evidencing ethical practice in planning, observing, and participating in group activities

II.G.2.c

Demonstrate skill in: evidencing diversity-­competent practice in planning, observing, and participating in group activities

ASGW Professional Training Standards  

(continued )

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TABLE 5.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter  (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

A.4.a

Group workers identify the type(s) of group(s) to be offered and how they relate to community needs

A.7.a

Group workers screen prospective group members if appropriate to the type of group being offered. When selection of group members is appropriate, group workers identify members whose needs and goals are compatible with the goals of the group

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

II.a.6

Group workers demonstrating multicultural and social justice competence in group planning will: recognize and be aware of group needs and goals, determine type of multicultural and social justice variables as they conduct assessments, identify appropriate groups to be implemented, select group leader(s) and members, pre-­screen and prepare members, and determine the techniques, leadership styles, and resources needed to conduct a group

II.a.8

Group workers demonstrating multicultural and social justice competence in group planning will: determine if the most appropriate group should be culture-­specific (a group of people who share common experiences as a result of their diversity), an intercultural learning (designed to promote greater understanding across cultural groups to increase cultural knowledge and improve relationships among diverse groups of people), or other content-­focused group (group focused on other issues but gives consideration to the diversity of group members and related group dynamics) (Merchant, 2006, 2009)

II.a.14

Group workers demonstrating multicultural and social justice competence in group planning will: use culturally appropriate pre-­group screening mechanisms. Group members should be carefully selected based on type, focus, and purpose of the multicultural group

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

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CASE STUDY 5.1 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR/ PRINCIPAL DIALOGUE Counselor: Mrs. Copeland (the principal at the school), I would like to share with you my plans this year for the small groups I would like to run. Mrs. Copeland: What kind of groups? Counselor: Culturally sustaining group counseling interventions with students and in some cases possibly psychoeducational groups with racial and ethnically minoritized families. Mrs. Copeland: You mean lunch bunches with our English Language Learners and maybe donuts for their dads type of thing?” Counselor: Uh, yes. Sure. I guess you could say that. I know it will be important to engage in a lot of up front planning, preparation, and getting the word out about these groups to ensure our students and families understand the true intent of our groups. Mrs. Copeland: Great, as long as you understand that these games you’ll be playing with the students and the parties you’ll be having with the parents do not interfere with instructional time! Counselor: I’ll keep you posted. Also, as we work to identify students and families to participate I will seek out your suggestions to support these efforts QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

1. What is your reaction, if any, to the dialogue that ensued? 2. If you are the school counselor in the scenario, what support from the principal would you imagine needing in your efforts to get culturally sustaining groups running in schools? 3. What might some of Mrs. Copeland’s concerns, preconceived ideas, and understandings (or misunderstandings) be about facilitating counseling groups created specifically for students holding certain demographics in schools? 4. Lunch bunches and parent/care-­taking groups are common. However, what are some ways to ensure that groups run in schools are really understood by stakeholders?

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CASE STUDY 5.2 HIGH SCHOOL COUNSELOR/PRINCIPAL DIALOGUE Counselor: Dr. Lin (the principal at the school), I recently attended a workshop for school counselors that focused on using group counseling interventions to address academic challenges students were facing in order to provide additional support. I’m wondering if you have had school counselors in the past engage in this type of work? Dr. Lin: I’m not familiar with group counseling interventions or programs that are created specifically for academic achievement; however, school counselors have run all types of groups that help students with personal and social issues. What prompts the question? Counselor: Well, based on the recommendation of the presenters from the workshop, I’ve been motivated to get a team together to discuss this possibility at our school in the coming year. Who do you suggest that I invite to the table to brainstorm how to apply these ideas in our school community? Dr. Lin: I might need some time to think about this but definitely include Assistant Principal Anderson and the other school counselors from your department. I will also think about a few parents and team leads that might be interested in joining your team. I will need a bit more information from you when you have the time. Counselor: Good point. How about I work with a few other counselors from my department to pull some student data and to see areas that may be a good target for us to examine and build group interventions around and I’ll get back to you? Dr. Lin: This sounds good to me! QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What is your reaction, if any, to the dialogue that ensued? 2. If you are the school counselor in the scenario, what steps would you take to gather the information and data you suggested? What else will you need to decide upon? 3. What might some of Dr. Lin’s concerns, preconceived ideas, and understandings (or misunderstandings) be about facilitating counseling groups created specifically for students who could use additional academic support? 4. What are some differences between elementary and high school that impact stakeholders’ understanding of groups run in schools?

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INTRODUCTION: ESTABLISHING THE PURPOSE OF GROUP WORK Group work, broadly speaking, encompasses four different types of groups, including include task, psychoeducation, counseling, and psychotherapy (Coogan & Steen, 2021). In this chapter the type of group we are referring to is a counseling group or psychoeducation group as these are the most common types that you will be running in schools, agencies, private practice, substance abuse clinics, and hospitals. The major difference between a counseling group and a psychoeducation group is the amount of time spent on content versus process. For instance, a counseling group will emphasize the process more than a psychoeducation group. A psychoeducation group will include some process, especially if it is following the ASGW Best Practice Guidelines (Thomas & Pender, 2008) for planning, implementing, and evaluating groups. However, the major focus of a psychoeducational group is to provide a venue to deliver culturally competent content by group leaders for group members to learn and discuss ways to apply the specific content to members’ lives. A counseling group created to establish an inclusive therapeutic environment will focus much less on delivering content, but aim to capitalize on the interactions between the group leaders and members across a myriad of intersecting identities, while also paying close attention to the group dynamics, therapeutic factors, critical incidents, and other spontaneous occurrences that emerge in these spaces.

SCHOOLS Schools are complex environments. Therefore, the following information is presented in a general manner without applying these concepts to every school setting. The school setting also could involve different group leaders from different disciplines with different training; therefore, the manner in which a group in a school could be set up may differ. For the sake of clarity, we focus primarily on school personnel who focus on mental health within the school building to set up the culturally sustaining counseling groups or psychoeducational groups in particular. These service providers include school counselors, psychologists, social workers, and licensed counselors. Other school personnel will impact the groups that you plan to run. For instance, school administration, teachers, staff members, students, parents and families, and other mental health personnel are all potential stakeholders when students are the population and school is the setting. You may be responsible for reporting your efforts to school administrators who are at a central office, or even other counselors at neighboring schools in your region. The point is, setting up, running, and assessing a group is not something that you will do in isolation; however, you may be the only one who has a clear idea of what you would like to accomplish. The two brief interactions described earlier are a way of illustrating what a school counselor could encounter when desiring to start this important work. Case 5.1 takes place in an elementary school; Case 5.2 could occur within a high school setting.

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Factors to Consider for Groups in Schools In the following section, we describe the various aspects that are essential to consider when setting up groups in a school setting.

Location The location of the groups will depend largely on the resources afforded to the school counselor. Ideally, you are a school counselor who has an office that is appropriately sized to meet with the number of students you will be working with on a regular basis. If not, options could include a conference room, the library, playground, empty classroom, and even a custodian closet! As a former school counselor, the author (Sam) recalls holding group sessions in all of the spaces mentioned. It is also important to acknowledge that due to the COVID-­19 pandemic, schools have pivoted to provide educational services in virtual environments. This necessity has led to groups being offered synchronously on virtual platforms. Asynchronous groups, while less common, have also been employed. These groups are likened to calming rooms, interactive spaces, and discussion platforms whereby members can attend on their own time and engage in the group as often as they like. Therefore, deciding on an appropriate location refers to groups being held traditionally in a school setting, virtually, or in a hybrid form with some members attending online from their devices at home and others from their computers at school.

Group Size, Selection, and Preparation It is important to note that the number of group members will vary based on age and type of group. In other words, the developmental level of the members will need to be taken into account when putting together groups in schools. For example if you are working with a culturally inclusive group of students in Pre-­K to second grade, you might not have more than four group members due to attention spans and their need for attention. With too many young group members, it will be more difficult to model appropriate social skills for them as they primarily learn from the group leader at this stage of their development. When you are working with older students, such as high school students, the groups can include up to eight to 12 students effectively. Students may be chosen and selected from a variety of sources. Teachers and caretakers may refer their students for participation. In high schools, students may refer their peers or self-­select to a group of interest. Garnering a pool of students to participate is important. Therefore, using a needs assessment is a common approach to help with selection and broadening the pool of potential members. According to best practices outlined within the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) position statement (2020) and the ASGW Best Practice Guidelines (Thomas & Pender, 2008) for group workers, screening student participants is a vital step in preparing for groups as part of a larger comprehensive school counseling

128  Introduction to Group Counseling program. Appropriate needs assessments help establish baseline data, identify areas and students that need the most support, and allow counselors to ensure that resources are allocated to the highest needs of the school community. Typically assessment surveys are triangulated by having multiple stakeholders fill them out (i.e., students, teachers, parents/caretakers). Following is an example of a survey given to teachers. See Box 5.1 for an example of a needs assessment that can be used in schools. BOX 5.1  Sample Needs Assessment Survey in Schools

Dear Teachers: I’ve been given permission by the principal to conduct a few small groups over the next 10 weeks. Please take a look at the following questions and answer them to the best of your ability. If it is more convenient, I can meet with you to complete this form on your behalf. 1. Do you have any students in your class who are having academic or social difficulties? Y or N 2. If the students you have in mind are having academic difficulties, but are not receiving any support at this time (e.g., 504, IEP, tutoring), please list them here:   ________________ _________________ ______________ _____________   ________________ _________________ ______________ _____________ 3. If the students you have in mind are having social or emotional difficulties, but are not receiving any support at this time, please list them here   ________________ _________________ ______________ _____________   ________________ _________________ ______________ _____________ 4. Which of the following topics might be most appropriate for these students (check all that apply):   ____Social skills   ____Study skills   ____Grief/ loss   ____Family concerns  

____Self-­esteem  

____Post-­graduation preparation   ____Other (please list):

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After students have been identified, it can be helpful to screen and/or prepare members for their group experience to help increase the chances that the goals set for the group match the participants’ expectations. Screening is considered an ethical imperative, as well as clinically useful. Group leaders can interview student participants to gain clarity on what they anticipate the experience being like while also providing an opportunity to share how the group leader plans to facilitate the group. During these interactions to interview and prepare student participants for what the group experience offers, group leaders will need to assess group members’ comfort level with their interpersonal experiences in racially and culturally mixed environments. Due to the potential for group environments to be a microcosm of society (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), engaging in courageous conversations (Singh & Salazar, 2010) about the impact of power, privilege, and oppression and how this could unfold in group sessions is imperative. Offering culturally sustaining groups will entail group leaders being intentional at exploring difficult subject matter and preparing members ahead of time will prove beneficial. Remember, some students are comfortable having these conversations, some will prefer to avoid these conversations, some will assume they are well versed at having difficult conversations, and others are vulnerable and must be aware of the potential conflict that could arise within the group. Some members could easily feel ostracized or discriminated against even if these are not intended outcomes. In sum, preparing members to engage in culturally sustaining groups will necessitate being intentional at letting students know what this experience could entail. Once you garner a sense of the magnitude of need and interest in the groups you will put together, some additional considerations will need to be made. See Box 5.2 for an example of how a conversation can transpire between a school counselor and a student regarding an opportunity to join a group at school. BOX 5.2  Example of High School Counselor and Student Discussing Group Participation

Ms. Summer (school counselor): Today I called you down, because I wanted to talk with you about a potential opportunity. This semester, I am creating a group for students who perform well academically, but sometimes experience set-­backs that may interfere with reaching their intended academic goals. I am referring to it as Rollercoaster, as we tend to have ups and downs in our different journeys. I think based on what we have been talking about this past year, this might be a good fit for you. Wanda: (Using her inside voice) What does that mean for me? Why do I need to meet with strangers? I don’t want to share with others, do I have to? What would I have to do? (continued)

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Box 5.2  Example of High School Counselor and Student Discussing Group Participation (continued)

Ms. Summer: Great questions, Wanda! I want to make sure that you are aware of the expectations. If you think this is a good fit for you, I would give you a parent permission form for your mom to sign. Your mom has already signed consent to participate in a comprehensive school counseling program, which includes group counseling. However, we want to make sure everyone signs off on the agreed-­upon information. On the form it indicates the days, times, and room assignments for the eight sessions that meet weekly over the next 2 months. We rotate different class periods so you never miss a class more than once. That is the logistical piece. As far as what will happen when you come to the sessions, I will have a series of topics and activities that will elicit discussion based on overcoming some of the challenges and set-­backs that interfere with each individual’s academic progress. Wanda: So you want to share my experience with others? Ms. Summer: Wanda, you only have to talk or share what you feel comfortable sharing. You can even pass on your turn speaking. The only thing I want to make sure is that you are aware of the confidentiality piece. It is important you know that whatever is said in-­group, needs to stay in-­group. You are not to share information with others. You are allowed to discuss how you feel and think with others, but not mention anything about the other members or what they say. Do you think that is something you can abide by? Wanda: I am going to be honest, Ms. Summer. This is not something that sounds appealing to me, but since you have always looked out for my best interests and I can miss classes, I am in. Source: Excerpt adapted from Ieva, K.P., and Patel, S. (unpublished manuscript). The Perfect Circle.

Other Logistical Considerations Another specific logistical factor that must be decided before the group commences is scheduling, which in school settings can be very challenging. The leader must consider the following logistical questions when developing a plan for the group (Box 5.3):

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BOX 5.3  Logistical Considerations

1. How many weeks will the group run? 2. Will this group be offered on the same day and at the time each week, or will it be staggered in order to ensure that students do not miss the same instruction every time they attend? 3. How many sessions will be needed for the students to benefit from the group format? 4. What is the length of each session and when will the group start and end? 5. Is this an open membership or closed membership* group? *Open means that new students can join the group at any time. Closed means that once the group begins, it will be necessary to avoid adding members as this can impact the group dynamics in any number of ways (e.g., cohesion, confidentiality, safety, trust). Use the reflection questions in Box 5.4 to consider some of the logistical concerns that are present in groups that take place in schools. BOX 5.4  Groups in School Settings

If you foresee running groups in a school setting, call to mind a specific type of group you might be interested in leading. Then, consider the following questions: 1. How would you approach scheduling your group? Would you make it the same day/time each week, or try to vary the schedule? What informs this decision? What are the pros and cons of each? 2. How long do you anticipate needing for the group to run in order to be the greatest benefit for the students? How does that fit into a typical school semester when you include time to assess the need, identify potential members, and screen members before starting? 3. Given the type of group you are considering in this example, do you foresee it needing to be an open group or a closed group? What informs this decision? Next, co-­leadership is an important decision to make. The leader will consider whether this group will include a co-­leader or guests. A factor that will inform the presence of a co-­leader is whether or not there is enough personnel to support such an option. If not, it might be reasonable to include a community stakeholder (e.g., cultural broker) to co-­lead one or all of the sessions. The leader must consider whether this group would be successful without the presence of another leader. If a co-­leader is not an option, an important question to consider is: Am I the best person to lead this group?

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TOPICS It will take a concerted effort to understand what topics are salient for your students. As mentioned, conducting a needs assessment could provide some insight to determine what might be important to the constituents (e.g., administrators, caretakers, teachers, students). That being said, creating an assessment, sending it out, and analyzing the data can be daunting and ideally is done at the beginning of the school year before things get too busy. However, everything you need to know about your students and their challenges and difficulties is not always easily identified until after they have been in school for some time. So, a needs assessment might need to be done periodically throughout the school year to ensure that the students who need the help will get it. Table 5.2 provides a quick glimpse illustrating topics school counselors facilitate in school settings. TABLE 5.2  Selected Topics for Groups Used in Schools ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

HIGH SCHOOL

Academic skills

Academic skills

Anger management

Parental divorce

Parental divorce

College/career

Social skills

Grief/death

Grief/death

Self- ­esteem

Self- ­esteem

Antiviolence/bullying

Antiviolence/bullying

Stress/anxiety

Stress/anxiety

Substance abuse

Friendship

Friendship

Organization

Organization

Attention deficit disorder

Attention deficit disorder

Art therapy

Gay/lesbian/nontraditional family

Autism

Art therapy

Leadership

Autism Teen parenting Sex education Leadership

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In school settings there are so many different things that are common but unexpected within this environment. We include a short list here just to shed light on what will also impact groups that are offered in schools. For instance, snow days, fire drills, natural disasters, student attendance and absenteeism, field trips, assemblies, or other school-­wide events. As a result, while it is critical for school counselors to be mindful about the logistical considerations when developing their group, it is also critical that the school counselor approach their group with an attitude of flexibility. See Box 5.5 for an example curriculum developed for addressing grief and loss in a school.

Box 5.5  Example of a Group for Grief and Loss Curriculum: Sixth to Eighth Graders

Lesson created by Kara Ieva, when working as a school counselor. Approximate Number of Students: Six to eight Rationale: The purpose of the group is to provide support for students who have experienced the loss of a loved one this past year, and to help them explore their feelings. Goals for Unit: 1. Students will recognize that others share similar experiences and feelings related to losing a loved one. 2. Students will identify and discuss their initial feelings as a result of their loss. 3. Students will express feelings associated with loss, concentrating on anger, fear, jealousy, and sadness. 4. Students will discuss the stages of loss and identify how they feel or felt at specific stages. 5. Students will discuss and share coping skills for dealing with their loss. Number of Lessons per Unit: Six to eight The group will meet for 40 minutes, once per week, for six to eight sessions, depending on group progress. Post-­Group Assessment: Write a letter to loved one, jot down stages of grief, describe coming to some sense of resolution, and identify three or more coping skills. (continued)

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Box 5.5  Example of a Group for Grief and Loss Curriculum: Sixth to Eighth Graders (continued)

Overview of Sessions: 1. Students will complete an icebreaker activity, establish goals and rules of the group, and discuss concerns of each member related to their loss. 2. Students will discuss changes and or new responsibilities they have encountered due to their loss. 3. Students will learn about the stages of grief and self-­assess where they are in the process. 4. The students will discuss their feelings of anger, fear, jealousy, and sadness as a result of their loss. 5. Students will continue to discuss these feelings. 6. Students will share their current coping skills. 7. Students will hear about other coping skills that they may apply. 8. Students will further discuss their movement through the stages of grief and validate each other’s experience in group. Example Session/Lesson Plan Outline Week/ Session Number: Seven Group Name or Topic: Tear Soup/Coping Time: 40 minutes Lesson/ Session Objectives/ Goals: 1. The members will discuss their coping skills for dealing with the loss, after listening to a story entitled Tear Soup. 2. Group members will continue to participate independently, and take more responsibility in group. 3. Group members will begin to prepare for the close of group. Plan ■ ■

Greeting: Greet members as they walk through the door. Review: Review with the group their feelings from the previous session about sadness and anger, and validate that it is okay. Ex.: How do you feel about group after the last session?

■

Purpose establishe: Identify the purpose of the session. (continued)

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Box 5.5  Example of a Group for Grief and Loss Curriculum: Sixth to Eighth Graders (continued)

Ex.: We will be talking about skills that we use for everyday coping, as well as coping for the loss. ■

■

■

Activity: Tear Soup Read Tear Soup, and discuss the character’s recipe for Tear Soup. Discussion: Each person will receive a recipe card, on which they will write down what they use to slowly heal. Processing/summarizing:

Ex.: What did you learn about yourself today? What did you learn about your peers? How are you feeling about only having one session left? Materials: Book Tear Soup (Schwiebert & DeKlyen, 2005) Recipe cards [any format to list ingredients] Pot of skills [The book has a potential list of skills that you can add to to create your own.] ■

As has been discussed, discussing informed consent is an important part of the group preparation process. See Box 5.6 for a sample of some of the components found in a consent form used for a group conducted in a school. Box 5.6  Informed Consent Example: School

1. You have been selected or invited to participate in a counseling group that serves as an opportunity to learn about how one’s cultural background, experiences, belief system, attitudes, values, and biases influence the counseling process. Groups will be led by the school counselor who is an employee of this school. 2. The law requires the group leader to notify the authorities if you reveal abuse or neglect involving children or the elderly or if you express intent to harm yourself or to harm other people. 3. Students participating in the group are expected to respect the confidentiality of peer members by not discussing issues brought up in the group outside of the group setting. 4. Referrals for mental health services may be made available to students or parents/caretakers requesting these services. (continued)

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Box 5.6  Informed Consent Example: School (continued)

I have read and understand the information provided herein about the legal and ethical issues relating to participation in groups. I have discussed these issues with the group leader(s), and I have had the chance to ask all the questions that I wished to ask about the matters listed herein and all other matters of interest or concern. By signing this document, I agree to the conditions listed in this form and explained to me by the group leader. ___________________________________________   _____________ Signature of the Group Member             Date __________________________________________   ______________ Signature of the Group Leader             Date

CLINICAL MENTAL HEALTH SETTING Just as there are specific needs to consider when running a group in a school, there are other considerations to be made in a clinical mental health setting. Furthermore, there are a number of different types of clinical mental health settings, and the setting will dictate some of how you set up your group. For example, running a group in a private practice looks different than in a community agency, which is also different from offering services in a higher level of care, such as a day program or inpatient hospital. University counseling centers, substance abuse facilities, and centers working with clients dealing with eating disorders also have their own circumstances that need to be considered. All of those nuances aside, at a minimum, as a leader you will need to think about (Box 5.7): BOX 5.7  Group Breakdown

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Topic of the group Type of group Where the pool of potential group members will come from Whether the group is open or closed Whether the group will be led by one leader or two How long the group will last

In the following section, we describe various aspects a group leader can consider when setting up groups serving participants in a clinical mental health setting.

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CHOOSING THE TYPE OF GROUP The type of group you choose will, in some ways, be dictated by the purpose of your group. For example, if the focus is on teaching skills to manage stress, the group will most likely be psychoeducational in nature. If, instead, the purpose of the group is for members to identify their own goals related to personal development and for each member to work within the group to meet their goals, the group will more likely be a counseling group. It is important to note that while group types (i.e., task, psychoeducation, counseling, and therapy) are identified as distinct types of groups, sometimes these distinctions are not quite as sharp in actual practice. Regardless of the type of group you decide on, group dynamics are present in any type of group you are leading. Therefore, even if you are running a psychoeducation group, there are still group dynamics at play. For instance, during church services that are offered in person, there is a group dynamic within the congregation and between the religious leader and members. Within professional work environments there are other group dynamics that are at play. Meetings include group efforts. Decisions are often made with more than one individual and even if these discussions take place over phone or video conferencing, group dynamics and group processes are often employed. The skilled observer will take advantage of their knowledge and expertise to harness the power of groups (Coogan & Steen, 2021). With the different options, it is helpful to have in mind some of the important distinctions between the groups, which will be described in the following section. The section that follows helps to shed light on some of the subtle details that differentiate the types of groups. The main focus of this information will be generated from the ASGW Best Practice Guidelines and Professional Standards for the Training of Group Workers.

GROUP GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Competent group leaders establish the overarching purpose for the group. This includes identifying goals and objectives for the group experience. It also means deciding what methods and strategies to be used in accomplishing goals and objectives over the course of the group begins prior to the actual implementation. Of course there is a need to be flexible as things unfold over time, but intentional planning of the goals, objectives, and desired outcomes cannot be overstated.

Group Curriculum This term curriculum might be misleading. Groups that require a specific curriculum could be any type; however, they will likely also be considered structured.

138  Introduction to Group Counseling Group types can be offered on a continuum based on the group leader’s style and preference, as well as the purpose of the group. For instance, groups can be highly structured, highly unstructured, or somewhere in between. Table 5.3 describes the differences in these group types based on the authors’ collective group work experience teaching and leading all types of groups.

TABLE 5.3  Structured Versus Unstructured Approaches to the Four Types of Group GROUP TYPE

STRUCTURED

Task

■

Clear goals and objectives

■

Initially goals and objectives are less clear

■

Agenda is structured and protocol is specific

■

Brainstorming sessions to develop goals, objectives

■

■

Time sensitive

Targeted outcomes established over time

■

Sessions length and duration established ahead of time

■

Clear goals and objectives

■

Clear goals and objectives

■

Facilitation is less rigid

■

Agenda is structured Protocol is specific

■

Flexible outcomes

■

Clear goals and objectives

■

■

Agenda is structured

Clear goals depending on rationale of group, but individual group objectives are less clear

■

Flexible outcomes

Psychoeducational

Counseling

Psychotherapy

UNSTRUCTURED

■

Clear goals and objectives

■

Clear goals yet objectives may be less clear

■

Agenda is structured

■

Less direction from the group leader

Recruitment Regardless of the type of group that you choose, you will need to consider how you will develop your membership. In certain situations, for example if you are working in a substance abuse clinic, an intensive outpatient program, or an inpatient hospital, you will already have a participant pool and in some cases, members will be assigned to your group so no recruitment will be necessary.

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However, in community agencies and private practices, you may have to be more intentional about identifying your members. If you are working in a community agency, certainly advertising the group through the agency and your colleagues is a great place to start. If you are in private practice and working more independently, connecting with other professional clinicians will be an important way to establish a referral base for your groups. In addition, thinking about connecting with other practitioners and members of the community can help you reach your target population. For example, if you want to run a group with the perinatal population, connecting with obstetricians, midwives, doulas, and lactation consultants would be beneficial. Similarly, if you work with children, talking with pediatricians, speech therapists, and occupational therapists is a good idea. It is important to consider the demographic makeup of your group as you are in the process of identifying members, and this can impact how you go about recruiting your members. Generally speaking, even if you are wanting to have a group that is homogeneous (similar) around a specific topic (e.g., members who are experiencing depression, new parents, clients going through divorce), the group will be heterogeneous regarding demographic characteristics. As Yalom and Leszcz (2020) point out, a key consideration is not to create “an isolate or marginalizing an individual” (p. 334). In other words, there should not be only one member who holds marginalized or minority status. In a group of otherwise heterosexual members, the lone gay member may inadvertently become the spokesperson for gay people. A question students often have is whether or not it is acceptable to see clients individually who you are also seeing in a group. There are a number of different perspectives on this, and some of the answers will depend on the setting you are in. For example, if you are working in a higher level of care (e.g., inpatient hospital, intensive outpatient program), you will nearly always have members participating in your group(s) who you also see individually. However, if you are in private practice or work in an agency, this is not necessarily the case. One argument for seeing a client individually whom you also have as a member of your group is that if someone needs individual support, there is no reason to avoid giving it to them (Jacobs et al., 2016). On the other hand, Yalom and Leszcz (2020) suggest that seeing members individually whom you also have in a group can be problematic. Perhaps this is a scenario, like many others in this field, where the answer is “it depends.” There are three primary concerns to seeing members individually whom you also have in a group. The first concern is practical—it can be challenging to remember what was disclosed in the group versus what was disclosed in an individual setting. Therefore, the leader/counselor is in danger of inadvertently breaking confidentiality if they refer to something a member said in an individual session while in the group. The second concern is the reality that processing group events in individual counseling is often more comfortable than processing them in the group. For example, let’s say a member has their feelings hurt by something another member said. It is much easier for that person to discuss their hurt feelings in individual counseling than in the context of the group. Most likely, if this is an option, this is what the person will

140  Introduction to Group Counseling choose to do. However, it is important for the group (and often for the individual[s] involved) to process those events in the group. A final concern is that if the leader is seeing one or some members in individual counseling, but not everyone, members who do not see the leader for individual counseling can feel as though the other members have special access to the leader, or have a special relationship with the leader that they do not share. Therefore, the question about seeing members individually whom you also see in groups includes both ethical and clinical concerns. In conclusion, when working in clinical mental health, a key element will be thinking about where you will get your clients. In many cases, finding appropriate candidates for your group will require some connection with other practitioners. If you are considering including people whom you are seeing individually in your group, or if you have members of your group who request to see you individually, we encourage you to have conversations around confidentiality and setting the expectation that any events that come up in the group are processed in the group, as opposed to being processed in individual counseling. Use the questions in Box 5.8 to consider some of the logistics of creating a group in a clinical mental health setting. BOX 5.8  Questions for Reflection

1. As you think about the setting you are likely to work in and the population you would like to work with, where do you imagine finding candidates for possible groups? 2. What types of professionals or community members would it be beneficial for you to connect with in order to best serve the needs of your intended members? 3. Imagine if one of your group members requests to see you individually. Role-­play a conversation with a partner where you discuss how this would work, including concerns around confidentiality and expectations for what will be addressed in individual sessions versus what will be addressed in group sessions.

Open Versus Closed A primary decision the leader must make when developing their group is whether the group will be open or closed. Generally speaking, open groups are those where membership is not set in stone, and members may join or leave the group throughout the life of the group. Open groups may also be ongoing, such that there is not a set “end” of the group. In closed groups, the membership is set. In other words, once the group starts, members are not added to the group. Typically, closed groups have a specified (and shorter) duration; for example, 12 sessions or 20 sessions. Your purpose and setting will partially inform whether you choose an open or closed group. If you work in a setting such as an intensive outpatient program,

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inpatient hospital, or substance abuse treatment facility, you will most likely be running open groups because of the nature of your setting. In these settings, clients/ members are often joining and terminating treatment at different times, so membership is constantly turning over. In contrast, a closed group typically does not take new members once it has begun and it is for a specified duration. There are benefits and drawbacks to both types of group set ups; the important thing is to make a decision about whether your group is open or closed from an informed perspective and with reasons for doing so.

Duration When considering duration, the leader must think about both the duration of the session and the duration that the group will meet in terms of weeks or months. In clinical settings, duration typically lasts 60 to 120 minutes, assuming your population is developmentally able to sustain attention for at least 60 minutes. A group lasting less than 60 minutes is unlikely to allow enough time to get adequately deep into conversation, while a group over 120 minutes will likely be overly taxing for both the leader and members (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020). In terms of considering overall duration, 12 weeks is likely on the shorter end of the life of a group (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020) and the group can go on as long as the leader would like and members would like to participate. The type and duration of the group influence one another. For example, a closed group will have a specified duration. If a group is going to last more than 20 weeks or so, it may need to be an open group so that as members “graduate” from the group, new members can be added to keep the membership healthy. In this instance, the group membership will not turnover at the same rate as, for example, in an intensive outpatient program setting, and members would only be added as necessary to keep the group vibrant.

Leadership Versus Co-Leadership Yet another logistical consideration is whether the group will be led by one leader or two. Co-­leadership is a widely used leadership structure across various mental health settings, and is often used in the training of group counselors (Trotzer, 2006). In some instances, there may not be enough staff or support available to allow for a co-­leadership option. However, if resources are available to support a co-­leadership model, care needs to be taken to identify time for the leaders to meet to plan, time to debrief, and as necessary, time for supervision or consultation together. Other co-­ leadership considerations include determining whether or not co-­leaders work well together and what to do if difficulties or differences arise within group sessions. In many cases, working with a co-­leader is ideal; however, this is not always the case. We discuss some of the pros and cons more in depth in Chapter 7.

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Evaluation We believe all groups should include an evaluation component. The evaluation can provide insight on how well the members benefited from the experience. The evaluation can provide recommendations on how to improve counseling programs for others. Sharing information with stakeholders can help to provide support for conducting groups in the future. It is important to remember that while the evaluation of the group comes at the end, the decision about the evaluation method needs to be made prior to the group commencing. This is for several reasons. For one, you may want to conduct a pre-­assessment and post-­assessment. If this is the case, you will need to conduct the pre-­assessment either before the group starts or right at the beginning of the group. In addition, you want to make sure that your evaluation matches the objectives you have set for the group. For example, if one of the group goals and objectives is for members to improve their interpersonal relationships, the evaluation you choose should measure something related to interpersonal relationships.

Informed Consent Participants should be given all of the information needed to make a decision as to whether or not they would like to participate. The informed consent is a written agreement spelling out the details, particularly around confidentiality, to ensure that the group is following appropriate ethical guidelines.

Confidentiality

As the group leader, you are legally and ethically bound to maintain confidentiality except in the case of a member’s threat to themselves or someone else; child or elder abuse or neglect; or court subpoena. We also ask members to maintain the confidentiality of one another’s disclosures. This means that we ask members to agree not to talk about what other people disclose in the group. When setting up a group, confidentiality will need to be discussed multiple times to increase the confidence participants have that the space created for healing is safe enough to share private information that might not have been shared with others in the past.

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Preparing Members

Preparing clients from all walks of life for group experiences is a necessary component of successful groups. In an ideal situation, all clients will understand what to expect in a group and will eagerly consent to participate. Truth is, even when the group leader has every intention of fully preparing participants, it is impossible to provide members with all there is to know about the group experience. Regardless of the setting, a few basic considerations exist. First, it is best practice to screen group participants to determine if they would be a good fit for the group based on characteristics such as their prior experience in a group, their presenting issue, their willingness to participate or not, exploring scheduling concerns, discussing racial and ethnic identity and background, gender identity and expression and so on. Young clients outside of school settings are not able to participate without parental permission. Gaining authorization from caretakers is as important as gaining confirmation from students that they are committed to participating in a group. Screening young group members is less about selecting whether or not they are fit to participate because they would have likely been referred by caretakers or teachers. Screening is more about placement of youth in groups that address the goals and objectives of a group that would best meet their needs. For instance, if a group is conceived to meet the growing needs of pressure to perform in certain ways on social media either through the frequency of posts, content of posts, or positionality taken when posting, it could be more appropriate to have students of similar age and grade level in a group to ensure that the discussions that might unfold are developmentally appropriate. With adults, this consideration is not as salient unless there are individuals with disabilities, visual impairments, or other unique circumstances that might hinder their experience in sessions. Following are some important screening questions group leaders could use to prepare group participants in clinical mental health agencies (Box 5.9). Box 5.9  Sample Screening Questions

1. What are the tentative goals that you’d like to accomplish over the duration of this group? These can be personal or professional. 2. Have you ever participated in a group counseling experience before? If yes, what was that experience like? If you have not ever participated, what are some assumptions you have about what this experience would be like? 3. How comfortable are you at giving and receiving feedback? 4. What are one or two things that you’d like the group leader and other members to know about you? (continued)

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Box 5.9  Sample Screening Questions (continued)

5. What specific questions do you have for me as the one who will be leading you through this experience? 6. To what extent do you feel comfortable discussing issues such as ethnic background, gender identity, and sexual identity and how these identities shape your experience?

LOGISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ONLINE GROUPS

Confidentiality Maintaining confidentiality is even more complicated in online counseling groups and this must be discussed as you plan groups. First, for trust to develop each member will need to be able to ensure the group that other people (e.g., roommates, partners, extended family) will not be able to hear the conversation of the group or see the screen where members are displayed. We suggest encouraging the use of headphones by members for this reason, as well as agreeing to join the group from a quiet, private space where others in the home will not be able to hear or see the member’s screen. Many video conferencing tools have a chat feature. Members will need to be reasonably assured that other members are not copying and pasting discussions to later be shared with others. Finally, while some video conferencing tools can also record sessions; unless there is a therapeutic reason to record a session, we discourage using this feature. If a session is to be recorded, members should be informed ahead of time and should have the opportunity to opt out if they wish.

Logistical Norms Some norms, or rules of engagement, in a group are explicit and some are implicit. In an online group, there are a few norms that should be made explicit that a leader would not typically need to address in a group being held in person. For example, if there is a chat feature, it will need to include all members (e.g., “everyone”) in order to eliminate the potential for members to chat behind others’ backs. Another helpful norm is for members to keep their microphones and cameras turned on for the duration of the group. This helps members to interact spontaneously, as they would in an in-­person group, without having to unmute before speaking. We also must recognize that for some members, having their camera on or their microphone unmuted may make them uncomfortable due to their surroundings. For example,

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members may not want other people in the group to be able to see their living situation, or to hear if the member lives with others and there are things going on in the background. There are also logistical norms that will help maintain the therapeutic frame and should be discussed explicitly. For example, you will want to think about whether or not it is okay for members to eat while they attend group. In an in-­person group, activities such as eating and smoking are generally not permitted. In order to maintain the therapeutic frame, you may want to set rules around eating, smoking, and consuming alcohol for the duration of the online group. In addition, when attending an in-­person group, members are generally expected to sit in chairs that are arranged in a circle. When members are attending remotely, it may be helpful to set the expectation that members are sitting upright, in a chair when possible. This is perhaps self-­evident, but one author (Rachel) has had students who wanted to attend their experiential group from the comfort of their bed. To the extent possible, we want to try to maintain the same therapeutic frame in an online group that we would have in a group held in person.

Technology Availability When considering leading an online group, an important factor is the availability of technology that will support the group endeavor. One aspect of the technology is a Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)-­compliant video conferencing platform. Another factor is available hardware for both the leader and the members. If possible, both leader and members should have hardware (tablets, computers, etc.) that allows for both audio and video participation. Finally, members and leader will need to have internet access that is of an adequate speed to allow for video conferencing. Identifying a HIPAA-­compliant platform is the responsibility of the leader, but discussing adequate hardware and internet access should be a conversation between leader and potential members during the screening process.

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: 1. The leader must make a number of logistical decisions prior to commencing the group. 2. Regardless of the type or setting of the group, the leader should prepare all members for their experience in the group. 3. Common logistical concerns include type of group, topic, length of group, individual leader versus coleader, and open versus closed group. 4. Some of the above logistical concerns identified in #3 will be dictated by the setting you are practicing in

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CASE STUDIES 5.1 AND 5.2 REVISITED In thinking back to the case studies: 1. What are some potential challenges you may encounter in a conversation with the principal while presenting your vision on group? 2. What are some ways you can promote psychoeducation to the students’ families, colleagues, and/or other stakeholders? 3. How could you respond to any push back or difference in opinions from the school leadership on your group initiative or goal? 4. Considering the various logistical components discussed in this chapter, which area(s) would require the most preparation personally for you? Which would be the easiest? How so?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. When you think about populations you might work with in the future, how do you imagine recruiting members for potential groups? 2. What are some of the pros and cons of using open and closed groups? What might help you decide whether you would want to use an open group or a closed group? 3. How might you recruit members for your group who may not typically have access to or engage in mental health services? 4. How might you approach developing a curriculum to meet the developmental needs of your group? 5. If your setting (e.g., school, hospital, outpatient, clinic), what might you present to your supervisor as the rationale for why you want to run a group for a specific purpose? What might those be? And what would be your first few steps?

In-Class Small Group Activity 1. Pair up with someone in your class who you do not know particularly well. Imagine that the two of you have decided to co-­lead a group together. Discuss the following topics:

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a. Leadership style (directive, nondirective, somewhere in between?). b. Intersecting identity statuses and how you envision these impacting the way in which you lead c. Intersecting identity statuses of the two of you as co-­leaders, and how this will impact your dynamic with each other, as well as the group dynamic d. Strengths you believe you bring to your role as a leader. e. Areas of growth you believe you bring to your role as a leader 2. Get together in groups of two to four students. Think about a group you would like to run in the future. Discuss the following with your peers: a. Where would you recruit members for this group? b. How would you ensure that you had diverse membership represented in your group? c. If adequate resources are available, would you choose to lead or co-­lead this group? Why? If you want to co-­lead, what characteristics and/or demographic background would you look for in your co-­leader? d. What are some ideas about how you would evaluate the effectiveness of the group? e. How long do you envision each session lasting, and how many sessions do you foresee the group lasting? What informs these decisions?

Journal Starters 1. Counselors, whether working in schools or clinical mental health settings, will need to use the guidance from administrators and other leaders to assist in developing group plans. What are some of your biggest concerns when anticipating seeking the assistance of your colleagues in leadership positions? 2. How can group leaders plan for the myriad of identities that might be represented even before the groups start? Write down what you can do to prepare for the group members in a way that fosters spaces of healing even without knowing exactly who is going to show up when the sessions begin.

Homework Ideas 1. Think about a setting you envision working in in the future, and write a needs assessment to help identify what type of group may be helpful for your place of employment. Identify the stakeholders you would want to respond to your needs assessment. 2. Create a draft of a few open-­ended questions that members could respond to, highlighting the benefits of the group from their perspective. Using these same questions, try and write them as quantitative questions using a short Likert scale with three options (e.g., 1 = no, 2 = maybe, and 3 = yes).

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Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 5.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES American School Counselor Association. (2020). The school counselor and group counseling position statement. Author. Coogan, T., & Steen, S. (2021). Group counseling leadership skills for school counselors: Stretching beyond interventions. Cognella. Jacobs, E. E., Schimmell, C. J., Masson, R. L., & Harvill, R. L. (2016). Group counseling strategies and skills (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. Merchant, N. M. (2006). Multicultural and diversity competent group work (pp. 308–319). In J. Trotzer, The counselor and the group (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Accelerated Development. Merchant, N. M. (2009). Types of diversity-related groups. In C. F. Salazar (Ed.), Group work experts share their favorite multicultural activity: A guide to diversity-competent choosing, planning, conducting and processing (pp. 13–24). Alexandria, VA: Association for Specialists in Group Work. Singh, A. A., & Salazar, C. F. (2010). The roots of social justice in group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 35(2), 97–104. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933921003706048 Schwiebert, P., & DeKlyen, C. (2006). Tear Soup: Healing After Loss. Griefwatch. Thomas, R. V., & Pender, D. A. (2008). Association for specialists in group work: Best practice guidelines 2007 revisions. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 33(2), 111–117. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 01933920801971184 Trotzer, J. (2006). The counselor and the group: Integrating theory, training, and practice (4th ed.). Routledge. Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2020). Theory and practice of group psychotherapy (6th ed.). UK. Basic Books.

6 Moving From Individual Developmental Counseling Theories to Advancing Multicultural Competence and Social Justice

Learning Objectives ■

Review a brief historical overview of the limitations to traditional individual counseling theories.

■

Recognize how some individual theories can be readily applied in group work

■

Use group developmental theories to conceptualize group work.

■

Review developmental theories that are culturally inclusive and challenge colonized thinking when used in a group modality

■

Evaluate select therapeutic factors and the impact they have on the group process.

■

Demonstrate how to handle conflict as the group transitions toward a working stage within group

See Table 6.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

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TABLE 6.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.F.6.a

Theoretical foundations of group counseling and group work

2.F.6.c

Therapeutic factors and how they contribute to group effectiveness

2.F.6.g

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for designing and facilitating groups

ACA Code of Ethics

C.7.a

When providing services, counselors use techniques/procedures/modalities that are grounded in theory and/or have an empirical or scientific foundation

ASCA Code of Ethics

A.7.g

School counselors facilitate groups from the framework of evidence-­based or research-­based practices

B.3.i

School counselors monitor and expand personal multicultural and social-­justice advocacy awareness, knowledge, and skills to be an effective culturally competent school counselor. Understand how prejudice, privilege, and various forms of oppression based on ethnicity, racial identity, age, economic status, abilities/disabilities, language, immigration status, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity expression, family type, religious/spiritual identity, appearance, and living situations (e.g., foster care, homelessness, incarceration) affect students and stakeholders

II.A.2.b

Demonstrate skill in: applying theoretical concepts and scientific findings to the design of a group and the interpretation of personal experiences in a group

II.D.1.c

Identify and describe: therapeutic factors within group work and when group work approaches are indicated and contraindicated

II.D.1.d

Identify and describe: principles of group dynamics including group process components, developmental stage theories, group member roles, group member behaviors

II.G.1.c

Identify and describe: culturally competent group work

ASGW Professional Training Standards

(continued )

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TABLE 6.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

B.3.a

Group workers apply and modify knowledge, skills, and techniques appropriate to group type and stage, and to the unique needs of various cultural and ethnic groups

B.4

Group workers understand and are able to implement appropriate models of group development, process observation and therapeutic conditions. Group workers manage the flow of communication, addressing safety and pacing of disclosures to protect group members from physical, emotional, or psychological trauma

B.8

Group workers practice with broad sensitivity to client differences including but not limited to ethnic, gender, religious, sexual, psychological maturity, economic class, family history, physical characteristics or limitations, and geographic location. Group workers continuously seek information regarding cultural issues of the diverse populations with whom they are working by interaction with participants and from using outside resources

C.2

Group workers attend to opportunities to synthesize theory and practice and to incorporate learning outcomes into ongoing groups. Group workers attend to session dynamics of members and their interactions and also attend to the relationship between session dynamics and leader values, cognition, and affect

I.1

Demonstrate movement to being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­ economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality are impacted by their own experiences and histories

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

(continued )

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TABLE 6.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

STANDARD

DEFINITION

I.4

Seek to understand the extent to which general group leadership skills and functions may be appropriate or inappropriate for group work facilitation with multicultural group members

II.a.10

Use culturally grounded frameworks and techniques that provide the best fit for group members’ cultural context

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

II.3

Acquire culturally sustained application skills to apply knowledge of multicultural and social justice theories, identity development models, and research to one’s work with privileged and marginalized clients

II.4

Take action by applying multicultural and social justice theories, identity development models, and research to one’s work with privileged and marginalized clients

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, ­Association for Specialist in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and ­Related Educational Programs.

CASE STUDY 6.1 TRAINING GROUP FOR MASTER’S STUDENTS The following is an excerpt from the feedback exchange that occurred after a group session composed of counselor trainees. The counselor trainees’ practiced facilitation skills and then received immediate feedback after the group ended. The topic of disussion was experiencing and expressing intense anger. This was the fifth time the group had met. Dr. Perry (Course instructor): Okay, let’s provide our leader (Malisha) with some feedback on her facilitation of the discussion today. Who would like to go first? (continued)

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CASE STUDY 6.1 TRAINING GROUP FOR MASTER’S STUDENTS (CONTINUED) Johanna (in an arrogant, enthusiastic tone): Malisha, I think if we are going to talk about anger, you absolutely have to discuss the current societal context and racial tension that is swallowing our society. Dr. Perry: Johanna, can you say a bit more about why this strikes you as important? Johanna: Well, if we explore anger without talking about these cultural elements, we might reinforce negative stereotypes about Black people, or even worse, we may position some Black members as oppressed while glorifying White members, when both groups may be expressing anger at the same time. Malisha (leader in training): Okay, I want to understand your point. I guess I am just unsure of how I would facilitate that discussion. And even more, I am not sure how it connects to my goals of the group. My purpose was to explore anger and the manner in which anger is expressed in members’ personal lives. Tell me more about the connection to some of the larger systemic concerns that you are bringing up, Johanna. I am not quite sure I understand. This case begins a dialogue on the complexities of our society when it comes to race and culture. This case also highlights the necessity of understanding the broader societal implications, the intersections of identities, and the importance of addressing race and culture intentionally and often introduced in groups. The group leader will need to go beyond gaining an awareness and must work diligently to explore their own identity to ensure that oppression and racism does not manifest itself in group without being examined and dismantled. As you read through the chapter, keep this case study in mind, reflect on your current understanding of individual counseling theories, and your growing understanding of more inclusive and applicable group oriented frameworks; we will re-­examine it at the end of the chapter.

INTRODUCTION: BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF TRADITIONAL INDIVIDUAL COUNSELING THEORIES Generally speaking, a theory refers to a related set of ideas that explain and/or make predictions about what a counselor might encounter when working with clients. In counseling, a theory may also provide guidance on skills, strategies, and techniques

154  Introduction to Group Counseling that might align with these sets of ideas in order to provide the best care for clients (Gysbers & Henderson, 2012). However, the most common individual theories used within counseling are inherently exclusionary. Ponder the reality that longstanding theories in counseling and psychology were created based primarily on the majority culture, meaning essentially White, male, heterosexual, Christian, able-­bodied, priviliged, and socially influential individuals (Singh et al., 2020). In this context, majority culture refers to those with more power and privilege and those who are perceived as the “norm.” These theories and frameworks are less appropriate to be used with culturally diverse populations as clients and communities of color were not considered when created nor have efficacy studies been based on diverse clientele (Spurgeon, 2017). As a result, these foundational counseling theories have been interrogated more recently, reminding us that they were established on Western philosophical ideals and dogmatic religion that fostered racist and hegemonic othering (e.g., being viewed or treated as intrinsically different and implied as less than) sentiments that continue to be perpetuated within the social sciences today (Washington, 2018). Specifically, some have argued that race and deviance have been intertwined and clients and communities of color were often seen as savages who needed to be kept in place. Consequently, communities of color were not factored into the theoretical frameworks created and presently this narrative exists as scientist/interventionists were relegated as the perfect example of benevolence (Fanon, 1963, Singh et  al., 2020). In order to foster more inclusiveness for clients from all walks of life, the individual theories and frameworks utilized in group counseling are challenged and critiqued in this chapter. It is apparent that conventional individual theories are widely used within counseling and therefore offer a starting point in which to critique more deeply the need for contemporary theories that can be cultivated for the society in which we live in. The goal is to view theories and frameworks within a context that acknowledges and respects clients and families spanning wide intersecting identities to avoid the “othering” that is embedded within westernized theories. We will briefly look at the individual theories extracted from the counseling literature and offer summaries and critiques of their limitations to broad populations of clients and families when applied to groups and group settings. While the emphasis here begins with a summary of these individual theories using Table 6.2, the attempt is to challenge the idea that this should be blindly applied to group work. Not only are there concerns related to using traditional individual theories with diverse populations for the reasons already noted, but in addition, individual theories were developed to work with individuals. As a result, they do not take into consideration the powerful dynamics that exist in a group. Following are summaries of fundamental theories usually applied when working with individual clients. We then move on to developmental theories that can be applied to groups immediately after this overview of individual theories and frameworks. We conclude the chapter with our own emerging theory of group counseling drawn from the literature and our professional experience.

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INDIVIDUAL COUNSELING THEORIES AND GROUP WORK APPLICATION Counseling without theoretical frameworks can be described as flying a plane without a map or building a home without any architectural plans. Traditional theories, however, have failed to take into account the wide variety of clients from all walks of life. Moreover, what is missing from these theories is an intentional examination of how they can be applied in group settings. Other texts (e.g., Corey et al., 2018; Gladding, 2019; Jacobs et al., 2016) take the approach of describing each theory in detail and how they could be used within a group environment. These resources are helpful for understanding some of the fundamental tenets of the westernized theories commonly accepted within counselor preparation programs. We use this text to intentionally challenge these theoretical frameworks by highlighting either the deficits they present or the opportunities for more specificity in applying to group settings. For instance, the psychoanalytic approach is limiting due to its emphasis on the unconscious, which is more subjective, than accepting one’s current lived experiences despite the origin of these difficulties or adjustments. Additionally, the psychoanalytic approach did not take power and privilege into consideration when it was conceived. In another example, Adler’s original framework was created during a time where individuality and the dogged pursuit of one’s goals were promoted as a healthy lifestyle. However, it is critical to understand that these ideals may be contradictory for clients who value their family’s input and center much of their decision-­making on a collection of information from family and kinfolk who may contribute to buffering difficulties life often presents when pursuing life goals. Next, consider the person-­centered approach, a framework widely accepted and often infused within eclectic postures. This theory, while based on humility, must be reframed to deeply understand the client within the context of their intersecting identities, without comparisons to what might be considered acceptable and a standard that stems subjectively from the individual providing the counseling services. Furthermore, the group context that offers clients the opportunity to serve and rely on a person-­centered approach without building on the complexity of members and their interactions in a group setting is a missed opportunity to develop collective spaces of healing and growth. Table 6.2 briefly describes the core concepts of commonly accepted individual theories while examining cultural considerations these theories could take into account.

GROUP DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES TO CONCEPTUALIZE GROUP WORK Although it is common for counselor education programs to teach, and for clinicians to use theories developed for individual work within a group counseling context

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TABLE 6.2  Individual Counseling Theories, Core Concepts, and Cultural Considerations

Psychodynamic Theories

CORE CONCEPTS

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. Problems in our current life are often a result of negative early experiences with caregivers

1. The counselor often serves as an interpreter of experiences to the client, and if the counselor is interpreting the client’s experience through the counselor’s worldview versus the client’s, this could lead to significant misattunement

2. We must become more aware of our unconscious, especially our ineffective unconscious relational patterns that are a result of our negative early experiences with our caregivers in order to heal

2. The application of attachment concepts are based on White, middle class, American culture. It may therefore be easy to pathologize a client who does not identify in these ways as they are discussing their own attachment to caregivers, partners, or children 3. For clients who identify as collectivist, such a strong focus on themselves as individuals could feel incongruent to their worldview

Existential Theory

1. There are four core “givens” of life that we all must face: making meaning in a world that is meaningless; having freedom to do what we want but having to deal with the responsibility that comes with this freedom; coming to grips with the fact that no matter how close we get to others, we always exist in isolation; and no matter what, we all face death 2. Anxiety is a natural part of life; it is only problematic if it is neurotic anxiety

1. Client’s religious or spiritual beliefs may conflict with the idea that the world is meaningless 2. The meaning of one’s life is impacted by one’s beliefs and experiences, and the counselor must be aware of understanding the meaning the client makes of their life through the client’s lens, not through the counselor’s 3. For client’s who hold one more or more identity statuses that have historically experienced oppression, conceptualizing their life as having infinite choice may not line up with their reality. Further, to then suggest that the client must take responsibility for the choices they have made, particularly if they have had very limited choices, can be experienced as victim- blaming (continued )

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TABLE 6.2  Individual Counseling Theories, Core Concepts, and Cultural Considerations (continued) CORE CONCEPTS

Gestalt Theory

1. One explanation for thology is when we own, and therefore come split off, from emotions

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

padisbeour

2. There is a focus on contact and resistance to contact, also known as boundary disturbances. The idea is that we need to be connected (to people, ideas, etc.), but we also need to be able to take a step back when necessary. So can we relate in a way that is connected without losing our sense of self? Behavioral Theory

1. Behavior is a function of the environment in which we are in 2. The focus of counseling is on unlearning ineffective ways of behaving and learning (or relearning) more effective ways of behaving

Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT)

1. Events in and of themselves are not the problem, it is our thoughts about the event(s) that cause us problems 2. There is significant consideration of how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors impact one another

1. The process of Gestalt therapy often results in intense emotions and the Gestalt counselor encourages the client to express these emotions. For some clients, such intense emotional expression, particularly with someone outside of their family or community, may feel incongruent 2. What it means to be appropriately connected to others, ideas, religion, etc. will vary depending on a client’s beliefs, background, and values. Counselor’s must consider the client’s conceptualization of healthy contact vs. putting their own conceptualization of healthy contact on the client 1. The conceptualization of pathology as a lack of skill, and a subsequent focus on unlearning unhelpful behaviors and/ or re-­learning helpful behaviors ignores the privilege, racism, oppression, and systemic/institutional barriers that may impact a person

1. The focus of CBT is on dysfunctional or irrational thoughts, and how these contribute to our feelings and behavior. However, for people who have faced discrimination or marginalization in other ways, their thoughts may be rational given their experiences. Therefore, to label these thoughts as “irrational” or “dysfunctional” and to challenge them would be to deny their lived experience (continued )

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TABLE 6.2  Individual Counseling Theories, Core Concepts, and Cultural Considerations (continued) CORE CONCEPTS

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. We don’t need to know how the problem came to be; instead, the focus is on identifying solutions

1. Solutions in SFBT are driven by the client, and typically involve actions the client is to take. For some clients, the solution(s) to their problem(s) is connected to systemic racism, oppression, or other institutional barriers. To suggest that the individual is able to develop a solution to these problems is inappropriate

2. One way of identifying solutions is looking for times/situations when the problem was not as intense as usual (e.g., when the anxiety was slightly lower than usual)

through a group developmental lens. Individual theories were developed with the purpose of working individually. Therefore, individual theories often fail to take into consideration how a group leader is to work with the entire group. A concern we have when using individual theories is that the group becomes a session where the leader is essentially conducting individual counseling with each member while the rest of the group waits for their turn. This does not result in a particularly interesting or valuable group experience, and it fails to capitalize on the incredible opportunities for interpersonal learning that take place in a group. Furthermore, the underlying group dynamics are neither taken into consideration, nor used to further the group process. A few group developmental theories are presented in the following. These were not based on an intersectionality perspective, but they do take into consideration multiple perspectives from members and group leaders and offer a unique and often overlooked potential to explore what is commonly found in the groups we have been a part of as members and leaders. As authors we suggest you review the following theories with caution because we recognize they were developed based on eurocentric ideals and White culture. Although, they take the development of the group into con­sideration, they apply less to the complexity of the human experience.

Bion Bion (2013), believed group members try to deal with the anxiety that stems from their interpersonal concerns when they interact in the group. He conceptualized the presence of two groups within a group: the work group and the basic assumptions group (Miller, 1998). The work group is at play when the group is functioning in a

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way that fulfills the objectives of the group and the members. The basic assumptions group is at play when members are interacting as if their (false and often unstated) assumptions of the group are true. Bion’s framework helped to shift the perspective of group work from an individual within a group context to a focus on the group as a whole. This also resulted in a shift from using individual interventions in the group to focusing on interventions that address the whole group (Kline, 2003). Perhaps the most significant contribution is the idea that when members are consistently interacting in a certain manner, they are often responding to assumptions about the group that are false, and typically unspoken (Miller, 1998).

Bennis and Shepard Bennis and Shepard posited that communication is the main concern of groups and the members’ experiences will sometimes be openly communicated and other times held in silence (Davies & Kuypers, 1985). Some members agree with the experience and others are not satisfied initially as they feel that it is the fault of the leader who is causing these intense feelings associated with the ambiguity and anxiety that is present during early phases of a group. Bennis and Shepard identified dependency and interdependence as primary stumbling blocks to effective communication. An indication that a group has effectively dealt with issues of dependency is when the conversation shifts from discussing procedural norms to discussing issues related to intimacy (Kline, 2003). Issues of interdependence are present in the group when topics of member relationships are being emphasized. They go on to highlight that the main issue is the anxiety that is present and its debilitating effect. However within a group development framework, mature groups can handle conflict that is a requirement to growth and development, especially as members experiment with valid, realistic, and honest communication. The valid communication includes one’s ability to analyze interpersonal experiences within the group that likely occur outside of the group and easily relate to past experiences. As groups continue to unfold, there is often a collective buy in, hope for the future, and commitment to engage in a working and successful group experience.

Schutz Schutz conceptualized interpersonal behaviors in the group as a way of meeting the specific interpersonal needs of inclusion, control, and affection (Keyton, 1989; Kline, 2003). Specifically, this framework offers an inclusion phase, control phase, and an affection phase. In the inclusion phase, members are trying to determine how much they want to be involved in the group. Factors contributing to their decision include identifying whether or not the leader cares about them, and whether or not

160  Introduction to Group Counseling other members attend to them. In the control phase, members are concerned with issues related to the extent to which they can influence other members of the group. During this phase, groups can experience more conflict in their interactions. Finally, in the affection phase, the group is concerned with the extent to which they want to be close to (or remain far from) one another. While some group development models posit that groups develop in a linear fashion where stages are not revisited, it is important to note that Schutz believed groups could frequently recycle through the stages, depending on which issue is of most importance to the group in the moment (Keyton, 1989; Kline, 2003).

Tuckman Tuckman’s is perhaps the most frequently cited model of group development (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). Tuckman’s group development framework is applicable to a variety of types of groups. The Tuckman stages are given in Table 6.3. TABLE 6.3  Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development STAGE/PHASE

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PHASE

Forming

The group is put together and begins to consider what it will become

Storming

The group collectively strives for an identity that is acceptable to all involved. Conflict is not uncommon

Norming

The group decides the rules of engagement that are inclusive of all members to ensure a climate that is conducive for growth

Performing

The group engages in critical incidents that afford the giving and receiving of feedback often aligning with the norms established in the earlier phase

Adjourning

The closing of the group experience ensues. Insight is explored, goals accomplished are discussed, and areas to consider for the future are shared

Consider a typical group project that you have likely been involved with multiple times in your career as a student. When you are first getting to know the others in your group (forming), the conversation might be slightly superficial, and everyone might be “minding their Ps and Qs.” After you start getting to know each other, there is the potential for a period where there are different ideas about what the project should be, or who should be leading the task and delegating the responsibilities to the rest of the team (storming). Once an idea has been agreed upon and members have agreed to their “roles,” the group can decide things like how they are going to work together, when they want to meet, and how they want to communicate the

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progress toward their goals (norming). At this point, the group can really get into the meat of the task, where the group is working together like a well-­oiled machine (performing). There might still be disagreements at times, but the group has figured out how to move through these to complete the project. Finally, the group offers its presentation at the end of the semester and members are able to wrap up and say goodbye (adjourning). These individual theories, group developmental theories, and applications to group settings can benefit from a set of contemporary and progressive frameworks referred to as the fifth force in counseling (Ratts, 2009). As such, we offer insight on how to infuse this into your growing group leadership competence.

USING CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE THEORIES TO CONCEPTUALIZE GROUP WORK As noted, traditional theoretical frameworks within counseling were not created to disrupt, interrogate, or dismantle systemic, ideological, or structural racism and oppression (Singh et al., 2020). Traditional frameworks must be reimagined within the appropriate cultural context to be most effective to a wider body of clients and families. Taking it a step further, decolonizing our language, thoughts, and behaviors within counseling is imperative as we work toward more inclusive counseling interventions. Colonization is defined as the socialization and resocialization of oppressed persons to fit into dominant White, Eurocentric cultural values and experiences (Singh et al., 2020). On the other hand, decolonization is an intentional examination of power, privilege, access, and opportunities while interrogating, challenging, and confronting systemic, ideological, and structural inequities (Hernández-­Wolfe, 2011). Within group counseling, the beginning counselor will need to first look within at how they have been colonized (e.g., trained as a counselor) to perpetuate the domination we have described. This awareness, while difficult at first, then leads to acknowledging and centering the Indigenous voices as a way to confront the reality that the land in which we reside within the United States was stolen (Goeman, 2008). This acknowledgment fosters humility and intentionality at battling a colonized mindset and behaviors. The group leader working toward decolonization will plan, lead, and evaluate the group with a sense of purpose. Theoretical frameworks that address issues of power, privilege, and oppression exist within the context of social justice (Ratts, 2009). We describe a few of these theoretical frameworks in the section that follows.

Intersectionality This section begins with the most salient framework referred to throughout the group text. Intersectionality continues to evolve and as it becomes more common

162  Introduction to Group Counseling within counseling; it offers an opportunity to view individuals both from a broad and specific perspective by giving clients the chance to voice how they choose to see themselves within our society and within group settings. First, intersectionality is about identity (Mitchell & Sawyer III, 2014). The commencement of the term intersectionality emerged as a framework to understand the experiences of Black women facing racism and oppression because of their race and gender, and the complexity of these experiences exponentially due to how these identities intersect within the field of law (Crenshaw, 1989). Over time and applied beyond law scholarship, intersectionality is now defined as the intersecting identities of individuals, the power relations among groups, and as a research paradigm used to design empirical studies exploring multiple and interlocking identities (Mitchell & Sawyer III, 2014). Intersectionality ”is more than counting the representation within a group space, it is the understanding of collective power, or lack thereof, and ensuring inclusivity in social justice movements. It is a way to build alliances in organizing for social change” (Love, 2019).

Ecological Systems Theory The ecological systems theory describes five types of nested systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Each of these have roles, norms, and rules that shape a person’s development. Each subsystem, starting with the microsystem, is nested within a larger ecological system in a layered fashion, so that recurrent interactions between the individual and their environments directly influence the individual’s growth and development. At the lowest level, the microsystem includes the systems in which an individual interacts the most; for example, their immediate family, their school, or their religious organization. The next level is the mesosystem. The mesosystem includes interactions between microsystems. For example, the interactions between the person’s school and their family. Continuing to move further away from the person, the next system is the exosystem. The exosystem includes systems in which the person does not immediately participate, but that impact them nonetheless. For example, mass media, government agencies, and social services that may be available. The macrosystem is next, and it includes broader cultural elements that impact a person’s development. Finally, the chronosystem refers to environmental changes that may impact a person’s development. For example, moving to a new city or experiencing the divorce of one’s parents. Because the human experience is influenced beyond just microlevel interactions, it is necessary to examine and consider the relationship between subcultures as well as the interactions between the individual and their broader environments (Strayhorn, 2010). For instance, some clients may deal with additional stressors that may not be fully captured by the ecological model without considering their unique experiences when adopting intersecting identities that have been negatively influenced by systemic, structural, and ideological racism (Dumas, 2016).

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Critical Race Theory As defined by some of the central figures of Critical Race Theory (CRT), CRT is “a collection of activists and scholars engaged in studying and transforming the relationship among race, racism, and power” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017, p. 3). Although not all critical race theorists agree on each tenet of CRT, there are a number of generally accepted notions (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). The first is that racism is a normal, everyday occurrence for most people of color in the United States. Second, often referred to as “interest convergence,” is the idea that racism helps not only White elites, but also the White working class. As a result, there is a large portion of the population that has no incentive to remedy racism. The third tenet is “social construction,” or the proposition that race is a social construction and not a genetic or biological Truth. Fourth is the concept of differential racialization. This refers to the different ways in which members of the dominant group change the way they racialize minorities depending on the needs of the dominant group. An example provided by Delgado and Stefancic (2017) is the shift from Muslims being conceptualized as “somewhat exotic neighbors who go to mosques and pray several times of day—harmless but odd” (p. 10), to threats of national security just a short time later. A fifth element of CRT includes essentialism and intersectionality. As frequently discussed throughout this book, no person holds only one identity status. Rather, we have overlapping and intersecting pieces of our identities that do not make us easy to categorize. Finally, CRT posits the importance of the unique voice of color. In other words, non-­White people have a wealth of knowledge and experience that their White peers do not have access to because they have not experienced the same systems of oppression. Infusing CRT within group work offers guidance on an intersectionality or multiple identities perspective (Ghavami et al., 2020). Blending both group development and CRT gives credence to the impact of historical and contemporary racism on members from both privileged and oppressed identities. CRT is a flexible framework that underscores the privileges afforded to Whiteness as normal within institutions and systems (Sung & Coleman, 2019). Within education, the theory has been used to highlight experiential knowledge and the perspective or voice of those often marginalized or silenced (Sung & Coleman, 2019).

Racial Identity Developmental Models Generally speaking, racial identity developmental models are helpful for counselors to understand within group characteristics; that is, the impact of racism and oppression on identity formation, to frame the appropriate use or critique of culturally relevant assessment tools, and to provide implications for interventions. These models were developed for working with clients within individual sessions, but as

164  Introduction to Group Counseling we develop an understanding of the assumptions of these models, consider how they could be beneficial when conceptualizing inclusive group spaces. In order to fully understand the usefulness of racial identity development models we must agree that: 1. Racism is a basic and integral part of U.S. life and permeates all aspects of our culture and institutions. 2. Oppressed persons are socialized into U.S. society and, therefore, are exposed to the biases, stereotypes, and racist attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the society 3. The level of racial identity development consciousness affects the process and outcome of interracial interactions. 4. How oppressed folks perceive themselves as racial beings seems to be strongly correlated with how they perceive and respond to racial stimuli. Consequently, race-­related reality represents major differences in how they view the world. 5. Oppressed individuals born and raised in the United States may move through levels of consciousness regarding their own identity as racial beings. 6. The goal of this development is to acquire and access an identity that does not deny or negate one’s integrity. Racial identity development for counselors, clients and families from racially and culturally categorized (non-­White) backgrounds have been summed up by the following terms: Conformity: assimilation and acculturation Dissonance: encounters information that contradicts currently held beliefs Resistance and immersion: understanding of social–psychological forces associated with prejudice and discrimination Introspection: accepting the discomfort with rigidly held group views (i.e., all Whites are bad) Integrative Awareness: development of an inner sense of security as conflicts between new and old identities are resolved It is important to note the following: (a) racial and cultural identity development models should be viewed as dynamic, not static; (b) using these models in a stereotypical manner can cause more harm than good; (c) these models are conceptual aids and that human development is much more complex; (d) these models begin at a point that involves interaction with an oppressive society; (e) be aware that these models lack an adequate integration of gender, class, sexual orientation, and other sociodemographic group identities; (f) racial/cultural identity is not a simple, global concept. Therefore, we recommend that a group counselor begin to look more closely at the possible interactions between the group counselor and group members identity development stages. Racial identity development for White counselors, clients, and families has been summed up by the following terms:

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Naïvete: early childhood is marked by naïve curiosity about race and there is a tendency to be innocent, open, and spontaneous regarding racial differences. People may notice differences, but the awareness of social meaning is absent or minimal. Conformity: colorblindness is accepted and minimal awareness of self as a racial/ cultural being currently exists. There is often a strong belief in the universality of values and norms governing behavior Dissonance: obliviousness breaks down when a White person becomes aware of inconsistencies between what they believe and what they are willing to see or observe. There is a conflict that emerges over irresolvable racial moral dilemmas that are frequently perceived as polar opposites: believing they are nonracist, yet not wanting their son or daughter to marry a non-­White person. Resistance and immersion: a White person begins to question and challenge their racist thoughts, feelings, and actions. For the first time, they begin to realize what racism is all about, and their eyes are suddenly opened Introspection: a compromise of swinging from an extreme of unconditional acceptance of White identity to a rejection of Whiteness. It is a state of relative quiescence, introspection, and reformulation of what it means to be White. Integrative awareness: understanding self as a racial/cultural being. An awareness of sociopolitical influences with respect to racism and an appreciation of non-­ White people. Commitment to anti-­racist action: this phase is characterized by social action. A person becomes increasingly immunized to social pressures for conformance because the reference group begins to change. In sum, White persons and non-­White persons must actively place themselves in new and oftentimes uncomfortable situations that compel them to question themselves as racial/cultural beings, and to increase awareness of racial issues, especially racism. Specifically for White persons, change must occur in the form of new insights, attitudes, and behaviors that lead to a realization of their role in the perpetuation of racism. Next, considerable and continuing energies must be devoted to the maintenance of a healthy White racial identity. In other words, change is not enough in the face of societal forces that serve to squelch or punish dissent. And, finally, an intentional effort must be taken to eradicate racism by counselors, clients, and families across the spectrum of humanity.

Relational Cultural Theory For groups aiming to foster inclusive environments, a most salient framework includes the Relational Cultural Theory (RCT; Jordan, 2010, 2017). The main focus of RCT is to help counselors build clients’ relational complexity and ability to hold mutually empathic relationships and to overcome difficult experiences as well as oppressive

166  Introduction to Group Counseling social structures that work to disrupt these connections (Jordan, 2010). A central tenet of RCT is that all people want to connect with others, and psychological wellness is a consequence of relationships that allow for growth (Jordan, 2008). Within groups, members are interconnected, and the group leader would do well to see individuals within a group as part of a system. RCT affords the group leader to see the importance of connection, relationships, and the interactions of members, as useful to grow in concert with one another. The assumptions of RCT are (Jordan, 2000): 1. People will grow through interactions. 2. Members are working to connect and this represents a functioning environment. 3. Success at interacting in difficult and complex experiences illustrates psychological growth. 4. Mutuality in both empathy and empowerment are central to growth-­fostering relationships 5. Genuine, honest engagement is a necessary ingredient in the group space. 6. When members engage and participate intentionally, they grow. 7. The ultimate goal is to apply this learning and relational competence in all aspects of one’s life.

Understand Therapeutic Factors and Their Impact on the Group Process The therapeutic factors as described by Yalom and Leszcz (2005; 2020) deserve considerable attention when examining how well groups are functioning. In a sense, a group is always giving off plenty of indicators, from all involved, that help to understand if a group is working, how participants might or might not be experiencing the group, and ideas to consider exploring further in the group. The fundamental curative factors that are most commonly attributed to Yalom’s body of work are accepted as the healing factors that are byproducts of a well-­functioning group (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005; 2020). These therapeutic factors can also serve as fuel for change within groups. For instance, group cohesion is defined as connection between the group leader and members and among the members that creates an atmosphere of change. This cohesion is a necessary and fundamental healing attribute synonymous with therapeutic alliance in individual counseling, could enhance group members’ willingness to share information about oneself, and could allow participatns to self-­ disclose more personal information or even raise conflicting thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, as the cohesion can essentially lead to more safety. The presence of therapeutic factors indicates that growth could be occurring for some of the participants; however, it does not always highlight precisely which members are meeting goals. Therapeutic factors are powerful indicators that the group is unfolding as a useful space to explore one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, but not all of these factors

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will be present in all groups, nor will they be present all the time. It is reasonable that a group leader might wonder about the development of the group if they are not seeing evidence of the therapeutic factors consistently over the life of the group. Therapeutic factors also are described as individual traits and are defined as such in the following. That being said, they interact in a myriad of ways that need further examination in the literature to substantiate exactly how these healing and restorative factors work for racially, culturally, and ethnically diverse members. To date, the research on therapeutic factors for participants from an intersectionality framework is missing. It is important to consider the impact of social, environmental, and political factors in designing interventions. The group leader must also be alert to issues of oppression, sexism, racism, and other forms of discrimination in their work and therefore being intentional in setting up groups by first discovering what is and is not appropriate for the leader’s population is a great place to start. Seeking out and working with constituents or cultural brokers for whom the group is intended cannot be overlooked.

An Inclusive Model of Group Theory Throughout this chapter, we have reviewed a number of individual theories, group developmental theories, and theories outside of individual and group development that attend to racial and cultural factors. In this section, the authors put some of these ideas together to demonstrate a more inclusive model that takes systemic, cultural, and identity factors into the consideration of how a group develops. We recognize that while no theory can explain the development of every group, just like no theory is going to sufficiently explain every individual client, our hope is to add to the conversation on group development by considering more inclusive factors of the systems in which we live, and how those systems impact members and leaders. We endorse a linear model of group development, while acknowledging a great deal of flexibility in the way groups come together. By linear, we mean that we see groups as having a beginning stage, a transition period before moving into the working stage, a working stage, and an ending or termination stage. In each stage, there are certain behaviors we can expect from members and certain leader behaviors that are particularly helpful. (We discuss the leader interventions relative to group stages more thoroughly in the next chapter.) It is important to point out, however, that not every group will go through every stage, and groups may revisit stages during their lifecycle. For example, if there is an addition of a new member, the group may revisit an earlier stage of development. Further, in open groups where the membership turns over frequently, it may be difficult to experience a true working stage, and one member’s beginning stage (i.e., when they start) may be another’s termination stage (a member who is discharging). With these caveats in mind, we now describe how we infuse elements of intersectionality, Ecological Systems Theory, and CRT into our understanding of how a group develops over time.

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Intersectionality Perhaps one of the most important takeaways of this book and of considering group members and group development is that people are complex, and the ways in which the different elements of our identity intersect is complex. When you think about your own identity, you likely do not only consider one aspect of it. For example, if you identify as Asian, you probably have other pieces of your identity that you connect with in addition to identifying as Asian. Furthermore, the extent to which one element of your identity is salient to you may differ depending on the situation in which you find yourself. For example, when you are with your family, your Asian identity may not be at the forefront of your mind. However, if you also identify as LGBTQ and your family has had a difficult time honoring this part of your identity, you may be far more focused on this piece in your interactions with your family. As you begin thinking about leading groups, there are innumerable iterations of the intersection of your identity and the intersection of each member’s identity status. Therefore, there is no possible way to account for all of the ways in which these intersections occur, but we can encourage you as an emerging leader to consider the salient elements of your own identity, and to be willing to explore the multiple ways in which your members’ identity impacts their experience, both out in the world and in your group. Further, it is critical to understand that the identity statuses that members identify with come with historical power or oppression. Therefore, the way in which members’ experience their combination of identity statuses in the context of the rest of the members may lead certain members to experience oppression by the group, while others experience power.

Ecological Systems It is difficult to conceptualize group functioning without considering how the systems in which members and leaders live impact them and their interaction in the group. Each individual person is impacted by their own unique microsystem, mesosystem, macrosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem. Consider each member’s microsystem—the system that is closest to them that includes elements the members participate closely in, such as their family of origin and school. Certainly, the norms, and values of each member’s family of origin will greatly impact the way in which they interact in the group. This may be expressed in ways such as how much a member speaks without invitation, the way they conceptualize and therefore respond to the group leader, and the norms around communication style (e.g., is it okay to be direct?). Let us take the example of differences in members around the extent to which it was considered normal or appropriate in their family culture to speak without an invitation. For some members, it was perhaps considered appropriate to wait to be invited into

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the conversation, while for others, it was appropriate and normal to jump in anytime they had something to say. Because the group is a social microcosm (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020) these two members will engage in the group in the same way that they typically interact in their “real lives” outside of the group. In the beginning stage, this may look like one member (member A) waiting for the leader to specifically ask them to share, while the other member (member B) quickly becomes the person who will chime in about practically anything. Perhaps as part of the conflict associated with the transition stage, member A is castigated by other members for being “too quiet,” resulting in a lack of trust from those who disclose more freely. On the other hand, in this same stage member B may hear that their willingness to jump into the conversation at any time can make it difficult for others to feel as though they have “air time” in the group. Also consider the macrosystem, also known as the way in which cultural elements such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, wealth, and poverty impact a person. Consider the following interaction. See Box 6.1 to think about your personal and professional goals exploration. BOX 6.1  Goals

This is an excerpt from a working stage of a group. The conversation is around members having difficulty following through with goals they set for themselves, and how this makes them feel. Susie (35-­year-­old, cisgender female, identifies as low socioeconomic status): I know the right move is for me to start my own business, I just can’t seem to actually do it. Leader: You’ve mentioned before, Susie, that you feel very competent in your ability to start this business, but you’re feeling stuck taking steps forward. Susie: Part of it is that with my current full-­time job, there just isn’t enough energy left to figure out some of the logistics that I need to figure out. Max (28-­year-­old, cisgender male, identifies as high socioeconomic status): It seems like you might need to quit your job to have enough time and energy to get your new business off the ground. Susie: I don’t think I can do that. I need the income of my job. Max: Well, I get that. But maybe your parents could give you a short-­term loan? Or maybe you could move back in with them to save on some living costs while you get your business going. (continued)

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Box 6.1  Goals (continued)

Susie: (in a defeated voice, looking toward the ground). That isn’t really an option—my parents have never been stable financially and there is no way I could rely on them in a situation like this. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are some ways in which the leader can respond to the content of the conversation? 2. What are some ways in which the leader can respond to the process of the conversation? 3. Which response (to content or process) do you think is more effective? Why? In addition, there are always events of the chronosystem that impact the entire group, even though this impact will look different depending on the member or leader. Consider the COVID-­19 pandemic. All of your members will have experienced the pandemic, but the way in which it impacted their life will be different. Black and Brown people, for example, experienced a disproportionate number of deaths related to the pandemic compared to White people. Further, people who worked in many hourly wage industries, such as the service industry, were not able to transition to working from home in the same way that many salaried employees were able to do. This created an even wider gap between higher income earners and lower income earners. The strain on women with children has also been documented as considerably different than the strain on men, as childcare and school shut down for several months at the height of the pandemic, frequently leaving women with the responsibility of coordinating childcare and employment. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. How do you imagine the differing impacts of the COVID-­19 pandemic will affect members of your future groups, and therefore the development of these groups? 2. What other chronosystem events come to mind that may impact the population in widely different ways?

Critical Race Theory A primary tenet of CRT is the idea that people of color in the United States experience racism on a daily basis (Bell, 1992). This means that in the context of the group, non-­White members will have a plethora of times when they have experienced

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racism, prejudice, and discrimination. Revisiting the concept of the group as a social microcosm (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005; Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), we know that because members will engage in the group in the same way that they engage in the world, and because the group becomes a smaller version of the “real world,” the racism that exists in the world will also exist in the context of the group. Certainly, the presence of racism will impact the development of the group, particularly if racist comments are not noticed and addressed by the group leader. Often, it seems as though leaders-­in-­training may expect that any statements of racism (or any other -ism) will be overt. For example, someone wearing a confederate flag on their teeshirt to a meeting, using the “N” word, or some other overt expression of racism. However in our experience, the comments are much more subtle than this, often in the form of microaggressions. Microaggressions are “thinly veiled, everyday instances of racism, homophobia, sexism (and more) that you see in the world. Sometimes it’s an insult, other times it’s an errant comment or gesture” Consider the following examples: ■

■

■

■

A White member telling a Black member they are “such a credit to their race” or that they are “so articulate.” A White member telling a Black member that “racism doesn’t exist anymore. I am sure if you are the most qualified person for the job, you’ll get it. Try not to worry so much.” A White member saying to an Asian member, “You sure are quiet. I really think you’d get along better in this group if you’d speak up more.” A White member who consistently cuts off or talks over non-­White members.

Most importantly, when comments like these are not addressed, group members may feel harmed and oppressed in a setting that is supposed to be “safe.” In relation to group development, if the leader does not cut off and address comments or actions that are racist, understandably the members who are the recipients of these comments will not feel safe, and, therefore, likely will not engage. Practically speaking, this may look like members being reserved, contributing in superficial ways rather than in vulnerable ways, and even dropping out. This results in a group that lacks cohesion, and a group that may find it difficult to get to a working stage of development where members can engage in challenging, meaningful work.

Relational Cultural Theory A central tenet of RCT is that people naturally desire to connect with others, and relationships that contribute to growth also contribute to psychological wellness (Jordan, 2010). The context of the group is a wonderful place to engage in relationships that contribute to growth. In considering RCT in conjunction with group development, we conceptualize the first assumption of RCT, that people grow through

172  Introduction to Group Counseling interactions, as something that is present throughout the life of the group. From the first meeting onward, there is an opportunity for members to grow as long as they are interacting with one another. The second assumption of RCT, that members are working to connect and this represents a functioning environment, will likely be highlighted in the beginning and working stages of the group. Here, members are trying to figure out how to engage with the group, and with one another. The third assumption of RCT is that success at interacting in difficult experiences highlights psychological growth. This concept pairs well with the transition stage of the group’s development. During this time, there is increased tension in the group and conflict between members, but also often between members and leader(s). If the group is able to navigate this stage in a meaningful way, members will experience growth. Further assumptions of RCT are: fourth, mutuality in both empathy and empowerment, which are central to growth-­fostering relationships; fifth,genuine, honest engagement is a necessary ingredient in the group space; and sixth, when members engage and participate intentionally, they grow will be most evident during the working stage of the group. At this point, trust has been developed, conflict has been effectively dealt with, and the deeper work takes place. Finally, the seventh assumption, that the ultimate goal is to apply learning and relational competence in all areas of one’s life, connects well with the termination stage of the group. Here, the group members are making meaning of the experience, reflecting on their time together, and thinking about how they can transfer what they have learned through their time in the group to their lives outside of the group.

Self-Disclosure Our theoretical orientation, the perspective of our supervisors, and other factors impact the extent to which we view self-­disclosure as an acceptable intervention, both in individual and group counseling. As you think about your group leadership style and the way in which you conceptualize the group, the authors encourage you to think about how self-­disclosure may impact how a group progresses (or does not progress). Oftentimes counselor preparation programs that foster a traditional Eurocentric approach discourage the use of self-­disclosure and, therefore, clinicians often decline to offer personal information. We take the perspective that a more flexible perspective on self-­disclosure is an important part of culturally competent group leadership. One concept that is important to consider is the difference between self-­disclosure and self-­involving statements, both of which are important and need to be explicitly defined and differentiated. Self-­disclosure statements reveal content about the leader; for example, whether or not the leader is in recovery, has experienced a certain trauma, or has children. Self-­involving statements are related to disclosing here-­and-­now feelings that are occurring in the group. See Boxes 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4 to explore self-involving—too much or too little; self-disclosure—too much or too little—where does this go?; and self-involving—too much or too little.

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BOX 6.2  Self-­Disclosure Versus Self-­Involving

Here are two examples of dialogue comparing the difference between self-­ disclosure statements and self-­involving statements. Self-­disclosure statement: Client: I am feeling so hopeful and strong about my recovery today. Sometimes, I just want to throw in the towel. But today, I feel like I can do it. Counselor: I know what that’s like. I have wanted to throw in the towel many times as well, but it is worth it to keep moving forward. Self-­involving statement: Client: I am feeling so hopeful and strong about my recovery today. Sometimes, I just want to throw in the towel. But today, I feel like I can do it. Counselor: I have watched you work really hard in this group over the past several weeks. I am so excited for you that you are feeling a sense of hope and confidence about your recovery. I am feeling confident about it as well. As you can see, both statements by the counselor are disclosures. In the first example, the counselor is disclosing a fact—that they are also in recovery and that they have wanted to give up in the past as well. In the second example, the counselor is disclosing a feeling they are having in the moment in response to the group member’s disclosure. While counselors’ and counselor educators’ opinions regarding self-­disclosure exist on a continuum, traditionally counseling students have been trained to disclose very little. However, this stance again is based on a White and Eurocentric perspective of what counseling ought to look like. As a result of different worldviews, expectations, beliefs about how to build a relationship, and trust concerns of clients from diverse backgrounds, more disclosure may be appropriate. In addition, for group leaders who do not identify with the White, Western perspective that self-­ disclosure by the clinician does not belong in a group, it may feel incongruent to lead from this perspective. Rather than telling group leaders-­in-­training to categorically avoid any type of disclosure, we encourage you to think about the difference between self-­disclosure statements and self-­involving statements, and when it might be appropriate to use these interventions. We also encourage you to consider whether there are facts about yourself that you may not want to disclose if a client asks, and how you might handle this scenario. (continued)

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BOX 6.2  Self-­Disclosure Versus Self-­Involving (continued)

One consideration is that the stage of group development may impact whether or not a leader chooses to disclose, and whether that disclosure is a self-­disclosure statement or a self-­involving statement. For example, in the beginning stage of the group when anxiety is high, relationships are being formed, and members are not quite sure what to do or how to engage, self-­disclosure by the leader can be a helpful form of modeling for the group. This may occur in many contexts, but one example is when the leader has offered a prompt for discussion, or has introduced an activity, and elects to respond to the prompt or activity.

BOX 6.3  Self-­Disclosure

Consider the following statement, where the leader models a response to an opening question/discussion: Leader: I’d like for all of us to think about some of the ways in which we know we engage with other people, especially when we first meet them. For example, when I first meet people I notice that I often ask a lot of questions of the other person, and typically wait to provide information about myself until the other person asks me about myself. Who’d like to go next? QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What is your reaction to this disclosure by the leader? 2. What other examples can you think of where the leader might model disclosure to members? 3. Why might this type of disclosure be helpful in the beginning stage of the group, but perhaps not necessary in the middle/working stage of the group?

BOX 6.4  Self-­Involving

In contrast, consider the following self-­involving statement by the leader during a working stage of the group: Leader: Sheritta, you have talked before about how it can be hard to reveal yourself to others and that this can contribute to you sometimes feeling like

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Box 6.4  Self-­Involving (continued)

you are not connected to others. Right now, as you talk about what it is like for you to be a member of this group, I am feeling more connected to you than I have previously. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. How is this statement different than the example in Box 6.3? 2. Why might this statement be more effective in the context of a working stage of the group as opposed to a beginning stage? 3. How would you feel as a leader disclosing your here-­and-­now feelings to the group? 4. How would you discriminate between feelings or reactions that are helpful and appropriate to share, versus feelings or reactions that may not be helpful to share?

Conflict and Group Development In groups that the authors have led and been a part of, we are fully aware that conflict plays an important role. First, conflict will emerge even if therapeutic factors are not present. However, if therapeutic factors are present then the conflict is not only to be expected but also seen as a useful element for group members and the group leader(s) to grow and develop as a result of the experiences associated with the conflict. Conflict within a group is defined in the following two ways for the purpose of this chapter: process and personal. Process conflict is when a disagreement occurs as to how the group should be led, unfold, or proceed in order to accomplish the collective goal set out at the onset (e.g., growth, task, healing, support). The conflict emerges when members feel like the counseling strategies, group structures, or norms of happenings clash with what the expectations might have been from the beginning. On the other hand, personal conflict can be viewed as emotional or relationship conflicts and might occur if members do not agree on a topic or discussion or if members genuinely do not like each other or if transference or self-­disclosure leads to honest interactions that elicit a conflict. It is not inevitable that if people do not agree it will lead to a conflict; however, it is not unusual that as individuals become more honest, conflict can arise. Group leaders will need to remember that being afraid of the conflict or even avoiding the conflict is counterproductive. Denying it, closing it down, or overlooking it because of fear of directly and skillfully addressing it can stunt the group or lead to issues later down the road as the group continues to work toward more intense interactions and deeper relationships and emotional engagement. This can be particularly

176  Introduction to Group Counseling important as the group moves toward the transition stage of development. If groups are able to attend to and successfully move through conflict, the group will be able to move toward the working stage. If not, the group may get stuck in the beginning stage, where it is difficult to get to deeper work. Therefore, remembering the following strategies offered by an experienced practitioner (Bergart, n.d.) will be helpful: 1. Conflict is normal in groups; it comes about as members try to get their needs met, deal with their discomfort, reach their goals, get attention, and so forth. 2. Many clients are in groups exactly because they have trouble dealing with conflict in their relationships, so they need to learn how to deal with conflict. 3. Anger at the leader is inevitable, as members find out the leader does not have all the answers and the members will have to work on finding solutions. 4. Helping a group to constructively work through conflict with each other and with the leader leads to growth. 5. Avoiding or denying conflict is usually destructive. 6. Groups that deal with conflict are more productive, work harder at problem solving, and are more committed to the decisions they make. At the same time that the authors endorse conflict as a valuable element of group development when it is handled effectively, we also recognize that for some members, engaging in conflict in the public space that is the group may go against cultural norms. One author (Rachel) recall having a student highlight this point after showing a video clip where members were engaged in conflict and processing the interaction with the class. While most students were in agreement that although initially uncomfortable to watch, the conflict was ultimately beneficial to the group, one student had a different perspective. She mentioned that in her culture, it would be embarrassing and bordering on shameful to engage in conflict in such a public, group setting. She stated that a more appropriate and culturally congruent response from group members would be to approach the leader individually about the concern, and then have the leader deal with the concern privately with the member involved. This is a good example of how the norms that we talk about as healthy for group development may not be congruent with all members. As a result, we encourage leaders to facilitate conversation with members about how they experience conflict, and the extent to which it feels culturally acceptable to engage in conflict within the group. In addition, as you think about conflict, be sure to consider that intentionally leading groups with an intersectionality framework will undoubtedly position individuals to engage in both uncomfortable and brave spaces.

CONCLUSION Although a variety of individual theories (e.g., person-­centered, Adlerian, CBT, Behavioral, REBT, existential, and psychodynamic) can be used in a group work setting, we encourage you to consider incorporating a group development perspective,

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as well as focusing on how members’ intersectional identities, the systems in which they live and interact, the existence of racism in the United States, and the expectation that connecting with others improves mental health, to conceptualize group work. Students can use the activities that follow to reflect on how the individual theories and developmental theories presented in this chapter can be used together to better conceptualize and intervene in groups.

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

Although interventions from individual counseling theories can be used in the context of a group, we believe a great deal is missed if the leader tries to conceptualize the group only using individual theories. Attention to Intersectionality, Relational Cultural Theory, Critical Race Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory, in addition to group developmental theories, enhances a leader’s ability to conceptualize the group in a culturally competent manner. Topics that we sometimes take as “givens” in group counseling, such as lack of self-­disclosure by the leader and embracing conflict as it arises. must be considered within the cultural context of the members

CASE STUDY 6.1 REVISITED Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. 1. In this case, what was Johanna really talking about? 2. How do you interpret Johanna’s feedback? Do you read it as helpful and constructive, or as a passive way of suggesting Malisha did not do a good job? Should the observer of the group and the professor, who identifies as a Black male counselor educator, ask himself: What role should I play in this case considering the fact that I had very similar albeit more specific ways to go about enhancing the session infusing race and culture within the conceptualization of anger? What could I have probed with Johanna? What could I have explored with Malisha? 3. What might have prevented Malisha from engaging in this exploration with her group members throughout the session in the first place? 4. In future sessions, what challenges might Johanna face in facilitating a similar discussion as a counselor, particularly if all of her future clients are White males? What if Johanna and her group members’ racial demographics are not a match? How salient would race be in either of these cases?

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END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection Although we advocate for conceptualizing group work through group developmental theory rather than theories developed for individual counseling, there is a great deal of group work done using individual counseling theories (such as CBT). What are your thoughts on why this is the case? What benefits are there to using individual theories in groups? 1. When you think about groups you have been a part of, whether they are task groups, family groups, counseling groups, and so on, can you conceptualize them using a group developmental framework? How does this help you understand the progress of the group? 2. When you think about using developmental theories or individual theories to better understand group work, how does intersectionality play into the way in which you conceptualize group work? 3. What are some specific topics and populations where you can imagine using individual theories to intervene? 4. A normal element of group development is conflict. What are your biggest concerns about leading a group where there is conflict? What benefits, if any, can you imagine resulting from working through conflict? What if the conflict is racialized? 5. How can individual theories be effectively modified to be used in groups? 6. A group member is offended that spirituality is seen as an afterthought; however, the group leaders have made a concerted effort to foster an environment that allows everyone to voice their perspectives in a nonjudgmental atmosphere. How should the co-­leaders address this discrepancy? 7. How can group leaders, teachers, or supervisors use culturally relevant literature, art work, music, and so forth, to foster environments that are inclusive? 8. Should you include members of a group with visible disabilities with those who do not have those obvious differing abilities? Why or why not? 9. Should group members’ demographics match group leaders’ demographics? 10. What impact can varying cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills between a group supervisor and group counseling leaders have within a supervision relationship? 11. How do your identities play a role in how you might facilitate a group?

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In-Class Small Group Activity Within the chapter are two of models of racial identity development (non-­White and White individuals). When reviewing these, reflect on the following questions as an individual. Next, connect with a small group of classmates and discuss your current thoughts and feelings. 1. First, review both models of racial identity development, and pay particular attention to the one that most applies to yourself. 2. Next, jot down where are you on this continuum. 3. Make a note of your life’s experiences that help you justify your choices. 4. What do you think will need to occur that could thrust you into another stage/phase? 5. How will being aware of these aspects of identity impact your counseling competence? 6. How can you apply this growing understanding in a group setting? 7. To what extent is this information important for group members to also be aware of? Why or why not?

Journal Starters 1. Think about your own intersections of identity. Briefly write down those with which you are most familiar and most comfortable sharing. Also, write down a few that you are still trying to accept, whether they are considered marginalized or privileged. 2. What is your current theoretical orientation you are leaning towards in your group counseling work? Share how this aligns or differs with the work you plan to do with individual clients, students, and families.

Homework Ideas 1. Take a look at Table 6.1. Explore the manner in which the headings, definitions, and examples are provided to become more group oriented. What is missing? How can this table be improved? What is useful about this table, and what areas are confusing?

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Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 6.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES Bell, D. A. (1992). Faces at the bottom of the well: The permanence of racism. Basic Books. Bion, W. R. (2013). Experiences in groups: And other papers. Routledge. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. Corey, M. S., Corey, G., & Corey, C. (2018). Groups: Process and practice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. Crenshaw, K. W. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics (Vol. 1989, pp. 138–167). University of Chicago Legal Forum. Davies, D., & Kuypers, B. C. (1985). Group development and interpersonal feedback. Group & Organization Studies, 10(2), 184–208. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​105960118501000206 Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical race theory: An introduction (3rd ed.). New York University Press. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2307/​j​.ctt1ggjjn3 Dumas, M. J. (2016). Against the dark: Antiblackness in education policy and discourse. Theory Into Practice, 55(1), 11–19. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​00405841​.2016​.1116852 Fanon, F. (1963). The wretched of the earth. Grove/Atlantic Ghavami, N., Kogachi, K., & Graham, S. (2020). How racial/ethnic diversity in urban schools shapes intergroup relations and well-­being: Unpacking intersectionality and multiple identities perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 3133. https://​doi​.org/​10​.3389/​fpsyg​.2020​.503846 Gladding, S. T. (2019). Groups: A counseling specialty (8th ed.). Pearson. Goeman, M. (2008). (Re)Mapping indigenous presence on the land in native women’s literature. American Quarterly, 60(2), 295–302. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1353/​aq​.0​.0011 Gysbers, N. C. & Henderson, P. (2012). Developing and managing your school guidance program (5th ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

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Hernández-­Wolfe, P. (2011). Decolonization and “mental” health: A Mestiza’s journey in the borderlands. Women & Therapy, 34(3), 293–306. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​02703149​.2011​.580687 Jacobs, E. E., Schimmell, C. J., Masson, R. L., & Harvill, R. L. (2016). Group counseling strategies and skills (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. Jordan, J. V. (2000). A relational-­cultural model: Healing through mutual empathy. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 65(1), 92–103. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1521/​bumc​.65​.1​.92​.18707 Jordan, J. V. (2008). Recent developments in relational-­cultural theory. Women & Therapy: A Feminist Quarterly, 31, 1–4. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​02703140802145540 Jordan, J. V. (2010). Relational-­cultural therapy. American Psychological Association. Jordan, J. V. (2017). Relational-­cultural theory: The power of connection to transform our lives. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 56(3), 228–243. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​johc​.12055 Keyton, J. (1989). Exploring interpersonal compatibility in groups. Kline, W. B. (2003). Interactive group counseling and therapy. Merrill/Prentice Hall. Love, B. L. (2019). We want to do more than survive: Abolitionist teaching and the pursuit of educational freedom. Beacon Press. Miller, E. (1998). A note on the protomental system and “groupishness”: Bion’s basic assumptions revisited. Human Relations, 51(12), 1495–1508. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​001872679805101205 Mitchell, D., & Sawyer III, D. C. (2014). PREFATORY: Informing higher education policy and practice through intersectionality. Journal of Progressive Policy and Practice, 2(3), 195. Ratts, M. J. (2009). Social justice counseling: Toward the development of a fifth force among counseling paradigms. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 48(2), 160–172. https://​ doi​.org/​10​.1002/​j​.2161​-1939​.2009​.tb00076.x Singh, A. A., Appling, B., & Trepal, H. (2020). Using the multicultural and social justice counseling competencies to decolonize counseling practice: The important roles of theory, power, and action. Journal of Counseling & Development, 98(3), 261–271. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​jcad​.12321 Spurgeon, S. L. (2017). Evaluating the unintended consequences of assessment practices: Construct irrelevance and construct underrepresentation. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 50, 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2017.1339563 Strayhorn, T. L. (2010). The role of schools, families, and psychological variables on math achievement of black high school students. The High School Journal, 93(4), 177–194. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1353/​hsj​ .2010​.0003 Sung, K. K., & Coleman, N. (2019). Framing critical race theory and methodologies. In Research methods for social justice and equity in education (pp. 45–57). Palgrave Macmillan. Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977). Stages of small-group development revisited. Group & Organization Studies, 2(4), 419–427. https:// doi .org/ 10 .1177/ 105960117700200404 Washington, A. R. (2018). Integrating hip-hop culture and rap music into social justice counseling with Black males. Journal of Counseling & Development, 96(1), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jcad.12181 Yalom, I., & Leszcz, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (5th ed.). NY: Basic Books. Yalom, I., & Leszcz, M. (2020). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (6th ed.). Basic Books.

7 Culturally Sustained Group Counseling Skills

Learning Objectives ■

Develop one’s own group leadership skills that foster inclusive environments.

■

Review qualities of culturally sustained group leaders

■

Recognize multiculturally focused group work research

■

Recognize how group leaders can contribute to the field of group work through advocacy, research, and service

■

Identify ways that group work principles can be implemented to explore race and racism

■

Identify ideas and strategies to consider when combating racism and discrimination

■

Discover the importance of co-­leadership as well as the pros and cons

See Table 7.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

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TABLE 7.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.F.6.d

Characteristics and functions of effective group leaders

2.F.6.g

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for designing and facilitating groups

ACA Code of Ethics

C.7.a

When providing services, counselors use techniques/ procedures/modalities that are grounded in theory and/or have an empirical or scientific foundation

ASCA Code of Ethics

N/A

 

ASGW Professional Training Standards

II.D.2.a

Demonstrate skill in: encouraging participation of group members

II.D.2.b

Demonstrate skill in: attending to, describing, acknowledging, confronting, understanding, and responding empathically to group member behavior

II.D.2.c

Demonstrate skill in: attending to, acknowledging, clarifying, summarizing, confronting, and responding empathically to group member statements

II.D.2.d

Demonstrate skill in: attending to, acknowledging, clarifying, summarizing, confronting, and responding empathically to group themes

II.D.2.e

Demonstrate skill in: eliciting information from and imparting information to group members

II.D.2.f

Demonstrate skill in: providing appropriate self-­ disclosure

II.D.2.g

Demonstrate skill in: maintaining group focus; keeping a group on task

II.D.2.h

Demonstrate skill in: giving and receiving feedback in a group setting

II.G.1.c

Identify and describe: diversity competent group work

A.4.d

Group workers choose techniques and a leadership style appropriate to the type(s) of group(s) being offered

B.3.a

Group workers apply and modify knowledge, skills, and techniques appropriate to group type and stage, and to the unique needs of various cultural and ethnic groups

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

(continued )

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TABLE 7.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

I.1

Demonstrate movement to being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality, are impacted by their own experiences and histories

I.4

Seek to understand the extent to which general group leadership skills and functions may be appropriate or inappropriate for group work facilitation with multicultural group members

II.a.5

Model relationship skills essential for connecting with and creating connections between multicultural group members while planning, performing, and processing groups

II.a.6

Recognize and be aware of group needs and goals, determine type of multicultural and social justice variables as they conduct assessments, identify appropriate groups to be implemented, select group leader(s) and members, pre-­screen and prepare members, and determine the techniques, leadership styles, and resources needed to conduct a group

II.a.10

Use culturally grounded frameworks and techniques that provide the best fit for group members’ cultural contexts

II.b.1

Establish group norms to accept, value, and respect cultural differences. The group leader needs to be intentional about such norming very early in the group to allow for open discussion of dynamics related to cultural issues

II.b.5

Address overt and covert cultural conflicts in group. Group leaders may avoid and/or ignore cultural conflicts due to “political correctness,” fear of offending members, or their own discomfort with addressing diversity issues. Such avoidance will only serve to intensify group conflict and is detrimental to constructive group process. Group leaders need to address underlying cultural conflicts when appropriate and model ways to constructively address the issues

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

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CASE STUDY 7.1 Following is a case illustration that offers the potential for different directions that could be taken by group leaders in response to member(s)’ feelings about how the sessions are experienced. When reviewing the interactions, think about the skills that could be used to impact the trajectory of the events that have unfolded, paying particular attention to what could be done in future sessions for the group’s development. Setting the Stage This group has met for 12 out of 20 sessions. The group’s focus is on the loss of personal relationships through death, divorce, separation, or breakup. The group members include both individuals who identify as cisgender male and nonbinary. The group is led by an experienced group leader; however, this is the first time that the clinic has focused solely on programs for males and those who identify as nonbinary. Primary Conflict The group leader is straight and therefore believes his self-­disclosures seem irrelevant to the specific topic of grief and loss within the context of individuals who identify as nonbinary. Secondary Conflict The wide spectrum of identities causes some tension as individuals work to articulate what makes them unique even though they have all experienced some variation of loss and different levels of grief. Synopsis/Intervention Myles the group leader reminds the members that today is session 12 out of 20. He prompts the members to pause a moment and reflect on what they would like to get from the group with the remaining time together. To illustrate, he suggests that members go around the room and answer questions that incorporate any of the following words as a way of creating some structure. The words include “what, why, where, when, etc.” For example, “What would you like to share, that you haven’t up to this point?” “Why do you plan on coming back for the remainder of the sessions?” “Where might you see yourself in 1 year from now regarding how you have coped with your loss?” “When will you pursue other relationships if applicable?” (continued)

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CASE STUDY 7.1 (CONTINUED) Many group members are visibly put off by this prompt. Dedado, usually a quiet group member, explicitly states this is a waste of time and claims that this activity seems to align with how the group has been progressing all along. Specifically, Dedado shares the following: Mr. Myles, we’ve been meeting for 12 weeks. We come in here every Wednesday at 9 a.m. EST and start with a session countdown, a discussion prompt that leads us nowhere, then a reminder of how many sessions are left. Following this reminder, we are prompted to share our biggest take-­away for the session and then we all leave. Personally, I am disappointed as to how the group is being facilitated and had I not wasted so much of my time I’d be more inclined to quit right away; however, I am still hopeful that something beneficial could come from this. At this point, I am still very lonely. I am still extremely sad. I do not seem to trust many in this group. And, I do not believe that I am comfortable enough to share my true feelings here or to pursue other relationships outside of this group. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. Dedado shared about being lonely and sad. What can Mr. Myles do to encourage more open and honest sharing even though the criticisms were directly toward him as the leader? 2. What specific skill can Mr. Myles use to foster a more inclusive environment? 3. From your perspective, what aspect of identity is explicitly missing from their discussion? 4. In addition to some of the ideas you posed, what about race, gender, and sexuality? 5. If race, gender, and sexuality are broached by Mr. Myles, how might this impact the group? 6. If race, gender, and sexuality are brought up by the members, how might this impact the group? As you continue reading, think about what you would do (e.g., skill implementation) as a culturally sustained, competent group leader to facilitate a group that members see as beneficial to their growth and development even if there is conflicting information, emotions, and responses over the course of the intervention. Simply, what will you do to create brave, affirming, and humanizing group experiences for the clients and families you will serve (Guth, et al., 2019).

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INTRODUCTION In this chapter we lay the foundation for group counseling skills that culturally sustained competent group leaders must possess to run groups effectively. There are many different ways effective group leaders facilitate groups. It is important to remember that relying on your own personality and interests can help you determine how you might best lead your groups opposed to trying to adopt verbatim the manner in which your group instructor leads their groups. However, it is imperative that race and gender are explored early and often when planning, implementing, and evaluating the groups you facilitate. Moreover, Guth et al. (2019), offer that culture and power are always present within groups. Remember, the group leader’s intersections of identity coupled with their feelings, cues, and responses do impact the group. When planning, implementing, and evaluating culturally sustained groups, group leaders are the most influential because of the positions of authority and power they hold. This is the case even as group members become more active and engage in the group process. Social justice advocates who embody the struggle needed to create environments that are equitable for all, recognize the impact courageous group spaces offer toward these endeavors as well as their role in this mission. Skilled group leaders who are willing to promote equity, inclusion, and acceptance in their personal and professional endeavors can capitalize on group environments that offer opportunities to bring people together from all walks of life by celebrating their commonalities and differences, fostering difficult conversations, and working towards growth and development for the group members.

BASIC GROUP LEADERSHIP SKILLS THAT FOSTER INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS A group leader cannot separate themselves from their skill set. At the same time, a group leader cannot only develop their skill set while facilitating a session. The art and science of group counseling leadership must be attended to as often as possible even outside of formal group spaces. Practicing counseling skills can be done when interacting with individuals and practicing group counseling skills can be done when the person desiring the experience constantly views the potential for group dynamics to unfold in areas not limited to just group sessions. Think about all of the opportunities presented to you on a regular basis whereby you could use your counseling skills. Think about all of the opportunities and group interactions where you can practice your facilitation skills. They are endless, and actively looking for these chances to engage in group dynamics using your emerging skill set will prove fruitful as you determine your natural instincts and growing competence. Be sure to examine your own implicit biases, intersections of identity, power, and privilege,

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and other oppressed aspects in this work and you will be preparing yourself to make a significant contribution to society with your group leadership skills. Group leadership is simply defined as fostering an environment where members can connect and work together while harnessing the power that exists in the group (Conyne, 2014). The purpose for bringing people together within a group is ultimately to accomplish goals that the individuals have. However, these individual goals can be attained with the help of the group leader and other members. Additionally, the group can work to create a set of collective goals, but oftentimes these are secondary to individuals’ needs and desires.

BEGIN REFLECTING ON GROUP LEADERSHIP SKILLS Generally speaking, skills that are applicable to counseling individual clients are reasonably applicable to group counseling sessions. Some of these examples include: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Active listening Reflection of content Reflection of feelings Summarizing Confrontation

These are just a few skills readily used within individual counseling sessions. These skills can be applied within group spaces but these along with the following others can be relevant to group environments. For instance: ■ ■ ■

Linking members Providing process observation comments Giving members the change to provide and receive feedback

However, there are many, many more. We provide what we would consider basic and advanced group counseling skills and offer an opportunity to reflect on the skills that you possess, those you are unsure of, and insight on the areas needed for much more development.

Reflection Activity Following is a list of group counseling skills (Table 7.2). Reflect on which ones you can define, those you have used, ones that you might be unsure of, and those you have no familiarity with. Give yourself 3 points for each one you can correctly define, 2 points for those you have used with friends, family members, or coworkers, 1 point for those you are unsure of, and 0 for those you have no familiarity with. Along the way, make a few notes to clarify what prompted the score you provided.

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TABLE 7.2  Reflection Activity GROUP COUNSELING SKILL

POINTS AND NOTES

Active listening Reflecting content Summarizing Linking members Drawing members out Cutting members off Setting realistic individual and group goals Using silence Validating members comments Infusing culturally relevant language in the strategies and techniques Focusing on members’ needs Refraining from judgment Guiding without leading the conversation Facilitating at a good pace Trying not to “fix” members Teaching when appropriate Using humor Blocking inappropriate comments from members Appropriate use of self-­disclosure Questioning Confronting members when appropriate Asset building Encouraging members Immediacy Integration of culture and other aspects of identity Giving and receiving feedback Encouraging emotional expression (continued )

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TABLE 7.2  Reflection Activity (continued) GROUP COUNSELING SKILL

POINTS AND NOTES

Probing Total SCORE =

1. Take three of the skills above that you scored as 0, 1, or 2, and talk with other members of your small group. Could they define the ones you struggled with? As a group, brainstorm three concrete ways you can increase your knowledge of the skills you identified as needing development. 2. Take a look at the skills in the table and choose three to talk about with your peers. Select those skills that you think the way in which group members may experience the skill or intervention will be particularly impacted by their cultural background. What concerns do you have about executing the skills you have selected in a culturally competent manner? How will you assess whether or not your skill or intervention has been well received by your group members, or whether one or more members may experience the skill or intervention as inappropriate or offensive? 3. At the end of your group counseling course, we encourage you to come back to this assessment and see how your scores have changed. What was the most salient learning point for you during the course? What are ongoing areas of growth and development for you?

EFFECTIVE GROUP LEADERSHIP SKILLS Following are a list of skills that we believe effective group leaders should strive towards in their group facilitation. 1. The art of listening actively and patiently before offering any input or verbal reaction 2. The ability to consistently ask good open-­ended questions 3. The confidence to admit when a question was focused in the wrong direction 4. The willingness to voice one’s own limitations through timely and relevant self disclosures. 5. The courage to apologize when necessary 6. The consistency in communicating in ways that are open, approachable, and supportive 7. The honesty to have a high degree of self knowledge and the capacity to engage in ongoing self-­monitoring 8. The openness to integrity and honesty

192  Introduction to Group Counseling 9. The fairness to believe in self and others 10. The understanding to encourage members to interact in the here and now

Selected Skills That Elicit Anxiety in Novice Group Leaders Silence Silence is an important skill that must not be overlooked as part of an effective and culturally sustained group leader. Silence is defined simply as giving space and time for members to think quietly after a prompt is posed or to offer an opportunity to pause before transitions are made between content being explored. At the group level, silence can be used to give the responsibility back to the members (Glass, 2010). Precisely, this skill can help the members know the leader has confidence in their being able to handle the ensuing discussion, even if the silence brings great discomfort to the members or group leader alike. An astute group leader will know that silence likely sends different messages to different group members. Culturally speaking, silence can have a range of meaning depending on how one might have been brought up in one’s family, one’s country of origin, one’s perspective about those holding positions of authority, and one’s gender identification. That said, the group needs to be certain that when they are using this particular skill that it is purposeful and aligns with their leadership dispositions, as failing to do so skillfully could send unintended messages to the members and may even fuel unwanted anxiety for those who struggle with the ambiguity and vagueness that it may foster.

Probing Probing is a useful technique in a group setting when the prompts are not aiming to generate a specific answer. If a group leader is asking follow-­up questions directed at only one person or they are aiming to arrive at a specific answer, group members may be reluctant to respond for fear of rejection. When used to generate a discussion or to transform ideas even if they are wildly drastic or grossly inaccurate, probing can lead to a cohesive environment and generally a jovial atmosphere. However, probing can be anxiety provoking because reactions from group members can either lead down an unintended rabbit trail or cause them to want to avoid further exploration.

Interpretation Interpretation is a technique a leader may use to express their impressions of the group’s happenings. It may be in reaction to something one or other members may have shared or it may be in relation to what the group leader is experiencing at that moment. Interpretation need not be exactly correct or even fully accepted as accurate by the members. Often tentative hypotheses of the group can lead to additional discussion. For example, Jim Little, a skilled group leader of 20 years, expresses

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an idea that follows up on one group particpant‘s, Wulee, expression of confusion about the overall purpose of the group meetings, saying that she thought the meetings would have provided her some specific ways to deal with a verbally abusive relationship. Jim Little chose to wisely invite others to weigh in on what he shared in reaction to Wulee to get a wider perspective of what is unfolding in the present. There are a mixture of emotions and reactions, but the interpretation offered by Jim Little, while not precise, leads to numerous insights for Wulee and others. Remember, it’s ok to have an inaccurate assessment of what’s going on, but not sharing it might be unreasonable. Being open to what the group members often outweighs your inaccurate impressions.

Challenging/Confrontation Challenging and confrontation are used to directly address an individual member or the group as a whole. Culturally sustained confrontation recognizes that not only what is said needs to be taken into account, but also the person who is saying it and how it is presented. Statements the group leader offers or encourages others to share can be open ended or closed ended. For example, a group leader may state to a member, “Juluis, you sound judgmental when you respond to Marissa,” or “Julius, what feelings were you experiencing when you responded to Marissa?” In either case the confrontation provided must leave room for the group member to explain their reaction to the confrontation. As mentioned, confrontation can also be used at the group level. A group leader may need to challenge the group as a whole to take a pulse of the group’s development to inquire if the space is being used to its fullest potential. Confrontation can lead to feelings of discomfort but if the group environment is safe, members stand the chance of benefiting from the insight gained and useful strategies when the need arises for them to confront others inside or outside of the group. Simply put, confrontation can be direct but gentle; honest but kind; clear yet gracious. Using Box 7.1, please reflect on your racial and cultural background and emerging leadership skills. BOX 7.1  Fill in the Blank Reflection Exercise 1. At this point, my racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds impact my

leadership skills in the following ways_____________. 2. The group leadership skills I feel I need to work on more intentionally in order to sharpen them are _________________ and I plan to__________________ in order to gain the necessary practice. 3. I believe that the groups I lead should match or not match (circle one) my own racial, ethnic, cultural, and/or gender backgrounds because ______________. (continued)

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Box 7.1  Fill in the Blank Reflection Exercise (continued)

4. When you start your counseling internship, if your site supervisor asks you to lead a group addressing substance use with a group of young adults who are also formerly incarcerated, experiences you know little about, the first thing you will do is ____________________.

Advanced Culturally Sustained Group Counseling Skills As explained in the Professional Standards for the Training of Group Workers (ASGW, 2000), independent group work practitioners require training beyond basic, or core, skills. Because most graduate counseling programs only require, and many only offer, one class in group counseling, many clinicians complete their graduate programs with only core training in group work. While this core training lays a foundation for supervised group work practice, it does not go beyond a basic level. The purpose of this section is to discuss advanced group leadership skills in a concrete manner, including examples of interventions/ skills in practice. Generally speaking, advance skills include but are not limited to: ■

■

■

■

The ability to identify appropriate goals and objectives given the group’s purpose and composition of members, versus creating a generic group for all interventions facilitated The willingness for group leaders to allow enough time for processing activities, and to have strategies for processing activities effectively (Jacobs et al., 2016) The boldness to challenge group members from all walks of life to reflect on their experiences even in the midst of difficult interactions The ongoing facilitation of the here and now (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020).

Processing is an important skill and group leaders with more experience capitalize on its benefits throughout every group (Coogan & Steen, 2021). Processing is defined as reflecting, discussing, and/or describing what is occurring within the session and gaining a deeper meaning and understanding from these events and experiences while also considering the impact that this is having in the here and now (Trotzer, 2006). In addition to examining what is happening within the session, processing can help with deciding how to move forward in future meetings. Co-­ leading groups can help in a tremendous way, as there will be two people able to reflect, discuss, and/or describe what has been happening in the group. That said, processing with members even without a co-­leader must be part of every group, and skilled group leaders know this skill can help to create inclusive environments that are welcoming for all. Processing can provide ample opportunity for members

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to share what is working for them and what could be done to enhance these spaces based on how each session continues to develop. The ASGW has Best Practice Guidelines that offer explicit things to consider regarding processing within groups. First, the purpose of processing is to ensure that what is going on within the group is affirming and healing for others. Second, within the groups, leaders understand that real time (e.g., here and now) processing and reflection illuminates both the positive and negative aspects of the group’s, group leader’s, and members’ experiences. Third, both pragmatic and deep processing, outlined by Conyne et al. (1997), are useful strategies. Pragmatic processing places the focus on describing the dynamics of members and interactions and seeing what decision-­making patterns emerge, whereas deep processing offers group leaders the chance to explore more intensely what is taking place within a session and how this overlaps with one’s thoughts and beliefs, feelings and values, and behaviors (Conyne et al., 1997). Next, because the group is a social microcosm (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), the sociopolitical factors that are present in the world outside of the group will also be present within the group. Group leaders fostering inclusive environments that also engage in difficult and challenging topics can offer spaces to process provocative situations that often may go undealt with because of the risk associated with the implications from these experiences. In addition to gaining a deeper understanding of what members might be experiencing, seasoned group leaders use some of the following strategies when fostering a more socially just society using group work. For instance, group workers strive to develop competence in both multiculturalism and social justice advocacy as part of their group leadership posture. This type of focus can lead to situations where group workers encounter the need for ongoing consultation, supervision, and learning while engaging in social justice efforts (Singh & Salazar, 2010). Group leaders understand that engaging in race-­related discussions within groups with members from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds will cause tension for some novice and experienced clinicians alike. However, members may also hold fears and anxieties about these discussions either because of their own lack of understanding or desire to engage in these discussions, or for fear of being labeled a victim or perpetrator. In either case, the group leader will need to persevere through these barriers to ensure that the powerful dynamic that the group offers can emerge.

COMBATING RACISM AND DISCRIMINATION In the following, we summarize select strategies to combat racism and discrimination in conjunction with other important issues that members present. These strategies must be viewed within a context of developing partnerships with clients, families, stakeholders, community agencies and centers, school districts, universities, and places of worship. The emerging group counseling literature remains

196  Introduction to Group Counseling scarce; therefore, we build on our experiences in teaching students to think critically about how to infuse these discussions as central to their work with clients and families in the future. First group workers can clarify: 1. What is the purpose of the group sessions in which members will participate? Will they be for educational purposes or to deal with some pressing life transitions? In either case, make sure group participants are provided an opportunity to also define racism and antiracism and how to work toward becoming antiracists. 2. How do we define antiracism? Racism is defined as prejudice, discrimination, violence, or hatred toward people(s) due solely on the basis of racial category and membership in a particular racial or ethnic group. Racism particularly impacts people of color and other individuals described as minorities within U.S. society. Antiracism is defined as conscious and deliberate efforts to challenge the impact and perpetuation of institutional White racial power, presence, and privilege 3. How do we define an antiracist? Antiracist are individuals who actively fight racism and its effects wherever they may exist. While this term is typically afforded to Whites, non-­Whites can actively fight racism; however, the burden should not fall solely on non-­Whites. Second, group workers must build on this groundwork by gaining a sense of the focus of the group’s goals and objectives. This allows social justice group workers opportunities to foster group environments that intentionally address the insidious nature of racism within our society even when the main focus of the treatment or goals of the group is not squarely targeting racism. Other presenting issues like career development, family transition, or identity exploration are important concerns that clients and families experience; however, viewing these concerns in conjunction with the systemic racism and discrimination that exists can provide a much fuller chance to grow and develop despite these ongoing atrocities. Third, keen group leaders will need to be willing to acknowledge the impact the surrounding environment plays in the difficulty that folks may be experiencing. This in fact does not only apply to people of color, but also White people, and other privileged identities. In other words, advanced skills are not limited to just the counseling spaces. Advanced skills include an intentional acknowledgment that systems, a broader community, and sociopolitical factors do affect counselors and clients alike; therefore, successful interventions will cultivate strategies and ideas that help clients understand that in some part there are external forces playing a role in their current functioning. Our American society is racist and none of us can escape this reality. Paying attention and being on the lookout can help to mitigate its effects on the individuals we serve.

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Finally, social justice group workers use counseling skills (e.g., reflection of feelings, confrontation, and so forth) within groups just like any therapist. However, this group leader also knows the critical importance of sophisticated self-­disclosure, defined as revealing oneself in regard to the problems being explored within the group. Group leaders from any racial, ethnic, or cultural background can share their experiences navigating our racist society. This vulnerability activates an atmosphere that could lead to understanding, change, and action (Trotzer, 2006). Self-­disclosure used as a skill to engage in difficult discussions about racism and discrimination will entail an internal processing that allows the counselor to tease out how current issues are weighing on them in the present moment and inviting others to do the same. There’s an opportunity for interpersonal learning to occur on levels that have not yet been studied within the group counseling literature. Reflect on the following strategies when exploring racism and discrimination

Facilitation of Cathartic Moment(s) There are times in a group where information is being exchanged or shared that results in the release of intense emotions. In some cases tears may emerge when anger or sadness or frustration is described by a member within the group. Group leaders will be challenged to know how to respond to these moments for the sake of the individuals who are sharing the feelings, as well as for those witnessing from the sidelines. How do you feel when someone cries in front of you? What about when someone expresses extreme anger? We argue groups can provide spaces for healing and support. We also acknowledge these spaces can be riddled in privilege and power dynamics that add to the potential for misunderstandings, various slights, microaggressions, and racist interactions that can occur among members and leaders. In this unique case we cannot offer explanations how leaders should couple catharsis with the unique needs of the group members being served. However, generally speaking when engaging in these types of groups, it is important to expect that strong emotions will emerge.

Drawing in Members Oftentimes it will become most important to engage in difficult discussions or expressions of intense emotions. In a culture where “calling out” people or the fear of being “cancelled” looms, members may be extra cautious to offer honest impressions of what is unfolding before them within a group. Leaders must be sensitive to this, yet persevere in finding a way to encourage all members to participate to the extent possible verbally and at the very least with body language that could imply involvement. Effective group leaders understand the fear is acute as many

198  Introduction to Group Counseling people are on guard and ready to strike when they hear something that might contradict their worldview or that directly challenges what they share or believe. When a member expresses something that could be misunderstood, which could happen at any time, it is important to remind everyone that a byproduct of this experience is an environment that allows the exploration of new desired behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. This growth on both those who are willing to share and those who are ready to judge require an element of risk as they both entail an expression of one’s opinions or experiences. The risk may be greater for some but members will be taking a chance that could jeopardize the way someone sees them, their unique impressions of the group, or the overall outcome of the group. What stands out to you about the current society we live in regarding calling members out and drawing members in? To what extent do you feel comfortable having courageous conversations with members? What about if you do not agree with what a member or members are sharing? What do you do? While this work is quite challenging and unpredictable, culturally sustained group leaders push through the fear, understanding that the potential for growth outweighs the hesitations.

Giving and Receiving Feedback Giving and/or receiving feedback is defined as providing or accepting input that can be positive (e.g., praise, flattery, or a compliment), negative (such as an insult, criticism, or corrective view), or neutral (such as a general statement or remark). This particular set of skills is an excellent opportunity that might not typically show up in society striving for political correctness or the avoidance of offending anyone. Feedback helps individuals discover their reasons for doing something if they are open to hearing others’ perspectives about what they might be saying, doing, or thinking. Additionally, giving and/or receiving feedback can lead to feeling more comfortable with being close to others, sharing more of oneself, and even extending opportunities to connect with people within and outside of the group setting (Day, 2007). Feedback is a skill that must be practiced due to the limited acceptance outside of a sterile group environment. Group members who participate in giving and receiving feedback stand the chance of becoming more comfortable with this exercise. Following is a generic list of steps to gently offset confrontational feedback: ■ ■

■

Paraphrase what is going on in the group. Providing positive feedback or neutral information than simply a mixture of positive and critical feedback. Ensure information is clear, concise, and concrete (i.e., specific).

In your opinion, what seems most exciting about engaging members in giving and receiving feedback? When thinking about creating a space for members to share

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times they have experienced racism or perpetuated oppression, what can you do to prepare for these exchanges? What can you do if you begin to get emotional about what is being shared or if you are experiencing countertransference due to your own experiences? The fact is, the benefits include a willingness to take more risks, learning how others see themselves, and a heightened sense of satisfaction with the group experience (Morran et al., 2004). Therefore engaging members in giving and receiving feedback must not be taken lightly, but is critically important. Find some peers or colleagues to practice the activity in Box 7.2 below. BOX 7.2  Listening and Feedback Activity

Part I Participants will share their personal story for approximately 1 minute without being interrupted. Members are to actively listen without judgment while not thinking about themselves. Members who are listening should also take notes, but no reactions can be made and these notes will not be shared. Part II Participants will continue sharing their personal story or start a new story. Members will continue to actively listen without judgment and, while actively listening, take notes. Group leaders solicit requests from the members to be open to summarizing what they heard. Part III Participants share their personal story and build on what they had been sharing. Members actively listen and then ask members to (a) give feedback, (b) challenge, (c) self-­disclose, or (d) ask more questions. Group leaders must spend time processing this information within the groups. As with any activity or intervention that is shared or explored in session, processing must happen. The process is essentially an opportunity to reflect on what occurred and to make meaning from these exchanges.

Example of Qualities of Culturally Sustained Group Leaders Qualities group leaders possess that could lead to the facilitation of successful group outcomes vary. The qualities that we chose to highlight are based on personal and professional experience, group experts, and feedback from clients and students. First, one of the most important qualities in group leadership is flexibility (Conyne, 2014). For example, even the most well-­laid out plans must be considered tentative because it is impossible to predict how a group

200  Introduction to Group Counseling will unfold, even for the seasoned clinician. Other salient qualities reported by experts include an ability to be honest, hopeful, confident, emotionally secure, and intentional (Conyne, 2014).

Co-Leadership Co-­leadership in groups is defined as a leadership structure that includes two counselors who are in partnership to engage members in meaningful experiences between and among themselves (Kivlighan et al., 2011). This structure is quite common especially when teaching group therapists as it can help produce more favorable outcomes for the novice while they are gaining a sense of what works well and areas for improvement. Co-­leadership structures in group spaces can offer some specific benefits. In fact, we believe that co-­leadership in groups should be employed as often as possible. We believe that co-­led groups for novices and experts alike produce more inclusive and accountable group spaces. Specific benefits to co-­leading groups are as follows. ■

■

■

■

■

First, in the event that one group leader needs to be absent for personal reasons or otherwise, the group does not have to be cancelled. Second, as group members begin to share more content and process, having two perspectives about what is unfolding in the group can lead to deeper insight and understanding for all involved. Third, co-­leaders are often viewed by members of the group as authority members and therefore have the great potential to model healthy and honest interactions even if the relationship includes differing opinions. Fourth, subconsciously group leaders can also represent parental figures or other family members, therefore offering a chance to confront some unfinished business or to receive affirmation and validation from these figures (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020). Fifth, co-­led groups can more fully harness the potential power of group forces to create racially healing spaces when the group leaders are willing to use timely and appropriate self disclosures about the impact of race and gender on their lives, while holding each other accountable in how these experiences are presented (Ieva, et al., 2021). In other words, power and privilege are constantly at play and without a co-­leader to offer some professional feedback on what is actually occurring in the group, the lack of alternative interpretations could lead to harmful outcomes.

While there are many benefits to co-­leading groups, there are also some potential pitfalls. Group leaders are not perfect and therefore all co-­leadership pairs are not perfect. Ongoing processing and discussions about the co-­leadership relationship and how each is viewing the sessions can help to buffer any conflict that emerges.

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Group leaders also have their own leadership style and sometimes there is competition either because the styles conflict or because one leader has a need to be more accepted by the members or desires to be liked more than the other. This dynamic is one that might not be able to be fixed as it could be due to personality difficulties. However, if this is something that does occur, the group leaders must try and seek supervision and consultation with others either together or individually so that this does not impact the group. While there are many pros to co-­leadership facilitation, the cons can show up even unexpectedly (Atieno Okech & Kline, 2006). Getting to know your co-­leader in both personal and professional ways can help to build a strong coalition to help group members get the help and support that they need within culturally sustained group environments.

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

■

There are numerous basic group counseling skills that all group leaders need to possess to run groups effectively. Some skills such as active listening, reflecting content and feeling, summarizing, linking members, drawing members in, and attending to the here and now must be actively incorporated into one’s skill set. Group leaders working toward inclusivity while disrupting oppressive environments will need to do a lot of personal reflection and growth to ensure that their values do not interfere with the members’ accessing the powerful dynamics of the group process. Co-­leadership relationships do impact group dynamics, and co-­leaders will need to spend time getting to know each other in order to maximize this relationship’s impact on the group and group members.

CASE STUDY 7.1 REVISITED Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. 1. As you reflect on the case at the beginning of the chapter, at this point who do you believe is actually responsible for initiating these discussions? 2. What might have prevented Mr. Myles, in this case, from not infusing these aspects of identity in the discussion? 3. As an aspiring culturally sustained group leader, what specific skills would you use for the remaining eight sessions to foster an environment that overcomes barriers and challenging moments leading to successful growth for the members?

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END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. As discussed in the reading, a solid co-­leader relationship is crucial for positive group dynamics. What characteristics or personality features would you look for in a co-­leader? 2. Do the leaders need to be culturally matched? 3. What characteristics of your own do you imagine impacting the development of your co-­leader relationship? 4. You believe the overall number of sessions should increase prior to the conclusion of a group but your co leader disagrees. What do you do? 5. A colleague who identifies with the group members asks you to co-­facilitate, but you do not want to associate with the group members because they are either dependent on substances or have criminal charges. Do you tell your colleague why you are hesitant? 6. A group member has missed the last four group sessions in an outpatient group. She is also the only member with a visible disability and she claims that she has had trouble changing her work schedule in order to make it to the sessions. Should the sessions be adjusted to meet her needs? 7. You have been approached by a counselor educator who has a doctoral student wanting to provide evaluation support for your eating disorder groups. What steps will need to be taken to ensure that clients don’t feel like they are lab rats? 8. The term social justice can sometimes imply aggressive or controversial dispositions. How would group leaders go about challenging their colleagues to allow group sessions to be held at local community centers, or nontraditional settings in neighborhoods without any current specific guidelines on these activities?

In-Class Small Group Activity In groups of three, one person acts as a group leader and the other two act as group members. One of the group members is asked to share their personal story for approximately 1 minute without being interrupted. The group leader and other member actively listen without judgment while not thinking about themselves. The group leader and listening member should make mental notes, but no reactions can be made and these observations will not be shared. Switch roles and repeat. At the

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end of this activity, come together as a large class and discuss the process, without disclosing the content that members were actually disclosing.

Journal Starters 1. As an emerging group leader, reflect in writing on two or three skills discussed in the chapter that cause you the most anxiety. Be sure to consider where these hesitations stem from and strategies to develop these skills further. 2. Imagine you are asked to lead a group with your peers within your counselor preparation program. Describe your group leadership style and how you could create spaces that foster growth and development.

Homework Ideas 1. Find a group that you can observe on television. Pay particular attention to the group leader and the skills they use. Reflect on the strengths that are obvious and areas for improvement. 2. Sketch out a visual representation of your current leadership skills. Alternatively you can generate a list. Take this information and share it with someone you trust in order to practice communicating your skills and to receive feedback.

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 7.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

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REFERENCES Atieno Okech, J. E., & Kline, W. B. (2006). Competency concerns in group co-­leader relationships. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 31(2), 165–180. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933920500493829 Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW). (2000). ASGW professional standards for the training of group workers. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 25, 327–342. Coogan, T., & Steen, S. (2021). Group counseling leadership skills for school counselors: Stretching beyond interventions. CA: Cognella. Conyne, R., Smith, J., & Wathen, S. (1997). Co-­leader and supervisor processing of group phenomena. In Annual Meeting of the North Central Association for Counselor Education and Supervision, St Louis, MO. Conyne, R. K. (2014). Group work leadership: An introduction for helpers. SAGE Publications. Day, S. X. (2007). Groups in practice. Houghton Mifflin. Glass, S. D. (2010). The practical handbook of group counseling: Group work with children, adolescents, and parents. Trafford Publishing. Guth, L. J., Pollard, B. L., Nitza, A., Puig, A., Chan, C. D., Singh, A. A., & Bailey, H. (2019). Ten strategies to intentionally use group work to transform Hate, facilitate courageous conversations, and enhance community building. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 44(1), 3–24. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2018​.1561778 Ieva, K. P., Beasley, J., & Steen, S. (2021). Equipping school counselors for antiracist healing centered groups: a critical examination of preparation, connected curricula, professional practice and oversight. Teaching and Supervision in Counseling, 3(2), 7. Jacobs, E. E., Schimmell, C. J., Masson, R. L., & Harvill, R. L. (2016). Group counseling strategies and skills (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. Kivlighan, D. M., London, K., & Miles, J. R. (2011). Are two heads better than one? The relationship between number of group leaders and group members, and group climate and group member benefit from therapy. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice, 16(1), 1–13. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1037/​a0026242 Morran, D. K., Stockton, R., & Whittingham, M. H. (2004). Effective leader interventions for counseling and psychotherapy groups. In J. L. DeLucia-­Waack, D. A. Gerrity, C. R. Kaodner, & M. T. Riva (Eds.), Handbook of group counseling and psychotherapy (pp. 91–101). Sage. Singh, A. A., & Salazar, C. F. (2010). The roots of social justice in group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 35(2), 97–104. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933921003706048 Trotzer, J. (2006). The counselor and the group: Integrating theory, training, and practice (4th ed.). Routledge. Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2020). Theory and practice of group psychotherapy (6th ed.). UK. Basic Books.

8 The Stages of Culturally Sustained Groups

Learning Objectives ■

Identify characteristics associated with the beginning, middle, and ending phases of a group.

■

Develop an understanding of the feelings members and leaders hold during these phases

■

Practice strategies that are useful when facilitating groups during these phases

■

Identify ethical concerns that may present themselves during any of the phases

■

Review cultural implications associated within the phases of the groups with various racial and cultural memberships,

See Table 8.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

205

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TABLE 8.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.F.6.b

Dynamics associated with group counseling process and development

2.F.6.d

Characteristics and functions of effective group leaders

2.F.6.g

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for designing and facilitating groups

B.1.a

Counselors maintain awareness and sensitivity regarding cultural meanings of confidentiality and privacy. Counselors respect differing views toward disclosure of information. Counselors hold ongoing discussions with clients as to how, when, and with whom information is to be shared

B.4.a

In group work, counselors clearly explain the importance and parameters of confidentiality for the specific group

A.2.d

Explain the limits of confidentiality in developmentally appropriate terms through multiple methods such as student handbooks, school counselor department websites, school counseling brochures, classroom lessons and/or verbal notification to individual students

A.7.e

Communicate the aspiration of confidentiality as a group norm, while recognizing and working from the protective posture that confidentiality for minors in schools cannot be guaranteed

II.D.d

Identify and describe: principles of group dynamics including group process components, developmental stage theories, group member roles, group member behaviors

ACA Code of Ethics

ASCA Code of Ethics

ASGW Professional Training Standards

(continued )

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TABLE 8.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

A.7.d

Group workers define confidentiality and its limits (for example, legal and ethical exceptions and expectations; waivers implicit with treatment plans, documentation and insurance usage). Group workers have the responsibility to inform all group participants of the need for confidentiality, potential consequences of breaching confidentiality and that legal privilege does not apply to group discussions (unless provided by state statute)

B.3.a

Group workers apply and modify knowledge, skills and techniques appropriate to group type and stage, and to the unique needs of various cultural and ethnic groups

B.8

Group workers practice with broad sensitivity to client differences including but not limited to ethnic, gender, religious, sexual, psychological maturity, economic class, family history, physical characteristics or limitations, and geographic location. Group workers continuously seek information regarding cultural issues of the diverse population with whom they are working both by interaction with participants and from using outside resources

I.1

Demonstrate movement to being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality, are impacted by their own experiences and histories

II.a.9

Address differences in communication styles across cultural groups, and negotiate differences or cultural conflicts as they emerge

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

(continued )

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TABLE 8.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

I.2

Knowledge: privileged and marginalized counselors possess an understanding of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

III.1

Attitudes and beliefs: Privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, biases, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

III.4

Action: Privileged and marginalized counselors take action to increase their understanding of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, biases, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

CASE STUDY 8.1 This scenario takes place in the fourth session of an outpatient group focused on relationship skills. Oscar (group facilitator): As I reflect on our check-­ins today, and our discussions from the last two sessions, there seems to be an overall tone. I am wondering what you are all experiencing. (continued)

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CASE STUDY 8.1 (CONTINUED) Liza: I am not sure what I am feeling, but I was thinking that I don’t feel as good as I did in the last two sessions. Kasey: I know what you mean Liza. When we first began to talk about our past relationships with others throughout our lives, exploring the positive and challenging aspects of those relationships, I shared some information both good and bad that I typically wouldn't, especially to people I have only seen four times. But after hearing others willing to do the same and learning about different types of relationships that I had never considered, I felt I wanted to reciprocate. But right now I feel disconnected. I feel meh. (Long moment of silence.) Jameel: I think I am distracted. The clock has been stuck and every so often it will move and then stop. And then I wonder when it will start again? Jacquie: I noticed that too. I wanted to know if there was a pattern of time. (A few other comments on the clock.) Oscar: You know I am just observing, that we are in a group regarding relationships, we value them, but want a little more assistance in all of our relationships with family, friends, co-­workers and so forth. In this session a member stated they shared personal information that they don't normally entrust with others, but they did, and now feel disconnected. Collectively, we avoid the comment and engage in conversation about the clock and its mystery. As you hear me summarize, what are your reactions? As you read this chapter focused on stages of group development, keep this case in mind. We will revisit the case at the end of the chapter.

INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter basic and advanced group leadership skills were discussed. In this chapter, it will be important to remember what these are as you consider how to apply these skills within the groups and also to consider how certain skills might be more appropriate at different phases. That said, all skills can be applied within all the phases. However, the phases and the characteristics associated with them provide insight on options leaders can take when facilitating these different phases of a group.

210  Introduction to Group Counseling As we begin this chapter, the reader can assume that they have already planned out the group. Once a group has been fully planned, executing this plan will become the next endeavor. While the plan should be followed as closely as possible, the group leader must be on the lookout for opportunities to adjust to the beautiful myriad of dynamic members with various intersecting identities, underlying motivations, and life experiences. The group leader will also need to adjust to the “here and now moments” as they will make an impact on the manner in which a group unfolds. However, to the extent possible, a properly planned culturally sustained group will typically provide some characteristics associated with the beginning, middle, and ending phases. We use these three descriptors of the phases for ease of understanding. It will be important to remember that groups will not unfold in a nice, organized, linear manner, no matter how much you may desire for this to be the case. Flexibility and patience will be key. In other words, given there are numerous participants and a variety of critical incidents emerging, understanding and managing group interactions is a difficult endeavor especially for the novice group leader (Donigian & Hulse-­Killacky, 1999). The major focus should start and remain at the group level (e.g., norms, roles, interactions, and socialization processes) to provide opportunities for individuals to change (Lewin, 1947). The term “phase” is used in this chapter. After a spirited discussion among the three of us about whether the terms “phase” or “stage” would be more appropriate for this chapter, we came to the following conclusion. These terms could be used interchangeably, but we decided after digging a bit deeper that there are some distinct differences. Simply, the term “stage” is a destination; a place in which you could stand or arrive; a platform that could illustrate you are located at some definitive site or position. A “phase,” on the other hand, is not as explicit. Yes, a phase can be aspired to, but a phase’s destination is never still. A phase is fluid, moving, and active. Therefore, within the context of groups a phase is more easily understood as a blend of the different stages. We ended our discussion by suggesting that both “stages” and “phases” are important descriptors but we chose to use “phase” because it seems to hold more nuance to illustrate how a group leader can understand and navigate different categories or descriptors of groups which indeed is a complex undertaking.

BEGINNING PHASE A group, no matter whether it is a counseling group, a psychoeducational group, or any group for that matter, will have a beginning phase. The reason for this statement is to make it explicit that all groups do not go through all of the group phases— some groups simply do not function well and other groups get stuck (Gladding, 2019). However, every group will have a beginning. It is possible that a group may enter a middle phase if enough movement (self-­disclosure, conflict, cohesion, and so forth) occurs but there is no guarantee. And, while all groups technically will end, the point is that not all groups benefit from the characteristics associated with

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a successful ending group experience. For instance, some members may suddenly leave before a group ends, a group may need to be facilitated to fit a schedule that aligns with a school or university calendar and at times the calendar can change due to natural disasters or other unexpected events, or a group may simply get stuck at the beginning phase and never progress much further. That said, the beginning phase of a group will influence the overall experience and it will be important to know what characteristics are associated with this phase as well as the positive and negative feelings associated with this beginning. Let’s assume that a well prepared group leader has made a group plan that consists of goals, tentative objectives, an outline of activities, and potential processing questions. The group leader also has an evaluation plan. Further, the group leader has screened members and prepared them for the type of group and even given some insight as to what “might” unfold over the course of the group. That said, when the group leader and all of the members are in one room together or logged onto a virtual meeting, this first session and the subsequent early sessions encompass important characteristics and feelings that members and the leader may experience. A group leader with a reasonable amount of group leadership experience will have a sense of what to expect from group members when this process begins. For instance, the group members will often hold a number of different thoughts and feelings when attending the first group session. At the same time, the experienced group leader also knows that just because some of these characteristics and feelings that are discussed in the following are typical, this does not guarantee that every group will have them.

Characteristics The descriptions of the early phase are more clearly seen by the reactions of the members from various racial and cultural memberships within the groups. The general descriptors might include any number of details that could highlight that it is the beginning phase of a group’s development. As a group leader of many groups of students spanning elementary, middle, high school, and graduate school, this author often shares with group members that the entire group experience is like a dynamic roller coaster ride, saying something to the effect of: As we begin this journey together, please reflect for a moment that this experience could be likened to a roller coaster ride if you have ever been on one. First, at very popular theme parks there is likely a line that you must wait in to participate which can be surmised as the planning phase of a group. We made it through this and now as we are meeting today, we are about to get seated on the roller coaster. As you look around, the others riding this roller coaster do not look like you, and hopefully you cannot even make any assumptions about what they are like or the values they hold just by looking at them. At this point, you are all at the mercy of the

212  Introduction to Group Counseling roller coaster ride. I, as your ride conductor, am announcing that the ride is beginning. You are likely to hear the roller coaster slowly heading up a steep incline with a distinct sound the track makes at this point. You may look around to see how others are reacting to this. The feelings seem mixed: Some are visibly excited, others are visibly terrified. There are also verbal and visual reminders about keeping safety restraints on, hands and feet in the ride and prior to this you likely signed a waiver to participate at your own risk. This part of the roller coaster ride has a clear start but as you continue, it will be less clear when you will feel most comfortable to let go and just embrace the anticipated benefit, excitement, or fun that could emerge from this dynamic yet scary and even thrilling experience. Following this brief analogy of a roller coaster, I remind the members that this example still may not fully be understood until the end of the ride or the end of the group experience. I also let them know that I may refer to this analogy as a reminder to embrace the unknown or in this case the group process as it is likely that the experience may eventually be viewed as a positive one, although there is no guarantee that this will occur. However, as a group leader it will be clear what phase of the group’s life is present based on the reactions of the members. Offering the group members an opportunity to share what they might be feeling in these early moments and sessions together gives some insight on what phase the group is currently in. Periodically checking in with members about these feelings as changes occur provides an indicator of things moving along. Following are some of the feelings members or leaders may experience during this phase and what a group leader can do to help members work towards fully embracing this experience.

Feelings A group leader can use the members’ experiences and their reactions as an indicator of a group phase. This is important, because over time different characteristics can help the group leader know when the group may have transitioned from a beginning to a middle or ending phase. Early on, group members will likely be nervous and quite uncomfortable. The group members will also carry some anxieties that emerge during any new experience interacting with others. The excitement and fear that is present will manifest differently for all involved. Some members will be quiet at first. Some members will be gregarious and have difficulty sitting in silence during these times. Some members will be skeptical about the group experience even if they were open to participating in the group during the screening and preparation meetings. Some will be confident that the group experience will be a positive one. Some members will have a difficult time trusting the process. These feelings, particularly the ones that illustrate anxiety and hesitation, may become less intense over time.

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Some group members of various racial and cultural backgrounds will believe in the early phase that the way in which they can help in the group is by giving advice when others share. Some group members will be hesitant to share, but when others open up about a situation, they may jump to offer solutions to what they hear. A description that this beginning phase is moving toward a middle phase is when members avoid giving advice, when members reflect on their experiences when others are sharing, and when self-­disclosure is more readily apparent. Some of these group members also may position themselves as a co-­leader in order to eliminate some of their internal anxiety. Some of the postures that members may hold could be reflective of White Anglo Saxon Protestant worldviews, even if their racial and ethnic backgrounds are not from a White conservative background. The group leader will need to be clear about their own intersections of identity in order to model respectfully engaging with others from various cultural backgrounds.

Group Leadership Considerations for the Beginning Phase There are a number of strategies that are helpful for group leaders to get the participants involved in the group process during this beginning phase. The most important one is for members to explore their individual fears within this new group context. The leaders would do well to have an in-­depth discussion about self-­disclosure of personal information, confidentiality and how this is defined and applied in culturally diverse contexts. At the same time, it is ethically responsible to inform the group members that keeping the group confidential will take everyone’s commitment and that the leader cannot guarantee that this can be maintained. Members’ understanding of what confidentiality is and agreement to keep information confidential is crucial to getting the group off to a good start. Exploring fear, strategies, and the benefits to keeping confidentiality will provide the greatest chance for success within the group as a member, and for the group experience as a whole. More about ethical considerations is provided at the end of this chapter. The group leaders will need to spend a considerable amount of time building cohesion among the members. Cohesion is critical to establishing trust and rapport among group members and creating an open and courageous space that fosters members to examine and try out new behaviors (DeLucia-­Waack, 2006). Establishing cohesion during this initial phase must be accomplished; therefore, group leaders will need to be intentional about providing structure that clearly spells out what is expected within the type of group being facilitated. The group leader can also highlight the benefits of self-­disclosure to the growth of individuals within the group and the group as a whole. In this phase ambiguity typically exists for members. It is important to be clear about the racial, ethnic, and cultural makeup of group members to the extent possible. For example, providing a number of open-­ended prompts for members to react to could prove fruitful in this regard. Some prompts could be as simple as the following and can be modified in any way:

214  Introduction to Group Counseling 1. What is the best advice you have ever been given? 2. What wisdom do you hope to pass on to others when you leave this life? 3. What is one thing you promised yourself that you would never do, but you actually changed your mind and did it? 4. What family member are you most similar or dissimilar to? Questions posed like these are endless. Asking questions that would lend themselves to exploring the intersection of identity during this early phase is imperative to keep in mind. Group members in time will begin to see the impact of self-­disclosure because as members become more comfortable with the group process, they will move beyond mainly offering suggestions on improving the difficulties members might have shared. As the group becomes more safe and welcoming, members will begin to share in a way that is reflective of their own areas of growth and development. See questions for reflection in Box 8.1. BOX 8.1  Questions for Reflection

1. It seems that the group leaders are being attacked because they have been hesitant to explore issues related to race, ethnicity, and culture. The group leaders, despite knowing how important it is to broach these topics, fears that they might say something that appears to be culturally insensitive. What are your thoughts about their hesitation to broach these emotionally laden subjects? 2. Who is responsible for taking the lead on infusing race, ethnicity, and cultural considerations in the group process; the group leader or the participants? 3. What is a prompt that you can pose to allow members to begin to get to know one another that moves beyond the surface level self-­disclosure?

MIDDLE PHASE There are different ways to reference the middle phase. For instance, the middle phase has been described as the storming and performing stage (Tuckman, 1965). The middle phase can refer to the transition and working stages (Corey, Corey, & Corey, 2018). Often this is where the bulk of the therapeutic work is completed during the life of the group. In order to gain some clarity on how the middle phase could present, the characteristics associated with this phase as well as the positive and negative feelings associated with this phase are discussed below.

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The middle phase, within the context of the roller coaster analogy, can be described as the point of apex after the long,, slow drawn out climb whereby things begin to proceed quickly as more movement occurs from the member interactions. This movement may not be smooth, or linear, or easy to handle, but the experience can be intense. Being intentional and taking time to reflect and process what is going on, helps to slow things down. The processing that occurs allows the group leader to react to what is being heard, felt, and learned from the members and their interactions.

Characteristics In a recent study, experts saw the situations during the beginning and ending phases of the group as similar to each other but different from situations in the middle phase of the group.The middle phase is evident when more and more members are self-­disclosing. Self-­disclosure will be at different levels as some people share things that seem meaningless to someone else, but could be monumental for them. In addition to self-­disclosure, members have become accustomed to not offering advice or to offering solutions when members are offering their difficult life experiences. In some cases this phase is evident because the group members are able to actively focus their attention on one person, without excluding other members from participation. This can happen because members offer support by being fully present, fully engaged, and nonjudgmental. Members reflect on their own experiences while other members are sharing. Personal insight is gained while interpersonal learning (e.g., learning from one another) is occurring as well. In the following we provide examples of the middle phase and how the leader can effectively lead during this phase so that there is a strong possibility for the members to engage in important clinical work. Group leaders who aspire toward creating culturally sustained group experiences will develop a deeper understanding of when work is taking place by members of the group. Group leaders need to know that the middle phase is aspirational. The members' exploration of issues could be much deeper than in the early phase. The energy within the group is high, and less direct facilitation can be used during groups that have transitioned to a middle phase. If you have led a group that was characterized as working or reached a middle phase, then you understand the difference between a group in an early phase and one in the middle phase. For example, while there will still be some observers who are hesitant to share or to respond to what is unfolding in the sessions, some members who are sharing in the group may be more willing to express their desire for all members to participate.

216  Introduction to Group Counseling Group leaders will need to remind members about confidentiality as more people continue sharing. This discussion about keeping personal and private information within the group may have occurred early on but, in order to increase members’ willingness to take more risks during this phase, a reminder about what is talked about in group staying in group can aid in this process of sharing. Simply put, it is easier to gossip about members of a group that is occurring if you have remained passive or if you have avoided getting intimately involved. Reminding members about confidentiality and encouraging members to take risks can enhance the experience for all involved. During this phase it is important to note that the group leader won’t need to work as hard at getting members to participate. In some cases, quiet members will be invited by more talkative group members and often they can explain what it has been like for them to share and any benefits or struggles they experienced when engaging in self-­disclosure. Their experiences can serve as a model of the pros and cons for others who may still be reluctant to share.

Feelings The feelings associated with the middle phase are endless. Any feelings that could emerge during the beginning or ending phases could show up during the middle phase. The beginning phase feelings are largely negative and full of apprehension. The feelings emerging during the middle phase, however, can be both positive and negative. Even if a group member expresses the growth they may be experiencing, it’s often connected to some negative aspect of the experience. In other words, conflicts, misunderstandings, judgmental remarks, and disagreements could generate negative feelings or discomfort that may eventually lead to a favorable outcome. This positive outcome is worth the challenges that in some cases can be seen as a precursor to benefiting from the group process.

Group Leadership Considerations for the Middle Phase The group leader will be well aware that the group has moved into a middle phase when they are able to be less directive as members take on more responsibility in engaging in the group process in a manner that works for them as individuals but that benefit the entire group. The group leader can continue using a linking strategy during this phase. Linking can be defined as connecting members to one another using either similarities or differences between them (DeLucia-­Waack, 2006). Self-­ disclosure particularly around here-­and-­now experiences will heighten the work that is occuring during this phase, and the skilled leader would do well to capitalize on these moments as opportunities for learning.

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The group leader will need to remain aware of transference and ask members about any tentative transference that seems apparent (Vannicelli, 2001). Discussing the transference can be useful in enhancing the group process. For example, a group member may share that someone else in the group reminds them of one of their significant relationships, and every time they share, the reactions they get from this person seem critical. Allowing the member to examine these feelings could prove beneficial to them for gaining insight. Along these lines, the group leader will need to be cognizant of any countertransference as well. Countertransference occurs when the group leader is experiencing some reaction to a group member or members that is based on their personal relationships. Again, this information can be useful but the group leader must tread lightly to ensure that sharing this information is for the benefit of the whole group rather than a self-­serving purpose. Countertransference is not necessarily bad. The feelings and experiences that are emerging within the group are true sources of knowledge that can be used to the benefit of the entire group if adequately and appropriately acknowledged (Vannicelli, 2001). Some of the skills that are more readily applicable during the middle phase include confrontation and helping members give and receive feedback. Typically within individual counseling sessions, members may need to be confronted by the therapist if there is a discrepancy between their thoughts and feelings, their thoughts and actions, their feelings and actions, or any combination of their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These discrepancies might occur outside of the session and the client may share this struggle with the therapist. Or perhaps the therapist may have noticed a discrepancy and calls attention to it for the client. That said, within groups the discrepancies might be categorized in a similar fashion (e.g., thoughts, feelings, actions) but the group leader or other members of the group apart from the group leader might pick up on the inconsistencies in their messaging or behavior. In this case, members of the group or the group leader may be able to provide constructive feedback. This feedback will only be appropriate if all members have agreed to participate in giving and receiving feedback. Additionally, even if this has been discussed during the beginning phase of the group, it may be necessary to revisit this norm in order to ensure others are aware of what this, in fact, could entail. Another skill is the intentional use of silence. Silence is more readily accepted as members have likely become more familiar and comfortable with it as an important ingredient for members to reflect during sessions. Themes that have emerged over time can shed light on some of what has occurred over the life of the group up to this point. Finally, the group leader will need to be explicit in acknowledging and stating the number of sessions that are remaining. This simple yet important strategy will help to prepare members for bringing closure to the group experience when the time comes. Failing to give adequate attention to the reality that the group will come to a close could pose some unnecessary difficulty to the participants. The ending will have enough

218  Introduction to Group Counseling emotional turmoil for many; therefore, reminding members to get ready for the termination of this experience is of critical importance. See Box 8.2 for questions to ponder. BOX 8.2  Questions for Reflection

1. What stands out to you as the most difficult aspect of navigating the middle phase of the group? 2. In what ways do you think having a co-­leader would be helpful during the middle phase, and in what ways might you struggle to work with a co-­leader? 3. Imagine you find out that a group member has broken the confidentiality of the group and come to find out the group member shared with his extended family what was going on for him and his reactions to a number of members in the group who he deems are homophobic and racist. How should the leader handle this group member and situation?

ENDING PHASE As the roller coaster is coming to an end, the speed of travel is slowing down, but it does not happen abruptly. The manner in which the roller coaster is moving does signify that the group is ending. There are some instances where a group might need to end suddenly or prior to a scheduled final session and it is out of the control of the group leaders and/or the group members when this happens. If this occurs, the ending phase may not unfold in the typical fashion as there will be limited time to explore all of the thoughts and feelings that have been experienced throughout the life of the group with this unanticipated ending. However, with some planning, intentionality, and gentle reminders of the group’s inevitable ending, this phase of the group can provide the leaders and members a significant opportunity to reflect on individual and collective goals. The final sessions can also allow members to express the new insights they gained about themselves and others. The members can offer how they have applied new skills in their daily lives and can also share feedback about what worked well from their perspective and things to consider when this group is facilitated in the future. A group leader could pose many questions to get a sense of what members have experienced while allowing others to reflect on their own experiences. Here are a few: ■

■

What are some of the feelings you are having at this point in our time together? What specific thoughts or feelings are you having about our sessions coming to an end?

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■

■ ■

219

What are some things you are feeling about not seeing each other any more in this capacity as a group? What is one thing you wish you would have shared? What is one thing you will take with you from our sessions?

Characteristics Some characteristics associated with the ending phase will depend on how the middle phase unfolded. If the middle phase was productive with a lot of movement and sound work by group members being accomplished, then the ending phase can be described as a time to make meaning of these experiences. On the other hand, if the middle phase was less productive, the ending phase can either follow the same trajectory, meaning it might not be fruitful, or it can still reap the benefits of processing the critical incidents, conflicts, misunderstandings, and difficult interactions that occurred.

Feelings Successful groups and more challenged groups alike can have final sessions that are usually characterized by some sadness, confusion, and anxiety about the future without the ongoing structure and support that was experienced over the life of the group. It is important at every phase of the group to examine how race, ethnicity, and culture are taken into consideration. During the ending phase, this involves remembering that grief and loss present in a myriad of ways for groups with racial and ethnic minority membership. The race, gender, and other cultural aspects of the group leader and members and their intersections of identity do matter and will impact how the group comes to a close. In other words, there is no specific feeling that members all share as the group ends. And, it is safe to assume that some of additional reflection and processing of the experiences had within the group will occur outside of the session even after the group ends. In other words, all of the feelings associated with the ending phase of the group might not be fully expressed in session. In the following we provide a list of feelings that we have seen emerge that could surface in the groups that we have facilitated. This list is not exhaustive, but gives a sense of the wide variety of feelings that might rise up. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Bittersweet Confusion Sadness Anxiety Loss

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■ ■ ■ ■

Disappointment Excitement Acceptance Apathy

The group leader must also remember that they too will have some strong reactions to the group’s termination. These feelings could be positive, negative, or even a combination of the two. An astute group leader will be on the lookout for the wide range of emotionality that could appear. And, even if group members are not verbally expressing what they are experiencing in these final sessions and moments together, it will be helpful to be sensitive to how you as the group leader handle relationships coming to a close. The group leader can reflect on their own personal relationships to gain some insight as to how they might lead others in this process.

Group Leadership Considerations for the Ending Phase First, the group leader can always ask members what they would like from the group leader during this phase. This is a useful strategy to work diligently to meet the wide variety of needs of the members. That said, according to some researchers who compared and contrasted novice group leaders with more experienced group leaders, they discovered that the leader can learn from earlier group interactions to hypothesize what later periods of group development might look like (Li et al., 2015). For instance, during the early phases if members were having a hard time embracing the group process they most likely will want a group leader to react or respond to the numerous personal questions directed at them. Over the life of the group, members may also believe that if a group has too many silences it signifies that it is less productive and the group leader is responsible to prevent this from happening or has been responsible for a less positive experience (Li et  al., 2015). During the ending phase, silence might again be an implication for some members that the group leader is not skilled in bringing closure to the end of the group. Whether the group has been quite successful up to this point or if the group is ending and the experience has not been amazing for all of the participants the group leader must continue leading in a competent manner. A skilled group leader will use strategies that include helping members express and examine feelings by sharing their own personal self-­disclosures or asking members about their thoughts and feelings about the group experience. A skilled group leader may want to use “here-­and-­now” reflections. Furthermore, the group leader can describe the group dynamics from their experience and solicit members’ experiences by making statements about the group process. There is no script to how a competent group leader will bring closure to the group. There are some strategies that were gleaned from the literature that are included in the list that follows.

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Interventions Endorsed by Novice and Experts for the Ending Phase (Li et al., 2015) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Intentional silence Group-­directed statements Reassurance and approval for what was learned or experienced Subtle Guidance on how to use this insight into one’s life Structured closing activities to encourage reflections on the group process Encouraging members to share feelings and self-­disclosing one’s feelings Expressing what the group experience was like for the leader Posing questions about group Dynamics Offering interpretation about the group atmosphere and group dynamics Reflecting on members’ behavior change

This list provides specific ideas, activities, and considerations for group leaders during the ending phase. To reiterate, there is no single strategy that will work for all instances. The more group leadership experience one has, the more skilled one will become at taking advantage of the growth that can be acknowledged. The ending can be a tough time for group leaders, members, or both. These difficult feelings need not hinder the growth and development that might have occurred, but it will be necessary to draw these gems to the members’ attention. Prepare for the ending phase of group using Box 8.3 questions for reflection. BOX 8.3  Questions for Reflection

1. Imagine the group is drawing to a close, and you have felt that it was incredibly successful. What feelings can you imagine having as you draw the group to an end? What feelings might come up if you hear group members say things that indicate the group was not as successful as you thought it was? 2. Imagine the group is drawing to a close, and you have felt that it was not as successful as you had hoped. What feelings can you imagine having as you draw the group to an end? 3. As groups end, they are rarely tied up in a neat bow. How do you anticipate it feeling to end the group, with perhaps some ends still loose?

ETHICAL PRACTICE AND CONCERNS ACROSS GROUP PHASES A culturally competent and ethically sound group practitioner is always aiming to practice in a way that shows genuine care and concern for all involved. Ethical practice starts well before a group leader is facilitating the first session. We have

222  Introduction to Group Counseling discussed ethical concerns in detail in a previous chapter. At this point, we will discuss a few ethical concerns that may arise as the group leader is working with students and clients over the life of the group. Ethical concerns could arise at any given time, but for the sake of understanding the beginning, middle, and ending phases in a nuanced manner, exploring a few salient situations to be aware of could shed light on what to look out for. One ongoing ethical consideration is confidentiality. When members agree to participate, confidentiality is something that individually they may agree to hold. When group members attend the first few sessions, confidentiality is discussed at length and members are challenged to acknowledge and confirm that they will keep what is discussed in the group sacred and private from others who were not in attendance. As the group continues to progress, confidentiality becomes even more important as members may begin to share deeper and more personal information and therefore the stakes for keeping this information confidential is even higher. As the group comes to an ending phase, a reminder about confidentiality is appropriate as some may assume that with the group concluding, the information is now more able to be freely shared; however, it is important to iterate the fact that any information shared at any time over the life of the group must remain private always. Some other concerns that may be connected to confidentiality in some cases and divergent from it in other cases could occur at the beginning phase. For instance, let’s say a group commences, and after the first session or two, a member would like to leave and not return for any number of reasons. In this example, this is related to confidentiality as the member will need to know that even though they are no longer a member of this group, they will be encouraged to keep the information that was shared in confidence. They are certainly free to share what their experiences were like and even frankly discuss what their experiences may have been like with the group leader. It will be imperative to be explicit that what they have learned about others from any of these sessions must remain confidential. The early phase may have a unique situation whereby some members may know one another prior to the group starting. The impact this may have on the group would depend largely on how the members react to the mandates to keep these relationships separate, to expose these prior relationships, and to agree to not discuss what occurs within the group outside of the group. The point is a discussion about these prior relationships must ensue. The discussion can include managing this relationship, in that members can obviously remain friends and make connections outside of the sessions; it would just be imperative that a commitment is made to not discuss the group outside of the sessions. The middle phase could have some other concerns that are related to confidentiality as well. This phase is characterized by deeper exploration and more intense feelings. Sometimes members who have taken risks and shared information of a more personal nature may leave a session and begin to regret the fact that they shared at this depth. They may regret that others now know the information they shared or

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they may feel like they were pushed too far or were violated by the leader or other members. This shameful reflection typically occurs between sessions and the member is not able to resolve these issues until they return again to the group to check in with the leader and/or other members. Alternatively the member never returns only to be haunted by their last experience that initially seemed like a good idea and later ended up being an experience that they wish they never had. An astute leader will give participants a heads up and gentle reminders that they may in fact have regrets about sharing or make assumptions about what others may have heard or interpreted if and when they share. Further, the leader must iterate that at any time participants can check in with the leader or member about their feelings and assumptions. Along these lines, an ethical issue that may stem from members’ deeper sharing or more intense awareness of others could emerge. For instance, as members share more or get to know others better an admiration could emerge and these feelings could transform into a desire to become closer or intimate with another member outside of the group. The feelings that have emerged are not necessarily problematic; however, if members either verbalize these feelings, or react to members differently because of this attraction, some tension might arise. It is not unreasonable for group members to have more intense feelings for others as deeper levels of sharing, engagement, and self-­disclosure occur. But it will be important for the group leader to remind members to maintain a healthy boundary with others in the group, even as these profound and deep admiration for others’ struggles, strengths, and humanity emerges. The ending phase can represent opportunities for members to make arrangements to continue meeting outside of the formal group settings. The ending phase can also provide an impetus for members to pursue friendships or even romantic relationships outside of the sessions as the group comes to a close. The group leader may or may not know about plans that are ensuing along these lines. The group leader could more reasonably explore the pros and cons of members choosing to engage in relationships of any kind outside of the group. However, the group leader should refrain from embarking upon these types of relationships themselves in order to ensure ACA ethical codes are not being violated. The ending phase for the group leader could also pose some areas to tread lightly when there is a desire to share with others the positive outcomes or what might have been learned throughout this process. For instance, during the sessions different types of data might have been collected. Journal entries might still exist, group outcome data or group leader notes might be readily available for the group leader to share with stakeholders about the successes and challenges that were discovered during the group. The group leader would need to have pursued permission from participants prior to sharing any of this information. If these data have been collected in order to be shared as an article publication or professional presentation, then a university or school level human subjects review board approval was necessary before the onset of the group.

224  Introduction to Group Counseling If these data are going to be shared in a more informal manner with supervisors, colleagues, or family members of the participants, it will be important to keep the group members’ identity and identifiable information unknown. This is difficult because, oftentimes, the groups are made up of a small sample of members and therefore it can be much easier to make assumptions about who is linked to any information that might be shared. Again, confidentiality is closely related to this particular situation because the group members may no longer be meeting on a regular basis, but perhaps somehow a member of the group discovers information they shared in their group that was private is displayed in a public forum without having provided consent. The data that emerge from these groups are critical to inform other future groups, but applying ACA ethics on the collection, use of, and sharing of data is of utmost importance.

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

Each phase will have various feelings that both members and group leaders may hold at each juncture, and therefore, being familiar with these can help you to quickly identify what phase in which a group might be currently functioning in. There are various group leadership considerations for groups overall; however, the group strategies may need to closely reflect the different stages to ensure that members’ anxiety, risk taking, and experiences with the ending/ changing of relationships are adequately explored. Ethical concerns are critical for every aspect of a group from conception, to implementation, and evaluation. It is important to remember that culturally competent group leaders also work toward offering groups that are also sound ethically.

CASE STUDY 8.1 REVISITED Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. 1. What was your reaction to Oscar’s (group faciliator) summary of what was happening in the moment? 2. What stage do you think the group is in? What evidence might suggest that? (continued)

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CASE STUDY 8.1 REVISITED (CONTINUED) 3. What feelings do you perceive from the group? What might be going on for group members? 4. Why might Oscar use a summary in the session? What might be the rationale? 5. In thinking about yourself as the group counselor in this session, what might your strategy be to continue group development?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. The group has met for 17 of 20 sessions. The group leader has failed to alert the group members that there are only three sessions left. The group leader is a woman and all of the members are men. She wants to tell them, but also wants to add a few more sessions, so that she does not let the group experience end too abruptly. What is your recommendation for her? Is gender relevant in this scenario? Why or why not? 2. How can transference be explored in a group session in a culturally sensitive manner even before it appears to be of concern? Should the group leader broach transference? If the group leader experiences a countertransference within a session, how should they handle this? 3. Co-­leaders disagree about facilitating a new group with the same members or adding new members. Specifically, recently they completed a 12-­session group that was made up of eight members. One leader thinks it’s okay to add two new members and then continue for another 12 weeks. One believes that no new members should be added and the other two members should be referred to a different group or be denied altogether. What are your thoughts?

In Class Small Group Activity Reflect upon the many years of group activities throughout your lifetime, specifically the many ways in which you came to know and connect with classmates, teammates, campmates, coworkers, and acquaintances through facilitated ice breaker-­type/game-­like group activities as well as some activities that you engaged

226  Introduction to Group Counseling in to close out a class, year, season, and so on. Complete Table 8.2 to create a list of the activities using the discussion questions that follow, and next to them list the group phase they would be helpful for and why.

Discussion Questions 1. What were some of the activities that stand out for you in forming relationships? a. What do you remember most about the activities? b. How did they make you feel? c. What would you want to do again? 2. What were some of the activities you recall participating in as a closure? a. What do you remember most about the activities? b. How did they make you feel? c. What would you want to do again?

TABLE 8.2  Activities and Group Stages of Development ACTIVITY NAME AND DESCRIPTION

BEST USED IN GROUP STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

EXPERIENCE FOR GROUP MEMBERS

 

 

 

Processing Questions 1. What was it like to discuss prior group activities? 2. What did you (re)learn about what you need to form relationships in groups? Close relationships? 3. What did you learn others need to form relationships? Close relationships? 4. How might this information provide insight as you develop as a group leader?

Journal Starters 1. At this point, what will you use as opening and closing rituals? Brainstorm a few quick and easy ideas. 2. Create a mnemonic device that will help you remember the group phases. Be sure this device takes into account the cultural implications to be inclusive of all participants.

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Homework Ideas 1. Create a visual depicting each phase with enough detail that aligns with the descriptions in the chapter. 2. Conduct a literature search for a recent group counseling article that discusses either the beginning, middle, or ending phases while emphasizing culturally relevant clinical research or practice.

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 8.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES Corey, M. S., Corey, G., & Corey, C. (2018). Groups: Process and practice. Cengage Learning. DeLucia-­Waack, J. L. (2006). Leading psychoeducational groups for children and adolescents. Sage Publications. Donigian, J., & Hulse-­Killacky, D. (1999). Critical incidents in group therapy (2nd ed.). Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Gladding, S. T. (2019). Groups: A counseling specialty (8th ed.). Pearson. Lewin, K. (1947). Group decisions and social change. In T. M. Newcomb & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology. Henry Holt. Li, X., Kivlighan, D. M., & Gold, P. B. (2015). Errors of commission and omission in novice group counseling trainees’ knowledge structures of group counseling situations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 159–172. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​cou0000070 Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​h0022100 Vannicelli, M. (2001). Leader dilemmas and countertransference considerations in group psychotherapy with substance abusers. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 5, 43–62. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1521/​ijgp​.51​.1​.43​.49728

9 Beyond Traditional Group Counseling: Moving Toward Healing, Catharsis, and Social Action

Learning Objectives ■

Discuss group counseling in the context of healing engagement and asset-­ based considerations.

■

Review emerging trends in group counseling.

■

Analyze the diverse ways in which group counseling can be utilized for social action.

■

Recognize one’s own group facilitation skills and discover more ways to utilize those same skills in the counseling profession.

See Table 9.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

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TABLE 9.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.2.b

Theories and models of multicultural counseling, cultural identity development, and social justice and advocacy

2.2.e

The effects of power and privilege for counselors and clients

2.6.g

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for designing and facilitating groups

ACA Code of Ethics

A.9.b

In a group setting, counselors take reasonable precautions to protect clients from physical, emotional, or psychological trauma

ASCA Code of Ethics

N/A

ASGW Professional Training Standards

II.C.1.b

Identify and describe: the impact of group member diversity (e.g., gender, culture, learning style, group climate preference) on group member behavior and group process and dynamics in group work

II.G.1.c

Identify and describe: diversity competent group work

II.G.2.c

Demonstrate skill in: evidencing diversity-­ competent practice in planning, observing, and participating in group activities

A.3.a

Group workers actively assess their knowledge and skills related to the specific group(s) offered. Group workers assess their values, beliefs, and theoretical orientation and how these impact upon the group, particularly when working with a diverse and multicultural population

A.4.a

Group workers identify the type(s) of group(s) to be offered and how they relate to community needs

A.4.d

Group workers choose techniques and a leadership style appropriate to the type(s) of group(s) being offered

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

(continued )

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TABLE 9.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

STANDARD

DEFINITION

B.3.a

Group workers apply and modify knowledge, skills, and techniques appropriate to group type and stage, and to the unique needs of various cultural and ethnic groups

B.8

Group workers practice with broad sensitivity to client differences including but not limited to ethnic, religious, sexual, psychological maturity, economic class, family history, physical characteristics or limitations, and geographic location. Group workers continuously seek information regarding the cultural issues of the diverse population with whom they are working both by interaction with participants and from using outside resources

I.4

Seek to understand the extent to which general group leadership skills may be appropriate or inappropriate for group work facilitation with group members

II.6

Recognize and be aware of group needs and goals, determine type of multicultural and social justice variables as they conduct assessments, identify appropriate groups to be implemented, select group leader(s) and members, pre-­screen and prepare members, and determine the techniques, leadership styles, and resources needed to conduct a group

II.8

Determine if the most appropriate group should be a culture-­specific (a group of people who share common experiences as a result of their diversity), an intercultural-­ learning (designed to promote greater understanding across cultural groups to increase cultural knowledge and improve relationships among diverse groups of people), or other-­content focused group (groups focused on other issues but give consideration to the diversity of group members and related group dynamics) (continued )

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TABLE 9.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

STANDARD

DEFINITION

II.b.7

Incorporate traditional and spiritual healing or seek consultation when appropriate. Group members who find solace in culturally based therapeutic techniques may respond to the use of traditional healing methods that engage the mind-­body-­spirit connection. Group leaders who are not immersed in the cultural context and/or very familiar with the healing techniques can consult or invite spiritual or cultural leaders to the group to more appropriately incorporate these methods

II.b.8

Use culturally grounded frameworks and techniques as appropriate (e.g., use of storytelling, poetry, music, food, and other culturally and spiritually based practices). When utilizing Western approaches, use techniques and frameworks that best fit the group members’ cultural context or adapt the approach

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

I.2

Knowledge: privileged and marginalized counselors possess an understanding of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

I.4

Action: Privileged and marginalized counselors take action to increase self-­ awareness of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases (continued )

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TABLE 9.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

II.2

Knowledge: privileged and marginalized counselors possess knowledge of clients’ worldview, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression

III.1

Attitudes and beliefs: privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of how client and counselor worldviews, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, social identities, social group statuses, and experiences with power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship

ACA, American Counseling Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

CASE STUDY 9.1 Sandra: Hello, Dominique, welcome to this space. This space happens to fall on the land of the Lenape Tribe. We acknowledge this land previously belonged to others in this practice. I am grateful to have the opportunity to meet you. Dominique: Hello, Sandra. I am so grateful to share this space. Let me enjoy this breath for a moment. (Closes her eyes.) Sandra: (Understood that Dominique in that moment, was present [mindful], and her body and mind just felt relaxed in what seemed like the first time in a while. Sandra learned from her intake forms that Dominique has previously been in counseling with only White women and was seeking a woman counselor of color. She waited patiently, witnessing Dominique’s moment of calm.) Dominique: (After waiting until she could feel her muscles just relax and her mind feel less on edge.) Thank you for sitting with me. I am a mom of school-­aged children and a school administrator, and I feel like my body is shutting down as we enter the third academic year during the pandemic. So much experienced racial trauma and vicarious trauma. Due to my physical health deteriorating, I (continued)

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CASE STUDY 9.1 (CONTINUED) previously sought counseling, but I spent most of the time educating the counselor on my experience as a Black woman for context rather than focusing on me. It resulted in more internalized oppression to add on to my already high level of overwhelmingness and physical symptoms. It just feels like a relief to find someone to not have to explain the emotional trauma associated with years of feeling like I had to be superhuman and still produce the same as my peers and not show weakness on the outside. It’s tiring and exhausting, and I realized I am looking out for so many, but no one is prioritizing my health. So, I need to. Thank you for being you and taking this step on this journey with me. Sandra: So, let’s begin our journey. Tell your story. [Session continues. At the conclusion ...] Sandra: Dominique, thank you for your willingness to share a part of your story with me today. Your strength and vulnerability come across. I look forward to our individual sessions together. I am also wondering based on our conversation if you might want to consider joining one of our BIPOC Affinity Groups. The group meets bi-­weekly and assists with moving through a collective healing process in community. You can listen and share what you feel comfortable with expressing. We have several days and times that fit your schedule, and we also have specialized groups like similar professions or interests. Give it some thought and let me know if you have any questions. I look forward to seeing you next week. Dominique: I would be open for sure; however, do you have any virtual? It opens accessibility for me. Sandra: They are all virtual to assist in accessibility for all participants. We understand time is precious. Dominique: I am already motivated. I would love some more information. This case study provides a snapshot of the stress of the pandemic and the struggle for Black clients to find other counselors of color due to an overwhelmingly White-­dominated profession. Potentially, left to choose from some counselors who lack an antiracist framework and culturally sustained skills, this case study also draws attention to the internalized oppression that might occur as an outcome in individual or group counseling. As a result, Sandra, provides a group opportunity to help address being in community with others who understand. As you read through the chapter, keep this case study in mind. We will revisit the case study at the end of the chapter.

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INTRODUCTION As mentioned in the first chapter of this book, we are writing this text amid multiple pandemics stemming from the coronavirus (COVID-­19). We are experiencing crises of public health, economic health, mental health, and racial inequality. We are writing this particular chapter as the country once again grapples with prioritizing the economy or safety; as students, faculty, and staff are returning to P–20 schools across the country amid the surge of the Delta variant. Policymakers and school boards across states and educational levels are attempting—and succeeding in some places—in implementing policies that would ban aspects of Critical Race Theory (Crenshaw, 1989, 1991) and have educators become mandated reporters on students’ LGBTQ+ identity to parents, while educational protections for immigrant students have been aborted (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals; DACA). Policies are in place that deny students’ historical narratives and identities in support of perpetuating racial trauma and injustice, while furthering racist and inequitable practices. It is also a time where the Asian American community has suffered tremendous prejudice and hurt. Simultaneously, Naomi Osaka and Simon Biles withdrew from elite competition to focus on mental health, and received severe backlash as the world provided polar opposite opinions on these two women of color athletes. Add in factors like the housing market is at a peak while eviction and unemployment protections have lifted, help-­wanted signs everywhere limiting offered services, food shortage in areas, natural disasters ranging from fires, tornadoes, flash flooding, severe storms, and a looming hurricane season. While there are several people who are thriving, prioritizing wellness, and engaging in quality time, that comes with an element of privilege. The reality is that the world is grieving, experiencing multiple traumas (e.g., directly and vicariously), and living in uncertainty, which increases the chances of physical and mental health ailments. So how do we move forward as people? In the context of counseling, how do we contribute to the collective healing of the clients we serve? And how do we utilize our group counseling skills to help create a future of hope and healing? Do we rely on what previous training prescribes, or do we use our foundational group skills to create and innovate to meet the group counseling needs of today? And if so, how will you ensure your commitment to facilitating culturally affirming group experiences? See Box 9.1 for a guided reflection on your own pandemic experience. BOX 9.1  Stop and Reflect

The case study and introduction to this chapter provided a global lens that does not take into account your personalized experience from March 2020 until today. Additionally, there has been little time or room to process as changes occur daily. So let’s take a moment to reflect on your experience before proceeding. (continued)

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Box 9.1  Stop and Reflect (continued)

When the pandemic began, some of you might have been in middle or high school, in undergraduate or graduate school, and some of you may have been essential workers and on the front lines, or even both. Regardless, each of you has an experience that shaped your reactions and coping techniques. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What was your original reaction to the shutdown that began March 2020? 2. How did the pandemic continue to affect you physically and mentally? 3. What were your coping skills? 4. What did you lose? 5. What did you gain? 6. As the pandemic continued and racial inequities were transparent, how did you make sense of the information? What actions did you take or not take? 7. Where are you on your own healing journey? a. What are your strengths? b. What are the challenges? 8. How do you hope to continue your journey? 9. How do you hope to contribute to the healing journey with others? 10. Are there any other thoughts or feelings that come to mind when reflecting at this moment?

HEALING-CENTERED ENGAGEMENT Given the historical and current political state of public education and the economy, schools and business alike will need to prioritize mental health while combating structural racism (e.g., inequities) before expecting successful academic and professional outcomes. In other words, there needs to be a major shift in how the interconnected systems (e.g., schools, companies, agencies, communities) intentionally address the growing mental health concerns specifically associated with racial/ ethinic trauma (Ieva et  al., 2021). Healing centered engagement (HCE), a term coined by Dr. Shawn Ginwright (2018), is a holistic, systemic approach that involves identifying cultural, spiritual, civic, and collective healing and “requires questions that move beyond ‘what happened to you’ to ‘what’s right with you’ and views those exposed to trauma as agents in the creation of their own well-­being rather than victims of traumatic events” (p. 3). Using an asset-­based approach, HCE focuses

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on well-­being rather than symptoms and acknowledges that people are much more than the bad things that have happened to them. HCE builds on people’s experiences, knowledge, skills, and curiosity to promote a healing learning and living environment. Further, HCE addresses root causes of trauma to promote positive experiences and relationships. Lastly, HCE also supports providers with their own healing. Hence, HCE allows systems to implement a multitiered approach for creating communities of healing, resilience, and growth. In healing centered engaged environments, group counseling can be a useful process in helping clients use their assets/strengths to co-­create their healing process with others, and benefit from the group process such as increasing empathy, gaining interpersonal skills, promoting altruism, developing healthy identities, and acquiring social-­emotional learning skills (e.g., self-­awareness, self-­management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-­making; Collaborative for Academic and Social Emotional Learning, 2021). In addition, it also provides an opportunity to reflect and address anti-­racist education and processing, and unpack conditioning, power, privilege, and intersectionality (Ieva et al., 2021; Singh, 2019). Group counseling provides a space to center race and validate, affirm, and challenge racial conflict and internalized oppression. Further, group work supports cultural and spiritual healing, specifically when groups are designed to embrace spiritual and cultural identities as part of the process. In turn, group counseling can serve as an outlet for social action that is both action-­oriented and healing/process-­ oriented. The next section highlights the emerging trends in group counseling to support the ways in which group counseling can benefit the children and adults of today and the future.

EMERGING GROUPS AND CONSIDERATIONS Groups are a microcosm of society, and group work is an important medium where individuals, and especially youth, can practice and develop coping skills (Levy & Travis, 2020; Shechtman, 2017). Inherent in HCE is the collective space to learn and process free from judgment. Therefore, group counseling may shift from a traditional talk circle to co-­created action-­oriented activities that are focused on clients’ strengths and processing (Ieva et al., 2021). Processing, known in this case as reflective thoughts about past, present, and future behavior, is a vital component to acquiring and applying new knowledge and ways of thinking, and ultimately developing critical consciousness. Critical consciousness refers to the ability to recognize and analyze systems of inequality and the commitment to take action against these systems (Freire, Paulo, 1921-­1997, 1978). While every person processes information differently, culturally sustained trained group leaders can foster group processing, which allows rich discussions to ensue thereby countering prejudice and promoting equity and inclusiveness. Social justice-­oriented group dialogues work on the premise that members engage with one another over controversial issues and are

238  Introduction to Group Counseling expected to operate with honesty, sensitivity, and respect (Arao & Clemens, 2013). To accomplish this, group counselors will require facilitation skills to maneuver difficult dialogues, particularly when speaking about racism, oppression, power, and privilege, and to create spaces conducive to fostering deeper reflection and growth.

Braver Spaces Braver spaces are an alternative to safe spaces, offered by Arao and Clemens (2013), as it is an impossible feat to guarantee a safe space when engaging in discussions about structural racism and oppression. Regardless of modality, braver spaces have suggested ground rules that are contrary to common group rules that could perpetuate oppression by silencing members or inviting them to weigh in on culturally mismatched norms. Some of the suggested rules that have been identified as more inclusive include (a) being courageous when confronting conflict, (b) exhibiting authenticity, (c) challenging others by choosing awareness, (d) offering cultural understanding of respect, and (e) constructively critiquing ideas. To successfully facilitate this process, in alignment with antiracist education, facilitators must also understand power, privilege, and oppression and be able to recognize microaggressions and implicit bias; skills absent in some training programs (Sleeter, 2016). Given the number of racial incidents in schools (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2019), and in the community, counselors can take a lead role in facilitating braver spaces within their small group counseling programs. See Box 9.2 to assess and reflect on facilitation skills needed for Braver Spaces. BOX 9.2  Stop and Reflect

As mentioned, braver spaces encourages group rules and norms that diverge from traditional group norms. For each section rule listed in the following, provide an example of how these norms might be presented/demonstrated in a group setting. a. Being courageous when confronting conflict b. Exhibiting authenticity c. Challenging others by choosing awareness d. Offering cultural understanding of respect e. Constructively critiquing ideas Now that you have created the examples, and potentially shared them with your classmates, consider the following question. What facilitation skills might you need further assistance with to facilitate braver spaces?

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COURAGEOUS CONVERSATIONS AND ENHANCING COMMUNITY BUILDING In alignment with the development and expansion of the guiding principles, the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) offers Ten Strategies to Intentionally Use Group Work to Transform Hate, Facilitate Courageous Conversations, and Enhance Community Building (Guth et al., 2019; see the Appendix). These 10 strategies provide a platform dedicated to equity, multiculturalism, and social justice. Group workers can utilize these methods and resources as they strive to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion among group members. When considering the following ways to utilize group counseling, these strategies provide guidance and consultation for group workers as they navigate courageous conversations and enhance community building. Black and Latino youth indicate that they often experience discrimination from adults, including teachers, police, or retail store staff (Rosenbloom & Way, 2004). Asian high school students reported high levels of discrimination from peers, such as racial slurs, social exclusion, and bullying (Greene et al., 2006; Qin et al., 2008; Rosenbloom & Way, 2004). Additionally, there is a diverse body of research that highlights biases and harmful actions toward people across the life span who identify as women, LGBTQ+, neurodiverse, and affiliate with religions beyond Christianity. These findings highlighting discrimination and oppression to multiple identities emphasize the need for school-­based and community-­based interventions that help people understand and make sense of complex relations and develop skills to reduce intergroup conflict and harm, as well as process internalized oppression. Internalized oppression is a concept in which an oppressed group uses the methods of the oppressing group against itself. It occurs when one group perceives an inequality of value relative to another group, and desires to be like the more highly valued group (David, 2013). Utilizing the norms from braver spaces, affinity groups and intergroup dialogues are two ways group counseling can assist in meaning making, as opposed to internalizing and systemic oppression, and promote empathy, healing, and reduce conflicts.

Affinity Groups Affinity groups are defined as gathering opportunities for people who share a common identity. Affinity groups provide opportunities for people to connect with other people who share aspects of their identity, especially in situations in which aspects of their identity are in the minority or are marginalized. Examples of affinity groups include women in the workplace; lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) matters; neurodiverse learners; working parents; and any other group based on a common set of interests. It should be noted that employers are not required by federal law to have workplace affinity groups. However, the counseling profession can provide these spaces within the context of group counseling.

240  Introduction to Group Counseling After the murder of George Floyd and the public loss of many Black lives, there was a surge in racial affinity groups offered by school, communities, and organizations. A racial affinity group is a group of people sharing a common race who gather with the intention of finding connection, support, and inspiration. Racial affinity groups can happen within any profession or organization, including education, and are utilized to help others survive the racial isolation that exists in many schools and institutions (Great School Partnership, 2021). While affinity groups are important for traditionally oppressed groups to share their experiences and understand that they have a community that embraces them, there is strong commentary that non-­POC (people of color) groups should not exist. Liebler (2020) argues that they are not productive nor appropriate as “White culture” dominates schools and organizations, and therefore there is no need to form an affinity space that enforces the idea that White people are systematically marginalized in the same way as Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) individuals and communities. Similarly, non-­POC affinity groups may create the sentiment among its members that being actively antiracist is in some way a burden. Consequently, such an environment could stimulate either resentment towards the BIPOC community or “White guilt,” neither of which are effective (Liebler, 2020). Many scholars have noted that to be good allies, non-­POCs have to get used to the discomfort that arises when dismantling the long-­established racial hierarchies that benefit them, and include understanding “White discomfort in acknowledging and accepting the reality of White privilege is not comparable to the immeasurable effects of systemic racism that BIPOC have faced for hundreds of years”(Liebler, par. 4.). Non-­POC affinity groups should not invalidate the experiences of BIPOC peers. On the other hand, those supporting non-­POC affinity groups, indicate that it’s a safe place for White people to explore systemic racism and the conditioning through the years without harming BIPOC individuals. Regardless of your stance, all groups should have specific goals, norms, and curricula that shape the potential outcomes for each group. See Box 9.3 for reflection questions for conducting affinity group in schools.

BOX 9.3  Conducting Affinity Groups in Schools

Launching affinity groups in schools may bring unique challenges to the table. As a result, following is a short list to guide counselors in program development (Parsons & Ridley, 2012). Consider the following: 1. Is your school ready systemically? You might consider conducting a Racial Climate Assessment and utilize the data to inform a Tiered-­Response. (continued)

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Box 9.3  Conducting Affinity Groups in Schools (continued)

2. One way to encourage dialogue and connection is to provide opportunities to explore, facilitate positive identities, self-­awareness, pride, and self-­ esteem through songs (lyrics and videos), experiential activities, books, games, and structured play. 3. Facilitate opportunities that explore race, identity, and diversity in an inclusive and emotionally safe space that will empower students of color to recognize and develop their voice. 4. Building on student voice, provide opportunities to develop leadership skills. 5. In promoting healthy positive identities, provide students ways to develop accurate language and vocabulary to describe themselves and others. 6. Simultaneously, students will respond knowing that the school is making added efforts in retaining and recruiting administration, faculty, and staff of color. It might also be helpful to include staff as part of the group when applicable. 7. As a reminder, affinity groups, are for students who are in the minority in schools. 8. As group facilitators it is important to continually reflect in two ways: (a) after each session to revisit the goals and purpose to ensure the group is connecting and developing in healthy, positive ways; and (b) to reflect on your own influence, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Note: If you are in the majority running an infinity group in schools, be sure to address this during the first session to promote open dialogue. Source: Adapted from Parsons, J., & Ridley, K. (2012). Identity, Affinity, Reality: Making the Case for Affinity Groups in Elementary School. Independent School, 71(2), n2. Retrieved from https:// www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2012/identity,-affinity,-reality/

Intergroup Dialogues One commonly used approach to improving intergroup attitudes and reducing prejudice involves bringing diverse groups together for intergroup dialogues. Intergroup dialogues are facilitated face-­to-­face encounters between members of two or more social identity groups with a historically contentious relationship or intergroup dynamic in which members of at least one group experience one or more forms of oppression to a greater degree than the other, more privileged group(s) (Zúñiga et al., 2002). Intergroup dialogues occur over a specific period of time and provide a forum in which participants can engage in meaningful conversations across race and other areas of difference (Tauriac et al., 2013). This dialogue format has been used to promote understanding between members of different kinds of social identity groups (e.g., including females and males; people of color and White people;

242  Introduction to Group Counseling lesbians, gay men, bisexual, and heterosexual people; and Muslims and Jews, and neurodiverse learners). Intergroup dialogues are guided by trained facilitators, who stimulate discussion through experiential activities or readings. The facilitators foster a supportive learning climate with a balance between each group expressing its viewpoint and listening to each other (Tauriac et  al., 2013). Group members also reflect on the impact of power and privilege on their social identities and their relationships with each other (Nagda, 2006).

Racial Healing Circles Racial healing circles, proposed by Gail Christopher (2018), former Senior Advisor and Vice President at the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, brings together a diverse group of people in a safe, respectful environment called a racial healing circle. Circle processes, including racial healing circle processes, are rooted in the spiritual- and community-­sustaining models of many Indigenous cultures. During the 20th and 21st centuries, Europeans and Americans appropriated and popularized the idea of using circles to gather groups together for healing and growth (Baldwin, 1998; Baldwin, 2009). Self-­help circles, addiction recovery circles, restorative justice circles, conflict resolution circles, peacemaking circles, and disease support group circles are just a few examples. The premise of racial healing circles is to rid the false belief in a hierarchy of human value and replace it with a reverence and appreciation for the equal and interconnected nature of the human family. Central to this process is liberal education, which includes “unlearning” as much as learning. Therefore, racial healing experiences can be helpful in the unlearning process, and bring awareness to internalized oppression and refrain from perpetuating the same oppression. As such, racial healing practitioners encourage (but do not force) participants to share stories in pairs, using tailored prompts and questions that elicit stories of empowerment and agency. In addition, the racial healing circle process emphasizes empathy. Empathy and tolerance are very different outcomes. Rather than simply tolerating another person’s existence, empathy involves the art of perspective taking and requires awareness and understanding of the experience of another. Sharing authentic stories in a deftly facilitated circle of engagement helps increase empathy for individuals and collectively among all circle participants. Racial healing circles help participants move beyond that myth and immerse themselves in the commonalities of our shared human journey, while acknowledging the very real consequences of exposure to racism and honoring diverse cultures and experiences. For more information see Gail C. Christopher, Former Senior Advisor and Vice President at the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, authored book, Rx Racial Healing: A Handbook: Your Questions Answered.

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Promoting Antiracist Education Through Group Work Antiracist education in the counseling profession is essential to move toward healing-­centered engagement in order to support all clients, and specifically those from communities who have traditionally been silenced (Torres, 2020). Antiracist education requires looking at root causes; specifically acknowledging the root cause of structural racism in education is a critical step in the healing process. This means systems (both higher education and P–12) must first consider the ways in which policies and practices harm clients and particularly youth, and then allow people to analyze the same practices and policies that facilitated experienced trauma to promote agency and prevent internalization (Ginwright, 2018). Group counseling provides a structure and environment that is conducive to this work. Psychoeducational group work is a beneficial way to interrogate ideologies and theories and to provide context for discussions centered on oppression, power, privilege, multiple identities, and intersectionality (Stevenson, 2018). More specifically, there are multiple approaches with positive outcomes in group work that promote collective healing, catharsis, and social action. Some examples include hip hop spoken word therapy (Levy, 2019; Washington, 2018), digital storytelling (Sawyer & Willis, 2011), and creative arts (Martin et al., 2018). Regardless of methods, evidence demonstrates that group work builds community and cohesion among members, which leads to overall well-­being (Guth et al., 2019; Levy & Travis, 2020).

Social Emotional Learning Social emotional learning (SEL) is something that is emphasized in P–12 education and currently into adulthood. Defined, SEL is the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions, achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions (Collaborative for Academic and Social Emotional Learning, 2021). Additionally, SEL advances educational equity and excellence through authentic school-­family-­community partnerships to establish learning environments and experiences that feature trusting and collaborative relationships, rigorous and meaningful curricula and instruction, and ongoing evaluation. SEL can help address various forms of inequity and empower young people and adults to co-­create thriving schools and contribute to safe, healthy, and just communities.

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Social Emotional Core Competencies ■

Self-­Awareness: the abilities to understand one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior across contexts. This includes capacities to recognize one’s strengths and limitations with a well-­grounded sense of confidence and purpose. Such as:

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ■

Self-­Management: The abilities to manage one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in different situations and to achieve goals and aspirations. This includes the capacities to delay gratification, manage stress, and feel motivation and agency to accomplish personal and collective goals. Such as:

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ■

Integrating personal and social identities Identifying personal, cultural, and linguistic assets Identifying one’s emotions Demonstrating honesty and integrity Linking feelings, values, and thoughts Examining prejudices and biases Experiencing self-­efficacy Having a growth mindset Developing interests and a sense of purpose

Managing one’s emotions Identifying and using stress management strategies Exhibiting self-­discipline and self-­motivation Setting personal and collective goals Using planning and organizational skills Showing the courage to take initiative Demonstrating personal and collective agency

Social-­Awareness: The abilities to understand the perspectives of and empathize with others, including those from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and contexts. This includes the capacities to feel compassion for others, understand broader historical and social norms for behavior in different settings, and recognize family, school, and community resources and supports. Such as:

○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Taking others’ perspectives Recognizing strengths in others Demonstrating empathy and compassion Showing concern for the feelings of others Understanding and expressing gratitude

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○ ○ ○ ■

Identifying diverse social norms, including unjust ones Recognizing situational demands and opportunities Understanding the influences of organizations and systems on behavior

Relationship Skills: The abilities to establish and maintain healthy and supportive relationships and to effectively navigate settings with diverse individuals and groups. This includes the capacities to communicate clearly, listen actively, cooperate, work collaboratively to problem solve and negotiate conflict constructively, navigate settings with differing social and cultural demands and opportunities, provide leadership, and seek or offer help when needed. Such as:

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ■

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Communicating effectively Developing positive relationships Demonstrating cultural competency Practicing teamwork and collaborative problem-­solving Resolving conflicts constructively Resisting negative social pressure Showing leadership in groups Seeking or offering support and help when needed Standing up for the rights of others

Responsible Decision-­Making: The abilities to make caring and constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions across diverse situations. This includes the capacity to consider ethical standards and safety concerns, and to evaluate the benefits and consequences of various actions for personal, social, and collective well-­being. Such as:

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Demonstrating curiosity and open-­mindedness Learning how to make a reasoned judgment after analyzing information, data, and facts Identifying solutions for personal and social problems Anticipating and evaluating the consequences of one’s actions Recognizing how critical thinking skills are useful both inside and outside of school Reflecting on one’s role to promote personal, family, and community well-­being Evaluating personal, interpersonal, community, and institutional impacts

For years, school counselors have attended to SEL with students through comprehensive school counseling programs (e.g., classroom lessons, small group counseling). However, due to the the surge in mental health concerns, with suicide being the second leading cause of death for children 10 to 24 years old (Centers for Disease

246  Introduction to Group Counseling Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2021), coupled with the short- and long-­term effects of the pandemic, SEL has become the focus for most districts around the country, specifically implemented in the classroom. There is a large body of research that indicates SEL (a) improves students’ attitudes, relationships, academic performance, and perceptions of classroom and school climate; (b) reduces students’ anxiety, behavior problems, and substance use; (c) reduces poverty, improves economic mobility; (d) and improves life time outcomes (Collaborative for Academic and Social Emotional Learning, 2021; Jones et  al., 2015). Further terms like educator SEL and adult SEL have shifted attention to also working with adults on SEL skills. Further, top companies are increasingly emphasizing the importance of SEL for success in the next generation of employees and entrepreneurs (Yoder et al., 2020). Exhibit 9.1 takes a look at the five main competencies: self-­awareness, self-­management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-­making; along with skills needed for workforce development. Group counseling becomes an ideal format to improve SEL skills through the nature of collective dialogue and feedback in safe spaces. Regardless of setting, counselors will work with all clients to develop these skills, which include emotional regulation and coping skills. EXHIBIT 9.1  Social Emotional Skills Demanded by Employers SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES

EMPLOYEE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS (IN-DEMAND SKILLS FROM EMPLOYERS)

Self-­awareness

■

Positive attitude

■

Ability to innovate

■

Flexibility

■

Confidence

■

Ability to apply skills to real-­ life settings

■

Creativity

■

Commitment

■

Shows flexibility

Self-­management

■

Openness to developing/ learning new skills

■

Sense of self-­worth

■

Initiative

■

Strong work ethic

■

Works well under pressure (e.g., manages emotions)

■

Time management

■

Entrepreneurial thinking

■

Punctuality

■

Reliability

■

Ability to work independently

■

Organizational skills

■

Adaptability

■

Budgeting

■

Self- ­discipline

■

Detail-­oriented

■

Strategic planning (e.g., setting and achieving goals)

(continued )

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EXHIBIT 9.1  Social Emotional Skills Demanded by Employers (continued) SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES

EMPLOYEE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS (IN-DEMAND SKILLS FROM EMPLOYERS)

Social awareness

■

Cross- ­cultural sensitivity

■

Supervision of others

■

Ability to work with people of differenct backgrounds/ cultures

■

Respects individual differences

■

Written and oral communication skills

■

Effective communication

■

Ability to collaborate

■

Listening skills

■

Management skills

■

Conflict resolution

■

■

Teamwork and works well with others

Responds to customer needs

Relationship skills

Responsible decision-­ marking

■

Integrity

■

Critical thinking

■

Honesty

■

Reasoning

■

Analyze and solve complex problems

■

Civic participation and engagement

■

Ability to evaluate information from multiple sources

■

Ethical and sound decision-­making

■

Observes carefully

Source: Reproduced with permission from Yoder, N., Atwell, M. N., Godek, D., Dusenbury, L., Bridgeland, J. M., & Weissberg, R. (2020). Preparing youth for the workforce of tomorrow: Cultivating the social and emotional skills employers demand. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning.

Participatory Action Research Traditional approaches have been critiqued for not positioning clients and youth as equal partners in the group experience (Fisher-­Borne et al., 2015), which deters from a trusting relationship. However, there are other ways to engage in group work that are action-­oriented, strength-­based, centered on client agency, and promote social emotional learning. One promising example emerging in education and school counseling literature is participatory action research (PAR; with adult collaborators) and youth-­led participatory action research (YPAR; with youth collaborators). Both PAR/YPAR utilize a methodology in which participants and researchers collaborate to engage in scholarship within a shared community. PAR is a cyclical process that involves the stages of acting, reflecting on the actions, and modifying practice in light of what is learned. Thus, it is a systematic gathering and analysis of data (knowledge) to understand and improve the world

248  Introduction to Group Counseling by taking action in order to make change. Researchers (in this case, group facilitators) and participants collectively seek to understand and improve upon the practices in which they participate and the situations in which they find themselves. Through collective self-­reflective inquiry, the reflective process is directly linked to action, influenced by understanding of history, culture, and local context and embedded in social relationships. An important aspect of PAR/YPAR is that the group process can empower and lead to people having increased control over their lives (Baum et al., 2006). More recently, school counselors have facilitated YPAR as part of their comprehensive school counseling programs. In small group settings, adolescents are trained and supported to conduct research relevant to issues that have been affecting their lives that they would like to see addressed (Gibbs et al., 2020). YPAR asks the question, How do you empower youth to generate knowledge about and take action to improve their lives? Participating in YPAR promotes student agency by being a part of changes they would like to see either in their schools or in their communities, while helping them learn skills to collaborate with multiple stakeholders to improve their own individual and collective communities. It is important to note that YPAR is a strengths-­ based focus, and assists in the rejection of internalized oppression, while working for systemic change. It is not just about processing and naming the injustices or problems students see, but collectively through a group process create plans and projects for awareness and social action. For counselors, this provides an ideal tool to further create a healing centered engagement environment addressing a variety of academic, social, emotional, and career projects where students’ strengths and expertise are valued and affirmed, particularly for those students traditionally oppressed in schools. One benefit of YPAR is that there are multiple modalities to meet students’ and clients’ interests and needs. Evidence in school counseling literature demonstrates positive outcomes with the use of different presentation styles co-­created by the school counselor–student partnership such as hip hop cyphers (Levy et al., 2018); mixtape creation (Levy & Travis, 2020); studio creation (Levy & Adjapong, 2020); photovoice (Edirmanasinghe, 2020; Smith et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2020) and traditional PowerPoints (Edirmanasinghe & Blaginin, 2019). While PAR/ YPAR provides a quasi curriculum through the structure, it is up to the counselor to facilitate the process during each group session and in final reflection and termination. These skills and set up might differ from traditional group counseling aspects mentioned in this book. For more information check out Hip-­Hop and Spoken Word Therapy in School Counseling: Developing Culturally Responsive Approaches (2021) by Ian Levy.

ANTIRACIST GROUP FACILITATION SKILLS Finding trained facilitators poses a challenge for organizations and institutions. Therefore, it is important while enrolled in a training program to actively facilitate

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groups under supervision. While empathy and perspective taking are requisite skills, specifically when incorporating antiracist education, there are other highly nuanced knowledge and skill elements. Antiracist group counseling skills can be learned within a profession that provides supervision and tailored professional development to support counselors in combating the structural racism present in educational and community spaces. Navigating the nuances of human dynamics in a group setting, within a community or educational context centered in Whiteness, demands a cohesive and interconnected curricula and supervisory experience that supports the development of critical consciousness (Ieva et  al., 2021). However, gaps in critical consciousness and mindsets of adults promote inequities (Andrews et al., 2019). Therefore, counselors must be taught to confront these inequities and refrain from “colonizing” and/or “conditioning” students by traditional group work frameworks. Table  9.2 provides required competencies for antiracist group facilitation and outlines the knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed for group delivery, both in practice and supervision. While they are listed in separate columns, counselors require the explicit interconnectedness of all presented. We present this information so that you might participate in social action by advocating for what you would like to receive from your counseling programs.

TABLE 9.2  Competencies for Antiracist Healing Centered Engagement Delivery in Group Practice and Supervision STRATEGIES FOR COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT

KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS/DISPOSITIONS

History of the United States and Connection to Racism

Validate and affirm racial injustice

Literature review/podcasts

Compelled to decolonize and disrupt racism (practices and policies) in schools

Diversify electives

Anti-­Blackness

Recognize how anti-­ Blackness presents in systems, policies and individuals

Infuse in each course

Book clubs

Decolonize syllabi and curricula Ongoing professional development Include Student Voice Department Action Plan Addressing Anti-­Blackness With Accountability (continued )

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TABLE 9.2  Competencies for Antiracist Healing Centered Engagement Delivery in Group Practice and Supervision (continued) STRATEGIES FOR COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT

KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS/DISPOSITIONS

Culturally Sustaining Counseling Theories and Techniques (e.g. Critical Race Theory and Relational Cultural theory)

Refrain from dismissal of others based on unconscious awareness of privilege

Audit and decolonize syllabus

Ecological Systems Framework

Connect systems inequities across multiple systems and educate adults and students

Work to identify and remove barriers across systematic levels, and model for students at higher education level

Identify and remove barriers across systems levels

Remove antiquated theories and techniques Infuse Western forms of counseling

Ongoing professional development and supervision Train all counseling specializations in EST from a school and connected systems lens Involve community systems in coursework

Critical Consciousness (e.g., power, privilege, oppression, intersectionality of self & others)

Self-­awareness including own conditioning through the years

Continuous reflection and supervision in relation to current and historical events

Facilitate awareness and connection in others

Utilize an antiracist supervision model (e.g., Antiracist Inclusive Model of Systems Supervision (AIMSS; Ieva et al., n.d.)

Challenge policies of ideologies

Peer Consultation/ Intentionality Conflict Resolution (Centered in Race)

Conflict mediation while maintaining group cohesion Comfortable with conflict Emotional stability

Infuse in Techniques, Theories, and Group Course Work Concrete and Practical Case Studies Role Play Field Experience Requirement: Observe Mediation/Practice/ Reflect (continued )

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TABLE 9.2  Competencies for Antiracist Healing Centered Engagement Delivery in Group Practice and Supervision (continued) KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS/DISPOSITIONS

Racial Identity Models and Strengths-­Based (Asset-­ Based) Approaches

Decolonize identities Discuss varying worldviews while building cohesion Explore others’ racial identities

STRATEGIES FOR COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT

Continuous reflection, professional development, and ongoing supervision Infuse across curricula Practical case studies/self-­ analyses

Promote healthy racial identities Difficult Dialogue, Courageous Conversations, and Braver Space Models

Utilize and implement in the right context Connect Tier 2 data to delivery method

Continuous reflection, professional development, practice, and ongoing supervision Central to programming and teaching, specifically in group context

Group Counseling Through an Antiracist Lens

Ability to broach race in group settings Recognize and challenge implicit bias and microaggressions while maintaining emotional safety Understand the appropriate use of self-­ disclosure and here-­and-­ now when confronted with racist remarks or discussions on racism and oppressions

Continually reflect on one’s implicit bias, acknowledge racial battle fatigue, directly address microaggressions Willingness to foster discussions on racism and oppression, open to confronting racist and violent remarks

(continued )

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TABLE 9.2  Competencies for Antiracist Healing Centered Engagement Delivery in Group Practice and Supervision (continued) KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS/DISPOSITIONS

Advocacy (in public schools, community, and political realms)

Engage in discovering inequities with students and communities Plan activities that align with salient and current issues, Act with intention and join other stakeholders in action-­oriented activities (e.g., protest, communicating with legislators, school board and parent-­teacher meeting attendance)

Culturally Inclusive Program Evaluation and Outcome Frameworks

Flexible qualitative strategies, mixed methods (e.g., focus groups, journal prompts/entries), critical incidents reflection and discourses Artifacts as evidence include, artwork, music (e.g., mixtapes), pictures, videos, and PowerPoints

STRATEGIES FOR COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT

Collective reflection, challenging longstanding policies and practices, assignments that support advocacy work in schools and across systems, seeking counseling as needed, engaging in self-­care, and utilizing peer and group supervision

Acknowledgment that students and families are agents of change, using an antiracist framework in examining data, introduce critical methodologies and frameworks, regularly reflecting on one’s own positions of power, privilege, and oppression and exploring one’s personal impact on the outcomes sought and desired, and a willingness to adjust to the needs of students/clients

EST, Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner). Source: Adapted from Ieva, K. P., Beasley, J., & Steen, S. (2021) Equipping school counselors for antiracist healing centered groups: A critical examination of preparation, connected curricula, professional practice and oversight. Teaching and Supervision in Counseling: Vol. 3 : Iss. 2 , Article 7. Retrieved from https://trace.tennessee.edu/tsc/vol3/iss2/7

Group Facilitation Skills in the Counseling Profession Mental health clinicians, school counselors, social workers, and psychologists with the appropriate licenses and certifications have a solid grounding of knowledge and ongoing developing skills that began during graduate training in the area of

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group counseling. For the current reader, this requisite knowledge and skillset is growing and because most training programs in counseling and clinical psychology require one formal course in group counseling, we take the opportunity to expand your thinking on how to apply these skills beyond group interventions. In rare instances, preparation programs offer additional advanced group counseling courses or specialized group counseling courses specific to working in hospitals, school settings, and so forth. But usually this one group counseling course must offer a single focus on helping you develop group knowledge and group leadership skills in group counseling. We reiterate that culturally sustained group work is a powerful venue to foster spaces of racial healing, engagement, and combatting racist environments. That said, these same group leadership skills can be applied beyond traditional small group counseling settings. As mentioned earlier in this textbook, an astute group leader knows that groups are running more often than most people realize on a daily basis in families, schools, and throughout communities. These group leadership skills can help to offer both prevention and intervention needs of children and families and community development outside of a clinical setting. This particular emphasis of group leadership skills being flexed beyond a traditional intervention is beyond the scope of this book; however, Coogan and Steen (2021) offer a new framework, techniques, and information to cultivate your understanding of how to use these group skills strategically and infuse these throughout all of your professional counseling endeavors. The book was written primarily for school counselors; however, this information is easily adaptable to other helpers. In sum, these authors provided that particular resource in hopes to make using group work and group work techniques more normalized while sharing ideas for social justice practitioners to be culturally courageous group experts.

Summary Points 1. There are multiple ways to structure group counseling to meet society’s needs beyond traditional groups. 2. Group work provides the structure and environment to facilitate antiracist work. 3. Social action groups like PAR/YPAR promote student and client agency while addressing social dilemmas. 4. In addition to perspective taking and empathy there is a numerous amount of knowledge, dispositions, and group facilitation skills needed to address antiracist education in group sessions. 5. There are many ways in which group facilitation skills are utilized in the counseling profession outside of traditional group counseling.

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CASE STUDY 9.1 REVISITED Now that you have read the chapter, let’s revisit our case study. 1. In reflecting on the case study, what are your initial thoughts/reactions? 2. After reading the chapter, have your reactions shifted? If so, how? 3. At the end of the session, why might Sandra (the counselor) suggest that her client attend a BIPOC Affinity Group? 4. If you were recommending an affinity group, how might you broach the subject with clients?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. How comfortable would you feel facilitating the previously mentioned groups? Explain your answer. 2. What more information might you want to know? 3. What group might you want to participate as a member? What would you hope to get out of the experience? 4. Of the knowledge and skills presented in Table 9.2, what are your strengths? What might be a barrier? 5. How might the information in the chapter shape how you view group facilitation skills in other facets of the profession? In other contexts?

In Class Small Group Activity Class Participatory Action Research (PAR) PAR consists of a cyclic process that contains four steps; action, planning, research, and reflection. It is inclusive and community-­based, meaning that local communities are active participants. In this case you are all part of a counselor education community and contain knowledge specific to this task. As mentioned, part of imparting the information in this chapter is so that you can advocate for what you want/need from your counseling programs. While you might not have enough time to participate in an entire PAR experience, you can at least begin the process. In small groups, discuss your experiences in your counseling programs thus far. Based on those experiences, engage in a discussion with the questions that follow.

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Discussion Questions 1. In listening to others' experiences, what do you see as a commonality? What do you see that is different? Why might that be? 2. In reflecting together, what are some ways you would like to see the program improved based on your experiences? 3. How might you gather more research to address program improvement needs based on your experiences? 4. Your last task is to take the information that was discussed and come to consensus on one issue that, if this group were to move forward, you would collaborate together to address within your program.

Process Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What was it like to participate in this group activity with your classmates? What did you learn about yourself? What did you learn about others? How did your group come to consensus? How did participation inform your development as a group facilitator?

Journal Starters 1. Learning about the complexities of group facilitation elicits many thoughts and feelings. If I am being honest with myself, I feel … because ... 2. Think about all the information present in this chapter. a. Pick one type of group or subject area information that you would like to be a group member. Discuss your rationale and what you expect to get from the experience. b. Pick one type of group or subject area information from this chapter that you would like to facilitate or incorporate in a group session as a group leader. Discuss what you expect and the potential challenges you may face.

Homework Ideas 1. In looking at Table 9.2, Competencies for Antiracist Healing Centered Engagement Delivery in Group Practice and Supervision . On a scale of 1 to 5 (5 being highly competent), self-­assess on each category, write a reflection on your thought process, and develop a plan to address your improvements while in your counseling programs.

256  Introduction to Group Counseling 2. SEL competencies of Self-­Awareness and Self-­Management go hand in hand. If you were working in a group setting, how might you go about addressing these competencies? Develop a mini group lesson with an activity and process questions.

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 9.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES Andrews, D. J. C., Brown, T., Castillo, B. M., Jackson, D., & Vellanki, V. (2019). Beyond damage-­centered teacher education: Humanizing pedagogy for teacher educators and preservice teachers. Teachers College Record, 121(6), 1–28. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​016146811912100605 Arao, B., & Clemens, K. (2013). From safe spaces to brave spaces. In L. Landreman (Ed.), The art of effective facilitation: Reflections from social justice educators (pp. 135–150). Stylus Publishing. Baldwin, C. (1998). Calling the circle: The first and future culture. New York: Bantam Books. Baldwin, C. (2009). Calling the circle: The first and future culture. New York: Bantam Books. Baum, F., MacDougall, C., & Smith, D. (2006). Participatory action research. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(10), 854–857. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1136/​jech​.2004​.028662 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2021). Preventing suicide. https://www.cdc.gov/suicide/pdf/preventing-suicidefactsheet-2021-508.pdf Christopher, G. C. (2018). Racial healing circles: empathy and liberal education. Diversity & Democracy, 21(3). Collaborative for Academic and Social Emotional Learning. (2021). SEL is. https://casel.org/what-is​-sel/ Coogan, T. C., & Steen, S. (2021). Group counseling leadership skills for school counselors: Stretching beyond interventions. Cognella, CA. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, (1)(Article 8), 138–167.

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Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2307/​1229039 David, E. J. R. (Ed.). (2013). Internalized oppression: The psychology of marginalized groups. Springer Publishing Company. Edirmanasinghe, N. (2020). Using youth participatory action research to promote self-­efficacy in math and science. Professional School Counseling, 24(1). https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​2156759X20970500 Edirmanasinghe, N., & Blaginin, K. (2019). Demystifying the research process: A career intervention with latinas. Professional School Counseling, 22(1b), 2156759X1983443. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 2156759X19834433 Fisher-­Borne, M., Cain, J. M., & Martin, S. L. (2015). From mastery to mccountability: Cultural humility as an alternative to cultural competence. Social Work Education, 34(2), 165–181. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1080/​02615479​.2014​.977244 Freire, Paulo, 1921-­1997. (1978). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum. Gibbs, L., Kornbluh, M., Marinkovic, K., Bell, S., & Ozer, E. J. (2020). Using technology to scale up youth-­ led participatory action research: A systematic review. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 67(2S), S14– S23. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1016/​j​.jadohealth​.2019​.10​.019 Ginwright, S. (2018). The future of healing: Shifting form trauma informed care to healing-­centered engagement. http://kinshipcarersvictoria.org/2018/08/OP-Ginwright-S-2018- Future-of-healing​ -care.pdf Great School Partnership. (2021). Racial affinity groups guide for school leaders. https://www.greatsch​ oolspartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Racial-Affinity-Groups-Guide-for-School​ -Leaders-Final.pdf Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 218–236. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​0012​-1649​.42​.2​.218 Guth, L. J., Pollard, B. L., Nitza, A., Puig, A., Chan, C. D., Singh, A. A., & Bailey, H. (2019). Ten strategies to intentionally use group work to transform hate, facilitate courageous conversations, and enhance community building. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 44(1), 3–24. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2018​.1561778 Ieva, K. P., Beasley, J., & Steen, S. (2021). Equipping school counselors for antiracist healing centered groups: A critical examination of preparation, connected curricula, professional practice and oversight. Teaching and Supervision in Counseling. https://​doi​.org/​10​.7290/​tsc030207 Jones, D. E., Greenberg, M., & Crowley, M. (2015). Early social-­emotional functioning and public health: The relationship between kindergarten social competence and future wellness. American Journal of Public Health, 105(11), 2283–2290. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2105/​AJPH​.2015​.302630 Levy, I. (2019). Hip-­Hop and spoken word therapy in urban school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 22(1b), 1–11. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​2156759X19834436 Levy, I., & Adjapong, E. S. (2020). Toward culturally competent school counseling environments: Hip-­hop studio construction. The Professional Counselor, 10(2), 266–284. https://​doi​.org/​10​.15241/​ipl​.10​.2​.266 Levy, I., Emdin, C., & Adjapong, E. S. (2018). Hip-­Hop cypher in group work. Social Work with Groups, 41(1–2), 103–110. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01609513​.2016​.1275265 Levy, I., & Travis, R. (2020). The critical cycle of mixtape creation: Reducing stress via three different group counseling styles. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 45(4), 307–330. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1080/​01933922​.2020​.1826614 Liebler, G. (2020, September). White people have no need for race-­based affinity groups. The Tulane Hullabaloo. https://tulanehullabaloo.com/54180/views/white-people-have-no-need-for-race​ -based-affinity-groups/

258  Introduction to Group Counseling Martin, L., Oepen, R., Bauer, K., Nottensteiner, A., Mergheim, K., Gruber, H., & Koch, S. C. (2018). Creative arts interventions for stress management and prevention—a systematic review. Behavioral Sciences, 8(2), 28. https://​doi​.org/​10​.3390/​bs8020028 Nagda, B. R. A. (2006). Breaking barriers, crossing borders, building bridges: Communication processes in intergroup dialogues. Journal of Social Issues, 62(3), 553–576. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1540​-4560​ .2006​.00473.x Parsons, J., & Ridley, K. (2012). Identity, affinity, reality: Making the case for affinity groups in elementary school. Independent School, 71(2), n2. Qin, D. B., Way, N., & Mukherjee, P. (2008). The other side of the model minority story: The familial and peer challenges faced by Chinese American adolescents. Youth & Society, 39(4), 480–506. Rosenbloom, S. R., & Way, N. (2004). Experiences of discrimination among African American, Asian American, and Latino Adolescents in an urban high school. Youth & Society, 35(4), 420–451. https://​ doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0044118X03261479 Sawyer, C. B., & Willis, J. M. (2011). Introducing digital storytelling to influence the behavior of children and adolescents. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 6(4), 274–283. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 15401383​.2011​.630308 Shechtman, Z. (2017). Group counseling and psychotherapy with children and adolescents: Theory, research, and practice. Routledge. Singh, A. A. (2019). The racial healing handbook: Practical activities to help you challenge privilege, confront systemic racism, and engage in collective healing. New Harbinger Publications. Sleeter, C. E. (2016). Critical race theory and the whiteness of teacher education. Urban Education, 52(2), 155–169. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0042085916668957 Smith, L., Bratini, L., & Appio, L. M. (2012). “Everybody’s teaching and everybody’s learning”: Photovoice and youth counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 90(1), 3–12. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1111/​j​.1556​-6676​.2012​.00001.x Southern Poverty Law Center. (2019). Hate at school report. https://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/​ files/tt_2019_hate_at_sch ool_report_final_0.pdf Stevenson, S. (2018). The group as a psycho-­educational medium for the teaching of anti-­racist practice on social work trainings. Journal of Social Work Practice, 32(3), 337–349. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 02650533​.2017​.1359779 Tauriac, J. J., Kim, G. S., Lambe Sariñana, S., Tawa, J., & Kahn, V. D. (2013). Utilizing affinity groups to enhance intergroup dialogue workshops for racially and ethnically diverse students. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 38(3), 241–260. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2013​.800176 Torres, C. (2020). All students need anti-­ racism education. Teaching Tolerance. https://www​ .learningforjustice.org/magazine/all-students-need-antiracism-education Washington, A. R. (2018). Integrating hip-­hop culture and rap music into social justice counseling with black males. Journal of Counseling & Development, 96(1), 97–105. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​jcad​ .12181 Williams, J. M., Byrd, J., Smith, C. D., & Dean, A. (2020). Photovoice as an innovative approach to group work with black youth in school settings. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 45(3), 213–225. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2020​.1789794 Yoder, N., Atwell, M. N., Godek, D., Dusenbury, L., Bridgeland, J. M., & Weissberg, R. (2020). Preparing youth for the workforce of tomorrow: Cultivating the social and emotional skills employers demand. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. Zúñiga, X., Naagda, B. R. A., & Sevig, T. D. (2002). Intergroup dialogues: An educational model for cultivating engagement across differences. Equity & Excellence in Education, 35(1), 7–17. https://​ doi​.org/​10​.1080/​713845248

10 Research, Assessment, and Evaluation of Group Effectiveness

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Identify self-­assessment strengths and areas of growth as an important element of group work assessment.

■

Recognize the current landscape of research in group work from a multicultural perspective

■

Review the benefits and challenges inherent in measuring group effectiveness.

■

Evaluate culturally competent instrumentation to utilize when measuring group effectiveness

■

Identify current different group research methodologies and analyses, and the potential for future research.

See Table 10.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

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TABLE 10.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

2.7.i

Use of assessments relevant to academic/educational, career, personal, and social development

2.7.m

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for selecting, administering, and interpreting assessment and test results

C.7.a

When providing services, counselors use techniques/ procedures/modalities that are grounded in theory and/or have an empirical or scientific foundation

E.6.a

Counselors carefully consider the validity, reliability, psychometric limitations, and appropriateness of instruments when selecting assessments and, when possible, use multiple forms of assessment, data, and/or instruments in forming conclusions, diagnoses, or recommendations

E.8

Counselors select and use with caution assessment techniques normed on populations other than that of the client. Counselors recognize the effects of age, color, culture, disability, ethnic group, gender, race, language preference, religion, spirituality, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status on test administration and interpretation, and they place test results in proper perspective with other relevant factors

A.3.c

School counselors: review school and student data to assess needs including, but not limited to, data on disparities that may exist related to gender, race, ethnicity, socio-­economic status, and/or other relevant classifications

A.3.d

School counselors: use data to determine needed interventions, which are then delivered to help close the information, attainment, achievement, and opportunity gaps

A.3.e

School counselors: collect participation, Mindsets & Behaviors and outcome data and analyze the data to determine the progress and effectiveness of the school counseling program. School counselors ensure the school counseling annual student outcome goals and action plans are aligned with district’s school improvement goals

A.3.g

School counselors: share data outcomes with stakeholders

ACA Code of Ethics

ASCA Code of Ethics

(continued )

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TABLE 10.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Professional Training Standards

II.A.1.c

Identify and describe: research literature pertinent to group work and its specializations

II.D.2.b

Demonstrate skill in: applying theoretical concepts and scientific findings to the design of a group and the interpretation of personal experiences in a group

II.B.1.a

Identify and describe: principles of assessment of group functioning in group work

II.F.1.a

Identify and describe: methods for evaluating group process in group work

II.F.1.b

Identify and describe: methods for evaluating outcomes in group work

II.F.2.b

Demonstrate skill in: engaging in self-­evaluation of personally selected performance goals

A.3.a

Group workers actively assess their knowledge and skills related to the specific group(s) offered. Group workers assess their values, beliefs and theoretical orientation and how these impact upon the group, particularly when working with a diverse and multicultural populations

A.4.e

Group workers have an evaluation plan consistent with regulatory, organization, and insurance requirements, where appropriate

A.8.e

Group workers keep abreast of group research and development

B.3.b

Group workers monitor the group’s progress toward the group goals and plans

B.7

Group Workers include evaluation (both formal and informal) between sessions and at the conclusion of the group

C.3.a

Group workers evaluate process and outcomes. Results are used for ongoing program planning, improvement and revisions of current group and/ or to contribute to professional research literature. Group workers follow all applicable policies and standards in using group material for research and reports

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

(continued )

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TABLE 10.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

II.6

Recognize and be aware of group needs and goals, determine type of multicultural and social justice variables as they conduct assessments, identify appropriate groups to be implemented, select group leader(s) and members, pre-­screen and prepare members, and determine the techniques, leadership styles, and resources needed to conduct a group

II.b.9

Use culturally appropriate assessment and evaluation tools where the benefits of quantitative, qualitative, or mixed method data collection are carefully considered. Because marginalized groups have often experienced exploitation and/or over-­analysis of their groups by practitioners and/or researchers, assessment should be used with sensitivity. Research and evaluation findings should be shared with participants and used in a way that empowers and benefits members and their community groups, as well as assists in reducing/eradicating barriers imposed by those in position of power

II.3

Acquire culturally sustained application skills to apply knowledge of multicultural and social justice theories, identity development models, and research to one’s work with privileged and marginalized clients

II.4

Take action by applying multicultural and social justice theories, identity development models, and research to one’s work with privileged and marginalized clients

III.3

Acquire assessment skills regarding how culture, stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, power, privilege, and oppression influence the counseling relationship with privileged and marginalized clients

IV.C

Conduct multicultural and social justice based research to highlight the inequities that social institutions have on marginalized clients and that benefit privileged clients

IV.D

Conduct qualitative and quantitative research to evaluate the degree to which community norms, values, and regulations influence privileged and marginalized clients

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

ACA, American Counselors Association; ASCA, American School Counselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

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CASE STUDY 10.1 GROUP LEADERSHIP PLAN, RESEARCH, AND MINDFULNESS ACTIVITY Imagine that you have been assigned by your supervisor the opportunity to put together a group opening session for young adults who will participate in a psychoeducation group for those with parents serving in the military. The session should incorporate basic mindfulness techniques that will become part of the opening and closing rituals. Following this request, you are a bit hesitant to say yes, but then you recall you are able to glean some information from the current group counseling research and literature to inform your ideas. Following this search you come up with the activity that follows: Opening statements: Group leader will provide this introduction to the activity: Regardless of race, ethnicity, wealth, or gender, one thing we all have in common is feeling anxious from time to time. Whether anxiety shows up for you as feeling nervous, sweaty palms, shortness of breath, racing thoughts, or full-­blown panic attacks, we’ve all fallen on some part of the spectrum of anxiety once or twice. Mindfulness is a great technique to use during these moments of distress. Mindfulness can sound vague, but ultimately it’s about bringing your focus on to the present moment. Goal and Objectives: The goal of this exercise is to define mindfulness and apply basic mindfulness focus through your five senses. Our objectives will be to (a) use this exercise whenever we begin our group sessions, (b) to take our time to focus on our breathing, and (c) to center our attention on the present in order to connect in this way each time we meet.” Group leadership directions for the first session: Group leader will first start by informing the group that if they have a disability which inhibits some of their senses, then they can keep their focus on their other senses. Next the group leader will define mindfulness as the quality or state of being conscious or aware of something or a mental state achieved by focusing on the present moment. Next, the group leader will guide the group members through the prompts that follow. The group leader will read each prompt slowly, with a soothing and calm voice, and allow only a minute or so for each prompt. The prompts are as follows: 1. Sit up, resting your hands on top of your thighs, making sure you’re as comfortable as you can be. 2. Begin by breathing slowly and deeply, in through your nose and out through your mouth for three breaths. 3. What do you see? Bring your attention to five things you might not normally pay attention to. Don’t analyze or think hard about what things (continued)

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CASE STUDY 10.1 GROUP LEADERSHIP PLAN, RESEARCH, AND MINDFULNESS ACTIVITY (CONTINUED) might be. Just bring your focus on what’s around you. What colors, shapes, textures are present? 4. Slowly close your eyes and bring your attention to touch. What are four things you can feel? Are your hands still on your thighs? What do you feel under your hands? Shifting focus to other parts of your body, how does the fabric of your shirt/sweater feel against your skin? Is it soft? Is it light on your body or does it feel heavy? Think about what’s under your feet. How does your foot feel inside your shoe? 5. Now begin to notice three sounds you can hear around you. Don’t think about the sounds or analyze what they might be. Just notice the sounds as they come and go. If your mind begins to wander, it’s ok, just bring your attention back to breathing and try again. 6. Now bring your attention to two things you can smell. Tune into smells you might not usually notice. Not paying attention to whether they are good or bad, just what they are. What scents are you picking up? Maybe it’s your shampoo or perfume. Maybe there’s a scent in this room you haven’t noticed before. 7. Now start to bring attention to your mouth and one thing you can taste. Is there a lingering taste from a meal or a drink? If not, bring attention to how your tongue feels resting between your teeth. Try running your tongue along each tooth, focusing on the texture you feel. 8. Slowly open your eyes as the exercise ends. After all the prompts are read, the group leader will reflect and process with the group members by asking them to reflect on this activity. Occasionally, the group leader may call upon a group member to talk about any differences or similarities between the group members’ experiences and their own. Remember to remind the participants that this activity might be abbreviated each time we begin or end a group session. As you read this chapter, be thinking about how you will use group counseling research and literature to inform your group counseling practice and attempt to maximize the service you provide to your clients and families.

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INTRODUCTION Group counseling research is critical to demonstrating its effectiveness. While there exists a body of literature on the outcomes to specific types of groups as well as certain types of content and curricula, there is still a paucity in available data and research. In this chapter, we highlight the current landscape of group counseling research. Additionally, we review the different ways in which group workers can assess the effectiveness of their group work, as well as some of the challenges in evaluating groups. There are two important sides of research and evaluation in group work: One is being up to date on current research and the ability to read current literature with a critical eye; and the other is systematically evaluating the groups you are leading in an effort to better understand what is working and what is not working. Certainly, publishing the results of your group intervention so the larger community can benefit is arguably a third point, but we understand that this may not be part of your agenda.

ETHICAL OBLIGATIONS As counselors, we have an ethical responsibility to use “techniques/procedures/ modalities that are grounded in theory and/or have an empirical or scientific foundation” (American Counseling Association, 2014, C.7.a). In the context of group work, this means leaders use the literature available to inform their leadership and interventions. According to the ASGW Guiding Principles (McCarthy et al., 2021), there are multiple areas in which leaders are responsible for assessment. First, leaders are responsible for ecological assessment (C.3.a.), wherein the leader assesses needs and resources, competency of staff available, client attitudes toward group work, and systemic concerns that may negatively impact equity of group work. Leaders are also responsible for self-­assessment (C.3.b.) related to their leadership, including strengths and weaknesses of their leadership, cultural competence, and how these factors impact the group. Finally, group leaders have an obligation of monitoring and assessment (D.4.), where they monitor progress toward goals and assess and attempt to balance the needs of individual members and the needs of the group. See Table 10.2 provided in Box 10.1 for a complete check on your current status as a group leader. BOX 10.1  Group Leader Self-­Assessment

One element of our responsibility as leaders is to be able to evaluate ourselves as leaders. Use the self-­assessment in Table 10.2 to consider your strengths and areas of growth as a leader. (continued)

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BOX 10.1  Group Leader Self-­Assessment (continued) TABLE 10.2  Group Leader Self-­Assessment THIS IS A STRENGTH OF MINE

THIS IS NEITHER A STRENGTH NOR A GROWING EDGE OF MINE

THIS IS A GROWING EDGE OF MINE

Use eyes to scan the group and help identify nonverbal reactions from members Reflect the content of what a member has said Reflect the feeling of what a member has said Approach conflict in the group effectively Attend to differences in power and privilege effectively Attend to differences in perspective and values effectively Cut off conversation that is irrelevant or harmful Draw out members who are less participatory, without putting them “on the spot” Attend to, and point out, process issues within the group Include the entire group in discussion, even if one member is “holding the floor” Use self-­disclosure appropriately React to member criticism of the leader effectively Maintain a balance between structure and flexibility within a session Facilitate interpersonal feedback between members effectively (continued )

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BOX 10.1  Group Leader Self-­Assessment (continued) QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. Based on your self-­assessment, what do you see as your greatest strengths as a leader? 2. Based on your self-­assessment, what do you see as your greatest areas of improvement as a leader? 3. How do you think both your strengths and your areas of improvement will impact the development of a group you are leading?

CURRENT GROUP COUNSELING RESEARCH Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide details on every population and setting in which data have been collected regarding the efficacy of group counseling interventions, in this section we review a snapshot of the landscape of group counseling research. Categorically, large reviews of group counseling literature have demonstrated that group counseling is an effective type of treatment across multiple settings, with a variety of client populations, addressing a number of different presenting concerns (Barlow, 2014; Burlingame et al., 2014). Like individual counseling, group counseling is both an art and a science, and this can make it difficult to evaluate. Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches can be used to evaluate groups and individual experiences within groups. In reviewing recent quantitative group designs, examples supporting the effectiveness of group interventions include research with the LGBTQ+ population (Austin et  al., 2017), homeless women who are new mothers (Bain, 2014), Latino adolescents in treatment for substance abuse (Burrow- Sánchez et al., 2015), Black women experiencing symptoms of depression and stress (Jones & Warner, 2011), Chinese young adults at high risk for suicide (Yang et al., 2020), and career concerns of adult male prison inmates on the verge of being released (Fitzgerald et al., 2012). Recent qualitative studies have explored how the group process in a music therapy group allows for transformation in prisoners and prison guards in a Chinese prison (Chen & Hannibal, 2019), the lack of cultural knowledge and assumption of White cultural values as normative when White group leaders facilitated a group of Latino youth (Malott et al., 2014), the therapeutic value of a meaning-­making group for people who are grieving (MacKinnon et al., 2016), and the positive impact of a rap music group for people who are incarcerated (Richards et al., 2019), to name a few. Despite evidence supporting the overall effectiveness of group work with a wide range of populations and concerns, there are a number of gaps with group work research as a whole. One such challenge is limited sample sizes. In considering

268  Introduction to Group Counseling the previously referenced studies, the sample sizes range from a one participant case study (Chen & Hannibal, 2019), to a maximum of 29 participants who received the treatment intervention (Jones & Warner, 2011). As a result of the small sample sizes, it is difficult to generalize to broader populations. Another challenge in group work research is the frequency with which individual theories (such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy [CBT]) are used in the context of the group. When this is the case, it is difficult to identify the ways in which the group dynamic and interpersonal nature of the group play an independent role in members’ progress. In addition, because an interpersonally focused group, or one where the treatment is not manualized as in a CBT group, cannot be standardized, it is more difficult to create research studies with enough rigor that the results are published in peer reviewed journals.

CONDUCTING YOUR OWN ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION There are a multitude of ways a leader can use assessment in their group, and decisions around assessment should be made before the group has begun. It is helpful to think about assessment from multiple perspectives. For example, you may want to think about assessments related to the group as a whole, and how members are feeling in the context of the group. However, you may also want to measure individual changes related to the group goals. For example, if the goal or purpose of the group is to help members deal with depression, it will likely be important to identify an assessment for members to take as the group begins and as it ends. It is always helpful to repeat this type of assessment after the group concludes—for example, 3 or 6 months later—to see if the changes have been maintained. However, this is not always feasible. Because it is beyond the scope of this chapter to go into depth regarding a number of possible ways to assess individual progress in the group, we provide some general suggestions for evaluating individual growth in the context of the group. Prior to choosing which assessment(s) you would like to use, first consider what the purpose is of the group. The purpose may be to help members cope with depression or anxiety, to increase their self-­esteem, to process grief, or to enhance their interpersonal skills, among other things. Whatever the main purpose is should direct you toward an assessment of that characteristic. Once you have decided what you want to assess, the next step is deciding how you want to assess. For example, you may want both quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (words) data. In collecting quantitative data, it may be helpful to use a standardized instrument or assessment that already exists. If this is the case, make sure you examine the populations on which the instrument has been normed to check and see if those populations match the population that will be in your group. In addition to deciding how you want to assess, you will also need to determine what intervals might be helpful and in what combination. For example, you might

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conduct a pre- and post-­test of members’ symptoms of depression, while also conducting weekly assessments of the group environment in order to get a sense of what it is feeling like for the members to be in the group week after week. Yet another consideration is from whom you will want to collect data. Certainly, getting information from group members is appropriate and helpful. But depending on your topic and population of the group, it may also be helpful to gather data from others, such as teachers and parents. In a school setting, other data that are already collected can be used as well. For example, grades, absences, or disciplinary actions. See Table 10.3 for some helpful considerations when thinking about your own assessment practices. TABLE 10.3  Assessment Considerations QUESTION

ASSESSMENT CONSIDERATIONS

What information am I trying to gather through this assessment?

If you want to know about specific symptoms, you need to use an assessment designed to gather data on that symptom If you want to know how group members are experiencing the group process, you may be looking at an assessment designed to identify group cohesion or critical incidents

Is there an assessment that already exists that has been normed on the population of my members?

Standardized instruments abound for concerns such as depression (e.g., the Beck Depression Inventory), anxiety (e.g., the Beck Anxiety Inventory), disordered eating (Eating Attitudes Test), self-­esteem (Rosenberg Self-­Esteem Scale), and other concerns that bring clients to groups

Do I want quantitative data, qualitative data, or both?

Quantitative data give you numbers, qualitative data give you words If you want to know the extent to which a symptom, for example, depression, has changed, you might use a quantitative measure If you want to know more than just whether or not the symptom changed, but, for example, how the member understands the change to have happened, you might use a qualitative measure It can be helpful to use both, so that you can gather information about the extent to which the symptom has changed, as well as how the member conceptualizes how the change has occurred (continued )

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TABLE 10.3  Assessment Considerations (continued) QUESTION

ASSESSMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Who should take the assessment?

Of course, group members are often the subject of assessments since they are the ones participating in the experience. However, teachers, parents, and other caregivers may also have valuable observations that the counselor would want to collect

Do I need one data point or multiple data points?

If the only information you need is change in symptom level, you may only need one quantitative measure taken by the group member before and after the group However, you may want both quantitative and qualitative data, or data from both the group member and the parent(s) or teacher(s), or data assessing both the change in symptoms but also data on something related to group process, such as group cohesion When making determinations, there is a balance between collecting enough information to help you get a sense of whether or not the group intervention was helpful, and overloading members with assessments

COMMONLY USED GROUP ASSESSMENTS Group process measures provide more information about what is happening from a process perspective in the group, as opposed to individual change in symptoms. It is critical to look at the group as a whole system, as well as to examine individual elements of the system, such as specific incidents or behavior of the leader. In the following, we review some common group process measures that might be helpful for your groups. The purpose of the Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ; Kivlighan & Goldfine, 1991) is for the leader to gain insight into both what the key experience was for each group member during the session, as well as why that experience was so important for the member. The prompts are fairly simple in this qualitative measure: “Of the events which occurred in this session, which one do you feel was the most important to/for you personally? Describe the event: What actually took place, the group members involved, and your own reaction. Why was it important for you?” (Kivlighan & Goldfine, 1991, p. 152). Once completed, independent judges classify

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the responses from the members into therapeutic factors. As a result, the CIQ can both help the leader understand specific situations that were important to group members (including why the situation was important), as well as to understand how these situations connect with therapeutic factors. Because the CIQ is used regularly, often after every session, the leader can use this as a type of ongoing feedback that will allow them to modify their leadership approach based on how members are reacting in the group. The CIQ has been used in a variety of types of groups, including but not limited to psychoeducation groups for first grade children (Brouzos et al., 2015); experiential training groups for counselors in Botswana (Nitza, 2011); groups for men in treatment for perpetrating domestic violence (Waldo et al., 2007); and in a psychoeducation group for Greek children with social anxiety (Brouzos et al., 2015). The Group Climate Questionnaire Short (GCQ-­S; MacKenzie, 1990) is another assessment of group process that is designed to be used after each session. The GCQ-­S is a 12 item, self-­report measure that measures three constructs: engagement, conflict, and avoidance. A higher score on the engagement subscale indicates a good working group environment. On the other hand, a higher score on the conflict subscale indicates a negative group environment. A higher score on the avoiding subscale indicates group members are avoiding taking responsibility for what is occurring in the group. Because the group climate can vary substantially from week to week, if you are going to use this measure, it is beneficial to use it after every session (MacKenzie & Livesley, 1986). The GCQ-­S has been used in a variety of group interventions; for example, in counselor training groups (Gold et al., 2013); in a CBT group for clients experiencing comorbid psychiatric disorders (Ryum et al., 2009); and in groups for college students experiencing social anxiety (Thorgeirsdottir et al., 2015). The Group Environment Scale (GES; Moos, 1994, Moos, 2002) is a longer assessment than the CIQ or the GCQ-­S. The GES is a 90-­item scale that includes 10 subscales that measure cohesion, leader support, expressiveness, independence, task orientation, self-­discovery, anger and aggression, order and organization, leader control, and innovation (Wilson et  al., 2008). An interesting element of the GES is the measure of leader factors, such as support and control. This is not an area measured by the GCQ-­S or the CIQ, though leader factors could certainly come up when members are responding to the CIQ. The GES has been used in a number of different settings; for example, with college students participating in seminar groups (Meredith & Schmitz, 1986), student teachers participating in mental health consultation groups (Davis & Hartsough, 1992), and first year counseling master’s students participating in process groups (Vereen et al., 2019).

Informal Assessments It is important to remember that evaluation or assessment need not mean conducting a clinical trial with your group intervention. Rather, one recommendation

272  Introduction to Group Counseling is to consider using practice-­based evidence (PBE) in your counseling groups (Jensen et al., 2012). The use of PBE includes data collected from the members of the group throughout the life of the group, so that you are essentially taking a “pulse” on the group throughout. This allows you as the leader to consistently have a sense of how members are responding to the group, and therefore to be able to be more responsive while the group is running. While it is important to track overall changes from start to finish, this perspective of PBE allows the leader to incrementally respond to the needs of the group as the group unfolds. See the following for some examples of tools found in Boxes 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5. Examples include engagement, climate, goals, and school counseling respectively, that can be used for PBE practices. These ideas could be modified to fit the purpose and developmental level of your group.

BOX 10.2  Engagement Questionnaire

1. I am most engaged in group when ________________________. 2. I am least engaged in group when ________________________. 3. _______________ is most helpful to me in learning how to deal with (topic of the group). 4. I wish we spent more time doing/talking about ____________________ in group. 5. I wish we spent less time doing/ talking about _____________________ in group

BOX 10.3  Climate Questionnaire

Use the Likert scale—1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree—to answer the following questions about how it feels to be in this group. 1. I trust the members of the group. 1 2 3 4 5 2. I trust the leader(s) of the group. 1 2 3 4 5

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BOX 10.3  Climate Questionnaire (continued)

3. I am able to be myself in the group. 1 2 3 4 5 4. My background, experiences, and perspective are respected by the other members. 1 2 3 4 5 5. My background, experiences, and perspective are respected by the leader(s). 1 2 3 4 5 6. I feel connected to the other members. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I feel connected to the leader(s). 1 2 3 4 5

BOX 10.4  Group Goals Questionnaire

Use the Likert scale—1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree—to answer the following questions about your goals for this group. 1. I know what my goals are for being in this group. 1 2 3 4 5 2. I feel supported by other members in pursuing the goals I have in the group. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I feel supported by the leader(s) in pursuing the goals I have in the group. 1 2 3 4 5 4. I am making progress, even if it feels slow, in achieving the goals I have set forth for being in the group. 1 2 3 4 5

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BOX 10.5  School Counseling Example: Early Elementary School HOW WAS THE GROUP TODAY?

1. I feel… Good

Happy

Hopeful

Bad

Angry

Confused

Distracted

Stressed

Hurt

Other:

Other:

2. I feel others listened

to me: - Yes

- No

myself: - Yes

- No

3. I feel better about 4. I feel others were nice

5. I know

Other:

to me: - Yes

- No

more about the topic: - Yes

- No

6. Now I feel….

Good

Happy

Hopeful

Bad

Angry

Confused

Distracted

Stressed

Hurt

Other:

Other:

Other:

LIMITATIONS As Brouzos et al. (2015) point out, there is increasing data to support that the therapeutic alliance between members and leaders is a strong predictor of success in

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counseling groups. However, in the frequently used group process assessments cited previously, there are little data collected related to how the leader is impacting the development of the group environment, or how leader and member characteristics converge and contribute to the group environment. In addition, none of the assessments specifically assess how the varied demographic backgrounds of the leader and members impact members’ experiences of the group. Without seeking out this information specifically, there is no way to know the myriad ways in which diversity in experience and background for both members and leaders impacts the group. Another crucial limitation is the lack of diversity in participants where the quantitative measures described previously have been validated. In the study by Vereen et  al. (2019), all participants in the group identified as White and between the ages of 22 to 42, and there is no demographic information about the leaders. Wilson et al. (2008) have a more diverse sample in their study, and they also report on more demographic variables than many other studies. This study included two groups with the following demographic characteristics (see Table 10.4). Notably, no demographic data are reported for the leaders of the intervention groups in this study either. In a study using the GES with clinical psychology students, participants ranged in age from 23 to 35, and reported the following ethnic backgrounds: 53.8% Caucasian, 23.1% Asian American, and 23.1% multiple ethnicities (Moffett et al., 2016). In a study using the GES with groups of student teachers where the purpose was to have a place to discuss challenges in their teaching placements, participants' ages ranged from their early 20s to their mid 30s, and there were approximately four times more women participants than men (Hartsough & Davis, 1986). No information was provided about the leaders aside from their status as a credentialed school psychologist. TABLE 10.4  Demographic Variables VARIABLE

SAMPLE 1

SAMPLE 2

Age

Mean = 40.3

Mean = 43.3

Gender

62%

48%

Male

37%

51%

Female

1%

1%

Sexual orientation

51%

44%

Heterosexual

40%

43%

Gay/lesbian

9%

13%

Transgender

Bisexual (continued )

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TABLE 10.4  Demographic Variables (continued) VARIABLE

SAMPLE 1

SAMPLE 2

Years of education

Mean = 12.7

Mean = 12.2

Ethnicity

26%

10%

White

52%

70%

African American

16%

15%

Hispanic

1%

2%

Native American

1%

0%

Asian/Pacific Islander

4%

3%

Annual income

63%

66%

$20,000

Examining the characteristics of participants who have taken the GCQ-­S reveals similarly limited diversity in participants. In the group for counselor trainees (Gold et al., 2013), participants ranged from 19 to 45 years old, 32 were female and four were male, and participants reported the following ethnic identities: 91.7% White, 2.7% African American, 2.7% Asian American, and 2.7% Native American. Group leaders in this study ranged in age from 32 to 47, two identified as male, two identified as female, and all four leaders identified as White. In the study conducted by Ryum et al. (2009), the mean age of participants reported was 37.2, and 81.5% identified as female and 18.5% identified as male. No other demographic information is provided, and no demographic information about the leaders is discussed. In the study of college students experiencing social anxiety disorder (Thorgeirsdottir et al., 2015), participants ranged in age from 18 to 25. No additional information is provided regarding the participants, nor is there information about the leaders. While these reviews do not take into account every instance in which these measures of group environment have been used, from the demographic data reported, there is a pattern of lack of diversity in age and ethnicity of participants, as well as a lack of consideration for how leader demographics impact the group. Further, aside from the study by Wilson et al. (2008), very few aspects of participants’ identities are reported. It is reasonable to imagine that factors such as disability status, gender identity, religious beliefs, and indigenous heritage of both members and leaders would contribute to how the group environment is experienced, but these factors are not reported, and therefore presumably not considered.

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The current state of the research on the group environment seems to measure the what; for example, to what extent does conflict exist? Or to what extent does cohesion exist? But there are precious few data on how; for example, how does a leader facilitate disclosure? Or how does a leader impact cohesion in a group? Or how do different identity statuses of the leader impact the development of the group? So while it is helpful to have a sense of what the group environment feels like, or whether or not members have reached some of their goals, it would also be helpful to have a better sense of what the leader does in order to facilitate an environment conducive to members reaching their goals.

RACIAL AND ETHNIC EQUITY IN RESEARCH The preceding recommendations are helpful in identifying different ways in which assessments can be used to determine the extent to which the group has been helpful for members. And although, as mentioned, you may be conducting more of a practice-­based evidence approach to your assessment, as opposed to formal research that you hope to publish in a journal, it is still critical to consider how the impact of race and ethnicity will be embedded in your assessment practices. An important consideration in both understanding the current landscape of the literature, as well as conducting your own research, is the reality of historical misconduct by researchers against Black and Native American populations; for example, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, the Barrows study in the 1970s, and the Arizona State University (ASU) type 2 diabetes study in the 1990s (Hodge, 2012). In the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, African American men with syphilis were recruited to study the course of untreated syphilis. There were multiple ethical issues with the experiment, including participants being misled about receiving special, free treatment, and being included in the study without appropriate informed consent (Heintzelman, 2003). Perhaps most importantly, later when it became clear that penicillin was a safe, effective, and available treatment for syphilis, it was not offered, and even actively withheld from participants. In the Barrows study of the 1970s, the Department of Public Safety of the town of Barrows, Alaska, conducted a study on understanding the relationship between alcohol and traumatic deaths in the Inupiat Native population (Hodge, 2012). Although the research was purportedly conducted to identify interventions to help the community, the results of the study were leaked to a news outlet, which led to stigmatization of the community. Further problems included not having proper consent from the participants, sharing the results with people outside of the community prior to sharing them with the community studied, and applying Western standards to the population. In the ASU study, the Havasupai Tribe agreed to participate in a study examining type 2 diabetes. Blood samples were taken from tribe members, and then removed without permission from the reservation, used without permission or IRB approval for additional research purposes, and then sent overseas to be used by

278  Introduction to Group Counseling other researchers without permission (Hodge, 2012). As a result of these abuses and others in the research process against Black and Native communities, it stands to reason that Black and Native people would be reluctant to further participate in research. Andrews et al. (2019) set about the task of identifying practical ideas for embedding a lens attending to racial and ethnic equity in children’s social science research, and many of these practices can be used in counseling research as well. The authors noted that as their search for existing recommendations proceeded, what they found was guidance on how to conduct research that is culturally sensitive. However, this information “does not equip researchers with tools to understand the role of race and ethnicity in a person’s life trajectory, experiences, and outcomes” (p. 2). Furthermore, when culture is conceptualized in limited ways, such as “differences in style, preference, and behavior,” there is no opportunity to account “for fundamental differences in how people experience social life, evaluate information, decide what is true, attribute causes to social phenomena, and understand their place in the world” (p. 5). Andrews and colleagues identify that our racial and ethnic identities, as well as the inequities experienced as a result of those identities, are important elements in the broader conceptualization of culture. In order to promote racial and ethnic equity in research, this lens must be applied throughout the life cycle of the research process, from the development of research questions, to data collection and analysis, to taking into consideration the “racialized impact of a person’s life experience” (Andrews et al., 2019, p. 3) when discussing the results. The authors identified four concrete ways researchers can contribute to racial equity: 1. Identify the underlying factors that contribute to the existence and maintenance of disparities. Researchers provide credible data on relevant topics as well as informed solutions to equip policymakers and others to make thoughtful and evidence-­informed decisions. 2. Serve as a bridge between communities of color and those who make decisions, such as policymakers. Researchers can directly engage communities of color, elicit authentic stories of where inequities exist, and include community voices in the research process in ways that inform strategies, policies, and interventions. 3. Help build better data systems. For example, researchers can build community and program capacity to collect data by ensuring that data related to race and ethnicity, and indicators of diversity within racial and ethnic groups (e.g., country of origin, immigration status) are collected and entered consistently and accurately by programs. 4. Advocate within their institutions to make changes at the system level. For example, researchers can advocate to increase the racial and ethnic diversity of researchers, build the pipeline of scholars from diverse backgrounds and experiences, and institutionalize a racial and ethnic equity approach in their standard research processes (e.g., in Institutional Review Board [IRB] or peer review procedures) (p. 6).

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While many of these suggestions are meant for researchers conducting research with the purpose of publication, the principles can be applied to the practice of PBE as well. Box 10.6 includes some questions for reflection. BOX 10.6  Questions for Reflection

1. What ideas do you have about centering race and ethnicity in the context of your assessment practices? 2. What are some ideas you have for partnering with your target community in conducting research that is meaningful for the community? 3. When you are conducting research within a community, how can you ensure the data are used to help support the community, as opposed to being used in a harmful (e.g., stigmatizing) way?

FUNDING FOR GROUP WORK RESEARCH Why counselors and counselor educators should pursue funding for such work is not always clear. One thought is that resources to conduct this arduous work provides support from professional entities. Meaning, in order to develop ongoing research and scholarship that remains relevant, funds can help provide resources to accomplish these goals. Another reason is to hold one accountable for these endeavors and money seems to talk. So engaging in work supported by professional organizations and private funders sends a message of legitimacy. Outside of the counseling professional there are major federal funding opportunities. For example, these include the National Science Foundation (NSF) as well as the Institute of Educational Sciences (IES). While these large funding opportunities are lucrative, they are often difficult to secure because they lack an understanding of counseling foci, practitioner emphases, and limited understanding of mental health. The counseling field is still relatively young, and therefore it makes sense to consider funding opportunities for social justice–focused research on group work from smaller entities and American Counseling Association Divisions such as the Association for Specialists in Group Work, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision, and even Counselors for Social Justice can provide small pots of funding.

Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

Assessment of one’s own skills and areas of growth is a critical element of group leadership.

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■

■

■

Although group counseling has been shown to be effective through qualitative and quantitative research studies, there are numerous concerns and gaps within the group counseling research base It is critical to have a plan for evaluation of your group. This plan might include pre- and post-­assessments, as well as assessments over the life of the group. When identifying appropriate assessments to incorporate, the leader should make sure they are written at a developmentally appropriate level for members, in their primary language, and if the assessment has been normed, that it has been normed on a population represented in the group.

CASE STUDY 10.1 REVISITED 1. Reread the case summary from the beginning of this chapter. How would you modify this opening and closing ritual? 2. How will you ensure that this work is inclusive of all clients? 3. What search terms can you use to make this activity more culturally sustained? 4. How would you modify this session using a co-­leader?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. Should group leaders’ run groups without measuring group effectiveness? Why or why not? 2. What might you need to understand more in order to measure group effectiveness? 3. Which methodologies and analyses might you use in the future and why? 4. What characteristics of group measures or instruments account for multicultural aspects? 5. How might you add group research in the future? With whom might you consult?

In-Class Small Group Activity With your group mates, come up with a hypothetical group type and population that you would be interested in facilitating. First, spend a few minutes conducting a literature search.

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Discussion Questions 1. What data have been collected before about this type of group (either the topic, population, or both)? 2. What types of assessments have been used before? 3. What kind of data have been left out of the assessment process thus far (e.g., demographic information about the leaders, members, or both?) 4. Identify at least one previously used measure that you think would be helpful to use with this hypothetical group. What made you choose this measure? To what extent has this measure been used with diverse populations? 5. Come up with at least one questionnaire or assessment on your own that gathers additional information you would like to have. This assessment could be qualitative, quantitative, or a mix. Ensure that your questions are written in a way that is developmentally appropriate for the participants.

Journal Starters 1. Part of our responsibility as practitioners is to be up to date on current literature supporting the work we are doing. What are some strategies you can think of to ensure that you remain engaged in the developing group work literature as you transition from being a student to a practitioner? 2. What remaining concerns do you have about incorporating assessment into your practice as a group worker? How will you go about ensuring your assessments are both culturally sensitive, as well as able to take into consideration the impact of race and ethnicity on the people who are taking the assessment?

Homework Ideas 1. Based on the self-­assessment in Box 10.1, identify two or three concrete goals you would like to work on in regard to your leadership skills. For each goal that you identify, specify two or three action steps you can take in an effort to meet your goals. For example, if one of your goals is to increase your effectiveness in facilitating effective conversation around differences in perspectives and values, perhaps you ask for some time in class to practice with classmates facilitating a discussion where differences in values are explored, and request feedback from peers and your instructor. 2. Think about a population and setting in which you envision working and leading groups. Now, imagine an overall purpose for a potential future group for this population and setting. With this group in mind, come up with two

282  Introduction to Group Counseling assessments you could use with this group. Develop one assessment that you might use as a pre-/post-­assessment, and one that you might use with PBE in mind. Take care to consider the developmental level of the participants who would be completing the assessments, the time it would take to complete them, and the ways in which you can ensure you are capturing the impact of race and ethnicity in your assessments. 3. Select a topic and/or population you are interested in and conduct a literature search related to that topic/population and group counseling. What are you able to find in terms of group work efficacy with your topic/population? As you critically review the articles you have found, think about what assessments are used, what questions are asked, and how the researchers do or do not attend to the demographic details of their participants. What could you do to improve or contribute to the research in this area of interest?

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 10.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA code of ethics. Author. Andrews, K., Parekh, J., & Peckoo, S. (2019). How to embed a racial and ethnic equity perspective in research. Practical Guidance for the Research Process. https://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/​ uploads/2019/09/RacialEthnicEquityPerspective_ChildTrends_October2019.pdf Austin, A., Craig, S. L., & D’Souza, S. A. (2017). An AFFIRMative cognitive behavioral intervention for transgender youth: Preliminary effectiveness. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 49(1), 1–8. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​pro0000154 Bain, K. (2014). “New beginnings” in South African shelters for the homeless: Piloting of a group psychotherapy intervention for high-­risk mother-­infant dyads. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(6), 591–603. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​imhj​.21457

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Barlow, S. H. (2014). The history of group counseling and psychotherapy. In J. L. Delucia-­Waack, C. R. Kalodner, & M. T. Riva (Eds.), Handbook of group counseling & psychotherapy (pp. 3–23). Sage. Brouzos, A., Baourda, V. C., & Vasiliki, C. (2015). Therapeutic factors and members’ perception of co-­ leaders’ attitudes in a psychoeducational group for Greek children with social anxiety. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 40(2), 204–224. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2015​.1017065 Burlingame, G. M., Whitcomb, K., & Woodland, S. (2014). Process and outcome in group counseling and psychotherapy: A perspective. In J. L. Delucia-­Waack, C. R. Kalodner, & M. T. Riva (Eds.), Handbook of group counseling & psychotherapy (2nd ed., pp. 55–68). Sage. Burrow-Sánchez, J. J., Minami, T., & Hops, H. (2015). Cultural accommodation of group substance abuse treatment for Latino adolescents: Results of an RCT. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(4), 571–583. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000023 Chen, X.-J., & Hannibal, N. (2019). Meet Hui in music: A case report of group music therapy for a Chinese male prisoner. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 28(2), 75–87. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 08098131​.2018​.1508056 Davis, J. M., & Hartsough, C. S. (1992). Assessing psychosocial environment in mental health consultation groups. Psychology in the Schools, 29(3), 224–229. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​1520​-6807(​ 199207)​29:33.0.CO;2-7 Fitzgerald, E. L., Chronister, K. M., Forrest, L., & Brown, L. (2012). OPTIONS for preparing inmates for community reentry: An employment preparation intervention. The Counseling Psychologist, 41(7), 990–1010. Gold, P. B., Kivlighan, D. M., & Patton, M. J. (2013). Accounting for session-­level dependencies in longitudinal associations of group climate and therapeutic factors in interpersonally focused counselor-­training groups. Group Dynamics, 17(2), 81–94. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​a0031773 Hartsough, C. S., & Davis, J. M. (1986). Dimensions of the group environment scale. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(4), 371–376. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1007/​BF00922624 Heintzelman, C. A. (2003). The Tuskegee syphilis study and its implications for the 21st century. The New Social Worker, 10(4). https://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/ethics-articles/The_​ Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study_and_Its_Implications_for_the_21st_Century/ Hodge, F. S. (2012). No meaningful apology for American Indian unethical research abuses. Ethics & Behavior, 22(6), 431–444. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​10508422​.2012​.730788 Jensen, D. R., Abbott, M. K., Beecher, M. E., Griner, D., Golightly, T. R., & Cannon, J. A. N. (2012). Taking the pulse of the group: The utilization of practice-­based evidence in group psychotherapy. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(4), 388–394. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​a0029033 Jones, L. V., & Warner, L. A. (2011). Evaluating culturally eesponsive group work with black women. Research on Social Work Practice, 21(6), 737–746. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​1049731511411488 Kivlighan, D. M., & Goldfine, D. C. (1991). Endorsement of therapeutic factors as a function of stage of group development and participant interpersonal attitudes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(2), 150–158. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​0022​-0167​.38​.2​.150 MacKenzie, K. R. (1990). Introduction to Time-­Limited Group psychotherapy. American Psychiatric Press, Inc. MacKenzie, K. R., & Livesley, W. J. (1986). Outcome and process measures in brief group psychotherapy. Psychiatric Annals, 16(12), 715–720. https://​doi​.org/​10​.3928/​0048​-5713​-19861201​-09 MacKinnon, C. J., Smith, N. G., Henry, M., Milman, E., Berish, M., Farrace, A., Körner, A., Chochinov, H. M., & Cohen, S. R. (2016). A pilot study of meaning-­based group counseling for bereavement. Journal of Death and Dying, 72(3), 210–233. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0030222815575002 Malott, K. M., Havlik, S., Palacios, L. H., & Contrisciane Lewis, C. (2014). White counseling supervisees’ experiences working with Latino youth: A phenomenological study. Multicultural Perspectives, 16(3), 133–140. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15210960​.2014​.922884

284  Introduction to Group Counseling McCarthy, C., Bauman, S., Coker, A., Justice, C., Kraus, K. L., Luke, M., Rubel, D., & Shaw, L. (2021). ASGW guiding principles for group work (unpublished). Meredith, G. M., & Schmitz, E. D. (1986). Structure of the group environment scale in a seminar-­format educational setting. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63(2), 831–834. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2466/​pms​.1986​ .63​.2​.831 Moffett, L. A., Kharrazi, N., & Vaught, A. (2016). Using clinicians’ ideal social climate ratings in group therapy training: Staff development, supervision, and teaching. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 66(1), 34–55. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​00207284​.2015​.1089686 Moos, R. H. (1994). Work environment scale manual: Development, applications, research: A social climate scale. Consulting Psychologists Press. Moos, R. H. (2002). The group environment scale (3rd ed.). Mindgarden. Nitza, A. (2011). Group processes in experiential training groups in Botswana. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 36(3), 222–242. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2011​.578116 Richards, A., Hoskin, N. M., Maddox, R. P., II, & Cornelius-­White, J. H. D. (2019). A qualitative study of group therapy incorporating rap music with incarcerated individuals. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 14(4), 478–491. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15401383​.2019​.1632235 Ryum, T., Hagen, R., Nordahl, H. M., Vogel, P. A., & Stiles, T. C. (2009). Perceived group climate as a predictor of long-­term outcome in a randomized controlled trial of cognitive-­behavioural group therapy for patients with comorbid psychiatric disorders. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 37(5), 497–510. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1017/​S1352465809990208 Thorgeirsdottir, M. T., Bjornsson, A. S., & Arnkelsson, G. B. (2015). Group climate development in brief group therapies: A comparison between cognitive-­behavioral group therapy and group psychotherapy for social anxiety disorder. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 19(3), 200–209. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​gdn0000029 Vereen, L. G., Bohecker, L., Elliott, A. H., LaMantia, K., Martinez, H. N., & Burrow, N. (2019). First-­ year counselors-­in-­training and perceptions of the group environment. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 41(4), 609–622. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1007/​s10447​-019​-09381-x Waldo, M., Kerne IV, P. A., & Kerne, V. V. H. (2007). Therapeutic factors in guidance versus counseling sessions of domestic violence groups. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 32(4), 346–361. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933920701476672 Wilson, P. A., Hansen, N. B., Tarakeshwar, N., Neufeld, S., Kochman, A., & Sikkema, K. J. (2008). Scale development of a measure to assess community-based and clinical intervention group environments. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(3), 271–288. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​jcop​ .20193 Yang, X., Liu, D., Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Chen, W., Yang, C., Zhang, P., Ding, S., & Zhang, X. (2020). Effectiveness of Zhong-­Yong thinking based dialectical behavior therapy group skills training versus supportive group therapy for lowering suicidal risks in Chinese young adults: A randomized controlled trial with a 6-­month follow-­up. Brain and Behavior, 10(6), 1–14. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​ brb3​.1621

11 Current and Future Culturally Sustained Group Supervision Considerations

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Discover issues related to supervision, including leading supervision groups and supervising group leaders.

■

Identify practical strategies as a supervisor to use a culturally informed approach in supervision.

■

Recognize upcoming trends in group work, including trauma-­ informed groups and conducting groups online.

See Table 11.1 for the professional standards that will be addressed in this chapter.

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TABLE 11.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

CACREP

N/A

 

ACA Code of Ethics

F.2.a

Prior to offering supervision services, counselors are trained in supervision methods and techniques. Counselors who offer supervision services regularly pursue continuing education activities, including both counseling and supervision topics and skills

F.2.b

Counseling supervisors are aware of and address the role of multiculturalism/diversity in the supervisory relationship

F.2.c

When using technology in supervision, counselor supervisors are competent in the use of those technologies. Supervisors take the necessary precautions to protect the confidentiality of all information transmitted through any electronic means

F.4.a

Supervisors are responsible for incorporating into their supervision the principles of informed consent and participation. Supervisors inform supervisees of the policies and procedures to which supervisors are to adhere and the mechanisms for due process appeal of the individual supervisor actions. The issues unique to the use of distance supervision are to be included in the documentation as necessary

D.b

School counseling intern site supervisors have the education and training to provide clinical supervision. Supervisors regularly pursue continuing education activities on both counseling and supervision topics and skills

D.c

School counseling intern site supervisors use a collaborative model of supervision that is ongoing and includes, but is not limited to, the following activities: promoting professional growth, supporting best practices and ethical practice, assessing supervisee performance and developing plans for improvement, consulting on specific cases and assisting in the development of a course of action

ASCA Code of Ethics

(continued )

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TABLE 11.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

STANDARD

DEFINITION

D.d

School counseling intern site supervisors are culturally competent and consider cultural factors that may have an impact on the supervisory relationship

D.f

School counseling intern site supervisors are competent with technology used to perform supervisory responsibilities and online supervision, if applicable. Supervisors protect all electronically transmitted confidential information

D.i

School counseling intern site supervisors ensure supervisees are aware of policies and procedures related to supervision and evaluation and provide due-­process procedures if supervisees request or appeal their evaluations

ASGW Professional Training Standards

N/A

 

ASGW Best Practice Guidelines

A.7.b

Group workers facilitate informed consent. They communicate information in ways that are both developmentally and culturally appropriate. Group workers provide in oral and written form to prospective members (when appropriate to group type): the professional disclosure statement; group purpose and goals; group participation expectations including voluntary and involuntary membership; role expectations of members and leader(s); policies related to entering and exiting the group; policies governing substance use; policies and procedures governing mandated groups (where relevant); documentation requirements; disclosure of information to others; implications of out-­of-­group contact or involvement among members; procedures for consultation between group leader(s) and group member(s); fees and time parameters; and potential impacts of group participation (continued )

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TABLE 11.1  Professional Standards Addressed in This Chapter (continued) GUIDING DOCUMENT

ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

STANDARD

DEFINITION

A.7.d

Group workers define confidentiality and its limits (e.g., legal and ethical exceptions and expectations; waivers implicit with treatment plans, documentation and insurance usage). Group workers have the responsibility to inform all group participants of the need for confidentiality, potential consequences for breaching confidentiality and that legal privilege does not apply to group discussions (unless provided by state statute).

I.1

Demonstrate movement to being increasingly aware of and sensitive to their own multicultural identity and how their race, ethnicity, socio-­ economic class, age, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, religion, and spirituality, are impacted by their own experiences and histories

III.1

As group workers move toward social justice advocacy competence they will: discuss why social justice and advocacy issues are important within a group setting and how these issues influence the practice of group work

I.1

Attitudes and beliefs: Privileged and marginalized counselors are aware of their social identities, social group statuses, power, privilege, oppression, strengths, limitations, assumptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and biases

IV.B

Privileged and marginalized counselors address the interpersonal processes that affect privileged and marginalized clients

IV.D

Privileged and marginalized counselors address community norms, values, and regulations that impede on the development of individuals, groups, and communities

ACA, American Counselors Association; ASCA, American School Couselor Association; ASGW, Association for Specialists in Group Work; CACREP, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.

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CASE STUDY 11.1: GROUP LEADERSHIP FOR NON-­GENDER CONFORMING MEMBERS When deciding to develop a group, the leader must always consider the composition, including whether the group should be males only, females only, or heterogeneous with regard to gender, and considerations should also be made for members who are gender nonconforming. Research on substance abuse groups in particular suggest that factors such as affiliation to the group (Sugarman et al., 2016), comfort level, support, and ability to express oneself (Greenfield et al., 2013) are higher for women in single gender groups than in mixed gender groups. On the other hand, Richmond and Levant (2003) suggest that single gender groups may also be beneficial for males, particularly young males, because they are more susceptible to gender role strain. The authors suggest that members are able to more thoroughly discuss problems with gender role issues in an all-­male group. While a group may provide a great deal of universality for members who identify as gender nonconforming, the literature suggests many people in this population have negative experiences with health and mental health providers (Mizock & Lundquist, 2016). As a result, it is critical that group leaders are aware of frequent problematic mistakes, such as gender inflation or narrowing, gender avoidance, gender repairing, or gender pathologizing. The authors explore a multitude of ways to attend to gender in group composition and in group dynamics, and include research-­supported strategies for discussing gender issues within the group. Imagine you are supervising a group leader who is cisgender, and will be leading a group comprised of gender nonconforming members. The leader has adequate training and preparation in discussing gender identity and gender-­ related concerns, but is nervous about how the group will receive them. As you read this chapter, be thinking about the needs and areas of development you should consider from your future supervisors or those whom you will supervise.

INTRODUCTION Supervision is a primary way counselor trainees and pre-­license counselors get support, feedback, and guidance in their clinical work. As counselors, we have an ethical obligation not to practice outside the scope of our experience or expertise (ACA, 2014), and supervision helps counselors expand their experience and expertise so they can be effective with a variety of populations and concerns. In this chapter, we review both group supervision, as well as the supervision of group workers. Group

290  Introduction to Group Counseling supervision occurs when a supervisor provides supervision for several trainees at one time. The supervision of group workers is supervision that is specifically attending to trainees’ work as a group leader (or co-­leader). Models of group supervision and the supervision of group workers are presented, as well as additional considerations for providing supervision.

SUPERVISION The primary function of supervision is to protect the clients that counselor trainees are seeing. Secondarily, supervision should also support the development of counseling competencies in the supervisee. Supervision is defined as the following: An intervention provided by a more senior member of a profession to a more junior colleague or colleagues who typically (but not always) are members of the same profession. This relationship: ■ ■ ■

Is evaluative and hierarchical Extends over time, and Has the simultaneous purposes of enhancing the professional functioning of the more junior person(s); monitoring the quality of professional services offered to the clients that she, he, or they see; and serving as a gatekeeper for the particular profession the supervisee seeks to enter (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014, p. 9).

Currently, learning how to conduct supervision is not part of Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs (2016) requirements for master’s students. However, because nearly all clinicians eventually provide supervision, all clinicians should develop supervision skills (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). Given the prevalence of counseling groups in community mental health centers, inpatient hospitals, substance abuse clinics, and schools, as well as the prevalence of using supervision groups in conjunction, or instead of, individual supervision, it is critical to understand concepts related to both scenarios. Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter to cover every element of clinical supervision, we provide an overview of effective leadership of group supervision, where you are providing supervision to a group of supervisees, as well as effective supervision of group leaders.

Group Supervision Group supervision is the regular meeting of a group of supervisees (a) with a designated supervisor or supervisors; (b) to monitor the quality of their work; and (c)

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to further their understanding of themselves as clinicians, of the clients with whom they work, and of service delivery in general. These supervisees are aided in achieving these goals by their supervisor(s) and by the feedback from and interactions with each other (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014, p. 181). CACREP (2016) standards require that both practicum and internship students participate in 1.5 hours of group supervision “on a regular schedule” throughout their clinical experiences (3.I, 3.M). As a result, you will participate as a supervisee in group supervision throughout practicum and internship. Although this experience will not provide the necessary training to conduct group supervision on your own, we encourage you to view it as a valuable learning opportunity where you are able to observe effective supervision leadership and perhaps interventions that seem less effective for group supervision leadership. Although it is somewhat clear that the skills necessary for providing effective group supervision are different from those required to provide effective individual supervision, “the literature on how supervisors develop their supervision skills using primarily group supervision is virtually nonexistent” (Gazzola et al., 2013, p. 18). In light of this lack of attention in the literature, we will endeavor to identify some key pillars to learning how to provide group supervision below.

Strengths of Group Supervision One strength of group supervision is the opportunity for vicarious learning (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014) through observing how supervisees’ peers conceptualize and intervene with their clients. In addition, this vicarious learning extends to learning how to engage in discussion around social justice (Fernando & Herlihy, 2010). For example, supervisees who may feel uncertain about engaging in discussion around power and privilege with their clients can learn through watching their peers in their supervision group have these conversations. Another strength is the range of clients supervisees are exposed to within a supervision group (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). Supervisees are exposed to a variety of presenting concerns, theoretical orientations of clinicians, and clientele through the cases brought to supervision by their peers. In addition to the range of clients, the range of feedback is also notable within a group (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). By receiving feedback from more than one person, there is increased opportunity to have wider perspectives and awareness related to social justice topics that may go unnoticed in one-­on-­one supervision (Fernando & Herlihy, 2010). As Grigg (2006) notes, “There is a credibility to the spontaneous feedback of more than one individual . . . that is unavailable in one-­on-­one encounters” (p. 116). Relatedly, when supervisees have a limited view of their clients (e.g., good vs. bad), having multiple supervisees providing feedback can help the clinician develop a balanced view of the client (Haans & Balke, 2018).

292  Introduction to Group Counseling Similar to the universality experienced in counseling groups (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), supervisees can have their experiences and feelings normalized within a group supervision setting (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014), in a way that cannot be replicated in individual supervision. Supervisee anxiety and other negative affect were identified as one of the core issues hindering group supervision (Enyedy et al., 2003). Therefore, an area of opportunity for the supervisor is to help elicit the negative feelings supervisees experience, in an effort to normalize these feelings. Yet another strength of group supervision is the opportunity to learn more about group process (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). It is worth reinforcing the idea that the supervision group is a type of group, and therefore all of the group development processes, interpersonal dynamics, and therapeutic factors that can enhance counseling groups will also be present when you are supervising groups of counselors or counselor trainees. It may be especially helpful for group leaders to participate in group supervision because the model of supervision parallels the model of the counseling group (Dies, 1983). This allows for group leaders to experience the dynamics of a group, while also trying to understand and conceptualize the dynamics of the group they are leading. Therefore, we encourage you to conceptualize your supervision groups as a type of group, which we will discuss more in the following.

Limitations of Group Supervision Although there are a number of strengths inherent in group supervision, the limitations must be discussed as well. One limitation is that the group format may preclude every member from having enough time to get what they need out of supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). This may be due to a number of factors, from students with higher caseloads not having time to discuss all of their cases, to the developmental stage of individual members being different, and therefore requiring different levels of attention from the supervisor. This sentiment was highlighted in the study by Enyedy et  al. (2003), where participants identified poor group time management as a core hindrance to learning in a group supervision setting. Examples of themes of this phenomenon included: “I didn’t get enough time to discuss my cases,” “Too many people needing time,” and “Some cases were lengthy and time was not allotted to other cases” (p. 314). Another limitation is that supervisee–supervisee issues can get in the way of the supervision process (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). In a study on how peer and supervisory relationships impact supervisory working alliance, supervision satisfaction, and counseling self-­efficacy, Chui et al. (2021) found that peer relationships in a supervision group contribute to supervisees’ counseling self-­efficacy (CSE). As a result, the authors suggest that supervisors pay particular attention at the beginning of the group supervision process in helping to establish solid peer relationships. In addition, because peer relationships are important, it is also important for the supervisor and leader of the supervision group to attend to process and

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relational dynamics within the supervision group. De Stefano et al. (2007) echo this sentiment after discovering in their qualitative study that supervisees sometimes described negative feelings toward group supervision. Literature also suggests that member–member (i.e., supervisee–supervisee) problems can also hinder group supervision (Enyedy et al., 2003), further supporting the importance of the supervisor conceptualizing the supervision group as a type of group, with all of the norms, dynamics, and process issues inherent in all groups. Supervision is a vulnerable process, and so the leader/supervisor must effectively establish a safe environment within the supervision group in order to have the open sharing that is required for helpful supervision.

Conceptualization of Group Supervision Throughout the literature on group supervision, the references to parallels between a counseling group and a supervision group abound. Supervisors of group supervision must have both clinical supervision skills, but also effective group leadership skills so that they are able to navigate the group dynamics of the supervision group (De Stefano et al., 2007). As Grigg (2006) states “[clinical supervision] groups are better understood as counseling groups” (p. 110) as opposed to psychoeducational groups. The author goes on to suggest that rather than using supervision groups to provide training on specific skills, the focus ought to be on “the personal and developmental needs of each individual supervisee or trainee,” which would shift the focus from content (teaching skills) to process (p. 110). For example, McMahon and Fall (2006) encourage leaders/supervisors to lean on the concept of universality (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), particularly with regard to the experience of supervisee anxiety. This will increase group cohesion (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), which should positively impact sharing and risk taking (McMahon & Fall, 2006). The practice of conceptualizing the supervision group as a counseling group is supported by expert group supervisors, who report the consistent practice of conceptualizing their supervision group according to their developmental stage, and modifying their engagement as the supervisor/leader in response to their supervision groups’ development (Okech & Rubel, 2009).

Group Supervision Models Just as there are theories to inform individual and group counseling, there are also models to inform the practice of group supervision. Although most of the literature is conceptual and theoretical rather than empirical, we provide an overview of a number of available supervision models you might use to structure your group supervision.

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Structured Peer Group Supervision The structured peer group supervision (SPGS; Borders, 1991) model is one of the earliest models of group supervision that extends beyond triadic supervision. In the SPGS model, the process is as follows: (a) the supervisee identifies specific questions they have or feedback they are seeking; (b) peers take on roles for viewing the segment to be presented (e.g., counselor, client, nonverbal behavior, theoretical perspective); (c) the supervisee plays the selected portion of the session; (d) peers provide feedback in the context of their role and while keeping in mind the question or feedback presented in step a; (e) the supervisor facilitates discussion; (f) the supervisor provides a summary of the feedback and the counselor discusses the extent to which their needs were met. The supervisor has two key roles when using this model: as a moderator to help the group remain on task, and as a process observer where they identify underlying process issues within the supervision group (Borders, 1991).

Structured Peer Group Supervision Adaptation Lassiter et al. (2008) used Borders (1991) model as a foundation, but incorporated a multicultural focus to the supervision process. The authors suggest increasing the focus on multicultural competencies by making two adaptations: adding a member role, and the supervisor increasing their multicultural focus. Before the presentation of the supervision clip, supervisees should discuss the cultural context of the case being presented, including elements such as power and privilege, age, gender, and sexual identity for both the counselor and the client. Then, an additional role is assigned in the second phase where the supervisee taking on this role is specifically attending to diversity issues within the counseling relationship. In addition to the supervisee who has taken on this role, other members of the supervision group should also consider multicultural issues from the perspective of their assigned role. The supervisor is also expected to increase attention to diversity topics in the adaptation of the SPGS model (Lassiter et al., 2008). The authors offer a number of suggestions for how to do this, with the first as setting expectations within the group that there will be a focus on multicultural perspectives. The supervisor/leader can also help increase group heterogeneity by exploring members’ cultural contexts early in the life of the supervision group. A third task is establishing a safe environment where supervisees are able to explore cross- cultural considerations. Fourth, the supervisor/leader should pay attention to match their interventions with the developmental level of the students. Another suggestion is for the supervisor/ leader to model. This might include discussing their own identity development, exploring values and biases, and considering how their personal cultural context has impacted their clinical work. Finally, the supervisor/leader can assign appropriate readings and establish remediation for supervisees who might need it. The importance of the supervisors’ role in attending to diversity is echoed in a study of expert group work supervisors, where an important theme was supervisors’ work

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to help supervisees’ increase their cultural awareness so that they could be more effective with diverse groups. Supervisors attended to this by providing didactic content and modeling discussing topics around diversity (Okech & Rubel, 2007). Even if you choose to use a different group supervision model than the SPGS (Borders, 1991), the suggestions by Lassiter et al. (2008) for how the supervisor can increase the focus on the cultural context of the counseling encounter can apply to any supervision model.

Integrative Reflecting Model The Integrative Reflecting Model (IRM; Stinchfield, 2007) uses the structured approach and student roles from the models of Borders (1991) and Lassiter et al. (2008), while also incorporating the Discrimination Model (Bernard, 1979) and a reflective process. In practice, what this means is the IRM includes the same six structured steps as those included in the Borders (1991) model. However, at the time when students select a role, they are selecting a role from Bernard’s (1979) foci: intervention skills, conceptualization, and issues of personalization. Therefore, when peers provide feedback to the presenter, they are doing so through the lens of one of these three foci. For example, the peers who select intervention skills are specifically commenting on the interventions used by the counselor, and opportunities for other interventions that may have been beneficial. Finally, the IRM includes a reflective role for the supervisee (Stinchfield et  al., 2018), where the supervisee receiving feedback does not respond to the group’s discussion until invited to do so by the supervisor at the end of the discussion. This allows the supervisee to reflect on the content of the feedback, as opposed to becoming defensive or feeling the need to respond to every comment made by the class.

Ethics of Group Supervision There are a number of important ethical considerations to take into account when conducting group supervision. The explicit setting of norms and structure, as well as discussing the supervisors’ evaluative role are critical in the early stages of group supervision (Smith et  al., 2012). In the authors’ study of 124 supervisors and 145 supervisees, 39% of supervisees stated they were never or rarely told about the evaluative role of their group supervisor, while only 21% of group supervisors said they rarely or never discussed their role in evaluation. This discrepancy may indicate that supervisors think they are being more clear about their role in the evaluation of group supervisees than what the supervisees experience. As a result, the authors suggest supervisors particularly attend to discussing early in the group supervision experience how supervisees will be evaluated. While the ethics of maintaining client confidentiality in supervision goes without saying, it is also important to consider how the confidentiality of supervisees

296  Introduction to Group Counseling will be maintained within a supervision group. A supervision group is not a counseling group and so the same confidentiality does not necessarily apply; however, because it is expected that supervisees will discuss their feelings, clinical mistakes, and personal concerns that impact their work, supervisees may expect a certain level of confidentiality to be maintained (Smith et al., 2012). Due to the evaluative component mentioned earlier, at times, leader/supervisors may need to consult with other professionals about concerns that are revealed in group supervision. As a result, both supervisors and supervisees agree that discussing how the confidentiality of supervisee self-­disclosures will be maintained, both by the leader/supervisor and by other members of the group, is ethical behavior (Smith et al., 2012).

Suggestions for Engaging Group Supervision Training Working as a counselor in the field for a number of years and even being a good clinician are not substitutes for appropriate training to conduct supervision individually or in supervision groups. In accordance with the ACA (2014) Code of Ethics, “Prior to offering supervision services, counselors are trained in supervision methods and techniques. Counselors who offer supervision services regularly pursue continuing education activities, including both counseling and supervision topics and skills” (F.2.a). Supervisors’ lack of experience and expertise was a major theme identified in a study of the hindering impacts of group supervision (Enyedy et  al., 2003). Although participating in a supervision group as a supervisee can help one learn about the process of supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014), this is not a substitute for obtaining training specific to supervision. Critically, supervisors must also be diversity competent if they are to effectively facilitate group supervision (Okech & Rubel, 2007). This includes the ability to see interventions, conceptualization, and personalization issues through a lens of cultural competence, in addition to being able to facilitate conversations about diversity, power, and privilege within the supervision group. Learning about group process through group supervision can only occur if the supervisor leading the supervision group is also a skilled group leader, and therefore, we encourage continued training in clinical supervision, group leadership, and the intersection of cultural competence, clinical supervision, and group leadership prior to engaging in leading supervision groups.

Attend to Peer Relationships Just as the establishment of good relationships among members is critical for a counseling group‘s success, the establishment of good relationships among supervisee members is also critical in a supervision group. Being aware of the possibility

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of competition among supervisee members is mentioned throughout the literature on group supervision (e.g., Enyedy et al., 2003; McMahon & Fall, 2006; Smith et al., 2012). Supervisees have noted competition in groups and a sense that fellow students were cutting one another down without intervention from the supervisor/ leader have both been identified as hinderances to the group supervision process (Enyedy et al., 2003). As a result, it behooves the leader to spend time in the beginning of the supervision group attending to the development of these relationships. We also know that strong peer relationships may result in more honest feedback exchange (Chui et al., 2014), which is a critical element of group supervision.

Set Norms Around Feedback The primary purpose of group supervision is to gain feedback on one’s clinical skills, conceptualization, and personalization concerns. Feedback can be extremely helpful to a supervisee, but only if supervisees experience the feedback as genuine (McMahon & Fall, 2006). Therefore, a primary task of supervisors/leaders is to help the group move from general “good job” comments, to feedback that is specific, substantive, and at times, constructive. One suggestion for establishing norms around feedback is for supervisor/leaders to encourage supervisees to discuss what they are looking for in feedback they receive from others, and explore the importance of feedback that challenges them to be better counselors (McMahon & Fall, 2006). The leader can also model providing feedback that is both constructive and supportive. Finally, the supervisor/leader can use a process intervention to discuss concerns around providing feedback that is specific, substantive, and constructive. For example, the supervisor/leader might say, I notice that it has seemed challenging for the group to provide constructive feedback to one another on your cases. I wonder if we can talk about that for a few minutes.

Monitor Supervisee Affect Supervisees frequently feel anxious or nervous in individual supervision, and this can be magnified in a group setting where the supervisees are presenting cases in front of peers, and receiving feedback from both peers and supervisor. As a result, when conducting group supervision it is critical for the leader/supervisor to monitor negative affect experienced by supervisees. Examples of this include anxiety while peers are listening to one’s session, supervisees feeling alienated and unsafe, and not feeling emotionally supported in the group (Enyedy et al., 2003). McMahon and Fall (2006) take a slightly different perspective on the presence of anxiety, which is that being in the group can perhaps reduce the anxiety present since there is not just an expert (supervisor) and novice (supervisee) in the room. Regardless of your own conceptualization of the presence of anxiety in the group, it is critical to keep a finger on the pulse of supervisees’ affect so that these feelings can be attended to.

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Manage Time Effectively While group supervision has a number of benefits, the reality is also that there is a limited amount of time, and the time can easily be consumed by just a few cases, leaving the rest of the supervision group without support. Supervisees have identified not having enough time, experiencing one member as dominating the group‘s time, and having too many people who need time as hindering to the group supervision experience (Enyedy et  al., 2003). This sentiment was echoed in a study of supervisors-­in-­training, where a core theme identified by the supervisors was difficulty balancing the needs of individuals within the group, especially when there was a wide range of developmental levels within the supervision group (Gazzola et al., 2013). Therefore, a critical task of the supervisor/leader is to identify practical ways of attending to all members of the supervision group. This does not necessarily mean that all members have the same amount of “air time” in a given week, but it does mean that the supervisor is attentive to meeting the needs of the individuals in the group.

Engage Supportively In identifying ways to use Adlerian theory to inform group supervision, McMahon and Fall (2006) propose supervisors to be supportive, which will result in supervisees feeling encouraged as opposed to discouraged. Supervisees have also identified that a supervisor who is overly critical can be a hindrance to growth in group supervision (Enyedy et al., 2003). Expert supervisors of group leaders have also identified the importance of providing support for supervisees, and in particular, in helping supervisees to manage their anxiety (Okech & Rubel, 2009). So although a primary function of supervision is to provide feedback, it is critical that supervisors engage in giving feedback with a supportive tone.

SUPERVISION OF GROUP LEADERS The supervision of group work is more complex than the supervision of individual counseling, thus necessitating additional skills and additional considerations regarding conceptualization for supervising group leaders. In order to engage in effective supervision, “supervisors should be able to manage the complexity of supervising group workers, as well as possess the knowledge and skills to address intervention, conceptualization, and personalization at each level of group interaction” (Rubel & Okech, 2006, p. 114). As there are several models providing structure for facilitating group supervision, there are also several models that attend to facilitating supervision of group counselors specifically.

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Supervision of Group Work Model One model for the supervision of group leaders is the Supervision of Group Work (SGW) model (Rubel & Okech, 2006), and its application to diversity competent supervision (Okech & Rubel, 2007). The SGW model is adapted from Bernard’s Discrimination Model (1979) and includes a 3 × 3 × 3 matrix addressing roles of the supervisor, foci of the discussion, and interaction level. The model “focuses on supervisee skills, is atheoretical, and is sensitive to the needs of supervisees at various levels of group leadership development” (Rubel & Okech, 2006, p. 116).

Supervisor Roles As in Bernard’s (1979) Discrimination Model, the supervisor in the SGW can take on three roles while they are supervising: teacher, counselor/facilitator, and consultant. In the teacher role, the supervisor is providing necessary information to increase the supervisee’s knowledge around a specific topic or concerns (Rubel & Okech, 2006). In the counselor/facilitator role, the focus is on the emotion of the supervisee. In the context of group work, the focus is on how the supervisee’s emotions impact the way in which they interact with the group. If the supervisor is leading a supervision group, the counselor role is conceptualized as a facilitator role. Finally, when the supervisor is in the consultant role, they are allowing for the most autonomy and responsibility for their supervisees. When leading supervision groups, the supervisor taking on the consultant role is encouraging of the group taking more ownership for itself, and for the learning occurring within the supervision group.

Foci Just as there are three roles the supervisor can take on while conducting supervision, there are also three foci the supervisor can take within their role of teacher, counselor/facilitator, or consultant. The first focus is on intervention skills (Rubel & Okech, 2006). When focusing on intervention skills, the supervisor is looking at discrete behaviors or skills the supervisee is using in their leadership role. Examples of basic interventions include skills such as paraphrasing, reflecting feelings, and summarizing. Interventions specific to group work include interventions such as linking, using process comments, and facilitating feedback between members. In the same way that some individual counseling skills may not be appropriate for all clients, supervisors of group workers must also remember that the intervention skills they teach must be congruent for the specific client backgrounds with which the leader is working (Okech & Rubel, 2007). Therefore, an important component for the supervisor in assisting supervisees to develop their intervention skills is to

300  Introduction to Group Counseling ensure that the intervention skills help set the norm of differences among members being valued, while also supporting the group coming together despite these differences (Okech & Rubel, 2007). In addition to intervention skills, the supervisor can also focus on conceptualization skills. In contrast to intervention skills where the focus is on a specific supervisee behavior, conceptualization skills have to do with how the supervisee is understanding what is going on in the context of the group. It is important for the conceptualization to include leader–member interactions, member–member interactions, as well as considering the entire group (Rubel & Okech, 2006). In supporting supervisees with their conceptualizations, the supervisor may consider group development theory, and group norms and process issues. Furthermore, from a diversity competent perspective, conceptualization skills include how an individual member‘s background impacts their experience in the group, how the presence of diverse leadership and membership can impact the interactions (both member–member and member–leader) of the group, and how diverse membership and leadership impacts the way in which the entire group functions as a system (Okech & Rubel, 2007). Personalization concerns are related to the extent to which a counselor is able to use themselves effectively (Bernard, 1979). In the context of group work, personalization skills include the extent to which the leader is able to use themselves effectively, in the context of relating to members individually, working between members, and within the group as a whole (Rubel & Okech, 2006). Further, when considering personalization skills through a diversity lens, issues such as the group leader recognizing their own biases, increasing their awareness over their reactions to conflict within the group, and being able to identify, and use effectively, their own understanding of how having a diverse group impacts the system of the group (Okech & Rubel, 2007).

Interaction Level Finally, the supervisor can focus on three levels of interaction: the individual level, the interpersonal level, and the group-­as-­a-­system level (Rubel & Okech, 2006). At the individual level, the supervisor is focusing on how the leader is interacting with one member of the group. At the interpersonal level, the supervision focus is on interactions between members, interactions between the leader and a subgroup of members, or interactions between co-­leaders (Kline, 2003). Critically, the supervisor must attend to how the leader facilitates feedback among the group, works with differing communication styles, and supports members in negotiating conflict (Okech & Rubel, 2007). The third interaction level is the group as a system (Rubel & Okech, 2006). When the supervisor is focusing on the group as a system, they are supporting group leaders in understanding or intervening with the entire group, not just one member or a subset of members. Of particular importance at the group level is the ability for group leaders to set norms that embrace and value different

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experiences and perspectives and to be able to avoid inadvertently allowing the group to perpetuate the same type of oppression members have experienced in their life outside of the group (Okech & Rubel, 2007). The SGW can be conceptualized as a cube, as each of the three core tenets (supervisor role, focus, and interaction level) includes three ways to engage or use that tenet. For example, the supervisor could take on a teaching role, attend to conceptualization, and focus on the group as a system. In this scenario, the supervisor’s goals are, for example, to increase supervisees’ knowledge of how the leader can conceptualize the conflict that is occurring within the group system. As Rubel and Okech (2006) point out as well, it is important to consider the type of group the leader is facilitating when identifying how the supervisor will engage in supervision. If, for example, the group is a psychoeducation group, the way in which the supervisor teaches the supervisee to intervene would look different compared to whether the group were a counseling or therapy group.

LGBTQ Responsive Model for Supervision of Group Work The LGBTQ Responsive Model for Supervision of Group Work (RMSGW; Goodrich & Luke, 2011) was developed specifically to provide structure for addressing the needs of LGBTQ persons in the group. The authors conceptualize the model as one that is trans-­theoretical, and that can be applied in both the individual supervision of group workers and in group supervision of group workers. While the RMSGW looks familiar in structure to the Rubel and Okech (2006) model by attending to different interaction levels within the group (e.g., individual, interpersonal, group as a system), the RMSGW adds an additional level, the supra-­group level in which the supervisor can intervene. The supra-­group level includes systemic factors that exist outside of the group, but nevertheless can impact the group’s functioning.

Supervisor Roles Similar to Bernard’s (1971) model, the supervisor in the RMSGW model is able to take on a role of teacher, counselor, or consultant. In the teacher role, the supervisor might identify that their supervisee seems to lack knowledge of community resources that are available for their LGBTQ  + members, and provide these resources to the leader (Goodrich & Luke, 2011). Operating from the counselor role, the supervisor might help their supervisee explore how their own experiences or beliefs are impacting the way in which they facilitate the group, with particular attention paid to the supervisee’s beliefs and experiences related to the LGBTQ + population. As a consultant, the supervisor supports the supervisee’s autonomy in identifying appropriate interventions for the group, again with the focus on competence around issues related to sexual–affectual orientation, sex, and gender norms.

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Foci In addition to adding a level of interaction, the RMSGW changes the foci from Bernard’s (1971) intervention, conceptualization, and personalization to knowledge, awareness, and skills, which come from the multicultural counseling competencies. See Table 11.2 for a visual of the relationship between Bernard’s foci and the foci of the RMSGW. TABLE 11.2  RMSGW Adaptation of the Discrimination Model DISCRIMINATION MODEL FOCUS

RMSGW FOCUS

EXPLANATION

Intervention

Skills

Skill in the leader being able to discuss one’s own sexual–affectual orientation, sex, and gender identity; ability to intervene in a variety of ways to explore concerns about sex, sexuality, and gender

Conceptualization

Knowledge

Increased knowledge allows supervisors/leaders to understand (conceptualize) how one’s experience identifying as LGBTQ+ impacts the way they experience the group, interact with others, and influence the group as a whole

Personalization

Awareness

Supervisor assists leader in identifying and addressing the leader’s bias and prejudice, and separating the leader’s own beliefs from those of members of the group

Similar to the model from Rubel and Okech (2006), the RMSGW conceptualizes the counselor role from Bernard’s (1971) model as often meaning “group counselor,” particularly in the context of group supervision, where the supervisor is able to demonstrate effective group counseling skills within the supervision group in order to help the group develop.

Group System Points of Entry The points of entry in the RMSGW are akin to the interaction level identified in the Rubel and Okech (2006) model. However, the RMSGW includes an additional level beyond the individual (or intra-­personal), interpersonal, and group as a system. In the RMSGW, there is also the supra-­group level of intervention. Here, the supervisor is attending to how systemic issues that exist in the world outside of the group impact the group.

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ADDITIONAL SUPERVISION CONSIDERATIONS

Emotion Regulation Ability to regulate one’s emotions is central to the task of a counselor, both in an individual and group setting. However, in a group, there may be more opportunities for heightened emotions due to the complicated nature of counseling groups (Champe et al., 2013). Therefore, a critical task of supervising group leaders is to help them identify ways to regulate their emotions in real-­time, in response to whatever is taking place in the group. For an indepth discussion of different ways supervisors can support supervisees in identifying their own emotion regulation strategies, see Champe et al. (2013). In summary, the authors identify that an important role for supervisors is to help their supervisees understand the ways in which they tend to regulate their emotions, and how these automatic emotion regulation processes by the leader impact the development of the group. In addition, supervisors can pay close attention to the emotional reactions by their supervisees to specific group events, and based on these reactions, take a guess about how the supervisee has appraised the situation. In response, it may be helpful for the supervisor to challenge the supervisee to reappraise the situation if the supervisor’s assessment is that the original appraisal may be inaccurate. Furthermore, supervisors can also attend to their own emotion regulation, and be curious about the parallel processes that may be occurring in supervision and in the group process. Effective supervisors also consider how their own emotion regulation impacts the supervisor–supervisee relationship.

Co-Leader Issues Problems within the co-­leadership team will undoubtedly surface within the group. As a result, when supervising co-­leaders, it is crucial to explore the co-­leadership relationship and any concerns therein. In a study of the relationships of co-­leadership pairs, a central theme identified was concerns around competency issues (Okech & Kline, 2006). These competency concerns were related to both their competence as leaders as well as competence in relationships with co-­leaders. Notably, supervisees were very concerned about the extent to which their co-­leader perceived them as competent. Due to the prevalence of this concern among the participants, supervisors of co-­leaders should be on the lookout for how competence concerns are (or have the potential to) impacting the co-­leader relationship while in the group. In a qualitative study examining the group supervision practices of expert supervisors, a theme of focusing on relationships was discovered (Okech & Rubel, 2009). These relationships include those between supervisees and the groups they

304  Introduction to Group Counseling are leading, but also between group supervisor and supervisee, the supervisee’s relationship with self, and the relationship between co-­facilitators when supervisees are co-­facilitating.

Level of Intervention A considerable difference between individual counseling and leading a group is the number of levels in which a leader can choose to intervene. This concept is highlighted in several of the models for the supervision of group workers (e.g., Goodrich & Luke, 2011; Okech & Rubel, 2007; Rubel & Okech, 2006). Because this is such a substantial change from individual counseling, an important task of the group supervisor is assisting supervisees in both conceptualizing the group through multiple levels, as well as intervening at multiple levels. The leader can choose to respond at the individual level, which is somewhat akin to conducting individual counseling in the context of the group (Tasca et al., 2014). While this level of intervention can be helpful to the individual, it is critical that the leader not miss out on the next level of intervention, which is the interpersonal level (Tasca et al., 2014). The interpersonal level includes interactions between two or more members, or between member(s) and leader(s). In contrast to the individual level, the interpersonal level capitalizes on the experience of the group as a social microcosm (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), where members tend to relate interpersonally in the same way in the group as they do in their life outside the group. As a result, for the critical interpersonal learning to take place, leaders must address interventions at the interpersonal level. This can be challenging for leaders, especially new leaders, as they require the leader to attend to the process occurring as opposed to the content, and because interpersonal interventions include the leader asking members to provide in-­the-­moment feedback or responses to the interaction that has occurred (Tasca et al., 2014). Therefore, particularly when supervising new leaders, supervisors will want to ensure there is attention paid to interpersonal interventions. Finally, the leader can intervene at the group level (Tasca et al., 2014). Focusing on the group level interactions includes viewing the group as more than the sum of its (member) parts, and conceptualizing it as an organism of its own. Although the leader may not be able to intervene at the supra group level (Goodrich & Luke, 2011), it is important that supervisors support group leaders in identifying how the systems outside of the group impact the group and its development.

Social Justice By attending to social justice issues when supervising group leaders, leaders increase awareness of social justice as an important value (Fernando & Herlihy, 2010). The authors explain that because of the parallel process in format between supervision groups and group leadership, by addressing social justice topics within

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the supervision group, group leaders are more likely to be willing and competent in addressing social justice topics within their own groups. Just as clients may not be willing to bring up issues of power and privilege on their own, supervisees may also be reluctant to address these topics in supervision. As a result, it is the supervisor‘s responsibility to open the door to these conversations. One way of doing this is for the leader to intentionally model transparency of their own experiences (Fernando & Herlihy, 2010). This modeling may facilitate a supervision group norm of discussion of social justice issues. A number of authors have provided structure for ensuring that the supervisor, whether leading a supervision group or supervising group leaders, attends to issues around diversity, power, and privilege (e.g., Goodrich & Luke, 2011; Lassiter et al., 2008; Okech & Rubel, 2007; Rubel & Okech, 2006). Regardless of the model or approach that you use, it is critical that attending to differences in background, experience, power, and privilege is central to your identity and practice as a supervisor.

ONLINE SUPERVISION In the same way that online counseling services are becoming more accepted and more in demand, we expect online supervision to follow this trend as well. This may be due to necessity (e.g., COVID 19 pandemic) or out of preference or availability of supervisor or supervisee. As a result, it is critical to examine the implications of conducting group supervision (whether of supervisees conducting individual counseling, group counseling, or both) in an online environment, as there are both clinical considerations as well as logistical issues to take into account. One important consideration is the maintenance of client confidentiality when presenting or sharing any information on the internet. Janoff and Schoenholtz-­Read (1999) suggest being clear about the norms of presenting one’s case, and that these include not sharing names, clinical site information, or any additional identifying information about clients. Another recommendation is, if possible, for the supervision group to meet in person first, before beginning online group supervision, in order for supervisees to start to get to know one another and the supervisor (Conn et al., 2009). In addition, the authors suggest the supervision group conduct a “trial run” to test out technology prior to the first supervision meeting, so that the focus of group supervision can be on supervision as opposed to any technical concerns. The supervisor should also make sure that there are norms that provide appropriate boundaries for discussion around interpersonal issues among supervisees (vs. clinical content), as the nature of not being in the same room and the lack of ability in reading interpersonal cues can result in increased instances of “flaming” one another (Janoff & Schoenholtz-­Read, 1999). Just as in the evolution of online counseling for both individuals and groups, the literature providing best practice guidelines around online group supervision and the supervision of group leaders will continue to evolve. If this becomes an area of supervision for you, we encourage you to emphasize remaining caught up on current standards.

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Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

■

■

■

■

Having supervision skills is important because nearly all practicing clinicians will eventually supervise others. Conducting group supervision and the supervision of group leaders are both more complex than individual supervision There are multiple models that provide structure to guide the supervision process. Regardless of which model you choose, it is critical that your supervision lens includes a focus on supporting supervisees in their exploration and conceptualization of social justice issues as an important element in the group. An effective group supervisor needs effective clinical supervision skills as well as effective group leadership skills An effective supervisor of group workers needs to help supervisees examine how they are intervening at the individual level, interpersonal level, and group-­as-­a-­whole level, as well as how they understand the supra-­group level impacting their group development

CASE STUDY 11.1 REVISITED 1. Reread the case study from the beginning of this chapter. Would you encourage the member to disclose their gender identity? Why or why not? 2. If the leader decides to disclose their gender identity, how would you encourage them to respond to questions or statements from members about the leader not being able to understand the members’ perspectives? 3. What are some ways you can encourage the leader to discuss in supervision their own concerns about talking about gender issues? 4. What are some growth areas for the supervisor and where should they receive this professional development?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. What are some of the benefits and concerns of conducting distance group work, or distance supervision of a group worker? Is culture salient in groups conducted online?

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2. How might you use group work principles in your everyday work that may not include counseling or therapy groups specifically? At work? In your communities? With your families?

In-Class Small Group Activity Break into groups of six to nine students. Each student will take a turn practicing leading a group discussion, and each student will practice providing supervision feedback to the leader. When you are not leading or being the supervisor, you will participate as a member/discussion participant. As the leader, please choose a topic that you can lead a discussion on for 10 to 15 minutes where your peers can engage as themselves. Topics might include work/life balance, career interests after graduation, identity as a counselor, intersectional identity development, hopes and concerns about being a counselor, and so on. After the person who is practicing leading concludes their discussion, the person who is practicing supervising will lead a 3 to 5 minute discussion about the leadership session. As the supervisor, remember to consider: ■ ■

Levels of intervention (individual, interpersonal, group as a whole) Foci: intervention, personalization, conceptualization, knowledge, awareness, and skills

Peers who had been participating as members will act as observers to the supervision discussion and provide feedback to the supervisor on their supervision.

Discussion Questions 1. What role (teacher, counselor, consultant) did you see the supervisor take on? What indicated to you this was the role? Was there another role that you viewed as more appropriate or effective given the situation? What would it have looked like for the supervisor to take on your suggested role? 2. How do you see the supervisor attending to culture, values, power, privilege, or other topics related to social justice? If the supervisor does not attend to these, how might they have opened up this conversation?

Journal Starters 1. Even if you do not plan on regularly leading counseling groups, it is likely that you will conduct supervision groups at some point in your professional career. What are some of the ways you understand the group counseling

308  Introduction to Group Counseling skills you have learned in this book to overlap with skills you will use as a group supervisor, and what are some differences in the way you envision the supervisor’s role compared to the group leaders role? 2. A critical task of the supervisor, whether leading supervision groups or supervising the work of group leaders, is to model discussing topics around difference, cultural values, power, privilege, and other social justice issues. Identify two or three concrete strategies you can use to increase your competence and confidence in modeling these discussions with your supervisees

Homework Ideas 1. As you think about conducting group supervision at some point in your future, what concerns do you have about the dynamics that might develop among supervisees? How would you go about addressing these dynamics? 2. After reviewing the models discussed in this chapter, come up with a model or structure for providing group supervision that feels salient and congruent to your personal style. What are some strategies you have to ensure that, as the supervisor, you will be attentive to taking a lens that focuses on issues related to social justice, both as they come up in your supervision group, but also as they are playing out in your supervisees’ groups?

Video Podcast This chapter includes a video podcast (Video Podcast 11.1) that helps place the content into perspective and provides practitioner perspective and real-­world application. Readers would benefit from viewing the video podcast after reading the chapter.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

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REFERENCES American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA code of ethics. Alexandria, VA: Author. Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (2014). Fundamentals of clinical supervision (5th ed.). Pearson. Bernard, J. M. (1979). Supervisor training: A discrimination model. Counselor Education and Supervision, 19, 60–68. Borders, L. D. (1991). A systematic approach to peer group supervision. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69(3), 248–252. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​j​.1556​-6676​.1991​.tb01497.x Champe, J., Okech, J. E. A., & Rubel, D. J. (2013). Emotion regulation: Processes, strategies, and applications to group work training and supervision. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 38(4), 349–368. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2013​.834403 Chui, H., Li, X., & Luk, S. (2021). Does peer relationship matter? A multilevel investigation of the effects of peer and supervisory relationships on group supervision outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(4), 457–466. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​cou0000553 Chui, H., Ziemer, K. S., Palma, B., & Hill, C. E. (2014). Peer relationships in counseling psychology training. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 27(2), 127–153. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​09515070​.2013​ .873858 Conn, S. R., Robers, R. L., & Powell, B. M. (2009). Attitudes and satisfaction with a hybrid model of counseling supervision. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(2), 298–306. Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs. (2016). 2016 CACREP standards. Author. De Stefano, J., D’Iuso, N., Blake, E., Fitzpatrick, M., Drapeau, M., & Chamodraka, M. (2007). Trainees’ experiences of impasses in counselling and the impact of group supervision on their resolution: A pilot study. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 7(1), 42–47. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 14733140601140378 Dies, R. R. (1983). Clinical implications of research on leadership in short-­term group psychotherapy. In R. R. Dies & K. R. MacKenzie (Eds.), Advances in group psychotherapy: Integrating research and practice (pp. 27–78). International Universities Press. Enyedy, K. C., Arcinue, F., Puri, N. N., Carter, J. W., Goodyear, R. K., & Getzelman, M. A. (2003). Hindering phenomena in group supervision: Implications for practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(3), 312–317. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​0735​-7028​.34​.3​.312 Fernando, D. M., & Herlihy, B. R. (2010). Supervision of group work: Infusing the spirit of social justice. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 35(3), 281–289. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2010​ .492905 Gazzola, N., De Stefano, J., Thériault, A., & Audet, C. T. (2013). Learning to be supervisors: A qualitative investigation of difficulties experienced by supervisors-­in-­training. The Clinical Supervisor, 32(1), 15–39. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​07325223​.2013​.778678 Goodrich, K. M., & Luke, M. (2011). The LGBTQ rsponsive model for supervision of group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 36(1), 22–40. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2010​.537739 Grigg, G. (2006). Designs and discriminations for clinical group supervision in counselling psychology: An analysis. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 40(2), 110–122.

310  Introduction to Group Counseling Greenfield, S. F., Kuper, L. E., Cummings, A. M., Robbins, M. S., & Gallop, R. J. (2013). Group process in the single-gender women’s recovery group compared with mixed-gender group drug counseling. Journal of Groups in Addiction & Recovery, 8(4), 270–293. Haans, A., & Balke, N. (2018). Trauma-­informed intercultural group supervision. The Clinical Supervisor, 37(1), 158–181. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​07325223​.2017​.1399495 Janoff, D. S., & Schoenholtz-­Read, J. (1999). Group supervision meets technology: A model for computer-­ mediated group training at a distance. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 49(2), 255–272. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​00207284​.1999​.11491584 Kline, W. B. (2003). Interactive group counseling and therapy. Merrill/Prentice Hall. Lassiter, P. S., Napolitano, L., Culbreth, J. R., & Ng, K.-M. (2008). Developing multicultural competence using the structured peer group supervision model. Counselor Education and Supervision, 47(3), 164–178. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​j​.1556​-6978​.2008​.tb00047.x McMahon, G. H., & Fall, K. (2006). Adlerian group supervision: Concept, structure, and process. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 62(2), 126–140. Mizock, L., & Lundquist, C. (2016). Missteps in psychotherapy with transgender clients: Promoting gender sensitivity in counseling and pyschological practice. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(2), 148–155. Okech, J. E., & Kline, W. B. (2006). Competency concerns in group co-­leader relationships. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 31(2), 165–180. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933920500493829 Okech, J. E., & Rubel, D. (2009). The experiences of expert group work supervisors: An exploratory study. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 34(1), 68–89. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933920802578087 Okech, J. E. A., & Rubel, D. (2007). Diversity competent group work supervision: An application of the Supervision of Group Work Model (SGW). The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 32(3), 245–266. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933920701431651 Richmond, K., & Levant, R. (2003). Clinical application of the gender role strain paradigm: Group treatment for adolescent boys. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(11), 1237–1245. Rubel, D., & Okech, J. E. (2006). The supervision of group work model: Adapting the discrimination model for supervision of group workers. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 31(2), 113–134. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933920500493597 Smith, R. D., Riva, M. T., & Erickson Cornish, J. A. (2012). The ethical practice of group supervision: A national survey. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 6(4), 238–248. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1037/​a0030806 Stinchfield, T. (2007). Integrative reflective model of group supervision [Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology and Counseling, Southern Illinois University]. Stinchfield, T. A., Hill, N. R., & Bowers, R. (2018). Integrative reflective model of group supervision: Practicum students’ experiences. Counselor Education and Supervision, 58(2), 141–157. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1002/​ceas​.12137 Sugarman, D. E., Wigderson, S. B., Iles, B. R., Kaufman, J. S., Fitzmaurice, G. M., Hilario, Y. H., Robbins, M. S., & Greenfield, S. F. (2016). Measuring affiliation in group therapy for substance use disorders in the Women’s Recovery Group study: Does it matter whether the group is all-women or mixedgender? The American Journal on Addictions, 25(7), 573–580. Tasca, G. A., Francis, K., & Balfour, L. (2014). Group psychotherapy levels of interventions: Aa clinical process commentary. Psychotherapy, 51(1), 25–29. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​a0032520 Yalom, I., & Leszcz, M. (2020). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

12 Applying Culturally Sustained Group Leadership and Future Directions

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Review important societal topics discussed throughout previous chapters.

■

Use scenarios that may come up through the course of group leadership.

■

Evaluate possible responses to numerous scenarios.

■

Identify how race and culture impact group dynamics.

■

Identify culturally competent supervision strategies.

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CASE STUDY 12.1 ACADEMIC SUPPORT GROUP FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS The following excerpt is from a group geared toward supporting college students who are struggling academically. The group leader, Mike, grew up in an upper socioeconomic household. However, the group members are predominantly first-­generation college students, many of whom have taken out large loans in order to be able to attend school. This is the first session where members are talking about recent personal and educational struggles. Mike (leader): I thought it might be helpful to discuss what specific obstacles you all are running into as you try to improve your academic performance. Who can start us off? Alexandra: It is just so much different than high school. The teachers don’t seem to care that much and I feel like I am behind my other peers in terms of what they already know. Hector: I agree with you. I feel very much like my high school experience was different, and that the instructors here have expectations that seem impossible to meet. Sherrod: I agree that it’s harder, but I think one reason it’s really hard for me is I still need to work almost a full-­time job while going to school. There isn’t enough time in the day to get everything done. Mike: Sherrod, have you considered quitting your job or reducing your hours? That might be one way to free up some time to focus on your schoolwork. Sherrod (looking uncomfortable and speaking more quietly): Um, I mean I guess I could think about that. Alexandra: I work, too, Sherrod. I’m at the library and got the overnight shift, so my sleep schedule is all messed up. It makes it really hard to get to my 9:00 a.m. class some days. Mike: It seems like we’ve found one theme here, which is work seems to really be getting in the way of people being able to do their best at school. What ideas do you have about how to reduce your work hours, or maybe even quit working? (long silence) (continued)

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CASE STUDY 12.1 ACADEMIC SUPPORT GROUP FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS (CONTINUED) Hector: Well … the problem with that is I use the money I earn to pay for all of my incidental stuff. You know, books, food, all that kind of stuff that isn’t covered by my tuition loans. Mike: I wonder if your parents might be able to provide some of that spending money. I am sure they want you to get the most out of your education, even if that means not working for a bit. What do people think about having a conversation with their parents this week? QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What intersecting identities might be contributing to Mike’s lens through which he is seeing the problems being presented in the group? 2. To what extent do you get the impression Mike is able to see the problems being presented through the group members’ lenses? 3. What are your best guesses as to how group members felt when Mike suggested reducing work hours or quitting work altogether, and talking with parents about providing some financial support? 4. What might be a more culturally competent way of intervening than how Mike chose to intervene?

INTRODUCTION The United States is more diverse than it has ever been. The most recent U.S. census poll declares that for the first time, when looking more clearly at the population of folks under the age of 18, non-­Whites (e.g., a person whose origin is not predominantly European) outnumber Whites (Vespa et al., 2018). Therefore, in the coming years, these numbers will spill over into the adult population as well. For some, these demographics may come as a surprise. For others, this information may be intimidating, and for others these data points might even be symbolic of things changing for the good in our society as increasing diversity could lead to a more multicultural pluralistic country where people and their values are respected and embraced, although we can all agree we have some growth to do in this area. For context, it is important to situate the timing of the writing of this book, which is in the middle of the COVID-­19 pandemic and in the midst of demands for change after the brutal violence against Black people at the hands of police, including but not limited to George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmad Barbery, and Jacob Blake.

314  Introduction to Group Counseling Additionally, we continued writing throughout an election season, where polarized views remain publicly on display, which creates tensions personally and professionally. At the intersection of all of these current events steeps a long historical and ongoing battle with systemic, structural, and ideological racism. Racialized inequities impact access and opportunities to medical care, education, mental health care, employment, and more (Roysicar et al., 2021). Moreover, the disparities have magnetized the oppression present in all systems. The point is racism and oppression have a systemic stronghold on every aspect of our culture in the United States. In group counseling contexts, racism, oppression, multiculturalism, and social justice do impact group dynamics. We challenge readers to acknowledge that the practice of opposing racist actions and ideas will lead to more racial equity and access in group counseling spaces. Group leaders must commit to gaining a deep and ongoing understanding of these terms in order to examine these issues within their groups. A core tenet of group work is that groups over time represent a microcosm of society (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020). Therefore, groups have the potential to perpetuate racism and oppression or to eliminate it within a supportive and healing environment with effects reaching beyond the group. Because group dynamics are the character and traits, as well as the changes that occur in the group and between the group members throughout the life of the group, the identities of the people that make up this group become of utmost importance. Members’ and group leaders’ identities are salient. The purpose of establishing who will be holding space together when exploring aspects about themselves helps lay a foundation of acceptance and trust to buffer future conflict that will emerge in both functional and dysfunctional groups. Fill out the following table (Table 12.1) based on your intersecting identities. Then, discuss the questions that follow (Box 12.1) in small groups or as a class.

TABLE 12.1  Intersecting Identities IDENTITY ELEMENTS

YOUR ANSWERS

POSITIVE AND UNIQUE GIFTS

Age Developmental disabilities Disabilities acquired later in life Religion Ethnicity Sexual orientation Socioeconomic status Indigenous heritage (continued )

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TABLE 12.1  Intersecting Identities (continued) IDENTITY ELEMENTS

YOUR ANSWERS

POSITIVE AND UNIQUE GIFTS

National origin Gender identity

BOX 12.1  Questions for Reflection 1. Which part(s) of your identity feels most salient to you as you think about

your role as a developing group leader? 2. What are some of the positive and unique gifts you identified that you had not considered before? 3. What did you learn about your classmates that you might have made different assumptions about if you had not talked openly about your intersecting identities? Understanding our identities and how they contribute to the way in which we see the world is crucial, because how we see and experience the world is likely different from how our group members see and experience the world. We can find ourselves through our own implicit bias being an ineffective group leader at best, and at worst being harmful if we see our worldview as “Truth” as opposed to “my truth.”

GUIDING DOCUMENTS In this section, we explore how guiding documents related to counseling in general, and group counseling more specifically, shape our understanding of what it means to be a culturally competent group leader.

American Counseling Association Code of Ethics The Code of Ethics of the American Counseling Association (2014) addresses the importance of multicultural competence in a number of ways. Most broadly, standard C.2.a. states, “Whereas multicultural counseling competency is required across all counseling specialties, counselors gain knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity, dispositions, and skills pertinent to being a culturally competent counselor in

316  Introduction to Group Counseling working with a diverse client population.” Additional relevant guidance from the Code of Ethics includes choosing assessment techniques that are normed on the population of the client and sensitively reporting the assessment results (E.8; E.9.a), as well as maintaining awareness of cultural conceptualizations of privacy and confidentiality (B.1.a). In practice, formal assessment procedures will not be used in all groups. However, when you are planning your group and if you plan to incorporate standardized assessments, it is critical that you ensure that the assessments you choose have been normed on the same population as the population in your group. For example, if your population is adolescents who are White, Black, and Latinx, you would not use an assessment that is normed on White adults. In addition, as you are discussing confidentiality with your group members, it is critical to be aware of the developmental level of your members and to describe confidentiality in a developmentally appropriate way. Further, it may be helpful to engage in discussion around how members conceptualize confidentiality in order to make sure members are clear about what situations would necessitate the counselor breaking confidentiality, as well as what members’ responsibility is related to maintaining their fellow members’ confidentiality.

American School Counselor Association Code of Ethics The flagship organization for school counselors, namely the American School Counselor Association (ASCA), provides both a code of ethics and a position statement. Important concepts are summarized in the following. For instance, the code of ethics points out specifically that school counselors, ■

■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■

■ ■

Facilitate short-­term groups to address students’ academic, career, and/or social/emotional issues Inform parent(s)/guardian(s) of student participation in a small group Screen and prepare students for group Use data to measure student needs in order to create clear expectations Communicate the importance of confidentiality even though there are limitations when working with children and adolescents, Facilitate groups using evidence-­based or research-­based practices, Practice within their competence level and develop professional competence through training and supervision Evaluate and measure the outcomes Provide necessary follow up with students.

The position statement can be summarized as: School counselors provide group services to students and families and may utilize their specialized training to educate and inform school staff and administration on relevant professional issues or

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topics. Furthermore, groups offered to students and families are based on individual student, school, and community needs, which are assessed through survey data, a referral process, or other relevant data. Next, school counselors prioritize group offerings based on analysis of school data. And, school counselors must work toward involving parents and guardians in the process to ensure students want to participate and their caretakers are aware of them receiving services. What seems to be missing in both of these documents is an emphasis on inclusivity and social justice advocacy. The next guiding document below fills this critical gap.

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies The American Counseling Association (ACA) endorsed the Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (MSJCC) (Ratts et al., 2016). This framework offers counselors a broad overview of how to implement multicultural and social justice competencies into counseling theories, practices, and research. Specifically, the MSJCC frames the importance of defining and exploring the intersection of identities and the dynamics of privilege and oppression that largely impact the counseling relationship. This framework also outlines domains that essentially lead to multicultural and social justice competence including counselor self-­awareness, client worldview, counseling relationship, and counseling and advocacy interventions. We want to highlight the idea that whether you attend to it or not, your groups will be diverse. The MSJCC reinforces the notion that we all have both privileged statuses and historically oppressed or marginalized statuses, and in a group setting, the statuses of both the leader and the members impact the group development. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the leader to be aware of their own multifaceted identity and how this may impact the group, depending on the composition of the group.

Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers Whereas the ACA provides this guidance for counseling in general, the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) is a leading source and guide when learning how to identify, address, and process groups that build upon the strengths of the group members served. The ASGW established the Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles (MSJCP) (Singh et al., 2012) that elaborate more clearly and intensely how to position oneself as a proactive group leader who is intentional about both respecting the diverse perspective and experience of the members, while also recognizing how privilege and oppression impact individuals, groups, and communities. As a group leader who attends to social justice issues, you can support not only your group members, but also help address larger societal issues.

318  Introduction to Group Counseling The MSJCP provides language describing the influence of both privilege and oppression that impacts the livelihood of people, groups, and communities. The term social justice within the context of groups implies the group leader is intentional about gaining an awareness of race, class and gender interactions and the intersection of these identities with privilege and oppression. Social justice–focused group workers are relentless in developing environments that foster respect, dignity, and growth. In addition to being aware of these concepts, the ASGW urges group leaders to develop knowledge and skills that allow them to engage members who identify their true selves, perceptions, feelings, reactions, and behaviors in daily interactions. In order to become a multiculturally competent group leader, gaining a personal awareness of one’s identity and fostering the exploration of group members’ identity and so forth, is not enough. Group leaders can move beyond just gaining an awareness of one’s own personal worldview and the views of others. Within the group counseling relationship, group leaders aspiring to combat the realities of the ongoing systemic issues and racial unjustice must take on roles of advocacy within their group counseling endeavors.

Social Justice, Social Privilege, Oppression, and Racism A definition for social justice can be found within the ASGW’s MCSJP. This definition suggests that an awareness of how social locations of social privilege and oppression influence group work processes and dynamics is critical. Additionally, group counselors embodying social justice efforts also focus on ways to take action related to these social locations and the various social justice issues group members and workers experience (Singh & Salazar, 2010). In order to fully understand social justice, social privilege is also highlighted in the ASGW MCSJP. Social privilege is defined as the power and advantage a dominant group is granted, entitled to, or born into that provides folks within the dominant group with the ability to sanction and/or have immunity based on gender identity and expression, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, religious/spiritual traditions, ability status, migration status, age, and social class and the intersecting of these identities (Black & Stone, 2005). Oppression is the systemic, limited access to resources for an individual, group, or community that is founded upon multi-­ systems prejudice and discrimination including but not limited to racism, sexism, heterosexism, classism, ableism, adultism, ageism, and so forth (Singh et al., 2012). Oppression is a state and a process, with the state of oppression being an unequal group access to power and privilege, and the process of oppression being the ways in which inequality between groups is maintained (David & Derthick, 2017). Oppression occurs when one group has more access to power than another group. This power and privilege is used to maintain the status quo (i.e., domination of one group over another). Racism is defined as racial domination in which White culture is viewed as superior and justifies the inferior treatment or social position of other non-­White racial groups (Clair & Denis, 2015). Systemic racism is defined as systems and

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structures that have procedures or processes that disadvantage Black Americans in particular, and these origins started with the institution of slavery. Specifically within the context of group work, racism, including individual, structural, political, economic, and social forces that serve to discriminate against and disadvantage people of color on the basis of their race for the purpose of maintaining White dominance and power (Bell, 1992), will show up in each group in some form or fashion whether group leaders address it or not.

Antiracism Antiracism is an active word and is defined as challenging those things that are racist or expressing antiracist ideas. Moreover, antiracism supports the idea that racial groups are equal and also very different (Kendi, 2019). As antiracism is an active endeavor it implies that groups can facilitate social justice change within schools, communities, and treatment centers. Schools are combat fields for equity and social justice, and group members being served in our mental health communities also can benefit from group leaders who work toward exposing and addressing difficulties associated with racism, racist attitudes, and longstanding systemic issues. Tackling privilege and oppression will occur only when group leaders are bold in challenging the barriers to this type of practice. Antiracist group leadership strategies include selecting clients in an unbiased manner, modeling identity development, and considering the intersection of identities even when it is difficult to do so. How can group leaders who are colorblind engage clients of color despite their own personal intersecting identities? Group leaders, regardless of their own intersecting identities, must be diligent in applying these principles outlined by the ACA and ASGW.

GROUP DYNAMICS Because the group is a social microcosm (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020), interpersonal and systemic dynamics that exist “in the world,” will also exist in the group. From a social justice perspective, what this means is because racism and oppression of marginalized groups exist outside of the group, it will also come out inside the group. The job of the leader is to be attuned to this reality, and to be able to approach comments or behaviors that are prejudiced, racist, or otherwise oppressive in a way that protects members from experiencing the same oppressive forces within the group that they experience in the world outside. Further, the leader strives to help members from the dominant group to increase their awareness of themselves and how their comments and behaviors impact others. Racism and oppression have been linked to every system and knowing this seems to imply that systems must be held accountable. Would a group system be exempt from the strong ongoing influence of racism? Systems are made up of people, and groups are no exception. Understanding group dynamics that are at play

320  Introduction to Group Counseling within a group, regardless of the type, is a daunting endeavor. Examining racism and oppression and other societal factors simultaneously is even more challenging. Yet the potential outcomes are worth the initial resistance. Oftentimes, students training to become group leaders imagine that racist statements or oppressive behavior from members will be overt, and therefore easy to spot and attend to. However, our experience has been that just as in society at large where people are more likely to make a microaggressive statement than an overtly racist statement, the same is true in the group. Therefore, the leader must be attuned to what a microaggressive statement or an oppressive behavior might look like in the group, and be ready to intervene in an appropriate way.

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE Group dynamics include growth and setbacks that happen over the course of the group’s life; however, as critical incidents begin to emerge within the sessions, the group leader must acknowledge and dialogue about the systemic nature of racism. Facilitating conversations about difficult material, especially as it relates to racism and oppression, will lead to ongoing opportunities for members to hear from and reflect with people who may not necessarily share the same values and worldviews. The lack of this exercise in groups is minimally negligent and we purport to be unethical without intentional considerations of race and culture. Moving beyond just the acknowledgment of racial and cultural differences, group leaders can be proactive in engaging members in dialogues that aim to dismantle racism interwoven in the stories of the members, facilitating difficult discussions, probing members to express their thoughts, feelings, and reactions to other members, asking questions for clarity, and self-­disclosing when statements and other subtle body language indicates something is off? Take a look at the following examples.

CASE STUDY 12.2: RACISM, OPPRESSION, INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE THE CASE OF DAVID AND DANTE

For example, when providing feedback in a group David (a White male) says to Dante (another Black group member), “You’re not like other Blacks; you’re a credit to your race and you are a very articulate African American.” David (continued)

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CASE STUDY 12.2: RACISM, OPPRESSION, INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE (CONTINUED) generally believes he is giving a compliment to Dante about how smart he is and how he doesn’t view him the way he views other Black individuals. However, this statement is actually a series of microaggressions that are extremely hurtful. Why would this statement be perceived as microaggressions? Let’s examine. First, David assumes his Black peer was African American, as his assumption is that all Black people are from the same descent, when in reality Dante is Jamaican. Next, let’s take a look at the use of the word “articulate” to describe Dante’s language. That implies that David’s bias is that Black people don’t typically talk like “White people,” and that he is surprised that a Black person can be that intelligent, therefore, believing Black people aren’t typically that smart. Lastly, the word “credit,” as if somehow this group experience and David’s perception of Dante might change his entire view of Black individuals and that all rides on how Dante interacts in this group setting. As a group leader how would you address this comment? Your first instinct might be to ask Dante to share with David (and the group) what it is like to receive that feedback. If you were assuming that was a compliment, too, that would be harmful to Dante. If you knew it was a microaggression and still asked that question, it would be equally harmful in Dante feeling like he needs to defend himself. Another thought might be to ask David to clarify his language, which might lead to him further hurt Dante with microaggressions. In this case, it is your responsibility as a multicultural and antiracist counselor to maintain the emotional safety of the group. Both of these possibilities may threaten the integrity of the group. Therefore, it’s up to you to explicitly name that statement as a microaggression and educate David and the group. You might even explore where his bias might stem from. After that, you can give David an opportunity to provide feedback differently, and an opportunity for Dante to then share how he receives the next set of feedback. Bringing it into the here and now, you might then ask the other group members to process how they experienced what just occurred in the group. By educating David, and therefore the group, you eliminate that need for the potential Black and Brown members to have to intervene on their own behalf, allow David to reflect on his use of language and his own bias, while maintaining the emotional safety of the group. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. How are you processing what you just read? 2. How might you feel being a member in this group? 3. If you were the leader, what might be going through your mind? 4. What might you need to work on to have the awareness skills to intervene?

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CASE STUDY 12.3 PRIVILEGE, MULTICULTURALISM, AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS For many members (and leaders!) attending to the dynamics in the group related to privilege and oppression may initially feel uncomfortable. Perhaps even as you are reading this section, you are thinking to yourself “I could never facilitate a conversation like this.” We encourage you to sit with this discomfort, and to be willing to take risks in this group counseling course to have conversations around social justice topics that you may have avoided in the past. You are leading a group of college students at a university counseling center. Members include four White students, one Asian student, two Latinx students, one Black student, and one African student. Five members are women and four are men. Two members identify as LGBTQ. The stated purpose of the group is for members to improve their interpersonal relationships, whether that is with friends, partners, teachers, parents, and so forth. During this group session, one of the minority students discusses their experience of often feeling left out and “invisible.” They speculate that part of reason they have this experience is due to their minority status. As they express these feelings, one of the majority members responds, saying “I can’t imagine that is the case. This campus is so welcoming! I don’t think most students care about any kind of differences here. Sometimes I notice in the group you’re a little quiet, so maybe people are responding to that. Do you think you could just be a little more extroverted or something?” QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What is your first emotional reaction to reading this scenario? If you were leading this session, how would you manage your own emotions while responding to the situation? 2. Identify two or three effective responses to the scenario. Which would you be most likely to use and why? 3. Consider how you would process the session at the end. What might be a good prompt for encouraging members to reflect on the discussion? 4. What are some unique challenges to working on a college campus? Think about, for example, if two roommates or friends wanted to join the group. How might you handle this? 5. How would you discuss confidentiality with this specific population? In what ways is confidentiality different on a college campus (or in another closed system, such as a prison) than in an outpatient or community setting?

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CASE STUDY 12.4 SCHOOL COUNSELING, CO-­LEADERSHIP, BLACK MALES Here is another case summary that the authors will use to explore co-­leading within a school setting for a unique subset of students. A school counselor and school psychologist co-­lead a group program for ninth grade athletes. The group consists mostly of African American males and females. The school counselor is a White male and the school psychologist is a White female. Is this appropriate? After a few sessions, it becomes apparent that race, ethnicity, and culture are particularly salient for the Black male student athletes. For instance, a couple of boys mention how difficult it is to have girlfriends, especially those who are White. In some cases, the girls’ parents, family members, peers, even teachers are discouraging them from engaging in this mixed race relationship. Some adults even make inappropriate comments about their relationships. In other cases, some of the students of color, particularly other Black girls in upper grades, comment on the lack of interaction with Black girls. The group leaders reflect after one session how they will respond or modify the next few sessions to explore these comments in more depth. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are some suggestions for their game plan? 2. Should race be explicitly explored? 3. What are some benefits from broaching the intersection of race and gender? 4. What are some challenges that might be faced by the group leaders when engaging these students in topics that are controversial within and outside school settings?

CASE STUDY 12.5: MIDDLE SCHOOL, INTERSECTIONALITY, AND PARENTS/GUARDIANS Following is a case summary of what occurred when the first author was a professional school counselor leading groups. A group of students sought out the school principal in a middle school because of the new non-­gender conforming bathroom that was recently added to their school. The principal consulted with the guidance team and it was decided that a focus group of some sort would be helpful. Meanwhile, parents got wind of (continued)

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CASE STUDY 12.5: MIDDLE SCHOOL, INTERSECTIONALITY, AND PARENTS/GUARDIANS (CONTINUED) these changes and, based on some interactions the principal had with the PTA, the principal asked the school counselors to facilitate a group with the parents to explore concerns and recommendations. After a few sessions, it became clear that there was a bigger problem that students were sharing with their parents. Some students felt like they were being targeted if they actually used the bathroom. The school counselor let the parent group members know that they would work with the principal and other school administrators to devise a plan moving forward. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are some recommendations for the counselor’s next steps? 2. What can the counselor do? 3. What might cause more issues? 4. How could this be addressed on a level beyond just middle school? 5. Does this appear as a social justice issue? If so, what are some ideas to ensure that the desired result will have a long lasting impact?

CASE STUDY 12.6 IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT, CONFIDENTIALITY, AND LEADERSHIP SKILLS Here is another case summary of a school counselor working with students in an elementary school. A school counselor working with elementary boys, who all identify as African American, also identifies as African American. The purpose of the group is to focus on positive cultural identity development, academic development, and empowerment (e.g., identifying personal skills, strengths, areas of interests). Additionally, the group includes application of these skills within the school and local community. Exploration of how to apply skills in the greater community beyond their local community is discussed. The group leader first ensures that the students understand the purpose of the group, the goals of the group overall, as well as provide them an opportunity to develop their own short- and long-­t erm goals. The group leader spends time intentionally discussing confidentiality. The group leader provides a basic definition of what this big word means: Confidentiality means that what we talk about and hear about in this group stays in this group. Nothing that you hear in this group (continued)

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CASE STUDY 12.6 IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT, CONFIDENTIALITY, AND LEADERSHIP SKILLS (CONTINUED) is allowed to be shared with anyone. Information that you bring to this group is yours to take. Most importantly, information you share in this group can be discussed with your parents and adult family members. However, information that you hear from other group members must not ever be shared with anyone. The group leader will be responsible for sharing information that suggests a lack of safety with the appropriate adults. In the event that someone shares something that alerts the group leader to a significant problem, they will discuss the next steps. Following a discussion about this important ground rule, the group leader and members explore other things that they would like to see as guidelines, rules, and norms for how things will unfold in the subsequent sessions. The group leader also helps the students discuss and brainstorm what they would like to call their group in the coming sessions. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are some specific concerns that this group leader who identifies as African American will need to consider as opposed to those who identify as being White? 2. What if the group leader were a Black woman, would this be different than for a Black man? 3. Is it appropriate to have groups in school that include similar racial and ethnic backgrounds for the group members?

CASE STUDY 12.7 CO-­LEADERSHIP, SPIRITUALITY, AND SELF-­DISCLOSURE The next case illustration focused on topics that are not related to one’s sexuality. However, the group leaders’ identity and identity development are considered important factors as the group unfolds. If you were teaching a group counseling course, how would you use the following case illustration? Two White gay male counselors are co-­leading a group for recently grieving individuals due to various types of loss. These members have either been referred by an inpatient facility, or have been referred by family and other support members. In particular, one group member, a 65-­year-­old African American woman, who is a widow and using alcohol as a coping mechanism, shares that her background includes a Christian upbringing. Of the other six (continued)

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CASE STUDY 12.7 CO-­LEADERSHIP, SPIRITUALITY, AND SELF-­DISCLOSURE (CONTINUED) members, most have some faith/spiritual aspects associated with their intersecting identities. However, the two counselors are not aligned on this topic. In fact, one of the co-­leaders is agnostic, and the other has a Jewish identity, but he does not practice any of the traditions. During one of the earlier sessions, the African American woman shares that she is certain the Lord will help her get through this. One of the other members suggested that perhaps the Lord has put the co-­leaders in her life to help with this process of loss and dependency on alcohol. The group leaders have discussed outside of session how to integrate spirituality without promoting their own personal views. However, in this session a question is posed directly to the co-­leaders asking their personal stance on this viewpoint. In fact, the African American woman asks both of them to share their impressions of the impact of the Lord on their lives, and the counseling process overall. Some clients of color in particular need the counselors to provide personal self-­disclosure in order to help the client feel like they can also share in a deeper and more meaningful way (Steen, et. al., 2017). QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are some statements that the co-­leaders can each share based on their own personal worldviews that are validating yet not exclusive or oppressive? 2. What are some ways the co-­leaders can involve others in the dialogue to encourage a supportive environment? 3. What about the conflicts between one’s identity as a gay male and traditional Christian principles? Should this topic be broached directly? If so, how?

CASE STUDY 12.8 CRISIS, COUNSELORS WITHOUT BORDERS, AND THERAPEUTIC FACTORS The authors include a unique case that might become more and more important in the coming years. In fact, there is literature suggesting that a group intervention is a natural choice for working in communities after a disaster. Therapeutic factors such as universality, catharsis, and altruism (Yalom & Leszcz, 2020) are often heightened in these types of groups. At the same time, leaders must be aware that group interventions in post-­disaster scenarios do not always conform to traditional group processes. This case summary begins by exploring the fact that all aspects of a traditional group might not unfold in traditional ways. A counselor educator trained a few master‘s level clinicians with the support and endorsement of the American Counseling Association (ACA) to work (continued)

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CASE STUDY 12.8 CRISIS, COUNSELORS WITHOUT BORDERS, AND THERAPEUTIC FACTORS (CONTINUED) in communities following wild fires in California. When the students and faculty arrive on site, it becomes apparent that there is not any time or is it necessary to conduct screenings. The groups in fact only meet once, and the focus was on practical concerns, rather than overtly psychological concerns (Bemak & Chung, 2011). The students and faculty pair up to co-­lead these one-­session groups in this community recently suffering from the aftermath of the wildfire disaster. They soon learn that the group members span a wide range of ages and had significantly different experiences of what occurred during the disaster. Specifically, some members lost their homes, others saw family or community members get significantly injured, and others saw or experienced relatively little trauma or danger as a result of the disaster. When the group leaders debrief about their experiences following their first night on the site, it was discussed that a few participants have not been able to get in touch with their extended family. Obviously the group leaders and members are concerned about the well-­being of these missing family members. During the processing of this information, it became clear in one case that a group member’s home sustained considerable damage and she is unable to return home at this time. This disaster occurred in an area populated by low socioeconomic status citizens, a large proportion of whom are ethnic and racial minorities. The larger community (e.g., at the state and federal level) has been slow to respond with support. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION:

1. What are some practical considerations or factors you might discuss with this group? 2. If you were a leader unfamiliar with the culture of the community, how might you learn more about the community prior to engaging in your group? 3. How would you determine if it would be appropriate to ask a spiritual leader in the community to join you in your group intervention? 4. If you decided to pursue this route, what would you want to discuss with the spiritual leader prior to the group meeting? 5. What would be the benefits of using a co-­leadership model in this situation? How would you identify an appropriate co-­leader? 6. If you were supervising the leader or co-­leadership pair, how would you encourage them to structure the group session? How would you debrief with them after the session? 7. How should the group leaders go about addressing the basic needs of these members? 8. Should the group leaders engage in this work that expands beyond attending to the clinical needs?

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FUTURE DIRECTIONS To understand where we are going as a profession and how that impacts the needed group counseling skills and competencies, we must understand the changes and forces that have brought us to this moment in the counseling profession. The following represents our evolution and contributions to fostering inclusive environments and combating systemic, ideological, and structural racism. ■ ■

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Black Psychology (Asa Hilliard; Wade Nobles; Faye Belgrave) Cross-­Cultural Counseling/Psychology (Derald Wing Sue; Clemmont Vontress; Norma Day Vines) Multicultural Counseling (Courtland Lee; Michael D’Andrea; Gargi Roysicar Sodowsky) Social Justice Counseling (Manivong Ratts; Cheryl Holcomb-­McCoy; Fred Bemak; Rita Chung; Rebecca Toporek; Judy Daniels) Intersectionality (Annelise Singh; Christian Chan) Antiblackness (Ahmad Washington; Ebony White) Antiracism (Cheryl Holcomb-­McCoy; Malik Henfield) Indigenous Voices

In this current time period, counseling leaders are asking for a call for antiracist counseling. Deans within higher education who began their careers as school counselors and counselor educators have been most vocal within school counseling. Two scholars in particular (e.g., C. Holcomb-­McCoy and M. Henfield) have used social media to interrogate the role our flagship professional organization has either perpetuated racism through its policy and procedures, or have been silent on the ongoing needs of all members and the clients, students, and families we serve. Antiracist counseling is a holistic approach that includes the previous counseling forces, that mandates counselors to not only understand the multicultural complexities presented in sessions, but to also work from a social justice stance as an advocate for clients outside sessions. As social justice is rooted in advocacy for all marginalized groups, there lacked a central focus on race. As Angela Davis indicates, “In a racist society, it is not enough to be nonracist, we must be antiracist.” Therefore, instead of complacency, antiracist counseling centers work against racism in everyday practice. Although this speech is specific to school counseling, it is very aligned to the entire counseling profession advancing forward. In her keynote speech, Holcomb-­ McCoy (2020) defines antiracist school counseling as: recognizing and affirming the wholeness and humanness of students, families, and their communities. This requires an action-­oriented pursuit to not only understand, but to address and dismantle racist ideologies, policies, and practices in PreK–12 schools.

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School counselors commit to developing antiracist practices, engaging in a continuous process of self-­reflection and inquiry that enable them to identify and correct racist, “White-­centered” cultures in schools. As we begin moving in this direction as a profession, we must ask ourselves, how does this show up in a group setting? And what are the skills needed to facilitate groups from this lens? Although our intention throughout this text was to consistently identify and explore ways in which group leaders can attend to cultural diversity and model an antiracist stance in their groups, in this chapter we specifically wanted to discuss some of the guiding documents and concepts that ground our work. In this chapter, we discussed both what it means to demonstrate cultural competence as a group leader of diverse groups, as well as what it means to have a social justice orientation as a group leader, including but not limited to taking an actively antiracist stance as a leader. To begin this book, we shared the assumption that every group you participate in, and every group you will lead, will be diverse whether this is outwardly observable or not. As a result, members’ values, beliefs, and general lenses through which they see the world will be different. Part of our role as the leader is to both be aware of our own lens and try to understand and see through the unique lenses of our group members. We must view each and every group as a stand-­alone experience. In order to bring clarity to this discussion of multiculturalism, social justice, and antiracist applications in group work, you must not forget the terms we used throughout this book. Remember, when some people hear “multiculturalism,” their thoughts primarily go to race or ethnicity. While we certainly addressed how race and ethnicity play a role in group dynamics and how counselors can facilitate an environment that is sensitive to multiple racial and ethnic identities, we also discussed multiculturalism in this book and all identities as often as possible. In sum, Hays (2001) describes age and generational influences; developmental disabilities; disabilities acquired later in life; religion and spiritual orientation; ethnicity/racial identity; socioeconomic status; sexual orientation; indigenous heritage; national origin; and gender as identities that we all must consider in our group spaces in order to foster meaningful, inclusive, affirming, non-­racist healing group environments. In closing, the following basic concepts can offer some support when working toward meeting the needs of students and clients within our society as a social justice advocate striving for the good of all. Humility will help group leaders gain a much clearer understanding of others despite your racial, ethnic, or cultural make up. Patience for your clients, students, and family members to either trust you enough to tell the truth or to wait until the clients, students, and family members are able to put words to the experiences and emotions that have been had. Honesty which might involve an exclamation and sharing of true fear, fatigue, failures you have had in order to help foster a climate in which others can engage in some real work. And, finally, hope. A hope for a better future with intentional actions to disrupt any barriers that try to hinder this human right.

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Summary Points The following are key points identified in this chapter: ■

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In this chapter definitions for social justice, social privilege, oppression, racism and antiracism have been provided. These are concepts that have shaped our society and also impact the manner in which groups unfold. While these are salient terms and it is important to understand how they drive membership behavior, group leaders must not forget some other general concepts that will aid in strong group leadership. The chapter also included several case studies in which the reader can examine, critique, and reflect upon culturally sustained ethical group counseling leadership. The chapter ends with a homage to leaders who continue to fight tirelessly for social justice within our profession that has the potential to transform communities. The future within our profession is not clear; however, working toward creating inclusive and healing spaces within group work is a worthy endeavor.

CASE STUDIES REVISITED As you reflect on all of the case studies from this chapter, consider the following questions. 1. How can you expand your knowledge on multicultural competency as aforementioned in the case study examples? 2. Where would be the biggest area of growth for you with relevance to social justice and multiculturalism? 3. Are there any topics that instill discomfort for you personally? What are ways you can work through it and grow? How could this be helpful knowledge while facilitating group? 4. What are some individual and partnership characteristics that would create successful co-­leadership? How could improve on those skills in your life outside of group?

END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES Questions for Reflection 1. Who is responsible for opening up a discussion about privilege and oppression within groups? Is it the leaders, members, or both?

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2. If a group member sends you an email stating that they felt isolated, disregarded, and belittled, how would you handle this? Would you discuss it with or without your co-­leader? Would you respond to the email and if so, what would you say? Would you address this issue with the rest of the group members in session, if so how? 3. A member shares that they felt attacked by another member who challenged their racist notions. The member who felt attacked believes it’s unfair and unreasonable to be criticized for being honest. How do you explore this vantage point within the group, when you also believe their viewpoints were racist?

In Class Small Group Activity In small groups, reflect upon your life experiences related to multiculturalism and social justice on small and large scales. Consider the questions in the Journal Starters that follow and expand your comfort level and knowledge together.

Journal Starters 1. After you reflect on each of the cases within this chapter, describe which one of these stand out to you and why? What did you learn from this case? What do you still wish to learn? Which cases seem realistic, and which ones seem less authentic? 2. At the conclusion of this book, take a moment to describe any areas of growth that may have occurred for you. In what ways have you benefited from these resources, and what areas are still in need of development? Please be sure to describe any changes in your thinking about your group leadership style, skill set, and willingness to engage in social justice advocacy within your future respective counseling specialty.

Homework Ideas 1. Take a look at the section that pays homage to the leaders within counseling who receive credit for the work they have done in the areas of Black psychology, cross-­cultural counseling, multiculturalism, social justice, intersectionality, antiracism, and anti-­Blackness. Conduct a Google search on these individuals and examine their curricula vitae. What impact have they made on the field generally speaking, and where is there overlap that is seen within group counseling in particular?

332  Introduction to Group Counseling 2. Think about the contributions that these aforementioned individuals have made. Who else should be added to this list? And, if your name were added, what descriptions would others use to categorize your current or future work?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available. Qualifying instructors may request access by emailing [email protected].

REFERENCES American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA code of ethics. Author. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​ 9781119221548 Bell, C. (1992). Ritual theory, ritual practice. Oxford University Press. Bemak, F., & Chung, R. C. Y. (2011). Applications in social justice counselor training: Classroom without walls. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 50(2), 204–219. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​j​.2161​-1939​ .2011​.tb00119.x Black, L. L., & Stone, D. (2005). Expanding the definition of privilege: The concept of social privilege. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 33(4), 243–255. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​j​.2161​ -1912​.2005​.tb00020.x Clair, M., & Denis, J. S. (2015). Sociology of racism. The International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 19, 857–863. David, E. J. R., & Derthick, A. O. (2017). The psychology of oppression. Springer Publishing Company. Hays. (2001). Addressing cultural complexities in practice: A framework for clinicians and counselors. American Psychological Association. Holcomb-­McCoy, C. (2020). Antiracist school counseling: It matters for all educators & students [Keynote presentation]. University of Virginia School Counseling Summit. https://www.youtube.com/​ watch?v=pPoD5lIXXZI Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to be an antiracist. One world. Ratts, M. J., Singh, A. A., Nassar-­McMillan, S., Butler, S. K., & McCullough, J. R. (2016). Multicultural and social justice counseling competencies: Guidelines for the counseling profession. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 44(1), 28–48. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1002/​jmcd​.12035 Roysicar, G., Steen, S., & Cole, K. (2021). Anti-­Black racism in contemporary America. Singh, A. A., Merchant, N., Skudrzyk, B., & Ingene, D. (2012). Association for specialists in group work: Multicultural and social justice competence principles for group workers. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 37(4), 312–325. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933922​.2012​.721482 Singh, A. A., & Salazar, C. F. (2010). The roots of social justice in group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 35(2), 97–104. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01933921003706048

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Steen, S., Liu, X., Shi, Q., Rose, J., & Merino, G. (2017). Promoting school adjustment for Englishlanguage learners through group work. Professional School Counseling, 21(1), 2156759X18777096. Vespa, J., Medina, L., & Armstrong, D. M. (2018, March). Demographic turning points for the United States: Population projections for. 2020 to 2060. U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/content/​ dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/p25-1144.pdf Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2020). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy.

APPENDIX: RESOURCES FOR CODES OF ETHICS INTRODUCTION The following links are provided for easy access and to provide the most up-­todate information. The flagship organization, the American Counseling Association (ACA), provides a solid foundation for Ethics, Diversity, Inclusion, and Preparation. There is room for improvement and deeper collaboration amongst the counseling related specialties (e.g., school, clinical mental health, marriage, family). Other professional organizations listed include the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) and division level counseling associations. As you review these documents, what areas are sufficient? What areas are needing further development?

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies https://www.multiculturalcounsel​ ingdevelopment.org/competencies American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics https://www.counseling.org/resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Code of Ethics https://www​ .schoolcounselor.org/getmedia/f041cbd0-7004-47a5-ba01-3a5d657c6743/Ethical​ -Standards.pdf Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) Best Practice Guidelines https://asgw.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/usgw297284-111..117.pdf ASGW Guiding Principles for Group Work https://asgw.org/wp-content/​ uploads/2021/07/ASGW-Guiding-Principles-May-2021.pdf

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336  Appendix: Resources for Codes of Ethics ASGW Professional Training Standards https://asgw.org/wp-content/​ uploads/2020/06/ASGW-Professional-Standards-for-the-Training-of-Group​ -Workers.pdf The Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers https://www.stcloudstate.edu/graduate/clinical-mental-health/_files/documents/asgw-mc-sj-priniciples.pdf Ten Strategies to Intentionally Use Group Work to Transform Hate, Facilitate Courageous Conversations, and Enhance Community Building https://asgw.org/​ wp-content/uploads/2021/07/ASGW-Ten-Strategies_english.pdf

INDEX ableism, 113 ACA Code of Ethics. See American Counseling Association Code of Ethics academic support group, college students, 311–313 affection, FIRO-B assessment, 10 affinity groups definition, 239 examples, 239 non-POC affinity groups, 240 racial affinity group, 240 in schools, 240–241 Alicia Keys Fan Club, 6 altruism, 18 American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics, 2, 13, 32, 56, 88, 96, 122, 150, 184, 206, 230, 260, 286, 315–316 American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Code of Ethics, 2, 13, 32, 56, 89, 122, 150, 184, 206, 230, 260, 286, 316–317 anti-blackness, 249 antiracism, 198, 319 antiracist, 198. See also counselor antiracist framework education, 243 school counseling, 328–329 White counselors, 165 antiracist healing centered engagement delivery competencies, 249–252 empathy and perspective taking, 249 trained facilitators, 248

ASCA Code of Ethics. See American School Counselor Association Code of Ethics Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) ASGW Best Practice Guidelines, 3, 33, 57, 91, 96, 122, 151, 184, 207, 261, 287 ASGW Multicultural and Social Justice Competence Principles for Group Workers, 4, 33, 58, 92, 123, 151, 185, 207, 230, 262, 288 ASGW Professional Training Standards, 3, 32, 56, 91, 122, 150, 184, 206, 230, 261, 287 authenticity, group work, 16 beginning phase, culturally sustained group characteristics, 211–212 ending group experience, 210–211 ethical practice and concerns, 222 feelings, 212–213 group leadership considerations, 213–214 group plan, 211 behavioral theory, 157 Bioecological Model, 11 Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) community, 240 Black Lives Matter, 60–61 Black males, 323 Braver Spaces, 238 CACREP. See Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs

337

338  Index catharsis, 20 chronosystem, ecological systems theory, 162 CIQ. See Critical Incident Questionnaire class demographics, 42 classroom dynamics, 61–62 climate questionnaire, 272–273 clinical mental health settings, 79 cognitive behavioral theory (CBT), 157 co-leadership, 200–201, 323, 325–326 clinical mental health setting, 141 supervision, 303–304 colonization, 161 communication, 7–8 communication orientation, 7 conceptualization skills, SGW Model, 300 confidentiality adolescents and teenagers, 103–104 counselor training, 48–49 culturally sustained group, 222 group members, 105 and informed consent, 106 leader’s requirements, 103 mental health setting, 142 in online counseling groups, 105 online groups, 144 conflict resolution, 16, 250 conflicts, group development, 175–176 conformity racial identity development, 164 White counselors, 165 confrontation skills, group leader, 193 control, FIRO-B assessment, 10 conventional individual theories, 154 coronavirus (COVID-19) online group experience, 45 pandemic experience, 235–236 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), 2, 13, 31, 56, 121, 150, 184, 206, 230, 260 counseling groups, 72, 126 counselor antiracist framework, 11–14 coronavirus (COVID-19), 11–12 counseling program, 13 criminal justice system, 12 critical reflection and discourse, 13

cultural sensitivity, 13–14 intersectionality, 13 self-reflection questions, 12 counselor trainees appreciation, 37–38 course instructor, 42 dynamics, 37 empathy, 39 ethical issues, 46–49 group experience requirement, 36 group separate from class, 40–41 group with outside leadership, 41 history, 35–36 online group experience, 45–46 peer facilitated group experience, 42–43 power and privilege awareness, 43–44 professional training standards, 35 self-awareness, 39–40 self-disclosure, 36 Simulated Group Counseling (SGC) Model, 43 skills, 38–39 course instructor, training group, 42 criminal justice system, 12 critical consciousness, 237, 250 Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ), 80, 270–271 critical race theory (CRT), 163 inclusive model, 170–171 critical reflection and discourse, 13 cultural sensitivity, 13–14 culturally appropriate theories colonization, 161 critical race theory (CRT), 163 decolonization, 161 ecological systems theory, 162 intersectionality, 161–162 racial identity developmental models, 163–165 relational cultural theory (RCT), 165–166 traditional frameworks, 161 culturally sustained group beginning phase, 210–214 ending phase, 218–221 ethical practice and concerns, 221–224 middle phase, 214–218 planned, 210

Index  339

supervision (see supervision) culturally sustained group counseling skills advance skills, 194–195 case study, 186–187 challenging and confrontation, 193–194 co-leadership, 200–201 culture and power, 188 group facilitation, 191–192 group leaders qualities, 199–200 interpretation, 192–193 probing technique, 192 processing skill, 194–195 race-related discussions, 195 racism and discrimination, 197–201 silence, 192 skilled group leaders, 188 social justice, 188 social microcosm, 195 culture, 7 current group counseling research, 267–268 decolonization, 161 deep processing skill, 195 differential racialization, CRT, 163 dispositions, leadership style, 77 dissonance racial identity development, 164 White counselors, 165 dual relationships, 46–47, 106–107 ecological system inclusive model, 168–170 framework, 250 theory, 10–11, 162 effective group leadership skills challenges and confrontation, 193–194 group facilitation, 191–192 interpretation, 192–193 probing technique, 192 silence, 192 emerging groups and considerations affinity groups, 239–241 antiracist education, 243 Braver Spaces, 238 critical consciousness, 237 intergroup dialogues, 241–242

participatory action research, 247–248 processing, 237 racial healing circles, 242 social emotional core competencies, 244–247 social emotional learning (SEL), 243 social justice-oriented group dialogue, 237–238 emotion regulation, supervision, 303 empathy group experience, 39 group work, 16 ending phase, culturally sustained group characteristics, 219 ethical practice and concerns, 223–224 feelings, 219–220 group leadership considerations, 220–221 unanticipated ending, 218 engagement questionnaire, 272 ethical and clinical issues ableism, 113 accessibility and inclusion, 113–114 inclusive language, 114 screening, 111–112 suicidality, 112–113 ethical considerations adolescents, 103–104 confidentiality, 102–106 dual relationships, 106–107 group course, 24–25 informed consent, 96–99 leader values, 108–111 limits of, 105 one’s scope of experience/expertise, 107–108 existential theory, 156 existentialism, 20 exosystem, ecological systems theory, 162 experiential group experience, 42–43, 47 family group communication systems, 7–8 group roles, 8–9 social and cultural foundation, 7 feedback giving and receiving, 198–199 solicitation, 15

340  Index foundational counseling theories, 154 Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) assessment, 9 GCQ-S. See Group Climate Questionnaire Short GES. See Group Environment Scale Gestalt theory, 157 grief and loss group, schools, 58–59, 133–135 group assessment and evaluation, 80–81 definition, 5–6 emotional safe space, 9 types and characteristics, 71–76 Group Climate Questionnaire Short (GCQ-S), 271 group cohesion, 166 group cohesiveness, 19 Group Development Process, 20–22 group developmental theories, 155, 158 Bennis and Shepard’s communication, 159 Bion’s framework, 158–159 Schutz’s concept, 159–160 Tuckman’s group development framework, 160–161 group dynamics, 137 Black Lives Matter, 60–61 content vs. process, 61–62 definition, 60 group models, 65–71 growth and setbacks, 320 member and leader identities, 63–65 member roles, 63 microaggressive statement, 320 norms, 62–63 privilege and oppression, 322 racism and oppression, 319–320 Group Environment Scale (GES), 271 group experiences counselor antiracist lens, 11–14 counselor trainees (See counselor trainees) developmental research, 9 families, 7–9 FIRO-B assessment, 10

identity formation, 10–11 leadership style, 77 previous group bias, 6 short- and long-term experiences, 5 social needs, 9 group facilitation skills, 252–253 group goals questionnaire, 273 group leaders co-leadership, 200–201 conflict, 175–176 culturally sustained, 199–200 skills, 192–193 supervision, 298–302 group leadership skills effective, 191–192 examples, 189 practicing counseling skills, 188 reflection activity, 189–191 group models beginning phase, 65 Group Development Models, 67–70 group phase, 65–66, 71 self-disclosure, 65 group norms, 62–63 group planning and logistical considerations clinical mental health setting, 136–144 online groups, 144–145 school setting, 124–135 group research and evaluation assessment considerations, 268–270 case study, 263–264 Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ), 270–271 current group counseling research, 267–268 demographic variables, 275–276 ethical obligations, 265–267 funding, 279 Group Climate Questionnaire Short (GCQ-S), 271 group environment, 277 Group Environment Scale (GES), 271 informal assessments, 271–274 limitations, 274–277 racial and ethnic equity, 277–279 therapeutic alliance, 274–275

Index  341

group supervision CACREP standards, 291 conceptualization, 293 ethics, 295–296 feedback, 297 limitations, 292–293 models, 293–295 peer relationships, 296–297 strengths, 291–292 supervisee affect monitoring, 297 supervisees, 290–291 supportive engagement, 298 time management, 298 training, 296 group work authors’ experiences, 22–24 group development, 20–22 Johari Window, 14–16 Kara Ieva, 22–23 outcomes, 16 purpose, 126 Rachel Vannatta, 23–24 Sam Steen, 23 therapeutic factors, 16–120 Hays’ ADDRESSING Model, 63–65 healing centered engagement (HCE) antiracist group facilitation skills, 248–252 asset-based approach, 236–237 group counseling, 237 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)-compliant platform, 145 high conversation orientation, 7 highly unstructured leadership style, 76 honesty, group leaders, 329 hope, group leaders, 329 humility, group leaders, 329 identity development, 324–325 identity formation, 10–11 imitative behavior, 19 immersion racial identity development, 164 White counselors, 165 imparting information, 18

inclusion, FIRO-B assessment, 10 inclusive language, 114, 320–321 inclusive model, group theory conflict and group development, 175–176 critical race theory, 170–171 development stage, 167 ecological systems, 168–170 intersectionality, 168 linear model, 167 relational cultural theory, 171–172 self-disclosure, 172–174 self-involving, 172–175 inclusivity, 113 individual counseling theories Adler’s original framework, 155 core concepts and cultural considerations, 156–158 culturally diverse populations, 154 and group work application, 155 person-centered approach, 155 psychoanalytic approach, 155 race and deviance, 154 informal assessments, 271–274 informed consent, 49, 96–99 mental health setting, 142–144 school setting, 135–136 integrative awareness racial identity development, 164 White counselors, 165 Integrative Reflecting Model (IRM), 295 interest convergence, CRT, 163 intergroup dialogues, 241–242 internalized oppression, 239 interpersonal interactions, 72 interpersonal learning, 19 interpersonal relationships, 322 interpersonal style, counselor trainees, 40 interpretation, 192–193 intersecting identities, 314–315 intersectionality, 13, 17–20, 161–162 group development, 168 middle school, 323–324 intervention skills, SGW Model, 299–300 introspection racial identity development, 164 White counselors, 165 IRM. See Integrative Reflecting Model

342  Index Johari Window blind self/blind spot, 15 hidden area/façade, 15–16 open/self-area/arena, 15 self-awareness, 14 unknown area, 16 keen group leaders, 196 leader feedback self-evaluation, 43 leader identities, 63–65 leader values, 108–111 leadership, clinical mental health setting, 141 leadership skills, 324–325 leadership style basic counseling skills, 76 dispositions, 77 group experience, 77 highly structured sessions, 76 highly unstructured, 76 personality style, 77–78 LGBTQ Responsive Model for Supervision of Group Work (RMSGW) Bernard’s foci, 302 discrimination model adaptation, 302 points of entry, 302 supervisor roles, 301 supra-group level, 301 linear model of group development, 167 logistical norms, online groups, 144–145 low conversation orientation, 7 macrosystem, ecological systems theory, 162 member identities, 63–65 member roles, group dynamics, 63 mental health setting co-leadership, 141 confidentiality, 142 evaluation, 142 group curriculum, 137–138 group duration, 141 group participants preparation, 143 group type, 137 informed consent, 142–144 leadership, 141

open and closed groups, 140–141 pre-assessment and post-assessment, 142 recruitment, 138–140 school setting, 136 mesosystem, ecological systems theory, 162 microaggressions, 44, 171 microsystem, ecological systems theory, 162 middle phase, culturally sustained group characteristics, 215–216 confidentiality, 216 countertransference, 217 ethical practice and concerns, 222–223 feelings, 216 group leadership considerations, 216–218 roller coaster analogy, 215 self-disclosure, 215 silence, 217 transference, 217 Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (MSJCC), 317 antiracism, 319 oppression, 318 racism, 318–319 social justice, 318 social privilege, 318 Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies Principles for Group Workers (MSJCPGW), 4, 33, 58, 93, 95–96, 123, 152, 185, 208, 230, 262, 317 multicultural counseling context clinical mental health settings, 79 ethical consideration, 81–82 group assessment and evaluation, 80–81 group delivery, 78–79 group dynamics, 60–71 group types, 71–76 leadership style, 76–78 schools, 78–79 multiculturalism, 322 naïvete, White counselors, 165 National Science Foundation (NSF), 279 non-gender conforming members, 289 non-people of color affinity groups, 240 norms, 62–63

Index  343

online groups confidentiality, 105, 144 experience, 45–46, 46 logistical norms, 144–145 supervision, 305 technology availability, 145 oppression, 238, 318, 320–321 outside leader, 41 participatory action research (PAR), 247–248, 254 patience, group leaders, 329 peer facilitated group experience, 42–43 personal conflict, 175 personality style and characteristics, 77–78 personalization skills, SGW Model, 300 perspective taking, group work, 16 PGTM. See Purposeful Group Techniques Model power and privilege, 98 power differentials, 99 practice-based evidence (PBE), 272 pragmatic processing, 195 privacy, counselor training, 48 privilege, 322 probing technique, 192 process conflict, 175 processing skill, 194–195 Professional Standards, 2–4 psychodynamic theories, 156 psychoeducation groups, 72, 126, 137 psychotherapy groups, 72 Purposeful Group Techniques Model (PGTM), 66 qualitative group designs, 267 qualities, culturally sustained group leaders, 199–200 quantitative group designs, 267 Rachel Vannatta, group work, 23–24 racial affinity group, 240 racial and ethnic equity, research Arizona State University (ASU) type 2 diabetes study, 277–278 culture, 278 person’s life experience, 278

racial healing circles, 242 racial healing process, group work, 16 racial identity developmental models assumptions, 163–164 non-White backgrounds, 164 White counselors, 164–165 racialized inequities, 314 racism, 318–319, 320–321 racism and discrimination antiracism, 198 antiracist, 198 “calling out” people, 197–198 cathartic moment(s) facilitation, 197 feedback giving and receiving, 198–199 RCT. See relational cultural theory reactions, 12 recruitment, clinical mental health setting community agencies and private practices, 139 demographic characteristics, 139 individual client seeing, 139–140 substance abuse clinic, 138 relational cultural theory (RCT), 165–166, 171–172 relationship skills, 245 resistance racial identity development, 164 White counselors, 165 responsible decision-making, 245 RMSGW. See LGBTQ Responsive Model for Supervision of Group Work school setting, 78–79 administrators, 126 affinity groups, 240–241 assessment considerations, 274 clinical mental health setting, 136 culturally sustaining groups, 129 elementary school, case study, 124 grief and loss curriculum, 133–135 group size and selection, 127 groups, 131 high school, case study, 125 high school counselor and student participation, 129–130 informed consent, 135–136 location, 127

344  Index school setting (cont.) logistical concerns, 130–131 needs assessments, 127, 128 screening, 129 selected topics, 132–136 school-related groups, 9 SEL. See social emotional learning self-assessment, group leader, 265–267 self-awareness, 244 counselor trainees, 39–40 self-disclosure, 172–174, 197, 325–326 self-involving, 172–175 self-management, 244 self-reflection, 12 SGC Model. See Simulated Group Counseling Model SGW Model. See Supervision of Group Work Model silence skill, group leader, 192 Simulated Group Counseling (SGC) Model, 43 skill development, group leadership, 77 social construction, CRT, 163 social emotional core competencies relationship skills, 245 responsible decision-making, 245 self-awareness, 244 self-management, 244 social-awareness, 244–245 social emotional learning (SEL), 243–247 social justice, 188, 318 social justice group workers counseling skills, 197 online supervision, 305 supervision, 304–305 social microcosm, 44, 169, 195 social privilege, 318 social-awareness, 244–245

socialization techniques, 18 SPGS. See structured peer group supervision spirituality, 325–326 storming stage, group development, 21 structured peer group supervision (SPGS), 294–295 suicide assessment, 112–113 supervision co-leader issues, 303–304 definition, 290 emotion regulation, 303 group leaders, 298–302 group supervision, 290–298 intervention level, 304 social justice issues, 304–305 Supervision of Group Work (SGW) Model conceptualization skills, 300 interaction level supervision, 300–301 intervention skills, 299–300 LGBTQ RMSGW, 301–302 personalization skills, 300 supervisor roles, 299 task group, 72 termination period, group development, 21 therapeutic alliance, 274–275 therapeutic factors, 16–20, 166–167 trusting relationship building, 16 Tuckman’s group development framework, 160–161 universality, 17 values, 109–110 youth-led participatory action research (YPAR), 247–248