International Law, Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects 9780521841429, 0521841429
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s t c e j b O l a r u t l u C of n r u t e R e th d n a s m u e s u M w, La l a n o i t a Intern
eee
ee
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e m o c e b s ha it e, on w e n a s n mea no by is s ct je ob al ur lt cu of rn tu re e th f 0 on ti es qu e the th e es l i or Wh pl ex k o o b t n a t r o p m i is Th s. ar ye nt : ce re in te ba de e o tw st the subject of increasingly intens la e th ng ri du s e i t i n u m m co d e i p u c c o om fr s ct je ob al ur lt e h T w. la removal and the return of cu ge ta ri he al ur lt cu l na io at rn te in of n io ut l o v t e n e rr u c n o c e th s e s y l a n a d n a s e i s r t u t n n e m ce n r e v o g n a i l a r t s u A d an S U h, is it Br by ed rt e ex e nc ue infl t an ic if gn si e th on s se cu . fo ms ai ok cl bo n io ut it st re to se on sp re in cy li po m u e s u m d an w la d an s m and museums on international u e s u m of n io ut ol diss d e r a e f g n o l e th g in ld ra he om fr r fa , ms ai cl e es th at th n s o i t a n i m Tt show r e t e d f l e s of s es proc e th in le ro w e n l ta vi a th wi s m u e s u m e id ov pr s, on ti ec l ll ia co nt se es their is k o o b is th , t u o h g u o r h t g n i k o v o r p t h g u o h t d an g n i l l e p m o C . ty ti en id al ur lt ce cu ur so and re al ur lt cu in ed lv vo in e os th l al d an s er wy la l na io at rn te in , ts is og ol ae ch ar r fo g in read management. sity er iv Un n a e p o r u E , t n e m t r a p e D aw L e th at ow ll Fe e ri Cu e ri Ma is ANA FILIPA VRDOLJAK lia. ra st Au n r e t s e W of ty si er iv Un , w La of y t l u c a F e th at er ur ct Le or ni and Se Institute, Florence
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s , PRESS SITY ak Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo
s bridge CB2 2RU, UK Pres y iversit ; Cam ty ersi Univ e ridg Camb
The Edinburgh Building,
G?
York Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New
.cambridge.org 9 2 4 1 4 8 1 2 5 0 8 7 9 / g r o . e g d i r b on this title: www.cam eee © Ana Filipa Vrdoljak 2006
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2006
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this book is available from the Britis h Library ISBN-13 ISBN-10
978-0-521-84142-9 hardback 0-521-84142-9 hardback
for my parents
ne CONTENTS
List of illustrations Preface Table of cases Table of instruments List of abbreviations Note on the text
page ix
xii
XxX1X XXXIV
Introduction
Part One
y ur nt ce th en te ne ni y rl ea e th in e ur lt cu al on ti na The State and
1
y ur nt ce th en te ne ni the in es ti ri no mi of on ti ec ot Pr The rise of national cultural patrimony tion ea cr the d an um se Mu on gt in ns Ke h ut So s, on ti bi hi ex t ea Gr
of national identity
International Law, international exhibitions in the late nineteenth century
2
3
NW 20 DD,
35
46
Colonised peoples and International Law in the nineteenth century Collection and display of empire War and cultural objects of non-Europeans
47 2)3) 63
Dismantling empires and post-First World War peace treaties
713
Minorities and the League of Nations Restitution of cultural objects and post-First World War peace treaties Restitution within the British Empire
74 77 87
Part Two
4
Colonised peoples and the League of Nations
103
Colonised peoples, their cultural property and the League of Nations International Museum Office and restitution of cultural objects
104 108 118
Restitution in the mid twentieth century
130 Sr
United States and Native Americans: assimilation to Indian New Deal
5
Indigenous peoples, American identities and UN trusteeship Legal protection of cultural heritage during armed conflict at the mid century
Vij
Contents r a W d l r o W d n o Ser n followining g the Sec preuniutewente Ayeentlry Restitutio n
i s e r u t l u c n a c Native Ameri
6
e a ; d W l o g C e h g t n i r s u e d l p p o o e e p p d e d s e ‘ s i n o l o c d n i a s t h g i r i n Genocide, huma ide
and cul tural heritage
r a W d l o C e th g n i r u d ts gh bul e p e u h o r S g d n a s t h g i r Human r a W ld Co e th d an s le op pe us no ge United States, indi
Part Three 7
8
Decolonisation without restitution Decolonisation and self-determination ty er op pr al ur lt cu on to si es cc su e at St d on Decolonisati an Restitution and the 1970 UNESCO Convention e e l t t ta i m en m nm o C er ov rg O te C In S E N U e n th d io an Restitut
3
e
i;
9
a 163
in
197 6 5 8 Fe -
Working towards a new international cultural order
a
Indigenous peoples and restitution as a process
228
Indigenous peoples, self-determination and cultural rights
Assessment of the work of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee Implementing the 1970 UNESCO Convention bi
ly
2
a a
Renegotiating relations between Indigenous Australians and museums
=
Indigenous peoples, States and reconciliation
261
Self-determination and the 1993 Draft UN Declaration WGIP and restitution of indigenous cultural heritage ae and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention nate models for restitution to indigenous peoples
Aus
an museums and the recollection i of colonialism and reconciliation
Conclusion
5a oe 5 5
299
Select bibliography
Index
ILLUSTRATIONS
ae 883
1.1
er n i r a m a g n i r a e w n a om w n a i n a m s a T a , i n i n H. H. Bailey, Truga h t u o S e h t of y s e t r u o c d ce u d o r p e R , 7 6 8 1 , t r a b shell necklace, Ho
Australian Museum. n i m a j n e B . h t i m S R. J. 1.1
West’s YFoseph S. , n o d n o L d e h s i l b u P April 1773, e at St e th of y s e t r u o c d e c Reprodu y l i m a F y p p a H e h T “ , l e i n n e T 1.2 John
Banks, Hooper Library in Hyde
page XXxvill
, m c 38 x 2 6 , t n i t o z z me and J. R. Smith. of New South Wales. Park’, Punch, 19 July
Sal.
n, So & y a D , n o d n o L , 51 18 on ti bi hi Ex t a e r G . g n i d l i u B e th 1.3 Plan of 1851.
n ai pt Ca te La e th of cs li Re of on ti ec ll Co e th of e gu lo ta Ca e th om fr 2.1 Plates d an al ni lo Co e th at ll re ck Ma ¥ r M by d te bi hi ex S, FR , RN ok Co James . er pl ep Ka ne en ri Ad of sy te ur co d e c u d o r p e R . 86 18 on ti bi hi Ex an Indi in 86 18 , on ti bi hi Ex an di In d an _ 2.2 Survey of floor plan of Colonial on ti bi hi Ex an di In d an al ni lo Co e th of s Report of the Royal Commussioner (London, 2.3
1886).
, 11 .1 no 3, l. vo , es ch et Sk ry na io ss Mi r, ve Co
October
1818.
hi nc Sa at a up St st hi dd Bu t ea Gr e th y of a 2.4 Cast of the Eastern Gatew , um se Mu on gt in ns Ke h ut So t, ur Co st Ca t Eas ), (V&A 1872-113-122 d an ia or ct Vi the of es te us Tr of d ar Bo e Th © ph ra og ot Ph 1872. rt be Al d an ia or ct Vi the of sy te ur co ed uc od pr Re . um se Albert Mu Museum.
Tippoo’s Tiger, Mysore, c.1790, painted wood, 177.8 cm long, V&A 182545. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Reproduced courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum. 3.1 Fragments of plaster casts of Indian architecture, Victoria and Albert Museum, c.1909. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Reproduced courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum. 3.2 Drawing of Gold Boat, Bowl and Necklet found in Ireland, reproduced in Arthur J. Evans, On a votive deposit of Gold Objects found on the North-West Coast of Ireland (1897) LV Archeologia
18
34 38
45
5D 59)
62
2.5
391, plate XXI.
68
12
s n o i t a r t s u l l i f o t Lis
List of illustrations
. 36 19 , m u e s u M rt be Al d an ia or ct Vi n, io ct Se an i d n I , l l a h e c n a t r 3.3 Entr e b l A d n a ia or ct Vi e th of es te us Tr of d ar Bo e h T m u Photograph © e s u M t r e b l A d an ia or ct Vi e th of sy te ur : Museum. Reproduced co s ’ d l r o W the
6.3
a d n u o F r e l l e f e k c o R .1, 1 G R , 0 0 2 s e i r e S . s e Box 250, v i h c r A n o i t a d n u o F r e l l e f e k c o Ri 4 0 0 2 © , r e t n e C s e v i h Arc . r e t n e C s e v i h c r A r e l l e f e k c o R e h t f o y s e t r u o c d e c u e d h o T r p , ’ Re s a e S h t u o S e h t f o t r A ‘ n o i t i b i h x e e h t f o w e i v n h g u o r h t 6.4 Installatio 6 4 9 1 y r a u n a J 9 2 , k r o Y w e N , t r A n r e d o M f , o t r A n r e Museum d o M f o eum
at t bi hi ex r fo d ar aw ia an lv sy nn Pe of 4.1 University e h T ©) h p a r g o t o h P . on, Chic ago, 1893
i t i s o p x E n a i b m u . Col 7 6 7 0 4 1 4 S . o n g e , n a i n a v l y s n n e P f o y t i s r University Museum, Unive
. a i n a v l y s n n e P of ty si er iv Un e Reproduced courtesy of th n a i b m u l o C s d’ rl Wo e th at t bi hi ex ia an lv sy nn Pe of ty si er iv Un 2 4. m u e y s t i u s M r e v i n h U e p h a T r © g o t o h . P 93 o, 18 ag , on ic ti Ch Exposi University of Pennsylvania, neg no.139791. Reproduced courtesy of
s u M e h T 1 0 0 2 © h p a r g o t o h P . 6 4 9 1 y 0 19 Ma s e e t s u r T e h t f o y s e t r u o c d e c u d o r p e R . 4 9 7 6 $ , k r o Y New . t r A n r e d o M f o , y e n Museum d y S , n o i t i b i h x E e c a l a P n e d r a G e h t at t r u o C l a c i y g o h l p a r g o t o h 7.1 Ethno P , m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A © 0 6 4 1 l i V h p a r g o t o h P n a i l a r 1879-80, t s u A f o y s e t r u o c d e c u d o r p e R . n o ncy Collecti
the University of Pennsylvania.
m u e n s y l u k M o o y, r e B og h T ol hn y Et er of ll e, Ga w us o b Ho n 43 The Rai 1930, Brooklyn Museum Archives, Photograph Collection, Mviaseum
building: interiors © 2004 Brooklyn Museum. Reproduced courtes of Brooklyn Museum Archives.
Sul ove
Unit, Transpare h p Museum Archives. a r g o t o h P . 8 5 9 1 , y e n d y S , m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A , y r e l l a G l a n i g i r n a i l a r 7.2 Abo t s u A of y s e t r u o c d e c u d o r p e R . m u e s u an M
:
entrance during the exhibition ‘Indian Art of the United
ae , The i RESSuE of Modern Art, New York, 22 January 1941 e ough 27 April 1941. Photograph © 2001 The Museum of
. 5.2
i odern Art, New York, MMA 20.441. Reproduced courtesy ares
of The Museum of Modern Art
MoMA torpedo, 1933- 1946, in 1 Folder 1256, Box RG4 NAR Personal Projojects, Rockefeller Archi
of th
——_
128, Series III 4L,
York, © 2004 Rockefeller Archives Ce nter. Re c a prod ucede courtesy of the Rockefeller Archives Center. ; 5.3 Fred Kabotie (Hopi t Art
;
of the United St
El d an st ti ar ), pi e ates’, The ee
ie
Roosevelt at the ‘In Gian
e h t r o f s e h c t e k s y r o t a r a p e r p , t r u o c n o n r a H ’ d é n e R , 1 ) 8 b 9 ( 2 d r e d l o (a) an F n i , 5 4 9 1 t s u g u A 7 1 , ’ s a e S h t u o S e h t f o s t r e l l e f e k c o R exhibition ‘Ar , n o i t
129
153
159
161
185
i l a r t s u A © 8 5 9 0 1 V Museum Archives. h p a r g o t o h P . 8 5 9 1 , y e n d y S , m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A , y r e l l a G l a n i g i r o b A 3 7. n a i l a r t s u A of y s e t r u o c d e c u d o r p e R . m u e s u M V10938 © Australian Museum Archives. . s 0 8 9 1 y l r a e ; y e n d y S , m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A , y r e l l 7.4 Aboriginal Ga of y s e t r u o c d e c u d o r p e R . m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A © Photograph . s e v i h c r A m u e s u M n a i l Austra . 5 8 9 1 , y e n d y S , m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A y, er ll ga a li ra st u A l a n i 8.1 Aborig , it Un y h p a r g o t o h P , m u e s Photograph © Australian Mu an li ra st Au of sy te ur co d e c u d o Transparency Collection. Repr Museum Archives. . 85 19 , ey dn Sy , m u e s u M an li ra st Au y, er ll ga a li ra st Au al in ig or Ab 8.2 , it Un y ph ra og ot Ph , um se Mu an li Photograph © Austra an li ra st Au of sy te ur co ed uc od pr Re . Transparency Collection Museum Archives. . 85 19 , ey dn Sy , um se Mu an li ra st Au y, er ll 8.3 Aboriginal Australia ga
, it Un y ph ra og ot Ph , um se Mu an li ra st Photograph © Au an li ra st Au of sy te ur co ed uc od pr Re . on ti ec ll Co cy Transparen Museum Archives. , 82 19 , um se Mu an li ra st Au y, er ll ga al in ig or Ab m, ra ag 8.4 Concept Di y er ll Ga al in ig or Ab 2, x bo , /2 92 AN , es iv ch Ar um se Mu an li ra Aust the of sy te ur co ed uc od pr Re . es iv ch Ar um se Mu an li ra 1982 © Aust Australian Museum Archives. 9.1 Indigenous Australians, gallery entrance, Australian Museum, y ph ra og ot Ph , um se Mu an li ra st Au © ph ra og ot Ph . 97 19 , ey Sydn an li ra st Au of sy te ur co ed uc od pr . Re on ti ec ll cy Co en ar sp an Tr , it Un Museum
Archives.
186
187
196
218
219
224
22K
249
250
257
260
. s e v i h c r A m u e s Mu . 7 9 9 1 , m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A , ry Je l a g s n a i l a r t s u A s 9.3 Indigenou , t i n U y h p a r g o t o h P , m u e s u M n a i l a r t s u A © h p Photogra n a i l a r t s u A e th y of s e t r u o c d e c u d o r p e . R n o i t c e l l y o c C n e r a Transp Museum Archives.
n a i l a r t s u , A y r e l l s a n g a i l a r t s s u u A o n e g i d n I , n a l p t u o y n a o l i t i b 9.4 Exhi a li ra st Au l na gi ri bo ‘A in ed uc od Museum, August 1996, repr
1
© rt po Re g in et Me al rr fe Re nd co Se , 96 19 st gu Exhibition’ Au an li ra st Au e th sy of te ed ur uc co od . pr es Re iv ch um Ar se an li Mu Austra Museum Archives. Galarrwuy Yunupingu (Yolgnu) following his delivery of the 1998 Vincent Lingari Memorial Lecture. Photographer: Leon Morris, Source: Northern Land Council. Reproduced courtesy of Leon Morris.
293
298
e d i w d l r o w s m u e s u m n i d e s u o h s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c f o n o i t u t i t s e r he , t r r e o v f e w s o m i H a l c . s f e o d a s c t e r d o p o w Re t t s a st e h t in n o i t a n i g a m i r a l u p o p e h t d e r u , t y p l a t c n e y u l q g e n s i n s a o e C r c n . i s t s e u q have e r n o i t u t i t s e r to ed t a l e r y l t c e r i d t o n e r a k o o b t o n s i h t as r o s f t c s e r j e b g o g i r l t a r e u t th l u c f o n r u t e r d n a l a v o m e r e h t f o n o i t a r e d i s n o c e h t to d e l s a h is th . n o i t a l o s i in d e w e i s e g a m i f o h g u o r merely physical acts v h t g n i r e t l i f e h t h t i w 1 9 9 1 r e b o t c O in e c a l p k o o t r e g g of e n o , k i n The first tri v o r b u D of ty ci d e i f i t r o f e h t of g n i l l e h s e t a r e b i l e d e h t of s t r o p e e l p m a x e n and news r a s a w s i h T . t c i l f n o c n a k l a B e h t of s r a e y y l r a e e h t of s t n e m o m l e d a m is the semina t a h t s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c d n a y t i t n e d i s ’ e l p o e p a n e e w t e b nk li e l b i l e d e c n e of the in l o i v e h T . s r e i p u c c o e b d l u o w r i e h t y b so al t u b lf se it y t i n u m m o c e h t y b or not only c i n h t e r a l u c i t r a p a of p i h s r e b m e m r i e h t of e s u a c e b e l p o e p t s n i a g a d e t a u t perpe s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c d n a s te si c i r o t s i h , s t n e m u n o m at d e l l e v e l so al s a w p u o r g s u o i g reli . ns io at li fi af d e v i e c r e p y with similarl t sufficient
no s a w p u o r g ar ul ic rt pa e th of s r e b m e m e th of n o i t c u r t s e d al ic The phys e th om fr e nc te is ex s p’ ou gr e th e g n u p x e to d e p o h ey th , er th ra for these belligerents; r ei th of l a v o m e r ic at em st sy e th h g u o r h t s on ti ra ne ge re tu fu of collective memory ve ti ec ll co d an al du vi di in in ’ es nc le si al rn te ‘e of on ti ea cr e h T . ns io at st fe cultural mani a be to s ue in nt co ge ta ri he al ur lt cu of n io ct ru st de or l va mo re e th h memory throug s. le op pe of n io at ug bj su d an on ti pa cu powerful weapon in the oc , ts Ar of y m e d a c A l ya Ro e th to 95 19 te la in t si vi my s wa r ge ig tr nd co The se on ti bi hi ex e th of m ai e Th . ow sh t’ en in London for the ‘Africa: The Art of a Cont g in ng lo ‘a om fr ng gi er em s wa h ic wh t en in nt was to chronicle the arts of an entire co d ei th ar ap e th g of in tl an sm di e th d on an ti period of humiliation’ following decolonisa me ti a at ed ut ec ex d an d ne an pl en be d ha on ti system in South Africa.! The exhibi al tu ec ll te in ed by ng le al ch g in be re we st pa e th es of iv when the grand imperial narrat e h th ug ro th ed lk wa I as r, ve we y. Ho er ph ri pe e th s on le discourses driven by peop e it sp de se ea un e of ns g se in er ng li a th wi ft le s Royal Academy’s darkened rooms I wa
its laudable aims.
n io at rm fo ed in il ta de le tt ed li id ov y pr la sp di s on ct je al ob The labelling of the cultur d te e th ua nt ce s ac ct je g ob in e th nd ou rr s su al id ic vo or st . hi e of their provenance Th s d on an ti la al re ni lo er co rm fo s of y ct fe da ef ten es pr e , th st al pa ni denial of the colo
on ti bi hi ex e th ce at an y gl or rs , cu on a ti di ad . In st pa is th es of ci ga the possible future le 1
ue
ie rin
Hite
ne
1995), Introduction, in T, Phillips (ed.), Africa: The Art of a Continent (exh. cat., New York,
Preface
Xiy
Preface
a e p o r u E s u o r e m u n of ’ y t r e p o r p ‘ e th e r e w ts bi hi ex at th ed al ve re e u g o catal n o s i e t t y c c n l e a e n i r e j O r a f b e of e th o r w o D N . s n o i t c e l l o c e t a v i r in e e American or p d e w o r r o b e r e w s t c e j b o e s e h t n e v E . s m u e s u m n ca ri Af of on the possessi y, it St ‘D , e r o f e r e h T s. e t a t S t n e d n e p e d n i y l w it is pr e n of es ti ci l ta pi ca in tions located etree were exhibition the in jects ob e th of n io ible port
that only a neglig
to th
. ed at in ig or ey th h ic wh om fr s ie communit L would not suggest that the exhibition sought to reaffirm the values of the Br... awareness
of old, What I do contend is that, even with our growing
of ae
\
i
t a a S s u o i r a v of s ve ti ia it in e th e it sp De . ed at ip ss di t no ve ha s ct fe ef ism, its . s c i n al c i P y l r e m r o f of ge ta ri he al ur lt cu agencies, a significant portion of the
indigenous peoples remains housed in foreign museums. These objects conti a and form a vital part of narratives largely dictated by il 4 oe
aes
e e S
J
:
ie
wi
ae
wave of globalisation.
g
The res~ titution of c ultural object } s to
h theiri communit1y
of ‘or origi ign’in’ 1s i neit 1 her
losses
are cen t
nor rare © phen phe omen~ on. Sin inccee the early nin i eteenth century, the internati 1 nity has sanctioned the return of cu Itural objec : communities jects to formerly occupied — tiene the
NOT
oO CCUT
question,
disinteg =: ration
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and
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e r t n e C e c r u o s e R s r i a f f A s u o n e g i d n I r fo p u o ; s e v i h c r a d n a national Work Gr s e i r a r b i l y e n d y S of y t i s r e v i n U e h t of f af st d e d u l c n d n a y r a r b i L Australia, this i m u e s u e Australian M
h t ; s e i r a r b i l s e l a W h t u o S w e N ; of y e n y d t y i S s r e , v y i r a Un r b i L l l e h c he Mit t ; of y r a r b i L e t a t S h e t u th o S ; s of y r a Archive r b i L tate S e h t ; s e v i h c r A d n a y r a r b i L m u e s u M n a i l e h t ; s e v i h c r a the South Austra d n a y r a r b i l a i r o t c i V m u e s u M ; a i r o t c i V of y r a r b i L e t a t S . y e n d y S , Australia; the e r t n e C n o i at m r o f n I s n o i t a N d e t i n U e h t d n a ; a i l a r t s u A of y r a ; s e v i h c r a National Libr d n a s e i r a r b i l y t i s r e v i n U k r o Y w e N e h t d e d u l c n i is th , s e t a t S d , s e i r a r b In the Unite i l n o s l i W w o r d o o W d n a d l é j k s r a m m a H g a D e h t ; s e v i h c r A s n o i t a N e h t ; s the United e v i h c r A d n a y r a r b i L t r A n r e d o M of m u e s Mu e h t ; k r o Y w e N , s n o i t a N e v United a W ; r e t n e C e v i h c r A r e l l e f e k c o R ; n o i t u t i t s n I n a i n o s h t i m S , t r A n a c i r e m A of s e v Archi seum of Natural His-
u M n a c i r e m A ; s e v i h c r A d n a y r a r b i L t r A of m u e s u M n y l k o Bro c i l b u P k r o Y w e N ; k r o Y w e N , y r a r b i l t r A of m u e s u n M a t i l o p o r t e M e h t ; y r a r b i L y r to e h t d n a ; s m u e s u M t r y A t i s r e rd Univ
a v r a H ; s e i r a r b i l y t i s r e v i n U a i b Library; Colum Roerich Museum Archives. y, ll Ke a d n y L n, fi if Gr s De , n o d r o G il Ph , er zi ra B n Ja to ul ef I am extremely grat k ac St y r a m e s o R ; m u e s u M an li ra st Au e th of e t i h W r te Pe d an Jude Philp, Jim Specht e t i d o r h p A d an e o d r a P n li Co , ke ar Cl p li il Ph g, ai Cr y rr Ba ; m u e s u M y of the Maclea rt be Ro s, rt be Ra e ni la Me n, le Al y nd Li ; m u e s u M an li ra st Au h ut So e th Vlavogelakis of
e th of ly er rm fo on rt Bu y on th An ; ia or ct Vi m u e s u M of y le Fo ry Ga d McWilliams an
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re fo nt ch Ce ar se Re cht tpa t International L; durin visited I aw,
g 1999; the Global I
which I visited File
of
, e c n a r F n I . e c i f f : O ds r o c e R c i l b u P h s i t i r B e h t d n a ; s e v i h c r A d n a u M of l i c Museum Librar n u o C a n l na oo i t a n ; r e t n I e th ; y r a r b i L d n a s e v i h c r A o c s e n U e In . s i r a P , e u q this included th : e h t o i l b i b n o i t a t n e m u c o d de e r t n e C d n a ; s e v i h c r A d r e t n I e i d n a seums Library an ; y r a r b i L l a y o R e h T ; y r a r b i l t ee s u m l a n o i t a N d e d u l c n i and Library. In Denmark, this
-0 05
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6
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s the ce of ur so al re nti sta ;
W School, School eee
Li4br0aryary of of Austra lia, Rockefell er Arrcehi
al ic og ol ae ch Ar r fo e ut it st In d l a n o D c a M , ie od Br il Ne ; m u e s u M rt be Al d an ia Victor
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ces, which
ew York University
d
e dg ri mb Ca e th of t as Bo n bi Ro d an e rl He a it An e; dg ri mb Ca of ty si er iv Un , ch Resear ey ll Ke ney ks Ma e ni ha ep St ; gy lo po ro th University Museum of Archaeology and An al on ti Na US e th of s n w o D ry Ma ; an di In an ic of the National Museum of the Amer e th of k e a b d n u L en rb To ; on nd , Lo ty si er Park Service; Patrick Boylan, City Univ of ty si er iv Un w, La of y lt cu Fa e, ef Ke O’ r ge Ro d an National Museum of Denmark;
Cambridge who have been most generous with their time. sipos n bee e hav not d ul wo ok bo s thi of on ti le mp The progress, depth and co and r Boe n Be of ail det to ion ent att and ce ien pat n, tio ina ble without the determ Aus e, ef Ke O’ k ric Pat ; ney Syd of y sit ver Uni , Law of y ult Fac the of Terry Carney k Yor w Ne , Law and y iet Soc of ute tit Ins sh, Bar sel Rus y; tralian National Universit Uni , ure ect hit Arc and Art of y tor His of nt me rt pa De th, Smi University; Terence , ry eo Th and y tor His Art of nt me rt pa De , ay ck Ma ry Ma and h; urg tsb versity of Pit , Law of y ult , Fac rd fo aw Cr es Jam of ice adv and ce dan gui e Th . ney Syd y of sit Univer
University of Cambridge throughout many years is deeply appreciated. Special thanks to my sister, Katarina Vrdoljak, whose unstinting support has guaranteed the inclusion of images to accompany my words; Annie Parkinson, whose proofreading skills came when they were most needed; and my editor, Simon Whitmore, who patiently guided the book to completion.
Preface
, o h e h t n e e b s a h k r o w is th of s e r u s a e l p g n i One of the most endur m o ] l a i c e p s e , e b o l ly ay g e th of s r e n r o c s ou ri va in s d friend
generosity of family an
t
e
TABLE
OF
CASES
l de Vr d an e ng ro St c, ci si Ro é, vi ho Pa n, se an -H rd aa ng Li k, va Le , ar Kram Jak fa Ute vevey
i Igy ky ac to sh wi I l, al e v o b A s. er st Si ow ll fe r he d n an OWledg, t na er ff He ta si re Te and
s ter sis and s ent par my of t por sup nal tio emo and al unfailing physic
l. goa eld g-h lon this of on ati lis rea the fuelled and ensured
wh
OS
Sake i
, n o i t a c u d E of y r t s i n i M e h T v. ) e t u t i t s n I n a e a n g a m a n r A ( n o i t a d n u o F n r e t s a E e h T ; ) 6 Arne Magnussen 6 9 1966 (November 1 / 7 0 1 . o N e s a C , k r a m n e D of t r u o C e m e r p u S 1 4 2 , ) 0 7 9 1 h c r a M ( 7 6 9 1 / 7 5 . o N I I e s a C ; k r C A ] 4 8 9 High Court of Denma 1 [ ; ) B Q ( 2 3 4 R E l l A 3 ] 2 8 9 1 [ z i t r O v. d n a l a e Z w e N of l a r e n e Attorney-G
1
(HL), 245, 270
4 | ;
s e e t s u r T v. l a r e n e G y e , n 12 r ) h Atto C ( 9 8 0 1 R H W E ] 5 0 0 2 [ m u e s u M h is it Br e th of es te us Tr e h T v. l a r e n e G Attorney0 9 2 , 3 7 9 6 2 , 4 5 3 5 2 5 2 5 5 0 2 4 0 2 0, 14 , 0 2 9 1 54, 69, 73, 80, 81, 95, 1 Vv. s u r p y C of c i l b u p e R e th d n a s u r p y C of h c r u h C x o d o h t r O k Autocephalous Gree 6 4 2 , ) 0 9 9 1 r. Ci th (7 8 7 2 2d F 7 1 9 , c. In , ts Ar ne Fi n a m d l Goldberg & Fe e th of r e d r O e th of e r u s a e r T e th d n a e s n o h p e d l I t i a S of ch ty Belgian claims to the Trip n o i t a r a p e R s, ri Pa s, st ri Fu e e r h T of e e t t i m m o C e th of t r o p e R , Golden Fleece 82 , 1 4 1 1 . o N x e n n A , 21 19 r be Commission, 25 Octo ) m 9 9 r O e @ 8 62 . pp Su F 9 96 , y m r A e th of nt me rt pa De US v. en hs Bonnic 962
3d F 7 35 fd af ); 02 20 . Or . ( 16 11 2d . pp Su F 7 21 ); ng li ru ry na mi li (pre
,9 (9th Cir. 2004)27
1] 99 [1 is ol op tr Me e th r fo ce li Po of er on si is mm Co v. n io at or rp Co t en pm lo ve De er Bump WLR
1362, [1991] 4 All ER 638 (CA), 245
49 , 6) 92 (1 3 17 p. 4, l. vo AA RI ), es at Cayuga Indians (Great Britain v. United St 6 10 , 1) 83 (1 1 .) Pet ( US 30 a, gi or Ge v. on ti Na Cherokee
Crow v. Gullett, 541 F Supp. 785 (DSCD
1983), 276
1982); affd 706 F 2d 856 (8th Cir.
ed ri va ); 91 19 C, SS (B 185 h) (4t R DL 79 7) 99 Delgamuukw v. British Columbia (1 , CC (S 193 h) (4t R DL 153 ld he up . app 3); 199 A, 104 DLR (4th) 470 (BCC
1997), 295
103 2d F 836 ed ers rev 7); 198 NY, (SD 688 p. Sup F 658 r, inge Bald DeWeerth v. (2nd Cir. 1987); reversed 38 F 3d 1266 (2nd Cir. 1994), 143 Factory at Chorzow, Merits, (1928) PCIf, ser.A, No.17, p.47, 215 Foster v. Mountford (1976) 29 CLR 233, 14 ALR 71, 270 Idrogo v. United States Army, 18 F Supp. 2d 25 (DDC 1998), 279 Island of Palmas (US v. Netherlands), RIAA, vol.2, p.831 (1949), 49 Kartinyeri v. Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337, 286 Kitok v. Sweden, No.197/1985, UN Doc.A/43/40, p.221 (1988), 178
1
Table of cases ;
(EDNY 829 Supp. F 536 Elicofon, V. Weimar su Kunstsammlungen .
.
981), afty
ie 209 (1981) 1163; ILM 12 (1973) 1982); Cir. (2nd 1150 F.2d
Mi; (iggl
21 ILM 773, 143
Lansman y. Finland, No.511/1922, UN Doc.CCPR/52/D/511/199
No.671/1995, UN Doc.CCPR/C/58/D/671/1995, 178
Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupi ed P.
Pred
ICJ, 9 July 2004, No.131, 67
a
Palestinian Rerrity,
"PC. I
Lubicon Lake Band (Bernard
v. C
UN 5 Omi
‘
in Namibia
TOT Rene
ae
Legal Status of Eastern Greenland G938)
;
sand
Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Afri, (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resoluti i
1971, p.16, 199, 200
\
minayak)
UN 4, 98 /1 67 .1 No , ada Can v. ) 178 , 90) (19 p.1 2, Pt. 40, Doc.A/45/
‘
e v. Nabalco Pry Limited and mority Schools in Albania case (1 93
Ier 20
Se
¥; (2 August 200] , doce ea ia
F
an I]
Report of the a 377
stria
3d 1105 (oth Fy hh
“a
ci,
ca
d
a
* Judgment, Case is» e £ Trial Chamber Ie 1-98.33_
fe? esi
11999] Crim. LR 578 : HONS) 03 i544 93 »24 A
tation dnyV,I SOr the Tr ne ren (2001 Hc y. Vi U F
1,92 245
,
O, > D7 277
respect of a Pains N n E ow in the P »~2, 216
i es
(2903); afta 541 S
United States v. 184 F 2d 131 United States v.
fd af ), 99 19 Y N D S ( 2 22 . pp Su F 1 99 , ld Go of r te at Pl e qu ti An An (2nd Cir. 1999), 244 h 0t (1 6 79 3d F 11 fd af ); 96 19 M N D ( 53 15 . pp Su F 1 94 , ow Corr
S U 2 52 ed ni de . rt ce ); 97 19 Cir.
1133,
118 S.Ct.
1089
(1998), 278
4 24 ), 74 19 r. Ci th (9 54 11 2d F 5 49 d, ea sh in ll Ho v. es at St United 3 12 , 6) 87 (1 6 61 S U 94 , ph se Fo v. es United Stat 6 10 , 6) 88 (1 5 37 US 8 11 , ma ga United States v. Ka
0 20 9, 19 6, p. , 75 19 s rt po Re F IC n io in Op ry so Western Sahara Advi 4 BO il, IR (C II 6) 99 (1 nd la ns ee Wik Peoples v. Qu 6 10 , 2) 83 (1 5 51 ) t. Pe (6 US 31 a gi or Worcester v. Ge C FR 1 10 9) 99 , (1 th al we on mm Co & y or it rr Te rn he Yarmirr v. Nort 208 CLR 1, 286, 295
NoIT-98-
R. v. Tokeley-p fonsov. Ridlon, (1996, ¢
28 ), 13 18 S. N. Ct m. Ad eic (V 2, 48
nd (2 3 39 3d F 3 33 ), 02 20 Y N D S ( 5 44 2d . pp Su F 8 17 z, lt hu Sc v. es at St ed Unit
|
ee
, 13 18 l ri Ap 21 s, rt po Re ty al ir dm -A ce Vi s t’ ar ew St , se ca es el ru me So The Marquis de
Cir. 2003), 244
oe | e|e s
'
50 , 5) 82 (1 5 n) to ea Wh 0 (1 US 23 The Antelope,
3 12 , 3) 91 (1 28 US 1 23 , al ov nd United States v. Sa
Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cem etery Protective Association , Mabo & Ors v. Queensland (No.2)
wiDisv. 1967); ; rev. 24 NY 2d 91 (19 69) ee
Table of cases
; 9) 19 r. Ci th (5 52 2d F 55 ); 77 19 r. Ci th (5 8 98 2d F 5 54 United States v. McClain, 4 24 , 9) 97 (1 8 91 US 44 ed ni de . 593 F 2d 658 (5th Cir. 1979); cert
ew ie(1981), meee 0, p.166 c.A/36/4 178
Lovelace v. Canada, No.24/1977,
\
;
eae? oF
171; affd (2001)
S T N E M U R T S N I F O E L TAB
Table of instruments
l a r u t l u C d n a ic if nt ie Sc , l a n o i t a c u d E s n o i t a N d e t i n U e Constitution of th S T N U 4 , 6 4 9 1 r e b m e v o N 4 e rc fo in , 5 4 9 1 r e b m e v o N Organisation, London, 16
4 18 , 5) 94 (1 11 67 d m C 5; 27
, ge ta ri He l ra tu Na d an al ur lt Cu d rl Wo e th of on ti ec ot Pr e th ng ni er nc co on ti en nv Co d n a 1, 15 S T N U 7 3 0 1 75, 9 1 r e b m e c e D 17 e rc fo in Paris, 16 November 1972, : 4 (1972) 11 ILM 1358, 30
d e m r A of t en Ev e th in ty er op Pr al ur lt Cu of on ti ec ot Pr e th Convention for S T N U 9 4 2 , 6 5 9 1 t s u g u A in force 7
International
African Charter on Human and People s’ Rights (Banjul Chart ) er) ad a19o81, in forcee21eOctoa bea r 1986, » OA OAU Doc.CAB/ LEG/67/3
Opted DF
520
. Austri between ent Agreem AU ogee stria and Hungary, Venice, 27 Novemb er
, 4 5 9 1 y a M 14 , e u g a H e Conflict, Th 130, 149, 166, 167, 209, 261 ris, Pa , ge ta ri He al ur lt Cu le ib tang In e th of ng di ar gu fe Sa e th r Convention fo 4 30 1, 27 , 32 n o i t u l o s e R / C 2 3 c. Do O C S E N U , 03 20 r e b o t c O 17
un
1932, 162 Ly;
j
r e b m e c e D 10 y, Ba o g e t n o M Convention on the Law of the Sea,
240, 6,
1982, in force
4 21 , 61 12 M L I 21 2) 98 (1 3; S 16 November 1994, 1833 UNT rt po Ex , rt po Im t ci li Il e th ng ti en ev Pr d an g in it ib oh Pr of s n a e M e th Convention on 1970, in and Transfer of Ownership
r e b m e v o N 14 s, ri Pa , ty er op Pr al of Cultur
8, 19 3, 19 9, 13 4, 9, 28 M L I 10 1) 97 (1 1; 23 S T N U 3 82 , 72 19 l ri Ap 24 force 4 30 3, 30 6, 27 , 46 224 8, 23 6, 23 205, 206-11, 213-14, 218, 235,
A G N U , de ci no Ge of e im Cr e th t of n e m h s i n u P d an on ti en ev Pr e th on on ti en nv Co 7, 7, 27 S T N U 78 , 51 19 y ar nu Ja 12 Res.260A(III), 9 December 1948, in force
1 30 5, 29 9, 17 6, 17 5, 17 , 71 716 3, 130, 16
j3 i
ic st ti Ar d an al ic or , st al Hi ic og ol ae ch Ar e th Convention on the Protection of ), 76 0/ I0 (V 21 s. Re A G S A O or ad lv Sa n Sa s, on Heritage of the American Nati
i
16 June 1976, OASTS No.47; (1976)
15 MEMO 505
LOZ e270
s, , ri ge Pa ta ri al He ur r lt e t Cu a w r e d n U e on th of ti ec Convention on the Prot 4 21 , 37 M L I 41 2) n o 00 i t (2 ; u l 24 o s e R / C 1 . 3 O ce C Do S E N 2 November 2001, U
>
(1975
974. 29
3
UN
of
and Duties
GAOR
5
Sup
i
States
ae
1970) 9 TLM 99, 173
2 UNGA
P. (No. 31),
1969, San José, in force
R
€s,3
1 2 p 1 4 e e ( 1 P50; 975) ILM 251; 14 281
e th d an r a W e th g of t in ou s is er Ar tt nt Ma me of le tt Se on e th ti on Conven S T N U 2 , 33 r 54 e b 19 o t c O s, 23 ri d Pa se in vi , re 52 19 y a , M , 26 on nn ti Bo Occupa 219, Cmnd 656 (1959), UST 441; TIAS 342, 147 Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, and Annex, The Hague, 18 October 1907, in force 26 January 1910 UKTS 9 (1910), Cd 5030, (1907) 208 Parry’s CTS 77, (1908) 2(supp.) AJIL 90, 165 Convention revising the 1885 General Act of Berlin relative to the Congo, St Germain-en-Laye, 10 September 1919, 8 LNTS 27; Cmd 477 (1919); (1921) 15(supp.) AJIL 314; (1919) 225 Parry’s CTS 500 53, 136 Convention (II) with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, with Annex, The Hague, 29 July 1899, in force 4 September 1900 UKTS 1 (1901), C 800 (1899), (1898-99) 187 Parry’s CTS 429, (1907) 1(supp.) AJIL 129, 66 Council Directive 1993/7/EEC of 15 March 1993, as amended, on the return of cultural objects unlawfully removed from the territory of a Member State, OJ
1993 No.L74, 27 March 1993, p.74, 248 Covenant of the League of Nations, Versailles, 28 June 1919, LN, LNOJ 4%
(February
La) Ist Yr, No.1, p.3; (1919) 225 Parry’s CTS 195; (1919) 13(supp.) 128, British and State Foreign Papers, vol.112, p.13; (1919) 13(supp.) AJIL 128, 80
Table of instruments
an , 49 19 y ar nu Ja 1 , on gt in sh Wa s, on ti Na Declaration by the United Nex |. q re ve li r de te ar ic Ch nt la At e th as n ow es kn pl ci in n pr io of at ar Decl the by Kingdom Prime Minister and United States President, 14 August 194),
LNTS 381; (1941) 35 (supp.) AJIL 191; (1941) 5 Department of 5 ta te
125, 132
i struments Table of in
t s u g u A 26 d e v o r p p a s, le op Pe us no ge di In of ts gh Ri e th on n io at ar cl De Draft UN 7; 28 , 11 226 7, 1, 54 M L I 34 5) 99 (1 ; 56 4/ 99 /1 .2 ub /S .4 CN E/ c. 1994, UN Do
Un 2oge
302
B Ullery 4)
Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultura] Herita Be) Paris 17 October 2003, UNESCO Doc.32C/Resolution 39, 271, 30]
Declaration of the Allied Nations against Acts of Dispossession Commi tted in Territories under Enemy Occupation or Control, 5 January 1943, (1 943) 9 Department of State Bulletin 21, 138, 140-41, 142, 145, 166, 208, 2 30) , 271 12, Declaration of the World Conference of Indigenous Peoples on “once
Environment and Development, Kari-Oca, 30 May 1992, 270 Declaration on Cultural and Intellectual Pr operty Righ 1 ts i Martaatua, 18 June 1993, 270
Declaration on the Establishment of a New In
xxiii
ory
—
U=NGA Res.3201(S-VI), » |1 M May 1974; ( 1974) 13 ILM 720; (1974) 68 AJ1IL 793
European Convention May 1969, in force Valetta, 16 January Final Act and Annex Annex: Resolution
6 , n o d n o L , ge ta ri He al ic og ol ae on the Protection of the Arch ), ed is ev (R 6 .6 No S T E 8; 22 20 November 1970, 788 UNTS 1992; ETS No.143, 208 , 46 19 y ar nu Ja 14 s, on ti ra pa Re of the Paris Conference on 7, 11 IL AJ ) p. up (s 40 6) 94 (1 n, on the Subject of Restitutio
141-44
ly Ju 13 , st Ea e th in s ir fa Af of lement tt Se for lin Ber of ss re ng Co the of Act Final 9 67 p. , 83 l. vo rs pe Pa . rl Pa ate Foreign Papers, vol.69, p.749; 1878, British and St
(1878); (1878) 153 Parry’s CTS 170, 22
ons, ti va ca Ex on ce en er nf Co l na io at rn te In Final Act of the
Cairo,
14 March
1937,
, OJ LN , LN ; 68 , II .X 37 19 0. 22 M. 7. 32 C. c. Do LN H; .X 37 19 1. 19 L. C. c. Do LN 1 19 7, -1 16 1 , 11 ix nd pe Ap , 67 306 .1 pp 2, (December 1937), 18th Yr, No.1 an of t en hm is bl ta Es e th r fo ce en er nf Final Act of the United Nations Co , 6) 94 (1 11 67 d Cm , on nd Lo , on ti sa ni Educational, Scientific and Cultural Orga 184
NaO0ti8on)s, UNGA Res. 2625(KRV),94 Qa , p12, (1970) 9 tea ope OcPe 19e70s , ha25ttUerN ofGAthOeR UnSituepdp Declaration on the
of Council Minorities, National of Protection Framework Convention for the 302 , 351 M IL 34 95) (19 ; 57 .1 No S ET 5, 199 ry Europe, Strasbourg, 1 Februa
ry ua br Fe 26 lin Ber o, ng Co the g tin pec res lin Ber of General Act of the Conference ; 485 S CT s ry’ Par 165 85) (18 5 p.4 , .76 vol , ers Pap te 1885, British and Foreign Sta
(1909) 3(supp.) AJIL 7, 52, 136
e, ad Tr ve Sla n ca ri Af the to ng ati rel ls sse Bru of ce en er nf Co General Act of the
Brussels, 2 July 1890, British and Foreign State Papers, vol.82, p.55; Parl. Papers,
vol.95, p.1 (1892); (1890) 173 Parry’s @MS298 559) General Act of the Congress of Vienna, Paris, 9 June 1815, British and Foreign State
Papers, vol.2, p.3; Parl. Papers, vol.17, p.335, (1816); (1815) 64 Parry’s Gis AN53}. NG); ZO, Dil 77
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Geneva, 30 October 1947, provisionally approved 1 January 1948, 61 Stat.A-11; TIAS 1700; 55 UNTS 194, 193
ILO Convention (No.107 of 1957) concerning the Protection and Integration of Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-Tribal Populations in Independent Countries, Geneva, 26 June 1957, in force 2 June 1959, 328 UNTS
247, 176,
DN
ILO Convention (No.169 of 1989) concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, Geneva, 27 June 1989, in force 5 September
1650 UNTS
383; (1989) 28 ILM
1991,
1382, 231
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, New York, 16 December
1966, in force 23 March 1976, UNGA Res.2200A(CXXI), 21 UN GAOR Supp.(No.16), p.52; 999 UNTS 171; (1967) 6 ILM 368, 176-79, 199, 263, 264, 267
Table of instruments
Xi)
y Ne , ts gh Ri al ur lt Cu d an al ci , So ic om on Ec on nt na ve l Co na io Internat
16 k t o ) x 4 X 00 22 s. Re A G N U , 76 y 19 ar nu Ja 3 e rc fo in , December 1966 GAOR
1 Uy
Supp.(No.16), p.49; 993 UNTS 3; (1967) 6 ILM 360, 199,
210
International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War, B 27 August 1874, not ratified, (1874-75) 148 Parry’s CTS 1345 Brinig
Foreign State Papers, vol.65, p.118; (1907) 1(supp.) AJIL 96, 66, 139
h and
Tralo-Austrian Treaty, 4 May 1920, 83 Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Politica] Rights, e = a L in force 23 March 1976, UNGA es.2200AQ
> 2b
(1967) 6 ILM 368, 178
| ;
:
GAOR Supp.(No.16), p.59; 999 UNTS 302; and
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) Resolution 12
Looted Jewish cultural pro perty, 4 November 1999, 05 (1999») 4 Offic, es >» Official Gazette of the Couns of Europe (November 1999), 237 Peace Treaty between Poland, Russia and the U kraine, Rig a, 18 March 1921, in force u pon signature,
6 LNTS
1285183;
Table of instruments
Second Protocol to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, The Hague, 26 March 1999, in force 9 March (1999)
2004,
TUssels,
Seay
38 ILM
769,
149
Treaty of Alliance between Great Britain and Iraq, Baghdad,
10 October 1922, 35
IENEES 1S 4865 8738
len Sto of rn tu Re and ry ve co Re the g for in id n ov pr io at er op Co of aty Tre Archaeological, Historical and Cultural Properties, Mexico City, 17 July 1970,
in force 24 March 191,
1971, 791 UNTS
313; 22 USTS
192
Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Germain-en-Laye, 10 September 1919, in force (1919); British and Foreign State Papers, vol.112, (1920) 14 (supp.) AJIL 1, 81, 83, 85 Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Versailles, 28 June
1919, in force
10 January
494; (1970) 9 ILM
1028,
Powers and Austria, St 8 November 1921, Cmd 400 p.317; (1919) 225 Parry’s 482; Powers and Germany,
1920, Cmd
Foreign State Papers, vol.112, p.1; (1919) 225 Parry’s CTS
AJIL 151, 78, 85
516
(1920); British and
189; (1919)
13(supp.)
n, ano Tri y, gar Hun and ers Pow d ate oci Ass and ed Alli the n wee bet e Peac of ty Trea 1920, in force 17 December (1921) 15(supp.) AJIL 1, 84, 85
4 June
1921, 6 LNTS
187; Cmd
(1920);
896
Treaty of Peace between Austria-Hungary and Italy, Vienna, 3 October 1866, British and Foreign State Papers, vol.56, p.700; (1866) 133 Parry’s CTS 209, 27 Treaty of Peace with Bulgaria, Paris, 10 February 1947, in force 15 September
1947, 41 UNTS 49; Cmd 7022 (1947), p.1175 (1948) 42(supp.) AJIL 179, 27, 144,
146
Treaty of Peace with Hungary, Paris, 10 February
1947, 41 UNTS 144, 146
167; Cmd 7022 (1947), p.117; (1948) 42(supp.) AJIL 225,
Treaty of Peace with Italy, Paris, 10 February
49 UNTS
1947, in force 15 September
1947, in force 15 September
1947,
3; Cmd 7022 (1947), p.117; (1948) 42(supp.) AJIL 47, 144, 146
Treaty of Peace between Poland, Russia and the Ukraine,
18 March
1921, in force
upon signature, 6 LNTS 123, 27, 83 Treaty of Peace with Romania, Paris, 10 February 1947, in force 15 September 1947, 42 UNTS 33; Cmd 7022 (1947), p.117; (1948) 42(supp.) AJIL 252, 146 Treaty of Peace with Turkey, Sévres, 10 August 1920, not ratified, Cmd 964 (1920); British and Foreign State Papers, vol.113, p.652; (1921) 15(supp.) AJIL 179, 85, 86, 147, 203 Treaty on the Protection of Artistic and Scientific Institutions and Historic Monuments, Washington, 15 April 1935, in force 26 August 1935, 167 LNTS 289; USTS 899; (1936) 30(supp.) AJIL 195, 134, 135, 136 Treaty on the Protection of Movable Property of Historic Value, Washington, 15 April 1935, in force 17 July 1936, OASTS No.28, 134-36
UNESCO
Declaration of the Principles of Cultural Co-operation, Paris,
4 November
1966, UNESCO
Doc.14C/Resolutions,
134-36,
179, 210
Table of instruments
Xj
UNESCO Draft Principles relating to Cultural Objects Displaced jn relatig
Doc.CLT-2995/¢ C0 the
Second World War, Paris, 24 February 2003, UNESCO 602/3, Revised, Paris, 15 February 2005, UNESCO Doc.171 EX/14 Aaa
oe
;
Annex IV, 147, 216
UNESCO Recommendation Concerning the International Exchange of C
Property, Nairobi, 26 November 1976, UNESCO Doc. 19C/Resolution 8; 147 UNESCO Recommendation on International Principles applicable to Archaeological Excavations, New Delhi, 5 December 1956, UNESCQ
UNESCO Recommendation on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing
the Illicit Export, Import and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property ,
2 November 20
UNESCO Doc.31C/Res.25, Annex I; (2002) 41 ILM 57, 7, 266, 271, 309 ial
UNGA
Resolution
on the
Crime
of Genocid e 3 UN
G A
UNGA Resolution on the Fate of Minorities, UNGA 4
1948, UN Doc.A/810, 177
R es. 96 (I) 5 il 1
American Indian Religious Freedom Act 1978, 276 Antiquities Act 1906, 121-22, 246
Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act 1983, 243-44 General Allotment Act 1887, 125 Holocaust Commission Act 1998, 240
House Concurrent Resolution No.108, 180 Indian Arts and Crafts Board Act 1935, 125-26
Doc.9C/Resolution, 150
UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, Paris,
United States
Archaeological Resources Protection Act 1979, 246
Uultura]
Paris, 19 November 1964, UNESCO Doc.13C/Resolutions, 206, 207
Table of instruments
Decemb
e 1
Res.21 7C(IID), 10 December
Indian Civil Rights Act 1968, 183 Indian Reorganization Act 1934, 125, 176 Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, General Order No.100, 24 April 1863, 65, 139 National Museum of the American Indian Act 1989, 281 National Stolen Property Act 1976, 243 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act 1990, 246 Public Law 280 of 15 August 1953, 180 Title II — Regulation of Importation of Pre-Columbian Monumental and
Architectural Sculptures or Murals
1974, 192
Australia Aboriginal Development Commission Act 1980 (Cth), 248 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Act 1989 (Cth), 247 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Amendment Act 2005
(Cth),
287 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984 (Cth), 223, 247, 287 Australian Museum Trust Act 1975 (NSW), 225 Customs Act 1901
and Debts, 3 Vienna
306, 200-05 Britain
Ancient Monum
7
A
:
IN respe
Ct of St
Pril 1983, UN Doc.A /CONF Ties
Archives
31983) 22 ITM
(Cth), 244
Museums (Aboriginal Remains) Act 1984 (Tas.), 284 Native Title Act 1994 (Cth), 294 Native Title Amendment Act 1998 (Cth), 294 Protection of Movable Cultural Heritage Act 1986 (Cth), 244-45, 246-47, 264 Protection of Movable Cultural Property Regulations 1986 (Cth), 247
Miscellaneous
Cyprus Antiquities Law, 30 December 1935, 86 Definition of the Term ‘Restitution’, 22 January 1946, Press Handout No.151, PR Branch, C.C.G. (BE), Berlin, 141, 142, 144 Iraq Antiquities Law No.40, 1926, No.59, 1936, No.120,
86, 87
1974 and No.164,
Law No.52 Blocking and control of property, Military Government Gazette,
[Germany, US Zone, Issue A] 1 June 1946, 142, 146-47
1975,
Table of
instruments
Nj
Ga t n e m n r e v o G ry ta li Mi , ty er op Pr le ab fi ti en Id of Zette n io ut it st Re 9: .5 No w La 948) 49
(1 d an ; 47 19 r e b m e v o N 0, .1 No , G] [Germany, US Zone, Issue
AJIL 11, 145, 146
ABBREVIATIONS
(supp,)
86 , 21 19 1, .5 No e nc na di Or Palestine Antiquities 0 22 , 72 19 t Ac t en pm lo ve De al ur lt Papua New Guinea Cu Papua New Guinea National Cultural Property (Preservation) Act 1965, 2 20 Statutes of the Intergovernmental Committee for Promoting the Return of
Cultural Property to its Countries of Origin or its Restitution in Case of hier
Appropriation, 215 Sweden Looted Objects Law, 29 June 1945, 145 Switzerland Decree of 10 December 1945 concerning Actions for the Recovery of Goods taken in Occupied Territories during the War, 145
Title 18: Monuments, Fine Arts and Archives (MGR 18), Office of the Military Government for Germany, US Military Government Regulations, 141
Title 19: Restitution (MGR 19), Office of the Military Go vernment for
US Military Government Regulations, 142
Ger Many,
Q) AAA
Original unclear Archives of American Art
AAL AAM
Aboriginal Arts Board (Aust.) Art Antiquity and Law American Association of Museums
AAMD
Association of Art Museum
AHB
Alfred H. Barr Jr
AHR
American Historical Review
AICRJ
American Indian Culture and Research Fournal
AILR
American Indian Law Review
AIQ AJICL AJIL
American Indian Quarterly Arizona Fournal of International and Comparative Law American Fournal of International Law Aboriginal Law Bulletin Australian Law Fournal Reports Australian Law Reports Australian Museum Archives
AAB
ALB ALJR
ALR AMA APSR ARPA Arch. Rev. Ark. LR ASILP ASL] ATSIC
AUJILP AULR AYIL BIA BMA
Brooklyn JIL Buffalo LR
Directors
American Political Science Review Archaeological Resources Protection Act 1979 Architectural Review Arkansas Law Review Proceedings of the American Society of International Law Arizona State Law Journal Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (Aust.)
American University Fournal of International Law and Policy American University Law Review Australian Yearbook of International Law Bureau of Indian Affairs (US) Brooklyn Museum Archives
— Brooklyn Journal of International Law
BYIL
Buffalo Law Review Boston University Law Review British Yearbook of International Law
CAJ
College Art Journal
BULR
CA
Court of Appeal (UK)
List of abbreviations
sala
ifornia Law Review
—
can of Australian Museums Association
CCPIA
Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act 1983
CCOR
Ch CHR
CHRWG
3
4 ‘
;
‘4
CHRY cIL]
CJL]
E
CJTL
CLP CLR
COMA Cornell LR
i
Conte
;
ee
‘Continuous Cultures Ongoing Responsibilities’
Chancery Division (UR) UN Commission on Human Rights
Working group established in accordance with Commission on
Human Rights Resolution 1995/32 Canadian Human Rights Yearbook
Canadian Fournal of Law and Jurisprudence
Columbia Journal of Transnational Law
Conference of Museum Anthropologists (Aust) Cornell Law Review oo
LA Fournal of Law and the Arts ne Journal of International Law
cae
eee
DCMS DIILP
SE ak ata of International Law ae = ture, Media and Sport (UR)
ECOSOC
Sa
nets a
Law and Politics
EJIL
European Journal of ae
EPL]
Environmental and aS
EU
Human Rights Quarterly
IACB
Indian Arts and Crafts Board
ICESCR
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
IAIA ICCPR
ICLQ
1ee
TIC
IJCP
Criminal Law Review
European Union
aan na
"mg Law Fournal
exh. cat. F 2d
exhibition catalogue Federal Reports (Second serj
F Supp. sn
Federal Supplement (Us) Be As) saa Court of Australia
ei Opportunity Commission (Aust.)
HRO
ICTY
Commonwealth Law Reports
IIMMC ILA
ILC
ILM ILO
Institute of American Indian Arts International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
International Committee for Intellectual Cooperation International Court of Justice Reports of fudgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders
International and Comparative Law Quarterly
International Council of Museums
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia Intergovermental
Committee
International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation International Ffournal of Cultural Property International Fournal of Museum Management and Curatorship International Law Association
litarneana! Legal Wea ; Lauerimatcoaall Labour Organization
ILR
lidtaroetiawes La Keepers
IMT
International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg
uBR
sh sciaigesblamiiaad oss
IRRC TYHR
International Review of the Red Cross Israel Yearbook on Human Rights
IRA
TYIL JHC
Indian Reorganization Act 1934
Itahan Yearbook of International Law Journal of the Ehistory of Collections :
—
FLR FO
Poy i ne en i ee
Law Fournal
GAOR
General ites
JRIBA JYIL
.
LCP
Law
GATT GL
General dics ost fee Supine. os on Tariffs and Trade
EN LNOJ
ea
George Washjn Sheng
LNTS
League of Nations League of Nations Official fournal League of Nations Treaty SETS
Reports (Aust.)
~
JILP
Piss
H a
German Yearbook of toetiosoyane
HELR
pia Court of Australia
HHRJ
Hare, és Environmental Law Review
HILJ
Poo
HL
a
She
Rights Journal
ia rds
Law Journal
we
te Law and Economics
|
Latemnatlonell Law Commission
FIL]
es
ee.
einsten enue
ICOM
Current Legal Problems
ie
4
i
1G ICJ Reports
Cornell International Law Journal
‘
LPIB
LQR
MGC MGR
Journal of Unteananoal Law om Policy
Journal of Royal Institute of British Architects Jewish Yearbook of International Law and Contemporary Problems
.
Law and Policy in International Business
Law Quarterly Review
i
Museums and Galleries Commission (UR) Military Government Regulation
Mich. LR MLR
Michigan Law Review Modern Law Review
MoMA
Museum of Modern Art, New York Museum of Primitive Art, New York
List of abbreviations
MULR Museums J
n.d.
np. NAGPRA NAL NDLR NGO
\
Melbourne Universi ty Law Review
List of abbreviations
not dated
RGDIP RHD RIAA RICP SHR SJILC
Museums Journal
St
—
National Muse um of Austral i a National Mus e u m of the j Americ ; National Museum an Indian of the A
merica
Revue générale de droit internat ional public (Paris)
Revue a@’histoire diplomatique
UN Reports of International Arbitr al Awards
Return of Indigenous Cultural Proper ty Program Scottish Historical Review
Thomas LR
Stan. LR
Syd. LR TGS TIAS INU UBCLR UCDLR UCLJR UDHR UILR UKTS ULR UMJLR UN UNCLOS UNESCO UNGA UNGA
Res.
Se tee
UNIDROIT UNSC Res. UNSWLJ UNTS UNWCC USC USTS V&A WAC WGHR WGIP
WLR YAAA YBILC YBUN YJIL
Syracuse Journal of International Law and Commerce St Thomas Law Review Stanford Law Review Sydney Law Review Transactions of the Grotius Society Trade and Other International Acts Series (U S) Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems University of British Columbia Law Review University of California Davis Law Review Umwversity of Chicago Law Fournal Roundtable Universal Declaration of Human Rights University of Illinois Law Review United Kingdom Treaty Series
Uniform Law Review Umiversity of Michigan Journal of Law and Reform United Nations
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisa tion United Nations General Assembly United Nations General Assembly Resolution International Institute for the Unification of Private Law United Nations Security Council Resolution University of New South Wales Law Fournal United Nations Treaty Series
United Nations War Crimes United States Code
Commission
United States Treaty Series Victoria and Albert Museum, London
World Archaeological Congress Working Group on Human Remains (UR) Working Group on Indigenous Populations Weekly Law Reports Annuaire des anciens auditeurs de ’'academie de la Haye Yearbook of the International Law Commission United Nations Yearbook Yale Fournal of International Law
NOTE ON THE TEXT ce
ILO No.107 n ous and 1957
eRe en
Convention
Other
Tribal
and
concerning the Protection and Integration of Indige Semi-Tribal
Populations
in Independent
Countries
npe de In in s ple Peo bal Tri and us no ge di In ng ni er nc co on Conventi
te
ees
ILO No.169ies 1989 dent Countr
Law No.52 Military Government and Control of Property, 1946
AE RAS
4
ieee
j
Note on the text
Some important conventions, treaties and other instrument s are cited in the tex in abbreviated form for the sake of clarity in the detailed analysis of issues, T hese shortened citations are listed below with their ful l titles and may be co Mpared with the Table of Instruments. The list is divided into those instruments cit ed alphabetical, and those cited chronologically, Alphabetical
Agreement in respect of Cont rol of Lo oted Works of A r t 1946 Agreement between the United States, the Un ited Kingdom and Fra nce in respect of the Looted Articles Control of
Zone,
Law
No.52
Blocking
Military Government for Germany, US Area of Control, Law No.59: Restitution of Identifiable Property, 1947
Mataatua Declaration Declaration on Cultural and Intellectual Property Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Mataatua, 1993
Optional Protocol of [CCPR
Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, New York, 1966
PACE Res 1205 (1999) Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) Resolution 1205 (1999) Looted Jewish cultural property
PAU Treaty 1935
‘Treaty on the Protection of Movable Property of Historic Value
Public Law 92-587 of 1974
Resolution Aboriginal and T orres Strait Isla nder Herit
US
Law No.59
Monumental
=
for Germany,
‘Title Il— Regulation of Importation of Pre-Columbian
and Architectural Sculptures or Murals
1205
Resolution 1205
Parliamentary
Assembly
of the
Council
(1999) Looted Jewish cultural property
of Europe
(PACE)
Roerich Pact 1933 (see 1935 Washington Treaty)
San José Declaration Ethnocide,
1981
San José Declaration: UNESCO
and the Struggle against
Treaty of Cooperation between United States and Mexico Treaty of Cooperation providing for the Recovery and Return of Stolen Archaeological, Historical and Cultural Properties, Mexico
UN Charter
“ae
° . ’ w s n a e m y b which they follo be d l u o w e l p o e p e th g n o m a e g d e l w o n k g n i t u b i r t s i d of e d o m ‘the second articularly Waagen’s
p d n a t r o p e r e e t t i m m o C t c e l e S e h T ° ° . ’ s n o i t i b of public exhi
92. ue Times, 22 March 1851. l a i r t s u d n I t a e r G e h t Prospects of ; Oe SED EI His ee P. Berlyn, A Popular Narrative of the d Ori12gin tor y, , . an orf
95
1851), pp.7
ence id Ev of s te nu Mi th wi er th ge to rt po Re s e r u t c a f u n a M d e e an t t i m ts m o Ar C of ct le Se e e t t i e m th m o C of t r o p e R d n o c e S d an eport of the Select ; ] e e t t i m m o C t ec el [S 1) C H 6 3 5 3 8 and Appendices (1 ll [Second Report]. alec
1851 (London,
vi x, -i pp , ) C H 6 3 e 8 r 1 u ( t c a f u n a M n th o wi i x e n on Arts and their Con
Select Committee, paras.81-82.
81-2. paras.46, Committee, Select °°
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultural Ob jects evidence provided the impetus for ‘attitudin
al change’ jp
director of the South Kensington Sasea ns pwd In respect of the
)
at Henry C
later EXploit, 97 first arm of the pclec a they t 1851 Great Exhibition Sommnittee’s 7 5 was in its plan Men day
State
|
ning Stages it was de Ideq for
' invite all nations to take Ons, Vheg part in ‘friendly Compet ition’ 98 this decision was econom Primary : Testi ic and reflected Brita i n ’ s efforts to seek areata, world markets.” Cole i s p o k e of the advantages from competition that Would accrue with other nations and the direct b t o B r i t g n a e ® buyers and tourists i e n e f i t s i O L a s dla visitin g the metropolis Pa 1,00 The minutes mittee reveal the org of the Plann; tO anisers Struggle to ba
lance their Person internationalism wi al beliegg n Benn th the realisation that the exhibition i more nationalistic would neeq t0 be and commercially pry at
beneficial terms, ! The Great Exhibition 01 fostered the contradic m t ) t o r y i m p ulses Of national Com and international cooperation. The pe,
impact of these the international forces Was height exhibitions were eneg becy the first events
a s viewed as a palliati : 1 STowing popular W a s p a c v i f e y S c h e m e discontent arisi d e s i g n e d to address th n g f r o m Tesistance to legisl the dislocation ative reform Pert c : a u s e d b y I n a d u i strialisatio, ning to free trad of the 1840s. 4 mo e, and the Eco nth prior to the n omic downtuy Opening, the Chr onicle reported: The Politeriocian fin ds in Hyde Park a Stronger bond Roni ee heard of International formulatio5 ns of V a t Vi t ng el and Grotiu: s ; living Influences a re Superseded by and the more su th e b s t a n tia] Maxims and we can at lengt : o f i h n t e e e r n a t i h o n a l h a i l r t e h ciprocity, e exchange of a the ee of whica mutual chart of h al] communitiaee moral obligations, s can feel i: mankinnd rind — the g n that common uaranteed l.ibert property of ies of unrestric ted .
9
To aa p ee
coinsi
commerce,
S
!°4
degree, the Tgani : sers were Succe ssful in Promulg ibiti ating theirbevcisio © as both a Pro n duct
of ang Cause fo r peace, 105 On e organis: er Al fred
‘M. Goodwin, O p a
F nd Albert Mu seu, es a e
ee
~ The Origins of the Victoria
)
Phemeral yy; hibition of 1851: 4 Nation on Display ew (N n, ve Ha ), 99 19 p.22. 100 ee ter 1988) a es 31 ch an (M ae tions Universelles, Great Exhibitions Times,1g ctober 1949, -? PP-10-11, and the World’s Fait 1849 7 AIST
ADT Se
©
C
Exposition
of
ON o7,
Y, Ff, 102 and Chronicle, 7 at dn, The18Gr5 ea1) t (Reprint, Mibition,
rOLT, : NAL, NAL, EBye 18Oe51.118] 50, ae hi
104 G6ON4L in Auer
” a
thibir; ,
» Gre
.
4
Exhy
:
U7 H.
851;
ambos
Dik >
;
9 June Ii
1848— NAL vaa 55 CG,
of the Industry, the Science and the Government ; 0 I
195) Le » 1969), Pp.41-43,
ike, ‘New¢: ,P.16
»Ii nD. i
of the1 We Id’ br id.
in yy +
Cal
O OD OI SC PE pags Great B, bi
uetbach, Grear Exhibition, p.24
5
N
P
B
3
© BeGrlear Exhipine? ES, vol.2, AL, N a5) 8, ) 1 x 1 E . 1 5 8 ’s 1 lis Tal s i s a h p m ; y p e ( f o n io ) on d ti e H ip d d a 3 F y of er l ev pa mn ci in Pr mM 18. object of interes 3B be London, ion is,
Tey
ening
siy et ppr descgri
eh ie
|
: ce, ah t Careosal Pala and the
e
rable one indeed; it will witness a cu ies will be a canne m . s I t s promoters argued t a triumph of Ree hat u
py reducing ae th eac h Pend oa
ae
ould ensure peace
e oe for conflict by const i n w ructing a h i c h n a t i o n s e a n en other and by encou
raging eco
|
ties el C
>
she Gteap Reh
ete
ee
i n t e r n t Be eA of the Maatniconhaelsitse r Schoo fee Sie Semon especially his esseacykoonied h philosop i merch ‘Plan foreea e t a d ingsot Jeremy a e e hime
Be
tetial Reacem, in his P he din Henry Cole s lectu 851°
and
Bee.
Gf ites ernational L aw.!°’ Bentham’s yl aa Royal Society of A r
ts ‘On the oe in which he clai med the event w o
of the Exhibition practical measures owf I ra aero wrattey Taxormnesm ite hic
a.
ed in 1 bued wi ith the sense of Ww re im e ee t O er ae en th and hence arialtexti th : t a l i a n o i l s campaigns f r o m t h e I of sp d to
liest origins, these exhibitions
:
thi
m
Y
ibiti
; i d ting a set in t war en er ff di of n i war uation ins “4 ei m fro t en id ev s wa nt tai s Thi 109 qlie p stic cht are acter. :
ix weeks after the disp lay
we
France in 1797, wh c e l e b r a t e E i e R n E R E s A i I x R e ‘ e T e m p l e on the Champ de o f I n rs d , u stry’ was erecte Ma soaotrsaoraae, d t o ; t h o s e manufacturers 1 P d e r d i zes duc to
e, industry n w e r e a i n g l a y n , d B m : r a i t i d sh manutaerum a m a ge to English who inflicted the i most osed to the plan industry. : n a m i s i i s e c t s o v a f or the Great u n ers were vehemen til the project B ee tly 2 eae and patent refor . a m s i o n a i l i e s t : r e d o i v . e e gest he ntautrimoonial c a m e a prominent vehi ; of the first i: ndus ri: al age t i o n a l i s m , t n ity amonag their oe 2 t Gl Ly OTS citizens. 112~ The eneratiiono of T AUS WO SSE n g cae ee WA ni ace politically determi:ned geog ae oe psyc rap ee hological natu i o ) ralisation ; i a oe l g : r o u p s d i t n i h t e o c s o i n n g s l o e l i d n a a ies t t i i o o n n an a l a o f d i f f e r l e a ee n y t o u t r a lished through e s o f n ationalist propaga r a m m relentless peac m A ystal Pala n d a . ce, where the e t a n l i s w e d a s r t l m o c e a e n t x e h d i , b i t 10 other St c a r e f e€ ully Sa Cr r e s e 2and choreogr e r x a h g ibn e itie e i e ons ) a e ce aphed ein tain’s rel ions to ca for sautcioh progra mmes, as was evi{ de nce d y the became a popu m lar mediw 7 114 prolifera iferation. i
1
Cc
106 Cited in J. Crockford, The Journal of the | ee o o ss re og Pr (London, 1851), a d an y or st 7 Hi gt s, in ig Or Its eae biibitti ionon of 1851: : Exhi t p ea Gr t 107 Jeremy Bentham, . te The r Wor Sel aro)Reni se nd Bn sess B ee Se
™
ols.s
37
i n t a i n e d t h e e xhibition would ¢ “break dom a arriers that h Cobden main le of ave sepaa ee different nations and w i t n e ss 0 umphor dee rated the people ee
va ;i
ional culture — ear early 19th century national
&
= ee :
ae
Cos
Di
raS)in
See R. B
i
toe
e r_ e
Sepa-neSre
uae)
Greenhalgh,
Epheme r ‘al,| p ho3
38; 5 and la . s n o i t i b i g h x n E ), i y o to d. r G u (e t n e C h t n e e t e n Nu i e th of e r u t l u C e th on s g n i d a e R : ir : the FairFa Li p
Narrative,
pp.
37
Ne See Greenhalgh, Ephemeral, ee Ee Se Sese NIL Berman, l Al at th is li So , a a r t e e Ses Gr h, halggh
é al, pp. Ephen ler
ee
eel,
ience of Modernity (New York,
112¢f. NiD—Aile
a d > n
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M
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lation of British Public Opinion 1880-1960 (Mi anchester, |
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International Law, Museums
& Return of Cultural Ob;
ects
State
& national culture — early 19th century
:
The
4l
‘
mon law jurisdictions prior to the Lubbock bill.!2° The pil heralded two major shifts shift
fat Anglo-American property law: first, inet the protection of certain cultural property
yas 4 20¥E rnmental duty; funthien, public ownership rights would be invoked to pre-
colonial power. Yet, in severa l quarters th
serve such property ov
questioning of the very idea of progress
if privately ones,
Parliamentary Opponents vehemently
resisted any erosion of private property rights.!2! Lubbock and other parliamentary
House address. The disl ocation and disr alisation fuelled a rise in various forms 0
prop onents perceptively OCS
the debate towards the bill’s aim of ‘no right to
destruction’ of monuments like Stonehenge. '* This redefinition rendered it difficult
and idyllic pas
for opponents to assert that the bill was unnecessary without exhibiting indifference
ro the increasing disappearance of such monuments.” It was not the bill’s intention
to acquire full public possession and control of cultural properties.!24 Instead, goyernment would only intervene if an owner’s actions were detrimental to the public
interest in the property.
What was the nature of the public’s interest in these cultural objects that formed
the subject of the Lubbock bill? The bill implicitly ordained two distinct elements in the property. The owner retained the economic or use value in their property and
when this element was taken away, she or he was entitled to full compensation.!2° However,
it also recognised
the monument
had another element:
its historic and
scientific value that belonged to the nation. The nation as a collective had a preexisting interest in certain property that had previously been considered exclusively as private property.
with origin ate not did herita ge cultur of al natur e dual the of conce ption This Lubbock.!2° Indeed, he had invoked John Ruskin’s words in parliament: “They are not ours. They belong partly to those who built them, and partly to all the generations of mankind who are to follow us . . . [W]e have no right to obliterate . . . It belongs
erargen inte of on noti the ed row bor has turn in kin Rus !2”7 rs.’ esso succ r thei all to
Ne
d prehi
tional interest in cultural heritage from Frenchman, Abbé Grégoire. Preservation of
TIC antiquiti es that Resistance to Lu bbock?
a of n atio alis eptu conc the to gral inte as ed view was cts obje and nts ume mon such British national cultural identity. Yet, British culture was increasingly promoted as superior to that of other (non-European) cultures along a linear progression of civilisation.!28 This view of British national cultural identity would find its expression in
St
~“ not t e ai © the original pil] 119 Passed until 1g 82 and only
that the Aer
as
the collections of the newly established South Kensington Museum.
ational He Grand Design. The Vii
J. P. 44; 543 at 533 BA JRI 20 3) (191 nts ume Mon ent Anci of tion erva Pres The es, Davi 120 See W. J. O’Keefe and L. V. Prott, Law and the Cultural Heritage, Volume 1: Discovery and Excavations (London,
and the Idea of ‘Englishness’,
of the Victorig and Albert Museum
es ur as Me r he Ot d an e v i t a l if nonS anEd Scen 5 es of Natural Beauty;
1; 3
cuon in Eng,
Pp.152-54; ¢, Chippindale, The muni St
i tation
under
General
Pitt-
1984), pp.31-84; and D. Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (New York, 1985), pp.96-105.
oO Parl. Deb., vol.223, ser.3, col.900 (1875), Harcourt.
and 5); (187 -900 .899 coll , ser.3 223, vol. ; hope Stan 5), (187 -02 .901 coll 3, ser. 223, Parl. Deb., vol.
Eee
LOPE
SSOClation
i
123
vol.232, ser.3, coll.1542—43 (1877).
19g batl. Deb., vol.232, ser.3, col.1550 (1877), Morgan.
os See Lubbock, Addresses, Political and Educational (London, 1879) p.164.
op Be Deb., vol.223, ser.3, col.911 (1875), Dalrymple.
Idea an of s in ig Or e th d an e r i o rég G é b b A he T : Duty ic Publ a as tion erva Pres tage Heri Sax, L. ce].
. ff 73 PP. , nts ume Mon ent Anci wn, Bro and ; 1559 at 1142 LR . Mich 88 0) (199 127 128 Parl. : Deb -» VOl.237, ser.3, col.1979 (1878). ‘ osophy and Sociiology of Ph il Hi st Th or e y, Mu T. rr ay an , d See Brown, Ancient Monuments, p.3;
Archaeology. The Case of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1882); in V. Pinsky et oe ee raditions in Contemporary Archaeology: Essays in the Philosophy; History and Socio-politics of
(Cambridge, 1989), p.60.
Archaeology
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultur ‘al Objects
GH
Early years of the South Kensington Museum
By the 1830s, Britain had become suscepti : ble t 0 t ‘ h e Sontinent ernments to make art accessible to the S al eneral pub
lic and nor
and cultivated minority.!?° If the inter a diy; maUonal exhi bitions weae n a one arm of the recommendat ions of the 1835 Se r “leo. i lect anufactu
Committes
rin g, the estab o lishe
«® “alsa :a i mM t
& school was t h e Other a gton Muse a ie Sq um opened in 1 852 u a b li o e of mane : ye mus eums 0 Y Cont r B y a stt,teaSet 10D hay c o n -
ined as par t ofa broad tee e key r s t d i r e ctor Henry C Not a repository for ole, the historic rel=i » Du a t a w a y of changi Hon and instruction ng People’s ¢ a !,32 Ip his S t r e e p < o r t t o t he Hou wrote:
se of C
as
& national culture — early 19th century
43
a exemplary cultural objects wa s a source of national wealth, 139 Ace anti
The
Origins of quarianism lay in the compulsion amo ng its ruling class €s to gat her the Beier manifestations a other peoples and th eir cultu
=
res to reflect British imperial
140 This antiquarian urge is typified by the collecting practices of the m useum’s
curatnoir,netCeheanrtles c Robinson. '*! : iatne h ent
ury, collecting in most European countries was fuelledb
t longing to return to the purity of folk traditions disa a nat s eA vadion ustali rialisation. Bid pne Ue ; pane through By contrast, Britai in the mid: nin eteenth century, with its ‘rong econ
omny and distant colonial ©utposts, though t more internationally.!%3
imperialism was a significant motivator for the establishment of the South Kension Museum. The peti of early collecting demo nstrated a willingness to go on predatory XP ie ditions, buying up woul of art from other parts of the world while
ignoring equivalent British cultural objects.!™ The museum’s representatives tray-
elled throughout Europe and Asia gathering items for its co llections. Indeed, their
collective practices were so comprehensive that Charles Yriart e noted: ‘South Kens-
ington is a mecca.
t, Eas the and pe ro Eu of art ire ent the ses ses pos re the d an Engl
e Han TIS OTI all r de un ns io at st fe ni ma their spiritual
The establishment of British national collections necessarily came at the cost of
the removal of significant cultural objects from other national groups. Just like the
expeditions in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa had been instrumental to the creation of French collections like the Louvre. South Kensington officials were aware of escalating criticism of British museums for their acquisition of the cultural objects of other nations.!4° However, their collecting Revolutionary and Napoleonic
a Se ¢ a
ity through such groundextended hours , Public lectures, g uided tours and de, South Kensin gton with its commercia lly driven
the most imitated and influe ntia
Subjects in the
(London, 1852), pp.691ff.
seum (London, 1999), pp.26t-
66) 251 The Edinburgh Review The Great Exhibitor: The Lifé command of
Journal of the Society
KCB iB Richardson Clual Life,
age
1808 (eds.);
1876-1926
Nations and People
.
forays would increase exponentially over the ensuing decades in the pursuit of their
mission of aiding British industry and representing the British empire. Yet, in the early nineteenth century, at the same moment that British leaders were acknowledging the need to return the ‘title deeds of countries’, they were affirming the value of cultural objects as property and for the development of British national identity and industry. These twin forces — the ‘sacred’ and ‘property’ value of cultural objects — the promotion of cultural diversity and free trade, are perennially competing
themes in successive international efforts for the protection and restitution of cultural heritage to the present day. The next chapter examines how these forces intensified with the dissipation of the mid-century optimism for the realisation of a common humanity and perpetual See R. Cardoso Denis, Teaching by Example: Education and the Formation of South Kensington’s
140 14)
Museums, in Baker and Richardson (eds.), Grand Design, pp.107ff.
See Burton, Vision, pp. 1 Off.
hc. Robinson, Our National Art Collections and Provincial Art Museums, Nineteenth Century (June 1880) 988; and H. Davies, J. C. Robinson’s Work at the South Kensington Museum, Part I and
“6 ob Il (1998) 10 JHC 169; and 11 (1999), 95.
143 a Murray, ‘History, Philosophy’.
144 ae RG, Kenyon, Museums & National Life,
ee C. Saumarez Smith, ‘National Consciousne ess’,s pp.275f8
aa the
(Oxford, 1927), p.9y ph ra og hn Et s, be om Co E. A. an .
Lecture
ism: v i t i m i r P of h t y M e Th Formation of National and Cultural Identities, in S. Hiller (ed.),
us Chea tee peer) ee 46 LG, Robinson, Betas in Nee Works of Medieval and Renaissance Sculpture, Decorative ee
Triquet, de H. See 1860). (London, 1859 Year the of Part Early the in Italy, in at the South Kensington Museum (1863) 1 Fine Art Quarterly Review 100. Pe.» acquired Sculpture Italian
Inte’ national
I ar
Muser
S s
Return
of
¢
peace. Instead, as the nineteenth ce
a —
ae
peoples became ies.
lonial and commercial ex
ul)
tural
to
on 0
is
Ob). Je cts
ciplines ip];
a
ge,”
5)
2° cul
of British national identity Beis :
.Kensi ington Museum and British M at national identity.
os
FRS, , N R k o o C s me a F n i a Capt e t a L e th of s c i l e R n of o i t c e l Col the of gue alo Cat Figure Bue 2.12 Platesf rom the . 6 8 8 1 n o i t i b i h x E ian d n I d an al oni Col the at ll kre exhibited by Mr 7, Mac
La w ©& international exhibitions — International late 19th century
2
(western European)
International Law, internationa| e x . hibit;
in the late nineteenth century
culture, with all cultures being
AG International Law and museums became sites for petween European and non-European peoples,
Nong
scale of civilisation to legitimise the ; colonisation of non-European Peoples. . Both es Bo sites are fundamental to current claims by indigenous and other colonise d peoples for the restitution ; of cultural objects. Both sites continue to struggle with the legacies of this foundatio nal period of their histories.
This chapter details how the scale of civilisation was incorporated into Interna
tional Law with its universalisation and rationalisation as a science in the late nine-
teenth century. Then, it expleims how the possession of empire and the idea of a inte rthe at form thr eedim give ens n ion wee al civi of lisa tion unilinear progression national exhibitions and South Kensington Museum. Finally, the effects of these forces on the fate of the cultural objects of ‘conquered’ non-Europeans is illustrated with reference to the codification of the rules of war and the display of the ‘spoils of
great Englishmen, ! What
do I think of We
(ahseas See)
oon
stern civilisation?
Fai 8 Uisation? I think it would be a very 800d idea
war’ in British national museums.
Colonised peoples and International Law in the nineteenth century As the Law of Nations was reformulated into International Law, and moved from nat-
uralism to positivism, it became the science of International Law preoccupied with the commercial and colonial ambitions of European States. Ironically, as International Law
proclaimed
its universal
application it emphasised
the rigidity and
exclusivity of its membership. Its systematic exclusion of non-European peoples was
driven in large part by the desire to control their territory and resources. The cultural objects of these communities became essential to the theories that justified colonial practices. Whilst natural law jurists strove to include indigenous peoples within the Law of Nations, from the nineteenth century the universalisation and rationalisation of (European) International Law by positivists resulted in their exclusion from its oper-
ation. Instead, indigenous, and other colonised, peoples were confined to ‘international morality’. This exclusion necessarily compromised the rights of these commu-
qi
nities to preserve and develop their cultures. Indeed, this dichotomy between moral
and legal rights and obligations remains in varying shades to date. Spanish jurists Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de las Casas, working within the natural law tradition, strove to reconcile the place of indigenous peoples, these ‘exotic anomalies’, within the Law of Nations during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas in the sixteenth century.* During the Valladolid disputation, colonists
and their advocates maintained that because of their ‘barbarity’ evidenced by their
fies ee z
:
oe
ae
vin > Mornin ing Post, 4 J uly 1908 velopment
of Internatio nal
V&A Law
*A Cursory look at the table of contents of the leading contemporary British texts reflects ce Cage Archives: es:
| India M
Pation. See T. Twiss, The Law of Nations considered as Independent Political Communities on the Rights 7
Duties of Nations in Time of Peace (Oxford, 1861), four of twelve chapters; J. Westlake, Chaput:0” 1
bast
in Africi a (1900) 63 LQa R 249
Gar, oe W. E. Hall, and Chapter Principles of International Law (Cambridge, 1894), three of eleven1, chapters; 2; §33", §38", §26°; §26**, atonal Law (4th edn, Oxford, 1895), Part I, Chapter oa a
F
B. Smith, Imagining the Pacific in the Wake of the Cook Voyages (Carlton, 1992); p.229.
International Law, Museums
& Return of Cultural Object
S
nternation al Law & international exhibitions — lat e 19th century
cultural practices including idolatry, Indians were ‘Natural
a Slaves? 5
Casas argued against the need for European tutorshi
indigenous expunge to division this used ivists peoples from the Posit r e a l m o f e k a . l n w t d ] La e Joh Wes t : 4 o n in 189
of ndigen oa hide
suggested the colonists’ arguments were merely a a injustices’ perpetrated against these communities. © He
pace
ment of the essential humanity of all peoples, i
Vitoria postulated that the ‘New World? of the Noe
Old World and the rights afforded to its indi a genous People by considering the legal position of the Eur teachings served to deprive all States, including Spain, f
Internationa
[It is] the members of the international society which concern us that of uncivilised natives international law takes no account. This is er i does not mean that all rights are denied to such natives, but that e Pe i n who se with in stat e the of con sci enc e the to left is of their rights
ated th
ar
cj CUMStances 1 «is
simply taking Ous territories and resources. However, Vitoria enhis Position bye MNdigen, tempered indige gentnous peoples could los e theirir riri ghts through
fought if they resisted Christia n conversion te) oo fre ed er nd hi r ” es ar t igh Enl
oe
shisnment, the Spanish jurists’ theories fell into disuse : S methose Sm
the
i e Nowing q
territorial sovereignty they are comprised.!! No n-European peoples were judged to be outside international society and could not seek protection from the WOE excesses of colonial authorities under International
Law but had to look to international morality. 2 The major principles of International Law as ‘«deduced’ by late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century positivism ensured that the discipline was a legitimising force for colonisation rather than a guarantor of the rights of indigenous peoples. Any legal protection the Law of Nations may have afforded indigenous peoples disappeared with the extinguishment of a territory’s legal personality in International Law upon colonisation, and application of the
principle of State sovereignty. !* This position was exacerbated by the universalisation
Law
of (European) International Law and the spread of European colonialism. Positivism’s interpretation of International Law formed part of the late Victorian exude to strove and economics and anthropolo gy included that framework colonial scithe of validity the jurists, Anglo-Amer ican many For exclusivity. and objectivity
.
entific method was evidenced by the achievements of the Industrial Revolution and
produce to aimed also positivists Accordingly it. , drove that discoveries scientific the
‘order from chaos’ by making ‘International Law into a science’.'* Lassa Oppenheim noted the irrationality of the state of nature would be replaced by positivist jurispru-
dence with its fixed set of principles and scheme of classification that revealed itself to skill ‘scientific required it that maintained He jurist. expert the of scrutiny the to expose the real existing rules of international law, to lay bare their history and real meaning, and to criticize them in the light of reason, justice and the requirements
of the age’.!> Yet, because of their varying degrees of engagement with the colonial dictated requirement s the — subjectivity inherent an by guided were jurists project, by European colonial and commercial expansion. 3 Westlake, Chapters, p.136.
(Washington, DC, 1928), pp.22 and 41. p.23; and D, Kennedy,
It
2
egal Ar,
sinki
40) of Nations (rey, edn, Nenana onan
: See Westlake, Chapters, p.140; and Oppenheim, International Law , PP (19ee e; Island of Palmas (Unite] d 26) p.1 73 vol .4, RI AA Sta , tes Uni v. ), ted Bri tai (Gr n eat Ind ians See Cayuga PCI f, 193 3, Gre enl Eas and of ter , Sta n tus Leg al and (19 46) p.8 ; 31 vol .2, RI AA , Net herlands), States v. A ser.A/B, No. 53, p.22.
Lawrence, Principles, pp.93-94. See Twiss, Law of Nations,
6; -1 .v pp , rs te ap Ch , ke la st pp.139-40; We e th of se ti ea Tr A s. on ti Na of the Law of
Oppenheim, International Law, pp.4-5; J. Lorimer, The Institutes ii-vvi, iits Jural Relations of the Separate Political Communities (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1883-84), vol-II, pp.vi-
eae Jee of ents Elem ton, Whea H. ); 1893 don, (Lon Law l iona rnat Inte of nce Scie The er, Walk TA, 5 a aa PR ), 1972 , York New , rint (Rep 6) (183 nce of the History of the Scie
nee with a Sketch
nae ‘A Hatred of Disorder’: Legal Science, Liberalism and Imperialism, n ES et a rei P. ), 1991 don, (Lon e denc spru Juri in wal Rene and ce stan Resi nts: Suppleme 15 oe e Internationa Ppenheim, International Law, pp.328-30. See M. Schmoeckel, Thi and Herald: Lassa Oppenheim (2000) 11 EJIL 699.
us
We SoS:
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultural Ob;
ects
ntorn ational Law & international exhibitions — late 19th century
f
Positivists initially accepted that different norm existed side by side throughout the world.!6 H ative Systems OWever, th and industrial might of European and settler St ates ©
Anglo
Combineq ©Scalatin
ena
ambitions meant that the European Internationa With l law Was incre aSi global scale to the gradual exclusion of any other ngly Systems of Inte
© Y applying a u n
Pean interna tional Jay
t
7 jurists
pean an
CO
de V eloped
onial
peoples.
The
Er Ts powWe system
a highly
d; etailed
to
acqui;re
of
classification
system
of classificati on
: possessio
n
was
of
based
the on
whic i h
territo r1i e S an
of
assessment
ropean) civilisation.2! They | of their cultures against the standard of a(Eu e d . pe s, nt gy ne y lo ge li lo wl ve er ip by po ne sc em ro di ke th li an de > na oe € f theories
of State practice to determine the legal status of non-European peoples, by practical concerns on the ground, State practice However because it was guided . le ab li re or nt te is ns co ly was rare lising tendency of European international law was so comprehensive sa er iv un The at by the turn of the century ‘there was only one sovereignty and one international th: » 23 The subjects of International Law narrowed to the exclusion of almost all ; law : 2 4 2 , y t n e g v i d i e s e r * u y s * e s t l . e o v e s p c t j i o e which rende: red them e x a t t s n e e St Sta exc enti ts argued s tivi Posi .”> ence rfer inte rnal exte to le liab not and l, equa and nt nde epe ind
erga]
Over
.
51
ided b
analysis
‘y
that International Law arose from consent between States and was not an authority
26 outside States. ;
l colonia and ic econom ean Europ of forces the to d yielde Law l ationa Intern As
s to Nation of Law s the of subject being from s moved people nous indige expansion, ed absorb s people dent’ ‘depen to s nation ign sovere from Law; l ationa Intern objects of
With
+. Which
European Norms
into the sovereignty of the metropolitan State.2” Colonised peoples, their territories te. Sta an it ol op tr me the of t par as w La l na io at rn te and cultural objects existed in In s act ic st me do the in ce en er rf te in nno the d an y nt ig re ve so e at St of es The principl
at ief rel ive ect eff ek se to le ab un re we s le op of sovereign States meant that such pe
re we s ie tr un co d se ni lo co the of ts ur co l pa ci ni mu , on ti di ad International Law.?* In
enous comig ind s, es el th ne No ” r. ou vi ha be ign ere sov o precluded from enquiring int institutions h tis Bri d one iti pet da na Ca and d an al Ze w Ne , lia om Austra
munities fr
tin con e hav y The *” es. iti hor aut al oni col of ds han the at ent concerning their treatm
. ion sat oni col an ope Eur h wit hed uis ing ext not was ty ign ere sov ued to insist that their , don Lon edn, (3rd ht pac ter Lau H. ed. , Law l ona ati ern Int , eim enh Opp 21 See Westlake, Chapters, p.145; L. ). 1984 d, for (Ox ety Soci l ona ati ern Int in ’ ion zat ili Civ of rd nda Sta The
1920), p.286; and G. Gong, 22 See Anghie, ‘Peripheries’, 45. nQui 17 ) 997 (1 on usi Ill an of y tor His y: tur Cen h ent ete 23 TD. Kennedy, International Law and the Nin
bs nipiac Law Review 99 at 127. central a s wa s hi J’ p.54). (1913, edition fourth his and Compare T. J. Lawrence’s 1895 treatise (p.55) W. M. : w’ La al on ti na er nt ‘I rm te e th ed assumption made by Bentham in the essay in which he co in
. 409 at 405 L AJL 78 84) (19 ’ Law al ion nat ter ‘In of g nin hio Janis, Jeremy Bentham and the Fas e at St a in y nt ig re ve So on s te *> See Westlake, Chapters, pp.86-91; Hall, Treatise, pp.18-19; R. Lansing, No vereignty
T)
Pi
“)
he Principles of International Law
national
Law, ed, G, Wilson (8th
a on ti nd Control: International ra pi As 6 10 3) 99 (1 e ur HLR 723; 723; and A. Anghie, Finding the ational Law (1999) 40 HILI
1995),pp
-206-07; Anghie, ‘Periph-
PP.176-77; and Anghie,
B
(1907) 1 AJIL 105 at 124; Kennedy,
‘Nineteenth Century’,
122-23; and B. Kingsbury, So
and Inequality (1998) 9 EJIL 599 at 605. - See Twiss, Law of Nations, pp.111-22; and Westlake, Chapters, p.78. a See Anghie, ‘Peripheries’, 34-35.
See P, M. Anker, The
” IV.A.Mandates, Geneva,
Mandate 1945, 8.
See Anghie, ies’, ‘Peripher 51. 30 See B. Attwood and A. Markus,
System.
League , n o i t a c i l p p A — es Origin — Principl
oy The Struggl glefor Aboriginal >
of Nations,
ane! , y e n d y S ( y r o t s i H y ar r a t Documen kights:
(Sydney; Crown British the under Aborigines Austrahan Ground: 1969); Contested (ed.), (Auckland, : Cooperation d an t 1999); J.A. A.McGrath tes Pro i: or Ma d an al Ze w Ne the Williams, Politics of :
es
na Ca , ch at Ve R. and 1); 196 , to on or (T al iv LaViolette, The Struggle for Surv .E. Nations (Toronto, 197 D))
a and the League of
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultural @b; jects There were Anglo-American
& international exhibitions — late 19th centur y
efforts to tem
settler States towards colonised people s durj
application of the trusteeship doctrin e3!
ee
ees
material conditions’
humanistic thought, the nineteenthdoctrine emerged from the same
:
:
of colonised peoples by imparting the benefits of
European civilisation; and second, the metropolitan Power was required to ensure the application a ie trade principles in the territory and equal access to scientific expeditions.
article 6 of the Act, like isle minority guarantees of the nineteenth century, provided
some measure of protection for the collective cultural rights of local inhabitants.28 And like minority guarantees, It failed to prevent mass atrocities or even improve the
conditions of colonised Ege: In practice, such provisions were considered little more than declarations of moral, s opposed to legal, obligations. Nometne less, Mark Lindley in 1926 argued that although
indigenous
peoples
were
inst subjects
of International Law,
their rights
were protected by the relevant colonial power pursuant to its obligations under general International Law.*?
However,
conflicts could and often did arise between the
interests of the colonised and the coloniser. And the principle of State sovereignty prevented any interference upon non-compliance of these moral obligations.
eee! civilisation’ to non-B-Europea cies which fac slavagSEs are dangerous neighbou Peans would also
Collection and display of empire
The forces that underpinned the development of the science of International Law
in the late nineteenth century also fuelled the transformation of international exhibitions into vehicles for escalating colonial rivalry."! The collection and display of
the cultural objects of colonised peoples at the international exhibitions and South Kensington Museum were gathered to interpret, explain and justify the effects of British imperialism to its populace. The Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886 was the first international exhibi-
tion devoted solely to imperial themes. Although the seeds of imperial display were present at the Great Exhibition of 1851, the British imperialist message advocated by the 1886 exhibition was far removed from its predecessor.’* George Augustus
485; CTS ’s Parry 165 ) (1885 p.4; 6, vol.7 s, Paper State gn Forei and sh Briti 1885, uary Febr 26 n, Berli 37
the to ing relat els Bruss of ce eren Conf the of Act ral Gene the by ed firm Reaf 7. AJIL p.) 3(sup (1909) African Slave Trade, 2 July 1890, British and Foreign State Papers, vol.82, p.55; Parl. Papers, vol.95,
Act al Gener 1885 the ing revis on enti Conv 1, Art.1 and 293; CTS ’s Parry 173 0) (189 p.1 (1892); and of Berlin relative to the Congo,
Ber € Cited in a ‘ py 2 2?0riginal R; x igh D.10. See Snow, 7; yee o; nlernationa] Law (1, 33 ( erkeley, c 1980)" a Tomeaes nes in Po ened 978), er 5 oI 0 and Prac ry, 35 ee Be, au” Be ce
Crawforg
»
Stlake; Crear,
36 secstport, 1979),
ipters, ee nker, “Mandate?
SeTreeMati.se onFLinthe g)I e“Ys PP.The97-98, es: PP.11,
” and
L,
Gas
Vaeties Ke o €
© Anghie
€
he Roots
*
'& to
a fettered in any way whatsoever’.
Pp.6-8
no Nations (New York, 1921);
Indian Tribes and Political Liberty i
ae
5
1919, 8 LNTS
27; Cmd 477
Lugard, The a Anker, ‘Mandate’, 9-11. or d te mi li be t no l al sh s, creed g all to ngin belo ions Miss gious ‘reli that lated stipu also The provision
5 and SB. Gag Owe,PherThiee s’Ber, lin61We Bet an ett,
Relay;
10 September
D. (1919); 225 Parry’s CTS 500 (1921); 15 (supp.) AJIL 314. See Snow, Question, pp.174-75; EE and ; p.179 ion, Creat , ford Craw ; 1965) den, (Ham a Afric cal Tropi Dual Mandate in British
B
enderson,
St-Germain-en-Laye,
ican
ansion (London, NOnSh)
Aboriginal Rights, p.9: Conference 1884 ‘1 885 i
;
oes Law: Being 4
FAN
= 333),
;
aN
DAD
i See Anker, ‘Mandate’, 10, fn 1; Anghie, ‘Peripheries’, 63; and Lindley, Acquisition, igen: te’, * 8.ee Manda : 3 . An i , Anker and 4 Lindley, Acquisition, pp.324-36. See Anaya, Indigenous Peoples, p.25;
Me the and s ition Exhib Great es, rsell Unive s ition See P. Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expos
e er 4 -191 1875 e Empir of Age The , bawm Hobs E. ff; pp.52 ), 1988 ter, ches (Man 1 -193 1851
pa
and 142-64; and J. E. Findling and K. D. Pelle (eds.), Historical Dicuonary of
and Expositions, 1851-1988
(New York, 1990),
pp.261-301.
Wo
ae Fairs
e e S 3].R 1851 r embe Sept 16 CC, 55. VAA NAL 8 184 es Diati Cole y Henr Cole, . ScelH # on 1886, Her Majesty’s Colonies, A Series of Origina tion, in Colonial and Indian Exhibiti
under the Authority of the Royal Commission (London, 1886),
Exhibitions (London, 1873), pp.7-8, 10.
P-4:
x
and J. Forbes Watson, Inteternational
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultural Objects Sala noted: ‘It [was] meant as a proclamation to all and Sundry < an Empire . . . a just and equitable, but firm and fearless rule to ‘i at of the world, to the extremist limits of human Civilisation? 43 This a
\
ictoy
«ttn
pursued at the South Kensington Museum by its second directo, 17st si x the 1886 exhibition, Philip Cunliffe Owen.44 In Particular, the mo Nd op, aig
A
ean peoples from t he Western art cano coincided with their exclusi n on from Internati onal Law.
National identity and im perial possessions Like their French coun terparts decade
+
.
wo Rte meRbot
SPUAarts SarrirsrexTs | 2 Hone-Koxg Q BnizisrNonrn Borxro RK
aUL
WM
RMITISN GUIANA.
Weevlxpes.
. Burrisn Hosperas. . ,| West MALTA
W Cyrnus
AFIIOAN CoLoStes
aS
wr: Which WAY
i
TRAL
LONDO
MACHINERY pe eceee CONST ELECTRIC. LIGHTING;
> “South Kensingto> eG nee 2 PP-11-27; os the Great Exhibitions in P, ve Srcenbaleh, Educatio' n, Entertai t e n a m n e d nt Politics: ‘hman and B. p: 80 (ed.), Th
© See Senin C8.),A Grand Design e N ew Mu : seology (London, 1989), : The A Richardson, Preface: A ie Point of View, in M. Baker an p.74 es “Introduct, d B. ; oe of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London 1999) p p.9-14 Foster, 7 jE Th
and Empire: The
MAvairivs
©
collections exemplified the complexities of British imperial aden ni subcontinent and the increasing centrality of empire to the British Nation nal;
This section details the manner in which the pos Sessi1 on of an empire l its peoples, cultural objects and territories became j ntegral c t o B r itish Nati uty. Next, there is an explan ona ationhieof how the coll ectio ; n of the cul colonised peoples w. as neither obj tural obj ective nor rando m but Tepresented the a agendas of various colonial age nts. Finally, there is an examination of the e of the cultural objects of nonxe Europ
COLonies,
ings: An Archaeology of th e Humat'
Manip
nv: Unconscious of Mo dern Art, or White
erat Politics (Seattle, 1985), pp.202¢f .
*S. AuguSu Tt, 1985), stst , , Th Theo Secoi ll,ing of 6 Empiref.
MPlic Opinion 1880-1960 British and
French Imperialist
7
1
post!
OFFICE,
x
oa PALACE:
| @
OUT
International Law, , Museums & Re turn of Cultura 1 Objjects
y ur nt ce th 19 te la — s on ti bi hi ex l na io at Law & intern
fr t s a p e h t in d en t s e h t r a f e h t s e h c a e r r e v fro e n e t y as e e h T ! a t s i v vista upon p F e e v o t s e i r o t c i v in d e c a r t s p e t s s it , s d : r a w p u d e l i o f t s a h y e which humanit v i s s e c c u s s e g a of t s u d e h t of himself gathering out
Inversely, by their difference these object
through ie grading (or even exclusion) of ee a mission’. a. oe colonised peoples a
ae
jects; yest as their sovereignt
*
a
*
ries Wee absorbed into the British St reer eee and museums aan ae s
x
nec
e h eu
chaos --- each finds ” . y h p a r g o i b l a u t i r i p s n w o s i h f o chapters
Own
een.
e Crystal Palace;
els d e ni sia an a oguing the cultural objects of non. Europe isan Peoples sition of territory and the ene O)on of populatiofk ns pn
Uons with the imperial State, Muse um, were i1 ncapable of bein,
to repr
> When the South K
large par
e Present British national faynt uty
:
€nsington’s Architectural C
glass and steel prefabricated structure that
b a y e v s r u u o s e n z i a d l g a u t t i ‘to t l u m e n h t o r o i f t a c l a o r l t n e c e n o e n i b o l g e h t s f o t r a p ings from italilon visitors. t b c i e h j x b e u s e s t d r i e n i h h a t p s em of a riti
supremacy ina political and econo mic sense,4°
ee
4 modern
d owe all that ncy are nsp tra a ed odi emb 1, 185 of n tio ibi Exh as orc the ad hous ed med’ peoples and ‘ta and ned tai con ign des ’s ton Pax eph Jos 6 5 7 ility
in sustaining British rule i
identity.22
5y7/
Ourts
—
were
e d i B h t e t f u o s n y s i r a m e p v m e g o n This orderin enc r o e i d t r d c o e n d l a e l l o e i c h a s t t y t n e a e h v d t r a u i s f r o y e s m r a wa 57 The t n e n i t n o . s c n b a u i s people d , n e e I h l t n p y o m r a a x r e t . o a n F t e a d m u c l o l a c i h ing of physica and d d p g n a n a r i g t o n e l e e g h a m t c u i c y r o e t d v e ( r m u o S n o g i t r a d T e e r d e G h u i t l g c o n l s i i o e th a h c , r ) e A e h r t i s p e m i e e r h t a f o d n u o n s e b i n h h o t l t i a i t c w a i r h e p p a o r g s o t p r o o t o e ® f t l f s ° e a . e y c h e i T v g r o u l S o n h t e E y h l d t e a n v i a r r u t s S u d s n y e I e h v t g r n u i l S a r c e d r g o n e i d r n n i a f e d e d r t e a m i o a s e l t a r c e e l w j a b i u n s o l s e t h s t f e o know and order the co r e t n i e h t t o a t e e r s h i t y l n a a r s t u e e i n o m t o n o c s n e d o n i a t a l l a e t r e i c o r i s e h t . r e w o p e n th a at t y l i l a l i c e o p s p e o , s r e l t p o e p me n a e p o r u E n o n s s e s s o p to s n a e p o r u E f o f undertrategies
o k c a l d n ’ a n o i s s g i n m i s i l i v i c ‘ e h t e o t c n a t s i s e r d y e b t n o r e f g n d o e c l e w r o e , n w r k t e s i t l n i o h w fr t a h d t e n i a l p x e n o s t a W s e b r o F ° ” 5 t c e j b u l s a i n o l o e s c a c ‘ w n e a h t t f r g o o n p i d m i l a u stan q e , f o t n a t r o : m p i e r e w y n o l o c a f o s e t u b i r t t a o l i ’ h l p a c d i n s a y h s p u ‘ o i g i e h l t e r of e h t d n a , s r e n n a m d n a , s m o t s u c , r e t c a r a h c s e h n t a e f m o e h t e g s d e e i l l w p o p u s ‘kn ] h c i h w [ , a i d n I g n i t i b a h n i s e c a r s u o i r a y e h t f o s n o i t a r i p s a l a c i h p o s The s
! museu ly displayed at the im: peria I centr e , London asa symbol: anship of Indian hist ory and culture.>?
° ° . ’ m e h t n o p u d l o h l a r . o t m n e a m t g i n m i m n i o ¢ a t b r a l i of o m i s a e r i u q e r s e i c a g e l s ’ m s i l a i n o l o c t n o r f n o that to c
d e s i s a h p m e Today, efforts y l t n e t s i s n o c e v a h s e l p o e p s u o n e g i d n i w o h e n i m f o a x t e c a s r l a e c t i p s a y h h c p r e e h Lat t d n o y e b s e o g h c i h s w e c s o r p a is e g a t i ral her
u t l u c f o n o i t u t i t s e r . n o i t u t i t s e r l a r o m e d u l c n s o t s t c e j b o l a r u returning cult
>In Baker and Ri; chardson (eds.), Grand Desig tj en Id l ti na Na 10 9 19 day 5s : : To gy on, lo po ro th An 7 1) 99 (1 e r C 4), p.5;A.E. ies (1988) I
fae
Di
ngton >p.17,
57; iAes: TO
5; an,
ion at rm s e Fo m d th u an e s u , M es l a h n e e r G d n a
8s: The E, N,
ich een Ings? > p.22]
;
p. algh, Egphen meral, and c i r > n e t u G a ae eeie mee the on s on ti ec fl Re : s e i t i n u m om
Pp.163-86, n Barri nger a
nd Flynn (eds.), Colonialism,
d n a s e t a t S t n Archaeology of collection e d n e p e d n i y l w e n f o s m i a l c n o i t u t i st re e th y, l ur a nt i ce r e p h m et i ti en tw r te e la m e r th o In f f 0 s g n i d l o h t s a v e h t f o g n i y r o t n e v n i e th to d le s e l p o e indigenous p 55 See Conway, ‘South Kensington Museu: met. London Jace, Pal l ta ys Cr : on xt Pa ph se Jo , McKean
>© See J. . Masterpieces (London, 1999), 0.p.
5; -8 84 .1 pp , ed in ag Im See B. Anderson, ntalism British
Orie
E. in
t s o L , ) . s d e ( r o t c . He D d n a p o l n u D 18 51,inB. , (London, 1993), pp-1-
id, Culture and Imperialism, ighteenth
owledge Kn of cs ti ec al Di e Th Century: Postcolonial the d an ntalism
ie Or , .) ds (e er Ve der ; n va Pp. d n a . 9 e 4 g d 5 i 1 r 2 n . e p k p c , e ) r 3 B 9 9 1 . , A a i h . C lp e y, d in r a a l r i b , h i t L P n ( e n a m a i n s r A e h v t m o u u G o e S s u M a edicament: Perspectives on a i d n I e th of g n i k r o d W n 58 a t n e i e c r i u f t f E c e L e th r o f ry i u q d n e E r i u q r e o f r s e r u s the Mea 72; and R. Rocher,
n O e , ut n it st o In s t an a di W In an of s , e em b th r o th F wi J. n no ec ee nn co in , on ti da un Fo e th r fo s on ti es ), 94 19 eu per ce , ge id br am 1 (C nt me rn 6 -2 25 ) Gove ° e: Anthrop : s Cultur PPm’ ondon, > 1874 > is (L and g in ch ea Travel 9 5 See N. Thomas, Colonial ology, n o C d n a y g eolo d I 6 ) 9 7 9 1 ( y t i l a t & pp.11ff. n e m n r e v Go n O , lt au uc Fo M. Forbes W: atson, Measures, p.41. See m, p.4l. sciousness 5-12; and Thomas, Colonialis
aR
International Law, collections. This proce ss has revealed th
Inter
shaped and were s haped by the col selves. Fo :
& international e x h i b i t ions — late 19th ‘ o n a l L a w century nation og
r example, the In dia Mu
South Kensington M i e useum in the late e e 1 8 7 of British collec : 0 s , I Was essenti n d i a ? 6 1 ting of India’.
Universal Surve y museums in s f o F r m er Metropolit of cultural objects an Capita to tepresent an
e ntire culture of Moment in time an g People d space, It is the refore Necessary the collectors and to e exhibitors of thes e fragments of C early twentiethulture century colle
‘
‘
a
:
eat
f
;
For
HE
|
[24 Edition, A ug. 1820,
Missionary Sketches, i of the Weeklt and So
ihe Use J
i sslonar
y
FAMILY
59
Ge
den
ee
ie
DA
ie
erestoethe
I D OLS oF POM “ H U E + he relinguished, A R E , and a ‘onthe M i s s i o n a r i e s OOO aiat Eimeo, either to c F b e burnt, ve
\
cting Practices
settlers, mission aries and scient ists
are Although the at titudes of indiv idual indigenous Peop les as Possible s o u r c es € u t ors for limited p Tesources on th e frontier, © the particular cl ass of objects g athered by thi barbaric traits, s gr especially Wea p onry, w: of indigenous cultures by s e ttler State. ing ethnograp
:
hic Collecti o ns mirrore objects, includ ing a shield, collected dur Colonial ang I i n g the Cook ndian Exhibiti e x p on
|
i
of 1886 at the nial Sovernmen behest of t, Irs officia l exhibition have been gra Publication dually giving n o t e d : W a y b e f ore the Marc ever, one comm h of Europ entator Teco rded that the Secret of imMParti c o lonial gover ng the blessings n m These objects without the dr Tepresented a w b a c k s t h e Spoils of g c Peoples ~ ‘the S onqueror 4 uardian gods o f ees t h e defeated’. communities, F o , ¢ , t h e s e e: objects aa Violence that ©ccurre d at the fronti : ee er and loc o t al r British Coloni S al Officials, i e rae t h a r Tce of the NecesIndigenoys Peoples sity of the soci w e r e of ind; a] and edu Mdig ¢
|
| |
61
GE
enous Peoples, 68
Mond, The
oonThiNngs’, q
|
;
63
*
; Oat: RO78
Paci T
Ing;
PP.221 fF >aannddiJ Muscr o . m G u y a n g D1.30S1w-a1l8l7o9w ((eLdsondon, Thomas, Entang .), “Empire 4 1982), P; .21; and Mi leq Objects: t t PP.162¢f. G Go e i L r a n d C l u n y a s sde: ean 7 , C a 1 l 9 9 0 i ), a n d i a p.24!: “ 1 c 5 hang 50 (Ox ford AN
e, Material Cu 1900 (London, l t ure ang Coloni ndon; 2°PPler, A‘Anntgifeicigl naHLanReyCsn o w a l l e s i , s m C o i n l l the Pacific (Lo: Curiosiners ouBnee Frontier: Abecting Colonialis nial : oApbporri:gines, Se m: Material Culture v6a6 py oad Onisa pies I ttlers ang Land and Colo l and In foeCaptain Famer Cook (Sydney, 1987). i Se R si™.ne oe Expositio Frey, Meibe, e n ( e x h . o f cit 1 N c , a a t t . i , v1e97 Manufactures Co Batons 7, n o l u l u , l l 67 it Be (eds,), ‘Binal Papers, P ) , e c t p e . d 2 8 o 1 n t h e p . 1 3 9 L f e f g aoe gg, Cu a , l 6 Seeley, ‘Tn a rators ARsilpkocy of I t a r oduction’, p.x c u l t e a "lern u r a l O b j e i i c l. t s ational Trad f o r B e s a k e in Art (T e t i n I i Brat and J. 4. h e a gue, 1996), ieterse attlinger, PST, D y i n g R 1995) a c e o Z I a B. Parekh h ie (1994) 4 p, blic D e H e i s Mab 9, l i s i n G enocide Iftnortyh Review 188 : 953 and A, = Nineteenth Ce el ES, European "SAtIOn of th I ntury, in J. N magination: Cul Uden titi, ( [ e derveen t y 4 Photog
* Seep
pen Nineteen
ury NSW de®: The
Museurs Pe
ee eons ach, of Rourgeot
Be
Ga
No. 1.
. urA re, stor of Otuheigtoed,
S ' er 20e
is said te be the Ono,” pee Raiatea, Huahine ,
See an acm eoe coue n t f this iiddooll,, BO zine
:
in
for August last. Be Brangelical Meg 2 oad, now degraded tis a mere log iTie n t, t wassformerolllyice otheis n oPcocmaarse’isorne’s of |kibtichen,
nebalioboldy
Wor, -
Oen
Ocronen
a
: seibora,a broatnhderManra. H amed Teeror-is said to ae son daa,
of ORO, mata, who is als o a s MissionariBees e,could l e a not lea rn the name e ee
way
No.3. f Po‘sMEHAnO, the p rincipal god0 a Ponaemiorf the iclhynci.eef Hdee o is said ua be Isof iticp:tic C
Figure 2.3 Cover, Missionary Sketches, vol.3, no.1
>
idol.
r:
11, October
1818.
International Law, Intorn ational Law
& international exhibitions — late 19th century
61
gue ethnographic displays of colonised peoples and their cultural objects mad Ravise concrete to es populace on the metropolitan centre and ee |. colonising society’s ‘racial superiority’.”° They ‘revealed’ the apparently backward
European peoples which necessitated conquest by the more ‘advanced?
tates.’” Indeed, it was argued that metropolitan powers would have to ‘burden’ of coloniser until these communities were capable of ruling
the into well nt ume arg this e uat pet per to ue tin con ld wou tes Sta se thems elves.”® The . y r u t n e c h t e twenti t c n a a t n e o p c o r u r E o d o t e i r t p a e r e c r s e s t t tha w prized object Anthropologis
rk wo r ei Th .” st pa d ie ll su un c, ti en th au an dy bo em pecause they were perceived to
acquired a sense of urgency because of their fear that indigenous peoples were ‘a sea cr de ly al ic at am dr of e us ca be t par in d lle fue s wa on ti ep dying race’. This perc an pe ro Eu o int s le op pe us no ge di in of on ti la mi si as ing population numbers and the nec s st gi lo po ro th an by s ect obj t ac nt co epr of g in eg il iv settler communities. The pr
by anthropologists,7!
tic par a in en oz fr es tur cul us no ge di in ng ti en es pr re s on ti ec ll co r hei t d e l i a t n essarily e s u o n e g i d n n i d o e p t u cting practices impac
e l l o r c i e h , t n r u t n . I ufl in d an ular moment in time s ct je ob t an ic if gn si ly al ur lt cu of l va mo re e th h ug ro th t n cultural developme g. in ur ct fa nu ma us no ge encing indi
al ni lo co s ou ri va by d te ec ll co s ct je ob e es th y la sp di s on ti ec Universal survey coll nt se re ep sr mi n te of p, ou gr a of ty ti en id al ur lt cu e th d e i d o b m e ey th agents as though
us no ge di in , on as re is th r Fo ° .® em th d te ea cr o wh s le op pe e th to ce an ic if ing their sign cultural heritage of n io ut it st re r fo ms ai cl y da ten es pr r ei th in e d u l c n i s e i t i n u m com s. um se mu by d te re rp te in d an d ye la sp di e ar es ur It u c r i e h t w o h e n i m r e t e d the right to
e nc ie sc d an ts ar of s m u e s u m in Displays th en te ne ni te la e th om fr sm li ta pi ca d an sm li a ni lo co n a e p o r u E The penetration of li ua eq in s it ng ti ba er ac ex d an e ob gl e th ng yi if un of ct fe ef al du century had the
s st gi lo po ro th an d an s st vi ti si po l ga le by d e t a u t e p r e p on ti sa li vi ties. The scale of ci the develd an n no ca t ar n r e t s e W e th of on ti sa li sa er iv un e th th wi d rce was reinfo s m u e s u m d an hy, rap nog eth and art n wee bet y om ot ch di the of opment
science.®! Nineteenth-century applied arts, art and
public
museums,
ethnography,
when
placed
ve ti ra co de e th in th wi l) al at were classified
applying taxonomies
non-Western
of art and
of fine and
cultural objects
arts and ethnography.
This
Gf they
emphasis
oe
, CA y, le ke er (B s ur Fa s d’ rl Wo : ry tu en -C th en te 7 ne | Ni at m la Is of re tu ec it ch Ar : nt ie Or e ° Z. Celik, Displaying th
Ret.
e l g a A i r e p . m 9 I e 1 th d in 8 l 1 r . e o p d W i p s t u , O ) e 2 s th 9 e d to u t i n t 77 19 t a A e p o r u : E d n i n K a m u H s of d r ; ) 4 6 9 1 See V. G. Kiernan, The Lo , n o s i d a M ( 0 5 8 1 0 8 7 1 n o i t c A d n a s a e d ds.), ca: British I
i r f A of e g a m I e h T , n i t r u C P. ; ) 9 6 9 1 , n o d n o L ( ic f i c a P h t u o S e th d n a n o i uropean Vis
Rivers
A
. ) 8 8 9 ; 1 y e n d y S ( e r o h t S s e h t r . 5 8 4 8 1 d n 78 Terra Australis: The Fu a 4 6 3 6 1 . pp , d e n i g a m , I n o s r e d n A d n ; a 7 7 — 6 ng, pp.17 B. Smith, E
Muse,
(e h t i m S B. d n a r e l s i F . W d (New Haven, 1992); an
X1p, ) 3 8 9 1 , k r o Y w e N ( ct e j b O s it s e k a M y g o l o p o s thr e n A e w o H : r e h t O m a e th ) d n a OD e g s m i i f T i l @ , d n a o i o b w a e F l g J. n E ea , n d ct . e ev : m (r a C e ( r u t t Ar l u C of d n n a o i t e n r u e t v a n r I e t i L , y h p a r g o n h t E y r 81 See R. Wagner, The u New Haven, ture: Twentieth-Cent
79 a Brain, Goi
l ( u C y a of l p s i t D n e m on a c n i o d i e t r a P N 4 . : 1 5 8 1 of n o i t i b i h x oA J. Clifford, The E t a e 3 . r p G , ) e 0 h 9 T 9 1 , , n h o c d a n b o r L e ( u A t s e . W A e J. th d ; n f a f y 9 r 8 o 1 t . s p i p H g , n ) i t 8 i 8 r 9 W 1 : s bridge, hologie t y M e t i h W , g n u o Y . R d n 1999), p.101; a
Inte
f
national
i
63
the Asian collections at the South Ke nsington Museum exemplified ; ‘
Th e pow 1
she
Law & international exhibitions — late 19th century
. a ideology assigned a subordinate yet essential role to such objects $ with with:in , ov e er m a c e n b o i s s i l m a i r e p m s i ’ m : u e s n u o M t g Wester canon. The South Kensin
a n a r e t s a E s it m to u e s u y m n a p m o C a i d n I t e former Eas th ation of relocmber with then Nove 187 9.8? Under the directorship of Cunliffe Owen there emerged 1 S rie le
;
:
ge
ly ethnographic slant to the display of the cultural objects of non-Europe an A distinct 4 peoples peoples indigenous and Africa, from peoples of objects cultural the of The ab sence
this of act imp the ed ght hli hig y rkl sta as, ric Ame the and lia tra Aus a, Asi of South
at ons uti tit ins al eri imp of ces cti pra y pla dis l anc grading of cultures on the eollecnny al eri mat wed vie s ner tio cti pra um se mu eae ons uti tib ins h tis Bri the turn ofthe century.
ic ntif scie of s ect obj as e’, tiv imi ‘pr as es oni col ia las tra Aus and ica Afr its m fro culture ion lat imi ass The ’.®> ‘Art of lm rea the e sid st effectively out ae ethnographical intere
the and 0s 187 the n wee bet rly ula tic par and relocation policies of colonial powers, by s ect obj al tur cul s nou ige ind of g tin lec col of 1930s, aided the most intense period
and ed uir acq e wer s ect obj h suc y, ntl ica nif Sig s. um se mu al ion nat and metropolitan n gto sin Ken th Sou the n tha her rat um se housed almost exclusively by the British Mu
in ned tai con and ogy pol hro ant of t tex con the hin wit d die stu e wer Museum. They
US and an ope Eur er oth in d ate lic rep was natural history museums. This practice n the was t wha ted ora orp inc s um se mu art museums. It was not until the 1920s that
sed cus dis be will on ati orm nsf tra s Thi ns. tio lec col ir the o int art’ e tiv imi ‘pr called
. 4 r e t p a h C n i y l l u more f ean rop -Eu non of n tio oca all the and hy, g rap o n h t e d n a t r a n e e w t e b n o i s i v i d This n o n i i t c e t o r p r i e h t n o d p e u , irectly impact
y d r o g e t a c r e t t a l e h t o s t t c e j cul tural ob y. ur nt ce th en te ne ni te la e th om fr Inter national Law
s n a e p o r u E n o n of s ct je ob al ur lt War and cu ly us ro go vi s st vi ti si po e, nc ie sc a to in ne li ip sc di r ei th e is al on ti ra to sh pu r ei th As part of of r ou vi ha be e th te ra de mo to s rt fo Ef w. La l na io at rn te In of on ti ca fi di co e th d ue purs
y ur nt ce th en te ne ni d mi e th om fr r wa ng ri du ts an at mb co r ei th d an es at St ’ ed is il iv ‘c
ct li nf co d me ar to d te la re s ct je ob al ur lt cu of on ti ec ot pr ed fi di co t rs fi e th at th t an me ea and belligerent occupation.
ar s thi of t en pm lo ve de e th rs ve co n This final sectio
on ti sa li sa er iv un e th te ra st lu il to s, on ti en of International Law up to the Hague Conv
r ei th d an s le op pe an pe ro Eu nno of n io us of European international law and the excl cultural heritage from its operation. 83
84
n a i d n I e h T , n o t l e k S R. ; 4 4 3 4 . p p ; ) 2 8 8 1 , n o d n o L ( n d o e t n g g n i i l s a n M e K h h c t u u M o S , r e in s l Mitt e v a P. r T d n , a y a w ; n 4 o 0 C 3 7 . M 9 2 e e Se n i z a g a M n o t g n i l r u B 0 2 1 ae (1978)
8 7 9 _ 1 . 3 3 to 2 . p 8 9 , 7 ) 1 7 9 9 1 : e n , o d n r o f x O e ( p t r A n a i d n I to s n o i t c a e R n a e e p e o r / u P E R of : e v y i r h o c t r s A i H A A & V e t i , n ce e fi Sk Of a i d n I t, Ar d n a e c n e i c S of t n e m t r V. a p e ; 0 D 0 9 1 , r e p r a e P b o e t c ut O In 27 o lf Ba Director, India Museum,
oe
the s r to e c n a o R i t a c e l l o C s e r e v e i R p Pitt , ) 9 8 8 1 , Ga g i z p i e L ( s n o vir n E s 1t d n a e n e o d e n o L : . A , r e k d e n d a e a B ; 3 1 2 d . n p a , t n e m a c i d e r P , d r o f f % See ca i l C ; ff 10 . pp , ’ e c a f e e r P ‘ e n e , a a n i o r s o d t r c a i h V c i R e t d a n L a n in n o i t a n i g inventi ma a m I r a l u p o P , e r u t l u C l a i r e t a M , s e m p u o e s e u P M d n s a n : o a c i i t r f a A N n ee vage a S of t r A , e l o C . H . Cf . 8 6 7 5 . p p , ) 4 9 9 1 , n e v a Uneivili (New H 1 January 1870), 183.
(2 s t r A of y t e i c o S e ilised, Journal of th
3
International Law, Museums & Return of Culturara]
Objects
w & international exhibitions — rnational La late 19th century a ees
teenth and early twentieth centuries,
65
treatise argued that ‘temples,
able beauty’ that did not ‘contrib
heritage, illustrates the developm ents j
Oi
ition was open to conjecture amongst publicists until the law
i,
of the century in successive Hague Conventions.°2
the mid century, there was a movement in International Law — ‘the law of civilised nations’ ~ to Ore ite worst excesses of military campaigns co nducted by these States and ‘civilise on {nustnannalse armed conflict.°? The devastation inflicte d on
civilians and cultural heritage clatolng the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 spurred the internationalists’ CHONG
wo COeiAy (and limit) the rules of war. A growing fault
line emerged amongst positivists, pemiboulenshy concerning the codification of the laws of war. Some legal scholars strongly is any fetters being placed on a State and its methods
of military Ouga yom.
On the other hand, internationalists, whilst
was it that argu ed Stat es, bet wee law n the was Law Int ern that ati ona l acknowledging
necessary to umpose limits on State behaviour. Johann-Caspar Bluntschli maintained that such obligations were necessary because States, ‘as members of humanity’, should ‘respect . - - the rights of human beings’.”? Bluntschli became instrumental in promoting the positivist vehicle of codification to ensure the injection of ‘naturalist’
principles into the rules of war.?° However,
it is important
to recall that these curbs on armed conflict applied
to those communities recognised as States forming part of the society of nations. Accordingly, the 1914 edition of the British Manual of Military Law made clear that
ES
these humanitarian measures only covered ‘warfare between civilised nations’.?’ The operation of the rules was explicitly excluded from applying to war with “uncivilised
states and tribes’ and ‘their place is taken by the discretion of the commander and such rules of justice and humanity as recommend themselves in the particular
2 BES, I WY TeKel > VOLT, p.216
! Law,
ed. R :
ommenta TY Se (Oxford, 1925), vol.II, pp.664- 5 on the Law of Prize and Booty) (1604)
Property An H. Dana Jr (8th edn, London pp.430-3? 6), 186 { the Even t of Armed Conflic Operty t: A Commentary on tht ™ the Even t of Arm ed Conflict On inte: tMationale a n des biens Cult urels en c: as de conflit arm
1 Law and Policy (London, 1909), pp.
nitarial ma Hu of ns io ns me Di al hlik, Inter, National, p.16; and H., Sultad,
circumstances of the case’.?® Early efforts to codify the rules of war not only excluded most non-European communities, but they also compromised the protection of the cultural heritage of such communities through the instruments’ conceptualisation of culture and its manifestations specifically in European terms. For example, Article 34 of the Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States of America in the
Field (1863 Lieber Code) specifies that the property ‘of museums of fine arts, or of importantes (Paris, 1881), pp.536-38; Wheaton, Elements, pp.430-32, and footnote at pp.438-39; and oe sie, p.198. VIL, vol. 1906), ton, Washing vols., (8 Law tional Interna of Digest A Moore, B. J. 91 des nation. affaires aux et conduite ala s appliqué naturell, loi la de s principe ou gens, des droit de Vattel, ns (1758) (Reprint, Washington DC, 1916), vol.III, p.293. a E, et des souveraiLe
e, ef Ke O’ R. d an 1; n. §133, vol.2, 1906), n, (Londo Treatise A Law: tional Interna See: Oppenheim, thesis, University of Cambridge (2000),
9
ea
Ph.D d’, Mankin All of e Heritag l Cultura ‘the and Wer
Pp.98-99,
3. pp-89-9 War’, ‘Law, , O’Keefe 4 See
p.97. War’, ‘Law, , O'Keefe re : Grewe, See p.18. 1870), (Paris, codifié nonal Le droit interna 96 cee
Sane €d in
96. p.5, 0.6. e nalPPOs e , Aborigi Bennett Rights,
98
i h T Ibid.
Epochs, pp-494-96.
International Law, Museums & R eturn of Cultur, al Obdjec ts
we
9 y lit abi iol inv te le mp co d ye jo en ’ ter rac cha e an en sa 6 35 e cl ti Ar : a Pal al avoidable injury’ to ‘classical works of a es 5 SClentif x etous instruments’ during bombardment, F oo n E 36 Atticle
art, libraries, collections or instruments’ b utes :
removed b
rs
:ee
however, Wein
e
to the congy
l ona ati ern Int a
, they clearly reflected co
e. ttes PeraSta
Oe ISSNS exavpi
i 4
nee
aed
Pretatig
an
monuments’.
Like
the
1874
Brussels Declar
s on si ua rs pe s ou gi li re all of s ng di il bu e th religions’ covers
a
str; ly prohin: nm). ror Article 18 Strict 3 i u t Placing any limitation on th e type 0
i Sang
>
to g in ng lo be ty er op pr n ee tw be n io ct in st di no s ke ma , s e i r to s n o i t u t i t : s t n c i f e o o.8 p s e r n P i or even the State
s on ti ra st ni mi ad ic bl pu t ar of s rk private individuals, wo d an s; nt me nu mo ic or st hi ; s e c n e i c s d n a s t r a e h t , n o i g i l e s a e c e h r t in , as s o e i t l p p ’ a n o i g i d d to rel e t a c i d e s d n o i t s u t n i t i dedicate “ m r e t e h T s e . n c o i t n p e c x e e e t u o W h t i w s d n o i n g i l a e r l al of s g n i d l i u b e h t d e t of Article 27, to a l e r d n a s e i t a e r t e c a e p s i r a P 9 1 9 1 e h t in d e y o l p m e s a w y n a y g o p l m o e u s r a t r h p d n a r s a n l o i t Simi c e l l o c y e v r u s l a s r e v i n u f o y t i r g e t n i e h t to privilege - tions ned in Chapter 3,0
pation
|
ar (1874 Brussels Declaratio
der by victori5 ous troops, witho S ion. Signifi at s i v o to the pr
es id ov pr ts en dm ar mb bo d an es eg si ng ni er nc co IV e gu Ha 07 19 i th of ‘cle 27 : e s o p r e u l p b a t i r a h c , or e c n e i c s t, , ar s n o i g i l e r d to e t a c i d e s d g n i d l i ‘pu : ation, the atten
e a ry ta li mi on , 56 e cl ti Ar * '° p. hi rs wo of Christian places
eged by Eur
: i sels Conference T TS ed wak ha e ne fir the o int ts men St non-binding International a aa: =
67
st cu be to ed y r er a m id o ns co y ll ra ne ge e ar d an e Conventions are still in forc ague . w a j l a n o ati
f
e e ae i c ee ty. trea ofnla apeap le Vea these provisions are q aah 22 das ajor st P 2 itage during ar in An ct fli con d me La
international exhibitions — late 19th century
0
i a l p x e as , e t a t S t n e d n e p e d n i y l w e n 4 y b s m i a l c n o i t u t i t res
oe
buildings (Mosques ultural objects (and a e
t a r a w f o Spoils From the late viding for the
m u e s u M n o t g n i o r p s the South Kens e i t a e r t g n i t f a r d e r e w ’ s n o i t a n d e s i l i v i c ‘ s a l , a y n r o u i t t n a e n c r h i t e n h t e e t , t c i l nine f n o c d e m r a g n i r u d e g a t i r e h l a r u t l u c f o n n o o n i t f o c l a i r prote e t a m l
a r u t l u c e h t f o n o i t i s i u q c a r i e h t d e s a e r c n i r e v o y l l n a a i t g n n e i n e o b p m o r f r a f d n museums ex a t n e i n e v n o c h t o b s a w y t i r a p s i d d e i l p s p i a h T e r . e s w e l p y e o h e t p if , s t c e j b o European l a r u t l u c o t g n i t a l e r s e l p i c n i r p w a L l a n o i t a n sight. Inter eoples.
derNi
Apti 24 Lincoln, President by man (eds.), The Daas Conflicts: A Collectio oe TDisnclae Lori p.8; Doc.1, Sa Ja, 5 1988), Opinjrne., and Ow, Cases ius ‘ sist
ppendi tx E, pp.532
loo
i
Pinions on Internatio nal Law with Not and P. Bordwell, The Law of War besea
am 64
10)
1 lon
B pp.465-79, 208), Lreatise, Boa.
a 103 eae
Septe mber | PPlUsa¢.”
with Resp 29 July ioe» UKTs 1 (
104 AJIL 129,
106 Art.
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p n a e p o r u E n o n o t y l t e n h e t r f e o f f s i t d r a p d e s i u l o p i p r a v m o r f s t c e at all, were a j b o l a r u t l u c d e v i e c e r m u e s u s a M d n e o b t i r g c n s i e s d n e ) e r e w a d n a r The South K o m e m l a n r e t n i n i d e e d n i d n a ( e h b t n e y e l t n e o n i n d l e u t o a c l e h h t n i n o i t a world whic c i l p p a l a c i t c a r p d e t i m i l e h t e t a l r a t r s u u t l l l u i c d e n e a r h ’ T t ° 1 ' . e g a l l i p ‘spoils’ or 4Joo t s n i a g a w a L l a n o i t a n r e t n I n i n m o a i x t e i b s a i h o e v r r p e s e h a t i s A n i s n g i century of a p m a c y r a t i l i m h s i t i r B f o t l u s e r n t o c i e s r s i e d s s a o p s a f d o e y a l p r e t n i e objects acquir h t d n a d e s i n o l o c e h t , r e s i n o l o c 0 e h t e v f i t c e ples of the persp . y t n g i e r e v o s d n a s t of significant objec
n a m i t s e l a P d e i p u c Oc e h t n 1 l l a W a f o ion t c n u e r v t e s n s o C y t n e h e t w t f o e h t s e f c en u e o v q i e f s n , Co e l c ga n Le e e r th e f on n o n C io e u f o g a t H u 10H Advisory Opin o 9 e 9 v i 8 f 1 e e r h e t w t A e r e h 9t .8 ra pa , e c , n 31 e .1 r No e f ; n o 04 C 20 ly ue g a H 7 0 9 1 Territory, 1CJ, 9 Ju e h t -23at p d n , a ) 7 6 9 s 1 e t a t S , n e n d a y i As (Le o r s f n A o i t a m N o r f of . e r w e a w L s e t h t n e m d u n a n delegates o m s n o i c ri Nat wi o t s i h P. w ‘ e N : s e s t , d a a r g h o e n w l i e S d e h t h This y-ptrhorveiesisounc differs from 1899 Hague Il ith the inclusion of t r o f . d e v o r p 108 The the
at t n e m e v o m ion t a v r e s e r p | e u g a at H e th e © d of a m y a w s s s a g w n i g d ee in c o w r o P r e t h n T e m d n e m , e n a th w o r B e Th t d t e o t c c S e l 5 f 4 J. e 5 r 3 5 e 3 e S ; 23 n l. o i ve t le i ; n 2 i 1 f e p d p , al IU the n o i t l. a n vo r e t n i , ) 1 2 e 9 1 th at , k extension of l, r o Y n a h t w e so N ry a m ., o e t r ls s o vo u m c (3 of ve s le xt Te rt pa al ci fi s m Of r domestic o f e th of s n o i n t o u i T, nstit i anslat 2 r T / 4 1 5 9 s u o . T i s g J e i c l n e o e r r N e f n o , r C fo ent m g n o d u Peace i t J c e t l o a r i p r T s i , z e k T r e C . 8 0 1 o . i p r a M , ’ d r n a a W , w a L ‘ t and On’aKtieoenfael, law: Soler v. ea inter e i . 6 0 2 . a r a : p , ) 1 0 0 2 ; y r a u r b n o Fe t g n 6 i 2 ( r d : o C , Y e T t C u I n n a 140, 142 m: general, 1908-1909; Mi 109 eee m, Internati u e s u e M t u n i M e a i e n h o n i e t a pp s c u d E O f o d r a o g B L , s n i k 496 4 / 7 3 9 6 1 9 8 1 9 1 9 1 N° See Boyd Daw , / l P a R r e n e g : e v i h : c r m A u e s u M A & V n a i d , n 7 I 3 9 1 : e v i r h e c b r o A t c O A & 1 V 1 to Maclagan, ember 1903, Cecil Harcourt. ov N 0 2 , m u e s u rt M A , r o t c e r i D Paper, court Smith,
r a H to n a g a l c a 1904; and M
, h t i m S : e v i h c r A A & y , 1 4 9 1 y r a u n 97 Ja
tu n of Cultur International Law, 2 Museums & Reet oO ur eject, Ss al
y ur nt ce th 19 te la — s on ti bi hi w & international ex
th wi ed at ci so as s ct je Ob 2 !! t. fi w sa it as it d te e Crown, which redistribu pelonee to ne ro th s hi , ry on ap we al ni mo re ce s hi s, be ro s hi as ch su , ly al te Tipo Sultan person and the incor orati st ue nq co ry ta li mi of s ol mb sy as ecially the 71ge"> acted
s e a ke d re ou av de en s al ci fi of h is it Br !? .' re pi em h is it Br e th territories into India Company. d the London officers of the East
an as Fe d an y an mp Co a di In st Ea e th of y ch ar er hi e th up d se es gr o r P r e g i T s ’ e o ac pl o a s wa e us Ho a di In st Ea !4 .! rs te ar qu ad he Tipp on nd Lo its n di displaye
s ’ a w t i 1808
ce
. rs te ar qu al er ph ri pe its in d te ca lo y ar br li d an um se mu t s i l a i c with a spe s on ti ec ll co ce fi Of a di In e th th wi on gt in ns Ke h ut So was relocated to ’s Nehru
Figure €22..55 TiTpj p oo’s Tiger, Myso re
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c.1790,
h t d e t i n u d a r o h f e e H l g g u . r ’ t b s a a j n u g P n i w o l l o F . 9 3 ‘Lion of the 8 1 n i h t 92 until his dea 7 1 n i a i d n I n r e h n t a r o n f o l o r t n o as its capital c d e n i a g h s i t i r B e h t , s r a w h k i S d e o d l u g n n e A d o y w t a s m d a n a R . B . A j. l succession a r e n e g r o n r e v o g w e n e h t , t s e u q s n a o w c e h n s o i r t h i r t B e e h h t T . e z i r p s a , 1849. With e n o r h t s ’ t i j n a R g n i d u l c n i , s t n e e t h n t o c n i s it d f o e y a e l c p a s i d s a w d n a the Lahore pal y n a p m o C a i d n I t s a E e h e t c i f f o f s O r o a t i c d e r n i I d e e h h t t h t i w m u e presented to s u M n o t nsing
e K h t u o S e h t o t d e s s a p t I . m u e India Mus
nts a
n i r e g y t l a y g a o n T i r u o v e d f o t c a e h e h t t whole of this aise poo § ultan, Dewhaon’.a ipe Tm of r e d r o y b d e t u c e x d Nirmal bas e Sirc
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ly te ma ti in s in ma re t Ar of t ec bj su e th Gallery of Indian en be t no s ha r ge Ti ’s oo pp Ti t, Ye ° '! m. is al ni lo co it to London — British 1° t. es qu re e th in th wi ed ok ev an official repatriation s um se mu on nd Lo in y la sp di on st ue nq co al ni lo co al ni lo co Ifthe spoils of d te en es pr re also ey th s, on si es ss po al ri pe im of g in tt ge e th ne ro th s on e it Th Br of . re nt ce s nd mi an it ol op tr me e th ng ti si vi or in s e ng t vi a li i r t in d ha pa ex ss lo r fo r ei th d an n io subjugat s ct je ob ch su ce a l p e h t f o e s p m i l g a s e d i ov Haldar s da of Ranjit Singh pr al kh Ra s, 00 18 dmi e th In peoples. d se ni lo co of “It : at th ry mo me ed rd co re d an the collective on nd Lo in ng yi ud st st il wh um muse ce re fi me Of a a th di wi In e th ab nj Pu d e visite th of on Li te la e th of ld go of r ai ch e all at st e th e ov ab e se d an to . l fu . er ay pl was pain u nd Hi a out th wi s nt me ru st in l ca si mu . .. it on up 7 1 1 > picture . s e p a h s c i t s a t n a f e f m o u f e h t e h , t h g n i t S u t o i h j n t a i R a j a r a h a M r o hookahs w f 0 3 8 1 d n a 0 2 8 1 n e e w t e b e d e a r m o h n a e L e b h t i d w a h b a e j n n o u r P e h t n The th i y t i n u m m o c e Sikh
collection.
ght of this
f o e k u D e h t l l a sh r a M 1d ! e i F f o s r e d Or l a r e e n c e n G i r P d ( n @ s e s g e a h m c I t a p n dia n I f o s e v i L ions from the Des , s i H. Dav he t . n R i ; a 3 i 0 d n I in Looting 1842), pp-102—
112 Duke of Wellington, Select don, is it Br Wellington, ed. L. Gurwood (Lon e: ic rv Se r fo t fi Un n, ia or eg Gr R. d an ; 1997), pp.51-88 ton,
bh Law and
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e le l l l o C a G e c i u f f r O h e a N i d n I e h T e h T . 7 4 , r e h s c e i r t A i s o i . r u M C g n d d i n n v a a r e s ; e s r 9 P e 9 n 2 i f . o h p c a M e , s ) o e p u r q i u t p n A e 1 h t ) r o 9 f 7 9 1 115 1978 t ( s u r r T e g i T u r h s ’ e u N p s i m T e h u t e , s s h n u s o i M s l r b a a P l t a s . n e D io o t t a See N a i d : n s I n e n z i i t i d c e s i n a a r di n s I d n o u t f le m o r b f i s s 0 e c 9 c 9 e a r o m m e h t g opened in 1 n i k a m s and n o i t c e l l 9 3 o c p n , a ) i 2 d 0 n 0 I 2 s , ’ n A o & d V n o e L h ( t s . n o 3 i s 0 n 0 e m 2 i y D l u J l a 6 1 n o , i t m a u n e s er t u n M I A & , e V , c s n n e o i r t e ; c f s e n e l v o l i C o L C ’ of s , s i v a D in d 116 Director ommunication: D. Swallow, Director e t i c , 7 5 p , ) 3 0 9 1 , a c c a D ( 2 ae Personal c 6 1 6 8 1 , t n Studen
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ow n k t no do —1 r2 e h t e g o t l a g n i l e e f l a n o i t a n d r a g e r s 2 i d d l u o w . s e u i o t y i u q i t n h a s i t i r B f r o Then e p e e k a m a J ; g n i l e e f l a n o i t a n t u o b a anyth ing n o n of s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c e h t t h g u o r b h c i h w s e c r o f e h t , y r u t n e c to h d n a t l e e r I i m t o r n f e s, w st t li o na i t a n y b k c a t t a r e d In the early n u e m a c 5 e r t n e c s a l w a e i at r St e l p a i m r e p i m i e o th t m o r e f c n e d n e p e d Europeans n ir i e h t t r e s s a o t s e t u n t i t g s n i o c a h p c i m h w a t c ha “t ~ y m o n o t u a l a r u t l India. Their cu o t m i a J c e h t e h h t t i e s w r e v e r d e to n s g rt i fo l ef a e er y w l s b m a i a c l i c r e t s x e h e t n i o t l a r g e t n I w o : n i e b ] l r a r i u t e l u h c t [ of f n o o i t e u t i c t s n e r e e h t g n i t s e u q e r the very ess y b e t a t S l a i r e p m i e r o h f t e f d o a m s e s i t s c e i u q l e r o e h t n o s e s u c o f centralising p r e t p a h c s i h T s. m u e s u h t e m i t r n i e w e t h t y l r a y e b e h t n i s n o i t c e l l o c heritage held l a i r e p m i m o r f s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c f the restitution o l a u t c e l l e t n i d n a l a c i s y h p e h t n o century. e r t n e c s e v i t a r r a n l a n o i t r a e n v i l n a v u i f rl o w y a t S i r g s e t n i e h t , s e t These request a t S l a i r e p m i r e m r o f x o F r i e . h t t c e j o b t o l t a n r u u t o l m u a c r a p e m a c e b control of the t c e j b o e h t f o n o i t n e t e r o t e n h i t s d e n v a i t a s r n r o a i n t l a n o i t a n g n i sal survey collec t n e s s i d l l a f o n o i t a l i m i s s a e r e e w h T t . c y e t j i b t n o e d i e h l t a r f o s e i r o t s i national cultu h e v i t a n r e t l a f o n o i s s e r a p p u s , s e e h t t a t S d n a e v t i n t de n e p e d n i the imper ial narra y l w e n r o F . g n i n i g a 1 m l a n o i l t a a n i r e l p a m i i r e p m n i o e h t e d a m g n i fundament al to e b s m i a l c n o i t u t i t s re ed at e it s ss e ce h ne T ty . ti e en g id a t i r e al h on l a r u t l separate nati u c l a n o i t a n r i e h t f o on ti tu c e l l t l s o n o c c ) e r ( e h t n a e t l b i l o p o r t e m collections to ena d n a w a L l a n o i t a n r e t n I n i h t i w o u q s u t a t s e h i h e b claims challenged t a d n e g a d n a s e c l o v e e v s i t e a h n r t e t l a f o r i n e h o t i it n g o c e tions by demandin g that r s a w e r e h t h g u o h t l A . d o i r e e p l p m r a i w r e e v t i n t i c e f f € f o international order of the k c a l r i e h t , s e i t a e r t e c a e p e s i p r m a P i e 9 h 1 t 9 1 d n e a s r restitution claims within th e w o P n a e p o r u E e h t f o h t g n e r t s d e u mentation reaffirmed the co ntin . l s t ! s w e r o e n t n k i d r i n e a s e i rial museums that represented th g o l o d o h t e m l a i n o l o c g g n i n t s i i k x e e e s d Y e c r o f B . y r u t n e c The nationalists’ demands rein h t n e e t e n i n e h t n i s r e w o P n edge systems laid down by the Europ ea . 7 l . p 5 4 6 . e o e N t , t B i I m A m . r o e s C ; f o I C P s t ) 5 r 3 o 9 p 1 e ( R 6 e lays f s o a c a y i op an C b l ; A s n : e i d c n s i a l l d o o e n h r e c J p S p n A i y t i d , n e u c o n f e byMeisnor d i v E s t n h e t i m w a n r O c i t y l r e u C s a e n i Tr 25 , d a y e t R s e j a . M H r e H C, f o f o s r e n o e i c s s n i m e m d o C i v . 1 Eappointed by the Lords 0 2 8 9 1 . s a r a p , 10 Pn ts (1899)],
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q, Of Ci at d e n e p p a H y l l a e R t a h W . ), ds (e r ou e ym Se l A C. d an E. M. House 208.ee p , ) 3 1 1 2 4 9 1 8 3 , . k p r p o Y , w ) e 1 WwW 9 9 1 , d r o . f x O ( 1918-1919 by American Delegates s e i t i ) r E o F n i M O f o L I s t 4 h 1 g i R ) 49 the 9 1 ( d n a w n La o l i na t io at c rn e te t In o , r ry P er nal o i usec P Thornb t and a rn te In s in t n y e ud St m m se o Ca C A h t : i es w ti ri no Mi 9 1 9 al 1 on ti Na s, ne Jo ary nu Ja 10 Gardiner 2, . l t, o af v Dr s , ri ) Pa 9 2 t 9 rs 1 Fi or , k t Draf Yor nd w co e Se N ., ’s on ls Wi e Se venan at 605, n.30.
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t c e t o r P e h T , od o k w c r a r, e l e d B u l A . a 5 H C 2 4 ; 1 8 . 1 p , V 7 . 1 l o , v y es fi d u t S Histor l a i c e p S e e t t mmi
t a 8 4 3 n o i n a o C n i‘li o c i n t o G a m G r l X o a f n n o i I t h a c n r r a e t e n s I e R 2 a 2 at v 2 e 1 n 4 ) 6 e 6 G 2 9 L 2 I 1 J ( ) A 1 , 7 3 s 9 e 1 i t i r o n i 3) M 2 9 1 f o ( of Nations ( n s o n i o t i c t e a t N o r f o P e e u h g T a e , L l l e e h u t B y . b es i t i r o n i M f 122, 124; R. L o n io t c e t t o a r t P S , d g n a n i n t g s i o e R r o ish F t i r B d n ane and H. a ; 6 1 4 L I J p A p u ») s ( : 13 , ) 9 1 9 1 ( 8 ; 9 1 9 1 e n u J 4 , 2 y r , o i t k s s i w H e r > e y d e a P l er p m e T n i , emenc(1e9a1u9) tovol.112, p.225. 9 1 Cele 9 1 y a M 1 3 , h ec e p s s ’ n o , s i l i k s i s e 418. See Pr dent W lemenceau to Paderew : s e i t i r o n i M f n o o i t c e t o r P l a n o i t a n e t n , The I
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e t a m i t l u r ei th e n i f e d to t ul ic ff di it e d a m s e e t n a r a u g y t i r mino y r a r o p m e t a y l n o e r e w s e e t n a r a u g e h t d e m u s s a s a w it , d n a h e n o e h t n r e e, O h t o h c a e e t a r e l o t y l l a u t n e v e ld u o w y it t r o n i m d n a the majority e h t t a h , t d o e s t a l i m i s s a y e l b e v i t c e f f e d 1 u o w y t i r o n i m e h t y l e k e h t t d a h e t n i a t or mor e li n i y a e m l r e p m e d T l o r . a H y 17 r a s s e c e n e b r e g n o y es t i r o n i m n uld no l e h t g n e r t s to d e n g i s e d s e i c i l o p h s i t i r B l a r e v e s gua m o fr s d a w e t e a m e n h i c s o ‘ e th , d n a h r e h ‘ t o e th n O 18 . ’ t r a p a d pr e m r o f y e h t h c i h w y t f i t n e d i fc) l a r u t l u c s ’ y t “natiod i r o n i m e th £ 0 es to the e c n e s s e e h t f o n o i t a u t e p r e p e r o e h m t s i h g t n i n r o n e u v ” E ! s . s n n e e z i t i s c a w o l l d e f e l w a y o l g n vie i e b s r e b m e m s t i e t h a t e r i c w t o t u b d n e t n e i t t a o n t d S i d e s t h n t e m n r n e v i o h g d e i wit l l A e h t r a e l c is it e h t n o e i t t a i p t s e e D r ” p . r y m e o n t o n t u i a l a c i s t i u l o o p r s e p u o r g gen l a n o i t a n g n i t n a r , g s e e y t n b ’ a s r a e u g t a y t t i r S o n n i i m h e h t t y b i d W e t n a s r e g t a s t t h g S ‘ ri l a c i t i l o p e h t f o t c e e r p u s e t r a n n i e h n t o i t a n i m i r e t e d f l e s o t t h g i r a f 0 n o i t i n g o c e r y ights wer
s e i t a e r t e c a e p r a W d l r o W t s r i F t s o p d n a n s o t i c t e u j b b i r o t s i l d a e r r u t d l n u a c f n o o i t n u o t i i t s t e u r t i t e s h e t R o t g n i t a l e r s n o i s i f o v o r p n o y i t t a i e n r g t o c e e r c a e d p n a s i r a s P e r i 9 p 1 m 9 e 1 e s u Th o i r a v f o n o i t u l o s s i d d n a e h t e c g a n l i p w o l l , o e f l p o e p n e e w t e b k n of cultural objects i l ’ d e r c a s ‘ e h t d e m r d i e f t f i a s e i r v e r s e t o a s t l S a t I t n e . d a n e n p n e e d i n V i f y l © w ne s s e r g n o C 5 1 8 1 e h t g n i r u d d e t a l u c i t r a e g a t i r e h l a r cultu ; 5 9 L I Y B 4 ) 4 2 3 2 9 1 ( s e i t i r no i M f o 5 6 n 3 o i 5 t 3 c e t , o ’ r s P e l l i e h ch T A ‘ , s , n g a n v i E k y . e L H I. ; 6 ; 1 f f 1 5 4 1 . 2 ; p n p o ; s ’ , n n s i o e b i i o t t R c i e r t J. o o n r i P M 8 ‘ 8 0 , 2 y , . r n p r o p e s b d n , u ) r 3 H o 3 h 9 T 1 ; e 9 e , 4 n o d 44 S 2-1 n 3 o l 1 a L . n ( p o i p t e c a i N , t V c . d a l n r o P a v s d e n t , a a y t r S o y t s r l i a o H n e o h i T t , a y n N i e l , r s y e n e p o n m i t t r Te a a N c a f o M . e A u g . a C e L d n a e h T ; f f 6 , 3 r 2 e t t s a b e 1 W 3 2 s n l o G ti a s i n a g r O d l r o W ) . 2 f 4 f 9 0 1 4 ( 2 . p s p , e ) i 8 t 6 i 9 r 1 o , Minorities (Reprint, New York 3 3 . 2 7 6 l . p , ’ ; s 4 e 6 i . t o i N r ie Min o , n B I Mi A . r l e s a n o , i I t a C N P ‘ ) 5 3 9 s, 1 e ( n o J e s a c 4 a 3 i n 3 a 3 b l A , n ” i s e s l l l i o h o c h A c “ S y t , i r g o n n i i k y e 16 M H 5 1 15 2 4 1 0 . 2 p , ) ’ 6 n 2 o 9 i 1 t c e t o ry r a P ‘ u r b e , F d ( o o w r r a e e y d h t . 7 R See Cal on, ‘Minorities’, 119.anco, 9) Dece d , n J a O N L ; 3 4 55 12 4 9 1 , ’ r s s r F e n l e i l o b b i o l m h R l c e A ‘ d M n ; 17 aae Report of M. de g n i k N y e H ; 4 322-2 Studies and U
s’, l t a h n g i o R i ‘ t , a n n r n e a t m n n I e : s f i o | E e t . ; u f 1 t f 2 i 6 1 t 9 . s p 3 n I p p , V . e l t > o v ) a 3 u 8 d 9 , a 1 y r r o G , n t s i , s n i n o H i i l t r a e (B e of N u e g a r m e u s L a e ' i h n t T s i s d o a e n t p i a i t m r i y B r S o n f i o e M h , t ae stification oceedings of
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; ff 34 .4 pp 1, l. vo ), 20 19 , n ondo L ., ls vo (2 r a W d rl Wo e th d an w a L l a n o i t a n r e t n I , r e n . 4 7 9 5 1 . p 25 See J. Wilford Gar p ), 15 19 , n o d n o L ( r the Great Wa
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), d. (e en 4. em 25 Cl c. Do P. 6, in 87 p. 1, t, l. Ar vo , of s nt me nu Mo oe See Burnett, Reparation of on ti va er es Pr nt e e r th e f f on i D e h t s nt t me dg Ju See O, Grautoff, Foreign a t Ar of s nt me nu Mo of ch r n a io it e nd s Co e R the ng d ni n er a nc co s rt po Re r: Protection of Art During the Wa ue sc Re , on ti va n er es o Pr t ir h the g i for n e ke r ta C es ur . as B Me an ri st Au ans. tr , st re Un d an Theatres of War and the German and r Wa in t Ar of te Fa e Th r: de un Pl e Ar e, eu Tr W. d an 9; 12 p. ), 19 19 , ig pz ei (L t in Allied
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n a n i m o D s n o i t a New York, 1961), pp.222-2on3, Tendencies Regarding Revindication and Comp ens i h s a rt W po Re A r, ge be it T W n, D to ng See B. Le hi y l as s r a : e s t T n e t m Ar u n o ic M alski,
or w o st K Hi in d d te an ci t Ar ), 43 of 19 s , k n r o a Circles (Lond sscher, International Protection of Wo , 8299 4 9 1 e n u J ; .8 No , es ri Se See C. de Vi al ur lt Cu d an n o i t a m r o f n I don, n o l a L n ( o n i o t a i n t r c e t A n I , rs pe Pa l na io at rn te In by on US Documents and State ti uc 13 tr ns co Re ) r 4 ei 4 th r 3 fo 4 9 1 ea ( Pl A n o . es diti ec pi er st Ma a Tr d e r n e r b e m t e s m e s W i D New a d an 30; T. Bodkin, s n o i t a r a p e R l a r u t l u C y, gb Ri D. d 1945), pp.12-15; an The American Scholar 273 at 279.
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y b o t d e s e o u p n i t n n o o i c t s e u , q s n o e i h t s s e , s t s e o Y p ° * l . a e i g r a o t i r r e herit t s t i f o d e p p i l r a t i s r e p m , e i t a t y S b d r l o e s h s e c ’ e s e d i e r r o p t i r r s i e h t e s o h t could t o t g n i appertain tbe dis-
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1, l ona ati ern Int r, de n Mi : ge ma Da Law. nal 303-04, Dog of Wlinutes (Paris » » 1919), An: ne>x P.32.
spoliations
VI, p.22; and Burnett,
38 The ellirepteical nature of ‘country of 37. 6 3 8 , ’ n o i t c e t o r ‘International P
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d n a s r e w o P d e ch at o s s A d n a force n i , 9 the Allied 191
betwee! Peace September of 10 Treaty 39 LVI, in-en-Laye, Annex Papers, and State i Foreign Arts.191-96 D with Protocol and (1919)5 British and Visscher,
yol.112,
400 Cmd Austria together (1919); No.11 pp.282-289>» UKTS 1921, Appendix Spoils, (ed.), 8 November Simpson and O F 773 at O 1 R P , AJIL 5 1 18 (supp.) r e 14 b m e t p e (1920) S pp.223-24. 11 Plunder, 40 p.317; Paris, Art See Treue, Ministers], 05 7 . Allied c o D 2 3 3 [to p I, l vo 41 n Castlereagh eparatio R (1816). Lord of p.298, Memoir Note 15,115 at 119; and Parl. Deb., v' 01.32, ser-1, G , t t e n r u B e 92/26, e S . 4 2 3 42 E. Leisrecheing cirtend in Treue, Art Plun der, pp-22
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o t s i h r be o y a c m ‘ i f d i n t a n e ’ s i t c c i s r t s i d d e d e c e h t ological, £ 0 y n o m i r t a p l a u t c e l l e t n i e h r t e m r f © o f of t r al a os p p s m i d r e h t n o e z e e r could ‘fo f a d e c a l p o s l a It . ’ n i g i r o f o s t c e i h t r t r s te i af d s r r a i e e y h t y t n e w t f o d o i r returned to e p a r o f e t a t S r o s s e c e d e r p e h t s t y c e b j b o s n e o s i e h t t c e f o l l n o o c i t a v r e s e r p imperial d n a y t i l i b i s s e c c a d e r u s n e s i h t ; e r i p m e e h t f o dissolu tion . s e t a t S r o s s e c c u s e h t f o Cas o l l a l n a o e i r t a e n h t r o f r o f s e 6 v 9 1 e l c and archi i t r A f o s e c n e u q e s n o c g n i h c a e r r n a o f i t y a l l c a i i l t p n p e a t o p s t i e h t t a h t d Despite e d e c n o c s r a l o h c s t s o m , y t r e p o r p , l e a l r p u t m l a u x c e d n r a o R s e v i 9 4 h c . s n o i t c tion of ar e l l o c e s e n n e i V f o y t i r g e t n i e h e t l c i n t o r A t c e f f r e e l d a n c i u t c s m i a l c had little pra n a i l ’ a t I d e v l o s e r y l b a c i m a 0 f 2 o 19 s of a w y t a e s r t T c e n j a i b r o t s u se o h t the Italo-A f 0 s u t a st c i r o t s i h d n a l a c i d i r r u e j ‘ h t r u e h B t 0 5 t a h t g n . s e t a t S r e 196 by recognisi h t o f o s ! m i a l c e h t m o r f e l b a st h e s r i e u t g 1 n n i t s i l d a d r n a e n ’ r e g , r e h special characte g i h e h t n i , g n i t n e v e r p f o y t i l i b a s i i v d a e h t more, Italy ‘recogni sed
n o p u e c r o f n i 21, 9 1 h c r a M 8 1 ga, i R , ae n n r i e a r t k n U I e h , t r e h d n c a s ia Vis s s u e R e S , d n a . 5 l 8 Po 4 n e 8 e w t la 7, pp-2' t e x 46 Ct. Art.11, Peace Tre aty be 1 i 2 d 9 n 1 e p p e A d a g i , s R il o p S ), d. (e é n o s p m i S . n o i t u aw t i L t s signature, 6 LNTS 1 23; and , e r fe e e d e K ’ e O l p J. m e P. ex d n n U a , ka ws t ze t zc o as r rz P Ch J. . V 6; L. , s e ; r 5 u 0 s 2 tional Protection’, 83 a e r T n o i t e r s A u Mo , i k 8 s 1 l 7 a 1 w o K ) 2 3 9 5 1 9 ( 2 8 . p , 1 3 5 1 § patrimoine artistique de la Pologn e , ) 9 19 8 n, do on (L nt me ve Mo 3: l. Vo in , , age Her ‘it t ural h Cult the g and i r a s a h e t a t S e t i e l s i o , p ’ n m o i t a co i r a t a p e R f ‘ s o e , i u t k s r n l a a e w p v o K e r d l n a a l r ; a g 3 c 3 e o t 2 l 3 n . i pp e h n t a f o s i d h i c i h w y r t i u n co ‘a at th e pl ci e i in c e pr a r e e th i p u at th q c e d h un a t fo c Tt 47 y m t o r r f pe d o e r i p l e p h t m i m e i b a l c it ld u o c r o n case the State should be partitioned, to w a L . T A W l a ; n ’ o n i o t i a t n a r r e t t i n b Ar 1 n I ed is gn co re l t a no n s o wa i t a , y’ n tr ter n I ‘ of the said coun , O d n a O 3 A 2 N 3 8 5 , ’ ’ n n o: o ti ec i ot t Pr a al tr i b r A 1 a n o 2 i a ie treaties: Visscher, ‘Internation t a n r e t n I ‘ , O and 2; 83 ers lian ’, a on t ti I ec ot d Pr 7 e s i l a n al i on f ti na y t er a nt e ‘I r t he e, a T u e . 5 6 Visscher, r 3 T 4 d n s a a ; 4 3 9 > ’; on ti ec ot Pr al on nati er nt ‘I ro , P er ch ss l Vi a n e Se o i t a n r e 50 Art.4, Ttalo-Austria: t n I , r e h c s s i V in , y t a e r T n n, i a m r e G t S f o y t a e r T e th of 6 9 claims pursuant to Arts.191
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z a j d e H e h t 1e f o ng i K e h t o t n r retu e h t d e n . o s i e t i c t n i r o sa h t o u s a l a n a 6 4 t.2 r A 4 3 3 3 2 . p p l, Il . l o e v s ded s n o , a p y h r o e t h s t t i o H n in , s y a e e w r l o r f h e e c p r i h the w d >7 Tem n n a a m h t d O e t a h c p o l i l a er C he t e f o h T n a d r n a o K l 5 l a 3 a n 2 m i 5 e g r i p r o lles, i uman a h s r e a of the V e h , T e t a t . S l 3 . of p t n res, e u m s t a e r r a T p e D t r A S U , i 3 2 k p.3 , w a L See Kowals l a n o i t a n r nte I , r e d n a l l o H . r o t 4 i 6 d 9 E d m C 8 over to Britain: 5 , 1 d e 8 i 8 atif 0 r 1 t o n c n u , j 0 u e 2 i 9 c @ 1 d n a t s u g s u g A i w 0 1 me ate don ty of Peace with Turkey, Sevraensd (1921) 15(supP-) AML 179. based on the principle a e ; s r 2 d T 5 r 6 o . c p , e r 5 2 ; d 3 n 0 1 a 2 1 4 s . . e l v s o i v h c r , a s s u r ‘ Art f o e o i p g r a i e P l f e s r n e a t r a t t S d e e h s t n li g r a i o c e f o r l o d F e d i d , v t n s o a t s r k a p a h W e s s i L e t g n i r 60 Brits.424-25, Treaty of Sevr e v in o c d e s n i t o n i g s o o t i c v e o y r l r n p o en e g h e n i b y Ar l p g p n a o y s t ha i c o r p i ec r hts g i r h t i w , y y t t r i e l 9 a p 1 i 3 o r r o p p t i f o , ) 6 of terr 1 s 9 s 1 a l c , s n i h o T d n o L ( . y e e d e k e c r c a u e T P eas r a of m o in r s f e i s t a e d e i r T t i n u d m n a m o c r a W of n o i t a n i m r e T , n o s p i l : l f i o h P . C : s : e i r t n u o c 61 es gic? a a
o l o e a h T c r a y f t o a e r T t r o p e ex h , t 8 r 6 c 1 e . t t a r l A u g e r d n a to e 62 See Art.184, Tre Treaty of Sta-l Gee n i n a m e r f o p e R , ) g 9 e 7 l 9 1 y h t g n , , e 4 n l 8 o 1 d . a on L , 6 > There was g n i ” v a r e s e r y P r e v o c s i , D n i l : r 1 e . l b o m V ha C , e g . a R t i r e . H E l a : r s u e t i l r u o C it r r e e h t t d n n a a m o t w t a O L e th ott, r P . V . L d n a P. J. O’Keefe 1a.
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s e i t a e e h r t t m e o c r a f e p s t s c ri e a j P b o 9 1 l 9 a 1 r u t e l h t u c n i f o n r u t e r articulated f o n o i t s . y e r u u q t n e e c h t h t e s e i n t n i e m w a t x e y l r n a o e i t c e e h s t l a g n i r u d This fin m u e s u M t g r n e i b t l s A e u q d e n r a , y a r i a r l l o i t c c n i a V . n e a h t s a f o t n e m e v l o v n i perspective s ’ m u e s s u n m o i s e s h t i m f o g n i n t o c i i t l a f n r o e c d i e s h n t o c t s h i g i l h g i h o t First, there s t n e m a n r o n o i c t i a t n l a e l C p x e T e v n o a s e j t u e p r s e i h d t a , n d i n o n c o e S . m u instituti e s u m n nal o o i i t t c a e n t o a r p d e n h a t r o m f u e s s n u o i m t n e l a v i n o c f o t n e of an imper m p o l e v e n d a s e 1 h t e r e d h e t c n , e y u l l l f a n n i i F s . r d o o t i c r e e r p i d r a w r e t n i of how its e h t g n i g r u n d i l s t t n c a e j m b s o i d l a r e u h t t l u c g n f o i r n u o d n o i t u t i t s n i g and restituti n i d l o h e a r s u a t e u l f o r e s h ’ t m u t e e v s o u y m t e n h t i a w t o r h e c n u g n i w o elaboration of r g e
h t h t i w , e r o f e h t o t e m a c e r i p m e h s i of the Brit . s n o i t c e l n l a o i c of its Ind
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a a b 3 0 9 1 t e b m e c e 9 D , q e a r I o 1 s pn o i t a e v a e c x E y l , Ju es t 4 u 1 n i M , e s e e t i t t i i u m q i m t o n C A ’ St s f o e > w a L q 3rf See British Museum Truste a oo r T , s c e i t c u e n N i m M O i d e a e p t t t i t m o r m P o C d n a ’ s e 2; te 8 s 2 u r T 5 9 7 m 2 u p e p s u , M e v o h r s T e r u s a e See Briti r T , l l i H ; 13 2 1 1 5 e . h p t p f o , 4 3 9 n 1 o i r t e a b r o te l A 13 Oct d e s o p o r eg : s e i t i u q i t An . 1 3 2 n § a i , t 7 4 p 6 y 4 g P E P 15 s, ; e t u n i M ed e v e o t t m i e m r m s o e C e t n s i o u t i i r See Br ritish Museum T collect cnl Greet
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e a u r e r e i a y m t a a S e r T e 2 hne e92 t . 2 f 1 o 2 5 p n o i t , 5 u 3 t 9 i 1 l t r u e t b i o t t s c : e r O » e 2 h 1 t , r w o a f L t s F e u e eq er r e b s e o ’ q t a f r c o I O o t e g c 4 n n 1 a i t s n i g s e h i s q; a e r I I. bid.3 TThere was also r h t 2 o t 1 r o i r s p n s r e io d t r o a v s a ’ l c l i x h E c r u h C , n o es t ’ g u n i n p i e e M k e e f a e s t ‘ t i r m o . ees’ Com ritain f
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ch whi ship tion rela a in lved invo wile ute disp uae a ers play f chie The re. cent i the ted esen repr eum Mus ish Brit The . tion nisa colo rnal inte as defined ame could Be Britaish empire and the Royal Irish Academy, Irish national inner the e ee ist onal nati of y tanc mili d ease incr of ext im was made in the cont fe and re empi ish Brit the of hes reac hest furt the and within the United Kingdom ism nial colo of s tice prac tory mila assi and sing rali cent the to ion in e ne farm a by hed art une d 1896, a hoard of Celtic ornaments was
re befo s time of ber num a ds han d nge cha nts ame orn The /® and. Irel Rb rth-western conin was se cha pur The 7.’ 189 May in eum Mus ish Brit the by peing purchased l Roya the gave ry asu Tre ish Brit the y reb whe ure ced pro travention of an established The ®° and. Irel in nd fou e trov sure trea g sin cha pur of ion opt [rish Academy the first
1898 the by ted duc con iry inqu y tar men lia par a of ect subj the ame bec n e h t r imag onal nati matte ing pet com e sam the ted cula arti iry inqu This 81 . e e t t i m m o C s m re empi Museu n ria nga -Hu tro Aus the of ion olut diss the ing dur ed r i a e b d l u o w t a h t inings . r a W d l r o W d s t e i t n s i r f i m e F d u e e h s t u h s M r i e t t f i a r B , e s h g t n i r e a e e t h t i m m s o m C u e s u M 8 9 8 1 o tw e es th During the s, al ci fi of m u e s u m s it r Fo n. io ut it st in al on ti na d an al ri pe m i n a h t o s wa le ro al role as b ri pe im s ’ m u e s u M h is it Br e th e s u a c e b e iv us cl ex y ll a u t u m t o n e d n u a M d roles were r a w d E , or ct re di s it r Fo . ty ti en id al on ti na h is it Br f © t n e m e l e c i n o d n o L a an intrins t o n is t ‘I — e r i p m e e th d e t n e s e r p re m u e s u M h s i t i r B e h t h c u s as Thompson, d n a , ” m u e s u M sh i t i r B “ a is it , m u e s u M h s i l g n E n a t o n is it of n o i t Museum, r o p y r e v e t n e s e r p e
r to , e l b i s s o p as t c e f r e p as n o i t c e l l o c r u o e k a g n i e b n e WE oo _m e w t e b n o i t a e n i l e d e t a r e b i l e d d n a r a e l c s a w e r e h T 82 . e r i p m E is th g n i the British k c a l d n a , h s i l g n E g n i e b d n a ; e r i p m e n a of o n i s s e s s o p n i g n i e b d n a , British imperial identity. of increasing anx-
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d n a d e n e s o o l e r i p m e of e r i p m iety as the ties e e th of y t i r g e t n i l a i r o t i r r e t e h t d e n e t a e r h t a i d n I to d n a l e r I m o r f p e r challenges l a n o i s n e m i d e e r h t s it d e n i m r e d n u s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c of n r u t e r e h t e d a m s and claims for n o i t c e l l o c e s e h t of p u k a e r b l a i t n e t o p e h T . s m u e s u m l a i r e p m i y b resentation . es ss lo l ia or it rr te n a h t e t a i d e m m i e r o m h t g n e r t dissipating imperial s
was It . m u e s u M n o t s g e n r i e s n E Ke h ut So e th of n io ut it st in . er > a sist e h s t wa of m u s e e s 1 c u i M p t s u Ar a d e an h t e nc r nde u d e t a r The Dublin Scie o p r o c n i s a w and s n o i t e c e m l o l co H s y’ h et s ci i So r T in bl r Du o f l ya Ro n e th g i th a wi p am c established e h t in d e s r e m m i was e t a of f n »s o i t a um e r se c mu e e Th th t. Ar h t d i an W e nc d. ie Sc an of el Ir er ov Department d l o h l a i r e p m i e th n e h ngt e r t d s n a to e t c n i e v m e a d i l a r a as P of d e w e e i ous H e th to in d Rule and it was v e t r e v n o c e wer s e s i m e , r m p u e s u s M ’ m u rt e be s u Al m d e an th ia , or 1 ct Vi 192 e th of y or St e Th : t n e d i c c the Irish Free State in and A
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a (London, 1999), pp.105—06. lp 595 x i d n e p p A 9) no p s e (189 r r o C s ment Orna d n c a Celti in s 1898, t c a F of , P. Coll, 23 November y r u s a e r T e h t y b red a th r o P N Pre e y h ar t mm Su in d: lan , Ire y in d d un fo a s v nt a me m na Or i See Celtic year 1896 at the L
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e h d t l d o e h o d t n plunkett ad e y t l n l i a i c e p s s a w it . . . , d d n n a a l e r m I n u I e s u l a m n o i t a n a ° ” . ’ s e i t i u q ish anti r I f o , t n e m l i a t n e n o ‘ c e i n s d t e e a t f n s s o i i n x e g e h s o t e great c s e s r e n t i w m u e s u M f s t i r B r e d a o r b e h t n Whilst i h t i w g n it i t a l i m i s s a y b y c n e t o l p a c i t i l o p s t i e s u f e d o they strained t nt narrative — the
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e r u s a e r t h s i t i r B e th of s n o i t a country.” t i m i l e th d e t a r t s ill u o s l a s t n e m a n r o e h t f s o e i t i s u l q i i t a n v a a r of t n o i t c The e t o r p e v i t a l s i g e l e h t r o f e t a l p m e t a as d e s u s a w h of c i n h o w i t a r e , p o w a e l h t d e e v n o i m tr r e d n u e c n a t s s ’ m u e s u M h s i t i r B e h T . e r i p m e l w e o h n t k c t a u to o h , 0 g 6 u 8 1 o r n I . th n o i t c e l l o c ) l a i r e p m i ( l a n o i t a n n w o s t i f 0 for the benefit museum, the
l a n o i t a n this law a h s i l b a t s e o t y m e d a c A h s i r I l a y o R e h t s s f a o p s t d r n a o l f e f r e I in d n u o edge the f s e i t i u q i t n a d n a e v o r t e r u 93 s a e r t l al t a h t d e r i u q e r . m y u r e u s s u a e M r t n i h s l i b t u i D r B e h t y b s m i a l c to e c n e d e c e r p e v a g n r u t in h e c h i t h w in n s w m o u r e C s u e m h t n to e e w t e b e c n a l a b m i e h t t c e r r o c o t d e r u o v a e d n e g n t i s n a e h m c e r g u n p a r r r e a t a e r g The s ’ m u e s u M h s i t i r B e h t y b d e w e k s s a w h c i l u c f o e r u s a e ™ United Kingdom wh e m o s w o t s e b to e t a t S h s i t i r B e h t y b s t p m e t t a e h t , r e v e w o H . s u l . a e i r s c e u i w f m f po o n m w o s it y b d e t r a w h t n e t f o e r e w s p u o r g l a n o g i a n t n i e o b t r e t f a s t n tural autonomy e m a n r o e h t n r u t e r d i d y ll a u t n e v e m u e s u M h s i t i r B e h t , s s e l e h t e n o N * ’ . t r u o c h s i t i r B a y b ordered to do so gle between the
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A. ; y e f f o C , 4 3 6 . a r a 5 p 7 3 . p , ) 9 9 8 (1 s t men > a ) n . r d e O ( c i t r l e e l C l i e H e S S. . 7 in , s e i t i t n e d I (1899), p.35, para. 61 l a r u t and Cul h l s a i n t t o c S o 1 ti Na ) 4 of 0 9 1 ( n and the Formatio Treasure Trove
, n y o s h r p e a d r n g A o n h J. t E d an , s e 5; b m 20 o p. Co ), 91 19 , n o d n o L ( e Myth of Primitivism
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e v , o 0 r 4 T p , ) e 9 r 9 8 u 1 s ( a e r T s t n e , m n a i n t r r a O M ic W. lt Ce e in Se , y 8. m 59 e d a h c C A 2 h is Ir ) 3 0 l 9 a 1 ( m u e gq the Roy s u M 3) 90 (1 h is e it ov Br Tr e re th su ea of Tr of es se te v. Trus Recent Ca ey-GhenMeruasleum (1904) 77 LQR 27; and R. Munro, The AtetorBrnit is th 15 Juridical Review 267.
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y l e t a m i t n i e m a c e b ) g n i K e h t r e t y n I t s e e h j t a M , s s 0 i 3 H 9 1 o t e h t t r m of A o r F . s n o i t a N f o d to the League e h c a t t a s e i d o b l a n o ) ) M I O internati ( s e € s u m s e d l a n o i t a n r e t n i e c i f f O ( e c i f f O m u e s u M n o i t u t i national t s e r d n a n o i t c e t o r p e h t g n i O r e v o c s n o i t a r a l c e d d n a s f o t n e convention m p o l e v e d e h
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t n i e l o r n o s d n a h a d a h h n t o i m S n o i t n r i u p o o c r s a i h H . d e t tage s e u q e r e c i f f O n g i gly the British Fore
n i s i r a p n r r u e s t n I t o t n f a r d D n a e h t s r o f t r o vention p p u s y l r a e s it d e t a c i d n i y l r a e l c e c i f f O c n i g f i i t e n r e o i F c S r l e o a h c T i r o t s i H , c i t them.!02 s i t r A f o s t c e bj O f o n o i t a i 1 r t a p e R e h t n 3 o 3 9 1 n ( o d i e t t n r e o v p n x o E C r o l d e t a tiona n e i l A y l l u f w a l n U r o n e l o t S r o t s o L n e e b e v a h h c i h w t s e Inter d o b l a ° t ! n . e ) m t n f r a e r v o g s u OIM D o i r a v m o r f t u p n i t h g u o s o s l a e c i f f O n g e i h e t r o w a F s r e e h v t o , r h e c i v h e w w ( o H n o i t a c u d E f o d r a o B e h t d n a m u e s u M h s o i t t i r e B s n o e h p t s e g r n i d s u ’ l n c a n g a l c ies i a M c i r E r o t c e r i d A & V , r o s s e c e d e r p s i h to t s a r t n o c . e n v I i t c 4 u ° r t s b o V&A).1 d n a e v i t a g e n s a w s e v i t a i t i n i M I O g n i n r e c n o e c u u y e m c o i i f t f a O s i l i n v g i i R e r f o o F r the e m m u s g n o l a f o t i u r f e r u t a m e h t ‘ s a d e b i r c l s a e i d r e p m , i n a n g a a l d c n a a M m u Eric e s u m t r a n a f o n o i t a n i b m o c a s a n o i s s i m s ’ A & V e h t d e envision
mine r e t e d to d e n e v n o nt, c e m e g n a r r a e R of ee : t et R i m of m o C i e e 8 t 0 t 9 i 1 m m e o h C 9 t of the n a m of r i t a h C r s o wa p e h R it Sm : s n rt o ou i t rc 99 Ha collec of nd a t n e ; m 1 e 0 g 0 n 0 a . r 8 r 0 a 9 1 . d A n a V ion L, A N , t n e m e g n a r r the fate of the museum’s miss a Reof e e t t i m m o C 129. e h e t n i f o z a s g te a nu M Mi d n an o t g 08 n 19 i Burl 4 1 arrangement, ) 9 8 0 , 9 n 1 o ( t r u II B I, e — e S n . o 2 t 5 g 1 n 2 al Kensii n r h u ut o J So at s m on u ti e sa s ni u ga M or 6 Re 1 Anon., d Art ms (1916— 17)
n u a e s u M e c n t e f i a c r S C of e th e r u of t u F s he m T u e , s h u t i M m S n o t r u o c e r e a t H t . i Cc m m Co zoe dex n I t c e l d e n S a e x i th d n e m p o p r f A ; nce e eport d R i v E d of n o c s e e S t u n i ; M 3 7 1 . , p ttee i d m n m a Vision, o C s n e o h i t t c of e l l s o C g n i t d Ar cee l o a r n p o i h t t a i N w r r u e O h t e g , o n t o s bin o R C J. Department ; y l l e n n . o 1 D 9 1 , J. ’ y h , p 6 a 6 r 1 g . o a n r h a t p E ‘ ; ; s 8 e 3 Century 9883 and Coomb (London, 1897), p.6 YOUNITies for Hii Monuments: An Ve ar aree
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SPECE of HistoricMeoe Miiteiens : (C Mon Obing,
j s and Scenes of Natural Beau) annd ObjeObct . -C ur nt Ce 1905) , 0 ge 94 id Y br am t Ar M a t Ar 97’ PGu ic bl e, Pu eu i r Tr Ou ne e Se CF 1, 96 3. at §1 0 e ttm 5 erig e , 67 6.6 Pp c pe os tr Re o A n : e s m u e s th u en te W ne Ni e e ) corre 97 2 1 18 M a e r D be mi ce ence, ofaee ie Ba , e v i h c r A A E Y : British Museum, 1930-1931. €cemb WMOBL Plunder
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h t n e e t e n i N ) 0 8 8 1 e n u J ( s m u e s u M t r A l a i c n i v o Pr
the f o r e b m e m a d an e v i t a t n e s e r p e r Association
. 6 2 . p , s m u e s u M , n o y n e Ke ms u e s u o M 2 as s g n i t e e m : M I O s u , o i r a v d t He attende e th of es ti vi ti ac e th M. of I O e th n o i of t a r e e e d t i s t n i o m c m o C s g e’ e t t i m m o C ae Managin h t 6 : S e E th E M A of U U t r S o O p R e R O R P 97/138/98, er 1933,
b o t c O 13 , n o i t a r e p o o C l a u t c e l l e t n I r fo n o i t a s i n a g r O l a u t ! c e Co l l e t l n a I n o i t a on n r e t n I t 2900/138/98, Draf See FO Minute W115 See FO Minute W1
1933, PRO FO 371/738
et b m e v o N 14 , t s e r e t n I c i f i t n e i c S or l a c i r o t s i H , c i t s is i it Br Art e th of s e e t s u r T sought from the
suggested a response be Be fear for the Elgin Marbles!’
of s t c e j b O of n o i t a i n the Repatr
. 8 5 3 e n i z a g a M n o t g n i l r u B 3 9 ) 51 K. C., Obituary: Eric Maclagan (19
s e i t a e r t I r a W d l Wor
; Op al ur lt Cu of rn s tu ct je Re & s um se Mu w, La l na io at rn Inte
95
l e e i n c m a G n o G i o S K S O C : Cl l e l n e t t e s i E e a n e s E u g I a h S p o c r A a s O a f o n r u t e Maclagan’s r e h t g n i d u l c n i , n o i t n e v n o c d e s o p a e R t e i v tance to the pro o S f o t c e f f e e h t d n a n i a p S o t n o t
i : Bos e a n w o s i h n o e d a s m m i a n l o c i t u t i t s e r o t r e f e r t o n 8 d 0g i d e h s r s e i h v n e d o w e o h l g F i e w 0 o 1 y 1 s l l a s s e l t b u o the ciF es: d h c Q i h e w r i p m h th e Britis e
polic
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e us ca be e iv ct ru st in is t af Dr M I O 3 93 1 e h t n o n o i t i s o p e c i f f O n g i e r o F h s i t i s s t n e m n r e v o g h s i t i r e B v i t u c e s n o c y d b e t a r e t i e r e b o d t eit raised continue Convention." It
O C S E N U 0 7 9 1 e h t y f i t a r to l a s u f e r t n e t s to s t c e j b in their persi o l a r u t l u c e h t g n i n i f e d in y c n onsiste
c d n a y t i r a l c f o k c n o i t u t i t s e was a la r e h t of s t c e p s a e v i t c a o r t e r n o n e h t , r e h t r u F . n o i t n n o i t a s n e p m o d by the conve c f o n o on, the questi
i t i d d a n I . t n e g n i r t s e l k c a t it d i ot sufficiently d , d e t r e s s a y e h t , r o n d e s s e r d d a y l r e p o r p t e o n c n e s r a e w f e r r p e a d s e a t h a c c r i u d p n i e t i d , i y f l l a n i F 2 ! ! . s m i a a he bona l n c regulate g of restitutio
n i s s e c o r p e h t funding for
f l e s o t s m u e s u m d e w o l l a h c i h s w t n m e u m e e s g u n m a r r o a t l a m m r u o e f s n u i m f o a n o n i o d e v l o s e r e r e for the retent w e t and any dispu e l t i t f o y t i d i l a v to ensure that
s t i f o s e g i t s e v t s a l e h t t c e t o r p o d t e h c n e r t n basis.!? e d e n i e a u m n e i r y t n l o b c a h u c g i r h a n w s o e i i t n i o s l o o p h c s s i t i t i m r o r f d e The B t c e l l o s c n o si
s e s s o p l a r u t l u c e h t — y r o l g l imperia . A & V e h t e k i l s m u e s u m n i to be housed
e c n e d n e p e d n i n a i d n I d n a m u e s u M a i d n I e h t d n a d V&A, e b b e e v a h n o i t c e l l o c n a i d n I e h t f o s e n m s i l a The fortu i r e p m i h s i t i r B n i e c a l p s ’ A & V e h t f o y t n i n i s uncerta t n e v e f o s e a seri
institution, For Maclagan : G A & V e th satisfi g n i t c e l l o c f o instinct of the nation’ a d n i y a k l l a n u m nal m o c e e L i y s a m r a m y i a l r p s p i o d s t d a n s a pieces which can be seIsn 1928 ‘ai s o p ‘ o t s a enjo d aestheti ° ° ! . ’ c i l b u p e h t y b n his institution was a oa ia wna Pere o oisseurs and collectors’, !07 orn me e r e t s o the display of objects : at th
i 107 108 109,
e Inter;
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and Galleries,
1928), IE
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ral Evidence, Memorandum
h g u o r h t d e t h g i l h acteristic was hig ’ s s o J ‘ d e n e t a e r h t e h t : d e d u l c n century which i ; 8 0 9 1 n i s n o i t c e l l O C s ’ m u e s u m isation of the e t a t S n a i d n I t n e d n e p e d n i e h t d institution an
G e h t f o e g a s s e a h p t e b h r t o s d b n a a ; o 9 t t 4 n 8 e 4 m 9 e 1 g n n i n a o r i r t i a b i e h x R e f o e e t t i m m o C 8 0 9 1 e s e o h h t t f o f n o o i h t t a a d r w e h t d e s i a r A & The recommen V e h t f o s n o i t c e l l o c l a * r ™ e ! n . e e g r i e p h m t e o t n h i s s i n t o i i r t B c e l e l h o t c f n a 0 l i a d t i In p a c e h g t n i t t i f e b m u e s u M a i d n I n a f o m a e r d g a n i r u o harb Leag Archive: V&A SD 1933, 18 July Supp. 23 F 420 110 See Memorandum by Director, Weldon, VStroganoff-Scherbatoff 7185 KB 1 (1929) Volume , e Weisz g a t i v. r e H l a r Olga u t l u C e Paley th Princess L. V, Prott and P. J. O’Keefe, Law and 0. 1 7 6 1976); J, 7 2 .19 -48. V 7 I s 4 e . . v p M i p I h O c r , A w a L : l a es n iv O o i C t a S n E r e N t U n 1934; vice llander, I
and Appe™ F
R m i r e t n I , s e i r e l l and Ga rim. p ;
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hive: Lea gue of Nati i ons, IIIC, 1925. Maclagan hoped objection etors th is rather d erous convention’; Memorandu™
e e v , 3 3 9 1 e n e , 3 3 9 1 eenutes, Draft ove: Wedetie Cah itserg
sere
n™ e d i v , l E s a e r i O r e l l s a G m & u e s u and ss l i a p p ) 0 3 9 1 , n o d
Bl, (Lon t r a P , t r o p e v e D A & V
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® t t i m m o C ’ s e e t s u r T Museum awfully Alienated,
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ad y a M 25 n , o N i L t a c u d E of neral, e G y d r r a a t o e B r c e e S to O F i . Leeper, w e r d i n 5 n iV entio o c e h t i : g n i n n r o e c c e s c n c o a m i o d vat r g e s ee n b i o K d 4 e 3 t 9 i 1 n U e h e T h . T n o i t i s o s p ’ n a g a l 4 c a d M i f f i d d that at ii n turn mirrore n a d ate c i l p m o c : < f o n o i t . uc 03 od 20 tr in in n o i t n e th ae Conve e s at O it B ss ce ) ne IO to d l u l o w al eh it Wh O H n o i t d n an e v n o c 5 34 19 e th y ar nu Ja ed ar 19 fe so al , m u d n e a a r o m e t M t af Dr n: io at sl gi le 25. } 19 C, TI cult’ domestic . 25 19 ons, , ti C Na I s, f on o ti Na e u 0 £ g , a e e u e c g i L a f e f L O : e : e v v a i i i h h d c c r n A I Ar a e c h t A & y V b e , y d e r 4 e a e e 3 u c s 9 n R a s 1 a 113 m 6 J 1 a , s O n F o i t , c y e r a l t l e co £ ersecr 0 at Fs r e f s s n m n a r o e t i h t e a h c t e r o a l t G l Co ing MS t a l e n r a i d e c n n I e d n o p s , n. o n orre A c d m n o a r ; i 9 h c 0 r 9 A 1 80 9 1 V&A , l a r e n e g : m u e s u M a i d n I : e v i ingto al 449 at 435.
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l cu of e c a l p l a i t n e s s e e These reactions exposed th b o n l i a r u t s t p c € J r i e h t d an , h t g n e r t s l a i r e p , m t i a r e t d a n D a i q; n e h nial conquest w oti e Ney ag e s e h . t Ses h identified t i m S nn t r u liikke the V&A. Harco he ‘t It aS o e t l a i r e p m i e th of s r e b m e m z e e ‘ = ryj
o h w l a n o i t i d a r t y a l p d s ie i d bb lo d n a a di In e om v r e s e r p i o t ot el aa t ar n a i d N eS u M l a i r e p m I t s i l a i c e p s a n i h t i w be, it to : seum,.!! ; ah e, ur lt Cu Pe e n o R C 8 0 9 1 e th of m e r o s ic it cr e th k ittee e = e e y n a o e ‘ fo g n a r the r a e R of s e wa g N r o on e , a G i d n y I o rmer Vicer of y, ie nt ee Me C l e i n a h t a : u r t s n i n e e b d a h , 9 e 9 3 C 1 ( N O Z I U Es ] p m i e th in l a t n e m f es ur as me e v i t a r t s i n i : o and adm n o i t a t n e M “ s A C T of n o i t a r o t s t e i r h c r a e th r fo s re t ci €ctural h stemming of the illi export of cultural objeobj cts.116 d i s n o c l ra € ; ere:d Such meas, d i i r e p m i s j i n’ h s ai e e it t Br s u r t of rs part ve perial re to d In l a i c u r of c d an ip Ul
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e n u ' d é t i s s e c né : x u a n o i t a n s e riqu o t s i h s a r e n t l i e r o e t s n e i u q i e t c s i i t f f r o : n des patrimoines a e d t r o p p a R , r o e ch s s i V te x e d e t . t G e ; 7 ) 3 39 See C. de VisF scher, La protecti 3 n 9 o 1 r t e e s uill Mou j ( 4 4 e l l 3 e 4 u t ) c 8 e 3 l 9 l 1 e ( t n e i nal o n e i o e t i r a t n a a r p r e m é t o p n c o i o n c n o o i i e t t d a a ale gisl é n l o i t e d a n réglement r l i e e t u n c i e r n o : e i ogi iss l o m é m h o c sr c i a H a l et d a n t a r s A e t 1 é r s A u ) m f 9 o 3 s (19 ks r o e l W a n tional de f o o i t a n n o r i e t t n c i e t i Pro l a al n r o u i c t t l a e u d n C r t e d e t j n n o a r I p n , o r r e i e i h t ma ssc r i o f du prem n I l a n o i t a n r te n 7{t5 I 4 , l s a r n e p o a i P t a e n t r a e t t S n i and s t n e m u et de droit c ). o 2 3 D S C U L , I n D o t R g n 6 i 1 h Was 35) 9 1 , ( s t n n i e m y u l l n a o n M i g i or toric ( 9 5 6 ¥ 5 8 t a ew (N 1 2 8 ); , 1 9 6 4 9 1 9 1 , k e r o n u J ew , (N 8 mssSeries, No. ghton ! i . e r 7 C 5 8 . B , ’ n . o s i t n c a e r t ,t Pro l t a s n o e i r t n a n U r e t n d I n ‘ a , r e h War Vissc n t r A f o e t a F e h T er: d , n 2 u 3 l 9 P 1 t r A h c , e r u a e M r T 5 , M I O 4 See W, f o l a r e n -Ge y r a s t e e d r c e l a S n o , i s t i a d . n i r 3 k e u 1 t n i e c i o pp.212 f d f O n u o , F e c o t n e M d n A o e A esp
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t a l s . i C g é l d n e a d l i ; e cu' 871 e r 9 6 : e i g 8 o l : o , é B n are t e t r ' nal Protection’, Appendix A 1 9) 3 9 1 ( e o i t j V a n r e u 2 t 6 Visscher, ‘In iq t a m o l p i d e c n re e f n o c la e d e ' établi en 1939 en vu 9. 6 . 9 1 , 8 I 1 7 I X l a n o i 7 t a 3 9 tern 1 in . t 0 oi dr 2 de 2 et e é r M a M p m . o c 7 sh 2 3 . C 0. . 5 c 2 o 1 D 2 / 1 N L 7 3 4 6 O F O R P , g Visscher, ‘Projet’, 93. 9 / 4 5 6 / 9 7 6 6 1 W e3 , 91. 89 t , u t’ n je ro i ‘P M , r e h c s s O i m V F o me c d e n R a t 3 f 9 a 6 r d 4 XII, t . 5 . n 7 9 3 e 9 m 1 . m 0 , 2 o 2 3 . 9 c M . 7 r 2 s 3 o ’ . f jet o r P LN Doc.C ‘ , r e h c s s i V . 8 x 6 m e n s n u A o i . 89 r 1 , a t’ X v je . 6 the 3 9 1 See Visscher, ‘Pro . o t 7 d 0 L . ate C ul rc . ci e d a o h D M I O e N th L , s n o i 5. t 0 i b Ibid. By late 1936, i 4 h 0 x 1 E : P P t Ar , 1 ional 7.1 t a 2 n r . e t V n I J g n . i d N r a g I e r . M OI on
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l a r u t l u c al : n o i t a n f o n o h i t t u i t i t a s e r e f h o t e t a t i l t i c h a f g i o t r t h e g c n u e o r s n e f h o n c o i m C h m o r W o i a c C , s 7 3 t 9 f 1 a e h r t d , s l o r t M n o I c O t r o p e x h e t l a s n y o s i t l a a g n e l e h Unlike c t i t o s e t m o y d r t a s g r n t o m n a o y t i m r o f i t n u h moved c s i l b d a e t r s e e v o c o t s t s c e e l j b p o i l c a r n u t i l u r c p f o n h t d a e r b e h t d Jaid dow e t c i r n t o s i e t r a l u y g e l r l a u l d a n a o r i t g a n s t f o f a e p r y d t e h t d e OIM t a t c i d y l t d i c e i g l e p l m i i v i r t . p a s h t t I m r . te e t n n e m n u r a t s m n i a e h n t i f o n o t n o n i t e a r v e p o s e t h c t e j t b o c a r l t a t r by the con a u t l u d c l g u n o i w s s e s t s a o h t p f o y t s r l e e d p o o m r n p r e t l s d a e e r e W n u t l e d h u e t c m r d i e of f d f n a e e m r m o h c c e i r h y w l t n i e explic slatio
c i n g e e r J e a f n f c o o C i t ” y s o t i r e l i m i a b C i s do s o 7 p “ 3 9 1 e h t e t h c a T r t t . a e t o t a t S r e d a r o o n t i d t n e a s c s a i p f i n e g b si o t s w a l f o e p y t e h t d n a e t n a o l i s t i u g b e i r l t s i to d d n a n o i t c e t o r p e h . t n d r e u s t e s r e r d s d i a h T t c . s A e t l a t a negotiated S n i l F l a e c o t y t n i l e i r b e i f s n s o e C c c a o r s t i i a C n o s e i h s T a h p . m The 1937 e e c r u r o e s t e a r e r e g l b a a w h e t i n w -re ’ n s o e n c r a u o e s r a e r ts l c a e j c b i 0 g o l l a o r e of ‘cultural u a t h l c u r c a f t 0 a h t t c n e e p ! s v i e g r g n n i i l l d e t n i k s n a a m f o ’ v a t h g c i x l f e concession w n e n o i m t m s e o d c n a l e h c t f f © o n n o o i t i o s n s e r e p h e t r f o e y h t r o o f n a s n ascendanc o t p i o t d a a d n e s m m m u o e c s e u r m e h t t a h n t i t d n e e d r i i v u e q e r d s e s h u o c p i h s sites wa e w y , l n d o a i o t r a b d n e e n m o m o c s e a r w y r , y a c m i mi l r o p p e n h o T i . t e s h i n t s o i i t y u f q s c i a t a o s t _ h c a . o r p d P l a u g o n h i t s a l u s g m e r t e f s l u e s m s 1 , g e n t h i i ] d T n ( h ‘ bi c i h : d w e t n a i t s t s | e . c s n n o a i t t s u m t i u t c s r n i i c n a t e i h l t o r n o o i t r a e v t a c by metrop c a r x a e h c e n i c t i s s n a e r d t n n i a l s c t i f n o i g t n l i u h s t e o r n e h t s i t c selves that e j b o e h t t a h t f e i l e b e h t s t n a r r d a e w t . o . n . d e r e s f i f d o > i k u o d n u o B 0 8 . n o i t a r e p o t i c i l l i r e h t 0 l y c n a or l a g e l e t e l p m o c y e h t ‘ e s u a c e b t n a c i f i n s e u n e were sig v a l a g e l d e d i v o r p t f a r d M I O a e k h e t e Draft)’.*? s n o i t h t i d w e r r d e e f n e i r a p t ‘ n o c e e c m e n h c e s r e n o f i t n u t o C e t o a r i i The resti d a e m € : m i 7 3 9 e 1 r o m e h a t , n t i s a a r t t n b o © c n I d l . t u n o e m w e c r t] a h t for enfo [ _ s m u e s u m e h t g : n o m a t n e m e e r g a moral a-
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o i t a t n e m s e m l u p e m s u m d sive i n a s t s i g o l o p o r h t n a d e l , n r u t n i , s . i s h t T c e j b . o t n l e a r m u n t l r u e c v d o n a g s S e r U u t l e u c n a c s by th i r e m A e ativ N d n s u d o w r a s w n o o i t s i c e ’ d y t t r i u l o C a t n e e m e m r p u e S g a S v U l a f s o ‘ s e 4 i f r o e s t 2 p u a o e d , r a u y B r o u t e t h n T e c . s n o h i t t a n n e n e a t c e i n r i e m n A e e v h i t t a N y f o t n n i h g t i i puring w e r e c e i f v f o o s n g i e r o f c i t s e m o ition of the d i s a u q a s 4 3 8 d 1 e t n a i e f d e e d h s o i t l n b a a t i s d e r a u s g a w f o ) e A l o I r B ( e h t s n r o i a k f o o f t A A I n e B v i r e d h t Indian s s n a a c i , r 9 e 4 m 8 A 1 e v i y t a B N . t . or i r e t n I e h t f 0 r Departmen t g n n i e t m s i t x r e a p n w e o D r e i e h h t t f o o t s s d o e l r r e e h t f s n d a e r r e t f f u s s a w d o i r es, it e p s i h t g n i r u d s d n a l l a n o i t i d . a s r e t r u r t i c e u h b r t a t t s s e l a o r ’ t from u t s l e u b c i r t d n e a h t l a h i t c i o w s , s l t a c , n i e a m c i e t e i r l g o a p o t n i e d p e O r C e t o t economic; n e ’ d t e n n e i a r m t n ‘ r e g n v i o e g b e S l i U h w e h ’ t d e t e c s e n t o o p r p s ‘ e e b o In r t s e i t i n u m m O C e s e h t r o f s n o i t a v r , e 1 7 8 1 y B lish res 7 8 . s e c n a t s m u c r o i i c t a p r d u e s g u n a e h t c e l p m o c e i h t with their d e l l a n g i s h c i h w , m e t s y s g n treaty-maki d n a w a L l a n o i t a n r e t n a I w 1 e s y a t h n p g i e p i h s e sover e t s u r t s i ough th ion.
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6 2 9 1 6 7 8 1 , fe Li American Intel: lectual the f o s n o i t a t i m i L Exhibits: On the Do t: ur Co e em pr Su US Sovereignty and the Court in
to S in , gy lo po ro th An an di In n a c i r e m Museum Method of A me ns, e i r k p l i u W S . E S . U D d e n h a t 5 f 7 o 8 1 on i , p l s l i u c k e S d , s e a m r o a h p n T m o o i e s C e i S c e . 7 d 7 10 3 . 2 3 1 9 , 1 3 1 a p d n a ), 7 9 ; ’ 9 d 1 e s i l , i n v i i c t < s u A as ( o e l c i b t e s of Fu he Pu
t c i d t e s n i i l f a e n d r e t h a c p i h w l a ) n 6 o 7 i 8 s 1 s ( e r g 6 1 n 6 o C S U g n 4 i 9 n o i , t h c p n e a s o s J y l e v i t c e f f e d n a United States v. e t a t s ‘primitive’
The Masking
a in g n i e b as m e h . ) 3 1 9 1 ( nieng t 2 8 2 defin S U 1 3 2 , l a v o d n a S . Vv s e t a t S d te
; , ) 3 6 9 1 , r e v n e D ( t gh u o h T d n a e f i L n o s y Essa e y m t o i S r o d n n i a M r i policies: Uni g i n o i m d e n M a t s ‘A r e : d n U ith n e Z , ) . d y e r ( e v E r e l t m t o i r G F B. , r e J. n i , n a i d n See J. Colli I s e t a t S d i ite n U e h T , r e i l l o C J. n a i d n I n a c i , r pp.128 and 136; and e ly m A of e r u 40 t p. u F d at n a ¥ 3 2 3 t . s p a P e ) h 6 T 5 9 l i a r T e th n o Groups (DNeelworiYaork,Jr 3 1and C>.P- Lytle, The Nations Within: s n a i Ind n a c i r e m A : d e t V, i s i ev R 109 See n o i t a n i m r e T ; p l i Ph . K d n a ; ) 4 8 9 1 , ork Y w e N ( y y t n a g M i e . 5 r ) e 9 , v 9 y o 9 e S Self-D 1 l r o h C , n SO l to o c n n i L ffe ( i n S ; 8 3 4 5 9 9 1 1 y 3 l 3 u J 9 7 2 , on ung, eterminati o July Y o Seljt to n, s io s at o ci G so As ; 25 ts 19 gh Ri an di y In ar nu Ja , 16 c. In u s, a od e Wo r Bu n o i t a m r o f n 110 See Welsh to I a | n o i ‘Nat , d e l t i ent 1925; and Document
International Law, ) Museums
s n o i t a N f o e u g a the Le
& R eturn of Cultural Objects
i
nativ g communibites as a means of ‘uplifting’
state to civilisation.
a
i n g o c e r s a w t ar to t c a f e t r a m o r f s t c e j b o l a r u t l ative American cu ionalism.
y a W e v a B Y ou
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d e S P ] oe ai TaB l a a n ditio : = eans -of insul ating i Nativ1 e Americans sseee 1 e nant Its a ; BM i culty is encouraged the revival of ‘high
ee anthropolo po giwists of the Santa Fe and Ta ee a onist’ arm and had three motivi atorsNd , (1)
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for political nat d e s i c i t i r c ) 8 2 9 1 ( ) t r o p Re lf se n a i d n I t r o p p u s t no g n i v o m e r of s n a e m a than 8 8 1 y c i l o e p h n a t i d n n I o d l a r i e n d e f t t a a h t d n e m m 119 Jt fou o c e r s t I ° ” ! . d n a e l h t r of i e t e h n e t t m l a r o t n e r c a a c n e e o m b i t a l ericans f i m i s s
e l c i h e v a as so al t u b y l l a c i t e h t s e a y l n o t o n e u l a v r m i a e i r e M ( t r o p e r h c r a e s : e R t n e m n r e v o G f o e t u d i d t t i a h t t y s c i n l o p J n a i d n I f n o Ee o i t a r t dminis a c i e r o m le tt li s a w a t p c A e tn 7 Dawes
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a n a h t r e h t a m r s i l a r u l s p d towar . n o i t a r t s i n i m d a t l e v e s o o o R c e e h e t d u l c r n i e d o n t u s t h g 5 i r Deal y t : r e p i o r p d n o y e b t n e w ’ s t h e g v i r r e s e r p n a i d o n t J ‘ s n a c i r e m A t stated e v i t a N e g a r ou
h c u m e v a h s n a i d n I e h ] t ( ‘ t a h t d e g d e l w o n k c a t I . y t i t n e d e r u c e s o t e d a m e b d l u o h s t r o f f e e h t d n a , n o i t a s i l i s v t I i c . t ’ t n c a e p n s i e r m f l e s d n a e d to the do i r p e c a r r e p o r p a | e l t la u m i i d n t i s h c a ] e d n f a o [ ’ e . r i , s e _ d ‘ e h t r e d i s n o c t s u m A I B e h t n a t n a h i t a m e s r a ‘ w r n o e r tio u a t d l u c t n n a e n m i m o d e m h t o c h t e i r w ’ e l g a r e m ‘ s centr o p t u o r r e g h s u t o i n e e n g i a d c n i i f r o e s m r e A b m e m e v l a i u d t i v a i N d n i e l h g a t n u i d t f s o vi i n s o s i a t i n n g o o c s e r i s y a n a h p r e m v o e s t s h g i i r h n T a 2 m 2 u 1 » h n f o n o a i i t d o In m o r p s e t a t S d e t i n U e d h e t pre-empt e . d h a t e r r e 5 u 4 t 9 r 1 u n h t c s i o h p ’ w k s e r t h s o t i w n n i o s i t t h a g v i r r e s s p e u r o p r e e d g h v e t i n t o a i N t f o c s n c a i s m a n y t d r o e p h t e r g n i m r u c s b o y b e r e h The Meria t , s t c s A e j b . o s e c l n a a r t s u m t u l c u r c i c ’ l g a n n i o g i n t a i h d c a o r t t ‘ t p a d a o t y t i l i b a market for r g i n e i h n t i a g r n t i t d i n b a i h n n o i i t d a c n u a d e s e h i g t u e o i r c h o t s n a c i r e m A American s . e n v o i i t t a a r N t f s o i n e i c m n d a a i l t e l r e v f e s l o e s o c R i e m h t r e d n u l a e D noted, econo w e r N e n n o a i i s d s n i I m m e h o t C f s o a n o r e i i l t \ a d o C n u o n h o J d e t n i o p p became the f a t d l e e c v n e s o e o R m m . o D c n e i r l e k w n a t r a h F t t s n m e r d o f e r e h t d e t a r In 1933, Presi e l e c c a a g r o n e o R i t a n r a t i s d i n n I i m e d h a t f o s i H e g . a s s r s i a a p f f A e h t n a n i i d n I l a f t o n e m u n r a t i s d n n I i e s h a t w s a e h h c ; u t s r o n p o e i R t a l s m i a g e i l l a r e t a l l o c with the Mer t n e u q e s b u s d n a ) A R I ( 4 3 9 1 f nizati on Act o l . o C D o t R O g n t i c d A r o c d d c n r a a a o B d o s t i f r a e r C p d n t n e m Arts a t o l l a n e a h i t d n f o I d h n t e i w e h t e r e f d r e e k t r n a i m F O 4 3 9 s s e r p p u s o t The IRA of 1 T por ’s powe
u m a i e r u e h B t n a d i e d s n i I n g o e c h t e r d e A h R s I i l e h T a u n lier, it ‘abo o i n a i c o e R d n a e v h i t c a e N p s g n i , n o i g i l e r f n a g n freedom o i v r e s e r p r d o
Sstmilation:
q
‘on: Fohn Coli K Philp, ohn eh and the Origins 0 of Indian an P Policy Reform (Albulier’s Cr usadde e teor lé ndia n
197]
uquerque,
» Maki
Refo r ‘m
(
(Tucson,
)> Pp.57ff; Rushing, Nasive, pp.13-
ng Indian Ar ta Art, Not Ethnology (1992) s 102%)
mereriicas (New Yous S)
.
and J. Coll olliier, The Red Atlantis (1922)
oan and
ton of A merican I©:ndi oe eae’ ta, 1970
- Prin &. + niscences mi Re Smithsonia
, Wa, ion tut Msu i m A n A s: ican Plea for
Ages 7 at
195 95:4 92 ---1 1900 20
p.69; Brod
(eds.), Introduction
h wit ly ire Ent ed ect Sel ih t
r, lie Col f; 60f pp. f Holger C hi ndian, , Holger Cail UML)
peereake
52853189]. : AA [A e. E, American Art and 9 20) (19 Esthetics
sntained an
f y c n e g a n a s a e f i l l a n u m m o c s n e a i i d m o n o c e d tance of In n a s e r u t l u c r i e h t w o h e n i m r e t e d o t s n a c i r e m A
develope
d 125
5 7 4 6 3 1 p p , h t Zeni , er li l o C e e S . ) 8 2 9 1 , e r o (Baltim
on i t a r t s i n i m d A n dia n I of . f m f e 1 l 6 b o 2 r . P p p e h T , s , n m a a i i d r In , r 119 [, Me e i l l o C d n a 6. 3 13ff; 1 1 . pp . c , e o d a D s u r C s , r’ 1 ie ll 2 Co 19 Philp, 2 . p p , s t n e m ocu D . f ¢ 4 4 , 1 a p p h c u , r k o P o b d n a d an ; 9 8 6 8 ne See Cohen, H , 2 2 , pp.21 s t n e m u , n c o i o t a D r t s i n i , m d a A ch u r an P di In d n a a ; p ) a 0 N 0 0 co 2, 6 4 52 2 5 0 3 § § C S U 95 t a ied f i d o c sed , et ) 5 3 9 1 1 ( 6 4 § 1 S 89 . C at S St U 49 5 2 , 35 . L . , at r e 123 74 Pub i l l o ed C fi di 9 co 1 e ( e S ), 34 5 . 98 f f 7 4 . 1 t a p t p S 8 4 83, 2 o s N k o n o b a L. d n i a d H n . b I u P e h 73 , t n e h o C d n 3. a 19 p. and s e l p i e n ; 8 c 3 n 1 i . r c P o D Golliery Zenith, nce e i c , S 5 2 2 nty 2 2 e . w p p T al ci So e h T , , t s c t n A e m , u s c o er D b n e k c a H n , o a i h t R. a c z u i r n P a g r d o n e a R an (2000); di e In th Klukhohn d an C. d n s a ir fa Af Zenith, pp.169ff; t, in W. Kelly (ed.), Indian Ac n o i t a z i n Reorga . 0 3 9 2 . p p ; ) 4 5 9 1 , n o s c u eee Year Record (T p.20-
0. 14 c. Do , 9 2 8 2 vyq PP-2
, an di In e Th , e l r e b A See Brophy and
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O l a r u t l u C f o n r u t e R b 9 & s . m ‘a u e s u M jects International Law, i d n a s t r n A a i i d n I e h i h t , t y c i l o p . To ajuugmgent t this h t e g a r u o c n e to 5 3 9 1 t s u g u A d € i m in d e h s i l
C
Tafts Boag
revi : ove the economic status of Nataitive Amerpiwcavalbofiind: geno and impr ans. The |
a i r u c e s in d i , a s t c a r t n o c t e a w engage mark a B S C A r p r o p f u s t r l o a P i c n a n i f g n i e t ; d t a c r u t d O t n e m n r e e s v o o h d g t n a e for creat s k r a Indian producUtEs,S m l i r a m i r p ‘ s a w , r e i r l p l o C to ? g n i d r as o t y toi ies aim, acco e m o c n i e s A ° * ! oo. . ’ . s t c u d o r p t s t f a r c d n a ; j sale of his arts d n I o © l p x e t p a h 3 C n s i
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i t a n f o s m u e arMoncourt s u m t ar fine e: national cappiitals were i h e f i l ’s ct je ob l a r y s e r o M pressing a cultu e a i f a o e h t ’ s m n u a h e t s u m y r o t d s l r i o h fe li d e s s ’ i t n c e o j l b o o c T Cha aaa 3, [suggested that es j r e m r o F p ec eoples
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s e a t c of e p s d e e r n r i r u c n c o o men ples. Thi l a r u m t l a u t c e e h t r of i d l a o l f o w t o a f d n a o h i indigen t a m r o f s n a r t s ss Ous Peo. o , o t s r S i f : e e h s o p r u P d ding t an i a ; y t i t n e d i l a r u lishment of que national cult : e cond s d an 3 j ’ s s e l gs e in m i nn t gi ‘ be s e h it t ave in ginnings
its commodi ty-value and a e r p p u s r c byx the domin: ant i
1930. , m u e s u M n y l k roo B e h T , y g o l o n h Et f o y r e l l a G , e s Hou w o b n i a R e h T Figure 4.3
;
SS
s a y a w e m a s e h t n i n o i t a i c e r p p a s t i e t a t i l i c fa argued that
s r e w e i v e R 2 3 1 > y r t n u o c d n race a e h t t a h t y a w re in the same u t l u c l a i r e t ma
of Indian Triba l Arts? w1i93ng War s tou ted as the < Consideration to es
127 oo
128 csee
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Nj,
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rl Ea o, rl Be ; y 12 rl P. e t e a Ar W E e pen Th ), d. (€ Clifford, Ty the e
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Years, p.8: and M . Cohod : No
es th d an s\ or at oy an il o c s a B edy Pr w e e h L N ( an > di In n a c i 20. r e 3 m 0 A 2 d. . p p ee -ambri y lt Cu ), of 86 log 19 t en am ‘e , rk Yo u E See W, J oe Ma, 1988) y t Ar ur nt Ce d han et ti en Tw , : re re tu ra te Li . 2 2 , hy ap gr no n e a M i it im Pr e th of 130 ‘Indian hee ty ni fi Af ee itive and th €
of
The 1926 one United n Motiode
yy in Is iv It IM objec 13, ODIECts as
to Its 1; story mA
Sloan ang id elated oe 9
>In Berlo
of Art 303 at 304 ~ oCf,
» Ea; rly Years , pp.191-
“aca
:
Native Am erica
e th h g u o r h T t r A : r e v o c t n o r f s it on e i , i o w e N ( e er's h t a w d l o G t York, 1938) r e b o R , Cf eee Si
2
erodes art, A s Raj ulin’
and t H r u d’ o c n o n r é a n e R : 95e ,Modern
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ton;
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(1 inbow Roo 90m 7?(] Indian Tririba l Arts ee e yn okl Bro , 29) 25(19
al ur lt cu c i n a e c O d n a n rica eee
ee Magazine
, in Jacknis, ‘Road’, p.40.
>
r e h t o y r e v e f o t r a k l o f d n a e v i t i ‘the p rim n a c i r e m A e v i t a N ’ e s u ‘ d l u o s US artists y b d e r i p s n i s a w e d r a g t n a v a European
y b d e t a i r p o r p p a e ’ c ? r * u ! . o e s r e u r t p l l u c a s r u t l u c a African e m a c e b s ’ t c c e i j t b n o e h t u n a a ‘ c i n r a e m r A o f e v g i n t i a h N c r a , e y l s e v f o t x Effecti e t e r p e h t r e d n e h u t s l h a i t c i i w f f o d e m k a eu e p s u m d n a d n a s 0 s t 3 s 9 i t 1 r a e h t g n i modern r u d d e i f i s n e r t n o i n a l l e a l c H s i , h e T u g . o y t l i a t t n e a d c i l n a o r i u t t l i u b c i h l x a e n A natio M o M e h t o t n d I r o w e r o s f e c e h r t u o n I s e . r n o i l t a i r b u i t h l x u e c s A t i M o g n i w e 1941 M i v e r s a c i r e m e g A a t i n r e e h h w s i , h e m i t t a h s t i . h t . . t A “ e s : i d l e a e t r o n e t W l e v e , s t Roos n e m e v e i h c a t n e s e r p d n a t s a p s ! ’ ’ n a y i r d t n I n u e o h c t s i g h t n f o h t appraisi l a e w l a u t i r i p d s n a d n a t c e c l i t l s o i c t r a o t e h t 9 2 f 9 o 1 t n r i a p s s r e o t o u d s t i constit d e n e p o k r o l Y a n o i w t e i N d a r n i t e r o m rn Art yy b d e k o o l r e v o y l e t a r e b i l e d , s r a s e k y r o t w s e i e l d r r a e a g s t t i n a av y m r a o r o r p m F e t n o c . t t A display n r e d o M f o s a m u s t e c s e j u b M o l n a a r t u i t l l o u p c o r t e M n e a th e ke p li o r u E museums n o n d n a s u S o W n e g i g n d i n r i i p f s o n i n o r i o t f a ev el e e c th r u d e o t o s m e o r r p h c MoMA i r 4 s a d n a ) t r A e v i t emselves (Primi
h t n i t r a f o s k r wo
ent m t r a p e D e h t of o f n¢., in Recordsis of n o i t i s o p x E of activities, Exposition York, New 132 J. Sloan, Prospectus, Extra-Museum > Harnoncourt, @ Americas, & the R. . Cf and . A M B Islands Rene , ci fic Pa 35 : 19 e NY th 1/ 0, ca 93 ri /1 , Af 10 es of iv ch ts J. Ar Ar e t th Ar of t er rb n He r e d o M of n, de in Sp m u e s u M ), #134 The e in il (f , 43 19 ts Ar r al e ib b m Tr e Indian Arts of the Americas’, Nov , s “Indian e m i T k r o Y New , n O ). 96 s 5e 29 v i at L 0 9 ion 5 19 29 t i : d AA a [A r T rs pe Pa A : on ti bi hi Ex ee @ Harnoncourt an di In n a c ri e m A e Th xh. e ( , ll s we e Je t a t S n de d Al e t i E. n U See e h t f o t r A n a i d In , t r u o . c 18 n p. , o 31 r n 19 e Har fs 6 Decemb ’ a . R d n a s a l g u o D . H F. , in rd wo E. Roosevelt, Fore cat., New York, 1941), p.8.
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultural Objects artists to create a home-grown art movement. In 1967 \4 ™ MA?s first H. Barr Jr, proudly recalled that the museum hosted seve dire cian et “xhibitiong
4 oA and pre-Columbian art’ between 1933 and 1954, when such os in art museums [but were almost] as deeply involved in the tg st b 35 century as... abstract art’.!° As Barr’s seminal diagram oT © and esthetic Satay
e Tree of endeavoured to illustrate, these cultural resources creat ed by ‘Primitive essential to the development of modern art and Its Narrative 136 Ive, 1 3 6 works at the commencement of the story of mod ern art > he woulj d affirm
SQ
Ty Ane
their status as one of its i sources. Like i any other Tesource, it requireq «.. to discover, develop and exploit them, 137 piaredernl
: [T]he
be.
bel
tite
Indian people of today
d the America of the future’.!*° The shift from 2 ene linear progression of (European) civilisati on
tribution to national
and
international
culture is
ords: ‘the culty ral heritage of all mankin d’. The evolution of this 1945 context is examined in the following chapter.
1on of the Museum of Modern Art, 1933; in: arr, Jr Papers, 9A.8.
Ma
tn Primitives, Artists of the People (Nov ember
MoM A 0 th e Editor, New Yor —9: 0. ch k Times, 29 MAr ess
a
:
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ing the exhibitio
Figure 5.1 MoMA entrance dur uar Jan 22 , York New t, Ar n r e d The Museum of Mo
n
‘Indian
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d e t i n U e h t of
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States’,
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20th century
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i l a c e r e h t s wa h s u p e e e m l f “ f o e g a t i r e he o e h e t u g e f a o H r 4 5 9 e 1 ( e t B c i a l f a n o l C t d e e h m t inn this Convent; y t r e a e i e i d e s e u h T s i a n e o e St-war restituti e x e e h t m o r f e s Nei o r a n . o i t e n e a C e ; h N t d e n h a t s l a i , r e t m g m r a r e g b o m r e P r u P c d C n e n h a o t i t f n o n o e t i v t n n n e o e m v h e s * i e m un 8 4 9 1 venti on). It ener ( e d i c o time of Gen enocide Con-
a
n o i t c e J e r g o r n l p o i n r u a e a Mati n h t i f o of : n of r o t i n o t c u b € I all p eoples and the This chapter exp] ir Care
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by th iS {
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1 aT Wolff, W, 2.
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; p O l a r u t l u C f o n r u t e R & s m u e s u M , w a cts L e 7 l a n o i t a n r e t n I
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’ . y t i l a n o s r e p r i e h t g n i s o l t u o h t i w y t e i modern soc
n a c i r e m A e v i t a N It discouraged
d e s i n g o c e r d n a , n o i t a n g a t s d n a n o i t a l o s i l a cultur
. e v i r h t d l u o c e g a t i r e h l a r u t l u c r i e h t f o e nd a s e n a m y e i l o that a people awar p S U e m o s y b n o i t o m o r p t the
s n i a g a d e t c a e r t f r o u o c s n e e l a D’ Harnon n o i t i d a r t e h t e b to d e v i e c r e p y e h t t a h w f o n o i t a v r artists of the prese his work with indigen-
h g u o r h T ° 2 ! . t c a t n o c e t i h w y b d e t c e f f a n u s s e r u t l u c g n i v i l e r indigenous culture e w e s e h t w e n k e h , s e t a t S d e Unite
h t d n a o c i x e M in h c u s s e t a h t d e u g r a t ous communiti r u o c n o n r a H ’ D . s e c n e u l f n i n g i e r o f o t g n i d n o p s r o c n i to d e h s i w that were always re y e h t if s e i t i n u m m o c e s e h t o t e l b a l i a v a e d a m e y b e d a m e b to e influences should b r e w choices
e h t d n A ° * ' . n o i t c u d o r p l a r u t l u c r i e h t e v a o h s e l p i c n i r p e s e porate them int h t 9, r e t p a h C n i n w o h s s A 7 2 ! . s r e d i s t u o t o n d n a h s t n e a i c t n i e r w e t m A e t a e l v i e t h t a N in n g i a p m a c s t h g i r l civi n a c i r e m A e v i t a N e h t y b d e c r o f n i e r n e e b
century.
(ed.), The
a i r . s t c al e lt j ur ob f cu to indigenous communities : 5 and promot € r pi es th d an , es ri : st du in d an ts ar e h th a i y e b i a he it a f o ic ys and ph I welfare ces’ - 1n4
court, If ndian Ar ts and Indi
Possible in qn ee D
an (Norma n,
aboriginal American ra
ae e eee
was to wi
rge Fa La O. in d, rl Wo rn de Mo e th in
od th me ly on e th at th ed ev li be rt ou nc no ar
R. F : ty ti en te ra pa se a as e ib tr ch ea th wi ee : se Vi : An d r a o B s ft ra i sh ew Deal Indian Policy (Albuquerque, 1983); ‘IndiaW.nJ.ArtRu oe ae Marketing thesia Modern: René d’Harnoncourt and the and ve imiti e th of ty ni ’ a ai, C. Berlo ates St oa Cs d olives of Sci eeshs an ip : (ed.), The Earl ory: st Hi t Ar llecti; an ic er Am ve ti ng Na of s ar Ye Cr arly-200. olhier’s 98 l .1 tt ea pp (S ), 92 19 ie p Be at It r Sade fo
eform 1920-1954 (Tucson, 1977), p.118.
ied Gis, f e d , Vy ay 1933, Fold €dera] authoritie
te
i
Fe Santa at Anthropology of Laboratory Archives, RAC. The Laboratory gare er Foundation
1906: Nusbaum of Act Antiquities the to Boxi7.s * Pursuant Foundation Archives, Ge
ZEDRG,
2, Rockefeller
k r o Y w e N to o c s i c n a r F n a S m o r f s n o a i t i b c i i h l x b e u p B C S IA U e h t e t a c u d e to s n o i t i b i h x e e r l a n i m e s l a r e v e s d e t s n a e u l o P m t r n u o o i ; t c a n n o n e r h a t H ’ to D n o i t ; ns and their contribu rica the living cultures
Ame
of Native
ue hee Board to Committee Executive of Statement : 120 Preliminary Archives, Foundation Rockefeller
43 643, Folder November 1927,
event into transferred 2 RG were Arts Fund Indian Box 65, Series III.2E, the of y r ar a u n collections a J 1 the , r o t c 1929, e r i i D to oereten tor a r u C dated of t r o p e R : percent y g o l By o p 121 hro t n A of y r o t a r o b a L e th of 10 10, custody of the museum r olde F , : 9 3 9 1 y r a u n a J 27 5 e a e gie Co e n r a C , l 1930. e p p e K y g to o l o p o r h t 122 Mekeel, Laboratory of An ae e v : e e n n o s R de r 2a e l ld . l e n f e C k c pp o R A s, vi 1, B 1. G R , 4 3 ‘ 2 Box 1, Series 2 5 n a i =a d n I , rader
123 D’PpHarnoncourt, ‘Indian’, 146; t n e m u c o D , t r u o c n o n r a 124 R. d’H ‘ n’, a i 125 See d’Harnon d n I t, ‘ s e t o N e t n o c n c c a i 128 See R. i
A: A A ( H d R : Y N , s e v i h c r A ‘ A M o M , ’ d r o w e r o F ‘ d e entitl ; ; : 153. S E P n i t a L of t r A d e l t i t n e lk ta d e s i l a i c e p s for
d n a ; ] 4 0 3 3 0 3 ; 9 1 9 9 : A A A [ H d R : Y N , s e v i h c r A t n e A m t r a p e D e th 1943, MoM of d r a o B Arts and Crafts
n a i d n I e h t of y r o t s i h Ethno
MoMA Archives, NY: RdH [AAA: 3830; 1018at 1023).
127 T~ Harnoncourt, ‘Indian’, 154.
2
and Sch
ene
AGRE rewis
ee eee >
c e j b O l a r u t l u C of n r u t e R & s m u e s u M ts , x a L l na io at rn te In ee
i
y d n o c y el rg la s wa n g i a p m generally. This ca ; th Wi ed Ct ed g consumers bein
th wi y, om on ec et rk ma e US
th lt fe e H ?® .' ts af cr n a c i r e usefulness’ of Native Am
s n a c i r e m A ve ti Na ng wi lo al ly ul sf of succes
Peatediabonr tha
y r u t n e c h t 0 2 mid e h t n i n o ‘ pestitutt f
i
to de at this Mark
r ei th p lo ve \y7M ti Na e h T ts ar *? .! cy en ci fi uf -s lf d an se S achieving economic : e e ’, N st ti e N ar hj CA e TI n e e G. d o l o sc G ci an Fr n Sa e th by : rt ed pa in is real ky ew o Nati
enter
1941 MoMA exhibition.
nal Exposit
lon
Deg _
The IACB’s 1939 exhibition, ‘Indian Arts j ed States a Golden Gate International Exposition at Sa eect : , k s a l A d c se ci an Fr n c i r e m A ve ti Na at th ow sition) aimed to sh © (1939 Inte; Tationa| rafts m
and th
C
erited o e 0 13 i il ab le é sa oF d for their sele A : oth aestlehes tiarcaeally anan e p v o i ft h l w s gi C = e al ve du e ti vi Na d indi in the sa i Ss demonstrateq hy "els general public.’*! Liberated from the ahistoorri c al a
ASSembiy
nd depolitici seg
e th of t Ar n a i d n I e th at osevelt Ro r no ea El d n a st ti ar pi), o H ( e i t . o b 41 a 19 K l d ri e Ap r F 7 2 — 3 y . r 5 a u n a e J r Figu rk, 22 Yo ew N t, Ar n r e d o M um of e s u M e h T ’, es at St d Unite
On € revi1 ewer wr o t ob;jects ‘among thee that MoMA had succe156e de i g Native fodi “ placin i American cultural b American fine arts? = a de sp it e the promulgation of m, is al ur pl e in ln cu = ural h of the wort
fe)
the domini ant culture 137
Judged by arbiters and institutions
Ve arts and cr; afts of th raft: Me mMorandum o:
13
131
mmir in: Latinint ApCoon te 00 Latino Amaeeri
4
Se k See R.
Ha:
i Be oeAGN eeeaie Re
Ran
(Aa ona
utline of aa Sh Short Report ; on Confé
siaaenees
ial
eee i
o o 10 03 ff ] 29 22 ; [A AA : Rd H sns fa |( e In di an Z Am ing er “6 7. , ic ; an ‘S i pe?) 32 MagaziofneArt 164-67, See Se Schradrader, iete i New eg) Pp.1636f, Native ee
~~06; and W, J. eae
€r cent in th
ere we re 1,250 € year nema Sencar
isi rae se cars a er, if Indian Arts,d pp.184
» cited in Schrader, Indian Aik a
TS: The 58,
Cars
pelscaedcr, Indian Arts, p.194. s ic st My of s n o i t a e r C , is it na Jo A, d n a ; 6 3 2 ~ N O Perceptions ian Art from the 1930s Marke
1'S
A. I t Assemb] €d d fi for
m “ted his: aims. a Rledged that ¢ eeer 193dap Noncourt, “ptemb
9, cited in 1
and r 195e .
CtIiEngE
e i B ohne, Whi
of Indian
a aivand the
he
authorita
orthwest Coast Ind
Ne ew
York
Show,
tive force of MoMA’s
Newsweek, 17 February 1941, Yat utional credibility aUe”5 instit
ts al Cr d an ts Ar an di In e th of es ti vi ti Ac s e ushing, Native, i weeestions for F
he
s a w n o i t i b i h x e is th , s e l p o e p n a e p o r u E n o n of s n o i t i b i h x e A M o t n a r b i v d n a g n i Unlike prior M v i l t n se e r p e r to m i a d e w o v a +s r u o c n o n r a H d’ f o e s e h t in d e t c e l f e r extraordinary becau s a w e s o p r u p s i h T . s n e m i c e p s l a c i g o l o p o r h t n a s s cultures — not timele exhibition’s layout: , s l a i r e t a m r e d l i u b d n u o m g n i d u l c n i , t s a p e h t of s n o i t i d a r t n a y l n o n w o h s e (1) the “great Indi r e w ’ d a e d w o n s n o i t a s i l i v ci n a i d n I r e h t o d n a e r u t l u Bering Strait c e h t f o t r a p as ‘art for art’s sake’;'°® d e r e d i s n o c s l a i r e t a m c i r o t s i h d e d u l c n i n o i t c e s ’ s n f o e c a l p e h t ‘ (2) the ‘Living Traditio te a c i d n i o t e v o r t s t r u o c n o n r a H D’ . es ur lt cu r o f t r a n a art of living indigenous ‘ d n o y be s t c e p s a g n i s i s a h p m e ’ on ti sa li vi ci ve ti na s it each specimen in e r e w s t c e j art’s sake display’!*?; and b o t r a y r a r o p m e t n o c n, io ct se ’ ng vi Li n r e d o M r fo n r e d o m o t s (3) in the ‘Indian Art t f a r c d n a s t r a e v i t a N of n o i t u b i r t n o c l a i t n e t o p e h n i e u n e v A h arranged to show t t f i F d n a y r a r o p m e t n o c y r e v ‘ g n i e b s y a l p s i d e h decorative arts, with t
Aieinecmecncetoethewordya
r e b m e t p e S 30 , s a l g u o D 138 D’Harnoncourt to 9ff.
nd a s a l g u o D e e S . p.108 , e v i t a N , g n i h s u 1939, cited 1 n R
t, r u o c n o n r a H ’ @ d . R e e S . 8 0 1 . p , e v i t a N , g n i h , in Rus t r d A te n ci a i , d 0 n 4 I 9 1 , t r r e u b o o t c c 9 O rnon a ; e H y ’ e H d G. d n a to as t r u l o g c u n o o D ; 72 D Harn t Ar e of th at e n i s z n a o g i a t M a l l a 34 t s n ) I 1 4 9 n 1 o ( iti s b n i a h i x d n E I of e th y r of o t s i H ts Ar A g n lay: Livi sp Di of r e w o P e Th , i k s szew i n a t S A. . M d n a ; f f 5 1 pp.1 f. 7f and .8 pp s a , l ) g 8 u 9 9 o 1 D e ; A Se M 8. e 10 p. idg r b m ive, a C ; ( t Ar i n r e d o M of i m u e s u M : 3 a 0) 14 D’Harnoncourt to Barr, 8 November 1939, ci i d n i e h . t ) a w g o i n K o ( m A e k . o f f t 7 a 9 s 1 T p p e o , t r r n A o M n a i d d n n a I ) , o t j r a u v o a (N y a g e B d’Harnonc n o s i r r a H Fred Kabotie, Oscar Howe (Dakota ),
.4 pp t, Ar n a i d n I , t r u o c n o n r a H ’ aa d@
e o F p O l a r u t l u C of n r u t e R International Law, Museums & The propaganda potential of the exhibition was no t los
ton
y r u t n e c h t 0 2 d i m e h t n i n 0 s e Restiu @
sensitive to the intensive search for a nation al cultura] 3 dent; I
American art solely for the United States and this w
No H Aeoup
{ n Jndian Art of the United States’. Oliver La Farge co Mmenteq that the Shop ati,
civilisation could pane comparison with Skyscrapers or the “P etBiesr ofvitMt 141 ae sepa Pr es en t civilisation in Europe’. Nonetheless, for d’Harnoncourt the diversity of Na lve American .
be promoted for the benefit of US national cultural identity
=art’,
mselves. He showed a marked because Native American
pre
and the
Pref eren ce for the term ‘folk arp cultures were ‘always an Inextric b
economic and ceremonial activities of a given society’, 142 5 : 2 3 o The extrication of indigenous cultures from
U
iy
u I Ture,
ha
1
un ; over
‘prin
able part OF all sg,
C
the 1939 opening of the M oMaA’s new premises: where men are free to be themselves and to i own energies and ardors.
exhiof r e v o c l a n i g i r o don e c u d o r p e r , a m o h a . 1 a, Okl 4 9 ow 1 o i M Ki , r, k r ve o Co Y ld i ie w Sh d e te N in i , Pa t Ar Figure 5.4 n r e d o M of a r r o w Ni , es at St ed it Un e th of t Ar an di In ‘ion catalogue,
During the 19305 sing the effects of these policies “Nt of Native Am and 40s, the “correction in [US collective] memory’ of its treat. . €ricans an d the Teassessment of their cultures occurred agains! 141
toa
"bo
rt
d Dy. inegee
Ha
pitIndsy, New York Times, D 26 Jag nuary 1941, p.9
rt,
143 2919; 91 Digest 15 at 17; andR ED
>
p.9.
;
an :ArtRd(1H Ja[A ar:y nu ic er t, AAll-ch Am ur co on rn . e d PaHa . ,SeeRiv 12rt ae aenoncp.ou AA , es NY Ar iv inting, MoM Na
4,72 6 February 1941, p.165,
p.9.
e ed Waaieeenices of fascist regimes. Havini S i e : Dave er - ne the growing shadow cast by the genoct a Bie ae. \ Weems: eeu: : P a‘ ae a eee: Da with American indigenou ai vce
g | rn o b n i of it b ro to ition is eotpulneityof totrad appopr b ro grow through invention or through acqu of o e t i n o t i e e e mance fa
Ps has e future.?!48 The United Statest
y it un m m o i c r ei th to s t c e restiittututiion of cultural obj j u
ri he itag&e er l a r u t l 1 on to ‘the cu i t u b i r t n o c d e u ennssuuring its contin
conte |
Se
Be
saeco
BRP
of all ma
ee
rat
nkind’.
hort u a g n i d r a g e r ( 5 0 1 n. , 5 1 1 p , e v i t a N , g 148 Douglas and d’Harnoncourt, India n Art, p-10. See Rushin
ship of catalogue).
r c e j b O l a r u t l u C f o n r u t e R & s m u e s u M , International Law Yet similar concessions concerning restitution Were
within its own borders. They, unlike other Occupied
n
Ot made to
Peoples, eae
_
ive
right of self-determination or the return of their cult «ot Objects Ural S museums until the end of the twentieth century, To this aay. i
guaranteed by international law but are prescribe
a BY Us dom its national agenda. In the following chapter, it is suggested that the Unite ds
individual rights over group rights occasioned this
iSoksann tates champig
CY. Colg War feu " resulted in cultural pluralism fading into cultural j tion of Gas savereen Native American nations as but ae ne catego © of ‘ou, oie : However, Native Americans would no Io minority groups’.*” built on the momentum of the Indian New Deal to chart th nger be Silence d ii
self determination,°° development and cultural renewal j wow twentieth century, and the restitution E of cultural 0
—
= Anon., ‘Museums’,
>
ee
Se
Course f Ond halftowing
Bjects would be at the foreton: q
See R. A. Nelson and J. F. Sheley, Bu
the f o t r A “ n o i t i e b i i h o e ex Mer h t at o S s t c a f e t t r n a po a i l e a a r t s e u a A t s u e o a : n e g of Indi w e i v n o i t a l l a t s n I Figure 6.1 rn e d o M of m u e s u M e South Seas’, Th
r a W d l o C & s e l p o e p d e s i n o l o c , s t h g i r n a m u h ide,
6 Genocide, human rights and
]
peoples during the Cold Way
Niseg
commu e s d i d it s a g n o l m s o a d e e l r a f » r u t s l e u i c t i r o relations n i m s f r o e b m e l m a u d i v i d n i d y e l w e o v l i l t c d a f n l e a s o t i t n y y u l t d n l e o a n y o olicies 4 o l d n e o t c ional unity. The Sta t a n p u o s r e d s g r n u u a o t t n l p u t e u c g n i e d m n p i f pot disr o o n l o e i v t e a d d an e preserv h t d e t d s c n e e a l i l t e o i r d c n e e g w u a m r m u e o o s c e h s t gisc f t o c e j b o l a r u t again the cul ng trace of i l i o s l al h c i e h c w m o n r O f “ — . t e y r v t a i t i m i identi r p s e a r u t l u c t n a n i m o d e h t y b d e y a displ
None of us know enou igh ab
Ob
ve ti Na s: er rd bo n ow its in th wi s le op pe ed pi cu oc f its obligations to the an ic er Am e iv at —N US of y or st hi e th of on ti ia nc nu re d e t p m e t t a n a In n o i t a r . g e e t t a n t I s n o i t a n is n i th h s wit e i t i i r o m n e m a c e b s e niti
cots to ote a ao fellow’s life to 4 en
2
Init, history evaporates S30 No thi In. g 1S Produced has t Dao Is1 to possess these new ob
. ’ d e v o m e r n e e b origin - -- has
in s t n e m e v o m ts gh ri l vi ci ed s i n a g r o s e i t i r o n i m d n a s e l p o e p s u o n e g i However, ind . s e i c i l o p e s e h t d e g n e l l a h c h c i h w s e d a c e d g n i m o c the
e g a t i r e h l a r u t l e u h t c t a h t d n g n a i d n a e t d s i r e d n u r a e l c a Gen oc s a w e r e h t r a W d l r o W d n o c e S e h of t idal
or choice has been removed 2
c o n e g to c i s n i r t n i s a w p u o r g a of s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c e h t £ 0 n o i t c d e u t r e g t r a s t e of d n o d i t n u b a i r t n o c e th d e removal t c e f f a y l e s r e v d a d n a y l t c e r i d s t c a h d e c s i u n s g o c t e r a h t s t d n e n m a n r e v o g d e policy, i l l A e h T . d n i k n a m u h f o e g a t i r e h l a of r u t t c l a p u m c i e e h h t t e o t t a r o i l e m a d groups n a e s r e v e r to s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c g n i n r u t l e a r n o f i o t a n r e e t c n n i a in t r o n o p i m t u i t i t e s th onale for the re
h t a m r e t f a e In th
such policies.
i t a r d n o c e s e h t s i h t Ihave called
g n i r u d e d i c o n e g f o n o i t i law. n i f e d e h t m o r f s t n e m e el l a r u t l u c e h t e f m o i r C n o i t e a h c T i r f o t x e t n e m The h s i n u P d n a n o i t n e v e r P e h t n o n o i t n e v n o s C r e w e o h t p r o n f a t i s l n o o p i o t r a t i e t m o to neg n o i s s e c n o c a as , ) n o i t n e v n o C e d i c o e n l o e r G e 8 h t 4 9 1 ( d e e s d i i m o r p m o c of Genoc o s al It . n o s s e l t n a t r o p m i s i h t d e t p u r r e e t h n t i g n , i s w e o t l a l t S o f r e ss l t t e e c s o r p and n o i t c u r t s n o c e r e h t f o t r a p as y t r e p o r p l a r u t l u c f o n o i t u t i t s of re in s . d s o t i c r a e p h c u ee s of r h t n o i r t e v o cessa d e r e d i s n o c is e d i c o n e g f o s t n e m e l e ltural The fate of the cu
de‘vleely oa pma en é
o s r o y r u t n e c f l a h the last in ii nternatio4 na law, bu in l t these .
Mporary international relations.
€ Unit
,
Se com . ‘ s i m o r P es s0 al is e r e h g T . l e v e l l a n o i t a n r e t n i e h t at oe : atio n. of such
d States co-opted feiss
into the domestic sphere by the
€ rhetoric of decolonisation to justify the
day, in R
SINR.
White
Barthes. . 42061952)2) 2 21 Th Mythologies, a
aie ase
ee
ondon,
191.
1993), p.151.
g r e b m e r u N e h t o t r a W d l r o W d n o c e S e h t f o e s o l c e h t n o m i t o a fr l u c d i o i t r r e a p e t h rs t n i s c i (1) the fi m e d a c a d n a s e i d o b l a g e l s u o i r a v f o k n o r o i w t i e n h t g o c d n e a r t e n h e t m t y c b i d d in e k r a m s i d o i r e p s i h T . e d i c o n e g of e m f i o r c e l o l r a n o e i h t t a n r e d t n n i a’ e e m i r of th c s i h t f o t n e n o p m o c al r u t l u c e h t of e r u t a n l a r g e t n i of the ; l a s r e v e r s it n i y t r e p o r p d n l a a r u t n l o u c i t f n o e v n n o o i C t u t i e t d i c res o n e G e h t r o f s n o i t a i t o g e n e h t s r e d i l s a n r o u c t l u c d o i f o r e p n o i d s n u o l c x e e h t o t (2) the sec d e l h c i h w s n o i t a n i h c a m r a W y r o d t l u t o i C t s e d r n a f o l a n i o i t a n e i l a the colon t n a t i m o c n o c e h t d n a y t a e r t t f a r d l a n i f e h t m o r genocide f s e i d o b N U d n a d n a ; s ef p u o reli r g s u o n e g i d n i of k r o w e h t s r e v o c d o i s r ct e fe p ef l a e n i th f of d n a n io d it r i (3) the th for the recogn
h s u p e h t d n a s e i c i l o p l a i n o l o c g n in re-examini of ‘ethnocide’.
y b t h g u o r w n o i t a t s a v e d e h t f 0 n o i t a i c e r p p a d e s a e r c n s i u o n a n e to g i d e d l n s i a h f t o n e m p o l e v e This last period d d n a n o i t a v r e s e r p e h t n o s e i c i l o p d e t a l e r assimilation and . s e l p o e p d e i p u c c o r cultures and of othe
Inter national
Law, es Museums
&
Ret urTH n
of
Cultural
Ob
ui ng diivi inui vision of cultura] netheless s, the contin Noe u
ae
_
is
isou uii ded. It serves ast phase isi misg
a
ects
Genocide,
s le op pe d se ni lo co , s t h g i r n a m u h
& Cold War
n: io pt ti mp su as c si ba s thi on es at er op on ; ti : nts Indeed, minority protec _ habita
Snocid1 e fy,
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y c i t r a P ¥ e c o r p SS, Senocidal
e th of ts ac d an es ci li po e rs ve ad t ns ai ag p ou gr nt na mi Puentot the non-do e al on ti ra is Th s. ct je ob al ur lt cu ir the of on ti ca is nf co e h t g n i d u l c n i p u o r g t n a n i jom n, io ut it st ) that re al rn te in ng ri ve co e mm ra og pr n io ut it st re ed li Al e th th wi 4 e. at St a n i h t i w s t c e j b o l a r u e t m l i r u c c e h t f o of t n e m p o l e v e d e h t d e t a t i l i c a f t a h t w a l l a n o i t a n r e t n i f o ea r e t n i s a w , s s e c o r p n o i t u t i t s e r r a w t s o p e h t h t i w d ppe a l r e v o y l t c e r i d d n y el os cl a d e t a r e p s o o c e d C C i W N c U the , s g n i t e e m y rl of geno ea s it n I ® . w a l n a i o r r p a e h t t i r o f n a d e m h s i u l b h a t s e l a y n d o o b i t l a a t n n e m n r e v o g h s i t i r B e h t , m o e C e t s t t i r e m b m o R o C e h t r e , t h n c e l a v i u q e S U s it with the Vau d n a y t r e p o r p l a r u t l u c f o h g n u o o h t ‘ , e v i t d restituti c e j b o s ’ e e t t i m m o C r e h c u a V e h t t a h t d e v r e s b o C soya, Ie | NWC 9 . n w o s t i o t ’ y r s a a w t n it e if m e n e l v e p p , l u a g s e l t s o a n w s a w , t n ’ e n o r i e t f a s i l dif a n o i t a n e d ‘ t a h t d the
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e d u g s e a l H p i c n i 7 r 0 p 9 f 1 o t e h g h i t l e h t n i d e r e d i s preamble of n o c e b t s u m t i t , a h n t o d i n u t o f n o e s l a v n It o ! C ! . ’ e c e n e h i t c s n o c y b c i l b u d p y b d e t a t covere c i d d n a y t i n a m u h e g f a o l l s i w p a l g e n h t i ‘ d u m l c fro n i es,
m i r c r a w f o g n i d a e h g n i t s i x e e h t r e d n u l l e f s e c r o f s i x A f o s t c a e h t ” . y t r e p o r p f o n d o e i d t n a a p c x s e i f n n a o c d e c n and u o n o r p 8 0 0 ee
f o n o i t a t e r p r inte ’ e l a n t o i t t a i r ‘ m m e o h t C t a h t ; y l d e t t n s e e u g g q u e s s n t I o C ? ' . n o i t n e v n o C o t IV d e e t a u l g e r a H e f i l 7 0 l 9 a 1 u t c e e l h l t e t f n o i d 6 5 n a e s l e c u i l a Art v l a u t i r i p s f o n n o o i i t t c c e u t r o t r s p e d e r h o t l s a a v w o m n e o r i s e i t v a o r r e p b i l s e i h d t e h t for , e r o m r e h t r u B l a 4 n o ’ i . t s a t n c r e e j t b n o i s d i h n t a f o s n o t i n t e u n t o i t p s m n o i c l a such t n e m a d n u f a is d e p u y o o l r g p m e e h t s e t m a o t S r f r e l s t t t c e e s j b r o i e h l t a r d u n t a l s r of cu e w o p l a i n o l o c n m a i e s s p a o r u g E n i y s e n m a i p t m o g c n c i a y r a d v n a t A ’ n ) o i s s i m crime. g n i s i l i v i c ‘ e h t e l f o b m a e e s r i u p g e h e t h t f o r e t i d r n i p u s s e h e t r u n s i a e d e t e r p r these m e t n i e r e w s n o i s i v o r p e s e h t n e h W . y c i l o p ilation
s, e i t l a n e P f o t n rceme o f n E n o d n a r a W he e t h t n i f o d e t s s e r g o g h u t u s A t Lis f the o , . l a y t ec i l i b t i h s c n o a p p s r e e R the Laut n o . H . n C d o n C i a s W s i ; N t m s U m i o L C 5 0 9 e . 1 e 0 S 9 . 1 8 e 3/1 h t G A n P o 5 0 3 2 3 d n l a e e 8 r 1 , , 1 4 x E 3, 1 1 o E b W s t n N , i o U n p o i , 5 s 1 . s C 4 i 1 C m 1 W . m p N o p U r C , i 0 a . N 0 c . M 1 / 3 . A G e h A t P of eel 33, eedings
r , 1 x o b , 5 4 9 1 i Course of the Proc g n i ch e b r a s a M 7 s t c e , j C b C o al r u t l of u 05 c g . n f 0 i o t . e 1 e n m / o 3 i t s t 1 u 5 G t A i of t P s s / e e r 3 t 3 u n / 1 Mi and e , l 5 o r 4 9 s 1 it s y a l u J s n 4 o i cut , e s C o C r p W N l a U n i m i r of c ting e e m viewed h t 8 6 of s e t u in M : s e i d o b r e h t o y ducted b .0. 1 . 1 / 3 G A P / 4 3 / 6 n o 5 3 r 2 a W , 5 4 f 9 o 1 s r be om m t e UNWCC. s t u p C e S d 8 n 2 a , 8 s 4 w 1 C. La e , h e t ) e 8 t 0 t g 9 i n 1 m i ( m t o c C d e n p a b s u e S R ; 7 f 7 o 2 V) (I S T n C o i t s n 10 Report ’ e v y n r o r C a P , e bl 208 m a O e t r P g ) , 7 s n 0 l 9 i a 1 t d i ( c r e r o ; c 0 c h 3 t 0 a h 5 g d s C n o , i 7 t 0 9 a 1 N 11 Sixth to ei r d e e b o t t i c O n of the U ague, 18
n o i t c A e v i . t u C b i C r t e W R N e U h t of 5 3 . pe o c 1.1 S / 3 , r G e c A E P . B , 6 3 d n a l ree , 9 x o b , 6 , 2(supp.) AJIL 90; 1944 l i r p A . d 7 0 e 2 . i 1 p u 1 c / 4, c 3 1/ O , ns G io f A at o ar P cl / 4 s 3 t / n 6 a their Official De t i , b 6 a . h a n r I a p e h t 5 5 4 e s 9 j 1 l a of r n e o b y i o t t i t a l n c a e O n D i 4 m o t i r , s C 9 ' 4 p 1 m he . t e C t t n A o , “ ’ y l i f t J o i l a y e n t e i i m t l mit m 8 . o s C a r a t p - See ‘Cri chwelb, Note on the Crimina r o , p 5 e 4 R 9 1 t f a r D er b d m n e a t ; p 11 e S . S a 4 r 2 . a E p , 7 See ritory > > TIV/1 tember 1945, H e h T , x e n n A d n a Land,
and Japan
14 AJIL 9 5
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; es ti li bi si on sp Re of n o i s s mi
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i Territory, 4 October 1945 Occupied
3a a ue al i c e p S n o f o y r o t s i H e h t n o l ta f o n i g i r O , n o i t s
PONE AG-3/1.1.0, UNWCC.
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r p e e T S d e 0 1 i p u , c 5 1 c / O I f T s o t n a t i b a h Mouton: n I e h t e s i l a n o i t a n e D o . C C W Attempts t N U 5 3 . 1 . 1 . / 3 0 . G A 1 P . , 1 6 3 / 3 l e e r G A 9, P 6/34/ aGnrdeta9, box ve : WWas Criminality’, €.149, 4 October ier’ e a n o i t a e t r o p e d e It also included th
; s n o i t i d a r t s u o i g i l e r s ’ e l p o e p d e i p s u c r c e i p in o u c c o e h t of p hi ns ze ti ci of ng ti an gr c ti ma auto -¥> a r a p , 5 4 9 1 er b m e pt Se 24 , 17 I/ II : er of the occupi
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e t t a e n t e > r le l Al a n r e t m, n i co y en r fo n io ut It a — n — i a — t n i a y m n a e t H a h t . s n r e c e n o c a n e w o e i c e h t rn ve go by Passe eae d e d e e n s and sho r ve co £0 i l p p a uld be ime.” ed during on War Lemkin affir med that: ‘Genocide is
a nD uty. > ani d th € a actions
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excluded its cultural ele that definition a for essed Pt s 2 e t a t S certain 2 tio . 9 : do 9 r ei th of 9 y n i t u r c s ; l a n io t a n r e t n i to conve® s c i c t o n p w o c i i s t r s e c v i a m r ei th of 1s, bE cause ory.
it rr te r ei th n i h t i w s e l p o e p s u o n e g i ecnin’ ind
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d l o C e th g n i d n u o r r u s s e i t e i x n a y b d e aventuall petray cal and biological i s y h p e th n o y l e v i s u l c x e g n i s u c o f y B 25 n ee
elements of genocide
f
of g n i n n u h s a s a w 1 e r e h T d. re 1 te al 1 e th y l l of a t n e ; s m e a i d r o n e u h f t d e e s m i i l r a c i c a r e e th th of of n o i t a n l o u i t the ccuolntcuerpatl uaplliusraatlism and an implicit recapi ine
et centur rg ta a m e ‘eth h t e d a m d n a , p u o r g a as e r o p u C early twceunltteural elements that defined the gro l a c i t e r o e h t l a r t n e c a d e r o The n g i s e t a g e l e D . e d i s y a w e th y b ft le s a w , s e d l r o w to p u of geno cidal polici o r g e th of n o i t u b i r t n o c e th of n o i t a v i r p e d e th — e f the crim ide Resolution and undati
9
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1nc n o was i t n e v n o C rationale : 19 the ck culture. This from 9 exclusion Its . By Convention. policies. Hague f genocidal the 1954 ; objects cultural of 4 alienation the ameliorate of OF reverse to importance ignores the of restitutory relief i
.
the applicability weakens it extension,
an acts. agenda its such on included the effects of Assembly General Nations United unanimously the adopted ; session, was which Atits first
Genocide, of Crime s i s a b the e h t on e m a c e b t T 6 2 . ) Resolution ) 1 ( 6 9 . s e R A G item entitled N U ( 6 4 9 1 r e b m e c e D concerning 1 1 n o uussions e t a c s b i e d d t n e u q e s b u S and without . e d i c o n e g f o n o i t a s i l a n i m i r c e h t n o . n s m r e t s t i y b for UN actio d e t c i r t s n o c n e s e t I b e v . a n h o i t e n d e i v c n o o n C e u g a H 4 5 ameters of ge 9 1 he t f o e l a n o i t a r e ] h d t e { d t e l u t s p e m r e ) e ( ] ) 6 r d m 9 n p a [ d UNGA Reess.. n i k n a m 0 ¢ e c n e i c s n o c e h t d e k c o h s ‘ acts represented such that notes contributions preamble and other
form of cultural the in origins law humanity to humanitarian in great losses international the
se
Convent Hague 1954 the Pea UN on 1946 and Resolution Cane, Pi Sactemane legal rime of Genocide The Res.96(1)). A pulof ' War military y tritri bun als provoked 242 Yet during the draft; Genocide 1948 the of alting re; See 24 September 19
24
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recalled phrase The Lemkin. by by these groups’.”’ propagated rationale the right the and of denial ‘a convention as proposed narrowly of the genocide define to live on
went Resolution Yet, the
to right the of denial the 1s homicide d n as a l a c gro i ups , s y i h p hum an d e enti s re i of i s a h p m exi ste e nce to s n o i t a negoti Sub seq uen t bei ngs ’.” ° hum an ind ivi dua l of cultu the : ‘ subsumed ually t n e v e i e n biological genocide and e v n o C e d i c o n e G n ‘i — 8 4 9 1 S e R th E i of e th of evid e l is n a r s e d r n p i a m e r e h T . ’ y evi a in the t i losses to human ~ was
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e th by d e r a p e r p Convention ide ide i ) 1 ( 6 9 . s e R A G N U f t n 0 e m i t n e s e d h e S t t a O r e e t i B e e e r S 7 . 4 7 7 2 S T N U , 8 D i:n June 19 7 I G A 0 6 2 . s e e R e A G S N U , e 1 5 a 9 e 1 y r e a e u y n r a a u J n 2 a 1 J e c 6 r 2 , o f y n i ar , m 8 ‘k 4 m 9 u r 1 l S e a b c i m r e o c t S K e s i : e H 9 D r h e o t d entary (New Y n a cid o w l n a a e n L o G i f t t o a n n e r e m t , h ad erry In unis .
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, 2 0 1 1 5 . p , p e d chabas, Genoci991), pp-57ff an ties (Oxford, 1 b 1960).
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etween the b on si vi di e th ions, t a N . d e c n u o U nited n o r p e r o m e m a c e b s t n e m e l e 1 no ge al ur lt g cu n i r e v o n c o i s i v a o r r p a n u of o i s u l c n i r cult d fo e c n a v d a s ment u g r a n The mai
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l a r u t l u c y b d accompanie ; p u o r g e h t f o n o i t c u r t s e d l a c i s y c h u p r t s e d s s a m in the e h t h g u o r h t y l n o t o n e c n e t s i x e s t e i v f i o r d p e d e b d l u e v i t c e l l o c c i f i c e p Gi) agroup co s s t i f n 0 o i t c u r t s e d e h t h g u o ut also thr
b s r e b m e m s t i tion of traits; and
c u r t s e d e h t : e c r o f g n i t a v i t o m e m a s e h t e v a h e d i c o n e g l a r u t l u c d n a l a c i s y h p ) (aii s p u o r g e h t f o tion
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>UNS F on on ti en nv Co al t er af en Dr -G , ry ta re €c 1947 gle UN Doc.E/447, 25. 36
e s i l a n i m i r c t o n d i s d e i t i r o n i m s r l o a u d i v i d n i f o s t h g i r e h t g n t i s n u e o m p h s e s i s n n u p o r o i n o i t n e v e r Conyent p e h t r o f s e r u s a e m e d i v o r p t o n o d d n a , r u o i v the beha
UN Doc.E/447 at 16.
e d i c o n e g f o s t n e m e l e l a r u t l u c e h t f o n o i s u l c n i e h t r o f s t n e n o p p o , d n a h r e On the oth argued: i r o n i m f o n o i t a n i m r e t x e e h t n i d e t l u s e r h c i h w s t c a e h t e t a n u i q a m e t o y n e h d T l u o 9 c 3 > s e i r a r b i l f (1) That one o g n i s o l c ‘ e h t h t i w r a w t s a l e h t d a h g n t i a r h u t d e a i r o d t i a c m o n e g ’ l ties in cre a c i s y h p ‘ of s t c e p s a g n i y f i r r o h y ll a n o i t p e c x e e h t tained it was ; d n i k n a m u h t f o s e b e c n s e a i w c s n d o c n a e h t d e s i l a n shocked i m i r c e b o t e u g i va o o t s a w e d i c o n e g l a r u t l u c f o n (2) The notio ; s e i t i r o n i m d n a s t h g i r n a m u h e m f o o c e b n o i t d c l e u t o o w r p e h n t o i t n e v n left to o C e d i c o n e G d e s o p o r p e h t ’ e hat s t i l i v i c d “ e r a e to f s s e e i t c a i t l S o p n o i t a l i m i (3) Several s s a r i e h t at d e m i a a d n a g a p o r p l a c i t i ; y t i t n e a tool of pol d i l a n o i t a n d e i f i n u a e t a e r c d n a s t n a t i b a h n i indigenous n o i s i v o r p e t a r a ep s 2 s a t u b ’ e d ci o n e g the l a y r b u t l u p c u ‘ n n w i a a t r e d r on i t 1 n e v n o C 37 Ad Hoc Committ, ee on Genocide a: greed to t f a r d D e n r a e w e s e n o t i t t i a r m e m b o i C del e h t e f e o t t t i r m o m p o Re C , ul ko egal) L ( ails t e h d t x e i and narrowly defined: K. Az h S t d e n h a t e d i , c t o gen . Nex 17 l a ; r 4 u 9 t 7 / l E u . c c o D e d N u U l c , n 48 i 19 ld N U : n o i Committee, 24 May s u l c n u i o w e s h t i t r st n the i on i a e t g n h e a w v n o f C d o e n t o o i v t s e e e u t q it m m o 8 C 1 2 . e R h T S / . confined to the E d . e c r o e d D i s n co UN y l : l l u f i c n t u o o n C e r l e a w i n Soc o l i a s i d i c n o v a S o r p d c n h a i c m u e o s h n t c o y n i mi Ec o n , of an o n c e E h T e h . t 6 0 2 f o , 0 3 t r o m p e e t R i N t a d U n a e 3 h t 8 . R , n y S o l / l i a 6 t n . n i f e C v / on nd C a Doc.A ft , a 0 r D 6 7 / : e A d i c o n e G piropoulos, N Doc
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h n t o i w i t a p u c c o e r p l a i t i n i s it m o r f d a e r p s d a e h d i c o n e g f o sion ” . m s i l a i n o g l n o i c t a c i l p s m e i l p l m a a n x o e i t a n r e t n , i t o s t u a c particularly the Holo o n e g of n o i t o n e h t e t a r o g i v n i e r to t h g u o s e v a h s n o i t a s i n a g r o s e r p ‘ : s d r o w e h t in d e n Various indigenou i a t n o c , t f a r t D a i r a t e r c e S N U 7 4 ; cide deleted from the initial 19 g n i k r o W N U e th of n o i s s e s t rs fi e th m o r F . ’ t n e E m p o l e v e d venting their preservat ion or d e s i s a h p m e s e v i t a t n e s e r p e r s u o n e g i d n i i ene , ) P I G W ( s n o Populati .
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: n l d s i d a R v. r o P r t e u v c t e h e n e s t of ion Pro recommendation Q n o u e s t t h i e o of n m a d e H S e t u 1 d y He 128. 401, and 46 N. Ruhashyankiko, paras.459 ence a e E/CN.4/Sub.2/416, Doc UN genocide. 1978, cultural 4 July the revision of the existing convention to include with at oa Comat Sub, the which he regarding in Fields
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ne ae : rn te in n o in i s s e r g o r t e ar l a r o m d n a l ca ti li po e th of gn owever, it was p4igesi ; t n ons’ that minorities obtained less protection under the United Natio ns : ; e of u g a e , L r e o th s s e c e d tion e r p s it r e d n u d di y e h ae non-b inding declaration than t OF ya of ts gh ri p ou gr e Nations. th d e d d a h c i h w t n e m d n e m a an d e s o p o r p States had e th of e e t t i m m o C s) ir fa Af al ci So d an n a i r a t ni a m u H ( d r i h T e th n e h w s it er ov te ba minorities de g in su en e h T ® . R H D U t af dr e th d e r e d i s n o c y l b m e s s A l a r e n e G UN ng ri du ed is ra s t n e m u g r a e th of y n a m ally lost, replicated tu en ev s wa fh c i h p g w a n l i r s , e a n v e o d o r i e . c s t s n u c e n i l h e o t c l i f t o sn e a s r l r a t e I b i l e d n o i t n e v n o C e d i c o n e . s n o i the 1948 G t a N d e t i n U e h t n i h t i w s e u s s s u i o n e g i d n i d n y a t n i a r r o a n y u t g i r of mi o n i m n a o f o i s u l c n g i e n h i t t r o p p y u l s l a r e n e t g s l i h ; w s n e g i d n i Soviet bloc State d n a s e i t i r o n i m of t n e m t a e r t ’ es at St n r e t s e W k c a t t a to n o i s a c c o e th of es ci li po n o i t a r g e t n tee, Wi sed i d n a n tio
a l i m i s s a e th at th d e u g r a y e h T 69 . s e i t i n s e i t i r o n i m of t gh ri ous commu e th to l a c i t e h t i t n a e r e w s r e w o p n a t i l o p o r t e m d n a s e . s e r u t settler Stat l u c r i e h t p o l e v e d d n a n i a t n i a m to s e i t i n u m m o c s u o n e c g a i r d a h n c i l a d s r an e v i n u a of t o ty question was n i r o n i m e h t t a h t d e t a t s s e t a t S n a c i r e m A
e th in d e d u l c n i e b t o n d l u o h s it , e r o f e r e h T . n r e c n o c n a e p o r u E y l d n a y t i n u ter but a unique l a n o i t a n r e d n i h d l u o w s e e t n a r a u g h c u s t a h t d e n i a t n i a m u l o s t s e b UDHR.” They he ‘t d e t s e g g u s t l e v e s o o R r o n a e l E e v i t a t n e s e r p e r S U . s e ”’ ’. ts gh ri integration polici n a m u h r fo t c e p s e r e g a r u o c n e to s a w ‘norities t h g i r l a u d i v i tio d n i e h t n o d e t a c i d e r p s a w m o d e e r f l a r u t l u c to t h g i r e h t , ” . t n e m For Roosevelt p o l e v e d d n a y t i t n e d i l a r u t l u c of e r u t a n e v i t c e l l o c e h t n a h t r e h t s a t r h g i r n a holder m u h l a u d i v i d n i of n o i t c e t o r p e h t , s t n e m e v o m t s i n o i s s e c e s h t t h c a p r e t u For States wi a L * ’ . s e e t n a r a u g y t i r o n i m of n o i t a t i c s u s e r e h t to le b a r e f e r e h t at e t a t was eminently p S l a n o i t a n e h t of y t i n u _ . . l a r u t l u c e h T ‘ : us th s t n e m u g r on i t c n a s answered their a to as e t u l o s b a so t c e p s e r to d e l t i t n e l ea id an t o n is s e i t i r o n i y n i t u r c s expense of its m t c e l f e d to s e t a t S r e l t t e s f o s rt fo ef e h T 4 .™ @’ ve ei nc co us th ty li the denial of equa
ternational
59
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Boas Lauterp a
IL, Lnternary ~Vide the ~NOrities igen within ae
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the League of Nadoes,,
1945).
effect of both Articles would
the in d afforde that to similar
See €2 aig oa of n Divisio « PIEssions D oc, 8 “P Tevention 7 Ofof Human at Rights, R; utSeen coe Lmernational, p.153 UN fr taarriiat to th ecreCt CEC 7 Discrj
Sub,2/ 4Yr, See Ty, Ornber | 8.
IMination”
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the of n io it in ef ‘D : on si e Sub Commis UN
of Minorities”, 29 October 1947, 9
3 3; and F, pose
"ustic Minorities
See H. Lauterpacht
of Minorities
under Multilateral
potorti, Study of the Rights of Person
) ? b u S / 4 . N C / E . c o D N U » 20 June 1977,
4 Rights me ™Mernational Law and H, uman Rights It was drop Tan 1950) (London, e : tical to Lauterpacht’ i t r a t af dr a d re Pa en id from st mo al e Port c a E e Ss Dp. [scene Se . R D U e a d ir Th e th of ep, 8 n io at P.15 ar cl De l na io at rn te In t af Dr - St Lot, Mmitte & 7 De A/777; and Claude,
cember 1948, UN Doc.
of m o d e e r f to t gh ri e th g in ud 66 Incl 9); .1 rt (A on si es pr ex d an n io in op te mo ro ‘p l al sh h ic wh n io at uc to ed and ; 6) .2 rt (A ’ ps ou gr s ou gi li re or
(Art.27).
of m o d e e r f to t h g i r e th 5 8) .1 rt (A on gi li re d an ce ight r e thought, conscien h t ; ) 0 2 . t r A ( n o i ciat o s s a d n a ly mb se as ul ef cial a r , s the right to peac n o i t a n l al g amon p i h s d n e i r f d an e nc ity n u m understanding, tolera m o c e h t f o fe li ural t I l cu e th in e at ip ic rt pa the right to freely :
UN n: io at ar cl de e th of on si scus di s e’ te it mm Co d ir Th e th r Fo 6. -4 45 , 2 . v e R : / 7 3. 16 d an See UN Doc.A/C.3/30 0 -157-6 pp , es ti ri no Mi , de au Cl d an ; 40 771 , es at , St 3 6 an 1 6 ic 1 . er R Am S / o3 . gl C / An A . of c o on ti HH D ta es prot e th er ov , es d at St an e es t Th us Tr . 28 to 772 , 2 ng 6 gi 1 . on R S n lo be s n o s r e p See UN Doc. A/C.3/ l al to R H D U e th y pl ap d e u ly g r it a ic pl es ex at to St n o d i e s t i i v n o U r p a e th d an n ai it Br 1. 74 successfully included , 3 6 Doc.A/C.3/SR.1
o Lauterpacht, Human
Rights, poD3-
N U s: ie or it rr Te g n i Non-Self-Govern
n ro “i e th d n i h e b ‘ e os th g n i d u l c n i e l p o e p l al to y l p p a d l u o h s n o i t a n i m i r c s i d n o that the principle of n
EA curtain”: UN Doc.A/C.3/SR.163, 744.
i n a Ibid. » 6. ic 72 Amer and 721 1, Cf. .16 /SR C.3 .A/ Doc UN 1, R. UDH 27, and .22 Arts See 20. 619See UN Doc.A/C.3/SR.150, 49 American Anthropologist 539. Rights (1947) an Hum on t emen Stat i Association, rs See UN Doc.A/C.3/SR.162, 723.
Anthropological
ct i l f n o C c i n h t E d n a w a L l a n o i t a n r e t In , ) . d e ( n pma Wip Lauterpacht, Human Rights, pp.352-53. See D. (Ithaca, 1998), pp.13-16.
; b O l a r u t l u C f o n r u t e R & s m u e s u M , w a International L yects
Genocide
of their treatment of indigenous peoples by quarantin;
or; Min e e ved pro y tel ima ult ric rub ion nat imi scr -di non the Unsuccessfiy} 75 es sur mea ’ tes Sta of dy stu In an early UN
niz rga Reo ian Ind the to ed err ref es Stat ted Uni
fi
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Protec a
“4 the Protectio
o: Min % 19 of Act on Bat i w gg Yet, “Titi dR 34 .”° ans ric Ame ds Bea d a ive Nat hin of wit et, its treatment 5) aes to Pe the integration of the N ative A i th into ma ga | Dis cri min ati Raci on al on a ation . He pees A
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memb: sparing the individual ough Alth ps. grou ing inat elim B tive ffec pe just as © ae
the med assu they when ed ung exp was ce eren diff or theit identity nant group. The first provision for the protection of minorities of a
omiication was finally realised with Article 27 of the United Nations’ re dappl
‘
*2 PR). (ICC ts Righ l tica Poli and l Civi on Covenant (lima and on nati ermi -det self to right the udes incl Unlike the UDHER, the ICCPR
da agen red alte the d ecte refl s tion addi e Thes n.*? isio prov on ecti prot ited) minority ber of
num ng easi incr the by en driv , 1966 to 1948 United Nations from : its had PR ICC the of 27 cle Arti on. sati ly independent States during decoloni day same the on ted adop es riti Mino of Resolution on the Fate A UNG the genesis in
: s d a e r 7 2 e l c i t r A 4 * . R H D as the U
, s t e s i i x t e i r c o i n t i s m i u g n s i u l o r i o g i l , e c r i n h h t e c In those States in whi , n t i h g i r e d h e t i n e d e b t s o l e n l a i h t s i r o n i h m g c u n s i o g t n persons belo , e r u t l u c n w r o i e h y t o j n e , o p t u o r r g i e s h t r f o e b m e r m e h t y h o t t i i w n u . e g comm a u g n a l n w r o i e h t e s u , o t n r o o i g i l e r n w r o i e e s h i t t c a r p d s n s a e f to pro
ese policies aimed to guaran tee the € ‘ ‘same rights, all citizens?.79
ties to
r a W d l o C & s e l p o e p d e s i n o l o c ; s t h g i r n a m u h
5 ntegration did not pursy
x
y sternecses,ing ‘sameness’,
€
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le ab en t s u m it e ur lt cu r ei th y jo en to s p u o r g w lo al y el iv ct fe ef 0 t n o i s i v o r . es ss lo e ur lt cu re tu fu For this p t n e v e r p d n a s ct je ob al ur lt cu n of o i t u t i t s e r e h t e s e d e p m i it at th e iv ct them to pursu ri st re so e g a u g n | a n d i e h c u o s c i R P C C I 7 e 2 l c i , t y r l A Unfortunate
the deli
differ
. s m i a l c h c u s s t rather than assis
t o n d i d ‘ y e h t t a h t g n i d n a t s r e d n u e h t n o e l c i t r A t f a r d e h t r fo d e t o v s y e h t , 8 4 9 1 American State in s A ° ® . ’ t n e n i t n o c n a c i r e m A e h t n o s e i t i r o n i m of e c n e t s i x e m i a l c y l b a i f i t s recognise the u j d l u o c s t n a r g i m r o n s t n a t i b a h n i s u o n e g i d n i r e h t i e n t w o h , o c i x e M maintained tha ° 8 . y t i n u l a n o i t a n r i e h t t p u r s i d d l u o w s i h t r o f s u t a t s of n o i t a v e l e e h t to have minority r fo d e e n e h t e g d e l w o n k c a d l u o h s n o i s i v o r p e h t t a h t l a u d i v i d n dvocated i r i e h t g n i c i d u j e r p t u o h t i w s e i t i r o f min s e m o c p u o r g a t o n or r e h t e h w e n i m r e t e d if se it n a c e t a t S a t a h p u o r g t a h t of cultural heritage. 87 T n o i t c e t o r p e th : e s o p r u p y r e v s it e t a g e n d l u o w R P C C I ithin Article 27 w
; ) 6 1 . o N ( . p p u S R O A G 21 UN Deve\ l-
5
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Cultural See a
Snr
Sphere SPeci Pheres, 1 al
i Hone So azo sven Fes 26 eSeben ae BCN aisub.2isy9 eo Ree 1, paras.47 76
>
in
Study
on
i
.
ane
a
ev. 1, para.373__
Die
and 531.
“ational Labour Conference, 1919-66 ene 1066); t et nn Be G Ab e or Se ig , in ry al er nb Ri ght. Sin Tj a1 Ataud theThor i First 8; Vs Mortties, n.339 nternational Law (London, 1978), pp. 16-4 s s Of Indi botOngreor J m e y o M n Ja th ar th f ie el th Tesult in € total €nts in South A eILo : 1 7 0 D ; st de TUCtion of idiot l a s e s: U rea declare its«
ne
8
:
oeeaee ae
-
enaepeo. re ae la
Doc.E/CN, 4/Sub,2/476/Add.5, fae
P
ail ‘hwo
5, para.2.
, ) D X K C A 0 0 2 2 . s e R A NG U , 6 7 9 TI he 1 , h a c t r o a h M c e P 3 2 e V. rc fo e in Se , 66 . 8 19 M36 L T 6 ) 7 6 82 16 December 9 1 ( d n a 1, 17 of S l ll T Bul Bi N U 9 9 l 9 na io , ) at 6 6 rn 9 1 te ( In ), The d. (e n i k n e H p.52, UN Doc.A/6316 L. in ts, h g , i R es ti ri l no ca Mi ti li Po , e d u d a n l a C on d t l n n a vi a n Ci e f f 2 3 p p , ) 1 8 9 1 , k opment of the Cov r o Y w e N ( ts gh Ri l ca ti li Po d n a l vi Ci on t n a n e v o C e h T : ts Righ sn e p s i d n i g n i e b as s ight r al r u t l u c d n a l a 3S pp. 160-63. i c o , s c n i r m e o t n s o e ec W d an , t e ts Y gh ri . l n ca o ti rati e p o o c l a n o i t a n r e The UDHR defined civil and poli t n i d n a it t r o d f e f s e i | v d a a n o i s t e a t n a t h S g u o d r h e t e nit l b U a s i l e a h e r T , y . t s i n t g n i d e m u n r a t m s u in e t a able to h r a ded p e e s e c n x i h e t i w it h t e i s w u a t c al e de b s t ts h g h i g r i r e th l a e r v u a t h l u to c d d e n r r a e f e ql ci so , c i States pr . m o 42 n p. o c e d e ; d ’ u t l n c e n m i p o h l c e i v h e w D ‘ t n , a c c i would not accept a Coven t s e m o d s N it U in e l b 5 a 1 e 8 c r 0 o f 8 n 1 e . n V u A/P s . a c w o D d n a N U n o i t e e u S t i t s n . o 10 US C e th Doc.A/810. UN the International 1948, of 84 December Préparatoires’ 10 “Travaux the to Res.217C(I), Guide t, ; uy UNGA ss Bo JM. d e a an ; 12 /1 .2 ub /S .4 CN E/ s Doc. o e a o a ), 87 19 certain , s e t a t , S ht ec dr n a or (D ic ts er gh Am Ri n ti l ca La ti li Po by d an l d vi te Ci or pp su on o certain t on nt ti na si ve po Co ly on ag e Th ] . ng 14 [i 8in s. ta ra er pa ‘p as 27 Art. 3, of 10 .1 ew SR vi 3/ C. st A/ re = c. ea Do cl e th N U d e t e n e s c See e r p a e r e a P i l a 23. African States and Austr para , 4 0 1 1 . R S Do / 3 . C / A i@ regions of thi e world’: UN Doc. Sub.2/38, exp The Thi 23, E/CN.4/ 18-23. Doc. 86 UN Doc.A/C.3/SR.1103 5 paras.8-14 and UN provision: the into 0 : :
«7
incorporated not was belongs she or he which State to .2/SR.676; 118.
and UN Doc.B/CN.4/Sub
UN Doc.A/C.3/SR.1104, paras.2-3.
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultural Op;jects agi within makes less the ia
.
a State.
Ree
eee : Wailst it is valid to suggest that th
colonised peoples & Cold War
€tchan
re u i g t g n a N it extremely difficult to formulate criterj ae their re of ae lack of criteria weakens the legitimate ‘ It n of mi , S p o R ; t t S O i e “ r k n O tes ana O ae and the effectiveness of Article 27 ae we
.
©
i
€ inclusion of the minority protection with;
mework reinforced the assumption
th
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igen,
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in d e n i a t n o c s wa it if en ev , es ti ri no mi of n o i t c e t o r p e th He added that : aoe : gistiv ctive. t ac to e at St a e ir qu re at th ts gh ri ’ al ci so d an c i m o n o c e “ e th bled m e s CCP # ” . s r e d l o h s t h g i r ehalf of the b n o y l e t n e m p o l e v l e a r d u t e l c v u n c i f a o t r o p d m e i e roact s h i t n g o c e r i o t r t o p a C r u e t r o d e g d e h e t l w o n k . c n a o specia | Rapp o s i l a t e a H s i n o l o g c n e i d w o l l s o t e f n t e a d t S n e p e e c d n n f a y o i t r o p m for newl i e h t d s n r a e l w a o i p n o l r o e c m r o s f e f n i o c o i i l t o a p l i m i s s t a s effects of pa nt.” Nonetheless, Capo-
e m p o l e v e d al ci so d n a c i m o n o c e r fo t n e m p o l e v e d cultural r ei th d e m r i f f a e r d n a es at St l al by es ci li po t s i n o i t a l i m i s s a d e c n u o n e d y l l a c i r o g s ‘sf cate i h T ° .” es ti ri no mi of t n e m p o l e v e d al ur lt cu tor e th st si as d n a ge ra u o c n e o t y t i l i b i s n respo
eference for t h belonging to minorities’ over the term an ie a alone orities’ ,
O C S E N U 6 6 9 1 e h t d n e i m r i f f a e r s n a o w i t c e t o r y p t : i s e r t o a n t s i n 1 e m o l f i c o t ” i a t . t r n e A o r i p t r a e t r n e e i p v i o t o l C a posi r u t l u C s f he Principle o
law,
t n f o o i t a r a l c e D
d an d e t c e p s e r be t s u m ch i h w e lu va d n a y t i n g i d (1) E ach culture has a
preserved. . e r u t l u c s it p o l e v e d to y dut d n a t h g ri a s ha t r e x e y e h t e c n e (2) Each people u l f n i l a c o r p i c e r e h t in d n a y t i s r e variety a nd div g n i g n o l e b e g a t i r e h (3) In their rich n o m m co e th of rt pa m r o f s e r u t l u c l al , r e on one anoth to all mankind.
88 Ss
in d e t a i c n u n e t h g i r e h t t a h t d e t a t s s a h e e t t i m m o C s t h g i R n t n e a m p m o l u e H v e d d e N u U n i t n o c d The n a l a v i v r u s e h t ] g n i [ r u s n e to d e t c e r i d s e i t ‘ a t S R P .. C C d e I n r e 7 c 2 n o c e s e i t i Articl r o n i m e h t f o y t i t n e d i l a i c o s d n a s u o i is g i s l t e h g r i r , l e a s r e u h t t l f u o c e s i c r e x of the e e h t t a h t e r u s n e o t o n i t a g i l b o n a e v é a e n h e , R e r , o s e f t e a t r S e h d t e t , i s n U e h t partie r e v o s c i t i l o p r a W d l o f C o l l a p e h t e t i p r i s e e h t D 8 d 9 n a . s ’ e d l e p t o c e e t p o s u o n e fully pr g i d n i h t i w k r o w s i h n i s m i a e s e h t o t d e r e h d a t r u o c n o d’Harn
ee J. Crawfor d,
of Peoples (Oxford
Sno
a
Reiger and Linguistic
es/4.7/135;
(1993) 32 ILM
an Old Issue, in Alston (ed.),
» Paras.125ff; H, uman Ri ights Commi Comment General mittee, Dyas, pis ¢ :
Protecti
InternaWippman, 62; iew ae,ogician, in Crawford (ed.),
ommittee).
N Doc.E/4
Nosinjisss
N U ; 5 5 . 4 : DocBy CN.4/Sub.2 tional ON ect ; 8 TOt ™Macora,
TOtection
,
ane Political Rights, UNGA se GAOR Supp.(No.16), p.595 ees Canada, No.24/1977; Cf. E. EVi vatt ndividual communica-
:
47, par
On of
Minoritie Ss: A Global
Protectio
of Min, Bt
n’, 275;
tes (1971)
3
oe oc.A/45/40, Pt.2, p.1 (1990) Doc.CCPR/52/D/511/1992;
14; UN Doc.E/CN.4/Sub.2/SR.647; > Par 48.13 View (19 Off; Crawfor
py u s o , T N O s B E at 3 1 4 , Y 37 4364 AR Ornberry,
Haale and Political Rights, in S. ‘ ts (Sydney, 1998), p.113. a lumen Rights Committee);
b
Mi
Webra
r a W d l o C e h t d n a s e l p o e Pp s u o r n a e W g i d d n l i o C , f s o e t a t e S s u a c e b United d e t c a r t x e e r e w h c i h w , w a l l a n o i t a n r e t n o i c P in s u s o e n s e i g m i o d r n p i m d e t c e f f a These co , n o i t a s i n o l o c e d y b d e l l e u f s e i t i r u c S e U s n i e h t e h t w o d h n a s n i g a n l i p k x c e r e politi t p a h c s i h t f o t r a p l a n i f e h T . s e t a t S s n s a r s t o r c a R H d n D a U n d i n h a t n o i t n ples wi e v n o C e d i c o n e G 8 4 9 1 e h t r o f n o r i i e t h a t i t o d g n e a n s g e n l i p r o u e d p s u o n e g i position d n i g n i r e v o c y c i l o p l a n o i g e r d n s a it c e t i a t n s i e m m r o e d t s o t it d o e m i a t n lated int e m n r e v o g al r e d e f S U e h t w o h s e g n n i i l m i a a x t e e d It a is . s t c e e r e h T . n o i t a cultural obj r g e t n i h throug s n a c i r e m A e v i t a N h t i w p i h s n o i t a l e trustee r
— 0 6 1 , 6 3 0 3 1 s. ra pa , 2 . d d A / 4 8 3 / 2 . b u S / 4 . N C / B . c o D
94 UN
61; and UN Doc
, 5 . d d A / 4 8 3 / 2 . b E/CN.4/Su
re 2. 6. d es, n i a t i 1 r . o 6 . n s i a r M a p c i ; t 3 2 s . i o u N g n i L ment d m n o a C l a r s e u n o e i G g i l e e e R S , . c 0 i 3 thn E to g n i ie paras.24g n o l e B s n o s r e ts of P
h g i R e th on y d u t S , i t r F. Capoto
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. e o D O C S E N U , 6 6 9 1 r e b m e v o N 4 d e 1 97 Adopt S . 3 2 1 . p (Paris, 1970),
as s t h g i R l a r u Cult , O C S E N U d an , s n o une i J t u 5 l 1 o s 8 e R , / a C n a ; 14 j l b u j L y, t e i c o S l a n o i t a n i t l of s on the Mu t h g i R n a m u H the
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1955), pp.243-44; and Groups
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A Memoir and Some E Essays on Life Life and Thoughtdt
n a i d n I e h T , ) . d e ( burn h s a W . E . W in , ) 3 (195 2 3 1 B . t a t S 7 6 .5 1st se ss ., ng Co rd 83 8, 10 s. Re n. 105 ¥7 R Co 8. n -9 a i 97 d -3 n pp I n ), o 64 19 e e , t Y N t i , City comm b n e u d S r a G ( e h t n a M re e fo it be Wh e th gs and in ar He an i d s, n ir I fa Af l a r e an d e di F In n o to e e g tt i m ainin m t o r c e b u S p s , e ll t Bi a n e n S o . , . s . s e irs a f f A r a l u s MOTOS Congr n I d n a r o i r e t In n o . 9 8 . e p e t t , i d m e m R o C e h , t n r of u ashb W Affairs d n a in ; 4 6 B 1 C A J e th , ) 7 of 5 9 1 ( r e . g ss a as general man h Cong., Ist se
t 5 8 d e n , g n i o s e t r g n i h s t a r W u o , c cy and n o li n Po r a r H e 4 ’ b D m e m . 3 9 2 d r a o 5 b 6 8 a 2 p as p ts, CB A Ar J n e a th i d n I e d i u , g r e d to a r h c S d e See MA. He continu
at Mo s t s o p s u o i r a v p u 1944 to take que, r e u q u b l A ( cy li Po ian d n I S U d n a m subsequently its chair. s t n der c an i c o r i M e r m e m : A s t r of A n a e i ut d it n st I In n ca The i r e m f A o e t u t i t ? s n n I o i t e a c Th u s d n E , o n i o s t t t c r t e A r i i r D G n a i . d L n , I J. r f e o e d e a S ry o kst t c 108 s o i D H . FE , n e f s f u 2 a 6 h p m p r a G 2000), pp.65ff; W. orical Background 189 0-1962 (Santa Fe, 1988); na, 20-21 March 1959 (( Lucson; o z i r A of of. y v Indian Arts with Hist an ty si er rs iv te Un in Pa e as th at ican ld er he Am ce en ive er ‘at nf Co a of s ng di ee oc Pr in Indian Art, in dern Art Archivi es, ons: N
Mo si Vi of ed ar Sh , um .) se ds (e Mu nd e la Th ck ri d St an R.hoenix, 1992), pp-74ff and (P a ur chulet 1959), p.13; e M.TwenAr tieth Cent y
Sculptors in th ; 263). 21 29 NY: René d’Harnoncourt Papers [AAA: its n i g n i t n i a p an i d n I 109 Gy n r e d o m of e l : p Y m N a x cn Gritton, Institute, p.3. e , s e v i h c one r A only had MA o M MoMA , 1 5 9 1 1951, In r e p.4. emb
Gritton, Institute,
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r tu Re & us! cts je al Ob ur lt Cu n of ur et s um se Mu w, La / Internationa
r Wa ld s Co & le d op se pe ni lo co man rights,
Native American artists, not indigenous communit; les,
48
n e d e v l o s be n ca e° . t e m r ou of [T] he dilemma
of m o d e e r f e th es il nc co re ae ; ; replaces yesterday’s image
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d Harnoncourt, Grate & White Patrons (Alb uquerque, 1971), pp.189ff. i m o r P d an ge en d: o M e: is 9, 25 at 0 5 2 2 7 2 113 J ne zi ga Ma 41 8) 94 (1 y et Ibi a d. See M kim t and Modern Soci Ar m e t tinparhesReweimnee si vi Re , an lm Si me rg Th de El in t Wa eld (ed.) ld Co e th 199,J. d an s ic it Cr rn, Its de Mo e a Berk, s i Y ; (New e a e ad A ro M. Ab d .ry: an ry tu en -C me td l Ho t A ta na ed 5 pp A. Of: ‘ n i tu u en o G d l r a E an m ra e Th og » Pr of l nd io s eg ar c Ye . p D pa arly e o ME, ALO , rs “2 de un Sa d an or on FE. St iy (Lond on, 19PP.99Of)f War ld Co Gri al ur ee lt Cu e th d an A CI e Th er? Pip e e yg ir st n, In to Wesrways 23; and D » PP.152-53, 155. RIONeaRio, ricans (1973) 65 A
T st Ame e y d Ri l O La e h t . y b t r A e sh y n Fi e i n S . o m er, 2 R, ockefeller Eiilemvi Sh y h t n A , lo 8. po 5e 1 5 See P Jl e ogy (1986) 2 l o p o r h t n l a A i c o S of e s i R e h t y and e R , e g e n i l f ; 9 0 5 1 i Deal; p
ins OV.BrDieelno,n Ir7. (e> d.),tiemb, a Fean
w e N , r o l y a T ; 4 4 2 . p s, r' ie ll Co e v , a lp H i h P w e ; 6 4 1 . p e e e . a ; c i l o P Indian , ts gh Ri m e n r r o h e T of n o Protecti
l a n o i t a n r e t d n ; an I # 5 3 . s p p a , ) 5 n 8 9 o , 1 n in a m y r c o i N l o y ( P r u t e e ee Cen B n s e In o D m d n o a h W th Wi : mee 1 ) ! ? ° p 9 i 1 h ( s n o i t a l e n R i a a t n i a s M te a t S ed it m A d e ‘ l t i t n h e c e » Spe eric
ee
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° 9 9 1 ( y r u t n e C d i M e th in s t f 2924; VASE Arts and Cra :
e th r te Af ” ! ' . s a c i r e m A e th of s e i t i n u m m o c s u o n e g i d n i on n o i : t a l i m i s s a he n e sation and h w e r e h p s i m e h n r e t 9 9 nfluence extended beyond the Wes Second World War, his i e u g a e L e th of s on ti nc fu e th d e b r o s b a O C S E N U ° 2 ! . O C S E N U 5 UP g in tt se in ed st assi tion, but adopted a 9
era p o o C al tu ec ll te In r fo of Nations International 46 19 e th r fo t n e m u c o d : y r o t a r a p e r p A or. ess dec pre its n tha s it s a h n o i g e r d n a more global outlook y r t n u o c h c a e , y l i m a f n a m u h e h t n I ‘ : d e t o n e c tri con n e r e f n ve cti o tin C dis its n o es mak Lond ch a e d n a , s e u l a v t c n i t s i d n w o s t i d n a s c i t s i r e t c a r a h c own. ” * ! ’ . e r u t l u c f o e r u s a e r t r n u o n m m t r o u c o c e n h o t n r to a H ’ n d@ , butio O C S E N U to r o l l e s n u o c r o i n e s as t n e m t n i o p p a s Committee
joel
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and d’Harnoncourt’s vision : 9 . d an on ti va er es pr e th of n o i t s e u q e th a d e g a g n e O UNESC
nt co n a c i r e m A e th in e c n e i r e p x e s hi d n a t r u o c n o n r a H ’ @ BY ly cant , on ti va er es pr al ur lt cu of s al mes opposing) go
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orm ents . . . e[fsa peas e nadual !1 e. ol wh e th of ke th r fo the indivi
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and sought They fora.!!® international in : it an participa tion : sak and indigenous n o i t a i v r e s e , r n p o e i h t t ; d a n n a i m r maelly reali: sed the right to (internal) self-dete e v o sm : : : obj 1 al ; ur lt cu of n io ut it radu It st ures, including the re cts and
hig
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183
Following hi
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2:
ad h at th s e m e h t e th , s e r u t l u c indigenous 5
d e s i l a i r t s u d n i n o n r fo d e s i v e d y c i l o p O C S E N U e h T 2 !2 . s e d a c e d r fo m i h e th of e c n preoccupied e u l f n i e th d e y a r t e b so al t u b l a e D w e N n a i d n I e th d e o h c e y l g n o r t s peoples n io at is il ss fo e th t s n i a g a d r a u g to at th d e t s e g g u s y c i l o p e h T ve ti ea . cr t n n e w m o n ] o r ic i [s v s n e hi y l p p r a a ‘ W d l u o h s Cold st ti ar s u o n e g i d n i e th ts af of indigenous arts and cr economic ben¢
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d n a n o i t c a f s i t a s n w o s hi r fo d n a d l r o w e th of t n g e n m o h m c a i r n e n he o ‘t i t o to m o r p ’ nt le e ta th is s e s o p r u p ’s O C S E N U of e n o , dy efi’ 23 Like its parent bo
, s n a i d n I of ts gh Ri _ce Ri IlTitle 73, S Stat. n g2 5 84 -2 90 . Manifesto No L. dian b. Pu , 68 19 J of t Ac 2” An ts r gh s: Ri Sin l r vi You Ci for r ou an “Y d Die er st Cu M8 See Indi a, ri lo »C De V. ); , 02 an 20 ic er Ng Am ), d. (e ( 02 a 13 q §§ ri se lo De et ™ C , US ew vi 25 §§ er Ov An : cy li codified at Po an di In , an ic er Am J. Chaudhuri,
(New York, 1969);
R. d an 95 28 p. , ts Ar an di In 75 20 er ad hr Sc ]; 45 454 00 20 > ne va n e 5 L O e c a 5 C eA e a 1973); 119 Bo , rk Yo 3 ew (N t Ar of Modern ) um se Mu e Th of it ra rt Po te ma ti In An : n r e d o M Lynes, Good OlYdd Mod TIL.4L, RG 4 NAR 135,
Series
» ? 1 x Bo » n e r S e , d w l o o l F l o H 6 y 4 p 9 e 1 e l S e , n e u r J t n 12 Ce s , e v t i r h u c o r c A r n e o l n l r e a f e H k ’ c d o R to s e y e e l x e eersonaHlu Projects, Rockefeller Family pe 5 w e N ( e t u b i r T A Pe 1968: alge
120 ee
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1 0 9 1 t r u o c n o n r a H ’ @ René a
, A M o M in , r e l e e h W York (RAC); and M. i 1968), n.p. , s e v i h c r A A M o M , 6 4 9 1 e n u J 8 2 s Inc. os) ft e a e z e A O C E a Cr e a B d an e ts Ar 122 a askan r u b e d n a r B . A to t r ou
NY9 :
e e e e a h t l l a n o i t a n r e t n p I of e c i f f O n e i n o Mo sr A. of ae [AAA: n29t25]of. SSteaete C.to A. H. Barr Jr, 8 July 1946, The Museum . 7 7 1 . p , ) 3 7 9 1 , k r o Y e w m e N t ( r a p nt S De r SD e le w ni Ol e n }. ff 1 2 e 5 o ; 1 8 1 2 York: Alfr Barr Jr, Papers [AAA: rnonc
ed H. Huxley, J. 123 e e S . 10 9— UNESCO Doc.UNESCO/Lond/9,
International Law, Museums & Return of Cultural Obje cts Genoct
l app ry to na mi ri sc di nno the of e, tur cul h oug thr s, nation Plicat; On e e . s m o d e e r f l a t n e m a d n fu i t o m o r p e h t s s a w e s o p r s u ’ p O C S Another of UNE cae (0) fe Cultur
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r a W ld Co & s le op pe d se ni de, human rights, colo $)
u
a e ] h t n e o x d e t s i s n i y l t n e t s i s n o c © United SEES es n o i s i V O r P F o ] a r u t l u c g n i r e v o c s t n e m e e r g a l a n o i t a n r e t n i goal in Te ty ec fl Te ® e h T . e g a t i r e d tr e e l r a f n o i t i d a r t s it h t d i e w p p a exchange also overl
k l c oh e e n in | s d ys e e d e e p m B i n u s t a c e j s e g i a n m e i e b , s d a a s e h d e i i r f o a d w n o u l f o b l e a e i m c o s e t c or a i notm p cuflituersal,giecaon
d’étre since thete inter-war interI period. In a 1963 speech, :
fi
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Dutch New Guin
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ent
Th is re as oning repref Boasi theory. Kroeber noted that: and GNSS perty, Nairobi, 26 N.
1946, er mb ve No 4 ce for in , 45 19 ae Intern the ng ni er nc Co n io at nd ecomme
Conventions and
UNESCO, in 6, 197 r be em ov ti concerning the Protec es of the Cultural Heritage (Paris,
Museum’s Role in
Harn, 924; 414],
Oncourt, 28
Cultural
nternational
pril 1949, MoMA Archi Apri
Eeenanee
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1983), p.181.
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ee
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e h t of s t r A , e u g o atal c n o i t i b i h x e in duced o r p ! re , ’ s e i t i n i f f A of t r a h C ‘ , t r u o c n o n r a Figure 6.2 René d@’H 1946. , rk Yo w e N t, Ar n er d o M of m u e s u M e Th , South Seas
e a m s i n i w r a D al ur lt cu h g u o h t l A ! !? .’ te e lu it so ab sp De as d t. te no al ex s on wa ti sa li vi tely ni fi de st mo of some other ci ng ki in th od, racialised
ri pe r a w t s o p e th n a e p o r u E n o n of debunked in s ct je ob al ur lt cu ’, es ur lt cu of y it al qu ‘e e th of the pronouncement e e i w ce an rp te in d an d ye la sp di be to d e u n i t n o ee peoples c
io at ci re pp ‘a at th d e d e c n o c e gu lo ta ca A M o M aesthetic. The
A * ” e nS e n o s s s u p n ow s p’ t ou ea gr tr e th th wi re we d te ec nn co s ct ys je wa ob al ‘is al ur of others lt cu r ei th d an les op pe us no ge di in e g a , od ri n pe a c is th c e p s During e h t ‘ : d e t o n r e w e i v e r e n O . d e s i l a u q e a s d n a e h T d e s i l a u d d i e v y i a d l p s i d s g alike: in n i h t e h t f o s e s u d n a e r u t a n e h t at s s e u g m i d a only make .
e W. Stocki ), pp.1 pe
A Bsn 5
1940); G. W, Stocking J* ae ing and the End of the Museum Era 10 s um se Mu on ys sa Es : rs he Ot d an s ct je Ob e Be cae W. Stocking Jr, Ideas and Institutions in f the Interwar Years, in G. W. StockingJr (ed.); >
Ppyl—53°
e l 1 ) 52 10 , go ca hi (C e, tur Cul of re tu Na The r, 131 AL. Kroebe 132 Linton 7; : and Wingert, Arts, p.7-
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r a W d l o C & s le op pe d se ni lo co Geno cide, human rights,
w e N , t r A n r e d o M of m Museu e h T ’, as Se h t u o S e th “Ar t of n o i t i b i h x e e h t f o iew v n o i t a l l a t s n I 4 . 6 Figure York, 1946.
OF
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o l a t a c A M o M e h T f ? o 2 . ’ s e r s u e b m r i e e m h t e f h o t e k i L mation + * ' . ’ s e v l e s m e h t s t c e j b o e h t f o r e t c a r a h c e h t e h t y b n o ‘ n o i d s a s e e t s s n s i o p r i e h t relying d n a d e s i l a u t de-contex
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p x e r o f n o i t p e c x e n a s e k a e m i ’ n e o u i l s a v i v o l r a p c i g s o i l o e a h c r a r o (GATT). Th c i r o t s i h , c i t s i t r a f o s e r u s a e r t l a n o i t a n f o n o i for the protect ° 7 ‘ . e t a d o t l u f s s e c c u s n u a s i d n o e l v o o c r e p d d s n a a h r a W d l o C e h t y The campaign b d e at e r c s e i t i r u c e s n i d n h a c i h w s e i a t d n n i e a g t a r e n c a d e u s r p u y l l With the un a n o i t a n r e t n i d n a y l l a c i t . s s e l m a o u d d i v s i e d t n a i t S f o d y t i l a u q e e h t g n tion, the Unite i s i s a h p m e t s l i h w s e r u t l m u c a F f o e h y T t “ i s d r e e l v t i i t n e n o i t i b i h x e affirmed the d y h p a r g o t o h p s t i d e n ” e ” p ! o . e d a A c e M d o t M x e n , e h t g n i r u d s e i r t In January 1955 n u o c t h g i e y t x i s o t y e l n a r n u o o i j t a n d a l u o t w c i p h e d o t d e d n e t n i y ily of Man’ whic l l a i t i n i d a h , r o t a n i g i r o t a s h ’ W w o h * s 7 ! . e s h t t h g i , R n a m u H d n a Edward Steichen s n o i t a l e R n a m u H f o d e w s o e l m l e o h f t , e e r h o t c s t i t a , h c i h w s e r u t exhibition around l u c n a m u h f o y t i s r e v i ’ d . e e c h n t e i f o r e p y x a e l p s l i a d u evolved was a ness of individ
e m a s e h t g n i s i s a h p m e y b e r e h t — e l c y c e f i l n a m u h : the s u h t n o i t i b i h x e s i r a P e h t o t d e d n o p s e r s e h t r a B d n a l Ro
d e t n e v e r p , y t i t n e d i n a f o e c a f r u s e h t at k c a b d l e f © We are h e n o z r o i r e t l u e h t o t n i g n i t a r t e n e p m o r f y t ’ s e sentimentali c n e r e f f i ‘d e m o s s e c u d o r t n i n o i t a n e i l a l a c i r o t s i where h . s e c i t s u j n i “ ll ca quite simply
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veme B Mo LPI 5 t ici Ill 3) 97 (1 the to 2 itesorcantiees Cultural Property of nt p.133,
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precisely by r u o i v a h e b human e r e h l l a h s e w which
s e t a t S d e t i n U f o gest i D n i 9. 1, , 5) i 97 c (1 n u 12 . o c C o d / C C nt E e I n C a m 8; .1 r I1 e J/ P r e S / A B O Q 173 S A 1 O , n a m r i a h C , va l Si R. to n a m d o T A. T. te No e a ue and SoWONDS York, 1964), pp-880-8)-
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a s e l b a n e it d e t a e r c h c i h w y r t n u o c e th to d r o c e r or t ar of k r o w a of n r u t e r e Th ng lo e th at th s e v o r p d n a , ty ti en id d n a y r o m e m s it of t r a p r e v o people to rec l il st is d l r o w e th of y r o t s i h e th s e p a h s h c i h w s n o i t a s i l i v i c n e e w t e b e u g o dial ! s. on ti na n e e w t e b t c e p s e r l a u t u m of e r e h p s o m t a an tinuing in
d e v o m e r s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c of e t a f e h t d e d n u ro r u s t a h t e c n e l i s e h t o r b g n i e b y l By the mid 1960s, w o l s s a w s e r t n e c n a t i l o p o r t e m in s m u e s u m to s e i r o t i r r e t d n a n o i t from colonial a n i m r e t e d f l e s to t h g i r r i e h t d e i t y l m r i f s e l p o e p d e s i n o l o c y l g r n i r u d d e v o ken. Forme m e r s t c ural obje
t l u c of n o i t u t i t s e r e h t to t n e m p o l e v e d l a r u t l u , s e t a t S e s e h t pursuit of c y b d e u s r u p n g i a p m a c e h t s e t a g i t s e v n i r e t p a h c s i h T . n o l a r u t l u c of n o colonial occupati i t u t i t s e r e h t , s 0 r 7 fo d n a s 0 6 9 1 e h t g n i r u d a r o f 1 a n o i in various internat
. s n o i t c e l l o c l a i r e s y h p e h t d n o y e objects from imp b n o i t u t i t s e r d e d n e t x e s e t a t S t n e d n e p e d n i y l w e n y b n ~ r u s n e s e c r This campaig u o s e r d n a e g d e l w o n k of r e f s n a r t e h t e d u l c n i to , s t c e j b o y b d e k o v n i s m ical act of return of s i n a h c e m e h t , r e v e w o H . s e r u t l u c n e e w t e b e g n a h v e i h c a in l a u t c e f ing an equitable exc f e n i y l e g r a l d e v o r p O C S E N U d n a s n o i t a N d e t to r o i r p n o i t a p u c these States in the Uni c o l a i n o l o c g n i r u d d e v o m e r s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c s r e w o p n a t i l o p o ing the restitution of r t e m r e m r o f y b d l e h y a w s g n i u n i t n o c e h t f o t l u s e r e 1970. This was th . s m e t s y s e g d e l w o n k d n a s e i g o l o c d i o m h a t n e y m d r e h t d e and thei s i l a n r e t n i s e t a t S t n e d n e p e d n i y l w e n , y r u t n e c h By the late twentiet ithin one terri-
w s e l p o e p l al y f i n u to , e l a c s r e s s e l a n o , s r o s s e c e d e h e t r p y b l a i n d o e l n o i c f e d r i e h t s e of i r a d n u o b l a i r o t i r r e t d e t i r e h n i y e h T . y t i t n e d i l d a n n a o i t a e n s u o e h n o to d n a s m u e tory s u m l a n o i t a n h s i l b a t s e o t e v o r t s y e h T . s r e r w o f o p n l g a i i a n p o m l a o c c r e e h m T r o f . s e i r a d n u o b e s e h t y b d e b i r c s m u c r i c y t i t n e d i v o g l a n e o s i e t h t a n y a b t d n e e y s o l p e d repre s a w s n o i t c e l l o c l a i r e p m i m o r f s t c e j b o d l e a s r u u t l s u a c w f It o n . o y i n t o u m i r t a p restit l a r u t l u c l a n o i t a n a f o n o i t u t i t s n o c ) e r ( . y e t h i t t n e e d i l b a n l e a n o o i t t a n s t d n e e i f i n u ernm a d n i h e b s e i t i n u m m o c e s r e v i d e s e i r n a e v w l a g e t o u t t i l t o s o n t o c l ) a e c r i ( o t t h as a polit g u o s s e t a t S t n e d n e p e d n i y l w e n h n e c g i i h d w n i s e f r o u t l s t c e j b o l a r u t l The national° cu u c e h t ) d e t t 0 n O c i s c r a c s r e s e e v : i h t y y c n e G o l l m o e c m e l t a u n o o i t a n a e r u Pare vith t c a f u n a m o t s r e d r o b r e i b e h o t t n e t h e t i c w r u s e o i s t e i r ‘ a e m a c e b ous peoples and minor s t c e j b o l a r u t l u C . s c e t i a m t o S r e n l t t o e s c to e n i k a l r e a n n n o a i t a n f o memory in a m t i u s r u p e h t n i r o s s e c e n d o e i pr t al a ni s lo co i s n e’ o at St l e o th c de , s reclaimed from e i t i r o n i m and s e l p o e p s u o n e g i d n i r o F . t n e m p o l e v e d l a r u and cult 1
l a e p p A n A : It d e reat C o h W e s o h t o t e g a t i r e H e l ab e c a l p e r r I n a f > o n r u t e R e h t r o . f 8 5 a e l P m u A e , s w u o M B 1 3 ) 9 A.-M. M’ 7 9 (1 O C S E N ral of U
by the Director-Gene
197
of n r ; p O u t e R & s l m a u r e u t s l u u M C , w a International L % Objects
was an incomplete process that merely replaced
n o i t u t i t s e r t u witho
ly
Ne Occupie;
end indep newly the r, anothe with tan power,
forme, ms te n-sta natio eat sse proce This chapter explains how these p o T " ] e s t them : n mee ri the i of V Be during q sation with the qualified exercise m; deter Self“Colo ae sue i: al n cultur to 0 1 d sion succes there n State a e h concerning t Then, er ; the with s omise compr pee of these an exXaanm:inas
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State claimant. Next, it is deta; :
eal
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P a : g 5 this s add acletxe HO en ans re comin short its tion, Conven ed plicat SORYERAOD, gs. Finally,
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These changes
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xtricably
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p o l e v e d l a r u t l u c and e d a m en be s ha ty ti en id al ur lt cu ve ti ec ll co d an n o i t a n i m r e t e d f l e s n e e w t e . s b e t a d n a m k n d n a i l s e e t n 5 a r a ty gu i r o n i m ’ Thi s n o i t a N ¢ e ) o u f g a rte in e e th L g n e i r u d h e d t e p c o l e v e d s e sin l p i c n i r p m o r f s k r o w Res.1 514(XV) A G N t gh ri l ga le e th t, U rs Fi . ts ec t sp re t n a t r o p m e i e l Whils re th b n i a h s i u g n i t s e s t l o i . , p n ) d d o n s n e o 1 o p i t c i t , e a d S c o i j l p p h a g n t i u o o n h war perl t ( umiversa 1 ination is n o i t a n i m r e t e d f l e s the 11ight of ise
a Decr olonisasa tition and self-determina ti ond wave of dissolution of e an included
o i t u l ) o ) s V d e Y e R t X : a ( t l r 4 u a 1 n p A p i 5 i G t 1 A s . G s s e e N l R U p o ( d e n P a s e i r t n u o nial C y the ht rig t tha of tue vir by ; ion nat rmi ete f-d i sel r to ght e h t e v a h ples social ic, nom eco ir the sue pur ely fre and tus sta cal iti pol r i e h t e n i m r e t e d y freel ment.” b)
ig
210
n entitled the Declaration on the Granting of Independ ence to
to Cultural
rte in e v i t c e f f e d e d r o f f a were not
e l v u c i t c e l l o c r i e t h n t e f o m p o l e v e d d n a n o i t a v r e s e r p e h t r o f n o i f o y c a m r P e r p l u a s n o e i h t t d e na s i n g o c e r y t i n u m m o l c a n o i t a n r e t n s i : . t n e m p o l e v e d l a r u t l u c to t h g i r e h t d n a n o i t a n i m deter o r p s e l p o e p s p u o o n e g e i d p n i d n a s e t a t S t n e d n e p colonised e d n i y l w , e n n o i t to a t s h g i i r n e th o l to o c t n e e m p d o l e v e d d n a n o i t a v r e Following s e r p l a r u t l u c € © e r u t s t c a e j b n o l a l a r r u t g l u c e t of n i n o i t u t i t s e r e h t t a h t moted the d e u g r a , y e e h t r o m r e h t . r t. n gh u o ri F i a t h c a u s n to i m e v i t a r e p m i , n o i s n e t x e gelf-deter yy b , s s a n w o i t c e l l o o e l c p a ll i ‘a r o t e g p n i h m c a i r t t a e n o i t a n i m r e t e d f l e s held by form o t t h g i r e h t f o t e n h t e m e e t a c r e n l o u t o n d l o u r o w p ty i n u m m o c l Despite the a n o i t a n r e t n i e h t s 0 8 l d a n n a o i t s a 0 n 7 r e t , n s i 0 6 r 9 a 1 w t e s h o t p e g v n i i s r s u e d c c , u ’ S s . ple s e c n a t s m u c r i c n i a t r e e c h t n o 1 t y y l l e n v o i s u t l h c g x i e r r e f e r s t c e j b o l a r exercise of the u t l u c f o n o i t u t i t s e r n i d a n t t a a n o o t i t s c e l e p t o o e r p p f o y t i l i b a e h t n o w initiatives for the a l l a n o i t a n r e t n i n i l s a r n u o t i l t u a c t i r m i i e h l t e p h o l e v e d d n a e v r e s State claimant. T e r p o t y t i l i b a r i e h t s n r o e y b l m t e c m e r i l d a u d d i e v t i c d a n i p m i d e d d r o o o f h f e a t a t s t s h g i r e h t y l n o n o y l e r d l u o c s p u o r g e s e h T . y t b i t n e e h d t i r o , k r o w e m a r f s t h g i r n a m u h l a n o i t a . n y r t e i t t n n e i d i e h t e v i t r c e e l l o und c r i e h t r o f n o i t c e t o r a p s i n f o o l o c e e r d u s a g e n m i r a u d , r e t r a h C N U State to provide 5 4 9 1 e h t r e d n u t n a t e r c o i p t m c i a r p o w t e t n a i t S n o i g t n a i n l i a v e : r n p i m r e e t e Th d f t l e s s e o l p o e p f o t
h g i r e h t d e t c i r t s e r y l e r e v e s , n tio respects:
the 1945 U NGA)
iti
de
e v i s s e c c u s , r e v Charter.’ Howe
e nc si e c i t c a r p e t a t S d n a s uuion
f o d n e e h t t a e c a l p n i s n o i t a l e r l a i n o l o c e h t e h t o t o t d e d e d t e i e m c li c is u s n o i t e a t n i a m t r e S t e d w e n (1) self e h t , e c n e d n e . p s e t d s n e r i e t n n i o p U the Second World War. 6 s P
r e w o p l a i n o l o c o f r e y m b r p u n w a r boundaries d Its : w a L l a n o nati r e t n I in n o i t na i m r m, e u t n e n D a f H l e S . H o t ; f f t 15 h g i t R a e 7 h p T P » , , ) d 1 r 0 o 0 f 2 w a : , r a C i , h d p r J. l o e f d x a O 3 l ( 7 i 9 h P 9 ( s p 8 t o h e . P p p ts Rig , h ) g . d i ’ e , s R ( e ) l 9 g 7 n o 9 t 1 s l A m u , c P. d i r l n f o i n (Oxf ment and Future, e dauon of Co
ommo e c c A G N e h T d n a on: pts n e a c n n i o m C r e t e d D l O f l — e S d . n 5 a 6 7 n 3 o 1 i . t p y a t n n i g m i r e e r t e e v D 6, th 6 9 1 Autonomy, So and A. Cassese, Political Selfr e n a b m e f c f e o D h t j i 6 S 1 ( f s f t , 3 s h 3 t g h . i g p i R p i R , l ) 0 a t n 199 e l d m a n c a a i d t i n l u o P 5 F 8 / 6 w 3 a d L n a M N L U I l i 6 v , i ) C . d e ( ) on 7 6 e 9 s 1 e ( s s a C Covenant S T N U International 4 in A. the 3 9 9 and of , 6 97 1PGB 999 UNTS 171, See Common ‘Art.1 Develop
United Nations, Sa n se at encise i o; 26 June 1945, in force e m d n e m a 5 nts by G l es Genenaraei y Resolutions in UNTS 557, 0Of the Internati ony vllG a RS ie Opinion upon the Legal
GAO
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1995 Ord , Sup P. (No.
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)» P.307; 2 2193 05 oe 28)
82 ), UN Doo 0c. A/goo
C. Eagleton, an d 5; No. 3, » fi Mies » Annex, 15 December 1960, 15 D and I. B wnlie,oeBasiccaeDocuments in International Law 220 OACKXI); 625(X‘aXsiV Se € J. Crawfor2d, The ye Aatieks 24 October 1970, 25
Self th (4UN
UN
aw L l a n o i t a n r e t n I in s e t a t S ton of
aoe 3 Res.2200AQ#) force in UNGA Rights, 1976, March Cultural 23 and Reports in foree Social ICF Sahara Economic; on 315 and Western
asec 9/2) and People’ lO ‘Indigenous this pp-16, 1971, fulfils “People’, Cop Reports International Covenant ie ICF ‘Peop of Opinion, et 360; Namibia The Concepts 3and Otherness: : ara Difference Art.27; Identity, 2EGE Tw. Makkonen, pp-8 2000), (Helsinki, Law in International ‘Minority’ 6 Creation, pp.94 and 359-60; See Crawford,
tu Re O & l a s r m u t u l e u s C u M of rn w, La l na io at rn te In
bject: n)
: i Oh n a f o n o i s i v i d e h t = i c i n h t e o w t of n » the inclusio Wenrevrand re ee a o M F ° d n e p e d n i y l w e n of s r a e f e h t to h t M e s c n e r e f e § (2) in d r e l t t e s d n a t n e e n e a s a w n o i t a n i m r e t e d f r l e e S s 6 s e t a t movements, e t a n S e e w t c n i t s i d is d n a e t a r a geographically sep i n o S “ , o t i r r e l fe t l u C r o / d n a y l l a c i n 5 ; e t n i e h t d n a h ic ® ’, it V g n i t a m r o t r s f i n i y m l d l a a r y U tr ; g n i r p w a l l a n o i t a n y r Co e th r a t S e of w s e l y p t i i c r and territorial integ reaffirmed.” re . £ SOVern, e r o s l a n o i t a n i m r e a might to self-det e l p o e B s u o n e g i d n i to e e e n e R a s e h W , s e t i S r; no Mi e d n n a o ‘ e d i P O sua e s i c r e x e a r a f d a h t n e m p o l e v e d l a r u t l u c r e to e a t h g i T e a e e u a ig caching conseq u s e r it if n e v e e s a c e th This was e a e , or s e t a t S a number of
ee Sa
t o r p d n a n o i t u t i n e r Sroups to seek rest l a r u t l u c r i e h ect t a
0 5 9 . 1 4 6 2 r 6 e b m e , British and Forei c 4 e / D 7 1 , 1 3 ) 2 . 9 8 E 9 N , 1 O e C m I o , A R n . o c , o a ond D i L v ( a N l U t s n A o g u e Y o d 3 n a -25 4 y 2 l . a s t a I r a p ” n r e e , v e 1 o . w M d t d 3: e /A m 2 u 2 l o 30 be V , e g a t i r e H l a r u 5 t l 4 u C . e restitution, h N t C r d u n e / l a et a See UN Doc.A and P. J. O’Keefe, Law s i t t o r e P t i c , i V l l . i L e e c i S f a r t e L , a u o a r F . R d n a ‘ ; 3 3 5 1 § , 2 3 pp.831OLU oslav S
g u Y 1 age t i 0 r 0 e 2 h , x l e a n r n u A t , ul ) c 3 3 e . t h r A t . O Cf t . 6 3 8 e 2 anc t r o p m o i w t UN Doc.A/36/10, 3 t a e r g s “ e i r of r y a t r m e p pro n o to i s s e j i l p p a n v o o i s r i p v o r p s s thi e t whether the o n e n a m f r g a a n t S i r . u 9 8 d d 8 e 8 t 3 t j ’ t n e m m e e m r g o A ‘ c , n s h a t t c S a . or f State, cf , , y 6 t i 2 l i 2 b i / s n 4 o p . s e N r © e t a t / S A nd . a s n c o i s o s e D c c u s e N t a t U S w, : la n o i t i t r a p n a di n w. I la n a i g r a t n i n i a m u w h o l na io at ll fo m4 intern y ar e br h li t ce n i fi Of d a e di In v l e o th v of n ! on si vi di s m e th e l b e, pl o am r P For ex r , g i n e i h d T r f a o g e y R r t y n d u u o . t C 49 S 714 e e , h 7 h 6 t 2 t / 4 . N O t n o l s a e an 92; and A/C r i e r n t e n G u o C r cto n e i r a j t D r e e th C of t f r o o p e R y r o t i See UNESCO, r r e T e th in es iv ch Ar om fr 25. . a r a p ; , 2 0 1 Transfer of Documents / Doc. 20C
i p.170.
ESCO N U , 78 19 t s u g u A 25 Origin,
International Law, Museums & R eturn of Cultural
n o i t u t i t s e r t u witho
Objects
ae eS kemanivelys the question of ownershij ai be Tepla os cae and obligations. Under the ano b on on t Y recg hae Yug o of = Rep ubl ic : Fed era l iali Soci st ali For mer e S Ucces ' ae
y t5,oy
4
8 (Yu g sos lav ia t , Successor States are required © take ‘nec . Igy. t Suc eg sla y e Sp ‘ s l y d n io r SS o a o e i g n t c u r ; t dama g s s g t a e e s m e r y U r a s “ d n a y t r e p o r s P e v i + h + c r a i & e t n a a t S e y, v o re t a h n s e t : J a t S r sets s a more ooff thi the successo i t r A ( 8 ; h w n i Interest? [ 8 ) 2 e l c i t i V 3 8 Although the 19 Vienn Conventio: n did a e c n e d n e p e d following in >
205
i l e i h c t a f e o t t a t i s n = o i t c l e a l i l c o u c r c l as a i r e p d m e i w e i v m o r s f a w s t c e e g j a b t o i r e h l a r u l t a l r u u c t l u f c o n o i t r e s s a l a r u t The re“stiittiuotnionof the national l u c a e m a c e b s t c e j b o ral feat Bnomy:
u t l u c , y l g n i d r o c c A
n o o s O E I N e t g u i a e I a r a t l u c i l a n o i t a i i 5 a p e l , e v e d r o s t e t a t S r e s e i at H it ss ’ ce d n ne i k n a m ge of ta n ri o he m m o c ‘ e th of rt e pa r e w mined bY s t c e j b o e s e h t that
d n a a i s A in s e t a t t n S e d n e p e d n i y l w e n r o F . n i g i r o f y o r t n u the co y n b o i t a t i o J al ur lt cu d an es iv ch ar of ing its EXP ry ve co re e th ed ud cl in on ti sa ni lo co de of s es the proc «aq. al ur lt cu r ei th of on si es pr ex an as d an t en pm lo ve de r ei th objects 48 4nstruments of veral non-binding pronounce-
argued
se de ma , O C S E N U g in ud cl in peritag e’.12 UN organs, te tu ti ns co re to s rt fo ef r ei th in s on ti na ng gi er em st si as ld ou sh es at St all at th s d ment rl Wo t rs Fi e th r te af s se ap ll co the first wave of empire
their heritage. 2 Nis unlike
on up s ct je ob al ur lt cu of n io ut it st re e th r fo on si i v o r p d e s War, there was no treaty-ba
d e s u s g e r l a e h t r e v e n s a , w s t i t c e j l b a o r u t l n u c o f i o s u l c c x i e f i s c e ’ p t s O C S E N U d Despite Bedjaou n a s n o i t a N d e t i n U e h t y b e d a m s t r o f f e e h t d e t n l e a m r u e t l l p u c p u d s n a ‘ l a c k i r r o o t w s i s h i r h i e that nd recover th
. n o i t a s i n o l o dec
a e v r e s n o c o t s e l p o e p f o s t h g i r e h t to preserve ly recognised
t i c i l p m i s a w n o i t i s o p s i h * T “ . ’ e g a t heri
t a h t s e t a t s h c i h w ) 7 ( in Article 28
e g n i r f n i t o n l l a h s ‘ s e t a t t S n e d n e p e d n i y l w e n d n r a o s s e c e d e r r i e p h n t e t e u w o b t n a e o s b i t t n a m r o f n i agreeme o , t t n e m p o l e v e d o t s e t a t S e s o h t f o n s e e l v p n o o e C p a e n h n t e f i V 3 8 9 1 e the right o h t , s s e l e h t e n o N > * . ’ e g a t i r e h l a r s u t t c l e u j c b o r l i a e r h u t t l o u t c f o n o i t u t i t s e history, and r r o f s m i a l c e h t g n i v l o s e r y n i r o l t a c i c a e f p s s i e t h a t s t a n h u t y d e ’ u g r a s i t i r tion is wholl e t p a h c is
h t n i r e t a l d n A . n o i t a s c i u n s o l d o e c t e i d m i l o t h t r i o w i r p t e m s a h s m remo ved i a l c h c u s s s e r d d a o t d e h s i l b a t s s a e w e s e e t t a t t S i m t m n e o d C n e p e d n i y l w UNESCO e n y b n g i a p m a c e h t f © y c a g e l g n g i n n i r t u s t a e l r e f h o t t c ; a r e l v a c i s y h p e h cess. Howe t d n o y e b n o i t u t i t s e r f o g n i d n a t s r e d n u n a f o n the adoptio e r i u q c a o t e v o r t s s e t a t S an object. t n e d n e p inde
y l w e n e s e h t , m e d h e t t p o o e c r o f e d b n a s e t a d t o o h e t a t s r i e Like other S h t g n i t t i f e b e v i t a r r a n l a n o ti a n . a s m u e d s e u t a m l u c n i i t h r a t i their cultures w collections that
ee
se
tion on
Aesnati» on| alMayEc 1974;
th,
onsOls
Conomic Order, , UNGA Rees s..33 201 : 8; and M. Bedjaoui, Towards a New
g n i y a l p s i d d n a g n i s u o h t , n g a n c i i f v i r n e g s i e s r p d f n o u o f s e y e h t , e g a t i r e Western mod h l a r u t l u c l a n o i t a n r i e h r t e h t e r t u u F t i t . s s e n s o s c o l ) e r l ( a r u o t t l u c g n i g k n e i e o s g n o By d n a s u o i v e r p y b d e n d o l i i u s b a c o c t o y t s i n l o i b i a t c e r i e h t n i d e t c i r t s n gaps in their coll o c e r e w s e t a t S e s e t h n t e v e t r n p a e o t m s s e e r c u r d u e o c s o e r r p d e s t m i o m t i s l u c , e e v i t mor c e f f e t n e m e l p m i n r a o t i f f l a o t s p o r e t t i e s m i u q e r r e m n r i a o r f t r , i s e e i h t t i l i t a fac h t d e u g r a y e h T . e ° c 4 n . a l a t ! r s e i t s a s m l a a r u l t a l u c c i n f o h t c r e o t p x e t d i c n i l a l l a the i i c n a n i f h c u s e , d n i o w i o r t p a n o p o t u i t c a c g o i l l b a g o i n n i o l o o g c n o y n b a d d a e h power nt nurtur
e m p o l e v e d r e n e d p n e u d n t i a f h o t t d n e a n r i g a e t h n t i h a t m i w s e e g t n a h c F o e s a These Sta e c y l p m i s t o n d i d , s e s s e h o t : l l l a a c r i t u n t e l d u i c e r o e t w , t n e s e r p d which led n a t s a p these losses, both
f s o e c n e u q e s n o c e dence. Th
48;
14 December 1973.
t of Cultural Value CO, ose
¢ UNES
M
3
Ctive “
me by the eee wards Chan ge: Soa
ff.
memory”.
24 August ughts on the New
an
251; 41 See UN Doc.A/CN.4/ ILM 14 975) eee De moe: paras.40ff. , e c e D 12 , ) X I X X Se ( 1 8 2 3 . s e 2 2 3 / 4 . N C / A . He UNGA R c o D N U 48 .3 i ra pa this , that 2 jopi . d d A / opined 2 2 3 / 4 States). Bedjaoul UN Doc.A/CN. q . 0 g 7 2 . a r a p 33 . d : d A / 5 4 /3 14. 4 . N 44 para. C I A e a i o e Do e c.A/C.6/34/SR.44, UN e i a c g n i r e v o c f ( n o i t n e 45 S ee Art.31(4), 1983 Vi:enna Conv ation:
ern t n i of e l u r y r o t p m e per a d e t a l u c i t r a n o i s Ke provi ras.49-53. 2;
2 3 / 4 . N C / A . c o D N U See
a)
and Art.16
, s e t a t S f o s e Duti d n a s t h g i R mic o n o Oise 484. AJIL 1), Charter 69 and (1975)
pa
by © al ur lt Cu of rn tu Re & s m u International Lait, Muse jects pecolon
items found their way to the museums and private coy] Ollecti ) Ns
fforme
capitals.
5 s ct je ob al ur lt cu of rn tu re e th of This extension e yond the phys; Th on si es cc su realm of State
r
takes it beyond the e t a n o t i ng ui in nt co a : ys wa o tw of e on in be read gati 10n by2 the Boa TN as ongoing injy
Mettopy
ity
power; or an obligation to address Caused by i T J y j st re e th d an acts. This latter characterisation,
heritage with the formulation of a tut on of aecultural property. Upon simila : rly alar : med at the escalating g 7 the international
conventio
t e in : on ti en d nv te co ca t lo af dr ) s IM ct je (O ob ce fi Of n m ee u e tw s u be M l na io n at io rn ct te in In st di r wa r-troactivity, the tere in e th d se that infu unno «cluded . . e tw ns be io ns te en d e, an at St e th of l le ro ra nt ce e l s, th ca te gi si lo haeo
oes
e
:the ‘nationa 1 cultural heritage
and the
Non-retroactivity
:
The 1970 UNESCO
n toc
en
:
:
ala.
eru. Like the limitations place the resultant 1970 UNESCO
ee moa and Transfer of Ownership of Onvention*? revisited several themes 70 there Ww: as an OX
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s
Ponential Jal rise rise ; in
Sta Pa, Cific
é
i
fs eaten legislation for the protection of national Sou a and the Middle East; B. Burnham, 7he
A Handboo} YY: on th € Means of Pr, OF on National Le ohi biting and Pr eye
19 November tage
. ) 4 7 9 1 , s i r a P ( s n o slati the Ilicit Export, gein
Import and Transfer
s n o i t a d n s e n m o m i o o t c n and Re 4, in Conve
(Paris,
’ d n i k n a m l al of ge ta ri he n o m ‘com
s t c e j l b a o r u t l u c n e o th i t of u t i t s e r e h t r Convention allows fo
e ur as me a is It .”° elf its on ti en nv Co CO ES UN 70 19 e th of s re oi at ar ép pr and travaux of y it il ab er ln vu d ve ei rc pe e th d an olitan powers
of the anxiety of former metrop nno ng mi ir nf co n io is ov pr a of n io us cl in e th on ed st si in ey th at th s um se mu their s wa n io is ov pr it ic pl ex no st il Wh ? .” on ti en nv Co O C S E N U 70 19 e th retroactivity in ns io at ti go ne l ra te la bi r te en to es at St es ag ur co en 15 e cl ti Ar , ty ea tr included in the x au av tr e Th n. io at er op its to r io pr d ve mo re s ct je ob al ur lt cu to resolve claims for for ‘scientific
the same to the latter.>’
m= co by d e r e f f u s es ss lo al ur lt cu e th of t n e m e g d e l w o n k c a d e i f i l a u q y l h g i h is th Eyen t af dr a , r e v e w o H . d e t c e
j e r s a w n o i t n e v n o c e th of n o i t a r e p o e th to r io pr d e t munities s e v p i h s r e n w o of n o i t i n g o c e r t e k n a l b e d i v o r p to s e i t r a P e at St g n i g i l b o provision
e Se 9. 28 M L I 10 1) 97 (1 d 231, an
nt of Art Treasures (1971) 12 HILJ
50
(1971)
erty p o r P l ra u: lt Cu to ts gh Ri n Sovereig
4 PYIL
239; S. Williams, The
; 1 9 8 7 1 . p p , ) 8 7 9 1 y, Ferr s b b o D ( y t r e p o r P l a r u Cult e bl va Mo of biens on s ti de ec ot Pr e l a al n o on i t ti a Na n r d e t an n i l na n io at io Intern stitut re a L , i c c u d r a C Gs ; 1401 fi y §§ r , a ff t 26 n e .7 m pp m o , C nt me , ve e Mo f e e e, K ef ’ O Ke P. J. d n a Prott and O’ ; ] 1 3 p , ) 7 9 9 1 , (Paris es rt po ex nt me te ci li il ou s le vo t ar d’ culturels et des objets . ) 0 0 0 2 , er st ce ei (L c fi af Tr t on Illici on ti en nv Co 70 O 19 C S E O N C U S E 95 N 67 U M L I on the 8 9) 96 (1 13 33 S T N U 55 11 , 80 to 19 y s ar rt nu pe Ja Ex 27 e rc fo al nt in me , rn 69 ve 19 Go y of e te it mm Vienna, 23 Ma Co l ia ec Sp e th of port Re d port an Ex 85 , rt po 1, Im .5 ra t pa ci li Il e x, th ne An ng enti ev Pr d an Doc.78EX/9, g in it ib oh Pr of means e th on on ti 2; en x nv ne Co An t , af 70 Dr 19 e ly th Ju 13 e in , am ex O Doe.16C/17
537; H. Nieciowna,
From 1940 to 19
;
s on ti ec ll co e th of y it gr te in e th in ta in ma to ed ne e th at th indicated ” . s n o i t a i t o g e n ch su y an in n o i t a r e d i s n o c t n a t r o p m i purposes’ is an t n e m n r e v o g e s e n i h C e th ), 15 e cl ti Ar as d e t p o d a ( 11 e cl ti In response to draft Ar : t n e m d n e m a g n i w o l l o f e h suggested t in is e, rc fo to in s e m o c n o i t n e v n o C e th n e h w , h c i h w y rt Pa [A] State d an , ed ir qu ac y tl ci li il , ty er op pr al ur lt cu t n a t r o p m i an of possession r he ot an of on ti sa li vi ci d an y or st hi e th , om fr e l b a r a p e s n i inalienable to, and e ut it st re to r u o v a e d n e , ll wi od go l a n o i t a n r e t n i of st re te State, shall, in the in
Convention
Pp.
-
er aft , in ig or of y tr un co e th of ws la e th of n contraventio in d re er sf an tr r do exporte y ar om st cu om fr d me su as be n ca n io at ic pl ap ctive oa tr re nno Its e. rc fo it came into es ti ea Tr of w La e th on on ti en nv Co na en Vi 69 19 the of 28 e cl ti Ar , w a l l internationa
inde: 4 flow ee art market.4 The i: ntere natie onal legj posed during the 1930s was final] y realised duri n, of empires: the 1970 UNESCO C onvention. Restitution and the 1970 UNES ieee decolonisation, CO n ewl oundaries, but also pol icies a
207
n o i t u t i t s e r t u o ation with
C S E N U ; ty er op Pr al ur lt Cu and Transfer of Ownership of
1038. M L I 9 0) 97 (1 d an ; 29 d an 18 s. para ecia Sp r fo rt po Re l na Fi 51 Ror example, UNESCO, nex 1, 22-23
An , 1 . d d A / 3 2 1 / A U C . c o D O C S E 1964, UN e th ng ti en ev Pr d an g in it ib oh Pr O, Means of
and UNESC
i
); on ti da en mm co Re 64 19 e th ng di ar eg (r (UK) Own
, on ti en nv Co t af Dr to s ie pl Re ership of Cultural Property:
(USA).
ental Experts, 21 March
t ci li Il e th ng ti en ev Pr d an g in it ib oh Pr of s an Me , O C S E 52 See UN s £1969, gu Au 8 , rt po y Re ar in im el Pr : ty er op Pr al ship of Cultur
13 and 80; and UNESCO
Doc.SHC/MD/5.
4. 1, x ne An , 5 / D M / C H S . c 53 UNESCO Do
, Export and Transfer of
Tilic
r e n w O f o r e f s n a r T Import, Export and 2— 1 . s a r a p , 3 / D M / C UNESCO Doc.SH
™ UNESCO Doc.S
0. 1 2; x e n n A , 5 / D HC/M
be n o i t u t i t s e r t ion withou
s ct je Ob al ur lt Cu of rn tu Re & s International Law, Museum
be to t por pur y the n whe n eve m, for in al leg ly ent par ‘ap — ers nsf sra eed
ae ed ir qu ac s ct je ob al ur lt cu of s, al on ti na its in a State, or
Convention’s operation was also deleted.
h suc m fro ing eer fit pro als ion nat r thei and tes Sta olun ie effected’s and neutral
A State Pa ag
Bs m
at th n io at sl gi le ng ti en em pl im retroactivity by passing
juntar
it ib oh i e at St r he ot S an the j om fr y ll ga le il ed rt po ex s ct je ob al cultur ny ti ME, NOt jyPogertar,.wn 1970 Convention came into operation.°° Museums and archaeological sites Market States successfully resuscitated the different; objects located in museums and archaeological site = we
me
ern modes - possessing cultural herita ge and the unfe —- objects. The division was manife sted clea 1 is ai19e70 UNESCO Conv m5 ention. Inserted at the beh estae Hon of these provisions was further narrowe ~~
i
ological objects and si tes.58 D; espite its limitation s >
¢ of cultural objects (Article 7(a)).>°
obmiusenims
D paps
able to Negotiate the ;
:
claims
for th
e restitution of
4
ertinen
fo the question of what constitutes
jects by an ais
was n io at ar cl de the As °° e. at St g in py x, these Provisions of notion broad the encompass: arguably
ex _?1,
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14+43
é Hunga UNE 3 ESCO
Doc oc.SHC/MD
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ogical Heritg oon
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.
ation; 4
Se
1 ras ¢ UNESCO
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«25 Mexico, UNESCO Doe.SHC/MD'5 .
D oc.16C/17,
12. re be ga as n tio ven Con an ope Eur and 9 196 May 5 Teplaced by py wondon, Archaeothe of n tio tec Pro the on N, >In force 20 vent; Pean Con ar Janu TS 16 y UN 788 , 1970 r ovembe 228; ETS No.66 ntion on the Pr Otecti; on of the , 1992, ETS N ? o Archaeol ge,
ly Nafziger, Ari
0.143),
of the UN "d Internat8ionaangl 9(gaaitn, |)Hacken sack vee raft Arts.
Conye
ding
t in n o i t c a h c u s y an
e e r g e d a y o j n e s i g e e l e d e s i s S a p e o v a e h ‘c s e t a t S l a r e v e s 9, and 8 s r e t p a h C in n e g ned i i d a n i l p x e s y l r a l u i c i t r a p , s e i oral t i n u m m o c n i a t r e c f o s ct e j b o l a r u t l u c : ; e a r é a ion to Jate the State-
‘neighbouring States; and ins finalisation of other
excludes
m o r f y l t c e r i d n i or y l t c e r i d g n i s col, i r a n o i s l u p m o c r e d n u y t r e p o r p l a r u s ’ q a r T ’ t. pip of cult ci li il as d e d r a g e r e b l l a h s r e w o p n g i e r o f a y b y r t n u o c a f o e h t of n o he i s u l c n i e h t h t i w n o i s i v o r p e h t f o n o i t a c i l p p a e v i t c e p s o r t e r . d ny Se e t a e f e d s a w , ’ he past
O t P to s e r u s a e m e t a i r p o r p p a l al e k a t ‘ l l i w s e i t r a P e t a t S t a h t r fo e s e e i l r a o t i o r r e t e h t n Be i h t i w < y t r e p o r p l a r u t l u c f o r e f s n a r t t ci li il h e c h u t s d r e e n i e f e d a x u a v a r t Aa e h T . ’ e l b i s n o p s e r e r a y e h t h c i h w r o f a s n n o i i h t t a i l w e r s | e t a t S e a c d e t a r e d e f of Bo e , s e i r o t i r r e t n a t i l o p o r t e m a r t s e OF ex l p o e p s, je s u e o n a e g i c d a n i to d n e t x e Be pe t o n s e o d n o i s i v o r p e h t , y l b a u g r A r o p 3 m I . a y t i r a . P ie e t a t S e a h t n i h t i w y m o n o t u of a
: nei e e of
of London and colomalism € 1970 UNE SCO Convention cultura] objects re
1, which are more d
effort ” a
io
to regulate the illicit trade.°’ This move reflected _ ecee on
1943 ae
d n a n o i t n e v n o C e u g a H 4 5 9 1 e h t n i d e n i a t n o c s n o i t a g i l b o firms f a e y ‘ 1 1 of e J er sf an tr d an t r o p x e e h icle T “ : es at st It ! ° . e p o c s in d e etail
aeological Heritage (Revised), Valetta, . DuBoff (ed.), Art Law; Domestic
,
of e s u a c e b d e s i m o r p m o c is 2 1 d n a e e e e e e e of e s e l p o e e p o f ous e h t n i h t i w s e l p o e P . n o i t n e v n o C O O n UNESC If 0 7 9 1 ” . l l a h e b r i e h t n o n e ee o i t n e v n o C e h t e c r fo n e e to e l a i r it e p m i of n h t o g p n u e r t g s n d i nn u e n i t n o c e h s e t t n n e e s e e r B p e r ee a te a Sta. g n i r e g n i l e h t s t c e refl e t a t S e h t of g n i g e l i v i r p y l w e n s ’ f n o o i t n s e e y i n o c C n e d n e t O C y r S o E t N a U l i i m i s s a e h t d n a Bee 190 w a l l a n o i i t a n r e t n i n i . g g n m n i s i n i n i v i g i g t a i m s i o p l a f n o o i t a n 4 e u influence s r u p y e h t s a s e t a t S r e l t t e s d n a t n independe eee n e v n o C O C S E N U c i 0 r 7 t 9 n 1 e c e e h t f Stat o l m u c r o l’ f na io at l ‘n a n i f e h 3 ‘ t f o 2 t c i t e a m p s ‘ a s it g n i k i a r : st e a g n i u l g . os n o i t n e v n o C e u g a H c i c 4 c 5 i 9 c 1 e A h t E B m o r e f a n e c a e m sets it apart r e p s e m i g e r t n e m e c r o f n e e i d n n a e e s n w o i t u t e e e e e ture, laws, insti 4 5 9 1 e h t y b d e h c n t a e m e t e o n o c e e r g e e d e a e o t o t e n e m u r t d e s n n i i a r t s n o c h c i h w s e c n c e u e l f p n i e m a s e h t e y b n O e v 9 i 1 r d e h t was r e d n U . n o i t a s i . n o l o c e d o g n i o r u d n o i e t a n i o m r e t e y d h s t o r self p e b o t e r a s t c e j b o l a r u t l u c h c i h w s e n i f 0 e « d e d n t a a t S l o r t the n o c r o f r e g g i r t e h h T t a ° ° . n o i t c e t o r y: r o t i r r e t 5 sures for their p : State
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t c i l f n o d C e m r A f t o n e in the Ev . 7 6 . a r a p ; 3 ! D M / C H ih S . c o te cu D O C S E N U th 3 6 i w ‘ e d | 10. u e l r c i S n ooine t ) G : c ( 4 . t n r o A neng of
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of ifth F e th ion of n o i t u l o s e R 2. See 8. .1 ra pa ; .1 rr Co d an . VI x Doc.A/31/1976, An2;neand UN Doc.A/9339 UN Doc.A/9199,
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n o C a n n e i V 3 8 9 1 e h t of peration ae r o y w ll ia it in e g a t i r e g h n l i a r d u t u l u l c £ exc 0 s n o i t u l o s e r n o i t u t i t s ESCO e r e h t h g u o r h t e g a t i r e h l a r u t l u c l a n o i t a n f o u m l a i r stitution : e p m i coe r housed in forme
d n a n o i t a s i n o l o c removed during
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q t e r n a i l a n d o n i t a a n r s e e t s n s i e c e o h t r p o t e n h o t s e i t that i n u m m o c d e i p u c c o m o r f s t c e j b . o n o , i s e t t a rural a t s S i n g n o i l d l o o c h e n d i s r r e e t l f a e a d e t r u a n d i n t a n s o l a c i c i f s f m © m u s e n o s i t u c museu e m l l n o i c a f t o r e n c o i t f a o i r c t i a r p e o r t e e h l r a s e e l h o t h w e e t t a i c o v d g a n i Desp t t o s n e u d q e i r d s t s t o r m o f p o e R n o r i t a i k s o a p D e h t d n d a e t e c e c l f i e r n s i o t h t n e the Ve v , i d g e e s i d n y I t i r 7 o 8 . i s r P e r ® t ® . n s n e o n c i t a t c e i l l l o c o p e v o i r t a t t e n e m s e e r c p n a e c r from i f r i o n f g i d s e f o e n e r r a i e h d h t c e i t h w a r e e e t c i n a e t r r h o p c m i i h s w u o i g i l e States r r o l a c i r o t s i h , c i h p n a o r g e o k n a t h t y e l ‘ n o f ‘ o t a h t d n objects a e t a t S g n i m t s s i e u n q o e i r t a c e i h f t i l f o a u q ’ y t s i i t h n [ e d i 9 8 s i » e h t I t x e for t t . n ) o ) d c ( 3 1 l a n i e g l i c r i o t r A r ( i e h t ‘ n o n i i t n e r e a v n o y e C h t © n C S r E a N w r U ing’ whe e t n 0 i 7 9 1 e h t e h g t ’ n r i r e u d d n u s t f t a n r d e m e r M i I u O q e r r e t a e l h t n o than d e c a l p s n o i t a c i f i l a u q e h t f o t n . e s c e i s r d t n n a u o c remini s n n o a i c t i a r N e m A d e t o i l n g U n A e h f o t t n i s e h ‘ e s e b t a e t h S t t 9 a n d l a u o c e ‘ i p r o f pe r o u E s n n o o i n t p f e o c n o c s r e n r b e m t u s n e W g d n e i t s p a e e c r c a e h O t C © S The inc t E N e g U n e l 0 l 7 a 9 h 1 c e h t d e t y r b e c d n e o r c e v a o c o t s t d c e e l j b o y l l w a e r n u t l e u s c UNESCO e h f t o f o e g n s a n r r e c n r o e c d i w e h t e h d T e t c e l ’ f y e t r r e s p t e f h a t r d f o M tural pro I n o O i t i g n i n f i e d d e c e s r ’ p e t u o t t a t S d e r e a e p t m t o i c m m o n C o i t l a t n e Conven m n r e v o g r e t n I e h T . s e t a t e S u C t n e d n e D p S inde 1 or » CO! l a i n o l o C f o t l u s e R 4 s a y t r e p o r P h c u s ? t x s e o L n n A g n i v , a 6 H 8 / C s e 0 2 . c o D Countri O C S E N U 8, !
7 9 1 r e b m e t p e S Dakar, 29 Experts on the Establishment
> ® t e p a P t a i r a t e cr e S , r a k a D , y t r e op ’ r u t P a t S l a r t u f t a l r u D C , 1 f o x e n n A d n or Return a ; } t r o p e R r a k a D [ t e p 6 o r / P 9 0 6 . l F a N r u O t Cul 78/C f o n r u t e R + 0 n o i t u t i t s e R e h t g n i
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to t h g i concern R e th d n a y l b m e s s A l a r e n e G s n o i t a N s. Statute]. d e nit U e h T . 1 : 4 y 2 r . o a t r s a i p H Final r UN DocN..A/TPhVo.m2a3s55Be Rolling Back a k a D d n a 5 4 para. 86 See D. rt, o 4 p 5 e R t a . 60 7 r 4 a k a L D I J Y 5 R 5 W . a C r a p 22 ) , 0 9 1 9 Annex a Cultural Property (1 ; y d u t S OM c I 6. 5 16 1 . ra 2 pa 7 , t r o , p ’ e d k R c n e a c i n e V l a See c i n h c e t e t a u q e , d n a o s or f homa T d he d t n f o y c in Report, paras. 1 2ff. a m i @ r ; p 18 he m t u e “ s u M 31 i ) 9 7 9 1 ( a Eyo, Nigeri
e n a l a b s a W e iv ct je ob s i h T . 4 1 . a r a p , t r o p e R s Dakar Final ct pe as l a c i s y h p e th of re ca e th r fo s e financial resourc , 2 1 . a r a p ; y d u t S M O
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Rockefeller (USA).
e th se ci er ex to s p u o r g e t a t S n o n of y it il ab e th ; s 2 e n rs i cha m e ficantly u,nesdetorih cultural d an ial , soc ic om on on ec d ti an na mi er et -d lf se peop
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j between negotiations bilateral for preference marked da e t a r t s n o m e d CO itution of cultural
t s e e r h s r t m o f i e a v s l l n c o o s i e t r to or their institu e Th °° .! on ti en nv Co O C s S E r N U e b 70 19 m e th of n io at er op e state me th to 1 o i r p d e or rn v tu Re o r fo m ts es e qu Re r ng ncerni co e rm Fo h t rd da an St f o objects e s U e h t r o f rpa o w t s s e e s o p n p u s i e r p l e e t t i m m o C e th Guide by d e t p o d a d n a M O C I y b d e t f a r d n o i Restitut e’s inter$e
e t t i m m o C e th r ge ig tr to s n o i t a i t o g e n l a r e t a l i b of e r u l i ‘res the fa e u q i n u s a w m i a l c h c a e at th ef the beli
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vention.
d e r r e f e r p e th , s e s n s e e c e o b r p s d a n h a s es m i ci a l li po l a i such c n o l o c e th y l r a l u c i t the context, par s se u l c x e s i h T . n i s g e i r r o p p f u o s e i t i n u m m o c It arguably s r i e h t m o r f s t c e j b o e h t f o l a v o s m t e n e r m e e h e t r g o t a d l e a l r e t h a c l i i wh ntering b
e y l i r a t n u l o v s r e w o p n a t i l o p o r n o t i e t m u t i r t e s m e r r r o e f d i D s 0 n o c o t s e t a t S e s sive reliance e h t f o y l l a c i r o t s i h e c n a t c u l e y r l w e e h n t e h t n e d v n i a g s r e w o p n a t i l o p o r t e is extraordinary m r e m r o f n e e w t e b t e w o t p i m e m h o t C e , h n t o i y t b i d d e d t a b r e c a x e is n claims. In a o i t i s o p s i h T . l a u q e n u s n n i e a v m i e G r ? s ° e ! t . a k t r S o w t n s e it d n r e v o g indepen ’ l a g e l t o n s r e t t a m l a c i h t e d n a g n l i a w r o o l m l ‘ o f t a s h t t c e j n b o o i t l a r u t l u c f o tee’s declara n o i t u t i t s e r e h t g n i r e v o c s t e h c g i i r t c a l r a p r o m e t a o t t e e t t i m m o C e h t the consistent S f o e c n e r e f e r e h t , 5 1 8 1 e c n i s n o i t u b i territorial redistr . e v i t c u i n d o o l r o p c r e g t n n i r u u o d c d d e n v a o m e e r v i s s t s c e e r j g b e o r r is o f s m i a l c e v l o s e r o t e f e o t t n o i i m t m i o n g C o c e e h r t e h t r o f h s u p n The inability of a c i r e m A n i t a L e h t f o t e a h t e f e o d t c e i h s t n i r y t b n i d e O g S g a e l r f a s s t a c w e j n b o o i t sa suggested certain
o t g r e t r l r u e s F e r a o t s a s u l g a u u A d i v . i f e d i n l i e r r o e t e a t n a r t e S t al r e h t o n a y b n o i t i s i u q c a . t r s i i e x h e t o t t a h e t t a t n S o i a t f o t h g i r e h t f o identity of a na n o i t a l o i v a is e d a r t t i c liabili l 4 l r o 1 n incurs o i t a beneficiary or conquest, occup aggressor an is that g n i t State l u a s e r that y n a r o f n o i t a maintained r a p e he r e k a m o Further, t d e t a g i l b o s i d o n l a o c , y y t b u d a d e f t o e l p h e c d a e r n b e e a b f o s a h e e ity beca us g a t i r e h l a r u t l u c n e a s o f o h w n s o e i l p s o e i p v o r at th p e h d t e t a c r o o v d a n e H o i t . a ry s inju n e p m o c o t d e l t i y t b n e d e e b c d n u l u o o h n s e n d o i t a s p a u w c c o n n o g i i e t r o p f o or t s r i nial f e h T . e l b a i v t o n 1s n o i t u t i t s e r n e h w e u l a v e k i l f o object
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e f n n i s i u d . m l s e o t t H e a k St mar t g p n e i c d c r a o n o t t o c c i c e t a j a b e v o h r t f e o s e t r a p d th
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r e d r o l a r u t l u c l a n o i t a n n r i e t n d i e t o w u q e n a , w o s B d ’ r M a w o r t a t g h n a i M k r u o o W d a m A l a r e n e G r o t c e r t i i D m m o O C C S e h E t N f o e v e e h t n o d e r e v The plea by the U i l e d s a w , r e t p a h c s i , h l t a f r o e n e t G n r e o m t c e e c r n i D e m n m a o c i c r f e A h t y l t a n o t e h t par e t a d o t d n a t f s o r i f g n e i h m t i o a , l B w c ’ M ) e r ( r o F e h t . n o d i n s a s e s l a t w s r e i n f e r s ’ | tee a r u t l u c r o f h s u e p c i n r w a e n d a o s f e o r t r r a a p l u c e i m t a r c a e p b d l a a h e p l p l a a c the s i H . s e l p o e p d e s i n o n l i o c s e y i l t r i e n m r u o m f m o y c b in y o r p o u m e d e m t i s l i a v r s s o l cultu l a r u t l u c f o e l a c s e h t f o e s u a c e b c i f i c a P a i s A in the . n o i t a e s h i t n o l o , c r a W n a e d p l o r r o W t s r i F e h t g this region by Eu n i w o smantling foll ts
i c d e j b o e r i l p a m e r u t f l o u c e s n a i h a p t r e t c s r i f f o e h n t o i s e k s e Li s s o p e h t d n a m u e s u m m u l e a n s o u i t M a n n a i a l a f r o t s u A e h t f o t h c e p establishment S m i j . a r e e c n e s d t n c e e j p b e o d n l i a r u e t h l t u c f o g c n i i r t o a t i e r h t r a p e e h r t f d o fuelle t c a e h t d o i r e é p s i h r t e t t g a t n l e i h T i s r u s d a 6 w 1 t 1 a c h i t m a d n e ; y v d r s i h ; T . n o i keenly obse n t u t l t s peicised as the act of requesung re m s i l a n o i t 0 a n f m or f a , c i f i c a P was as polit a i s A e h t n i m s i l a n o i t a n g n i w o r g f o d o i r e p a t s n agai
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Figure 7.2 Aborigin al Gallery, Austral ian Museum,
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Past and present acquisition policies of museums. ici ISiti
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at , n o j , on on gi s ti re ie c rt en ifi ate pa e nv to th i Co th om wi 18 e fr ia th As Paci g/culture, ; - MacLulich >» Ch: Changes q 10 P. McManus (ed.), 4 nd Challenges: The Australian Museum and Indigenous In
rchaeological Displays and the Public (London, 1996); 5
96
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aged to maintain their
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119 See R. Kaiku,
Edwards 1980), p.175a ae ae e Se
lonial domination’, 118 This climate had a significant Sits a picesofe apua New Guinea and Australia, and these aod
aterthe orant ofof inde 4 affected Australia’s relationship with Papua New Guinea €
ions to nurture 4 nation
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see
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1979), p.392.
se the Visual Art of
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n o i t u t i t s e r t u o h wit
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poli Indi Be ing alter a’s rali Aust s. 1970 mid the ng duri shift t n a c i f i n g i s 4 g n i o met away s focu of sfer tran nt’s rnme gove federal 1 tine n d e t c e l vipidentity f e r ity was lam Labor government ; cen ous
ral cultu onal nati an rali Aust r, hbou neig ent pend e d n f its newly i
the Asia Pacific region.!2” The Whit
Pre
govand e lativ legis of ce rtan impo the jniti jatives that stressed 130 ge ta ri he l ra tu na d an al ur lt onal cu ti na s a’ li ra st Au ¢ () n o i t c e t o t r n e m p n r e v o g l ra de fe ntal e th , t n e m e v o m ts gh ri l vi ci s u o n e g i d n i growing cul-
us no ge di in r fo a li ra st Au in s tu pe im e h T . a d n e g a ist cultural by t bu rs ke ma cy li po us no ge di in nno ic et h t a p m y s pur y b t o n d e l l e u f s on a ti w ta en es pr re l e a th w t ns ai ag d e e t a r t s n o m e d y e h : T e s. tural ren v l e s m e h s t n a i l a o s t r n i t a m s e l u r a r A t s e c n a f o n r u t e r e s h d t e u d o n n a m e e g d d i n d a In s m u e s u m e t a t s s rt y fo b ef n s a i l e a r r t s u u A t s u l o n u e g i d n I , s e l p o e p of their c d e i p u c c o r e h t o h t i w g A 1 13 lf se r fo . s s m i e a l c i h t t i w i d n e n i : w t n e e r e w y r o t s i h their commu d n a e r u t l u c al n o i t adi
r t r i e h t s s to reposse . s t h g i r t n a d c i n f i n a g i l s a d d e n k a r a m 3 n 7 9 o 1 i in t a ) B n A i A ( m r d e r a t o e B d s t r A l a n i g i r o b A d r a e o h B t e f h o T 2 2 ! . s n e r o u t i l u t c a s m u o r n o e g f i d n i e h n e T h t g n e r t s d n a d l i u b e r n r e o v t o g n n a g i l i a r a t s p u A m a e h t c y b e d h e t d n u n f i s a w d step a n s n a i l a r t s u A as s s u e r o u n t l e u g c i d n a n j I l a r t of s u A p s u u o n e g e i d d n I a d m e v i e c r was e p s e v i t a i t i n i d n a age r u s e o i c c n i e l o t o p e v o tr s s ’ t I B A . t A s a p l e a i h d T r o m i r p a ment. n i d e d n e p s u s d : an t o n n o e i t r a e t e w r p t r e a t h n t i ’ , s n e o r i t : a u v t r l e u s c e r p g e h t n ‘ivin i g n i k a m n ities’ decisio indigenous
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l a r e d e . f s e e r h u t t n l i u c d e t r c i e e l h f t e r f o s a w t n s e e l m p p o o e P s u devel o n e g i d n i s t i e h h t t i f w o s n t 0 1 r t o p a l e e R r 5 g 7 n 9 i 1 r e t e l h a t s n ’ i a d i e l n a i r a t n o Aust c m u e s u m l 3 a 8 M n o ) i t r t o a n p e a r R o f t t o l g a i s P o ( p o r s p n o i s t ’ c t e n l e l m o n C l a gover n o i t a N d n a g d s e m l u w e o s n u k c M a n d © i n y a r i u q g n n I i f r o e b m e e e m t e r o t Commit d a o r e h t . n a o i l a e r t v s o u m A y l n i r h a e t i w n a s e l d p e k o r e a p m t s r u o o n e g i d The rep n i n o n d n a v o g s u o n n a e i g l i a d r t n s i u A n e e e h w t t e b d n s a n o i t m a s l e i r v i t c a ing past s u o n e g i d n s i n o d i e t s a a c e i r f c i n m i a r e h t g n f i 0 o g s k n r o a m l d l a a h h s a h t I It bore the . s n r e c e h t s con u o t o n e s g i m d u n i e s o t u m s s n e a n e i v l i a s r n t o s p u s A d n a ernment’s re s n a i l a r t s u A s u o n e g i d n I n e e w t e b p i h s n o i for the relat
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of s e i t i r o h t u a t n e t e p m o c e h h t t i w 279. t l , u ’ s n n o o c i t i d l s u i o w cqu m A u e s , u . m n o e n 3 h A 1 T — p 0 7 : 5 3 1 e , t : ) a p d 0 p 8 9 t , 1 a ’ h s t e , g n o y t a e or «Ch i ydn r S p , ( h d c e i v 0 o l 8 m u 9 e L r 1 c a y l M 9 l a 7 g ille ] Report 19 Specht and nd nua a n A 5 9 , 3 m u 8 e 2 s u M , ’ ian l a r t s u A “ 151 Australian , t h J. Spech' t; Spec
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s t h g i r l a r u t l u c d n a n e o h i t t a d e n g i e m l i r v e i r t p e d r a f W l e d s l r o , W s e d l n p o o c e e p S e h s t u o g n n i e w o e l r l e o w f Indig s w a p l u o r l g a e ion t t a a t n S r e t n o n n i f o f o s r t e n b e m m e p m o l l e a v u d i v i d n I { The de . s t c e j b u s . k s a r o w l e a m u a d r i f v i d s n t h i g i r e h t n d a n m a u h y e t | i t a n n Stat e o d i i t a e n v r i e t t c e n l i l o c e h t e h t n f i o h t i n w o i t c d e e t t o c r e p t o e r h t d e h t e n s to be p o i m o d e r c p a m l p o c s n y o i m t o c t i r o t h s c e r i d e h s t i h t h t f i o w y d t e t a b d r e s e o c p a exclusivi x m e i s a s w e s i y c m n o e r i p c m i o f e c d e s h i T h T . n . o s i p t u a o s r g i i n o d l n o a c e d of such n o i g t n a i r r g u e d t n i n o j e h t t a n h i t i m w r e t e d d e n g f i l l e a s f e o r e w s w m a s l i exercise n a l h a c n e o i m t ‘ a n y r r e a t n m i i r n p i e s r t e n w e m p s o e i l c e i v l o e p d e s n e e h e T w t on these e . b s e t a s t S e c n e n r i e a f t f r i e d c e f h o t s e e s i i c c i i l t o i p l o p e n d o i t d a n a e s assimil i c i r o t s i h e d o t d e r e t s o f ’ s s e n l u f t e . e r u t l u of forg c t n a n i m o d e h t d n a s e h l c p o e s p e l p s o u e o n P s u o indige n e g i d n i P s , e y T r u t r n e e i c l r a e h t e e i h t t n e w s e t e n t i a l l t u o e s e n u o q By th i t c e e h s t , s e i g a h $ t T y l . r y a e l l a n s o i h i t t a n r m e o t r n f i t d a a n h t y d l r n l a a a e n l c n a natio s t i i l t I o p o r . t s e g e n m e l l r a e h m © r o e f s e h y t b o t d l e h s n o i , t e a g r a i t e i h r e t h d United N l e a t r u n t o l r u c f n O C s u o n s e n g o i i d t n a i s i f n o a g r n o o i t u s t u i t o s n e f o g i d t n n I e tion of re m . p n r o e l c e n v o e c d l e a h r t t n e d c a n a s a w s n o i , t s a 1 m s u i e n a s g u r m o l a national n o i t a n r e t n i 0 1 n o i t a p i c i t r a p m o r f n o i s u excl cluding:
n i , s t n o r f veral e s n o w a l ; s international s e c o r p n o i t t a s s i i x n e o l n o i c h e t i w c d t h h g t i l f p o r i s e n h t o i t e a s t o i p m x i E l © e t h t n g o n i i t t u a p n s i i d m i r ) 1 c ( is d = n o n f o s e l p i e c n i r p e o t n o i t a (2) utilising th r a l c and de ing States; t s e e h t r o f g n i d n a (3) agitat . s ; t s h t g h i g r i r d p n u a o r g r s n r e c n o c r i e h address t t o n e h t f o n o e i s t o a p t x i e c s u O s t e r e e s h r t u o c s i d g n i w t a a l c nal o “ (4) advo 1 ing . s e r u t l u c d n a s e i t i n u m m o c ir o e p e h t s u o n n o e g i d n r e x e e h t In short, i e ‘al occupation t a r e l o t d l u o w y t i n u m m o c l a n s o n i o t i t a a n r r i p e t n s a i he he t t d h e c t i r h a w h t n o e i c t n a a s t i s n m o u l co e d g n i The circ r u d ation n -
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d n a s t h g i r n a m u h f o n o i t c e t o r p e h t o t g n i t a l e r s t n e l a m n o p i t o a n l r e e t n v i f e o n d o i t f a l o u c i t w r a e e i h t v d e n r s a e l e h p t s o e u s p o e n d e u incl indig for indigenous n I ! ! . ’ d l r o W d r i h T e h t r o f d i d e c n o y l b m e s s A f o l a s t r h e g n i R e G e h t e n o n o i t a r a les what th l c e D t f a r d e h t g n i n e v r a e h c n s o e c t a t S s n . y l b m e s s A t deliberatio l a r e n e G e h t t o n s i m u t s r o o M f e h . t y l t r n a a e c l i c f i n g i s s, it is n o i t a r a l c e D N U t f a f o e s i c r e x e ack the Dr e b h t y l l a c i f i c e p s t d n n i a r , i s e t h h t g i r d e s l u l a o d ‘on e t i n indigen U e h T . i w a l l a n o i t a n r e t n i e g n t i a t s r i e x e l o f t o s e . n 2 i 0 f 0 n 2 o c States y a e h M t n i n i h n t o i i s w s e y s l n t o s , r i n f o s t i i t a d l n e i h m r s e e u s t s e I s e l u b o a n n e e gelf-d g i d d n l I u o w n o m m u r u o r f o F t t n n e e n a n m a r e m p r e e h P t s n t a h t g n e i p Natio d o u h l c n e i h t , s d e e s l p s o e e p r p e x h t e l l s a e f a o D s n r o i i a t a h N C d e t y i t i n r U a wGIP d a i l o y s l u r d t n a e b y t i o l t a u q e e h t s r , a t s e a y l t a 0 5 , f l t e x s t i n i h ‘the ne t i w t c e l f e r s u h t d n a , s e l p o e p s u o n n o i s indig e i v e r e h t n i a r t n i t e s n o i l t o a z ’ i d n n a i g k r O n r f o u o b n of huma a : o e i N t a l r a g n e o t i n t I a n r d e n t a n I n e o h i t t c e , s t 0 o 8 r 9 P 1 e h e h t t g g n i n r s e e Durin c i n r o t c n u o ) C 7 5 9 t 1 n e f o d n e 7 p 0 e 1 d . n o I N ( n i n s o n i o i t t n a e l v u n p o o C P l e h a n b o i i r t t of t a r g i e m t e n S i d h n t a i w l a s b n i o r T i t a r p e u h c t c O o e d r n p a ’ s s e u t o a n t e S s d a e w t Indig c e e l r f e e h r t h , w c e i i h v w e r ) e 7 h 0 t 1 . t o u N o b a n o t i n t e n c e i t v e n r o C y l e l h a t i t i n n (LO i i d s e p t u l o u r s g e r r s J u o 4 1 n e . g s i s d e n c i o r p e t g i n p i s t e f D a r d 3 1 . s e n h i t n policie s i e l p t o n e e P m e v l a l b o i v r n T s d s n u a o n e s g u i o d n n e i g i d d n e t I n e d g e n i n r e unprec c n o c ) 9 8 9 1 f o 9 6 1 . o N ( n o i ° t . n e ) v 9 n 6 o 1 a . o e N JLO C m a n c o e i b t n e n o v i n t o a C n i m O r L e t ( e d s e f i l r e t s n u o l C a c i t t n i e l d o p f ” o n e Indepen t m h g m i o r c e l h a t g e f l o d n n o a i s u s J n e o x i e t a s s i ’ 9 n 6 a 1 g . r o o N s O L u o n e g Yet, I i i d n i y b n o i t n e v n o C e h t f o m s i c i t i r : s e s i central c n g o c e r e l b
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n, o i s s e S h t n e 619. e t hir T s t i n o s n o i t a l u 9 p 9 o 1 P ( 11 M. n s o u i o t n a dige mi n n r I e t e n D o f l e S p u o t o r G Claims g n ons i i k t r a o d W n e e m h t m . o 8 2 c f . e o a R r a p nd a ort p e R s n o i , t % s n e 2 e a / v D 5 n 9 o , C O .2/19 b L u I S 12 B-I, / 4 . d n N a C / B ; 7 4 2 c o D S T N 1 U 0 9 . , p 5 9 9 1 t , 8 s ) 6 u 2 6 g 9 u 3 1 A 0 1 9, n 5 , o a 9 i v t 1 e a n p e i G c ( i e t n r a u P J 2 6 6 e r o Th f ce 9-19 1 9 in 1 , s e a D , 7 5 9 ; 1 n . o I i . t E n e at Conv nd a 4 0 r 0 u ); 2 o 13 26 June le b a fi L y n a o M 7 y 2 nal p o o i c t ( a n r e t n , I 2 s 0 n o 0 i 2 e t h u t t i t s y tober Adopted b Political Yn m’s Barsh, e t s y S l e s s u R s n o i t a N ited n U e 14 Observation h t N O jn S s S e P l p o e P sa e n e c n a t of Indigenous s ic S T N U 0 5 6 1 O e F , 1 9 9 of Indigenous, 5 September 1
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t, r o p m I t i c i l l th g n i t n e v , e 2 r 7 P 9 1 d n l a i r g p A n 4 2 iti b i e h c o r o f r P n i f o , 0 s 7 9 n | Mea r e e h b t m e n v o 0 N n 4 o , 1 enti s i r v a n P o C , , ) i y G t r ) e b p ( o 7 | Pr a r u 67 See Art. t l u C f o p i h s r e n w O f o r e and Transf its 89. 2 o t y . M t 4 r L e , l p o 3 o i 8 r / P y C | 1 ra ¢.2 (1971 u t l 3 1 u 3 C 2 o f D o S O T C n N r U S u 823 NE Ret U e h t e e 001, S g 2 n 9 i t t o s m u o g u r A P . 9 r 1 , o f ities dy, 9-1 v e u i t t t S c t A i M m s O t m C i o I C n e o e | S :n 68 o a i t t n a e i m r n p r o r e p v p o A g r te icit n l I M e h t f o y b t e r s o a p e C R n e i , 710 Se s n e l o p i o t e u P t i s t u s o e n R e its dig r n o I f i o g i r y O t f r o e p y o r r P l 0. a Count 1 u t c . e a l r l a e p t n I , 6 d 1 an P/ E R l / a C r u 1 t l 3 u . C c o D e h t O 0f n o i UNESC t c e um, t e o s r P u M e . h y t 6 7 a 1 e n . l o a c r a y a M d Stu er, , p c 8 , i 2 s f e f / a O 3 D 9 e . 9 I . g E a e t e i S r 71 He s u o n e g i N d C n / I E , Doc ack t S N U . R , 3 9 h 9 t 1 i y l u J 28 e t a T e h t f o n sio c s e e p S s s J. o P h t i e w h w t e i v n r i e w o n 72 Tnt g n t n i ; a y P e n a of Syd t , c y e e p n d y S f o y t i s Univer t y r u r o o C s i v e m d e A r n p u tio S a i l n o o p i t S a e h c t u f d o E t r f o o p ry t 73 Re s i s n ’ i n M e s e s h u T n . g 9 v. a 1 . M p e e) t , ) u n iy it Ar t C s H n v. I 1 0 n 0 o 2 i ( n t y a a r c e e l u a l d a n E G g f a x o m y a r n t r s i A n ‘ i M d r n o a i t a ; und 6) 6 9 1 r e b m e Arne Magnussen Fo 966, (Nov of Denmark,
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: -4 the restitution PrOCess. First, they can oe aid in the amelioration o saljane of tthe & : ectseof asansidmilaphtiotonogra poli ci ro po lo gi ca l Co ll ec ti on s an phices. coAnllth d : ; ec ti on s cr ea te d du ring a ntainin ac eaThe H "c hives co REOC Report recommended that access to Cony SsSiimmij lg. E : : : adieas a wi irory archives be improved to assist In the Teunion
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families.~ ‘ a : Second, museum collection can facilitate educat io n, r e m embrance to ‘s
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by the Australian Archives, it aimed to ‘correct’ th e national memory by raising
Australian public awareness of the consequenc es of government assimilation policies on indigenous families.7>4
Third, they can provide information and resources for reparation claims arising from internationally wrongful acts and gross violations of human rights, including racial discrimination and genocide. Settle r States and former Metropolitan powe rs
have long resisted the application of ‘restitu tion’ in this sense. However, indigenous or
ganisations are demanding that States review their historical record to acco unt for ‘assets’ they acquired and injuries inflicte d on indigenous communities with su ch practi ces.73>
Particularly in the last quarter century, indi genous organisations have campaigned to ensure that the right to self-determi nation ‘of all peoples’ includes in di ge no us Peoples. They contend that this right is no t a political act but a process incorpotating the ability of a people to determine how their cultural identity is preserved traditions and customs’ . ee Recommendation
21-30, HREOC,
Bringing,
pp.408-15
and
655-57.
See
Recommendation
53, Ba Johnston, National Report. See N, Grzybowicz, D, Kartinyeri and B. Craig, The Aboriginal Family History Project at th e South oan Museum (1990) 23 COMA
Bulletin 12; Simpson, Making, pp.256-59; and Anderson,
ustralian’, 176.
*" Declaration of the Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance and Research, Washington DC, 1998. See HREOC, Bringing, pp.284ff and Recommenoe 2a; 5b, 6, 7a, 7b, 8a, 9a and 9b; and Guidelines 44-47, Daes Revised Draft Principles and Uidelines,
2 See Kelly er al., ‘Relationships’ 233 ¢ > 160; and interview with P. Gordon. ce R. MacDonald, Betw
235
een Tivo Worlds: The Commonwealth Government and the Removal of Aboriginal thern Territory (Alice Springs, 1996).
ee HREOC, Bringing, pp.247f€ an d R e c ommendations 3, 4, 5a, 6, 7a, Mended the es tablishment of 4 na tional fund to provide compensation for7b. theThe report also recomloss of cultural S
and fulfilment: Recommendation
14,
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digenous Australia “althy State and Territor) ity ties.2° Many major Austral; AS to re esSs tablish familial— and co: mmunity ties. y m a j o r Au st ra li Mu an se um ha s ys i g alist units and programmes to assist : ; Ve”
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t a r t S s e r r o e T c i t d s u n F a l l a a i c o n i g i r o , b A n o t n 1 e m n r e v o the G t i a r t S s e r or T d n a l a n Aborigi e b n a C ( 2000 J. I , . n M i e , g m n a a h h a C g Abr n i k a islated M e h t d m a s m e u m e e s g -), Mu Mana 5 9 . E 1 . 5 F 3 . . n p i J . , , H ) y . 4 c 9 G 9 a 1 r e d e , f n n o o l d a C n Abrams, r o u L t s ( l n u o C y i € t t i a t n N e d x I i S l a e n o h ‘ t o t s Indian t c e j b O o f t o e © l s o R n o p e h s T e R : s l e a v g l e e L s r u O e h T of “ . r e l t t u H 2 / . 6 B 1 . 2 S . F d N n O a C / . . 3 D 8 . R T 1 , n C o c. o n D a i Abrams 2 r 3 9 a O t i C B n S I a P E m L N u 5 U H f o ) , a 3 c 7 i s 9 r 1 n f ( A o i n s i y n e m i ‘on D ] Propert a Si n o i t a n r e t n I r > ) o . p e ed ( R . i H k i l h a , N s e . S , n n i o Abranch d s n t o p L e ( c n t o s e C er t n n a i i f s o A t c e e j h b T o l a p i c n i r p Adachi, S. y r e v e 6 1 f . o p , n ) o i 8 t 8 p 9 i 1 r c s e , d s i r a a P ( g n i n m i w La on; conta i t i b i h x E t a e r G e h t o t e d i u A G
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10, 1 ; 0 8 , 7 6 , 3 4 works of, 28,
286 7 9 , h g i e L , n o t Ash 6 3 2 , 8 1 2 , n o i g , 2 7 1 ; 5 6 Asia Pacific re 1 , 4 3 331 , 8 2 9 1 1 5 3 ion,
assimilat 264 , 1 6 2 , 3 8 9 7 1 48 , n h o J , n i t s Au 2 , 8 5 5 1 5 5 5 1 s Australia, 12 -88 2 8 2 , 1 7 2 , 7 263, 26 rts A l a n i g i r o b A 6 9 2 , s e v i h c r Australian A 6 5 2 , t n e m e l t British set 58 l , a m n s o i i l t a a i N n o l m o u c se u M D 0 y r i u q f In 2 o 2 1 e e 2 t 2 t i , m ) t m r o C Repo t t o g i P o s l a see Collections ( 285 , l i c n u o C s” r e t 0 s 2 i 2 n i M , e g l a a t r i u r t e l h u C ral u t l u c f o n o i tect o r p c i t s e m o d 230 , t n e m a i l r a Federal p -26 1 2 2 , s n a i l stra u A s u o n e g i ind 247 41, 2 , 0 4 2 , museums 26 1 2 2 , y t i t n national ide
f o n o i u a r a p e e S h t o t n i y r i u nder a l s I National Inq t i a r t S es r r o T d n a l 95 a 2 , ) 7 9 9 1 Aborigin ( s ilie m a F r i e h t , m n o o r i f s s e s n s e o r P d l s i u h o C Previ e e s ( y c i l o p m u e s u m es, r u t l l a u n C g n i natio t u n onu C d n a ; s n o i t New Obliga ) s e i t i l i b i s n o p s Ongoing Re 0 2 9 1 2 , a e n i Gu y t r e p o r Papua New P l a r ltu u C s u o n e g i d Return of In 5 , 6 2 4 2 2 Program, 28 5 5 1 ; 0 1 , y e n d y s , m seu u M n a i l a r t s Au 22, 2 , 8 1 2 , 291 ) 5 8 (19 y r e l l a G a i l stra u A l a n i g i r o Ab 256-58 248, , 5 1 , t i n U ge a t i r e H l a n i g Abori 253) 203 , f o n r u t e r ts, c e j b o l a r u t 6 l 9 u 2 c , ) 3 9 9 1 ( ds’ l r o W o w L n ‘Betwee 251 , 4 2 2 ; s e e t 224 s y t r e p o r P board of tru al r u t l u C f o n o ti i s i u q c A f o 9 5 e 2 5 Cod 2 , 5 2 2 ans, i l a r t s u A s t u s r i F s ’ a i Indigeno l a r ust A : s n a i l a r t s Au , 1 9 2 Indigenous 0 6 2 s ) 7 9 9 1 ( y r e l l a G ’ Peoples
292-93 84 2 , 6 5 2 , 4 2 4 9 2 loans,
-38 7 3 2 , 3 2 2 , s r e d n a l s I c Pacifi
Of
Paradise:
Sydney
Pacith
Many Eves" 1988), Cor an Narxwial
255
(&
Iraq, $5, 86-87
wnt),
mission for
UNESCO,
national identity, 20, 90
35, 40, 4].
« os
23-27,
sho;
wood,
George, 70, 97 m, Hawai, 279 Jusnce Michael, 295 2c Minister Tony, 33, 245, 287, 288,
Cahill, Holger, 124 Canada, 51, 88, 15052235271, 281 Capotorti, Francesco, 178-79 Casas, Bartolomé de las, 48 Casey, Dawn, 222 Castlereagh, Viscount, 2, 19, 21, R526
29, 81, 299, 300
Charlot, Jean,
China,
56,
294 12, 75, 132. 145, 168, 23 8, 242-44
Britain, 245 archaeological sites, 40 41 colonised peoples, 53 63, 67-71, 288-90 cultural heritage, return of, 89, 149, 162 271 Pd design, schools of, 35 dome ist ic Prpe e ot*t ecec t uon of cultural he riritatagege, 40-41, he
Foreign Office, 70, 87, 93 House of Commons Culture Media Sport . Committee (2000) , 245, 229 fx of Commons Select Committee on boriginal Tribes (1837), 52 Ou eseSof Comser mons Select Select CoC mmitte i e on Arts A Nnufactures (1835), 35-36, 42 uman Remains Ad visory Pane] 28 9 90 Imperialism, 43, 46, 53 ; in ndieous People sls, es, 52, 248, 288 90 in ustrialisation, 35, » 40, 40, 43
standard of (Western),
27-08)
14,
162,
179, 181, 193, 194, 303
1°
278, 289: 296,302 pespons
ims Australia, 252-59»
Bo
u0el
76,
collecting practices, 3, 9, 61, 220, 235 anthropologists, 61, 122 British, 29, 40, 43, 56, 91 French, 24
imperial, 5, 12, 15, 58-60, 90, 223, 225, 237, missionaries, 58-60 museum, 94, 122, 192, 266, 277, 285 United States, 111, 119-20, 192 Collier, John, 125, 126, 154
ED i 83, 285
(CAMA), 252-53» a
Bee
2. 2M
301
ment, 3;
226
;
cultural excepto? Bae 8 cultural exchang™
©.
ultural heritage
Al
04, 211, 21%
193
970
: definition, ee ae 136, 214 95 Bei e » immovab fhe are
intangible, a “iil, 19 movable;
'>
7%
107,
©?aay°o
240
2 P reservallOn ‘Tsites To 146, 26 ARN 107, 128, 9. 170, 266 of all humal age tang > 139, 140, 144; 159, cultural pa Oat 500
93,ed 71,Dh 162;MOP 175 265, 269
A) 253 81, 44, 31, cultural identity> collections, museum
2
pe en Ze
Daes, Erica-Irene, 171, 366, 269-13> 303 Dakar Reports 212
ec
Eee
Jrural,
90;
931,
233-34 263-65,
231;
13, 14, 46 50, 60,
3, 7, 85
13,
7
FREEIi 3p Oy ilo
SG 197-26
cultural heritages return
ad5e 2 6-17, 23 20
gelf-derermination, I
170,
162;
We
188,
193,
of, 55 145 15, 15s 198 198
98-2 Le 00,
23 2 4
1 property; 80-84
200-06
der, 28 9!>
s
state succession to © AGG Oy
Council of Europe> 237, : Croke, Alexan Jace,
117, > 123, > 205, 210
6 17 Santa, Hernan Cruz,
de-accession,
8
of Australian Se
270
eG
130, 185 300
orations, cransnatio
Hae
117.0; 172
ibilities
, om da an So eee An 97 8 , 66,268sociation ti Coomaraswamy nals 2 s As
i
1675
Moneute.
:
2,
resourees 6 1202, 254, 284 secret sar 718
cultural aN €0SEt Curzon,
202) 267-68, 270-71,
Gantaoilemess15 >
Cole, Henry, 36, 37, 42-43 Coleman, L. V., 111
255-56, 287
0,
consent, 51, 52, 113,
Conway;
133, 284
163,
teri aio 2
conquest, see Prize
ee 115, 155, 204;
272
preservation, 82, ee 30,
Da=
285-86
825 2115221
109-11
AOOs
possession, 195 108; eee
(CCOR), see also Muse
37
160,
;
6
303
Anthropologists
j
os, 60, 2
oraee ” 961y 2 2705 277s 283-84; 287 30
;
Continuing Cultures, O
Codrington, Kenneth de B., 70, 98 War,
158, 20FN
protection, 20-22 oe mi nat see objects, 195 20, 23-29 coe
Cobo, José, R. 1 Martinez, 230, 232-33
Cold
:
oo eal objects by treaty: 28 Sarnia eania(asio)s ine?
182
Alfred,
5
i
Clark, Geoff, 265 Clemenceau, Georges, 75
Cobden,
a7). 2 268
9%
29;
national identity, 23,
2715
(COMA); ee
civilising mission, 10, 52, 56, 60, 120, 130, 133, 165,
241,
A689 sae
loss, 41, 111-12, 232,2 7
Common Laws 1 79, 95, 148, 203, 206; 216
Conference of Museu a
8, 50, 51, 74, 97,
126
pee 152;)2257 loans;
6
Ai, 113, 251,
:
Communist bloc,
scale of, 6, 10, 12, 13, 15, 22, 46, 48, 50, 61, 75, 76, 78, 105, 106; 110, 120, 123, 133, 146, 258, 265
, 95, 141,
i.
2
210 109-18, 64-67, eceeen = 245 sit, a5 international leg
Ren
239 y1l79259 See inerelor 170, 9
108
sacred trust of, 8, 106,
illicit transfer, 205-06,
munism
109, 207
Chklaver, Charles, 135 Civil Law, 113, 275, 303 Civil Rights movements, 1S civilisation
ee 204, 210, 268
OEE
158
Judaeo-Christian,
143, 1 boory, see prize Bowen, Lionel, 222 Brennan, Justice Gerard,
per
Celtic ornaments, 88-9] Parthenon marbles, 30 33 Bronfman, Edgar M., 299 Brooklyn Museum, New York , 127, 190 Brown, G. Baldwin, 92 Brussels Conference (1874), 66 Bureau of Indian Affairs (US) , 119, 154 Burma, 70 Bursum bill, 123
149
32, 105
112
8
53-63 63)
ia 81,99, cae Re-aangemen of ee Sp 0 ea Ha ) A S y ataels saneerol Oot y c a r Commi
280
87,
187; >» display, 58, 63, 157, 291-92 : escrin duplicates, 117
107
a 86-87,
wl
3] 33 93 95
Spoliation Advisory Panel, 216, 241, 290 93,
133, 259 internal, Ma a stems, 8, 10-11, 46 @ jnowledge a fiecronsyl 272002025"
= ai
Pils PN SG:
definition of, 113, ae
ies?
Parthenon marbles, purchase Of, 20, response to OIM draft conventions,
British Museum, » London, L » 56, 56, 6 60,
ONE:
colonised Pal
Manual of Military Law (1914), 65 manufacturing, 35, 37 minorities, 77
refacts through
28 treaty, by of, n o i , f o confiscation conte: and casts, 203
mmark,
6 [tural
.
developme
development, cultural ace 130; 151-525 @ Harnoncourt, Rees 155-59; ate 5 is nt, iscrimination, gi, 230 5 discr
Dillon eoonvas tango
258
:
racial, 1745 18 9-93, 264 1,279
dispossessions 2,
Dobkins, Rebece® ce Science and Art Museum, Dublin Museum, se
Dublin uu
»
due diligence, 1 :
-
27 147, 240; 273; 075 A
GG
‘
236, 116, © » Companys a Ras East India Publics: 9, 13 +29, 42 935 sducation, &
Reypt, Fee
258, ey
87, 112 nehtight, 1 led DW aah President
ee
sstrajian Museum, jeces
118 108, 13,87, Meee a 103 104
0 1 6, , m s i WO)7. WsDo crap De [asad “angen
Index
cultural objects, 19, iLL 0 4 2 , 4 2 2 , n o i t a c i t n e h t u a
, 3 5 1 , 6 2 1 , ) S U ( d r a o B s t f a r C d n a s t r A ’ a {ndian k s a l A d tates an
Index Exhibicon, London Greatat Exhibiu 62 53, 57,
cia
Elgin
Lord, 2 marbles, n o n e h t r a P 4 se ~rbles, sculphures,
a
a,
me
—
Greece,
rie
Glenn
L., 1S
of, 140,
198, 217
30-3
=
eee
Grotius,
2
group rights, 20, 125,
er
172
Suatemala,
189-90
:
Gutteridge,
Harold
C., 92
111, 134, 3
— mete regulanion mona!Fa
Havell, Ernest B., 97. Hawaii, 277, 279, 280
220.
el
126
.
. Mark, 242-44 Augusto, 215-16
2 219, 213, 205 , 204, assiWar stance, irstt W World Firs Peace feared a
] 12 piag
: Napoleon, 25, 28
ranco-Prussian War.r (18(187 70-0-71 7 ), 65 Cm
phn
k
oo 247, 261, 2 266
ie cultural, 156 a163-72, 301 ag 8, ¢ International
aa 9 79, ie 16 167, bisa r, oe 14] ss,
Germany,
on, Phil,
ie 248,
253° 190
ne
282,
return of, 8, 85.
301 , 0 8 2 , 8 5 2 200, , 0 5 1 , 8 232, 247, 4 1 15, ; f O n r u t e r , e g a t i r e h l a r u cult 3 0 2 0 3 7, ; 2 0 9 0 2 5 1 ; 3 1 1 228, 26 1, 635 6 , 2 5 > e g a t i r e h l a r cultu 150-57, 269
287
221.
5
os 278 2822 Been
, s t h g i r l a r u t l u c
, w a l y r a m o t s cu Bry , n o i t a s i n o l deco
discrimination, ry, o e h t ’ e c a r g n ‘Dyi 261 ethnocide,
religion, 60, 174, 268 Aces capuamn 14, 15, 264 ‘ anitarian interventi' mn, 146 Hungary, 84 hen
231 , , 6 s 7 t 1 h g i r ion, t a human z i n a g r O our b a L 273 , 0 0 2 l a n o i 5 t 3 a 3 1 n r Tnte 53, > 3 1 , 2 1 aw, l l a n o i t a intern
|
minorities, museums, land, 4, 51, religious fr
]
Anglo-American colonialism
resources,
83, 73, 71; 3, 53-6 47, 11, 8, 5, ; ea Ai 5 , e a L RaRPe
8,27 s een pee 107 political,
edence, Pepen
ap
ALY,
|
individual
2 2 , e v i s s e s s o p
|
178 , 2 7 1 ; 2 2 rights, 20, 136 ; 9 4 , 6 3 , , n e o F i t a a t s n i a l S a i , r ts r A n indust a i d n I n a
|
5
: |
J
ic r e m A f o e t u Instit 181 , integration
277
India, 56, 57, 58, 68, 109
70, 98 69, , (UK) ‘65 ce Offi ja (UK) Office India
India Museum, London, 46, 58, 69 94 ire: India Society, 97
95-98
.
67 , y r a m o t s u c , n o i t a s i n o l o dec
167,
231
301
1
, t n e m n e t h g i l En Bo s e r i P , n a e p o Eur , s e l p o e p s u indigeno 5 1 , s e i t i r o n i m 7 4 , m s i l a r u Nat
0, 5 , 7 2 , d n a ans e p o r u E n o n 5 6 , 3 6 5 2 5 , 0 , 5 7 4 , m s i v i t i s Po
53,
66 1 , g r e b m 2Ne) e r Nu , l a n u b i r T y r a lit i M l a 95, n o 3 i 9 t a n , r ) M I O Inte ( , e c i f f O . m u e s Mu
jonal
2 D 5 9 3 7 3 2 , m ories, museur 08-09 2 , 4 3 1 5 3 3 1 , 7 8 6 8 ; 5 8 , q a Tr
20
UN Draft
/
on
ionali
>
5 7 2 6 2 , 1 3 2 , 4 5 1 , 1 3 1 , n 5 o 7 i 2 t a n , i 1 m 7 r e 2 t 6 vele-de Declaration, 1, 231, 2
:
21 1 , 0 2 1 ; o g a 5, 6 1 Chic , 4 6 1 , w a l ian r a t i n a m u h l internationa l 203 a n o i t a n r e t n I of e t u t i t s n I l a n Internatio 337/ 1 , n o i t a r e 176; Coop , n o i t l a z i n rga O r u o b l a L l , 6 6 2 , 2 6 1 Internationa , 1 15 , 1 3 1 , 5 , w a l international 0 9 1 , f o y t e i c o American S 134 , 1 3 1 ; n o i t 9 Americanisa 3 1 ; 6 6 , 2 5 51, , n a c i r e m A Anglo92 ; 3 2 , 2 1 , f o British age 64 , n o i t a c i f i d co 98 1 , 3 3 2 3 1 56, , 3 5 , m s i l a i n colo
171-72
7 0 2 , 2 1 2 » ts funerary objec 9-33 172-76, 22
Husri, Sati Al-, 87
uperialist sc als 2 i , ce 92 a ienability inalieng
176,
p o r h t n a d n a s t archaeologis 120, 276 1 3 2 , s t h g i r l a c i , t 0 3 2 , 8 2 2 , civil and poli 1 17 ; 8 5 1 , 1 6 t n me p o l e v e d l a r u t l cu
Museu m, Washington Jashi DC
Prime Minister John,
idolatry, 47, 48, 60 imperialism Americ Anglonee Se os
si o p x E n a i b m u l World’s Co
68; 2 , 2 2 2 , 1 2 2 of, n r u t e r , s n i ancestral rema 4 8 2 , 1 8 5 , 7 8 2 1 1 , 2 , 27 1 6 , s t s ol ogi
2
c an rights, 139, 162 172-7 feo culture, 172, 17.95 267 “il minority iLy protecti F on,A 21-22, 174-7
4
28
-51; 7 4 , 6 1 , s e l p o indigenous pe 8 4 7 4 2 , 6 2 2 194, 209,
non-discrimination, 173-76 |:
First Word War, ogi
‘ . E on biti Palace Exhi len aongie o pr
Memorial
ata
munority protection, 74-77 restvaitution© ofof cul culturalal obje pe: 78-80, 87, objectscts, , 78
biglecte? fo? 128: 145,
peat a
ee
aeterritor aeial red rediistribution, 80 Phin Art Museum, Boston, 95, orce, use of, 142 ‘ip Foundoukidis, E142, 197 France, 109, 168 Boy orem nivalry with, 26 = eos of Vienna, 23-27
85, 86
88 2 8 2 , 8 4 2 , 3 5 23 2 2 2 N I D , s 84 2 museum , 4 5 2 , 1 5 2 22, 2 , s t c e j b o d e secret sacr 5 6 2 , y t n g i e r e v o s 60, 118-28,
ine
an Steven, 251 igh Court of Australia,
8 5 , 5 5 ; 3 5 , ) , 9 3 9 1 ( London , n o i t i pos x E l a n o i t a n r e t In Golden Gate 6 5 1 , o c s i c 75 n 5 a , 4 3 , San Fr 0 2 , n do n o L , ) 1 5 8 1 ( n, Great Exhibitio 62 tion, (1893),
5 8 2 , 2 5 0 5 2 , land
nee rn 2A 290: Poe
sm, 130, fasasm, 13 Sf, 156, 15 151, 159, 301
Goldwate
in a m e r l a r t ances ) , e g a t cultural heri ta cultural heri , s t c e j b o l a r u cult economic employment, 53 2 , t n e m e v o Homelands m 45 2 , 1 4 2 » s e c a l p keeping
Hobbes, Thomas, 20 Hobson, John A., 107 Holding, Clive, 247, 251 Holocaust, 3, 9, 13 restitution claims s, 145-48
191-93,
nal regulanon, » 110, 10, 114 , 117,7 246 2 2siN10N of Indian Tribal Arts’, New York
eeeere167, 16g
ees
sere Henry W., 28 Tamilton,n, William am R. 19, 2 R., oe Family in Hyde ey tartley, Marsden, 124 125 is
Hill, George,
Pilg
7
ao.
extubin pubi rt, , transfer iport cts see wipo ura! objepects of export, canon, 116, 135, 209 sal occupation, during, 87, 203, 215,
Saye
A s t h g n a i d In 2 3 1 > o 6 m s 2 i n 1 e 2 g i 2 d , s, 16 In n a i l a r t 0 s , 3 u s a 2 A u r o r n e e b g n > a y C s Indi s a b m E t n l e a 4 T n 8 i 2 , g 2 i 2 r 2 , o 1 b A 22 s, return of,
Haldar, Rakhal das, 69 Hague Peace Conference ies (1899), 66 econd (1907), 66-67
z
~
4 2 , 1 n o i t a i oc s , s 5 A e 5 1 c n , 4 e 5 f 1 e , 1 5 1 , 6 2 {ndian D 5 235 12
haan
160,
site
6 5 : 1 ) 9 3 9 1 (
8
wt
S d e t i n U e ei in th
1 , l a e D w e 3 8 Indian N 0 8 1 , 6 7 1 , 0 6 1 ) , 8 158, n 2 1 o i t a i ssoc
negative protection, 174, 178 ‘ positive protection, 76 94.
1931),
iss.
(1815), > 1212, 20. » 33-40
Se
Griffin, 2 6, GregoireDes,Abbe
l a u t c e l l e t n I r o f e e t International Commit Cooperation, 109 y t i n u m m o c l a n o i t a n Inter 37 1 , 6 8 , in t s e r e t n i Cultural heritage, , 1 9 1 , ) M O C I ( s u: m e s u M f o l i c n u o C International 214, 217, 293 0 9 2 , 2 8 2 3, ll Di , s c Code of Ethi 0 4 2 , s c i h t E ] a on r e Code of Professi m r o f e h t r o f l a i bun r T l a n i m i r C International 1 0 3 , 1 7 1 , a i v a l Yugos nal o i t a n r e t n I e e s , ip h s n a i d o t s u c l a n Internatio community 57 3 5 , 0 4 5 3 , s ion t i b i h x e l a n o i t , ) 6 8 8 Interna 1 ( n o i t i b i Exh n a i d n I d n a Colonial
F
29 2 , 0 8 1 , 6 7 160, 171, 1
108 , n o i t a r e p o o \ 1 2 , s c i t i r C t Intellectual c r © f£ A n o i t a i c o s s A International
s 4 s 0 e r , g 6 n 5 o C , n h a s p i a w J Fe d l r o W e e s , s n o ti a s i n a g r o h s i w Je 144 , n i r e B s eum s u M h c i r d e i r Kaiser F 3 5 2 , a d n y L , y l Kel -93 2 9 ; 6 8 , 1 7 cks i r e d e r F , n o Keny
107 , e l p i c n i r p r o o D Open
, 9 1 , 2 1 s n o i t c destruct colle
Index
Laboratory of
Lam,
Marvin
se ¢ alonialism,
: 0 . 8 1 1 . 6 0 1 , 5 gemIEht, 18, 234 »
nd, » 2582 } David Naci o c i g i l o e g r A o e s Mu Nactonal, a r o h g i n Nese Mowaljarlai,
Boe
r Y w e N , r A um m igenous
Museum Museum
of
14, 97,
127,
York, sehiee
>
N
e e s e i c i l o p n A‘Acrqtusisoiftitohe S outh Seaso’rpedo)6,), 15126,1,
€
Natio
Spai
NEW e e e iv it im Pr “1rT of Modern M Art (MoMA) * 128
(194
ew
a
York,
15138
' + 4 9 1 ( = ’ e s th f o State d t e r A n a In1d2i9, 156-58, 159 ‘The Family of Mse =(1955), i r e C ; y t n e w e c ‘T l e of ve
‘Indi
151, 1 — : s t i m i r P f o m u Muse rt A e v I O TRE
10 i
3
4
919-2U0n,ive2r2s5ity
a
4
aeMs use
2
Ne
John, 40-411
mEceubnise,l, 295 or loa
=
9l8— 990 Mac , 5 9 c a 2 s 9 , EncCarols ° , h c i n Macl
erec
ee
i ectschenk Rtceoostrcea School,
t
, r a a h o a M = u . o o d r a g m e A n ae Monte — 190 , r a s e C o i l u J nt e d i s : a c i P n a h i o J e i , n m a u m e y s r u r M MMeetropolitan I eeecan Arrutes
(
, 7 2 1 , k r o Y w emis, Me
5 1 , ) 0 3 9 1 ( ’ s s f n o C d n a s t n A n a i 2¢ pers , 2 9 1 , 7 7 1 en 1S and
, 1 9 § n h o J Mill,
206
aDav ae t, 20 Miller,
Fee
Mane
Conf
.
182
1 8 5 7 2 ; 3 8 1 , of n r u t e r , s n i ancestral rema 0 2 1 , s t s i g o l o p 82 1 anthro 8 1 , 8 5 1 156, , 6 2 3 2 1 s, arts and craft 128
20; , s e l b r a m Parthenon
1 3 , t r o p e R s e Bank
, 4 4 1 , 3 8 ; 2 8 4, 4 2 2 , l a r u t l u l c a n o i t a n , y n o patrim
National aie oneal collective individuals’, 22 cultural property, 6 oF National identity, 73, 99 ; 9 1 2 , 7 5 4 5 , 6 4 , 3 4 s , t 0 c 4 e j , b 9 o 1 l , a 2 r 1 cul2t2u1 jects,
242 Dil , h p e s o J , n Paxto Peace treaties 7, 84 7 ; 6 7 , 4 7 , r a W d l r o W 148 First , 4 4 1 , 0 4 1 War, d l r o W Second 81 2 ; 6 0 2 , u r e P 22 1 2 2 t r o Pigott Rep sce Pec pillage, 23; Fox),
76 2 , 2 8 1 , s t h g i civil r 2 8 1 , 3 6 1 , t men e v o m s t h g i R Givil 4 0 1 , t n e m p o 81 1 , 9 5 cultural devel 0 5 1 , 8 2 6 2 1 , e g 81 5 7 2 cultural herita ; 0 6 1 , f o n r u t e r ; e g cultural herita
5 2 1 , s t h g i r l a r u cult
i ation, 119 s i l detriba 5 5 4 5 1 s t n e m p o l e v e d c onomi public, 151,
BOs WO)i/
accessibility,Y, 42,42, 252 25 , 254-55 armed conflict, 137 we art istog et ‘ hn ic raanph d icer ienufificic vav lue, 81, 2554 8
76 Gs
sawed an —_d poutpols ical rights, 22, 76 x ural heritage, 113 . casa atural herita; ee, : return of, am 113, » 14447,7, 15150,
miciigio21n, ,75, 178 i ssiona
itan (
.
.
, 4 2 9 1 1 , n o i t a l assimi
152, 224,
imperi
pee
ec
ral e n e g f o n o i t educa
|
{ |
|
0 8 1 , 9 1 1 , d n a l es fac
154; 155)
e n a F . A ( s pitt River T., 90; 91
Plunkett, G-
e a l a t s i plural Nicho By
lOO, Wie: 181
Be Mar ti
Politis,
6 7 2 , t n e m e v rreebluirgiiaolns mo123, 276
(BOBS.e ‘ c
resistan
e4A 9-©61
e e i t posi vism,
154, 167, 176 a
O X c epa r P , 4 2 1 s, e e n a v r gi prese ( n, o i s s e s s o 2 8 2 ; 3 2 2 Previous a, i l a r t s u A ‘ see ae pee 26, 5 IE M e p prize, a n a c p , t Prot
NZ
123
WE , B D W 80, 1 , s ; e 0 6 1 , resourc 4 5 150; 1 , 5 0 1 n, o i t a n i m r e t e d self 183 9 1 1 > 6 0 1 storvuesrteeiegsngthnyit,py,> 106, 119; 181
294 , 5 8 2 , 2 5 2 native title, 0 6 5 3 2 , 7 4 , 8 6 1 , 146; , 2 4 1 naturalism , 1 , 14 0 4 1 5 3 1 , 3 Nazism, 82 1 ), , ’ O a E v I i K N ‘ ( d r y o e New, Ll mic Ord
f
Pakistan, 98 0 9 1 , 6 3 Palestine, 86 4 3 1 ); U A P ( n o i n U n a c i r e m A n a P ! ) 3 1 , m s i n a c i D Pan-Amer 2 , ) s D M ; 0 2 9 1 2 , a e n i u G , 0 2 w e 9 N 1 2 ; y r e Papua l l a G t r A d n a m u National Muse 225 08) m O 2 > 5 2 , 4 2 Paris, 30-33
, 3 6 1 , 0 5 1 , 8 2 8 1 1 , 4 1 , s n a c Native Ameri
ork, 14,
0 6 1 , 1 8 , 5 2 , 8 5 , ) l a i r e p n 1 7 2 nnaattuiroanlal,his2t5o,ry, 122 a , n a a 2 o i c eee . i nis 20
37
5 0 1 8 0 5 0 1 4, 10 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 g 1 i n h c , e 7 T 8 4 e 8 h t n o , s e t l a a d u n n MMaa g s ea . e \ e ae
S,
jonal
e
5 9 » n o nationalisati , 375 40, 73 6 3 , m s i l a n o i t na 197 , 6 9 ; s m u e s mu 84 , f o e l p i c n i r p nationality,
a coahc
bbock,
Strait Islander
2 5 1 , o c i x e of M , n a i d n I n America
National
pee
acqu
J
igi na. of Aborig!
D B , e r i p m e Ottoman 66 , ) 4 7 8 1 ( e c n e r Brussels Confe 6 8 5 8 , f o e s p a l l Co 76 , s n o i t a N f o League 84 , 2 3 , s e i t i r o n i m 23, 30 , s e l b r a m Parthenon 3 6 , 4 5 , e f f i unl C p i l i h P , n e w O
, y b s e r o M t r o P , y r e l l a peopless G t r A d an m u e s u l a n o Nati
a
77 2 , 9 3 2 , 9 1 2 1, 7 3 1 , t c i l ese conf 184 , 8 2 1 eee 7 4 2 , 3 2 2 Beeeorce 0 4 9 3 2 5 5 1 Se , 6 9 , 3 9 9, 42, , e l o r 7 7 =e 2 3 2 2 5 2 , , 8, 158 s e l p o e p S $ ) D A 2 2 D , 2 5 1 2 284 ns,
33-44, 73> 205,
ustralia, 222
na
2 9 1 , 2 5 1 , ) S A O ( s e t a t S n a c i r e m A f o n o i 4 t a z i n a g r O
222
(1940), (MoPA),New y,;
2 0 3 , 2 1 , 0 1 8 , Museums 7 1 1 s e i c i l o p n o isiti
Tnbbork.
of
son
Koh--noor,c 70 imperial, , s m e t s y s e g ge d ip e l w o Kn
5) 164,
9 4 , a s s a L , m Oppenhei
>
nee EON ctices a r D p W , 1 4 g , in l , f A o c e coll cts e j b o l a r u t l cu , p i h s r e n w public o Punjab, 69 é e, d e r e m e t r a Quincy, Qu an
198,
ey
ae
Ramsay, J- 4
B-» 69
90 , 3 7 , . H s le Read, Char 3, 208
9 N N 2 Nigeria, 18 , s e i r nt u o c B U d e y n o g F i l a ; 2 , 2 non1 , n io
inat m i r c s i d n no
535 133: 2 2 , of f o p pllee i c n ‘ n i 75 r 6 p 2 , 2 4 > 2 e c n re , 8 0 7 0 2 to) jcnateerfe Os
y> t i v i t c a o r t e r me p201 268, 273 > y r o s t e i i r t i r r e o t n i p ” g , nin s e r l e p v o e o p g s f u geno i d non-sel n I e e s S> p u o r g 163 e t , 0 3 1 non-sta ment, t c i d n i Nurembere Oaxaca, Oceania; O’ Keefe,
152 217, 226 1 \ 2 . J k c patri
Onondaga>
120
on reconstituti 0 8 , 3 3 , s t c cultural obje 78; , y n o m i r t a cultural p 73 , s n o i t c e l l o national c ; 2 s n o i t c e l l o c ve i t a t n e s e r p e r n o i t c u r t s n o c e r 63 1 , 2 6 1 , l a r cultu 90 , l l i p d n o m Red 9 9 , 0 1 7 , a i l a 82 g re , 0 8 , n o i iss m m o C n o i Reparat 4 4 1 211 , s , n 7 o 9 1 i u a , r 3 a 2 p 1 e r 8, 0 1 , 4 1 , l a ltur u c , s e c r u o s re
341
Index 300
process, 204, 264, ight SS
to,
ii Hy
andd rere tutu r rn
ah 74,8ee4, 197,7 201, osha
of Q cultural I
232 » 254, 25
heriTita tage g,
5 259,
Sikhs, 69 — Ranjit, 69, 70, 98 ie skeletal emains, remains, see s Humar Huy } Smidt, Dirk, 225 ——
i
i
:
7, 164, 263
oma
Spain, 95, 112 ; Civil war, 137 ee ir, 27, 28: 293 mee v1 es Rangapatte gapattana oe, (Seringapat: gapatam), :
assimile een 75, 176, policies, 261 i 82,223, ]
equality, 76, 83, 204,
external restitution
C Commussion, 165 Charles, 43, 9] : Nelson A., 188, 189-90 Nicholas, 135, 137
neutral, newly
128,
157,
F
175
posevelt, = President Frankl m D.,ay 125, : ‘ 135
sRousse: aes Jean-Jacques, 64 ees oyal —s Academy of Art, London, Es 95, 97 oS \cademy, Dublin, 89 9} om hyankiko, Nicodéme. 17 a skin, John, 41-44 an nig gun
—_
1 Council,
mt cence
Send Art Museum, a
se 74, 154 ecsooleonisat ton, 198200,
ne 104-08 ino diegenoeus Z s e29, ovYipe gamose 10e3, y 13wh1, al, 154, 183, 2
“o cogens, 264
is
,
104,
“ig
egalal right, ATT, 17 & Politicaiclal rirj ght, 74“,i 76 2 84, O%, 23 23]
13134,
eS
o
; elOBy >
109) 5 13 3-3 4
>
4
16,
Di
193,
5 3 1 2 ; 9 0 8 20
l a g e l , s e i t i u q ri
12
ae 23
_ 160,
2 6, 126
€ bDs >
270, 297
71 94/9,5
ee
22, 6,
2 II 21 1, EZ 2530,ON 24 248,8,
200
:
ooh aad
253:
ITagore, . Rabi indranéz 7 Talbot, Frank, nr ee a Tasmania, |
oe Gallery, London, 241 sa ecwt hnic arzg assii stance, 205 f , 219, 239 perley, Harold, 77 J, hate, terra nullius, 251 294
e eat e yy,, prinprincciiplepleeer of, of, territorial
:
226 3
|
Wo "aaa
ongress), 147 Tam;
i
ity,
uytime limits, y 1443,3, 14 149, 9
tssambpgee Edward M., ippoo’s Tiger, 69
eT
Turkey, s> r e v a r L , s s Twi
5 1 2 6 2 , T UNIDROI ns o i t a N d e t i Un
GrouP of
267;
Nati O Organisation N O , f o n r u v e r , e g a t i r e h l Cultura a Q , l i c n u o C '1 a i c o S d n a c i m ; 1 3 2 Econo , 4 7 1 | 0 67, 17 y, l b m e s s A l a r Gene
1
2625
269, 301
upreme Court (U sniaies 145, an aed witzerland, 145, 28 Syria, 87 _
8
| 204, 209,
independer
a
“ainsi Edward, 193 — uccesees s orga 5 nisa 6 tions, (see also ea
84,
0 9 8 8 , 1 4 8 s 1 t c je
d e t i n U e e 268 s , f o n o i t c e t e r P e, g l a a t r i r u e t h l u l C a r u d t n l a Cu c i f i t n e i c S 1, : a ons, Education
151, 154, 169
oie responsibility ai colonial : power. s/0f, of, 205, 2 y inte aernational wrongful acts, : ie 145,“ 206, oe 229
age
Dublin,
;
eee, 145, 203 h third partyy S States, 30. soe succession, 80-84,
tomb, y 9595, 112 George Augustus, 53
oo 175, 200 2 r See c ar aaWorl16 d 2, War, 140 agnem a ee Haile, 99 onterminatau ioion,n, 1313, 15, 74,
Ds
|
145
Santa Fe, 124, £ 0,3 — ae 44,54,56,58 ; »26,58,60,62 362,63 7: = ae bloc, see Communist ’s “a iia Union, see USSR —" Sovereignty, euge 51, 5 53, "56, 56, 67, 70, 7
anon
otal 84 a Et
|
Sour h Australian ian }Museum af Adelai aidde cd,e-225 2 4 92 93 SSout h Kensi gton ensingt Museseuum, » Li Londo: s Gee on S al alsso e
Roberts “8 erts obinson,
S e e c Teren
> n a m d qo s t n a i r ita
>» 4 4, 1459 5 4
’
— Sm Cecil Secil Harcourt, He 96, 98 | Se Somare, Chief Chief Minister Minister Michs Mich Solomon Islands, » 225, 225, 256 256 lean
142, 27+
wimants,
262
e S r r a runnngge s l a i r e nac
Or nm r u t e R n o ee t t i m m o C l a t n e Intergovernm 1 4 4 3 2 , 7 1 1 1 Restitution, 2 7, 1 6 0 2 purpose, 271 , 1 0 2 , 4 , cts e j b o l a r u t l u c restitutio n, on i s 234-41 s i m m o C es m i r C r a W ’ gs : n o i t a N d e t i Un 7 6 4 6 1 , (UNWCC) merica (US), 12, 14, 108, 112, A £ © , s 4 e 4 t a 2 t 4 S 2 d , 8 e 3 t 2 i 7 , Un 3 2 , 8 0 2 , 5 4 1 , 8 2 8 1 1 , 5 11 0 7 2 ; 3 6 2 , 6 4 2 8 0 2 , s e t i s l a c i g o l o e a h c ar 2 9 1 , s t n e em e r g a l a r e t a l bj 1 , s r i a f f A n a i d n I f o u a e Bur 2 7 1 , s t h g i r civil , s e l p o e p d e s coloni ; 3 3 1 , 9 1 I ; 3 Congress; 3 f Dy o n r u t e r s ge a t j r e h l a 1 r 7 u 2 , cult 6 4 2 , 44 2 4 2 , 2 9 1 138-90, W® , r o i r e t n I the 1 8 2 , 0 9 1 ; 9 113, 18 8 5 1 , 9 1 1 , r of Wa 192, , e g a t i r e h l a r u t l u c f o on i t c e r o r p domestic 4 9 1 ; 9 3 246 0 3 1 , s e l p o e t r p o p s e u r o n h e c g r i a d se in e R t n e m n r e v o G f 6 o 2 1 e t , 5 2 1 Institu , 8) 2 9 1 ( ) t r , o 2 p 4 e 1 R , 3 m a i > r y (Me of German
273
3,00
84, 85, 85, 90,90, 89, 9¢
aie
t, n e m h s i n u p a nd n o i t n e v e r p genocide, 167-71 N B 2 , s t h g i r n a hum
1 3 2 , s e l P o e p P s , 2 0 0 0 2 indigenou , n o i ss i m m o C w a L International 28) 3 1 7 3 1 2 , , s s e e u i s t s i I r o n s mi nou e g i d n I n o um r o F t n e n a m Per 30 2 , O T N , n o i nat i m i r c s i d l a i c ra il 7 1 , 9 6 7 6 1 Secretariat, 301 , 4 0 2 ; 4 7 1 , l a r e ' n e G y r of a t n o i t Secre n e v e r P e h t n m ° n o i s f o n Sub-Commis o i t c e t o r P nd 30 2 , 4 7 1 , s rs) e i a f f A l a i c Minoriti o S nd a n a i r a t i n Third (Huma 5) 7 1 , ns e o e i t t t a i l u p o P Comm s nou e g i d n I D o Group
262, , 2 Working 5 2 , 1 4 2 > 3 3 2 , 1 3 2 (WGIP), nd a c i f i t n 265-73 e i c S 1, , l a n o i t a c u , d 8 E 3 1 s n , o 4 i t a , N ) O SC E N United U ( n o i t a is n a g r O l a r u Cult 13 2 5 4 8 3 8 1 147, 191 , s n o i t a v a exc l a c i g o l o e archa 1 9 1 , 4 8 1 , e ang d h c e x m e r a l a g r n u i t r l u u d c on i t c e t o r p , tage i r e h l a r u t l cu 35 2 , 9 4 1 , 9 3 t, 138conflic 183 , é n e R t, r u o c n o n r a H @ a 17 2 5 2 \ N D , l a r ene , s m i a G l c r o t r c a e W r i D rld o W d n o c e S @ nd t s u a c o l o H
1 7 130-48, 216 2 , 0 3 2 , 5 21 , s e l p o e p s u indigeno
t n e m n r e v Military Go 144
3 0 1 , 2 7 1 minorities, ie, , n o i t c e t ro 81 2 5 9 1 8 7 minority p y 2 i D ; 6 5 25; 1 1 , , 3 4 6 2 1 , s , 3 m 12 , 9 museu 1 1 , t emen v o m t r a national 7 9 128 1 5 8 5 1 151, , y t i t n e d i national 214 , n o i t u t i t s re 192 , 0 8 1 > 3 3 Senate, ion 19 s 1 s i , t m r m u o o C C ory s i v Supreme d A l a i t iden
s u a c o l o H on
09, 8 0 1 , s e r ltu u c , y t i l a s univer 8 6 1 > 5 9 , R USS 5 3 1 , t c u r f u s u
136
255 , 5 2 2 , u t Vanua 64 , e d r e m E Vattel, 5 6 1 , e e t t mi m o C r e h c u Va M D Venice, 27 , 7 1 2 1 e 2 k i D t r o p 80 e 8 7 , ) 9 1 Venice R 9 a e c n e r e f n o don n o L > Versailles C m u e s Mu
(see also
, 4 9 » t 2 r 7 e b , l 0 A 7 d , 8 6 > 9 > ) m u Victoria an e s u M n o t g n i s n e South K 0 7 > ) 9 9 9 1 ( 9 9 ” m 92 o d g n i K h k i e S h t f o s t r A “The 49 , 6 3 , m s i n Victoria , l T , 0 3 , 29 , 7 2 a 1 n 2 n e Vi NSD o D > ) 5 1 (18 f o s s e r g n o C
202
81 , s n o i t c e l l o museum c 719, , e d s e l r a h Visscher, C 8 4 , e d o ¢ s i c Vitoria, Fran 42 5 5 3 , v a t s Waagen, Gu 136 ; 2 3 1 » A y r n e H , e c Walla
>
Wt)
Index
ie
War crimes, 165 First World War, 74, 76, 77, 84, 109 Second World, 109, 139-48 Watson, Forbes, J., 57 Welsh, Peter, 123, 275 Westlake, John, 4749 Whearon, Henry, 28, 50, 64 Whitaker, Ben, 171
Whitlam, Prime Minister Gough, 221 Wiesbaden Manifesto, 144
Wilson, President Woodrow,
74, 78,
104-05 Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP), 231, 233 cultural heritage, 265—73 cultural heritage, return of, 269-73 Draft UN Declaration, 231, 262
genocide, 171
land, 232, 233, 264 religious freedom
self-determination, 231 World Archaeological Congress, 282 World Conference on Cultural Policies
(Mondiacult), 214 World Jewish Congress, 146, Woolley, C. Leonard, 86
164
Yirrkala, 251
Yokota, Yozo, 95 Yorta Yorta, 295 Yriarte, Charles, 43 Yugoslavia, 200, 301 Yunupingu, Galarrwuy Zaire, 212, 213
(Yolgnu), 298
D
G C
LECT
AE
LR
aE
x!