International Student Employability: Narratives of Strengths, Challenges, and Strategies about Global South Students (Knowledge Studies in Higher Education, 12) 3031332539, 9783031332531

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Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 12

Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh Rosalind Latiner Raby Krishna Bista   Editors

International Student Employability Narratives of Strengths, Challenges, and Strategies about Global South Students

Knowledge Studies in Higher Education Volume 12

Series Editors Jung Cheol Shin, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of) Hugo Horta, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China Editorial Board Members Ulrich Teichler, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany Loet Leydesdorff, Amsterdam School of Communications Research, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Simon Marginson, UCL Institute of Education, London, UK Keun Lee , Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of) Gary Rhoades, University of Arizona, Arizona, USA

Scope of the Series Even though knowledge is the main content of teaching and universities are key knowledge producers, scholars have only recently begun to actively explore research on knowledge studies in higher education. As this field of study has grown, it has increasingly overlapped with the research focus of other fields, namely research and science policy, and information studies. However, these three fields have developed independently with little interaction between them, causing our understanding of knowledge to be limited, compartmented, and lacking a multidimensional perspective. This book series is designed to improve knowledge studies in higher education by stimulating interactions between these different approaches. Coverage in this series includes: • • • • • • • •

University and knowledge production R & D funding systems Education reforms Innovation systems for emerging regions School curriculum and knowledge Social utility of knowledge production University research and in-house research Research collaborations.

With its comprehensive overview and multidisciplinary perspective, this series provides scholars and policymakers with the theory and data they need to make more informed decisions regarding knowledge research in higher education.

Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh Rosalind Latiner Raby  •  Krishna Bista Editors

International Student Employability Narratives of Strengths, Challenges, and Strategies about Global South Students

Editors Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh La Trobe University Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Rosalind Latiner Raby California State University Northridge, CA, USA

Krishna Bista Morgan State University Baltimore, MD, USA

ISSN 2566-7106     ISSN 2566-8315 (electronic) Knowledge Studies in Higher Education ISBN 978-3-031-33253-1    ISBN 978-3-031-33254-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33254-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Chapter Reviewers of This Volume

Hyeyoung Ghim Cherry James Sabrina Rosalind Latiner Raby Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh Parbati Dhungana Rachel Kim Marcia Sun Bal Krishna Sharma Faith Mkwananzi Joe Corrigan Kelly Benati Cruz Lirios Hilal Buyukgoze Mercedes Mareque Shawn Conner-Rondot Sulaiman Mouselli

v

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to editors and colleagues at the STAR Scholars Network. We also appreciate the support of colleagues whom we worked with over the years at the Open Journals in Education, a consortium of professional journals, the Comparative and International Education Society’s Study Abroad and International Students SIG, and the Journal of International Students. We would also like to acknowledge the help of all the scholars who were involved in this project and, more specifically, the authors and reviewers that took part in the review process. Without their support, this book would not have become a reality. Dr. Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh would like to thank her colleagues at LaTrobe University. Dr. Rosalind L.  Raby also would like to thank her husband, Ronald Raby, who supported her during the process of writing this book. At Morgan State University, Dr. Krishna Bista would like to thank his colleagues for their encouragement and support, including graduate students and graduate assistants in the Department of Advanced Studies, Leadership, and Policy. We also thank the following reviewers who assisted us in reviewing manuscripts received for this book: International Student Employability: Narratives of Strengths, Challenges, and Strategies from Global South Students. It could not be possible to finalize the selected chapters without their evaluations and constructive feedback.

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Introduction

International Student Employability: Narratives of Strengths, Challenges, and Strategies from Global South Students examines how international undergraduate and graduate level students and graduates use their agency to make sense of what they are learning and how they apply that knowledge to employability in career pathways. The concept of critical employability frames many of the chapters. Critical employability challenges traditional employability pathways by questioning who is served and not served within a GN global market framework. At the core of critical employability, diversity and equity need to be taken into consideration when framing the role of higher education and employability. This term includes four criteria. First, how students make sense of the intersection of their higher educational institutional (HEI) experiences to their employability options. Second, it requires students to understand how globalization changes professions and alters industry standards. Thirdly, it explores how students utilize their agency to foster self-development and effectively utilize HEI services in order to meet their individual needs and acquire transversal skills and capabilities. Finally, how students use their agency to envision alternative pathways to anticipate and respond to crisis changes in the economy, environment, and national politics. This book adds to the literature by bringing in diverse student voices that are long missing in the field of international student employability (Fakulne, 2021b). The chapters show how deeply the experiences of studying abroad deepen students cultural sensitivity, adaptability, and transferability of skills and capabilities that are essential to graduate employability. The book also uses case studies to examine broader, and sometimes, critical elements of employability. The chapters in the book show that there is a need to widen our scope of understanding employability beyond current dominant perspectives. There is a range of research on international students and employability. Quantitative research uses statistical methods, including surveys, regression analysis, and chi-squared tests to identify the factors that influence employability (Chen et al., 2018; Li et al., 2021; Liu & Wang, 2017; Wong et al., 2019). These studies identified factors of language proficiency, cultural intelligence,

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Introduction

networking skills, academic performance, and cultural adaptation that positively impact employability. Kim and Park (2021) found that cultural adaptation and language proficiency are the most important factors for international students studying in South Korea. Wang and Chen (2019) identified academic performance and language proficiency as significant predictors of employability outcomes for international students in the United States. Qualitative research provides rich and deep descriptions of the experiences, perspectives, and sensemaking of international students regarding their employability. Patel and Singh (2022) used indepth interviews to explore the challenges and strategies used by international students in finding employment in the United Kingdom. Nguyen and Lee (2021) used focus groups to examine the cultural and language barriers that international students face in the job market in Canada. These studies provide a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by international students in the job market and can help educators, policymakers, and employers to develop more effective support strategies. While there is a growing body of research on international students and employability within the Global North, student pathways from the Global South (GS) are limited. The label of Global South is given to nations that are politically and culturally marginalized from deep histories of colonialism (King et al., 2018) and whose low or emerging economies subject them to choose the dominant Western global imaginary (Bruckner & Stein, 2020) for their educational and economic development. In so doing students from the Global South need to balance their own local imaginaries within the Global North construct (Raby & Kamyab, 2023). A focus on the Global South shows a diversity of students and their employability pathways. Chapters on Cambodia, Laos, and South-East Asia detail GS students who study in other GS city-hubs, such as China, Japan, Malaysia, and Turkey. Chapters on Australia, Austria, Canada, Japan, Scotland, United Kingdom, and United States detail pathways of GS students who study in GN. Chapters on Australia and Japan have additional implications as countries whose histories are imprinted with colonialism, but whose economies have a GN label. Finally, there are studies on Australian students who study in GS countries of India and Vietnam. This book shows that understanding employability from a range of perspectives is important because governments need graduates with skills ready for the labor market, higher educational institutions are measured by the number of graduates to have gainful employment upon graduation, and international students use study abroad to gain the skills and competencies needed for employability. The chapters critically examine several themes including how students use their capabilities to navigate the host country’s national political policies that define and redefine work permits, visas, and immigration. This includes awareness of national and international employment patterns, wicked problems from globalization, demands of changing labor markets, and adaptability for transversal job sectors. Finally, and of most importance is that the chapters use the lens of diverse student groups,

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including undergraduates, graduate, and doctoral students, international and domestic students, students who study in different HEI sectors (aka, TVET colleges and universities) and in different academic programs (aka STEAM, nursing, and humanities) and different geographies of where students come from and where they study. Such diversification focuses on relevant experiences to employability are fundamentally different. The chapters in this book show that student experiences are not homogenous, a point that needs to be acknowledged by those who study them and those who educate them. All students have a knowledge base prior to studying abroad that enables them to use their agency to succeed while studying abroad. This does not mean that there are no obstacles that international students encounter. The key to study on employability is the understanding of how international students respond to those obstacles. This process cannot be done if international students are continually defined as a homogenous group, if influences from systemic inequities are ignored, and if researchers continue to label students in the deficit. This book is organized around four broad themes that showcase variability between international students and their experiences: (1) external impacts that include a national policy on work policies, visas, migration, and job demands and changing socioeconomic conditions that influence a changing job market; (2) role of the HEI to understand market demands, employers’ needs, and skills shortages which then impacts how they prepare, counsel, provide internships and build work-­ integrated learning for international students; (3) Bourdieuian skills and capabilities approach that help international graduates build defined skills needed for success; and (4) beyond skills with a focus on mindset, networking, returnee experiences, and critical assessment of transversal and alternative employability pathways.

Political Issues and Labor Market Needs Mytieng Tek and Phirom Leng explain the alignment of student self-perceived employability of Cambodian Students in China. While self-perception of skills is important, understanding the local labor market is equally important. Dawn Bennett, Elizabeth Knight, Ian Li, and Peter Hurley compare perceptions of employability between domestic Austrian, international students from the Global North, and international students from the Global South and their migration management in matching perception to real-life job opportunities. Soubin Sisavath examines the employment acquisition of Laos returnees after studying in Asia. Laos’s economic position and relations with individuals’ host country of study abroad when aligned resulted in positive employability. Sisavath cautions that returnees might have a job mismatch due to limited prior work experience and sociocultural influence.

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 ole of Higher Educational Institutions and Work-Based R Learning Programs Michael Atkinson, Clement Sefa-Nyarko, Gezang Cairang, Phil Kafcaloudes, Justin See, Nicole Pavich, Atefeh Taghizadeh, and Andrew Ty examine the various sources of capital needed by doctoral students from the Global South and their perceptions about employability. Findings show a need to shift toward relationship and agency so that global south students can enhance their employability as aligned with their own cultural circumstances. Shamima Raihan Manzoor, Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh, and Abdullah Al Mahmud examine the implications of Work-Based Learning Initiatives (WBLi’s) by Universities in Malaysia to foster employability with an appraisal of services. Anoo Bhopti and CaraJane Millar identify the soft skills, such as resilience, teamwork, communication, and work-integrated learning (WIL) opportunities in occupational therapy that enable students in India and Vietnam to build diverse professional employment networks. Hilal Buyukgoze examines the level of student skills related to career planning, career development, employment expectations, integration into the market, and employment experiences of current or alumni international students.

Bourdieuian Skills and Capabilities Approach Kelly Benati, Sophie Lindsay, Jacqueline O’Toole, and Juan Fischer examine Global South students studying in Australia and their transition to the workplace. Using the Graduate Capitals model, the authors analyzed how students used social capital and cultural capital to plan their employability and career goal achievement. In this study, the use of building identity and psychological capitals were not a priority. Vander Tavares examines the experiences of a multilingual international student from Brazil prior to the beginning of academic studies at a Canadian university and the challenges in acquiring specific skills, competences and how the marginalization, based on foreignized status, led to feelings of exploitation and voicelessness. Shingo Hanada and Phillip Anthony Pappano examine the cultural barriers of international students from the Global South and their employability in Japan. Students shared cultural barriers faced at work and barriers in daily life regarding prospective employment in Japan.

 eyond Skills: Networking and Returnee Experiences B from Studying Abroad Omolabake Fakunle examines the networking experiences of international students studying at a Scottish university often facilitated by work-integrated learning (WIL). The study highlights the importance of challenging deficit narratives around

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international student experience. Xin Zhao and Andrew Cox examine employer, teacher, and student perspectives on international student employability and how studying abroad is an essential skill needed by the Chinese labor market. It further identifies three issues that seem to create problems for returning students: namely, reverse language barrier, reverse culture shock, and a mismatch between career support and the needs of the Chinese employment market. Susan Boafo-Arthur, Linda Tsevi, Dzifa Abra Attah, and Ama Boafo-Arthur examine how studying abroad is beneficial for job acquisition in a home country, but that the prospects of being highly employable might not match the job market demands. Rosalind L. Raby 

Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh



Krishna Bista

References Buckner, E., & Stein, S. (2020). What counts as internationalization? Deconstructing the internationalization imperative. Journal of Studies in International Education, 24(2), 151–166. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1028315319829878 Chen, Y., Chen, J., & Li, M. (2018). Factors affecting the employability of international students in Taiwan. Journal of International Education Research, 14(3), 1–13. https://ul-­journal.org/ index.php/journal/article/view/4 Fakunle, O. (2021). Developing a framework for international students’ rationales for studying abroad, beyond economic factors. Policy Futures in Education, 19(6), 671–669. https://doi. org/10.1177/1478210320965066 Kim, S., & Park, J. (2021). The role of language proficiency, cultural adaptation, and academic performance in the employability of international students in South Korea. Journal of International Education and Development, 16(1), 67–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 102831531666990 King, R., & Sondhi, G. (2018). International student migration: A comparison of UK and Indian student’s motivations for studying abroad. Globalisation, Societies and Education., 16(2), 176–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2017.1405244 Li, X., Wang, Y., & Yang, Y. (2021). Factors influencing the employability of international students in the United States: A survey study. Journal of International Students, 11(1), 1–20. https://doi. org/10.4236/ojbm.2021.94105 Liu, Y., & Wang, Y. (2017). Factors influencing the employability of international students in China: A survey study. Journal of International Education and Development, 12(1), 34–45. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10447-­020-­09409-­7 Nguyen, T., & Lee, J. (2021). Cultural and language barriers to employability for international students in Canada. Journal of International Education and Development, 16(4), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1941318 Patel, R., & Singh, S. (2022). Navigating the job market: International students’ experiences and strategies in finding employment in the United Kingdom. Journal of International Education Research, 18(2), 57–69. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1140259.pdf.

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Raby, R. L., & Kamyab, S. (2022). Comparing unintended consequences of internationalization across case studies. In S. Kamyab & R. L. Raby (Eds.), Unintended consequences of internationalization in higher education: Comparative international perspectives on the impacts of policy and practice (pp. 1–23). Routledge. Wang, Y., & Chen, Y. (2019). Examining the relationship between academic performance and employability outcomes of international students in the United States: A multiple regression analysis. Journal of International Education and Development, 14(3), 1–13. https://files.eric. ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1220573.pdf. Wong, S., Ng, K., & Leung, R. (2019). Investigating the relationship between international students’ academic performance and employability outcomes in the Australian job market. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 41(3), 333–344. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/1360080X.2019.1646383

Contents

1

 Dimensions of International Student Critical Employability��������������    1 Rosalind Latiner Raby, Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh, and Krishna Bista

Part I Political Issues and Labor Market Needs 2

The Effects of International Experience on Self-Perceived Employability of Cambodian Students in China����������������������������������   25 Muytieng Tek and Phirom Leng

3

Comparing Employability Trends Between International Students from Global South and Global North Peers��������������������������   37 Dawn Bennett, Elizabeth Knight, Ian Li, and Peter Hurley

4

Journey from Higher Education to Employment Among Returnee Graduates in Laos������������������������������������������������������   51 Soubin Sisavath

Part II Role of Higher Educational Institution and Work-Based Learning Programs 5

Global South Doctoral Students and University Employment Services: Personalizing the Relationship������������������������   71 Michael Atkinson, Clement Sefa-Nyarko, Gezang Cairang, Phil Kafcaloudes, Justin See, Nicole Pavich, Atefeh Taghizadeh, and Andrew Ty

6

The Implications of Work-Based Learning Initiatives in Malaysian Universities: Developing International Postgraduate Students’ Employability��������������������������������������������������   89 Shamima Raihan Manzoor, Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh, and Abdullah Al-Mahmud

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Contents

7

 Enabling Employability Through International Mobility��������������������  111 Anoo Bhopti and CaraJane Millar

8

Employability Perceptions and Experiences of International Students from the Global South ��������������������������������  127 Hilal Buyukgoze and Nihan Demirkasımoğlu

Part III Bourdieuian Skills and Capabilities Approach 9

Global South Business Students: Utilising Internships to Develop Graduate Capitals and Employability��������������������������������  143 Kelly Benati, Sophie Lindsay, Jacqueline O’Toole, and Juan Fischer

10 Take  It or Leave It: The Employment-­Related Experiences of an International Student Prior to Academic Studies ����������������������  159 Vander Tavares 11 Cultural  Barriers of International Students Employability in Japan����������������������������������������������������������������������������  173 Shingo Hanada and Phillip Anthony Pappano III Part IV Beyond Skills: Networking and Returnee Experiences from Studying Abroad 12 A  Missing Link Between Employability and Internationalization? Exploring International Students’ Experiences of Networking During Study����������������������������  189 Omolabake Fakunle 13 International  Study and Graduate Employability: Employer, Teacher and Student Perspectives����������������������������������������  203 Xin Zhao and Andrew Cox 14 Chronicles  of the Job Market: Expectation vs. Reality������������������������  217 Susan Boafo-Arthur, Linda Tsevi, Dzifa Abra Attah, and Ama Boafo-Arthur 15 Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  231 Rosalind Latiner Raby, Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh, and Krishna Bista

About the Editors

Rosalind  Latiner  Raby PhD, is a senior lecturer at California State University, Northridge in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department of the College of Education. Dr. Raby is the editor-in-chief of the Journal of International & Comparative Higher Education She is also an affiliate faculty and is a member of the Academic Board for the Centre for Higher Education Internationalisation (CHEI), Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano. Since 1984, Dr. Raby has worked with community colleges to help them internationalize their curriculum, their college programs, and college mission statements. Among her many publications are Unintended Consequences of Internationalization in Higher Education Comparative International Perspectives on the Impacts of Policy and Practice (2023, Routledge), International Handbook on Comparative Studies on Community Colleges and Global Counterparts (2017, Springer Publishers), International Education at Community Colleges: Themes, Practices, and Case Studies (2016, Palgrave), and Higher education in Nepal: Policies and Perspectives (2020, Routledge). She has over 200 publications in peer review journals and book chapters on the topic of comparative and international higher education. E-mail: [email protected]  

Jasvir  Kaur  Nachatar  Singh PhD, a senior lecturer at La Trobe University, Melbourne, in the Department of Management, Sport and Tourism. She has received several institutional and international awards in research and teaching. She has developed, coordinated, and taught several subjects at La Trobe, Monash, and Melbourne University. Her research profile is interdisciplinary. Her work appears in high-impact journals such as Higher Education, International Journal of Educational Development, Journal of Studies in International Education, Higher Education and Research Development, Australian Journal of Career Development, Asia Pacific Education Review, and International Journal of Educational Management. Her recent book is Academic Mobility and International Academics Challenges and Opportunities (2022, Emerald). E-mail: [email protected]  

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About the Editors

Krishna  Bista EdD, is a professor of Higher Education in the Department of Advanced Studies, Leadership and Policy at Morgan State University, Maryland. He is the founding editor of the Journal of International Students, a quarterly publication in international education published by the STAR scholars. He is also the founding chair of the Study Abroad and International Students SIG at the Comparative and International Education Society. His latest books are The Experiences of International Faculty in Institutions of Higher Education: Enhancing Recruitment, Retention, and Integration of International Talent, w/glass and Lin (Routledge, 2021); International Students at US Community Colleges: Opportunities, Challenges, and Successes, w/Malveaux (Routledge, 2021); and Online Teaching and Learning in Higher Education during COVID-19: International Perspectives and Experiences, w/Chan and Allen (Routledge, 2021). E-mail: [email protected]  

List of Figures

Fig. 5.1

Tomatoes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80

Fig. 5.2

Broken iPad�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   81

Fig. 9.1 Graduate capitals model. (Tomlinson, 2017. https://www.southampton.ac.uk/careers/staff/ employability-­exchange/index.page)�����������������������������������������������  145 Fig. 9.2 Graduate capitals model. (Tomlinson, 2017)�����������������������������������  152 Fig. 11.1 Barriers faced at work����������������������������������������������������������������������  179 Fig. 11.2 Barriers faced in daily life���������������������������������������������������������������  180 Fig. 13.1 Career-related information channels used by current students, alumni and employers in China����������������������  211

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3

Characteristics of informants in the follow-up interviews������������   29 Descriptive statistics (N = 357)�����������������������������������������������������   30 Regression results��������������������������������������������������������������������������   31

Table 3.1 Study sample disaggregated by country group of origin (N = 10,254)�������������������������������������������������������������������   41 Table 3.2 Linear regression estimates of employability traits�����������������������   43 Table 4.1 Lao student mobility outflow and returnee graduates between 2010 and 2019�����������������������������������������������������������������   55 Table 4.2 Demographic information of participants (N = 38)�����������������������   58 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4

Demographic characteristics of interviewees��������������������������������   95 (CA-1): WBLi’s in Malaysian universities������������������������������������   96 WBLi’s at a glance in Malaysian universities�������������������������������   98 (CA-2): WBL capabilities�������������������������������������������������������������   99

Table 7.1 Table 7.2

Global citizenship capabilities�������������������������������������������������������  112 Focus group and survey questions�������������������������������������������������  116

Table 8.1

Background information of the participants (N = 10)�������������������  132

Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5 Table 9.6 Table 9.7 Table 9.8

Total participants and enrolment status (2018–2020)��������������������  147 Unique student count across total participants������������������������������  147 Participant region or origin������������������������������������������������������������  147 Summary table of the primary themes�������������������������������������������  148 Actions for further development����������������������������������������������������  149 Job-seeking strategies��������������������������������������������������������������������  149 Networking strategies��������������������������������������������������������������������  149 Further study theme�����������������������������������������������������������������������  150

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List of Tables

Table 11.1 McQuaid and Lindsay’s (2005, pp. 208–213) three-factor framework��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  177 Table 13.1 Employers’ top ten essential employability skills mapped to views of other stakeholders������������������������������������������  207 Table 13.2 Employers’ top ten essential employability skills mapped to what participants believe is gained through study abroad���������������������������������������������������������������������  208

Chapter 1

Dimensions of International Student Critical Employability Rosalind Latiner Raby, Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh

, and Krishna Bista

Abstract  This chapter explores the variations in employability concepts as applied to international students. It highlights the fact that international students are a diverse population with different mobility experiences and employability outcomes. It also sheds light on the fact that students from the same country may not have a common study abroad or employability experience. The intersectionality of students, including factors such as age, class, race, ethnicity, and gender, contributes to the variability of their experiences. Additionally, it critiques traditional employability theories, which are framed within the Global North lens and influenced by a market-oriented approach, and introduces the concept of critical employability, which prioritizes diversity and equity in higher education and employability. Focusing on critical employability for students is important because colonialism, in its various forms, influences student development of self and affects how a student develops and uses their agency to understand employability pathways. Keywords  International students · Employability · Global South · Professional skills · Productivity · College education This book examines variations within the concepts of employability as applied to international students. International students are not a homogenous population. As such, their mobility experiences and employability vary. Equally important is that students from the same country do not have a common abroad or common R. L. Raby California State University, Northridge, CA, USA J. K. N. Singh La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia e-mail: [email protected] K. Bista (*) Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. K. N. Singh et al. (eds.), International Student Employability, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 12, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33254-8_1

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employability experience. The intersectionality of these students ensures differential experiences based on age, class, race, ethnicity, gender, and other factors as well as a combination of these factors. Variability extends to what employment means in different countries, what students want for employability, how they go about interacting with higher educational institutions, employers, and national policies, and the changing constructs of careers and employment within a dynamic field. While there is abundant research on the employability of domestic and international students, certain populations remain understudied. There is limited research on students with demographic characteristics such as gender, race, ethnicity, and disability status as well as on student intersectionality that combines these characteristics. Research is limited to the Western perspectives of Global South students studying in Australia, the United Kingdom, or the United States (Clarke, 2018; Römgens et al., 2020; Tomlinson & Nghia, 2020). Emerging research extends to new populations and capturing students’ voices (Fakunle & Higson, 2021; Okolie et al., 2020; Page & Chahboun, 2019) as shown in the case studies in this book. The role of geography in international student employability also remains understudied. This book examines the employability pathways of students from diverse regions of the world including the Global South (GS), who study in the Global North (GN), GS students who study in the GS, and GN students who study in the GS. The label of the GS is a complicated one. All countries have a direct or indirect connection with colonialization and empire conditioning that shapes internationalization (Majee & Ress, 2018), reproduces Whiteness in unequal policies and programs (Shahjahan & Edwards, 2021), and thus impacts employability pathways. Some countries are economically positioned in the GN but have political-­educational roots to a colonial past and thus straddle GN and Southern imaginaries (Raby & Kamyab, 2022). GS countries are politically and culturally marginalized as a result of colonialism (King & Sondhi, 2018) and limited economic-political stability (Fakunle, 2021a). Traditionally, GN HEIs (higher educational institutions) use a humanitarian rationale to recruit international students as a way of using education to raise up the GS (Bruckner & Stein, 2020; Raby, 2014). GS factors readily adopt the grand narrative of modernity and as they embrace GN imaginaries, they are pulled to the GN with the hope of gaining advantages (Altbach, 2004; Stein, 2021). Yet, this pattern does not always enable an advantage as it reinforces the GS as being non-western and inferior (Bruckner & Stein, 2020). In de-colonial narratives, some HEIs are breaking from this dependency relationship by accentuating their own local narratives (Musengi & Wolhuter, 2023). Employability theories in the field of international higher education have been framed within the GN lens that examines skills-competencies defined by a market-­ approach largely influenced by the European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2014). While employability is a goal of nations, industries, higher educational institutions (HEIs), and students, it is not a uniform goal. Globalization, crisis, and environmental change influence job markets and individual well-being needs (Tamrat, 2022). On the national level, high employment rates are believed to help raise the economic and developmental levels of that country. National policies, aging populations, and socio-cultural norms, including systemic inequities, impact

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labor market patterns, migration flows, diverse geographic destinations, and availability of jobs for international students. On the industry level, applicants who are qualified become stronger workers. Yet, international students are not always recognized as being qualified. On the HEI level, the number of graduates who gain employment in their field raises HEI ranking and perceived quality. Sometimes, internships or service learning are an integral part of the curriculum. Finally, on the student level, employability favors them in a competitive job market, abroad or at home, as well as enables some students to stay in the host country to work and/or to immigrate. Critical employability challenges traditional employability pathways by questioning who is served and not served within a GN global market framework. At the core of critical employability is the idea that diversity and equity need to be taken into consideration when framing the role of higher education and employability. The changing landscape of jobs requires students to be more than just being prepared to get a job, it requires that students understand how globalization changes professions and alters industry standards. Critical employability also addresses colonialism, in its various forms, how it influences the development of self, and how it affects how a student uses their agency to understand employability pathways within local, national, and international contexts. This chapter unpacks the dimensions of employability within the socio-economic and political environment.

1.1 Methods This chapter uses a qualitative bibliometric approach to present a macro view of broader themes found in publications on employability from a global perspective. Using a qualitative lens, publications show how the field changes over time, how themes are influenced by socio-economic and philosophical theories, and who is ignored in these discussions (Creswell & Poth, 2018). We apply a critical discourse analysis to uncover the elements of power and ideology as it is expressed in the asymmetric relationship between people “who hold different positions and to the unequal capacity to control how texts are produced, distributed, and consumed in sociocultural contexts” (Fairclough, 2010, p. 4). We use a critical internationalization analysis (Stein, 2021) to assess how research communicates power in depictions of GS students’ employability pathways.

1.1.1 Literature Review Selection Process We used the Comparative Education Review Bibliography methodology that systematically filters publications (Raby, 2008). The initial selection came from Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), EBSCO-HOST, and Educational Resources Information Clearinghouse (ERIC) academic databases. Using Boolean logics, our

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search terms were *jobs*, *employment*, employability*, *international students*, and study abroad*. Publications were first filtered based on peer-review status and English language medium and then according to titles that mentioned the search terms. Publications were validated by a review of the abstracts and then critical read of articles. At each stage, sources that did not meet the criteria were eliminated.

1.1.2 Data Analysis We used a Literature Review Mapping strategy (Hovater, 2000) to (a) identify key terms, (b) sort data into groups or “families of studies” and label them, and (c) link the literature from other families. Each text was marked for the historical context to apply constant critical reflection to assess viability over time and arranged by institutional sector type, year, theoretical construct, student demographics, areas of study, and country of focus (Fairclough, 2010). The analysis enabled the identification and triangulation of recurring narrative themes.

1.1.3 Limitations Three limitations apply. First, there are forms of scholarship that were missed from the world scene, especially those that were not in peer-review publications. Second, a focus on English-language sources misses important publications that could illuminate absent voices. Finally, the biases of the authors as researchers, who have studied internationalization for 35 years, influence the data’s interpretation.

1.2 Unpacking International Student Employability Research Employability is the most cited reason why international students want to study abroad (International Student Barometer, 2022; OECD, 2022). GS international students choose to study abroad to immigrate, gain career employment abroad, or use their new skills-capabilities to help their own country in economic development (Ahrari et al., 2019; Fakunle, 2020; Soares & Mosquera, 2020). The global market influences neo-liberalism national and HEI policies that place students in the GN (de Wit & Altbach, 2021). Likewise, employability research largely focuses on incoming students to Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Emerging research examines international students in diverse locations including non-Anglophone GN and GS countries (Raby & Kamyab, 2022; Kondakci et al., 2018).

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1.2.1 Do International Students Get Jobs? Despite the widespread belief that the mobility experience leads to employability, it does not guarantee employment. Research is mixed on how long and what type of studying abroad enhances employability and if employability is central to getting a job. Research also examines the impact of internships abroad and virtual abroad programs (Di Pietro, 2019; Hubbard, 2019; Potts, 2020) and student perceptions about their employability and approaches to getting hired (Cao, 2017; Huang & Turner, 2018). Some research shows that international students are passed over for employment due to ascribed deficit labels in the educational context and by future employers. In an Erasmus program study, 36% of international students said that employers were not interested in them and that there were no suitable jobs in their chosen careers in continental Europe (Nilsson & Ripmeester, 2016). Studies confirm that domestic students in Australia (Green et al., 2020) and China (Singh, 2020) are preferred over international students. Finally, international students without permanent residency have difficulty in job attainment (Vishnu et al., 2019). Other research shows that studying abroad gets a student a job and results in increased wages overtime (West, 2017). Well-paid jobs were obtained by students who study abroad from the United States (Farrugia & Sanger, 2017; Hubbard, 2019). Research shows that employment is facilitated by English literacy, in both English-speaking and non-English-speaking countries (Asada, 2019; Nghia & Quyen, 2020), by studying in professional courses, such as nursing, business, engineering, and information technology (Alho, 2020), and by how long students study abroad. Finally, job location in the home, host, or another country, determines the ease with which one is employed (Vishnu et al., 2019).

1.3 Definitions of International Student Employability Traditional definitions include both skills-competencies and mindset-agency.

1.3.1 Skills-Competences for Employability The skills-competencies definition uses a GN frame that is employment-centered (Clarke, 2018; European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2014). The most repeated definition focuses on being prepared for a singular job/career: A set of achievements – skills, understandings, and personal attributes – that makes graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community, and the economy (Yorke, 2006, p. 8).

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Recent literature expands the definition to include employment outcomes, sustainability, professional skills growth, and job satisfaction (Jackson, 2017; Tomlinson & Nghia, 2020). Skills-competencies are measurable outcomes that are gained through participation in HEIs educational programs, re-skilling and up-skilling micro-credentials, networking, and formal/informal work experiences (Fakunle & Pirrie, 2020; World Bank, 2020). Students are expected to receive and master skills to be competitive in the global labor markets (Fakunle, 2021a, b). Skills-competencies are categorized as (a) numeracy, literacy, and discipline-subject knowledge (Okolie et al., 2020); (b) problem-solving and critical thinking (Pham et al., 2018); (c) personality, attitude traits, and adaptability (England et al., 2020); (d) how skills are presented to employers and how students relate to the context of employment within the labor market (Tomlinson & Nghia, 2020); (e) character qualities of social-cultural awareness, cross-cultural and global awareness (Huang & Turner, 2018; Hubbard, 2019); (f) English language literacy (Goodwin & Mbah, 2019), although non-English languages are increasingly preferred (Raby & Kamyab, 2022); and (g) acquisition of a host country’s capital (Boafo-Arthur et  al., 2017). Both industry and HEI define what is an essential skill-competency but their opinions do not always match. Skillscompetencies include the acquisition of global/intercultural skills (de Wit & Altbach, 2021; Hubbard, 2019; Mok & Han, 2016). Quantitative research, including statistical methods of survey, regression analysis, and chi-squared test, shows that language proficiency, cultural intelligence, networking skills, academic performance, and cultural adaptation have a significant impact on the employability of international students (Chen et al., 2018; Li et al., 2021a, b; Liu & Wang, 2017; Wong et al., 2019). For international students in Korea, the most important proficiencies are cultural adaptation and language proficiency. For international students in the U.S., academic performance and language proficiency are the most significant proficiencies. Qualitative studies bring in student voices of their experiences and perspectives regarding their employability. Used in-depth interviews to assess the challenges and strategies used by international students in finding employment in the United Kingdom. Used focus groups to examine the cultural and language barriers that international students face in the job market in Canada.

1.3.2 Bordieuan Capital Theories The skills-competencies literature uses the Bordieuan capitals (1986, 1989) as an organizational frame to assess what enables or prevents students from getting a job (Nghia et al., 2020; Römgens et al., 2020; Xu, 2021). HEIs provide a place for students to learn the capitals, although it is up to the student to take control of their learning (Soares & Mosquera, 2020).

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1.3.2.1 Human Capital Theory and Skills Approach The Human Capital Theory (Schultz, 1961) links education to skills needed to build national economies. Human Capital (Bourdieu, 1986, 1989) is defined by the marketization of higher education (Oleksiyenko & Shchepetylnykova, 2021) and focuses on skills-competencies that graduates need to navigate and enter the job market (Nghia et al., 2020; Pham & Jackson, 2020; Römgens et al., 2020). Human capital can differ for domestic and international students (Weirs-Jensesson, 2021) and skills learned are not always transferable across countries. 1.3.2.2 Social Capital Social capital (Bourdieu, 1989) refers to knowledge that students have about whom to ask and how to gain access to college programs, networking, and general information. Social capital helps to “mobilize graduates’ existing human capital and bring them closer to the labor market and its opportunity structures” (Tomlinson, 2017, p.  342). In this way, students can identify the set of elite knowledge and norms needed for participation in the dominant culture of the host country. 1.3.2.3 Networking One tool to gain social capital is formal or informal networking that overlaps formal programs affiliated with a faculty member and informal opportunities with peers (English et al., 2021). Networking teaches how to get letters of recommendation, engage in volunteer programs, and learn about professional social media competencies (Fakunle, 2021a, b). 1.3.2.4 Cultural Capital Cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1989) is the dominant cultural forms of knowledge, including language, demeanor, tastes, sensibilities, and stock of elite knowledge. Those who have cultural capital are more competitive in the workplace and are positioned to gain higher status in society (Bourdieu, 1986). Full adoption of cultural capital requires assimilation into the dominant culture. GN defined cultural capitals of time management, professional communication, and problem-solving are not universal and can counter the cultural capitals of other countries.

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1.3.2.5 Identity Capital, Psychological Capital, and Agentic Capital Identity capital is the extent to which a student uses cultural capital to be familiar with the job criteria of companies that they want to work in (Tomlinson, 2017). Psychological capital is the level of psychosocial resources that a student uses to plan for several careers (Tomlinson, 2017) and relies on resilience, adaptability (Koen et  al., 2012), and ability to balance stress, time, and loneliness (Fakunle, 2021a, b). Agentic capital focuses on students’ ability to strategize about resources needed for employability (Pham & Jackson, 2020). The skills for a future project in Portugal use these capitals to enhance student mindset, team spirit, and communication (Schueller & Figueiredo, 2021).

1.3.3 Mindset and Agency A focus on mindset instead of skillset enables students to respond to life changes, crises, and social changes (Clarke, 2018; Huang et al., 2022). Mindset has five criteria: (a) adaptability, self-reliance, and well-being that helps a student to respond to rapidly changing markets (Schueller & Figueirdo, 2021); (b) preparation for meaningful work across multiple work settings over a career lifespan that is uncertain; (c) employability pathways that differ for undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral students, students in different disciplines, students from different income countries, and for GN and GS students; (d) use of agency to navigate restrictions imposed by socio-cultural norms of the host country; and (e) ability to negotiate restrictions within local, national, and international systemic inequities from racially stratified, class, privilege, and colonialism, replicated in the HEI that influences student learning (Xu, 2020).

1.4 Factors That Facilitate Employability There are several groups of factors that combinedly facilitate employability.

1.4.1 National Level At the national level, governmental policies create regulatory frameworks to influence the labor market and, in turn, influence job availability. Countries with national multi-year plans, link jobs to the economy, and the Ministry of Education translates them into practice (Tamrat, 2022). Governmental policies can also define the availability of work permits for international students. Discriminatory practices put international students in vulnerable positions when trying to get a job (Adamson &

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Tsourapas, 2020; Yang, 2018). Finally, governmental policies define permanent residency visa regulations and immigration policies, often to support aging societies, and the need for labor (Fakunle & Pirre, 2020; Legusov, 2021). 1.4.1.1 Industry and Employer Levels Globalization, crisis situations like COVID-19, and the world economy influence industries to create new jobs that demand new educational skills or repurpose jobs that require re-skilling or up-skilling. In the GN, industry invests capital to respond to the needs of a country and defines criteria for access to jobs that pull GS students to the GN. In the GN, the job market is discriminatory towards international students of color and those without language proficiencies (Johnson et al., 2018). 1.4.1.2 Industry and HEIs There is a strong link between industry needs and HEI expectations of those needs. Some employers value candidates with experience working with people from different cultural backgrounds. Yet, worldwide, employers complain that graduates do not have the needed skills or language literacy for the job. A common complaint from industries is that HEIs do not prepare graduates for hands-on skills learning, including problem-solving, communication, working in teams, ability to lead, self-­ management, and critical thinking (Ripmeester & Deardorff, 2020; Succi & Canovi, 2020; Tillman, 2020; Wolhuter, 2023). Some employers blame HEIs for not having faculty with the required skills to teach skills-competencies (Clarke, 2018; Nwokedi, 2020; Waruru, 2021). Noticeable in the literature is a lack of attention given to employer responsibility. In contexts where industry and HEIs work in harmony, there is an easy transition into the workplace (Mehrolia & Alagarsamy, 2019; Nghia et  al., 2020; Römgens et  al., 2020). In cases of misalignment, the employability pathway is compromised. Finally, in some cases, employers simply do not want to employ international students despite their skills-capabilities.

1.4.2 HEI Level Universities, community colleges, universities of applied sciences, and the TVET sectors all share a primary goal to enable graduates to get a job after completion. HEI courses of study might not align with the changing job landscape making knowledge learned as obsolete. Systemic inequities embedded in the HEI provide unequal educational experiences that lead to unequal access to resources. Unequal access to well-equipped laboratories, technological infrastructure, and libraries also negatively impacts student employability (Pham & Saito, 2020; Singh, 2020). The International Student Barometer (Nilsson & Ripmeester, 2016) notes that the issues

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of power and privilege are primary reasons for student dissatisfaction. The remnants of colonialism label GN HEIs as world-class and resulting global ranking is linked to job attainment (Mok, 2016). This devalues other types of HEIs, including community colleges and TVET institutions, as well as HEIs in the student’s home country. 1.4.2.1 Resource Capabilities Some HEIs offer support services, career services, counselors, and international educators that offer counseling, job interview training, and mentorship opportunities (D’Angelo & Pang, 2019; Goodwin & Mbah, 2019; Sin & Amaral, 2016). Some HEIs intentionally place strategies into curricula to develop student interculturality (Tillman, 2020; Wood, 2022). In response to the COVID-19 crisis, HEIs offer virtual international support services and internships (Raby & Zhang, 2021). Lack of participation in institutional services challenges international student agencies (Tran & Vu, 2017) and is a source of dissatisfaction with the HEI experience (Fakunle, 2021a, b). Deficit-based literature claims that students lack responsibility to take advantage of HEI support services (Li et al., 2021a, b). In the equity lens, international students are adults who as active agents in choosing their education pathways (Fakunle, 2021a, b; Raby, 2019). Studies show that international students in the US (Bennani, 2018) and in the UK (Huang & Turner, 2018) do take advantage of HEI services, although some find these programs and services to be of low interest (Huang & Turner, 2018). Finally, in the equity lens, when HEI services are poorly designed, it forces students to struggle (Raby, 2020). 1.4.2.2 Extra-Curricular Activities HEIs offer extra/co-curricular opportunities to advance student employability mindset. Examples include mentoring, networking, volunteering, participation in sports, and embedded employability skills into the curriculum (Atlay & Harris, 2000; Tran, 2017; Zamani et al., 2016). While favored by employers, not all HEIs offer these skills. International students do not always view extra-curricular programs as essential because they do not align with academic requirements (Huang & Turner, 2018; Nilsson & Ripmeester, 2016). 1.4.2.3 Work-Integrated Learning Programs Some HEIs offer work-integrated learning programs and curricula, which are favored by employers and students (Tran, 2017). Actual work is contingent on national work permits and visa regulations for non-nationals. Examples include internships, industry-based learning, project-based learning, cooperative education, fieldwork, service learning, experiential learning, and clinical placements. Targeted

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skills are interview skills, presentations, career management, writing CVs (Bridgstock, 2009), using social networks for job searches (Alho, 2020), critical and analytical thinking (Singh, 2019), and skills to self-appraise their abilities (Clarke, 2018). The international experience of studying abroad (Hubbard, 2019) intensifies this type of learning. Not all HEIs offer options for part or full-time work (Goodwin & Mbah, 2019; Legusov, 2021).

1.4.3 Student Level International students are aware that economic earrings increase with higher educational levels and with specific disciplines of study and accept the GN-defined skills-­ capabilities (Parutis & Howson, 2020). Students are not passive in their learning but are active agents in the knowledge they seek, the knowledge they retain, and how they position themselves for employability. Research on student voices includes international students who study in the UK (Li, 2016), in Japan (Asada, 2019), in Norway (Wiers-Jenssen, 2011), in Scotland (Fakunle, 2019), and U.S students who study abroad (Hubbard, 2019). Skills-competencies and mindset alone do not ensure getting a job in high competitive areas which force students to place their own meanings on which skills they need (Fakunle, 2021b).

1.5 Moving Beyond Skills-Competencies and Mindset-Agency Critical employability includes discussions on moving beyond the neo-liberal defined skills-competencies and the mindset-agency approaches.

1.5.1 Equity Theory Equity theory (George Mwangi & Yao, 2021) posits that all students come to HEIs with a range of skills, knowledge, capital, and agency and as such are not in deficit. International students choose to study abroad, have adult abilities to make good choices (Raby, 2019), and have an acute focus on how to gain skills needed to build their employability (Fakunle, 2021a). International students are active rather than passive learners and choose which of the host country capitals matter to them. In an equity lens, all students have developed capital over their lifespan, even if those are not GN capitals (Xu, 2021). Since students are learners, they learn overtime to balance their home-host capital, and overtime, their talents grow while abroad (Cashian, 2017; McGrath et  al., 2017; Raby, 2021). GS students have “the propensity to

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understand their personal value and act toward their acquisition for deployment in a [globalized] context” (McIlveen, 2018, p. 2). 1.5.1.1 Critique of Bordieuan Capital Critical employability literature critiques the Bordieuan capital as prejudicial since it perpetuates a GN imaginary that labels international students, especially those from the GS, in deficit (Römgens et al., 2020; Saito & Pham, 2019). Deficit is due to an assumed lack of capital and skills-competencies (Wood & Raby, 2022). Deficits are even ascribed to basic needs, difficulty in socializing, and lack of acculturation into the host country (Bennett & Ferns, 2017). When assigning a deficit label to students from the GS, it perpetuates colonialism by labeling the international student as lesser than (Oleksiyenko & Shchepetylnkova, 2021). Socioeconomic, racial, gendered, and cultural stratifications that define privilege heighten this marginalization (Raby, 2019; Tran & Vu, 2017). The GN market defines skills-competencies which perpetuate neo-colonial hierarchies that favor those GS students who study in the GN and who acculturate to their host culture. Some graduates find that the acculturation of GN imaginaries is not honored in some GS contexts. Defining employability pathways through the lens of GN imaginaries negatively affects student learning (Clarke, 2018; Fakunle & Pirre, 2020) and devalues their agency, aspirations, talents, and outcomes.

1.5.2 Talent Theory Talent theory honors the heterogeneity of students and the talents that they possess. For international students, this includes navigational talents that allow students to make sense of what is needed in changing educational and job fields (Cashian, 2017; Pham et al., 2018). International students also use resistant talents (Yosso, 2005) to transcend negative messages that define them in deficit. McGrath et  al. (2017) define this as Capability Employability and Spours (2019) defines it as a Social-Ecosystem model.

1.5.3 Student Agency Student agency includes personal judgment and ability to voice how and what a student will intentionally act on their values and objectives (Sen, 2000). In Agentic Capital, students already are active learners who choose what they want rather than what is imposed upon them (Coate, 2009). International students use their agency to support be resilient (Atkinson et  al., 2021), to reflect on changing job pathways (Cashian, 2017; Fakunle & Pirre, 2020), to use their time for life-study balance (Xu,

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2021), and to make rational choices in regard to their employability pathways (Cao, 2017; Huang & Turner, 2018; Xu, 2021). Finally, agency enables students to build a mindset that allows them to have better well-being that, in turn, gives abilities for positive employability outcomes.

1.5.4 Heterogeneity and Intersectionality Another critique of skills-competencies approach is that it is grounded in GN imaginaries that define international students as a homogeneous population. This ignores the heterogeneity of students and the capital that they already possess (Raby, 2021). HEI services can benefit from acknowledging the positionality and intersectionality of each international student (Fakunle, 2021a). By knowing the student, the HEI can develop programs that balance known problem areas for international students, such as stress, time allocation, loneliness, and isolation (Atkinson et  al., 2021; Sin & Amaral, 2016) so that international students can deepen their well-being. The honoring of student voices and choices (Ge & Ho, 2019) prepares learners for life and not just for skills.

1.5.5 Changing Environments Socio-political and economic conditions within and between countries affect the variability of work opportunities and the qualifications needed for employment. Globalization influences change in labor markets, and national influence results in inconsistent and discriminatory visa requirements for work. Skills-competency and mind-set approached are critiqued because they are grounded in neo-liberalism practices that profit the industry rather than the individual. Aligning educational practices only to employer needs is problematic because work is broader than employment and learning is more than training for work (Clarke, 2018). Wicked problems from globalization create unexpected changes that curtail employability pathways. Crisis factors, such as changes in the economy, environment, technology, and COVID-19, show the importance of adaptability in planning and getting a job. HEIs don’t always teach to the jobs of the future and as such, skills learned in academic programs could become devalued or even obsolete overtime. Because the labor market is volatile, careers are not linear, students change jobs overtime, and jobs are not restricted to an area of study or geographic location (McGrath et al., 2019; Pham & Jackson, 2020).

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1.6 Conclusion This chapter unpacks various definitions and theories that explore the concept of employability as applied to international students. The promise of a career is a primary reason why students choose to study abroad. Getting a job though depends on multiple and interconnecting factors of globalization and national, influences on the availability of jobs, geography, work-regulations, visa, and immigration. Unequal learning opportunities result from HEI institutional systemic inequalities and deficit labels placed on international students that curtail learning by ignoring existing student agency. There is uneven evidence that what is learned in the HEI is what employers want from their job applicants. Skills-competencies and mindset-agency taught in the GN may not be honored in the home country (Al-Shehabi & Shudooh, 2018; Nghia & Quyen, 2020) and foreign credentials and work experiences make returnees less competitive because they are seen to be over-educated, Westernized, or lack home country literacy (Le & LaCost, 2017; Xiong & Mok, 2020). Finally, international experiences differ for students from the GS, who study abroad to get jobs for a better future, and from the GN, who often simply want the experience and adventure of being abroad. Research shows that skills alone are not enough to get a job and as such, that the student needs to develop a mindset to be active learners in choosing their pathway preparation (McGrath et  al., 2017). Within the equity lens, international students come to the host country with a strong sense of self. While they can have obstacles of learning in a host country influenced by colonialization and empire conditioning, they are able to navigate issues of time, isolation, language literacy, and prejudice. As such, they are not in deficit. Criticality understands the intersectionality of students and links it to changing HEI practices. The research shows that there are still voices that have not been captured and stories yet to be told that will impact critical employability. This includes studies that recognize racialized, gendered, disability, and GS approaches to learning and relationships to employability (Anderson et al., 2021; Kent et al., 2020). Similarly, research needs to learn what social protections are needed to remove international students from vulnerable positions where they are exploited in the learning environment (Johnson et al., 2018; Glass et al., 2021; Kwasi-Agyeman et al., 2020). Finally, there is a need to hear from the students themselves about their experiences, how they perceive the relevance of their education to future career outcomes, how they develop their mindset, how they move beyond deficit labels, and if they really use their study abroad for gainful employment (Hubbard, 2019; Singh & Jamil, 2021; Wood & Raby, 2022). Home-country social-political-economic experiences intersect with studying abroad (Tran & Bui, 2021). Transversal skills and mindset use imagination to build pathways in a changing world (Collins et al., 2017). In the remainder of this book, chapters examine the understudied populations of international students from the Global South and identify how they use their agency to prepare their mindset and embolden their ability to make choices about employability and future careers. Such choices are intensified by the international

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experience of studying abroad that provides opportunities to develop skills-­ capabilities, new languages, cultural sensitivity, and interculturality that are honored in the workplace. The remaining chapters in this book detail case studies and student reflections before they begin their studies (influenced by what they study and where), throughout the course of study (influence by the HEI program and deficit or equity lens applied to them), and post-graduation (choices of using their mindset to choose how they use their employability to get, or not to get a job). Capturing student voices and sensemaking of their international experience will broaden the understanding of how studying abroad relates to critical employability development.

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Xu, C. L. (2021). Time, class and privilege in career imagination: Exploring study-to-work transition of Chinese international students in UK universities through a Bourdieusian lens. Time & Society, 30(1), 5–29. Yang, P. (2018). Compromise and complicity in international student mobility: The ethnographic case of Indian medical students at a Chinese university. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 39(5), 694–708. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2018.1435600 Yorke, M. (2006). Employability in higher education: What it is- what it is not. Higher Education Academy/ESECT. Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91. Zamani-Gallaher, E.  M., Leon, R.  A., & Lang, J. (2016). Self-authorship beyond borders: Reconceptualizing college and career readiness. In R.  L. Raby & E.  J. Valeau (Eds.), International education at community colleges: Themes, practices, research, and case studies (pp. 167–186). Palgrave Macmillan. Rosalind Latiner Raby, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer at California State University, Northridge in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department of the College of Education. Dr. Raby is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of International & Comparative Higher Education. She is also an Affiliate Faculty and is a Member of the Academic Board for the Centre for Higher Education Internationalisation (CHEI), Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano. She has over 200 publications in peer review journals and book chapters on the topic of comparative and international higher education.  

Jasvir Kaur Nachatar Singh, PhD, a Senior Lecturer at La Trobe University, Melbourne in the Department of Management, Sport and Tourism. Dr. Singh has received several institutional and international awards in research and teaching. She has developed, co-ordinated, and taught several subjects at La Trobe, Monash, and Melbourne University. Dr. Singh’s research profile is interdisciplinary. Her work appears in high-impact journals such as Higher Education, International Journal of Educational Development, Journal of Studies in International Education, Higher Education and Research Development, Australian Journal of Career Development, Asia Pacific Education Review, and International Journal of Educational Management. Her recent book is Academic Mobility and International Academics Challenges and Opportunities (2022, Emerald).  

Krishna Bista, Ed.D., is a Professor of Higher Education in the Department of Advanced Studies, Leadership, and Policy at Morgan State University, Maryland. Dr. Bista is the founding editor of the Journal of International Students, a quarterly publication in international education.  

Part I

Political Issues and Labor Market Needs

The theme of this section focuses on the impact of international experience on the self-perceived employability of students from different regions of the world. The authors use different research methods, such as explantory mixed-methods, structured surveys, and interviews, to explore the complexities of employability for international students in different contexts. The research sheds light on the interplay of factors such as migration management, economic position, job mismatch, socio-­ cultural influences, and politics on the perceived employability of students from the Global South, Global North, and domestic peers. The findings provide valuable insights into the challenges faced by international students as they transition into the labor market and highlight the need for policies that prioritize diversity and equity in higher education and employability. Muytieng Tek and Phirom Len used explanatory mixed-methods approach to explore the self-perceived employability of Cambodian students studying in China. Dawn Bennett, Elizabeth Knight, Ian Li and Peter Hurley used a structure survey to explore migration management through national policies and effects on perceived employability comparing international students from the Global South, Global North, and domestic peers. Finally, Soubin Sisavath used interviews to learn how Lao returnee graduates, who studied in Asia, cope with transitions into the local labor market and repercussions of economic position, job mismatch, and socio-­ cultural influences.

Chapter 2

The Effects of International Experience on Self-Perceived Employability of Cambodian Students in China Muytieng Tek and Phirom Leng

Abstract  This chapter investigates the correlation between international experience in China and the self-perceived employability of Cambodian students using an explanatory mixed-methods approach. The findings suggest that international experience has a strong effect on students’ self-perceived employability. Integrated results revealed substantial evidence confirming that international experience has given students credits for their employability, with technical knowledge acquisition, transferable skills development, and trait improvement reported, through international endeavors, as ways to enhance their future employability. Notwithstanding, employability is determined not solely by experience but also by other factors such as students’ self-belief and ambition, the prestige of the country’s destination, the credibility of the study field, the local labor market, and professional networking. Keywords  Cambodian students · International experience · Internationalization · Self-perceived employability · South-South student mobility

2.1 Introduction Globalization, the process escalating the flow of people, culture, ideas, values, knowledge, technology, and economy across borders, has made the world increasingly interconnected and interdependent. Cross-border higher education has become widely accessible to students, and this results in an increasing number of internationally mobile students in the past decades. In 2017, there were an estimated five million students left their home country to pursue quality higher education overseas (OECD, 2018). The United States topped the list as the most attractive destination M. Tek (*) Cambodia Development Resource Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia P. Leng Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. K. N. Singh et al. (eds.), International Student Employability, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 12, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33254-8_2

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country for international students, absorbing over 24 percent of internationally mobile students, followed by the United Kingdom (11%), China (10%), Australia (7%), and France (7%) (Institute of International Education, 2017). While traditional destination countries magnetizing most of the mobile students are those of English-speaking and developed countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, it is surprising to see China, a developing nation with Mandarin Chinese as the official language, managed to climb to the third place. This success was due to the government’s constant effort in enhancing the quality of its education system and offering a variety of scholarships to foreigners to pursue higher education in China (Leng & Chhem, 2018). Cambodia has benefited significantly from this policy as a considerable number of students and scholars have been awarded scholarships to continue their studies in China. Statistically speaking, the approximation of Cambodian students enrolling in Chinese universities in 2016 was 1460 (460 female), most of which were in degree programs (Association of Cambodian Students in China, 2017). With this being reported, little is known about the postgraduation employment of this student category. It is, therefore, the purpose of this chapter to examine how international experience in China affects Cambodian students’ perception of their future employability.

2.2 Literature Review International experience has long been found to have a major impact on graduate employability (Crossman & Clarke, 2010; Huang, 2013; Huang & Turner, 2018; Jones, 2013; OECD, 2018). In research investigating the connection between international experience and employability through the perspectives of universities, government, employers, and graduates, Crossman and Clarke (2010) discovered that employers are likely to regard graduates with international experience as possessing skills necessary to establish relationships and networks internationally. Huang (2013) added that the main motivations for Chinese young adults to study in the United Kingdom are to gain access to world-class education and build up international experience to secure a well-respected and high-earning occupation. International experience, as she mentioned, has contributed to the development of students’ cultural sensitivity and adaptability, and those components are essential to graduate employability. In light of this finding, Jones (2013) identified such advantages as language acquisition, cross-cultural understanding, the opportunity for experiential learning, and the development of transferable skills as the result of cross-border education. The acquisition of soft skills, in terms of achieving an enhanced sense of confidence and problem-solving ability, has also been mentioned by international students in his research. Further, Huang and Turner (2018), based on their questionnaire examining international students’ attitudes toward employability upon graduation, proved that international experience has helped students increase personal critical awareness, form competitive communication advantages, improve substantial personal understanding, and build better personal and cultural

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capital. On the contrary, an alternative view on international mobility has been expressed by Waters and Brooks (2010) as they found out that excitement and adventure are the underlying motives for British students to undertake education abroad. The same study indicated that students would take the opportunity to postpone the start of their working life while extending their carefree lifestyle as mobile students. This is contradicting the findings of Tamrat and Teferra (2019) as the development of critical thinking, knowledge acquisition, and particularly future employment were reported as the determinants of Ethiopian students’ decisions for the international academic endeavor. Gender differences in terms of study abroad experience have also been tackled in earlier studies. According to Lostertter (2010), male students are likely to expose to the overseas environment more than their female counterparts given the reason that females tend to feel “paranoia” and prefer to travel in groups to being alone in foreign countries. This creates an imbalance in the amount of exposure and becomes a barrier for female students to broaden their knowledge and experience as their male counterparts do. In the spotlight for years, graduate employability has been considered one of the key performance indicators in evaluating higher education quality. Universities are expected to produce graduates with employable quality so that they can seek and secure a decent job in the competitive labor market, while employability itself determines the university’s reputation. It has been reported that employability could be boosted in many ways. For instance, Knight and Yorke (2003) stressed that a favorable teaching and learning environment and a well-designed curriculum are keys to enhancing graduate employability. These can be done through the introduction of new courses, modification of existing courses, and increasing opportunities for work experience (Cranmer, 2006). Work-based learning also plays a crucial role as internships provide students with the opportunity to expose to the work environment. However, this integrative curriculum would not be realized without the collaboration of the industry (Tran, 2016). Furthermore, extracurricular activities have been confirmed to contribute to graduate employment development as Roulin and Bangerter (2013) reported that participating in sports, artistic activities, volunteering events, and cultural and social associations can promote students’ creativity, leadership, and interpersonal skills, the skills employers are looking for. Additionally, the provision of an enabling teaching and learning environment, especially in the areas of well-equipped and modern laboratories, libraries, and other basic infrastructure, is essential to the enhancement of graduate employability. Acknowledging employability is a multifaceted concept that can be studied from various perspectives, and this research paid special attention to student perception at personal and structural levels. Vanhercke et al. (2014) emphasized that the essence to examine the interaction between both components as the way one thinks about one’s ability and skills influences the extent to which they regard the external factors and, in turn, how one views the labor market affects the judgment of one’s ability. Therefore, the study adopted Rothwell et  al.’s (2008, 2009) model as the self-­ perceived employability dimension of the conceptual framework, with some indictments to ensure its comprehensiveness and relevancy in the study context.

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2.3 Research Method An explanatory mixed-methods design was employed in this study. We began by conducting a quantitative study and followed up on specific findings with a subsequent qualitative phase to seek explanations for the quantitative findings (Creswell & Clark, 2017). The integration of both types of data reinforced the comprehension of how the international experience affected the way Cambodian students in China view their future employability within the Cambodian labor market.

2.3.1 The Quantitative Phase An online survey was administered via the Wenjuan platform between January 15, 2019, and February 06, 2019. Its content consisted of four sections, including demographic information (i.e., age, gender, major, degree level, location, Chinese proficiency, length of stay, and employment status), self-perceived employability, international experience, and personal information (i.e., name and WeChat ID). It should be noted that the questionnaire was originally constructed in English and translated into Khmer language, Cambodia’s mother tongue language, and a back translation was performed to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the translation. Huang and Turner’s (2018) 22-item five-point Likert scale was adapted and modified to measure international experience, while Rothwell et  al.’s (2008, 2009) framework was adopted and contextualized to measure Cambodian students’ self-­ perceived employability. The perceived employability is constructed from a 20-item five-point Likert scale divided into five components, namely self-belief, the prestige of China, the credibility of the study major, the Cambodian labor market, and ambition. The original components in Rothwell et al.’s (2008, 2009) are self-belief, the prestige of the university, the credibility of the chosen subject, the external labor market, and students’ ambition. Therefore, components of the prestige of China and the Cambodian labor market were modified to reflect the contexts of China and Cambodia. For the data collection process, a cluster sampling technique was used. Cambodian students enrolled in a degree program in China (AY2018–2019) were divided into groups based on their location in China (Beijing, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Shanghai, and Tianjin). Some revisions and adjustments were made after a pretest with 24 respondents. After that, the researchers posted the survey link in WeChat’s Cambodian student groups of the selected regions and called for survey participation. In total, 397 responses were collected during the period, but only 357 questionnaires were complete and usable. Based on the collected quantitative data, regression analysis was conducted to assess the effects of international experience on self-­ perceived employability.

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2.3.2 The Qualitative Phase After having some preliminary findings in hand, an interview protocol with specific points of the investigation was developed for the qualitative data collection. It was designed to seek a deeper understanding of eight areas: academic and employment background, perception of future employability, factors influencing employability, the impact of international experience in China, and the roles of universities in enhancing study abroad experience and improving students’ employability. The criteria for the selection of informants were equal proportions of gender, level of the degree program (undergraduate and graduate), and field of study (social science and hard science). Based on these criteria, one of the researchers approached the respondents who participated in the quantitative survey for the interview. A total of eight key informant interviews (Table  2.1) were then conducted both online and in-person between February 09 and 24, 2019. With consent from the informants, interviews were recorded and later transcribed using an intelligent verbatim technique with instant translation. Qualitative data were then used to triangulate the quantitative findings.

2.4 Results 2.4.1 Cambodian Students’ Perception Toward Future Employability Table 2.2 presents the summary statistics of self-perceived employability (SPE), international experience, and other variables from the survey. The average score of SPE was relatively high at 3.53 (SD = 0.38), with the majority (98.9%) reporting Table 2.1  Characteristics of informants in the follow-up interviews Degree Code Gender level USM1 M Bachelor

USF2 F UHM3 M

Bachelor Bachelor

UHF4 F GSM5 M

Bachelor PhD

GSF6

Master

F

GHM7 M GHF8 F

Master Master

Major International Economics and Trade Chinese Literature Computer Science and Technology Food Science Comparative Education International Chinese Education Civil Engineering Urban and Rural Planning

Location in China Beijing

Duration in China 6 months

Employment status Unemployed

Tianjin Tianjin

6 months 6 months

Unemployed Unemployed

Guangdong Beijing

1 year 4 years

Unemployed Employed

Beijing

6 months

Unemployed

Shanghai Tianjin

5 years+ 6 months

Unemployed Unemployed

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Table 2.2  Descriptive statistics (N = 357) Variable Overall SPE Self-belief Prestige of China Credibility of study field Labor market Ambition International experience Chinese proficiency Gender (female) Science major Undergraduate Years in China Employment status (base unemployed)  Employed  On study leave

Mean 3.53 3.71 3.19 3.51 3.49 3.76 3.94 0.58 0.25 0.53 0.45 1.79

SD 0.38 0.44 0.60 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.37 0.49 0.43 0.50 0.50 1.52

Min 2.30 2.00 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 2.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50

Max 4.65 4.75 4.50 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.86 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00

0.10 0.16

0.31 0.36

0.00 0.00

1.00 1.00

a score above the midpoint. As clarified in the follow-up interviews, Cambodian students in China were able to acquire new knowledge and skills there and believed their capacities are comparable to those educated in other developed countries. In other words, no matter which country one received education from, it depends on individual ability and efforts to acquire new knowledge and skills to achieve their set goals. As Informant UHF4, a scholarship student majoring in Food Science, expressed that “I think we have similar qualities. It depends on our ability [to absorb knowledge and skills]  – to what extent we have put our efforts into studying.” When SPE is divided into subcomponents, Cambodian students in China scored self-belief and ambition remarkably high at 3.71 (SD = 0.44) and 3.76 (SD = 0.48), respectively. They were confident that the skills and knowledge they obtained in China were adequate for them to secure jobs upon their return to Cambodia, and they seemed to have set a clear goal for their future careers. Among the five subcomponents, the prestige of China had the lowest score at 3.19 (SD = 0.60). Although students were positive about the skills and knowledge they obtained in China, they are less so about the image of China. One informant, who received the Chinese Government Scholarship to pursue his Ph.D. in China, commented the following: … Cambodian people have a mindset that degree certificate from China is not as valuable as those from other [developed] countries; they do not consider the actual performance of individuals. I do not know why they think like that. But for me, after studying in China for a while, I think it is acceptable; it can help me to increase my knowledge and skills and will help me to perform my work effectively. (Informant GSM5)

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2.4.2 Effects of International Experience on Self-Perceived Employability Table 2.3 presents the regression results of SPE and its subcomponents on international experience and other controlling variables. The overall results of SPE are reported in column (1), while the subcomponent results of self-belief, the prestige of China, the credibility of the study field, the labor market in Cambodia, and ambition are in columns (2) to (6), respectively. The regression results suggest that Cambodian students’ international experience has a strong influence on SPE; an increase of one point in international experience is associated with an increase of 0.41 points in SPE, and it is statistically significant at 0.01% level. The interview findings also supported this finding as the informants reported that they have acquired numerous knowledge in their specialized field, developed soft skills, and improved their traits. For instance, although Informant UHF4 was unemployed during the time of the study, she was quite positive about her future employability. She expressed the following: Table 2.3  Regression results (1) (2) (3) Overall Self-­ Prestige of Variables SPE belief China International 0.409*** 0.550*** 0.187** experience (0.055) (0.069) (0.091) Female −0.086** −0.078 −0.150** (0.042) (0.048) (0.075) Science major 0.084** −0.004 0.093 (0.036) (0.041) (0.062) Chinese 0.064 0.040 0.026 proficiency (0.040) (0.048) (0.069) Undergraduate −0.080** −0.054 −0.103 student (0.039) (0.046) (0.069) Years in China −0.038*** −0.019 −0.060** (0.014) (0.017) (0.025) Employment status (base group is unemployed)  Employed 0.144** 0.152* 0.067 (0.072) (0.083) (0.117)  On study leave 0.069 0.067 0.138 (0.057) (0.063) (0.092) Constant 1.942*** 1.580*** 2.558*** (0.229) (0.293) (0.368) Observations 357 357 357 R-squared 0.250 0.258 0.067 Robust standard errors in parentheses ***p