International Dictionary of University Histories [1 ed.] 1884964230, 9781884964237

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INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF

UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

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INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF

UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Edited by CAROL SUMMERFIELD and

MARY ELIZABETH DEVINE

é 3 Routledge 3

Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

Copyright © 1998 by FITZROY DEARBORN PUBLISHERS All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.

First published in 1998 by FITZROY DEARBORN PUBLISHERS This edition published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data and Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data is available.

ISBN 1884964230

Typeset by Print Means Inc., New York, New York Cover Design by Peter Aristedes, Chicago Advertising and Design, Chicago, Illinois

CONTENTS Editor’s Note ........... 0 cece cece eee tere eee cen cent teen een seen esse eee eessresees xiii Contributors

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University of lowa

be contemptuous of manual labor. In 1858, they founded a State Agricultural College and Model Farm at Ames (today known as Iowa State University). In 1876, Iowa

State Teachers College (now the University of Northern

sions and graduation standards were much less rigorous than those of the collegiate department. Under the leadership of George MacLean, president from 1899 to 1911, Iowa turned to the Germanic model of a university. The pioneering American institution in this

Iowa) opened in Cedar Falls. As the state legislators had feared, the university at Iowa City initially copied the more prestigious institutions in the east from which it drew its faculty. Until the 1890s, it functioned primarily as a liberal arts college offering a classical curriculum in a Christian environment. The first five presidents were

area was Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876 as the first American university on the German model—with lectures to large groups, seminars for intensive research, and laboratories for experimentation. Inspired by Hopkins, established American schools also created graduate facul-

Protestant clergymen, and students had to attend daily

ties and granted the M.A. and Ph.D. as earned (rather than

chapel and Sunday church services. The rules forbade drinking, card playing, gambling, profanity, entering a

honorary) degrees. MacLean was personally experienced

saloon, and attending the theater. Tobacco allowed in the classrooms or study halls.

was

not

Within the collegiate department, students followed a set program in Greek, Latin, mathematics, and science. Acting under pressure from the state legislature, the uni-

versity added five professional departments: law (1865), medicine (1870), dentistry (1882), pharmacy (1886), and homeopathic medicine (1887). However, these depart-

ments offered only undergraduate courses, and admis-

in and an enthusiastic supporter of the German model, having earned a Ph.D. at the University of Leipzig in 1883. Despite student indifference and faculty hostility, brought about by fears that MacLean’s changes would

adversely affect their professional lives, MacLean moved vigorously to turn Iowa into a research university. The six existing undergraduate departments became colleges. More rigorous standards were introduced into the five professional colleges, and their change into graduate programs began. The former collegiate department became

UNIVERSITY OF IOWA = 513 the College of Liberal Arts, and postgraduate courses were assigned to a separate graduate college with its own dean. New subject-matter departments were created within these colleges; departments with related interests

Among the school’s leaders during the Jessup years

became schools. The new departments were staffed by professors quali-

was Carl Seashore, the graduate school’s dean. A native Iowan, Seashore earned a Ph.D. in psychology from Yale University. Firmly committed to the newer methods of experimental psychology, he visited pioneering laboratories in Berlin, Leipzig, and Gottingen before joining the

fied to conduct research. When

took office,

Iowa faculty in 1897. As dean from 1908 to 1936, Sea-

only 26 percent of the professorial staff had doctoral degrees. When he left in 1911, more than half had an

shore controlled admissions and approved proposed thesis and dissertation subjects. Central to Seashore’s educational philosophy was his belief in the importance of recognizing and cultivating individual differences. In 1909, he said, “Keep each individual busy at his highest normal level of successful achievement that he may be happy, useful, and good.” To move toward this goal, he

MacLean

earned Ph.D. By 1911, 231 students were enrolled in the

graduate college. Only 12 American universities had a higher percentage of students in graduate programs. Wisconsin was Iowa’s only equal among public universities. Neither the public nor the legislature was ready to

accept MacLean’s concept of a scholarly institution of graduate and professional schools. He was forced to resign in 1911, following changes in the makeup of the university’s governing board. From 1870 to 1909, each of

the three state schools was governed by its own board of regents, which hired and fired faculty, managed financial

provided institutional support for programs grated vinced useful ments

that inte-

teaching, research, and practical service. Conthat the methods of applied psychology could be in many fields, he encouraged isolated departto work together.

Some of the most lasting innovations at the University

operations, and monitored students’ lives. Under this sys-

of Iowa occurred in educational

tem, the schools directly competed for funds and facili-

and speech pathology. During World War I, Seashore

ties. Impatient with the schools’ rivalries and legislative

helped develop the Army’s Alpha intelligence tests. In

lobbying, the legislature in 1909 placed the three schools under one board of education (called the board of regents

1923, at his suggestion, President Jessup ordered that

since 1955). The members of the new board wanted to

make their own hiring choices and forced MacLean and the other two presidents to resign. The post-MacLean era was shaped by an effective working partnership between President George Jessup (1916-34) and Carl Seashore, dean of the graduate college from 1908 to 1936. Jessup was determined to make

Iowa one of the top universities in the country. He was a superb politician and manager but not an intellectual. His manner was brisk and incisive, fostering the impression that he was in firm control. Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.,

history department chair from 1919, once described Jessup as “a stock, square-jawed man who looked and acted more like a business executive or banker than a university president.” Jessup remembered every political and civic leader who might be useful to the university and maintained close ties with them. He spoke to any group that would hear him, and he was careful to say nothing that would challenge or disturb his audiences. Thanks largely to Jessup’s personality, the relationship

between the school’s president and board finally stabi-

testing, child welfare,

incoming freshmen take the Alpha test. Out of Seashore’s proposal that high schools institute similar tests emerged the Iowa Testing Program. Everet Linquist, who directed the testing program from 1930 to 1969, developed the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, taken by millions of school children throughout the country. In the 1950s, Linquist

invented an electronic machine to score and store objective test results. Because he feared that the consequent ease of objective testing would lead schools to emphasize isolated facts, Linquist developed test questions requiring comparison, inference, and judgment. In 1959, he became cofounder of the influential American College Testing Program. The Iowa Child Welfare Research Station was also important. Established in 1917, the research station was

the first American center to study the development of a normal child. As a result in his interest in physiology and psychology of normal speech, Seashore was directly responsible for the founding in 1925 of a pioneering clinic for the study of speech defects (now the Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology). Seashore personally supervised the education of Lee Travis,

lized. The board devoted itself to policy and left administrative matters to Jessup. Instead of delegating, Jessup

the clinic’s

kept much of the power to himself. Like the university’s

for work on cleft palates and stuttering. As part of their therapy, stutterers walked around the city startling passersby by asking questions such as “Does my stutter-

founders, he scorned elitism. He believed that a university

should serve public needs and that extension programs, educational radio, correspondence courses, hospitals, and health clinics should bring the university’s resources to

first director.

Later, James

F. Curtis

and

Wendell Johns attracted scores of patients to Iowa City

ing bother you?”

his determination to improve the faculty, he offered high

Another innovation was the School of Religion, established in 1925. The first such school at a state university, it grew out of an effort to bridge the separation between

salaries to recruit the best professors.

church and state. Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish

communities throughout the state. At the same time, in

514.

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

leaders each chose and funded a professor, whose courses

carried full academic credit toward graduation. Adminis-

ing program in the country under the leadership of Paul Engle, a published poet and native Iowan, who directed

trative costs, initially supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, were taken over by the university in 1938. Since

the workshop from 1942 to 1965. Saul Maloff, a former

1970, the university has chosen the faculty, but churches and synagogues continue to provide financial support.

Weekly, “If any institution can be said to owe its life to the

volcanic will and drive of one man, the poet Paul Engle, a

The university also broke new ground in the arts. Iowa

native son, must be held accountable, for it was he who

was the first American college or university to accept

presided over its coming of age with a ferocious single-

artistic work in lieu of research theses. Though it has

mindedness verging on monomania.” Engle said that he

been widely imitated since, this procedure was revolu-

recruited talented writers the way a coach recruits ath-

tionary in the 1920s. Many schools offered courses in music, drawing, and painting, but they did not lead to

letes, and he was remarkably successful in raising money to lure them to Iowa. After resigning as director in 1965,

advanced—or even undergraduate—degrees. The physi-

Engle established the International Writing Program,

cal and biological sciences started the practice of requiring a research thesis for advanced degrees; the practice

which brings prominent foreign writers to Iowa City.

later spread to the social sciences and humanities. In any

are taught by visiting instructors who stay for a year or

field, a dissertation was expected to follow a rigid scien-

two. The faculty has included some of literature’s brightest lights: poet Robert Lowell, novelist and poet Robert Penn Warren (twice winner of the Pulitzer Prize for poetry [1958

tific methodology: identify facts; classify data; and analyze expression or behavior. The change began with George Stewart, a physicist,

member of the Writers’ Workshop, wrote in Publishers

In addition to a small core of tenured professors, courses

and 1979] and winner of the 1947 Pulitzer Prize in fiction

who acted as a graduate dean in Seashore’s absences.

for All the King’s Men), novelist Vance Bourjaily, novelist

Stewart believed that research was a creative act. Experi-

Stanley Elkin, novelist and short story writer John Cheever

ments started with a hunch, and conclusions were guided

(winner of the 1979 Pulitzer Prize in fiction for The Short

by insight and inspiration. As a result, Stewart thought the arts deserved the same academic respect as the sciences. The agreement of Seashore and other physical scientists lent credibility to this innovative philosophy.

Stories of John Cheever), novelist Kurt Vonnegut, novelist

In 1922, the graduate council revised the thesis requirement “to include artistic production, e.g., in litera-

to teach, have included novelist Flannery O’Connor, poet Donald Justice (winner of the Pulitzer Prize for poetry in

ture, art, or music; the performance of a project, e.g., in education or sociology.” The first master of fine arts degrees were awarded in 1925 and 1926 for two sym-

1980), and novelists Gail Godwin, John Irving, and Ray-

phonic compositions and a painting. In 1929, the School of Fine Arts was founded with the goal of coordinating and integrating work into music, theater, and the graphic and plastic arts. The English department at first lagged

behind the fine arts in accepting creative work. Norman Foerster, appointed director of the new School of Letters

Philip Roth, novelist and short story writer Frank Conroy,

and poet Galway Kinnel (winner of the Pulitzer Prize for poetry in 1983). Students, many of whom have come back

mond Carver. More than 300 writers gathered in Iowa City in May 1986 to celebrate the workshop’s 50th anniversary. Since the 1960s, hundreds of other schools have cre-

ated graduate and undergraduate writing programs, many

initially directed by former Iowa Workshop participants. The master of fine arts degree has become almost a requirement for entry into a literary career. At Iowa, at least, students consider themselves free to write whatever

they please, no matter how unfashionable. However, over the years, critics have charged that Iowa and other univer-

in 1930, finally persuaded the department to accept creative dissertations. The first master’s degree was granted in 1931 for a collection of poems, and a doctoral degree was awarded in 1935 for a group of essays. Foerster was also influential in founding the Iowa Writers’ Workshop, the most widely copied of the Iowa programs in the cre-

sity writing programs encourage conformist writing designed to earn approval in the classroom. They believe that workshop graduates end up teaching writing at universities while publishing mediocre work in small maga-

ative arts. Although the name was not officially used until 1939, the Iowa Writers’ Workshop traces its beginnings

zines. During the 50th anniversary celebrations in 1986, Howard Moss, poetry editor of the New Yorker, noted that

to the first graduate courses in writing in 1936. The two-year program is divided into poetry and fiction workshops that meet weekly—poets on Monday, fiction writers on Tuesday. The writers discuss and criticize

Iowa, the first of the writing programs, “has become a whipping boy for all that’s wrong with any of them. It can’t make you a writer. You’re talented or not.”

one another’s work. Students submit book-length manuscripts as theses. The workshop instructors tend to have unique teaching styles. Some give detailed instructions for improvement, while others leave the discussion to the

build on the foundations laid in the 1920s and 1930s. Enrollment continuously increased, from some 5,000 students in 1945 to a peak of about 30,000 in 1984. Enrollment in 1994 was 26,932. The practical applications of

writers, whose commentaries are sometimes devastating.

scientific

The workshop developed a reputation as the finest writ-

notably in the investigations into outer space of James

Since World War II, the university has continued to

research

continued

to be emphasized,

most

UNIVERSITY OF IOWA Van Allen of Iowa’s Astrophysics Department. Van Allen and the department have contributed to NASA missions by building equipment and analyzing data. Van Allen himself is probably best known for his discovery of two

doughnut-shaped zones of charged particles that encircle the earth, now called the Van Allen radiation belts.

Iowa’s thriving Writer’s Workshop and its continuing contribution to scientific research would seem to bear out Dean Seashore’s view that the arts and the sciences make equal contributions to the academic world.

515

Institutional History (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press,

1990), Stow Parsons presents a detailed narrative history. Larry Perl, a journalism school graduate, offers a jazzier style and more attention to student life in Calm and Secure on Thy Hill: A Retrospective of the University of Iowa (Iowa City: University of Iowa Alumni Association, 1978), based on a se-

ries of articles in the Iowa City Daily Iowan. Steven Wilbers’ The Iowan Writers Workshop (Jowa City: University of Iowa

Press, 1980) traces the history of this innovative and influential program. For a complete listing of books and magazine articles about the university, see Earl M. Rogers, A Biliography of the History of the University of Iowa, 1848-1978 (lowa City: University of Iowa Libraries, 1979).

Further Reading: More than 325 photographs enrich the historical overview in John Gerber’s A Pictorial History of the University of lowa (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1988). In The University of Iowa in the Twentieth Century: An

—Jan Rogozinski

UNIVERSITY OF LEIDEN (Leiden, Netherlands) Location:

Description:

Inside a former convent of White Nuns and in

movements, was besieged by Philip’s troops (for a second

other buildings in the city of Leiden (also spelled “Leyden” in English or “Lijden” in

time) from May 1574 onward, but it was relieved with

Dutch), 30 miles southwest of Amsterdam.

supplies brought on barges after the breaking of the dikes to flood the plain around the city. The end of the siege is

“Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden” in Dutch; the

still celebrated every year on October 3 with the eating of carrots and onions, the vegetables left behind by the

oldest university in the Netherlands, founded by

retreating Spanish, and of herring and white bread, the

William the Silent in 1575; historically famous as a center of Calvinist theology, Oriental

first foods brought into the city by the rebels. This date

may also be taken to symbolize the foundation of the uni-

studies, and botany; now a multi-faculty

versity, which was first proposed by William the Silent in

university, with around 17,000 students.

Information:

a letter dated December 28, 1574, addressed to the states

assemblies of Holland and Zeeland. It was formally established by the two provinces the following year, in

_ Secretaris, Rijksuniversiteit Stationsweg 46

commemoration of the city’s deliverance. Johan van der Does, already famous

P.O. Box 9500

2300 RA Leiden

as a leading

defender of the city during the siege, and later renowned as a poet under the Latin pen name Janus Dousa, chaired

Netherlands

(71) 27 2727

a committee appointed by the states assembly of Holland which composed the charter for the new university (Academia Lugduno Batava) issued on January 6, 1575, in the

name,

somewhat

bizarrely, of King Philip, since the

The University of Leiden, the oldest in the Netherlands,

rebels did not create their own government of the United

has been closely involved in many of the major events and movements that have shaped the Dutch nation ever since it was founded in 1575, during the struggle for inde-

Provinces until 1581. Its provisions appear to have been based on the examples of the Academy of Geneva, created by John Calvin himself, and the University of Lou-

pendence from Spain. Today it is one of several institutions of higher education and has lost its unique role as

vain. The opening ceremony took place on February 8, 1575. Until 1577 the university was housed in the former convent of Saint Barbara, on the Rapenburg Canal; then it moved into the convent of the Faille-Mantled Beguines

the leading center of Dutch learning, but it retains a dis-

tinctive character nonetheless. Until 1425 there was no university in any of the small

nearby; and in 1581 it also took over the convent of the

states and principalities known as the Low Countries (modern Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and

White Nuns, on the canal’s other bank. It is this historic building which, as the New Academy, is still the univer-

northeastern France). The foundation of the University of Louvain (or Leuven) in that year provided some opportu-

sity’s headquarters. With just 2 students in 1575 and 14 in 1576, the new

nities for higher education, but its adherence to the doc-

university’s professors, influenced by four of their num-

trines of the Catholic Church—a feature shared, of course, with all universities in western Europe at that

ber who had moved to the city from Geneva, devoted

their energies less to teaching than to quarreling with the city fathers over the university’s rules and its relationship with the city’s schools and churches. On June 2, 1575, William himself intervened to impose a new administration led by a rector, who, significantly, had to be a Dutchspeaker, and two or three curators appointed by the city. Three years later, when the States of Holland forced the university to give up administering the oath of loyalty to Calvinist doctrine which William had reluctantly

date—presented problems for the already growing minority who questioned those doctrines and the enormous

power and wealth of the Church. Over the years that minority became more organized into Lutheran and Calvinist groups that rejected Catholic authority altogether, and attempts to suppress them became more determined and brutal under both Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and overlord of the Low Countries, and his son and successor Philip II, king of Spain. Militant opposition to Philip’s policies, led by William the Silent, prince of Orange, and others among his own Dutch officials, broke out in 1566-67 and again from 1572. Leiden, a center of Calvinist and other anti-Spanish

imposed on staff and students alike, the superiority of the secular authorities over the dogmatists among the faculty was further reinforced. The university was probably unique in Europe at that date, and for two centuries to come, in not imposing a religious oath on its members. 516

UNIVERSITY OF LEIDEN

University of Leiden

517

518

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Perhaps partly because of this factor, by 1581 there were more than 40 students in Leiden, divided into two groups: those who studied theology, most of whom were “bursars,” receiving scholarships provided by the provinces

regardless of individual acts. Arminius’ rebellion against Calvin’s doctrines might have remained a merely aca-

demic scandal if his death in 1609 had not been followed

and living together in a seminary known as the States

in 1610 by his supporters’ decision to present a Remonstrance, a demand for toleration of their views, to the

College; and those studying other subjects, who lived in private lodges. In 1586, the city authorities successfully resisted the

states assemblies of Holland and Friesland, the two provinces in which there were then universities and in which the training of ministers was therefore a political issue.

plans of the English Earl of Leicester, the temporary,

The Arminians, or Remonstrants, won the support of the

unpopular, and ineffectual governor of the rebel prov-

majority in both assemblies, only to find that the so-

inces, to move the university to Utrecht and thus deprive them of “their only and most precious pearl.” Instead they

called Counter-Remonstrants, led by Gomarus and other

powerful ministers, were supported by the other prov-

set about enhancing its value. The library, founded in

inces, and crucially by Maurice of Nassau, William’s son

1587, gradually expanded to fill the convent of the FailleMantled Beguines—also known as the Old Academy (it

and his successor as military commander of the country.

now contains more than 2 million books), and the univer-

after the assassination of his father.) The subsequent crisis attracted international attention, with Britain support-

sity embarked upon its own “golden age” just as the United Provinces expelled the Spanish and started theirs.

(He himself had given up his studies at Leiden in 1584

ing the Gomarists

and France the Arminians,

and was

During the seventeenth century Leiden was probably

resolved in 1619 by the banishing of 13 Arminian minis-

the single most important and influential university for European Protestants, attracting students and scholars

ters, the purging of the universities, and the execution of Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, the most important statesman in

from England, Germany, and other countries as well as

Holland and Maurice’s former mentor. In the same year

from the United Provinces, all of whom shared in teach-

the synod of Dort (or Dordrecht) reasserted orthodox doctrine, which was imposed with renewed vigor on the universities and schools and, through them, on the country as a whole. Yet enough of the spirit of toleration

ing and research conducted mainly in Latin. Indeed, the average proportion of foreigners among the students at Leiden has been estimated to have been around 41 percent in the years up to 1601, around 43 percent between

remained to permit the leading Arminians to return from

1601 and 1625, and as much as 52 percent between 1626

exile and create their own separate church in 1626: in the

and 1650, which would be extraordinary at any university even today. In addition, Leiden retained its primacy in the higher education of the Dutch nation, although other provinces founded a total of five more universities

Netherlands, as in other countries in this period, the aca-

between

Amsterdam.)

1585

and

1656,

mainly

because

Holland

remained the wealthiest, most populous, and culturally most influential province and Leiden the most cosmopol-

itan and most substantially endowed university. Leiden’s prestige was closely bound up with that of the Calvinist church. Although the church accounted for a relatively small minority of the population—probably no more than around 10 percent—it had been closely identi-

demic community was forced to be notably less tolerant than society at large. (The Arminians’ own academy, the

Athenaeum founded in 1632, became the University of One of the scholars purged during the upheaval was Huig van Groot, better known as Hugo Grotius, who had graduated from Leiden in 1598, at the age of 15, and rapidly become known as one of the most brilliant scholars in the Netherlands. His support for Oldenbarneveldt led to his imprisonment and, following his escape to France in 1621, the loss of his talents to his nation, for he

fied with the struggle for independence, and now, through its Leiden-trained ministers and its monopoly of legally

remained in exile until his death in 1645. It is one of the countless ironies of history that this particular Leiden

approved religious services, claimed the right to admonish those secular powerholders whom it considered too tolerant or too lax, just as John Calvin himself had in

graduate, widely regarded as the first scholar to formulate the principles of international law, is now probably better known, and exercises a greater influence, in the Nether-

Geneva. This was the context in which a theological

lands as in other countries, than any other graduate of the

debate among scholars developed into a nationwide political crisis. In 1603 the university appointed Jakob Hermanns—known in Latin as Jacobus Arminius—to one of its professorships of theology. In the following year he

university. Another side-effect of the upheaval was that the cultural supremacy of Holland over the other provinces was reinforced—to the extent that, like England

and

took

country—by way of the Staten Bible, the official transla-

opposing sides in a public debate on the question of salvation, Arminius arguing that human beings could affect their chances of salvation by their free acceptance of God’s grace, Gomarus following Calvinist orthodoxy in asserting that each person’s fate is predestined by God

tion into the form of Dutch prevailing in the province, which was commissioned by the synod of Dort and completed by scholars at Leiden. Like Luther’s translation in German-speaking regions, or the authorized version in English-speaking ones, this version of the Christian scrip-

his colleague

Franz

(Franciscus)

Gomarus

within Britain, its name came to misrepresent the entire

UNIVERSITY OF LEIDEN tures had a formative influence on most people, but especially on writers and scholars, until well into the

nineteenth century. Still another result of the triumph of orthodoxy may well have been the determination of the “Pilgrim

Fathers,”

the founders

of Massachusetts,

to

impose a similar orthodoxy in their new home, for they resided in Leiden between their departure from England

in 1609 and their voyage to North America in 1620 and witnessed the rise and fall of the Arminian heresy and its disruptive effects. As a direct offshoot of its theological concerns, Leiden

soon

became

research

a center of European

in languages

and

literatures.

knowledge Joseph

and Justus

Scaliger, a French Protestant scholar of Italian descent who was at Leiden between 1592 and 1609, when he

519

medicinal herbs, in a field behind the New Academy, were laid out on rational principles devised by the French botanist Charles 1’Ecluse—known at Leiden at Carolus Clusius—who not only led the way in the Europe-wide program of classifying and investigating the properties of plants, but was also credited with, perhaps as early as

1573, introducing the tulip, which now seems so typically Dutch, from its original location in Turkey to his garden in Leiden and from there across the country. Leiden was also the home of Willibrord Snellius, the mathematician

who devised Snell’s Law, the formula that describes optical refraction. Snell was the most influential among a number of Leiden mathematicians whose work was eagerly taken up and applied in the practical field of navi-

gation, then so crucial to the wealth and power of the

(for example) the study of the Roman historian Tacitus

United Provinces. From 1593 onward the university also had a Theatrum Anatomicum, a dissecting room, at first located in the Old Academy, which was one of the few in any Euro-

became the basis for study of politics and diplomacy in general, for Grotius and for many others. More distinc-

pean university. During the eighteenth century the number of foreign students in the university’s faculty of

tively, during the seventeenth century Leiden came to rival the ancient universities of Europe as a center for the study of the Semitic languages. Scaliger, although a clas-

medicine averaged around 400, making it among the largest and most cosmopolitan of the time and bringing great renown to its most important professor, Hermann Boerhaave, who taught there from 1701 until his death in

died, was especially prominent in the study of Latin and

Greek, not only in the service of theology but as a means for studying history, politics, and science as well, so that

sicist himself, encouraged the new discipline, while his colleague Raphelengius, professor of Hebrew, also served

1738. An expert on human anatomy as well as on ento-

other “exotic” scripts. These continued to be used on

mology, he carried out important research on perspiration and on the epidemiology of smallpox; his textbooks of medical principles were translated into numerous

behalf of the university until 1712 by the Elseviers, the famous printing dynasty which had started in Leiden

European languages. In the summer months, when work with corpses was impossible, the room was use to dis-

around 1581. The Sorbonne was the first European university to appoint a professor of Arabic; Leiden was the second, and it was at Leiden that Thomas Erpenius became one of the first Europeans to make a serious study of the grammar of Arabic and that Jacob Golius, one of many linguists trained by Scaliger, compiled one of the first dictionaries of that language to be published in Europe. Later, Albert Schultens continued in the tradition by pioneering the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and other

play the university’s steadily growing collection of curiosities, such as Egyptian mummies, stuffed crocodiles, and other objects from distant lands. Just as the university’s golden age coincided with that of

as university printer, ensuring that the press maintained fonts for printing texts in Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopian, and

Semitic languages as a single family. The work of these scholars and their successors was appreciated not only within the academic community at

Leiden but by the wider community of educated Dutch citizens involved directly or indirectly in the extensive trade between the Netherlands and its Muslim, Arabicspeaking colonies in what are now India and Indonesia. Golius was even appointed by the states general assembly of the United Provinces to conduct official correspondence in Arabic with the rulers of the Muslim territories of North Africa, with which the Dutch state was among the first in Europe to maintain diplomatic relations. However, the university was not exclusively concerned with theology or the languages associated with it. It also

the Dutch

nation itself, so its gradual contraction

and

decline during the eighteenth century occurred as the United Provinces fell further and further behind in eco-

nomic and colonial competition with Britain. The city of Leiden itself suffered from the rise of rival centers of weaving and other industries, its population falling from a peak of around 100,00 in 1640 to around 30,000 in 1800. Economic problems in turn contributed to a mounting political crisis which, as in earlier times of trouble, came to focus on

the struggle between the monarchical tendencies of the House of Orange and the republican tradition of the states assemblies. In these years the University of Leiden gained

a reputation for conservatism which was enhanced by the writings of Adriaan Kluit, a professor of history who was a vociferous supporter of the claims of William V, the prince of Orange, who became absolute ruler in 1787. However, following the French Revolution of 1789, the anti-absolutist Patriot movement was revived and, in

gained a Europe-wide reputation in science and medicine.

1795, with help from French troops, it overthrew William V and established the Batavian Republic. Like the other

Its botanical gardens, founded in 1587 as a garden of

Dutch

universities,

Leiden

was

now

opened

to other

520

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

teachers and students apart from the orthodox Calvinists who had dominated its first two centuries. But in 1806 the

republic gave way to a new “Kingdom of Holland” ruled by Louis Bonaparte, brother of the French emperor

with these new facilities may be inferred from the awarding of three Nobel Prizes to scholars of the university. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, who had graduated from Leiden

at the age of 16 and been appointed a professor at 24, was awarded the physics prize, jointly with his student Pieter

Napoléon, and only Leiden and Groningen survived Napoléon’s drastic reforms of the Dutch universities in

Zeeman,

1810, which placed them under the strict supervision of a board of control, charged with assimilating their work with the principles of the French empire.

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes received the same prize 11 years later, having liquefied helium and opening up the whole field of superconductivity; and Willem Einthoven, a pio-

After the restoration of the ancien regime in 1813, when the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created under

neer of electrocardiography, was awarded the physiology or medicine prize in 1924.

the Orange family, Leiden and Groningen were joined by a revived university at Utrecht to form the extant group of

However, for better or worse scientists are generally less well known to the public than their colleagues in

three state-controlled universities (alongside the munici-

other faculties, and between the two world wars the sin-

pal university of Amsterdam and two universities con-

gle most famous professor at Leiden was probably the

trolled by Christian churches). All three continued to be regulated by the Napoléonic system, which had two notable effects. First, the centralization of power at the

historian Johan Huizinga, whose book The Waning of the

in 1902, for their work on electromagnetism;

Middle Ages, first published in 1919, is widely regarded

as a classic. As rector of the university he not only pre-

who followed Kluit in promoting an absolutist interpreta-

sided over the continuing expansion in student numbers—which rose from 798 (including around 100

tion of history at Leiden, meant that the supervisory pow-

women) in 1900 to 2,410 (including around 800 women)

ers formerly exercised by the city of Leiden and the

in 1940—but became almost equally well known, at least

province of Holland were never revived. Second, the for-

within his own country, as an implacable opponent of the Nazi regime in neighboring Germany. He caused contro-

national level, a trend advocated by Willem Bilderdijk,

mal separation of the natural sciences from the arts great academic sea-change which was to transform higher education all over Europe and North America during the nineteenth century. Leiden also benefited from the prestige of being the oldest and most famous of the Dutch universities, a pres-

versy as early as 1933, the first year both of his term of office and of Hitler’s dictatorship, when he forbade the participation of a Nazi-dominated group of German students in an international conference on university property. This act alone marked him for punishment seven years later, when the Netherlands was invaded and incor-

tige which was enhanced by the creation of a group of

porated into the Nazi empire.

allowed the three state universities to take part in the

national museums in the city, which were and are closely

Huizinga was by no means alone in his protests against

associated with the university. The first of these, the

the occupying power which, unlike in France and other

Museum of Natural History, was founded in 1820 on the

countries, found very few collaborators anywhere in the Netherlands. At Leiden R.P. Cleveringa, dean of the law

basis of the royal collections donated to the university by King William I five years before. It was followed in 1821 by the Museum of Archeology and in 1837 by the

of Ethnology, this last being notable for its

faculty, and his colleague B.M. Telders led courageous protests against the anti-Semitic decrees issued in October 1940, including the circulation of a petition signed by

important and fascinating collection of Japanalia, a byproduct of the period (1639-1854) when the Dutch were the only Europeans permitted to trade with Japan.

more than 70 percent of the student body. The university was closed in November that year and, once it was clear that its staff and students would not cooperate in convert-

Latin remained the language of instruction at Leiden, Groningen, and Utrecht long after it had been replaced by

ing it into a Nazi institution, it was formally “abolished”

native languages at most other European universities, and the need to provide elementary instruction in Latin for most of the students entering from ordinary schools continued to take up time and resources that might have been devoted to developing instruction and research in the natu-

The university reopened in September 1945, four months

Museum

in November 1942. after the end of the war in Europe. Earlier that year Huizinga, who had been taken hostage in 1940 but later released, had died of natural causes, and Telders had been murdered at

the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, but Cleveringa and

ral sciences, social studies, and other newer forms of learn-

others, released from imprisonment, were able to restore the

ing. Even so, the university did not lack developments in these directions. It first acquired a chemical laboratory in

university to its former academic standing. The past 50 years have been typified, at Leiden as at other universities across the developed world, by

1859, a physiological laboratory in 1866, and a modernized astronomical observatory in 1868; a pharmaceutical laboratory was added in 1889 and separate laboratories for organic and inorganic chemistry followed in 1901 and 1918 respectively. The high standards of research achieved

unprecedented

expansion

and

transformation,

as the

university authorities have responded to changes in society. The single most striking change has been the rise in student numbers, from 2,924 in 1945 to 7,878 in

UNIVERSITY OF LEIDEN

521

essarily altered the everyday experience of studying in

ties and the natural sciences. Less tangibly but perhaps even more importantly, its teachers and students alike can

Leiden as well as the social status of its graduates. As elsewhere the expansion was accompanied in the late

lay claim to, and variously try to live up to, the Dutch tradition of independence and free thought which was inaugu-

1960s by a brief and ultimately ineffectual outburst of

rated by William the Silent, the father of the nation and of

student

in the

the university, then betrayed during the Arminian crisis,

1969, when part of the headquarters

only to be reaffirmed by individual scholars over the years

1965, and then to 17,190 in 1993. This process has nec-

protest,

events of May

which

at Leiden

culminated

building was occupied for 12 days and converted into a “discussion center” by student radicals. But the lasting

and by the university as a whole during World War II.

effect of this historic change has been to make Leiden, like its counterparts

in other countries,

an institution

concerned less with the training of a homogeneous national elite (although that process still continues to some extent) and much more with the education of a

diverse range of professional specialists and the provi-

sion of research services to the government and private corporations. Although Leiden has thus, inevitably, lost some of its unique character it remains the leading university in the Netherlands and a center of excellence in both the humani-

Further Reading: M.W. Juriaanse’s The Founding of Leyden University (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965) is a fascinating account of its early years, but the history of its golden age and

the period since is scattered through general histories of the Netherlands, ranging both in age and quality; one of the best is Bernard H.M. Vlekke’s exemplary study Evolution of the Dutch Nation (New York: Roy, 1945).

—Patrick Heenan

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON (London, England) Location:

Senate House and several member institutions

schools attached to two medieval hospitals, Saint Bartho-

in Bloomsbury; other member institutions in

lomew’s and Saint Thomas’s, affectionately known to generations of Londoners as Bart’s and Tommy’s. Bart’s was established in 1123, Tommy’s perhaps even earlier, although its present name and location appear to date from

South Kensington and other districts of Greater London; also in Wye, Kent, England; and in Paris.

Description:

1215. Although it is impossible to establish when either hospital first began training doctors, for lack of documen-

A federal university, with the second largest number of students among British universities,

institutes.

tary evidence, both were almost certainly doing so by the time that they were taken over by the Corporation of the City of London, Bart’s in 1546 and Tommy’s in 1551. The

The Registrar

ulations, examinations, and certificates, was completed in

comprising 6 multi-faculty colleges, 9 medical schools, and 22 other specialist schools and

Information:

formal organization of medical schools, complete with reg-

London WC1E 7HU

the early eighteenth century, by which time there were five more hospitals in London: the Westminster founded in 1716; Guy’s from 1726; Saint George’s from 1733; the London from 1740; and the Middlesex from 1745. Guy’s

England

and Tommy’s, which stood next door to each other, seem to

(0171) 636 8000

have been the first to organize programs of lectures, begin-

The Senate House University of London Malet Street

ning in 1768, while the London is believed to have created

the first medical school organizationally separate from the hospital itself, in 1785. The medical schools of all these

hospitals, as well as the school attached to the Charing The University of London is a federation of general col-

Cross Hospital, founded in 1818, were to join the university soon after its foundation. The training of barristers (lawyers who represent cli-

leges, medical schools, and other institutions of higher

education which has grown up almost haphazardly since its formal creation in 1836, partly by absorbing several older institutions. It is the product of two interconnected processes: the development over several hundred years of

ents in court) has also been concentrated in London since

formal courses in medicine, linked to the numerous hospitals in the British capital, and, from 1828 onward, the

Inns of Chancery. However, these have always been inde-

the fifteenth century, or perhaps earlier, at the four colleges known as the Inns of Court and at the now-defunct pendent, rejecting an invitation to join the University of London in 1899. Instead they elected four members to its

piecemeal creation of alternatives to Oxford and Cambridge, which until that year were the only universities in England (Scottish and Irish education being separate). Alternatives were needed for those groups whom the ancient universities, as they are known, have traditionally excluded, up to various points in the nineteenth and twentieth

centuries:

Catholics,

Nonconformist

senate from 1900 to 1929, and after World War II they developed a cooperative relationship with the university’s Institute of Advanced Legal Studies. While medical and legal training was evolving in London, higher education in the liberal arts in England

had long since become the exclusive business of Oxford and Cambridge. Their monopoly was broken from 1596, when Gresham College was established in Bishopsgate in London in the former home of the merchant Sir Thomas Gresham (1519-76), perhaps best known for the “law” of economics named for him (“Bad money drives out good”). Between 1660 and 1710 this college also served as the headquarters of the Royal Society, the influential learned society created by King Charles II. However, by 1768 the college had lost prestige and stu-

Protestants,

Jews, and the non-religious; women; men from working-

class backgrounds; and people wishing to study near their homes, whether in London itself or in cities elsewhere in

Great Britain and the British Empire, where “daughter” institutions were created. In addition the university has played a leading role in the long-term trend away from general education in the liberal arts and toward specialized professional training, at first (and still predominantly) in medicine, but later also in the natural sciences, social studies, and modern languages, all of which were long neglected or underrated at Oxford and Cambridge. Among the 37 institutions which are now members of

college named for him continued on a reduced scale and in a series of locations, until it was absorbed into the

the University of London, the oldest by far are the medical

separate City University established in 1966.

dents alike. Gresham’s home was demolished and the

522

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON = 523

~);

—

be ‘

ce.

es

ein

_ — e a m a i ae.

aS

meecee

S osS PWE itt:P oSee

e Te”

University of London

It was against this background of success in profes-

from the outset as University College, London,

was

sional education and relative failure in the teaching of the

opened in Bloomsbury in October 1828.

liberal arts that a true University of London was first proposed. On February 9, 1825, The Times, then the leading

University College (usually abbreviated UCL) is still based in its original range of neoclassical buildings

British newspaper, published an open letter setting out the

designed by William Wilkins, although several additional buildings have since been squeezed onto its site. It would

proposal, written by the poet Thomas Campbell to his fellow-Scot, the politician Henry Brougham. He responded by inviting representatives from religious groups whose

eventually become, as it remains, the largest single mem-

members were excluded from Oxford and Cambridge, including Baptists, Jews, and Catholics, to join in plan-

which many Londoners still confuse it. Its departments

ning the new institution, which, like the older universities

and the medical schools, would still exclude women. The London University which they devised, better known

ber institution of the federal University of London, with now include the Slade School of Fine Art founded in 1871, which has trained such prominent British painters as Sir Stanley Spencer, and the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology,

which commemorates

the work of

524.

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

UCL’s first professor of Egyptology, Sir Flinders Petrie. Its most famous mummy, however, is not in the museum

but inside a glass-fronted wooden cabinet near the college’s main entrance. This is the “Auto-Icon” of the philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), whose utilitarian and liberal principles greatly influenced the founders of

natural sciences on the basis of practical as well as written work by introducing examinations for the bachelor of science and doctor of science, building on the success

of such institutions as UCL’s Birkbeck Laboratory, founded in 1846 as the first university chemistry laboratory in the United Kingdom.

a hat on its wax head, has been on display since 1850,

In the same year the university received its second royal charter, which opened its examinations, except in

while his real head, which was displayed on a wooden

medicine, to all who wished to take them, regardless of

platter between his feet until 1948, is now kept in a safe.

the school or college at which they had studied. This was

The founders of UCL appear to have envisaged that the college and the university would be one and the same

the origin of the distinction, formalized in 1900, between

thing (as Trinity College and the University of Dublin had

medical

been since 1598), but its right to be known as “London University” was challenged within one year of its opening. Almost as soon as Brougham and his colleagues

unprecedented arrangement the numbers taking examinations rose from 358 in 1855 to 1,459 in 1870. After 1865,

began raising funds, a campaign for a rival college, which

and Canada were allowed to take the examination in their

would follow Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin in being open only to members of the established Church of

home countries. In just 30 years the university had passed from being a local compromise between UCL and King’s

England (and its offshoot, the Church of Ireland), had been started by a group of bishops and noblemen headed by the Duke of Wellington. Unlike the “godless” Blooms-

to being already one of the leading educational bodies in

bury foundation in 1829, this orthodox competitor was given a royal charter which included permission to call

from teaching colleges was first borrowed for the Queen’s University of Ireland (now the National University) in

itself King’s College when it opened two years later on

1850. This was to be followed by the University of Tor-

the Strand, then the main street between the cities of London and Westminster. Part of its original building, designed by Sir Robert Smirke to fit with the facade of

onto in Canada in 1853, the three university colleges of

Somerset House, the government offices next door to it,

the Victoria University, established in 1880 to provide

was torn down in 1966, in spite of protests, to be replaced six years later by a Modernist block. Neither the two new colleges nor the medical schools had any right to award degrees. In 1836 this crucial func-

examinations for colleges in Manchester, Leeds, and Liv-

tion was

appointed by the British government, which, under its

As the University of London grew, two events signaled that it had at last gained official acceptance on equal

own royal charter of November

1836, was to call itself

terms with the three other English universities, the six in

the Senate of the University of London. Thus the federal university was created as the fourth university in

Scotland, and Trinity College, Dublin. In 1867 its graduates, who form the university’s convocation, were given

England, just four years after the University of Durham

the right to elect a member of parliament to represent the

had been founded as the third. Its dependence on the gov-

university, a ght which they exercised until the abolition of the university seats in 1950. In 1870 the university moved into its first purposebuilt headquarters, after three years during which the

UCL. His seated, embalmed body, fully clothed and with

given to a separate

board

of examiners,

ernment—in contrast to its predecessors and its own member institutions—was confirmed by its being given office space inside Somerset House. During its first two decades the new university became the national examining body, not only for UCL and King’s but also for 30 colleges in other cities in Great Britain and Ireland as well as for 69 medical schools, including the 8 in London which have already

“internal” students, taught at the university’s colleges and schools,

and “external”

students.

Under

this

many students who were living in Mauritius, Gibraltar,

the British Empire, and not only through its own examinations. Its model of an examining university separated

India set up at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857, the University of New Zealand in 1874 and, in England itself,

erpool, all of which had used the London examinations

until that year. (The Victoria University was abolished in 1903 and its three colleges became separate universities.)

building was being constructed and the university offi-

cials worked in a house in Savile Row. The university building in Burlington Gardens now houses the Museum of Mankind, a branch of the British Museum, but the uni-

versity insignia and the statues which were installed in

been mentioned, the medical faculties of UCL and King’s, which had created their own hospitals in 1837

1870 can still be seen there. In 1869 the university further extended its unique

and 1840 respectively, and the new medical school at

openness to types of students excluded from other Brit-

Saint Mary’s Hospital in Paddington, founded in 1854. In 1853 the university left Somerset House for another

ish universities by introducing examinations for women,

government block, Marlborough

House, but moved on

again only three years later to Burlington House. There in 1858 the senate began promoting the teaching of the

who until then had had access to higher education only at two small colleges which were located in London but did not belong to the university—Queen’s College, founded in 1848, and Bedford College, founded in 1849.

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON = 525 At first the women’s examinations led only to certificates of study, but in 1880 the university became the first

in the British Empire to award degrees on equal terms to men and women, two years after UCL had become the first British college to admit women as full members.

King’s College, in contrast, kept women literally at a distance, offering lectures for them in Kensington, four miles from its main buildings, from 1878 and creating a

the member institutions mentioned so far, but also six small colleges run by various Christian denominations (none now in the university); the South Eastern Agricultural College in the county of Kent, which had been

founded in 1894 and which is now called Wye College; the Royal College of Science (incorporating the Royal School of Mines) and the Central Technical College, both in South Kensington; and one of the most famous and

formal ladies’ department there in 1885. This became

influential members of the federation, the London School

the women’s department in 1902, King’s College for

of Economics and Political Science (the LSE). The first institution of its kind in Britain, the LSE was

Women

in 1908,

King’s

College

of Household

and

and men, in 1953. At last, 100 years

established in 1895 by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, leading lights in the Fabian Society, an influential group of

after its foundation, it became once again an integral part of King’s College. Meanwhile, the availability of

socialist intellectuals, using money left by their friend Henry Hutchinson to be used for the purposes of the soci-

degrees brought a group of women’s colleges into membership in the university. These were Bedford College

ety and its version of socialism. However,

Social Sciences in 1928, and Queen Elizabeth College, for both women

(but not Queen’s,

which

became a girls’ school); the

London School of Medicine for Women, which had been

the Webbs

rebuffed the efforts of their friend and colleague, the playwright George Bernard Shaw, to make the school an

College,

avowedly socialist institution, preferring to dedicate it to the impartial investigation of economic and social questions, thus attracting vital support from such conservative

founded in 1882; and Royal Holloway College, opened

bodies as the London Chamber of Commerce. One has to

in 1886 in an enormous

building,

wonder, not only what Hutchinson would have thought of

with its own picture gallery provided by its founder, the businessman Thomas Holloway, on Egham Hill (then in the county of Surrey, now in Greater London).

the way that the Webbs interpreted his will, but why they believed that impartiality could be achieved in such inevi-

set up in 1874 and was later made into the Royal Free Hospital

School

of

Medicine;

Westfield

French Renaissance

Between 1870 and 1895 the numbers of men and women taking the university’s various examinations rose from 1,459 to 6,219. Even as this increase continued the university became divided by controversy over its structure, as UCL, King’s, and 10 London medical schools,

the 12 largest members of the university, sought degreegiving powers of their own. The whole system was investigated inconclusively by a royal commission

in

1888, and in 1891 plans were made for a separate Albert

University, which would provide both teaching and examinations on the traditional model for the 12 colleges, leaving the University of London as an examining board for a variety of smaller institutions. These were abandoned in the face of opposition within UCL and among politicians in favor of a second royal commis-

sion, which eventually led to the London University Act, passed by parliament in 1898. The result was a new set of statutes for the university, which came into effect in 1900, the same year that its

headquarters moved yet again, this time to the Imperial Institute, a grandiose neo-Gothic building in South Kensington. The senate was overhauled to represent alumni, teachers, the Inns of Court (as mentioned

above), and

local government bodies as well as the national government. The university was to have two categories of members: in London a variety of smaller colleges known as “institutions having recognized teachers,” which had

tably controversial subjects. In any event, the LSE has been a lively forum of debate as well as a leading international center of teaching and research across the range of social studies, its staff having included such decidedly

anti-socialist thinkers as Friedrich Hayek and Karl Popper alongside, for example, William Beveridge, a member of the Liberal Party whose famous report, Social Insur-

ance (1942), laid the foundations for the British welfare state, and the political scientist Harold Laski, a prominent member of the Labour Party. Now that the university, already the largest in the British Empire, was active in promoting teaching and research, as well as in examining their results, it expanded further, mainly by taking in several more institutions which had

existed separately. In 1905 the Goldsmiths’ Company gave their Technical and Recreative Institute, founded in 1891 at New Cross in south London, to the university, which renamed it Goldsmiths’ College. In 1907 and 1910 respectively, UCL and King’s gave up their independent governing bodies, becoming departments of the university itself. Also in 1907 the South Kensington scientific schools were merged, becoming the Imperial College of Science and

Technology, and the East London College, originating in 1887 as part of the “People’s Palace” group of schools created for the poor of the East End of London, joined the federation, being renamed Queen Mary College in 1934. In 1916 a School of Oriental Studies was created, taking over

their courses validated by the university but remained

teachers, books, and other resources from parts of UCL and King’s; it became the School of Oriental and African

separate; and those institutions which were full members

Studies (SOAS) in 1938. Birkbeck College, which had

of the federation. This second group included not only all

been founded as the London Mechanics’ Institute in 1823

526

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

UCL), was brought into the university in 1920. It continues

In 1932 alone it took over the Slavonic studies department which King’s College had founded in 1915, creating

to specialize in offering part-time and evening courses for

what is now SEESS, converted the London County Coun-

people who wish to study for a university degree while

cil’s Day Training College for teachers into its own Institute of Education, and used an enormous endowment

by George Birkbeck (later a member of the first council of

working. The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine was created in 1924 as an expansion of the School of Tropical Medicine created in 1899, and in 1929 it moved into its own building (which had become well-

known for the larger-than-life-size reliefs of fleas and other disease carriers on its frontage). In 1925 the School of Pharmacy, founded in 1842, also joined the university.

The university’s existing member institutions by no means stood still while these new members were being

from the textile magnate Samuel Courtauld to open the

Courtauld Institute of Art. While the institute itself introduced the discipline of art history to Britain, its galleries, which were at first housed separately, quickly became famous as one of the most important art collections in the country. The two parts of what is affectionately called simply “the Courtauld” were brought together at last in 1989 inside Somerset House, where the university had

admitted. For example, while Imperial College led the way in promoting training and research in such new

begun, and where such masterpieces as van Gogh’s “Portrait of the Artist with Bandaged Ear” and Manet’s “A Bar

industries

and

at the Folies-Bergére” now attract large numbers of visi-

petroleum geology, UCL and King’s were among the first colleges in Britain to develop courses in electrical engi-

tors. Still another institute, the Institute of Archaeology, was founded in 1937, at the suggestion of Sir Mortimer Wheeler. All the while the numbers of “external” students were steadily rising, both in Britain and overseas. From 1920 onward it became possible to take the university’s examinations in places outside the British Empire, and by

as

aeronautics,

chemical

engineering,

neering; Sir Ambrose Fleming, a professor at UCL, col-

laborated with Edison and Marconi in work on lighting, power supply, and radio. In addition, the university as a whole made decisive moves into providing for postgraduate studies, awarding its first Ph.D.s in 1921, the same year that the senate created the first of the university’s

1937 there were nearly 5,000 students enrolled at 79 dif-

ferent “overseas centers” of the university, in an academic

Research (the IHR). However, the most outstanding result

network which was then and still remains unique. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a stop to all

of the university’s research efforts between the world

new building plans, as most of the university’s schools

wars was the discovery of penicillin by Sir Alexander

and institutes were evacuated from London, and the Sen-

Fleming (no relation to Sir Ambrose) at Saint Mary’s

ate House was taken over by the wartime Ministry of Information. (It is believed to have provided part of the inspiration for the Ministry of Truth in George Orwell’s novel 1984, and indeed its tower appears as such in the feature film based on the novel.) During the war UCL

institutes for advanced study, the Institute of Historical

Hospital Medical School in 1928. The year 1929 proved to be a turning point in the university’s history. As yet another new set of statutes came into effect, the non-university

members

of the senate

were replaced by the heads of the larger colleges; a new body, the court, was appointed by the senate, the London

County Council, and the government to administer the university’s finances; and serious work began on the

removal of the university’s headquarters and some of its

suffered particularly badly from German bombing raids: its library and many other buildings were destroyed and its dome, the symbol of the college, was badly burned. As for the war effort, the university’s greatest contribution to it was the work done by Lord Blackett of Imperial College, J.D. Bernal of Birkbeck, and other members of a

member institutions to a 10.5-acre site in Bloomsbury, near UCL, LSE, and the British Museum. In 1931, the Modernist architect Charles Holden, well-known for

research techniques, developed

designing 40 stations on the Tube (the London Under-

were later to be adapted to industrial management.

ground rail network), was invited to design the new uni-

ing, known as the Senate House, now contains the university’s main offices, its library, the IHR, and the School of

The university began planning further expansion even before the war ended in 1945. The Warburg Institute, a re-creation of the Kulturwissenschaftliche Bibliothek Warburg, which had been brought from Hamburg after the Nazis seized power in Germany in 1933, was made part of the university in 1944 and has since pioneered work in the relatively new field of cultural studies. A

East European and Slavonic Studies (SEESS). However,

new British Postgraduate Medical Federation, uniting

partly for financial reasons, a new “balanced” plan was agreed for a group of separate buildings, which together would represent only around one-third of Holden’s original “spinal” complex.

several specialist institutes, was established in 1947, and

versity quarters, and produced a plan for a single huge

structure of Portland stone, culminating in a tower, which would be the tallest building in the city. The tower and two wings at its base were completed in 1937. This build-

Even as Holden’s plans were being considered and reshaped the university continued its piecemeal growth.

group known as “Blackett’s Circus,” whose operational for military purposes,

the Royal Veterinary College, founded in 1791, joined the university in 1949. Four more institutes for

advanced study were created as well—Advanced Legal Studies in 1947, Commonwealth

Studies in 1949, Ger-

manic Studies in 1950, and Classical Studies in 1953.

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON = 527 Along with the Warburg Institute and (for some years) the Courtauld Institute Galleries, all were eventually given space on the Bloomsbury site around the Senate House, where brick buildings designed by Holden took the place of his Portland stone masterpiece, never to be

built. They were joined there by the Institute of Education (at first inside the Senate House), SEESS and the IHR (which are still inside it), SOAS and Birkbeck College, the Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, a

research institute and gallery created in 1950, and the University of London Union (ULU), which, along with the library inside the Senate House, is one of the very few university-wide bodies with which most of its stu-

dents ever have direct contact. As mentioned above, the university lost its examining powers for three colleges in Manchester, Leeds, and Liv-

1960 to around 64,000 in 1980, although within these fig-

ures there was a significant decline in the numbers of external students, mainly because most of the centers at which they had traditionally taken examinations had them-

selves become degree-granting bodies. New members joined the federation, too. An Institute of Computer Science, existing from 1964 to 1972, led the way in converting many of the colleges to new technologies; Institutes of

Latin American Studies and of United States Studies, founded in 1965, completed the university’s intellectual coverage of the world; and in 1969 the university took charge of the British Institute in Paris, which had been

founded in 1894 as the Guilde Franco-Anglais and which still continues to provide courses in French studies for

British students and in British studies for French students. Lastly, in 1970 Heythrop College, which specializes in Catholic theology, became the newest member of the fed-

erpool in 1880, and between then and 1945 its links with colleges in Birmingham, Sheffield, Bristol, Nottingham,

eration and at the same time one of its oldest, since it

and Reading were also severed as, one by one, they too

traces its origins to an English Jesuit college established in

became independent “civic” universities. Between 1946

Leuven (Louvain), now in Belgium, in 1614.

and 1971 the University of London entered the last phase

However, the same general process of expansion also

of its special role as a “mother of universities.” As the

brought new institutions into the field of higher education

British Empire was transformed by the colonial indepen-

in the London

dence movement,

monopoly which the university had enjoyed since 1836.

first into the British Commonwealth

and then into just the Commonwealth, a total of eight col-

region,

breaking

the degree-granting

leges in the colonies that became Sudan, Ghana, Uganda,

From 1964 onwards a number of polytechnics all over England were allowed to give degrees which were vali-

Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Malawi were given special

dated by a new government body until the 1990s, when

“Gnternal” status, which helped them prepare to become

all of them

national universities after independence. Similar provisions were made for the British colleges which have since

reducing the numbers of external students taking University of London examinations. In 1966 three former col-

become the Universities of Southampton, Hull, Exeter,

leges of advanced technology were reconstituted as the

and Leicester, as well as for a number of teacher-training

City University, Brunel University, and the University of

colleges which have since joined other universities.

Surrey, while a fourth joined the federation as Chelsea

By the 1960s the internal structures of the university were coming under increasing criticism for what was seen as excessive centralization. A number of reforms throughout the decade gave greater powers over course

College. Finally, in 1969, the Open University was set up

content and postgraduate work to the larger colleges and made the university’s boards of studies more representative of all the teaching staff, not just the more senior

among them. Give that, for example, UCL, King’s, LSE,

became

independent

universities,

further

to provide “distance learning” through radio, television,

and correspondence courses and to supplant the University of London both as the largest university in Britain (in terms of student numbers) and as the leading source of degrees for those combining employment with study. The late 1960s were also notable, of course, for the

surprising that these changes were not considered suffi-

eruption of student protests in major cities around the world, fueled by a combination of local grievances, rejection of the traditional professor/student hierarchy, and indignation about events in Vietnam, Czechoslovakia,

cient, and in 1978 parliament introduced further changes

South Africa, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and other areas

through a new University of London Act. King’s and UCL became autonomous institutions once again, in 1980 and 1977 respectively; the vice-chancellorship became a full-time salaried post; and the senate was reformed yet again, to give the member institutions greater representation and to provide seats for student

of conflict. In Britain the movement began at LSE in Jan-

and Imperial were now each as large and as complex as most of the ordinary British universities, it is perhaps not

uary 1967, when Sir Walter Adams, long associated with

period of accelerated expansion in the University of Lon-

higher education in Rhodesia, was appointed its director; conflict spread to other colleges and universities throughout 1967 and 1968. Offices were occupied, classes were disrupted, and numerous demonstrations took place, but their only long-term effects were to increase student representation on university bodies and to give LSE and a few other institutions a misleading reputation for political

don as in British higher education in general. The univer-

radicalism. By 1970 the movement, always disorganized

sity’s total number of students rose from nearly 54,000 in

and chaotic, had petered out.

representatives for the first time. The two decades of internal upheaval were also a

528

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

While still coping with the effects of frequent and complex internal reforms and greatly increased external competition, the University of London next had to face the problems created for all British universities from

The university which the new council is to govern is still, after so many changes, one of the largest and most

diverse in the world, comprising (as of 1995) nine medical schools, six multi-faculty colleges, nine specialist

1981, when Margaret Thatcher’s government decided to

schools, and nine institutes; and, in a looser relationship,

cut public spending on higher education for the first time since the university itself had been created by such spend-

the London Business School, Jews College, the Royal Academy of Music, and the Trinity College of Music, the

ing. One response was to encourage a series of mergers among member institutions. In line with changes in the pattern of National Health Service provision in London,

last of the “institutions having recognized teachers.” Over the past one and a half centuries the numerous British colleges which the university fostered have become inde-

the number of hospital-based medical schools has been reduced from the original 12 (all founded up to 1874) to

pendent, the empire which it served has disappeared, and it is no longer even the only university in London. These

8, of which two have been reabsorbed into the colleges

developments may make it harder to appreciate just how

that originally created them, UCL and King’s. The nonmedical colleges were also reorganized. Royal Holloway

radical, even shocking, it once was—perhaps especially

and Bedford Colleges were amalgamated in 1985, and the

in imperial yet insular Britain—to construct a university largely with public rather than privileged private funds, to

“New College” thus created, known at first as

RH& BNC

operate it without regard for religion, gender, wealth, or

but now simply as Royal Holloway, was located at Egham Hill, while the old Bedford College in Regents Park was

other social divisions, and to make its resources available

sold off. In the same year Queen Elizabeth and Chelsea Colleges were absorbed into King’s (which was briefly

(not just in London but across the planet).

known as KQC as a result). In 1987 the IHR took over the Institute of United States Studies, and UCL absorbed the Institute of Archaeology; in 1989, Queen Mary and West-

field Colleges were merged. An alternative response to the decline in public spending was to seek more funding from private sources, with

the result that UCL, Imperial, and LSE, in particular, became larger and wealthier; there was speculation that they might eventually break away from the federation. For the moment, the university remains intact, but since September 1994 it has been governed under yet another

to anyone who was willing and able to benefit from them

Further Reading:

This essay could not have been written

without recourse to Negley Harte’s impressive book The University of London 1836-1986 (London and Atlantic High-

lands, New Jersey: Athlone Press, 1986), which, in spite of its title, gives comprehensive coverage of all the member institutions of the university from 1123 to its year of publication, enlivening the narrative with numerous anecdotes and vignettes

as well as over 350 pictures. There are several histories of the leading member institutions, including The World of University College London, 1828-1978 by Negley Harte and John North (London: University College, 1978); King’s College,

set of revised statutes, which have given still more finan-

London, 1828-1978 by Gordon Huelin (London: University

cial and academic autonomy to the larger member institu-

of London, King’s College, 1978); and My LSE, edited by

tions. The court, which had grown to have 24 members, and the senate, which had an unwieldy total of 120, have been replaced by a single council, which it is hoped will

Ronald Hayman (London: Robson Books, 1977), which is a

be more

efficient, although the headquarters

known as the Senate House.

collection of memoirs by former students.

is still —Patrick Heenan

UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN (Louvain, Belgium) Location:

The university was established on December 9, 1425,

The three campuses form a triangle connecting the town of Leuven (Louvain), the new community at Louvain-la~-Neuve near

when Duke John IV of Brabant, with the support of the local magistrate, secured a papal bull from Pope Martin V

Ottignies, and Louvain-en-Woluwe, a suburb of

to open a studium generale to train doctors, men of law,

Brussels. Each campus is approximately 18

and eventually, theologians. A joint effort of the Church, the ducal authority, and the local officials, the university

miles from each of the other two.

Description:

was intended to help unify the Belgian provinces. Scholars from the Low Countries would no longer have to study at

_ Divided by a dispute over language in the late 1960s, the Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven (KUL) and the Université de Louvain (UCL) each enroll over 20,000 undergraduate and

Paris or Cologne. The university first opened with four faculties: arts (humanities), canon law, civil law, and medicine. The faculty of theology was added in 1432.

graduate students. Five thousand of those enrolled at UCL study at the facility at Woluwe,

The growth of the university was slowed during the fifteenth century by plagues, economic hard times, and the

which includes the faculty of medicine and several graduate research institutes in science and business.

instability caused by the warfare between the Hapsburgs

and the Burgundians. However, the first half of the sixteenth century was a period of prosperity and glory for

Information:

Louvain, with its theological quarrels with the ideas of

KU Leuven 22 Naamsestraat

Martin Luther. Desiderius Erasmus

known as the author of Praise of Folly) was on the faculty from 1517 to 1521 and dominated the side of the human-

B-3000, Leuven

Belgium (16) 28 40 24

ists, seeming to thrive on the controversy of his time. He once wrote to a friend about Louvain: “Its climate is not only agreeable, but also healthy; a man can study in peace

UCL Service des relations extérieures Place de ]’université, 1

and quiet, and no other university can rival its intellectual life, or the numbers and quality of its academic staff.” That Erasmus could have found peace and quiet at Louvain is a mystery in that he was frequently attacked by his conservative colleagues. When opposition from the faculty threatened the funding of his College of the Three Languages, Erasmus decided to establish a separate institute independent of the university. He set about recruiting

B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve

Belgium (10) 47 8101 UCL-in-Woluwe: (02) 764 41 28

Visiting:

of Rotterdam (best

For information on guided tours, call the telephone numbers listed above.

teachers who would instruct theologians in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew as part of a liberal Catholic education, which

would allow for more open interpretation of the scriptures.

His critics regarded this idea as a threat to orthodox teaching and as an open invitation to heresy. Arguing that only

In a country whose population is divided along linguistic

the Vulgate, the Latin translation of the Bible, could be a

lines (Flemish in the north, French in the south, and bilin-

source of dogma, they attacked his proposal for an original language edition of the New Testament as sacrilegious. Erasmus sought to make theology more critical by referring to original texts. He criticized the emphasis on ecclesiastical practices and advocated a return to a morality based on the gospels. While he reproached Luther for the sharpness of his style, he was open to at least some of Luther’s ideas. When he refused to succumb to pressure to denounce Luther publicly, he was accused of collaborating

gualism in the capital city of Brussels), it is not at all surprising that Belgium’s oldest and largest university found

it necessary to divide itself in the same way. The language dispute can be traced to the fifth century, when some Frankish tribes held onto their Germanic origins, while others were influenced by the Roman traditions and

the Latin language. Religion, too, played an important role in the history of Catholic Belgium, whose citizens

never felt comfortable with either the Protestantism of the Dutch or the anticlericalism of the French Revolution. The University of Louvain is a testament to the influence of religion and language on intellectual thought.

with him. The university condemned Luther in 1519, and

as his position as an independent reformer became more and more untenable, Erasmus felt obliged to leave Lou-

vain for Basel, Switzerland, in 1521. 529

530

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Erasmus was not the only thinker to meet with resistance at Louvain. Some of the university’s most illustri-

townspeople and the students joined forces to take up

ous faculty suffered a similar fate. Gerardus Mercator, the renowned cartographer, a student and later a professor of geography, was driven out of the country in 1544.

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries produced only mediocre scholarship. The leaders of the university officially rejected the Cartesian philosophy which had caught on in France in favor of the more traditional Aris-

He and Andreas Vesalius, who modernized the study of

human anatomy, taught side by side with classicists. Most of the teaching at Louvain during the sixteenth century was devoted to the study of antiquity and opposed to the idea of making knowledge accessible to the lower classes. Convinced that educating the masses

arms against the Spanish governor.

totelian philosophy in 1652. During the eighteenth century

Austrian

authorities

would undermine the authority of the princes and the

sought to make reforms at Louvain in order to raise its standards. They withdrew the right of the university to appoint its own rector. After the French Revolution, control of Louvain alternated between France and Austria

clergy, the university continued to perpetuate an intellectual elite. One of Louvain’s most famous history profes-

until 1797, when the university was closed after almost 400 years of existence. Many priests who had been teach-

sors,

ing there refused to take the oath to the new French republic, and so were exiled. Students continued their studies in Brussels or in France.

Justus

Lipsius,

dedicated

himself

to studying

Seneca and Tacitus and to publishing editions of those writers and other classical figures. During the Reformation, the great questions of the

age had to do with free will versus predestination, the meaning of original sin, and the infallibility of the pope. The theologians at Louvain clung steadfastly to the ideas of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas. Their contribu-

tions to this period included the creation of an index of censured books that became a model for the Catholic

In 1814 some

of the former professors

suggested

reopening the university in its original form. The local authorities preferred a university based on the French model, and others opposed the idea of reopening the school altogether, citing Louvain’s opposition to the Enlightenment. However, two years later, William I, king of the new union of Belgium and the Netherlands, estab-

Church’s Index of Forbidden Books, and the publication of a new Latin translation of the Bible, the “Louvain

lished three state universities in the southern Low Countries: at Ghent, Liége, and Louvain. The university was

Bible” of 1547. By the end of the sixteenth century, Belgium’s population decreased as Calvinists emigrated rather than face the policies and practices of Philip II of Spain, who ruled

officially reopened in 1817. The liberals and the Catholics in the community did

the region and sought to wipe out opposition to Catholicism. As commerce slowed, Louvain’s population went

tion ending the Belgium-Netherlands union and giving rise to the independent kingdom of Belgium. Disorder marked the next few years at Louvain. Some wanted a

from 20,000 to 9,000; with the university no longer enjoying its former prestige, intellectual decay set in. Part of the problem stemmed from the reorganization of the bishoprics, whereby Louvain became part of the dio-

cese of Mechelen (Malines) instead of Liége. In addi-

tion, it now had to compete against universities at Douai (under the Spanish Netherlands) and Leiden (a Calvinist university established to oppose Spanish Catholicism). When economic and political troubles occurred at the end of the century, the university at Louvain encountered

not like William’s authoritarian government; many students joined the rebellion of 1830, part of a larger revolu-

single state university for all of Belgium; others wished to retain only Ghent and Liége. In 1835, it was decided that only Ghent and Liége would be supported by the state. The bishops, who had established a Catholic university at Mechelen in 1834, took advantage of this opportunity to move their university to Louvain. The new university was to continue the traditions of the old one, except that there were no ties to the state, as

provided by Belgium’s new constitution. Funds came

difficulties in meeting professors’ stipends. Following an

from tuition and charitable contributions. Discipline was

attack on the town in 1572 by the Calvinist William the

rigorous, and professional training was more important

Silent, leading a revolt against the Spanish rulers, a garrison was sent to keep order. However, when the soldiers

than scholarship. While French replaced Latin as the language of instruction, there were classes in Flemish lan-

were

guage and literature that were not offered at other Belgian

not paid, they turned to vandalism.

Furthermore,

the plague of 1578 claimed the lives of many faculty members. Fewer and fewer students came to Louvain during these years. A period of relative tranquillity followed the appointment of the Hapsburg archduke Albert of Austria as governor of the Low Countries. Shortly after his death, however, Louvain became embroiled in a dispute between the Spanish Netherlands and Louis XIII of France and Frederick Henry of Orange. In 1635 the

universities. Some

students, believing that Louvain

had become

too conservative, transferred to Brussels. Some conser-

vatives on the staff felt that the administration was too liberal, and they sought positions at other universities. Internal struggles continued through the next few decades, with the conservatives gaining many concessions, such as the power to appoint faculty and to oversee lectures.

UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN A new law in 1876 allowing the university to create

531

cultural economy and preserving Catholicism among the peasants and industrial workers. As the student body began to come from the middle classes, student life

including the rebuilt library. The rector reopened classes at the university in July, but the community suffered many problems during the occupation. There was a large increase in enrollment because the University of Brussels closed in 1941 and because many young people preferred to register for classes rather than submit to forced labor under the Germans. The increase in the number of stu-

became more relaxed. The university’s need to expand to

dents from 4,600 at the start of the war to 7,700 by 1943

meet the needs of its growing population often resulted in financial strain. Toward the end of the century, there was less emphasis on teaching and more on scholarly research. Study groups

put a strain on the university’s resources. Students had to work under uncomfortably crowded

its own examination encouraged experimentation in science courses. New schools opened in engineering and

agronomy with the intent of improving Belgium’s agri-

conditions and endure shortages of materials, food, and

heat. When the rector refused to release the first-year stu-

formed in theology and humanities classes, and student

dents to work in the German factories, he was arrested

organizations began to develop. One group which called for promoting the Flemish language encountered resis-

and sent to prison, although the sentence was soon commuted to house arrest. The vice-rector set up clandestine lectures and examinations for students who were not

tance from the Walloon (French-speaking) students. Nevdocuments were published in both languages as a result. By 1900 more capital was found to resolve some of

allowed to register officially. When the town was repeatedly hit by Allied bombs in 1944, many of the university’s buildings were destroyed and some of the students

the university’s financial difficulties and to build new

and faculty killed. More damage was done as the Ger-

facilities. New institutes were set up in bacteriology,

mans retreated, making it necessary for the town and the university to go about the task of rebuilding once again. After the war, the university responded to the

ertheless, more courses were offered in Flemish and more

pathology, and geology. Petitions for duplication of courses in both languages, however, were denied on

financial grounds. This increased the tension between the two groups. Finally in 1911 more classes were added in Flemish, along with new courses in art history, den-

tistry, and banking.

increased social needs of the students by assigning advisors and counselors to give them guidance. Academically,

new institutes were set up in archaeology, art history, African studies, and other disciplines. In 1954 funds were

one-third of the existing buildings were burned down.

allocated to establish a sister center of learning, Lovanium University, in the Belgian Congo in order to meet

The university was forced to close for the duration of the

the needs of African students.

When the Germans invaded Louvain in 1914, about

war, since many of its professors had left to teach abroad, and the administration did not want to give in to German censorship. Professors who remained in Louvain busied themselves with research or with looking for books to replace those lost when the library was burned. When the university opened once again in 1919, Belgian bishops sent out an international appeal to rebuild the library. The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that the Germans had to compensate Louvain for any lost treasures. As funds were secured from the bishops’ appeals and from Belgian and American citizens, the university began to rebuild. More students matriculated than ever before, and women

were

accepted as students for the

first time in 1920. Under pressure from Flemish groups, the duplication of classes in two languages was increased.

Until

1923, Louvain

was

the only Belgian

university which had classes taught in both Flemish and French. Nevertheless, tensions between the two groups over the language question continued to mount. When the administration tried to suppress the militant groups, the Flemings rebelled by boycotting the 500th anniversary celebration in 1927. By 1932, almost all classes were taught in Flemish as well as in French. The town of Louvain had to be evacuated in May 1940 when Belgium was invaded by the Germans a second time. Once again fire destroyed many of the buildings,

The language issue came to a head again in the 1960s.

Despite the duplication of courses and the hiring of Flemish faculty, the administration continued to hold its meet-

ings in French, and French culture prevailed. When, in 1960, the number of Flemings outnumbered the Walloons, the Flemish students and professors began to press for more autonomy. While some were willing to accept bilingual status for Louvain on the model of Brussels, the

majority felt that this solution was unacceptable, since Louvain was in Flemish territory. The Francophone professors, on the other hand, wanted their children to learn

French in school. When the issue could not be resolved by dividing the university into two separate sections under separate deans, pressure mounted to transfer the French section to Wallonia, the French-speaking part of Belgium. The medical school had already moved its facility to WoluweSaint-Lambert, a suburb of Brussels, in 1965. Proponents

of the move argued that Louvain was much too small a town to accommodate the increasingly large student body. Opponents feared that Louvain would lose its status as a world-class university. The debate divided students, faculty, bishops, and eventually the Christian Social

party. In 1968 a plan was approved to separate the Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven (KU Leuven), which was to remain in Louvain, from the Université Catholique de

532

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Louvain (UCL), which was to be relocated in French-

careers

speaking territory 15 miles southwest of Louvain in Lou-

health. Its many institutes provide research in cancer, bio-

vain-la-Neuve, a community to be built between Wavre

ethics, cellular pathology, and organ transplants. Administratively part of the UCL, it has its own science park and its own partnerships with companies involved in medical research. Visitors to UCL in Woluwe can visit the Garden

and Ottignies. A law passed in May 1970 recognized the existence of two separate universities, and the first stone was laid at Louvain-la-Neuve in 1971. The division had some advantages. The new university, while a Catholic institution, was led primarily by lay people who abandoned the former authoritarian policies in favor of a new open-mindedness. State subsidies were increased, allowing for the expansion of the facilities at KU Leuven and the building of a well-planned university community at UCL. Each section was able to serve over 16,000 students by 1975. On the negative side, the decision to divide the existing library in half by allocating books with even-numbered call letters to one facility and books with odd-numbered call letters to the other has

devastated the historic collection. During the 1970s, nine faculties moved to the new cam-

pus at Louvain-la-Neuve, including theology, law, philosophy, economics, and science. Built on a 2,300-acre parcel

in medicine,

dentistry, pharmacy,

and public

of Medicinal Plants, with its systematic classification of

plants, or try their mountaineering skills on the climbing wall next to the sports center. Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven has not been idle since 1970. It, too, has expanded its facilities and ser-

vices. The human sciences section surrounds the heart of the city of Louvain, while the biomedical sciences occupy the west side of the city near St. Peter’s and St.

Raphael’s hospitals. Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven has the added advantage of being surrounded by nearly six centuries of European history. Its many student cafés and its dynamic cultural life add to the charm of this old

university town. All three campuses of the University of Louvain can boast of the unique geographical position of Louvain

versity sections. Twenty percent of its students come from over 100 foreign countries, many of them on scholarships

within Europe. Brussels, the center of NATO and of the European Economic Community, has become Europe’s unofficial capital. Its international spirit and cosmopoli-

aimed at benefiting third world countries. Université Catholique de Louvain also has a commitment to continu-

tan character have influenced the new University of Louvain: humanistic, practical, and accessible to all who

ing education, offering outreach programs for teachers,

wish to learn.

of land, the new city boasts residential, business, and uni-

professional people, and senior citizens. A large science park allows for cooperation between university research

and industrial applications, such as pharmaceutical and

Further Reading: The University ofLouvain 1425-1975 by

agricultural products and informational technology. The first two years of undergraduate education serve as an

R. Aubert, A. d’Haenens et al. (Louvain: Leuven University

Press, 1975) is a complete, balanced, and beautifully illustrat-

introduction to the basic academic subjects from which the student chooses an area of specialization. Students who fail are provided assistance in choosing an alternative

years of separation written on the occasion of its 550th anniversary. It gives a detailed account of its most famous stu-

program of study. Clearly, the university’s mission has

moved forward from the perpetuation of an elite toward the education of a diverse student body. The rural location of Louvain-la-Neuve has afforded the campus the space to create a large sports complex, an experimental theater,

a museum,

and the Bois de Lau-

zelle, a forested park ideally suited for nature walks. It is not surprising that this well-planned and well-maintained community has become one of Belgium’s most popular tourist attractions.

Louvain-en-Woluwe, located on the outskirts of Brussels, has benefited as much from its proximity to the city

ed history of the university from its beginnings through the

dents and faculty and of the movements

that shaped its

history. Belgium: The Making of a Nation by H. Vander Linden, translated by Sybil Jane (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1920)

is a valuable, if generalized, history of Belgium. Linden examines the social, economic, religious, and political move-

ments that helped to shape modern Belgium. Erasmus: His

Life, Works, and Influence, by Cornelis Augustin, translated by J.C. Grayson (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1991), is an in-depth study of the life and writings of Erasmus and of the criticism of his contemporaries. Flora Lewis’s Europe, a Tapestry of Nations (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987) gives an excellent overview of the Belgian language dispute in the chapter entitled “Belgium: Divided by Language.”

as Louvain-la-Neuve has from its location in the country.

Its hospitals and clinics serve a vast community, provid-

ing relief to the sick and education to those pursuing

—Sherry Crane LaRue

UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER (Manchester, England) Location:

About one mile from the city center, on Oxford

The original college was located in the former resi-

dence of Manchester reformer and economist Richard Cobden on Quay Street. It had 62 students and 5 profes-

Road. Manchester is about 180 miles north of

London and 210 miles south of Edinburgh, Scotland.

Description:

sors, with A.J. Scott as the principal. Owens College established its first scholarships, the Victoria Scholarship

— The oldest and largest of England’s civic

and the Wellington Scholarship, in 1852.

universities, with nearly 16,000 full-time

A library was established in the same year as the col-

undergraduate students and 4,000 postgraduate

lege, 1851. Just over 120 years later, in 1972, the univer-

students.

Information:

sity library joined with the John Rylands Library. The Rylands Library, established by the third wife of another wealthy Manchester merchant, John Rylands, brought with it an impressive collection of incunabula, Oriental

_ Registrar’s Department The University of Manchester

Oxford Road Manchester M13 9PL England

manuscripts, papers of the famous critic John Ruskin, and material related to the pre-Raphaelites. The library

(161) 275 2113

presently contains almost 4 million volumes as well as important collections related to railways, private presses, and the Quakers. One of the early courses offered at the college was geology. In 1851, the paleobotanist W.C. Williamson was appointed to teach it. In its first 100 years, the department

Fax (161) 275 2209

Visiting:

Call the Communications Office at the telephone number above.

of geology focused on the study of stratigraphy and paleontology. In the 1950s, England’s first laboratories for the

study of experimental petrology were opened at the university. Another first was the establishment of the first chair in organic chemistry in 1874; it was occupied by

The city of Manchester, England, was settled by the Romans in A.D. 79. They called it Mamucium (city of

tents) and remained there for over 300 years. In 1359, Manchester became a market town, to which people flocked on market days to buy and sell. In the sixteenth

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins.

century, Manchester saw the beginnings of a prosperous textile industry, and by the late eighteenth century, Manchester was the largest textile producer in the world, with the mills powered by the vast quantity of coal, which was both nearby and abundant. Located in the heart of Britain, on the River Irwill, lying almost exactly between London and Edinburgh, and accessible to the port of Liverpool,

for students was raised to 16. In 1872, the much older

While the school did not fare well financially at first, it

began to prosper in the 1860s. In 1870 the entrance age Manchester

John Owens,

who

many

prosperous

in

1824)

buildings on its present main site, on Oxford Road. The principal building, designed by Victorian architect Alfred Waterhouse, is still in use today.

In 1874, women were first allowed to attend special lectures specifically designed for them, but they were not permitted to attend classes with men. A vote to allow women was brought before the governors in 1877, but it was denied. The College of Women, which opened nearby that same year, was taken over by the university in 1883. In 1880, the Victoria University was created under a federal constitution. Owens College was incorporated into this university, but it was still called Owens College, as one of the entities of the university. The other two colleges were the University College of Liverpool and the Yorkshire

merchants,

died in 1845, left £96,000

(founded

outgrown its Quay Street facility and moved to new

trial Revolution and a powerful international center as well. of Manchester’s

of Medicine

merged with Owens College. By 1873, the college had

Manchester grew to be the central city in Britain’s IndusOne

School

for the

founding of a college. Owens’s will stated that the purpose of this endowment was “providing or aiding the means of instructing and improving young persons of the male sex (and being of age not less than 14 years) in such branches of learning and science as are now, and may be hereafter, usually taught in the English universities.” Owens also wanted to found a school that was free from denominational tests and subscriptions. The only other institution based on similar foundations was University

College at Leeds; both schools later became independent. In 1903, when the university received a new charter, it

College in London. At its foundation in 1851, the institu-

was

tion was named Owens College.

became the first civic university in England, followed by

533

renamed

Victoria

University

of Manchester.

It

sas

534 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

a -

University of Manchester

UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER = 535 schools in Birmingham, Leeds, and Liverpool. After the 1903 charter was granted, businesspeople and local authorities in Manchester became very interested in the school and began to make grants and private donations.

Nuffield is also called, was founded

The philosophy of the university in the early 1900s was to

located in Cheshire. It housed a steerable radio tele-

meet the needs of the community. With this eye toward practicality, in 1904 Manchester became the first British

scope which was the world’s largest steerable parabolic

university to offer degrees in pharmacy. It also became one of the first institutions to grant a degree in commer-

cial services. Much later, in 1965, the Manchester Business School was founded. In 1905, the Faculty of Technology was incorporated into the Victoria University of Manchester. Originally developed in 1824 under the protection of the city of Manchester, this institution, now called the University of

Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), is financially and constitutionally independent from the Victoria University of Manchester, but it is aca-

demically fully integrated with the university. Though UMIST operates under a separate charter, first granted in

the Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories, which are

part of the university’s

department

of physics

astronomy. The Jodrell Bank Experimental

and

Station, as

in 1945 and is

dish until 1971. In 1951, Lovell became the professor of radio astronomy and director of Jodrell Bank. The laboratories now focus on the study of radio sources and the detection of neutral hydrogen in Earth’s galaxy and

external galaxies. Also remarkable was the invention of the Manchester

Mark 1 or MADM computer. This, the world’s first stored program computer, was developed in the late 1940s by

FEC. Williams, who took a chair in electrotechnics at the university in 1947; a colleague also involved in the project was Maxwell Newman, who was professor of pure mathematics. By 1949 the MADM was solving mathematical problems. In 1951, the team of computer pioneers at Manchester built an improved version and

at

called it the Mark II, or MEG. A direct result of the work of these men was the formation in 1964 of the university’s department of com-

UMIST include astrophysics, chemical engineering, total

puter science, the first computer department in a United

technology, and civil and structural engineering.

Kingdom university. Its first class had 11 faculty and 20 students. By 1995, the department had 168 staff and 637 full-time students. It is the largest computer department

1956, with a supplemental charter in 1987, students who

graduate from UMIST receive degrees from the University of Manchester.

Some

of the courses

offered

Several renowned scientific achievements have taken place at the University of Manchester. Probably the most notable of these achievements is that of Sir Ernest Rutherford, whose

area of concentration

was

the nature of

matter, and specifically, while he was at the University of Manchester,

the atom

and its radiations.

He came

to

in the United Kingdom. By 1995, the University of Manchester was one of the largest unitary, noncollegiate universities in England, with more than 16,000 full-time undergraduate students

and 4,000 postgraduates and a faculty of about 1,200. The

England from his native New Zealand and studied at Cambridge University’s Cavendish Laboratory, where he investigated electricity and radioactivity. He took over the

theology, science, economic and social studies, business

chair of physics at the University of Manchester in 1907

administration,

on the invitation of his predecessor, Arthur Schuster, him-

there are over 70 departments.

self a well-known researcher in the area of optics, the

The campus covers 280 acres in Manchester, and has branches in other locations as well. Manchester University is home to the Manchester Museum, the University

author of The Theory of Optics, and one of the first men to take x-ray photographs in England. Rutherford won the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1908 for his studies of radioactivity. In 1909, his studies of alpha particles and radiation led to his theory of atomic structure. He later said of the experiment, “It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.” In 1919, while at the university, he created the first artificially induced nuclear reaction. (In his honor, the rutherford, a unit of

radioactivity, was named for him.) Rutherford had several accomplished assistants in his laboratory, including Georg von Hevesy, who won the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1943 and Hans Geiger, who later developed the Geiger counter.

The university is also home to some of the world’s most important astronomical research facilities. The

school has nine faculties: arts, education, law, medicine,

and technology.

Within these faculties

Theater, where the Contact Theatre Company performs,

and to the Whitworth Art Gallery. The gallery holds renowned permanent collections of English watercolors, textiles, and wallpapers.

Further Reading: There is an informative article on the early days of the University of Manchester in A Cyclopedia of Education, edited by Paul Monroe (New York: Macmillan, 1913; republished by Gale Research Company [Detroit, Michigan], 1968). Edward Neville da Costa Andrade’s Ruth-

erford and the Nature of the Atom (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1964) explores the life and career of Sir Ernest

Rutherford and includes information on colleagues and other important scientists of the period.

research of Sir Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell, who was

on the staff of the university, led to the construction of

—Karen Price

UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE (Parkville, Australia) Location:

The campus covers territory in two Melbourne

assent. By February 1853 a bill had passed through Leg-

suburbs, Parkville and Carlton.

islative Council which granted £20,000 annually for university

Description:

A public university enrolling approximately

and

another

£9,000

annually

for

university expenses. The legislation specified that the

28,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and

Information:

buildings

professional schools.

university be “open to all classes and denominations of Her Majesty’s subjects” and that “no religious test shall

Course and Careers Unit P.O. Box 4048

be administered to any person” before he became a student or office holder. Childers authored the original draft of the bill for the

University of Melbourne

university’s establishment. The draft has since become

Melbourne, Victoria 3052 Australia

one of the institution’s most prized possessions. Childers later became Chancellor of the Exchequer in England. Although the University of Melbourne is now consid-

(3) 9344 6543

ered a distinguished school by many scholars, it had very humble beginnings, which, ironically coincided with a When the foundation stone of the University of Mel-

period of prosperity for the country. On the minds of many individuals in the mid-1800s was the greed for

bourne was laid on July 3, 1854, it was so well concealed

gold. Furthermore, most of these people wanted to find

that it was never seen again. Although the stone holds no inscription, records indicate a copper plate underneath it reads in Latin, “This is the first stone of the University of

gold and return to Europe with their fortunes. Gold fields

Melbourne, instituted in honour of God for establishing

Author W.H. Newnham would reflect years later that, “it

young men in philosophy, literature and piety, cultivating the talent of youth, fostering the arts, extending the bounds of science.” The lost inscription also names 23 men who were considered influential in the university’s

is strange that though the university was built on the opti-

were found within 100 miles of Melbourne, which helped

to boost the city’s population to 25,000 during the 1850s. mism and prosperity that came with the discovery of gold, those who made fortunes out of gold contributed practically nothing at all to its development.” The university’s chosen site was in Carlton, a suburb

founding. Some citizens of Melbourne had become determined

of Melbourne. Professors had to travel toward town to the

to establish a university after Australia’s first university opened in Sydney in 1852. One of the founding fathers

Carlton Hotel to pick up mail at the nearest carrier drop.

was Sir Redmond Barry, a Supreme Court judge and graduate of Trinity College, Dublin, who was appointed

lated. The site was bordered by Grattan and Swanston

Not until the late 1850s did Carlton become more popustreets, Royal Parade and College Crescent. This area in

1852 was a rubbish dump split by a gully running north and south. Edward La Trobe Bateman was given the job

the university’s first chancellor. On April 13, 1855, dur-

ing the University of Melbourne’s opening ceremony, Barry told the crowd that he hoped that the university would become “the nursing mother and generous instructress of a race of distinguished scholars.” The university’s true founder was Hugh Culling Eardley Childers, who arrived in Melbourne in 1850 at the age of 23 and served as vice chancellor during the university’s early days. He had studied at Oxford and was a

bread, and worked 12-hour days to improve the rubbishfilled swampland. Bateman’s laborers brought in good soil, planted grass and greenery, and dammed the gully to form a lake. Redmond Barry organized a competition for the design

Cambridge graduate. Although Parliament rejected his

of the university’s first buildings. Francis White, an archi-

idea for a unified system of education, his experience as the inspector of denominational schools in Australia earned him an appointment as auditor-general and as an

tect from London won the contest with a design for a stone quadrangle with cloisters and a Tudor ornamental front.

official nominee on the Legislative Council.

was raised in the middle of a paddock in 1855. On the university’s opening day, lectures began in the original Exhibition Building on William Street, since the university was still under construction. Only 16 students enrolled. The low attendance was attributed to the dearth

of landscaping the area. There was much work ahead for a team of ex-convicts who lived on porridge, tea, and

One of White’s buildings was for the law school, which

In November 1852, Charles La Trobe, the lieutenant governor of Victoria, voted £10,000 for the establishment

of a university for Melbourne. On January 22, 1853, the bill for establishment of the university was given royal 536

UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE = 537 of young men in Melbourne interested in noncommercial

activities. In fact, the local newspaper, The Age, called the university a costly toy, “the very insanity of extravagance.” The Age editorialized that it was ridiculous to spend a large sum of money to teach classics in a country

voyage from Plymouth, England, he was so seasick that he died five weeks after reaching Australia.

The attraction for the professors in part was the salary— at least four times more than they were paid in the United

to

Kingdom. Although the annual tuition was only £12, it was too high for the poor colonists who could not afford to send

develop harbors and unearth the minerals in the country’s heartland. The Age also suggested that the prospective

their sons to preparatory or secondary schools, while at the same time meeting their other expenses. To meet the needs

students would be better to attend Oxford and Cam-

half the money the boy could be sent to Oxford or Cam-

of the poorer students, the council offered two £50 scholarships to the best students at the matriculation and the first and second year examinations. The best students at the final exams were also awarded two-year £100 scholar-

bridge, and maintained there in a sumptuous style.” Six months into the university’s opening year, 5 of the

ships. These scholarships were intended to enable students to study for a master of arts degree. However, since there

16 students had dropped out. The low student numbers may be attributed to the unsatisfactory state of secondary education in Melbourne. Many undergraduates found

were no free secondary schools, it would be 1865 before a workingman’s son enrolled—the son of a quartz miner. Most of the students were sons of wealthy Melbourne busi-

they did not possess the needed skills. In its 1859-60 reports, the University Council criticized the “inaccuracy

nessmen: doctors, judges, government officials, or tradesmen. These students were taught from a_ broad

of the training of all the young men who have hitherto come up.” First-year students, said the report, “have so much to learn at the University, which should have been

curriculum—Greek and Latin for two years and geometry and “the Elements of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy” for one year. Other subjects included mathematics, history,

done at school.” In its first two decades, the University of Melbourne was one of the most secular universities among those in

political economy, science, and logic. The university began offering a law course in 1857, mostly to defend itself from harsh criticism that the educa-

the British Empire. By being so, Melbourne’s university removed itself from religious controversies. Of the 100 acres granted for university grounds in Carlton, a suburb

tion provided was not useful. The two-year law course was composed of evening lectures given three times a week.

that

needed

scientists,

engineers,

and

geologists

bridge—universities which cost only half as much to attend. The Age editorial writer commented,

“For one-

of Melbourne, 40 acres were reserved for boarding col-

leges to be built by Protestant and Catholic denominations. These institutions, it was felt, ensured that young

Students who passed were entitled to practice as barristers and solicitors in the colony. During the first year of the law course offering, 39 students enrolled. The total number of students increased to 45 in 1858, and reached 110 by 1861.

men would not lose track of the religious foundations of society. The state of Victoria considered all Christian

That year, architecture, civil engineering, and surveying

denominations as equal and therefore decided to withhold

George Halford inaugurated a five-year medical course which later made Melbourne world-famous.

the influence of any and all religious denominations. The university was allowed only four clergymen on its 20member council staff. In addition, the council agreed that professors must not be clergymen. At least three of the first six professors were sons of clergymen. Even as late

courses were added to the curriculum. In 1863 Professor

In 1881, after much

discussion and argument,

Mel-

bourne became the first Australian university to admit women. By the early 1900s the number of students was fewer

than

1,000.

From

1900

to

1940

enrollment

as 1910 the university defended itself as a secular univer-

increased to 5,000. Then after a decline during World

sity when the council rejected a motion for the university to confer degrees in divinity. The University Council decided that the following subjects would be taught at Melbourne: mathematics,

War II, it rose to nearly 10,000 in 1948. In 1995 enroll-

classical languages, natural sciences, and moral sciences.

The selection of professors was done by a London committee which had also selected professors for Sydney’s institution. Four professors from the United Kingdom

ment grew to its highest numbers ever, at over 30,000 students, with a teaching and research staff of approximately 5,000. The university has grown to 11 faculties and the School of Graduate Studies and the Melbourne Business School. Nine university residential colleges and three

halls of residence are situated close to the campus. The University of Melbourne has come a long way

W.P. Wilson,

from its swampy start. The potpourri of architectural

professor of the natural sciences, Frederick McCoy; and W.E. Hearn, professor of modern history and literature and political economy, all came from Queen’s University of Ireland. Henry E. Rowe came from Trinity College, Cambridge, to chair the classics and ancient history department. Unfortunately Rowe never had the opportunity to teach at Melbourne. After making the long sea

styles reflects 14 decades of the university’s history: from the classical tranquility of the sandstone law cloisters and the older colleges to the modern lines of the Melbourne Business School. One of the original buildings is named after W. Baldwin Spencer, who established the school of biology. He was later known for his studies of the Aborigines. Built in 1887, the W. Baldwin

were

selected. Professor of mathematics,

538 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Spencer Building is spired and turreted. Today, it has a contrasting architectural backdrop—that of the tallest building on campus, the Redmond Barry Building. The

university is dominated by tall and spacious buildings of the late twentieth century; there still exists, however,

architecture dating from the institution’s birth. Few drastic changes were made in the appearance of the university until after World War I. During the 20 years between the world wars, buildings were added, but with little log-

ical planning. A master plan for the university’s buildings and grounds was finally instituted in 1970. One of the interesting modern feats was the construction of the

... though useful maps and aerial photographs are available, they cannot reveal cloisters and arcades, facades and sculptured plaques, enamels, and

ceramic murals; all those inspired grace-notes which abound, in which one finds delight and subtle concepts of meanings and purposes. During the institution’s early years many scoffed at its

motto, “I shall grow in the esteem of future generations.” The foundation stone for the University of Melbourne may remain unfound, but the institution’s influential edu-

cators and leaders will not be forgotten.

South Lawn over a car park. The car park earned a place in the Australian Register of Historic Buildings—the

only car park to be listed. At one end of the Law Quad lies Cussonia Court,

named after the rare Cussonia tree which stands at its center. This tree replaced an old, diseased one. Another

interesting tree on campus is called the Ginko biloba or maidenhair tree; examples are found outside the Faculty

of Science Building on Masson Road. The trees on either side of the doors of the building are from one of the oldest known species of plant. The fossil remains of these

trees have been discovered in Australia, dating back 250 million years. The species is unusual because one of the trees is male, the other female. Perhaps John Bechervaise described the campus best when he wrote:

Further Reading: Geoffrey Blainey’s A Centenary History of the University of Melbourne

(Melbourne: Melbourne Uni-

versity Press, 1956) is a history of the early development of the university. The book also includes a number of rare old photographs. John Bechervaise’s The University of Melbourne: An Illustrated Perspective (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1985) includes photos of the newer buildings on campus. W.H. Newnham’s Melbourne’s Biography of a City (Melbourne: Cheshire, 1956; revised edition, Hill of Con-

tent, 1985) contains quirky tidbits about the university and its buildings. Also interesting is Michael Cannon’s Melbourne after the Gold Rush (Main Ridge, Victoria: Loch Haven, 1993).

—Marla Bosworth

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN (Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A.) Location:

schools, pressured the state legislators to fulfill their constitutional obligation to establish a proper university. The regents complied, and quickly decided to locate the university’s main campus at Ann Arbor, on 40 acres of land donated by the city’s residents. Eight more campuses

The main campus is in Ann Arbor, Michigan, about 35 miles due west of Detroit. Other campuses are in Dearborn and Flint, Michigan.

Description:

A public university that enrolls approximately 40,000 people in its undergraduate, graduate,

were called for or established over the next nine years, but none long survived the transfer of all state funding to

and professional schools.

Information:

the central campus in 1846. The facilities at Ann Arbor

— Office of Undergraduate Admissions

emerged slowly; four professors’ houses were built in 1840, and the next year the Main Building (later renamed

1220 Student Activities Building

University of Michigan 515 E. Jefferson

Mason Hall) was erected.

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1316 U.S.A. (313) 764-7433

dents, all male: 6 freshmen, 1 sophomore, and 23 at the

In September 1851, the university enrolled its first stupreparatory level. The atmosphere appears to have been more like a contemporary boarding school than a modern

university. The students all lived in the capacious Main Building, and all followed a severe schedule that began with chapel service early each morning, and continued through the day with a rather more classical curriculum

When the University of Michigan was established in 1817, Michigan was still part of the Northwest Territory

than Woodward

on the western frontier of the United States. There were were French fur traders. It was in this unlikely environment that Michigan Supreme Court Justice Augustus

Woodward drafted a resolution to provide a public school system throughout Michigan. His plan was adopted on

enduring tradition of mischief making at the university.

August 26, 1817, and that September Woodward attended the laying of the cornerstone of the first university building on Bates Street in Detroit. Woodward’s educational scheme was derived from pro-

Much to the displeasure of the faculty, several fraterni-

ties established chapters at Michigan very early: Beta Theta Pi and Chi Psi in 1845, and Alpha Delta Phi in 1846. Their purpose was strictly social, in contrast with

the literary societies they displaced, and the fraternities

gressive French examples; despite that, he pedantically titled the university, “Catholepistemiad, or University of

fostered the vices of drinking, smoking, and card playing, along with more wholesome activities. When the faculty tried to ban the fraternities in 1849, the townspeople of

Michigania.” Woodward provided that the university was not to be governed or funded by a church, as was the norm

Ann Arbor defended the students, for they associated the Greek letter houses with their own secret societies, the

were to

manage the school, and the state was to finance it through

Masons and Odd Fellows. The faculty eventually conceded to allow the fraternities on several conditions, most notably that each publish a list of its members. Michigan evolved rapidly into a serious academic institution after 1852, when Henry Tappan began his tenure as the first of many extraordinarily competent presidents to reside over the university at Ann Arbor. A faculty quarrel forced Tappan out of a professorship in philosophy at New

taxation. Secondly, the university was to be the hub of a

unified public education system. Woodward accorded the university president and professors the authority “to establish colleges, academies, schools, libraries, museums, ath-

enaeums, botanic gardens, [and] laboratories” throughout Michigan. Thus, the university was cast from the start as a state institution intended to serve the public good. Finally, Woodward’s curriculum emphasized science over classical studies, contrary to the programs at Harvard, Yale, and the other established schools in the East. The university actually functioned only as a primary

York University in 1837, and between then and his arrival at the University of Michigan, he published four books on philosophy and education. While the university had suspended its preparatory program, erected two new buildings, and founded a medical department before his arrival, Tappan had the vision to add a graduate program, and to

school and academy until 1837, the year that Michigan became

Their only free time was

between dinner and 9 P.M., after which they were confined to the campus. The students at Ann Arbor in the 1840s played many boyish pranks as well. They built bonfires in the city streets, for example, piled hay in the chapel, and locked the dorm monitor in his quarters. Thus began an

no more than 7,000 settlers in the region, most of whom

at the time. Instead, the professors themselves

envisioned.

the 26th state of the Union. John Pierce, who

held the newly created post of the state superintendent of 539

540 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Michigan

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

541

change the university from a mere place of instruction into

more

a serious research center. He eventually raised funds with

offered rose from 57 to 378. The school budget rose four-

which he founded the law school, increased the library’s

fold, and the enrollment topped 2,500, making Michigan

holdings, hired new faculty, built and stocked a chemical laboratory, and raised an astronomical observatory.

once again the largest university in the United States. A

Despite his successes, Tappan was forced out of office in June 1863, by a board of regents intent on taking back

control of the university. The Civil War erupted before Tappan’s departure, with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter on April 13,

1861. Tappan organized a rally at which he professed his unionist view to a public of divided opinion (an act that may have contributed to the regents’ disapproval of him). A faction of inspired students immediately formed three companies and began drilling on the campus, and

than

100 members,

and the number

of courses

new hospital, library, engineering building, and law building were all built during Angell’s term, and he oversaw the introduction of many new programs of study, including dentistry, pharmacy, music, and nursing. Finally, Angell twice raised faculty salaries in order to more nearly approximate the standards of Harvard and Yale, and thus

to retain fine professors often lured east by higher salaries. A variety of extracurricular activities blossomed dur-

ing Angell’s term, including the first intercollegiate athletics, new fraternities and sororities, drama and music clubs, and several student publications. Coach Fielding

Tappan himself enlisted in a home guard unit for men over the age of 45. By the war’s end, approximately

Yost famously led the Michigan football team through

1,800 students and alumni of Michigan served in the Union Army; 290 died or were wounded.

a few incidents of disrespectful student behavior also, as was rather common at the Ann Arbor campus since its

Erastus Haven assumed the university’s presidency

inception. In one instance, students rushed the evening

mid-war, in 1863, and it fell upon him to guide the insti-

tution through the first several years of postwar expansion. In 1865-66, 1,205 students enrolled at Michigan,

performance of a traveling circus, only to find themselves in a rumble with its employees. Someone burned a sideshow tent, and the fight was only broken up when firemen

making it the country’s largest university. Haven’s term

turned hoses on the rowdies.

was a brief six years, but he oversaw the inauguration of the first teaching hospital in the country, the first instruction by seminar at an American university, and the guarantee of a state tax to fund the university continually. It

Following Angell’s retirement in 1909, the university elected Harry Hutchins, dean of the law school, acting president. Plans to replace Hutchins with a permanent appointee were stalled by the onset of World War I. While

was also during Haven’s tenure that the first black men

the nation debated whether to enter the war, the students

were admitted to Michigan, in 1868, with neither argument nor fanfare. Haven left in 1869 to take over as presi-

at Ann Arbor rushed into military training. The regents

dent of Northwestern University.

Henry Frieze, professor of Latin, served as president pro tem while the search continued for someone to fill the position permanently. Frieze’s brief term was uneventful, except for two matters. First, the cornerstone was laid on the massive, classically styled, University Hall. The building housed offices, classrooms, a chapel, and an auditorium seating 3,000 people. Second, Frieze argued for and

won the right for women

several undefeated seasons in the early 1900s. There were

accepted a War Department proposal to form Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) units on campus, and the first naval militia at an American university was comprised of about 55 Michigan men. All told, approximately 12,750 students, faculty, and alumni from the university

served in the Army and Navy. Notably, Lieutenant Joseph Hayden, on leave from his professorship at Michigan, fired the last big cannon used in the war, at 11:00 A.M. November 11, 1918.

to enroll at the university.

The two presidents to succeed Hutchins served only

Although several midwestern universities were already coeducational, former President Tappan had decided not to admit women, for he felt that serious scholarship was the business of men exclusively. A group of 13 women twice applied to the university in the 1850s, and the daughter of one of the professors attended classes without

nine years combined. Marion Burton died in 1925, when he was just 50 years old, and having served only five

partnerships with wealthy industrialists eager to tap the

enrolling in the 1860s. However, it was not until January

university’s research capabilities, and he backed research

1870 that the regents approved Frieze’s proposal to admit

sabbaticals and expeditions to such distant locations as

women on an equal status with men. That fall, 33 women

Africa, Egypt, and the South Pacific. President Clarence

were admitted to study medicine, law, or literature. James B. Angell accepted the presidency of the university in 1871, when he was just 42 years old. He remained 38 years, longer than any other president at Michigan. The university prospered during Angell’s administration, largely as a result of his success in soliciting funds. In his first 20 years, the university’s faculty increased from 38 to

Little lasted just four short years in the age of flappers and hip-flasks. He offended too many people with his

years in office. In 1935, he was memorialized by the Burton Tower, for he is credited with having reinvigorated Michigan’s research programs. Burton arranged financial

outspoken, liberal views on birth contro] and euthanasia,

and by favoring a compulsory course of classical study

for freshmen and sophomores, contrary to the wishes of both students and faculty. Rather than battle the population he was elected to serve, Little resigned in 1929.

542 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES The university entered the Great Depression under the adept guidance of Alexander G. Ruthven. Because it was a

1931, and faculty and staff salaries were consequently reduced. In 1933, further budget cuts forced the closing of 66 teaching and 26 nonteaching positions, and the remaining employees at Michigan suffered a second salary reduc-

lion, along with the former estate of Henry Ford, where the university’s Dearborn campus is now located. Hatcher solicited federal research grants worth millions of dollars each year at a time when many academicians argued against accepting task-specific grants, and when students were just beginning to protest the use of university facilities for military research. The scientific benefits of Hatcher’s controversial policies are undeniable: Dr. Jonas Salk’s polio vaccine was tested at the university’s Survey

tion. Then in 1935, the state legislature eliminated the mill

Research Center, Dr. Robert Pidd of the physics depart-

tax by which the university had theretofore been funded. Ruthven effectively implored the state legislators to write the principle of the mill tax into their new plan, and thus he prevented the university’s probable fall to mediocrity.

ment worked on the Phoenix Project to convert nuclear energy into electricity for the first time, and Professor Donald Glaser won the Nobel Prize for his invention of

state

university,

Michigan

suffered

the effects of the

Depression more severely than its private rivals. The state

legislature cut the university’s funding by 15 percent in

the bubble chamber, which produces a visible path of ion-

The university had not yet fully recovered from the

ized matter in the trail of fast-moving subatomic particles.

drain of the Depression when the outbreak of World War II thrust Michigan into a new phase of development. With Ruthven still in charge, the university assumed an aggressive role in the United States’ war effort. Michi-

Not humbled by such achievements, the students (and

some faculty) at Michigan grew increasingly irreverent and rebellious. The students’ impious ways and acts were

gan acquired 31 research contracts with the federal gov-

by turns silly and serious. In 1952, Michigan’s men staged the first “panty raid,” later imitated at universities across

ernment, and yielded several important products. Three of the university’s professors were involved in the development of the V-T fuse, a devise that causes a bomb or

the country. The casual beatnik aesthetic gripped the campus in the 1950s, and the Young Progressives flouted numerous university policies in their varied protests

missile to explode shortly before reaching its target, thus making it more destructive. Professor William Dow and colleagues in the engineering department invented

against the Korean War. In the 1960s, tension and impiety grew more severe, as protests erupted over various issues

the “Tuba,”

a radar jamming

device,

and

Professor

Werner Bachman of the chemistry department found a method for mass-producing what was then the most powerful explosive known, RDX. In addition, the uni-

versity’s ROTC programs were expanded, and most of the fraternities were converted to soldiers’ accommodations. Approximately 32,000 people schooled at the university served in the armed forces, 520 of whom were killed in action. The university went through several changes after the war. Enrollment jumped 25 percent, largely due to an influx of veterans. In response, the board of regents initiated an $8 million building program that produced several dormitories,

the Business

Administration

building,

the

such as the war in Vietnam, military research conducted on campus, and the university’s poor record in admitting and graduating minorities. The administration deflated most potential conflicts of the era through compromise

and tolerance. They took no action against 37 students and professors arrested for occupying the draft board office of Ann Arbor, for example, and they withdraw the university from the controversial Institute for Defense Analysis. When the Black Action Movement (BAM) called a strike

that successfully shut down large sectors of the university,

the administration conceded to the principal demands of the group: minority aid, services, and numbers of staff devoted to their allocation were all increased.

Financial difficulties in the 1970s had an adverse effect on Michigan. President Robben Flemming, who

Women’s Hospital, the chemistry building, and more. A more abstract change concerned the students’ growing

took office in the fall of 1968 and left ten years later, was

expectation that they had a right to influence administrative decisions at Michigan. The rapid inflation that followed the

statewide budget cuts. Michigan suffered through several years of a hiring freeze and salary cuts while the nation

nation’s return to a peacetime economy had forced the university to raise tuition and fees substantially, and to double

experienced rapid inflation. The losses impacted severely on the university’s quality of research and education. In

the percentage of the school’s operating budget that tuition fees covered. Thus, the students came to see it as their right to influence the decisions that affected them on campus, as

1966, Michigan had been ranked fourth in the nation. In

reflected in their new practice of evaluating the faculty of

dents, and more than doubled for out-of-state students.

the Literary College, for example.

Michigan’s historic role as a state-funded university devoted to the public good was seriously compromised,

The 1950s and early 1960s were a time of relative prosperity for Michigan, ably guided by President Harlan Hatcher from 1951 until 1968. In 1956, the Kresge Foun-

dation donated $3 million for a new medical research

facility, and the Ford Motor Company donated $6.5 mil-

unable to protect the university’s funding from harsh

1975, it fell to 19th, and by 1980 it was 35th. Between 1971 and 1980, tuition nearly tripled for Michigan resi-

probably forever. Michigan’s two most recent presidents have attempted to restore the university to its previous glory, but the full effects of their actions have not yet been realized. Harold

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Shapiro rose through a series of administrative positions at Michigan to the presidency, which he assumed in 1980. He immediately embarked on a plan to streamline the

543

year. His early goals included: the hiring of more women,

increasing Michigan’s endowment to $2 billion, upgrading the school’s facilities, and restoring pride in the Uni-

university and recoup its standing by maintaining a smaller but better-paid faculty working in upgraded facilities. To guarantee Michigan’s capacity for seminal

versity of Michigan.

research, Shapiro allocated more than $80 million for building projects and renovations, including a new hospi-

Further Reading: The Making of The University of Michi-

tal opened in 1986, a revitalized medical campus, new

chemistry laboratories, and a $2.3 million renovation to Tappan Hall. Like Shapiro, James J. Duderstadt was a Michigan administrator and professor before he assumed the presidency in 1988. He espoused high ambitions for Michigan, which enrolled more than 36,000 students per

gan, 1817-1992, by Howard H. Peckham, edited and updated by Margaret Steneck and Nicholas Steneck (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1994) is an extremely thorough book that will bring the reader up to date on the university’s history.

—wWarten D. Rees

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA (Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A.) Location:

Main campus in Minneapolis and St. Paul,

Though

Minnesota. Other campuses in Duluth, Morris,

neglected—as did all other considerations about the shuttered university—during the years of the Civil War

and Crookston, Minnesota.

Description:

Main”

was

indeed

built,

it stood

(1861-65) and the concurrent Indian uprisings, both of

_A state university enrolling a total of

which took young men away from the area.

approximately 52,000; 38,000 on its Minneapolis/St. Paul campus. Information:

“Old

Salvation came in two forms: the Morrill Act signed by President Abraham Lincoln in 1862 and the involvement with the university of entrepreneur John Sargent Pillsbury (who went on to found the milling company that still bears his name). The Morrill Act allotted to any state which was willing to set up an institution of higher education to teach agriculture and the mechanic arts 30,000

Office of Admissions University of Minnesota, Twin Cities

240 Williamson Hall

231 Pillsbury Drive S.E. Minneapolis, MN 55405-0213

acres for each of its representatives in Congress. Minnesota’s two senators and two representatives entitled it to

U.S.A. (612) 625-5000

120,000 acres. John Sargent Pillsbury’s involvement with Visiting:

the university began about the time the Morrill Act was

Phone VISITLINE at (612) 625-0000

signed. When Pillsbury came to Minnesota, he opened a

hardware business. According to James Gray in his centennial history of the university, Pillsbury was on the

brink of suing the regents for debts owed to him (includTn 1851, only two years after Minnesota formally became part of the Northwest Territory of the United States, its earliest European-American settlers decided to create a

ing $5.50 for locks, nails, and iron used in the construc-

great university that they prophesied “would put Harvard in the shade.” Badgered by Alexander Ramsey, governor of the territory and Henry Hastings Sibley, its representative in Washington, Congress passed an act reserving

governor, Henry A. Swift, chose him as a regent. Pillsbury’s initial reaction was that he was “not fit” for the assignment. He had no college education himself, but he educated himself by extensive reading. Gray describes

46,080 acres of land “for the use and support of a univer-

Pillsbury’s first visit, made with a committee of the legis-

sity”; the two houses of Minnesota’s legislature moved

lature, to the decrepit “Old Main”:

tion of Old Main). However, he was turned from potential foe to champion of the university, when Minnesota’s first

swiftly to choose a board of regents, which soon decided

that all necessary steps must be taken to establish a preparatory department.

The news was very bad indeed. Old Main was in the

quite illegal possession of a group of casual folk who became surly at having their privacy invaded.

The St. Anthony Express (St. Anthony was the original name of Minneapolis) enthusiastically supported the project in an editorial: “We should start with the determination that not a single youth of either sex should be permitted to leave the territory to acquire an education for

As the committee members entered one room turkey flew at them in bewildered excitement; in another the squatters had improvised a barn loft; in the cen-

want of an institution at home fully endowed to meet the

operations.

tral hall the floorhad been ruined by wood-splitting

needs of this class.” The university opened it doors on November 26, 1851, to an enrollment of 20 pupils. Fees ranged from $4 a quarter for such basic subjects as gram-

In addition to its physical decrepitude, the university was

burdened with debt. To solve the problem of the deep debt,

mar and spelling to $6 a quarter for Greek, Latin, French,

Pillsbury sold lands and negotiated compromises with creditors so that by 1867 every creditor had been satisfied. In that year the university had two faculty members and an admissions policy allowing both males and females to enroll. Within the first years of his tenure as regent (a posi-

bookkeeping, and higher mathematics. The university’s first decade was a series of calamities, from the withdrawal of a gift of land by one of the regents to the effects on Minnesota of the financial disaster that befell the United States in 1857. The regents pressed on with their plans to erect the building known as “Old Main”; however, the school was forced to shut down in 1859, one year after Minnesota achieved statehood.

tion he held from 1863 until his death in 1901), Pillsbury

had taken a dying idea and brought it to life. William Watts Folwell, a graduate of Hobart College in New York became, in 1869 at age 36, the university’s 544

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

545

we Pe) See

University of Minnesota

first president. Folwell, who sometimes

said he must

sound like a “wild educational mutineer,” had ambitious plans for the university. His “Minnesota Plan,” adopted

unanimously by the regents in 1870, called for three clearly marked educational phases: the Latin school (the

a natural boundary between the first two and the final two years of instruction, he wanted the university to abandon the studies of the first two years, which he said were often “drudgery.” Folwell encountered opposition on several fronts, ranging from the regents’ refusal to move the uni-

elementary grades of today); the collegiate department, which would teach the disciplines needed for higher edu-

versity away from the center of a growing city to Lake

cation;

tion of more buildings, including a library. The legislature refused most of his visionary ideas of expanding the campus and departments, but many of them eventually came to pass under future leadership.

and the professional

colleges.

He advocated

“throwing the usual work of freshmen and sophomores

out of the proper University course and merging it into the old preparatory department.” Believing that there was

Minnetonka and their unwillingness to approve construc-

546 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Through much of the 1870s and 1880s, the university’s

people through night classes, correspondence courses,

enrollment numbered about 300. Though agricultural instruction was added to the curriculum, it was at first met with almost total indifference. As historian Gray

lectures, and other events in villages and towns throughout the state. Vincent tried other outreach techniques that he had learned from his father, a Methodist minister who

wrote, “Though entrance requirements were modest (vir-

had

tually anyone over 16 could apply) no one appeared.

school training ground for Sunday school teachers. One

Farming, to the pioneer, was a matter of bending one’s back over a hoe, not over a book.” Despite efforts to

such technique was University Week, which offered a week-long program of lectures and classes led by univer-

impress members of existing agricultural societies, such

sity professors in towns and villages. Another was the

as the State Grange, with the value of agricultural education, in 1880 no one enrolled in the agricultural college.

“University of the Air,” broadcast throughout the Twin Cities (Minneapolis and St. Paul) on the campus radio

The university’s second president came to be known as

station. Although Vincent would not allow his own voice

“Cyrus the conciliator.” After coming to the university

ever to be broadcast on radio, he approved of spreading the word about the university through the then-new

from Yale in August 1884, he served more than 25 years. Cyrus Northrop began his tenure with a $6,000 a year salary, double that provided by any other midwestern

started the Chautauqua

movement

as a summer

medium.

The outbreak of World War I brought uncertainty to

school, and a penchant for strong ideas. During his first

the campus as many young male students went off to

decade as president, the student body grew to 2,000, and several specialized colleges were created: one for law, one for medicine, and another for agriculture. A School of Agriculture was created (so named to prevent confu-

fight in the war or to work in munitions factories or on

sion with the College of Agriculture which had attracted

Enrollment plummeted badly in 1917-18. Into this diffi-

almost no students). It offered a two-year course open “to

later they were admitted on equal terms with men. Northrop proved so visible and powerful a figure on the university landscape that, according to Gray, “he was

cult environment came Vincent’s replacement, Marion LeRoy Burton, who almost immediately suffered setbacks from war-related problems and tensions. Greatest among these was the state’s Commission of Public Safety, charged with ferreting out German sympathizers. One of their targets was Professor William Schaper, head of the department of political science. He was fired by

asked

chaperone,

the regents for “his attitude,” which made him “unfit to

unpaid employment agent, public sustainer of the spirit,

discharge the duties of his position.” Even U.S. Presi-

and one man committee on student loans (from his own

dent

pocket).” He moved among the legislative and academic worlds with skill, building the university and hiring fac-

Schaper’s behalf, but the firing stood, and the charges

such boys as aspire to become successful and intelligent farmers.”” Women were admitted for summer courses in agriculture and home economics in 1894, and three years

to

be

father,

confessor,

unofficial

family farms. Several administrators went to Washington, D.C., to work in the government. Other faculty members were assigned various war-related tasks.

Woodrow

Wilson

attempted

to

intervene

on

were not finally rescinded until 20 years later.

Sym-

Once the war ended, so did issues relating to it. Burton

phony Orchestra and created schools for mines, dentistry,

launched a “comprehensive building program,” which he asked the regents to present to the legislature. He wanted an auditorium, to be named after Northrop, and several buildings alongside it on a mall that had been designed decades before by Cass Gilbert, architect of the U.S. Cap-

ulty who, for example,

started the Minneapolis

education, nursing, etc. Northrop’s successor, George Edgar Vincent, began

his tenure in 1911 with an inaugural address that proved him a visionary:

itol. With an enrollment of 8,000, the university was in We are coming to realize that good farming is not a robbing but a compensating of the soil; that it costs as much to plant bad seed as good . . . that public

health is national capital; that juvenile delinquency comes less from depravity than from deprivation; ... that industrial accidents are not lawyers’ perquisites but costs of production; . . . that all idleness is

not due to indolence; . . . that the United States must trust less to “manifest destiny” and more to con-

structive purpose.

dire need of new buildings and of repairs to existing ones. However, before he could see the plan through Burton accepted the presidency of the University of Michigan and left Minnesota in 1920. Lotus Delta Coffman, remembered as originator of the university’s College of Education, began his tenure as president in 1920, just as a fiscal crisis erupted. Despite record enrollments, the legislature offered the university a

pitifully small budget, an action which caused faculty and students to protest vigorously and to point out what one student leader called “poor facilities, congested condi-

With a gracious charm, wit, and natural gregariousness, Vincent grew to be among the best loved presidents in the university’s history. One of his first moves was to

tions, and inadequate teaching staff.” The state legislators

create an “extension service” to bring the university to the

Auditorium with a group of buildings lining a mall in

finally ended their opposition and passed a larger budget. The university was at last able to construct Northrop

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

547

front of it, though considerations of cost forced modifications in Cass Gilbert’s design. A welcome change

family [in Minnesota] with whom

occurred when the university persuaded the Northern Pacific Railroad to reroute its tracks away from several

have made life better and more secure in rural and metropolitan areas alike.”

university buildings, thus reducing the terrible noise and vibrations that had plagued classrooms and laboratories.

By the time James Lewis Morrill came from Ohio State University to assume the presidency of the Univer-

In 1924 Coffman created a committee whose work led to the establishment of University College, aimed at gifted undergraduates; later he established the General

sity of Minnesota in 1945, “University City” was the fourth largest city in the state. After the federal government passed Public Law 346, the so-called GI Bill, more

College for those at the other end of the academic scale. The General College offered courses that connected the

than 16,000 former soldiers enrolled at the university.

academy with real life situations. A developmental psychology course dealt with family life, a mathematics course looked at loans, etc. Though the college came to

28,000 after it. The legislature was generous in giving the

be known by such nicknames as “All Fools College,” Coffman was proud of his contribution to helping students who learned at a slower pace. Another addition to

instituted a counseling service, which offered students at all levels assistance with academic and personal prob-

the university was

where

graduates

the Center for Continuation

could

come

for concentrated

Study,

short

courses. In 1936 the center offered its first courses; sug-

gestions for courses from the public were often implemented. While physicians have used the center more than

[the university] has

not had instructional contact; the results of its research

Total enrollment jumped from 15,000 before the war to school the largest budget in its history. In order to help students cope with its ever-growing size, the university

lems. In the 1940s, two doctors at the university, Dr. J.

Chamey McKinley and Dr. Starke Hathaway, created the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, still the

most widely administered personality test. Psychologists applaud its high level of validity in helping them diagnose levels of depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem.

any other group, courses have been offered in such disparate disciplines as social welfare administration and

The medical school, in particular, grew enormously during the postwar period and attracted four to ten times

mining engineering. By 1933, the economy of the midwest was in a sad state. Coffman was worried about a student body that

as much funding as other medical schools in the Big Ten. The Heart Hospital opened in 1951 to treat patients with

heart problems. The first open heart surgery in the world was performed at the university in 1954. In other medical

would dwindle because students could not afford to pay for their education. Accordingly, a plan was devised whereby students attended classes and in between worked

break-throughs, the university’s medical division developed the first heart-lung machine in 1955. The first pan-

at such jobs as examination-readers, cafeteria assistants,

creas

typists, etc. For their labors they received small stipends from both the federal and state governments. The plan, which came to be called the National Youth Administration, expanded to include graduates who were unable to

successful bone marrow transplant in 1968, and the first CAT total body scan in 1978. The university had cemented its important medical relationship with the world-famous Mayo Clinic when, after years of delay, the

find jobs and who came back to the university to assist with research projects. Dr. Maurice Visshcer attested to the invaluable assistance of these students when he

Mayo Memorial Hospital was dedicated in October 1954.

remarked that many of Minnesota’s cancer studies “could

not have been carried on without this assistance.” Walter Catella Coffey served as president during the

transplant

occurred

there

in

1966,

the

first

With the addition of three campuses outside the Minneapolis-St. Paul area—one in Duluth, one in Morris, and one in Crookston—the University of Minnesota became

the largest university in the United States, according to

years of World War II, when enrollment peaked and then dramatically plunged as young men left to fight in the war. On the home front, an important discovery was

the Chronicle of Higher Education’s 1993 figures, which showed a total enrollment of 51,880. In 1993, the university’s endowment was $122 million, second among public institutions in the United States.

made in the University of Minnesota’s department of

The University of Minnesota has had many distin-

physics. As the chairman of the department wrote in a

guished faculty and graduates. Faculty member and agricultural expert Norman Borlaug won the Nobel Peace

ledger book, “In March

and April, 1940,

[Albert O.]

Nier established U 235 as responsible for the slow fission in Uranium.” This proved a significant discovery in the creation of the atomic bomb.

Meanwhile,

Coffey’s

background as dean of the College of Agriculture (192141) helped the university win funding for a School of Veterinary Medicine within the College of Agriculture (veterinary medicine became a college in 1957). When

Prize in 1970, and Professor Dominick Argento won the

Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1976. Graduates have moved to respected careers in communications and politics: both Eric Severeid and Harry Reasoner went on to distinguished careers in television news. Two former Minne-

sota senators and later vice-presidents of the United

Coffey relinquished his post in 1945, he reminded an

States, Hubert H. Humphrey and Walter Mondale, both attended the university.

audience of graduating seniors that there “is scarcely a

Writer, radio personality, and University of Minnesota

548 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES alumnus Garrison Keillor lauded his alma mater at a 1992 alumni dinner: “To speak up for the University of Minnesota is like writing an ode in praise of the sun—you assume it’s been done by smarter people. But let’s say it anyway: the University is one of the glories of this state.”

hensive and detailed history of the university’s first 100 years. Gray’s Open Wide the Door: The Story of the University of Minnesota (New York: Putnam,

1958) updates and

condenses his previous history. No general history of the university has appeared since.

Further Reading: James Gray’s The University of Minnesota:

1851-1951

(Minneapolis:

University of Minnesota

Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1951) is a compre-

—Frank M. Jossi and Mary Elizabeth Devine

UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI (Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.) Location:

Description:

Columbia, Missouri, 125 miles west of St.

wasn’t only composed of cabin dwellers. Under the Mis-

Louis, Missouri, and 125 east of Kansas City, Missouri.

souri Compromise, Missouri came into the Union as a

slave state, leading a number of “bluebloods” from Kentucky to import their opulent Southern lifestyle to the

Oldest campus in the state university system

area: tobacco crops, slaves, cash, and Whig politics. The

(Columbia, Rolla, St. Louis, and Kansas City). The University of Missouri enrolls about

county seat, Columbia, had a population of about 700 in 1840, a third of whom were slaves. While many of Columbia’s leading citizens belonged

23,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and

professional schools.

Information:

to the Whig political party, the state was predominately Democratic. These contrary political viewpoints would

— University of Missouri-Columbia

haunt the university financially for some years to come

Office of Admissions 130 Jesse Hall

since the Missouri legislature controlled the purse strings.

Public transportation to Columbia was better than ser-

Columbia, MO 65211 U.S.A.

vice to many other frontier towns. Jonas Viles described its location: “The town was on the stage route from St.

(800) 225-6075 in Missouri

Guided tours of the campus are available year-

Louis to Fayette and the West. In 1841 there was one regular semi-weekly river packet from St. Louis to Glasgow and in 1842 three, all stopping at Providence, Columbia’s

round, Monday through Friday.

river port some fourteen miles away, with a regular stage

(314) 882-2121

Visiting:

to Columbia in 1843.” How did the university finally come to be awarded to Boone County? Chicanery. More than one county purchased land and inflated the value of the acreage as part of their “bidding package.” Boone County just did it better. According to Jonas Viles, “Her subscription was

The University of Missouri is the oldest public university in Thomas

Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase territory. A

$82,381 in cash and $35,540 in land, a total of $117,921.”

clause in the Act of 1820 admitting Missouri to the Union gave Missouri a land grant of two townships, the sale of which was to provide funding for a public university. By 1839, enough cash was available to endow a university.

Although the value was overstated, the citizens’ enthusi-

asm and dedication was not. At a time still touched by the Panic of 1837’s seven-year depression, almost 900 people

The big question was where the University would be located. The Missouri General Assembly determined the award would go to the one of six counties offering the

contributed money or land. Columbia gladly welcomed the new school—then named the University of the State

largest support in land and money, a competition the

A board of state-appointed curators oversaw the university’s organization. The board selected John Hiram Lath-

of Missouri.

counties took seriously.

Logistics determined the Assembly’s decision to limit the location to six central counties on the Missouri River.

rop, a graduate of Yale, as the first university president.

Despite the lack of an official campus building, classes began April 14, 1841, under what is now the College of Arts and Sciences, the oldest academic division in the

First, lack of roads made travel difficult. A central location

came as a sort of equalizer since students from all parts of Missouri would have a relatively equal distance to travel by horseback. In addition, in the early years, most of Mis-

university. The first university catalog listed 77 students. Today’s campus has 13 undergraduate and 5 graduate

souri’s population was concentrated in and around St.

schools, 300 buildings, and about 23,000 students. The first campus building was Academic Hall (1843),

Louis, and along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers because rivers formed a major transportation venue. Boone County, one possible site, became the logical choice. While in 1840 the St. Louis census showed a population of 16,000, Boone County ranked next with 13,561. Wealth (defined by slaves, livestock, and cereal grain production), too, placed Boone among the top contenders. Although Boone County calls to mind the log-cabin

designed by Stephen Hills, Missouri state capital’s architect. Today the only reminder of Academic Hall is a row of graceful columns, survivors of a fire in 1892.

In contrast to the campus beginnings (when the first building cost under $75,000), the most recent building

cost $5.4 million. Named for Lee Hills, an alumnus who won the Pulitzer Prize, the building houses the School of Journalism’s daily newspaper and other operations.

dwelling Daniel Boone, the Booneslick area population 549

550 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Missouri

In 1849 the library held only official documents, a set of Livy,

some

reviews,

and

Blackwood’s

magazine.

Today the library system is made up of Ellis Library (main library) and seven branch libraries. The collection

consists of 2.58 million volumes, 5 million microforms, 22,973 journal subscriptions, and special collections. The Civil War caused problems for the developing university. Even before the war the largest number enrolled

was 181. With the Civil War, things got so bad that the Board of Curators suspended operations in March 1862.

The

Academic

Hall housed

federal

troops,

officers

finances because of the dependence on legislative appropriations and political climates, the university struggled to stay open. Since the Missouri legislature presumed Columbia’s “disloyalty” during the Civil War, the university faced a hostile legislature when asking for budget approval. Finally, relief came when the Missouri Assembly located the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts at Columbia in 1870. With the college came a land grant for 330,000 acres. The university’s survival was no longer in question.

resided at the president’s house, and the Normal School served as a hospital. Horses were stabled in the campus

With America’s entrance into World War I, classes thinned as students and faculty left for service or to work in a war-related industry. Military training, which already

enclosure. Despite this adversity, the university reopened in November 1862.

existed on the campus, expanded with fraternity houses and dormitories becoming barracks.

Incidently, one Civil War souvenir remains. Missouri’s

World War I was followed by a period of calm with

football team name “Tigers” comes from the Columbia

enrollment increases but with no appropriation increases

Civil War militia organized to protect the town; they

to help the university move forward. Then the Depression hit. With a budget that had no extras to begin with, cut-

called themselves the Missouri Tigers. Between the ravages of war and the always uncertain

backs struck hard and hit essential programs. But the fed-

UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

551

eral Public Works Administration, developed because of

1880. The degree stressed courses in art, literature, and

the Depression, brought about one of the most extensive building programs in the history of the university.

domestic chemistry and economy—all adapted to the “culture of woman.” The A.D.B. degree proved so unpopular that only seven women ever took it.

World War II saw a healthy enrollment drop from over 5,000 in 1938 to 1,500 in 1943. In response to the war,

the university developed educational programs for military services, the first such being a diesel motor school. The surge of students on the GI bill came in the fall of 1946, catching the university with a shortage of instructors, classrooms,

and housing.

Barracks

from

Fort Leonard

Wood were brought in to help relieve some of the crush. As changes came to the physical side of the university with the addition of buildings and courses, so change came to the student body. From a predominately well-todo male student body in the early days of the university,

today men and women of all races and economic strata enjoy the opportunity to study at this public institution. However, the change took time. The first Women’s Rights Convention met in 1848 in

Seneca, New York. Despite this national voicing of the demand for women’s rights, female students took almost

30 years to show at the University of Missouri. Even then, a woman’s right to be a student there came quietly with no grand acknowledgment, and with restrictions. Female students first appeared in the 1868-69 catalog as the last item under the Normal College. Twenty-two

Things

have

changed

since

then.

The

university

opened co-ed domns in 1977 and today women comprise about 50 percent of the student body. Another change in 1977 was the addition of a minor in black studies in the

College of Arts and Sciences in response to the needs of black students. With Missouri admitted to the Union as a slave state and a number of leading citizens of Columbia, Missouri being pro-slavery, admitting blacks to the university was a touchy subject for many years. Indeed, legally under the Missouri constitutions adopted after the Civil War, the

official

state

policy

indicated

“separate

but equal”

schools. To account for unequal educational opportunities, blacks were shunted to other states with “out-of-state tuition” scholarships.

In the 1930s four black graduate students applied for admission to the university and instead of being admitted, found themselves referred to Lincoln University, an all black university. Lloyd L Gaines, who had applied for the School of Law, filed a writ of mandamus in the Boone County Circuit Court to force admission. The case went all the way to the United States Supreme Court where

names are listed under the heading of “Ladies.” In 1869-

out-of-state tuition scholarships were declared unconsti-

70, the Normal College had 42 female students. By the 1870-71 catalog, the names of the female students were no longer listed separately from male students. Women

tutional. By the time the decision was handed down, Gaines had disappeared from the scene. Finally, in 1950 three black students won admission in

were allowed to attend regular classes by 1871-72.

professional or graduate programs. Seeing that changes would be coming, the Board of Curators appointed a

Easing female students into campus life came gradually but successfully. In the 1873 catalog, President Daniel Read said: “Finding . . . that the young women at ‘the Normal’ did no manner of harm, we very cautiously admitted them to some of the recitations and lectures in the University building itself, providing always that they were to be marched in good order, with at least two teach-

ers, one in front and the other in the rear of the column, as guards .. . By degrees, and carefully feeling our way, as though explosive material was all around us, we have come to admit them to all the classes in all the departments, just as young men are admitted.” Mary Louise Gillette became the first graduate from the Normal School in 1870, and in 1874 a woman

was

valedictorian. A setback came in 1876 with a new president, Samuel Laws, who seemed to prefer no female students at the university or at the very most a “separate but equal” situation. Laws’s rules for female students included their wearing a uniform. A woman was appointed a principal of the ladies department, her main job being to ensure

ladylike behavior. Under Laws’s administration, a new course of study designed specifically for women led to the degree of A.D.B., Artium Domesticarum

Baccaluarea, adopted in

committee which created a set of rules for admitting black students. Basically the rules said that only if a

course wasn’t available at Lincoln University, would a black Missouri resident be admitted to the University of Missouri. All such restrictions were removed with the decision of the United States Supreme Court in the case of Brown vs. the Topeka Board of Education, declaring public school segregation unconstitutional. At the same time the university struggled with social inequalities, funding, and growth, it was building a national and international reputation and becoming a school of choice. Now students come from every state and more than 100 foreign countries. A major claim to international fame held by the University of Missouri is its school of journalism which was established in 1908. Its importance rests not only with the quality of the curriculum (rated by the Associated Press Managing Editor as one of the best in the nation in 1991), but with the fact that the school is the world’s first school of journalism. Although other educational institutions had given courses and had chairs of journalism prior to 1908, the University of Missouri holds the distinction of creating a school dedicated to teaching journalism. The board

552 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES stressed the fact that the new

school of journalism

paper, magazine, and picture editing categories and a

would be “coordinate in rank with the schools of law and medicine.” The establishment of the school of journalism came about despite controversy regarding the practicality of

book, The Best of Photojournalism, is published annually.

instruction in journalism sparked by Joseph Pulitzer’s proposal to endow a school of journalism at Columbia

attend lectures and workshops given by faculty and visit-

University. Viles noted, “Disapproving editors expressed the opinion that journalism was a subject that could not be taught, that success in it required talent for it and a long apprenticeship under conditions that could not be

journalism’s most prestigious prizes, is awarded.

duplicated in academic halls.” The controversy helped the university decide on three

and responds to more than 1,000 requests from professionals for information. The importance of the center

principles for the journalism school: first, a laboratory newspaper was needed for practical experience; second,

was recognized when it was established in 1958 with

teachers would be experienced newspapermen; and third,

a broad liberal education would be emphasized. These principles were followed from the beginning. The

A special annual event, Journalism Week, began in May 1910 as a conference of editors. During Journalism Week, classes are canceled so students and journalists can

ing speakers. Also, the Missouri Medal of Honor, one of The school of journalism boasts the Freedom of Information Center which indexes newspaper and maga-

zine articles on information access and press freedom

worldwide news coverage and a special commemorative U.S. postage stamp. Distinguished graduates of the school of journalism include: Howard Lamade (1913 graduate) and his brother

school’s first dean, Walter Williams, was the editor of the Columbia Herald. Other newspapermen joined the staff:

George (1916 graduate), publishers of Grit; Walter D.

Silas Bent, St. Louis Post-Dispatch; Charles G. Ross, St.

Elmer Lower, head of NBC News; William Manchester,

Louis Republic; and Frank L. Martin, Kansas City Star.

journalist and author of The Death of a President; Helen

Classes began September 14, 1908, with 72 of the uni-

versity’s 2,944 students enrolled as journalism students. That same day an issue of the laboratory newspaper, The University Missourian, was prepared by the class. Today the approximately 800 journalism students experience hours of practical laboratory work in a variety of

media settings: print at Columbia Missourian (six-day-aweek general newspaper for Columbia and Boone County), Missourian

Weekly (Wednesday,

Sunday

editions), and

Weekend (magazine and entertainment supplement); radio and TV at KBIA (MU’s public FM radio station which covers central Missouri) and KOMU-TV

(NBC affiliate,

broadcasting news and public affairs programs). A broad liberal education was and is emphasized as the foundation for the journalism degree. When the school first opened, of the 120 hours needed for graduation, only 24 hours had to be in journalism. Today the bachelor of journalism degree requires 33 hours of journalism and 90 hours of non-journalism credits; at least 65 hours of the 90

non-journalism credits required of degree seekers must come from the College of Arts and Sciences. The school of journalism retains strong links to the world of professional journalism. For instance, the Frank E. Gannett Foundation presented a gift on behalf of the country’s largest newspaper chain; the result was

Gannett Hall. News directors come to the campus to select the national winners of Radio-Television News Directors Association’s Edward R. Murrow Awards. The school is the headquarters for the Society of American Business Editors and Writers, the Missouri Interscholastic Press Association, and the national headquarters for Investigative Reporters and Editors Inc. The Pictures-of-theYear competition selects the best photojournalism from news-

Scott, president and chief executive officer of NBC;

Delich-Bentley,

maritime editor of the Baltimore Sun;

James Lehrer, coanchor of the MacNeil-Lehrer Report; Marshall R. Loeb, editor of Fortune; and Seymour Top-

ping, managing editor of The New York Times. The school of journalism’s first dean took the profession of journalism and its responsibility to the public seriously. Walter Williams wrote the journalist’s creed which

contains beliefs including: “J believe that the journalism which succeeds best . . . fears God and honors man; is stoutly independent, unmoved by pride of opinion or greed of power, constructive, tolerant but never careless, self-controlled, patient . . .; is a journalism of humanity,

of and for today’s world.” Somehow this philosophy (engraved on a plaque in Jay H. Neff Hall) makes it fitting that the original tombstone of Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Inde-

pendence, and supporter of individual rights and freedom of speech, rests on the campus of the University of Missouri in Columbia.

Further Reading: James Olson’s The University of Missouri: An Illustrated History (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1988) provides an interesting and well-illustrated ac-

count of the history of the university from the beginning until the 1980s. Another detailed account is Jonas Viles’s The Univeristy of Missouri: A Centennial History (Columbia: University of Missouri, 1939) which deals extensively with the early history of the university. A History of the University of Missouri by Frank F. Stephens (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1962) is another inclusive history of the uni-

versity.

—Vera-Jane Goodin

UNIVERSITY OF MONTPELLIER (Montpellier, France) Location:

an important role in trade with the Orient. The merchants who dealt in spices and medicinal plants knew the thera-

Montpellier, located in the Hérault department of southern France, approximately 750 kilometers south of Paris, 164 kilometers east of Marseille and 10 kilometers from the

peutic value of the products they sold; those who were better educated read the translations of Hippocrates. Thus

Mediteranean Sea.

Description:

students, drawn by the merchants’ knowledge of medical science, were the basis of the first schools of medicine to

— Three autonomous, state-financed universities

form at Montpellier in the twelfth century. The town of Montpellier acquired a charter in 1141. A medical school existed at Montpellier as early as

founded in 1970 under France’s Orientation Act of 1968, which provided for reform of higher education. They replaced the former University

1137. After completing a course in the arts at Paris in that

of Montpellier. University of Montpellier I

year, one Adalbert, later archbishop of Mainz, is said to

consists of teaching and research units in law, medicine, pharmacy, economics, and social sciences; University of Montpellier IT teaches science, engineering, technology, and business management; and University of Montpellier III focuses on arts and letters.

Information:

have studied at Montpellier. According to the writings of

Saint Bernard, the Archbishop of Lyons went to Montpellier to be cured. Several possibilities have been suggested concerning

the origins of a university of medicine: it was perhaps “an offshoot” of the famed University of Salerno; it may have resulted from the medical science that “survived the downfall of the Saracenic Empire” when Muslim fugi-

— Université de Montpellier I BP 1017 34006 Montpellier Cedex France

tives, after a defeat by Charles Martel in 737, fled to the area that later became Montpellier; contact with the Jew-

(67) 41-20-90

ish and Arabic schools of twelfth-century Spain or with the Jewish medical schools at nearby Arles and Narbonne

Université de Montpellier II Place Eugéne Bataillon 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5 France (67) 14-30-30

could have led to its formation. In any event, a university

of medicine was the first of the schools founded at Montpellier that were united by the charter of 1289. The Arabic influence is exemplified in the Muslim philosopher and physician Abu Ali al-Husein ibn Sina

Université de Montpellier IIT

(980-1037). Avicenna, as he was known in the west, was

Place de la Voie Domitienne

considered one of the greatest writers on medicine of the Middle Ages. His Qanum-fi-I-Tibb (Canon of Medicine),

BP 5043 34032 Montpellier Cedex 5

translated into Latin in the twelfth century, served as one

France

of the chief texts in European medical schools from the

(67) 14-20-00

twelfth into the seventeenth centuries; it was required

reading at the University of Montpellier until the midseventeenth century. The works of a Jewish physician, Moses ben Maimon

“Because wisdom enlightens the human heart and leads

(1135-1204), called Maimonides in the Christian world,

it to virtue.” In this way begins the papal bull issued by Nicholas [V on October 26, 1289, that acknowledged the existence of a studium generale comprised of masters and

were also renowned; a Latin translation of his Guide was

taught at the University of Montpellier. An important

medicine, civil and canon law, and the arts, and it served

Jewish colony was established in Montpellier, and it produced several able teachers. Licenses to teach and to practice medicine may not have been instituted in Montpellier until the thirteenth

as the founding charter of the University of Montpellier.

century. An edict issued in 1181 by William VIII, lord of

Sources which give 1220 as the date the university was

Montpellier, granted to all who so willed the right to teach medicine. A university of medicine is mentioned in statutes that were confirmed in 1220 by Cardinal Conrad

students of the town of Montpellier. The papal bull recognized and joined together the already existing faculties of

founded refer to statutes confirming a university of medicine (described below).

The settlement of Montpellier developed between the eighth and tenth centuries and, as an inland port, played

and by a second cardinal in 1239; the statutes were con-

firmed by papal bull in 1242. These statutes were appar553

554 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Montpellier

UNIVERSITY OF MONTPELLIER ently the first to provide for the appointment of a chancellor, nominated by the bishop and three masters, to

555

The students of law soon began to resist the control exercised over them by both the bishop and the masters.

preside over the university. In 1240, the masters appointed “arbitrators to interpret or modify these statutes.” By 1272, King James I of Aragon, then overlord of

In 1320, the bishop issued a proclamation against “secret conventicles and congregations,” “confederations and

Montpellier, forbade the practice of medicine at Montpellier by anyone who had not been examined and licensed.

scholars of another.” Around 1339, with the aid of the cardinal legate Bertrand di Diaux, a compromise was

In 1309,

Pope

Clement

V declared

certain

books

which he, upon the advice of his Montpellier physicians, considered necessary reading for students of medicine. The list consisted of works by the second-century Greek physician Claudius Galen, perhaps the most renowned of ancient medical writers and one whose influence continued into the eighteenth century; Avicenna; Constantinus

Africanus, who brought his translations of Greek and Arabic

works

of medicine

to Salerno; Isaac Judaeus;

Rhazes, a Persian healer of the ninth and tenth centuries whose works were among those translated by Constantinus; Johannicius; and Hippocrates.

colligations,” and “scholars of one province against the reached:

statutes,

modeled

after those

of Bologna,

allowed a “student-university of a very modified type.” One of the law university’s most famous students was

the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch (1304-74). Although Petrarch, who spent seven years at the universities of Montpellier and Bologna (“seven wasted years,” he called them), detested law, it was during his days at Montpellier that he wrote the first of his poems that

remain in existence today. A university of the arts was confirmed in statutes of 1242. In his Summa, Placentinus hints that masters of arts

were

existed at Montpellier as early as the end of the twelfth century. “The ancient faculty of Arts of Montpellier

required to attend lectures for two years in order to attain

received its first statutes from a bishop of Maguelone:

a bachelorship in medicine; bachelors and senior students

Jean de Montlaur, second of that name. They were dated

spent the summer in practice. Before earning their bache-

from the sixth day before the Calends of April (March 27

lor degrees in medicine, students accompanied their doc-

on the ancient Roman calendar) in the year 1242. These statutes apply to the schools of grammar and logic.” The

Several changes occurred

in 1340.

Students

tors on visits to the sick and, under the doctors’ supervision, experimented upon the patients. The length of time to obtain a doctor’s degree was five years for masters of arts and six years for other candidates. In addition,

a biennial anatomy class was authorized at Montpellier. For a period of several days, a doctor of medicine would lecture students as a surgeon dissected a cadaver.

The Montpellier surgeon Gui de Chauliac developed a method of surgery and published, in 1367, a treatise on

statutes of 1242 recognized the authority of the bishop; they were not drafted by the masters. This was not a student-university. A university of theology did not officially exist at Montpellier until 1421, when Pope Martin V issued a bull creating a studium generale in theology, with the bishop as chancellor. As early as 1263, however, a college had

the writings of the ancient physicians.

been founded for the Carthusian monks at nearby Valmagne by James I and may have served as the nucleus for the later university.

Will Durant in The Age of Faith describes the medieval student as a man “of any age. He might be a curate, a

The University of Montpellier retained its position as one of the great studia of Europe until the end of the four-

prior, an abbot, a merchant, a married man; he might be a

teenth century. The last half of the fourteenth and most of

lad of thirteen, troubled with the dignity of his years. . . .

the fifteenth centuries, however, saw a general decline in

He

the only

many of the universities of Europe. “The fifteenth century

requirements were a knowledge of Latin, and ability to pay a modest fee to each master whose course he took.” The inception of a university of law at Montpellier dates from the 1160s when the noted jurist Placentinus, who had taught at Bologna and Mantua, fled to Montpellier, where he sought asylum from “the jealousy of less distinguished colleagues.” Around 1230, licenses were being granted and increased the number of doctors and students of law at Montpellier. The bishop, supported by a

was a period of decadence in the universities generally,

anatomy. Most of his methods, however, were taken from

encountered

no

entrance

examinations;

royal brief, claimed control over the bestowal of licenses

in canon and civil law (a right he also exercised with the

though not equally so everwhere.” In 1362, the number of students attending the law university had declined from 1,000 to 100; the medical

school also experienced a decrease in the number of students. Anna M. Campbell, in The Black Death and Men

of Learning, states that the University of Montpellier was “destitute of lecturers and auditors because in the said studium where formerly a thousand students used to dwell, scarcely 200 are to be found today.” Around 1390, the students were complaining against the mas-

medical school). By 1268, a college of doctors in law, backed by statutes issued by the bishop and the doctors,

ters, and enrollment of students at the university contin-

existed. When Pope Nicholas IV issued the bull recogniz-

The run-down condition of the university is exempli-

ing the studium generale in 1289, the law school had only

fied by a student at the Collége des Douze Médecins (Col-

recently attained a degree of importance in its field.

lege of a dozen doctors), who, in 1422, described himself

ued to decline.

556 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES as its sole medical student. In 1494, the rebuilding of the Collége des Douze Médecins was a sign that the univer-

toward Protestants. Conditions changed, however, in the

sity’s decline was near an end.

arrival of the Huguenot theologian and classical scholar

During the Renaissance,

the university once again

came to life. Charles VIII and Louis XII, influenced by

their Montpellier physicians, offered support and granted favors to the university. In 1498, King Louis “made an annual grant of 500 livres to the studium, 400 of which

years between Felix’s return to Switzerland Isaac Casaubon (1559-1614).

and the

Casaubon’s parents were

ardent Huguenots (French followers of John Calvin) and, following the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre of August 24, 1572, Casaubon received his first Greek lesson in a

were to be devoted to providing salaries of 100 livres per

mountain cave in the Dauphiné region of France while in hiding from fanatical Catholic armies. Nine years later,

annum for four doctors.”

he became a professor of Greek

In the sixteenth century, Montpellier was one of the

most ardent centers of the Renaissance; the university included the five faculties of law and economics, medicine, sciences, letters and human sciences, and pharmacy.

In the 1530s, the writer Francois Rabelais, after a brief

period of study at the medical university, was granted a bachelor of medicine. Soon afterward, he lectured on

at the Academy

of

Geneva, where he taught for 15 years. In 1595, he was appointed to a professorship at Montpellier and served for three years. In the seventeenth century, the University of Montpel-

lier continued to attract students from France and distant countries. Medical science had advanced to the point where

a degree

from

a recognized

institution

was

Galen and Hippocrates in the original Greek. The teach-

required for the legal practice of medicine in western

ings of the Greek authors now took precedence; in 1567,

Europe. The French universities provided a model for teaching

after a petition by the students, Arabic authors were struck from the required readings. The Greek texts remained the

and research for Europe until 1793, when the National

principal source of teaching in the medical schools until

Convention suppressed all universities in France. Higher

the eighteenth century. In 1673, a doctor was “required on

education was reinstated by Napoléon I in 1806. The University of France, a centralized system of education under the jurisdiction of a ministry located in Paris, encom-

pain of suspension to cease teaching a doctrine contrary to that of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen.” In 1552, a 15-year-old student from Basel, Switzer-

passed schools of medicine, law, and pharmacy, and facul-

land, arrived in Montpellier to study medicine. For five

ties of science and letters; primary and secondary schools were also under its control. Changes occurred in the late nineteenth century, including the separation of church and

years the young

man,

Felix Platter, kept a detailed

account of his experiences in a journal that was translated into English in 1961. After his examination and matricu-

state in education (March 1882). In 1896, the system was

lation on November 4, 1552, Felix was admitted to the

reorganized into 23 districts or académies, each with its

baccalaureate program; he chose as his sponsor a Dr. Saporta, who would serve as his consultant throughout his years of study. Felix described his initial course as two or three lectures in the morning and the same number

own university consisting of faculties of medicine, law,

in the afternoon; the first dissection he attended was that

of a boy who had died of a stomach abscess. A doctor presided, and a barber performed the operation. Many people, other than students, were present (“.. . even young girls, notwithstanding that the subject was a male’). Felix later described nighttime excursions to cemeteries to find bodies for dissection.

pharmacy, science, and letters. Concurrently, the grandes écoles, elite institutions leading to engineering, teaching, and civil service degrees, were created.

Other than the establishment of two-year instituts universitaires de technologie or IUT (university institutes of technology) in 1966, few changes occurred between 1896 and May 1968, when student unrest led to the Loi d’ori-

entation de l’enseignement

supérieur (Orientation

of

Higher Education Act). As a result of this act, the University of Montpellier, in 1970, was divided into three auton-

In his journal, Felix discusses more than his studies; he

omous units: the Universities of Montpellier I, If, and III.

gives an account of the social history of the period immediately preceding the Wars of Religion (1562-98). His

The University of Montpellier I enrolls approximately

comments range from descriptions of public executions and the persecution of Protestants to such topics as Mardi Gras celebrations, travel throughout the region, and his surreptitious method of cooking eggs, which were forbidden during Lent.

After four years of study, Felix sat for his baccalaureate and was promoted to bachelor of medicine. He returned to Basel in 1557, married his childhood sweetheart, and became a distinguished physician. Felix Platter, as

a Swiss Calvinist, had been allowed

religious freedom in Montpellier, a region sympathetic

18,500 students in law and social sciences; economics; economic and social administration; medicine; pharma-

ceutical and biological science; industrial pharmacy; odontology; alimentary, oenological, and environmental studies; and physical education and sport. The University of Montpellier II (Université des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc) enrolls approximately 11,000 students in basic and applied sciences; engineering sciences;

business

management;

chemical

engineering;

and technology (in both Montpellier and Nimes). The University of Montpellier III (Université Paul Valéry, named after the nineteenth- and twentieth-century

UNIVERSITY OF MONTPELLIER writer who studied at Montpellier) enrolls approximately 18,000 students in letters, arts, philosophy, and linguistics; Anglo-American, Germanic, Slav, and Oriental stu-

dies; human

and environmental

sciences;

economic,

mathematical, and social sciences; science of society; and

Mediterranean Romance Languages.

Further Reading: For general information about the early

557

Will Durant (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1959); The

Age of Reason Begins, Will and Ariel Durant (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1961); The Age of Louis XIV, Will and Ariel Durant (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963). For a

detailed account of medieval medical study experiences at the university, see the autobiographical work Beloved Son Felix: The Journal of Felix Platter, a Medical Student in Montpellier in the Sixteenth Century, translated by Sean Jennett (London: Frederick Muller Limited, 1961).

history of the university and its times, consult The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Volume II, by Hastings Rashdall (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1942); The Age of Faith,

—Susan R. Stone

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI (BOMBAY) (Mumbai, Maharashtra, India) Location:

Description:

An urban campus located in the financial

measures calculated to advance their welfare, and of rep-

section of Mumbai (Bombay), on the southeastern shore of the city, formerly the old

resenting

Fort Bombay.

university education in India. A second petition was sent

to the Authorities

in India and

England,” they petitioned parliament to adequately fund in 1853, pleading for the establishment

A government-funded coeducational university

of vocational

schools and for a law school to train Indians for the profession. These two petitions resulted in Wood’s Education

of over 220,000 students and over 130 affiliated

colleges. Offers B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees

Dispatch, which became fondly known as the “Magna Carta of the Indian Education.” Wood’s Educational Dispatch was composed in July

in liberal arts, technology, law, commerce, and medicine.

Information:

the same

1854, by Sir Charles Wood, later Lord Halifax. In this dispatch Wood outlined plans for a university system in India. Because of his efforts, the Department of Public

— University of Mumbai University Road Fort Bombay Maharashtra State 400032 India

Instruction was established in 1855. Two years later, the country’s first university system was incorporated. In Jan-

uary the University of Calcutta was established, followed by the University of Bombay in June and finally the Uni-

(22) 273623

versity of Madras in September, three schools modeled

after the London University. To be patterned after the

London University meant that the University of Bombay did not offer teaching but would perform as an examining

In 1665, when British king Charles II took possession of

institution, testing students presented from local schools and colleges. The colleges first affiliated with the University of Bombay were the Elphinstone Institution (including the college and high school), the Poona College, and the Grant Medical College.

the port and island of Bombay from the Portuguese (as part of the dowry of Princess Catherine Braganza of Portugal), the city was a small fishing village. Soon after, in 1668, Bombay became the official seat of the East India

Company, a judicial system was established, and a hospi-

When

tal built—acts which marked the beginnings of modern

the

universities

of Calcutta,

Bombay,

and

Madras were incorporated in 1857, they were not corpo-

Bombay. The city’s population grew from 10,000 in 1668

rations of scholars but of administrators. With a chancellor and a vice chancellor, the syndicate appointed

to 110,000 in 1780, to 500,000 in 1850. One significant development in Bombay as the population grew was the appearance of schools and colleges in

examiners, granted degrees, and maintained the budgets of each university. The syndicate also created the by-laws with the approval of the senate. Every member of the senate was a faculty member of the affiliated school’s faculty of arts, faculty of law, faculty of medicine, or faculty of

the city. The Elphinstone Institution had its origins in a Christian school founded by Reverend Richard Cobbe in 1718. Opening its doors to Indians, it became known as the Charity School in 1820. In 1840 the school, which

civil engineering. To matriculate

concentrated on the arts and sciences, changed its name to the Elphinstone Native Education Institution after Montstuart Elphinstone, the governor of Bombay from 1819 to 1827 and a pioneer in education. The Poona San-

at the University of Bombay

one

needed to be at least 16 years old. Students were expected to pass written and oral examinations in English and Indian languages, and mathematics. For the bachelor of arts degree, the young men pursued a course

skrit College was founded in 1821. Originally aimed at

the education of the Brahmin class, the Poona College

of study for 22 months. Then they appeared for the first

began to teach both Sanskrit and English in 1837, opening its doors to all classes. The Grant Medical College was founded in 1845, named for Sir Robert Grant, former governor of Bombay. It conferred a degree in medicine until the establishment of the University of Bombay. In August 1852, the Bombay Association was formed. Comprised of educated members of the city’s Hindu, Parsi, Muslim, and Jewish communities who sought to

examination in arts, followed by another examination for

the bachelor of arts. A bachelor of law degree was granted to graduates with the B.A. who went on to study an additional three years in the law school. A licentiate in medicine would be granted after successful examination at the end of the second and fourth years of study. A master’s degree in medicine involved two additional years of study beyond the

define the “wants of the people of this country, and the 558

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI (BOMBAY)

559

University of Mumbai (Bombay)

licentiate. A master of civil engineering required four years of study beyond the bachelor of arts, with two of those years being spent as a journeyman for an engineer. The first matriculation examination was held at the

appeared for the final examination for the bachelor of arts

University of Bombay in 1859. There were 132 candi-

degree from the University of Bombay included Mahadev

dates who appeared to be tested in languages and mathematics. Only 22 passed the examinations. The majority of those who failed lacked knowledge of the native languages. The British-inspired university system empha-

Govind Ranade and Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar. An embarrassing error occurred when the names were posted. Initially only three of the names were listed as passing the exam. When Sir Alexander Grant of Elphin-

sized Indian as well as English languages. The reason for

stone College noticed his student Bhandarkar’s name was missing, he asked to have the test results examined. The results from another student’s exam had mistakenly been interchanged with Bhandarkar’s. The correction was made and Bhandarkar was awarded the bachelor of arts. Ranade went on to become the first Indian judge on

this emphasis was the belief that teaching and learning were best done in the native tongue. Sir Bartle Edward Frere, chancellor of the University of Bombay, believed that the object of education was “to enrich your own ver-

nacular literature through the learning which you acquire in this University . . . the learning which can here be

degree; only four passed. In addition, Grant Medical Col-

lege presented candidates to the university, of whom only four passed. The first four to receive the bachelor of arts

the Bombay High Court. A social reformer, he published

to the many millions of Hindustan.” In 1861 the matriculated students appeared for the first

two well-known books: The Rise of Maratha Power and Essays on Indian Economy, Bhandarkar became a teacher and researcher. He was knighted in 1911 and an institute in his name was established in 1919 called the Bhan-

examination. Only seven passed. In 1862 six candidates

darkar Oriental Institute.

imparted to a few hundreds . . . of scholars, must by you be made available through your own vernacular tongues

560 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES The university was without a building of its own. For this reason the first convocation was held in the town hall. There the senate and the syndicate held their meetings, and university degrees were conferred there. In 1863 philanthropist Cowasjee Jehanghier offered to donate money toward the construction of a university hall, with his donation supplemented by funds from the government. The

Building now graced the campus environs. The university ceremony prominently featured scientific exhibits because the University of Bombay had recently decided to offer a bachelor of sciences degree (first conferred in 1882). Exhibits included coral reef specimens, micro-

scopes with blood samples, specimens of plants, and an

famed architect, Sir Gilbert Scott (architect of the Houses

electric light. Drawings illustrated new nineteenth-century inventions such as the microphone, the phonograph,

of Parliament in London), was called upon to design the buildings. Unfortunately, Scott, who had never visited India, performed all his work in England. Building plans

and the telephone. In 1883 the University of Bombay decided to admit women. The issue had first been raised in 1875 when Post

were discussed via correspondence, a factor which caused so many delays that at one point Cowasjee Jehanghier

Master Kharsedji inquired whether his daughter, Phiroze

grew impatient and threatened to withdraw his donation.

The syndicate replied that no provision had been made to admit women when the university had been incorporated.

The government had settled on a site on the Esplanade opposite the Churchgate Street entrance, an area under

Sorabji, could appear for the matriculation examination.

However, the issue was not forgotten. In 1878, London

development and with new roads. Thanks to Governor Sir

University became the first British university to admit

Bartle Frere the century-old moat and fort ruins had been

women. The syndicate reconsidered, and in 1883 Chancel-

dismantled and the area was at the beginning of a building renaissance. Finally, on December 29, 1868, the cor-

lor Sir James Ferguson stated, “Their intellects are as

nerstone was laid by Chancellor Sir Seymour Fitzgerald. Afterward, due to government bureaucracy, the site was

taken from the university and reassigned to the Bombay High Court. In November 1874, the Senate Hall was finally completed at a cost of Rs. 379,092. On March 4,

1875, the senate passed a resolution to rename the hall Sir Cowasjee Jehanghier Hall, in honor of his generous dona-

tion of Rs. 100,000 to construct it. The thirteenth-century French architectural structure stands 63 feet high. At the north end of the hall is a circular stained-glass window with the 12 signs of the zodiac. A gallery supported by ornamental brackets runs along the three sides of the hall.

More stunning is the University Library and Rajabai Clock Tower (sometimes referred to as the Rajabai Tower Library), completed in November 1878 at a cost of Rs. 547,703. Built with funds from successful businessman

Premchand Raychand, the tower was named in memory of his mother, Rajabai. Rising some 280 feet, the tower

became the tallest building in Bombay. The ground floor has two wide rooms, a central hall, and a staircase. The

acute, their power of assimilating knowledge as great and means of usefulness open to them by the acquisition of

knowledge not inferior to those of men.” Cornelia Sorabjee was admitted to Deccan College of Poona and became the first female graduate of the University of Bombay in 1888. Tragedy struck the university campus when the bodies of two young women were found at the base of the Rajabai Tower on April 25, 1891. According to the coroner,

16-year-old Pherozebi Sorabji Kamden and 20-year-old Bachubai Ardeshir Godrej had died by being thrown from the top of the tower. A suspect was arrested, then acquitted by the Bombay High Court due to lack of evidence.

Rewards were offered for information, and rumors circulated that there was a second suspect who was from a socially prominent family. The case was eventually

closed and the murders never solved. Changes were gradually made in the curriculum. The creation of the faculty of science in 1879 made the University of Bombay the first Indian university to offer a science degree. In 1887 French was recognized as a sec-

ond language, and in 1892 the course leading to the B.A.

tower forms a carriage porch 26 square feet in front of the

degree was extended from three to four years. Kashinath

building. The main building is 152 feet long with round

Trimbak Telang, who became the first Indian vice chan-

open staircases leading to an upper floor used as a read-

cellor of the university in 1893, was instrumental in these

ing room with stained-glass windows. Above the carriage

changes. His death at the age of 43 in 1894 led to a debate about Hindus and education. In a convocation address in 1894 Dr. Ramkrishna Bhandarkar discussed the high

porch is a gallery extending 68 feet from the ground, fol-

lowed by two more stages of galleries that combined rise 280 feet to the finial. Large figures carved from Porebunder stone depicting the different races and costumes of western India were set in the pillars above the first gal-

lery. Above were similar statues showing different cos-

mortality rate among Hindi graduates. Also shaken by Telang’s death was Mahadev G. Ranade. Speaking to the Bombay Graduates Association that same year, he argued that Hindi poverty and the competitiveness of the univer-

sity system contributed to this death rate.

tumes and dress of the multicultural populace of Bombay. On February 27, 1880, the ceremony opening the university building was held. The area around the Rampart Road had changed considerably during the past ten years. Besides the new university buildings, the High Court

By the turn of the century the University of Bombay was still functioning under the 1857 constitution. Reform was imperative. The university now had 11 colleges affil-

Building, the General Post Office, and the Public Works

matriculation. The Universities Act of 1904 affected all

iated with its program

and over 4,000 candidates

for

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI (BOMBAY) the universities in India. Its attempt to reform higher education in India received both criticism and praise. The act, the result of a two-year commission study, put all the universities under government control. It was disliked because it placed limits on the number of people in the senate and syndicate and controlled the approval of col-

leges affiliated with the universities. Supporters argued it made the universities teaching institutions as well as examining boards and provided assistance for teaching positions and equipment. The annual grant the university

received from the government was Rs. 15,000, hardly enough to make it a teaching institution. In 1912 the government of Bombay’s generous offer of an annual grant

561

of the university was increased to Union territory, and the number of affiliated colleges began to rise. By 1980, over 131 colleges were connected with the university with enrollments of over 100,000. In 1949 the matriculation examination had been abolished, due to the governmentimposed Secondary School Certificate Examination Act,

which was enacted in 1948. Also in 1949 the university set up its own printing press in the former Indian Air Training Corps hangar building, which had been used during World War II. The increasing need for its own press was due to the growing publications of the university, including the Journal of the University of Bombay

were brought to the university to lecture M.A. students.

and the University Bulletin. The University of Bombay celebrated its centennial in 1957. On February 3, an enormous torchlight procession of over 10,000 students, alumni, and faculty headed

Professors from Europe and the United States were invited to be guest lecturers and the role of the university

down what had been the old ramparts and forts less than a century before and entered the university gardens past

library was expanded. Newly established research grants promoted publishing.

the flood lit Rajabai Tower. A new coat of arms was designed for the university in honor of the centennial: it

With facilities at the University of Bombay inadequate

includes the Rajabai Tower above an open book that represents learning, and the university motto written in Sanskrit (“The fruit of learning is character and righ-

of Rs. 45,000 opened a new era for the university.

With this money lecturers from affiliated colleges

by 1914, consulting architect to the Bombay government, George Wittet, worked

with the senate to design new

buildings. Two buildings were to be constructed to the

north and south of the university gardens. Although they were to be completed by 1920, financial difficulties caused numerous delays. The south wing was completed in 1922 at a cost of Rs. 450,000 and the schools of eco-

nomics and sociology moved there in 1923. The north wing’s eastern half was ready in 1923, but its western half was finished in 1937 for the Office of Registrar. With help from the government of India in 1952, the east wing

was constructed for the new school of civics and politics. Growing political unrest reached its peak in the 1940s, when students rallied to join Mohandas Gandhi’s Quit India Movement in 1942. Students who participated in the freedom struggle were excused from class attendance

provided they had recommendations from the principals of their schools. The university convocation, which was to be held on August 18, 1942, had to be postponed until February 10, 1943, due to political disturbances.

teous conduct”).

However, all was not peaceful at the university. In July

1977, the employees union, representing the non-teaching employees at the university, went on strike for 17 days over demands to change the pay scale. The government agreed in principle with the strikers and they returned to work. A second strike, which began on December

14,

1977, lasted 53 days. Ultimately, the workers won their demand for an adjustment in their “Dearness Allowance” (an income supplement).

An ambitious expansion program initiated in the 1960s continues. In 1962 the rector of the University of Bombay,

Professor G.D. Parikh, envisioned a utopian campus with room to grow. It would contain a new university library, buildings for individual departments, a botanical garden, a herbarium, and a zoo. In 1966 the university acquired 231 acres in the village of Kole-Kaylan. When the government

In 1947 India won its independence from British rule.

red tape finally cleared in 1969, construction costs had risen. On March 9, the cornerstone for the new science

Interestingly, this led to an increase in the number of women entering college. In 1930, 1,245 women were attending college. In 1951 and 1952 this number had

building was laid, and the building was ready for occupation in 1971. Progress was slow but continued and the Humanities Building was ready the following year, then

increased

the library in 1976. Work continued on the Kalina campus

to 9,167.

That

same

year the country

was

divided into Pakistan and India, resulting in the displacement of persons from both countries. The University of

through the 1980s with many buildings yet to be added.

Bombay sought to accommodate Indians migrating from

Library and the Nehru Library on the Kalina Campus,

Sind and Punjab in Pakistan based on their Pakistani educational records. Another effect of the division of India and Pakistan

hold over 600,000 books and journals. The Tower Library

was the loss of jurisdiction of the university’s affiliated colleges. In 1947 there were 79 schools affiliated with the University of Bombay. In 1955 this number shrank to 31. In 1962, following the liberation of Goa, the jurisdiction

The two main libraries, the Rajabai Clock Tower holds many old documents, including over 1,200 manuscripts on Islamic theology and Zoroastrianism, illuminated manuscripts in the Marathi language, and the

diaries and personal records of old Bombay families. The Nehru Library, in contrast, has the most recent books in the sciences and social sciences.

562 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES The university has a long list of outstanding graduates who have made major contributions to Indian life and culture. They include: Mithan Tata, who became the first Indian

Karve,

female

lawyer

a woman’s

in the

rights

1920s;

activist

Dhondo

who

Keshan

founded

the

Widow’s Home in 1898 and established the Society for the Promotion of Widow Marriages; Pandurang Vaman Kane, whose works include the five-volume history of

ancient Hindu scripture, History of Dharmasastra.

Further Reading:

Bombay (1857-1957) Centenary Souvenir (Bombay: Bombay University Press, 1957), which contains photographs, reminiscences, and statistical information. $.R. Dongerkery, who was the Registrar of the University of Bombay, provides an exhaustive account of the university’s history in A History of the University of Bombay 1857-1957 (Bombay: Bombay

University Press, 1957). University librarian Aroon Tikekar’s The Cloister’s Pale: A Biography of the University of Bombay (Bombay: Somaiya, 1984), which relies on Dongerkery’s book, updates the history to the 1980s and provides many photographs, maps, and drawings.

The centennial year produced two good

biographies of the university. T.V. Chidambaran, the chair of the Souvenir Volume Committee, published University of

—Patrice Kane

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.) Location:

Description:

Chapel Hill, North Carolina, about 24 miles

search committee chose New Hope Chapel Hill as the

east of Raleigh, North Carolina.

site. A central location and roads accessible to the eastern

and western parts of the state played a role in the choice, but the site’s selection was made in large measures because of the donation of more than 1,300 acres of land

_A state university enrolling approximately 24,500 students in undergraduate, graduate, doctoral, and professional programs.

Information:

by 12 landowners. The land was to be used for the univer-

sity and for firewood. As a token of gratitude, the trustees granted the donors the “respective priviliges [sic] of having one student educated at the said university free from any expense of tuition.”

Office of Undergraduate Admission University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill CB# 2200, Jackson Hall

Chapel Hill, NC 27599-2200 U.S.A.

Four years after the charter was signed, Davie and the

Guided tours of the campus are available year

university’s founding fathers watched on October 12, 1793, as the cornerstone of Old East, the nation’s first public university building, was laid. The two-story brick

round. For more information, call the phone

building, which still stands and is listed as a National His-

number above.

toric Landmark, was first used as a dormitory, library, and classroom. Archibald Henderson, a UNC alumnus and

(919) 966-3621

Visiting:

mathematics professor, described Old East’s architectural design in his 1940 book, The Campus of the First State University. John Conroy drew up the building’s original

design which

According to legend, William R. Davie and a group of trustees set out one day in 1792 to find a suitable spot on which to build North Carolina’s first state university.

indicates a preoccupation with Oriental ideas in con-

After an exhausting search, Davie and his companions sat

sonance with Moslem mores. In the East it was customary to bury the dead with head directed toward the east, to face toward the east in crying the muezzin

down—possibly to rest from the summer heat—beneath a giant poplar near a hill known as New Hope Chapel. After they partook of “exhilarating beverages,” and a pic-

(call to prayer) and to build temples and mausoleums fronting toward the rising sun.

nic lunch, followed by a nap, the group was convinced by Davie that there could not be a more beautiful spot for a university. A tree near the center of the university was christened “Davie Poplar’ in the late nineteenth century by Cornelia Spencer, the daughter of a prominent university professor, in honor of the father of the university.

Henderson speculated that the building’s Orientalization had its beginnings with the Masonic Order, and that Conroy’s design may have been influenced by Davie who became North Carolina’s Grand Master of Masons

While the legend is appealing, the creation of the Uni-

in 1792. In 1822, a third story was added to the build-

versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the nation’s first

ing, and it was lengthened to its present-day size sometime between 1845 and 1848. While it was first used for multiple purposes, as the university grew its sole purpose became that of a dormitory. It was closed in 1991 for a two-year renovation to celebrate the university’s bicentennial. Today, Old East remains a men’s dormitory across the street from South Building—which houses the chancellor’s office. Old East is one of 30 dorms and 151 major buildings on the 792-acre campus.

public university, dates back to 1776 when

the state’s

constitution was drafted. The constitution stated “one or more universities” were to be started with state support and instruction provided at “low prices.” Before a university could be built, the Revolutionary

War broke out and it was not until 1789 that the General Assembly chartered the University of North Carolina. Despite the charter, trustees were left to find money and land themselves. Davie, a state legislator who had pushed for the charter, took up the task of locating the university. He and 39 other trustees identified possible sites. In

When Old East, then known as East Building, was fin-

ished in 1795 it was the only structure on campus for two years. Person Hall, long used as the chapel, was the next

August 1792, 25 of the 40 trustees met to discuss several

options. In the end, the group agreed to build the university within 15 miles of Cyprett’s bridge in Chatham County. In December of the same year, the group’s land

structure to be built, and the cornerstone for Main, now known as South Building, was laid in 1798; the building

was not completed until 1814. 563

564

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of North Carolina

When the university opened its doors on January 15, 1795, it had no president or students. The Reverend David Ker, a Presbyterian preacher had been chosen as the first presiding professor the year before, but it would be ten more years before Joseph Caldwell was named its first president. The lack of students was resolved a month later when Hinton James arrived from Wilmington, North Carolina, on February 12. Today, a ten-story dormitory is named in his honor. By March, there were 40 more stu-

dents. The university remained the only institution of higher learning in the state until 1837 when Davidson College was founded. Before the Revolutionary War began, there had been nine colleges in the 13 colonies. All but one, the College

languages, mathematics, and history, students were offered courses in chemistry, astronomy, geography, philosophy of medicine, and agriculture and mechanics. For the first several years, students could receive a bachelor of arts degree. In 1875 a bachelor of sciences was added, and a year later graduate-level courses were offered for the first time. Three years later the university began providing courses in pharmacy and medical studies. Along with strict academic requirements, the first university students also had to attend sunrise and evening prayers and Sunday religious services and adhere to stringent rules for student behavior. Monitors were appointed to make sure no students used profane language, gambled, or spoke ill of religion. Those who disobeyed the rules

of Philadelphia, were sectarian. Davie, who was brought

faced punishment, usually a suspension that ranged from

up a Calvinist and was urged by his uncle to join the min-

two weeks to six months. Despite the strict rules, it was

istry, seemed opposed to having a religious leader at the

known

helm. But when at least six of the seven nominees for presiding professor were ministers, he had no choice but to

unruly, and threatened professors. These problems cli-

accept Ker’s appointment. While Davie failed in securing a secular leader, he did convince leaders to offer science

courses along with the classics. Science, English, and history made up the core courses of study, with the classics

being offered as electives. In addition to philosophy, the

widely that many

students gambled, remained

maxed in 1799, when students rioted against campus regulations and against presiding professor James Gillaspie,

who had become obnoxious to them. The students beat Gillaspie and stoned and threatened other faculty members. When the riot was over, about 35 of the university’s 115 students withdrew, many promising never to return.

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA Students finally took control of monitoring their behavior 76 years after the riot. In 1875 the university adopted a student honor system. Students elected others from among themselves to try cases involving cheating and other infractions the faculty and trustees had overseen before.

Each student was required to sign a pledge stating he had neither given nor received aid during an examination. The system has survived for nearly 120 years, even when, in 1936, a widespread cheating ring involving many promi-

nent student leaders was discovered to have been in exist-

565

In the late spring of 1847, a current of excitement ran through Chapel Hill as a U.S. president visited the campus for the first time. It was not President James K. Polk’s first trip to the university, since he was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, and had graduated from Carolina in 1818, where he earned first honors both in

mathematics and in the classics and finished first in his class. The campus was given a facelift for his visit, with a coat of tan wash applied to the buildings. At the chapel,

ence for two years. Franklin Graham, university president

Gerrard Hall, which had been enlarged for his visit, he was welcomed by the president of the university, David

at the time, told the student council, “The honor code

Lowry Swain. Over the next two days, Polk renewed

belongs to the students. It is your responsibility. Blow the

acquaintance with the campus. Accompanied by college

lid off it if you have to, but get to the bottom of it.” When

friends he strolled past the buildings of his youth, and with his wife returned to his old dorm room on the third

the investigation was completed, more than 100 students were expelled, including With the 1799 riot, Caldwell assumed the request of the students.

most of one fraternity. Gillaspie resigned and Joseph university’s reins again, at the Caldwell had replaced Ker in

1796, but he had given up the position of presiding professor six months after assuming the job, remaining on the faculty as a professor of mathematics. His second ten-

floor of South Building. As momentous as Polk’s visit was to the campus, less

than 15 years later scores of Carolina graduates and students would take part in a war against the nation Polk had led. During the Civil War, the university was one of only two Southern universities to remain open, but students and faculty were few. The university’s fortune

nating in 1804 with his appointment as the first president

became graver when Swain, a former governor of North Carolina, was thrust forward to meet General William

of the university.

Tecumseh

ure as head of the university lasted much longer, culmi-

Sherman to discuss terms of surrender for

With Davie retiring to his South Carolina plantation,

Raleigh, the state’s capital. During that meeting with

Caldwell assumed an even greater role in guiding the uni-

Sherman, an old correspondent and former college president, Swain was assured the university and its property would be safeguarded. On April 17, 1865, Sherman’s forces entered the vil-

versity. He moved to restore the classic curriculum making Latin and Greek required subjects. In 1812 he withdrew as president and resumed his professorship in mathematics, only to return to the presidency four years later, the same year the university conferred an honorary degree on him.

lage with a handsome

30-year-old general, Smith B.

Atkins, at their head. Two days later, Atkins called upon

Swain, and there encountered the president’s 21-year-old

During the early nineteenth century, the university’s

daughter, Ellie Swain. It was love at first sight for both,

appearance began to take shape. Main Building was com-

which meant hard times for Swain, who, some said, was

pleted in 1814 and housed two literary societies, boarding

consorting with Union solders. The Union brigadier made Ellie Swain a present of a spirited riding horse, and every

rooms, and classrooms. Old West, designed as the sister

building of Old East, was completed in 1823. In addition, stone walls were constructed along many paths by piling field stones together. Similar stone walls remain a center-

evening he dispatched the regimental band to Swain’s house to serenade her. In three weeks, Ellie was engaged to the enemy commander who was occupying the town;

piece of the campus.

in four months,

Shortly after Caldwell’s death in 1835, a monument was created in his honor on the north side of campus. It was

replaced in 1858 by a new marble obelisk, on the site where Caldwell, his wife, and her son from a previous mar-

riage, Professor William Hooper, are buried. Caldwell Monument is part of a unique designing quirk that has sev-

they were

married.

So incensed

were

Confederate loyalists that Cornelia Spencer (a nineteenthcentury professor’s daughter) noted in her diary, “[wedding] invitations were spat upon in one or two houses.” This episode set the stage for the next visit by an American president, since Swain, despite his loss of popularity, still held office when Andrew Johnson came to

of water; South Building; Wilson Library, which was completed in 1929; and the Bell Tower, which was finished in

Chapel Hill in 1867. Johnson, once viewed in the South as a renegade, had redeemed himself with his native section by the time he arrived in Chapel Hill in 1867 by vetoing the Reconstruction Acts, though his veto had been overridden by Congress and military rule imposed. A few years earlier, the University of North Carolina had the largest enrollment of any college or university in the

1931 and stands 167 feet tall and contains a dozen bells ranging in size from 300 pounds to 3,500 pounds.

United States except Yale. But when President Johnson and his party attended the 1867 commencement, the num-

eral buildings and monuments located in a straight line through the longitudinal center of campus. Also part of this unique symmetry are Davie Poplar; Silent Sam, a bronze

statue erected in 1913 to honor Confederate soldiers; Old Well, a university symbol that had been a primary source

566

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

ber of “distinguished guests” seated on the stage of Gerrard Hall outnumbered the graduating class, a total of only 11. After Johnson’s visit, the reconstruction governor removed Swain as president of the university in 1868.

degrees. Blyden Jackson because the first black full pro-

fessor at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. While

the university is more

diverse than ever, with

women making up 58 percent of the students and blacks

Not many days later, the horse General Sherman had given Swain as a present bolted, hurling him to the

about 10 percent, struggles continue. By 1993, the university’s bicentennial, its reputation

ground, and he died shortly thereafter. While the Civil War shut many universities, that fate did not befall the University of North Carolina until 1870,

had grown

internationally,

as

U.S. News

and

World

Report’s survey of American colleges has consistently ranked it among the best colleges in the nation and among

when a shortage of students forced its closure. It remained closed until 1875 when Mrs. Spencer and oth-

the best research universities. One man who single-hand-

ers pressed for its reopening. She wrote a series of scathing articles in North Carolina publications blasting those who had forced its closure. Her writings and work are credited with the reopening of the university. When she

Michael Jordan, who enrolled as a freshman in 1982. On

received word in March 1875 that the university would

larly features protests and performers, this was a banner

open again she gathered a group of friends and went to the attic of South Building, then in shambles, and rang

day—including flags from 80 of North Carolina’s 100 counties and 100 seedlings from Davie Poplar Jr. given to 100 students from North Carolina’s 100 counties.

the bell to sound the news.

By the time of its centennial celebration, the university had been renovated and refurbished. It was still a small school, not yet considered among the elite institutions of higher learning in the nation. As the twentieth century neared, major changes began to occur. In 1897, Mary McRae was the first of five women to enroll in the university; a year later Sallie Walker Stockard became the first

woman

edly brought fame to the university was basketball star October 12, 1993, when President Bill Clinton delivered

the University Day speech, he became the fifth U.S. president to speak at the campus. Even on a campus that regu-

On the 32nd anniversary of President John F. Kennedy’s University Day speech, President Bill Clinton

spoke of the university’s founders: “Tonight, we honor this university’s heroic builders and believers. We meet as

their heirs a dozen generations after our nation and this university were founded—and moment of change.”

we

meet

at another

to earn a degree from it. The university was

awarded North Carolina’s first chapter of Phi Beta Kappa

(the national scholarship fraternity) and James Horner Winston became its first Rhodes Scholar. A milestone occurred in 1915 when the university’s enrollment topped 1,000 for the first time. By 1930, enrollment had risen to 2,600 students.

Other social changes came later. Like many universities across the country, the school was forced to desegre-

Further Reading: William Snider’s Light on the Hill (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992) of-

fers a lengthy account of the university from its founding until the late 1980s. Kemp Battle’s two-volume account of the History of the University of North Carolina (Spartanburg, South Carolina: The Reprint Company, 1974) gives an extensive view of the university from 1789 until 1912. Albert

Coates provides a more personal view of the university in A

gate in the 1950s. In 1952, Harvey Beech, who earned a law degree, became the first black man to graduate from the university. However, in 1955 when a federal court

Magic Gulf Stream in the Life of North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978). A pictorial and written history can be found in William Powell’s The

ordered that admission requests be processed without regard to race and color, the university appealed the deci-

First State University (3rd edition, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992).

sion. The appeal failed, and in 1959 three black men from Durham—brothers Leroy and Ralph Frasier and John Brandon—became the first blacks to earn undergraduate

—J. Cameron Tew

UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME (Notre Dame, Indiana, U.S.A.) Location:

The University of Notre Dame is located in the

who applied for admission were accepted. Tuition for

midwest region of the United States at Notre

education and for room and board (all students boarded)

Dame, Indiana, adjacent to the city of South

was

Bend, Indiana, and approximately 90 miles southeast of Chicago, Illinois.

Description:

frequently

through trade of goods (such as pigs or cows) or through physical labor (one boy’s father, a carpenter, agreed to

build the church steeple). The school included three lev-

The University of Notre Dame was founded in

els of instruction:

1842 by Father Edward Sorin, a priest of the Congregation of the Holy Cross. Chartered by

the Minim

Department,

the Junior

Department, and the Senior Department. The Minim Department taught the youngest boys elementary arith-

the state of Indiana in 1844, the university was governed by the Holy Cross order of the Catholic Church until 1967, when governance was transferred to a predominantly lay board of trustees. At present, the university is an

metic, reading, grammar, and history. The Junior Department, a college preparatory division, taught Latin, Greek,

English, history, and composition. The curricula of the Senior Department, the collegiate division, consisted of four years of humanities, poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, modern languages (French, German, Spanish, or Italian),

independent, national Catholic university with a student body of 10,500. The university programs include extensive undergraduate and

music, and drawing. In the early decades, the Senior

graduate studies, as well as a law school and a

Department never attracted more than a dozen students

business school. Notre Dame has earned world renown for its achievements in intercollegiate football.

Information:

rarely fulfilled with cash, but more

yearly. The needs of local families during this period largely precluded schooling in anything except the essentials. Sorin’s main desire was for the school to instruct young men to be good, Catholic citizens. Although his

— University of Notre Dame

vision included the development of the collegiate division, the development of the preparatory divisions ful-

Public Relations and Information 317 Main Building Notre Dame, IN U.S.A. (219) 631-7367 Fax (219) 631-8212

filled both his desires and the needs community during this era.

of the larger

When Sorin founded Notre Dame, he founded a fron-

tier colony. With little capital and meager resources, Sorin developed Notre Dame into a self-sufficient community. He and the members of his community erected

the first buildings and farmed the land. Within two years of their arrival, 120 acres of wheat, potatoes, and corn

were under cultivation. The Notre Dame farm buildings grew to include an ice house, a pigsty, a slaughterhouse, a

Father Edward Sorin, a Catholic priest and missionary,

arrived at the present site of Notre Dame University on a cold, winter day in November 1842. With him were four of his fellow brethren of the order of the Congregation of the Holy Cross (CSC). Sorin, the religious superior and advisor of these men, had been granted the church-owned land (totaling 524 acres) with the stipulation that he build a religious novitiate and a college within two years. Under frontier conditions Sorin and his small group fulfilled the agreement; by December 1844 the Notre Dame community encompassed five buildings, including the Main Building, the novitiate, and a chapel. Sorin began accepting pupils in 1843, and in 1844 John D. Defrees, a South Bend attorney and state senator, secured a comprehensive

charter

of incorporation

for the school

cow barn, a hay barn, a sugar house, a horse shed, a wagon shed, and a tool house. Notre Dame produced

their own lime and brick beginning in 1843, using the rich marl deposits in the soil. The yellow brick, used in all early buildings and known commonly as “Notre Dame brick,” made Notre Dame’s campus distinctive and brought in revenue on the market. Sorin invited Sisters of the Holy Cross to the community in 1843 who assumed many of the domestic tasks of the institution. A manual labor school taught orphans and other poor children trades such as carpentry and leather working. Sorin channeled his energies, not solely to the development of the University of Notre Dame, but to the development of an

as a

entire community.

degree-granting university from the Indiana legislature. In the early decades, the Main Building comprised the entire University of Notre Dame. Its rooms served both as classroom and dormitory space. All boys and young men

Under Sorin’s direction the school grew both in numbers and in quality. In 1844, Notre Dame consisted of five buildings, eight faculty and 25 students. Nearly 50 years 567

568

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Notre Dame

later, in 1893, Notre Dame had grown to include 24 build-

ings, a faculty of 52, and a student body of 542. The University of Notre Dame had six presidents between 1842 and 1893: Father Edward Sorin (1842-65), Father Patrick Dillon (1865-66), Father William Corby (1866-72), Father August Lemonnier (1872-74), Father Patrick J. Colovin (1874-77), Father William Corby in a second term (1877-81), and Father Thomas Walsh (1881-93).

However, the real authority during this time was Sorin; upon relinquishing his post as president, he retained authority over the community as Provincial of the Congregation of the Holy Cross in Indiana and later as Superior-General of the CSC in Europe and in the Americas.

Sorin’s vision made possible the magnificent Sacred Heart Church, with its 42 large, stained-glass windows

and elaborate frescoes painted by the Italian artist Luigi Gregori, constructed between 1871 and 1888. When the school’s Main Building burned to the ground in 1879, a tragedy which destroyed the entire school, Sorin’s determination to rebuild bigger and better than before led the school in its rapid recovery. Sorin dedicated a large por-

tion of his time and energy to found Notre Dame and continued to guide its development until his death in 1893. The quality and popularity of college instruction advanced slowly. Under Father Walsh (1881-93), civil and mechanical engineering became regular four-year courses. Walsh procured the services of notable lay faculty, including Maurice Francis Egan (a poet and novelist reputable in U.S. Catholic circles) in literature, Albert

Zahm (an influential pioneer of flight aerodynamics) in

UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME the sciences, and William Hoynes (a lawyer, an inspirational professor, and an excellent administrator) in law. Father Andrew Morrissey (1893-1905) revised and elab-

orated the college curriculum, raised the entrance requirements, and expanded the physical plant of the campus to accommodate more students. An average of 30 bachelors

degrees were conferred per year during Morrissey’s presidency,

along with

several

masters.

Father John

W.

Cavanaugh (1905-19) recognized the need for additional faculty, laboratories, professorships, and scholarships, and for an adequate library. He commissioned a building

plan from architect Francis Kervik and witnessed the completion of the Lemonnier Library in 1917. The 1920s were a definitive period for the university.

569

acquired an unprecedented following, as individuals of

all ages across the nation attended games and followed the successes and failures of their favorite team. It was Notre Dame’s good fortune to acquire a number of superstars, in addition to Rockne, during the 1920s. For

three years, a handsome George Gipp led Rockne’s team in rushing, passing, and scoring; his untimely death in December 1920 led to the inspirational saying, “Win one for the Gipper.” Rockne’s 1924 team, which had a

brilliant backfield known as the Four Horsemen in reference to the four biblical plagues of the apocalypse, took Notre Dame to the Rose Bowl. Throughout the decade, the team brought additional revenue to the school and

with a doctorate, improved academic standards, restructured the administration, and strengthened financial sup-

placed Notre Dame in the public eye, attracting greater numbers of students and thereby furthering the growth of the college. Football revenue, along with the funds acquired by

port. He recruited faculty with doctorates and standardized

President Burns, enabled his successors, Father Matthew

college entrance and graduation requirements. He divided

J. Walsh (1922-28), Father Charles O’Donnell (1928-

the university into five colleges—arts and letters, science, engineering, law, and commerce—assigning a dean and several department heads to each. When Burns came to

34), and Father John F. O’Hara

over $5 million on campus construction. Increased admissions had led to a campus housing shortage; the

the presidency, the preparatory divisions had accounted for nearly half of the total student body. With increasing

1,000 students living in South Bend in 1922 represented a financial loss to Notre Dame and compromised the tradi-

enrollment (due in part to the post-World War I college boom), the presence of preps meant the rejection of college applicants due to a lack of dormitory space. Burns

tional residential atmosphere of the campus. Father Mat-

James A. Burns (1919-22), the first university president

summarily did away with the first two years of the preparatory school, illustrating the new dedication of Notre

(193440),

to expend

thew Walsh

alleviated the housing shortage with the

construction

of two temporary

residences

(Freshman

Hall, 1922; and Sophomore Hall, 1923) and three permanent residences (Howard Hall, 1924; Lyons Hall, 1925;

institution, bolstering the school’s endowment with sup-

and Morrissey Hall, 1925). In addition to providing rooms for over 900 students, Walsh also placed a limit of 2,500 on enrollment. Father Charles O’ Donnell provided

port from the General Education Board of the Rockefeller

more needed space when he ended the Minim program in

Foundation ($250,000) and the Carnegie Foundation ($75,000). Before 1921, the school’s endowment never surpassed $100,000. With Rockefeller and Carnegie Foun-

1929, and St. Edward’s Hall became a dorm for 200 col-

Dame to the development of their collegiate division. Burns also contributed greatly to the financial status of the

dation support, Burns instigated a $2 million endowment

lege men. The following year, a new football stadium (seating 59,074) graced the campus, a testament to both the glory of and the money in Notre Dame football.

O’Donnell and his successor, Father John O’ Hara, over-

drive which he continued to direct after the completion of his presidential term. Also during the 1920s, Notre Dame acquired national

saw the further extension of the school’s campus with the construction of a new power plant, water tower, infirmary,

fame for its football program. Notre Dame’s intercolle-

and three additional

giate football career began inauspiciously in 1887, when they lost 0 to 8 to the University of Michigan. For the

Hall, Zahm Hall, and Breen-Phillips Hall). The increasing revenue of the 1920s not only allowed for building projects but also created growth opportunities for the university’s academic program. Although the Great Depression did affect the university’s enrollment, Notre Dame neither cut salaries nor laid off faculty. In

next 25 years, Notre Dame lost money on their football

residence

buildings

(Cavanaugh

program. Football began producing revenue only in 1913, when Notre Dame upset Army 35 to 13. Knute Kenneth Rockne, captain of this winning football team, returned to Notre Dame football as full-time coach in 1918 and proceeded to place Notre Dame in the national news. He coached the team until his death in 1931, winning 105 games, losing 12, and tying 5. Rockne’s flam-

centrating on upgrading its undergraduate and recently

boyant

his

founded graduate programs. Although Notre Dame had

knowledge of football strategy, and his ability to motivate young men to extraordinary performance made him a fascinating persona for the growing numbers of sports

awarded masters of arts degrees throughout its history, its

side-line

manner

and _ performance,

fans. During this time period, football (and baseball)

fact, the school managed to strengthen its academic programs. By the early 1930s Notre Dame had abandoned its grade, preparatory, and vocational schools and was con-

formal graduate school was not established until 1932. Respectability for a professor in American higher education largely demanded separation of religious and aca-

570

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

demic thought, as well as the possession of advanced degrees. For this reason, Notre Dame had recruited increasing numbers of degreed laymen to the faculty. In 1932 laymen outnumbered clerics nearly three to one; 20

lay professors possessed doctorates; 40 possessed masters. These numbers represent a profound divergence from tradition for an institution initially comprised solely of brothers, sisters, and priests of the Catholic religion;

they also represent the school’s aspirations to become a first-rate university.

The 1940s marked the return of high student enrollment, football success, and active presidential efforts to

strengthen university status. After World War II, with 1.5 million veterans enrolling in American colleges on the G.I. bill, Notre Dame’s student body increased dramati-

cally. Veterans entered Notre Dame academics and athletics both as students and staff, including Frank W. Leahy as football coach. Leahy coached six unbeaten teams between 1941 and 1953, recruiting hardened veterans as

players and earning a winning streak of 39 games. The graduate school also flourished after the war, with the acquisition of refugee scholars of war-torn Europe. Their emigration to the United States strengthened academic

vided funds for the 14-story Memorial Library built between 1961 and 1963, a building that towers over the

rest of the campus. Its 132-foot mosaic of Christ the Teacher symbolizes both Notre Dame’s religious affiliation and its quest for academic greatness. Another cam-

paign between 1967 and 1972 secured an additional $62 million, which

endowed

distinguished professorships,

expanded graduate education, and provided minority scholarships and student loans. During Hesburgh’s presidency, Notre Dame’s enrollment, faculty, and the number of degrees

awarded

all doubled,

the number

of

library volumes increased 5-fold, the endowment rose from under $10 million to over $400 million, its physical facilities grew from 48 to 88 buildings, its faculty compensation increased 10-fold and its research funding,

more than 20-fold. Hesburgh oversaw an era of astronomical growth for the University of Notre Dame. He also oversaw two notable changes in the structure of the university: the transference of university ownership to a predominantly lay board of trustees, and the admission of women. In 1967,

inquiry at Notre Dame and in numerous institutions of

the CSC community relinquished ownership of the university. Ties between the university and its founding order of the Catholic Church had grown weak during the past

American

Cavanaugh

few decades. Of over 700 faculty members, only 55 were

(1946-52) built upon the postwar increase in students and

CSC priests or brothers. In addition, most of the univer-

faculty, increasing fund-raising efforts and strengthening

sity’s $30 million operating budget came from secular

the academic

sources. It had become increasingly clear to Hesburgh that the pursuit and realization of long-term fund-raising

higher education. program.

Father John

Cavanaugh

created the Notre

Dame Foundation in 1947, the first permanent university endowment, and carried the needs of the school to the

American Council on Education and the Ford Foundation. He upgraded the quality of academics, emphasizing advanced studies and research and authorizing the construction of LOBUND (Labs of Bacteria at the University

of Notre Dame). These labs have played a significant role in bone-marrow treatment for leukemia and Hodgkins disease. Father Theodore Hesburgh accepted the presidency in 1952, determined to bring Notre Dame status as a great institution of higher learning. In a dynamic, 35-year presidency, Father Hesburgh secured a prominent place

for Notre Dame in society and in academia. Hesburgh himself gained international renown

through his aca-

demic, ecclesiastical, and civic duties (participating in numerous national academic and government agencies and serving on the boards of elite financial institutions). Hesburgh’s goals for the university included building a first-rate undergraduate school, upgrading the graduate school, and reorganizing the institution as a modern university. He reformed the curricula and enforced tougher admissions requirements. He recruited visiting lecturers and permanent faculty of national academic standing. In 1960, the Ford Foundation selected Notre Dame as one

of six rapidly improving universities to receive a grant of $6 million, if an additional $12 million could be raised from other sources within three years. This effort pro-

goals depended upon the assumption of a lay-oriented power structure. The CSC community relinquished ownership with the stipulation that Notre Dame’s president continue to be a CSC priest and that Notre Dame’s character as a Catholic institution of higher learning would

not be abandoned without the approval of a joint committee composed equally of CSC priests and laymen. Regardless, the transference of ownership exemplified a serious break with tradition. With the acceptance of women five years later, the university accepted the char-

acteristics of most modern American universities. The university has continued to grow under the leadership of Father Edward A. Malloy (1987-present). The university is organized into four undergraduate colleges (arts and

letters,

science,

engineering,

and

business

administration), two schools (the law school and graduate school), and numerous research institutes. Admission is highly competitive, with five applicants for each freshman class position. The quality of undergraduate programs is evidenced in the success of its graduates in postbaccalaureate studies; Notre Dame ranks 18 among pri-

vate universities in the number of doctorates earned by its undergraduate alumni. The graduate school, which encompasses 38 master’s and 24 doctoral degree programs in 27 university departments and institutes, ranks among the nation’s top 50 universities in number of doctorates awarded annually. Notre Dame’s faculty continue

UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME = 571 to gain academic recognition; Notre Dame ranks in the top ten nationally among private universities in the number of National Endowment for the Humanities fellowships won by its faculty since 1985. The faculty, students, and academic capabilities of Notre Dame today, coupled with a history of religious and national football glory, make the school a notable university.

Further Reading: For general histories of the University of Notre Dame, see Arthur J. Hope’s Notre Dame: One Hundred Years (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1943), and Thomas J. Schlereth’s The University of Notre Dame: A Portrait of Its History and Campus (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976). —Beth Rillema

UNIVERSITY OF ORLEANS (Orléans, France) Location:

Description:

Orléans, in the central region of France on the

universities dealing with the whole of human knowledge

banks of the Loire river, north of Paris.

was replaced with his own concept of an imperial university. The university implied the entire educational system—primary schools, lycées (secondary schools), and faculties. Even the term faculté does not correspond to the North American understanding of the word. The 100

A state-run university established in 1970 as part of reforms of the French system of higher education in 1968. It serves the central region of France in four areas: letters and social

or so faculties

sciences; law, economy, and management;

existed in nineteenth-century

France were not associated with an independent institution but were grouped into academies, regional administrative structures that were under the control of the

applied sciences; and technology, energy, and materials.

Information:

which

central educational authority. Poorly funded and staffed,

Chateau de la Source 45067 Orléans Cedex 2 France

they provided training for the baccalauréat (schoolleaving certificate) or the licence (teacher’s diploma). Professional and more advanced instruction was pro-

(38) 41 7171

vided in one of the more prestigious grandes écoles.

BP 6749

Universities did not regain any status until 15 were created in 1896. They still lingered under the disadvantages of the nineteenth century. They were little more than a loose association of faculties grouped together as

Modern French universities such as the University of Orléans were created in the aftermath of the social and

administrative bodies. There was little, if any, communi-

political upheavals of May 1968. The French university system differs greatly from the North American system. In France, every student who graduates with a baccalauréat (school-learning certificate) has a guaranteed right to

fact that most of them were concentrated in Paris, with

Education. However, individual professors could affect

register at an institution of higher learning. Some institutions called the grandes écoles limit their admission by competitive entrance examinations (concours). The vast

power to determine their own teaching and evaluating methods. These problems continued to plague the French educational system well into the twentieth century. In

majority of French 18- and 19-year-olds who exercise this right enter a université rather than undertake the special two-year preparatory courses which would be required to enter the grandes écoles. Since it was founded in 1971, the University of Orléans has been restructured and reorganized along the lines proposed by the Ministry of National Education while still maintaining its own autonomy and multidisciplinary approach. The present University of Orléans was named after a medieval university that had existed from the ninth to eighteenth centuries but the current university has no direct connection with its medieval namesake. The medieval institution was renowned for its faculty of law,

spite of repeated calls for a restructuring and updating of

cation between disciplines and institutions despite the decision making in the hands of the Ministry of National substantially

a student’s

career,

because

they had the

the entire system, such reforms were not forthcoming until student protests, caused in large part by serious overcrowding and high drop-out rates, forced the government to redesign radically the French university system.

The Fifth Republic was declared in October 1958 amid an atmosphere of educational reform. A succession of ministers of education introduced a number of measures aimed at dealing with the increasing problem of over-

crowding in the Parisian universities. New academies were created in the outlying regions of the capital, includ-

ing Orléans, in 1962 by Charles de Gaulle’s Minister of

where Pope Clement V (1305-14) studied, but it was

National Education, Christian Fouchet. These institutions resembled their Parisian counterparts and suffered from

abolished during the French Revolution. Orléans and the

the same organizational problems. Fouchet, however, did

central region of France would not have another univer-

introduce

sity or institution of higher learning until the 1960s for

degrees. A two-year course was to constitute the first

higher education was to be consolidated and concentrated in Paris. As he was for many aspects of modern French society, Napoléon was largely responsible for the French educational system. The traditional humanist ideal of

phase of higher education. Upon completion, a student

some

modest

changes

to the awarding

of

would be awarded a diploma in science or in arts; any further education would have to follow the discipline chosen in the first phase. An additional year led to the licence (equivalent to a bachelor’s degree) and a four-year course 572

UNIVERSITY OF ORLEANS

>

a

UIC

573

rm

~

University of Orléans

to a master’s degree which was a mandatory qualification for all secondary teachers. In response to criticism from businessmen that gradu-

tures. Many chose simply to abandon their studies rather than study in such conditions, often at the expense of getting a good job. On March 22, 1968, 100 students

ates (more often than not from faculties of law or letters)

occupied the university campus buildings at Nanterre to

were insufficiently trained to meet industry’s needs, Fouchet announced the creation of new institutes of tech-

protest conditions. Students throughout France were ripe for revolt. They were concerned about job prospects. There was a huge imbalance of students in the faculties of letters and law. With most graduates only trained for teaching, few could find careers in industry and commerce. Nearly half of the students in law and over a third in letters failed their first-

nology (Institut Universitaire de Technologie-IUT) in October 1966. They were to provide a two-year practical

course in preparation for industrial and commercial careers. Unlike the universities, they were given the right to select and limit admission based on academic records. Students who completed the course were given diplomas (Dipl6me Université Technologie). Fouchet hoped that by reducing the first degree to two years, many students

would complete their studies and enter the work force, but changes in the French economy in the 1960s made further education a prerequisite for finding work. The number of

students quickly doubled from 1964 to 1968. The entire university system was overrun by a new generation of French students exercising their right to a free education.

The first student disturbances were at Nanterre, a bleak university campus on the outskirts of Paris. Desolate, ill-equipped, and severely overcrowded as it was, students often could not get into the halls to attend lec-

year examinations. Only one third of students in France’s

universities were in the sciences and well over half failed their examinations. The drop-out rate among the sciences was almost 50 percent higher than that rate in letters. Students blamed these failures on study conditions, teaching methods, and the curricula. They demanded more teachers and better teaching methods. Student/ teacher ratios were significantly higher than in any other industrial country. Professors were seen as too authoritar-

ian. Students accused them of paying more attention to research than to teaching. In France, the way to promotion lay through publication rather than by attending to students. Nonetheless, professors exercised an almost

574

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

absolute control over their courses. Nor were the students pleased with the Fouchet reforms. They saw the new institutes and changes in degrees as little more than measures devised to meet industry’s need for workers. They

accused the new institutes of technology of producing second-rate degrees that led to mediocre dead-end jobs, while the promising careers were reserved for the gradu-

greater autonomy over their own budgets and financial matters according to national limits and guidelines. The law also encouraged the active participation of students, teachers, and other staff in determining the direction of the university. Elections held among the teaching and

research staff as well as for the university council were to be by secret ballot.

Though this had been one of the chief

ates of the grandes écoles. The unrest that started at Nanterre quickly spread. In May, police action against a meeting of sympathetic stu-

demands on the part of students, their participation rates have been rather low.

dents at the Sorbonne touched off rioting. A strike by the

dable power which had rested in the hands of the profes-

Union nationale des étudiants de France (UNEF) was

sors. The new universities were to offer a multidisciplinary approach between arts and letters, science, and technology. It was hoped that this measure would

supported by the teachers’ union and the all-powerful car workers at Renault. Both Prime Minister Georges Pompi-

dou and President Charles de Gaulle were forced to cut short foreign visits to rush back and deal with the growing crisis. The protests quickly lost momentum as first the auto workers and later teachers were appeased with new collective agreements. As for the students, the de Gaulle government promised a commission which would study

the question of reforms to the French educational system with particular emphasis on the student demands for more autonomy, participation, and interdisciplinarity. In the aftermath of the student unrest, a commission studied the fundamental issues of curriculum, the organi-

zation of facultés, and the role universities were to play in French society. From this review new parliamentary legislation emerged that would mark a new and dramatic phase in the history of the French university. In November 1968, de Gaulle’s Minister of National Education,

Edgar

Faure,

introduced

La

Loi

d'orientation

de

l’enseignement supérieur. The 100 or so faculties in exist-

The law also took great measures to reduce the formi-

also break down the traditional barriers between individual disciplines and introduce students to broader aspects of French society and culture.

The law of orientation has served as the basic structural model for the University of Orléans, which was created as a result of the legislation in 1971. Its three UERs offered

courses in law, data processing, and technology. It chose to organize its courses in units of cycles rather than years, as was the case in many older universities. There were three

phases of study: the first cycle of general study leading to an intermediate degree (dipléme), an additional year of specialization leading to the first degree (licence), and a fourth year leading to a master’s degree which would then enable a student to pursue the doctorate.

Since the 1970s, the University of Orléans has been in a perpetual state of change and evolution. Although the 1968 law of orientation still remains the basic organizational structure, the university has been quick to respond

of 23

to changes proposed by the Ministry of National Education. In 1973, changes were introduced to the intermediate degree. A new degree, the dipléme d’études

academies was maintained. Each discipline was to be

universitaires générales (DEUG) was introduced for stu-

subdivided into unités d’enseignement et de recherche (UERs) which would correspond to a traditional faculty. The UER was to link teaching with research in order to

dents who did not wish to pursue further studies after a two-year course. It was also intended to harmonize with

ence were to be reorganized into 71 new universities and smaller university centers. The old faculty system was abolished,

although

the administrative

structure

develop the student’s full potential.

the dipl6me universitaire de technologie granted by the institutes of technology. A further aim was to streamline

The law also sought to meet the students’ demand for more autonomy. Each university was given the authority to determine its own internal structure and to administer

and reduce the number of students attending university as well as to deal with the high drop-out rate which still plagued the educational system.

itself. The universities were to be run by committees or councils made up of elected representatives. The stu-

Following the recession of the early 1980s, a new law,

the Savoury

law

was

passed

in 1984.

The

unités

the right to vote. The highest elected body, the conseil

d’enseignement et de recherche (UERs) were replaced with unités de formation et de recherche (UFRs). More

d’université, was to include a number of prominent mem-

than just a change in nomenclature, the law wanted to

bers of the region who were not associated with the uni-

versity. Presidents were to be elected for a five-year term

stress the importance of training (formation). Its chief proponent, Savoury wanted to encourage institutions of

but could not seek a second mandate. Each UER council was given the full authority to design its own programs of study, research, teaching

higher learning to address the critics in industry and commerce who argued that graduates were insufficiently trained to meet the challenges of a global economy and

methods, and systems of evaluation. They had to corre-

new technologies. The law provided for a greater role on

spond to a national standard which would be set by the Ministry of National Education. They were also given

the part of local industry and regional governments on the university councils.

dents, administrators, teachers, and support staff all had

UNIVERSITY OF ORLEANS The law also allowed universities to establish sepa-

rate streams which involved more orientation and spe-

575

that offers more senior instruction for engineering students in the third stage. It awards the DEA, an engineer-

was accentuated with the awarding of professionalized

ing degree as well as a doctorate. The University of Orléans followed the recommendations to increase professionally oriented certificates upon completion of the

master’s degrees.

first diploma.

cialization during the first two years and led to the DEUG rénové. Further impetus to professional training

The Minister of National Education left the decision to institute these changes up to each individual university. The University of Orléans was one of those which swiftly adopted the changes and completely reorganized in May

of 1985. It established three UFRs in law, economy, and management; letters, languages, and human sciences; and

in applied and natural sciences. It also includes a school

of engineering and two institutes of technology. The university awards national diplomas that are centrally sanctioned by the Ministry of Education. The period of study is organized in three stages (cycles). The

first generally lasts two years and offers an initiation to

The need for more practical training has also greatly influenced the course and subject matter at the UFRs. Though they still grant the traditional diplomas and degrees, many modern subjects have been added to the curriculum. Students in applied modern languages, for example, are encouraged to follow courses which provide them with career opportunities outside the field of education. In addition to two modern European languages, they

must study economics, marketing, accounting, management, and business. Such courses have proven popular with students as they increase their job prospects not only

in France but throughout the European community.

the study and methodology of various disciplines. It leads

The university also offers French language and civili-

to the first national diploma, the DEUG. The diploma is

zation courses for foreign students. Universities in France

multidisciplinary and will enable students to qualify for further study in a wide range of areas: law, economics,

have always played an important role in providing courses for non-francophones. Its Centre d’études pour étrangers provides courses which lead to a certificate. The French educational system has undergone funda-

communication, arts and literature, and social sciences. The second stage consists of the licence (equivalent to a bachelor’s degree) and is awarded after one additional year of study. The master’s (maitrise) is awarded to those

who complete two more years after getting their DEUG and is usually taken by those who intend to continue into the third phase or wish to have a qualified teaching certif-

mental changes since 1958. As France continues to draw closer to its European neighbors, new economic and technological changes have put a strain on the French institu-

tion of higher learning. At present, the enrollment of over 16,000 students at the University of Orléans and the prac-

icate. The third phase can involve as much as ten years of additional study and includes the dipléme d’études approfondies (DEA), which is itself a preparation and

tical need for longer periods of study and more profes-

qualification for the doctoral thesis. The institutes of technology (IUTs) are in fact sepa-

tidisciplinarity.

rate institutions within the university framework. Their objective is to train high-level technical staff for France’s industrial and private sectors. Admission is selective and

competitive as is not the case in the rest of the university.

sional needs may challenge the principles of free admission, greater autonomy and participation, and mul-

Further Reading: While no history of the University of Orléans exists in English, several books mention the uni-

versity in the context of the rather turbulent history of

Candidates, chosen based on their academic records and

French higher education in the twentieth century: Jean

an interview, are offered a two-year intensive program in specialized areas such as chemistry, mechanical engi-

translated by W.D. Halls (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967),

neering, business

program

administration,

also includes

obligatory

and computers.

work

The

placements.

Since many of the graduates find jobs, there is a high demand for admission. The Ecole supérieure de l’énergie et de matériaux is a school of engineering and is also a separate institution

Capelle’s Tomorrow’s Education, The French Experience W.D. Halls’s Education,

Culture and Politics in Modern

France (London: Pergamon Press, 1976), and Reforms and

Restraints in Modern

French Education

(London:

Rout-

ledge and Kegan Paul, 1971). —Manon Lamontagne

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD (Oxfordshire, England) Location:

Description:

The University of Oxford is located in the city

tributing to the growth of the region. The Anglo-Saxon

of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England. The city is 56 miles northwest of London and has a population of approximately 150,000. Oxford is situated on the banks of the Thames and Cherwell rivers.

Chronicle of 912 contains the first written mention of Oxford, although by this time the settlement was probably over 200 years old. St. Frideswide’s Priory, founded by the saint herself after divine intervention rescued her from an unwanted marriage, was established here in the

eighth century. Today Christ Church Cathedral of Oxford University stands on the site of the ancient priory. Power struggles between the Danes and the Saxons

The University of Oxford is England’s oldest university and is world renowned as a bastion

of scholarship, eccentricity, and civility. The school is a unique composition of 36 colleges and 6 permanent private halls. Men and women

enveloped the area during the tenth and eleventh centuries until political stability was achieved when the Normans conquered the area. Robert d’Oilly, the first Norman governor, oversaw the building of a castle, a

undergraduate and graduate students are

admitted in accordance with the individual

wall surrounding the city, and the area’s first three bridges, Folly, Magdalen, and Hythe, in the early twelfth century. In 1129 another priory, later called the Osney

college’s requirements. Total student

enrollment is approximately 15,000. The university buildings and grounds are spread throughout the city itself, which is a thriving

Abbey, was established in Oxford. Oxford University

metropolitan area.

Information:

Visiting:

thus had as its birthplace a burgeoning center of transportation, religious, and political activity. The exact founding date of the university, like that of the city, is not precisely known. Oxford is generally

— University of Oxford University Offices Wellington Square Oxford OXI 25D England (865) 270000

thought to have become a center for learning after 1167,

University of Oxford

the arts, and the works of Aristotle. As both the school

External Relations Office

and the city grew, tensions between the two groups arose,

Wellington Square Oxford OX1 2JD

causing what became known as “town and gown” fric-

when English students were no longer allowed to attend the University of Paris. Masters and students gathered in Oxford for the discussion of topics as varied as theology,

tion. In 1209 one dispute became so large that many scholars felt the situation unbearable and moved to the town of Cambridge. There they founded the University of

England (865) 2700101

Cambridge, a rival school still in existence today. The

Although the exact founding date for the city of Oxford

first recorded acknowledgment of Oxford University comes from a papal grant of 1214. This grant provided privileges, such as reduced rents, for the growing community of scholars and students who lived throughout the

is unknown, the city’s development can be traced to sev-

city. It was also at this time that Robert Grosseteste, a

eral factors. The name, commonly believed to be derived

mathematician and churchman, became the first chancel-

from “oxen ford,” hints that one reason for the city’s development was as a convenient location for animals

lor of the university. Grosseteste remained chancellor of the school until 1235 when he became bishop of Lincoln.

and their owners to cross the rivers in the area. Located

Subsequently, for over 100 years, the bishop of Lincoln

in the developing

had influence over Oxford University thus adding to the school’s religious character—noted even today in many of the college’s names. In these early days of the university, students lived in rented lodgings at hostels or halls, and classes were held

economic

and political center

of

England, Oxford’s geographic importance was reflected

in the ancient name

for the city center: Carfax. This

name, used even today, is thought to be derived from the

Latin “quadrifurcus” or the French “quatre voies” and describes the four-cornered intersection of two main streets that have been here since Saxon times. The establishment of religious institutions and the area’s political importance as a strategic location were other factors con-

in rented rooms or at churches. St. Edmund Hall (which

did not receive official status as a college of Oxford University until 1957) was one such place of residence for students and has been in existence since the early thir576

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

577

University of Oxford

teenth century. The first colleges of Oxford University were created with endowments as housing for poor students unable to afford the rental expenses. The first three colleges of Oxford University were University College, Balliol College, and Merton College. Although all vie for distinction as the oldest, it appears that in 1249 University College was the first to be endowed. The quadrangle of this college contains a memorial to poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. He was, however, expelled from the school in 1811 for the publication of his pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism, which apparently expressed views offensive to the administration. Balliol College, generally thought to have been founded in 1263, was endowed by John de Bal-

tower was built in 1418; the college Hall dates from

1277; and the library, constructed 1371-78, is noted for

being the first to store books upright on shelves. Merton’s Mob Quadrangle is the oldest at Oxford (built 1304-78)

and became the model for the university’s other quadrangles (four-sided lawns surrounded by buildings). Famous Mertonians include Lord Randolph Churchill, Sir Max

Beerbohm, and Japanese Crown Prince Naruhito. Oxford University has continued to expand, and colleges have been added to the university every century since the 1200s. A chancellor is the honorary head of the university. The university, however, is actually run by the

vice-chancellor, who is selected from the college heads

liol as an act of penitence. Many of the buildings seen here today are from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Scorch marks on the quadrangle archway are from the burning of Archbishop Cranmer and Bishops Latimer

on a rotating basis and serves for a four-year term. Two proctors, the Hebdomadal Council, and the Congregation

and Ridley, who were killed for their Protestant beliefs.

seen by the university, which approves course content,

Members of Balliol College include Adam Smith, Aldous Huxley, and Graham Greene. Merton College, founded 1264 by Walther de Merton, the Bishop of Rochester, has many of the oldest surviving buildings of the university,

sets examinations, and awards the degrees. In 1571 the

some with work by Sir Christopher Wren. The gateway

make up the rest of the administration. Each college has its own statutes, although together the colleges are over-

university was officially incorporated by an act of Parliament. It is technically known as “The Masters and schol-

ars of the University of Oxford” and properly called the University of Oxford, although the school is world

578

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

renown as Oxford University. Students apply to and are

Of the colleges, the most famous of those founded in

admitted by individual colleges, each of which offers a variety of subjects to study. Tuition is paid to the individ-

the fourteenth century include Exeter (1314, one famous

ual college, although an annual fee is also paid to the university. The colleges have residence halls, dining

noted for its library designed by James Wyatt in 1788),

facilities, libraries, and heads (known variously as dean, rector, warden, master, principal, and provost). It is one of

New (1379, known as an excellent example of perpendicular architecture). Famous colleges established in the fif-

the unique features of Oxford that the colleges have dis-

teenth century include Lincoln (1427, originally intended

tinct personalities. Students are instructed in “tutorials,”

for the instruction of clergy to refute the Lollard beliefs of

an intense and unique educational experience. In the tuto-

John

rial, students (either individually or with one or two others) meet with a professor to discuss work done in the

admitting only fellows), and Magdalen (1458, where the

member of this college was J.R.R. Tolkien), Oriel (1326, Queen’s (1340, famous member: Joseph Addison), and

Wycliffe’s

followers),

All Soul’s

(1438,

today

past week. The work may be an essay or the answer to a

chapel choir is known for its choral services). Brasenose (1509, perhaps named after an old door knocker), Corpus

problem posed by the professor, and the sessions last an

Christi (1517, featuring one of Oxford’s most picturesque

hour. During this time the student is expected to define,

libraries),

defend, and debate ideas with the professor. The aim of

Cathedral, the smallest in England, and Tom Tower, with

this teaching method is to create logical and independent

a seven-ton bell cast in 1680 and originally belonging to

thinkers.

Osney Abbey), St. John’s (1555, famous member: Sir Tryone Guthrie), Trinity (1555, famous member: Sir

Undergraduate

degrees

normally take three

years to complete, although some such as those in Arabic, biochemistry, engineering, and Japanese take four years. Two examinations are given. The first is called Prelims (preliminary) or Mods (moderations) and is typically

Christ

Church

(1546,

containing

both

the

Richard Burton), and Jesus (1571, famous member: T.E.

Lawrence) are among the most well-known colleges from the sixteenth century. Pembroke (1624, famous member:

The second exam, Finals,

Samuel Johnson), Hertford (1740, famous member: Eve-

is taken in the last year. Numerous graduate degrees are

lyn Waugh), and Keble (1868, featuring the longest Hall

awarded by the university. The academic year lasts from mid-October to mid-June and is divided into the terms of

in Oxford) were later noted additions to the university.

taken in the first year of study.

The long history of the school and its individualistic colleges combine to form a place noted for traditions and

The twentieth century has seen the establishment of such important colleges as St. Anthony’s (1950, emphasizing graduate studies in the humanities and international relations), Wolfson (1966, emphasizing graduate studies in

eccentricities. One university regulation prohibited stu-

the natural

dents (even in the twentieth century) from carrying bows and arrows. The regulation probably stems from a 1355 town and gown dispute that led to rioting and fatalities on

graduate studies in all sciences). Most colleges have a

both sides. In the 1990s dressing for dinner was still

schools were originally established to provide religious

required, although depending on the college, students may need to dress one way for the first seating of dinner and

education. They are, with their original founding dates

another for the second. In the Mertonian Time Ceremony,

Unitarian), Regent’s Park College (1810, Baptist), Mans-

students of Merton College parade in full academic dress backwards through the quadrangle when the clocks are changed back to Greenwich mean time in the fall. The campus security officers, nicknamed bulldogs, are noted for their black suits, derby hats, and regal air. The university has also played a role in the history of the nation, when during the civil war of the seventeenth century it was refuge to Charles I and Parliament. During the 1800s the

field College

Michaelmas, Hilary, and Trinity.

constitution of the university was revised, the academic

quality improved, and religious testing abolished. The university only admitted men until the late ninetenth century, when five schools were established for women. Women,

however, were not formally allowed to receive degrees from the university until 1920. The five women’s colleges were Lady Margaret Hall (1878), St. Anne’s (1879), Som-

erville (1879), St. Hugh’s (1886), and St. Hilda’s (1893). Oxford remained gender segregated until the 1970s when most of the colleges became coeducational. Today St. Hilda’s is the only college that admits women exclusively.

sciences),

and

Green

(1979,

emphasizing

student body of only 300 or 400. There are also six per-

manent private halls associated with the university.

and religious association:

Manchester

(1886, Congregational),

These

College (1786,

Campion

Hall

(1896, the Society of Jesus), St. Benet’s Hall (1897, Benedictine), and Greyfriars (1910, Franciscan).

Other famous features of Oxford University include the Bodleian Library, Ashmolean Museum, the Univer-

sity of Oxford Botanic Garden, and the Oxford University Press. The Bodleian is the principle library of the

university and is entitled to a copy of every book printed in England. The library is one of the oldest functioning libraries in the world and dates back to the fifteenth century. The Ashmolean Museum, opened in 1683 as the first public museum in England, is noted for its art and archeological collections. The University of Oxford Botanic Garden, founded in the seventeenth century, today con-

tains approximately 8,000 species of plants. The Oxford University Press, which came under control of the university in 1629, is a world-renown publisher of scholarly, religious, and reference works. One of its most famous publications is the Oxford English Dictionary.

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD Today Oxford University has a student population of approximately 15,000, made up of both men and women,

579

St. Hilda’s, St. Hugh’s, St. John’s, St. Peter, Somerville,

Trinity, University, Wadham, Wolfson, and Worcester.

public and private school graduates, and students from England as well as other countries. The school sponsors Rhodes Scholars, who are chosen from countries around the world for their intellectual ability, character, leader-

ship qualities, and physical achievements. Oxford has contributed leaders to society in the fields of the arts, sciences, and politics. Prime ministers who attended Oxford include Clement Attlee, Harold Macmillan, and Margaret

Thatcher.

In existence

for over

800

years,

Oxford University is today internationally famous for its remarkable scholarship and traditions. An alphabetical listing of the colleges of Oxford follows: All Souls, Balliol, Brasenose, Christ Church, Corpus Christi, Exeter, Green, Hertford, Jesus, Keble, Lady Margaret Hall, Linacre, Lincoln, Magdalen,

Pembroke,

Queen’s,

Further Reading: There are numerous guides, maps, encyclopedia articles, and books about Oxford University, school

life, and the buildings and colleges. The Oxford University

website, http://www.ox.ac.uk, is an excellent starting point for information. Information about the Bodleian Library is available in Ian Philip’s The Bodleian Library in the 17th and 18th Centuries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983)

and Bodleian Library, Oxford (a booklet on sale at the library, Oxford OX1

3BG, tel: [865] 277000). Works about

the university include V.H.H. Green’s A History of Oxford University (London: Batsford, 1974) and The History of the University of Oxford, 8 volumes (Oxford: Clarendon, and New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1984-94).

Merton, New, Nuffield, Oriel,

Rewley

House,

St. Anne’s,

St.

Anthony’s, St. Catherine’s, St. Cross, St. Edmund Hall,

—Anne C. Paterson

UNIVERSITY OF PARIS (Paris, France) Location:

Scattered sites in and around Paris, France.

Description:

Thirteen autonomous, state-financed

Université de Vincennes a Saint-Denis (Paris VID 2, rue de la Liberté 93526 Saint-Denix Cedex 02

universities founded in 1970 under France’s

France

Orientation Act of 1968, which provided for reform of higher education. They replaced the former University of Paris, founded in the

49-40-67-89

twelfth century.

Université de Paris-Dauphine (Paris IX)

Place du Maréchal de Lattre-de-Tassigny Information:

75775 Paris Cedex 16

— Université de Paris I (Panthéon-Sorbonne)

France

12, place du Panthéon 75231 Paris Cedex 05

45-05-14-10

France Université de Paris X (Nanterre)

46-34-97-00

200, avenue de la République 92001 Nanterre Cedex

Université de Droit, d’Economie et de Sciences

France

Sociales (Paris II)

40-97-72-00

12, place du Panthéon 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (Panthéon) France

Université de Paris-Sud (Paris XI)

Centre scientifique 15, rue Georges Clémenceau 91405 Orsay Cedex

43-29-21-40 Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle (Paris III) 17, rue de la Sorbonne

France

69-41-67-50

75230 Paris Cedex 05 France

Université de Paris Val-de-Marne (Paris XII)

40-46-22-11

Avenue du Général de Gaulle 94010 Créteil Cedex France

Université Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV) 1, rue Victor Cousin 75230 Paris Cedex 05

48-98-91-44

France

Université Paris-Nord (Paris XIII)

40-46-22-11

Avenue Jean-Baptiste Clément 93430 Villetaneuse

Université René Descartes (Paris V) 12, rue de l’Ecole de Médecine 75270 Paris Cedex 06

France

49-40-30-00

France

40-46-16-16

The University of Paris is one of the oldest universities in western Europe. According to historian Hastings Rashdall, “The university was not made but grew; a date for its formation would be misleading.” The twelfth century, however, is generally acknowledged as the period of the university’s inception. The system of education that sprang to life in France in the twelfth century had its beginnings during the Carolingian dynasty (eighth-tenth centuries). Each abbey and cathedral maintained a school for the training of young monks and clerks, and the school was headed by a magis-

Université Pierre et Marie Curie (Paris VI)

4, place Jussieu 75252 Paris Cedex 05 France 44-27-44-27 Université Paris VII

2, place Jussieu 75251 Paris Cedex 05 France

44-27-44-27

ter scholarum, or master. By the end of the ninth century,

580

UNIVERSITY OF PARIS

University of Paris

581

582

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

the School of Remigius of Auxerre, a monastery school perhaps connected with the church of Saint-Germain-desPrés, existed; it has been called the first school at Paris.

The eleventh and early twelfth centuries saw the emer-

gence of cathedral schools in Paris. The teachers were not monks but members of the secular clergy. These schools, attached to the Cathedral of Notre Dame, were presided

over by the chancellor of the cathedral.

A man desiring to

become a teacher would, after a sufficient period of study and upon the approval of his master, receive from the chancellor, free of charge, a licentia docendi, or license to teach.

The first known master of the Cathedral School of Notre Dame was William of Champeaux (10702-1121). William, who lectured in the cloisters of Notre Dame,

The custom of “inception” (or commencement) into

the guild involved a formal ceremony admitting the newly licensed master into the society, in addition to recognition by both his old master and the other members of the group. Evidence that a guild existed in the twelfth century is found in a chronicle from the year 1214. In it, the English historian Matthew Paris wrote that the abbot of St. Alban’s, while a student at Paris (probably no later than 1170-75), was admitted to a “fellowship of the

elect masters.” In 1200, a tavern brawl] resulted in the killing of five students by an armed band led by the Provost of Paris.

The student population was so incensed that it threatened

was one of the early leaders of the intellectual movement

to withdraw from the city, and the masters appealed to King Philip II Augustus. The king, fearful that the mas-

that contributed to the birth of the University of Paris. It was from the study of dialectic, or logic, that the University of Paris grew. The cloister school of Notre Dame

ters might follow through with their threats, issued a charter that extended royal protection and goodwill to the students of Paris.

seems to have evolved into a studium generale by 1127, when a statute was issued that limited the lodging within the cloister to “members of the cathedral body.”

In 1208-9, the first written statutes of the University of Paris are mentioned in letters of Pope Innocent II], refer-

One of William’s pupils was Peter Abelard, whose teachings during the early years of the twelfth century attracted students to Paris from throughout Europe. Abelard, who was criticized for teaching without having first served an apprenticeship with a master, taught

between

1100 and 1140. Although Abelard has been

ring to an association of Paris masters and of the statutes they were sworn to obey. The oldest preserved statutes, however, date from 1215, the year they were presented by the papal legate Robert de Courgon.

The special treatment granted by the king to the Parisian students soon met with resistance from the bishop and the chancellor of Paris, who were accustomed

to

called the “father of universities” upon whose life and work the University of Paris originated, there is no trace of a university or society of masters during the first half

exercising control over the schools. A series of conflicts occurred between 1212 and 1231. At issue were the granting of licenses, jurisdiction over the schools, and the

of the twelfth century.

university’s right to endow itself with statutes.

Paris and taught theology at the school of Notre Dame

The conflict came to a head between 1229 and 1231. A tavern brawl, again involving students, erupted during the

from 1136-50. His Four Books of Sentences, a collection

carnival of 1228-29. The regent, Blanche of Castille, after

of church teachings and opinions, were the standard textbook on theology in the universities until the sixteenth century.

being informed of the disturbance by the bishop of Paris, sent royal sergeants to the scene. Several students were killed. On April 16, 1229, the masters resorted to an

As the number of students at the cathedral schools

extreme tactic: they determined that, unless justice were obtained through the bishop of Paris and the regents

The theologian Peter Lombard (1100?-60) studied at

increased, so did the number of masters, who soon became too numerous to be housed within the cloister of Notre Dame. They spread to other areas of Paris, includ-

ing the bridges of the Seine. There also existed famous external schools at two other churches—the Collegiate

Church of Sainte-Geneviéve and the Church of the Canons Regular of St. Victor’s.

By the second half of the twelfth century, the number

within one month’s time, they would dissolve the university and disperse. Their threat was ignored, and, as a result, scores of masters and students began to leave Paris.

They traveled to Oxford and Cambridge, Rheims, Orléans, Angers, and Toulouse. (The University of Angers perhaps

traces its beginnings to this migration.) The decline in the city’s prestige and prosperity began to cause alarm.

of schools had again multiplied. The population of masters and students in Paris became so numerous that they

manent buildings or locations. They borrowed a church or

comprised a group apart.

convent for their meetings, and even these varied. Dis-

Between

1150 and 1170 there arose, not a union of

faculties, but a Universitas magistrorum et studiorum, a guild of teachers and students. Out of this guild, formed

by the increasing number of students and masters at the cathedral schools of Notre Dame, originated the university. The cathedral schools can be considered the “cradle” of the University of Paris.

The university and its colleges at this time had no per-

persal, therefore, was not difficult; the only property was

the fees paid by the students. The tactic proved effective; the masters and students soon gained the support of the pope. After the civil and ecclesiastical leaders of Paris submitted to the terms of reparations and guarantees for the future, the masters and students returned to the city. On April 13, 1231, Pope

UNIVERSITY OF PARIS = 583 Gregory IX issued a bull, the Parens scientiarum, which

university, and the city contained approximately 15,000

became the Grand Charter of the University. Until the

undergraduates. The word Sorbonne, although in reality

Great Schism of 1378, the University of Paris received

the name of the building and not a college or university, was long used as a synonym for the University of Paris. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, the faculty

special treatment from the popes, who continued to discourage the foundation of schools of theology by other

universities. By the middle of the thirteenth century, the masters of the university had divided into four faculties: theology,

numbered more than 500, and the students, who came from

canon law, medicine, and arts. The seven arts (the trivium

fourteenth century, the city of Paris had 40 colleges and

and the quadrivium), part of the curriculum of the arts faculty, were the first step in a student’s training; the

students from every country in Europe. The university had

artistae, or arts students, were the equivalent of modern-

day undergraduates. The process of advancing from arts student into one of the “superior” faculties of medicine,

canon law, or theology took seven or eight years. The time required to progress through the superior fac-

ulties varied. The study requirements as stated by the faculty of medicine

(around

1270-74)

consisted

of 32

months for the bachelorship and 5 to 6 years for the license. The required length of study for the faculty of

canon law in the mid-fourteenth century was 48 months over a 6-year period for the bachelorship and 40 months for the license. In 1215, the length of study required by

many countries, were too numerous to count. Its prestige lay in the teaching of philosophy and theology. By the mid-

attained a reputation of excellence unsurpassed “in all Christendom” and was known as “the great school where

theology was studied in its most scientific spirit.” During the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, the university did not actively concern itself with French politics. This soon changed: toward the end of the four-

teenth century, its political influence and privileges, and later its pretensions, began their climb. After the death of King Charles V in 1380, the university, by then accustomed to the favor of the Crown and an

unprecedented degree of prestige, became increasingly involved in political affairs. In 1382, the university was

had to be at least 35. By 1366, the length of study had increased to 16 years; by 1452, it had dropped to 15.

asked to intercede on behalf of a group of rebels convicted in an uprising against “the tyranny of Anjou.” The faculty of theology became the unnamed theological police of the Church, and by the fifteenth century, the power of the university was such that its approval was considered necessary in the resolution of a political crisis.

Presiding over each of the four faculties was a dean. The

In the early fifteenth century, the university sided with

the faculty of theology, which was considered the most important of the superior faculties, was five years of ini-

tial study and eight years for the doctorate, and the doctor

arts faculty was

divided

into four “nations”:

French,

Picard, Norman, and English, and over each nation was a

proctor. The term rector came to be reserved for the head of

Burgundy in a dispute against Armagnac.

During the Hundred Years’ War between France and England (1337-1453), the university aligned itself with

the faculty of arts, and by the mid-fourteenth century, the rector was recognized as the head of the entire university. The mid- to late-thirteenth century brought an influx of scholars from throughout Europe: Albertus Magnus from Germany, Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas from Italy, Roger Bacon from England, and Duns Scotus from Scotland. The masters of the University of Paris, part of the secular clergy, opposed the right of the mendicants,

England and acknowledged Henry V as king of France.

members of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, to

pensated by the king of England. The University of Paris was involved in efforts to end

teach at the university because the mendicants had not taken an oath to obey the statutes of the university. Alber-

The majority of the masters had, however, left Paris during the occupation by the English. (Many of them had fled to Poitiers, where a new university arose.) In 1430,

the masters who remained in Paris were said to have initiated the idea to try Joan of Arc and to have provided one of their best prosecutors. The Parisian doctors who

assisted at the trial had, however, been generously com-

the Great Schism of the Roman Catholic Church (1378-

tus, Bonaventure, and Aquinas were sent by Pope Alex-

1417). Jean Gerson (1363-1429), appointed chancellor of

ander IV to defend the mendicant orders; they were

degree of master of arts and wanted to continue on to the

the university in 1395, was one of the principals in the attempt to put an end to the conflict. One suggestion offered by the university and voted on by the four faculties was that a general council be formed to solve the dispute. Both sides of the papal schismatics, however, refused to admit to the council’s authority. (The theory of

doctorate of theology. The number soon increased to 36. Sorbon became the chancellor of the university in 1258. In

conciliarism contended that a general council of the church had authority over the pope.) Jean Rousse, a mas-

1259, the Sorbonne was sanctioned by the pope; it soon

ter of theology at the university, presented the council’s appeal. The regent ordered Rousse imprisoned and, although he was soon released, Rousse’s arrest caused consternation among the clergy and the university. Once

successful in their mission. About 1257, Robert de Sorbon, theologian and chaplain of King Louis IX, founded the Maison de Sorbonne as a

dormitory to house

16 students who had attained the

developed into a major center of learning and the “core” of the University of Paris. Toward the end of the thirteenth

century, the Sorbonne was the administrative seat of the

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INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

again students, masters, and doctors left Paris for other locations. This disbursement, however, marked the begin-

The Sorbonne was disrupted by the religious conflicts

ning of a decline in the university as a center of learning. Superstitution was prevalent during the fourteenth cen-

that occurred during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. After Martin Luther’s break with the Church in 1520, the school reacted swiftly. The following year, it

tury. When asked by King Philip VI for a report on the

condemned Luther’s Babylonish Captivity, and in 1523, it

plague, the doctors of the University of Paris said it was caused by “a triple conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars in the 40th degree of Aquarius said to have occurred on March 28, 1345.” This pronouncement was accepted as the official cause. At the end of the fourteenth century, the faculty of theology succeeded in calling attention to

brought about the arrest of Louis de Berquin, a friend of Erasmus, for translating Luther’s works. Six years later, de Berquin was burned at the stake for heresy. The Sorbonne increasingly met with criticism and

the black arts (witchcraft), by then almost forgotten, and

in the humanities,

it failed to dispute the existence of demons.

(later renamed the Collége de France). Tuition was free,

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the spe-

cial privileges long enjoyed by the university began to

erode, and the government interfered more frequently in the university’s

business.

As

the need

for revenue

increased, government officials began to look askance at the tax exemptions that had been granted to academic ecclesiastics. In 1446, an edict from King Charles VII

“proclaimed the jurisdiction of the Parliament in the suits of the university.”

The reign of Louis XI (1461-83) brought a further

opposition. King Francis I objected to its narrow theolog-

ical teachings and, in 1529, in an effort to provide studies he established

and four “royal professors”

were

the Collége Royale

appointed to teach

Greek and Hebrew; Latin, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy were soon added. Francis’s

sister, Marguerite

of Navarre,

was

moned in 1533 to appear before the Sorbonne on a charge of heresy. She refused, and the king defended her actions. Marguerite was a protector of the religious reformers and

a devotee of the arts and letters. The sixteenth-century writer and physician, Francois Rabelais, personified the humanistic spirit of the Renais-

decline in the influence of the university. Under Louis’s policies, the character of the university began to change

guerite

from

Sorbonne for its satirical depiction of the clergy.

ecumenical

to nationalistic.

In 1467,

the king

sum-

sance. His Gargantua (1534), which he dedicated to Mar-

of Navarre,

drew

condemnation

from

the

ordered the university to cease any interference in politi-

Censorship of publications was prevalent during the

cal matters, “even in letters to their relations”; in 1470, he

Inquisition, and the Sorbonne contributed to the stifling

ordered all scholars who were subjects of the duke of Burgundy to take an oath of allegiance to the Crown; and

of ideas by issuing, in 1544, the first general list of con-

in 1474, he declared the rector of the university subject to

family whose first press was established in Paris around

the king. The international nature of the university, which

1500, were often criticized by the Sorbonne. In 1552, one

had heretofore been protected by rulers who offered pro-

member of the family took his press and transferred it to

tection to its foreign students, waned. During the reign of Louis XII (1498-1515), the uni-

Geneva; in 1566, another brought on the wrath of the Sor-

versity suffered a major setback. When it opposed an edict “limiting its privileges and guarding against their abuse”

(which

included

tax exemptions),

the Crown

banned the right of cessation. Thus the university could never again exercise the “great instrument of academic aggression” that it had utilized so frequently in the past.

The studies in theology and philosophy, which had

demned

books. The Etiennes, a renowned

publishing

bonne by publishing a work comparing Christian miracles with Greek marvels.

Since the system of education in western Europe was under the influence of the Church, the disruptions that occurred during the Reformation directly affected the schools. Universities lost their international character

because religious differences among countries prevented students from traveling far afield for their education. The

been so important to the university’s reputation in its early years, began to deteriorate under Scholasticism. Consequently, the university contributed little to the

number of students at the University of Paris remained

humanistic spirit of the Renaissance.

Rabelais criticized the curriculum as being far removed

While a student at the University of Paris in 1495, the great humanist Erasmus expressed his disappointment in the theological teachings: “Those studies can make a man opinionated and contentious; can they make him wise? . . . By their stammering and by the stains of their impure style they disfigure theology, which had been

from real life. At a meeting in Orléans in 1560, the chan-

high (6,000), but few came from foreign lands, and new

and enlightening ideas were discouraged. Montaigne and

cellor for the Queen Mother, Catherine de Médicis, called

for mutual tolerance between Catholics and Huguenots. A doctor of the Sorbonne responded by urging that the death penalty be imposed upon all heretics. By the end of the sixteenth century, the University of

enriched and adorned by the eloquence of the ancients.

Paris was in serious need of reform. It was still governed

They involve everything while trying to solve everything.” The Sorbonne was later (in 1527) to condemn

by the 1452 statutes, which remained untouched by the spirit of the Renaissance. In 1595, Henry IV set up a commission of six members to prepare new statutes to

Erasmus’s Colloquies.

UNIVERSITY OF PARIS define the role of teachers, to reinforce discipline, and to

start new programs. These statutes, which remained in

effect through the end of the eighteenth century, were implemented in 1598. Under Cardinal Richelieu (15851642), new colleges, including the present site of the Sorbonne (completed in 1627), were constructed. He laid the

first stone of the Sorbonne’s chapel, where he is buried.

Religious conflicts continued throughout the seventeenth century. The University of Paris was troubled by theological strife stemming from the Jesuits and the Jansenists. In 1663, the Sorbonne affirmed the Gallican tradition, which granted French kings the right to appoint bishops and abbots. This position, upheld by Louis XIV but opposed by Pope Innocent XI, almost led to a split between the French Church and Rome. After Louis XIV’s death in 1715, Philippe d’Orléans,

regent for the five-year-old Louis XV, ordered that the

University of Paris be opened to all qualified students, with their tuition paid by the state. The Sorbonne, however, remained intransigent. It continued to condemn books, even some which had been printed with the royal

imprimatur. In 1751, it objected to portions of the naturalist Buffon’s Histoire Naturelle as contradictory to “the teachings of religion.”

585

tual and scientific center. In 1886, the faculty of theology, which had been so important in the university’s history, disappeared. Changes occurred during the late nineteenth century. The minister of education, Jules Ferry, introduced the idea of the separation of church and state; this became law on March 28, 1882. Individuals and associations were allowed to found private institutions of learning, but

they had to follow the rules set down by the National

Ministry of Education. Under Ferry, in 1896, a system of 23 académies

or educational districts was established

throughout France. Each district had its own university, and all districts were centralized under one minister of education. The system of 23 universities, each with the same five faculties (law, medicine, pharmacy, letters, and

science), remained virtually unchanged until the 1960s. In addition to the universities, a system of elite institutions, known as grandes écoles, was created to train pro-

fessionals in engineering and administration. Students could not transfer from university to grande école, or vice versa. The system still remains in effect. The grandes écoles, however, unlike the universities, escaped the reor-

ganization that occurred after the 1968 student revolt. In 1900, students

in French

universities

numbered

Following the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1762, the

29,300 (12,270 of them in Paris). Enrollment grew from

500 colleges of France became part of the University of Paris. In 1767, the Sorbonne ordered the destruction of “every teaching threatening to shake the foundations of

about 134,000 in 1950 to approximately 500,000 by 1967.

the Catholic faith.” With the French Revolution came the dissolution of all

institutions of the ancien régime, including the Roman Catholic Church. On September 15, 1793, the National Convention abolished all universities in France and, for

13 years, schools specializing in different fields of learning supplanted them. In 1795, the Directory, a form of government consisting of five men with executive power, began a four-year rule that ended when Napoléon staged a coup on November 9, 1799. Under the Directory, teachers were instructed to “exclude from your teaching all that relates to the dogmas or rites of any religion or sect whatever,” an attempt “to build a social order upon a system of morality independent of religious belief.” Between

1806 and 1808, Napoléon I established the

Imperial or Napoléonic university (after 1815, known as the University of France). The university was divided into academies, each headed by a government-nominated rector. It was a centralized system of education that encompassed all teaching units in France, including the primary and secondary schools. In 1821, the Academy of Paris acquired the buildings of the Sorbonne; the reconstituted

University of Paris became part of the Academy of Paris. This system remained in effect until the final years of the nineteenth century. Teaching was secular, and professional chairs at the University of Paris numbered over

Because of the open admissions policy, the number of students continued to increase, but so did the number of drop-

outs. By 1967, overcrowded buildings, understaffed faculties, and obsolete teaching methods had brought about a high level of student dissatisfaction and unrest.

Unrest led to protests. A political correspondent for Le Monde wrote that “France is bored,” words that had been used by the poet-politician Alphonse de Lamartine on the eve of the 1848 Revolution. Students were “bored”—not only with the antiquated school system but also with the

“status quo of bourgeois life and its government.” Student unions in France had long wished for more student involvement in the establishment of university tules and policies. In February 1968, the Union nationale des étudiants de France (UNEF), an influential union that traces its beginnings to 1877, urged students to begin a series of minor protests. In March, a group of

about 150 students on the Nanterre campus of the University of Paris marched through the administration building and protested the lack of student control over the university’s faculties. The left-wing group attracted

nearly 2,000 students to their cause before the campus was closed by the rector. The students moved their efforts to the Sorbonne, and the events that would reshape the entire university system

of France were set in motion. On May 3, 1968, the police, who had been summoned by the rector of the Sorbonne in conjunction with the minister of education, entered the

600; by 1885, there were nearly 12,000 students. Once

central courtyard of the Sorbonne

and began arresting

again, the University of Paris was an important intellec-

students, members of a left-wing group, who had gath-

586

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

ered there. The action of the police had perhaps been

would “associate wherever possible arts and letters with

ordered because of the rumors that a right-wing group was planning to interrupt the meeting. Word of the disruption spread throughout the city, and

sciences and technics.” The faculties were replaced by more than 700 unités d’enseignement et de recherche or UER (units of teaching

the Latin Quarter was soon filled with protesting stu-

and research). The UER ranges from a single discipline (such as engineering or English) to interdisciplinary stud-

dents. During the next 24 hours, police clashed with students. Student leaders were imprisoned, unusual move, the Sorbonne was closed.

and, in an

A week of student-police conflict followed. The Sorbonne, closed to all student activity, became an armed

police fortress. The students tried repeatedly to free the Sorbonne

from

unsuccessful.

the authorities, but each march

The

student

movement

was

gained support

ies (for example, environmental sciences). Groupings of UERs became the foundation for the reorganized universitites: 43 in the provinces (61 by 1975) and 13 in Paris. The University of Paris, divided into 13 independent units, replaced the four faculties of letters, law, sciences, and medicine. Each university, with its own administration, faculty, and student body, has a primary focus. Paris

among citizens and workers, and the revolt expanded to the provinces.

I is a school of law, sociology, and economics. Paris III

The European edition of The New York Herald Tribune reported, on May 7, “Paris Students Battle Police 14

ture, and Paris IV, classical literature. Paris VI and VII, on the site of the old Paris wine market, comprise the new

Hours in Latin Quarter.” The article called Quarter a “battleground” and parts of Paris “a siege.” Clashes and student strikes continued Students used sticks and stones “and anything

science complex. Paris XI, located in the former NATO

the Latin city under to spread. movable”

to attack the police; the police employed nightsticks and tear gas. Injuries and property damage, including burned

(the historic Sorbonne) emphasizes language and litera-

headquarters, offers related studies in applied mathematics, economics, computer science, and management. University policy is established by an elected council, consisting of teachers, students, and representatives from

cars, overturned buses, and broken store windows, were

outside the university. The council elects the president, who replaced the rector of the old university system. The

reported.

once powerful position of dean no longer exists.

Leaders of the student unions went to the powerful communist and socialist labor unions and asked for their support in staging a march. On May 13, nearly half a million people marched down the Champs Elysées in Paris. The government was forced to reopen the Sorbonne. Strikes multiplied throughout France; by May 24, a

general strike had the country in a state of near-paralysis. Negotiations between the de Gaulle government and the labor unions were unsuccessful. Then President de Gaulle made a move that helped to defuse the situation: he announced new elections within a month. Although students continued to protest throughout the summer, the movement lost momentum. The students did, however, gain a victory. The government officials whom the students opposed were removed or shifted to less influential positions. The Gaullist minis-

ter of education was replaced by Edgar Faure, who vowed

An uprising of students, teachers, and administrators

in April 1976 called for new leadership in France and protested Valéry Giscard d’Estaing’s plans for university reform. The reforms to which students and faculty

objected placed the blame for the country’s high level of unemployment on an excessive number of liberal arts

students; emphasis was to be shifted to technological and business studies. Both students and teachers rebelled against being told what they had to study or to teach, and most university rectors objected to the

removal of the small amount of autonomy that remained with the institutions. After the implementation of the 1976 reforms, only three percent of eligible students entered the new jobrelated programs (such as applied business Spanish and

technical English translation). By 1981, the number increased to 15 percent. Additional reforms were intro-

to reform the system of education. Faure’s reforms resulted in the “Faure law,” the Loi d’orientation de l’enseignement supérieur (Orientation of Higher Educa-

duced in 1981 favoring graduate degrees in the sciences

tion Act), which led to a radical restructuring of the uni-

and development as France’s main priority. In 1984, the public higher education service was formed to oversee university training after the awarding of the baccalaureate. In May 1991, Université 2000 was

versity system. In 1970, the reforms set forth by the Loi d’orientation de l’enseignement supérieur of 1968 brought about the

decentralization of the university system. The universities were reorganized into self-governing bodies, and

students and teachers were granted a voice in the decision-making process. In addition, political activity was

no longer forbidden on campus. The need for more graduates in the sciences and fewer in the liberal arts was addressed in the law that stated that the universities

at the expense of those in the humanities and social sciences. A five-year plan called for technological research

created to prepare for increased university enrollments and rising costs, to improve standards, to develop vocational training, to assist in regional development, and to prepare for increased world-wide competition. In the fall of 1995, students of the Universities of Paris and throughout France demonstrated against overcrowded conditions. They demanded higher pay for the

UNIVERSITY OF PARIS faculties and an increase in the number of professors. In spite of overcrowding, underfunding, and a loss of prestige to the grandes écoles, the 13 Universities of Paris continue to attract students from throughout the world. The 13 universities, their student enrollment figures

and principal courses of study are the following: The University of Paris I (Panthéon-Sorbonne) enrolls approximately 40,000 students in economics, human sci-

ences, and political and juridical sciences. The University of Paris II (Université de Droit, d’Economie et de Sciences) enrolls approximately 18,000 students in law,

587

ences, and science and technology. The University of Paris IX (Université de Paris-Dauphine) enrolls approximately 7,000 students in management sciences. The University of Paris X (Nanterre) enrolls approximately

35,000 students in juridical, economic, and human sciences, languages and civilizations, and technology. The University of Paris XI (Université de Paris-Sud) enrolls approximately 28,000 students in exact, biomedical, pharmaceutical, and juridical sciences and technology.

The University of Paris XII (Université de Paris Val-deMarne) enrolls approximately 22,000 students in juridi-

economics, and social sciences. The University of Paris

cal, biomedical, and human sciences. Finally, the Uni-

III (Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle) enrolls approxi-

versity of Paris XIJI (Université Paris-Nord)

mately 19,000 students in contemporary languages, liter-

approximately 16,000 students in exact, juridical, medical, and human sciences, and technology.

atures, and civilizations. The University of Paris IV (Université 24,000

Paris-Sorbonne)

students

enrolls

in civilizations,

approximately

languages,

literature,

and arts. The University of Paris V (Université René Descartes) enrolls approximately 30,000 students in health sciences (medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, biology, etc.), human sciences, and law. The University of Paris

VI (Université Pierre et Marie Curie) enrolls approximately 37,000 in exact and applied sciences and biological and medical sciences. The University of Paris VII enrolls approximately 30,000 students in exact, biological, medical,

Paris

VIII

and human

(Université

enrolls approximately

sciences.

The

de Vincennes

enrolls

University

Further Reading: No general history of the University of Paris exists in English, but general information about selected periods of the university’s history can be found in A. Belden Fields, Student Politics in France (New York: Basic Books, 1970), A Distant Mirror (New York:

Knopf, 1978), and several of the historical series by Will and Ariel Durant (Simon and Schuster), including The Age of Faith, The Age of Napoleon, and The Reformation.

of

4 Saint-Denis)

27,000 students in human

sci-

—Sandy Gladfelter and Susan R. Stone

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) Description:

Location:

_A private university enrolling more than 22,000

Despite the intentions and promises of Whitefield and

students, with 4 undergraduate and 11 graduate schools.

the trustees, no school operated out of the New Building for nine years. Then in 1749, a second group of trustees purchased control of the New Building with the intention

The west side of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,

of realizing a school. The new trustees were, unlike the

near the neighborhood of Schuyhill.

Information:

first board, 24 of Philadelphia’s wealthiest and most influential citizens, and thus they possessed the means to actualize their ambition. They acted quickly; at a meeting

— University of Pennsylvania 34th and Spruce Streets

held November 13, 1749, they signed the Constitutions for a Public Academy in the City of Philadelphia, a document drafted by their president and Philadelphia’s leading

Philadelphia, PA 19104-6380 U.S.A. (215) 898-5000 (215) 898-7111

citizen, Benjamin Franklin. Thus, Franklin is often titled

“the founder” of the University of Pennsylvania, which evolved from the academy chartered that day. Franklin’s plan for the academy was unique in all of

western education, for it rested responsibility for the school on a “voluntary society of founders” whose purpose was secular and civic. Other schools in Europe and the New World alike were under the patronage of a

Philadelphia was one of the largest and most prosper-

ous of American colonial cities in the 1740s, with a population of approximately 12,000, and a ‘thriving commercial trade centered around its ports on the Delaware River. Only a small minority of the city’s youth

church, a government,

were formally educated, however, and the quality and manner of instruction even for privileged children was quite varied. The William Penn Charter School enrolled

board of trustees answering to no higher authority, and

or individual. The academy, on

the other hand, was to be maintained indefinitely by a dependent on no single source of funding. Franklin’s

innovative academy opened in January 1751 with an enrollment of 145 boys, and the Free School followed that September. The trustees soon added a college, the antecessor of

20 to 30 boys in a classical program, and as many again who studied a cruder English curriculum. The majority

of boys and girls lucky enough to receive some schooling hired individual tutors working in their own homes.

the modern University of Pennsylvania. In the spring of

To the chagrin of Philadelphia’s religious and social lea-

1754, Dr. William Smith, a well-educated Scotsman just

ders, nearly all of Philadelphia’s poor children received

26 years old, began teaching collegiate level courses in logic, rhetoric, ethics, and natural philosophy (science).

no academic training whatsoever.

The following summer, the provincial governor signed

The first attempt to found a school available to a wider population of Philadelphia’s youth was headed by

a new charter incorporating “The Trustees of the College, Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania.” A new school administration was soon organized, and Smith was named the college’s first provost. Teachers were accorded the title of “professor,” and the college ambitiously assumed the

George Whitefield, an Anglican preacher who came to

the city in 1739. Whitefield was a controversial figure among Philadelphia’s clergymen, for his manner of sermon approached the ecstatic, but he was extremely popular with the masses; there are reports that as many as

18,000 people attended some of his talks. Whitefield

authority to grant any degree of higher education awarded in Great Britain. The college evolved quickly after its foundation,

had helped to develop several charity schools in Britain,

and he began planning for one in his adopted city soon after his arrival. He organized a board of trustees, most of them religious men of no special standing, to oversee the construction of a single building where Whitefield and others could preach, and in which to operate a char-

were purchased near the College Building, as the New Building came to be know. The directors of the college

ity school. The trustees soon obtained a lease on a plot

organized an innovative and rather modern curriculum,

of land at the corner of Fourth and Arch streets, and by June 1740, they had begun constructing the largest building in the city, known simply as the “New Building” following its completion.

the first in the nation that was neither modeled on medieval tradition of the studium generale nor centered around religious instruction. Students enrolled in a regularized three-year program, and were ranked as fresh-

although it remained rather small.

A dormitory opened

in 1765, and homes for two professors and the provost

588

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

589

University of Pennsylvania

men, juniors, and seniors. They studied mathematics,

were permanently adjoined seats on the board of trustees,

physics, history, politics, economics, law, classics, and oration. A few medical classes were taught as early as

as were the leaderships of each of six church denomina-

1765, and a faculty of four doctors, all awarded their

specific individuals, including Franklin, and these 12 were to be filled by citizens of the board’s choosing as they were vacated in the future, although the state

medical degrees at Edinburgh, was assembled four years later. The college assumed the right to grant doctoral degrees in medicine in 1772, and thus emerged the nation’s first medical school. The old colonial college organized around Franklin’s

liberal plan was radically altered by the War of American Independence. Following the revolution, the Pennsylvania state government fell under the control of the zealously patriotic Constitutional Party, which scorned the

Anglican and aristocratic connections of the college, and the hint of loyalist spirit in Provost Smith and several faculty members. In 1779, less than a year after the British

departure from Philadelphia, the state assumed control of the institution, and renamed it the University of the State of Pennsylvania. A new board of 24 trustees was then appointed according state legislation: six state offices

tions. The 12 remaining trusteeships were designated to

retained the power to override the board’s decisions.

Smith vigorously resisted his ouster. He refused to leave his house, which belonged to the university, until he was legally evicted almost a year after being stripped of office, and he made a series of legal appeals to regain his post. In 1789, a state legislative committee assigned to

examine the case determined that the state indeed had no right to hold the College Building itself, for it was legally the property of the original trustees. Smith and those of the original trustees still alive were restored their school, and for a short while it existed again as before the revolu-

tion. The university continued to exist as a legally distinct corporation, but it was forced to move into a building

belonging to the Philosophical Society.

590

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

The bureaucratic difficulties involved in having these two corporations, which shared some professors, students, and influence over the academy, proved unmanageable, and they united, or reunited, in September 1791. The two boards of trustees agreed to title the new institution the “University of Pennsylvania,” and then each elected 12 members to remain on the unified board. When the new trustees met during the early months of 1792, they were faced with the difficult task of forming a

The university acquired the lots and building for the bargain price of $41,650,

and remodeled

the President’s

House for scholastic use. Then in 1829, twin Georgian brick buildings were completed on the new campus, into which the collegiate department and faculty of medicine relocated. The university prospered in its new environs. A new provost and college faculty were selected in 1828, and enrollment rose to 125 within two years, thus bringing in

single faculty, and thus with dismissing many professors. Ironically, Smith was terminated by a vote of 13 to 11, for

sorely needed capital. In 1852, a School of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures was added, through which a broader

he was less popular than the rival candidate for the professorship in Greek and Latin, Dr. Davidson. The college fared badly in several respect for approximately three decades following the university’s reunion.

range of scientific courses were taught. Two years later, the university organized a law school, having belatedly acted upon a petition to do so sent by the Philadelphia

First, it was sorely underfunded because it attracted too

Law Association in 1832. By the end of the 1860s, the student body numbered more than 700.

few students; in 1804, there were only eight seniors and six juniors. Students preferred institutions with dormitories, of

The university was variously, although not extensively, affected by the Civil War. The majority of students

which the university had none since the Revolution, and

enrolled in the medical school were southerners, and many

many of their parents favored schools with religious affilia-

left the university for the duration of the war, some to join

tions. Second, the caliber of instructions was deleteriously the academy and enrolled at the college when they were

the Confederate forces. Students enrolled in the college formed a Student Officers Training Corps, but most were between 14 and 19 years old, and so were mere cadets.

just 13 or 14 years old. Finally, the trustees exercised a

The university was under serious threat when the Confed-

domineering control over the college—even choosing textbooks and curricula—that left the professors disgruntled,

erate Army seized most of Pennsylvania, and the Battle of Gettysburg was literally underway when the commence-

and the atmosphere on campus tense. While the college stumbled and degenerated, the medical school prospered. The faculties of the old college and

ment ceremonies of 1863 were held, but Philadelphia and the university plant survived the war unharmed. Approximately 780 men associated with the university are known to have served in the war, 130 of them for the Confeder-

lowered to match the capabilities of boys rushed through

university both were retained in the new medical school, and several of the doctors established excellent reputa-

acy, and the remainder for the Union.

tions that attracted prestige and students to the program. Nearly 2,000 medical doctors were graduated from the

The university moved to its third and present location after the war. The old quarters in and around the Presi-

school in the first quarter of the century, and approximately 3,000 more attended a year of study and went on to practice without state licensees, especially in the south.

dent’s House had grown worn and crowded, and the med-

It is interesting to note that the professors were, at that time, paid directly by their students; the members of the medical faculty were wealthy with salaries estimated to have been between $5,000 and $10,000, earned during

ical facilities were not up to contemporary standards. Moreover, the neighborhood surrounding the university was depressed and worsening. Ten acres of swampy

farmland west of Schuylkill were purchased in 1870, and four new buildings were constructed within as many years. They housed not only the university, but also a hos-

the four-month school year. The university moved into a splendorous new home

pital associated with the medical school. All were built of a green serpentine stone collected in Pennsylvania’s own

beginning in 1802, even while the college declined. Eleven years earlier, the capital of the United States was

Chester County, according to the plans of Thomas

moved from New York to Philadelphia, and the state govpresidents. The work was a majestic example of new clas-

professor of architecture. The university expanded modestly following the move. The awkwardly titled School of Agriculture,

sicism; it was three stories of brick, stone, and marble,

Mines, Manufactures, and the Mechanic Arts was reorga-

capped by a glass dome and cupola, and its facade was

nized, and given the graceful name of Towne Scientific

adorned with eight Corinthian pillars and two Palladian

School in honor of John Henry Towne, one of the trust-

windows. The President’s House was completed in 1797,

ees. A professorship in music was created in 1875, and a

at a cost of more than $110,000, and offered for rental to

course leading to the degree of bachelor of music was organized the next year. The medical faculty considered

ernment constructed a grand building to house future

President John

Adams,

who

declined the somewhat

ungracious proposal. The U.S. capital was subsequently moved to Washington, and the state legislature put the building and several adjacent properties up for auction.

W.

Richards, who later was appointed the university’s first

establishing a dental program as early as 1874, and in 1877 proposed to absorb the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery. That schools’ administration refused, but

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA its faculty agreed to join the university if a dental depart-

591

ment was established. One was in 1878, and the univer-

astounding building program organized to accommodate the swollen institution. Thirteen stately brick buildings

sity began offering the degree of D.D.S. that same year.

were

Just two years later, the dental school was moved into a

massive,

including the law and dental schools.

new building, shared with the medical school. Women won the right to enter the university piecemeal, beginning in the 1870s. The first two women admitted to the university were enrolled in the Towne Scientific School in 1876. They appealed directly to Freder-

esteemed

architectural

ick Genth, professor of chemistry, to allow them into his

mented by white limestone.

classes. He and the board of trustees agreed to do so. Ms. Carrie Kilgore was denied admission to the law school in 1871, and unsuccessfully appealed her case to the state

The history of the university in the twentieth century has been one of almost continuous growth and achievement, but historians have yet to analyze modern events. A

supreme court. Then in 1881, she persuaded the state leg-

islature to grant women the right to serve as lawyers. The

few diverse highlights of the neglected period must serve to indicate the broad course of the university’s develop-

law school admitted her that same year, and has ever

ment into one of the nation’s leading academic institu-

since been open to women. The Graduate School for Women was organized in 1890, and the College of Lib-

tions. The School of Nursing was established in 1935,

eral Arts for Women in 1933. The university was not fully coeducational until the 1970s.

world’s first computer, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), was built at the University’s

William Pepper, elected in 1881, was the first provost

Moore School of Electrical Engineering during World War II, and three scientists associated with the university

of the university to be granted the authority ordinarily afforded a university president. By an amendment to the school charter, the trustees gave the provost executive authority over the board, and the presidency of each school faculty. Pepper, who remained in office for 13 years, famously used his power to guide the university through an unmatched era of expansion. Thirteen departments opened during his administration, including the prestigious Wharton School of Business Admin-

istration, the graduate school, and the Veterinary School. At the same time, the faculty rose from 55 to 300 professors and instructors, and the student body doubled, to nearly 2,000. Like most American universities, Pennsylvania experi-

enced a rush of applications in the first two decades of the twentieth

century.

Despite

stepping

up

admissions

requirements in order to curtail the influx, the university’s

raised during Harrison’s

tenure,

several of them

The

firm of Cope and Stewardson

designed the huge Residence Hail, which is actually an interlocking system of 31 houses encompassing five interior courtyards. The hall is a blend of Gothic and classical styles, and is constructed of Flemish bond brick comple-

and stands among

the nation’s best three today. The

won Nobel Prizes in 1972. The Wharton School is widely

considered the best business school in the United States, and ten programs in the College of Arts and Sciences are

ranked among the country’s most elite. Further Reading: History of the University of Pennsylva-

nia, 1740-1940, by Edward Potts Cheyney (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1940; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977) is an excellent book, and widely available.

Of course, it contains little information about the university since the Great Depression. An interesting history focused on 17 individuals associated with the university can be found in Gladly Learn and Gladly Teach; Franklin and His Heirs at the University of Pennsylvania,

1740-1976,

by Martin

Meyerson and Dilys Pegler Winegrad (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978).

student body jumped from approximately 2,000 in 1894 to more than 11,000 by the close of World War I. Provost

Charles

Harrison,

Pepper’s

successor,

oversaw

an

—Bob Adams

UNIVERSITY OF PISA (Pisa, Italy) Location: Description:

In the old section of Pisa, along the Arno River.

1343 opening ceremony make it unlikely that any impe-

rial charter could have preceded the papal bull. It is clear that in the Italian universities generally, episcopal supervision, while never absent, gradually yielded to civic financial support and to municipal academic direction.

_A state university of 34,000 students with faculties of law, economics, letters, political science, foreign languages and literature, medicine, mathematics and sciences, pharmacy,

The Florentines regarded the erection of their studium

engineering, agriculture, and veterinary studies.

Information:

generale as an external recognition of civic sovereignty. An understanding of the importance of the University of Pisa depends on some knowledge of the relationship between Pisa and Florence during the Renaissance.

— Universita degli Studi di Pisa Lungarno Pacinotti 45 56100 Pisa Italy (50) 590 000

Although Renaissance Florence had its own developed

forms of higher education, and although the neoplatonist discussions of the group known as the Florentine Acad-

Pisa, with Genoa and Venice, once had been one of the

emy, established Marsilio Ficino, developments in century, attempts

most important cities on the Italian peninsula, victorious

during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries with only

against the Saracens, and in the second crusade, active in

mediocre success. Universities were institutions for the training chiefly

banking and trade throughout the Middle East. It had developed its own legal code, and rudimentary republican but aristocratic form of government, known as Ghibel-

of administrators, doctors, and, in Italy, of a markedly

smaller group of theologians. In Florence itself altogether more radical attitudes to social and political life than those envisaged by the universities were being explored, and the Medici in Florence were rich enough

line, on account of its imperialist sympathies before 1100. The war waged sporadically with Genoa throughout the twelfth century was decisively lost by Pisa in

1284. By this date Pisa’s cathedral (begun in consecrated in 1118), the baptistry (begun in completed in 1278), and the Leaning Tower 1173) were all testifying to a grandeur that had

by Cosimo de’Medici and entrusted to was at the center of the most exciting European culture in the late fifteenth in Florence to found a university met

1068 and 1153 and (begun in passed.

to import officials from elsewhere. Florence was not, in

Something approaching a university can be assumed by a reference to a “nuntius,” or representative of the

Bologna and Padua. A resolution dissolved the Univer-

the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a place in which a

medieval university might be expected to function well, and certainly not to rival the established universities of sity of Florence in versity of Pisa; it accommodation in the life of the city,

Pisan scholars, in 1194. In the thirteenth century another stray reference shows that Pisa was attracting scholars

from as far away as Marseilles. The lawyer Bartolo di Sassoferrato, at Pisa from 1339 to 1343, writes of lecturing in Pisa’s studium generale in 1340. The privileges of

favor of amalgamation with the Uniexplicitly mentioned the expense of Florence, the distracting delights of the departure of Pisa’s wealthier citi-

zens, and Pisa’s declining prosperity. In the end, under Lorenzo de’ Medici, a merger of

the studium generale were conferred on Pisa in a 1343 leges of “Bologna, Paris, and other famous studia genera-

Florence’s classes of higher education with the University of Pisa took place on November 1, 1472. Pisa gained Florence’s university. The city was in need of resuscita-

lia.” (The university lists this as its official opening.)

tion; it had lost its eleventh-century commercial impor-

Another bull allowed beneficed clergymen to study at

tance and military power.

Pisa, and the foundation was confirmed by Urban V in

cheaper accommodation,

1364. Siena and Arezzo were erected into studia generalia at the same time. The conferment of the status of studia generalia on the Italian peninsula (never granted to Genoa or Mantua) did not imply the ascendancy achieved in northern Europe by Paris or Oxford over neighboring chapter or cathedral schools. By 1438 Pisa was awarding degrees in virtue of both papal and imperial authority, although references to the

nificent architecture. Pisa also offered the advantage of

bull of Clement VI, which conferred on Pisa all the privi-

As a university it offered

first-class facilities, and mag-

deflecting from Florence what might have proved any

unwelcome attention to the contents of the curriculum or the orthodoxy of the teaching. Hence, the history of the

University of Pisa can scarcely be unraveled from that of Renaissance Florence. Florence had been defeated by Pisa in 1315 at Monte-

catini. Seriously weakened by further military defeat in 592

UNIVERSITY OF PISA

593

University of Pisa

1325, by plague in 1348, by war with Milan, by war in

ordinary curriculum was henceforward to be taught at

1375 against the papacy, by the revolt in 1378 of the dayworkers in the wool trade, and by the threat of Visconti conquest in 1402, Florence became oligarchic, effectively

Pisa. The Florentine Grand Council had in 1471 nominated five representatives “to organize a worthy studio in the city of Florence, and not elsewhere,” but the decree restored the studio at Pisa.

controlled by a score of important families. They reversed

its decline, and expanded its dominion in Tuscany, attaching much importance to the conquest of Pisa in 1406. Florence allied with Venice in 1425, and made peace with Milan in 1428. It was the failure of Florence’s expansionist ambition to bring Lucca into its control which set in train the events which led to the assumption of power in Florence by Cosimo de’ Medici in 1434. Lorenzo de’ Medici revived the Pisan studio only by moving much of the teaching away from Florence’s own studio and by imposing a ban on Florentine citizens which

The immediate cause scarcely can have been the sud-

den realization that accommodation in Pisa was less expensive. It has been more reasonably supposed that Lorenzo, realizing the place that Florence occupied at

the forefront of the peninsula’s cultural life, was not prepared to see its future administrators go off to Bologna and Padua for their training. The use that Florence proposed to make of Pisa was similar to that which Venice

prohibited them from studying other than at Pisa. The bull

had already successfully made of Padua. The arrangement had the advantage of going some way to appease the hostility still felt at Pisa by its treatment at Florentine

dissolving Florence’s own university dates from 1471, as

hands since its recapture in 1406, and was made easier

Pisa became host to the university of its conquerors from

by the fact that the bishop of Pisa was a Medici on

November of the following year. The University of Pisa

friendly terms with the pope. After 1509 the Florentine grand dukes were again to restore the University of Pisa,

was to become second only to Padua in reputation among the centers of learning on the peninsula. The University of Pisa was placed under a Florentine board of governors and had a Florentine provisor. Lorenzo kept at Florence only a few teachers. A decree stipulated that there should be “three or four” teachers of grammar, and mentioned the need to provide for the teaching of the Latin poets and orators, but the bulk of

and it was to be there that Galileo, a native of the city, was to establish his European reputation between 1592

and 1610. The statutes of both Pisa and Florence show that during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Pisa came increasingly under the control of its Florentine city-state board, as professorial salaries became less of a charge on

594

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

the student purse and more on civic finances. That development also released the professors from their humiliating subjection to the student rector as had been first established at Bologna. Now both teachers and students became subject to civic authority. At Pisa, where the bedels were charged with noting the attendance and punctuality of professors, they reported not to the rector,

century when its degrees carried greater prestige. In the Italian universities investiture with the doctorate corresponded to the inception ceremony in northern institutions, and originated in a first ceremonial exercise of the powers attached to the new dignity in a way analogous to the reception ceremonies of the guilds of merchants and

but to the governing board of civic officials, which also

craftsmen. Presents, in time commuted to payments, had

retained the right of appointment. Benedict XII, pope from 1334 to 1342, refused to allow diversion of ecclesiastical revenues from the diocese of Pisa to support the

to be given by the candidate to the participating officials.

studium, but much later Pope Sixtus V (1585-90) did

allow a tax of 5,000 ducats to be raised from the clergy to support the studium. For a brief period after 1338, the Pisa school was

were lower than those at Bologna, until the sixteenth

At Pisa, in addition to fees, candidates were required to

send each participating doctor a box of comfits of stipulated weight, as well as to pay for a banquet. Lorenzo’s second son, Giovanni, as Pope Leo X from 1513, was an active patron of the University of Pisa, but

kept full by the migration from Bologna. Very swiftly,

the institution declined again after his death, and by 1551 the city’s whole population is estimated to have been

its student body split into at least two “universities,” or

under 10,000. Nonetheless, in 1581 Galileo entered the

regionally grouped student bodies, apparently with dif-

University of Pisa to study medicine and mathematics.

ferent leaders or rectores by 1340. It may be that the rectores ruled not different national groups, but students of different disciplines, jurists on the one hand, with medical students and artists on the other. The rectores enjoyed wide jurisdiction, extending to all civil cases and to all criminal proceedings except those for theft or

He left in 1585 to study mathematics at Florence, holding

homicide. The plague of 1348 severely damaged the Pisan institution, which took a century to recover. At times, teach-

ing seems to have been altogether suspended, and in any case no trace was left before Pisa recovered from the

a chair in that subject at Pisa from 1589 to 1592, when he left for Padua. It is unlikely that he ever dropped objects from the Leaning Tower. (While at Pisa, Galileo still believed that only bodies made of the same material accelerated at the same rate under the force of gravity, irrespective of differences in weight; he reportedly con-

ducted experiments from the tower.) The next major expansion of the University of Pisa

1406 conquest by Florence. In the fifteenth century the University of Pisa was four times forced temporarily to

took place in the nineteenth century, when the university embraced Italy’s rising interest in science. In 1839 Italy hosted its first congress of scientists. Pisa, in response, assembled faculties in jurisprudence, philosophy, philol-

move, in 1478 to Pistoia on account of the plague, in

ogy, medicine and surgery, natural sciences, and veteri-

1482 and 1486 to Prato for the same reason, and in 1495

nary sciences.

again to Prato on account of the revolt in Florence. Teaching had originally taken place in hired rooms, increasingly paid for by the governing board, but Lorenzo de’

Medici turned the corn exchange into a grand university building in 1492. The same building also housed a col-

In the nineteenth

and early twentieth centuries,

a

number of political events affected the university. In

1848 several faculty and a large portion of the student body participated in the Austro-Hungarian War, which precipitated the university moving the faculties of theol-

Lorenzo moved the teaching of the standard curriculum,

ogy and jurisprudence to Siena. In 1923, the fascists restructured the University of Pisa as a “Gentile” uni-

he spared no pains to see that the revived university at

versity, and it was not until the end of World War II that

Pisa was a success. Lorenzo himself moved for several

Pisa was able to return to its more open and avant-garde educational style.

lege founded

by Lorenzo

for poor

students.

When

months from 1473 to 1474 to Pisa, and the salaries were

adequate to attract the finest professors. By the end of the fifteenth century the student univer-

In 1967, the university was divided into three distinct branches: the Studi, for professional study, the Scuola

sitates had amalgamated at Pisa, and there was only one

Normale Superiore for letters and sciences, and the Isti-

rector. The Italian pattern was moving in the direction of

tuti Pisani

that of the northern universities as separate colleges of doctors and universitates of students adopted a structure nearer to that of a single university divided into facul-

(CNR).

ties.

About student life at Pisa we know relatively little. The licentiate, awarded after private examination, led normally to the doctorate, which meant incurring additional expense and was sometimes therefore taken at a university where the charges were less. Paduan charges

del

Consiglio

Nazionale

delle

(Pisan Institutes of the National

Ricerche

Council

for

Research). The CNR focuses on five sciences: biology and medicine, chemistry, physics, information and computer sciences, and environmental and earth sciences.

There are 14 separate institutes within CNR, employing over 600 people. In order to modernize, the CNR began a large-scale program to build facilities to accommodate all the institutes. One of the largest research centers in Italy,

the CNR invested millions of lire in the new center.

UNIVERSITY OF PISA The

university

currently

employs

300

595

professors

Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, the 1936 edition

(excluding the CNR), and 28,000 students attend annu-

in three volumes edited by F.M. Powicke and A.B. Emden

ally. There are 20 degree-granting fields in 11 faculty divisions.

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1895; revised edition, 1936). For the history of Pisa, see D. Herlihy’s Pisa in the

Further Reading: Basic information on the history of the University of Pisa is contained in Hastings Rashdall’s The

Early Renaissance (Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1973).

—A.H.T. Levi

UNIVERSITY OF POITIERS (Poitiers, France) Location:

In a mid-size provincial city of 83,000

attract French students to learn under French teachers. Using the exiled faculty as a nucleus, he established a new university at Poitiers. Charles was unable to obtain formal approval for his university from the pope, how-

inhabitants, 219 miles southwest of Paris.

Description:

_A state institution operated under the jurisdiction of the minister of education and financed by the state, offering undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees to approximately 22,000 students.

Information:

ever, until March 31, 1431. In that year, Eugene IV issued a papal bull conferring upon the university at Poitiers all

the privileges granted to the University of Toulouse and ordering the new university to be based upon the model

of that university. In 1432, the University of Poitiers was formally and solemnly opened with a charter granted by Charles VII. The French king had obtained his French

— University of Poitiers 15, Rue de Blossac 86034 Poitiers Cedex

university.

France

Like the University of Paris, the University of Poitiers was composed of four faculties—arts, theology, law, and

(49) 45 30 00

medicine. The actual constitutional arrangements for the

governing of the university, however, were a compromise between those of the universities at Paris and Bologna, and

differed from those outlined in the papal bull. There was one rector for the university and two law faculties—canon

As a small provincial university, the University of Poitiers has endured and prospered for five centuries, due mostly to support from the city. Trough periods of revolution, reaction, and rebirth, the university has continued its educational mission. Among the notable persons associated with the university are writers Honoré de Balzac, Francois Rabelais, Joachim du Bellay, and philosopher René Descartes. Today, after a period of turmoil and reorganization in French education, the University of Poitiers combines the best of the old and the new. The old is embodied in the “Centre d’Etudes Supérieures de Civili-

law and civil law. The law students, at least, were divided into four nations—France, Aquitaine, Touraine, and

Barry—to represent the geographic origins of the students. Each nation selected a rector to represent its interests in the university. Selection was based upon a public disputa-

tion in which the candidates had to debate with all comers. The actual governing of the university was done by the

rector, assisted by a general congregation, composed of doctors, masters, and graduates of all faculties, except

arts. The choice of rector apparently rotated between the nations and the faculties. In contrast with similar universities, however, the University of Poitiers had no formal

sation Médiévale,” a noted institution for the study of the

Middle Ages; the new is represented by the “Parc du Futuroscope,” a center for exploring and creating the future through technology.

connection with the local bishop and cathedral; instead,

the treasurer of the Collegiate Church of St. Hilary was named to serve as chancellor.

The city has a long history. It was founded by the Gallic Pictones

(hence the name),

although the Romans

referred to it as Limonum. The city was an early center of

The University of Poitiers continued to function after

the Hundred Years’ War ended and the University of Paris once again became the premier French university. One reason for its survival was the unusual amount of

Christianity, with its first bishop St. Hilarius (360-367).

Arian Visigoths made the city their capital, but it was conquered by the Franks in 507 and became the capital

support it received from the city of Poitiers. By the standards of the time, the University of Poitiers was a large

for all Frenchmen from Poitiers in 1577, in a document

later know as the Edict of Poitiers. The University of Poitiers’s origins can be traced to

institution—300 to 400 students of varied background—

the political needs of the medieval French monarchy. The

which increased in size as time passed. To support the

university owes its existence to the Hundred Years’ War

growing university, local residents made many generous donations. While most universities of the time had no

(1337-1453) between England and France. During a period of defeats for the French, Paris fell to the English, along with control of the University of Paris, center of

buildings of their own, the city began building the university’s “Great School” in 1448; 11 years later, the city

learning in France. King Charles VII was forced to estab-

also built a library. Teachers at other universities were

lish his court in Poitiers in 1428, bringing with him those

dependent upon fees paid by students for their income; at Poitiers, salaries were paid to the faculty by the municipal authorities in an effort to attract the best teachers and to

Paris faculty members loyal to his cause. Charles was anxious to counter the influence of the English and to 596

UNIVERSITY OF POITIERS retain them. In return, the city was

able to exert an

unusual degree of control over the university, apparently with royal support. Because municipal authorities paid the teachers’ salaries, they were also able to control who was hired and what they taught and also to correct what

597

pression of the universities. To the revolutionaries, universities represented bastions of corporatism and established interests. In addition, lands possessed by the universities and used for their support, represented a source of wealth to be tapped by the revolutionary gov-

they viewed as abuses, such as graduation without suffi-

ernment, just as property owned by the church had been

cient residence or qualification. An associated college was founded in 1478 by Francoise Gillier, Lady of Puygareau and widow of an advocate-fiscal in the Parlément of

confiscated. In 1792, the University of Poitiers, along with 21 other universities, was dissolved. Specialized

Paris. The College of Puygareau provided for a prior and eight scholars in theology and arts. Student life was given some structure, at least in the

entrance

beginning, by the nations, which functioned as corporate social groups, theoretically representing the geographic origins of students. Germans were well represented at the

University of Poitiers, and by the end of the fifteenth century, a large number were studying Roman law there. Things changed as more universities were founded, and rulers attempted to keep their subjects in their own countries. More and more students attended the institutions closets to their homes, leading to a regionalization of education. Poitiers ceased to attract foreign students such as

écoles, open to anyone with talent, and with rigorous examinations,

were

eventually established to

provide professional training in specialized areas. Even so, the revolutionary government found it necessary to allow some education faculties to continue at Poitiers. Throughout the nineteenth century, additional facul-

ties, especially in science, were established as required to serve the changing needs of French society. The most

important development in French education in the nineteenth century, however, was the reestablishment of the universities. Facing competition from German universities, especially following the French defeat in the FrancoPrussian War (1870-71), many French legislators were eager to recreate their universities. Debate centered on

Germans and drew more on French students from Poitou. During the sixteenth century, the student nations collapsed as meaningful groups. The authorities, who had come to view these groups as merely sources of trouble,

what form they should take. Reformers who favored efficiency wanted only five or six institutions to serve the

finally outlawed them in 1629. University education in France prior to the French Revolution was limited primarily to the wealthy and the

ones. If small universities were to be retained, some questioned whether they needed to have all the faculties, espe-

socially ambitious. Since education, especially in law, was required for more and more positions and provided a

opposed to the whole debate, fearing they would be dis-

entire nation. Smaller provincial faculties, like those at Poitiers, could be eliminated to free resources for larger

cially in the sciences. Members of smaller faculties were

able to consolidate their status through law degrees and

banded or would lose all funding. They also disliked the possible loss of autonomy, since the formerly independent faculties might be made answerable to the new university administrations. Nonetheless, the French legislature passed an education law in 1896, establishing 17 autonomous regional

positions as lawyers. In smaller cities and towns such as

universities, financed largely by the state. The various

Poitiers, lawyers became the new aristocracy and the leaders of urban society. Although law was growing in importance, other facul-

faculties in Poitiers were reestablished as the University of Poitiers. The new university was a small, but important, regional institution, offering education in many

ties at the University of Poitiers did not fare so well dur-

areas. On the eve of World War I, in 1914, the University of Poitiers had about 1,000 students The faculty of letters

boost to one’s social standing, some faculties expanded rapidly during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At Poitiers, for example, the law faculty doubled in size

during the seventeenth century. Leading families were

ing this period. It was not uncommon for some faculties to suspend teaching for extended periods of time. Most notably, the medical faculty at Poitiers did almost no teaching during the entire eighteenth century. Part of the problem may have been the small size of the medical faculty. At one point, only four undistinguished doctors comprised the teaching staff; at the same time, more prestigious institutions had over 100 doctors on their medical faculty, including several famous medical authors. Since the relative prestige of one’s university played a role in one’s success, there was little incentive to attend the medical faculty at Poitiers. By 1789, the only teaching faculties active at Poitiers were those of law and theology. The French Revolution, with its emphasis on the individual and on an end to inherited privilege, saw the sup-

had about 200 students, the science faculties had between 90 and 140, and the combined faculties of medicine and pharmacy had 39 students. Through two worlds wars and a depression , the University of Poitiers continued to grow. Increasing numbers of women and foreign students joined the student body. Cooperative educational programs have been established with many foreign universities, including the University of Oregon, the University of Valladolid in Spain, and the University of Coimbra in Portugal. By the late 1960s, however, many French students were gripped with a growing

sense that the universities

were

cold,

sterile places, which turned out graduates unlikely to get jobs. Individual faculties remained nearly autonomous

598

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

from the university administration. The universities did not even have their own budget as a whole, since it was

divided among the faculties. Following riots by students in Paris in 1968, French education

was

reformed.

The

Loi

d’orientation

de

l’ensiegnement supérieur of 1968 divided the old faculties into smaller departments, or Unités d’enseignement et de recherche (UERs), reduced the power of the Minis-

try of Education, and established smaller universities with strengthened administrations. The UERs were combined with existing Instituts universitaires de technologie (IUTs) (two-year courses of study with technological emphasis) as the basic building blocks for the universi-

ters umiversity property, and hires all university personnel. He or she is also chair of all three boards and is responsible for law and order within the university. In response to the increasingly technical nature of the world, the university is establishing the “Parc du Futuroscope,” a scientific park devoted to advances in the sciences. Supporters hope to make it a center for applying science to the future. The University of Poitiers is a

unique institution which remembers and honors its roots but looks to the future. It has endured through difficult times, but is establishing itself as a forward-looking institution serving the needs of its region.

ties.

While the University of Poitiers was not divided into smaller universities, it did receive a new administrative

structure. Like all French universities, it is administered

by three boards, composed of elected representatives of the university community and appointed members from

outside academia. The first of the board of administration

(conseil d’administration), which determines general policy for the university, votes the budget, and approves programs and degrees. The second board is the scientific board (conseil scientifiques), which overseas research and

Further Reading: Hasting Rashdall’s The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936)

is the best starting point for information specific to the founding and early years of the University of Poitiers. A more modern complement, both in coverage and in publication date, is A History of the University in Europe, edited by

Hilde de Ridder-Symoens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). Other useful works that describe the French university system, with helpful information about the University of Poitiers, include L.W.B. Brockliss’s French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: A

teaching practices in the university. The final board is the

Cultural History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), George

board of studies and student life (conseil des études et de

Weisz’s The Emergence of Modern Universities in France,

la vie universitaire), which advises the board of adminis-

1863-1914 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983), and R.D. Anderson’s Education in France

tration on issues and is concerned primarily with student life in all aspects, such as the library, medical care, and

sports. All three boards jointly elect a president every five years from among the faculty of the university. The president represents the university in all official acts, adminis-

1848-1870 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).

—Tim J. Watts

UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER (Rochester, New York, U.S.A.) Location:

In Rochester, 80 miles east of Buffalo, New

Not everyone on the 146-student campus was content

with the location of the school. The remote town of Hamilton lacked the facilities enjoyed by urban schools

York.

Description:

_A private university with over 9,000

such as Brown and Yale, and dissatisfaction with Madi-

undergraduate, graduate, and part-time students.

Information:

son’s location was rife on campus. Madison trustee John Wilder, one of the most vocal proponents of moving the school, said, “We

— Office of Admissions

are advocating

its removal

on the

grounds of its location, its dilapidated buildings, the badness of the roads leading to it, the smallness of its own

University of Rochester

Rochester, NY 14627 U.S.A. (716) 275-3221

library, [and] its distance from other large libraries.”

Were Madison to relocate, Rochester would have been the logical destination. For three years “removalists” and “Hamiltonians” debated the location of the school; however, in 1849 the New York Supreme Court issued first a

temporary

and then a permanent

injunction

against

Shortly after a small faculty and student body moved into

removal. The failure to move Madison to a more cosmopolitan

a renovated hotel in Rochester, New York, and called it a university in 1850, Ralph Waldo Emerson observed that

location launched the campaign to create what would be the University of Rochester. Wilder and William Sage,

the professors of this fledgling but intrepid institution

the son of a Rochester boot manufacturer, began an intensive public campaign to win approval for the new school,

were “confident of graduating a class of Ten by the time green peas were ripe.”

and scoured the countryside near and far to bring in fund-

While such a hope seems modest by today’s standards,

ing for the new

institution,

raising a grand total of

$142,000 between them.

Rochester was a city undergoing tremendous transformation in the first half of the nineteenth century. On the

The 24 trustees who constituted the school’s managing

banks of the Erie Canal and the Genesee River, the city swelled during the 1820s with burgeoning industry and trade. With the new industrialism, the city filled with a

body met for the first time in September 1850. Assem-

restless transient population of adventurers, displaced workers, and tradesmen, who raised the ire of the city’s

bling a faculty proved no problem, since many of the best professors from Madison University moved to Rochester. The difficulty in finding a campus for the new school was solved by the procurement of an old hotel on Buffalo

established classes with their rowdy behavior.

Street, the United States Hotel, which had been built to

As in much of the United States, the anxiety accompanying these sweeping social changes fanned the new evangelism of the Great Revival. After the religious fervor subsided in the 1830s, Rochester’s major cultural characteristic was its plethora of churches, including several Baptist congregations. As these fiercely sectarian groups competed to attract members to their congregations, religious colleges sprang up beside the churches to provide “a Christian education for the gentleman of the

serve people traveling on the Erie Canal. The professors who abandoned Madison encouraged their students to do so as well, and so toward the end of October 1850, 28 refdents in all answered the attendance call on the first day

particular denomination.”

nent site for the school other than the hotel then serving

ugees from Madison converged on Rochester. Sixty stuof class,

a number which grew to 82 by the end of the

year. Tuition in that year was $10 per term, with a $2 surcharge for “incidentals.” As the university grew, the trustees sought a perma-

A small Baptist college existed in Hamilton, New

as a campus. A prominent Rochester resident, Azariah

The college

Boody, offered eight acres to the east of the city as a site

began in 1820 “for the purpose of educating pious young men to the gospel ministry”; by 1846 it was chartered by the state as Madison University (later Colgate). The school, managed by the joint jurisdiction of the state Baptist Education Society and a board of trustees, was viewed by the Baptist denomination of New York as one of its proudest possessions.

for the university; the trustees accepted the land in 1853

York, several miles

outside

of Rochester.

as the location for what came to be called the “East Avenue colony,” a library built some years later and Anderson Hall, named for the school’s first president Martin

Anderson. During the Civil War, the school suffered a serious—

almost fatal—decline in enrollment and income as stu599

600

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Rochester

dents rallied to the union cause. After Lincoln became the Republican candidate, students formed clandestine “wide-awake clubs” which held political rallies and met in the basement of school buildings for drills. President Anderson aligned himself fiercely with the union cause, but nonetheless urged students not to be moved by their

emotions. Despite his pleas, 1 out of 12 undergraduates enlisted, as well as 85 of 198 Rochester graduates. After the war, the university remained in perpetual financial crisis, but managed to avoid “all pecuniary embarrassment,” in the words of President Anderson. The university saw modest growth during these years,

UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER including the erection of Sibley Hall (named for the wealthy Rochester benefactor Hiram Sibley) as the school library. By the turn of the century, the city of Rochester had evolved into a robust, cosmopolitan center with 130,000 residents. Like the rest of America, the city was moving

into an era of modern industrialism; the university, how-

ever, remained identified as a primarily Baptist institu-

601

factors. Rhees made the acquaintance of George Eastman, who had begun retailing cameras in 1888 and by the turn of the century had become one of Rochester’s wealthiest citizens. While his total contributions to the University of Rochester exceeded $51 million, Eastman

is perhaps best known for the contributions that founded the Eastman School of Music and the School of Medicine and Dentistry. With plans for the Eastman School of Music com-

tion, lacking a widespread appeal among _ the heterogeneous population of Rochester and the nation at

pleted by 1919, the first classes were

large. After President Anderson announced his resigna-

Though

tion in 1886, the trustees

elected David

moron,” he nonetheless felt that music deserved an inte-

Jayne Hill as president of the university in 1888 in the

gral role in the leisurely pursuits of an advanced indus-

hope that Hill would bring to bear his administrative skills in tackling the ongoing fiscal difficulties of the

trial society. So strongly did he hold these sentiments that Eastman contributed nearly $10 million to the music

school. During his tenure as president, however, deficits continued to grow and fundraising efforts foundered. He

school and expressed his dedication in the inscription

unanimously

stepped down in 1896 after a brief and disappointing presidency. Like most institutions of higher learning, Rochester

faced an increasing demand from women to be admitted to the school. The 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, held a mere

50 miles from Rochester,

had earlier called for

equal education for women in the historic “Declaration of Sentiments,” and one of the most vocal and vociferous advocates of women’s rights, Susan B. Anthony, lived in Rochester. Toward the turn of the century, the chorus grew even louder. While undergraduate sentiment appeared to be against accepting women into the

Eastman

described

himself

held in 1921.

as

a “musical

atop the Eastman Theater, “For the enrichment of com-

munity life.” Rochester’s School of Medicine and Dentistry came to be when Eastman dedicated $30,000 per year to the Rochester Dental Dispensary, whose primary purpose was the care of poor children’s teeth. At the same time as Eastman was making lavish contributions to the dispen-

sary, Dr. Abraham

Flexner—the author of a scathing

indictment of the U.S. medical establishment in 1910—

approached Rhees with the proposal for a medical school at Rochester. The three met in February 1920, and later in the year publicly unveiled the project, a school for both the study of general medicine as well as dentistry. Contributions

school, many faculty and friends of the school supported coeducation. In 1891, when Susan B. Anthony held a reception for 200 guests in honor of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the nationally known champion of women’s rights, many of the guests spoke in favor of

Memorial Hospital, allowing Rochester to claim the dis-

bringing women

and

began for the first students, and in January 1926, Strong

audited classes at the school. In

Memorial Hospital treated its first patient, Harry Commons, who was afflicted with stomach pains. Frightened

into the school. Between

1893, several women

1891

1893 Helen E. Wilkinson entered the freshman class with the tentative approval of the president. Her expenses were paid by Susan B. Anthony and some of

Anthony’s friends. Wilkinson had agreed not to matriculate and thus would not be eligible to receive a degree. After two years, poor health caused Wilkinson to withdraw, and in 1897 she died. In 1898, the trustees voted to make the university coeducational if those in favor of college training for women could raise $100,000. When she heard this news, Anthony reportedly cried, “This is better news to me than victory over Spain. It is a peacevictory, achieved only by the death of prejudice and pre-

cedents.” In September 1900, 33 women registered for classes. In 1900, Rush Rhees was inaugurated as president of the university. During his tenure, Rhees oversaw some of

the most sweeping changes yet in the university. World

War

I saw

the university’s

enrollment—and

subse-

quently its income—fall sharply. Rhees and the trustees reacted by aggressively pursuing donations from bene-

from the Strong family of Rochester funded the Strong tinction of having the first medical school in the country with both a school and a hospital. In 1925, instruction

by the number of attentive nurses and doctors at hand, the

patient promptly left the hospital, only to return the next day for (successful) treatment.

The suggestion had been made in 1920 that perhaps the university had outgrown its campus on Prince Street, and a new movement began urging the university to relocate.

George Todd,

a wealthy

Rochester

resident,

proposed the idea of moving the university to the grounds of the Oak Hill Country Club by the Genesee River several miles from the city. Rhees, Todd, and over 50 powerful Rochesterians met for a “reconnaissance”

talk at Todd’s home to discuss the expansion. They decided that $10 million would be required to erect a new campus, toward which Eastman donated $2.5 mil-

lion. A fundraising campaign with the slogan “Ten Millions in Ten Days” sought donations from alumni and local citizens. The “River Campus” groundbreaking was in 1927, and the new campus was declared completed on a foggy October day in 1930.

602

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Eastman, who committed suicide in 1932 at the age of

establishment

of a SANE

(Committee

for a Sane

79, bequeathed the majority of his $17.6 million estate to

Nuclear

the university, where it passed into a University Endow-

picket Woolworth’s in solidarity with southern lunch-

ment

counter protesters, in Rochester whose gated. For the first administration of

Fund.

In 1933

President

Rhees

wrote,

“Income

from these designated gifts has saved us from dire financial trouble

during

this year of Universal

distress.”

Despite the munificence of the university’s donors, the burden of the president’s office had grown heavy for Rhees, now in his seventies. He announced his resignation in 1930, and in 1934 the presidential post passed to Alan Valentine, a graduate of Swarthmore College and a

Rhodes scholar. Eastman’s bequest allowed the university under Valentine’s guidance to envision a more prosperous future, including the growth of graduate studies, expansion of scholarships, and a more comprehensive plan of study for the arts and sciences.

During World War II, the battles overseas permeated every aspect of university life. As in the rest of America, the university practiced drills, rationed, and sold war bonds. By 1943, one-third of the class of 1946 had

entered the armed forces. The drop in enrollment, however, was offset by the arrival of the V-12 corps on cam-

pus, students who combined academics with training for the navy. Approximately 800 V-12 members arrived at

Policy)

chapter.

In 1961,

students

began

and they protested at movie southern franchises remained time, students became active the university, protesting

to

houses segrein the tuition

increases in 1961 and the de-emphasis on undergraduate classes. The dissent among students led to the formation of a Faculty-Student Policy Review Group to consider the sentiments of the students and make recommendations to the administration. When W. Allen Wallis became president in 1963, one

of his first acts was to confer an honorary degree on

former president of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower, who became the first former United States president so honored by the university. It fell to Wallis to steer the university through one of the most turbulent periods

in American history, the Vietnam War era. Though many radicals and some conservatives were unhappy with Wallis’s declaration that the campus should be open for discussion of all views but should avoid a commitment to political goals, Rochester emerged relatively unscarred from that era.

Rochester, ushering in “naval and marine standards of

Until 1975, Rochester had always selected its presi-

discipline” to the campus throughout the course of the

dents from a pool of candidates from outside the univer-

war. At the conclusion of the war, the university saw a

sity. This tradition ended when Robert L. Sproull, who

remarkable inrush of students. While 5,600 were attend-

had come

ing the university prior to Pearl Harbor, enrollment

president in that year. Sproull’s strength as a fundraiser

reached 6,420 by 1946, and 9,444 by 1950. University spending was on the increase as well, largely because of the huge growth in research funded by the government,

was evident when a campaign to raise $102 million actually raised $108 million. His years also saw Roches-

industrial firms, and educational foundations during and after the war.

tenure, the Strong Memorial Hospital opened, the Can-

President Valentine unexpectedly announced his resignation in 1949, and a trustee search committee began the

Laser Energetics research.

process of finding a replacement. That replacement was found in Cornelis W. de Kiewiet. Though born in the Netherlands, de Kiewiet was raised in South Africa, studied in Paris and Berlin, and chaired the modern history

department at Cornell before assuming the Rochester

to Rochester in 1968, was inaugurated as

ter taking a lead in medicine and in research. During his cer Center

was

constructed,

became

and the Laboratory

for

a leading center for laser

G. Dennis O’Brien, president from 1984 to 1994, pre-

sided over a university whose undergraduate applications nearly doubled and whose student body became more diverse. Among the innovations O’Brien introduced was the “Take Five” program, which permitted students to

separated

take a fifth, tuition-free year while working for the bachelor’s degree. He was instrumental in the establishment of

between the River Campus and the Prince Street Campus—were integrated into a single College of Arts and

the Frederick Douglass Institute for African and AfricanAmerican Studies and the Susan B. Anthony Center for

Sciences. To accommodate the consolidation of the two bodies onto the River Campus, the college underwent a

Women’s Studies, both of which actually opened shortly

major expansion, including the building of new residence halls and a greatly expanded offering of classes, including instruction on non-western civilization. Student interest in politics at this time was tepid. While, during the late 1950s, civil rights became an issue with the forced integration of previously all-white fraternities on campus, not until the early 1960s did students begin to respond to the new political currents running through the nation. The year 1960 saw the

university during O’Brien’s administration came when, in

presidency in June 1951. Under de Kiewiet’s tenure, the

Men’s

and

Women’s

Colleges—formerly

after he retired from office. Another high point for the 1990,

U.S.

News

&

World

Report

ranked

Rochester

among the nation’s top 25 universities; three years later

the magazine placed it among the top 25 “best values” among America’s universities. In the years intervening between the time that Ralph Waldo Emerson made his observation in 1850 and the end of the twentieth century, the university has graduated over 75,000 living alumni, among them Nobel laureates,

UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER

603

Pulitzer Prize-winning poets, and world-class musicians. Were Emerson able to return to Rochester in spring when

Johnson (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978). One of the most comprehensive histories of the Univesity of Rochester

the peas are ripe, he would hardly recognize the school

available is A History of the University of Rochester:

that has risen from such humble beginnings. Further Reading: For an excellent account of revivalism in Rochester, read A Shopkeeper’s Millenium by Paul E.

1850-

1962, by Arthur J. May (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1977).

—Theodore Emery

UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS (St. Andrews, Scotland) Location:

Description:

Information:

St. Andrews, Scotland, 45 miles north of

versity of St. Andrews to break away from the antipope

Edinburgh.

and pledge faith to Pope Martin V. This desertion of Benedict XIII was likely based on pure economics, see-

A coeducational institution enrolling 5,400

ing that Benedict had been deposed in 1417, and no

students in undergraduate and graduate schools.

longer offered much usefulness to his followers.

Over the course of the next century, three colleges were developed on university premises. St. Salvator’s was

Public Relations College Gate

established in 1450, followed by St. Leonard’s in 1512 and St. Mary’s in 1537. By 1553, the three colleges had received a papal grant but, along with all other European

St. Andrews

Fife KY16 9AJ Scotland

colleges, suffered the consequences of the Reformation. The Reformation, a period of religious resurgence in

(01334) 462530

the European nations out of which Protestantism was created, had authorities in some cities reappropriating revenues previously intended for university theologians.

Moreover, this intense period of religious, political, and economic turmoil manifested in growing ecclesiastical differences, prompting rapid student decline in many uni-

Established as the outcome of a rise in nationalism and more specifically due to the exclusion of Scottish students from the universities of Oxford, Paris, and Orléans,

versities. Therefore, following the Reformation, the University of St. Andrews, a learning center predicated on Catholicism, lost its dominance as an ecclesiastical giant.

the University of St. Andrews had its beginnings when a cadre of educators and scholars driven from France decided to locate a center of higher education in the coastal city of Fife, near Edinburgh in eastern Scotland.

By 1579, the colleges of St. Salvator’s and St. Leonard’s

took the generic monicker of the Colleges of Philosophy, and the College of St. Mary’s was limited to the study of

Subsequently founded in 1410, the University of St. Andrews stands as the first university in the country’s long history. The need for Scotland’s premiere university came out of the period between 1378-1429, referred to in Europe as the “Great Schism.” During this era, Scotland and France gave loyalty to Benedict XIII, the antipope of Avignon, France, in clear contrast to England which conformed to the doctrine of Pope Martin V in Rome. Scot-

reformed theology. For the next century, the University of St. Andrews

made great gains in reestablishing itself as a college of preeminence. During this time, the university boasted teachers the likes of renowned Presbyterian leader and scholar Andrew Melville and historian George Buchanan.

Many of the college rectors have been equally well known, including novelist James M. Barrie and former South African prime minister Jan Christian Smuts.

tish students traveled to Paris for their university training, but in 1408, when France abandoned

its devotion to

Benedict XIII, the antipope moved to Spain. Scottish

By 1747, St. Salvator’s and St. Leonard’s colleges had

scholars found themselves in a difficult position.

Learning centers in Spain were few and mediocre, and

merged to form the United College, an amalgamation that

Scotland’s remaining loyalty to the antipope was the antithesis to France’s new consecration of the Roman pope. The University of Paris therefore made it difficult for Scottish students to continue, thus serving as impetus

continues today. The United College houses all arts and sciences and the College of St. Mary’s remains as the Divinity College. These buildings and all other college

property has, since 1858, come under the charge of a supreme governing body of some 25 members culled from within the university and local municipal associations. These university overseers saw an opportunity to enhance the college’s reputation as a distinguished learn-

for Scotland to create a university of its own. More a small association of scholars than a center of

higher learning at the time of its establishment, the University of St. Andrews was incorporated in 1411 by charter and conferred with full university status two years

ing center when in 1897, Queen’s College in Dundee,

later by papal bulls issued by Benedict XIII. The bulls gave the University of St. Andrews title to teach a number

Scotland, joined the University of St. Andrews to estab-

lish a “Conjoint School of Medicine.” That association came to an end in 1967 when a separate University of Dundee was established. The university has been coeducational since 1892; the first century of female matriculation was celebrated in

of faculties, including canon and civil law, theology, medicine, and the arts. It should be noted that despite its prior and unswerving devotion to Benedict XIII, the Scottish

Church in 1417 was persuaded by the masters of the Uni604

UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS _ 605

University of St. Andrews

1992 when two Women’s Centenary Research Fellowships were established in the School of Physics and Astronomy and the Scottish History Department. Today, the University of St. Andrews retains acclaim for its achievements in history, the humanities, and theology, but also boasts its reputation as a center for research in laser and solar physics, biological chemistry, neuroscience, psychology, and computer science. While these subjects may be modern, many are taught in buildings dating back to the fifteenth century. Located in the town

home of the Royal and Ancient Club, a prestigious golf authority established in 1754. Among the city’s other notable landmarks are ruins of Scotland’s largest cathedral and St. Andrews Castle. Tradition as old as some of the town’s landmarks plays

a significant part of student life at the University of St. Andrews. Many scholars in the faculties of arts and science wear a scarlet undergraduate gown during special events. The robe-like costume dates back to the seventeenth century and infers degrees of seniority, depending

trative buildings, arts schools, and lecture halls stand in

on how far it is worn off the shoulder. Its present-day quality and texture saw beginnings in 1838 when stu-

St. Salvator’s Quadrangle

on North Street, while St.

dents, as testimony to the cold weather of Scotland, made

Mary’s College, off South Street, has its own quadrangle. One-half mile from the town center is where more mod-

an appeal to university authorities to change the overgar-

center of St. Andrews, the university’s library, adminis-

ern campus buildings are situated, in which the physical and mathematical sciences are taught. The university is just one of several internationally

know sites in a community with a relatively small population of 16,000. Once an important medieval town and fishing port, St. Andrews is perhaps best known as the

ment from a thin robe to a thick cloak. Students wearing the colorful gowns can be seen on Sundays during the

Pier Walk when they stroll along the town pier. Two other long-standing customs are popular on campus. Raisin Monday is based on a tradition that couples third- and fourth-year students with first-year students. The older students act as “parents” to the younger charges

606

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

and as such help them better settle into campus life. Tra-

the individuals and events that have shaped both the city

ditionally, the first-year students present their older guardians with a bottle of wine on Raisin Monday, a gift that has seen transmutation since the original gratuity of a pound of raisins. The “parents” issue a receipt for the wine to the first

and University of St. Andrews.

year students. The acknowledgment, scribed in Latin, can

be written on anything. Moreover, “parents” have the authority to dress their “children” in clothing inappropriate to the climate and march them through town. In contrast, the Kate Kennedy procession serves as more of a

historical celebration. Each April, students dress to depict

Further Reading: For general background on the country, region, and town, see William Craft Dickinson’s “Scotland from the Earliest Times to 1603” (London and New York: Thomas Nelson, 1961).

—Sharon Nery

UNIVERSITY OF SALAMANCA (Salamanca, Spain) Location:

Description:

In the old section of Salamanca, 120 miles

stated that students and professors were outside the juris-

west-northwest of Madrid.

diction of the regular courts. The students formed a selfgoverning body and elected a rector as their leader. Although the university gained the support of both the crown and the papacy in words, actual financial assis-

_A state institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Science, the

university enrolls approximately 25,290

tance was relatively infrequent. Often grants from the

traditional and 25,290 correspondence students.

Information:

king were promised but never paid. Professors did not receive their salaries and so refused to work. As a result of these troubles and especially after Alfonso’s abdication, the university came close to financial ruin and clo-

— University of Salamanca Patio de Escuelas 1 37008 Salamanca

sure during the last half of the thirteenth century.

Spain (923) 214518

The university found new life in the beginning of the next century under the reign of Ferdinand IV. In 1300, the king granted to the university one-third of the tithes col-

lected in the Salamancan diocese. Called tercias reales, these tithes were previously earmarked for church conThe exact founding date of the University of Salamanca

struction and maintenance. Although it took more than 100 years for the revenues to be collected by the school on a permanent basis, the tercias reales provided the main financial support for the university until the nineteenth century. For the first century of its existence, the University of Salamanca felt the influence of the monarchy more than

is unknown, but it is estimated to be in the year 1200 or

shortly thereafter. What is certain is that the university is

the oldest in Spain and one of the oldest in Europe. One of the earliest records of the establishment of the University of Salamanca dates from 1243. In a charter issued in that year by Ferdinand the Saint of Castile, the university was taken under the protection of the crown and its privileges confirmed. Although the university had existed for

that of the church.

changes

nearly a half a century, this year is usually considered its founding date. Fortunately for the university, Alfonso X ascended to

proposed

The

papacy

would

approve

the

by the king, but the impetus

for

reforms came from the crown. In the fourteenth century,

the Spanish throne during the middle of the thirteenth century, the important formative period of the University

however, the situation reversed. Four succeeding popes reorganized the university’s departments, constitutions, and finances in various ways. Pope Clement V authorized the establishment of chairs

of Salamanca.

or “the

of Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldean. He also granted addi-

Learned,” was a tremendous supporter of scholarship and the arts. Alfonso’s interest in creating an educated populace helped the University of Salamanca grow. In 1252, the king continued the privileges granted to the university

tional revenues to the university. Pope John XII reorganized the administration of the university in 1334. He

nine years earlier; this charter, confirmed by Pope Alex-

cuela had recently assumed judicial powers over the fuero academico, the special privileges given to the university. From this point on, the maestrescuela slowly became the direct arm of the pope in the administration of the Univer-

Alfonso,

known

as “the Wise”

appointed the maestrescuela of the cathedral school as chancellor of the university. The office of the maestres-

ander IV, granted a substantial income to support the uni-

versity. In the charter, the pope also gave graduates of the University of Salamanca the right to teach in any European university, except those in Paris and Bologna. Alfonso the Wise is famous for his own writings, in addition to those produced under his patronage. In his

changes at the university in the late 1300s. Benedict, the

administrative

Alfonso

Spanish antipope, added new chairs, increased salaries,

devotes an entire chapter to education. This part of the code presents an ideal for university organization, although it cannot be determined how much the University of Salamanca actually conformed to the idea. Under Alfonso’s code, the university community enjoyed certain privileges as well as exemptions from regular laws. Known as the fuero academico, this part of the code

and reformed the university’s constitutions. The modern

code,

called

Siete

Partidas,

sity of Salamanca. Pope Benedict XIII was responsible for starting major

statutes reflected the acceptance of Roman law in Spain. The changes made by Benedict lasted only a short time; soon after the new statutes were approved Castile transferred its support from Benedict, the antipope, to Pope Martin V. Martin, who upheld many of Benedict’s directions for the university, later issued a new set of statutes. 607

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UNIVERSITY OF SALAMANCA The new constitution, which was issued in 1422, was the

of courses,

last given to the University of Salamanca by a pope. Under Martin’s direction the university had three leaders: the maestrescuela, the rector, and the primiciero. The primiciero, who was elected by the doctors and masters to

officials’ conduct. The sixteenth century saw a further consolidation of power in the monarchy, not only at the university but across the entire country. The Spanish Inquisition was

preside over their meetings, was the least important and held the least power of the three leaders. The rector was

an iron fist holding all of Spain in its grip from the end of the fifteenth century until the beginning of the nine-

the spokesperson of the students. The office alternated annually between natives of Castile and Leon. The rector,

teenth century; the University of Salamanca was securely clenched there. During the Inquisition some of

elected directly by the students, was obligated to swear obedience to the pope. The maestrescuela was the most powerful of the three heads of the university. The powers

the most infamous events in the history of the university occurred. Christopher Columbus presented the results of his voyages to a group of professors at the University of

first granted to this position by Pope John XII had increased over the past century, and by 1422 the mae-

Salamanca;

world was round. Legend says that “they denied the

strescuela had become the guiding hand of the university.

earth was round, for if this were so it would have no sta-

The direct representative of the pope, the maestrescuela

bility.

acted as the judge for the university, granted degrees, and enforced the constitution.

famous egg . . . until the shell flattened at the pole and

In addition to these three leaders, the university was

examinations,

609

texts, filling of chairs, and

they scoffed at Columbus’s

Columbus

confounded

them

idea that the

by tapping

the

thus made it stand upright.” Despite the erroneous judgment made by the professors in Columbus’s case, the

and 10 students of noble birth, directed the day-to-day

University of Salamanca was renowned for attracting the most learned men in Europe to teach there. Famous faculty members included Ignatius de Loyola, founder

business of the university and selected the maestrescuela,

of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits); Calderon de la Barca,

who was then confirmed by the archbishop of Salamanca and the pope. For the next 50 years this basic organization

poet and dramatist; Peter Martyr, Dominican friar, who is the patron saint of the Spanish Inquisition; Coperni-

of the University of Salamanca was directed by two major forces: the students, who were represented by the rector and the definitores, and the church through the maestrescuela, The Spanish monarchy, which had enjoyed some control over the university in its first century of existence,

cus, the astronomer; Nebrija, the humanist and writer; and Vesalius, the Belgian anatomist.

directed by a council, also elected by the students. The

council of 20 definitores, consisting of 10 chairholders

had slowly lost its power until the 1470s. The ascension of Ferdinand and Isabella to the throne in 1474 signaled the end of the line of weak Spanish

monarchs. For the University of Salamanca, this marked the beginning of the process of modernization. The royal power merged with the forces of the students and the

The famous writer Luis de Leon also taught at the University of Salamanca. One of the most brilliant literary voices of the Spanish Renaissance, Leon felt the brunt of

the Inquisition during his tenure at Salamanca. Leon was an Augustinian monk, and so was denounced by the rival Dominicans, who were the executives of the Inquisition.

Leon was imprisoned for nearly five years, during which

pope, resulting in a more contemporary university. The resumption of royal jurisdiction over the university meant

time he wrote his prose masterpiece, The Names of Christ. Leon was never tortured by his Dominican captors, and although he was unjustly imprisoned, he eventually obtained justice. After he was released, the University of

that the powers of the students and especially the papacy

Salamanca welcomed the poet back, although he was not

were reduced significantly. It also meant an end to some of the abuses that had infested the university. Ferdinand

reappointed to the same chair he had held prior to his

and Isabella issued their first set of cedulas,

Instead, Leon received a chair in another faculty. The

or royal

imprisonment, since it had been filled by someone else.

decrees, in 1480. The cedulas reasserted the crown’s

classroom

power and addressed the abuses. A second set of statutes issued by the Catholic mon-

Hebrew text inscribed above the door translates, “Happy are thy men, happy are these thy servants, which stand continually before thee and hear thy wisdom.” Imprisonment of brilliant professors was not the only

archs in 1492 further asserted their powers and limited those of the pope. Under the Concordance de Santa Fe, the jurisdiction of the maestrescuela was severely curtailed. The power that the Spanish crown exerted over the university continued to increase after Ferdinand and Isabella. Royal jurisdiction reached a climax in 1528,

in which

he lectured still stands today; the

indication of the decay of the University of Salamanca during the Spanish Inquisition. Studies suffered tremendously because of the suffocating and closed-minded

atmosphere. The statutes of the university were revised

when Charles V claimed the right of appointing the mae-

several times throughout the sixteenth and into the begin-

strescuela, a move severely restricting the church’s control of the university. By the end of the 1520s, the crown

ning of the seventeenth century. These statutes continued

had a hand in virtually every aspect of university activ-

to reflect the university’s domination by the crown that had begun with Ferdinand and Isabella. The royal statutes

ity, including requirements and fees for degrees, content

that were issued in 1538, 1561, and 1625 outlined the

610

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

basic administrative organization of the university. These constitutions,

each of which built upon and comple-

mented the preceding ones, directed the course of the uni-

versity until 1770. Although the Inquisition severely affected the univer-

sity, this period was not entirely detrimental. Most of the buildings of the present school were constructed during this time. The main facade is one of the most beautiful and notable examples of Spanish Renaissance decoration. The Plaza Mayor, which has been called “one of the lordliest public squares anywhere,” is home to glorious

arcades and staircases. The university chose to focus on teaching traditional law and theology, while the rest of Europe was teeming with scientific and artistic advances. Scholars at the Uni-

versity of Salamanca were so preoccupied with defending Catholicism that they ignored the important intellectual confrontations of the Enlightenment that were occurring throughout the rest of Europe. When, to scholarly failures

was added abusive administrative practices, such as favoritism in professors’ salaries and appointments, the university experienced a steep decline. Troubles extended beyond the classrooms and into the city of Salamanca. Students and townsmen had habitually feuded since the early days of the fuero academico. By the 1600s, the university had gained virtual economic and

judicial independence from the city. Scholars had always enjoyed special privileges, including being exempt from many taxes and tools. The university controlled its own meat and wheat supplies and also enjoyed rent exemp-

tions. Townspeople

were

understandably

irritated by

these favors. Tensions climaxed in the Great Riot of 1644. One November night, a fight broke out in the streets of Salamanca between a group of students and townsmen. The students killed one of the citizens, and the townsmen captured and tortured one of the students. The students,

Although the reforms were far-reaching, further changes were necessary to make Salamanca a more modem university. The department of medicine was the spark of the second series of reforms. The medical school had been threatened in the late 1790s by a proposal to centralize all of the-Spanish universities’ medical departments. Under the United Medical Faculty, the university would

be little more than a glorified prep school. The University of Salamanca vehemently opposed the plan. Its department of medicine united to fight the United Medical Fac-

ulty. Although the United Medical Faculty was created, the university’s fight worked—Salamanca was under merely nominal control by the group. The United Medi-

cal Faculty lasted only until 1801, but the consolidation helped to modernize, to liberalize, and to lead the way to broader university reforms.

One of those broader reforms was the new plan of medicine for the university that was adopted in 1804. This led to the university-wide revised Plan of Studies in 1807. The new plan did not reflect an enlightened

shift like that proposed in the plan of 1771; the 1807 Plan of Studies was a more radical administrative reorganization. Under the new plan, more emphasis was to be placed on science, law, and Spanish. The new Plan of Studies did not have a chance to prove its effectiveness. Shortly after the plan was passed, Charles IV abdicated, and Ferdinand VII ascended the throne. After the French invasion of 1808, the combination

of war and

poverty devastated the university. During the war, the University of Salamanca completely closed. Any reforms that could have moved the university out of its decline were thwarted. When it opened again, the university was a completely different and modern nine-

teenth century institution.

those who remained. The Salamancans waged another

War provided another dramatic moment for the University of Salamanca over a century later. In the opening days of the Spanish Civil War, the university witnessed a chilling standoff between the Falangist general Millan Astray and the aging nationalist Miguel de Unamuro, for

attack on the cloistered students the following day. The

35 years rector of the university. In a speech at the univer-

students fled again, tried to regroup, and were finally pac-

sity in October 1936, Astray compared Catalonia and the Basque provinces to cancers in the body of Spain. Upon

vastly

outnumbered,

retreated;

citizens

called

by the

alarm ransacked the students’ quarters and took captive

ified by university and town officials. After the student who was captured first had been hanged, and several townsmen sentenced to public whipping, the volatile

atmosphere subsided, but the rivalry between the city and the university continued. The decline of the university endured into the early eighteenth century. Scholarship had decayed to a pathetic state. Classes were plagued by absenteeism by both students and professors, and, by 1736, even the requirements

for graduation were reduced. In the 1760s and 1770s reforms were initiated by the monarchy and by the uni-

versity itself. This reform movement culminated in the Plan of Studies (Libro de Claustros) of 1771. Under this plan, almost the entire university became more liberal in its orientation, even including its textbooks.

hearing this, Unamuro stood up and denounced Astray. This emotional outburst was the last time the frail Unamuro spoke in public. This scene was but one of many dramatic moments in the history of the University of Salamanca, an institution that has been intimately tied to the ruling powers of Spain for over 700 years. In its early years, the university was controlled alternately by the students, the

church, and the monarchy. It was one of the only universities in Europe during its glory days in the Middle Ages. Today the university has been called “just another provincial school,” but if only because of its long and

rich history, the University of Salamanca ranks among the grandest in the world.

UNIVERSITY OF SALAMANCA Further Reading: George Addy’s The Enlightenment in the

611

University of Salamanca (Durham, North Carolina: Duke

information about the university. More a guidebook than a historical text, Dorothy Loder’s The Land and People of

University Press, 1966) focuses mainly on the years from

Spain (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1972) nonetheless mentions

1740 to 1808. The introduction contains a brief but compre-

the city and the University of Salamanca.

hensive account of the early years of the university. Alfonso Lowe’s The Spanish: The Intrepid Nation (Madrid: Gordon Cremonisi,

1975) is primarily concerned with the arts and

letters of the Spanish Renaissance, but it also provides some

—Cindy Mertz

UNIVERSITY OF SEVILLE (Seville, Spain) Location:

Description:

Seville, Spain, the capital of the province of

in Seville. It educated young choral assistants, first in

Andalucia in southern Spain.

Latin and humanities, then in philosophy or liberal arts,

and then in religion. Later students learned about music and Gregorian chant. This was the only school in Seville until the reign of Henry IV.

__A state institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Science, enrolling approximately 34,000 in undergraduate,

Henry IV was succeeded on the throne by Ferdinand

graduate, and professional schools.

Information:

and Isabella, who lived for a time in Seville. Ferdinand

and Isabella made Seville into the center of commercial

Universidad de Sevilla

activity generated by exploration of Africa and the Amer-

Calle San Fernando 4

icas. Amid growing prosperity and splendor, interest was

Sevilla

renewed in the establishment of public schools. At that time, Sevillian youths who wanted to pursue scientific or other learned careers had to travel long dis-

Spain (954) 218600

tances to obtain the proper training and education. Those who stayed in Seville did not receive an education and

were limited to lower-class, nonprofessional occupations. However, many families could not afford the expense of

The creation of a school in Seville was first proposed by King Alfonso X (1252-84), the ruler of Castile and Leon. Called “the Learned” or “the Wise” because of his patron-

an extended journey. Such travel was dangerous, and many of those who left Seville to become doctors, lawyers, or clergymen never came back. The city was in dan-

age of scholarly pursuits, Alfonso had a special fondness for the city of Seville. The city was the most frequent seat

ger of slowly losing its brightest and most promising youth to cities with universities. For these reasons, the city leaders recognized that a university was necessary to perpetuate the emerging glory of Seville. Two members of the city council, Archbishop Diego

for the king’s court, which at one time resided there for

eight consecutive years. One of Alfonso’s most important contributions to Spanish arts and letters was his support of

Arabic translations. He commissioned scholars to translate important works from Arabic into Latin. A long tradition of such translation in Toledo had existed since the twelfth century. Translators commissioned by Alfonso also worked in Toledo, but they were independent from the so-

Deza and Rodrigo Fernandez de Santaella, were very interested in founding a school in Seville. Moreover, neither wanted to concede to the other the fame and renown that would fall upon one who established a place of higher learning, and so a long and bitter fight ensued

called Toledan School. Alfonso had ideas of founding a similar school in Seville that would serve not only as a

between the two sides. Santaella, after much perseverance and personal expense, finally acquired, in 1472, the first buildings for what was to become the Colegio

center for translation, but as a general school for Latin and

Arabic. Latin was needed to understand church matters while Arabic was needed for scientific and political reasons—manuscripts about astronomy, medicine, agricul-

Mayor. The papal bull for the founding of this university

ture, and geography were all written in Arabic. Alfonso first proposed the idea of a school in 1256, and a papal bull was secured in 1260 for the establishment of one in Seville. Soon more serious events, such as

promoting scholarship. Alfonso X died in Seville without

1505. It is this institution that came to be known as the University of Seville. Diego Deza obtained another bull for the founding of an ecclesiastic school in 1516. The two men and their respective schools remained bitter rivals, arguing over who had more authority to grant degrees and whose courses of study were superior. The school founded by Santaella, the Colegio y Universidad de Santa Maria de Jesus, was to teach arts, logic,

ever realizing his dream of establishing a schoo] there.

philosophy, theology, canon and civil law, and medicine.

was asked for in 1502 and granted by Pope Julius II in

his election to the throne of Germany, disagreements with

his sons, and fights with other principalities, came along to occupy the monarch, distracting him from thoughts of

After Alfonso came

By means of the 1505 papal bull, Santaella was given the Tight to form the university’s constitution, and church

four kings of diverse character,

none of whom promoted a school. After that, the court moved away from Seville. No longer the largest residence

benefactors were appointed to support the students and

of the kings, the city’s grandeur declined as did local interest in letters. Part of this decline was assuaged by the founding of the Colegio de San Miguel, the oldest school

teachers. A second papal bull, granted in 1508, said that a degree from the University of Seville carried with it the same prestige and legitimacy as a degree from any uni612

UNIVERSITY OF SEVILLE

613

versity in the kingdom. This raised the university to the

with providing an education that was related to everyday

same level as the esteemed University of Salamanca, which had been the country’s premier institution of higher learning for more than 250 years. Although there was much enthusiasm for establishing a university in name, the real work of building and opening the school was not undertaken with so much pleasure. The constitution was not finished until 1509, and it was another seven years before the university existed

life. Thus, the school taught formulas rather than theories,

legally. In 1516 the university finally accepted its first students; 17 were admitted on scholarships: 10 to study theology, 6 for law, and 1 who was as yet undecided. Only two professional chairs were established at first,

one for theology and one for canon law, but before long other chairs were filled, and the university could offer a

and physics instead of metaphysics. The university’s focus on practical education was explained in the statutes

of 1621, which even stipulated that certain authors were never to be taught at the school. Fighting among the various schools in Spain was fierce throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Each was connected to a different faction of the Catholic Church, a factor which gave rise to disputes not only over church doctrine, but about the teaching of

church doctrine. Schools quarreled over whose courses were more fulfilling, whose professors were more respected, and whose degrees were more prestigious. This factionalism infected not only the religious depart-

true general education. In its early years, the university had numerous problems: incomplete buildings, uncertainty about the legiti-

ments

macy of its degrees, rights and privileges questionable in

volatile atmosphere. In such a situation, academics were

the eyes of the monarchy and the church, and competition

bound to suffer. By the middle of the eighteenth century, scholasticism and the arts in Seville were in a shambles. The job of revitalizing education in Seville fell into the hands of Pablo Olavide, an official who came to the city

from other, more established, schools. As a result, it did

not attract many students, and certainly not the brightest among the eligible youth.

of each school, but the arts, sciences, law, and

medicine divisions as well. Such animosity, coupled with the fighting among departments at the university, led to a

The university slowly began to increase its financial

government with an interest in both learning and public

strength, and consequently its student body, studies, and

prestige. Two faculty members, Alonso de Campos and Doctor Sarmiento, helped the university to raise adequate

administration. He wrote a scathing indictment of the condition of the city’s schools, which was presented in 1768. In this mandate, he emphasized the divisiveness

amounts of money. The school grew, and in 1551 it offi-

and pettiness that plagued Seville’s learned community.

cially became a university. Within about 30 years the University of Seville was in a state of disorder. A papal bull issued in 1545 gave the administration the right to revise or add to the university’s statutes whenever it deemed necessary. Minor chaos

Spain was split into factions of many kinds, Olavide noted. It was a country divided by geography, language,

religion, and social class. This divisiveness was draining

the university’s statutes. Comprised of doctors, teachers,

the country of its lifeblood. Professors and, consequently, students at the universities were more concerned with promoting the doctrines of their own group and disparaging the views of other factions than with teaching basic fundamentals of education. Olavide declared that universities in Spain were con-

and other learned men, the commission’s revisions were

cerning themselves with frivolous and useless questions,

accepted and recognized by papal bull in 1621. This reform resulted in many improvements to the university, although many shortcomings remained. Latin, rhetoric, and poetry were not taught at the university—a surprising

a serious mistake in a time when knowledge was flourishing throughout the rest of Europe. Spanish youth were poorly taught and carried the lack of education to their future careers. These businessmen, lawyers, government

omission in a city that prided itself on its achievements in

officials, artists, doctors, and clergymen had been educa-

the arts and humanities. Another serious fault of the university was in its religious education. At the more famous divinity schools, the

tionally corrupted, and the professional life of the country suffered as a result. In response, Olavide proposed that the University of Seville occupy the old building that the Jesuits had left vacant upon their desertion of the city. The religious and

ensued, resulting in a school that was overburdened with debts and had divided academic departments.

Eventually, a commission was established to reform

university was located in the heart of the religious community. In Seville, the divinity students and faculty went to the university for classes but lived in distant convents. This made the religion department less powerful and prestigious than the general education department, which led to great rivalry between the two sides. The university’s focus was on practical and scientific studies. Rapid advances were being made in physics and natural sciences in the seventeenth century. Furthermore,

the founders of the university were primarily concerned

secular parts of the university were to be separated; the university would be located in the basement and the sem-

inary on the higher floors. The seminary actually served as a kind of boarding school for students with severe discipline problems. Olavide also proposed a new structure for the government of the university. A rector and three counselors would be elected periodically, and treasurer and secretary would be permanent positions to provide

614

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

some continuity. Olavide also restructured the pay scale

buildings, lecture halls, laboratories, and auditoriums

for professors

and redesigned the

were constructed, and existing structures were improved.

courses of study. These mandates were well received. In the following

Modern furniture and laboratory equipment were bought.

and administrators

The botanical garden was improved and the library was

year, 1769, the university was reestablished and confirmed by papal bull. The University of Seville entered a new period of prosperity. The departments of theology,

opened to the public.

law,

attracted illustrious professors to the faculty. Because the

Seville. The old university church, designed by F. Bartolome Bustamante, features Ionic columns and a sculpture

textbooks that had been used previously were grossly out-

of the Madonna and Child by Bautista Vazquez. Its paint-

dated, the most learned men of Spain were recruited to write new texts that would complement the courses taught at the university. During the reign of Carlos III (1759-88), university

ings, sculptures, and funeral monuments are also of special note. The marble tombs of Don Fadrique Enriquez

and

medicine

attained

a new

prominence

and

reforms swept through the entire country. Rights, privileges, rules, and tuitions were standardized at all universi-

ties in Spain. During the same period, the University of Seville continued to grow. The department of mathemat-

ics was established and a library was opened; arts and lit-

Today, some of the university’s buildings number among the greatest architectural and artistic attractions in

and dona Catalina de Ribera are very impressive, among others. One of the university’s divisions occupies a former tobacco factory with a peculiar past. The old factory, which encompasses the second largest historical building complex in Spain, is a baroque and rococo

square that incorporates a maze of courtyards. Moreover,

an event that led to the reformation of the Sevillian bar. Another series of reforms came after much political

it is the cigarette factory where Carmen, the protagonist of Bizet’s opera of the same name, was said to have worked. The factory dates to the eighteenth century, but the university relocated there only a few decades ago.

turmoil—the abdication of Carlos IV, the war for inde-

Since 1940, the population of Seville has grown dra-

erature flourished. The college of law was reorganized,

pendence, and the revolution—that upset the course of learning at the university. From 1820 to 1823, three sets

of university reforms were passed. The University of Seville initially profited from these reforms and, as a result, enrollment increased substantially. Chemistry and history departments were added and new equipment was acquired for the physics and mathematics departments. The college of pharmacy became accredited. The prosperity did not last long, however. Studies and morale declined so rapidly that 20 years later more reforms were needed. The university counselor, Nicolas

Maestre, was primarily responsible for the moral rejuvenation of the university. He reformed discipline and made examinations and grades more rigorous. Maestre stimulated an appreciation of good scholarship and a feeling of cooperation among students and faculty members. Under the direction of Maestre, the physical and intellectual splendor of the University of Seville also increased. New

matically. From 281,000 at the beginning of the decade, it had risen to over 700,000 by 1990. When Seville-born Felipe Gonzalez was elected president of Spain in 1982, the ruling socialist party began to favor projects for the improvement of the underdeveloped south of the country. One of the major projects was the Expo 92 World Fair, which was held in Seville; the city’s economy benefited

from the spending of the 43 million visitors to the fair. Further Reading: The university is mentioned briefly in a guidebook about Seville by Robert S. Kane, Spain at Its Best (Lincolnwood, Illinois: Passport, 1986), and in Dorothy Loder’s The Land and People of Spain (Philadelphia:

Lippincott, 1972).

—Cindy Mertz

UNIVERSITY OF SIENA (Siena, Italy) Location:

Description:

In central Tuscany, about 30 miles south of

do so, his caricature would be drawn on the walls of the

Florence.

town, making him the object of public scorn. During this period the university was associated with two notorious criminal incidents. The first involved Benincasa d’ Arezzo, a well-known law professor at the university who later, as a judge in Rome, was murdered by Ghino di Tacco; the episode was apparently so graphic that Dante mentioned it in canto six of Purgatory. Then, in 1321, a student in Bologna was sentenced to death

_A state institution enrolling approximately 14,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools.

Information:

— University of Siena Via Banchi di Sotto, 55

53100 Siena

after being found guilty of kidnapping a girl, prompting

Italy

students there to flock to Siena in protest; Sienese author-

0577-298000

ities responded by financing their reception and granting them standard student privileges. Though Bolognese offi-

cials were quick to try to lure the students back, the incident helped enhance the reputation of its Sienese rival. A school in Siena, supported by a tax levied on landlords

In spite of competition from schools at Florence and

who rented rooms to foreign students, was first mentioned

Perugia, the university enrolled a large number of foreign

in a town document from 1240, but there is subsequent

students, particularly from Germany, Spain, Portugal, and

testimony that a school of Roman law was established in

Burgundy. The reputation of the school depended heavily on the renown of its teachers, and among those attracted

Siena as early as the eleventh century. Schools of grammar university. In the first half of the thirteenth century, a Bolognese teacher wrote movingly of a city-financed

to the school were canon jurist Federico Petrucci, civil jurist Giovanni Pagliaresi, and the poet and jurist Cino da Pistoia. A concerted effort was to be made to further

school of grammar and rhetoric in Siena: “This distant

improve the university’s prestige. In 1348, the governors

land is crowned Siena. I have been there at the feet of its

determined to spend whatever sum was necessary to per-

philosophy, I have heard its teaching, I have drunk its milk and not without labor and expenses have I found the flower of precious knowledge.” Accounts such as this were critical to the Tuscan school, which owed its existence to students migrating from other northern Italian uni-

suade the pope to confer studium generale status on the

and medicine also existed, all serving as forerunners to the

university. Though they failed, the city’s concistory, or

in the teachers’ own houses. Despite these difficulties, the

ruling magistracy, also had been working to secure legal recognition for the university. In this they were successful. In 1357, Emperor Charles IV made the Sienese school an official university of the Holy Roman Empire, allowing it to confer academic degrees. In 1392 the Bishop of Siena suggested the foundation of a Casa della Sapienza, or residential college, to maintain and preserve the school; due to the depressed economic state of the town, however, the project languished. In the early fifteenth century the idea again surfaced, and this time, with the considerable help of Pope Gregory XII, the plan was implemented. The pope approved the refurbishing of several rooms of an old charity hospital known as Mercy House, and decreed that the building would host 30 poor students from Siena. When the first

university played an important role in maintaining the

students were admitted, however, none were from Siena

public health of the city. Therefore, after 1250, the city’s municipal council made paying the salary of the school’s medical teacher its top priority. In the early fourteenth century, city elders began paying the salaries of teachers according to fame; a legal act also set standards of behavior for teachers, requiring, among other things, that they stay in the city and teach “faithfully.” If a teacher failed to

and all had to pay 50 florins a year. As time went on, the official functions of the Sapienza changed. Funding for the university was suspended in 1411 due to recurrences of the plague, which had first reached the city in 1348 and eventually wiped out half its population. Funding was also cut due to the influence of the rector of the local hospital, who considered the paying

versities in search of alternative educational sites. The university at Siena was recognized by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1248 and Pope Innocent IV in 1252. The pope’s approval exempted students and

faculty from taxes and recognized them as members of an institution governed by common law. In 1275, the emperor and the General Council of Siena urged the city to help finance the university; however, the school often found itself without sufficient resources and for some

time lacked a permanent headquarters. Under these circumstances, classes were conducted in a rented church or

615

616

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Siena

UNIVERSITY OF SIENA of teachers’ salaries an inappropriate use of public monies. Local officials now expected the Sapienza to provide the university with administrative and financial support, and also to supply the state with intellectuals capable of handling transactions with foreign powers. The Sapienza quickly became the most important division of the Sienese school; its patrimony included shops and houses in town and an estate with more than a 100

farmhouses on it. Being admitted was a privilege, one that often depended on the recommendations of emper-

617

Interest in such rules diminished over the years, as the school was forced to deal with more serious matters, cri-

ses created by fierce competition with the University of Pisa, and by a period of political instability that brought the region under Spanish dominance.

Siena’s status as an independent republic was now threatened by Emperor Charles V, who had been appealed to for protection against Pope Clement VII in 1526. Between 1530 and 1540 these political disruptions took a serious toll on the university. Many writers and

ors, popes, or cardinals, as the school began to evaluate

scholars went into exile and the school was left to fend

candidates on the political benefit to be gained. In 1472, the Sapienza helped to established a new bank in Siena with a deposit of 300 gold florins; in the following year, government officials ruled that the college should assume the responsibility of building two houses every year, fur-

for itself with few teachers and a restless student body.

ther increasing its role in maintaining Siena’s economic well-being. The influence of the Sapienza is commemorated today in the university’s seal, which pictures an M

The university became host to so many Spanish and Portuguese students that the other students staged a revolt in 1541. The emperor waged war on the city in 1552, with

aid of the duke of Florence, Cosimo de’ Medici. Siena surrendered in 1555, and two years later it was ceded to Cosimo, who was made grand duke of Tuscany in 1569. Meanwhile, the school continued its decline, becoming a

(for the original Mercy House) in a cross held by Saint Catherine of Alexandria.

small, civic institution.

The first half of the fifteenth century was a golden age for the university. A center of the new humanism,

Francesco de’ Medici, who in 1569 created a committee

Siena attracted some of the world’s greatest teachers. Among them were Antonio Panormita and Francesco Filelfo, who was paid a salary of 350 gold florins a year, the highest figure the university had ever paid. Also teaching at Siena was Marrasio, the author of Angelinetum; Aeneas Silvius, the future Pope Pius II, who wrote

Cinthia; and Antonio Beccadelli, who wrote a collection of epigrams titled Hermaphrodytus.

From

1396,

Buccio da Spoleto lectured on Dante and gave public talks on The Divine Comedy from San Vigilio on major feast days. The activities of the university led to the introduction of the printing press in Siena. Henry of Cologne, a German printer, began such activity in 1484 by publishing a law text by Paolo di Castro; the books later printed in the town were primarily meant for the school’s roughly 600 students. The Observant Franciscan San Bernardino was a great

The university began to expand again under governor

to find new resources for the school. Francesco was made grand duke of Tuscany in 1574; at this time he approved articles of association for the many German students in Siena, despite their being implicated in charges of “Lutheranism” by the Inquisition. His successor, Ferdinand de’

Medici, introduced faculty reforms at the university, dividing teachers into groups (doctors, jurists, artists, philosophers, and theologians) based on their disciplines. He also instituted the use of competitive examinations for teachers, to avoid political nominations.

In 1591 new legal powers were given to the rector, or

student leader, of the university. Siena followed the model established in Bologna of a student-dominated institution. Its rector was an important figure in the life of the town;

ideally a foreign student, the rector was chosen by student

representatives and prominent citizens. The status of this position was reflected in the entertainments that marked an election:

a month-long schedule of celebratory dances,

champion of the university during this period. Once a stu-

masked balls, and plays. The status of the rector is well

dent at Siena, he left the university with 12 classmates to

illustrated by the accomplishments of German rector Gior-

devote himself to the care of the sick during a plague outbreak. Later in his life he often returned to the city to lecture, and always urged the Sienese to support their

gio Fuccaro (1593), who enacted new laws about instruc-

university, warning them that without the education

could provide, no Christian community was possible. Students at Siena were required to enroll in long

Changes at the university during the seventeenth century diminished the influence of the rector. Competitive examinations were abolished and new governors were put

courses of study: seven years for degrees in arts, medi-

in place. The university was now under the control of

cine, or philosophy, and five years for degrees in civil or

aristocrats who were faithful to the grand duke. Among

canon law. Meanwhile, the behavior and performance of

the members of this oligarchy was the renowned teacher Pirro Maria Gabrielli, who founded the scientific Acca-

teachers was still closely monitored. During the

it

aca-

tion

methods

and

formally

requested

an

end

to

protectionism that favored the rival University of Pisa.

ers were required to have at least five students for their

demia dei Fisiocritici in 1691 to compete with Florence’s Accademia del Cimento.

classes; otherwise, they were fined and forced to lead dis-

Siena’s medical school, a cornerstone of academic life

demic year, which ran between October and June, teach-

cussions in the public square.

at the university, was notable in the eighteenth century for

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INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

its faculty, among them Paolo Mascagni, who wrote the famous Grande Anatomia del Corpo Umano (Anatomy

of the Human Body). This work contained life-size anatomy tables that students still considered valuable a century later.

However,

the university’s

prosperity

was

destroyed by the French invasion of Tuscany in 1808, when the school was abolished and its dean pressed into

services of the Hospital Santa Maria della Scala—tater to become a university hospital. Developments in the law college included a law club that was founded in 1879 and,

five years later, the introduction of the periodical Studi Senesi, which provided a forum for the research of law

teachers and students.

French medical

Despite such progress, a proposal to abolish to university was presented in 1892 by minister Ferdinando Mar-

school. Ferdinand III would eventually revive the university and transfer its legal, medical, physical, and theological colleges from the Casa della Sapienza to an old abbey near the church of San Vigilio.

tini. This act incited a general strike by shopkeepers, and a protest committee was quickly formed representing every institution and group in town, including the seminary and the masonic lodge. Within a year, Martini’s pro-

Political upheaval, however, continued to affect the school’s operations. After 1832, when the first Risorgi-

posal had failed and expansion of the university continued; a new biology department was funded and built by the Monte dei Paschi. Later the work of the Uni-

service as the commissary

of a new

mento (or national unification) uprisings took place, many Sienese students joined in the Young Italy movement in opposition to the grand duke. In July 1847,

Ludovico Petronici, a medical student and known liberal, was killed by the police. The incident brought the tension between the authorities and students to a new high; a year later, 55 students and 4 teachers from Siena joined the Savoia army in the revolutionary battles of Curtatone and Montanara. In 1851, Leopold II split the university in two: his decree kept the faculties of law and theology in Siena, and moved the colleges of medicine, philology and philosophy, mathematics, and natural science to Pisa. The provisional government that replaced Leopold II reorga-

nized these two universities eight years later, but the changes tended to favor Pisa, especially in the humanities. After the plebescite to unify Italy, the new education minister, Terenzio Mamaini, suspended three teachers on

the Siena faculty of theology for being reactionary; the archbishop promptly responded by resigning as administrative head of the university, which led to the faculty being abolished. In 1862, however, with the passing of the Matteucci

Law, the university was nationalized and, in 1875, an organization of citizens formed to assist the university in

versity Committee, the local hospital, the Accademia dei

Fisiocritici, and other groups would support the university following the Gentile Law of 1923, which required

small universities such as Siena to develop their own funding. In the years between World War I and World War II, the university proceeded to establish a faculty of political science. One of Italy’s most intact medieval towns, Siena has

maintained the ancient beauty of its university. Today many

of its departments

are housed

in centuries-old

buildings. The arts and humanities faculties, for instance,

are situated in the historical center of Siena, with one of the buildings linked by ancient passageway to the fifteenth-century Palazzo San Galgano. The medieval Servi Convent houses the departments of history, archeology, and art history, as well as various workshops.

Further Reading: Judith Hook’s Siena: A City and Its History (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979) provides many de-

tails of the early life of the university. Willis Rudy’s The Universities of Europe, 1100-1914; A History (Toronto: Associated University Presses, context of other institutions.

1984) discusses Siena in the

its development. The creation of the schools of pharmacy (1865)

and

obstetrics

(1870)

increased

the medical

school’s reputation, which was also benefiting from the

—NMelanie Wilson

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA (Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.) Location:

link has been made between the Mississippi and the Southern California coast.” The university’s founders

Approximately three miles south of the Los

Angeles Civic Center.

were aware of its significance to future generations, not Description:

A private university enrolling approximately

only in southern California but throughout California and the west. As a result, they marked the laying of the cornerstone of the first building in 1880 by placing a series of documents that pertained to the new university inside

28,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools. Information:

Alumni Relations

that cornerstone. When a more permanent brick structure—usually referred to as Old College—was completed

Alumni House

University of Southern California

in 1887, the cornerstone was placed in it; there the docu-

Los Angeles, CA 90089-5371

ments remained until 1948 when Old College was torn down. One of the items chosen to be preserved for poster-

U.S.A. (213) 740-2300

Visiting:

ity was the formal invitation to the cornerstone ceremony that took place on September 4, 1880. The date was especially important in the history of Los Angeles because exactly 99 years before, on September 4, 1781, at the site

The Alumni Association offers guided tours.

of the present Los Angeles Civic Center, another group of pioneers had founded the City of Los Angeles. In fact, when the university was established, Los Angeles was still considered a frontier town. There were

The University of Southern California (USC) was estab-

lished on September 4, 1880, by members of the Methodist Episcopal Conference of Southern California on land

no paved streets, no telephones, and no electric lights in

donated by three civic leaders: Ozro William Childs, John Gately Downey, and Isaias Wolf Hellman. Ironically, these three men were neither Methodists nor educators, but they were indicative of the diversity which was to

the area. However,

Los Angeles underwent a dramatic

transformation after the 1876 completion of the Southem Pacific Railroad link from San Francisco. This

important link with the transcontinental railroad increased trade and transportation and contributed to the

characterize the university’s future development. Childs was an Episcopalian and a nurseryman/horticulturist, Downey was a Catholic and a former state governor, and

city’s prosperity and growth.

The philosophical position of the university’s founders was inscribed in a stone placed at the northern entrance to the campus. They expressed their desire to create a university that was dedicated to:

Hellman was a German-Jewish banker and philanthropist.

Another person instrumental in founding USC was Judge Robert Maclay Widney, who worked diligently for the university’s development after he settled in Los Angeles in 1868 and opened a law practice there. Eleven years

the glory of God and the preservation of the Republic; an institution of Higher Learning dedicated to

later—after he secured the land donation from Childs, Downey, and Hellman—he saw his dream of a university

the search for and dissemination of the Truth; to

freedom of thought and discussion; to intelligent

realized. Widney House, the university’s first building, which was designated a California landmark in 1955, is named for him.

unbiased analysis of the forces that have shaped the past and will mold the future; to the development of

The land was originally transferred to the Methodists by the three men as an endowment fund. All income from

Manhood and Womanhood for Christian service and

loyal citizenship.

each individual lot was to be used to support and maintain the university. The deed stipulated that the majority of the board of trustees be members of the Methodist Episcopalian Conference, although the institution was created as a

The true vision of the university lies in its founders’

desire that it be a great university, not just a small college

incorporated as the “University of Southern California.” The Los Angeles Daily Commercial reported that “the establishment of this institution marks an era in the progress of the people of the Pacific Coast. It has outrun

or a religious college, but a major research university offering a solid education in the liberal arts. The university was founded on the belief that “a great university could transform Southern California into a commercial and cultural mecca.” The University of Southern California’s motto, “Pal-

the railway, and established itself before the connecting

man qui meruit ferat’” (Let whoever earns the palm bear

nonsectarian university. Further, the institution was to be

619

620

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

ek

eee x

nae xt

University of Southern California

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA it), exemplifies

the

umniversity’s

emphasis

on

merit.

brought

the university

to full national

621

accreditation,

Accordingly, the first class, which consisted of five men and two women, encountered a challenging array of courses such as Latin, English composition, physiology, integral calculus, and civil engineering. Two courses of

established a graduate school, and begun working toward making USC a large, nondenominational university. In 1928 he was responsible for making USC an indepen-

study in the College Department, the classical and scien-

sity had been governed by the Southern

tific, led to either a bachelor of arts or bachelor of science

Methodist

degree. As early as 1885, the university announced that merit would be the sole criterion for admission, asserting

trustees. Although the conference controlled USC, it did

dent, nonsectarian institution. Until that year the univerConference,

which

elected

California

the university’s

that “no student would be denied admission because of

not support it financially. After several failed fundraising drives, von KleinSmid proposed a resolution to amend

race, color, religion, or sex.”

the articles of incorporation; as a result, control of USC

Three schools established within 20 years brought USC to the forefront in teaching and research related to medicine. Founded in 1885, the USC School of Medicine is now ranked among the top 20 medical schools in the

passed to a self-perpetuating board of trustees, ending the university’s formal ties to the Methodist Church. One of the most memorable additions to the university during the von KleinSmid years was the Doheny

United States in terms of federal research funding; it has

Memorial Library, completed in 1930. At the time, the

developed into a major center for cancer research and care, gene therapy, neuroscience, and transplantation

university had over 15,000 students and 20 colleges and

in 1897,

schools but no separate library building. The library is named for Edward L. Doheny, who was then one of the

ranks among the top ten schools nationally in funding for

most important financial figures in the United States. By

dental research. The last of the three, the School of Phar-

investigating the crude tar or brea found near Westlake

macy, founded in 1905, is the only school of pharmacy in southern California and one of only three in the entire

Park, he discovered oil; he then donated a portion of his

state. It was the first school to offer a doctor of pharmacy as its sole degree. About half of the practicing pharmacists in southern California are graduates of the school. During USC’s early years the Bovard family of Alpha, Indiana, made major contributions to the progress and development of the university. Nine of the 12 Bovard children became Methodist ministers, and all were interested in education. The first president of USC was Mar-

(Doheny was subsequently indicted in the Teapot Dome Scandal, which involved the illegal leasing of oil fields,

medicine.

The School

ion P. Bovard,

of Dentistry, founded

for whom

the Bovard

Administration

oil fortune to USC for the construction of its library.

but he was acquitted.) The Doheny Library provided

more than just a needed physical facility. It gave the university a focal point for its expansion when the sur-

rounding Alumni

Memorial

Park was created; there

students still gather and there commencement exercises

are held. The von KleinSmid era also saw the establishment of

Building is named. He was appointed to the office in

the Department of Cinematography. Founded in 1929 by

1880, after being in charge of the Fort Street Methodist Church for two years. His brother, George F. Bovard, served as the university’s president from 1903 to 1921,

famed motion picture producer and director Cecil B. DeMille, with the cooperation of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the department’s curriculum was organized to cover all aspects of the movie industry.

and another brother, Freeman D. Bovard, became vice-

president of the university. During the presidencies at the turn of the century, the university struggled to keep up with the demands it faced

from the rapidly expanding communities of southern California. Los Angeles’s population had grown from 11,000 in 1880 to 319,000 in 1910. During George Bovard’s 18year administration, student enrollment increased from 329 students to 4,600 students. In addition, the young

university found itself struggling without major contributors or endowment funds. Thus, it had to rely on its own

faculty, deans, presidents, and trustees for its growth. This situation began to change, however, during the 1920s. President Rufus von KleinSmid, who was president for a quarter of a century, is often hailed as the man

DeMille continued his support of the department throughout his Hollywood career. The department was the first in the nation to offer a bachelor of arts degree in film. Its first course, “Introduction to Photoplay,” featured such faculty members as producers D.W. Griffith and Darryl Zanuck,

and actor Douglas Fairbanks Sr. Even today, this school is usually regarded as one of the leading film schools in the United States. The regular faculty has always been augmented by lecturers and instructors who are distinguished in both theatrical and nontheatrical film. Today the program is known as the School of Cinema-Television. The list of USC students and alumni who have achieved fame in the motion picture and television industries could make

up a large portion of a “Hollywood Hall of Fame.” Among

who built USC into southern California’s only major private university. Affectionately known as “Dr. Von,” von

Academy Award winner Forrest Gump), George Lucas

KleinSmid,

1921

(director of the Star Wars films), Ron Howard (director of

and 1946, is credited with many significant pioneering

Apollo 13), and James Ivory (of the Merchant-Ivory part-

ventures.

nership that has produced such films as Howard’s End).

who served for the 25 years between

After only his first decade in office he had

its former students are Robert Zemeckis (director of the

622

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Another school for the performing arts, the School of The-

ater, has produced well-known stage and screen actors,

gual course in first aid at a Los Angeles school. On another level, in 1985 the USC library received the H.F.

directors, and technicians who have received a wide range of honors including Tony, Obie, and Emmy awards. A third school in the area of the arts predates the other two.

Boeckmann II Latin American Collection, valued at approximately $1.7 million. It contains important materials published in Latin America, primarily from Mexico,

The School of Music, founded in 1884, is probably the

principal music school west of the Mississippi. Its alumni include jazz musician Lionel Hampton, conductor

Brazil, Central America, and the West Indies. In 1969, USC was elected to membership in the Association of American Universities (AAU), which was founded

Michael Tilson Thomas, trumpet virtuoso Herb Alpert,

in 1900 as an organization of universities in the United

and opera star Marilyn Horne.

States and Canada considered preeminent in the fields of graduate and professional study and research. Today it is made up of 58 leading public and private universities. The University of Southern California is also interna-

In addition to its renown in film, USC is also consid-

ered one of the premiere private research universities in

the world. Its long tradition of active and research-oriented professors was recognized when USC Professor George A. Olah received the 1994 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Two alumni made history in the NASA space program. The first man to walk on the moon (in July 1969), Neil Armstrong, spent five years in graduate study in

tionally famous for its athletic program. Since 1904, a total of 272 USC athletes have participated in the Olym-

pics, more than any other university in the world. Olympians from USC

bronze medals.

have won

87 gold, 53 silver, and 46

A USC athlete has won a gold medal in

walk on the moon, Navy Lieutenant Commander Alan L.

every summer Olympiad in which one has competed since 1912, making USC the only university in the world

Bean,

with this distinction. The “Trojans,” USC’s

USC’s aerospace engineering program. The fourth man to completed

intensive

graduate

courses

at USC’s

Institute of Aerospace Safety and Management. Cognizant of its location in Los Angeles, a city with a

nickname,

was coined by journalist Owen Bird in 1912 to honor the athletic teams’ spirit.

significant minority population, USC has provided a variety of programs designed to improve the urban environ-

ment and the university’s relationship with the surrounding city. The Center for Urban Affairs opened in

Further Reading: Manuel P. Servin’s Southern California and Its University: A History of USC 1880-1964 (Los Ange-

1969, offering both undergraduate and graduate degrees in urban studies. A year later the university established an undergraduate program concentrating on the biological

les: Ward Ritchie Press, 1969) is a detailed history of the de-

aspects of such urban problems as pollution, community health, drug abuse, and decreasing world food supplies. The program was the first of its kind in the nation offered to students who were not science majors. Another creative

velopment of USC through 1964. A less detailed but updated account is the USC publication University of Southern California: Glimpses of History 1880-1995 (USC History Project, April, 1995). The Pocket Profile 1995, published by

the University Public Relations Administration, provides statistical and related information.

program found a group of Spanish-speaking fifth graders serving as “guest lecturers” in classes in conversational

Spanish, while a group of USC students conducted a bilin-

—Judi Gerber

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY (Sydney, New South Wales, Australia) Location:

concept reserved for rhetoric. The prospect of a private university was remote. Private resources were inadequate and philanthropic impulses poorly developed. Any

Four campuses near the main business area of Sydney. The Conservatorium Campus and the St. James (law school) campus are in downtown

Sydney; Cumberland Campus is at Lidcombe; Rozelle Campus (Sydney College of the Arts)

university with minimally acceptable standards would necessarily be founded by public act and subsidized by public money.

at Rozelle; Surrey Hills (dentistry) campus at

Surrey Hills, Orange Agricultural College is

Wenworth, the lawyer son of a convict woman and an

242 kilometers west of Sydney at Orange. The

Irish ship’s surgeon twice acquitted of highway robbery, embodied the colonial myth of Australian identity. His life-long commitment to colonial self-government under-

faculty of agriculture also has outlying teaching areas at Camden and Narrabri. Astrophysics has various telescopes at sites outside of Sydney.

lay his belief that a university was essential—a belief not Description:

widely shared. The colony was still small—under 200,000 people, about a quarter resident in Sydney—and

_A state university (with eight residential colleges) enrolling 30,000 students with 2,514 academic staff, 5,415 total staff.

the newly introduced national education system as yet

had produced

There are faculties of agriculture, architecture, arts, dentistry, economics,

capable

of university

for their children sent them to Britain. While a local institution might be promoted as offering openings for colonial talent, in practice those able to avail themselves of its services would be a small ruling group, subsidised by scarce government resources.

medicine, nursing, science, veterinary science,

board of studies in music, and social work, College of the Arts, Conservatorium in Music, Agricultural College at Orange and numerous research institutes and Centres of Excellence as

The yardstick against which the proposal was measured

well as continuing education.

was profoundly utilitarian; training was more acceptable than education. This underlay the first proposal which was for a graduate professional university covering medicine,

— The Registrar University of Sydney New South Wales 2006

engineering, and commercial pursuits with liberal arts to be provided by separate, affiliated colleges. Those who

Australia

(02) 9351-2222

Visiting:

candidates

entrance. Those who could afford professional training

education, engineering, health services, law,

Information:

few

contributed to the debate were numerous. No single figure either then or subsequently ever dominated the shaping of the institution. The final proposal was formed from conflicting views and compromises. These have been the ele-

Museums and galleries are open at set hours. Guided tours are mainly run by the Chancellor’s Committee, telephone (61) 029351-3927.

ments which shaped the institution from its origins to the

present day. Utility, the problems of state funding, and state control though appointments to the governing body and the power to alter the governing act, conformity to international expectations, and the university’s accessibil-

ity were continuing themes. All agreed the university should be like those in

William Charles Wentworth’s proposal in 1849 for the establishment of a university in New South Wales was met with indifference or hostility by Australians. Although the transportation of convicts had ceased, New

England but disagreed on the particular model: either Lon-

don where the university’s role was only to examine and the colleges to teach, or a university which both taught and examined. Even more contentious was the issue of whether the school should be secular and what part the churches should play. Wentworth wished to exclude the clergy from teaching. While religious colleges might affiliate, the uni-

South Wales society was still profoundly affected by the mores of a convict-based system with, on the one hand,

profound suspicion of the rulers and the wealthy and, on the other, an ingrained expectation that the government

should provide. This view was reinforced by religious

versity should be a source from which “all may drink be

antagonism between the Catholic Church, which was powerful among those of Irish descent, the Church of England, and the more powerful Protestant sects. Con-

they Christian, Mohamadan, Jew or Heathen.” By government act on October 1, 1850 the university was established—secular and nonsectarian with no religious tests for entry, open to all academically qualified

flict over control of a university, over access, purpose,

direction, and funding, was inevitable. Autonomy was a 623

624

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Sydney

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY subjects of the Queen resident in NSW without any dis-

tinction whatsoever. It was given the power to confer after examination the degrees of B.A., M.A., B.Laws and D.Laws, B.Med and D.Med, and to examine for medical

degrees in medicine, surgery, midwifery, and pharmacy.

Denominational colleges might be founded but had to be

625

University instruction began at the downtown site which now houses Sydney grammar school, but in 1852 Grose farm, which was then some way out of the town of Sydney, was confirmed as the permanent site despite its inaccessibility, which made part-time or evening atten-

dance inconvenient. The senate was determined to build an imposing public structure. The colonial architect,

privately funded. A royal charter would be sought, but the inauguration was not delayed until it could be obtained.

Edmund Blackett, designed a Gothic Revival structure to

Only one-quarter of the governing body, the senate, could

be built in stone; it was not opened until July 18, 1859,

be clergy. The principal officer, the provost, was to be elected annually.

when only the front facade was completed. The opulence of the vision ran the university into debt, but, despite

The government of NSW provided an endowment of

some criticism, it was accepted as reasonable in the heady

£5,000 for building, stipends, scholarships and prizes, a

post~gold-rush days, when icons of aspiring nationality

library, and other necessary expenses. Additional resources had to be raised by fees. This factor immediately limited the university’s scope as few candidates presented them-

were seen as desirable.

selves. Only three foundations professors—classics, mathematics, and science—could be appointed. They were expected to supplement their stipend from class fees and

extramural teaching and had tenure during good behaviour. The vision for this public university, which was one of the most isolated in the world (an average of three months behind news from Europe), was perfectly summarised in

The university was still struggling to establish the importance of its role in the local community. It was under attack for its traditional and irrelevant undergraduate teaching which was restricted to Greek, Latin, mathe-

matics, natural philosophy, chemistry, and experimental physics. Postgraduate teaching was virtually nonexistent. The masters program was largely nominal, and, although law and medicine were formally established in 1855, they

the university motto “Sidere Mens eadem mutato.” The

were little more than examining boards. Colonial society was not impressed with the virtues of Greek and Latin.

only concession to the southern hemisphere was in adopt-

Practical

ing the calendar year for academic purposes which better suited the southern seasons. Conservative, traditional

thought, was sought, and most were disinclined to pay

adherence to concepts, standards, and objectives devel-

Only children of the wealthy could afford university

oped elsewhere became dominant characteristics of the university, at times its strength and at others its weakness. The first university appointments were remarkably

despite the availability of 12 scholarships which should at

well judged. The foundation professors firmly asserted university autonomy and British orthodoxy against a variety of local pressures and critically reshaped the intended structure to this end. Woolley, the first principal, with the full support of the second provost, Sir Charles Nicholson, promoted liberal arts as the core, indeed, as “the Univer-

relevance,

not the alleged

development

of

substantial fees.

least have covered

the fees. Few

students

enrolled, and fewer graduated. Between

therefore

1852 and 1860

only 109 matriculated and 33 graduated with perhaps 33 attending in any one year. Ignoring public indignation, in the name of maintaining standards, the professors sometimes

failed

up to half the candidates

and

publicly

rebuked the students for their poor performance. A corporate university life, which might have attracted students,

sity properly so called” to which the special schools

was slow to develop. Students came only to lectures and

devoted to the professions were complementary. Liberal arts were directed to “the learner as an end in and of himself, his perfection as a man simply being the object of his education.” The purpose was fundamentally moral based on “fixed and eternal principles.” The university was to train gentlemen, to discipline the mind, and develop the power of independent reasoning, and the best way of providing such mental training was through maths and classics. It was to prepare statesmen and leaders for their

then dispersed. As part of their effort to strengthen and integrate the university into NSW society, the foundation professors, John Woolley, Moris Pell, and John Smith, went outside

the university and made a significant contribution to the education of the whole community from primary school

to adult instruction both directly by extramural

and

evening classes, and indirectly. The matriculation exami-

tasks. The professional schools, on the other hand, had an

nations provided a state-wide standard. Each in his own way also served the practical needs of the economy, Pell

end beyond the learner, in service to the community.

as an actuary and an expert on rivers and railways, and

Woolley also insisted that the teaching provided by the university was a necessary requirement for sitting university examinations, preventing the colleges from simply presenting candidates for examinations. University students did not have to belong to a college, and the colleges which appeared, although internally autonomous, had little influence on the university curriculum.

Smith as a practical chemist and photographer. Despite this, public support remained problematic. A facility paid for by all should be, but evidently was not,

available to all. The requirement of attendance at lectures not only excluded non-Sydney residents but those who might through private study achieve the appropriate knowledge. Considerable expenditure, narrowly viewed,

626

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

seemed to have produced insignificant measurable results. Social radicals felt that the money could have been better spent on schooling for the poor. A parliamentary enquiry in 1860 criticised building costs and the relationship with the affiliated colleges, which was seen as

from the government enabled long-shelved plans for professional development to be implemented. A medical school and an engineering school were finally established

violating the principles of secular education. Critics compared the university’s requirements unfavourably to those of the University of Melbourne.

mark a turning point in endowments,

Public indifference, state parsimony, and a narrow

academic vision of the university curriculum combined to ensure that numbers remained low throughout the 1860s and 1870s, and the problem of persuading students to attend the university remained acute. In 1865 there were 46 students; in 1881, 51 matriculants and 14

graduates. Many courses were dropped for lack of stu-

dent interest. Sciences were grudgingly accepted as part of the arts curriculum largely in deference to public opinion. Badham, the classics professor thought them “ornaments of the memory which may be required at any time of life.” A separate faculty of science, however,

required an additional endowment that the state refused. Slowly, nevertheless, a sense of internal community was

developing, symbolised by the foundation of the University Union in 1874 and the traditions of debating and the annual Commemoration Day.

Transforming the university from a finishing school for gentlemen to a multifunctional institution that trained in specific professional skills was slow, and even by 1914 it

was incomplete. The 1880s were a period of growth for the university, reflecting the general population increase, eco-

nomic prosperity, and the results of an improving school system. In 1881 after a decade of stonewalling, women were admitted at the instigation of the chancellor William Manning, and they immediately took advantage of the change to enter arts, science, and medicine. They were

slower to enter law since they could not practice before 1918, but by 1918 there were 641 women undergraduates—one-third of the total undergraduate population. New interest in university development was stimulated by professors such as Liversidge and Charles Badham,

who traveled the country to promote bursaries and easier access to university study. Badham’s theme was that “The

university was wherever the Professor might be and University hours were whenever the mass of students could

attend.” The university curriculum was changing. Evening classes were introduced in 1884 and additional lecturers were appointed to conduct them. Numbers rose steeply —284 in arts in 1890 with a quarter of all students studying at night. Extension lectures were also formally introduced in 1880, helped by Liversidge’s report on the movement in England. This assisted the working class and elementary school teachers who wanted to improve their qualifications, and attempts were made to extend them to towns outside the capital. The Challis bequest in 1881 and Thomas Fisher’s bequest for the library together with a further £5,000

as well as chairs in subjects such as modern history.

Unfortunately this burst of private philanthropy did not which remained

rare and unreliable. It precipitated, however, a major shift to the professional faculties. The young foundation professor of medicine, Anderson Stuart, believed that technical learning trained the mind just as well as arts or science, and despite Manning’s support for the arts as “the very essence of University education and the chief source of culture,” his demands were largely met, which upset the university’s finances and squeezed the other faculties. The medical school soon became so large, attract-

ing more students than the arts faculty, that its needs took precedence over developments elsewhere, causing bitter internal division. In the depression of the 1890s, however, the government once again cut the university’s public revenues, requiring it to rely more on its own resources while putting impediments in the way of the university’s ability to

increase charges. The press again urged that it was still not catering to poor students but expected support for the wealthy. Although its graduates came to the university’s defense and attempted to influence government and pub-

lic opinion, the support was more moral than financial. Only engineering benefited from a substantial gift from the manufacturing family of Peter Nicol Russell. As the university gradually recovered, the shift toward utilitarian subjects increased. The typical student background was changing. Middle-class and a few skilled working-class parents demanded the useful and the vocational. Science and scientific research were justified as

essential to the nation’s industrial and commercial prosperity. Close links with the professions in law and medicine were promoted. Professors were appointed from practicing professionals; quality in teaching did not nec-

essarily follow. Student expectations were growing and criticism of lecturers was commonplace.

Internal dissatisfaction with the university’s management structure was also developing. The senate was dominated by government appointees. Professors and undergraduates alike were aggrieved at their exclusion from senate decision making and its habit of ignoring their submissions. Disagreements arose over issues of vital importance to academic autonomy, such as freedom of speech, when the modern history professor, George Amold Wood adopted the unpopular position of opposing the Boer War. Education under the federation remained a state

responsibility, and further professional and practical disciplines were introduced: dentistry (1900), agriculture (1908), and veterinary science (1908). They were followed by economics, commerce, and education, although

only economics attracted a large number of students.

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

627

A major management restructuring to suit the needs of a much expanded university was overdue but did not occur

The problem of maintaining a sense of community in an institution under pressure from reduced resources but

until 1924. The result was a permanent full-time vicechancellor following the English pattern, changes to the

increasing numbers

senate, and the creation of six new faculties, bringing the number to ten. It was not increased for another 50 years.

The staff was not satisfied. The professorial board was responsible for academic advice, but the senate’s view of their authority in such matters conflicted with the board’s. The senate interfered in new appointments, notoriously

refusing to appoint Gordon Childe and deciding to sack the poet Christopher Brennan for marital indiscretions and drink. The dispute in 1943 over the appointment of

stimulated

new

bodies. The Lec-

turer’s Association was intended to make the ideal community a reality by providing a focus which would bring the subprofessorial staff together in communal activities that would serve both mind and body. To improve interaction between different faculties the association sought to get one or another faculty to give talks on what they were doing. Common social activities were promoted. Students suffered from similar problems. Growing

numbers did not improve student participation in activities outside the classroom.

College residents, the most

Julius Stone to a law chair was both bitter and public.

active, were a very small percentage of all students—

Senate interference in the selection process and attempts to block the appointment met an uncompromising assertion of professional board rights and conflict over the

under 500 in all. Only unpopular senate decisions, such as a crackdown on the Commencement Day procession or the proposal to raise money for services by a general levy

“rights” of the legal profession to be consulted. Racist (Stone was Jewish) and “nationalistic” (an Australian was

on

hoped for) issues came into play. Professors felt they had particular rights and responsibilities, but a growing issue

change the composition of the senate. As jobs became

was that of the nonprofessorial staff who were aggrieved

most were a passing phenomenon. Throughput the inter-war period, the university was

by their continuing lack of voice. By 1940 nonprofesso-

students,

responded

united

undergraduates,

who

typically

with an appeal to the state government to

harder to find, graduates associations were formed, but

rial academics constituted 75 percent of the total staff and their career prospects were diminishing. Sharp growth in student numbers after 1919 meant for the first time courses were overcrowded, and proposals to

struggling to maintain its standing as a reputable international institution in circumstances which were pushing the costs and direction of research beyond its resources.

cap numbers emerged. The legal status of matriculation

developments which were so far away, and these were

made the university’s ability to refuse access to any fac-

exacerbated by the increasing speed of new discoveries

ulty to a matriculated student problematic, however. High

and the need for teams of researchers. Study leave was increasingly essential and became universal. A variety of external sources, however, enabled some research to be maintained. Although the main university focus was undergraduate teaching, the staff laid stress on the symbi-

enrollments in the expensive faculties aggravated finan-

cial difficulties. By 1924 there were 809 students in arts and science and 1,696 in professional programmes. Increased funding deferred the issue of access for a time. A generous bequest from Sir Samuel McCaughey in 1919 provided an income of about £15,000, which was used for

salaries; the government made a special allowance many members of the state ney graduates, this did not

also increased its grant and for new building. Although parliament were by now Sydalways produce a government

sympathetic to university difficulties.

Its staff had always had problems keeping in touch with

otic nature of teaching and research and fought for a division of time which would permit scholarship. In 1942 the Ph.D. was inaugurated, but postgraduates went overseas for training. The quality of the teaching was high and frequently

updated. Stephen Roberts, for example, introduced the first fourth-year honours course in Australia. Slow

established at government request not properly funded,

moves toward small group teaching, however, were put on indefinite hold by the war. Attempts to meet specific training needs were mainly frustrated. RadcliffeBrown’s diploma in anthropology to train cadets for service in Papua/New Guinea was perhaps the most successful. A diploma in journalism, introduced at the request of the Journalists Institute, dwindled and died. Too few students completed university courses in country centres to make them financially viable. In 1938, however, a college of the university was established at

although by comparison with Melbourne, the university

Armidale, the second campus in the state.

Funds were tight and attempts to raise money externally had only a limited success. The 75th anniversary

appeal produced promises of only £350,000, of which £250,000 was a single gift from George Henry Bosch directed to medical education. With the depression, the financial problems got worse. A public enquiry into possible mismanagement instead recognised that on the basis of the numbers of students on scholarships and bursaries, the endowment was inadequate and the chairs

was overstaffed. The proposed solution was to reduce the bursaries, and a reduction in government funding saw Salaries cut by a “voluntary” ten percent and, later, a further five percent cut.

Community service remained an expected academic

contribution. Broadcasting provided a new form of sharing expert knowledge, which improved the general image of the university with the public. The cultural cringe,

628

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

however, continued. Candidates for jobs from Britain

was a rise in staff numbers, and new areas of study were

always had the edge over local candidates.

developed. The percentage of Australian-born or trained staff was increasing, and Sydney was employing more

In 1939 the university had 13,000 graduates, a student enrollment of 3,839, and 173 staff. The war effort per-

suaded the governments that university research was useful at least in science and science-related subjects, which

was important for postwar university growth, but attempts to restrict “normal” scientific communication in the interest of “national security” even after the war caused renewed conflict with the academic community. Freedom of expression for academics was also tested when the pro-

fessor of philosophy, John Anderson, attacked compulsory religious teaching and was censured in the NWS legislative assembly. The university was still accessible only to the few. Students from state schools without scholarships were usually unable to attend even if they had matriculated. The need for army education, however, had led to the com-

monwealth government for the first time taking a part to supply its manpower need by financing students. This affected the social profile of students and the percentage

from state schools. Quotas were imposed in medicine, dentistry, engineering, veterinary science, and agriculture. The growth of an intellectual community was noticeable. Even so, in 1950 the public image of the university

was still ambiguous and the rush of returned military to get a degree, which swamped classrooms (nearly 9,000 students), was not matched by state grants, although the

commonwealth government continued and eventually extended its assistance. At this time, a third of all Australian university students attended the University of Sydney, but Sydney in 1949 received the smallest grant per student of all universities in Australia. The university received about 4.4 percent of the annual cohort of students until 1960 when there was a marked and sudden rise. A new emphasis on postgraduate training after 1946, despite the initially slow growth in numbers, led to a shift in university priorities. The appearance of new universities, especially NSW and technical colleges, affected Sydney’s position.

and more of its own graduates. By 1966 student numbers had risen to 16,000 and many came from state schools and poorer backgrounds. There was also a sharp rise in

postgraduate students assisted by commonwealth scholarships. In 1963 they comprised 3.7 percent of total enroll-

ment, and the plan was for an increase to 9 percent by the end of the decade and 14 percent in the 1970s. Such a high percentage, however, required increased funding which was not forthcoming, and 1,000 postgraduates in 1981 still only comprised 5.8 percent of total enrollment. Coursework for graduates proved popular. Most were local students—government efforts to encourage students to move from their home fell on stony ground.

Changes in teaching practices followed worldwide changes. A tutorial system was one way of improving learning and attempting to reduce failure rates. Restructuring disciplines led to the rise of the department and decline of the God-professor. The result of demands for

participation was a rise in internal disagreements. Disputes within departments spilt over in a number of cases into stoppages and fights and in the economics case a student strike. Student support and activism, especially after 1967, took the authorities by surprise. Adaptation to new

social conditions and changing cultural norms followed slowly and often after government pressure to take in a wider range of students, especially aborigines and those of a non-English-speaking ethnic backgrounds. Reliance on the government for funding research made

restructuring difficult, but common facilities such as SILLIAC and the Electron Microscope Unit were achieved and the library reached 2 million books by 1975. Bequests by Edwin Cutberth Hall for archeology, John Power for fine arts, and community support for modern Greek and Hebrew helped but represented a tiny fraction

of the total required. In 1973 the commonwealth government’s

assumption

of all funding

for tertiary study

increased government control of the direction of new development and pressure to comply with new state and

Growth was to be accommodated by increasing the number of institutions, not allowing one to grow to an

federal rules on equal employment, antidiscrimination,

unmanageable

a

was finally curbed by the need to negotiate for what a

clever politician, helped develop a new image for Sydney

decade later became called a “profile” of activities. The 1975 change of government saw curbs on univer-

size. Roberts, the new

VC

who

was

as the premier institution with the greatest range of disciplines, postgraduates, and research. Sydney took the cream of the students and was the first institution to select for entry on merit. The 1950-52 centenary celebrations helped, although the centenary financial appeal was a

failure. Faculties sought outside funding. Research foun-

health, and safety. The university’s technical autonomy

sity growth.

The

1980s

saw

undergraduate

numbers

slowly rising as the university moved from elite training to the multiversity. New areas such as women’s studies got underway through combined efforts of academic and

dations such as the nuclear research foundation estab-

general women staff. The end to elitism came with the 1988 amalgamations, when the old university, under pres-

lished by Harry Messe] were able to draw on public

sure from Canberra, was joined by Cumberland College

expectations of immediate returns from science. After the 1957 Murray report, which confirmed commonwealth commitment to university education, there

of Health Sciences, the Teachers College, the Conservatorium of Music, and the College of the Arts. The centralised 1924 structure, despite its many subsequent

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

629

modifications, was inadequate to cope with the sudden

Iremonger, 1995). See also S.M. Jack, “The Cultural Trans-

increase in size and in numbers of campuses; the conse-

mission of Science and Technology

quent restructuring is still incomplete.

1989,” in Under New Heavens, edited by Neville Meaney

to Australia

1788-

(Port Melbourne: Heinneman, 1989).

Further Reading: The official history in two massive volumes is Australia’s First: A History of the University of Sydney, 2 volumes (Sydney: University of Sydney and Hale and

—Sybil Jack

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SYSTEM (Texas, U.S.A)

Location:

On more than 350 acres just north of the state capital and additional land acquired by gift and

University of Texas at Dallas

P.O. Box 830688 Richardson, TX 75083-0688 U.S.A. (214) 690-2111

purchase, the main branch of the University of Texas System (UT System), the University of Texas at Austin, is located in the heart of beautiful Central Texas Hill Country.

Additional parts of the main university campus include the J.J. Pickle Research Campus, a 476acre tract eight miles north of the main campus

University of Texas at El Paso

500 W. University Avenue El Paso, TX 79968-0512 U.S.A. (915) 747-5896

that houses research organizations in engineering, science, and the social sciences;

the Brackenridge tract, 445 acres bordering the

Description:

Town Lake, where research is conducted in life

Public Affairs

sciences; and the Montopolis Research Center,

University of Texas—Houston

94 acres located in southeast Austin.

7000 Fannin Street Houston, TX 77030

The academic flagship of the UT System’s 15 component institutions, the University of Texas

U.S.A. (713) 500-3033

at Austin, is a major, comprehensive research

university with a broad mission of

University of Texas—Pan American 1201 W. University Drive

undergraduate and graduate education, research, and public service. With approximately 48,000 students in attendance, a

Edinburgh, TX 78539-2999 U.S.A. (512) 381-2011

full-time teaching staff of about 2,700, and

about 15,000 staff members, the university’s programs and professional schools generally

University of Texas of the Permian Basin 4901 E. University Boulevard

rank among the top 20 programs and schools in the United States.

Information:

Odessa, TX 79762-0001 U.S.A. (915) 552-2020

Director of Information Resources

The University of Texas System 702 Colorado Street

University of Texas at San Antonio 6900 North Loop 1604 West

CLB, Suite 5.104

Austin, TX 78701-3020 U.S.A. (512) 499-4547

San Antonio, TX 78249

U.S.A. (512) 891-4011

University of Texas at Arlington

University of Texas at Tyler Office of Admissions and Student Records 3900 University Boulevard Tyler, TX 75799

P.O. Box 19088 Arlington, TX 76019

U.S.A. (817) 273-2119

U.S.A. (903) 566-7202

University of Texas at Brownsville-Texas Southmost College Office of News and Information 80 Fort Brown Brownsville, TX 78520 U.S.A. (956) 544-8231

Visiting:

The Visitor Center at the University of Texas at Austin provides information and assistance to visitors. Located in Sid Richardson Hall, adjacent to the Lyndon B. Johnson Library and

Museum, it is open weekdays from 8 A.M. to 4:30 P.M. For information, telephone the Visitor Center at (512) 471-6498.

630

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SYSTEM The Office of Admissions provides studentguided walking tours of the campus. Reservations are not required; weather

permitting, tours leave from the General Information Desk on the ground floor of the Main Building at 11 A.M. and 2 P.M. on weekdays, and at 1 P.M. on Saturdays. Tours are

not conducted during the last half of December, the first half of May, or on official holidays, but

a self-guided tour brochure is always available. For more information, or to schedule special

tours, telephone the Office of Admissions at

631

maintain a university of the highest caliber, and that popular vote would determine the university’s location. An article of the same constitution made agriculture and

mining a branch of the university and ordered the legislature to establish and maintain a college or branch university for black students, although no tax was to be levied and no money appropriated out of the general rev-

enue for such a school or for buildings of the University of Texas. This proscription effectively prevented the establishment of a separate branch of the university for blacks. The constitution went on to authorize the alloca-

(512) 471-1711. For visitor information for the other locations of the University of Texas, please contact those

tion of the original 231,400 acres granted the university

individual institutions (listed above).

acres in West Texas.

in 1839, but it repealed the gift of alternate sections of land granted railroads, instead substituting a million

An act passed on March 30, 1881, created a governing board of eight regents (later changed to nine); established admission fees, coeducation, and nonsectarian teaching;

Following its liberation from Mexico in 1836 and prior to its annexation by the United States in 1845, the inde-

and called for an election to name the location of the university. The governing board met for the first time on

pendent Republic of Texas began pursuing the goal of

November 16, 1881, and elected Ashbel Smith president,

education for its citizens. In 1839, under Texas president

Alexander P. Woodridge secretary. Then, on September 6,

Mirabeau B. Lamar, the Congress of the Republic of

1882, the citizens voted to make Austin the site of the main university and Galveston the site of the medical

Texas ordered that land be reserved for a university.

The same year another act of legislation allocated 50

department. A small, 40-acre tract on College Hill was

leagues (231,400 acres) and funds for the endowment of

chosen for the main campus, and on November 17, 1882,

two colleges or universities. Whether the funds had to be

in a ceremony officiated by Ashbel Smith, the corner-

reallocated for frontier defense or there was disagreement as to the location or there was disagreement as to the location or future funding of the university, no further action was taken by either the Congress or the Texas leg-

stone of the west wing of the first Main Building was

laid. This first building, known to all as the Main Build-

the university the 231,400 acres of land granted in 1839;

ing, for many years, served all of the university’s purposes, from housing administrative offices to classrooms. Although classes were still being held in the temporary capital as late as January 1884, the university finally

$100,000 in U.S. bonds left over from the $10 million

opened its doors in the new building on September

paid to Texas as part of the Compromise of 1850; and one section of land out of every ten reserved to the state in grants made in aid to private agencies. The Act of 1858 also created a body of ten administrators to control the university—the governor, the chief justice of the Texas Supreme Court, and eight others nominated by the governor. However, fate and history again conspired to delay the opening of the university; secession and the Civil War prevented the act from being carried out, and instead, most of the appropriated university funds were used for other state needs and not repaid

1883. Eight professors, four assistants, and one proctor

islature until 1858, when the legislature appropriated for

15,

served the needs of 221 male and female students during

the university’s first year. Forty-four years had passed

higher learning as soon as possible, and so the Texas

since members of the new Republic of Texas had first set in motion plans for a university. From its first year, Main University offered upper level degrees. Divisions in instruction were termed departments and subject divisions within departments were called schools. Main University opened with an academic department (with six schools) and a law department. More schools and departments were added until, by 1994, the university had eight colleges and seven schools offering a total of about 100 undergraduate degree programs and 170 graduate degree programs. The colleges and

Agriculture and Mechanical College was created. As a

schools were the College of Liberal Arts (1883); the Col-

result, the first state-supported educational institution to actually matriculate students was the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, now Texas A&M Univer-

lege of Natural

(1883); the College of Engineering (1894); the College of Education (1905); the Graduate School (1910); the Col-

sity, which opened at College Station in 1876.

lege of Business Administration (1922); the College of

The long wait was making university supporters anxious. The Constitution of 1876 stipulated that the legislature, without further delay, establish, organize, and

Pharmacy (1893 at Galveston, moved to Austin in 1927);

until

1883.

Meanwhile,

the

Constitution

of

1866

demanded that the legislature establish an institution of

Sciences

(1883); the School of Law

the College of Fine Arts (1938); the Graduate School of

Library and Information

Science (1950); the Graduate

632

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

School of Social Work (1950); the School of Architecture

(1951); the College of Communication (1965); the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs (1970); and the

than 350 acres. The J.J. Pickle Research Campus, a 476acre site eight miles north of the main campus, houses research organizations in engineering,

science, and the

School of Nursing (1976). The Division of Continuing Education, originally the Division of Extension (1909),

social sciences. The Montopolis Research Center is located on 94 acres in southeast Austin. The main univer-

changed to its present name in 1977.

sity also has attached to it the University of Texas at Aus-

By 1967, the faculty had grown to 1,800 and included

tin McDonald Observatory site in Jeff Davis County, the

9 of the state’s 14 members of the National Academy of

University of Texas at Austin Marine Science Institute at

Sciences. During the 1960s, the university established

Port Aransas, Winedale Historical Center near Round

nearly two dozen endowed and named academic positions, as well as temporary lectureships, to lure high-profile academics to their departments. Today, for example, the University of Texas at Austin has more than 1,000 pri-

Top, the Bee Cave Research Center west of Austin, Pai-

vately funded endowed faculty positions. Care was taken to ensure the future financial security

sance-style architecture to Cass Gilbert of New York,

of the university and its component institutions. In addition to gifts and grants to the university made by alumni, other patrons, and fundraising efforts, the end result of

the numerous legislative acts concerning the university was the establishment of the Permanent University Fund,

the Available University Fund, and biennial legislative appropriations. The Permanent Fund is an endowment

sano Ranch, the Sam Rayburn Library in Bonham, and

the Institute of Geophysics in Galveston. Many of the early buildings owe their Spanish Renaiswho designed the first library building, and Sutton Hall. Paul P. Cret of Philadelphia supervised the development of structures built between 1932 and 1945, many of which were temporary frame buildings because of the prohibition against using general revenue to construct university buildings. The increased enrollment after World War II necessitated yet another era of temporary housing and classrooms. Eventually, between

1950 and

consisting of the proceeds of the sale of the 231,400 acres

1965, 19 buildings were constructed or acquired, and in

deeded to the university in 1839, the million acres granted in the Constitution of 1876, and a second million acres granted the university by the legislature in 1883,

1965 the university was granted the right of eminent domain to acquire through purchase the lands adjacent to

together with proceeds of sales or leases of this land. The Permanent Fund cannot be spent, but instead, must be

invested in particular types of bonds, the interest of which constitutes part of the Available Fund, along with student fees, and other university revenues. Use of these monies

is fixed by the legislature in biennial appropriation bills. At the outbreak of World War I enrollment at the university had risen to 2,254, and then to 4,001 the first year

after the war ended. By 1938, enrollment had increased to 11,146; it dropped during World War II to 8,794, but rose to 15,118 in the year following the war. To meet the demands of the growing enrollment the university had to physically expand, both in terms of classrooms and housing structures, but it was increasingly clear that the 40acre campus was no longer large enough to accommodate

such expansion. In 1921 the university’s regents briefly considered

moving the campus to a 500-acre site on the banks of the Colorado River donated by George W. Brackenridge 11 years earlier in 1910, but the board’s vote to move the campus was met by bitter opposition. In response, the state legislature voted to purchase additional land adja-

cent to the original 40 acres for $1,350,000. Among the lands acquired Institute (later the Cavanaugh the grounds of Whitis Avenue

by the university were the former Blind the Texas School for the Blind) in 1925; homestead on Waller Creek in 1930; and Texas Wesleyan College and property on in 1931.

Other lands and lots were acquired throughout the university’s history, and the campus land now totals more

the existing campus. African Americans finally gained admission to the university for the first time in 1950, following the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Sweatt v. Painter. During 1966-67, 27,345 students were enrolled in the main uni-

versity, including 4,307 graduate students. On March 6, 1967, the Texas legislature voted to offi-

cially change the name of the main university to University of Texas at Austin. Celebrated alumni include Lady Bird Johnson, Walter Cronkite, Lloyd Bentsen, Bill Moyers, Frederico Peria, and Edwin Dorn. Among the distin-

guished faculty members of the UT Austin faculty are several Nobel Prize winners, including 1995 recipients Jean-Marc Bouju of the Associated Press for feature pho-

tography and Lucian Perkins of the Washington Post for explanatory journalism. The facilities are top notch, including the fifth-largest academic library in North America, with approximately 7 million volumes, 5 million pieces of microfilm, 30 million pages of manuscripts, and on-line access to hun-

dreds of databases and other electronic resources. The library has its own, separately administered system comprised of the General Libraries, the Tarlton Law Library, and the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center. Of

these, the General Libraries are made up of The Perry Caraneda Library (the main library); the Undergraduate Library; the Nerrie Lee Benson Latin American Collection;

and

the

Center

for

American

History,

which

includes the University Archives, the Sam Rayburn Library and Museum in Bonham, and the Eugene C. Barker Texas History Center.

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SYSTEM

633

University of Texas at Austin

Cultural and entertainment facilities include the Performing Arts Center ( a complex of several theaters, performance halls, and workshop and rehearsal spaces); the Franklin C. Erwin Special Events Center (with a seating capacity of 18,000); the Archer M. Huntington Art Gallery; and the Lyndon B. Johnson Library and Museum, among others.

The student body at the University of Texas at Austin is composed of students from all 50 states. The average SAT score of freshmen in 1995 was 1217, more than 300 points higher than the national SAT average of 902. Estimated tuition and fees plus living expenses and associ-

ated educational costs totaled $7,614 for a student living at home, $10,606 with campus housing, and $12,188 with off-campus housing. Although originally conceived of as a system of schools, the University of Texas System wasn’t officially referred to as such until 1967. The state’s system of higher

education was reorganized then, combining existing educational institutions with newly established ones to form an entity which currently ranks among the ten largest sys-

tems of higher education in the United States. Today, the University of Texas System is governed by a nine-member

board of regents selected from different parts of the state, nominated by the governor, and appointed by the senate

for six-year terms; the board has been administered by both the presidential and chancellorship forms. Logan Wilson and Harry Huntt Ransom are among those who have served as head of the system’s administration. As part of the overall drive to streamline administrative and economic efforts among the university components,

the health science centers, cancer center, and nursing school were organized in 1972, a by-product of which was the coordination of university-wide programs in specific

health areas. Under the administrative control of these three medical units were several individual institutions.

634

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Over the last 100 years, the UT System has grown to its present combination of 15 universities (9 of which are academic), 6 medical schools, health science cen-

ters, a cancer center, and a nursing school. Total student

enrollment is approximately 147,374. With 69,000 employees, an administrative staff of 426, and an administrative budget of $30.4 million (supporting schools with a combined budget of more than $4.5 billion), the UT System ranks as the fifth-largest employer in Texas. The University of Texas at Austin was both the largest

act of legislation which enabled the privately funded graduate research center to transfer to the state of Texas. The school’s first class of upper division undergraduates was admitted in 1975. The University of Texas at El Paso. Established in

Texas-Pan American in Edinburg, the University of Texas

1913 as Texas State School of Mines and Metallurgy, the school is the second oldest component of the UT System. The first campus, located on land that is now part of the Fort Bliss Army post, was destroyed by fire. The school moved in 1916 to the present campus in the western foothills of the Franklin Mountains. Its Bhutanese architecture is unique among most American schools; the campus looks more like exotic Oriental castles than the modernistic, stacked cubes of classrooms erected on other campuses. Known as UTEP, the school first offered instruction at the post-secondary level in 1914 and awarded its first baccalaureate degree two years later, in 1916. The school then became a branch of the University of Texas in 1919, changing its name a year later to the Texas College of Mines and Metallurgy. In 1949, the school changed its name to Texas Western College. The present name was adopted in 1967.

of the Permian Basin in Odessa, the University of Texas

The University of Texas—Houston. Founded in 1972,

at Tyler, and the University of Texas at San Antonio,

the University of Texas—Houston is an institution of the health sciences: medicine, dentistry, public health, nurs-

and the oldest component institution in the system, and it included the University of Texas at Austin, McDonald Observatory at Mount Locke, and the University of Texas at Austin Marine Science Institute in Port Aransas. The

other general academic institutions which combined to form the system were the University of Texas at Arlington, the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas

Southmost College, the University of Texas at Dallas, the University of Texas at El Paso, the University of Texas Health

Science

Center

at Houston,

the University

of

which also included the University of Texas Institute of Texan Cultures at San Antonio. A brief historical sketch of each branch follows. The University of Texas at Arlington. Established as

Arlington College in 1895, the college first changed its name to Carlisle Military Institute in 1901 and then

ing, allied health, and biomedical science. The university serves a student body of approximately 3,100, conducts

biomedical research valued at $95 million per year, and provides health care through nearly 1.5 million outpatient

before

visits and inpatient admissions per year. The University of Texas Pan American in Edinburg.

becoming a junior college branch of Texas Agriculture

Located in the Rio Grande Valley, 75 miles from the

and Mechanical College. The school changed its name several more times and in 1959 became a four-year college, awarding its first baccalaureate degree in 1961. The

Gulf of Mexico and South Padre Island, Texas, UT Pan

again to Arlington

Training

School

in 1913

school joined the University of Texas System in 1965, adopting its present name in 1967. The University of Texas at Brownsville-Texas South-

most College. Originally established in 1973 as an upperlevel extension center of Pan American University in Edinburg, Texas, the University of Texas at Brownsville in 1991 joined Texas Southmost College—a lower-level,

community college with a presence in Brownsville since 1926. The goal of this partnership was to offer students in the Rio Grande Valley the opportunity to pursue programs and degrees typical of a four-year college without sacrificing their opportunity to explore vocational, technical, developmental education, and continuing education classes more typical of a community college. More than 1,700 students study everything from one-day seminars to full credit courses. Both schools are located on the grounds of the historic Fort Brown, established by Gen-

eral Zachary Taylor in 1846. The University of Texas at Dallas. Originally the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies (1961), the Uni-

versity of Texas at Dallas was established in 1969 by an

American began in 1927 as Edinburg College. After six name changes, the university joined the University of

Texas System on September 1, 1989. Today, more than 13,000 students are enrolled at the main campus in Edinburg, Texas. The University of Texas of the Permian Basin. Authorized by the Texas legislature in 1969 as an upper-level

university offering junior, senior, and graduate-level programs, the University of Texas of the Permian Basin achieved four-year status and began offering freshman level courses in September 1991. Enrollment is approximately 2,300; 70 percent are undergraduates, 30 percent

are graduates. Many of the students commute from the surrounding Permian Basin region. Although most are older employed full-time or part-time, there has been a corresponding increase in the number of traditional, college-age students since the university achieved four-year status. The 600-acre campus is in West Texas, midway between Dallas and El Paso. The University of Texas at San Antonio. Created by a mandate from the 61st Texas legislature on June 5, 1969,

the school was designed to be a university of the highest caliber, offering undergraduate and graduate degrees. The

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SYSTEM first class was admitted in June 1973. The UTSA is one of the fastest-growing universities in the state, with an enrollment of approximately 17,000. The University of Texas at Tyler. Created in 1971 as an

upper-level university—Tyler State College—the school

then became Texas Eastern University in 1975, joining

the University of Texas System in 1979. The university’s mission was changed by the Texas legislature in 1997 to include lower division classes, as well. Effective in the

635

Further Reading: For a closer look at the University of Texas System and its component institutions, see In the Beginning of the University of Texas, by Carl J. Eckhardt (Aus-

tin: University of Texas, 1979), and A Source Book Relating to the History of the University of Texas (University of Texas Bulletin 1757, 1917). For a concise summary of the individu-

al component institutions, read The New Handbook of Texas (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1996).

summer semester 1998, the university began enrolling

freshmen and sophomore students.

—Elizabeth Taggart

UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH (Sewanee, Tennessee, U.S.A.) Location:

Description:

Atop the Cumberland Plateau in Sewanee,

resources to Mississippi and Louisiana was, in retrospect,

Tennessee, between Nashville and

a step in the right direction; however, the economic cli-

Chattanooga.

mate of 1837 persuaded the two men to shelve their aspirations temporarily. While Otey and Polk are credited with being the chief

An independent institution affiliated with the

Episcopal Church enrolling approximately 1,200 students and awarding degrees of baccalaureate, master of divinity, and doctorate of ministry. Information:

visionaries in the formation of the University of the South, their dream

church-sponsored

university was essentially pragmatic. By the late 1850s

Call (800) 522-2234 or (615) 598-1238 to

the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian denominations were responsible for establishing more than half of the institutions of higher learning in the south, and these denominations had become reasonably well established in southern society. The Episcopal Church had a much smaller membership in the south; Otey and Polk, who were both founding bishops of their respective dioceses, saw that the surest way to solidify the role of the Episcopal Church in southern culture was to establish, first, a

schedule an interview and a tour of the campus.

school of classical learning that would lend prestige to

Office of Admission University of the South 735 University Avenue

Sewanee, TN 37383-1000 U.S.A. (615) 598-1238 Visiting:

of a large-scale,

the Episcopalian cause and, second, a theological school

The University of the South, perhaps more than any

that would train young men to be ministers, teachers, and leaders in their communities. In the wake of the first failed attempts to form a university that could achieve these goals, Otey and Polk

other American

helped to found the Female Institute in Columbia, Ten-

American

university, suffered the effects of the

Civil War and the harsh economic

circum-

nessee. The Female Institute was a modest success, but

stances of Southern Reconstruction that were to follow.

other attempts by Otey to establish Episcopalian centers

Founded in 1857 and chartered in 1858, the formation of

for learning failed. Mercer Hall in Columbia and Ravens-

the University of the South came to a temporary halt in the early 1860s when one of the school’s principal founders was called into military duty by Jefferson Davis

croft College outside of Columbia were both short-lived

owing to lack of financial support. In 1851 Otey traveled to Europe for a full year to recover from a series of illnesses that had befallen him.

himself. The war also took its toll on the school’s property, as newly constructed buildings were razed by army battles and occupations. By the end of the Civil War, even

There he visited with the Archbishop of Canterbury as well as going to several institutions of higher learning in

the university’s cornerstone had been destroyed, broken into pieces to be kept as war mementos.

England, France, Prussia, Switzerland, and other neigh-

The idea for the University of the South may be traced to an Episcopalian church convention in Tennessee in 1832, some 25 years prior to its actual founding and 36

desire to establish a university in Tennessee that was similar in atmosphere and purpose to those he observed in Europe. His visits were productive in another sense as

years before the first class was held. During this conven-

well: he initiated several key relationships with scholars

tion the Reverend James Hervey Otey, who soon after became the Bishop of Tennessee, proposed that the Tennessee diocese establish an Episcopalian school of theology and classical learning. Although no immediate action was taken toward this end, only three years later Otey and

and administrators at European universities, some of whom would come to the aid of the University of the

boring countries. These visits confirmed in Otey the

South in its crucial early years. As the south reached new heights of prosperity in the 1850s, Bishops Otey and Polk again revived the idea of an Episcopal institution of higher learning that would combine the cultural values of the American south with

the Reverend Leonidas Polk (who would later become

Bishop of the Southwest, comprising Arkansas and Louisiana) began raising monies for the purpose of establishing a university that would be owned and administered jointly by the dioceses of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The idea to expand the base of financial

the academic traditions of Europe. In the summer of 1856, Bishop Polk drafted a letter to the bishops of the other nine southern dioceses outlining his proposal for a church-sponsored university. In this letter Polk set forth 636

UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH

University of the South

637

638

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

in great detail the necessity of such an enterprise and suggested that the church’s leadership take up the discussion in earnest at the general church convention in October of

that year. Polk’s proposal did indeed gain the support of church leadership, and in October a declaration of intent to establish a university was signed by all ten bishops of the southern dioceses.

The declaration further elaborated on the resolutions outlined in Bishop Polk’s letter, most notably that the university would be owned and administered by all participating dioceses; that an initial endowment of $500,000 would need to be raised for the purpose of establishing the university; and that, ideally, the school would be located near Chattanooga (this region was chosen for its connection via railroad lines to major cities of the north and south). On July 4, 1857, representatives from seven southern dioceses of the Episcopal Church met at Lookout Moun-

tain near Chattanooga to elect officers and to found the university. The date chosen for this meeting was purposeful, as Bishop Otey’s address to the crowd of nearly 500

The name of the university was also chosen at the November meeting, after some deliberation. Other names

considered were “The University of Sewanee” and “The Church University,” each reflecting a different vision of

the university’s role. That committee members chose a grander and more inclusive title for the school attests to their more ambitious aim: to establish a university that would represent culturally the entire region of the south. The naming of the university also suggests that committee members believed they could create—in nearly finished form—an institution that would compare favorably with the more established universities of the north in regard to atmosphere, personnel, and financial resources. Bishop Polk stated as much in a letter written to cofounder Stephen Elliott, Bishop of Georgia: There is no reason why .. . we might not in five

years have a Church University which would rival Harvard or Yale. ... A movement of some kind is indispensable to rally and unite us, to develop our resources and demonstrate our power.

onlookers implies:

We affirm that our aim is eminently national and patriotic . . . not of political schism. . . We contemplate no strife, save a generous rivalry with our brethren, as to who shall furnish to this great repub-

lic the truest men, the truest Christians, and the truest patriots.

This fierce sense of optimism among executive committee members, although crucial at the time of the university’s founding, would prove to be an obstacle in the economically troublesome years that followed the Civil War. On the heels of the November meeting, the State of

Tennessee granted the university its charter on January 6, 1858. This accomplished, Bishops Polk and Elliott gave

Otey’s nationalist rhetoric, however, would soon be mod-

their attention to the work of raising revenues. As out-

ified when his institution expressed its loyalty to the Confederate cause.

lined in Polk’s letter of 1856 to the bishops of the ten southern dioceses, their initial goal was to raise $500,000,

The next step was to secure property in a favorable location. At some time between the founding of the uni-

a sum upon which they would draw interest and, in turn,

use only the interest to fund construction and operation of

versity in July, 1857 and the meeting of the executive committee in November of that year, a prominent geologist and civil engineer was contracted to investigate sev-

the university. It was Polk’s idea to raise this sum in one diocese alone and so demonstrate the feasibility of their goals to the remaining dioceses. This was nearly accom-

eral possible sites in the general vicinity of the Cumberland Plateau, particularly Chattanooga, Huntsville, McMinnville, Cleveland, Atlanta, and Sewanee. The communities of Chattanooga and Huntsville campaigned by offering land, natural resources, and monetary gifts to the fledgling institution. Criteria for site selection included degree of elevation above sea level, water supply, availability of building materials, proxim-

plished in the spring of 1859 as Polk and Elliott traveled through the Louisiana diocese soliciting financial support

ity to railroad lines and roads, temperateness of climate, and pleasantness of landscape; in the end, however, it was the generous offer of 10,000 acres of land and free

from wealthy plantation owners

and others. By tour’s

end, the two bishops had raised more than $478,000 in cash, bonds, and promissory notes.

The apparent ease with which Polk and Elliott had raised the initial endowment for the university inspired trustees to make preparations for the laying of the cornerstone. The actual ceremony and accompanying festivities took place on October 10, 1860. As plans for the layout of

the campus had not yet been finalized, the six-ton marble

shipping of 20,000 tons of freight made by Samuel F. Tracy of the Sewanee Mining Company and other local

cornerstone was placed on large sandstone supports at the

citizens that swayed the executive committee to choose

late morning as some 5,000 onlookers followed a proces-

Sewanee as the home of the University of the South. To

sion of church and university leadership through the wil-

this day, the 10,000-acre domain atop the Cumberland

derness to where the cornerstone was temporarily laid. Following the ceremony, trustees met to agree upon the constitution and statutes of the university, part of

Plateau remains a key component of the university’s unique character.

site’s highest point of elevation. The ceremony began in the

UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH which stipulated that the board of trustees was to be comprised of the bishop, a clergyman, and two laypersons from each of the ten participating dioceses. The clergy-

man and two laypersons would be elected at their own diocesan conventions. The constitution and statutes also stipulated that each member of the board of trustees would have an equal vote. Arthur Benjamin Chitty Jr., a chief historian of the University of the South, notes that

this arrangement was designed to “counterbalance the

idealistic and spiritual thinking of the bishops against the hard practicality of the realistic laymen and would prevent domination by either group.” All of these detailed

plans, however,

were

made

nearly obsolete by the course of events that began in December 1860, when South Carolina seceded from the

Union. Bishop Elliott of Georgia, who now resided in

Sewanee, supported the secession of all southern states and actively campaigned for southern dioceses of the Episcopal Church to become independent of their north-

erm counterparts. This action was formally taken at a special convention in Montgomery, Alabama in July 1861. The dilemma that the war between the North and South represented for the school’s founders, however, is

perhaps best manifested in the actions of Bishop Polk,

who more than once declined the commission of majorgeneral given to him by Jefferson Davis, reasoning that others were more qualified than he to serve in such a

capacity and for such a cause. Later events would serve to change his mind. While in New Orleans in April 1861,

639

Leadership then fell to the Reverend Charles T. Quintard, newly elected bishop of Tennessee and protégé of

Bishop Elliott. At the Tennessee diocesan convention in September 1865, it was resolved that the diocese of Tennessee alone should take measures to establish a seminary at Sewanee. This attempt to establish a modest center for learning—in contrast to the original intent to create a bustling, fully operational university out of the wilderness—was necessitated by political and economic circumstances. Moreover, executive committee members were very aware of a clause in the deed to the property which stated that ownership of the domain would revert to its original owners if a school were not functioning on the premises within ten years of its donation. Although committee members clearly conceived of the theological school as merely the first step toward a larger enterprise, it was the establishment of a small-scale seminary at the site designated for the University of the South that essentially secured the committee’s rights to the domain and made possible all later developments. In January 1866, Bishop Quintard and two colleagues addressed to the remaining members of the executive committee a letter outlining plans by the Tennessee diocese to open a theological school. The three men also pro-

posed that a boys’ preparatory school be established at the Sewanee domain and toward this end called for all diocesan treasurers to collect on pledges made to the University of the South before the war. Characteristically, those individuals most involved in the formation of the

Polk learned that his home in Sewanee had been burned to the ground by unidentified persons and that his wife and family had barely escaped. This incident occurred the same night that shells were fired against Fort Sumter

university were overly optimistic. Although Quintard’s

in Charleston, South Carolina. Polk, who was a graduate of the military school at West Point, finally accepted his command in June 1861. The war destroyed all hopes of opening the Univer-

Still, in February 1866, construction began on the first

sity of the South on a grand scale as a large, fully opera-

tional institution. Much of the landscape of the south lay in ruins, property values plummeted, and plantation owners were forced to cease production owing to the severe labor shortages associated with the emancipation of the slave population. The most critical consequence

of the war for the university, however, was that its original benefactors were no longer able to provide the financial backing they had promised. This meant that a new fund-raising effort would have to be undertaken at a time

when

most,

if not

all, southern

dioceses

were

barely able to finance their own essential operations. Also damaging to the cause of the University of the South were the losses of Bishops Otey and Polk. Otey succumbed to illness in Memphis in April 1863, and

Polk

died

in battle

in June

1864.

Bishop

Elliott,

although managing to reconvene a portion of the board of trustees in October 1866, also died before resumption

of plans to open the university actually took place.

letter was met with some enthusiasm, the monies promised to the school’s founders were simply unavailable in the postwar economy.

university building, Otey Hall, under the direction of George R. Fairbanks, commissioner of lands and buildings. This wood structure was built to house the activities of the divinity school and was financed primarily by the fundraising efforts of Quintard as he traveled through his diocese. In March a Dr. Merrick became director of the

divinity school, but he left within a year. The basic means to instruct students now existed, but it is unclear whether any students attended the school during Dr. Merrick’s short tenure.

Plans to reestablish the University of the South were considered on October 11, 1866. Bishop Elliott, in his last

official act as third chancellor of the university (Otey first held the title and Polk succeeded him), presided over a meeting of 9 of the original 40 members of the board of trustees who had convened expressly to discuss the future of the university. While the number of members present was not sufficient to take formal action according to the school’s constitution and statutes, those in attendance agreed that earnest attempts to resurrect plans for the university should be made. Notably, Bishop Quintard agreed to remain chief fundraiser for this undertaking.

640

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Upon the death of Bishop Elliott, William Mercer Green, bishop of Mississippi, was elected fourth chancellor of the University of the South. Under his administra-

tion, the divinity school finally opened, and fundraising efforts for the university continued. At the behest of the

board of trustees, George R. Fairbanks planned to travel to Louisiana to see which, if any, prewar pledges could be collected. Bishop Green addressed a letter to all previously associated dioceses requesting they resume their financial

ized the complete loss of the prewar Louisiana pledges. One fact, however, was becoming increasingly clear to all involved: the plan of Otey, Polk, and Elliott to fund and operate the institution drawing only on the interest and investments gains from a large principal endowment was no longer attainable. Whatever aid could be gotten from the southern dioceses or from benefactors in England would have to be spent as circumstances required. Following these miscalculations, the executive com-

raising efforts proved only mildly successful. As it became increasingly clear that the economic cli-

mittee—now comprised only of Quintard and Fairbanks—authorized construction of several new buildings on the campus intended to accommodate the hundreds of new students projected to enroll at the university. Once they realized that these costs were beyond the school’s financial means, the board of trustees was forced to seek

mate in the south would remain hostile to their cause, the

a loan in the sum of $10,000 in 1872. The process of

board of trustees resolved in August 1867 that the reach of fundraising efforts be extended to the Church of England. Bishop Quintard, now vice-chancellor of the

university, was thus sent to England, where he quickly secured the endorsement of the Archbishop of Canter-

obtaining the loan from the New York-based United States Mortgage Company was a sobering affair for trustees; they saw that northern investors were reluctant to invest resources in southern enterprises. Still, the loan was successfully negotiated.

bury. Aided by other Anglican church leaders sympa-

All was not grim, however. In the name of elevating

thetic to his cause, Quintard raised a considerable sum. A

the school’s operations to the university level, the board

skilled and charismatic orator, Quintard augmented this

authorized the creation of seven university departments

income by preaching in pulpits throughout England, for

that had been prescribed in the original constitution and

which he received offertories. In total, Quintard raised

statutes: chemistry, civil engineering, mathematics, meta-

approximately £2,500 over the course of his eight-and-a-

physics, modern languages, ancient languages, and moral

half month

science. Initially, professors were hired to teach in six of these departments. Also, in the years 1870-72 a village community began to grow and flourish at Sewanee. The

participation in the enterprise. In the spring of 1867, Quintard and Fairbanks traveled to Louisville in search of financial backing. Quintard also traveled to Georgia and South Carolina, but to no greater avail. Each of these fund-

trip to England.

He also accepted books

donated by Oxford University and Cambridge University. On the basis of Quintard’s success abroad, the board of

trustees moved ahead with plans to open the university. Consistent with the trustees’ new-found sense of restraint,

a junior department

was

created

to teach

younger students at the college preparatory level. The executive committee pursued a headmaster and teachers for this purpose, and, in September 1868, the University

number of leases granted by the university tripled over the course of this period, and the number of homes in the village alone reached 100. This expansion was owed in part to Quintard’s solicitation of skilled laborers and their

families during his fundraising trips.

of the South opened its doors to nine students, all of

The remainder of the 1870s saw several maneuverings on the part of university trustees to maintain credit ratings,

whom had been personally invited to attend the school.

including the reduction of faculty salaries and consolida-

These male students (women

were not admitted until

tion of high-level administrative positions. In order to pay

1920 and were not awarded degrees until 1971) ranged in

off existing debts, a second loan from the United States

age from 12 to 19, and it was not until a year later that a formal division was made between the grammar school and the junior department. By the fall of the following

Mortgage Company in the sum of $25,000 was secured.

year, a total of 86 new students had enrolled and attended classes, and in the spring term of 1870 another 95 stu-

caused enrollment to fall off considerably, and the loss of

dents were admitted. Perhaps because of this apparent progress, members of the executive committee and trustees continued to overestimate severely their base of financial resources. Commissioner Fairbanks conveyed to the trustees his belief that a large stone structure, estimated to cost $30,000, could be financed over the period of its construction,

approximately three years. In reviewing the institution’s financial assets, the finance committee made the crucial

error of estimating values at prewar rates. Additionally, it was not until the summer of 1870 that Fairbanks fully real-

The timing of this loan may have been fortuitous. In the years 1878-79 a yellow fever epidemic in the region income from student tuition would have been disastrous had reparations not been made on previous debts. The university’s finances were now largely under the supervision of the Rev. Telfair Hodgson, first dean of the theological department and later third vice-chancellor of the university. Under Hodgson’s direction the university’s financial standing finally stabilized. As a consequence, the next 25 years were devoted to the construction of permanent buildings on the campus. The first stone structure, Hodgson Library, was begun in 1876, followed by St. Luke’s Hall in 1877. Thompson Hall (1883), Walsh

Memorial Hall (1891), Hoffman Memorial Hall (1898),

UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH and Quintard Memorial Hall (1901), all designed in the architectural style of Oxford and Cambridge, soon followed. These buildings were financed through the gifts of benefactors. The University of the South emerged from the dark years of Southern Reconstruction to become a thriving center of academic tradition and learning, and had ample cause to celebrate its 125th anniversary in 1981. Today, the university is home to a wide array of departments in the liberal arts and sciences as well as to a school of theology. Although significant changes have taken place since its founding in 1857, the University of the South has managed to maintain the unique blend of southern

641

Further Reading: Two volumes detailing the history of the University of the South are Reconstruction at Sewanee: The Founding of the University of the South and Its First

Administration, (Sewanee,

1857-1872, by Arthur Benjamin Chitty Jr.

Tennessee:

The University

Press,

1954), and

History of the University of the South at Sewanee, Tennes-

see, by George R. Fairbanks (Jacksonville, Florida: H. and W.B. Drew Company, 1905). Moultrie Gerry’s Men Who Made Sewanee (Sewanee, Tennessee: The University Press, 1981), which has been republished with additional

chapters by Arthur Benjamin and Elizabeth N. Chitty, offers a closer look at the personal lives of the school’s

founders and chief architects.

culture and Oxfordian spirit and architecture envisioned

by its founders.

—Christopher Hudson

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND (Johannesburg, South Africa) Location:

Situated in Johannesburg, the largest

on mining. In response to these rapid economic changes, the initial effort was made within South Africa itself to establish the facilities for training professional men to meet the needs of the rapidly expanding mining industry. And herein lie the roots and evolution of the Witwa-

metropolitan area and industrial and commercial center of South Africa. Also known as “The Rand,” a 150-mile ridge located in northeast South Africa which contains the

world’s largest gold field, producing two-thirds of the world’s gold. Located 31 miles from Pretoria, South Africa’s capital.

Description:

tersrand University. In 1890, the Council of the South African College elected to open “a School of Mines in South Africa” in Cape Town. A conflict then arose concerning the physical location of the college. Should the School of Mines

The main campus is at Milner Park in Johannesburg, occupying 168 acres, and includes the recently developed West Campus,

be located in Kimberley, the mining town, or in Johannesburg, the mother city with a lengthy tradition as a

where the departments of law, education,

center of education? Compromise was reached in the form of a 1894 parliamentary motion that proposed that professional training be taught at the South African Col-

commerce, and a portion of engineering are located. The Medical School is located in Parktown, approximately five miles from the main campus. -

Information:

lege in Cape Town. It was then decided by parliamentary motion that technical and practical training would be conducted at Kimberley, and that Johannesburg should not be excluded if the necessary facilities could

Admissions Office Senate House Concourse University of the Witwatersrand

be provided. Because of the high cost of living the stu-

Private Bag 3

dents

WITS 2050 South Africa Admissions (001) 716 8003

incurred

in Johannesburg,

fourth-year courses

both

in mining were

the third-

consolidated

and

in

Kimberley. In 1895, the Witwatersrand Council of Education was formed by the leaders of the gold mining industry of the Witwatersrand for the purpose of teach-

Main (011) 716 1111

ing English-language education. Also in 1895, the Council of the University of the

Cape of Good Hope met to discuss a proposal made by

Shifts in the local economic landscape and world events throughout the early part of the twentieth century have shaped the growth and direction of the University of the Witwatersrand. The school’s roots have their origins in

the Council of the South African College. The college set forth the following objective: “to bring within the reach of young men, throughout South Africa, the opportunity of qualifying themselves in their own country, for a profession which has hitherto been filled chiefly by experts trained elsewhere.” Ultimately, this led to the founding in 1896 of the South African School

the South African School of Mines in Kimberley, which opened in 1896 and moved to Johannesburg in 1904. There it was incorporated into Transvaal Technical Institute. By 1910, it had been renamed South African School of Mines and Technology. Ten years later, it was named a university college, with university status established by Private Act of Parliament, Act. No. 15 of 1921. On March 1, 1922, the University of Witwatersrand officially opened with 6 schools with 37 departments, 73 academic staff members, and a little more than 1,000 students studying the arts, sciences, medicine, engineering, law, and business. The combined discovery of the diamond fields of Kimberley and Griqualand West during the 1870s, followed by the unearthing of the gold fields of Johannesburg and the Witwatersrand in the 1880s spawned South Africa’s first industrial revolution. As a result, within a single gen-

of Mines in Kimberley, and endorsed by the De Beers Consolidated Mines. In 1896, J.S. Lawn, a distinguished graduate of the Royal School of Mines in London, was

appointed as the first professor of mining, stationed in Kimberley. Later, he became principal of the South African School of Mines in Kimberley. Enrollment, however, was small through the 1890s, with only 12 to

14 new students admitted yearly. The South African War in October 1899 put an end to the school’s activities until July 1900. By August 1903, the Transvaal Technical Institute was established, replacing the Kimberley School. The same

mining curriculum offered at the Kimberley School was

eration the foundation of South Africa’s economy meta-

followed at the new school. The first class met on March

morphosed from an agrarian to a capitalist system based

29, 1904, in temporary quarters, which had first been 642

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND

643

University of the Witwatersrand

used as a cigar store. The only academic awards the institute could confer on students were diplomas and certificates, not university degrees. Thus, the institute

government, though, did not consider Frankenwald a suitable site for a university. As the former colonial secretary in the Transvaal gov-

functioned more as a trade school than an institution aspiring to claiming university status. In July 1906, the school’s name was changed to Transvaal University College. Two years later, the functions of the college were divided. Engineering and technical training along with

ernment, General Jan Smuts was responsible for higher education there. He was keenly aware of and supported the government’s plans for a reorganized system of

law classes proceeded in Johannesburg and the arts and

ness trip. His strategy was to steer Otto Beit to giving

sciences were relegated to Pretoria.

favorable consideration to establishing a national univer-

national education. With this idea in mind, Smuts met

with Otto Beit (Alfred’s brother) during a London busi-

Also in 1906, the sum of £200,000 (the value of his

sity at Groote Schuur. Beit told Smuts that he no longer

Frankenwald estate) was bequeathed to the college by

felt bound to Frankenwald and instead preferred the

Alfred Beit “to be applied towards building and equip-

ping the university” to be called the University of

Groote Schuur site to found a South African university. In a letter to Smuts, Beit wrote from London on August

Johannesburg. The gift, however, came with a provision:

19, 1910, “I have fully discussed the matter with Sir

if the money was not used to establish this university within ten years of his passing, the money would be

Julius Wernher . . . and . . . provided the government

returned to his estate. However, the sole beneficiary of

Otto.

the Johannesburg University on the Frankenwald estate, be it either by Act of Parliament, or by any other means

Apparently, Alfred Beit (a partner with Wernher in

to the satisfaction of my legal advisers, I will give an

Johannesburg’s

equal amount for the scheme of which you now write.”

Alfred

Beit’s estate

was

his younger

brother

largest gold mine) had in mind

the

renounces the legacy by my late brother of £200,000 for

building of a University of Johannesburg on the Frankenwald estate. It would then serve the educational

The letter was accompanied by another letter to Smuts penned by Sir Julius Wernher, who wrote: “The idea of a

needs of both

South African University appeals to us very much on sen-

Johannesburg and Pretoria. The Transvaal

644

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

timental and practical grounds and we are glad that you are putting it forward. Assuming that the bequest . . . can be diverted, I shall be very happy to contribute say £200,000, and if it is found that £500,000 is necessary,

The city of Johannesburg donated the Milner Park site of 80 acres. Another 12 acres was given by Transvaal

Mr. Otto Beit and myself would find the difference of

Consolidated Lands, along with generous financial sup-

£100,000.” Smuts clinched the deal by an enthusiastic

port from the cities of Johannesburg, Reef, and Vereeniging together with the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, the Witwatersrand Council of Education, and the support from the general public. Ultimately, the Witwatersrand

cable of acceptance on behalf of the government which were now committed to the Groot Schur scheme for a national university.

During this time, strong rivalries existed between

sity, not at Johannesburg, but at Witwatersrand, funds, nevertheless, were badly needed.

Pretoria and Johannesburg for the site of the proposed

University owes its existence to the overwhelming civic support of the entire Witwatersrand community together

university as well as among other colleges, and the vari-

with the 72-member Witwatersrand University Commit-

ous colony governments would not make a move until a

tee and the Witwatersrand College of Education. Nine

proposed Inter-Colonial Conference on University Mat-

new departments were established in 1917 to provide pre-

ters had met and until the governments of South Africa

had arrived at a decision on the question of university

medical and predental training. A men’s dormitory, the first building erected on the new campus, was ready for

policy.

the 1921 academic session.

With the granting of responsible government to the

On 1919, Jan Hofmeyr, at age 24, was appointed prin-

Transvaal in 1908, with Pretoria as the seat of government, there was a demand for proper facilities for higher education. The situation was resolved by dividing the

cipal of the South African School of Mines and Technol-

functions of the Transvaal University College. A dual system was then introduced under which engineering and

ogy. Later that year on August 1 by act of Parliament, the University College of Johannesburg was established. Three years later, the government transferred the Frankenwald estate to the university.

Johannesburg,

The academic staff, led by Hofmeyr as president, was

together with classes for the law certificate examination. The arts and sciences departments became the responsibility of the Pretoria branch. In 1910, the Transvaal Parliament passed an act that finally allowed the two institutions to become independent. The one in Johannes-

composed of nearly 60 professors, senior lecturers, and

burg was renamed the South African School of Mines and Technology, while the one in Pretoria retained the title of

1925 by Sir William Thompson, who held the president’s

technological

training

continued

at

Transvaal University College. Then in April 1913, a parliamentary bill was introduced for the establishment of a new University of South Africa. Subsequently, the bill was withdrawn because the University Commission had requested the establishment

lecturers. Because of a strike, the official opening ceremony was postponed more than six months when conditions returned to normal. Hofmeyr, who went on to play a greater role in South Africa’s history, was succeeded in post for two years. The period between 1917 and 1922 marked a steady build-up of faculties and departments that afforded the university a broad academic base, thanks in part to the men who had come from the United Kingdom and who

of two universities, one in the south and one in the north.

were typical products of the older as well as the younger universities.

The Johannesburg School of Mines and Technology then

On June 23, 1925, England’s Prince of Wales (who

would be recognized as the school of technology for both

was to become Edward VIII) made an official visit to the

universities.

£400,000 would go to Cape Town and £50,000 each to

university to open the Main Block and to receive an honorary degree of doctor of laws. In 1928, Humphrey

Pretoria and Johannesburg. At a conference in Capetown

Raikes assumed the president’s post, which he held until

on December 17, 1915, attended by representatives of all

1953. By 1939, the number of students had increased to a

the colleges, the minister informed those present that while they were welcome to discuss the details, they “could not deal with the principles, the government having decided to found three universities.”

total enrollment

Of the total Wernher-Beit

endowment,

The worst feature of the new bill that incorporated

the School of Mines with the other colleges was a clause stipulating that no development of any kind could be undertaken at any of them without the express permission of the Minister of Education. After much protestation in Parliament, the minister finally agreed that a constituent college could promote legislation “providing for the incorporation of such colleges as a university.”

Although the way was cleared for establishing a univer-

of 2,544. The number

of academic

departments grew from 37 to 44, while the full-time aca-

demic staff expanded from 60 to 105 members. The school of dentistry opened in 1929, and the school of architecture and fine arts in 1940. The slow progress in erecting buildings on the Milner

Park campus reflected only one aspect of the very severe financial restrictions the university faced between the two world wars. The years of depression that preceded South Africa’s departure from the gold standard in 1932 only made the problem of trying to make ends meet more difficult. As a result, the school was mired in a

near constant state of bankruptcy. The only substantial

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND source of revenue was from student fees, already the

highest of any of the country’s universities. In spite of the hardships, the university did graduate an impressive

number of students. From 1922 to 1939, 2,998 students were awarded diplomas. Four new buildings were built from 1925 to 1945 including the Isabel Dalrymple House (1928), a women’s residence; the main library (which had been

totally destroyed by fire in 1931 and was replaced with a

645

tration which is housed in a gracious older building called Outeniqua. Also bequeathed to the university was a handsome private home known as Savernake. A donation of Dr. Bernard Price, it serves as the home of the

university’s president. In 1960, the building to house the Nuclear Physics Research Unit was completed, as well as many other small structures to house equipment for such special purposes as the making of nitrogen and liquid hydrogen. In

addition, three of the university’s original buildings—the

separate fire-proof building); the Bernard Price Institute for Geophysical Research (1936); and Hillman Block (1940), which houses the departments of civil engineer-

Engineering

ing and surveying. In addition, those years saw the completion of the Central Block that contained the Great

extensive remodeling. The university’s first development office to house

Hall where graduation ceremonies were held and the Douglas Smit House (1945) where African medical students were housed. The great technological strides that were gaining

permanent fundraising activities also was opened at this

momentum throughout the world required trained engineers and scientists for industry and research purposes. The tremendous advances of the early 1940s caused

South Africa to realize the need to manufacture and export more sophisticated goods. This realization spurred the country’s push for both fundamental

and applied

research.

Physics Block, old Medical

Building,

School,

all built

and South

West

in 1922—underwent

juncture. Wits’s first computer was purchased in 1961, making it the second scientific computer in use in South Africa. During the next ten years, the original computer was replaced twice by more powerful and faster hardware. In the late 1960s, an eight-story medical school building to house the clinical departments was completed. In addition, a new seven-story building for chemical engineering and metallurgy was constructed. These structures

represented the first high-rise buildings on the univer-

Prior to World

War II, South

Africa’s government

sity’s campus.

viewed the financial support of its universities as a “liability,” with funding kept to a minimum. After the war, when rebuilding efforts peaked, civic leaders realized the vital services colleges and universities could provide for a country on the move, which led to a significant change in the government’s position. To further that end, the Holloway Commission was formed in 1951. Two years later, it

Two central libraries—the Wartenweiler Library and the William Cullen Library—and 13 divisional libraries

issued a report that placed the financial relationship between the state and universities on an entirely new footing. Now, it was the state’s responsibility to provide the major part of the revenue required to maintain satisfactory minimum standards of university education. The

research requirements. The university also has maintained a medical library since 1926. The campus also fea-

are located

on the main

campus.

The

Wartenweiler

Library opened in April 1972 and is primarily an undergraduate teaching library for students in the arts. It contains 17,190 items. The William Cullen Library opened in March 1934 and serves the school’s reference and

tures 26 museums and 2 arts galleries, a theater facility,

and a planetarium operated by the university. The geology and mining engineering building and the

expenditure per student at the university rose from R 170 in 1922 to R 219 in 1939 to R 713 in 1970.

Jan Smuts House were opened in 1962. The first Student

During the 1950s and 1960s, the campus landscape expanded to include the Oral and Dental Hospital (1952), built at a cost of R 1 million and the John Moffat Build-

later, a new social sciences building was built. In 1972, the Old Mutual Indoor Sports Center opened, named in honor of its major contributor,

South

ing, which houses the departments of architecture, fine

Life Assurance Society. While other South African

institutions for higher

arts, quantity surveying, and building science. It is named in honor of a prominent Johannesburg architect who contributed R 200,000 to the university. The Humphrey Rivas Raikes, which is the home of the department of chemistry (1960), was named

after the president who served the

Union building was opened in 1964, and three years

African

Mutual

learning have varied their practices in admitting “certain categories of students,” the university of the Witwatersrand is one of several South African universities that did not discriminate on grounds of “color, creed or race.”

university for 25 years.

However,

By the 1960s, the university was rapidly outgrowing the campus at Milner Park. The Johannesburg City Council donated a valuable open space called “The

when the South African government introduced legisla-

Oval.”

Renamed

the

Parktown

Campus,

it contains

Ernest Oppenheimer Hall, the first half of the new men’s residence, and the graduate school of business adminis-

this liberal policy was

altered in late 1956,

tion in 1957 “to enforce apartheid on all universities in South Africa.” The universities of Witwatersrand and Cape Town were most affected. The Extension of University Education Act that debarred non-Europeans from attending white universities passed in 1959.

646

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Currently, the University of the Witwatersrand is com-

Further Reading: General background can be found in A

posed of 10 schools with 99 departments among them.

Brief History of the University of the Witwatersrand, Johan-

With 19,000 students served by 4,000 employees, including 1,250 academic staff, Wits now confers about 4,500

nesburg and Its Predecessors 1896-1972 (university publication, 1972).

degrees annually.

—Michele Picozzi

UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO (Tokyo, Japan) Location:

On three main campuses in Tokyo, at Hongo,

heizaka, was taken over by the shogunate in 1797 and

Yayoi, and Komaba, with other institutes and

officially renamed the Gakumonjo, although its informal name remained in use.

observatories at several sites around Japan.

Description:

Meanwhile, two other institutions had grown up in

= “Tokyo Daigaku” (or “Todai’”) in Japanese;

Edo to provide training in subjects developed in western countries but excluded by the Confucian conservatives of the Shohei Gakko. The Kaiseijo, or Kaiseigakko—the

formerly Tokyo Imperial University, enrolling over 25,000 students, is the oldest national university in Japan and the alma mater of most Japanese prime ministers and leading figures in many other fields.

Information:

Development Institute or School, had been established in

1863 but could trace its origins to 1811, when a permanent body of scholars specializing in translating and ana-

Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113

lyzing European and American publications was created within the shogunate’s astronomical observatory. In 1855 this group had been given a separate status, as the

Japan

Yogakusho, the Western Learning Institute, renamed in

(03) 3812 2111

the following year as the Bansho Shirabesho, the Institute for Investigating Barbarian Writings. At this point the main language studied and used was Dutch, which had been the one European language known to the Japanese

— University of Tokyo 7-3-1 Hongo

since all other European powers had been excluded from When the University of Tokyo was created in 1877 it combined the elements of an entirely new institution,

trade and contact with Japan in the early seventeenth century. Within the next few years, however, training in

based on non-Japanese

of

English, French, and German was also developed, while

three existing schools, one of them already more than

the scope of the institute’s activities was widened to

two centuries old; and the role of being the latest in a series of institutions created by successive Japanese

include not only navigation, geography, and related sub-

models;

an amalgamation

jects of relevance to the military and naval authorities, but also the sciences which, it was now clear, were playing a crucial role in the industrialization of the western powers.

regimes for the purpose of training government officials. That latter fundamental purpose has remained

With around 50 scholars employed at the institute and around 200 students being sent from all over Japan to

constant, and for more than a century alumni of the uni-

versity have occupied many of the leading positions in

study with them, the institute set the pattern for treating higher education and research as matters in which the state could and should take a direct interest.

Japan’s politics and in public administration, as well as playing important roles in business and, indeed, in liter-

ature and the arts. This enormously prestigious institution is the expres-

The other leading center of “Dutch” or “Western” studies was the Igakujo or Igakko, the Medical Institute or School. This had been created by the shogunate in

sion of a very old tradition in Japan. The very term Daigaku, which literally means “great learning” and which was chosen to translate the English word “univer-

1863, on the basis of a smallpox clinic, the Shutosho,

sity,” had been known in Japanese as early as the eighth

which had been privately established in 1858 and brought

century, both as the title of one of the classics of Confucian thought imported from China and as the name of

under government control in 1860. Its purpose was to build on the achievements of generations of medical scholars and researchers in Japan by organizing training in European techniques. In 1868 the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown and replaced by a new government, acting in the name of the emperor and pledged to modernize Japan. Edo, renamed

the first such institution, then located in what is now

Nara, the first permanent Japanese capital, and later in Kyoto, the capital city from 794 to 1868. These older

schools had been superseded during the seventeenth century by another Confucian institution, created and managed by the Hayashi family of scholars under the supervision of the Tokugawa shoguns who were the

Tokyo, became the capital in place of Kyoto, and in 1869 a new Diagaku was created by merging the city’s existing government institutions of higher education at a single site. The Shoheiko, which claimed seniority both because of its age and because its staff hoped that Confucianism would continue to be the official ideology, was renamed

effective rulers of Japan, from their castle at Edo (now

Tokyo), from 1603 onward. The Hayashi school, long known as the Shoheiko or Shohei Gakko (Shohei School) from its location on a hill in Edo called Sho-

647

648

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

simply the Daigaku, while the Kaisei Gakko became the Daigaku Nanko, its Southern School, and the Igakko became the Daigaku Toko, its Eastern School, in refer-

ence to their locations on the new campus. The new insti-

tution proclaimed its commitment to modernization by employing numerous lecturers and instructors from Britain, the United States, France, Germany, and other west-

ern countries, although their numbers and influence would steadily decline over the decades, as the Japanese whom they had trained became able to take their places. This first merger of the three schools lasted for only two years, before many of the former Shokeiko’s Confucian scholars and facilities were transferred to the new Monbusho, the Ministry of Education, and the other two

schools regained a measure of autonomy. The law, sci-

ence, and literature faculties of the Kaisei Gakko occupied various buildings in the Kanda district of the city (it was at one of its departments, incidentally, that baseball was introduced to Japan in 1873, yet another augury of extensive westernization). Meanwhile the Igakko moved

to the Hongo district of northeastern Tokyo, along with what is now the university hospital, founded in Kanda in

1868, to occupy part of the Kaga Yashiki, the former

In 1886 the university was renamed Teikoku Daigaku, the Imperial University, under an imperial ordinance, giving it the twin objectives of training its students in arts and sciences and investigating matters necessary to the state. In the same year it underwent significant expansion

by establishing a graduate school and absorbing the previously separate Kobu Daigaku, a college of engineering. This school then included among its staff Josiah Conder, who introduced European styles of architecture to Japan and helped to make Japanese traditional painting better known in Britain, his home country; and his compatriot

John Milne, who brought the science of seismology to a country where it was still widely believed that earthquakes were caused by dragons or giant turtles. The transfer of the government’s astronomical observatory to the university in 1888 and the absorption of the Tokyo

Norin Gakko, a college of agriculture and forestry, in 1890, appeared to confirm its role as the national center for training across the range of academic

disciplines

imported from the west. Meanwhile,

however,

those Confucianists

who

had

regrouped inside the Education Ministry, notably in its textbook section, gained the attention of the Emperor

estate of the Maeda family, who had been hereditary lords of Kaga Province and whose wealth and power had been

Mutsuhito

second only to that of the Tokugawa shoguns.

at his court given by Motoda Eifu and others. After the emperor had made his first official visit to the university in 1886 he commissioned Motoda to investigate its neglect of traditional subjects such as Japanese literature,

At this Hongo site, around one mile from the Imperial

Palace, the present University of Tokyo was formally established on April 12, 1877, once again as an amalgam-

ation of the Igakko, the Kaisei Gakko, and parts of the Shoheiko. The hybrid nature of the new institution is still reflected in its very appearance. All the buildings were constructed in the 1870s and later, using a variety of styles imported from Europe and North America; how-

ever, some of the formal gardens of the Maeda have been preserved within the university precincts, and one of the main entrances to the campus through the brick wall surrounding it is the Akamon, the Chinese-style Red Gate built for the Maeda in 1827, which has become a symbol of the university.

The former Shoheiko was no longer formally dominant within the university, organized on western lines into four faculties (law, literature, medicine,

and science),

each containing several departments. Those Confucian scholars who were appointed to teaching posts were no longer concentrated into one school; they offered courses

in Chinese and Japanese literature, formed the nucleus of the university’s Chinese studies department, set up in

1882, and occupied leading positions in the history department. Even so, the new institution, like its predecessor of 1869-71, was at the center of controversies over

how far modernization should or could go before it threatened the integrity of Japanese traditions, and when the enthusiastic westernization of the 1870s gave way to a revived nationalism in the late 1880s, the character of the university was to be altered once again.

(referred to since his death in 1912 as the

Meiji emperor), through the regular programs of lecturers

Confucian philosophy, and ethics. Crucial changes fol-

lowed, which formalized the university’s role as the national center for training social elites. In 1887 competitive examinations were introduced for civil service posts, tailored to the university’s graduates. In 1889 the socially exclusive Dai-ichi Koto Gakko (First Higher School),

founded 15 years earlier at the Tokyo School of English, was reestablished on a site to the south of the university,

as the main conduit for students seeking to enter it.

Finally, in 1890 Motoda and others drafted the Imperial Rescript on Education,

the influential document

played inside the university and all institutions in Japan until 1945, which promote the values of loyalty and filial Thus what had been envisaged

dis-

other educational required that they piety. by some of its

founders, and its foreign lecturers, as a center for westernization became an integral part of the Japanese state’s program for creating loyal subjects rather than active citizens. More concretely, the domination of the civil service by a network of Imperial University graduates, beginning around 1905, further ensured that the nationalist ideas

favored by the leading politicians and officials would permeate the state, the university, and indeed, its sister insti-

tution, the imperial university which was established in Kyoto in 1897 and which necessitated yet another change of name for the older foundation, which became Tokyo

Teikoku Daigaku in that year.

UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO Even so, the university was still not exclusively controlled by traditionalists. On the one hand, scientific and

technical subjects, if they were to be at all useful to the state, had to be taught in ways which unavoidably chal-

lenged inherited ideas, even if their staff and alumni had less social prestige or influence than those of the humanities departments. On the other hand, those departments

also could not be hermetically sealed off from the liberal and even socialist ideas emanating from the west. These

ideas were usually ignored by the government so long as they remained academic theories rather than inspirations to political action. In 1910, for example, Minobe Tatsukichi, a

professor of political science, was allowed to publish a new

interpretation of the 1889 Constitution which treated the emperor as just one of several organs of the state; in 1911 12 leftists, lacking his high social status, were executed on the false charge of planning to assassinate the emperor. The government at this period also gave relative free-

649

which devastated much of Tokyo and Yokohama; they were replaced by a range of neo-Gothic structures which dominate a large part of the Hongo campus and include the General Library, partly financed by a donation from the Rockefeller Foundation. In addition, from 1925 the

center of the Hongo campus was occupied by a new building, the Yasuda Auditorium, which was funded by a donation from the businessman Yasuda Zenjiro. The building has been used ever since for graduation ceremo-

nies and other special events. In the same year the establishment of the Earthquake Research Institute indicated that at last John Milne’s work was being taken seriously by the government. During the early 1930s the uneasy official balance between enthusiasm for westernization and hostility

its own position of enduring influence on Japanese culture, partly by exposing its students not just to foreign

toward it shifted decisively toward hostility, as the Japanese state came more and more under the influence of military leaders and conservative politicians committed to confrontation with the European colonial powers and their ally the United States, especially over the future of China. At home the reassertion of the state ideology,

books and ideas but to foreign teachers, whom it went on

based on the concept of Japan’s unique kokutai (literally,

employing

1930s. The best

“national body”), involved increased interference in the

known of these were Basil Hall Chamberlain, the first professor of Japanese, and Lafcadio Hearn, an early pro-

education system, and the imperial universities in Tokyo,

fessor of English, both of whom wrote extensively about

liberals and Marxists who had been appointed as lecturers

Japan, thus pioneering what has since been formalized as Japanese Studies (and setting examples of independent

in the more tolerant era which had begun before World

dom of action to the literature faculty, which established

into the more

repressive

thinking and readable prose which regrettably few of

their academic heirs seem able to follow). As for the early students of the literature faculty, they included Natsume Soseki, often called the father of modern Japanese litera-

ture. After being graduated in 1893 and returning to suc-

Kyoto, and elsewhere were all purged of the minority of

War I. The removal of Professor Minobe from Tokyo Imperial University, and his dismissal from the House of Nobles (the upper chamber of the Diet), was the bestknown case. The fact that he was being punished for ideas expressed in a book published 25 years earlier indicates how thorough the purge was.

The triumph of ultra-nationalism was strikingly cele-

ceed Hearn as professor of English in 1902, he resigned five years later to begin writing novels which are still read

brated in October

today for their evocation of Japan in the late Meiji period,

was used for a state celebration both of the 50th anniver-

caught in transition between familiar customs and disturbing new ways of life. He is commemorated on the Hongo campus by Sanshiro’s Pond (another remnant of

the Maeda estate), so named for the eponymous hero of

sary of the Imperial Rescript on Education and of the supposed 2,600th anniversary of the enthronement of the first emperor and the foundation of Japan. In 1941, as the armed forces prepared to launch the Pacific War, the

his novel Sanshiro, which was partly based on his student

university was required to create an Institute of Oriental

years there. Later alumni of the faculty include the novel-

Culture

ists Kawabata Yasunari, Inoue Yasushi, Nagai Kafu, Tanizaki Junichiro, and Mishima Yukio, each of whom

assimilating the conquered peoples of East and South-

has made his own distinctive contribution to literature yet has also shown the influence of his training in awareness of both classical Japanese and contemporary foreign liter-

Japan. In 1942, somewhat more practically, a temporary Second Faculty of Engineering was established to contribute to military research. Although the university was

ary forms and topics. Tokyo Imperial University continued its expansion

closed and its students were conscripted into the armed

during and after World War I, most notably in 1916, when it absorbed the Institute for Infectious Diseases, along

two further institutes were created, with obvious rele-

with its attached hospital, both founded in 1894; in 1918, when its Aeronautical Research Institute was established;

tute of Research in Natural Sciences of the Tropics, set

and in 1919, when a separate faculty of economics was created. However, many of the university’s buildings were destroyed by the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923,

Chemistry Research Institute, founded in 1945, the year of the first two civilian-targeted atomic bombs and of

1940, when the Yasuda Auditorium

(which still exists), then intended

to help in

east Asia to the “Co-Prosperity Sphere” established by

forces and the munitions industry in November

1943,

vance to the Pacific War but little actual effect: the Instiup in 1944 (but closed in 1947), and the Radiation Japan’s unconditional surrender.

650

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Under the Allied Occupation (1945-52) the university, renamed Tokyo Daigaku in 1947, was purged yet again, this time to remove the professors who had collaborated

to the Auditorium and the continuing demonstrations elsewhere on campus meant that in 1969 the entrance examinations were canceled altogether. The building

with the militarist regime, and the Aeronautical Research

could not be used until May 1971. In the meantime antiAmerican demonstrations arranged for Okinawa Day, on

Institute was closed. The latest major reorganization of the university took place between 1947 and 1949, in response to the educational reforms introduced by the Occupation authorities. The former First Higher School and another “feeder” school, the Tokyo Koto Gakko (Tokyo Higher School), were absorbed into the university

and reorganized to form its College of General Education, later called the College of Arts and Sciences, the body of which provides teaching for the first two years of

April 28, 1969, failed to attract the large numbers which the organizers expected, and in August a new university law was passed, giving the administration extra powers to suppress student protests and impose penalties if they failed to do so. The physical damage is estimated to have cost around 136 million yen (then around $380,000, U.S. dollars), but the damage to the university’s reputation,

ature were separated into two faculties and the university

though probably severe at the time, did not outlive the protests themselves. With the distance of time, the student movement of the 1960s appears to have been a minor diversion from the

created five more specialist institutes, those of social sci-

university’s fundamental

ences, science and technology, physiography, industrial

remarkably little since its foundation. There are now

science, and journalism and communication studies. But perhaps the reform with the greatest long-term impact

approximately 24,000 students, of whom around oneeighth are women, within its 9 faculties, its graduate

was that the university, like others controlled by the state,

school, its 12 specialist institutes, and its medical research

was opened to women students for the first time.

facilities. Like their radical predecessors, few of whom failed to conform in the end, most of these students can

the university’s four-year degrees on the First Higher School’s former campus at Komaba. Education and liter-

This new “democratic” institution retained its predecessors’ prestigious role as the Japanese university most favored by the political and social elites. If anything, its importance increased, for with the abolition of the nobil-

ity, the disgrace of the armed forces, and extensive land reforms in the countryside, very few alternative routes to power and influence remained open in a society which gave increasing importance to educational records. Thus, for example, while most prime ministers of Japan before

and during World War II were either self-made men of the Meiji period—rural magnates or soldiers—most since 1945 have been Tokyo graduates with experience as law-

yers and/or government officials. Somewhat paradoxically, however, this eminently respectable place was also a breeding ground for Marxists and other radicals (including many prominent members of the Communist Party, legalized after the defeat). Many of its students took part in the riots which erupted

character,

which

has changed

expect to enter one or other section of what is known in Japan as the Todaibatsu (the “Tokyo University faction’),

the informal network of alumni in leading positions in government and business. In spite of the high academic and social standing of such rival universities as Kyoto, Keio, or Waseda, and the huge general expansion of higher education since 1947, such alumni still account for

approximately one-third of all those entering the leading grades of the civil service and for approximately two out of every five executives in the large corporations which form the decisive sectors of Japan’s dual economy. Within their ranks those who studied in the university’s law fac-

ulty are even more prestigious than their fellows, for about one-sixth of its alumni regularly enter central government service, while approximately two-thirds take up posts in

disregard the opposition parties and force the renewed

private enterprise. These men (and a very small number of women) have contributed, perhaps more than any other single group of Japanese people, to the exceptional stability of the political and economic structures of their coun-

Security Treaty with the United States through the Diet.

try, as well

Eight years later the university became one of the leading centers for the large-scale agitation by student radicals which spread throughout the higher education system. In March 1968 proposals to reform the intern program for medical students sparked off a student strike in every faculty, and in April the graduation ceremony was abandoned, and the student radicals disrupted the formal welcome to new students. In June the police removed the protesters and restored order, but a second occupation of

conformist attitudes acquired during their four years of studying in the faculty, which, in spite of its name, teaches political science and economics as well as legal theory.

in May 1960 in response to the government’s decision to

as to the pervasiveness

of the highly

It is probably a safe conclusion that if the University of Tokyo had not been created when it was, Japan might have been a very different country. In particular, the adoption of a variety of western ideas and institutions,

and their adaptation to the Japanese context—disastrously between the two world wars, with considerable

the Yasuda Auditorium began in July, driving administrative staff out of their offices in the building. Eventually squads of riot police were brought in to take control of

alumni, whether in public service, in business, or (not

the campus, on January 18 and 19, 1969, but the damage

least) in the field of culture. The impact of the Todaibatsu

success since 1945—owe much to the work of the university’s teachers, foreign and Japanese alike, and of its

UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO on the development of modern Japan is up to the Japanese

651

people themselves, who are, formally speaking, its own-

since 1867, Low City, High City and Tokyo Rising (New York: Knopf, and London: Allen Lane, 1983 and 1990) use-

ers and clients. If the past 120 years or so are any guide, the university can and will be changed as Japan changes.

fully explain the national and local contexts of the university’s development. More specific aspects of its history are

In this sense perhaps the chief lesson that its alumni have taken away from their years at “Todai” is the importance

of adaptability.

dealt with in Confucianism in Modern Japan: A Study of Conservatism in Japanese Intellectual History by Warren W. Smith Jr. (Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1959), and Governing Elites: Studies in Training and Selection, a collection of

essays edited by Rupert Wilkinson (Oxford: Oxford UniverFurther Reading: W.G. Beasley’s impressive history, The

sity Press, 1969).

Rise of Modern Japan (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990; second edition, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995),

and Edward Seidensticker’s two volumes covering Tokyo

—Patrick Heenan

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO (Toronto, Ontario, Canada) Location:

On the Saint George campus in the city of

under the colonial constitution imposed by the British in

Toronto, at Scarborough 21 miles to the east and Erindale 21 miles to the west, with a number of specialist institutes and medical

1791, which had made it the officially established church

of Upper Canada and given it one-seventh of all the lands in the province. But its creation was also due to the local influence of what is known as the “Family Compact,” a

facilities at other sites.

Description:

small group of wealthy citizens who then dominated the

The largest university in Canada, a federation

city’s affairs and who England against other ciated in their minds American notions of

of universities and colleges in and around Toronto, with a total of around 39,000 full-time

and 18,000 part-time students.

Information:

favored the established Church of Protestant churches that were assowith subversive tendencies toward democracy and republicanism. As

the city grew, becoming ethnically and religiously more

The Provost

mixed and being renamed Toronto (in 1834), the influence of this elite was increasingly resented, and in 1837 they were the main target of a brief rebellion led by the city’s mayor, William Lyon Mackenzie. The rising failed,

University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario MSS 1A1 Canada

(416) 978 2011

but it played some part in influencing the British imperial authorities to enforce a union between Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) in 1841. In these circumstances it proved impossible to operate the college.

The University of Toronto is a unique mixture of universities and colleges that has developed over nearly 170 years, from its beginnings as a college controlled by the Church of England, through decades of conflict as a secu-

Its first students were not admitted until 1843, and it did

lar institution rivaling the universities created by the Christian churches of Ontario, to a period of expansion

at Cobourg in 1836. In 1841 it was renamed Victoria Col-

not award any degrees until the following year. In the meantime the Wesleyan Methodist Church had established its own rival body, Upper Canada Academy, lege and given the power to grant degrees. In 1850 it was designated a university, in 1854 it took over the Toronto

and diversification as a federation including its former rivals. Its teachers and alumni have contributed a great

School of Medicine, and in 1860 it created a law faculty.

Despite the addition of faculties, theology remained the

deal to Canada, especially to its politics and literature, during the twentieth century, as the university and the country alike have moved decisively away from their

university’s principal discipline, having been taught from the outset in a seminary for the training of the church’s

roots in Christian faith and colonial reverence for Britain. The oldest section of what is now the University of

ministers. This seminary was to be renamed Emmanuel College and separated from Victoria University in 1925,

Toronto was established in 1827 at the suggestion of the prominent Anglican priest John Strachan, later to become

the same year that the Wesleyan Methodists joined the

United Church of Canada. Controversy over providing public money raised from

the first bishop of Toronto. At that time Toronto was already a provincial capital, under the name York, while Ontario was then called Upper Canada. Because the new institution was granted a charter by King William IV, it

taxpayers of all denominations to King’s College, a sectarian body, had helped to delay the college’s opening, and debate broke out again after the union of Upper and

was named King’s College, but because it was the only

Lower Canada, for the parliament of the united colony,

institution of higher education in the province it was also

based in Montreal, had a majority of non-Anglicans, prin-

known as the Provincial University. Strachan was its first president. Its governors and its teachers were required to be members of the Church, although its students were not. The intention was to create a collegiate body, along the lines of the medieval colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, in that part of North America that had remained loyal to the British crown.

cipally the French-speaking Catholics of Quebec. In 1849

the parliament voted to sever the college’s connection with the Church, so that from 1850 the college became a

secular institution, the University of Toronto, and its faculty of divinity was closed. (Because of this important change in character and name many reference books give the date of foundation as 1849 or 1850 rather than 1827.)

The newly secularized

The establishment of such an institution at that date, as

university was

intended by

well as its controversial dependence on public funds,

Robert Baldwin, the premier who had originated the

reflected the privileged position of the Church of England

change, to become a federation of Ontario colleges. How652

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

653

ever, precisely because it lacked religious tests for either

University of Toronto was able to boast that 51 of the 94

staff or students, a then-radical feature which, among all

principals of secondary schools had been graduates of the

the universities of the British empire, it shared only with

university, trained in the province, and 73 of the 98 assis-

the University of London, the churches rejected any association with it. Instead, in 1851 Bishop Strachan, who had

tant principals had been educated at the university. Serious

given up the presidency of King’s in 1848, created a new establishment to be owned and operated by the Church of England, the University of Trinity College, which had an almost entirely British faculty and was enthusiastically supported by the Tory (conservative) elements in the city. In 1852 Bishop Charbonnel of Toronto, head of the Catholic Church in Upper Canada, established the University

tion among the various colleges and universities; they culminated in 1887 in the passage of the Federation Act by the

of Saint Michael’s College, operated by the order of the

reestablished, but the process of federation envisaged by

Basilian Fathers. In 1853 the University of Toronto was reorganized along the lines of the University of London, which had been established in 1836 as an examining body serving a

the politicians was not so rapid as they expected. The first

group of colleges. The Provincial College, as the teaching faculties were renamed once the medical and law facul-

discussions started, also in 1884, on some form of federa-

provincial parliament, providing for a federal University of Toronto which would have supervisory and examining

powers over whichever colleges elected to join it. As a result, the Provincial College was renamed University College, and its medical and law faculties were

new members of the university, besides University Col-

lege itself, were the Royal College of Dental Surgeons, established in 1875, which joined in 1888, and two small

system for more than 30 years, because the religious

theological colleges, the Church of England’s Wycliffe College, founded in 1877, and the Presbyterian Church’s Knox College, established in 1844, which joined in 1889 and 1890 respectively. It was also in 1890 that the Wes-

institutions still declined the implied invitation to join.

leyan Methodist Victoria University joined the federation,

At first both the university’s officials and examiners and the Provincial College’s teachers and students carried

on sharing the use of the original site of King’s College,

moving from Cobourg to the Saint George’s campus two years later. By 1891 the university was examining around 1,500 candidates a year. The Royal Conservatory of

some

distance from the center of the city, a position

Music, which had been established in 1886, affiliated in

which probably enhanced the mutual suspicion between

1896, and, finally, the Anglican University of Trinity Col-

the conservative middle classes of Toronto and the alleg-

lege completed the federation in 1904. (Two prominent Ontario universities have never joined the federation: Queen’s University at Kingston, founded by the Presbyte-

ties had been closed, was to be the only college in this

edly radical teachers at the university. But in 1859 both institutions moved into a new Romanesque building on the 160-acre Saint George’s campus, near the provincial parliament building in central Toronto; the area has been at the heart of the university’s activities ever since. With the creation of the Canadian federation under the British North America Act of 1867 the former Upper

Canada had been reestablished as the province of Ontario and from then onward the provincial parliament, once again based in Toronto, had refused to make any further grants of aid to the three church-owned colleges, which

therefore faced increasing financial difficulties. In 1881 the Catholic University of Saint Michael’s College accepted a form of affiliation with the University of Toronto. This action gave it access to public funds but preserved its academic

independence;

however,

the other

churches still resisted compromise with what they saw as a “godless” institution. In spite of such persistent hostility the provincial university steadily extended its influence and made itself part of the life of Ontario. In 1878 a new affiliate, the School of

Practical Science, was opened to provide advanced training

in engineering, and in 1884 the provincial parliament forced the Provincial College, against the wishes of its President, Sir Daniel Wilson, to admit women students on

equal terms with men, one year after Victoria University had become the first institution in Ontario to award a

degree to a woman. In the same year the chancellor of the

rian Church in 1842, and McMaster

University, which

was founded in 1887 in Toronto but moved to Hamilton

in 1927.) In 1905 a center for part-time students was established on the Saint George’s campus as the first stage in what was to become a major aspect of the university’s teaching. From 1920 this center was the headquarters of the extension department, providing a range of courses for

part-time students, some of whom took the university degree. In 1974 the department was divided into a school of continuing studies for noncredit courses and a separate school for part-time degree students, Woodsworth College. Part-time students now account for around 30 percent of the total student body, a proportion which is among the highest in Canada and significantly higher than the numbers in most universities in North America and western Europe. Under the University of Toronto Act of 1906, the federation was formally reconstituted to regulate its relations with the provincial authorities and to take account of the informal division of labor which had developed among its constituent parts. Its finances were to be managed by a board of governors appointed by the provincial government but its academic affairs were to be conducted by a

senate representing all of the affiliates, a system of joint control intended to remove the university’s business from

654

INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

party political controversy. From 1910 Victoria, Saint Michael’s, and Trinity were restricted to providing courses leading to theology degrees, which were to be granted by the universities themselves (which is why they

Toronto in 1921 has probably done more than anything else to make the University of Toronto famous. This was the discovery and first manufacture of insulin, the hor-

have retained the designation “university”), alongside

mone which regulates blood sugar levels, by Doctor Frederick Banting, a Toronto alumnus who had in fact started

courses in classics, modern languages, Near Eastern stud-

his research at the University of Western Ontario, and

ies, and ancient history, leading to degrees awarded by the University of Toronto. Knox and Wycliffe Colleges

Charles H. Best, one of his students at Toronto. Their

remained exclusively theological colleges serving the churches that had founded them, while University Col-

extended the lives of people with diabetes mellitus (who

lege and the extension department offered courses across the whole academic range, leading to University of Toronto degrees and certificates.

achievement

has

since immeasurably

improved

and

are deficient in natural insulin). In 1923 Banting and John Macleod, the chairman of the physiology department, were awarded the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine: Banting shared his prize money with Best. Banting

The secular affiliates had always been much larger than the religious ones in terms of student numbers, and

and Best are now commemorated

under the leadership of Sir Robert Falconer, president from 1907 to 1932, they seized the opportunity to expand

with Banting as its first director; by two graduate institutes named for each of them during the 1960s; and, indi-

further. Faculties of home economics, education, forestry,

rectly, by the continuing manufacture of insulin at the

social work, nursing, and hygiene were established on

university’s Connaught Laboratories.

Saint George’s campus between 1906 and 1926, and graduate studies were given a new emphasis, with increased provincial funding and a separate school opened in 1922. In addition the university acquired and

After some disruption of its activities during World War II, as many of its teachers and students departed Toronto for civil service posts or military service, the university entered the 1950s as the largest and one of the most

helped to develop three notable non-teaching affiliates.

academically prestigious universities in Canada, along-

The first of these, the University of Toronto Press, was established in 1901, expanded in 1911, and refounded as

side McGill in Montreal, Queen’s in Kingston and the newer but rapidly growing universities of the western

a commercial publishing company in 1945. It publishes

provinces. With the support of the provincial parliament as well as increasing research funds and other financial aid from the Canadian federal government it was able to

learned journals, including the University of Toronto

by a department of

medical research named for them, which opened in 1930

Quarterly (since 1931), academic books, and, perhaps most famously, the monumental Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Another affiliate, the Royal Ontario Museum,

begin a new phase of expansion. In 1958 it established an

established in Toronto in 1914, has since built up some of

which rapidly gained an international reputation; in 1959

Canada’s largest and most important collections in Orien-

York University was founded as an affiliate of the university, although it became a separate institution, awarding

tal art, natural history, and other fields. In 1921 came the opening of a third affiliate, Hart

Institute of Business Administration, a graduate school

its own degrees, in 1965.

public. Its construction on the Saint George’s campus and

Greater changes came during the 1960s, as the secular university increased its student numbers and expanded its range of academic and residential provision by creating

many of its early activities in sport and the arts were financed by the Massey Foundation and the building, like the foundation, commemorates the manufacturing mag-

five more “constituent” colleges, in addition to University College and the extension department. New College, established in 1962, has built up a reputation of its own

nate Hart Massey, but its establishment was due to his son

by specializing in Canadian literature and, more recently, in women’s studies and in interdisciplinary courses, while

House, a center for extracurricular activities which is one

of the parts of the university best known to the Canadian

Vincent Massey. He had been a lecturer in modern history at the university from 1913 to 1915 and was later to become chancellor of the university (from 1947) and the

first Canadian citizen to serve as governor-general of

Massey College, an all-graduate body opened in 1963, had as its founding master the distinguished Canadian

Canada (from 1952 to 1959). Hart House’s collection of Canadian paintings, including many works by the Toronto-based Group of Seven, has become one of the larg-

novelist Robertson Davies, who also taught in the university’s English faculty and its drama center up to his retirement from the university in 1981. The remaining three colleges were all established in 1964 and opened to stu-

est in the country, while the string quartet, orchestra, and

dents in 1965 and 1966: Innis College, near the main

theater company which bear its name have achieved independent reputations. While the press and Hart House have somewhat spe-

campus in Toronto, Erindale College, located in Missi-

cialized reputations within their fields of activity, and

During the 1960s two alumni of Toronto achieved

most visitors to the museum are unaware of its connection with the university, one event which took place in

prominence in Canadian life, one at the end of his career, the other at the beginning of hers. National politics came

sauga nearby, and Scarborough College in the city of that name, 21 miles from the provincial capital.

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

655

to be dominated by Lester B. Pearson, who, like Vincent Massey, had once lectured in history at the university (between 1924 and 1928) and had gone on to distinguish

volumes, is the largest academic library anywhere in Can-

himself both in the diplomatic service and in the Liberal Party. Unlike Massey, whose career led him into ceremo-

or Trinity with the federal university, putting the seal on a cooperative relationship which the founders of the respective universities can hardly have imagined. With its three federated universities, its four federated theological colleges, its six constituent colleges, and its

nial posts, Pearson went on to win the Nobel Peace Prize

in 1957, specifically for his contribution to resolving the crisis over the Suez Canal but more generally for developing the concept of United Nations peacekeeping forces. In

ada. Finally (for now), since 1978 degrees in divinity have been awarded jointly by Victoria, Saint Michael’s,

numerous

other

affiliates—including,

besides

those

1963 he became prime minister of Canada, retiring in

already mentioned, 11 teaching hospitals, the Pontifical

1968 after helping to initiate the major social and constitutional reforms which have come to be associated with his

Institute of Medieval Studies, the David Dunlap Observa-

successor Pierre Trudeau. Meanwhile, during the same decade of national resurgence the novelist and poet Marg-

tory at Richmond Hill, Ontario, and even a 20,000-acre university forest—the University of Toronto is one of the leading academic institutions in North America. Few of its

aret Atwood, having graduated from Victoria University in 1961, published the first of her many books, among which

nearly 11,000 postgraduates), can have seen, let alone

The Handmaid’s Tale is perhaps the best known.

used, all of its facilities, which represent, in their bewilder-

The federal arrangements within the University of Toronto have continued to develop, becoming, if anything, even more complex. In 1969 seven theological colleges in

ing variety, the accumulated legacy of nearly 60 years of sectarian and political controversy followed by more than

Toronto, including, within the university federation, Knox, Wycliffe, Emmanuel, and the divinity faculties of

students, now numbering more than 56,000 (including

a century of continuous growth, in response to the developing needs and wishes of Toronto, Ontario, and Canada.

Saint Michael’s and Trinity, came together to form the

Toronto School of Theology, which since 1979 has also included the university’s most recent affiliate, the Jesuits’ Regis College. In 1971 the board of governors and the senate were replaced by a single governing council. In 1973 the university opened the John P. Robarts Research

Library, which serves as the central research and reference library in the humanities and social sciences for all the universities and colleges in Ontario. It is also the larg-

Further Reading: A History of the University of Toronto 1827-1927, by W.S. Wallace (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1927) is still obtainable from larger libraries; Fred-

erick H. Armstrong’s Toronto: The Place of Meeting (Windsor, Ontario: Windsor Publications, 1983) is an impressive history of the city which places the development of

the city’s institutions of higher education in its local context.

est among the 49 sections of the university’s own library

system which, with total holdings of more than 7 million

—Monique Lamontagne

UNIVERSITY OF VALENCIA (Valencia, Spain) Location:

Description:

On three campuses in Valencia, a port city in

the intellectualism of the church; so great, in fact, were

eastern Spain.

Spain’s contributions to theology, philosophy, law, and art that the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries have become known as the country’s “golden century.” Because of Valencia’s strong municipal interest in

_A state university enrolling approximately 60,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and professional studies.

Information:

developing its university, and the university’s links to other educational centers throughout Europe, it flourished throughout the sixteenth century, becoming competitive

International Affairs Unit University of Valencia

even with the great Castilian universities of Salamanca

C/Nave 2 bojo 46003 Valencia

and Alcala. In fact, in areas such as medicine, the university even surpassed them, providing, in the eighteenth

Spain 3864180

century, the first real break from the traditional Castilian emphasis on legal studies. By 1690 Valencia was the intellectual center of Spain; its university, situated in a

port city with all the attendant cosmopolitan influences, was better exposed to modern scientific thought than most Spanish institutions. Foreign influences from the

Plans for building a university in Valencia began in the

University of Montpellier, just over the French border, and from scientists in Italy were also important. Well

thirteenth century, when the province was still a medieval

kingdom. After capturing Spain from the Muslims in

known for its medical curriculum, the university was also respected for its studies in Latin and in the arts, though in

1245, King James I, “the Conqueror,” gave his consent,

along with the pope, for the building of an estudio, or college, in the city. But the school, a municipal rather than

theology, law, and canonical studies it was inferior.

In the mid-seventeenth century, the university’s paran-

royal foundation, never materialized; in 1374 city officials hired a teacher only to have him excommunicated petition. Soon, however, freedom of education had been

imf, or academic theater, was built. Used at first for academic debates, staff meetings, and public events, it was later used to stage plays, most notably the comedies of

decreed, and state institutions sprang up throughout the

Roman dramatists Plautus and Terence, which were per-

area. Schools, unified by Vicente Ferrer and regulated by the 1412 constitutions, taught grammar, logic, and philos-

formed in their original language. Ornate and grandly

by the bishop, who claimed that he presented unfair com-

ophy; in 1462, a surgery school was also opened, spurring progress in medical education in the region. In the late fifteenth century, the magistrates of the city

proportioned, the trapezoidal ground floor is surrounded by a projecting gallery and wide vault decorated with trompe l’oeil mouldings. Dominating it is a 1660 painting by Jeronimo Jacinto Espinosa depicting the Immaculate

advanced the idea of building a university, or estudi gen-

Conception over an idealized scene of Valencia.

eral, that would incorporate the various schools as one

Though the University of Valencia had become a

institution. By 1499 statutes were drawn up and several

leader in education, it was to fall prey to the same cultural

buildings acquired. Pere Compte, the most famous Valen-

and economic forces that, startng in the early 1600s, were

cian architect of the day, was hired to convert the build-

pushing the rest of the country’s universities into precipi-

ings into a suitable structure. In 1500 Pope Alexander VI,

tous decline. Institutions throughout Spain lost substantial numbers of students, and the quality of education eroded. Having been a cultural leader in Europe, Spain increasingly found itself out of step with a more secular

himself a Valencian, granted the university the necessary bull; two years later, King Ferdinand, “the Catholic,” gave his approval as well.

outside world.

The founding of the University of Valencia was part of a wider revolution in European education that emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Political, religious,

and social changes, shifts in demographics, and techno-

Spain’s universities, which like the rest of the society were steeped in tradition and, in particular, Roman Catholicism, and still practiced medieval scholasticism, favoring

logical advances, such as the development of the printing

verbose, theoretical arguments over scientific exploration.

press, all fueled the explosion in higher education;

According to the historian Ballesteros, Spanish theology

throughout Europe the number of universities, and uni-

students still theorized about what language the angels spoke and of what materials the heavens consisted; texts were outdated and good maps were nonexistent. Many stu-

versity students, burgeoned. Spain created particularly vibrant cultural institutions, most of them supported by 656

UNIVERSITY OF VALENCIA

657

¥

Ati PA !

A

University of Valencia

dents were convinced that higher mathematics was a hoax and that the works of major European philosophers and scientists were meaningless. University degrees increasingly became merely a means to confer status and taught students little of practical value. The ideological constraints of the Inquisition also were stifling. During this period philosopher and humanist Juan Luis Vives, a member of the faculty at Valencia, went into exile.

In 1707 the Bourbons established rule in Spain, and Philip V severed Valencia’s connection with Aragon, suspending the autonomy of the province and imposing Castilian law. Anti-French attitudes in the city were reinforced by the new regime, forcing it to centralize control

of the area to a greater degree than originally planned. Nevertheless, a general upturn in Spain’s economy benefited the region: trade increased, the population stabilized,

and Valencia itself, the fourth largest city in the country, remained an important cultural center on the eastern coast.

In 1717 Philip V instituted curricular and other reforms in

But more important to the university than political reforms was the Spanish Enlightenment, which, though far more muted than the movement in Europe, introduced scientific thought and processes to university life.

For the first time in decades, higher education began show signs of vigor. Along with the University Oviedo, the University of Valencia became a center Enlightenment thought, due in part to the presence two

esteemed

scholars.

Andres

[or Jose

to of of of

Antonio]

Piquer, a professor of medicine and philosophy at the university, introduced

modern

physics to Spain and

helped reform medical studies. Gregoria Mayans y Siscar was the country’s first great modern polymath. Together their works promoted new ideas about medicine, jurisprudence, and ecclesiastical reform that were

influential outside the province as well as within the university itself. Such progressive thought attracted controversy, how-

universities throughout the country; in 1720, he conferred

ever. Piquer, writing in 1771, outlined the ideological battle raging in Spain and addressed the conservative attacks that

official university status upon Valencia.

he and other reformist thinkers increasingly were facing:

658 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES There reign among us two equally concerned factions. One cries against our nation in favor of foreign lands, praising highly the flourishing of the arts and

The construction of the Claustre Major (the Cloister) began at the university in 1840. Designed by Timoteo

sciences, politics and the enlightenment of the

Joaquin Martinez, Sebastian Monleon, and Javier Goerlich, the Cloister commemorates important individuals in

understanding in them. Others abhor whatever comes from without and reject it merely for being

Calvo as a striking two-story trapezoid and completed by the university’s history. It features a statue of Luis Vives,

foreign. The concern of both factions is equal, but in

portraits of Vincente Blasco and San Vicente Ferrer, and

number, activity and power the first prevails.

wall medallions picturing the school’s founders. Work on the Cloister continued until 1960, when the extension of

Because of Piquer, Mayans, and other university scholars

Patriarca Square and the construction of a fountain was

such as Francisco Perez Bayer, the study of law, medicine, and the humanities assumed greater importance at the university. But while progress was being made in some areas, it was resisted in others: the religious refor-

completed. As time passed various faculties began to move from this central building to nearby sites, leaving the university’s historic headquarters. Today the original university building houses the rectorate, a museum, a

mation occurring elsewhere in Europe was firmly rejected by Spanish universities, and the study of theol-

library, and administrative and cultural services. The Spanish civil war divided the country’s universi-

ogy at Valencia remained deeply conservative.

ties into two opposing camps; Valencia joined Barcelona,

Indeed, religion was

the central force behind aca-

Madrid, and Murcia under the Republican flag, while

demic life at the university. The chapel, or Capella de la

Salamanca, Seville, and the others fell under Nationalist

Sapiencia, had, since its erection in 1498, been the site

control. The city of Valencia was bombed frequently, and

of sabatines, or academic discussions between profes-

after the war was so associated with the Republican cause

sors and students, and was the center of religious and

it continued to suffer politically for years.

cultural events, including the conferring of degrees. In 1736 the chapel was reconstructed in classic Baroque style; the new structure featured a single nave with an oval dome at the front and a high chancel at back. In 1780 the chapel was redecorated and Valencia’s leading painters,

including

Jose

and Manuel

Camaron,

Luis

Planes, and Jose Vergara, were commissioned to provide artwork for it. When the university building was bombed

by Napoléon’s troops in 1808 the ensuing fire destroyed the library but left the chapel and academic theater intact. Work to restore the building continued throughout the nineteenth century. With the Enlightenment and advent of the French revolution, the modern sciences of economics and political theory took on new meaning at Spanish universities, and those changes combined with legislative reforms of

In 1939 General Francisco Franco ordered that universities again be governed by both church and state and that religious education once more become an important force

in academic life. Student syndicates operated by the Falange, a Fascist political movement begun in 1933 and exploited by Franco, existed on all campuses, and exerted control over both students and faculty, many of whom knew that membership was the key to political advancement. After 1956, however, students were instrumental in

the anti-Franco opposition; their protests resulted in the cancellation of the school year in 1965. A new law gave universities freedom from political control in 1970, but student agitation for easier entrance into universities led

to riots in early 1987. Today, under a democratic national government, the

University of Valencia is attempting to modernize. In the 1980s, in order to cope with an increasing number of stu-

Philip V, Fernando VI, and Carlos III resulted in the emergence of a more modern university structure. In

dents, it reorganized its academic departments. It now

1836 the religious content of university studies was

employs approximately 2,300 faculty and staff members

reduced, shifting the focus to the liberal arts. But at

in 75 departments covering the social sciences, biomedi-

Valencia and elsewhere, reform also meant the loss of

cine, and the humanities, and, after the University of Bar-

economic and institutional autonomy. A new law in 1842

celona and the Complutense of Madrid, is the country’s third largest university. The university is now divided into three campuses:

gave the government greater control over universities and centralized educational finance. The trend toward government control continued with the creation of a new ministry of education. The building of the Universidad Central in Madrid was meant to provide a model for the Univer-

the Campus de Burjassot; the Campus de Blasco Ibanez;

sity of Valencia and other schools undergoing expansion. Political and ecclesiastical reform had other, perhaps

Though many of the university’s buildings are modern,

unintended, benefits for Valencia: its library was enriched by a collection of books from the San Miguel de los

and the Campus de la Avenida dels Tarongers, each of which houses a different concentration of studies. considerable energy is devoted to maintaining its historical structures. In 1985 restoration work on the chapel

was begun. It reopened in 1990 and once again hosts

secularized in 1836. A

both cultural and religious events. The Paranimf was

museum of natural history was also created at the univer-

also restored in 1985, and provides a venue for formal

sity, but it was destroyed by fire in 1931.

events such as the opening of the academic year.

Reyes Monastery,

when it was

UNIVERSITY OF VALENCIA The central library’s Codex Room houses the university’s many historical art works: among them are a 1546 map drawn by Majoring Jacobus Russus; a celestial sphere and terrestrial globe crafted in Holland in the seventeenth century; a silver Renaissance chalice that belonged to Pope Alexander VI; and the Valencian voluntary service flag representing students who fought in the defense of Zaragoza in 1808. The room also contains books illustrated in Italy by early Renaissance artists for King Alfonso V, “the Magnanimous.”

659

Further Reading: Both the Historical Dictionary of Modern Spain 1700-1988

(New York: Greenwood,

1990) and

Stanley G. Payne’s A History of Spain and Portugal (Madi-

son: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973) are excellent sources of information about the formation and evolution of Spanish universities.

—NMelanie Wilson

UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA (Vienna, Austria) Location:

On the western edge of the old section of

By the fifteenth century, the university’s school of mathematics and astronomy boasted on its staff Regiomonta-

Vienna, in the concourse with the parliament buildings.

Description:

nus, also known as Johann Muller, who published the first

printed calendar and developed modern trigonometry,

—_A public university enrolling approximately

among his other accomplishments. The period between the late fifteenth and early six-

85,000 students in undergraduate and graduate

schools. Information:

teenth centuries found the university becoming one of the most recognized in Europe. As such, it attracted celebrated

Administrative Office

scholars, including humanist Conrad Celtis and physician/

University of Vienna

poet Johannes Cuspinian. But the days of academic prosperity came to an abrupt halt when, in the early sixteenth

Dr. Karl Lueger Ring 1 A-1010 Vienna

century, all European institutions of higher learning suffered through the upheaval of the Reformation. Additionally, growing theological differences reduced

Austria (222) 431 40103

the student population at many learned institutions, including the University of Vienna. Moreover, financial deficits

found some professors going without payment for their services, a predicament that led to the near extinction of the

As the oldest university in the German-speaking countries of Europe, the University of Vienna is steeped in the

faculties of law and theology at the University of Vienna.

history of Europe, dating back to its founding in 1365 by

Not only did enrollment at the European universities

Duke Rudolf IV and his two brothers, the Archduke Albrecht III and Leopold III. Created as an act of national policy, the University of

decline, but the intellectual advances that had been made

Vienna

in northern Europe during the sixteenth century was predicated on the notion that man was sinful and ruled by a

and

the universities

of Prague,

Cracow,

during the beginning of the Middle Ages were lost in large degree during the waning years of that period. Life

and

Heidelberg were intended to be centers for the intelligentsia and to entice scholars, thereby strengthening king-

capricious God. Centers of learning endured during this era of religious, social, and economic turbulence, however, and by 1554, Austrian ruler Ferdinand I and his

doms whose histories bore the ravages of war. During this era, Europe saw the powerful religious

resurgence that led to the creation of Protestantism. This period of reformation found authorities in many cities expropriating ecclesiastical revenues used to financially support clerics at universities. Confirmed by papal bull, the university was estab-

imperial government opted to maintain the University of Vienna. That decision prompted financial support, larger

lished as an autonomous institution. Allocated meager financial provisions by its founders, it was without a fac-

ulties of theology and philosophy continued for nearly two centuries following the Reformation.

ulty of theology until 1384, at which time Albrecht III arranged for the inclusion of a theological department, a measure that gave the school full university status.

One price for Ferdinand I’s support was increasing state completely state-directed due to educational reforms made

The university’s founders took their administrative practices from the University of Paris and as such grouped teachers into faculties or departments and

in the eighteenth century by the Empress Maria Theresa, Emperor Joseph II, and Emperor Leopold II. The university’s prior autonomy was lost and the school formerly rec-

grouped students according to nations. Student population rose once the faculty of theology

ognized for its theological studies showed small progress,

endowments, and the hiring of several noted Jesuit schol-

ars, whose control of the university’s faculty of theology was complete by 1558. Jesuit dominance in both the fac-

control of the university; by the 1700s, the institution was

save for some advancements in the faculties of law and medicine. Among those developments was the construc-

was established, with enrollment numbers increasing rapidly. In 1390, some 350 students were enrolled at the Uni-

young male scholars from throughout the Holy Roman Empire. Increased enrollments also paved the way for

tion in 1784 of the Allgemeine Krankenhaus, the largest and most up-to-date clinic in the world at that time. While some attempts to change the existing formal curriculum were made during the 1830s, not until “the year of revolution,” 1848, did those reforms actually occur. Trig-

prestigious professors to teach at the Viennese institution.

gered by the crop failures of 1846 and a subsequent eco-

versity of Vienna, a number that doubled 20 years later. During this period, the university enrolled the majority of

660

UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA

661

Seyli, Ueay SeOe Ce oe

University of Vienna

nomic depression, the revolutions of 1848 began in Paris,

Hohenstein’s one attempt to redesign the structure of the

where a working-class insurrection was overpowered, and a national assembly controlled by the middle class and

university came in 1849 when he tried to remove the

headed by a democratically elected legislature and executive body was established. After the Paris uprisings, similar demonstrations were played out in Vienna, resulting in conservative minister Klemens von Metternich’s departure from office. The university had been at the heart of the uprisings in Vienna, a fact that the imperial army, which had been bested by the demonstrators, would not forgive or forget. The army occupied the university’s quarters in the center of the city and forced the university to occupy

scattered sites around the city.

school from the shadow of the Viennese Revolution of 1848 and restore it to sovereignty, but with strong ties to both church and state. Between

1853 and 1868, Thun-

Hohenstein and his supporters tried in vain to create a

new English- and Gothic-style university area in the city as a way of equating the university with the Vienna of

centuries past, but the institution did not receive a new face and high place of honor on its boulevard until 1868 when a liberal-minded Vienna City Council, interested in

the advancement of education, supported the concept of a

new building plan for the university.

The stage was then set for the 1849-51 reforms at the

The neo-Italian Renaissance style of the university was

University of Vienna, changes that were effected by Min-

chosen to illustrate the school’s historical link between

ister of Education, Count Leo Thun-Hohenstein. With a

modern culture and the resurgence of secular learning in the Renaissance. To the liberals in power, the building also served as a symbol of the demise of what they perceived to be a protracted era of medieval ideology. Archi-

portion of its original autonomy restored, the university asserted the long-thwarted objective of establishing freedom in its teaching and research facilities. Count Thun-

662 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES tect Heinrich Ferstel was commissioned to design the “new” university, an assignment that took him to Italy

46 percent of all Austrian law students. Divided into 13 departments, the faculty of law centers its study around

and

civil,

the universities

of Padua,

Genoa,

Bologna,

and

penal,

constitutional,

and

administrative

law.

Rome, where he studied the design inherent in a country epitomizing the Renaissance.

Research focuses not only on Austrian statutes but also

The university’s location in Vienna’s Ringstrasse (Ring Street) places it in the heart of the city, situated

The faculty of social studies and economics, created in 1976 and once called the faculty of law and political sci-

within an expansive, circular area where it shares the spa-

ence, enrolls 6,100 students. Courses within the depart-

cious concourse with, among other structures, the Parlia-

ment include sociology, statistics, public sector management, quantitative economics, and international

ment building, the city park, and the Burgtheater. The

“ring street” affords its occupants independence from one another, as trees running along its entire length create a sense of separation of one building from the next, a perception that is further heightened by the architectural differences of the Ringstrasse buildings.

Architectural modification was just one aspect of the reshaping of the university that came about during the latter portion of the nineteenth century. In 1873, the post of chancellor that had previously been the highest-ranking position was reduced to chancellor of the theological faculty. The school’s original constitution was further dissolved

when,

in

the

same

year,

the

faculties

or

departments were designated as individual teaching bod-

ies. But that dissolution was the impetus for continued reorganization of the university’s system, with a new building program activated to house the increasing num-

ber of departments. Another change came when women were allowed entry into the University of Vienna in 1897; however, they were confined to studies in the faculty of

on international and comparative law.

business. The five departments within the faculty of social studies and economics uphold ties with institutions with similar curricula in the United States, the United

Kingdom, Hungary, France, Germany, and the former Czech and Slovak Federal Republic.

The university has had a major impact on the international economic scene. Eugen Bohm-Bawerk (who three times served as Austria’s minister of finance) and Friedrich von Weiser developed the Austrian theory of capital— based on the concept of final utility; the philosophy was to

be important in several countries. Joseph Schumpteter, who was instrumental in bringing Austrian economic theories to the United States, became a professor at Harvard University in 1932 and served for nearly 30 years. His influential work, Business Cycles, was published in 1939. The present university is a publicly maintained center

of higher learning, with enrollment open to anyone who has obtained an Austrian school-leaving certificate or the

philosophy. Both genders were accepted to the faculty of

equivalent. The academic head is the rector, who is elected for two years and is charged with making all sig-

medicine in 1900 and to the faculty of law in 1920. The next decade brought war, and with it came serious ramifications for the faculty of medicine, then containing

nificant decisions in joint collaboration with representatives of the university’s faculties. Recently celebrating its 630th anniversary, the Univer-

a group of leading researchers. In 1938, when Germany annexed Austria, more than 75 percent of the depart-

sity of Vienna, which embraces the motto “In Quest of

ment’s professors were forced to resign for political or ethnic reasons. While the political and fiscal turmoil that followed World War II had adverse effects on all European universities, the University of Vienna was again. opened by May 29, 1945, and some nine years later its reorganization was complete. The 1960s brought a broadening of student enrollment, an increase that has been perennial, bringing present student counts to approximately 85,000, representing 121 countries. Recent curriculum changes have affected several university faculties. The past two decades have resulted in major additions to the Protestant theology course study. Currently, course study includes canon law, Christian archaeology, and biblical art, in addition to the more tra-

ditional subjects of Old and New Testament studies and church history. In addition to religious course study, six

other departments comprise the university. The faculty of law, one of the original departments created when the university was founded, currently enrolls more than 10,000 students, a figure that represents some

Knowledge,” can lay claim to having educated more than

1 million students since its beginnings in the fourteenth century. Luminaries of the scientific, political, and enter-

tainment worlds are among those receiving degrees from this largest university in Austria. Among notable graduates are Sir Rudolf Bing, the former general manager and

artistic director of the Metropolitan Opera, and Theodor Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism. Kurt Waldheim,

president of Austria from 1986 to 1992, was graduated from the school’s faculty of law. Further Reading: A book that provides information about the university in the context of its city is Fin-de-Siécle Vienna, by Carl E. Schorske (New York: Knopf, 1980). Another source of information is The Universities of Europe, 1100-

1914, by Willis Rudy (Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1984).

—Sharon Nery

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA (Charlottesville, Virginia, U.S.A. Location:

) The body approved the creation of Central College on

Charlottesville, Virginia, 120 miles southwest

of Washington, D.C.

February

6, 1816, and in October,

a board of visitors

[trustees] was established, including not only Jefferson Description:

_A state university enrolling approximately

but President James Monroe and former president James Madison. The cornerstone for the first building (designed

18,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and

professional schools.

Information:

Visiting:

by Jefferson), Pavilion VII, was laid in 1817, with Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe in attendance. When the legis-

Office of Admission Box 9017 Charlottesville, VA 22906 U.S.A. (804) 982-3200

lature approved plans for a state university in January 1818, it created

a 24-member

commission

to plan the

institution. Conscious of his failing health but passionate in his desire to oversee his project personally, Jefferson

pressed for the university to be located at Charlottesville, a short distance from his Monticello home, arguing that Central College was already in existence there and available to be transformed into the new state university.

Guided tours of the Rotunda and the Lawn are available year-round. For more information, call the phone number above.

When the commission voted, the Charlottesville site won

handily. In March 1819, the board of visitors elected Jef-

ferson rector of the university. In his architectural plans for the university, Jefferson

fused the practical and the artistic, adapting his European Although he had held such prestigious posts as governor of Virginia, secretary of state, and president of the United

models to suit the American landscape. Architectural historian William H. Pierson Jr, described Jefferson’s

States, Thomas Jefferson ordered that his epitaph identify him as the author of the Declaration of American Independence and the statute of Virginia for religious free-

achievement: Thoroughly anti-British in his attitude toward architecture, and consciously seeking a mode of building symbolic of the new republic, he discovered what he considered an appropriate idiom in two non-English sources, the Neoclassical architecture of contempo-

dom, and as father of the University of Virginia. Jefferson achieved this final goal at the end of his life, despite problems both physical and financial. He personally supervised every phase of the founding of the university from the physical design to the curriculum to the hiring of professors. As early as 1800 Jefferson began corresponding with various learned friends about the design of a university, his dream being a state university for Virginia, in addition

rary France, and the architecture of ancient Rome.

From these he created an intensely personal style. ... Rational at the same time that it was romantic, it remains one of the most brilliant creative outbursts of the entire Neoclassical movement.

to the College of William and Mary. The “ancestor” of the University of Virginia was Albemarle Academy,

mation into an institution of higher learning, Central College. Jefferson himself wrote the petition to the general assembly seeking a charter. In soliciting legislative sup-

The buildings designed by Jefferson—his “‘academical village’”— remain the centerpiece of the university. The focus is the Lawn, a rectangular, terraced green flanked on each side by two rows of dormitories connected by colonnades, with ten pavilions for the professors spaced at intervals. At the center of the north side is the Rotunda, a sphere within a cylinder, 70 feet in diameter, half that of its prototype, the Pantheon in Rome. The Rotunda housed

port for his institution, Jefferson wrote to Colonel Charles

the library, lecture room, and other facilities, including a

Yancy that he envisioned “a university where might be

gymnasium and America’s first planetarium. In keeping with Jefferson’s desire to stress the intellectual aspects of

which had existed on paper since the beginning of the nineteenth century. After Jefferson was appointed to its board of trustees in 1814, he recommended its transfor-

taught, in its highest degree, every branch of science

[knowledge] useful in our time and country.” He continued, explaining his belief in mass education: “If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization, it

education, the university’s central building was a library,

not a chapel. Pierson finds Jefferson’s campus especially American in that it is spacious and open. The living quarters on the

expects what never was and what never will be.”

663

664 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

University of Virginia

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

665

central lawn and the ranges (also dormitories) behind them

chairman of the faculty. When the board of visitors first

face outward, not inward. However, Jefferson also recognized the need for contemplation in seclusion. Thus,

raised the issue of appointing a president in spring 1826,

behind the dormitories and pavilions are walled gardens,

“Although he did not say so, he was undoubtedly fearful

enclosed

of the concentration of power in anybody’s hands and favored dispersal whenever possible.” Jefferson’s system

by serpentine

walls.

In Jefferson’s

original

designs, the pavilions were all alike, but after a meeting of the board of visitors, he wrote a friend that the pavilions should be “models of taste and good architecture, and of a variety of appearance, no two alike, so as to serve as specimens for the Architectural lecturer.” Unique to Jefferson’s design was the integration of living space for faculty and

students with classrooms and libraries. Students lived on the Lawn and in two outer rows of rooms called the Ranges, while faculty were housed in the pavilions. The

Rotunda held classroom space and the library. Jefferson did not confine himself to designing the

Jefferson resisted. Biographer

Dumas

Malone

writes:

continued until 1904, when Edwin A. Alderman became

the first president of the University of Virginia. One of Jefferson’s other beliefs was that students could be trusted to govern themselves. That view was shattered early. Students rioted, attacking the choice of European professors. Physical assaults prompted faculty threats to resign unless strong action was taken. Accordingly, Jefferson recommended to the board of visitors a very strict code of behavior, among whose strictures were bans on smoking, drinking, and gambling. The most serious riot

buildings of the university. He had strong views on curriculum and governance as well. He rejected both European and American models for “his” university. The European universities were ridden by “kingcraft” and the American ones by “priestcraft.” Accordingly, students at

ing a trial. However,

the University of Virginia were free to pursue any disci-

improved sufficiently that the honor system (still in effect)

pline other than theology. Thus, in the early years, no clergyman was appointed to the faculty. In 1845 a Presby-

was introduced. The system, based on the belief that the

occurred in 1840, when Jonn A.G. Davis, chairman of the

faculty and professor of law, left his pavilion residence to investigate a disturbance. He was shot to death by a masked student, who disappeared while free on bail, pendby 1842,

student

behavior

had

university is “a community of trust,” is unique, especially

terian minister, Reverend William Holmes McGuffey (who gained fame for his series of readers for children) joined the faculty as a professor of moral philosophy. When the university received its first students—about 40 in number—in 1825, it was essentially a graduate school, with no required courses. For the first few years, students received diplomas, not degrees. To this day, the

pledged that they had not offered assistance to another. In earlier days of the code’s operation, the accuser confronted the person he suspected of lying, cheating, or

university has adhered to Jefferson’s wishes by never

stealing. Today the accuser makes the charge to an advi-

awarding an honorary degree. In 1831, five years after Jefferson’s death, the university offered the master of arts degree. Completion required a rigorous program in mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, ancient languages, and chemistry, a list to which two modern languages were added in 1833. This strict curriculum totally contravened Jefferson’s elective system. The bachelor of arts degree (not, by the way, a prerequisite for the M.A.) was first awarded in 1848 and the Ph.D. in 1880. Although Jefferson believed that Oxford, Cambridge,

sor, who initiates an investigation, which must offer proof

among state universities, in that judgments as to violation of the honor code are in the hands of students. At first, the

code consisted in a student’s pledge that he had received no assistance

in an examination.

Later,

students

also

of the action, the intention, and the seriousness of the

of $25 for each student in a class. Professors whose

deed. If a student is found guilty of violating the honor code, there is a single penalty: dismissal from the university (if the student has not left voluntarily). As concepts of honor changed, guidelines were finally promulgated in 1935: “it is essential that the Honor System shall concern itself solely with those offenses which are classified as dishonorable by the public opinion of the student generation involved.” With some modifications to protect the rights and the privacy of the accused, the honor system is still regarded by the university as one of its outstanding features. Eighteen years after the honor system was introduced, the Civil War erupted, causing a major disruption at the university. Most students supported secession, and most faculty opposed it. Many students left the university to

classes

substantial

offer their services to the Confederacy. While the univer-

income, while those with smaller classes were considerably less affluent. Because this disparity caused unhappi-

sity stayed open during the war, the only students were those too young to serve or veterans who had been

ness, the fee system was abandoned in 1850 in favor of a

severely wounded. During the war years there were never

flat salary of $3,000 for each professor.

more than 46 to 66 students and no more than 8 faculty. Not until 1900 did the university attain the number of students it had in 1850. Shortages of food and fuel were com-

and the Sorbonne were “a century or two behind” his

vision of the needs of nineteenth-century education, he scoured Europe in his search for faculty. Of the first eight professors, four were from England and the fifth from

Germany. At the outset, faculty received a free residence

in one of the pavilions and a salary of $1,500, plus a fee were

large

enjoyed

a relatively

Until early in the twentieth century, the university did not have a president, as such, but the rotating position of

666 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES pounded by the decline in the Confederate dollar. In

U.S. Bicentennial), the restored Rotunda was dedicated.

March 1865, Union Army General Philip Sheridan and his

In that same year, the American Institute of Architects

cavalry approached Charlottesville. Fearful that the uni-

recognized the “academical village” as the most signifi-

versity buildings would be burned to the ground, as those

cant achievement of American architecture in the past 200 years.

at the Virginia Military Institute had been, university authorities sent Professor John B. Minor (one of the country’s foremost legal scholars, he later personally borrowed funds to keep the university open) and a contingent of faculty to meet the troops; Minor carried a walking cane with

a white handkerchief attached to it. The commander of the advance guard, General George A. Custer, ordered that the

university’s property be given every protection.

Three years before the fire, in 1892, one of the major

social issues with which the university would have to grapple in the twentieth century first surfaced: the admission of women. In that year, Miss Caroline Preston Davis

applied for permission to take the examination for the b.a. degree in the school of mathematics. She was granted

space. His mammoth Annex, joined to the Rotunda by a

permission—on the condition that she take the exam apart from the male students. A further condition was that if she successfully completed the examination she would receive a certificate of proficiency, not a degree. She performed very well on the examination and was awarded the certificate. A debate ensued about how the university

colonnade, was criticized from the first as being out of

should treat applications from women. In 1894, both the

keeping with the symmetry of Jefferson’s design. It was destroyed by fire in 1895.

faculty and the board of visitors voted against admitting women under any conditions. Faculty contended that

Though the destruction of the buildings was averted during the Civil War, Jefferson’s centerpiece—the

admitting women to the university “would only serve to

Before the Civil War took its toll on student numbers,

growing enrollment necessitated adding several buildings to the university. In 1850, architect Robert Mills, who had studied with Jefferson, was retained to design additional

Rotunda—was not spared when faulty wiring caused a fire in October 1895. Attempting to save the Rotunda, an engi-

neering professor tried dynamiting the bridge between the Annex

(where the fire had started) and the Rotunda.

Unfortunately, he blew a hole in the Rotunda, and the fire

spread even more rapidly. Before the fire was controlled, the annex, dome, and interior of the Rotunda had been

destroyed. Fortunately, students and faculty had managed to save many of the books and the Galt bust of Jefferson.

To restore the Rotunda, the university engaged the eminent architect Stanford White. After he returned to New York from his first visit to the university, he encountered a friend, who found him in an unusually confused mood.

draw them away from those excellencies which made that

sex such a power in the home.” Virginia’s general assembly voted to admit women to the graduate and professional schools in 1920-21, a decision which brought vociferous objections from students, faculty, and alumni.

Women were finally admitted on the same basis as men in 1970. As the university nears the end of the twentieth century, enrollment is almost equally divided between male and female.

Even as it grappled with the issue of integrating the sexes, the university had to deal with the issue of integra-

tion of the races. In 1935, Alice Jackson, a black woman,

applied for admission to the graduate school. The board of visitors instructed the dean of graduate studies to reject

university: “They’re wonderful and I am scared to death. I

her application because “education of white and colored persons in the same school is contrary to the fixed policy

only hope I can do it right.” White convinced the board of

of the commonwealth of Virginia” and “for other good

visitors that Jefferson would surely have constructed the

and sufficient reasons.”

Rotunda as a “simple, single, and noble room,” had not

graduate of Howard University Law School (who had been practicing law for two years) applied to take gradu-

White explained that he had seen Jefferson’s plans for the

practical necessity required two stories. However, there are no documents suggesting that Jefferson had the “single room” plan in mind. A university document describes

White’s design as “an elaborate Beaux Arts interpretation in the Roman style. . . . White increased the height of the dome room . . . widened the skylight . . . and replaced Jefferson’s slender double pillars with large single columns with Corinthian capitals.” University authorities were so pleased with White’s work that, ten years later, they asked

About

14 years later, a black

ate courses at the University of Virginia Law School. Though the university rejected him, a U.S. Circuit Court

of Appeals ordered him admitted. He entered the law school in September 1950, and dropped out in July 1951. In 1953, the university became the first major white southern university to award a doctorate to a black man. The first black professor joined the faculty in 1967, the

same year that the first black athlete enrolled.

In the 1960s and early 1970s, Professor Frederick H. Nichols of the School of Architecture spearheaded a

Through the years, the university has had to live down a reputation as a Southern country club, dominated by insularity and resistance to change. After World War II, a former student wrote: “Should the whole continent of

project to restore the Rotunda according to Jefferson’s

Europe be destroyed by nuclear power, it would not sur-

design of a two-level interior. On the 223rd anniversary of Jefferson’s birth, April 13, 1976 (also the year of the

prise me to read a letter to the Cavalier Daily which discussed the effect of that catastrophe upon the parking

him to design a house for the president, a dining hall, and

an addition to the hospital.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

667

problem.” Apparently the university has broadened its

his academical village is still inhabited by honor students

horizons, since, as the twentieth century nears its close,

in the same dormitory rooms, and senior faculty occupy

the population is only 65 percent Virginian, more than 12 percent of the undergraduates are African-American, and nearly 9 percent are Asian.

the same beautiful pavilions. I believe that he would be

As its academic reputation grew, the university attracted more and more distinguished faculty. Both Dumas Malone, the renowned biographer of Thomas Jefferson, and short-story writer Peter Taylor served on the faculty. A legacy enabled the university to institute a

Writers in Residence program in the late 1950s. The first to hold

that

position

was

Nobel

laureate

William

Faulkner, who remained a lecturer and consultant at the

university until his death in 1962. Faulkner was followed by such luminaries as authors Katherine Anne Porter and John Dos Passos, as well as historian Shelby Foote.

In a 1969 speech, university president Edgar F. Shannon Jr. reflected: “If Mr. Jefferson were to return to the Grounds and walk along the Lawn under his familiar col-

onnades, he would find himself very much at home, for

pleased at the progress that is being made toward fulfill-

ing his dreams of a university.” Further Reading: Dumas Malone’s The Sage of Monticello (Boston: Little Brown, 1981), the sixth volume of his author-

itative biography, Jefferson and His Time, provides a lengthy account of the founding of the university. Another extensive account will be found in Thomas Jefferson: Passionate Pilgrim, by Alf J. Mapp Jr. (Lanham, Maryland and London: Madison Books, 1991). Mr. Jefferson’s University, by Virginius Dabney (Charlottesville: University of Virginia

Press, 1981), provides an extensive and detailed history of the university from its founding to the late 1970s.

—Mary Elizabeth Devine

UNIVERSITY OF WALES (Cardiff, Wales) Location:

This inquiry into the educational opportunities provided to Welsh children by Anglican England and by voluntary educational societies proved to be a catalyst for a

Constituent colleges located in Cardiff, Aberystwyth, Bangor, Swansea, and Lampeter, Wales.

Description:

Welsh sense of pride. The commission report—the infa-

A federal university comprised of six constituent colleges enrolling students in

mous “Blue Books” of 1847—noted that the children of

Wales were being hindered by the Welsh language and by

undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools.

Information:

the deplorable conditions of the schools. The Welshspeaking children who emigrated from the small towns to

the industrial cities were not able to keep up in Englishspeaking schools that used books in English. The Welsh were not so outraged at the “discovery” that the Welsh

— University Registry King Edward VII Avenue Cathays Park

language was a hindrance to intellectual, economic, and national growth as they were in the commission’s declaration that Wales was a “primitive backwater, ignorant and immoral.” The Welsh working-class society long remembered the “treachery of the Blue Books” and the Welsh, across all classes and political strata, were deter-

Cardiff CF1 3NS

Wales (01222) 382656

Fax (01222) 396040

mined to make education a national priority. From 1847 to the 1860s, children who reverted to the

Welsh language in school were made to wear wooden

The development of the educational system in England and Wales during the early nineteenth century was mainly

signs around the their necks which said “Welsh not.” At the same time members of the wealthy Welsh middle

a matter of middle-class landowners and industrialists

class in England, such as Sir Hugh Owens, began a movement for higher education in Wales. Owens had founded

prodding Parliament to improve the educational opportunities for their children. Social and economic changes brought about by sudden industrialization made the working classes, especially in Wales, aware of the inadequacy of the county schools run by the Church of England and of the Sunday schools taught in nonconformist chapels. These schools were voluntary and not part of a national

a normal training school for teachers at Bangor in 1858;

he envisioned it as a working-class university, advancing beyond instruction in education alone. The Forster Act of 1870 had set up board schools in Wales and England, and another act of Parliament in 1889 (the Intermediate Edu-

system. Neither prepared Welsh children to matriculate

cation Act) prepared the way for a state system of secondary education confined to Wales, creating the opportunity for Welsh youth to receive the education nec-

into any form of higher education. There were no colleges in Wales until the Anglican seminary, St. David’s

essary for matriculation into colleges. In his history of modern Wales, Gareth Elwyn Jones wrote that Hugh Owens’s efforts to establish a Welsh uni-

College, was established in Lampeter in 1822. Lampeter initially trained sons of the gentry and upper classes as ordinands who would then transfer to Oxford or Cambridge for their master’s degree. The nonconformist Sunday schools provided basic education in reading the Bible (in Welsh) for younger children, and a forum for discussion for adults, strengthening the literary aspect of the Welsh language, and fostering a national identity which was separate from England yet loyal to the monarchy. William

Williams,

a Welsh

member

who had immigrated to England and there, initiated an investigation into the countrymen. He was convinced that the tary tutoring, the lack of training schools

versity which would provide an “intellectual and voca-

tional education, with a scientific bias appropriate to an industrial society,” resulted in a new “college by the sea” in Aberystwyth, conceived as a college for north and mid-

Wales. Established in 1872 in an abandoned sea-front railway hotel, the Aberystwyth University College sur-

of parliament,

vived many reversals, such as fire, risk of financial failure, removal of professors, and an often unmotivated

become wealthy education of his system of volunfor teachers, and

student body, some of whom left before completing their studies, choosing instead to return to the farms and coal

mines. But the foundation of Aberystwyth University College attested to how far the Welsh would go to achieve educational parity with England. Funded by a Sunday school campaign, mythically referred to as “pennies of the poor,” Aberystwyth

the money provided for schools by the gentry and industrialists were not enough. He pushed for a state system in which the Welsh could receive a “proper” education—in English and with English standards. 668

UNIVERSITY OF WALES

669

University of Wales

received more than 100,000 contributions of under half a

ACC, a forerunner of a nationalistic intellectual student

crown, given by the miners, quarrymen, and farm labor-

society, similar to the later, more renowned Dafydd ap

ers throughout Wales on special “University Sundays” (Sul y Brifygol). The university did not receive the

Gwilym for Welsh expatriate students at Oxford. Historian Kenneth O. Morgan has expressed a popular

£4,000 government grant, the amount given to establish universities in Bangor and Cardiff; a major contributor to

opinion of the political implications of the university at Aberystwyth for the twentieth century, by suggesting that

the new college was capitalist David Davies of Llandinam. The government eventually granted £2,500. There

Aberystwyth was a “Celtic version” of the American “Wisconsin idea,” a people’s college having its own “pas-

were always struggles, however, financially afloat.

sionate vision of populist culture, integrated with the society that gave it birth, steeped with the folk national-

Despite

the hardships,

to keep the college

the University

College

at

Aberystwyth served to link the Welsh in spirit and as a

society. Tom Ellis, who would become a Welsh patriot,

ism of ‘Cymru Fydd,’ the Wales that was to be.” Despite the academic progress for some of its students, Aberystwyth still provided an ungainly substitute for an

was a student at Aberystwyth in the late 1870s and early 1880s, as was historian John Edward Lloyd and Welshlanguage educator/publisher Owen M. Edwards. The com-

English education and was considered a sublevel univer-

poser, Joseph Parry, was the first professor of music at the

north, one in the south. Affected by Welsh members of

college. Parry’s activities with the National Welsh Revival

parliament in the House of Commons and by Stuart Ren-

Movement’s music and literary competition, the Eisted-

del’s lobbying of Prime Minister William Gladstone, the

dfod, may have caused his dismissal from the college. By

report led to the establishment of the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire founded in Cathays

1883, Tom Ellis and others would be members of the

sity by parliamentary standards. The Aberdare Committee in 1881 called for two universities in Wales, one in the

670 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Park, Cardiff, in 1883, and the University College of North Wales, established in Bangor in 1884. They were intended to be regional colleges to prepare local students for transfer to English universities. The first principal at Cardiff, John Viriamu Jones, was a distinguished scientist, who was associated with the liber-

als and nonconformists

of the Welsh mid-nineteenth-

served as a powerful symbol of popular achievement and of national status: “In no other area of Welsh life, tran-

scending political and sectarian barriers, was national pride more genuinely manifested.” The University of Wales incorporated changes over the

years to consolidate and solidify its “Welshness.” There were critics who denounced the federal university sys-

century nationalism. The first principal of the college at Bangor was Sir Harry Reichel, an Ulster Tory, not popular with the local radicals; however, with his appointment of

tem’s excessive bureaucracy. To detractors, the registry at Cardiff was considered a weak directing agency. In March

John Edward Lloyd as lecturer in Welsh history in 1892,

union for political nationalism associated with David

and of John Morris-Jones as professor of Welsh in 1894, he encouraged the national traits of the Bangor region. In January 1888, fueled with a passion to create a “National University” for Wales, the Cymmrodian Soci-

Lloyd George, attacked the university in the New Leader, accusing it of being too detached from the “county schools” and run by a “narrow professional class.” A royal commission (Haldane Commission, 1916-18)

ety, a group of London-based businessmen and intellectu-

granted a supplemental charter to the university which radically revised the federal machinery established under

als with Professor John Rhys as chairman,

met and

drafted an application to the Lord President of the council

1905, Llewelyn Williams, a leader in the Cymru Fydd, a

for a university charter. In November 1891, another con-

the charter of 1893. New federal bodies were created to serve the particular interests of Welsh learning and cul-

ference was held (in the Welsh marshes at Shrewsbury).

ture, including the University Council, an executive body

The main issue under discussion was whether this national university should be merely an examining uni-

which became responsible for financial matters and the allocation of funds to the colleges. The large senate and court of the old system gave way to the academic board which advised the University Council on academic mat-

versity, or a teaching university—one that would teach

and confer degrees on its own students, as advocated by education minister Arthur Acland. The issue hung in bal-

ters. The Board of Celtic Studies, the University Exten-

ance until Gladstone returned as prime minister in 1892.

sion Board, the Council of Music, and the University of

Gladstone appointed Owen M. Edwards commissioner to study the feasibility of incorporating Cardiff, Bangor, and Aberystwyth into a national university. By January 1893,

Wales Press were also established to promote the work of the colleges in fields of “special importance” to Wales. Ninety percent of the student body were from Wales, making the University of Wales a more local university than any in England. In 1920 the former Swansea Technical College became incorporated as the University of Wales’s fourth constituent college, and in 1931 a supplemental charter was granted providing for the creation of the university’s first constituent school; the Medical School of the College of Cardiff then affiliated with the university as the Welsh National School of Medicine. While the teaching of theology had been previously prohibited within the university, graduates who went on to study at “associated” theological colleges were granted divinity degrees. Three schools of theology were created in the 1930s. The new provisions permitted establishment of joint institutions which combined the resources of the

the charter for the federal university—to be a teaching university, not merely an examining

institution—was

drafted by a committee of three, headed by Dr. Isambard Owen. The only hindrance to an early incorporation was the provision that St. David’s of Lampeter be included, as

had been recommended by the Aberdare report of 1881. In August

1893, the House of Lords carried a motion

withholding royal assent to the charter unless Lampeter was included. However, Bishop Jayne of Chester, a former principal of Lampeter, claimed that St. David’s College was becoming victim to “aggressive and intolerant denominationalism in Wales.” Wary of the Liberal nonconformism of the movement for higher education in Wales, Lampeter wanted no part of inclusion.

Gladstone ignored the motion to wait for Lampeter’s inclusion, as the Aberdare report provided a clause for the later inclusion of Lampeter. The University of Wales, incorporating

Bangor,

Aberystwyth,

and

Cardiff

was

established by royal charter, November 30, 1893. In 1896, it became a federal institution with the Prince of

university colleges and of denominational theological colleges in what became nondenominational university schools of technology at Bangor, Cardiff, and a joint Aberystwyth/Lampeter School.

The University of Wales entered a period of expansion

Wales as chancellor, after the death of Lord Aberdare, the

and change in the late 1950s and 1960s. An attempt was

first nominee. A government grant of £20,000 was “grudgingly” awarded in 1894 and another £50,000 was raised by public appeal. Viriamu Jones of Cardiff became the first vice-chancellor, and a plan was implemented to integrate the university with secondary school teaching and inspection. According to Morgan, the university

made to defederalize the university in 1964-66, with the

argument that the university was too fragmented with the constituent colleges spread across the country. The Rob-

bins Report of 1963-64 outlined the alleged need for a larger student population, especially in the applied and pure sciences. Lecturers such as Kingsley Amis (Univer-

UNIVERSITY OF WALES

671

sity College of Swansea) replied that “more means worse” in response to what he saw as the glut of foreign students. The principals at Cardiff, Swansea, and Bangor supported the movement to split up the university. In the end, the university stayed intact. But by 1968 only 39 percent of the student population was from Wales, and over

During a period in 1978-79, students held demonstrations

half came from working-class England.

cated the University of Wales to the “educational, cultural,

The university was reorganized in 1967, giving greater authority to the academic board for academic matters

and economic needs of Wales and to the enhancement of the international standing of the University.”

within the university. A supplemental charter that year also incorporated the Welsh College of Advanced Technology into the university. That institution, which had applied for its own independent university status due to

its steady expansion since 1866 as a school for science, art, and technology, became the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology (UWIST). Four years later, in 1972, St. David’s College, Lam-

peter, suspended its degree-granting powers, and due to

lack of funding

and decline

of student

enrollment,

became a constituent school of the university, named St.

David’s University College, Lampeter. It entered the university as a liberal arts college, thus ending the special nature of its founding as a sectarian Anglican college in a nonconformist principality. Important additions to the quality and status of Welsh language education were implemented: the Validation

and “sit-ins” at Bangor University College to protest the influx of non-Welsh students into the university, following a larger political movement (Adfer) which hoped to pre-

serve the Welsh-speaking communities of rural Wales. A new mission statement adopted in July 1993 rededi-

Further Reading: Modern Wales: A Concise History c. 1485-1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984) by Gareth Elwyn Jones, a senior lecturer in history at University College of Swansea, examines the changes that took

place over a 500-year period in Wales. The authoritative, analytical but unfootnoted work contains illustrated documents and reprints of quoted source material. Kenneth O. Morgan’s Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880-1980 (New York: Oxford University Press, and [Cardiff]: University of Wales Press, 1981), an academic study prepared as part of The History of

Wales series edited by Glanmor Williams, is designed to appeal to the general reader. Despite his use of footnotes and his obvious scholarship, this Welsh native and fellow of

Queens College, Oxford, has placed the University of Wales, its founding, and incorporations, into the wider perspective

of the Welsh personality.

Board, 1974; Board for Welsh Medium Training, 1980; and the University Center for Welsh and Celtic Studies, a centrally funded research institute in Aberystwyth, 1985.

—Carol Shilakowsky

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON (Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.) Location:

scholarships in 1877 nearly tripled the student body from 43 to 126. During the next several years, enrollment

The University of Washington is located in Seattle, the largest city in the state of Washington, just north of the downtown area. The 703-acre campus borders the western shore of Lake Washington.

Description:

ranged from 140 to 160 students, 35 to 40 in college-level

courses. The university instructed students of both sexes in a variety of courses, including English, history, algebra, physiology, Latin, and Greek. By 1881, between 32 and 40 classes were offered regularly five times a week in 40-minute periods. Entrance to college-level courses did not require an exam but did require a proficiency in reading, spelling, geography, and fractions. In addition to pro-

The University of Washington is a public research university governed by a nine-member board of regents. Enrolling approximately 35,000 students, the university is comprised of 16 major schools and colleges. These include law, medicine, business, engineering, dentistry, and education in addition to the traditional arts and sciences. Its nationally respected graduate and professional schools enroll over 9,000

grams in the arts and sciences, the university established

a normal course for teacher training and a commercial course to prepare individuals for careers in business. During the 1880s, the territory grew exponentially.

students. A center for regional education and

With the completion

research, its schools have advanced the

tens of thousands settled in the area of Puget Sound. By

development of Washington’s communities

1891, Seattle had grown to a population of 50,000. Legis-

and industries.

Information:

of the Northern-Pacific

Railroad,

lative appropriations increased gradually from an initial $3,000 biennial appropriation for operational expenses in

— University of Washington

1884 to include $10,000 for salaries in 1888. In addition,

Visitor’s Information Center Box 355502 4014 University Way, NE Seattle, WA 98195-5502 U.S.A. (206) 543-9198

territorial scholarships were continued with an additional

sum to cover student travel expenses. An enrollment of 217 in 1888 increased to 273 in 1889, with 63 in college-

level courses. The declaration of statehood in November

of 1889 brought about an additional land grant of 100,000 acres with ident staff

for the university and provided the state legislature impetus for increased investment in education. PresThomas M. Gatch (1887-95), the first university member to hold a doctorate, presided over the uni-

The University of Washington, Seattle, was founded in

versity during this positive time of funding and growth.

1861 as the University of the Territory of Washington, before Washington acquired statehood. The federal government had, in 1854, reserved acreage in each state and territory for the development of institutions of higher learning. Reverend Daniele Bagley, a Seattle minister, established the university from the sale and barter of this land, erecting three buildings—a two-story academic building, a residence building for students, and a presi-

He advanced the university’s capacity to function as an institution of higher learning, developing genuine differentiation of departments and disciplines and hiring instructors with more advanced professional training and

with further anticipated growth, the university moved from the heart of the city to a 350-acre campus along

dent’s house—on

Lake Washington.

greater diversity and experience. In 1895, following the rapid growth of the 1880s and

a ten-acre wooded site that is now

in

downtown Seattle. In 1860, Seattle was a village of 200; the surrounding countryside was dotted with subsistence farms. Most residents had yet to provide themselves with the bare necessities, let alone with schools; the university was the first territorial school opened in Seattle. The university, which consisted of two instructors and 30 pupils during its opening term in 1861, amounted to little more than a frontier schoolhouse that closed several times during its earliest years due to lack of funding. The university grew haltingly during the nineteenth

the

newly

Nearly 200 students attended classes constructed

Administration

Building

(renamed Denny Hall in 1910), which boasted 20,000

square feet in floor space and included classrooms, laboratories, meeting halls, and library holdings. The state

legislature appropriated $90,000 in 1895 for school operations and nearly as much for additional buildings and improvements. Increased funds allowed the appointment of new, better-qualified faculty; by 1896, 6 of 15 professors of collegiate subjects held doctorates. The promise of continued financial support, coupled with the increasing enrollment in college-level courses, prompted Presi-

century. A legislative appropriation of $3,000 for student 672

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON

University of Washington

673

674 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES dent Mark W. Harrington’s (1895-97) decision to discontinue the preparatory program. The state elections in November

1896, however, reversed the university’s

fortune. The biennial appropriation for operations failed to cover the salary promised to Harrington, who resigned

in protest.

tory programs and a deepening commitment to research and higher education. Much of the university research directly benefited the development of the state. Geologists mapped and appraised Washington’s mineral deposits. Botanists and zoologists offered suggestions for

The university languished during the year following Harrington’s resignation but regained direction with the appointment of Frank P. Graves to the presidency in

combating Canadian thistles and gypsy moths. Sanitary engineers assisted in the development of hospital sewage plants and the Cedar River system then being developed for Seattle.

1898. Graves (1898-1902) reestablished instruction at

Under President Henry Suzzallo (1915-26), research

the preparatory level in an effort to ensure adequate pre-

provisions improved with the development of a mines experiment station in 1917, a hydraulics laboratory in

paratory education in Washington (at this time less than 12 schools provided a four-year program) and to ensure

1920, a mines laboratory in 1921, and the expansion of

demand for the university’s programs. Enrollment tri-

the Marine Biological Station on Puget Sound following

pled during Graves’s term, from less than 200 students in 1898 to nearly 600 in 1902. Graves strengthened upper-level instruction, hiring additional faculty and restructuring and revitalizing educational programs. Under Graves’s direction and example, faculty spoke to audiences across the state promoting the university and spreading awareness of the available educational opportunities. The School of Pedagogy advanced from a nor-

a federal gift of 484 acres. Course and program offer-

mal training center for teachers to a thorough program

in educational practice. A School of Mines branched out from the College of Engineering and Mines to offer five

different programs to 45 students in 1899. A School of Law was established in 1899, which, by 1902, enrolled

68 students. Rapid growth continued during the presidency of Thomas Franklin Kane (1902-14). Each year hundreds more

students enrolled, increasing from 650 in 1902 to over 2,300 in 1913. The growth of the student body necessitated numerous faculty hires. Kane’s appointments greatly strengthened the academic quality at the university; 30 of the men appointed held doctorates from such universities as Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Chi-

cago, Michigan, and Northwestern. Departments com-

posed of one or two instructors in 1902 were transformed by 1914: English claimed 11 instructors; mathematics, 10; civil engineering, 9; political and social science, 9; and chemistry, history, philosophy, and modern language,

from 6 to 8 each. The university soon experienced a space shortage, partially alleviated by the construction of three

permanent structures and numerous temporary structures for the 1909 Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition. The exposition reflected the growing importance of western industry in the United States, and the selection of

Seattle as site for the exposition attested to Washington’s centrality in regional development. Washington developed rapidly during the early twentieth century. Total population nearly tripled in 14 years, from 518,000 in 1900 to 1,408,000 in 1914. The lumber and fishing industries became major enterprises and the output of manufacturing in Seattle alone more than doubled.

Improvement of the state system of secondary education allowed the discontinuation of the university’s prepara-

ings in numerous fields diversified and improved. The

program in commerce became the College of Business Administration in 1917. Sociology separated into its own department, psychology separated from philosophy, and Chinese and Russian were added to the foreign

language offerings. A program in aeronautical engineering began with William E. Boeing’s provision for the construction of a four-foot wind tunnel and aeronautical laboratory. Although some protested the acceptance of

private gifts by a publicly funded institution, private donations increasingly benefited the university during Suzzallo’s presidency. Horace C. Henry donated his private collection of paintings (over 400,000) along with $100,000 for the construction of a campus art gallery. Agnes H. Anderson provided for the construction of a general purpose building in 1925 with the stipulation

that it hold the School of Forestry. Private donations also provided for student scholarships, faculty chairs, and research.

Enrollment increased steadily from 2,300 in 1914 (despite a 30 percent drop during World War I) to 4,740 in 1919. Graduate studies, which had grown slowly during the twentieth century, enrolled 350 students in 1922, including 150 candidates for the master’s degree and 30 candidates for the Ph.D. In 1915, the legislature authorized the erection of two buildings: a home economics building completed in 1916 and a commerce building completed the following year. The construction of Philosophy Hall was authorized in 1917, suspended during the

war, and eventually completed in 1920. A building fund was established that included revenue collected from the lease of the university’s forest lands and former campus in downtown Seattle as well as matching funds allocated by the legislature from tax dollars. This fund allowed the

construction of new permanent structures at a rate of approximately one every 18 months. In 1926, the first

unit of a new university library was completed. Promoted by Suzzallo to be the soul of the university, the library resembled a cathedral with its Tudor vaults and 36-foot high stained-glass windows. The university continued to grow with the construction of seven buildings in the next

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON

675

men’s pavilion, three academic buildings, and an ocean-

Reviews of existing departments and fields led to the establishment of new departments and interdisciplinary

ography laboratory.

programs in fields such as biomathematics, genetics, and

six years: a women’s

physical education building, a

The financial crisis of the Great Depression resulted in

ceramic materials. The School of Art added an art history

serious allocation reductions, the elimination of 1 in 12

benefits increased, attracting more-qualified and better-

curriculum. The School of Drama received support from the Rockefeller Foundation and the Seattle Repertory Theatre to initiate an intensive actor training program. The graduate school worked with college deans and department heads to further faculty research. By 1969, the university ranked among the top five institutions in the nation in receipt of federal research money. Some students protested the acceptance of federal

respected professors. The university conducted more research of use to the state, including studies which led to

funds and the resulting research used to further the war in Vietnam. Student anti-war protest culminated in the fire-

the rehabilitation of salmon fisheries, assistance in the

ment, which had dropped from 10,000 to 7,000 during

bombing of the Naval ROTC facilities on September 18, 1968, beginning an 18-month period of violent attacks on university property. The last in a series of campus disturbances occurred after the U.S. invasion of Cambodia in April 1970. Upon learning the news of the students killed at Kent State, thousands surged from the campus past

World War II, increased to 14,000 by September 1946, to

police onto Interstate 5, blocking traffic in their march

16,650 by 1948, and to over 18,000 by 1960. A postwar construction program included $21.5 million for civil and electrical engineering laboratories, nearly as much

through the city to the federal courthouse. As problems of social unrest dissipated in the early 1970s, the university faced difficulties of another sort. A

for laboratories in other sciences, $4 million for general

faltering state economy led to reduced appropriations and

classrooms

for

the reduction of state research funds for environmental

administration and student union buildings, and $9 mil-

health issues, forest product development, aerospace engineering, and development of the fishing industry.

instructors, and a 32-percent wage and salary cut. The regional economy

recovered in the mid-1930s,

and the

university redoubled its efforts toward quality as well as quantity. A department of general studies was developed

that allowed an escape from established lines of study. Salaries were raised, teaching loads reduced, and fringe

effort to restock state oyster beds, and efforts to develop

the frozen foods industry. University research and _ educational capacity increased greatly during the 1940s and 1950s. Enroll-

and library stacks, over

$2 million

lion for the newly created medical and dental schools. The university benefited from the federal government’s

transference of research responsibilities from the military to the state universities. During and after the war, millions of dollars became available for research in many fields. In 1946 the university expended $660,000 on special research through grants and contracts; in 1953, over $2 million; in 1956, $5.75 million; in 1960,

nearly $14 million. The university acquired a cyclotron for nuclear research and purchased a nuclear reactor for teaching and research; in 1959 the administration announced a comprehensive program of graduate training in nuclear engineering. During the 1960s, enrollment grew by 1,000 students

President John R. Hogness (1974-79) attempted to offset these losses with money from private sources, increasing the activities of the development office to solicit private donations and to increase the alumni fund. He also attempted to raise public approval and support of the university with television and radio advertisements and by emphasizing the need for faculty to speak to civic, professional, and community organizations across the state. In

1981, the board of regents declared the first state of emer-

gency in university history, permitting the university to remove faculty and staff due to fiscal stress. Although

unstable funding continued during the 1980s, the university retained strength in its core disciplines through the streamlining of existing programs. In 1990, the University of Washington opened two

per year until the state established 17 additional community colleges and the Evergreen State College to serve educational needs in southern Washington. The university emphasized upper-division education (junior- and senioryear courses held the designation of upper-division

broaden access to higher education; these campuses together opened to approximately 200 students and pres-

courses; freshman- and sophomore-year courses were

ently enroll 1,400. Throughout the 1990s, enrollment at

lower-division) and made admissions requirements more selective. Offices of Equal Opportunity and Minority Affairs were formed to promote the education of minorities and women. Provisions for financial aid, tutoring, and academic counseling were made to ensure the ability of minorities to attend and to excel at the university. New courses and programs were created in women’s studies,

the Seattle campus has averaged 32,500. With numerous state community colleges available to high school graduates of lesser academic standing, undergraduate admission to the university is highly competitive. Programs leading to advanced degrees are offered in over 100 areas.

African-American studies, American-Indian | studies, Asian-American studies, and Mexican-American studies.

new

campuses,

one in Bothell and one in Tacoma,

to

Of the 9,000 students enrolled in advanced studies, 35

percent are enrolled in programs in the college of arts and sciences; engineering, education, business administration, nursing, and medicine enroll significant percentages

676 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES as well. In 1995, the university awarded over 6,000 bach-

by Charles M. Gates (Seattle: University of Washington

elor degrees, nearly 2,000 master’s degrees, 482 doctor-

Press, 1961), and Into the Second Century: The University of Washington, 1961-1986, by Jane Sanders (Seattle: Universi-

ates, and 370 professional degrees.

ty of Washington Press, 1987).

Further Reading: Two overviews of the university are The First Century at the University of Washington, 1861-1961,

—Beth Rillema

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN (Wisconsin, U.S.A.) Location:

that congress be petitioned to allow one township of land

On 26 campuses throughout Wisconsin.

to be sold, and the proceeds of the sale be used for the

Description:

_A state-wide system of universities, freshman-

establishment of an academy for the education of youth. He left the location and government of the institution to

sophomore centers, and extension services.

Information:

the legislature.

— Office of University Relations

The

first order of business,

however,

proved to be the location of the capital. Debate raged over which existing city to name, but a popular judge, James

University of Wisconsin System 1856 Van Hise Hall

Doty, who owned much of the land around Lake Men-

122 Linden Drive Madison, WI 53706 U.S.A. (608) 262-3571

dota, succeeded in convincing the legislature to build a new city for the capital, at a junction of four lakes, and to name the town Madison (after James Madison, who had

died that year).

The territorial legislature moved in 1838 to establish a University of Wisconsin at the newly established capital, but it was not until Wisconsin’s statehood in 1848 that the The French fur traders who first explored what is now Wisconsin were only the beginning of a stream of immigrants who would travel from their homes in such coun-

means for establishing a state university were provided.

The state legislature established a board of regents to administrate the new college. On February 5, 1849, the first 17 students began remedial classes in rented space at the Wisconsin Female Academy, and the Wisconsin State University was born. The idea of the state university implied a break from

tries as England, France, Norway, Finland, Germany, and

Sweden to settle the Wisconsin area. Although ethnically

diverse, these men and women shared some character qualities in common. Hardy, self-reliant, and adventurous, they left everything behind to travel to this new world. They also shared one critical belief. They believed that what the new world offered—self-determination and

the traditional European models for higher education— small, privately controlled institutions (usually by a particular religious denomination) with classical curricula

and student bodies drawn from society’s elite. Inherent in the idea of the state university was the belief that provid-

a government that existed for the people—was worth the

sacrifices they had made. It was in this crucible of ideal-

ing higher education was a basic responsibility of govern-

ism, independence, and interdependence between the good of the people and the good of the state that the University of Wisconsin was born. And the circumstances of that birth have shaped the history of the University of

ment, that education should be available to every citizen

who could benefit from it, and that education should meet not only the intellectual desires of the scholar, but also the practical needs of the society, by equipping the citizenry for all sorts of trades and professional occupations. That

Wisconsin, the state of Wisconsin, and the development

of higher education in the United States as a whole. In the years immediately following the American Revolutionary War, European nations ceded the lands which they had formerly controlled to the fledgling U.S. govern-

the University of Wisconsin was founded on these principles is evident in the words of its first chancellor, John Hiram Lathrop: “The American mind has grasped the idea and will not let it go, that the whole property of the state whether in common or in severalty, is holden subject to the sacred trust of providing for the education of every

ment. The land which is now the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin became known as the Northwest Territory. In 1787 the United States, wanting

child in the state.”

to set some basic guidelines for its new properties, passed the Northwest Ordinance. The Northwest Ordinance not only reiterated the uniquely American concepts of religious freedom and justice by due process, but also established in the northwest

lands

the unique,

State universities—under the direction of fledgling governments and without the benefit of established precedence, clear direction, or solid funding—had their diffi-

culties, and the University of Wisconsin was no exception. The university had been planted in a town barely ten years old, where lodging was scarce before the construction of dormitories. When the university was

developing

concept of the state university, stating that “religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.”

founded in 1848, the area was still part of the western frontier, so a spartan existence was the norm for most stu-

The first assembly of the Wisconsin territory met in

dents, even after dormitories were built. Rooms

1836. Governor Dodge, in his welcoming address, urged 677

were

678 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

= 2a

Hii iH ij

University of Wisconsin, Madison

heated by wood stoves. Students were responsible for gathering their own wood, a laborious, time-consuming process that the students sometimes abandoned in favor

tional acres of land to the university with the condition that the land be used to encourage agricultural and mechanical arts. The agricultural department opened in

of stealing wood from other students. (A rash of wood

1868. Paul Chadbourne, chancellor of the university at

theft in the 1850s led to one group of students filling their logs with black gunpowder. A few spectacular explosions

that time, declared that the “objective of the state colleges is to obliterate the supposed superiority of the so-called learned professions by securing . . . the highest education for those who choose industrial pursuits, thus lifting agriculture and mechanic arts from the plane of mere routine labor to the dignity of learned professions.” The state college philosophy really came of age, how-

later, the pilfering stopped.) Students slept on straw gathered from the univesity farm and survived on coffee, bread, molasses, graham mush, and an occasional roasted potato. Quail were so thick that they sometimes flew in the classroom windows. Game of all sort was plentiful, and livened up the otherwise meager diets of those first scholars. Difficulties of life on the frontier in general,

ever, under the tenure of the next president, John Bascom.

Bascom became president of the university in 1874. One

of his first acts was to abolish the separate female college

however, limited enrollment in the regular college classes to only 41 students as late as 1865. In fact, in 1864 no commencement was even held, as all but one member of the senior class had joined the army. The years after the Civil War saw the idea of the state

and make the university truly coeducational. Bascom pushed for the establishment, by the legislature, of a system of public high schools (which, incredibly enough,

university take hold and flourish. At the University of

support of the university. Rapid expansion of science,

Wisconsin, enrollment—bolstered by leagues of returning soldiers—reached 300 students by 1870. The Morrill

agriculture, and engineering facilities occurred. Blending

Land Grant Act of 1862 had committed 240,000 addi-

had not existed), as well as for the first state millage tax

roles in academic and state affairs, he campaigned for laws to regulate sales of liquor and played a leading role

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN in the Prohibition Party. Intensely religious and an ardent supporter of human rights, he also gave popular lectures on workers’ rights and the regulation of industrial monopolies. Bascom’s administration saw the first practical tests of the lofty plan of the state university to benefit

the people—agricultural short courses and farmers’ institutes began being offered during his years in office. When Bascom left office in 1887 after 13 years, enrollment at the university had only increased by 200 students. But the concept of the state university had been defined and the quality of the service rendered to the student and the state had been tested. The next 15 years saw the university grow—enrollment increased from 500 to 3,000—and its intellectual and social life began to resem-

ble that of the university of today. Collegiate athletic teams in football, crew, and track and field were formed.

College journalism and oratory made their mark on the campus. Social activities such as concerts and balls were held. The concept of the state university was also further realized. The school of education was founded, with a

special appointee responsible for accreditation of state high schools. A school of commerce and a school of pharmacy were established. The school of economics, political science, and history was expanded. The first

departments in the nation in the disciplines of psychology and Scandinavian studies were established. A State Labo-

679

university faculty and the state government, led first by Governor La Follette (Van Hise’s former classmate), and

then by other progressives, led to a wave of progressive

legislation that captured national attention. Wisconsin was called “an experiment station” in politics, and a “state-wide laboratory.” Theodore Roosevelt himself wrote that “all through the Union we need to learn the Wisconsin lesson of scientific popular self-help.”

University faculty were performing research in this laboratory. Members of the university faculty helped government officials draft reform legislation and served on regulatory commissions. When a board of public affairs

was set up to watch over government operations, many faculty members served in that capacity as well. One writer observed: “Under the influence of university men, Wisconsin has become the recognized leader in progressive and practical legislation.” Faculty members Richard Ely and John Commons crusaded for labor rights and col-

lective bargaining. Progressive legislation passed during Van Hise’s tenure included worker safety and compensation laws (the first Workmen’s Compensation Act); regu-

lation of insurance, railroads, and utilities; conservation initiatives; and corporate income tax. Wisconsin, during

this period of time, also established the legislative reference bureau, the concepts of referendum and initiative,

ratory of Health was founded. Agricultural support was

and the direct primary, in an effort to decrease the power of the party bosses.

expanded, leading to two important achievements in the field of agriculture by University of Wisconsin faculty: the invention of the round silo and the development of the

In tandem with the Wisconsin idea of academic advice to government was the idea that the university should serve the state. The agricultural contributions of the uni-

Babcock butterfat test, which became the industry stan-

was Bascom’s teaching that originated what has come to be called the “Wisconsin idea” in education. But it was

versity continued to grow; during Van Hise’s rule the first U.S. departments of agricultural economics and experimental breeding were established. University researchers discovered vitamin A and vitamin B and demonstrated their importance in animal feed. Van Hise, hoping to take what worked with agriculture and apply it into every area of academic endeavor, established the UW Extension Service. College classes were offered in several satellite

under Van Hise that the “Wisconsin idea” became a living

locations, aiming, in the words of Van Hise, to make “the

doctrine that carried the traditional concept of the state university a level further. The “Wisconsin idea” embraced the idea of academic government leaders advising the administration, thus helping to reform the government. The central functon of the state university was the training of the electorate and the specialists who would offer their expertise to the government, thereby influencing the entire populace. In effect, the entire state was the campus. Van Hise once wrote: “I shall never rest content until the beneficient influences of the University are made available to every home in the state. ... A university supported by the state . . . for all its sons and daughters . . . can place no bounds upon the liens of its endeavor.” He

boundaries of the University the boundaries of the state.” The Progressive movement fell out of the spotlight

dard for measuring the quality of dairy milk. During this period (1892) the university’s first Ph.D. was awarded—to Charles Van Hise, who in 1904 became

the president of the university. Governor Robert La Follette (who studied under Bascom) later remarked that it

lost no time in taking steps to further realize the objective

of using the university to better the state. In his inaugural address he proposed appointing faculty members as state advisers. In the years that followed, close ties between

with

America’s

entrance

into

World

War

I, but the

reforms pioneered by university faculty, with the blessings of state government, were eventually adopted by much of the rest of the country, and in Wisconsin, the

practice of the Wisconsin idea continued. A physics research project led to the development of a three-element power vacuum tube capable of voice radio transmission; WHA, the nation’s oldest continuous radio station,

began broadcasting from a laboratory at UW and eventually became a statewide educational radio network. The nation’s first school of speech correction awarded the first Ph.D. in communicative disorders. The university opened Wisconsin General Hospital. An agricultural professor’s discoveries with ultraviolet light and vitamin D helped to wipe out infantile rickets. The newly formed Extension

680 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Service proved a boon when returning soldiers again swelled enrollment—the extension centers allowed the student body overflow to begin course work at home

which both the university and the state of Wisconsin have flourished, this blending of the interests of government

before transferring to the main campus.

and academia has at times been a tightrope that proved

The extension centers continued to prove useful throughout the Depression, allowing students who lacked

difficult to traverse. Student commitment to changing

While the Wisconsin idea has provided a climate in

social and government policy led to violence on campus

the money for room and board to take their first- and second-year classes at home. University agricultural researchers maintained their reputation, discovering that

resulted in injuries to some students and police;

a niacin supplement in the diet prevents pellegra and that iodine in salt prevents goiter.

killed one student and injured three others. However, the greatest test of the state

By the time the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, the Wisconsin idea was ingrained, and the university and the

United States entered the war together. Wisconsin physicists shipped the electrostatic generator they developed to Los Alamos for use in the development of the atomic

bomb. Then-president Dykstra himself served as the federal chairman of the draft and served on the National Defense Mediation board. The university enrolled almost 2,000 military troops in Navy radio school. University officials created an Emergency Invention Development Council; university resources were involved in enlistment

during the turbulent 1960s. A riot in the spring of 1966 a bomb

detonated at the Mathematics Research Center in 1970 university

occurred nearly a century earlier, in 1894, when many state institutions were seeking to define the limits of the state’s role in univesity affairs. A state official who was also a member of the university board of regents wrote a letter to the newspaper in which he accused Richard Ely— a UW professor and champion of social welfare—of stir-

ring up worker strikes, encouraging boycotts against nonunion

firms,

and teaching

socialistic

theories

in his

forces. The Extension Center system expanded again following the influx of postwar GIs.

classes. National public attention eventually forced a formal hearing, in which the regents exonerated Ely. The verdict in the Ely hearing and the proclamation of the regents acquitting him became important for the cause of academic freedom throughout the country; Ely later termed the proclamation “a beacon light in higher education in this country, not only for Wisconsin, but for all similar

The years since World War II have seen the university

institutions.” The words of that proclamation are now per-

grow into one of the nation’s largest and most respected

manently affixed to the front of Bascom Hall, and have been called the Magna Carta of the university. “Whatever may be the limitations which trammel inquiry elsewhere,

programs, in pilot training, in cooks’ and bakers’ schools, in war bond drives, and in free publications to the military

institutions of higher education. In 1971 the state legislature combined all the state colleges into one single University of Wisconsin, creating a huge public system

comprised of two large research university—the University of Wisconsin—-Madison Wisconsin—Milwaukee;

plus

and

the

University

of

11 other universities,

13

centers for first- and second-year students, and an extension system that reaches all 72 counties and over | million people. In the last few decades, the university has

consistently ranked among the top schools in the nation in measures of academic excellence. At the same time Wisconsin communities have relied on the university for help with taxation, traffic, pollution, school reform, law enforcement, social welfare, zoning problems, financial

planning, and dissemination of new agricultural methods and technology.

we believe that the great state University of Wisconsin should ever encourage that continual and fearless sifting and winnowing by which alone the truth can be found.” Further Reading: Merle Curti and Victor Carstensen’s The University of Wisconsin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1948) is a detailed, scholarly account of the history of

the university from its founding until 1946. Robert Guard’s University Madison—U.S.A. (Madison: Wisconsin House, 1970) offers vignettes of the university’s history from its inception through the turbulent period of the 1960s.

—Wendy Sowder Wippel

UPPSALA UNIVERSITY (Uppsala, Sweden) Location:

Not until the end of the century did the university reappear. In 1593 political and religious leaders meeting at Uppsala reestablished the university as a free Protestant institution, with three professors of theology and

In Uppsala, a city of 160,000, approximately 40 miles north of Stockholm.

Description:

_A state-supported institution with over 18,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs.

Information:

one each in astronomy, natural philosophy, mathematics,

and logic. The 70 students were given free accommodations; both students and faculty enjoyed special societal privileges, including relief from taxes and from being brought before a public criminal law court. (The often

— Information Office St. Olofsgatan 12, Uppsala Box 256, S-751 05 Uppsala Sweden 18 18 25 00

unruly students were instead hauled before the Univer-

sity Senate, which often punished infractions more severely than did public courts.) Professors were paid with fishing rights, grains, and so on. King Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus), who reigned from 1611 to 1632, saw the wisdom of having a place within Sweden to educate civil servants (“Swedish

Uppsala University in the Swedish city of the same name was founded in 1477. Although that date make Uppsala

men,” as the Constitution read until 1923) and teachers.

the first such educational institution in Scandinavia, it

university. Teachers received salaries. Gustav II Adol-

was certainly not the first in Europe. In fact, Uppsala University was created so that Swedish youth could be edu-

phus’s collection of books provided the nucleus for the

cated in their own country rather than heading for Paris,

Johan Skytte, as the university’s chancellor, thus strengthening ties between crown and academia. His generous

The king provided the financial backing for the reborn

university library. He appointed his old tutor, Baron

Prague, Bologna, or Leipzig. The university was not an instant success. It was opened in 1477 by the Catholic Church, which provided its financial support and its rai-

gift of 300 estates in 1624 formed the basis of an endowment that is still important to the university.

son d’étre; like many other such institutions of the Middle

Students in the seventeenth century were subject to

Ages, it was founded as a theological school for the train-

what

ing of clergy and civil servants. The early years remain

“cleansed” upon his arrival at Uppsala. In her history of

largely unknown lexcept for one fortunate circumstance. Textbooks were not used until the end of the nineteenth

Uppsala

today would University,

be called Karin

hazing:

Johannisson

each

one

describes

was the

ordeal:

century. Classes were taught in the early years as lectures (with material often read by the professors directly, and dryly, from their notes). Students took down the lecturer’s words and used the notes for study. Olaus Johannis Guthro, a student at the university from 1477 to 1486,

Clad in motley garments and with horns, donkey’s ears and boar’s tusks, [the student] was chased with

an axe before the public. There he was abused and manhandled with the ceremonial tools . . . tongs, saw

took notes all the time and collected them, along with

and plane, before the “depositor” put salt on his tongue, poured wine over his head and finally

notes from his fellow students and his teachers, in seven

declared him to be a “free” student. The rite itself,

volumes of notebooks that were returned to the university’s library in the seventeenth century. These notes reveal a course of study that was heavily Aristotelian, and

not to mention the subsequent penal year during which the wretch was forced to “fag” for an older student, degenerated quite early on and was forbid-

they show a view of the universe with the earth at its cen-

den in 1691.

ter. The dozen or so students did not pay tuition and were housed in church lodgings, probably without charge. A major problem arose for church-supported institu-

Another change that occurred in the seventeenth century

tions such as Uppsala in the form of the Protestant Reformation. As the Roman Catholic Church lost its

came in the faculty of medicine. Medicine has been an important area of interest at Uppsala almost as long as theology. The first physician joined the faculty in 1613, and the faculty of medicine was founded in 1620, although most Swedes still preferred to study medicine in other countries, especially Holland. One famous professor of

influence with the population and especially with the government, the university also lost its supporters. Sometime

around 1520, the school went into a state of

decline and became moribund. 681

682 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Uppsala University

medicine was Olof Rudbeck, who in the seventeenth century was a scholar of anatomy, botany, mechanics, music, and archaeology—all the while dabbling in university politics. Through dissecting hundreds of animals, Rudbeck demonstrated the lymphatic vessels and their function in anatomy—building upon William Harvey’s discovery of blood circulation. He also constructed an anatomical theater on the roof of the main building, the Gustavianum, with steep tiers of seats so that students could observe dissections. Unfortunately, it was particularly difficult at that time to obtain corpses for study, since only criminals, suicides, and illegitimate children could be dissected. Thus

the theater, which still exists today, was used only a few times for its intended purpose. Rudbeck also laid out a botanical garden for study and for the use of researchers seeking medicinal drugs and herbs. Predating Linnaeus by a century, Rudbeck oversaw

the carving of 7,000 wood printing blocks to make handpainted plates of botanical specimens. His life’s work,

however, was destroyed in a great fire that consumed much of the city of Uppsala in 1702. He then turned his attention to Gothic archaeology and spent much scientific energy and skill attempting to prove that the lost continent of Atlantis was really Sweden. His son, Olof Rud-

beck the Younger, succeeded him in the position of chair of medicine, but he had little interest in that discipline. He had spent much of his time exploring Lappland and documenting that northern region’s flora and fauna; his work

was

also destroyed

in the fire. Rudbeck

the

Younger’s Book of Birds is considered the beginning of scientific zoology in Sweden. Not surprisingly, with the varied interests of the major figures, the study of medicine proper faltered in the seventeenth century in Uppsala. Then the university hospi-

tal was founded by Lars Roberg in 1708. Roberg seems not to have been overly optimistic about support, since his request for funds included the purchase of only one bed and linen, plus food for only one patient. The hospi-

UPPSALA UNIVERSITY tal did not exceed his dreams; the university provided little support. In order to raise funds, Roberg was reduced to charging admission fees for those wishing to observe operations. He even rented part of the hospital as a tavern, but the scandal led to a wholesale defection by the

hospital staff, closing that commercial venture. Roberg did manage to publish the first anatomy textbook in Swedish rather than Latin. Some of the terminology was considered so “explicit” that the censors forced Roberg

to revise the text. The

hospital

closed

in the

1720s.

Luckily,

it was

reopened in time for the appointment of Carl von Linné as professor of medicine in 1740. Carl von Linné, or Linnaeus, is still the most famous professor associated with

Uppsala University. With his system of zoological and botanical classification of all living matter, he laid the

basis for the study of zoology, and he was the first to place humans in the hominid family of the apes, naming humans Homo sapiens. He also recognized sexuality in

plants as well as in animals; his master work Species Plantarum is still internationally recognized for its fundamental importance in the nomenclature of the plant world. Not only was Linnaeus a brilliant researcher, he

was also an unusually gifted teacher. Where others of his colleagues still presented dry lectures and read from their scripts, Linnaeus drew an audience of 200 to 300 (a third of the student body at that time) to his lively demonstra-

tions or his botanical rambles around Uppsala. Linnaeus’s followers traveled far and wide to carry on his work. One of his students, Carl Peter Thunberg, traveled to Java, to South Africa, and to Japan. He charted

Japan’s unknown plants in Flora Japonica; he also redesigned the botanical gardens near Uppsala Castle. Thunberg held the Linnean chair of natural history and

pharmacy from 1784 until his death at an advanced age in 1828. While Linnaeus and his followers were bringing a golden age to zoology and botany, the study of medicine at

Uppsala was again in decline. Professor Nils Rosen (von

683

Once more, disaster struck. It was the practice at that

time to fumigate mattresses by smoke-treating them over burning coal strewn with juniper bushes. Since the mat-

tresses were made of straw, it is not difficult to envision the result: an 1862 fire that burned the building to the ground and killed 30 patients. Rebuilt, literally from the ashes, the new hospital, opened in 1867, was the most modern in northern Europe. Later advances in medicine at Uppsala included: research into ophthalmics by Allvar Gullstrand, winner of the 1911 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine; another Nobel Prize awarded in 1914 to Robert Barany for work in otology performed primarily at Uppsala, although he

later moved to Vienna; the first appendectomy in Sweden, carried out by Karl Gustaf Lennander in 1889; an operation to remove a bullet from a patient’s brain by Thor Stenbeck in 1896, believed to be the first time a metal object was visualized via Roentgenphotography in the brain prior to surgery; and the research by pathologist Robin Fahraeus in the 1920s that added the normal values

of erythrocyte sedimentation (“‘sed rate”) to routine health examinations. While medicine has been the major source of renown for Uppsala University over the centuries, it is not its only

area of prestige. Anders Celsius, already a famous astronomer, received funding to support an astronomical observatory in Uppsala in the 1730s. There he studied the aurora borealis, the stars, and the constellations. Through

his experimentation he developed the temperature scale that bears his name, delineating 100 degrees between the freezing and boiling points of water. Another eighteenth-century physicist of renown was Samuel Klingenstierna, who gained fame for his theatrical and popular lecture style using Leyden jars, air pumps, and magic lanterns. Klingenstierna also helped improve the telescope. He had rejected Isaac Newton’s belief that a problem with the refraction of light was insoluble. Using geometric methods, he provided a solu-

able to renovate and reopen the hospital, although it never had more than a handful of beds. Demonstrations in anatomy, surgery, and obstetrics were carried out, although not

tion, which provided new sharpness in the study of heavenly bodies. A quartet of physicists (two father-and-son pairs) brought honor to Uppsala for over 100 years. Anders Jonas Angstrém, after whom a length of measurement

without controversy. (Abortion and impotence were con-

(one ten-millionth of a millimeter)

sidered shocking topics for study.) Rosen wrote a number of medical textbooks, including a classic on pediatrics that was translated into a number of languages. The teaching of medicine continued at Uppsala for the next century in surges and declines, including an eventually successful struggle to prevent the faculty moving to Stockholm. By the beginning of the nineteenth century the hospital was still struggling financially and had only a dozen or so beds. In 1831 the university received a state grant used partially to improve and run the hospital, which grew to 40 and then nearly 100 beds when the university and county hospitals were joined in the 1850s.

spectroscopic research in the new Physicum laboratories; his interest in this research was carried on by his son Knut. From Knut the baton was passed to Manne Siegbaum and eventually to Siegbaum’s son Kai; with increasingly sophisticated instruments and measurements, the structure of materials has been an important focus of research in Uppsala laboratories to the present day. The work brought Nobel Prizes in physics to Manne

Rosenstein), appointed in the same year as von Linné, was

was named, began

(1924) and Kai (1981) Siegbaum.

Scientific work at Uppsala was not always recognized at once for its brilliance. Consider the case of Svante August Arrhenius, whose research revolutionized electro-

684 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES chemistry but did not win him an associate professorship because his superiors did not understand his ideas. It took

the most important item is surely the Codex Argenteus, or the Silver Book. Taken from Prague as war booty in the

a visit from a brilliant and famous Riga chemist, Wilhelm

sixteenth century, the North Italian handwritten translation

Ostwald, to explain the importance of Arrhenius’s work.

of parts of the New Testament dates from about A.D. 500. If it seems that all of the famous alumni and faculty of Uppsala University have been men, there is an explana-

Arrhenius won a Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1903, by which time he had left Uppsala and had worked at Stockholm for many years.

Arrhenius’s groundbreaking work in physical chemistry was continued at Uppsala by Theodore “The” Svedberg, whose investigations in colloid chemistry have been of great importance in biochemistry and molecular biology. A professor from 1912 until World War II, he also developed a method of making synthetic rubber that

proved vital to the war effort. In 1926 he received the Nobel Prize for chemistry. His student Arne Tiselius developed techniques in electrophoresis and chromatography that also led to a Nobel Prize in chemistry (1948). Not all of the great minds at Uppsala belonged to physical scientists. Nathan Soderblom, humanist and theolo-

gian at Uppsala before World War I, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1930 for his efforts to bring different religious groups around the world into closer harmony. Those are some of the people of Uppsala. What of the buildings? The castle, built in the 1540s by King Gustav Vasa (the First), was badly damaged by fire and recon-

structed in the eighteenth century. Adjacent to the university, the castle is used as an official residence and for

limited scholarly pursuits. One of the famous who lived there was Dag Hammarskjold, whose father was governor of Uppsala County when the late United Nations Secre-

tion: for most of its history, women were not allowed to study or teach there. Not until 1872 was a woman admitted; and not until 1882 was a woman allowed to defend a doctoral thesis. Slowly, more and more women were

admitted, but at the turn of the century still fewer than 3 percent of the students were females. The problem was that once women received a degree, there wasn’t much they were allowed to do with it. Not until 1923 could they

legally teach at the university. Like many college campuses, Uppsala University has long been home to groups of socially conscious students. A century-old organization of liberals, Verdandi, was formed to offer opportunities for debate between disput-

ing factions. Actively supporting workers’ rights and adult education, Verdandi was soon known for its radicalism. Forming libraries, publishing scientific booklets for laymen, and promoting art exhibitions, Verdandi pioneered Swedish adult education. In response, the conservative students formed Heimdal; then the social-

democrats began the student society Laboremus. Antagonism among the groups often spilled over into the

national political arena until a calm descended in 1915. However, the politics of the outside world once again

The earliest classes were held in the Chapter House,

intruded on the university in the mid-1930s, when students became concerned that the growing number of Jewish refugees would compete with them for jobs. In 1939,

called Carolinska Academien, near the cathedral; it served

the Student Union took up the matter, in a meeting that

until demolished in the late eighteenth century. Meanwhile,

was the most heated in its history. Finally, a resolution

the Gustavianum, named after benefactor King Gustav II Adolph, was constructed in the 1620s and is still used

against granting permits to Jewish refugees was passed by an overwhelming majority, despite the opposition of

today, fittingly, for the departments of archaeology, ancient

both Verdandi and Laboremus. The result was embarrass-

history, and Egyptology, and their respective museums.

ment for the Student Union, since some of the press reported the vote as a victory for Nazi sympathizers. The Student Union responded by removing all Nazi sympathizers from any leading positions they held.

tary-General was a child.

The Skytteanum, donated by early chancellor Johan Skytte, was also constructed in the 1620s and has been

used continuously since that time for the teaching of or Linnean

With seven faculties (theology, medicine, arts, social

Hall, was built with greenhouses adjacent to Linnaeus’s restored botanical gardens. While other buildings were constructed over the next century, the most striking

sciences, science, law, and pharmacy), Uppsala University has today about 18,000 students in 150 departments. Slowly, over a period of centuries, the student population has shifted from primarily ruling class to the children of the middle and laboring classes. An unusual facet of the Uppsala life is the presence of “nations,” 13 organizations with their own buildings (including some living quarters), libraries, and social halls for special cultural and leisure events and festivities. Each student is required to belong to a nation, and many of them have connections to scholarships and exchange programs abroad. Uppsala University reaches out today to all corners of the globe, sharing knowledge and skills with the Third

political science.

In 1807

the Botanicum,

changes in the campus came in the 1970s when the stu-

dent body had burgeoned from less than 4,500 after the

end of World War II to nearly 20,000. The enormous Biomedical Center, the Teknikum for the department of engineering, and the Center for Humanities and Social Sciences were constructed at that time. The university library, begun with a donation of books and manuscripts from King Gustavus Adolphus in the early 1600s, consists of the main library, Carolina Rediviva, and many branch and departmental libraries. Although it contains many important archival materials,

UPPSALA UNIVERSITY World. Exchanges with students from England, Poland, the Czech Republic, Greece, and China have been con-

ducted, and American students reach Uppsala through programs with the University of Miami, the University of

Michigan, and California State University. With its roots planted firmly in the Middle Ages, Uppsala University today is branching toward the twenty-first

century.

Further Reading: Karin Johannisson’s A Life of Learning: Uppsala University during Five Centuries (Uppsala: Upp-

685

sala University Press, 1989) is a scholarly look at the university, illustrated with historic portraits and photographs. “Uppsala University—Younger than Ever After More than 500 Years” is a colorful booklet available from the univer-

sity. A beautifully illustrated biography of Carl von Linne is Wilfrid Blunt’s The Compleat Naturalist, A Life of Linnaeus (New York: Viking, 1971), with many references to

Uppsala University.

—Jeanne Munn Bracken

VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY (Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A.) Location:

Description:

jected university. Some suspect that there was a fair degree of pre-visit consultation between McTyeire and Mrs. Vanderbilt on how best to convince the Commodore of the worthiness of the project, but accounts are inconclusive. It

In Nashville, the capital of Tennessee.

_A private university, enrolling approximately 10,000 students in undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools.

Information:

was known, however, that Mrs. Vanderbilt would sing lovely Methodist hymns to the Commodore, who had

Dean of Undergraduate Admissions

never joined a church. He was indeed enchanted by the

Vanderbilt University 2305 West End Avenue

hymns and deemed the Methodist Church, especially the

southern branch, a worthy recipient of his largesse.

Nashville, TN 37203-1700 U.S.A. (615) 322-2561 Visiting:

Upon receiving the gift, the bishop commented, “A citizen of the North, Mr. Vanderbilt could have found there

ready acceptance of his gift and built up an institution

There are regularly scheduled orientations for prospective students and guides for informal

rivaling those which abound in that wealthier and more prosperous section of the country; but to the South he

visits. To make arrangements, call the Office of Undergraduate Admissions at (615) 322-2561.

much as pecuniary aid—a token of good will.”

looked, and extended to her people what they needed as Vanderbilt simply saw the endowment as an extension of his business practices, whereby he endeavored to unite disparate parts of a young nation. Indeed, a year before his death in 1877, he wrote to McTyeire the only recorded statement of his purpose for founding the university: “If

The destructive effects of the Civil War in the United

States left citizens in the north and south in search of stability and unity. One person who attempted to heal the sec-

[the university] shall, through its influence, contribute,

even in the smallest degree, to strengthening the ties which should exist between all geographical sections of

tional wounds was Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt. A self-made millionaire, who first built an empire in steamboat shipping and then another in railroads, he had the larg-

our common country, I shall feel that it has accomplished

one of the objects that led me to take an interest in it.” These words can be seen on the pedestal of Vanderbilt’s statue, erected on the campus by the citizens of Nashville.

est fortune in America in the 1870s. A man accustomed to uniting geographic areas through his transportation busi-

When Vanderbilt conferred his gift, he insisted upon

nesses, he did as much as anyone to bring together the east and west of the newly forming country. In 1873, he wished to help bridge the gap between north and south. Vanderbilt gave 1 million to Methodist Bishop Holland

five conditions. Two of them were crucial to the longterm character of the institution. He insisted that McTyeire run the university as the Commodore himself would run the New York Central Railroad—as an author-

McTyeire to found a university in Nashville, Tennessee. McTyeire was the leader of a movement within the Meth-

itarian, no-nonsense businessman. Since the bishop did

odist Episcopal Church, South, to establish an institution of

not quite have the heart to abandon his ecclesiastical

learning of the highest order. The impetus for such a

responsibilities to take up this task, a compromise was

project went as far back as the 1840s, but the church was stymied first by lack of funds and then by the Civil War.

reached.

The

endowment

of the university

was

McTyeire

would

receive

$3,000 and live on

campus in a house constructed for him, and he would assume the very heavy responsibility of exercising veto power over the actions of the self-governing board of trust. Vanderbilt’s second critical condition was that the university be located in or near Nashville. Vanderbilt had been scrutinizing his railroad maps and observed that the city was a strategic center with ease of access for the whole region. Memphis and Knoxville had offered sites

Cornelius

Vanderbilt’s only major philanthropy. He was influenced to perform this act of generosity by his young second wife, who was from Mobile, Alabama, and was a cousin

of Mrs. Holland McTyeire. She knew that her husband wanted to leave a memorial, and she was also aware that

in 1872 a charter for “Central University” issued in Nashville to petitioners representing nine Methodist confer-

and even monetary incentives, but when Vanderbilt heard

ences failed for lack of financial resources. In 1873, McTyeire went to New York for medical treatment and stayed with the Vanderbilts. During the course of

that the church had located its publishing house in Nash-

that visit, he secured the Commodore’s support for the pro-

pus, in what was then a city of 40,000 people. He pur-

ville, his mind was made up.

Bishop McTyeire set out to choose a site for the cam-

686

VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY chased some land about two miles from downtown, and

he received other parcels as gifts; the total tract included about 75 acres. He described the site to Commodore Vanderbilt as “west of the city, beautiful for situation,

687

few years, the original academic and biblical faculties warred with the bishop over several issues, including fac-

easy of approach, and of the same elevation as Capital

ulty salaries. By the end of the decade, many full-time faculty had left the institution, leaving McTyeire and Garland the task of once again constructing a staff. The uni-

Hill, which is in full view.” The first structures to go up

versity also had difficulty attracting qualified students,

on the site were a main building in a Victorian Gothic

and those who came chafed at the restrictions placed

style (called “Old Main”), an astronomical observatory, and houses for professors.

upon them by McTyeire and the stern church elders on the board of trust. There were complaints about the lack

McTyeire then looked to Landon C. Garland, a distin-

of school spirit, the inconveniences of living at off-cam-

guished educator and prominent Methodist layman, for help in the selection of faculty, the arrangement of curric-

pus boarding houses, and the lack of amenities. At the time of Vanderbilt’s death in 1877, he believed

ulum, and the setting of policies. Garland consulted with

that his goal of geographical unity was being achieved.

old friends from academia, colleagues such as the presi-

He surely could not anticipate that internal dissensions

dents of Harvard University and Columbia University, to

caused the university to all but begin anew in 1887. The academic program was reorganized and admissions policies were changed to allow acceptance only for those who were prepared for authentic college-level work. Garland’s

design an academic blueprint. He was determined that the university, rising out of the ashes of a ruined South, would rival any of the fine universities in the North. Gar-

land, whose primary interests lay in science, was convinced that his aims could be achieved by acquiring the best and most current scientific equipment and by engaging an outstanding faculty. This belief, coupled with Garland’s relentless search for the best laboratory equipment money could buy, resulted in Vanderbilt’s having the best

scientific apparatus in the United States for the first 20 years of the university’s existence. Garland also wanted

to stimulate large donations from the Methodist Church to supplement the start-up money from Commodore Vanderbilt. He worked tirelessly to construct a program

that would satisfy his high educational standards, the proprieties of the church, and the wish for sectional concilia-

tion mandated by Vanderbilt. Garland and McTyeire decided that the university would be organized into four departments: philosophy,

beloved model of separate schools was repudiated and the standard class system with courses fitted to class levels was adopted. Graduate programs were established for classical and scientific degrees. When

Bishop McTyeire died in 1889, Garland, who

had always been in second place, took over the presidency of Vanderbilt at the age of 79. He launched a campaign to diminish the powers that McTyeire had held, including the president’s right of veto about which Commodore Vanderbilt had felt so strongly that he had made it a condition of his financial gift. However, when the board elected a new president, Bishop Hargrove, for a life

tenure, it retained the power of the presidential veto. By 1892, Vanderbilt’s governance was brought into line with many other universities, by eliminating the role of president (initially created for McTyeire) and making the

science, and literature; biblical; law; and medical. Gar-

chancellor the chief executive officer. This act, in one

land preferred the system of separate schools similar to

sense, repudiated the Commodore’s desire for the president to be analogous to a chief executive officer and for the chancellor to be in an academic policy-making role. In 1893, the board of trust elected a chancellor who was to combine these functions and become the most influential person in Vanderbilt’s history, James Hampton Kirkland. Kirkland found a thriving academic environment. Vanderbilt’s Academic Department, bolstered by young faculty with the Ph.D. from German universities, ranked

that at the University of Virginia, so that each degree program within the four departments was organized under a different school. The faculty Garland and McTyeire assembled was distinguished: five had been college presidents. The 1872 charter was amended in 1873 to make the legal name of the corporation, The Vanderbilt University, and in October 1875, Bishop McTyeire presided over the dedication ceremonies of the new university. The students, all of them middle-class young men

just below those of Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and the Uni-

Main” in the fall of 1875. There was one exception, how-

versity of Michigan in faculty strength. In 1890, the United States Commissioner of Education listed the uni-

ever, to the male-only admission requirement: Kate Lup-

versity as among 12 “which, together with certain of the

ton, daughter of a faculty member, attended classes that

state universities, approach more nearly the idea of true

very first year and even managed to acquire a degree in 1879. Other women attended classes intermittently until

universities than any other institutions in the country.”

from Southern Methodist families, streamed into “Old

1895 when the university opened its doors to full-time matriculation of women, a minor miracle in those times

for an institution located in the south. The first decade was rocky. Following Vanderbilt’s

wishes, McTyeire ruled with an iron hand. Within the first

Vanderbilt’s son, William Henry and his grandsons, Cornelius II and William Kissam Vanderbilt, continued to provide funds which supported the construction of new theology, engineering, and science buildings as well as new dormitories. In 1901, Phi Beta Kappa chartered a chapter at Vanderbilt.

688 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Garland died in 1895, leaving a university growing in scope and depth. Unfortunately, things began to decline rather rapidly toward the end of the century. A wholesale flight of faculty resulted from the meager wages that the board of trust refused to increase. The caliber of graduate

students was falling and fewer came from northern schools, thus disappointing those who shared Commodore Vanderbilt’s dream that the university would bring together students from different sections of the country. The university was also in debt, which meant that Kirk-

land was struggling with budgets, leaving little time or energy for the task of consolidating the professional schools (law, medicine, dentistry, engineering, and pharmacy), which were mostly in proprietary arrangements with the university. For example, in relation to law and

ville. The celebration reportedly outclassed that following any great football victory. And in educational circles the decision was generally hailed as a victory for higher education and even for academic freedom.” The decision heralded an era of growth in the university’s physical plant, but it would soon have to confront the issues of women’s roles in the university and the

admission of black students. Women had been part of campus life since the beginning, but they really began to play a role around the time of World War I. Enrolled in increasing numbers, women were exerting more and more influence in campus life. They began to enter the professional schools in larger numbers, formed social clubs, served as teaching fellows, and even began to be hired as full-time faculty. These accomplishments were

both educationally and financially, for the two schools;

hard won and included facing a series of measures aimed at discouraging their participation in campus life, some of

the Vanderbilt Board of Trust did little more than sanction

them instituted by Kirkland, who saw Vanderbilt as an

the arrangements. But the new chancellor rallied and in 1901 began to

institution for men with women only as “guests.” None-

pull all the professional schools under his and the board’s

dent body and maintained averages in the university.

medicine, local physicians and lawyers were responsible,

effective management. He explored affiliating the George

Peabody Normal School with Vanderbilt, using the teacher’s college at Columbia University as a model. His vision of a firm affiliation with the Peabody School was

not to be realized until some 75 years later.

theless by 1929, women comprised 25 percent of the stu-

the

highest

grade-point

There were no black students at Vanderbilt early in the century, but by the end of the 1920s there was a nucleus of faculty members committed to equal rights for blacks, still a very radical position in the south. Interracial forums

Only a few years later, however, tragedy struck as, on April 20, 1905, the campus’s original building, “Old Main,” was gutted in a fire; the casualties included the outstanding chemistry and physics laboratories and the

were held, attracting the ire of many Vanderbilt students

graduate library. The next day William Kissam Vanderbilt donated $150,000, and alumni and the citizens of Nashville donated funds, toward the reconstruction. The Victo-

1953 but under stringent rules and only in isolated cases. The turning point came with the famous Lawson case, which turned the Vanderbilt campus upside down and ulti-

rian

mately opened the door to full desegregation.

Gothic

gave

way

to

an

Italianate

style;

the

and faculty. White resistance to black applicants, especially from alumni, persisted throughout the civil rights era. Black students, however, were admitted beginning in

John Law-

fourteenth-century town hall of Siena, Italy, was used as a

son, a black divinity school student during the 1958-59

model for the new structure, to be called Kirkland Hall.

term, was involved in efforts to peacefully desegregate local Nashville lunch counters. When he refused to terminate his activities upon threats from the city’s mayor, then Chancellor Branscomb was pressured to remove Lawson from the university. The divinity school faculty and dean threatened to resign if the chancellor submitted to the

Vanderbilt faced its most difficult period during the early 1900s, when it confronted and ultimately surmounted a crisis in its identity. The university had been carrying out Commodore Vanderbilt’s desires for an open

institution that would serve to unite geographical areas. The student body was comprised of men and women of different religious denominations from all parts of the country. The bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church,

South, however, felt that the relatively open admissions policy had fostered an institution that had strayed too far

from its Christian origins. They were insisting on tighter control of the decisions of the board, a direction which the liberal faculty and student body would not tolerate. In

1914, after years of controversy, which culminated in a lawsuit that went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court,

Vanderbilt University severed its ties with the Methodist Church. Historian P.K. Conkin summarized the reactions to the decision: “Church newspapers lamented a total defeat . . . but the campus was delirious. Kirkland led a march of a reported 1,000 students in downtown Nash-

mayor’s pressure.

A compromise was finally worked out,

allowing Lawson to receive a degree and reinstating the divinity school staff. Within two years, Vanderbilt was

open to full participation by black students. The Vanderbilt family was still offering its help to the university. In fact, Harold Vanderbilt, three generations removed from the Commodore, had helped hammer out the agreement that settled the Lawson case. As president of the board of trust beginning in 1954, he was the first family member to take an official position with the school. After 1955, Harold Vanderbilt became the pri-

mary source of outside income for Vanderbilt. In the 1950s, Vanderbilt, emerging as a major univer-

sity, was outgrowing its provincial roots and even merging with other institutions. Oberlin’s Graduate School of

VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY Theology moved to Vanderbilt Divinity School; George Peabody School for Teachers was officially made part of the university; and the Blair School of Music joined in the early 1980s. Additional distinction was added to Vanderbilt when one faculty member and one alumnus were made Nobel Laureates—Professor Earl W. Sutherland Jr. for physiology or medicine in 1971, and alumnus Stanford Moore, who shared the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1972.

Another alumnus, Robert Penn Warren, was awarded three Pulitzer Prizes. As the years have passed, the university has continued to fulfill Commodore Vanderbilt’s original dictum to heal sectional divisiveness by bringing together students from all parts of the country to study together. In the last year of Chancellor Alexander Heard’s tenure (1963-82), students came from 50 states and 73 foreign countries. The

689

filled the founders’ hope and expectation that it become a major southern university.

Further Reading: Vanderbilt University’s The Inauguration of Oliver C. Carmichael and a Symposium on Higher Education in the South (Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt

University, 1938) provides insightful essays by academics

on the place of Vanderbilt’s programs in the present and the future. Robert A. McGraw’s The Vanderbilt Campus: A Pictorial History (Knoxville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University Press, 1978) contains archival photos of buildings and students from the university’s founding to 1974. Mark Royden Winchell edits a series of essays commemorating

the English department at Vanderbilt, which fostered a tradition of gifted writers (The Vanderbilt Tradition: Essays in

Honor of Thomas Daniel Young [Baton Rouge: Louisiana

women and 16.2 percent members of underrepresented

State University Press, 1991]). The most extensive account of Vanderbilt is found in P.K. Conkin’s Gone with the Ivy: A Biography of Vanderbilt University (Knoxville: The Uni-

racial groups. Given its geography, its sectarian conflicts, and the expected sturm und drang of beginning and maintaining any institution, Vanderbilt University has more than ful-

—Marcia Horowitz

1994-95 freshman class was comprised of 47.4 percent

versity of Tennessee Press, 1985).

VASSAR COLLEGE (Poughkeepsie, New York, U.S.A.) Location:

two men decided a better alternative would be to “endow a college for young women which should be to them what

The college sits two miles outside of the small city of Poughkeepsie along the Hudson River, 75 miles north of New York City.

Description:

Yale and Harvard are to young men.”

The chosen site was a former racetrack and fair-

—_A coeducational college of 2,250 students

grounds stretching along the Hudson River two miles east of the city of Poughkeepsie. On February 26, 1861, Vas-

offering the B.A. and M.A. in liberal arts. Information:

sar transferred $408,000 to the board of trustees. Plans

Director of Admissions

were being made for the construction of the campus when the guns fired on Fort Sumter and the Civil War began.

Vassar College Poughkeepsie, NY 12601

Amid the chaotic economy created by the war, ground was broken for the main building on June 3, 1861. At the

U.S.A. (914) 437-7300

Visiting:

ceremony the 69-year-old Matthew Vassar raised the first shovel of soil.

Student led tours are available year round. Call

Jewett, who was the college’s first president, was not present at the ceremonies. He was busy visiting other col-

the number above for schedule.

leges to gain ideas for designing the curriculum. That year Jewett visited his alma mater Dartmouth, Amherst College, Brown University, Yale University, and the women’s college Mount Holyoke. Jewett continued his curriculum research by touring the colleges, museums,

Born in England in 1792, Matthew Vassar and his family immigrated to upstate New York in 1796. Finding the local ales there inferior, they decided to import barley

and libraries of England and Europe in 1862. Vassar was

corn from England and open a brewery. The business was

left at home with the difficulties of building a college dur-

successful, but after the brewery was destroyed by fire in

ing the financial turmoil of war. Slowly, differences of

1811, Matthew Vassar opened his own brewery. He later

opinion began to develop between the two men. The first was the question of secularization. Vassar wanted the col-

diversified his holdings into the whaling industry and

With no heirs and with a great fortune, Vassar decided to

lege to be private and nondenominational, but Jewett was determined that it should have a Baptist affiliation. Another difficulty arose in 1863 when Jewett began to

leave a memorial named for himself. During a trip to London in 1845, Vassar and his wife visited the new Guy

push for an early opening of the school. Vassar, in turn, felt the school was not ready for students.

Vassar Hospital, named for a relative in England who had funded it. Matthew Vassar then determined that his own memorial would also be a hospital. In 1854 Vassar had a historical meeting with educator

Jewett was an educator who lacked an understanding

became part owner of a whaling fleet. In 1813, he married Catherine Valentine; the marriage produced no children.

of the building industry and the problems Vassar was facing. He became suspicious and angry. Making a fatal mistake he wrote a nasty letter about Vassar to one of the

board members with five copies going to other individu-

Milo P. Jewett. Born in Vermont in 1808, Jewett had studied at Dartmouth College and Andover Theological Seminary, then taught at Marietta College in Ohio. In 1839 he in Marion, Alabama. Due to his antislavery sentiments

als. Either on purpose or by mistake one copy fell into Vassar’s hands. In it Jewett called the founder “fickle and childish,” a man who is postponing the opening of the college to “amuse himself” with his “play thing.” Jewett

Jewett was forced to leave the south in the 1850s. Vassar’s

wrote of “plots and counterplots” against himself for the

niece, Lydia Booth, who ran the Cottage Hill Seminary for Women in Poughkeepsie, died, and Jewett purchased the school. This brought together Vassar and Jewett, a relationship which led to the development of what has become one of the major colleges in the United States. Jewett believed that “a rich man should use his property for the glory of God.” When Vassar spoke of his plans to build a hospital Jewett’s response was “great hospitals are

“nasty love of money.” Vassar sent Jewett a copy of the damaging letter and closed with his remarks, “You can no longer be useful in your position. The only alternative for me is to ask for your resignation in proper hands without

founded a school for women, the Judson Female Institute,

delay. Whatever further communication there may be between us, they must be in writing.” Jewett wrote his letter of resignation on April 16, 1864. At a special meeting on April 29 of the board of trustees it was accepted. Jewett was succeeded by John H. Raymond as president of the college. Formerly president of Brooklyn Collegiate

for great cities” and advised Vassar he would make “better use of his money if he threw it in the Hudson River.” The 690

VASSAR COLLEGE

Vassar College

691

692 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

April 1864 at a salary of $4,000 per year. In June, with the completion of the observatory, the

and contented to walk over the buildings and nod at all the girls.” However, since the opening of the college, Vassar’s health had been declining. Now in his 70s, the founder had

college building was structurally complete, but the plumbing and furnishings were not yet finished. The

suffered several minor strokes. By April 1868 he had great difficulty walking or getting in and out of a carriage. He

library collection had been started, consisting largely of books purchased by Jewett in London in 1862. Vassar began the Vassar College Art Gallery with the purchase of over 400 oils and watercolors by European and Ameri-

decided to retire from the board of trustees that June. The board opened its meeting at 11:00 A.M. on June 23, the

can artists from board member Reverend Elias Lyman

Magoon for the price of $20,000. Given a free hand with the curriculum, Raymond opted for a strong liberal arts college for women. The new

annual address from his chair. As he neared the completion of his speech, the board members saw the notes fall from his hand and the founder slump over in his chair. He died at 11:50 A.M. by the Vassar clock. In his will, Vassar left

president outlined three major points regarding the col-

much of his estate to the college. He allotted $100,000 for

lege. First, the school would mirror family life or domes-

structural repairs, $50,000 for financial aid to promising

ticity, especially since the women

students, $50,000 to the lecture fund, and another $50,000

and Polytechnic Institute, Raymond came to Vassar in

institution.

Second,

the curriculum

would board at the was

to be entirely

devoted to the liberal arts, reflecting a college, not a ladies seminary or trade school for bookkeepers. And

morning of Vassar’s second commencement ceremonies. Matthew

Vassar, too weak to stand, asked to read his

to the development of the library and art gallery.

third, it would maintain high educational standards and not be a cheap imitation of a men’s college. He also did

Other women’s institutions of higher learning concentrated on seminary teaching or prepared women for clerical employment. The Vassar College curriculum presented the women with a rigorous course of study

away with Jewett’s idea of a free college since the high

aimed at elevating the mind. In addition to the required

standards of the college would have to depend on paying students. The board of trustees overwhelmingly approved of President Raymond’s plan and voted to open the col-

study of English, students took eight semesters of Latin or Greek and four semesters of a modern language. Students had to complete courses in mathematics, physics,

lege in September 1865. Tuition was set at $350 per year with an additional $50

astronomy, and natural history. Drawing, painting, music theory, and choral singing completed the education that

for music and another $50 for art. Nine professors were

led to the A.B. degree. Postgraduate studies were offered

appointed, plus instructors. Vassar advanced $25,000 for the first year of operation. The original name of the

which led to the A.M. degree. This degree required two years of additional study plus an accepted dissertation.

school was Vassar Female College. Vassar’s close friend

In 1878 President Raymond died, and Vassar College

Sarah

J. Hale,

the editor of Godey’s

Lady’s Book,

appointed a Baptist minister, formerly a professor at

objected to this name. Hale and Vassar had corresponded

Newton Theological Seminary in Newton, Massachu-

frequently over the years regarding the school. At her urging the word “female” was dropped from the name of

setts, Samuel Caldwell, who became Vassar’s third presi-

the college in 1867, and the name became simply Vassar

Yamakama,

College. The school colors were rose and gray which symbolized the dawn of women’s education. The gray represented the intellectual life of women and the rose was the sunlight which was breaking through. On September 26, 1865, the college officially opened

expense of the Japanese government, Yamakama, class of

from an American college. Caldwell was not a strong president. Vassar College found itself far behind in the competition with new

with 353 students. Hannah W. Lyman of Montreal, Can-

women’s colleges, such as Smith and Wellesley, both of

ada, who was appointed principal, received an annual sal-

ary of $1,500 plus room and board. Male teachers received a salary of $2,500 a year but had to rent apart-

which opened in 1875. Neither of those colleges felt it necessary to have a preparatory department, as Vassar did. Possibly they were attracting students who were bet-

ments in the main building. Maria Mitchell, the astron-

ter prepared for college. Women also had opportunities at

omy teacher, was paid a mere $800 per year and provided with room and board for herself and her father in the observatory. The inequity of the salaries was obvious, and in 1871 Mitchell won the fight for equal pay for both male and female professors. Mitchell later became the first woman to become a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vassar was seen frequently walking about the grounds of the college. One student described the founder thus: “His face is a perfect sunbeam, he seems entirely happy

coeducational

dent.

That

same

year

a

young

woman,

enrolled as a freshman.

Stematz

Studying at the

1882, became the first Asian woman to receive a degree

schools,

as Cornell

University,

Oberlin

College, and Antioch College had opened their doors to women. Even the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was admitting women to the study of science and technology. Enrollment at Vassar dropped from 415 students in

1871 to 300 in 1883. The alumnae, concerned about the state of their alma mater, blamed the president. A famous

visitor concurred in the negative view of Caldwell. In May 1885 Mark Twain visited Vassar and read two stories in honor of Founder’s Day. Unhappy with the treat-

VASSAR COLLEGE ment

he

received,

Twain

refused

dinner

afterward,

referring to Caldwell as “a sour old saint.” Due to the complaints from alumnae, the board of trustees terminated Caldwell’s appointment in 1885. The next year James Monroe Taylor, a Baptist minister from

693

In 1909 suffragist and Vassar senior Inez Milholland arranged a debate on the issue of suffrage in a college lecture hall. Although Taylor had approved of the debate, he

was outraged to learn, after returning from an out-of-

first gymnasium in a woman’s college was built. In 1891 and 1892 the first faculty houses were built on Raymond

town trip, that faculty members had participated. After he disciplined them at a meeting, the faculty argued that Taylor was infringing on their right to free speech. The controversy culminated in a 1912 resolution drawn up by 13 faculty members attacking Taylor for his efforts to keep faculty out of decisions regarding campus life. Taylor, then 65, responded by announcing his plans to retire. During the six-month search for a new president, faculty had opportunities for open discussion about the policies of the college. They were reorganized under a new

Avenue. In 1893 an ugly addition was made to the main building. Called Thompson Annex, it was better known

committee system and their right to a role in determining educational policies was recognized. Faculty were not the

as “Uncle Fred’s Nose” in “honor” of trustee Frederick Ferris Thompson, who endowed it. That same year, John

only ones to benefit during this interim. Students became

D. Rockefeller donated $35,000 for Strong Hall, the college’s first dormitory. It was named for his daughter,

curriculum to the abolition of required daily chapel. For

Bessie Rockefeller Strong, who attended Vassar College

past students were denied knowledge

from 1886 to 1888. Rockefeller, then a trustee, paid for

unless they were in serious academic difficulty. Another

the construction of a classroom building and in 1902 donated $100,000 in memory of his mother to build Eliza

first during this period was a formal graduation ceremony. At the behest of the students, graduates at the 1914

Davison House.

commencement wore cap and gown.

Providence, Rhode Island, became Vassar’s fourth presi-

dent. His first order of the day was to rework the curriculum. He opened up more electives during the sophomore year and made the junior and senior years entirely elective. In 1887 the all-male board of trustees elected three

women from the alumnae association to sit on the board. Taylor revived construction on the campus. In 1889 the

Under Taylor’s administration the college raised the level of curriculum, improved its facilities, enlarged the library, and refined its faculty. In many ways Taylor brought the college into the twentieth century, except on one issue. Taylor did not support women’s suffrage.

Although he supported the education of women, he did not approve of their political activity. While in public, Taylor called himself neutral on the issue of women’s suffrage, he

made his anti-suffrage sentiments clear in private words and later in public acts. In her biography of Henry MacCracken,

Elizabeth

Daniels

describes

Taylor’s

1907

exchange with Bryn Mawr president, M. Carey Thomas:

He admitted that he was against any extension of suffrage for men or women. His letter to Thomas was a response to one from her asking if Jane Addams, head of Hull House in Chicago, might come and speak at Vassar on the working woman’s

need of the ballot. [Note: As early as 1866 feminist

active in self-government, discussing issues ranging from the first time, students were able to see their grades; in the of their grades

Henry Noble MacCracken, a Chaucerian scholar with

a Ph.D. from Harvard and the first president who was neither a Baptist nor a minister, was inaugurated as Vassar’s fifth president on October 13, 1915. A play, The Pageant

of Athena, was presented on the occasion. It had been written by a junior, Edna St. Vincent Millay, who was to become a protégé of MacCracken, without whose intervention she would not have been graduated from Vassar. Arriving at Vassar at the age of 23, Millay found herself in trouble with teachers and with academic routine. MacCracken, however, recognized her talents and encouraged her creativity. After disobeying an order that she was not to leave the campus—as a punishment for missing two days of school to see Enrico Caruso perform—she was caught, and the faculty voted to expel her. MacCracken overruled the decision, and Millay was graduated with

her class in 1917. MacCracken later said that this occasion was the single time in his presidency that he had

Caroline Wells Healy Dall had lectured at Vassar on the subject of women’s rights.] He declined, saying that such a speech would be “propaganda” rather

overridden a faculty decision. MacCracken remained at the college for 31 years. He saw Vassar through Prohibition, the Depression, and two world wars. During his administration 11 new buildings

than education, and that he could not agree to any

were constructed, 170,000 new books were added to the

propaganda on the campus “in regard to socialist

library, and the endowment was increased to $12 million. When he retired in 1946 the new president, Sarah Gibson Blanding, became the first woman president of Vassar. During her administration the first male students

matters . . . questionable forms of missionary effort,

and extreme temperance agitators, as well as regarding this question of suffrage.”

studied at Vassar. Although not officially coeducational, Despite Thomas’s protestations that Addams had been invited to Mount Holyoke, Radcliffe, Smith, and Welles-

the college opened its doors to returning World War II veterans. In 1969 Vassar would become the first of the

ley, Taylor would not relent.

Seven Sister colleges to admit men.

694 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Vassar College claims many famous alumnae. Edna St. Vincent Millay was the first woman to win the Pulitzer Prize. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis attended Vassar as did Academy Award-winners Jane Fonda and

Meryl Streep. The first Vassar alumna to become a Rear Admiral in the U.S. Navy was Grace M. Hopper, who was coinventor of the COBOL computer language. Rick

commencement ceremony of the Daisy Chain—sophomore women in white dresses bearing ropes of daisies ahead of graduating seniors—is now mixed with sophomore men in blazers and white slacks. Today the school is racially and economically mixed, with 20 percent of students representing minority groups,

Lazio, class of 1980, became a New York congressman.

and 60 percent of the students receiving financial aid. No longer a wealthy girls’ college, Vassar has students from

Writers and poets who went to Vassar include Elizabeth

diverse backgrounds, representing every corner of the

Bishop,

United States and 30 other countries. Over 90 percent of the students accepted are from the top quarter of their high school class, and 80 percent of Vassar graduates received advanced degrees five years after graduation.

Muriel

Rukeyser,

Eleanor

Clark,

and Lucille

Fletcher.

Vassar College became the subject of a best-selling novel and a major motion picture. In 1963 Mary McCarthy, class of 1933, published the book The Group. Banned in several countries for its sexual explicitness, the novel fol-

lows the lives of eight Vassar women from their graduation

Further Reading: James Monroe

in 1933 to the beginning of World War II. Following the careers, loves, and political activism of a college clique, the book outraged some of McCarthy’s classmates. McCarthy neglected to change some first names, and certain character attributes were so obvious to classmates that the author was

president, provides and Milo Jewett as Opened (Freeport, This same period, ner’s Vassar: The

threatened with legal action. The book remained on the bestseller list for two years, was made into a movie in

1966, and has sold over 5 million copies.

The Vassar College of today is no longer the Vassar of Mary McCarthy’s day. Maids, waitresses, and dining

Taylor, Vassar’s fourth

an excellent history of Matthew Vassar they planned the college in Before Vassar New York: Books for Libraries, 1972). 1845-65, is also covered in Edward LinRemarkable Growth of a Man and His

College 1855-1865 (Poughkeepsie, New York: Vassar College, 1984). A chronology of Plum, called The Magnificent Vassar College (Poughkeepsie, 1961), covers the origins of the

Vassar College by Dorothy Enterprise: A Chronicle of New York: Vassar College, college up to 1961.

rooms have been replaced by the All College Dining Cen-

ter where food is served cafeteria style. The century-old

—Patrice Kane

VISVA-BHARATI UNIVERSITY (Santiniketan, West Bengal, India) Location:

Tagore family of Calcutta, Rabindranath had a great advantage over other creative artists—family support

Visva-Bharati University at Santiniketan is part of Bolpur town in the state of West Bengal. One hundred sixty kilometers from Calcutta, it is located in Birbhum district which is a rural part of the state.

Description:

and encouragement. His grandfather, Dwarkanath Tagore was a highly successful businessman and he also supported the Brahmo Samaj, the early nineteenth-cen-

tury Hindu reform movement in Bengal. Rabindranath’s

A largely residential university, Visva-Bharati

father, Debendranath

has two campuses, at Sriniketan and Santiniketan. It is also a central university,

contributions to cultural activity in Calcutta. A leading activist in the Brahmo Samaj, he was also an outspoken advocate of education as a vehicle to social reform. As

receiving funds from the federal government. It

has 13 departments or institutes of study, the

part of his religious activities, Debendranath founded a meditation center at Santiniketan in 1863. It was here that Rabindranath began the open-air school called the Brahmo Vidyalaya in 1901.

best-known ones being the Institute of Fine Arts (Kala Bhavan) and the Institute of Music

and Performing Arts (Sangit Bhavan). VisvaBharati also has a large collection of

manuscripts in various languages, including Tibetan and Persian.

Information:

Rabindranath’s poetic genius surfaced early in his sup-

portive family environment. He had already produced quantities of verse, before his family sent him to England

— Visva-Bharati University

in the late 1870s for education. Tagore disliked the highly

P.O. Santiniketan Distt. Birbhum

(and to his mind, narrowly) structured format of British

education and returned home. In 1882, his collection of verses, Sandhya-Sangeeta, earned critical praise and announced the arrival of a new talent on the Bengali liter-

West Bengal 731 235

India (03463) 52751-6

Visiting:

Tagore continued Dwarkanath’s

ary scene.

In 1891, Rabindranath’s

father handed over

charge of the family estates in East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) to him. Tagore’s creativity blossomed in the

Write to the Office of the Registrar or to the Public Relations Officer at the address mentioned above for further information.

lush green countryside of Shilaidah and Shazadpur. His houseboat Padma

Visva-Bharati is closed on Wednesdays.

(named after the grand river of the

region) allowed him to travel extensively in both business and creative journeys. In this period, Tagore produced many short stories that drew on the Bengali countryside for themes and images. His famous collection of poems, The sight of schoolchildren attending classes in the out-

Sonar Tari (The Golden Boat; 1894) and the play Chi-

doors, under the shade of trees is the first clue that

trangada (1892) also date from this period. At the Tagore

Visva-Bharati is not the average, conventional university.

estate in Shilaidah, Tagore ensured that his children were

Although the buildings and infrastructure reflect the financial shortages common to all Indian universities,

spared the stifling influence of the prevailing education

and though the curriculum has gradually been conventionalized over the years, the university still differs in many respects from its peers elsewhere. Visva-Bharati grew out of a school that the Indian poet and Nobel lau-

dren

reate, Rabindranath Tagore, established at Santiniketan

that for education to be effective, the medium of instruc-

in 1901. Based on the ancient Indian tradition of educa-

tion should be the native language of the students.

system. He arranged for live-in tutors to teach his chilEnglish,

mathematics,

and

science.

He

himself

instructed them in Bengali and the Indian classics. In 1892, he made his criticism of the education system public in an article in the magazine, Sadhana. He also stated

Once Tagore decided to translate his views on educa-

tion, the school was Tagore’s experiment in reviving an old educational tradition that stressed simple living, creativity and self-expression rather than rote learning and dull lessons. In its time, the school was a unique departure from the stultifying education that Indian children received elsewhere. Rabindranath Tagore’s influence is pervasive in Visva-Bharati University. Born into the well-known

tion into practical action, he busied himself with the establishment of the school at Santiniketan. He believed that nature and natural surroundings greatly aided education. Unable to find such institutions around him, Tagore found his model in the ancient Indian schools or Gurukul system where students and teachers resided together, and where education was a continuous experience rather than a sepa695

696 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES rate segment of a child’s life. The school opened with five

sion of generating knowledge about the different cultures

students, one of whom was Tagore’s son, Rathindranath.

of the world. Besides Bengali and Hindi, German, Latin,

Despite the initial difficulties, the school endured. The

and Persian were part of the choices offered to students.

curriculum emphasized simplicity in externals, to the point of austerity. The students—all boys initially—were

Tagore’s international reputation attracted many foreign scholars to Santiniketan. The French Indologist, Sylvain

required to wear simple yellow clothes, eat vegetarian meals, and sleep in a starkly bare dormitory. The cultural life of the place made up for the lack of physical comfort.

Levi came here as did the Italian scholar Carlo Formichi. Various departments and institutes sprang up as the university expanded. So, in 1937 a Sino-Indian Studies Insti-

Students were encouraged to participate in musical soirées, plays, and to express themselves through art and

tute or Cheena Bhavan came into being and in 1948 a

music. Tagore himself wrote many of the plays that the teachers and students performed at Santiniketan. This culture of participation and artistic expression distinguished Santiniketan from other schools even in its earliest days. Despite the simplicity of life at Santiniketan, the school was a great financial burden on Tagore. The

school was supported entirely out of the initial endowment and subsequently, Tagore’s personal funds. Along with the crushing problems of administration, Tagore also endured a series of personal tragedies. In 1902, his wife died; nine months later, Tagore also lost a young daughter to tuberculosis, and in 1907, his youngest son to cholera.

Teachers’ Training Center was established. Among the famous students at the university in the interwar period was the late Indian prime minister, Indira Gandhi.

The best-known feature of Visva-Bharati remained its active and rich culture of arts and music. Already before 1921, Tagore had drawn to Santiniketan a host of Bengal’s most talented artists, including his cousins Abanindranath and Gaganendranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, and

Surendranath Kar. All of them contributed to the collegial atmosphere at Santiniketan in which young painters found

immeasurable

support

and

encouragement.

Founded in 1922, the department of fine arts, Kala Bhavan, separated into two schools in 1934, one for fine arts

The experiment at Santiniketan continued however, as did

and the other for music. To this day, Visva-Bharati is con-

the poet’s literary output. These latter were now tinged with sadness and had a deeper, more reflective quality

sidered a leading center for the fine arts. Kala Bhavan offers degrees in sculpture, art history, and design among others. The department of music, dance, and drama, Sangit Bhavan, keeps alive the tradition of Rabindra-sangit, the music centered around Tagore’s poetry and dancedramas. It also offers training in the north Indian school

about them. Acting upon the advice of his doctors, Tagore retired to Shilaidah to recover his health, which he had

strained greatly, nursing his wife and children in their long illnesses. In the solitude of his beloved Bengali countryside,

he

translated

some

of his poems

into

English. These were the poems that he took with him to England in 1912 and which took the literary world there

by storm. Tagore befriended the poet W.B. Yeats and the

of classical music. Visva-Bharati’s rich repertoire of performance and fine arts reveals itself in the annual fair— the Pous Mela—that takes place every December to mark

Gitanjali (Song Offerings)

the foundation of the original retreat by Debendranath Tagore. Troupes of students present song and dance from

became his best-known collection of poems in England.

all regions of the country and thus keep alive Rabin-

In 1913, he received the Nobel Prize for literature. The

dranath Tagore’s dream of education through intense cul-

world travels generated by the post-Nobel recognition brought Tagore into contact with many different world

tural activity rather than rote learning.

cultures, including Japan in 1916. He also became close

ist. He was also in his own way, anti-imperialist. Gandhi’s

to the French philosopher Romain Rolland. On his return

favorite song was one composed by Tagore, “If no one

to India, Tagore set about creating a center for the study

heeds your call, then walk alone, walk alone.” In 1919, as

of various world cultures with the aim, in his own words,

“to seek to realize in a common fellowship of study the

a protest against the British army’s firing on an unarmed crowd in the city of Amritsar—that left over 300 dead—

meeting of the East and the West, and thus ultimately to strengthen the fundamental conditions of world peace

Tagore resigned the knighthood that the British had conferred on him. Still, he did not always agree with the

through the establishment of free communication of ideas between the two hemispheres.” Visva-Bharati University thus came into being at Santiniketan and registered itself as a public institution in December 1921. In the years following, Santiniketan developed rapidly as an unconventional university and a unique center of learning. The children’s school remained but it was now

methods of nationalists. Against those who called for boycott of the foreign-made goods that had paralyzed the Indian economy, Tagore called for a simultaneous revival of rural industry and crafts. Mere boycotting of goods and

merely a part of many different activities on a campus

nationalist strategies earned him many critics in activist

that was now filled with people. Students from across the

circles. At Santiniketan, Tagore tried to express his feel-

country flocked to Visva-Bharati. In 1923, Uttar Vibhaga,

ings about the idea of proactive rural work through the institution of a Rural Reconstruction Institute or Palli

artist William Rothenstein.

or the Department of Higher Studies began with the mis-

Tagore was above all a humanist and an international-

services was, according to him, a negative act that con-

tributed nothing to the alternative, noncolonial culture that India should aspire toward. Tagore’s ambivalence to

VISVA-BHARATI UNIVERSITY Samgathana

Vibhaga.

Set up in 1922,

the Institute

achieved modest results till independence. Currently, it has an active rural outreach program, emphasizing literacy, health care, and cottage industry.

697

trees, learning their lessons, presenting a reminder of simpler days when Tagore’s vision of the “cooperative enthusiasm of teachers and students” had seemed more easily attainable.

Rabindranath Tagore died in 1941. Ten years later, Visva-Bharati, to which he had contributed not only his aura but also almost all his personal finances, was declared “an institution of national importance” by the Indian parliament. Since then, it has been supported from central funds. The university curriculum now reflects far more mainstream concerns (such as degrees and formal courses of study) than during the time of Tagore. However, the emphasis on arts and music makes its campus

activities unique. The university also maintains a center on Tagore, Rabindra Bhavan, which is a major research

Further Reading: All works on Tagore’s life deal with the establishment of Visva-Bharati.

A good overview of Rabin-

dranath Tagore’s life and literature by one of his contemporaries is Rabindranath

Tagore,

His Life and

Work,

Edward John Thompson (New York: Haskell, 1974).

by

A more

recent work is Rabindranath Tagore, by Mary M. Lago (Boston: Twayne, 1976). The journal of Visva-Bharati University, The Visva-Bharati Quarterly (Santiniketan), is avail-

able in many university libraries and provides a good entry

center for Tagore Studies scholars. Tagore’s residences at

point into campus activities. An insight into the more personal aspects of life at Santiniketan and the personal choices of

Santiniketan—such as Udayan, Konark, and Udichi—are

Tagore are available from the poet’s son’s reminiscences:

also part of the campus. Their beautiful gardens are a distraction from the ugliness of overdevelopment that has currently overwhelmed Bolpur and Santiniketan. Equally

see On the Edges of Time, by Rathindranath Tagore (West-

charming are the children of Visva-Bharati’s campus schools, sitting in their yellow uniforms under shady

port, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1958).

—Sharmishtha Ray Chowdhury

WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY (Lexington, Virginia, U.S.A.) Location:

In western Virginia, in the valley between the

those storms and also the War of 1812 which, despite the best efforts of American propagandists, was considerably less than a victory for the United States.

Appalachian, Allegheny, and Blue Ridge

Mountains, in rural Lexington.

Description:

By 1813, the academy had grown

_A private university enrolling approximately

become a college. Despite being chartered by the commonwealth of Virginia in 1782, Washington College was unique among southern colleges in that it had no official

2,000 students in undergraduate and professional schools. Information:

sufficiently to

relationship with either a church (as in the case of the

Office of Admission

University of the South) or state (as with Virginia Military Institute, founded in Lexington by the state in 1839).

Washington and Lee University Lexington, VA 24450

Therefore, Washington College’s first century was influ-

U.S.A. (703) 463-8400

enced by the stability of its namesake, a man who cautioned against entanglements—foreign and domestic. The school’s second 100 years began on a bleak note.

The Civil War wrecked the valley of Virginia, stripping farmers of their crops and disillusioning a generation of southerners who had embraced the flawed tenets of the Lost Cause. The college’s classrooms had emptied in 1861 when students enthusiastically rallied around the Confederacy. An 1864 raid by Union General David

Consistently, Washington and Lee University has been ranked among America’s top 25 liberal and law schools by U.S. News and World Report. In the category of faculty resources, the institution is considered number one nationally. With an excellent reputation and a small student/faculty ratio of 9/1, Washington and Lee has earned

Hunter, and subsequent occupation of the campus by Federal troops, turned the initial enthusiasm concerning the war into a flood of despair. In the final months of the conflict, Washington College deteriorated with regard to its physical plant (e.g.,

itself a place in the top tier of U.S. liberal arts schools. This impressive academic reputation has evolved over a period of 250 years and has been the result of contribu-

Lee’s predecessor, Augusta Academy, had been founded

wrecked library, shattered laboratory, splintered classrooms) and its pitifully small student body. Four professors taught 40 boys who, all under military age, came to

near Lexington, Virginia by resolute Scotch-Irish Presby-

class sporadically as the south’s military effort collapsed.

terians in search of a classical education for their chil-

By war’s end, Washington

dren.

again, sort of a preparatory school—a far cry from what it

tions made by two famous Americans. Five years before the French and Indian War of 1754-63, Washington and

The

ideology

of

the

American

Revolution

College had become,

once

had been only five years earlier.

influenced the small school which, in 1776, changed its

name to Liberty Hall Academy and sought to emulate the ambitious curriculum offered at Princeton. After independence had been achieved, however, the academy struggled. In 1796, George Washington, preparing to enter his long-delayed retirement at Mount Vernon, saved Liberty Hall Academy from extinction. At the urging of friends associated with the school, the president gave Liberty Hall a major endowment gift (the largest at that

Financially, the college had, amid the exhilaration of

1861, invested unwisely in the Confederacy. Upon General Robert E. Lee’s surrender, the school had $2,458.20

in worthless Confederate currency and a considerable amount of equally worthless southern bonds. Once again,

George Washington’s 1796 endowment saved the school but, until the state legislature met in December, the college existed in somewhat of a quandary. While the 1796 gift’s value had increased to $94,000, this endowment was snarled in the uncertainty associated with the death of the Confederate States of America. The trustees were not discouraged. They sought to bor-

time, ever given to any American educational institution)

of $50,000 in James River Canal stock. In gratitude, the trustees changed the school’s name in 1798 to Washington Academy. Five years later, it moved to nearby Lexington. The institution’s history was heavily influenced by George Washington’s early generosity. While physically not present on campus, Washington shielded, in a sense, the school from the fierce battles which occurred between Jefferson and Hamilton and the resulting birth of the twoparty political system. Washington Academy weathered

row $500 to reopen the school for the fall 1865 semester. Rejected, the trustees decided, in a peculiar display of logic, to apply for a larger loan of $4,600 based on the reasoning that amid the terrible destruction the war larger—instead of smaller—toans had better chances of gaining approval. Additionally, the board of trustees 698

WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY

699

Washington and Lee University

passed this motion: “Resolved, that a committee of three

be appointed to wait upon the Commandant of the Federal forces now at Lex. and ask that the college buildings be at once vacated by the troops.” Therefore, Washington College, a school with more than 100 years of success, stood in late 1865 perilously near the edge of bankruptcy with a campus occupied by

northern troops who showed no sign of desiring to vacate the premises. Additionally, the college had no president since the prewar chief executive had been driven from town because of his Union sympathies. At a crucial trustees’ meeting, the board pondered the presidential search. Several names were discussed and

lege if the services of General Lee could be secured, and wondered if there was any chance of doing so.” Within minutes, and without Lee’s knowledge, the trustees had found a new president. Judge John Brockenbrough, board chairperson, was appointed to carry an official invitation to the general. Some board members wondered if Lee would accept the presidency of a “broken-down college.”

Wearing a borrowed suit, Judge Brockenbrough, with borrowed funds, met with Lee at Lee’s borrowed Richmond

home.

Surely, the symbolism

of the moment

painted a dismal portrait of the south in the months following Appomattox. A destitute judge offered a defeated

then, in a dramatic moment, one trustee mentioned that General Robert E. Lee’s daughter, Mary, had confided that

commander the presidency of an all-but-closed college.

the defeated commander needed a job. The suggestion is noted in the board records thusly: “Then various members

receive a house, garden, percentage of tuition, and $1,500 a year. As the general considered the proposal he thought of 1852 when he had tried earnestly to refuse the superinten-

of the board said what a great thing it would be for the col-

Brockenbrough’s offer was a modest one. Lee would

700 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES dency of West Point. Agriculture—not education—was the pathway he wished to follow now that the war was over.

a Lexington home with a shattered oak tree in front, a casu-

Three words, “Duty, Honor, Country,” had guided Lee

alty of war. The tree’s owner, a woman who daily greeted Lee as he walked by the tree, criticized the Union soldiers

since his student days at West Point. These words had

who had splintered the oak. Finally, Lee, in his softspoken

caused him to reject command of the Union forces in early 1861 and accept the leadership of the Army of

manner, advised “Ma’am, just cut the tree down.”

Northern Virginia. It had been duty to his native state which had motivated him for four long years. Now, it would be duty to Virginia, to rebuilding a small college in

first journalism program

began. Students from 20 states and 1 foreign country

Virginia, which would influence Lee’s decision.

school had surpassed its prewar prosperity to become

One of Lee’s friend, William Nelson Pendleton, and Episcopal rector and former Confederate general, wrote

national in character.

Lee:

Washington and Lee College, honoring “in fit conjunc-

The Lee years saw the establishment of the country’s and, in 1866, a law school

came to the school and, by Lee’s death in 1870, the

A year after Lee’s demise, the institution was renamed

tion” the two generals. Both men personified a commitOne great reason why I hope you may judge favorably of this invitation is, that the destiny of our State

and Country depends so greatly upon the training of our young men. And now our Educational Institutions are so crippled that they need the very best agencies for their restoration and the revival of high

ment to “duty, honor, and country.” Despite a late nineteenth-century struggle, those potent three words guided the school into the present century. Washington

and Lee’s Law School became coeducational in 1972

aims in the breasts of Virginian and Southern youths.

with its graduate programs and the inclusion of women undergraduates occurred in 1985. Since 1983, Washington and Lee University has been

After three weeks of contemplation, Lee conditionally

led by John D. Wilson, who, in the style of General Lee, presides over a school which has earned a national repu-

accepted the Washington College presidency. He explained to the board that his personal situation might,

tation. Rhodes Scholars have been chosen, on average, every third year since 1970. The ranking by U.S. News

unfortunately, become like that of the imprisoned Jefferoccupation of the position of President might draw upon

and World Report and other publications attests to the emphasis placed by Lee, Wilson, and: other university leaders on providing students an educational experience

the College a feeling of hostility.”

deeply rooted in “duty, honor, and country.”

son Davis. He also warned the trustees that he feared “my

Still, the board stressed in its reply, Robert E. Lee was their choice to guide Washington College. Five months after Appomattox, Lee, because of his perception of duty, became president of an institution he had never visited. Immediately, he began to call for “the healing of all dissensions.” Lee’s five-year tenure at Washington College was char-

acterized by increases in student enrollment (from 40 to 400), financial stability, teacher recruitment, a modern

honor code, a revitalized curriculum, the birth of a national

Further Reading: For two useful treatments of the importance of George Washington in the formative years of the Republic, see Douglas Southhall Freeman’s George Washington (New York: Scribner, 1956) and Marcus Cunliffe’s

George Washington: Man and Monument (revised, New York: Penguin, 1982). A good study of Lee’s role in saving

the college is Emory Thomas’s Robert E. Lee (New York: Norton, 1995).

fraternity (Kappa Alpha Order) which considered Lee its spiritual founder, and an overpowering sense of sectional

reconciliation. According to one account, Lee daily passed

—Joseph Edward Lee

WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY (Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.) Location:

Description:

In the Forest Park neighborhood of

the title of the O’Fallon Institute, in honor of Colonel

northwestern St. Louis.

John

who

donated

the first plot of land

acquired by the seminary. However, plans for the Washington College fell through that same year, and so O’Fallon requested that his name not be used. Finally in 1858, the name Washington University was officially assumed

—_An independent university that enrolls approximately 11,500 students in its undergraduate, graduate, and professional

programs combined.

Information:

O’Fallon,

in an amendment to the school charter. Washington grew rapidly, despite financial strain and major setbacks suffered during its first several years of operation. The O’Fallon Polytechnic Institute opened

= Washington University Office of Undergraduate Admissions

1 Brookings Drive Campus Box 1089 St. Louis, MO 63130-4899 U.S.A. (314) 935-6000

under the auspices of the university in 1855 and was scheduled to be moved soon after into a spacious new

building on the corners of Chestnut and Seventh in downtown St. Louis. However, primarily because of financial hardship brought on by the Civil War, the construction was not completed until 1866, and its total cost, com-

bined with the expense of operating the polytechnic itself, proved too much for the young university. Both the polytechnic and the five-story building were temporarily assigned to the public school system in 1868. More favor-

State Senator Wayman Crow of Missouri was the first great patriarch of Washington University. He drafted by

himself a charter for a tax-free educational institution to

able events during the same period included the construction in 1856 of the university’s first building, Academic

be located in St. Louis, and he brought the document to

his fellow legislators in the form of a bill. The charter was signed into law by Governor Sterling Price on February 22,

1853,

even

before

Crow

had

informed

Hall, at the corner of St. Charles and Seventeenth Streets,

and the opening of the scientific department in 1857, the forerunner to the modern school of engineering.

William

Washington evolved into a complex university between the time of its foundation and its move to the

Greenleaf Eliot, a Unitarian minister, that the new institu-

tion was to be named “Eliot Seminary” in his honor.

famously well-designed Hilltop Campus in 1905. The law school opened in 1867, having retained a highly qualified faculty including two state supreme court justices. The first woman was enrolled in the school five years later, following the decision in 1869 to make Washington the first institution in the nation to accept women into a law program. In 1891, the university acquired the formerly independent St. Louis Medical

Indeed, it was only after the law was enacted that Eliot

and 15 select members of his congregation learned that

Crow had listed them as incorporators of the seminary, along with himself. The incorporators, or trustees, were

somewhat daunted by the task to which Crow had magisterially assigned them, for St. Louis was at that time still a young city on the edge of America’s western frontier. Years later, Eliot wrote: “It took us quite by surprise... for none of us had dreamed of such a thing, and an educational institution seemed quite beyond our strength.” The name of the seminary was changed three times before the trustees settled on “Washington University.” Apparently too modest to accept Crow’s generous homage, Eliot directed that the seminary operate under the name of the “Washington Institute of St. Louis,” and in 1855 legislation was drafted to adopt that name legally. However, a charter for a Washington College in St. Louis

College, which was united with the Missouri Medical

College eight years later, thus forming the Medical College of Washington University. In 1892, Washington incorporated the Missouri Dental College. The school of fine arts opened in 1879, the Henry Shaw School of Botany in 1885, the school of architecture, and the school of

engineering in 1902. The downtown campus was crowded and worn by the early 1890s, and the trustees began to consider a move. In an unpublished history of Washington University, the late Dean Alexander Langsdorf described the university’s buildings as suffering from “dusty wooden floors, numerous partitions of tongue-and-groove lumber added as afterthoughts . . . and lighting fixtures so inadequate by modern standards as merely to punctuate the gloom of

was enacted that same year, and so the trustees withdrew

their proposal.

“unauthorized

According

parties”

to university records, some

then introduced

legislation

to

change the seminary’s name to Lafayette Institute, but the bill was halted at the governor’s desk by a telegram asking him to veto the proposal. The trustees then agreed to 701

702 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Washington University

dark winter afternoons.” Thus, in 1893 the board of directors passed a resolution floated by Henry Eliot, son of William G. Eliot, to move the university’s colleges and the polytechnic to a new location. The university was financially prepared to accomplish the move thanks largely to the generosity of Robert Brookings and Samuel Cupples. Brookings retired from business and joined Washington’s board of directors in 1891, having decided to devote his full energies to improvement of the university. He may be considered the second great patriarch of

architectural firm of Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot. The Olmsted brothers pointed out that the university would be deleteriously confined unless 50 additional acres abutting the southern border of the original site were purchased. Indeed, their plans all presumed ownership of such an

extension, although no further land was actually secured until 1899. Washington then staged a limited competition

for the design of the Hilltop Campus, in keeping with the plans drawn up by the Olmsteds. The university organized a building committee,

the members

of which

drafted

Washington. Not only did he lead a successful fundrais-

guidelines for a limited architectural competition. Plans

ing campaign, but Brookings and Cupples donated half of their holdings in Cupples Station properties to Washington, the sum valued at several million dollars. The new campus was carefully and slowly planned. In

for at least the first seven buildings to be raised on the new campus were to be included in the winning design. Six of the most prestigious architectural firms in the country were invited to participate in what turned out to be

1894, the university purchased 103 acres of land in north-

a competition of some national interest. In October 1899,

western Forest Park, then a nearby suburb northwest of St.

a jury of eight declared Cope and Stewardson of Philadelphia the winners, but unfortunately there is no record of

Louis. While the location seemed rather remote, the trustees recognized the potential for growth of the area. A pre-

liminary

site

plan

was

drafted

by the

landscape

the members’ deliberations or the basis for their decision. They were likely impressed by the way that Cope’s plan

WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY (Stewardson died in 1896) abandoned the rigid classicism dominating each of the competing proposals, and by the

way that Cope’s block plan could gracefully accommodate future building on campus in varied architectural styles. One of the jury members later commented on the fact that Cope’s design harmonized with the natural contours of the land and thoroughly considered the special needs of each building and its departments. The first six buildings that Cope designed were under

703

report on the state of medical education in America under auspices of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Even before that report was available to the public, word reached Brookings that Flexner looked very dimly upon Washington’s medical school. Brookings went to New York and brought Flexner to St. Louis, where he then observed operations at the medical

courtyards, modeled

school and offered advice on how it might be bettered. The creation of some of the nation’s first full-time professorships of internal medicine, surgery, and pediatrics were among the changes that vastly improved the quality and reputation of the medical program. During this same period of growth, the university suffered a rather honorable loss. In 1923, Brookings organized the Graduate School of Economics and

upon the layouts of Oxford and Cambridge Universities.

Government, which was to award doctoral degrees. How-

University Hall (later renamed Brookings Hall) served as

ever, Brookings’s plan for students to spend a year in Washington, D.C. proved unfeasible. The university’s tax-exempt status had been granted by the Missouri legis-

construction by 1900. They were all long, narrow Tudor Gothic works constructed of red Missouri granite and

Bedford stone. None was more than three stories high, except the small towers adorning several constructions. These horizontally oriented buildings were arranged around a series of interconnected

the main entrance to the new

campus,

as it still does

today. Its great length is divided by an arched breezeway, guarded by two gargoyles, that opens upon the inner

courtyards. Robert Brookings exercised his business acumen to partially fund the construction of the new plant. The United States hosted the World’s Fair in 1902, and the

Louisiana Purchase Exposition was held in Forest Park.

lature and applied only so long as the corporation operated within the state. Thus, the school splintered off from Washington to become the prestigious and still respected

Brookings Institution. Chancellor George Throop, who served from

1927

until 1944, adeptly guided the university through both the Great Depression and World War II, a period in which most of the university struggled under financial hardship.

Brookings took the initiative to lease the new university buildings to the fair’s management for the considerable sum of $750,000. By a happy coincidence the first Olym-

The medical school achieved an astounding record for

pic Games ever held in America were staged on the uni-

seminal research during that otherwise difficult era, how-

versity’s new Francis Field that same year. Thus, the

ever, thanks to the changes instituted by Brookings. In 1933, Professor Evarts Graham performed the first successful lung removal on a cancer patient, and he then won the prestigious Lister Medal for surgery in 1942. In 1943, Dr. Edward Doisy, formerly on the school’s faculty,

Exposition events literally ran abreast the 38 athletic competitions taking place on Washington’s virgin campus. When the festive events finally came to an end, the

university resumed construction, and, by 1910, there were 12 buildings on campus, all constructed in the Gothic style of Cope’s original plan. Washington’s Hilltop Campus is widely considered one of the most beautiful in the country, with modern additions carefully planned to harmonize with Cope’s design. Murphy and Mackey, the architects of the Olin Library, located two of the library’s floors underground in order to retain visual proportions commensurate with the older buildings. When the university embarked on a $63million expansion project in 1957, dormitories were con-

structed on a newly acquired site known as the South Forty, which is connected to the main campus by an underpass. All of the old dormitories were then converted to academic buildings, thus affording the university badly needed facilities, while preserving the original campus. Washington quickly grew in size and stature following the move to Forest Park. Ten new buildings were raised between

1923 and 1927, and a record number of 7,895

students enrolled during the academic year 1926-27. The medical school was almost immediately transformed into one of the nation’s finest, following its dramatic restruc-

turing in 1910. That year, Abraham Flexner published a

received the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine. The next year, Dr. Joseph Erlanger, then on the faculty, and

his associate Dr. Herbert Gasser, formerly on the faculty, won a Nobel Prize in the same area for their research on

neural transmission. In 1947, yet another Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine was shared by Carl and Gerty Cori,

both

on

the

medical

school

faculty,

for their

research on the processes by which glucose and glycogen can be transformed each into the other. Not until after the end of World War II did the university embark on any serious improvement projects beyond the medical school. Chancellor Allen Shepley, who served from 1953 until 1961, raised professors’ salaries to a competitive level, thus allowing Washington to retain a firstrate faculty. Then under Chancellor Eliot, 1962-71, the

university launched a highly successful fundraising campaign. Those efforts had a considerable effect, for in 1966,

the Cartter Report ranked Washington’s graduate programs among the top 25 in all of the United States. However, it was during the chancellorship of Henry Danforth, who served from 1971 until 1995, that Washington took its place among America’s best research institutions. In

704 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES and World Report magazine ranked

Further Reading: An interesting history of the Hilltop

Washington 20th in the United States, and in the same year, the National Research Council ranked eight of Washington’s doctoral programs in the top ten. Just 13 years

Campus can be found in Washington University in St. Louis: Its Design and Architecture, by Buford Pickens and Marga-

1995, U.S. News

earlier, only one program was so highly rated. Mark S.

Wrighton, who became Washington’s chancellor in October of 1995, came to be in charge of one of the best

endowed and best equipped universities in the country.

retta J. Darnell (St. Louis, Missouri: Washington University, 1978). Several brief articles outlining the history of the university can also be found in the spring 1973 issue of Washington University Magazine. —Christopher Hoyt

WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE (Rehovot, Israel) Location:

The Weizmann Institute of Science, initially named the

Rehovot, Israel, 15 miles southeast of Tel Aviv.

Sieff Institute, saw its beginnings in 1933, a year when Description:

_A research and teaching institute of

Nazism was becoming an international threat. Weizmann set his sights on founding a scientific research center in what was then still British-mandated Palestine; he did so

approximately 2,300 researchers, engineers, technicians, and scientists-in-training. The

campus is also home to the Feinberg Graduate School, with an enrollment of approximately 800 students. Information:

in the small agricultural community of Rehovot. Located on Israel’s Mediterranean coastal plain, the Rehovot of

biblical days was the site of an ongoing war between the Hebrews and Philistines. Today it is situated a few miles from Yavne, a town considered by Israelis as a center of

The Weizmann Institute

Office of Admissions

the high-technology industry. Weizmann determined that an independent state where refugees from the Nazi

Rehovot 76100 Israel

regime and other Jews could live and thrive would also

(972) 8 343111

require an industrial base. The scientist in him realized

that technological advances and scientific achievement must become synonymous with the Zionist effort to create a Jewish homeland. Founded by statesman and scientist Chaim Weizmann, the Weizmann Institute of Science stands as one of Israel’s

Weizmann’s vision of creating such a dominion was fueled both spiritually and financially by his friends Israel

foremost interdisciplinary centers of learning, with a his-

and Rebecca Sieff, who, in 1934, established the Daniel

tory directly connected to its founder and namesake. Born into a family of 15 in Czarist Russia, Chaim Weizmann

Sieff Research Institute, named in memory of the couple’s

was 17 years old in 1891 when he left his homeland and its anti-Semitic university quotas to pursue studies in Germany and Switzerland. Weizmann earned his Ph.D. in chemistry nine years later in Fribourg, Switzerland.

concentrated on research in organic chemistry and biochemistry, with a focus on yielding medical products from

A natural leader, who, in 1916, came to head the Zion-

increasing needs created by the war. The smal] number of Jewish scientists making their home in the Rehovot research center developed a series of pharmaceutical supplies to aid the Allied forces in the Middle East. Subsequently, the scientific corps of the Israeli defense forces (Hemed) adopted Rehovot as its home. Working under the institute’s auspices, these young scientists developed a cadre of weapons and other war materials. While Weizmann endorsed the need for institute scien-

son. In the years prior to World War II, the Sieff Institute

synthesized chemicals. When World War II broke out in 1939, the Sieff Institute turned its attentions toward ever-

ist movement, Weizmann realized his two most ambitious

goals when he was named the first president of the state of Israel and the first president of the Weizmann Institute of Science. His prominence as a statesman was established when Weizmann was recognized as a key negotiator of the pact known

as the Balfour

Declaration,

a

document that officially sanctioned a national homeland for the Jewish people. In his capacity as a statesman, he headed the Zionist Commission to Palestine and as such played a major part in the 1929 establishment of the Jewish Agency for Palestine. Weizmann’s career as a scientist led to his distinction as a Zionist leader. As a research chemist living in

tists to devote much of their attention to the war effort, his

long-term focus remained the creation of a Jewish state and its subsequent need to be recognized as a force in the free world. Indeed, the Sieff Institute’s motto—“Work for this Country. Work for Science. Work for Mankind”— embodied Weizmann’s vision for the research center.

Manchester, England, he invented a process that produced acetone from maize, and in so doing contributed to the production of the smokeless gun powder, cordite,

Therefore, on the occasion of his 70th birthday in 1944, with the world still embroiled in war, Weizmann’s answer

was clear when his colleagues desired to pay tribute to

used by the Allies during World War I. In the years preceding World War II, buoyed by the British pledge of a

their mentor but lacked what they considered to be a suitable gift. “I need nothing for myself, but if you wish, do

Jewish homeland, Weizmann moved to Palestine. No stranger to the world of academia, Weizmann, a founder

something for the expansion of the Daniel Sieff Research

in 1918 of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, sought to combine the scholastic with the scientific in a setting connected with both the past and future of the Jewish people.

Institute,” said Weizmann.

That birthday wish was the

impetus for the development of the multidisciplinary research institute that today is world renowned for its sci705

706 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES

Science was laid in Rehovot. Completion of the Weizmann Institute was interrupted by Israel’s War of Independence. Despite the outside struggles, research at the Institute continued, and in 1946, when the U.S. Army announced completion of the

division was added to encourage youngsters considering careers in science. The program attracts some 15,000 students annually. Since the death of Chaim Weizmann in 1952, the institute has more than doubled in size. A faculty and staff numbering more than 2,300 is divided among 19 departments; in addition, 19 interdisciplinary centers have been established on grounds that cover 300 acres. Campus

world’s first computer, Rehovot mathematicians turned their attention toward the new technology. Eight years

growth is ongoing, and in the late 1900s some nine major buildings and areas were inaugurated, including the Brain

later, the resulting WEIZAC computer, which placed the institute on the computer science map, was recognized by Albert Einstein as a technological achievement.

Research Building, the Helen and Martin Kimmel Cam-

entific conferences and symposia. On June 3, 1946, two

years after Dr. Chaim Weizmann announced his hope for the future, the cornerstone for the Weizmann Institute of

pus Area, the Dolfi and Lola Ebner Auditorium, and the

Weizmann

Archives.

More

than

40

buildings

and

On November 2, 1949, with the permission of the Sieff

research facilities grace the campus, in addition to resi-

family, the Daniel Sieff Research Center was formally rededicated as the Weizmann Institute of Science. Under the dual leadership of Meyer W. Weisgal and Dewey D. Stone, the new institute saw swift development, as it rap-

dential housing, recreational areas, historic and memorial A campus architectural focal point is the Weizmann Institute’s Canadian Institute for the Energies and

idly increased its staff with both Israeli and non-Israeli

Applied

scientists. The Weizmann Institute of 1949 consisted of 60 laboratories in 9 scientific fields. In its first decade as Institute of Science, the research center

advanced solar research facilities in the world, the structure features 64 large motor-driven mirrors, all tracking the sun onto a 2,100-foot-high central receiving tower.

established itself both as a scientific and a political entity. The institute’s first major scientific conference in 1956

The Weizmann Institute of today owes much of its prominence to the financial support of the American

generated so much interest that a campus auditorium was

Committee, a group of leaders in the worlds of science

constructed to accommodate participants. The conference, an international symposium on macromolecular chemistry, attracted not only leaders in the scientific and research communities, but political notables such as

and art that originated in 1944 and has contributed more

the Weizmann

Golda

Meir

and

David

Ben-Gurion,

both

of whom

attended the opening dinner.

sites, and numerous gardens.

Research.

Touted

as

one

of the

foremost

than $300 million over the past five decades for the institute’s projects and operating needs. Financial contributors

to the institute include Walter Annenberg, publisher of TV Guide; philanthropists Helen and Norman Asher;

rivaled the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Technion in Haifa as a graduate training center. The school’s

Edgar M. Bronfman, president of the World Jewish Congress; and Sara Lee Schupf of Sara Lee pastry fame. Although it has been little more than 60 years since the institute was founded, its prominence in the spheres of technology and academia are documented. Identified

master of science and doctor of philosophy degrees in the

by Nobel Prize-winner Christian B. Anfinsen of Johns

life sciences,

science

Hopkins University as “one of the world’s preeminent

teaching, and computer science are accredited by both the State of Israel and the Board of Regents of the State of New York. Its first Ph.D. was conferred in 1964. The cur-

centers of research in the service of mankind,” the insti-

rent student/teacher ratio at the graduate school is two to

solar energy have had global impact. According to an

one. In addition to taking courses, students enrolled in the

institute publication, major advancements in the fight for

graduate program must show active involvement in one of the 800 ongoing research projects at the institute. In an effort to draw upon industrial sponsorship for processes developed at the institute, the Yeda Research and Development Company was founded in 1959. Yeda,

disease control over recent years include the discovery

Nine years after its founding, the Weizmann Institute

established the Feinberg Graduate School, and in so doing

chemistry,

mathematics,

physics,

tute’s contributions to the understanding of cancer and immunological diseases, genetics, computer science, and

of antibodies to nerve tissue protein, a development that has improved the diagnosis of a childhood malignancy known as neuroblastoma. Medications for the treatment of epilepsy, stroke, and Alzheimer’s

disease are also

Hebrew for “know-how,” holds title to all inventions and

among

scientific advances made at the institute and acts as a liaison between scientists and industrial investors. The com-

finding the gene responsible for causing several types of acute childhood leukemia has been successfully con-

pany, the first of its kind in Israel, also apprises institute

ducted by Professor Eli Canaani.

scientists of projects for which industrial sponsorship is available. When the department of science teaching was established on campus in 1968, the institute began paving the road for educational reform in Israel. A youth activities

Institute contributions to the study of the earth’s environ-

the institute’s contributions,

and research

into

Recent Weizmann

ment include the development of solar-powered laser systems used to monitor the atmosphere from space and an unprecedented turbine that generates electricity from concentrated sunlight.

WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

707

Noted for its international scientific conferences and its department of visiting scientists, the institute has wel-

research center will remain uncompromised, including its

comed researchers from institutions throughout the world,

them with optimum conditions, and our determination to

and in 1993 received 105 visitors from former Soviet bloc

hold fast to the ideals of our founder, Chaim Weizmann.”

“commitment to recruiting the finest minds and providing

countries. The restructuring of Eastern Europe has also made available to the Weizmann Institute many premiere Europeans

Further Reading: Insights into Chaim Weizmann, his ca-

now constitute a large contingent of visiting scientists. Current staff members include Shlomo Alexander, who

reer, and the Weizmann Institute will be found in the follow-

researchers

heretofore

inaccessible;

Eastern

was awarded the 1993 Israel Prize in Physics; Varda Rot-

ter and Moshe Oren, joint recipients of the 1993 Feher Prize in Medicine; and Professor Mati Fridkin, winner of

the Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Prize.

The shifting political environment in the Middle East is identified by institute president Haim Harari as impetus for the institute to confer a master’s degree and post-doc-

ing: Harold M. Blumberg’s Weizmann: His Life and Times (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1977); Barnet Litvinoff’s

Weizmann: Last of the Patriarchs (New York: Putnam, 1976); the memoirs of Weizmann and his wife: Chaim Weizmann, Trial and Error (New York: Harper, 1949; reprint, 1977); and Vera Weizmann’s Impossible Takes Longer: The Memoir of Vera Weizmann, Wife of Israel’s First President, as told to David Tutaen (New York: Harper and Row, 1967).

toral designation upon students from Egypt. In a 1994 message, Harari maintains that while the Middle East is “on the threshold of change,” certain elements

of the

—Sharon Nery

WELLESLEY COLLEGE (Wellesley, Massachusetts, U.S.A.) Location:

Wellesley, Massachusetts, 12 miles west of

On March 17, 1870, the commonwealth of Massachu-

Boston.

setts chartered and authorized the Wellesley Female Sem-

inary to provide a program of education beyond high Description:

A private four-year women’s college with 2,300

school. The board of trustees’ initial meeting on April 16,

students from 42 countries and 49 states.

Information:

1870, was the beginning of the governing body which expanded to include alumnae representation in 1889 and

Board of Admission

student non-voting presence in the present day. On March

Wellesley College

7, 1873, the name

106 Central Street

was

changed

to

Wellesley College. On August 13, 1871, Pauline Durant laid the first foundation stone for College Hall and gave each worker a

Wellesley, MA 02181-8292 U.S.A. (617) 283-2270

Visiting:

of the institution

copy of the Bible. The architect Hammatt Billings of Boston designed the building in the French Second

Students lead tours of the campus throughout

Empire

the year. Call the telephone number above for

style, developed

in France

in the reign of

Napoléon III. Henry Durant supervised the day-to-day

specific details.

construction. Following the single building concept for a college, College Hall was to contain classrooms, library, residences, laboratories, assembly hall, and administra-

tive offices. It stretched for over one-eighth mile on the hill overlooking Lake Waban and resembled a cathedral more than a college. On September 8, 1875, 314 students arrived, primarily via the Boston-Albany Railway, stopping at West Needham. Horse-drawn buses with signs saying

Wellesley College is the only major private women’s

college in the United States that has appointed only female presidents. Each of the 12 presidents has contributed toward moving the college forward, given the issues,

priorities, and twists of fate of the time. The continuity of

WELLESLEY COLLEGE created a caravan for the one mile between the station and campus. President Ada L.

vision and direction is evident. Wellesley remains committed to educating women for leadership roles in the community and society, a goal sought by the founders Henry and Pauline Durant.

Howard

greeted

the

students;

school

representatives

of Henry Fowle Durant and Pauline Cazenove on May 23, 1854. They bought a rambling brown farm cottage

assigned rooms in the nearly completed College Hall and reassured parents. One student, Louise McCoy, recalled, “We were pioneers in the adventure—voyagers in the crusade for the higher education of women, that perilous

(now known as Homestead) as a summer retreat 12 miles

experiment of the 70’s, which all the world was breath-

west of Boston. Their son Harry was born in 1855 and daughter Pauline Cazenove in 1857. When Pauline died at six weeks, their grief turned to total absorption with

lessly watching and which the prophets were declaring to be so inevitably fatal to the American girl.” The Durants stated that Wellesley College was opened

two-year-old Harry.

for the “purpose of giving to young women a collegiate

The Wellesley College story begins with the marriage

They purchased 300 acres on Lake and

education, opportunities fully equivalent to those usually

planned to give it all to Harry as his country estate. Those dreams were abruptly halted when eight-yearold Harry died of diphtheria on July 3, 1863. The Durants sold the cottage, purchased the nearby Webber residence, and moved to New York City. They saw clearly the need for improved educational opportunities for women and the scarcity of teachers after the Civil War. In 1867 they made a key decision: they would use their 300-acre estate to educate young women. They began planning every aspect of the college—grounds, buildings, curriculum, faculty. Believing that beauty of surroundings were important in the shaping of character, they began providing for it.

provided for young men.” This pioneering spirit con-

Waban,

built

barns,

greenhouses,

and

gardens,

trasted with the thoughts of a Boston physician who said that “woman’s brain was too delicate and fragile a thing to attempt the mastery of Greek and Latin.” The first president, Ada L. Howard, an 1849 graduate

of Mount Holyoke Seminary, was strongly influenced and directed by the Durants’ presence during her tenure (1875-81). Woven into the ideals of the college were the Durants’

strong Christian beliefs. With his son’s death,

Henry had taken on an evangelical fervor. The curriculum grew with Henry Durant’s ability to attract strong teachers in varying subject areas. His love of literature, music, and the sciences influenced the initial 708

WELLESLEY COLLEGE

Wellesley College

709

710 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES departments: philosophy, history, art, music, German,

had 375 students; when she left there were 628 students.

English literature, mathematics,

She continued

Greek, Latin, French,

and the sciences. The first faculty consisted of 7 professors as heads of departments and 11 teachers of academic subjects. With the exception of Charles H. Morse, profes-

sor of music, all were women living in College Hall, and all were members of evangelical churches. The Durants initiated several lasting traditions. The first Flower Sunday was held in September 1876 to welcome students back and exchange flowers. In 1877 the

students planted a tree marking the first Tree Day, a tradition which the first-year students continue to this day. An embedded stone in front of each tree indicates the class year. In 1878 Pauline Durant was instrumental in establishing the Students’ Aid Society to assist with expenses

the Durants’

tradition

of appointing

women scholars to teach and conduct research. The desire for a tightly knit community brought other developments: Simpson Cottage offered a quieter environment than College Hall; two dormitories opened; and

Eliot House became the first cooperative house where

students could assume more housekeeping responsibilities in exchange for lower fees.

The third president, Helen A. Shafer, came to Wellesley in 1887 as professor of mathematics and head of the department of mathematics. Her intense interest in schol-

arship was

coupled

with

organizational

ability and

and to encourage a diverse community. In 1879 the Durants imported and planned for the planting of 1,000

patience. She began her presidency (1887-94) with curriculum revision that significantly expanded the number of electives. Student involvement was evidenced with the publication of the first student newspaper, The Courant

rhododendrons

(1888), and the first yearbook, Legenda (1889). In 1889

and azaleas, and over 7,000 crocus and

snowdrop bulbs. The parklike grounds included fields of wildflowers for students and faculty to pick.

the first foreign student arrived, Kin Kato, from Japan.

In 1891, Mary Whiton Calkins established the first psy-

On February 16, 1877, the commonwealth of Massa-

chological laboratory in a college for women. Her experi-

chusetts authorized Wellesley College to grant degrees;

mental studies included work with memory, association,

two years later 18 students were graduated in the first commencement. The Alumnae Association began in 1888, a clear indication that graduates wished to retain ties with Wellesley.

and a method of investigation. She was a faculty member from 1887 to 1929 and head of the psychology and philosophy department from 1898 to 1929. She was elected pres-

Two graduates of the class of 1880 had significant

and of the American Philosophical Association in 1918. Annie Jump Cannon, class of 1884 was an acclaimed alumna and considered the foremost woman astronomer in the country. She was a member of the staff of Harvard Observatory. She was the first woman awarded the Henry Draper gold medal from the National Academy of Sciences. In 1933 she developed the classification system still

influence on the curriculum of the young college. Char-

lotte Fitch Roberts earned her Ph.D. in chemistry at Yale University in 1894 and taught chemistry at Wellesley for 37 years (1880-1917). Katherine Lee Bates, poet, author,

and teacher, wrote “America the Beautiful” in 1873, in an inspired moment on Pike’s Peak, Colorado. She helped

build a distinguished department of English literature as a faculty member from 1885 to 1925.

ident of the American Psychological Association in 1905

used to identify the spectre of more than 300,000 stars. Upon President Shafer’s death in 1894, Julia Josephine

In October 1881 Henry Durant died, drawing to a close

Irvine became the fourth president (1894-99). She was an

his attentive, strong presence. President Howard’s physical health had been failing, and she submitted her resignation that same year.

inspiring professor of Greek at Wellesley. As a commitment to the expansive, undulating grounds, a committee on buildings and grounds was established. Irvine is best

The second president, Alice Freeman Palmer, came to

known for her extensive revision of the curriculum, from

Wellesley in 1879 as professor of history and was appointed president in 1881 at the age of 26. During her six years as president (1881-87), this spirited, visionary

one that largely prescribed courses to one with many electives. Responding to the need for more informal fellowship

woman was credited with transforming Wellesley into a

among students and faculty, the development of Society

modern collegiate institution. It became clear that many students were not adequately prepared for the academic rigors of college life. As an example of working with

Houses resumed. Since 1877 Shakespeare House had been a gathering place for faculty and students interested in Shakespearean drama. In 1889 the Art Society (which became Tau Zeta Epsilon in 1894) was granted a charter to provide opportunities for additional study of art, to

“feeder schools,” President Freeman arranged with sec-

ondary schools to prepare students well for Wellesley. Dana Hall School in Wellesley was the first such school. Freeman is credited with “inspiring the principals of 15 schools with the idea of definite training for entrance into Wellesley.” Her work was instrumental in the increased

numbers of qualified applicants, which led to higher standards of admission, which evolved into higher standards for academic work. When Freeman arrived, Wellesley

encourage

scholarly

work,

and to promote

fellowship

among undergraduates. The limited membership in the societies has been controversial. Two additional societies are currently on campus: Zeta Alpha House (literature) and Phi Sigma Lecture Forum (cultural and public affairs). In honor of their father and the college’s spiritual needs,

the children of former trustee William Houghton gave a

WELLESLEY COLLEGE gift for the construction

Memorial

Pendleton Hall. Science facilities were also improved and

Chapel. Controversy arose about its placement and relationship to the landscape and to the college’s other archi-

a greenhouse was built. Pauline Durant lived in what is now the president’s house and remained actively involved

tectural

with the college until her death in 1917.

styles.

Decades

of the Houghton

711

later,

Dr.

Owen

H.

Jander,

professor emeritus of music, spearheaded the project to

Following the retirement and death of Pendleton in

build a seventeenth-century mean-tone organ in the chapel. Jander taught at the college from 1960 to 1993 and was a lecturer and scholar of seventeenth-century Italian music and the instrumental music of Ludwig van Beethoven.

1936, Mildred McAfee, formerly dean of the college of women at Oberlin, became the seventh president of Wellesley College and served from 1936 to 1949. Physical development slowed with World War II: the recreation

Caroline Hazard, the fifth president (1899-1910), was

building was the last major construction after the fire. The

a highly cultivated woman from Rhode Island with expe-

college granted McAfee a leave of absence to be the first

rience in business, philanthropic affairs, and long-range

director of the WAVES in Washington, D.C.; for her work

planning.

she received the Distinguished Service Medal. In 1940 Harriet B. Creighton (class of 1929) joined the faculty as associate professor of botany and retired as

Hazard personally financed the building of

Oakwoods, the president’s house at that time. Campus expansion included five dormitories, the Whitin Observatory, Billings Hall, and Mary Hemenway Hall (a gymna-

sium). The Wellesley College Library opened in 1910, the result of a challenge gift by Andrew Carnegie. In 1901 following an initiative by students and faculty, the Student Government Association was formally estab-

professor emerita. During her tenure of over 30 years, she was a meticulous curator of the botanical garden and

internationally known for her horticultural concerns and her scholarship. Lucretia Mowry came to the college faculty as profes-

lished. Currently all students belong to the college gov-

sor of religion and biblical studies in 1942, specializing in

ernment, and the senate is composed of elected representatives from each residence hall as well as from

New Testament literature. She was the first woman on the committee to revise the Revised Standard Version of the Bible. Following McAfee’s resignation in 1949, Margaret

off-campus

students.

College government

officers are

elected each spring, campus-wide. A student-run judicial system handles violations of the honor code.

Another initiative by faculty and alumnae recommended the adoption of a plan for the college grounds. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. prepared recommendations for the board of trustees in 1902, including the desirability of buildings which honor the landscape and the bene-

fits of comprehensive planning. After Hazard’s resignation in 1910, the sixth president,

Clapp, class of 1930 and Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer, became the eighth president (1949-66) and the second alumna to be elected president. Expansion began again with three dormitories, another library expansion, and the Jewett Arts Center, the latter providing facilities for students for art, music, and theater. During President Clapp’s tenure, several well-known faculty came to

Wellesley: Carolyn Shaw Bell held the Catherine Coman

Ellen Fitz Pendleton (class of 1896), who was dean of the college, was appointed president. The first alumna to

Chair in Economics and taught at Wellesley from 1950 to 1989. Her research interests were human capital, income

become president, she served for 25 years (1911-36), the

details, and quality of economic data.

longest tenure of any president of Wellesley. Early in her vocably changed its face and direction. The night was March 17, 1914. At 4:30 A.M. fire broke out on the fourth floor of College Hall; by morning, the entire building was

Eleanor Rudd Webster (class of 1942) taught at Wellesley for 33 years with specialization in the history of science and physical organic chemistry. She helped in the design and direction of the National Science Foundationsupported Wellesley College Institute in Chemistry. This

destroyed. No injuries occurred, due to early warnings

program enabled women whose undergraduate training

and diligent fire drill training. Faulty equipment in the

had been completed 5 to 25 years earlier to return to school to pursue an M.A. in chemistry. She also served as the first director of Wellesley Continuing Education, a program for women of nontraditional college age. Clapp expanded curriculum offerings in innovative directions. In 1949 the college first offered interdepartmen-

tenure Wellesley College experienced four hours that irre-

zoology laboratory was suspected.

Overnight,

Pendleton’s

primary

focus

became

the

rebuilding of the campus. A makeshift wooden structure between the library and the chapel provided classroom and office space. Tower Court, the first dormitory on College Hall Hill, was built within a year; two others fol-

lowed within a decade. Five dormitories became cooperative houses. The board of trustees accepted the plan to design a block of buildings and construct sections when funds

were available. Wellesley’s use of the Collegiate Gothic style began with Founders Hall in 1919 and continued with Alumnae Hall, a library addition, Green Hall, and

tal majors, including natural resources and conservation, Latin American studies, and medieval studies. The new

biological department combined all life science courses. During Clapp’s tenure, many students who worked in very visible fields were graduated. In the class of 1959 were Madeline Albright, foreign policy analyst and U.S. ambassador

to the United

Nations,

and

Amalaya

L.

Kearse, judge in the U.S. Court of Appeals. Four gradu-

712 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES ates have excelled in broadcast journalism: Lynn Sherr (1963), Cokie Roberts (1964), Linda Wertheimer (1965), and Diane Sawyer (1967). Authors include Nora Ephron

(1962), Nancy Friday (1955), and Susan Sheehan (1958), winner of the Pulitzer Prize. Actresses include Ali McGraw (1960) and Barbara Babcock (1960). President

Clapp resigned, effective June 1966.

facilities took place, including the 1974 opening of the Center for Research on Women. Currently more than 100 men and women work there on public policy and family issues. In 1975, the expansions were completed of the Margaret Clapp Library and Sage Hall (renamed the Science Center). In Wellesley’s centennial year of 1975, Newell wrote,

Ruth M. Adams, a specialist in Victorian literature,

“Wellesley College entered its second century at a critical

served from 1966 to 1972 as Wellesley’s ninth president. Wellesley College experienced significant expansion of

juncture in American higher education and American Society. We have opportunities to pioneer new directions

educational experiences for students. New curriculum

in the education of women.”

included Afro-American studies, Asian studies, classical

Newell a leave of absence, during which she was ambas-

civilization, molecular biology, American

sador to UNESCO in Paris.

studies, and

Wellesley later granted

urban studies. Cross registration with the Massachusetts

In 1981, Nannerl Overholser Keohane (class of 1961),

Institute of Technology (MIT) began in 1968. Students may study at both institutions and be eligible for a double degree program with MIT. Hillary Rodham Clinton (1969), First Lady of the

became the 11th president and 3rd alumna to lead the college. With her 12 years of leadership (1981-93), Wellesley’s reputation was enhanced through expansion of research and special programs. In 1981 the Stone Center for Developmental Services and Studies opened in the former Simpson Cottage. The center focuses on women’s psychological development and the prevention of psychological problems. The college reinstated the required writing program and began an interdisciplinary cluster program for first-year students. The latter was replaced in

United States in the administration of her husband, Bill Clinton, majored in political science and was graduated with high honors. She served as president of the college government in her senior year and received her law degree in 1973 from Yale Law School. Her professional work has included work as an advocate for children’s

health, for quality education, and for the changing roles of women in American society.

1995-96

by INCIPIT:

Introduction

to Collaboration:

to educate women for roles of leadership. This response

Interdisciplinary Problems and Intellectual Tools. In 1982 Anna and Samuel Pinanski established the Pinanski Prize for Excellence in Teaching, an annual award given to up to three members of the Wellesley fac-

followed a report from the elected Commission on the

ulty. Nominations come from within the college commu-

Future of the College, made up of students, faculty, alum-

nity, and the selections are made by the president in consultation with the Pinanski Prize Committee. In the first year’s awards, the Pinanski Prize was given to David R. Ferry, Sophie Chantal Hart Professor of English Emer-

In 1971, the board of trustees decided that Wellesley

should remain a women’s college, reaffirming its mission

nae, trustees, and administrators. The majority of the commission had recommended that Wellesley begin offering a limited coeducational program in 1972-73. The commission’s reasons were the expressed preference of high school seniors for coeducational colleges and universities, student questionnaires, and the sense that male

student would

improve

the cultural, educational,

and

social life at Wellesley.

itus, for his notable poetic achievement. His areas of con-

centration have been Shakespeare, romantic, and modern

poetry. In 1994 he was awarded the Academy of American Poets Fellowship.

Keohane’s fundraising efforts resulted in a record-

The trustees’ primary reason for not accepting the commission’s recommendation was the lack of hard data or research to support or oppose the change. The proposed cost was questioned, as were the consequences of

breaking capital campaign which raised $168 million and

losing the identity of the all-women’s college. Reaction to

financial aid, endowment, faculty resources, and building

this decision varied; most faculty members strongly urged that women’s programs be emphasized. When the

projects. Koehane

strengthened the financial status of the college. The campaign brought alumnae groups throughout the country together in support of the college’s needs for increased left Wellesley

College in 1993 to

become the first woman president of Duke University.

question arose regarding the search for the next president,

The Davis Museum and Cultural Center, designed by

the majority of the college community believed it should be a woman. This strong restatement of purpose was crucial to the

Rafael Moneo of Madrid, was dedicated in October 1993. It houses ten galleries for exhibition of the permanent collection of 5,000 pieces, a gallery for special exhibitions, a

charge given Barbara Warne Newell as the tenth president (1972-80). She was a well-known advocate of

cinema, and a cafe.

women’s rights in the academic world. The college experienced renewed conviction around the single-sex deci-

president in August 1993. As the fourth alumna presi-

sion with Newell as an articulate, visible spokesperson.

policy and works as an advocate for medical research and

During Newell’s term, significant expansion of existing

preventative health issues.

Diana Chapman Walsh, class of 1966, became the 12th

dent, she brought extensive experience in public health

WELLESLEY COLLEGE

713

In 1993, Marjory Stoneman Douglas (class of 1912)

Further Reading: At the time of Wellesley College’s cen-

received the Freedom Medal, America’s highest civilian

tennial, Jean Glasscock, general editor, compiled writings about many aspects of the college’s history in Wellesley College, 1875-1975: A Century of Women (Wellesley, Massachusetts: Wellesley College, 1975). In Adamless Eden, The Community of Women Faculty at Wellesley (New Haven,

award, from President Bill Clinton. Her life had been dedicated to preserving the Everglades. Her book The Everglades: River of Grass, published in 1947 and her founding of the Friends of the Everglades in 1970 are expressions of her intense environmental concern and activism. In March

1995, she gave the Freedom Medal to President Walsh, saying “TI have no living relatives so Wellesley is like my

family. It will be there long after Iam gone.” Thus, the pioneering vision of the Durants has passed through the hands and talents of 12 female leaders. Wellesley College’s 120-year history continues with 2,300 stu-

Connecticut:

Yale

University

Press,

1995), Patricia Ann

Palmieri provides a narrative history of the founding and first

generation of Wellesley faculty. The Survey of Buildings and Grounds includes a section “Development of the Wellesley College Campus,” which documents the history and devel-

opment of the campus (Wellesley, Massachusetts: Wellesley College, 1989).

dents knowing that they are there, in the words of the

college motto, “not to be ministered unto but to minister.”

—Chris Farrow

WILLAMETTE UNIVERSITY (Salem, Oregon, U.S.A.) Location:

Description:

Information:

Lee traveled east again in 1843 and 1844 to solicit

Adjacent to the state capitol building in Salem, Oregon.

more funds from the mission board but was told upon arrival that he had been replaced. When he arrived at

The first institution of higher learning in the

Chemeketa in the spring of 1844, George Gary, Lee’s

Pacific Northwest, Willamette is now a private liberal arts university enrolling over 2,200 students in undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools.

replacement,

found

enrollment

at the Indian

Mission

School (now called the Indian Manual Labor School) to be virtually nonexistent, due to an epidemic of scrofula.

Gary closed the India Mission School and sold its principal building (a newly constructed three-story building

Office of Admission

that was considered to be the largest on the Oregon coast

Willamette University

and valued at $10,000) to the trustees of the Oregon Insti-

900 State Street

tute for $4,000. Having acquired at minimal cost a building constructed expressly for academic purposes, the board of trustees formally opened the Oregon Institute in the fall of 1844. The faculty consisted of one teacher; enrollment for the first term was five students. Enrollment grew

Salem, OR 97301

U.S.A. (503) 370-6303

steadily until community leaders decided that the grow-

The origins of Willamette University are intertwined with the missionary activities of the Methodist Episcopal

ing population at Salem and the resources available to the school warranted the establishment of a postsecondary

Church

institution at the Oregon Institute. Specifically, plans called for the institute to remain a preparatory school;

(now

the United

Methodist

Church)

in the

1830s. One of the institution’s eventual founders, Reverend Jason Lee, was chosen by the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church in New York to establish a mission among the American Indian population of

however, the institute would now comprise a department within the larger institution. The board of trustees petitioned for and received a charter from the Oregon Territo-

the Oregon territory. Lee and a small group of missionar-

rial Legislature on January 2, 1853. The first degree was

ies traveled across the country with members of a trading expedition and arrived at the Willamette River in northsion school for Indian children was opened. In 1838 Lee

awarded to Emily York in 1859. In its early years, the school maintained a strong affiliation with the Methodist Episcopal Church, as the church continued to give financial support to the fledg-

made the return trip east to report to the mission board. His accounts of the mission stirred support, and the

ling institution. Moreover, nearly all faculty and administrative staff were members of the Methodist Episcopal

board agreed to provide nearly $40,000 in supplies and personnel for the purpose of further establishing the mis-

Church and presumably were committed to the church’s

sion. Those chosen to assist Lee at the mission, referred to in the annals of Willamette history as the “Great Reinforcement,” traveled by boat to the Oregon coast, sailing

connected in a religious atmosphere and governed by a strict moral code that applied to all individuals associ-

around the southern tip of the South American continent in 1839. In the year that followed, a small community began to

Joseph Henry Wythe, although acknowledged as a bril-

form in Chemeketa

products in public. Construction began on University Hall, the first per-

ern Oregon in September 1834. Soon afterward, a mis-

missionary efforts. Thus, the school’s

activities were

ated with Willamette: the university’s third president, liant scholar, was dismissed from his duties as president on grounds that he refused to curtail his use of tobacco

(present-day Salem), and a debate

arose among community members as to whether a separate school for the children of missionary settlers was necessary. A meeting to discuss the issue was held in the home of Jason Lee in January 1842, where members

manent building on the Willamette campus, in 1864. To

construct the building, 500,000 bricks were made out of clay taken from a nearby location. The building, which took three years to complete, was later named Waller Hall in honor of the trustee who had raised the monies to build it. The decision on the part of the university trustees to commence by raising a large, permanent structure would prove fortuitous, for in 1872 a fire

decided that immediate action should be taken to establish the school. Two weeks later a board of trustees was appointed, the constitution and bylaws were adopted, and the school was given the name Oregon Institute. These

acts constitute the founding of Willamette University. 714

WILLAMETTE UNIVERSITY

715

\=

* Fae "y

i] a 2 Ea —t

Willamette University

destroyed the Oregon Institute building, formerly the nately, however, alternative classroom space was avail-

a women’s college was established at Willamette in 1880. Fittingly, then-president Thomas Van Scoy purchased the home of Chloe Clarke Willson, first instructor at the Oregon Institute, intending to convert the home into an aca-

able; otherwise the preparatory school’s very existence would have been jeopardized.

demic building for the Women’s College. Additions to Willson’s house were made and the building was then

The university witnessed considerable growth over the next two decades. By the early 1870s it had a commercial department, a medical department, and a music depart-

named Lausanne

Indian Mission School. (This was the first of many fires

that would

seriously damage

the university.) Fortu-

Hall, after the boat that carried the

“Great Reinforcement.” Also established was the College of Law in 1883, which is still in operation today. The 1890s, however, was a troublesome decade for the

ment, the latter awarding its own degrees by 1872. Average annual enrollment through the 1870s was 280 students, although only 30 percent of these students stud-

Willamette community.

ies at the postsecondary level. After much fervent debate,

ton, realizing the institution was heavily in debt and that

In 1890, Van Scoy appointed

Charles Carroll Stratton to the office of chancellor. Strat-

716 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES it was, to some extent, still mobile (having only one permanent building), campaigned to transplant the school

for which trustees had not charged tuition, revealing the high priority they placed on training ministerial candi-

from Salem to Portland, a more

dates—closed its door in 1930. Its closing seems to have coincided with Willamette’s general shift in focus,

urban location. There

ensued a competition between the two communities, both

of which offered substantial gifts of property to the school. The board of trustees eventually voted to remain in Salem. Stratton, leaving behind his responsibilities at Willamette, helped establish the University of Portland in 1891. Much to the dismay of the Willamette community, Van Scoy followed Stratton to Portland to become dean of the newly established school. The Methodist Conference apparently agreed with

Stratton and Van Scoy that Portland would make a better base for a university than Salem, for they withdrew significant financial support from Willamette and gave it to the University of Portland. A bitter competition for stu-

wherein strict adherence to the teachings of the Methodist

Episcopal Church was no longer expected of students and faculty. Corresponding to this change was the gradual adoption and promotion of a liberal arts curriculum. In fact, the Methodist Church no longer substantially supports Willamette University: by 1987 the church accounted for only three-tenths of one percent of the school’s annual donations. On December 7, 1941, a group of Willamette athletes witnessed firsthand the immediate aftermath of the bomb-

Scoy and his cohorts were infiltrating the Willamette

ing of Pearl Harbor and, effectively, the beginning of the United States’ involvement in World War II. The Willamette football team had traveled to the Hawaii Islands to play the University of Hawaii the day before and were

campus to lure students to Portland. This state of affairs

still there when the bombing took place. They returned

continued until 1899, by which time the University of Portland folded and subsequently was “reunited” with

home on a ship that carried wounded back to the main-

Willamette University in Salem by the Methodist Con-

became involved in the events of World War II, if only

ference.

peripherally, when the new Lausanne Hall was made a

dents followed, and rumors circulated in Salem that Van

In the fall of 1891 fire again struck the campus; the roof and tower of University Hall was consumed

by

flames. Adding to the growing list of difficulties was an increasing debt. In the years 1892 and 1893, trustees

secured loans totaling $24,000 to cover expenses and previous debts, but many trustees feared the institution could not be saved.

It was not until the turn of the century that the school’s fortunes rose. Under the direction of John Coleman, uni-

versity president from 1902 to 1907, construction began on four new academic buildings. On of the new structures was built to house the medical school, a department that

had been in a state of transition since its inception in

land for further medical

attention.

Willamette

again

base for a College Navy Training Program from July 1943 to November 1945. The program trained individuals

as medical personnel and deck officers. In 1965 Willamette University established what is termed a “sister-college relationship” with the International College of Commerce and Economics, now known as Tokyo International University. This arrangement

allowed students from both schools to travel overseas as part of their curriculum, and to attend classes specifically designed for visiting students. In 1989 Tokyo International took this relationship a step further by establishing a satellite school (Named Tokyo International University of America) in close proximity to Willamette University,

1867. In 1880 the department had moved to Portland to take advantage of better medical facilities, but in 1895 doctors in the department lost their privileges at a Portland hospital to their counterparts at the University of Oregon. Classes were held in Waller Hall and in vacant

with the intention of establishing similar satellite campuses around the world. Students from the parent institu-

rooms around Salem until the new building was completed in 1906. Ironically, Willamette’s medical school

elements of U.S. history, culture, and society, as well as

would close seven years later, merging with the University of Oregon College of Medicine. Willamette’s fortunes improved markedly during the administration of Carl Gregg Doney, which lasted from 1915 to 1934. Overall enrollment nearly doubled during Doney’s tenure as president, and total endowment and

curriculum is much the same. In recent years Willamette

tion in Tokyo initially are required to take accelerated English-language courses, after which they may enroll in

courses designed by Willamette professors that explore U.S. commerce and trade. For Willamette students the also has established sister-college relationships with Xiamen University of the People’s Republic of China, Kookmin University in Seoul, South Korea, and Simferopol

State University in the Ukraine. Today, Willamette University enjoys a position of geographic prominence—adjacent to the grounds of the state

number of faculty members tripled. Willamette not only survived the era of World War I and the Great Depres-

capitol of Salem—far removed from its humble begin-

sion, but it began to flourish. The school also withstood

nings in the frontier wilderness of the Oregon Territory.

two more major fires on campus. At the same time that Willamette began to establish itself more firmly, certain aspects of its character began to fade. Notably, the Kimball School of Theology—a school

Further Reading: Accounts of Willamette’s founding may be gleaned from various volumes dealing with the history of

WILLAMETTE UNIVERSITY Oregon and the Oregon Territory. A more detailed discussion of Willamette’s history is included in Chronicles of Wil-

717

is The First Hundred Years: 1834-1934, by Wright Cowger (Salem, Oregon: Willamette University, 1981).

lamette, by Robert M. Gatke (Portland, Oregon: Binsford and Mort, 1943), and Chronicles of Willamette Volume Two,

by Robert

D. Gregg

(Portland,

Oregon:

Durham

and

Downey, 1970). A briefer history published by the university

—Christopher Hudson

WILLIAMS COLLEGE (Williamstown, Massachusetts, U.S.A.) Location:

Executors

Williamstown, Massachusetts, 135 miles

Information:

_A private college enrolling approximately 2,000 students in undergraduate and graduate programs.

wrote his will, they replied, New York claimed jurisdiction of the territory. Not until 1784 did the executors raise

the issue again with the legislature. They asked that the legislature pass an act creating a corporation of “Meet Persons” to carry out “the pious and Charitable Intention

Office of Admissions

Williams College

of the Testator.” In March 1785, the legislature incorpo-

P.O. Box 487 Williamstown, MA 01267

rated “The Trustees of the donation of Ephraim Williams, Esq., for maintaining a Free School in Williamstown.”

U.S.A. (413) 507-2211

Visiting:

the delay on a border dispute

between Massachusetts and New York for the area in which Williamstown was located. At the time Williams

northwest of Boston.

Description:

blamed

Williams’s bequest of $9,297 was not sufficient to establish a free school. Local subscriptions brought in another $1,000, and a lottery—a common practice at that time—brought in another $3,500. Construction was begun in 1790 on the school’s first building, which later became known as West College. The Free School opened in 1791 with two departments—a grammar school (or

Tours are conducted daily for prospective students and their families. Phone the number above for the schedule.

academy), which charged a tuition of 35 shillings yearly, and an English free school. When the Free School, trans-

formed into Williams College, opened its doors on Octo-

The contents of Colonel Ephraim Williams’s army chest testified to his regard for religion, education, and the western frontier of Massachusetts. Killed in September

ber 9, 1793, it had an enrollment of 18 undergraduates: 11 freshmen, 3 sophomores, and 4 juniors.

The school was open scarcely a year when the ambitious trustees focused on creating a college for “young men from every part of the Union,” a goal that violated

1755, on a reconnaissance mission during the French and

Indian War (sometimes known as the Seven Years’ War),

he left in his army chest 11 books, including a New Testa-

the intentions of Williams’s will. What the colonel had wanted was a free school for the children of military families in the township west of Fort Massachusetts. His leg-

ment and a series of essays on social, political, theological, and academic issues. Also in the chest was his will,

which left his “residuary estate” for the “support and maintenance of a free school (in a township commonly called the west township) for ever.” Williams’s will stipulated that the township in which the school was to be located be named Williamstown and that it must be

acy instead is the second oldest college in Massachusetts. One constant in the history of Williams College had been the issue of its location in the topmost northwest

corner of Massachusetts. Before the founding of the col-

“within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts Bay.” Though the colony of Massachusetts very early demonstrated a commitment to education by decreeing in

lege, Colonel Williams’s father, Ephraim Williams, Senior, who had been involved in surveying the land in

1647 that every township of 100 families should have a public grammar school to prepare youths for university

found it remote and were distressed at the frequently harsh winters. There was no post office until 1797.

study, the initial reaction of the people of West Township to Williams’s bequest was cool to indifferent. Not until 1765 did a meeting of the citizenry choose a committee to

Though attempts were made to establish regular triweekly stage runs, not until 1826 did regular stage runs

1739, found it suitable for settlement. Others, however,

begin between Bennington, Vermont, and Pittsfield, Mas-

obtain a copy of the colonel’s will. Several time the proprietors (governing persons) of the town dismissed an article calling for a committee to pursue the idea of a free

existence. In 1815 an article in the Hampshire Gazette

school. However, by 1770, minds had changed, and the

asked, “What does Williamstown have that can... render

idea of a free school had become so appealing that the town brought the executors before the state legislature,

a term of four years’ residence agreeable or pleasant? . . .

sachusetts. The route included Williamstown.

The issue of moving the college was raised early in its

Many scholars . . . having entered the institution . . . soon became sick of the place and obtained dismissions.” In

accusing them of neglecting their duties, which neglect meant that the town could not “reap the intended of so noble and worthy donation.”

November

1818, the trustees reversed a previous vote in

August; they would favor a move to Amherst if the legis718

WILLIAMS COLLEGE

719

Williams College

lature would fund it. In explaining their support of the move, the trustees cited the inaccessibility of the town,

dents left Williams for Amherst Collegiate Institute (now Amherst College), where Moore assumed the presidency;

the declining enrollment, the dwindling income, and the competing academic institutions that had sprung up in Vermont and New York.

dence in the college’s future. Though Williams began to

The day after Williams’s commencement in 1821, the

prosper in its location, when enrollment increased from

college’s second president, Zephaniah Moore and 15 stu-

84 in 1822 to 118 in 1823, the following year the

the students also remained at Amherst. Moore, who had

favored moving the college, left because he lacked confi-

720 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES Amherst Collegiate Institute, about 50 miles east of Williams College, petitioned the state legislature for a college charter. Williams’s trustees protested that a second col-

a good religious influence. . . . The true and permanent interests of man can be promoted only in connection with religion.

lege in western Massachusetts would destroy the first. (Western Massachusetts currently holds over half a dozen

Solidly puritan in character, Hopkins operated on the

institutions of higher education.) Despite its protests, the

principle that, according to Rudolph, “he had already

charter

found all the truth that was necessary, both for himself

was

granted,

and

Williams’s

enrollment

did

indeed drop, from 120 to 80. The college’s president (Edward

Door Griffin, Moore’s

successor)

said, “The

heavens were covered with blackness; . . . we often looked up and inquired, ‘Is this death?’” After Moore’s departure, Griffin assumed the presidency of the college. He attempted to squelch discussion of a move by raising $25,000, of which the trustees earmarked

$15,000 to

and for the Williams student.” Commenting on Williams

students after attending

commencement exercises in 1838, Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote that the students were “country graduates—rough,

brown-features, schoolmaster-looking . . . A rough hewn, heavy set of fellows from the hills and woods in this neighborhood; great unpolished bumpkins, who had

endow a professorship of rhetoric and moral philosophy.

grown up as farmer-boys.” However, some 14 years later,

He also secured the building of a chapel. Griffin credited a religious revival, during which 70 of the 80 enrolled students were converted, with providing the motivation for raising the $25,000.

Williams students apparently aspired to be gentlemen. Hopkins’s future son-in-law,

John H. Denison, described

the Williams student as considerably different from Hawthorne’s vision, at a class day exercise in 1862:

A major watershed in Williams’s history occurred with

the accession of Mark Hopkins to the presidency. His influence was attested to when, in 1940, the U.S. government issued a series of stamps to honor American education, and Hopkins was chosen to represent the small liberal arts college. Probably the most famous encomium

He is neither a sneak, nor a hermit, not a bigot...

nor a bootlick to the Faculty, nor a seeker after the

valedictory. He is genial, generous, humane, social. He knows how to behave in company, to get out of a bad space and into a good one; can adapt himself

to Hopkins came from a Williams alumnus, President

to the world, to circumstances, and the ladies. He

James A. Garfield, who said in 1871, “The ideal college

does not care so much for college rank as for general

is Mark Hopkins on one end of the log and a student on the other.” Hopkins spent 58 years at Williams—as student, tutor, professor, president, and again professor. He was a country boy who had trained as a physician before he returned to his alma mater to teach moral and intellec-

information.

tual philosophy. In his biography of Hopkins, Frederick Rudolph sum-

marized the trustees’ arduous search for a successor to Griffin: In 1836 Williams College was looking for a president again. The little college in the northwestern corner of Massachusetts was in a characteristic fix: for the third time since the election of the first president in 1793 the board of trustees was being called upon to make the management of a wilderness institution sound attractive, and once more it was failing.

By most accounts, academic standards were rot rigorous during the Hopkins years. During his student years at Williams,

Hopkins

himself wrote

in a letter, “I find

myself able to get my lessons without difficulty in study hours so I go to bed when I please.” The letter of another student read, “I never study more than an hour and a half

a day, and plenty of time is left for reading, writing, hunting, and skinning and stuffing.” Apparently it was not until the 1860s that a Williams professor took roll in class and paid strict attention to class attendance. While Hopkins was out of town in 1868, the faculty instituted a rule

that student absences be counted as failing grades. Students voted to secede from the college. When Hopkins returned,

he mediated

the dispute,

and the rule was

amended to allow students to make up unavoidable or

excused absences. An area in which Hopkins didn’t sucWhen their first choice turned down the position, the

trustees responded to the senior class’s advocacy of Hopkins as a suitable candidate by electing him to the post on August 17, 1836. In his inaugural address, Hopkins

revealed his priorities in how the students would be influenced:

ceed was in his attempt to abolish fraternities. He regarded “the general spirit of secret societies as opposed to that of our Republican institutions and Christianity.” Sometime before 1845 the board of trustees overruled Hopkins; after that year he felt the fraternities were too deeply rooted to be removed. Over 100 years later, in the 1960s, Williams College banned fraternities.

opportunities and inducements for physical exercise, a healthy situation, fine scenery, proper books, a suitable example on the part of instructors, companions of correct and studious habits, and above all,

When Hopkins resigned in 1872, the college was con-

cerned about its future in the face of low enrollment and inflation. Enrollment was down from 233 to 169 in 1862,

a decline not entirely attributable to the Civil War. Only

WILLIAMS COLLEGE 29 students had withdrawn to go into military service, while enrollment had been declining since 1853. This decline posed a serious problem for a school whose finances depended primarily on student fees. From 1793 through 1870 the commonwealth of Massachusetts appropriated for Williams College over $150,000. The state then ended its financial support, although in 1888

the state declared the college’s cows tax exempt. Fortunately, private benefactors stepped in to alleviate some of

the financial difficulties. First of these benefactors was merchant

Amos

Lawrence,

whose

1844

donation

of

$5,000 was the first installment of the $40,000 he donated

to the college, making him the largest private donor to the school until 1875. Unlike most colleges founded in the American colonies, Williams did not have roots in religion. Ephraim Wil-

liams had a purely secular purpose when he left his money for the education of sons of the military. In addition, the

721

For a small college, Williams boasts a number of pioneering efforts in education. In 1821 a group of alumni organized the Society of Alumni, the first college alumni society in history. The oldest astronomical observatory in the United States was erected in 1838 by Professor Albert Hopkins (brother of Mark Hopkins) with funds raised by

the Society of Alumni. In 1925 Williams was the only major American college without any absolutely required courses and without any wide-option electives. In the fall semester of 1988 Williams introduced in each department at least one course taught as a tutorial, in which, typically, pairs of students meet weekly with the professor to discuss a paper, problem set, or work of art produced by one

of the students. Despite its remote location and its problems with funding, Williams

College has, from the first, produced an

impressive roster of graduates. Of the 455 students who received degrees during the administration of the college’s

period when the college was chartered was one of indifference to religion. Thus the college was not required to

first president, Ebenezer Fitch (1793-1815),

include clergy on its board of trustees. Only 4 of the origi-

justices of the supreme court in their respective states, and 10 went on to teach in a college or a seminary. The twenti-

nal 12 trustees were ministers. During the early days of its existence, when the issue of moving the college arose, the members of the board of trustees who pressed for moving to the Connecticut Valley were clergymen, since they believed that it would be a better location from which to

2 became

U.S. senators, 13 became U.S. congressmen, 6 served as

eth century has included such renowned figures a lawyer Telford Taylor (chief U.S. prosecutor at the Nuremberg war crimes trials after World War II), Fred Wiseman (documentary filmmaker), William Bennett, former U.S. “drug

battle the Unitarian influences emanating from Harvard. Mark Hopkins was a strong advocate of religion as an

czar” and editor of the best-selling The Book of Virtues),

important component of the college’s influence on young men. During a religious revival at the college in 1847, he wrote “How much better to be a ploughboy & a Christian,

Fay Vincent

than to be a vicious, sensual, conceited collegian!” Even

Sunday in the Park with George), of such Broadway classics as A Death of a Salesman, and Cat Academy Award-winning films and On the Waterfront).

before Hopkins brought his religious fervor to the presidency, students were concerned with combating “pagan” influences in foreign lands. Five students met in the sum-

mer of 1806 for an outdoor prayer meeting; when an elec-

George Steinbrenner (owner of the New York Yankees), (former

baseball

commissioner),

Stephen

Sondheim (lyricist for West Side Story, composer-lyricist

for winning musicals, and 1984 Pulitzer Prize-winner for and Elia Kazan (director Streetcar Named Desire, on a Hot Tin Roof, and Gentleman’s Agreement

trical storm threatened, the students moved to the cover of

a haystack, and there they proposed to send the Gospel to the “pagans” of Asia. The Haystack Prayer Meeting led to the formation of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missionaries. As early as 1854, the issue of the absence of women from the college was raised in a letter by (later president) James A. Garfield: “the absence of females from table and society takes away a very wholesome restraint and leaves roughness in its stead.” In 1871, though no women had applied for admission, an alumni-trustee committee inves-

tigated admitting women on equal terms with men. In 1872 and 1873, the Society of Alumni overwhelmingly accepted the majority report of the committee, recommending that the college not adopt coeducation, Not until 1970 were women accepted on equal terms with men. Today, approximately half of Williams students are women.

Further Reading: Leverett Wilson Spring’s The History of Williams College (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1917) is a comprehensive treatment of the college’s early history by an emeritus professor of English from Williams. Frederick Rudolph’s Perspectives: A Williams Anthology (Williamstown, Massachusetts: Williams College, 1983) is a compilation of original documents relating to the history, growth, and character of the college by a 1942 graduate, who introduces each document and follows it with an editorial commentary. Frederick Rudolph’s Mark Hopkins and the Log (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1956) is a biography of the college’s third president, who held that position for 36 years.

—Diana d’India and Mary Elizabeth Devine

YALE UNIVERSITY (New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A.) Location:

Description:

Davenport’s plan for a Christian state led to the founding of New Haven with a group of followers, his former parishioners of St. Stephen’s. His plan included a com-

New Haven, Connecticut, 80 miles northeast of New York City, 155 miles southwest of Boston.

A private university enrolling approximately

prehensive system of education, to establish “schools for

10,760 students in undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools.

Information:

all, where the rudiments of knowledge might be gained; schools where the learned languages could public library; and to crown all, a College in might be fitted for public service in Church Ten years after the founding of the colony,

— Yale University Office of Undergraduate Admissions

P.O. Box 1502A Yale Station New Haven, CT 06520 U.S.A. (203) 432-1900

Visiting:

be taught; a which youth and State.” the General

Court in New Haven appointed a committee to find suitable grounds to set apart for a college. Integral to the Davenport scheme was that “the worship of God should be the only rule for ordering the

affairs of government in the commonwealth.” This led to

The university maintains a guide service for

the General Court of New Haven establishing the mosaic

visitors to the campus. Tours are one hour and begin at Phelps Gate on College Street, between

law as the basis for its legal system. The vote, or franchise, as well as the right to hold office was restricted to

Chapel and Elm Streets. Call the Information

church members referred to as “freemen.” David Yale was not chosen as a member of the church at New Haven. Indeed, the tension in the Eaton household under the uncompromising rule of the Puritan

Office at Phelps Gate at (203) 432-2300.

Theophilus, had caused his mother to break down. Her In March 1638, David Yale, the father of Elihu Yale for

strange behavior led to public trials and she was excom-

whom Yale University was named, was 23 years old and

municated from the church. Dissatisfied with the condi-

unmarried when he landed on the bank of the Quinnipiac

tion of life in New Haven, David Yale moved to Boston, married, and was appointed attorney for the Earl of

River on Long Island Sound. Yale was in the company of people seeking a “new haven,” the Founders of the New

Varwick. Here, Elihu was born April 5, 1649, shortly

Haven Colony and trading post in New England. Among

after news arrived of the trial and execution of King Charles I of England. While in Boston, David Yale joined with Dr. Robert

others, he was accompanied by his stepfather, Theophilus Eaton; his mother, Anne Lloyd Yale Eaton (daughter of Bishop Lloyd of Chester, England); his brother Thomas;

Child, Samuel Maverick, and others in challenging the theocracy of Massachusetts law and policy which was as

and his sister Anne. Theophilus Eaton, a staunch Puritan, had been a prosperous merchant in London, England, and was chosen the first governor of the New Haven Colony. Accompanying Eaton to New England was another eminent London mer-

rigid and intolerant as that in New Haven. They presented a Remonstrance, or petition, to the General Court in May

chant, Edward Hopkins (who married Anne Yale, Elihu

1646 which declared that “the Colony had no ‘setled forme of government according to the lawes of England’; that no ‘body of lawes’ secures them enjoyment of their

Yale’s aunt). Hopkins chose not to settle in New Haven,

lives, liberties and estates, and no settled rules of judica-

but rather in Hartford where he was repeatedly elected governor of the Connecticut Colony.

ture provide due process; for which many are in fear of

The leading spirit of the New Haven Colony was a

Stephen’s Church in London. As a nonconformist, Dav-

The Court felt that David Yale had been misled by the other rebels. He was fined £30. The leaders had stiffer fines and were imprisoned. In 1652, when Elihu was three years old, his family sailed for England and soon

enport challenged the rites and practices of the estab-

after David Yale established himself in London.

arbitrary government.”

graduate of Oxford, the celebrated Puritan and noncon-

formist,

the Reverend

John

Davenport,

vicar of St.

lished Church of England (and the Crown) and was

Meanwhile,

forced to seek safety in Holland, where he remained for three years. It was there that he worked out his theory for an independent Christian state, a plan which he shared with his devoted friend, Theophilus Eaton.

the serious intention of the New

Haven

colonists to establish a college had suffered a setback. The colony was going through hard times. Samuel Maverick wrote of New Haven in his “Description of New England (1660):” 722

NG EL

BESret

wee SS

YALE UNIVERSITY

Yale Universi:

723

724 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES According to Charles Henry Smith, in his History of

This Towne is the Metropolis of that Government, and the Government took its name from this Towne;

Yale University, the project failed. “But the following

which was the first built in those parts, many stately

year,” he wrote, “ten of the principal ministers of the Col-

and costly houses were erected the Streete layd out in a Gallant forme, a very stately Church; but ye

ony were nominated and agreed upon by common consent, both of the clergy and the laity, to be Trustees, to found, erect and govern a college. . . . Seven of these men were

Harbour not proveing Comodious, the land very barrest gotten to their Farmes. The Towne is not so glo-

identified with towns of the old New Haven jurisdiction.” Smith further explained that “the most active man

rious as once it was.

among the promoters of the new scheme,” the one he

In 1652, a college at New Haven was brought up and

refers to as the founder of Yale, was Reverend James Pierpont (Harvard 1681), upon whom “Mr. Davenport’s mantle had fallen.” Not only was he following in Daven-

ren, the Merchants either dead or come away, the

voted on at a meeting of the General Court for the Colony. It was thought “to be too great a charge” for the “jurisdiction to undergo alone; especially considering the unsettled state of New Haven Town; . . . But if Connecti-

cut do join, the planters are generally willing to bear their just proportions for erecting and maintaining a College there.” Three years later, the Reverend Davenport encouraged the town to pass a vote appropriating £60 a year for

the proposed institution. Davenport also wrote to his old friend, Edward Hopkins, the governor of Connecticut, to request his aid in car-

rying out the work. Hopkins had gone to England to settle

the estate of his brother, but died in London in 1657. In his will he provided a large bequest, “for the breeding up of

hopeful youths, both at the Grammar School and College, for the public service of the country for future times.” His wife, Anne,

who

suffered

a “mental

distress”

as her

mother did, was put in the care of her brother David Yale, and survived her husband by 40 years. By 1660, public documents of the time spoke of the foundations begun for the institution as the “college

already begun.” But further difficulties kept the Hopkins College in New Haven from ever rising above the level of a grammar school. Davenport’s hope for establishing a church state, with a college “where youth’s might be fitted for public service,” was further eroded in 1665, when the colonies of

Connecticut

and New

Haven

were

united. Davenport

opposed this union on the grounds that “all government should be in the church and all freemen must be members in full communion.” But in the Connecticut Colony, the church had less of a stronghold, because voting in town affairs was open to orderly persons who owned property and were “admitted inhabitants.” So with all hopes of establishing a churchstate removed, in 1668 Davenport accepted an invitation to take charge of the First Church in Boston. Two years later, he died from a stroke.

At the close of the seventeenth century, an attempt was made by Connecticut Congregationalists to preserve orthodoxy and a high standard of education in the ministry, by devising a plan for the establishment of a college by a general synod of the churches. The college would be called “the school of the church” and the churches would contribute to its support.

port’s footsteps as the pastor of the First Church in New Haven, his wife was Davenport’s granddaughter. A meeting of the ten clergymen, held in Branford in

1701, is regarded as the beginning of Yale College. Tradition states that each laid on the table a few volumes, say-

ing, “I give these books for founding a college in this colony.” In deference to three clergymen of the original

Connecticut Colony, the New Haven men agreed “for the present” to locate the college at Saybrook, so that “all parts of Connecticut Colony with the neighboring colony may be best accommodated.” In October 1701, the legislature met in New Haven and granted a charter “to certain Learned & Orthodox men

upholding & Propagating the Christian Protestant Religion ... for the founding, suitably endowing & ordering a Collegiate School within his Magisties Colony of Connecticut wherein Youth may be instructed in the Arts and Sciences

who through the blessing of Almighty God may be fitted for public employment both in Church and Civil State.” It should be noted that up until 1745, a majority of the graduates became clergymen. And until the twentieth century, an unbroken chain of rectors (later presidents) of the college, as well as trustees (later fellows) at Yale,

were ministers of the “orthodox” church, namely, Congregational ministers from Connecticut. The college depended on an annual grant from the colony’s legislature and tuition fees from the few students. This was insufficient to pay the rector’s salary, and so the

rector was authorized to continue work as pastor in Killingsworth. In 1702, the first student, Jacob Heminway of

New Haven, began studies at the rector’s house in Killingworth. The commencement was held at Saybrook, where many of the college books were stored. Later students also studied at Killingsworth and a tutor was added to the staff. By 1717, sufficient funds were raised for erecting the college building. Some trustees and patrons wanted the school to remain in Saybrook, and others wanted the building in Hartford, but the site chosen was New Haven.

Following this decision, one tutor “established himself at once in New Haven, in charge of about a dozen pupils; the other, influenced by the Hartford Trustees, opened a

rival school, with as many or more pupils in Wethersfield; ... three or four pupils remained at Saybrook, under the care of a village pastor, a former tutor.”

YALE UNIVERSITY exciting day, wheels were taken off the carts, and

The college building was completed in 1718 in time for the commencement (torn down in 1782) and was built

bridges were broken down on the way to New

of wood. It was 170 feet long, 122 feet wide, and 3 stories

Haven, and worse than all, about a quarter of the

high and stood facing College Street, near Chapel. It con-

books with many valuable papers disappeared and

tained a library, kitchen, and 50 “studies,” or rooms; in

were never recovered.

addition a dining hall extended across the building and was also used for prayers and public meetings. It cost about £1,000 sterling.

725

At the first public commencement in New Haven, the

An additional £100 in goods for the college was shipped out by Elihu Yale in February 1721 with assurances that an annual provision would take place after his

Collegiate School and building were named Yale Col-

death. However, when Yale died in July 1721, his will

lege, to honor the primary benefactor, Elihu Yale. Mean-

was contested, and his bequest to the college lost.

while a rival commencement was held in Wethersfield.

Along with endowing a foundation for one of America’ great universities, many books Yale and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel donated were of Angli-

But the next year brought a reconciliation, with New Haven winning out.

Yale had made a fortune in private trade while serving

can ideology which quickly bore fruit. The year follow-

as the governor of the East India Company’s settlement at

ing his death, the trustees of Yale College excused the rector of Yale, Reverend Cutler from further service fol-

Madras. (His uncle, Governor Hopkins, had been a mer-

chant with the East India Company.) Upon his return to London in 1699, he developed a reputation as a generous philanthropist, and later became active in the Anglicandominated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel which was helping to fund American missionaries, particularly those to the Indians. Shortly before commencement in 1718, new that Elihu Yale had donated books, paintings, and trunks of textiles reached the trustees. The estimated value was £800, and

there were promises of more to come. This donation prompted the trustees to change the name of the Collegiate School to Yale College in time for the com-

mencement.

lowing his declaration that he had converted to the Episcopal faith. The “dark cloud drawn over” their collegiate affairs was blamed on the library that been sent over. The next rector, Reverend Elisha Williams was inducted after

giving “Satisfaction of the Soundness of his Faith in Opposition to Armenian and prelatical Corruptions.” The course of studies at Yale College in the eighteenth century was similar to the course followed at Harvard. Latin was the language of ordinary conversation. Greek, Hebrew, logic, physics, metaphysics, and mathematics were staples in a scholar’s instructional program. Rhetoric, ethics, and theology were also mandatory.

Though Elihu Yale was reportedly elated, the people

Shortly before the American Revolution, while serving as a tutor at Yale, John Trumbull wrote a satirical poem

of Saybrook objected to the removal of the valuable col-

entitled The Progress of Dullness: “And yet, how oft the

lection of college books from their town. Over 800 volumes had been collected, largely though the efforts of Reverend Pierpont and Jeremy Dummer. The catalog of

studious gain, The dullness of a lettered brain; . . . And

books included donations from Elihu Yale, and Sir Isaac

Newton, who donated the second edition of his Principia, a copy of his book on optics, plus some Greek books. Additional donations were from the poet laureate Sir

plodding on in one dull tone, Gain ancient tongues and

lose their own.” Unfortunately, policies at the college under president Thomas Clap (1740-66) were also narrowly sectarian. During his tenure, men were trained for orthodox ministry, to the exclusion of other professions and callings.

English

This led to an attempt by the Connecticut legislature to

essayist and playwright; Sir Francis Nicholson, the governor of Virginia; the British governor of the American ety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Disappointed at losing the college, the people of Saybrook were determined to hold onto the library. In the

assert visitorial power over the college. To keep the state out of Yale, the trustees appointed Ezra Stiles as president ; he placated the state by drafting a plan in July 1778 which would, according to John Whitehead in his Separation of College and State, “turn Yale from the narrow sectarian mold Clap advocated into

History

a broadly useful institution.” His plan was to move Yale

Richard

Blackmore;

Sir Richard

Steele,

the

Colonies, Sir Edmund Andros; as well as from the Soci-

of Yale

University,

Professor

Charles

Henry

Smith reports on a demonstration in Saybrook: The Governor and Council repaired to the scene of

from a college into a university, and he suggested that the state endow professorships of law and physics. During the Revolutionary War, freshmen were moved

the disturbance, and ordered the Sheriff to take pos-

to Farmington, and the sophomores and juniors to Glas-

session of the books. This he did, though not without

tonbury. The seniors remained in New Haven where a company of them were drilled on the green at New Haven by General George Washington. They escorted him “as far as Mill River’ while he was on his way to take command of the American forces in Cambridge. Noah Web-

encountering much resistance from the populace. To move the books to New Haven, it was found necessary to impress unwilling men, together with oxen and carts. During the night which followed this

726 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSITY HISTORIES ster (Yale 1778) led the company “with music.” Yale men were also at Bunker Hill, and Captain Nathan Hale (Yale

Meanwhile, growth continued: a master of arts degree was first conferred in 1876. And by 1892, the courses of

1773) was chosen by Washington to spy within the British camp on Long Island. In July 1779 New Haven and Yale’s college buildings were taken by the British. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Benjamin Silliman was appointed professor of chemistry and natural history at Yale College and served from 1802 to 1853. Silliman assured trustees of his loyalty to Congregational

the graduate department with the degree of Ph.D. was

tenets. Studies of rocks, soil, water, wildlife, as presented

greater secular control, despite the belief that the Charter

by Silliman, stayed within the prescribed bounds of reli-

mandated that the president and fellows be Congregational ministers living in Connecticut.

gious dogma, yet inspired scores of students to consider careers in botany, zoology, geology, and chemistry.

open to women;

however it was

not until 1969, that

women were admitted as undergraduates. As the nineteenth century drew to a close, many Yale alumni were among the entrepreneurs of the northeast, the rising industrial aristocracy of America. These alumni made it clear they wanted to see Yale move

toward

Silliman’s students included Amos Eaton, the founder

Through a careful review of the revised charter of 1745, Simeon E. Baldwin, a professor of law at Yale dis-

of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and inventor Eli

covered that the current charter made no reference to

Whitney.

the

ministers, though the charters of 1701 and 1723 had. In

first professor of paleontology at Yale. His uncle, George Peabody, funded the Peabody Museum of Natural History

1881, he read a paper before the New Haven Colonial

which,

Another

completed

student, Othniel

in 1876, houses

Marsh

became

March’s

greatest

memorial, the Dinosaur Hall.

In 1818, Silliman founded and became the first editor of the American Journal of Sciences and Arts. Ironically,

Historical Society, claiming that he “could find no necessity for either the President or another member of Yale Corporation being a clergyman.” By 1910, the clergy lost their majority. As Yale moved into the twentieth century, it experi-

scientific theories advanced by this publication challenged the rigid thinking of Christian orthodoxy, which held to the creationist theory. The scientific age was dawning and Silliman helped its advance.

enced a brief decline in scholarship and a rise in extracur-

The nineteenth century also brought fund drives and expansion to the college. Between 1701 and 1830 the col-

record of 324 victories, 17 losses, and 18 ties. The early 1930s brought the College Plan to Yale, a building boom which provided housing and dining facilities for all upper-classmen (freshmen live on the Old Cam-

lege had received only about $145,000 in total gifts and grants. Yale launched its first major fund drive in 1832. Deficits were wiped out and more than $100,000 was brought into the treasury. That same year, the Trumbull

ricular activities. Football, baseball, crew, and track were

now rigorously disciplined. From 1872 to 1909 in soccer, rugby, and American football, the Yale teams ran up a

pus), together with faculty offices, a master’s house, and a

Gallery was opened; it is considered the first art museum

library. The undergraduate residential college system was financed initially through a gift of Edward S. Harkness.

connected with an educational institution in America.

Modeled

after medieval English universities, primarily

named Dwight. 1856 brought a deed of property from Joseph E. Sheffield, for the use of the scientific school.

Oxford and Cambridge, today 12 residential colleges enable Yale to offer the intimacy of a small college environment as well as the vast resources of a major university. Many other buildings constructed during this period were financed by John W. Sterling whose death in 1918 brought a bequest of $15 million for new buildings, new professorships, and other worthwhile causes. Through his

His gifts, bequests for equipment,

and endowments

generosity the Sterling Chemistry Laboratory, Sterling

exceeded $1 million. The bachelor of law degree was first conferred at Yale in 1843. By 1852, authorization was given to confer the

Hall of Medicine, Sterling Power House, Sterling Memo-

Money raised in 1835 was used to build a dormitory for theology students, and by 1846 a library building

was completed at the cost of $34,000. The Old Library was

in use from

1889 to 1931, now

called Dwight

Memorial Chapel in commemoration of two presidents

rial Library, Sterling Law Building, Sterling Divinity Quadrangle, Sterling Tower, Sterling Quadrangle, and the

degree of bachelor of philosophy, and the same year, a school of engineering was organized. In addition, the

Hall of Graduate Studies were built.

corporation voted in 1860 to establish the degree of doc-

noted that Yale had “a world reputation for excellence.” Time magazine was enthusiastic about “Yale’s whole

tor of philosophy as recommended by the faculty of the scientific school, “to retain in this country many young men, and especially students of Science who now resort to German Universities for advantages of study no

greater than we are able to afford.” In 1864 a professorship of modern languages was established, and the school of fine arts was opened to students in 1869. Yale became a university in 1872.

During Yale’s 250th celebration, in 1951, Newsweek

interlocking curriculum, where psychiatrists teach in the law school, physicists rub elbows with philosophers, engineers teach in the medical school. At 250 years, Yale is more than ever what it has taken pride in being—a teaching institution.” From 1950 to 1963, Yale’s endowment jumped from

$121 million to $375 million under the leadership of

YALE UNIVERSITY President A. Whitney Griswold, and 26 buildings worth over $75 million were in process or completed when he died. The Yale of today, despite financial belt tightening, maintains its world-class reputation for excellence, while

upholding (some would say “revelling in’) tradition.

Further Reading: Hiram Bingham’s Elihu Yale, The American Nabob of Queen Square (New York: Dodd Mead, 1939)

is an authoritative biography that includes an outline of the Yale family involvement in New Haven and the college.

727

olution Bicentennial Commission of Connecticut, Connecticut’s Seminary of Sedition: Yale College, by Louis Leonard Tucker (Chester, Connecticut: Pequot Press, 1974)

explores Yale’s involvement in the Revolutionary era of 1763 to 1787. Yale: A History, by Brooks Mather Kelly (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974) studies the survival of the college as a center for intellectual life. School of the Prophets, Yale College, 1701-1740, by Richard

Warch

(New

Haven,

Connecticut:

Yale

University

Press, 1973) deals primarily with the religious dimensions of the school and the society surrounding it.

Yale, A Pictorial History, by Ruben A. Holden (New Haven,

Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1967) traces Yale from its beginnings in a small Connecticut farmhouse to the university of the late 1960s. A publication of the American Rev-

—Genevieve C. Fraser

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INDEX

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INDEX Entries in boldface indicate article titles.

Aalborg, Denmark, 3-5 Aalborg University, 3-5

Aalto, Alvar, 262

Act of 1820 (United States), 549 Act of Union of 1800 (Great Britain and

Ireland), 483-84

Alabama, United States, 690

Al-Afghani, 11-12 Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition (1909;

Aarhus, Jutland, Denmark, 6-8

Acton, Sir Harold, 303

Aarhus Oliefabrik, 8 Aarhus Technical School. See Aarhus

Adalbert, archbishop of Mainz, 553

Al-Azhar Mosque, Cairo, Egypt, 10, 12

Adam, Robert, 493

Al-Azhar University, 9-13

Adams, Henry Carter, 229

Albany Medical College, 57

Adams, Herbert Baxter, 229, 230

Albany, New York, United States, 379, 381

Adams, John, 187, 189, 590 Adams, John Quincy, 189

Albemarle Academy, 663

University Aarhus University, 6-8 Aaron Copland School of Music (Queens College), 92 AAU. See Association of American

Universities Abbey House. See St. Mary’s College

Adams, Ruth M., 712 Adams, Sir Walter, 527

Washington), 674

Albert III, archduke of Austria, 660 Albert V, duke of Bavaria, 254

Albert VI, archduke of Upper Austria, 14

Addams, Jane, 462, 693

Albert VII, archduke of Austria, 530

Abbot Hall (Michigan State University), 272 Abdullah, Shaikah, 19

Addenbrooke, John, 448 Addenbrooke’s Hospital (University of Cambridge), 448

Albert Ludwigs University, 14-17, 140 Albert Nerken School of Engineering (Cooper

Abe Isoo, 132

Addison, Joseph, 578

Albert of Brandenburg, 253

Abel, J.J., 231

Albert, prince Consort of Great Britain, 449

Abelard, Peter, 582

“Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation” (Luther), 258

Abele, Julian, 138

Ade, George, 335

Alberta, Canada, 268, 415

Aberdare Committee Report of 1881 (Wales),

Adelbart College, 71

Albertus Magnus, 383, 472, 583

669 Aberdeen, Scotland, 412-16

Adenauer, Konrad, 179

Albrecht. See Albert

Adler, Dankmar, 205

“Aberdeen doctors,” 414

Administration Building. See Denny Hall

Albrecht, W.A., 178 Albright, Madeline, 711

(University of Durham)

Aberdeen University. See University of Aberdeen Aberstwyth University College. See

University of Wales Aberystwyth, Wales, 668, 670, 671 abolitionism, 69, 81, 313, 315

Abramovitz, Max, 510 Abu Ali al-Husein ibn Sina. See Avicenna Abucasis Codex, 249 Abzug, Bella, 90

(University of Washington)

Adoration of the Magi (Rubens painting), 447 adult continuing education, 272, 273, 298,

341, 462, 494, 527,711 Advani, L.K., 226 Aeronautical Research Council of Great

Union), 116

Albert University, London (proposed), 525

Alcacgova Palace, Coimbra, Portugal, 469 Alcala de Henares, Spain, 109, 110, 247,

420-22 Alcala University. See University of Alcala de Henares Alcindor, Lew (Kareem Abdul Jabbar), 441

Alcobagas, Portugal, 468

Britain, 393

Aeronautical Research Institute (University of

Tokyo), 650

Alcock, John, bishop of Ely, 447

Aldrich, Daniel G., Jr., 442

Academic Development Program (University

Aesthesian Literacy Society (Cornell College), 120

of Cape Town), 459 Academic Hall (University of Missouri), 549,

Africa, 459, 505, 519, 527, 531 African Methodist Episcopal Church, 31

550 Academic Hall (Washington University), 701

Afro-American Society, 129

Alexander III, emperor of Russia, 282

Agassiz, Elizabeth Cary, 339, 340

Alexander IV, pope, 420, 583, 607

Academy of Geneva. See University of

Agricultural College of Michigan. See

Alexander V, pope, 246, 417

Michigan State University Agricultural Extension Service. See Cooperative Agricultural Extension

Alexander VI, pope, 412, 656, 659

Service Agriculture Hall (University of California, Berkeley), 438 Aguero, Juan, 432 Ainsworth Gymnasium (Smith College), 371

Alfonso III, king of Portugal, 468 Alfonso V “the Magnanimous,” king of

Aix-en-Provence, France, 417-19

Alfonso XII, king of Spain, 111

Aix-Marseille University. See University of

Alhambra, Granada, Spain, 502, 504

Geneva

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, 67, 621 Academy of Nancy, 386 Academy of Paris, 585

Academy Park (Purdue University), 337 Accademia dei Fisiocritici, Siena, Italy, 617 Accademia del Cimento, Florence, Italy, 617 Accademia delle Belle Arti, Florence, Italy,

496 Acland, Arthur, 670

Act 43 of 1884 (Louisiana), 400

Aix-Marseille

Aldrin, Edwin “Buzz,” 404 Alessandro di Roes, 495 Alexander I, emperor of Russia, 280, 281

Alexander II, emperor of Russia, 282

Alexander, prince of Silesia, 255 Alexander, Shlomo, 706

Aragon, 426, 659 Alfonso X “the Wise,” king of Spain, 607,

612 Ali, Muhammad,

Akamon (University of Tokyo), 648

731

19, 20

Ali, Shaukat, 19, 20

732.

INDEX

ALIGARH GIRL’S SCHOOL

Aligarh Girl’s School. See Aligarh Women’s College Aligarh Muslim University, 18-20

American Sign Language, 170 American Society for Technion, 391

Antioch University, 25-29, 318, 692 apartheid, 456, 458, 645

American Unitarian Church, 235

Apgar, Virginia, 279

Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India, 18-20

Ames, Iowa, United States, 512

Appleton, Sir Edward, 493

Aligarh Women’s College, 19

Ames, Joseph S., 231

All Soul’s College (University of Oxford),

Amherst College, 21-24, 107, 131, 132, 133,

Applied Biosystems, 67 Applied Physics Laboratory (Johns Hopkins

578, 579 Allahabad University, 19 Allegheny College, 117 Allen, David O., 21-22 Allen, Dudley, 316 Allen, Florence E., 73

275, 277, 368, 370, 690, 719, 720 Amherst Collegiate Institute. See Amherst College Amherst Idea, 24

University), 231 APSARA nuclear reactor, 390

Amherst, Lord Jeffrey, 21

Arab-Israeli conflict, 193

Allen, Ira W., 26

Amherst, Massachusetts, United States, 21— 24,277 Amherst System, 23, 24

Aragon. See Spain “Arbeiter-und-Bauren Fakultaéten” (Workers and Peasants Faculties-ABF), 203

Allen Memorial Library (Case Western

Amis, Kingsley, 670-71

Arbuthnot, John, 415

Reserve University), 71 Allen Museum (Oberlin College), 316

Ammer Creek, 142

Allen, George, 313, 315

Aquinas. See Thomas Aquinas Arabic language, 9, 10, 12, 519, 607, 612

Allgemeine Krankenhaus, Vienna, 660

Amritsar massacre (1919), 696

Archbold, W.A.J., 19 Archdale Hall (Guilford College), 181-82, 183 Archdale, John, 181

All-India Council for Technical Education,

Amsden, William F., 88

Archdeacon’s Inn, Durham, England, 486

218 Alpert, George, 46 Alpert, Herb, 622

Amsterdam, Netherlands, 518 AMU. See Aligarh Muslim University “Anchor’s Aweigh” (song), 411

Archer M. Huntington Art Gallery

Alpha Hall (Oregon State University), 325

Andalusia, Andersen, Anderson, Anderson,

Allende, Salvador, 466

Alpha, Indiana, United States, 621 al-Qahirah. See Cairo Alsace, France, 383-87

Alternative Admissions Research Project (University of Cape Town), 459 Altgeld Hall (University of Illinois), 509 Altgeld, Peter, 508 Alumnae Gymnasium (Smith College), 370 Alumnae Hall (Wellesley College), 711 Alumni Memorial Hall (linois Institute of

Technology), 206-7

Amphicyton Literary Society (Cornell College), 120

Spain, 502-5, 612-14 K.B., 3, 4,5 Agnes H., 674 Carl, 66

Anderson, Elizabeth Milbank, 36 Anderson Hall (University of Rochester), 599

Anderson, Indiana, United States, 338 Anderson, John, 628

Anderson, Martin, 599, 600, 601 Anderson, Robert, 83 Anderson Science Museum (Cornell College),

119

(University of Texas at Austin), 633 Ardia, Joseph, 175 Arezzo, Benincasa d’, 615

Arezzo, Italy, 592 Argentina, 432-35, 464, 465, 467 Argentina (Strasbourg fraternity), 386 Argento, Dominick, 547 Argonne National Laboratory (University of Chicago), 463 Arimura, Akira, 401

Aristotle, 222, 258, 469, 530, 556, 681 Arizona State Museum, 425 Arizona, United States, 423-25

Arizona University. See University of Arizona

Alumni Memorial Park (University of Southern California), 621 Alvin Johnson Building (New School for Social Research), 297

Andover, Massachusetts, United States, 131,

Arkansas, United States, 636

187 Andover Theological College, 131, 187

Arles, France, 553 Arlington College. See University of Texas, Arlington

Amakusa Islands, 238 Amakusa Marine Biological Laboratory (Kyushu University), 238

Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, 58

Andreae, Jakob, 141-42 Andrews Hall (Pembroke College), 58

Arlington, Texas, United States, 630, 634 Armagh, Ireland, 482

Andros, Sir Edmund, 725

Armellini, Torquatus, 175

America (origin of name), 15 “America the Beautiful” (Bates), 710

Anfinsen, Christian B., 706

Angell, James B., 228, 541

Arminian heresy, 518, 519, 521 Arminius, Jacobus (Jakob Hermanns), 518

American Association of University Professors, 129

Angers, France, 582

Armour Institute of Technology. See Illinois

American Asylum at Hartford (Connecticut)

Anglican University of Trinity College, Toronto, 653

American Institute of Architects, 666

Anglicanism, 78, 101, 103, 267, 445, 447, 448, 449, 452-55, 482, 484-85, 486, 487, 488, 489, 492, 524, 577, 588, 623, 640, 652, 653, 668, 671, 722, 725. See also Episcopalianism Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, 483 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 912, 576 Angstrém, Anders Jonas, 683 Angstrém, Knut, 683

American Instructors of the Deaf, 170

Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States, 539-43

American Jewish Historical Society, 49

Annals of the University of Chile, 465

American American American American American American

Annapolis Harbor, 408

for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb,

169 American Board of Foreign Missions, 317,

721 American Chemical Journal, 230

American College Testing Program, 513 American Expeditionary Force, 406 American Historical Association, 332

Journal of Archaeology, 230 Journal of Mathematics, 230 Journal of Psychology, 230 Journal of Sciences and Arts, 726 Medical Association, 57 Missionary Association, 30

American Museum of Natural History, New York City, United States, 93 American Popular Revolutionary Alliance, 294 American Revolution, 103, 105, 173, 187,

330, 333, 356, 357, 379, 403, 698, 725-26

Institute of Technology

Armstrong College (University of Durham), 488 Armstrong House (Queens College), 92 Armstrong, Louis, 92

Armstrong, Neil, 335, 622 Army, U.S., 159, 403, 407, 513. See also

United States Military Academy at West Point

Army Air Forces, U.S., 32 Army Signal Corps, U.S., 72 Armny Specialized Training Program, U.S., 44, 176, 377 Arnim, Achim von, 354 Arno River, 592

Annapolis, Maryland, United States, 360-63, 407, 408-11 Annapolis Naval Academy. See United States Naval Academy

Amold, Henry (“Hap”), 407

Anne of Bohemia, queen consort of England,

Arrhenius, Svante August, 683-84

76 Anne, queen of Great Britain, 363, 492 Annenberg Institute for School Reform, 59

Arrow, Kenneth, 87 Arroya, Martina, 90 Ars versificandi et carminum (Celtis), 247

Annenberg, Walter, 706

Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and

Annex (University of Virginia), 666 Anthony, Susan B., 341, 601

Amold, Benedict, 403

Amold, Benjamin L., 323, 324, 326

Research Institute (Ohio State University), 321

INDEX

BELLAY

Artistengakulat, 246 Arts Center of Christchurch Trust,

Baden Revolution, 355 New

Zealand, 455

Baden-Wiirttemberg, Germany, 14-17, 353-

55

733

Bartoli, Adolfo, 496 Baruch College (City University of New York), 92

Asa Candler Library (Emory University), 159

Badham, Charles, 626

Bascom, John, 678-79

Ash, Herbert, 129

Baerwald, Alexander, 391

Asher, Helen and Norman, 706 Ashley River, 83

Baeyer, Adolf, 387 Bagley, Daniele, 672

Bascom Hall (University of Wisconsin), 680 Basel, Switzerland, 529

Ashmolean Museum (University of Oxford),

Bailey Hall (Illinois Institute of Technology),

578

Basel University. See University of Basel Basilian Fathers, 653 Basque, Spain, 610

Asia Foundation, 79

207 Bailey, Joseph A., 32

Asimov, Isaac, 45

Bain, Wilfred, 215

Bas-Rhin, France, 383 Bassett Affair, 137

Assembly Hall (University of Illinois), 510

Baker Memorial Library (Dartmouth

Bassett, John Spencer, 137, 139

Associated Kyoto Program (Doshisha University), 133

College), 128

Bateman, Edward La Trobe, 536

Baker, Newton D., 71

Bateman, Harry, 65

Bakke, Allan, 443

Bateman, Merrill J., 55

Bakunin, Michael, 282

Bateman, William, bishop of Norwich, 445

Association of Chinese Christian Universities,

Balch, Emily Green, 62

78 Astray, Millan, 610 AT&T, 128

Baldsham, Hugh de, bishop of Ely, 445

Baldwin, Alice, 138 Baldwin, Isaac, 399

Bates, Katherine Lee, 710 Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States, 398 Battles. See names of individual battles Bauhaus school, 206

Atkins, Smith B., 565

Baldwin, James, 297

Baum, Herbert, 202

Atlanta Baptist Home Mission Society, 31

Baldwin, Roger, 652

Baum, Johann Wilhelm, 386

Atlanta, Georgia, United States, 30-33, 156-

Baldwin, Simeon E., 726

Baumgarten, Sandor, 251

59 Atlanta University Center, 30-33 Atomic Energy Establishment. See Bhabha

Balfour Declaration (1917), 190, 705

Baur, Ferdinand Christian, 141

Ballantine, Duncan, 347

Bavaria, Germany, 246, 253, 253-55 Beadle, George, 66

Association of American Universities, 54,

273, 359, 622

Atwood, Margaret, 655

Balliol College (University of Oxford), 577, 579 Balliol, John de, 577 Ballou, Hosea II, 395

Au Wei-Kuo (David W.K. Au), 78

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), 228,

Atomic Research Centre Attlee, Clement, 579

Aubert, Louis Urbain, marquis de Tourny, 490 AUC. See Aalborg University Auckland, New Zealand, 452, 454 Audley, Lord, 447 Audubon, John James, 436, 510

Augusta Academy. See Washington and Lee University

Augusta, Georgia, United States, 31 Augustinians, 256, 257, 292-93, 480, 609 Ausonius, 429 Austin Hall (Harvard University), 188 Austin, Texas, United States, 630-35

Australia, 452, 536-38, 623~29 Austria, 142, 377, 530, 660-62 Austro-Hungarian War (1848), 594 Autonomous Metropolitan University, 286

Autonomous University of Barcelona. See

University of Barcelona Autonomous University of Mexico. See National Autonomous University of Mexico

230 Baltimore, Maryland, United States, 228-32

Beal, William J., 272 Beam, Alex, 342-43

Bean, Alan L., 622 Beard, Charles, 295, 297

Beattie, James, 415 Beaufort, Lady Margaret, 447

Balzac, Honoré de, 596 Bamberg, Germany, 474

Beaufort, North Carolina, United States, 139

Bancroft, George, 408 Banerji, Jamini Nath, 170-71

University), 270, 272 Beauregard, P.G.T., 406

Banff, Scotland, 412

Beaux Arts architecture, 36

Bangalore, India, 388

Bebel, Heinrich, 140

Bangladesh, 695

Beccadelli, Antonio, 617

Bangor University College (University of

Bechervaise, John, 538

Wales), 671

Bangor, Wales, 668, 670, 671 Bansho Shiribaseho, 647 Banting, Frederick, 654

Baptist Education Society, 460 Baptists, 31, 56, 460, 506, 523, 578, 599, 690, 691, 692 Barany, Robert, 683

Beaumont Tower (Michigan State

Beck, Theodore, 19 Beckett, Samuel, 483

Beckman, Armold O., and Mabel M. Beckman, 510

Beckman Institute (California Institute of

Technology), 67 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and

Technology (University of Illinois), 510

Barca, Calderon de la, 609

Beckmann, Johann, 178

Barcelona, Spain, 426-28, 658 Barcelona University. See University of

Becquerel, Henri, 155 Bedford College (University of London), 524,

525, 528

Avellanada Law of 1885 (Argentina), 432 Avicenna, 553, 555 Avignon, France, 604

Barcelona Bard, Samuel, 105 Bardeen, John, 509

Avignon papacy. See Great Schism of 1378

Barkley, Alben, 156

Beech, Harvey, 566 Beerbohm, Sir Max, 577

Axelrod, Julius, 87 Ayers, Frederick, 30 Ayres, Brown, 401 Azevedo, Fernando de, 164

Barnard Bear, 36

Behring, Emil von, 329

Barnard Center for Research on Women, 37

Beida. See Beijing University

Barnard College, 34-37, 106, 295, 400

Beijing, China, 38-42, 226 Beijing University, 38-41

Bamard, Frederick A.P., 34, 106-7 Barnard, Henry, 362

Babcock, Barbara, 712

Barr, Stringfellow, 362

Babukhin, I.A., 282

Barrie, James M., 604 Barringer, Emily Dunning, 125 Barrows, David Prescott, 439

Babylonish Captivity (Luther), 584

Bach, Johann Sebastian, 247 Bachman, Werner, 542

Bedford Park, Illinois, United States, 205, 208

Beirmann (German singer), 203 Beit, Alfred, 643

Beit, Otto, 643, 644 Belafonte, Harry, 298

Barry, Sir Redmond, 536, 538

Belfast, Ireland, 288 Belgium, 376, 529-32

Bacon, Francis, 448

Barsch, Helmut, 390

Bell, Alexander Graham, 43

Bacon Hall (University of California, Berkeley), 438

Bartholin, Caspar, 477

Bell, Alphonzo, 439

Bartholin, Erasmus, 477

Bell, Carolyn Shaw, 711

Bacon, H.D., 438

Bartholin family, 477, 478 Bartholin, Thomas, 477

Bell, Derrick A., Jr., 188-89

Bacon, Roger, 583

Bellay, Joachin du, 596

734

BELLO

INDEX

Bello, Andrés, 464

Bibliotheca Albertina, 247

Bobst Library (New York University), 302

Beloit College, 95

Bickerton, Alexander William, 452

Boccaccio, 495

Benard, Emile Henry, 438

Biel, Gabriel, 140

Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), 578

Bender, Eugene L., 351

Biermann, Wolf, 203 Big Ten Conference, 216, 310, 312, 335, 547 Bihar, India, 210

Boeckmann, H.F. II, 622

Bilbao, Spain, 428 Bilderdijk, Willem, 520

Boerhaave, Hermann, 519

Billings Hall (Wellesley College), 711

Bohemian Estate, 76

Bengal, 695-97

Billings, Hammatt, 708

Bohm-Bawerk, Eugen, 662

Bengel, Johann Albrecht, 141

Billings, John Shaw, 230

Ben-Gurion, David, 391, 393, 706

Binford, Raymond, 183-84

Bohmer, G.L., 177 Bohr, Niels, 333, 388, 478-79

Bennett, Augustus G., 83 Bennett, Lerone, 31

Bing, Sir Rudolf, 662

Boie, H.C., 179

Bingham, Kingsley S., 270

Bois de Lauzelle, Louvain-la-Neuve,

Bennett, William, 721

Binghamton, New York, United States, 381

Bennington, Vermont, United States, 718

Binni, Walter, 497

Bent, Silas, 552 Bentham, Jeremy, 524

Biot, Jean-Baptiste, 152

Benedict XI, pope, 594 Benedict XIII, pope, 604, 607 Benedictines, 447, 578, 583 Benes, Eduard, 77 Benes of Weitmil, 75

Benton County, Oregon, United States, 324

Birbeck College (University of London),

525-26

Boeing, William E., 674 Boeninger, Edgardo, 465

Bohemia. See Czech Republic

Belgium, 532 Bok, Derek, 189 Boleslaw the Brave, 220

Bologna, Italy, 72, 495, 592, 594 Bologna University. See University of Bologna

Benton, Thomas Hart, 297

Birbeck, George, 526

Bentsen, Lloyd, 632 Beppu, Japan, 238

Birbeck Laboratory (University College, London), 524, 526, 527

Bergson, Henri, 150 Berkeley, California, United States, 436,

Bird, Owen, 622

Bolshevik Revolution. See Russian Revolution of 1917

Birds of America (Audubon), 510

Boltenhagen, Johannes, 246

Birmingham, England, 527, 535

Bolton, Anne J., 453

Birmingham University. See University of Birmingham Bishop, Elizabeth, 694 Bishop Hatfield’s Hall (University of

Bombay Association, 558

437-38, 439, 441, 442, 443

Berkeley, George, 436 Berkeley Library (University of Dublin Trinity College), 483

Berlin (ship), 131-32 Berlin Blockade (1948), 167

Berlin Free University, 203

Durham). See Hatfield College Bismarck, Otto von, 201, 386

Berlin, Germany, 167-68, 200-204, 474

Biswas, D., 219

“Berlin Secession,” 202 Berlin University. See Humboldt University

Bizet, Georges, 614

Berlin Wall, 168, 200, 203 Berman, Hugo, 77 Bern, Switzerland, 160

Black Action Movement, 542 “Black Board” (“Schwarzes Brett”), 257 Black Death and Men of Learning

(Campbell), 555

Bernal, J.D., 526

Black, Joseph, 492, 499

Bernard Baruch College (City University of New York), 92 Bernard Price Institute for Geophysical

Black Officers Training Camp, 197 Black Power Committee, 198

Research (University of Witwatersrand),

645 Bernard, St., 553 Bernardino, St., 617

Bernegger (Strasbourg University professor), 385

Black Student Union (Amherst College), 23 Black Students Union (Claremont Colleges),

97 Blackall, Clarence, 510 Blackett, Edmund, 625

Blackett, Lord (Patrick Maynard Stuart), 526 “Blackett’s Circus” (University of London),

Bolpur, West Bengal, India, 697

Bombay, India. See Mumbai, Maharashtra,

India

Bombay University. See University of Mumbai

Bonaparte, Louis. See Louis Bonaparte Bonaparte, Napoléon. See Napoléon I, emperor of France Bonaventure, St., 583 Bonbright, Daniel, 310

Bond, Julian, 31 Bonham, Texas, United States, 632 Boniface IX, pope, 220 Bonn, Germany, 472, 474

Boody, Azariah, 599 Book of Durrow, 482 Book of Kells, 482

Book on the Right Method of Founding Schools for Literary Education (Sturm),

364 Boole, George, 290

Boole Library (University College, Cork), 290

Bernstein, Leonard, 48, 49

$26 Blackmore, Sir Richard, 725

Berquin, Louis de, 584

Bladen, Thomas, 360

Besso, Michelangelo, 162 Best, Charles H., 654

Biaha, John, 335

Boone, Daniel, 549

Blaine, James G., 175 Blair, James, 101

Booth, Lydia, 690

Blair School of Music (Vanderbilt

Borch, Ole, 477

Bernhardt, Sarah, 438

Bethlehem Chapel, Prague, Czech Republic, 75,76 Bethune, John, 267

University), 689

Boone County, Missouri, United States, 549,

552

Bora, Katharina von, 258 Bordeaux, France, 429-31

Betts, S.R., 301

Blaisdell, James A., 95, 96, 97

Beutelsbach, Germany, 377

Blake, George, 410

Beveridge, William, 525 Bexell, John Andrew, 325

Blanche of Castille, regent of France, 582

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, 390

Blasco, Vincente, 658

Bhabha, Homi, 388, 389-90

Blind Institute. See Texas School for the Blind

Borlaug, Norman, 211, 547 Borman, Frank, 404 Bom, Max, 160, 179 Borner, Caspar, 247

Bhandarkar Oriental Institute, 559 Bhandarkar, Ramkrishna Gopal, 560, 599

Blixen, Karen (Isak Dinesen), 8 Bloch, Felix, 377

Borschs Kollegium (University of of Copenhagen), 477

Bhavan, Kala, 696

Block-Lainé Commission of 1969 (France),

Bosch, George Henry, 627

Bhavan, Sangit, 696

146 Bloomfield, Maurice, 229

Bose, Nadalal, 696

Bialik, Chayim Nachman, 191 Biancozzo de’ Nerli, Francesco di, 495

Bloomington, Illinois, United States, 506

Boston, Massachusetts, United States, 42-45,

biblical exegesis, 179, 421, 447, 529

Bloustein, Edward J., 359

Biblioteca Palatina, 353

“Blue Books” of 1847 (Wales), 668

Bhopal, India, 18

Blanding, Sarah Gibson, 693

Bloomington, Indiana, United States, 213-16

Bordeaux University. See University of Bordeaux

Boston Dental College. See Tufts University 131, 187, 304-7, 395 Boston Tech. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology

INDEX

BUTENANDT

735

Boston Theological Seminary. See Boston University

Brentano, Clemens, 327, 354 Brentano, Kunigunde, 327

Bryan Hall (Guilford College), 184

Boston University, 34, 42-45, 304 Boston Young Men’s Christian Association,

Breyer, Stephen, 378

Bryn Mawr College, 34, 35, 36, 37, 60-63,

Brichford, Maynard, 509

304_5, 306, 307 Bosworth, Welles, 262 Botanic Garden (University of Oxford), 578 Botanicum (Uppsala University), 684

Bricker, John, 506

370, 693 Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, United States, 60-63 BU. See Boston University Buber, Martin, 190

Bothell, Washington, United States, 675 Boucher, Claude, 430

Briggs, Le Baron Russell, 340

Bouju, Jean-Marc, 632 Bourbon dynasty, 149, 385, 426, 657 Bourjaily, Vance, 514 Bousset, Johann Franz Wilhelm, 179

Bouve/Boston’s College of Education and Physical Therapy, 306 Bovard Administration Building (University

Bridge of Sighs (St. John’s College, Cambridge), 449

Briggs, Charles Augustus, 332 Brigham Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 278 Brigham, Mary, 278 Brigham Young Academy. See Brigham Young University Brigham Young University, 51-55 Brigham Young University Press, 54

Bryan, William Lowe, 215

Bucer, Martin, 383 Buchanan, Franklin, 408, 410 Buchanan, George, 604

Buchanan, James, 82-83 Buchanan, Scott, 362 Buckley, Peter, 114

Buckley, William F., Jr., 363

Brightman, Edgar, 43

Buda Castle, 249

Brimhall, George H., 53

of Southern California), 621 Bovard, Freeman D., 621

Brinckerhoff, Mrs. Van Wyck, 36

Bristol, England, 527

Buda, Hungary, 251 Buda University, 249 Budapest, Hungary, 249-52

Bovard, George F., 621

Britain. See England; Great Britain; Scotland;

Budapest University. See Lorand Eétvés

Bovard, Marion P., 621

Bowdoin College, 344 Bowdoin Prize (Harvard College), 342 Bowman Alumni House (Stanford University), 377

Bowman, George Bryant, 117-20 Bowman, Isaiah, 231

Bowman-Carter Hall (Comell College), 119 Bowne, Borden Parker, 43

Wales

British Columbia, Canada, 267, 268 British Copyright Act of 1801, 483 British Institute, Paris, 527 British Isles. See England; Great Britain; Ireland; Scotland; Wales British Museum, London, England, 524, 526 British North America Act of 1867, 653

University Budde, Karl, 328 Buell, Don Carlos, 406

Buenos Aires, Argentina, 432-35 Buenos Aires University. See University of Buenos Aires Buffalo, New York, United States, 381

Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, 585

British Postgraduate Medical Federation, 526

Bugenhagen, Johan, 256, 258, 475

Bowsher, Charles, 510

Brockenbrough, John, 699

Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, 231

Boxer Rebellion of 1900, 38, 315, 317

Brodetsky, Selig, 192

Boyd, David F., 398

Brodhead, Jacob, 300

Boylan, William, 91 Boyle, Robert, 101, 102, 103

Bromfield Street Methodist Church, Boston,

Bullock, Henry, 158 Bulnes, Manuel, 464 Bultmann, Rudolf, 328 Bulwinkle, Alfred, 197

Boyne, Battle of (1690), 482

Bronfman, Edgar M., 706

Bumstead, Horace, 30

Boynton, Charles, 195

Bronk, Detlov, 231-32

Bunche, Ralph, 198, 441

Brackenridge, George, 632

Bronx Community College (City University

Bunji Mano, 238

Brackett, Cyrus Fogg, 332

Massachusetts, United States, 42

of New York), 92

Bunker Hill, 726

Bradley, Alva, 316 Bradley, Omar, 403, 407 Brady, James, 510

Bronx, New York, United States, 88, 90, 92

Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, 329, 355

Brookings Hall (Washington University), 703 Brookings Institution, 703

Burckhardt, Jacob, 161

Burdick, Joel, 67

Brafferton (College of William and Mary), 102, 103

Brookings, Robert, 702, 703 Brooklyn (battleship), 82, 83

Burger, G.A., 179 Burgess, Ernest, 462

Bragdon, Paul, 347, 348

Brooklyn College, New York, 90-92

Burgess, John W., 107

Brahe, Tycho, 77, 476

Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic

Burgh, Thomas, 483 Burghausen, Germany, 254

Brahmo Vidalaya, 695

Institute, 690, 692

Brandeis, Louis D., 46

Brooklyn, New York, United States, 90-92

Burgundy, France, 584

Brandeis Seminars, 50

Burlington House (University of London),

Brandeis University, 46-50

Brooks, W.K., 229, 230 Brosnon, Walter C., 58

Brandis, Marcus, 247

Brougham, Henry, 523, 524

524 Burmham and Root, 205

Brando, Marlon, 298

Brown, Edmund G., 442

Burnham, Daniel, 205, 461

Brandon, John, 566

Brown family, 56-57

Burns, James A., 569

Brandt, Nathan, 315

Brown, Francis, 126, 127 Brown, Harold, 67

Burnside, Ambrose, 406 Bun, Aaron, Jr., 330

Branner, John Casper, 376 Branscomb (Vanderbilt University chancellor), 688

Brown, Herbert, 336

Burr, Aaron, Sr., 330

Brown, John, 56

Burrill, Thomas J., 508

Brasenose College (University of Oxford), 578, 579

Brown, John Carter, 57 Brown, Joseph, 56, 57

Burrough, James, 448

Braun, Ferdinand, 329

Brown, Nicholas, 57

Bursa (Eberhard Karls University of

Braunau, Germany, 254 Bray, Hubert, 350 Bray, Thomas, 363 Brazil, 164-66, 470

Brown University, 56—59, 278, 370, 690

Tiibingen), 140, 141 Burton, Marion LeRoy, 371, 546

Breaking Away (film), 216 Breasted, James Henry, 462 Brecht, Bertolt, 203 Breen-Phillips Hall (University of Notre Dame), 569

Brennan, Christopher, 627 Brentano, Bettina, 327

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954, United States), 198, 401, 551 Brown, Wesley, 411 Browne, Stewart, 90 Brownsville, Texas, United States, 630, 634 Bruce, Robert V., 45

Burrows, James, 316

Burton Hall (Smith College), 371 Burton, Sir Richard, 578

Burton Tower (University of Michigan), 541 Bush, Barbara, 372

Brundage, Avery, 510

Bush, George, 45 Bush, Vannevar, 262

Brunel University (University of London),

Bustamante, F. Bartolome, 614

527 Brussels, Belgium, 529, 530, 531, 532

Bustelo, Francisco, 110

Butenandt, Albert, 329

736

BUTLER

INDEX

Butler, Benjamin F., 302

Canadian Pacific Railway, 267

Butler, Nicholas Murray, 107-8, 295

Cancer Center (University of Rochester), 602

Buttrick, Wallace, 344 Butz, Earl, 335

Candler, Asa G., 158, 159 Candler, Warren Akin, 158

BYU. See Brigham Young University

Canfield,

James Hulme, 320

Cannon, Annie Jump, 710 Cabot Physical Education Center (Northeastern University), 306 Cachan, France, 148, 151

Cadet Chapel (United States Military

Academy at West Point), 403 Cai Yuan-pei, 38-39 Cairo, Egypt, 9-13 “Caius” (pseud. of John Keys), 448 Cajetan, Cardinal (Tommaso de Vio), 257

Calcutta, India, 19, 524, 558, 695 Calcutta University. See University of Calcutta

Cannon Green (Princeton University), 333

Carver, Raymond, 514 Casa de Espaiia. See College of Mexico Casaubon, Isaac, 556

Case Institute of Technology. See Case Western Reserve University Case, Leonard, Jr., 71-72 Case Western Reserve University, 69-73 Casimir the Great, king of Poland, 220

Canterbury, archbishop of, 447, 448, 577, 636, 640 Canterbury Association, 452-55 Canterbury College. See University of Canterbury Canterbury Collegiate Union. See University of Canterbury Cantlie, James, 415 Canton Overseas College. See Chinese University of Hong Kong

Castro, Fernando de, 111

Cap and Gown Club (Princeton University),

Castro, Paolo di, 617

332

Casper, Gerhard, 378

Caspersen, Sven, 4, 5

Castile. See Spain Castilho, Anténio, 470

Castilian language, 427, 428 Castilla, de (family), 285 Castillon, Battle of (1453), 430 Castle (Uppsala University), 684

Catalan language, 427, 428

Caldwell, Joseph, 564, 565 Caldwell Monument (University of North Carolina), 565 Caldwell, Samuel, 692, 693

Cape Town, South Africa, 456-59, 642, 644

Catalano, Eduardo, 262

Cape Town University. See University of Cape Town

Caldwell, Sarah, 44

Capotius, Priamus, 247

Calero, Adolfo, 312

Cardenas, Lazaro, 99 Cardiff, Wales, 668-71, 670, 671

Catalonia, Spain, 426-28, 610 Catania, Spain, 426 Catharine Hall (University of Cambridge). See St. Catharine’s College

California College of Medicine, 442 California Institute of Technology, 64-68,

97, 120 California State University, 685

California, United States, 25, 28, 64-68, 9498, 373-78, 411, 436-44, 619-22 Calixtus III, pope, 109

Carlin, John, 169

Cathedral of Cologne, 472

Carlos II, king of Spain, 421

Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris. See Notre

Carlos III, king of Spain, 614, 658 Carlos IV, king of Spain, 614

Dame Cathedral Cathedral of Pisa, 592

Carlton, Australia, 536, 537

Cathedral School, Mumbai, India, 388

Carmelites, 445

cathedral schools of Notre Dame, Paris,

Calkins, Mary Whiton, 710

Carmen (Bizet opera), 614

Calle Atocha Hospital, Madrid, Spain, 110

Carmen Hall (Illinois Institute of

Callimachus, 222

Caltech. See California Institute of Technology

Cathays Park, Cardiff, 670

Technology), 207

France, 582

Catherine II, empress of Russia, 280 Catherine de Médicis, queen of France, 584

Carmichael, Leonard, 395

Catherine of Alexandria, St., 517

Carnegie, Andrew, 94, 115-16, 137, 183, 231, 316, 340, 711

Catherine of Aragon, queen consort of

Calvin, John, 160, 383, 385, 490, 516, 518, 556 Calvinism, 21, 77, 259, 331, 353, 383, 385, 516, 518, 520, 530, 556

Carnegie Commission, 397 Carnegie Corporation, 65, 72, 104

Catherine of Braganza, queen consort of England, 558 Catholic University, Dublin. See University College, Dublin

Cam River, 445, 449

Camegie Library (Oberlin College), 316 Carnegie Research I University, 325 Camot, Hippolyte, 144 Carnot, Sadi, 154 Carola Woerishoffer Graduate Department of Social Economy and Social Research

Calvert, Cecil, 360

Camegie Foundation, 65, 325, 569, 703 Camegie Institution, 231, 395, 441

England, 420

Catholic University of Chile, 465, 466

Camden, New Jersey, United States, 356, 359 Camées, Luis de, 468

Carolina Rediviva (Uppsala University), 684 Carolingian dynasty, 580 Carolinska Academien (Uppsala University), 684

Catholicism, 14-16, 37, 44, 72, 74, 75-76, 142, 149, 150, 173, 176, 190, 241-45, 247, 249, 253-55, 256-57, 265, 285, 288, 290, 292, 353-54, 385, 412, 420-22, 426— 27, 445, 447-48, 449, 465, 466-67, 469, 472-174, 475, 477, 480, 481, 482, 484, 485, 502-4, 516, 523, 527, 529, 530, 53132, 555-57, 567-71, 578, 582-85, 604, 607, 609-10, 617, 623, 652, 653, 655, 656-57, 658, 660-61, 681

Camp Matthews (California), 441

Carolinum, Prague, Czech Republic, 74, 75,

Cattell, James McKeen, 295

Camaron, Jose and Manuel, 658 Cambridge, England, 445-51, 576

Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, 44, 185-89, 260-64, 339-43 Cambridge Platonists, 448 Cambridge University. See University of Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 447

Campanile Way (University of California, Berkeley), 436

Campbell (Rutgers president), 358 Campbell, Anna M., 555

Campbell Hall (Michigan State University), 272 Campbell, Thomas, 523 Campbell, William Wallace, 439

(Bryn Mawr College), 62

76,77 Carothers, Wallace, 510

Carpenter Fine Arts Building (Dartmouth

College), 128 Carr, James Dickson, 354

Carr, Julian, 137 Carr, M.L., 184

Cavanaugh Hall (University of Notre Dame),

569 Cavanaugh, John W., 569, 570 Cavendish Laboratory (University of Cambridge), 388, 449, 450, 535 Cavendish College (University of Cambridge), 449 Cavendish, Lucy, 450 Cavendish, William, duke of Devonshire,

Campion Hall (University of Oxford), 578

Carrillo, Alfonso, 109 Carroll Barrister (St. John’s College), 363

Campos, Alonso de, 613

Carroll, Charles, 360

Campus of the First State University

Carroll, Charles, the Barrister, 364 Carroll, John, 173, 174

Cedar Falls, Iowa, United States., 512 Celsius, Anders, 683

Canaani, Eki, 706

Carson, Sir Edward, 484, 485

Celtic studies. See Irish language

Canada, 241-45, 265-69, 390, 524, 652-55

Carstares, William, 492 Carter Center (Emory University), 156

Celtis, Conrad (Conrad Pickel), 222, 247,

Carter, Jimmy, 156 Carthusians, 555

Center for American Studies (Doshisha

(Henderson), 563

Canadian Institute for the Energies and Applied Research (Weizmann Institute of Science), 706

449

254, 660 University), 133

CITY UNIVERSITY

INDEX Center for Humanities and Social Sciences (Uppsala University), 684

Charles VIII, king of France, 556

Center for Synchrotron Radiation Research and Instrumentation (Illinois Institute of

Charles Franklin Doe Library (University of

Technology), 207

Charles Albrecht, elector of Bavaria, 255 California, Berkeley), 438

Chinese Communist Party, 40, 41 Chinese language, 78, 674 Chinese University of Hong Kong, 78-80 Chippewa, Battle of, 404

Charles Martel, 553

Chirac, Jacques, 147 Chiron College (Cambridge University), 34

Centers for Disease Control, United States,

Charles River, 44, 185, 188, 260, 262

156, 159 Central Building (Lorand Eétvés University), 251 Central College. See University of Virginia Central Intelligence Agency, United States, 273

Charles the Young Pretender (Bonny Prince Charlie), 492

Chisholm, Shirley, 279

Charles University, 74-77, 220, 221, 246,

Choh Ming Li, 80

472, 473, 660 Charles-Ferdinand University. See Charles University

Chomsky, Avram Noam, 263

Central Library (Lorand Eétvés University),

Charleston, South Carolina, United States,

249, 251 Central Pacific Railroad, 373, 375

Central Technical College, London, 525 Centro Cultural Ricardo Rojas (University of Buenos Aires), 435

Centro Cultural Universitario (National

81-84, 638 Charlotte of Mecklenburg, queen consort of

Great Britain, 356

Charlottesville, Virginia, United States, 663— 67

Chitty, Arthur Benjamin, Jr., 639

Choson dynasty, 364, 366 Chrétien, Jean, 245, 268 Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, England,

486, 576, 578 Christ Church College (University of Oxford), 486, 578, 579 Christ, Judith, 90 Christchurch, New Zealand, 452-55

Charter Day (University of California), 436 Charter of 1561 (England), 448

Christian I, king of Denmark, 475

Cernan, Eugene, 335

Chase, Harry W., 509

Christian IV, king of Denmark, 477

Cervantes, Miguel de, 420

Chase, Samuel, 360 Chase-Stone House (St. John’s College), 362

Christian X, king of Denmark, 7

Autonomous University of Mexico), 287

Cervera, Spain, 426-27 Ceuta, Morocco, 505

Cevera y Topete, Don Pascual, 411

Chaban-Delmas, Jacques, 146

737

Chatelherault, duke of (James Hamilton), 490 Chatham County, North Carolina, United

States, 563-65

Christian IT, king of Denmark, 475

Christian Association (Barnard College),

36-37 Christian Education Society (Ohio), 27 Christianity, 25, 27, 78, 132, 133, 134, 138,

Chadbourne, Paul, 678

Chattanooga, Tennessee, United States, 638

222, 445, 512, 596; See also Catholicism;

Chadrasekhar, Subramanyan, 67

Chauncey, Indiana, United States, 335

Chadwick, Chessie, 316

Chautauqua movement, 546

Protestantism; specific denominations and sects

Chadwick, James, 449 Chaldean language, 607

Chauvenet, William, 408

Christ-Janer, Arland, 45

Cheever, John, 514

Christoffel, Elwin Bruno, 162

Challis bequest (1881), 626

Chelsea College (University of London), 527,

Christopher Newport College, 104 Christown Boys High School, 453

Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 649

Champaign County, Illinois, United States, 506-10 “Chancellor’s Lecture” (University of Cape

528 Chelsea, Massachusetts, United States, 45

Christown Girls High School, 453

Cheminova Company, 8

Christ’s College (University of Cambridge),

Chen Hengzhe (Sophia H. Chen Zen), 38-39

Cherwell River, 576

447

Chandler School of Science and Arts

Chesapeake Bay, 360

(Dartmouth College), 128 Chandra, Bipan, 226

Cheshire, England, 535

Christy, Samuel B., 438 Chung Chi College. See Chinese University of Hong Kong

Chester, Colby M., 410

Chuo University, 235

Chao, Elaine, 279 Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States,

Chester County, Pennsylvania, United States, 590

Church College (University of Cambridge),

135, 137, 181, 182, 563-66 Chapel of Emmanuel College (University of Cambridge), 448

Chestertown, Maryland, United States, 360

Chiang Kai-shek, 39, 40

Church College of Hawaii. See Brigham Young University

Chicago, Illinois, United States, 205-8, 308,

Church of England. See Anglicanism

Chapel of King’s College (University of

311, 460-63, 509 Chicago Institute Teachers’ College, 462 Chicago Manual Training School, 462 Chicago Medical College. See Northwestern University

Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints. See Mormonism

Town), 458

Cambridge), 448 Chapel of Pembroke College (University of Cambridge), 448

Chapel of the Sacred Heart (Georgetown

451

Church of the Canons Regular of St. Victor’s,

582

University), 175 Chapin, Mary W., 277

Chicago School of Architecture, 205

Churchill, Lord Randolph, 577 Churchill, Sir Winston, 450

“Chicago School” of sociology, 462

Churchill College (University of Cambridge),

Chapter House (Uppsala University), 684

Chicago Theological Seminary, 462 Chicago University. See University of

Charbonnel, bishop of Toronto, 653 Charing Cross Hospital (University of

London), 522 Charles I, king of England, 360, 414, 448,

482, 486, 578, 722 Charles I, king of Spain. See Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain as

Chicago Chicago-Kent College of Law. See Illinois Institute of Technology Chi’ien Mu, 78, 79 Child, Julia, 341, 372

450 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency, United States), 273

CIDE (Center of Research and Teaching in Economics), 100

Child, Robert, 722

Cincinnati, Ohio, United States, 304 Cisneros, Francisco Jiménez de. See Jiménez de Cisneros, Francisco

Childe, Gordon, 627

Cisnero’s Tomb (chapel of University of

Charles II, king of England, 482, 522, 558

Childers, Hugh Culling, 536

Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Bohemia, 74, 353, 495, 615

Childs, Ozro William, 619

Alcala de Henares), 421 Cistercians, 247

Charles I

Charles IV, king of Spain, 610

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain as Charles I, 110, 258, 292, 502-4,

516, 609, 617 Charles V, king of France, 583 Charles VII, king of France, 584, 596

Chile, 464-67 China, 38-42, 226, 232, 236, 237, 307, 315, 317, 393, 649, 716; See also Hong Kong; Taiwan

China and the Christian Colleges, (Lutz), 40 Chinese Colleges Joint Council, 80

1850-1950

Citadel, The: The Military College of South Carolina, 81-84 Cité Universitaire (Laval University), 24445

City College of New York, 85-87, 90, 91, 92 City on a Hill (Traub), 85, 93

City University (University of London), 527

738

CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK

City University of New York, 85-93 Brooklyn College, 90-92 City College of New York, 85-87, 90, 91, 92

Cockroft, Sir John, 388, 450 Codex Argenteus, 684

Codex Room (University of Valencia), 659 Codex Sinaiticus, 247

INDEX College of Physicians and Surgeons (Columbia University), 105, 107, 279

College of St. Hild and St. Bede (University of Durham), 489

City University of New York, 92-93 Hunter College, 87-90, 90, 91 Queens College, 92 Civil War, English, 448, 484, 486, 578 Civil War, Spanish, 99, 111, 421, 504, 505, 610, 658 Civil War, United States, 30, 58, 70, 83, 84, 86, 103, 106, 120, 127, 156, 175, 228, 272, 315, 362, 398, 404, 406, 408, 541, 544, 550, 565, 590, 599-600, 631, 636, 639, 665-66, 690, 698 Clafflin, Lee, 42

coeducation, 25, 34, 39, 42, 44, 71, 73, 84, 87, 97, 104, 114, 119, 123, 129-30, 131, 133, 142, 158, 159, 162, 170, 173, 175, 181, 183, 207, 213-14, 230-31, 232, 253-55, 261, 267, 272, 275, 290, 295, 297, 308, 313, 315, 320, 324-25, 329, 335, 337, 351, 362, 368, 371, 375, 376, 377, 395, 400, 407, 411, 437, 439, 449, 450, 451, 453, 454, 460, 478, 484, 493, 499, 511, 525, 537, 541, 551, 560, 561, 570, 578, 591, 601, 604-5, 605-5, 621, 650, 653, 666, 678, 687, 688, 693, 701, 721

Clap, Thomas, 725

coeducational dormitories, 316, 551

Clapp, Margaret, 711, 712 Clare College (University of Cambridge), 445, 448, 450, 451

Coffey, Walter Catella, 547 Coffin, Elihu, 181 Coffman, Lotus Delta, 546, 547

Clare Hall (University of Cambridge), 450

Cohen, Hermann, 327

Clare, Lady Elizabeth de, 445 Claremont, California, United States, 94-98

Cohen, Leonard, 269

College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity. See University of Dublin Trinity College College of the National University of Ireland, 290 College of William and Mary, 101-4, 260, 360, 415, 663 College of Women (University of Manchester), 533 College Plan (Yale University), 726 College Royal de Bourbon. See University of Aix-Marseille Collége Royale (later Collége de France), 584

Cohen, Morris, 87

College Station, Texas, United States, 631

Claremont Colleges, 94-98

Cohen, Saul, 92 Coimbra, Portugal, 468-71

Collegiate Church of Sainte-Geneviéve, Paris, France, 582

“Coimbra question,” 470

Collegiate School, Saybrook, Connecticut.

See Yale University Collegium Georgianum, 254 Collegium Sapientiae (Albert Ludwigs

Clark, Burton, 346

Coimbra University. See University of Coimbra Cold War, 203, 263 Cole Library (Cormell College), 119 Cole, William, 130

Clark College. See Atlanta University Center

Colegio de México. See College of Mexico

Clark, Eleanor, 694

Clarke, Alexander, 511

Colegio de San Miguel, Seville, 612 Colegio Mayor (University of Seville), 612 Colegio Mayor de San Idelfonso (University of Alcala de Henares), 421 Colegio y Universidad de Santa Maria de Jesus. See University of Seville

Clarke, Edward Bramswell, 236 Clarke, John, 368

Coleman, John, 716 Coleman, Lindal Hill, 400

Clarke School for the Deaf, 368 Classical Letters (Sturm), 364

Colgate University, 599

Cologne University. See University of Cologne

Collection of Ancient Art (Aarhus

Colonial Club (Princeton University), 332

Clement V, pope, 555, 572, 607

University), 8 College, Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. See University of Pennsylvania College Building (University of

Colovin, Patrick J., 568

Claremont Graduate School. See Claremont Colleges Claremont McKenna College. See Claremont Colleges Claremont University Center. See Claremont Colleges

Clark, Mrs. James F., 71 Clark, Joseph, 360

Clark Memorial Building (Doshisha University), 132

Clement VI, pope, 74, 495, 592

Clement VI, pope, 353, 502-3, 617 Clement XIV, pope, 173

Clement, Rufus, 32 Clementium, Prague, Czech Republic, 76

Pennsylvania), 588, 589

College of San Ildefonso. See Complutense University of Madrid College of South Jersey. See Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey, Camden College of Staten Island (City University of New York), 92

University), 14

Colligan, Eugene, 88 Collingwood College (University of Durham), 489 Colloquies (Erasmus), 584

“Colloquy of Marburg,” 327 Colm, Gerhard, 297

COLMEX. See College of Mexico Cologne Cathedral, 472 Cologne, Germany, 222, 259, 472-74

Colt, Samuel, 302

Columbia County, Missouri, United States, $52 Columbia Institution. See Gallaudet University Columbia, Maryland, United States, 28

Cleveland College, 71

Collége de France (formerly Collége Royale), 584

Cleveland, Ohio, United States, 69-73

College de Marine, St. Petersburg, 415

Columbia Missourian (newspaper), 552

Cleveland State University, 321

“College for Girls” (Al-Azhar University), 13 College for Women (Western Reserve

Columbia Review Committee, 35

Clermont-Ferrand, France, 387

Cleveringa, R.P., 520

Clinton, Bill, 173, 176, 566, 712, 713 Clinton Hall (New York University), 302 Clinton, Hillary Rodham, 712

Cloister (University of Valencia), 658 Cloister Court (Queen’s College, Cambridge),

447 Cluff, Benjamin, Jr., 53

Clusius, Carolus (Charles l’Ecluse), 519 “cluster college,” 442 Clutenius, Joachim, 385 CNR. See Pisan Institutes for the National Council for Research Cobb, Henry Ives, 460-61 Cobb, James, 197 Cobbe, Richard, 558 Cobden, Richard, 533 Coca Cola Company, 158, 159

University), 71, 400

College of Agriculture (Rutgers University), 354 College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. See University of Missouri

College of California. See University of California

Columbia, Missouri, United States, 549-52 Columbia riots of 1968, 108

Columbia, Tennessee, United States, 636 Columbia University, 34-36, 79, 85-86, 105-8, 108, 115, 124, 128, 279, 295, 300, 344, 346, 436, 552, 688. See also Barnard College Columbus, Christopher, 420, 609

College of Mexico, 99-100

Columbus, Indiana, United States, 338 Columbus, Ohio, United States, 318~21

College of New Jersey. See Princeton

Coman, Catherine, 711

University

Commissariat of Enlightenment (Russia), 283

College of Northern Frontier, 99

Commoner, Barry, 92

College of Pennsylvania. See University of

Commons (Illinois Institute of Technology),

Pennsylvania College of Philadelphia. See University of Pennsylvania College of Physical Science (University of

Durham). See Armstrong College

207 Commons, Harry, 601 Commons, John, 679

Communist Party (China), 40, 41 Communist Party Japan), 650

DALI

INDEX Communist Party (Soviet Union), 283 Communist Party (United States), 91, 128,

298 community colleges (City College of New York), 92-93 Complutense Polygot Bible, 110 Complutense University of Madrid, 10911, 504, 658

Cooper-Hewitt Museum, New York City, United States, 115

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Service, 272, 324 Cooperative Education Consortium of New England, 306

Cranmer, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, 447, 448, S77 Craven, Braxton, 135

Crawford Observatory (University College, Cork), 290 Crawfordsville, Indiana, United States, 336 Creuzer, Friedrich, 354

Compromise of 1850 (United States), 631

cooperative engineering program, 304-7 cooperative extension services. See extension services

Compte, pere (Valencian architect), 656

Cope and Stewardson (architects), 591, 702,

Croce, Benedetto, 496

Compton, Arthur H., 462

Crocus (Croke), Richard, 247

Comstock, Ada Louise, 340-41, 371

703 Copeland, Joseph, 87

Conant, James, 188

Copeland, Patrick, 415

Cromwell, Henry, 482

Concord, Massachusetts, United States, 187

Copenhagen, Denmark, 3-4, 6, 475-79 Copenhagen University. See University of Copenhagen

Cromwell, Oliver, 448, 482, 486, 498

Concord, New Hampshire, United States, 42 Conder, Josiah, 648 Condict, Ira, 358

Confucianism, 364, 647, 648 Congregation of the Holy Cross (CSC), 567— 71 Congregationalism, 94, 105, 126, 131, 185, 187, 195, 267, 578, 724, 726 Congress of Racial Equality, 442 Congress of Vienna (1815), 472 Congressional Act of 1882 (United States),

Copernicus, Nicholas, 220, 609 Copland, Aaron, 49, 297

Corby, William, 568 Corcoran, T., 288 core curriculum, 183, 189 Cori, Carl and Gerty, 703

Creighton, Harriet B., 711 Crick, Francis, 449

Croly, Herbert, 295, 297

Cromwell, Richard, 486

Cromwell, Thomas, 447 Cronkite, Walter, 632 Crookston, Minnesota, United States, 544,

547 Cross, Charles, 262

Crow, Wayman, 701 Crowell, John Franklin, 135, 137

Cork, Ireland, 288, 289, 290

Crozier, D.J.S., 80

Cornell Boarding Association Hall (South Hall), 119

Crusius, Christian August, 248

410 Congressional Budget Office, UNITED STATES, 63

Cornell, Catharine, 181

CSC. See Congregation of the Holy Cross Cuba, 411

Cornell College (Iowa), 117-20

Cubberley, Ellwood, 377

Cornell, Ezra, 117, 121-24, 125

CUC. See Claremont Colleges

Congreve, William, 483

Cornell University (New York), 34, 60, 117,

Cullen, William, 498-99

“conimbricenses” (Jesuit scholars), 469 Conkin, P.K., 688 Connaught Laboratories (University of

121-25, 214, 228, 373, 374, 602, 692 Cornell, William Wesley, 117

Culterty Field Station (University of

Cornwallis, Lord Charles, 103

Cumberland Plateau, 638

Corps of Engineers at West Point. See United States Military Academy at West Point Corpus Christi College (University of Cambridge), 446 Corpus Christi College (University of Oxford), 578, 579 Corrib River, 290 Corvallis College. See Oregon State University

cummings, e.e., 189

Corvallis, Oregon, United States, 322-36 Cosby, Bill, 31 Cosin’s Hall (University of Durham), 487 Cosio Villegas, Daniel, 99

Currie, Sir Arthur, 268

Cosmos (Sagan), 66 Cottage Club (Princeton University), 332 Cottage Hill Seminary for Women, Poughkeepsie, 690

Cuspinian, Johannes, 660

Coulter, John Merle, 214, 215 Council of Constance (1414), 76

Custis, George Washington Park, 362

Toronto), 654

Connecticut River, 126 Connecticut, United States, 126, 722-27

Connon, Helen, 453 Conroy, Frank, 514 Conroy, John, 563 Conroy, Pat, 81, 83, 84 Conservatory of Music (Oberlin College), 317 Consortium of Universities of the Washington Metropolitan Area, 171

Constantinus Africanus, 555 Constitution of 1889 (Japan), 649 Constitution, U.S.S. (ship), 410

Contact Theatre Company (University of Manchester), 535

Contemporary Chinese Education (Hayhoe),

41 continuing education. See adult continuing education Contra Costa Academy. See University of California Convent of the Faille-Mantled Beguines. See Old Academy

Council of the South African College, 642

Council of the University of the Cape of Good Hope, 642 Council of Trent (1561), 254, 421

Convent of the White Nuns, Leiden, Netherlands, 516

Counter-Reformation, 75-76, 249, 353-54,

Conway, Jill Kerr, 371 Cook (Rutgers professor), 358

County Kildare, Ireland, 290

Cook, Charles Henry Herbert, 452

Cooke, Harriette J., 119

Courtauld, Samuel, 526

Coolidge, Calvin, 23, 305

Coolidge, Charles Allerton, 373

Covell Hall (Oregon State University), 325

Coolidge, Martha, 303

Coventry Cathedral, 489

Cooper Medical College of San Francisco,

Covington, Georgia, 156 Cox, Archibald, 189 Cox, Harvey Warren, 158

Cooper, Myles, 105

Cooper, Peter, 112, 114, 115, 116

Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, 112-16

Aberdeen), 416

Cummings, Joseph, 308, 310 Cummings, Ralph W., 211

Cunningham Hall (Illinois Institute of

Technology), 207 CUNY. See City University of New York Cupples, Samuel, 702 Curie, Marie, 162

Curley, James, 174 Curtatone, Battle of (1848), 618

Curtin, Phyllis, 45 Curtis, James F., 513

Cussonia Court (University of Melbourne),

538 Custer, George A., 666 Cutler, Carroll, 70-71 Cymmrodian Society, 670 Czech language, 77

Czech Republic, 74-77 Czech University. See Charles University Czigler, Gy6z6, 251

469, 474, 477, 584 Courtauld Institute of Art (University of London), 526, 527

376

739

Dafydd ap Gwilym (Welsh student society), 669 Dahl, Ellen (née Dinesen), 8 Dahl, Knud, 8 Dahlem, western Berlin, Germany, 167-68

Dahlgren Chapel of the Sacred Heart (Georgetown University), 176 Dahlgren, John, 175 Dahlmann, F.C., 178

Cracow, Poland. See Krakow, Poland Craig, John E., 387

Daigaku Nanko. See University of Tokyo Dai-ichi Koto Gakko, 648 Daisy Chain (Vassar College), 694

Craigie Club (Barnard College), 37

Dali, Salvador, 504

740

DALL

INDEX

Dall, Caroline Wells Healy, 693

de Kiewiet, Cormelis W., 602

Dallas, Texas, United States, 630, 634 Dalrymple Hall (University of Glasgow), 500 Daly, James, 120 Dana Auditorium(Guilford College), 183 Dana, Charles, 86, 88

District of Columbia. See Washington, D.C.,

de Klerk, F'W., 458

United States Divine Comedy (Dante), 617

De Nova Stella (Brahe), 476

De Robertis, Giuseppe, 496-97 de Valera, Eamon, 288-89, 290, 291

Divinity College (University of St. Andrews). See St. Mary’s College

De Vecchi, Bindo, 496

Divinity School (Duke University), 137, 138,

Dana Hall School, 710

Dead Sea Scrolls, 194

Dana, Henry W.L., 295 Danforth, Henry, 703

deaf education, 169-72, 368

139 Dix, Morgan, 34, 35

Daniel Sieff Research Institute. See Weizmann Institute of Science Daniels, Arthur H., 509

171-72 Dearborn Astronomical Observatory (Northwestern University), 310

Daniels, Elizabeth, 693

Dearborn, Michigan, United States, 542

Does, Johan van der (Janus Dousa), 516

Danish Museum for the History of Science

Doheny, Edward L., 621

and Medicine, Aarhus, Denmark, 6, 8 Danish resistance, 7, 479

DeBakey, Michael, 401 Debré, Michel, 144, 146 Deccan College, Poona, 560

Danish Royal Air Force, 7

Decembrist Uprising (1825), 281, 282

Danish Student Council, 3, 4 Dante, 495, 497, 615, 617 Danube River, 249, 251

Declaration of Independence, United States (1776), 103, 330, 360, 663

Doisy, Edward, 703 Domeyko, Ignacio, 465

“Deaf President Now” (DPN) movement,

Dixon, Brandt V.B., 400 Dockett, Andrew, 447

Dodge Library (Northeastern University), 306

Doheny Memorial Library (University of

Southern California), 621 Dominguez Berrueta, Don Martin, 504 Dominicans, 292, 445, 448, 472, 474, 583,

Dartmouth College, 126-30, 371, 690

Declaration of Sentiments (1848), 601 Decrees of Kutna Hora (Kuttenberg), 76

Dartmouth Review, 130

Dee, Ruby, 90

Domkirke, Aarhus, Denmark, 6

Darwin, Charles, 138, 324, 333, 450, 493 Darwin, Charles Galton, 64

Defrees, John D., 567

Domus Wilhelmiana (Ruprecht Karls

Delafield, John, 300, 301-2

Darwin, Erasmus, 493

Delaware River, 588

University), 353 Donahoe Higher Education Act (California),

Darwin College (University of Cambridge),

Delbruck, Max, 66 Delhi, India, 217-19

609

450 Daughters of the American Revolution, 128

Delich-Bentley, Helen, 552

441 Doney, Carl Gregg, 716 Dorn, Edwin, 632

Daux, Bertrand di, 555

Delmas, Jacques Chaban, 490

Dornberg, John, 203

Davenport, Eugene, 508

Demarest (Rutgers president), 354

Dorothea, queen of Denmark, 475

Davenport,

DeMille, Cecil B., 621

Dort, synod of (1619), 518

Dos Passos, John, 189, 667

Davidson College, 135, 137, 564

“Democracy Wall” (Beijing), 41 Deng Xiaoping, 41 Denis, king of Portugal, 468 Denison, John H., 720

Davidson, Eliza, 693

Denmark, 3-5, 6-8, 475-79

Doshisha Seiho Gakko, 132

Davidson, Garrison, 407

Denny Hall Department Department 390 Department Department Department Department

Doshisha University, 24, 131-34

John, 722, 724

David Dunlap Observatory (University of Toronto), 655 David, Henry, 298

Davie, William R., 563, 564, 565 “Davie Poplar” (University of North Carolina

landmark), 563, 565, 566 Davies, David, 669

Davies, Emily, 449 Davies, Robertson, 654

Davis, Angela, 97

(University of Washington), 672 of Agriculture, U.S., 211 of Atomic Energy, India, 389, of Defense, U.S., 378 of Energy, U.S., 378 of the Army, U.S., 403 of War, U.S., 362

Doshisha International High School, 134 Doshisha Jogakko (Women’s School), 132,

134 Doty, James, 675

Doubleday, Abner, 406 Douglas, Marjory Stoneman, 713 Douglas Smit House (University of the Witwatersrand), 645 Douglas, Stephen A., 460, 506

Douglass, Andrew E., 425

Depression (1870s). See Panic of 1873 Depression (1930s). See Great Depression

Douglass, Mabel S., 359

Davis, Caroline Preston, 666

Descartes, René, 448, 530, 596

Dousa, Janus (Johan van der Does), 516

Davis, Herbert, 371

Design Center (Massachusetts Institute of

Dow Chemical Company, 443

Davis, Horace, 437

Technology), 263 Desverneys, Peter, 81

Dow, William, 542 Downey, John Gately, 619

Dewey, John, 229, 295, 297, 462 Dewey, Thomas E., 379

Downing College (University of Cambridge),

Davis, California, United States, 436, 438,

439, 441, 443

Davis, Jefferson T., 404, 636, 638, 700

Davis, Jerome C., 439 Davis, Jerome D., 132

Davis, Jonn A.G., 665

Davis Medical School (University of California), 443 Davis Museum and Cultural Center

(Wellesley College), 712 Davis, Thomas, 484 Dawkins, W. Boyd, 533 Dawson Building (University of Durham),

488 Dawson, George Mercer, 267

Douglass College, 359

Dialectic Society (University of Canterbury), 453

449 Downing, Sir George, 449 Downing Site (University of Cambridge), 450

Dickens, Charles, 174

Downs, B.W., 477-78

Dickey, John Sloan, 128-29

Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, 493

Dickinson, Austin (William Austin), 23-24 Dickinson, Edward, 23

“D-plan” (Dartmouth College), 129-30

Dickinson, Emily, 23, 277, 279 Dickinson family, 23-24 Dictionary of American Biography (Malone

ed.), 156

Dramatic Workshop (New School for Social Research), 297-98

Draper, Andrew S., 508 Draper, Charles S., 262-63 Drenker, Matthias, 249

Dawson, Sir William, 267, 268, 269

Dictionary of Canadian Biography, 654

Dreyfus, Alfred, 155

Dawson, W.M., 27

Diego Deza, archbishop of Seville, 612

Droppers, Garrett, 235

Dayton, Ohio, United States, 321 De Beers Consolidated Mines, 642 De Causis Corruptarum Artium (Vives), 469

Diet of Augsburg (1518), 257 Diet of Augsburg (1530), 258

Dryden Poultry-Veterinary Hall (Oregon State

Diet of Worms (1521), 258

De ecclesia (Hus), 76

Dillingen, Germany, 474 Dillon, Patrick, 568 Dinesen, Isak (Karen Blixen), 8

Dubcek, Alexander, 77 Dube, John Langalibalele, 316

de Gaulle, Charles, 144, 146-47, 387, 431, 572, 574, 586

University), 325

Dublin Corporation, 480 Dublin, Ireland, 288-91, 480-85, 524

ENARSON HALL

INDEX

741

Dublin University. See University of Dublin Trinity College DuBois, W.E.B., 30, 295 DuBridge, Lee A., 67, 120 Dubrovsky, Josef, 77

eating clubs (Princeton University), 332 Eaton, Amos, 726

Einthoven, Willem, 520

Eaton, Anne Lloyd Yale, 722

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 355, 403, 404, 406, 602

Duderstadt, James J., 543 Dufour, Guillaume, H., 161

Eberhard, count of Wiirttemberg, 140

Eisenhower, Milton Stover, 232 Eisleben, Germany, 256

Eberhard Karls University of Tiibingen, 15, 140-43

Eisteddfod (Welsh student society), 669 El Colegio de México. See College of Mexico

Eberhardino-Carolina. See Eberhard Karls

El Paso, Texas, United States, 630, 634

Duisberg, Germany, 474 Duke, Benjamin, 137, 138

Eaton, Nathaniel, 185

Eaton, Theophilus, 722

Duke family, 135, 137, 138

University of Tiibingen

Eisenach, Germany, 258

Elbit (Israeli company), 394

Duke Forest, 139

Ebert, Roger, 510

Eleanor of Aquitaine, 429-30

Duke, James B., 137, 138

Eck, Johann, 254, 258

elective system, 103, 188, 302, 362, 665

Duke, Washington, 137

Elion, Gertrude, 90, 303

Duke University Press, 139

Eckhardt, Meister, 383 Ecluse, Charles 1’ (Carolus Clusius), 519 Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, 152

Dulles, John Foster, 330

Ecole Centrale des Travaus Publics. See Ecole

Duke University, 135-39, 712

Duluth, Minnesota, United States, 544, 547 Dummer, Jeremy, 725

Dundee, Scotland, 604 Dungersheim von Ochsenfurt, Hieronymous, 247 Dunn, John, 450 Dunn, Mary Maples, 371-72

Duns Scotus, John, 474, 583 Dunster, Henry, 185

Durant, Henry (University of California), 436, 437 Durant, Henry Fowle (Wellesley College), 708, 710, 713 Durant, Pauline Cazenove, 708, 710, 711, 713 Durant, Will, 555

Polytechnique Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes (New School :

for Social Research), 298

Eliot (Washington University chancellor), 703 Eliot, Charles W., 27, 107, 187-88, 228, 235, 261, 344, 373, 508-9 Eliot, Henry, 702

Eliot House (Mount Holyoke College), 278 Eliot House (Wellesley College), 710

Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques

Eliot Seminary. See Washington University

, (Sciences Po”), 144, 145, 146 Ecole Nationale d’Administration, 144—47,

Eliot, Thomas Lamb, 344

150, 152 Ecole Normale et Ecole Polytechnique. See

Eliot, William Greenleaf, 701, 702 Elisa-bethkirche (Marburg an der Lahn), 327 Eliza Davidson House (Vassar College), 693

. Ecole Nationale d’ Administration Ecole Normale Supérieure, 148-51

Eliot, T.S., 189, 328, 329

Elizabeth I, queen of England, 448, 480, 482

Fontenay-aux-Roses, 148, 150-51

Elizabeth Bridge, 251 Elizabeth, New Jersey, United States, 330

Fontenay/Saint-Cloud, 148, 151

Elizabeth of Hungary, St., 327

Lyon, 148, 151 Ulm/Sévres, 148, 151

Elizaveta, empress of Russia, 280

Cachan, 148, 151

Elkhart, Indiana, United States, 338 Elkin, Stanley, 514

Durham Bull Tobacco Company, 137

Ecole Polytechnique, 152-55, 161, 405

Durham Cathedral, England, 486, 488, 489 Durham, England, 486-89, 524

Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale 4 Lausanne, 160 Ecole Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie, 152 Ecole Supérieure de Physique et d’Electricité, 152

Ell, Carl S., 305, 306, 307 Elliott, A. Marshall, 230 Elliott, Stephen, 638, 639, 640 Elmer Holmes Bobst Library and Study

Durkee, Stanley, 197

Edgerton, Harold, 262 Edict of Poitiers (1577), 596

Dutch Bible, 518-19, 529 Dutch language, 647

Edinburg College. See University of Texas, Pan American in Edinburg

Elocution Hall (Keio University), 235 Elphinstone College, 388, 558, 559

Dutch Reformed Church, 356, 358

Elphinstone Native Education Institution. See

Dutch resistance, 520

Edinburg, Texas, United States, 630, 634 Edinburgh, Scotland, 490-94

Dutschke, Rudi, 168

Edinburgh University. See University of

Elphinstone, William, bishop of Aberdeen,

Durham, North Carolina, United States, 135-

39 Durham University. See University of Durham

Edinburgh

Ellis, Tom, 669

Elm Club (Princeton University), 332 Center (New York University), 302

Elphinstone College 412, 498

Dwight, Edward S., 24 Dwight, Henry E., 301

Edison, Thomas A., 261-62, 526

Dwight Memorial Chapel (Yale University),

Edo, Japan. See Tokyo, Japan

726 Dwight, Theodore, 107

Education Act of 1949 (Korea), 366

Elron (Israeli company), 394 Elscint (Israeli company), 394 Elsden, William, 470

Education of the Deaf Act (U.S.), 171

Elsevier family, 519

Dyche Stadium (Northwestern University),

Edward IV, king of England, 447

Elstad, Leonard M., 171 Ely, bishops of, 445, 446, 447, 448 Ely, Richard, 679, 680 Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced

311 Dyer, John P., 401 Dyer, Martin A., 362

Dykstra, Clarence, 680 Earnest, Emest, 26 Earthquake Research Institute (University of Tokyo), 649 East Bengal. See Bangladesh

East Building (University of North Carolina). See Old East East Germany, 167, 168, 200, 202-3, 246,

248, 256, 259 East India Company, 558, 725 East Lansing, Michigan, United States, 270—

74 Easter Rising of 1916, 290, 484 Eastern Michigan University, 270 Eastman, George, 601, 602 Eastman School of Music, 215, 601

Edward VI, king of England, 383 Edward VIII, king of Great Britain, 644

Edward C. Elliott Hall of Music (Purdue

University), 337

German Scholars, 297

Edwards, Jonathan, 330

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 26, 189, 599

Edwards, Owen M., 669, 670

Emmanuel College (University of

Egan, Maurice Francis, 568

Eggert, Hermann, 386 Egypt, 9-13

Cambridge), 448 Emmanuel College (University of Toronto), 652, 655

Eichendorff, Joseph von, 354

Emmet, Robert, 484

Eichhorn, Albert, 179

Emory, John, 156

Eichstatt, bishop of, 253

Emory University, 156-59 Emory University, 1915-1965: A Semicentennial History (English), 158

Eidgendéssische Technische Hochshule (ETH). See Federal Institute of

Technology Eigenmann, Carl H., 215 Eine Judische Hoschschule (A Jewish University; pamphlet), 190

Einstein, Albert, 46, 86, 160, 161-62, 192, 200, 202, 330, 333, 391, 483, 706

Emperor Wilhelm Society, 167 Empire State College, 382 empiricism, 477, 478 Empson, William, 450

ENA. See Ecole Nationale d’ Administration Enarson Hall (Ohio State University), 321

742

ENCINA HALL

Encina Hall (Stanford University), 375 Engels, Friedrich, 200

Engineering Hall (Northwestern University), 310 England, 377, 429-30, 445-51, 480, 482, 486-89, 522-28, 533-35, 576-79, 583, 596, 604, 640, 722, 725

INDEX European Confederation of the Universities of the Upper Rhine, 17 European Council, 387 European Revolutions of 1848. See Revolutions of 1848 Evangelical Protestantism, 141, 315, 484,

599, 710. See also Great Awakening; Second Great Awakening

Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, 164—

66 Federation Act of 1887 (Canada), 653 Fehrenbacher, Donald E., 120

Feinberg Graduate School (Weizmann Institute of Science), 706

Feiwel, Berthold, 190 Felipe V, king of Spain, 426 Felix V, pope, 222

Engle, Paul, 514 English, Thomas, 158 English Civil War. See Civil War, English

Evangelisches Stift (Eberhard Karls

English language, 78, 131, 265, 290, 558,

Evans, Griffith C., 350, 351

Feller, Joachim, 247

Evanston College for Ladies. See Woman’s

Fellows, Samuel M., 117

Felt, Joseph B., 275

Eotvés, Lorand, 251

College of Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois, United States, 215, 308-12 Evening Institute for Young Men. See Northeastern University Evening Law School of the Boston Young Men’s Christian Association. See Northeastern University

Eétvés Law, 252

Everett, John R., 298

E6tvés Lorand Tudomanyegyetem. See Lorand Eétvés University

Evergreen State College, 675

559

ENIAC computer, 591 Enlightenment, 16, 141, 200, 280, 293, 464,

478, 492, 493, 610, 657, 658 Enrico Fermi Institute (University of Chicago), 463

ENS. See Ecole Normale Supérieure

University of Tiibingen), 141

Fell, Thomas, 362

Female Institute, Columbia, Tennessee, 636

Female Normal School. See Hunter College Fénelon, Frangois de Salignac de la Mothe, 385 Ferdinand I, emperor of Austria, 660 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, 76

Eétvés Normal School, 252

Everhart, Thomas E., 67 evolutionism, 138

Eétvés Torsion Balance (Pendulum), 252

Evora, Portugal, 469, 470

Ferdinand Il, king of Spain, 109, 110, 420, 502, 609, 612, 656 Ferdinand Ml, grand duke of Tuscany, 618 Ferdinand IV, king of Spain, 607 Ferdinand VI, king of Spain, 658

Ephron, Nora, 712 Episcopal Church of England. See

Ewald, Heinrich Georg August, 178

Ferdinand VII, king of Spain, 610

Ewell, Benjamin, 103

Anglicanism Episcopalianism, 267, 300, 363, 405, 414,

Ewha Women’s University, 366

Ferdinand the Saint of Castile, 607 Ferguson, Adam, 492

Exeter College (University of Oxford), 578, 579

Ferguson, Sir James, 560 Fermi, Enrico, 108, 463

Exeter, England, 527

Fernando. See Ferdinand Ferrer, Vicente. See Vicente Ferrer

445, 636, 638, 639. See also Anglicanism Epstein, Paul, 64, 65

Equal Suffrage League (Mount Holyoke College), 278

Exhibition Building (University of

Erasmus, Desiderius, 15, 247, 258, 383, 384,

existentialism, 282, 478

447, 529-30, 584 Erfurt, Germany, 222, 256, 472 Erhlich, Paul, 190, 192

Experimental Theatre (Purdue University), 337 Expo ‘92 World Fair (Seville), 614

Erie Canal, 599

Extension of University Education Act of

Erik of Pomerania, king of the Scandinavian

1959 (South Africa), 456, 458, 645 extension services, 272, 320, 321, 324, 462, 679-80 Exxon Foundation, 50

Union, 475

Erindale College (University of Toronto), 654 Erindale, Ontario, Canada, 652

Melbourne), 536

Ferris, Isaac, 358 Ferry, David R., 712 Ferry, Jules, 150, 585 Ferstel, Heinrich, 661

Few, Ignatius Alphonso, 156 Few, William, 138 Feynman, Richard, 263

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 200, 201, 248, 282 Ficino, Marsilio, 592

Fiedler, Arthur, 44

Field, Marshall, 460

Erlanger, Joseph, 703

Emest Augustus, king of Hanover, 178, 179

Fabian Society, 525

Fife, Scotland, 604

Ernest of Padubic, 72

Fabri, Heinrich, 140 Faculty of Latin American Social Science, 99

Filelfo, Francesco, 517

Fahraeus, Robin, 683

Fine Hall (Princeton University), 333 Finley, John Huston, 86, 90 Finley, William A., 322 Finney, Charles Grandison, 315

Emest Oppenheimer Hall Campus (University of Witwatersrand), 645 Erpenius, Thomas, 519

Fincke, Thomas, 477

Erskine Fund, 455

Fairbanks, Douglas, Sr., 621 Fairbanks, George R., 639, 640

Erskine, John (Columbia University), 107

Fairchild,

Erskine, 455

Fairfield, Frederick, 197 Falangists, 658

Fischer, Emil, 202, 387 Fischer, Franz, 202

Erwin, Franklin C., 633 Erxleben, Dorothea Christiane, 259 Escher, Alfred, 161

Falconer, Sir Robert, 654

Fischer, Hans, 329

Farm Lane bridge (Michigan State

Fisher, Avery, 303 Fisher, John, 447

Estado Novo reforms (Brazil), 164-65 Estudio de Medicina y Artes. See University

Farmer’s Week (East Lansing, Michigan), 272

Fisher, Thomas, 626

Farmington, Connecticut, United States, 725

Fisk Hall (Northwestern University), 310

Farquharson, David, 437

Fiske Hall (Barnard College), 36 Fiske, Mrs. Josiah M., 36 Fiske, Willard, 124

John Angus (Canterbury College),

of Barcelona

James Harris, 313, 315

University), 272

estudio general. See studium generale

fascism, 202, 496, 497, 594, 658

ETH. See Federal Institute of Technology

Fathers and Sons (Turgenev), 282 Fatimid dynasty, 9-10

Etiennes family, 584 Eton College (University of Cambridge), 447 Et-tu Zen Sun, 40

Faulkner, Shannon, 84

Faulkner, William, 667

Eucken, Walter, 16 Eugene IV, pope, 596

Faunce, William Herbert Perry, 58 Faure, Edgar, 431, 574, 586

Eugene Lang College (New School for Social

“Faure law.” See Orientation of Higher

Research), 299

Education Act of 1968

Eugene, Oregon, United States, 322, 325

Faust (Goethe), 248

Eugenius IV, pope, 430

Fayerweather Hall of Science (Northwestern

Eurich, Alvin C., 381 European Center, Talloires, France, 397

University), 310

Federal Institute of Technology, 160-63

Fisker, Kay, 6 Fitch, Ebenezer, 721

Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 330, 332 Fitzgerald, G.F., 483 Fitzgerald, Sir Seymour, 560

Fitzwilliam College (University of Cambridge), 449

Fitzwilliam Museum (University of Cambridge), 449 FLACSO. See Faculty of Latin American Social Science

FUCCARO

INDEX Flandrau Planetarium (University of

Fort Moultrie, 82

Arizona), 425

Fleming, Arthur H., 64 Fleming, Marjorie, 64

king of Germany, 140, 253, 259, 353,

Fort Sumter, 82-83, 406, 410, 541, 638

472, 615

337-38 Fortier, Alcee, 401 Fortner, Catherine, 117

Fleming, Sir Ambrose, 526

Flemish language, 529, 530, 531 Flemming, Robben, 542

Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor and

Fort Severn, 408, 410 Fort Wayne, Indiana, United States, 216, 335,

Fleming, Sir Alexander, 526

743

Fortoul, Hippolyte, 418

Frederick III, king of Denmark, 477

Frederick IV, king of Denmark, 478 Frederick Douglass Institute for African and African-American Studies (University of Rochester), 602

Fletcher, Lucille, 694

Forum Friederianum, Berlin, Germany, 200

Frederick Henry of Orange, 530

Flexner, Abraham, 231, 601, 703

Forvie National Nature Reserve (University

Frederick L. Hovde Hall of Administration

Flexner, Simon, 231 Florence Heller Graduate School for Advanced Studies in Social Welfare

(Brandeis University), 49

of Aberdeen), 416

Foster City, California, United States, 67 Foster, William Trufant, 344, 346

Foster, William Z., 128

Florence, Italy, 303, 495-97, 592-93, 615,

Fouchet, Christian, 572—73

617 Florence University. See University of

Foundation Building (Cooper Union), 112, 114, 115, 116

Florence

Founders Hall (Guilford College), 181

Florentine Academy, 592

Founders Hall (Wellesley College), 711

Flory, Paul, 321

Founders Park (Purdue University), 336

Flower Sunday (Wellesley College),

710

Flushing, Queens, New York, United States,

92 Foch, Ferdinand, 154 Focillon, Henri, 298

Foellinger Auditorium (University of Illinois), 509, 510 Foellinger, Helene, 510 Foerster, Norman, 514

Fogg Museum (Harvard University), 188 Foley, Barbara, 312

Folger, Emily Jordan, 24 Folger, Henry Clay, 24

Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington,

(Purdue University), 337 Frederick the Wise. See Frederick II (the

Wise), elector of Saxony Frederick Wilhelm III, king of Prussia, 167 Frederick Wilhelm University, 167 Free Academy. See City College of New York Free French Academy, 298 Free School. See University of Pennsylvania;

Williams College Free Speech Movement (University of California, Berkeley), 442-43

Four Books of Sentences (Peter Lombard), 582

Free University of Berlin, 167-68, 253

Fowler, Sophia, 169

free will doctrine, 518, 530

Fowler, William, 67, 321

Free, World B., 184

Framingham Heart Study, 45 France, 10-11, 16, 144-55, 180-81, 241-43,

Freedman, James O., 130

298, 353, 377, 379, 383-87, 390, 397, 405-6, 417-19, 429-32, 472, 474, 518, 519, 520, 530, 553-57, 572-75, 580-87, 596-98, 604, 618

France Center (Albert Ludwigs University), 16 Francis I, king of France, 110, 584 Francis Field (Washington University), 703 Francis Scott Key Auditorium (St. John’s

Freedmen’s Bureau, 195 Freedom of Information Center (University of Missouri), 552 Freemasons. See Masons

Freiburg, Germany, 14-17 Freiburg Material Research Center (Albert Ludwigs University), 16 “Freiburg School,” 16 Frelinghuysen, Frederick, 357

College), 362 Francis Wayland Collegium for Liberal

Frelinghuysen, Theodore, 357

French language, 241-43, 245, 265, 268, 269, 298, 386, 405, 529, 530, 531, 532

Fondren Library (Rice University), 351

Learning (Brown University), 58 Franciscans, 109, 292-93, 445, 448, 472, 578, 617

Fontenay-aux-Roses, France, 148, 150-51 Fonvizin, Denis, 280

Franck, James, 179 Francke, August Hermann, 259

Football Den (University of Canterbury), 453

Francke Institute, 259

French Revolution, 141, 148, 152, 243, 354, 385, 418, 432, 519, 529, 530, 556, 572, 585, 597, 658

Foote, Shelby, 667 Forbes, Patrick, bishop of Aberdeen, 414

Franco, Francisco, 502, 658

Frere, Sir Bartle Edward, 559, 560

Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), 144, 386,

Freshman Hall (University of Notre Dame),

D.C., United States, 24 Folly Bridge, Oxford, England, 576

Folwell, William Watts, 544-45 Fonda, Jane, 694

Ford Foundation, 20, 79, 97, 100, 167, 210,

401, 465, 570 Ford Foundation Fund for the Advancement

of Education, 306 Ford, Franklin, 383

597 francophilism, 387 Frank E. Gannett Foundation, 552 Frankenwald estate, Johannesburg, South

Africa, 643

Ford, Henry, 542

Frankfurt, Germany, 259, 353, 355

Ford, Janice Voss, 335

Frankfurt Hauptwache storming (1833), 355

Ford Motor Company, 542

Frankfurter, Felix, 295, 297 Franklin, Benjamin, 260, 492, 588, 589

Fordham Heights, Bronx, New York, United States, 302 Fordice, D. Kirkwood, SJr., 335 Forest Park, Missouri, 702, 703 Foresthill (University of Aberdeen), 416

Franklin C. Erwin Special Events Center (University of Texas at Austin), 633

French and Indian War. See Seven Years’ War

French resistance, 298, 387

569 Friday, Nancy, 712 Frideswide, St., 576

Fridkin, Mati, 706 Friedan, Betty, 341, 372 Friedrich. See Frederick Friedrich Egbert Foundation, 100 Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universitat. See Humboldt

University Friends. See Quakers Friends Center (Guilford College), 184

Formichi, Carlo, 696 Formula of Concord (1577), 142

Franklin County, Ohio, United States, 318 Franklin Mountains, 634 Franklin, William, 356 Fraser, Walter, 81, 83, 84

Friends Historical Collection (Guilford College), 183 Friends of Higher Education for Women

Forrester,

Fraserburgh, Scotland, 414

Friendship Baptist Church, Atlanta, Georgia,

Jay W., 263

Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments, 179

Forskerparken (Aarhus University), 6, 8 Forster, G., 179 Forster Act of 1879 (Great Britain), 668

Fort Adams, 410 Fort Bliss, 634 Fort Brown, 634

Fort Des Moines, 197 Fort Leonard Wood, 551

Frasier, Leroy and Ralph, 566 fraternities, 310, 375, 386, 508, 539, 542, 550, 566, 700, 720 Frederick I, king of Denmark, 475 FrederickI (the Quarrelsome), prince of Meissen, 246 Frederick II, king of Denmark, 475 Frederick II (the Great), king of Prussia, 200

Frederick II (the Wise), elector of Saxony, 256, 257, 258

(New York City), 34, 35

31 Friesland, Netherlands, 518 Frieze, Henry, 541

Friis, Astrid, 478 Frdhlich, Paul, 203 Front Pour la Liberation de Québec, 245

Front Square (University of Dublin Trinity College), 482 Frost, Robert, 24, 189, 297 Fuccaro, Giorgio, 617

744

FUGITIVE SLAVE ACT OF 1850

INDEX

Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, United States,

Gellert, Christian Fiirchtegott, 248

315 Fihrerprinzip (Nazi directive), 143 Fujiwara Ginjiro, 236

Gil de Hontafion, Rodrigo, 421

General Library (University of Tokyo), 649

Gilbert, Cass, 316-17, 546, 547, 632

“Generation of ‘27,” 504

Fukuoka, Japan, 238-40

Genesee River, 599, 601

Fukuoka Medical College, 238 Fukuzawa Yukichi, 233, 235-36, 237

Gilbert, Susan Brandeis, 63 Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau, 229, 230 Gildersleeve, Virginia, 36, 37

Geneva College, 121 Geneva, Switzerland, 160, 516, 518, 584

Giles, Harriet, 31 Gillaspie, James, 564, 565

Fuller, Solomon Carter, 44

Genoa, Italy, 592, 662

Gillespie, Patrick, 498

Fulton, J.S., 80 fundamentalism, Christian, 138

Genth, Frederick, 591

Gillette, Mary Louise, 551

Gentile Law of 1923 (Italy), 618

Gillier, Francoise, lady of Puygareau, 597

Geockingk, L.F.G. von, 179 Geological Survey, U.S., 66

Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 341

fundamentalism, Islamic, 12, 13 Gabrielli, Pirro Maria, 617 Gaelic. See Irish language Gaines, Lloyd L., 551 Gakumon no susume (Encouragement of Learning) (Fukuzawa), 233

Gakumonjo. See University of Tokyo Galbraith, John Kenneth, 189 GALCIT (Graduate Aeronautical

Laboratories at the California Institute of

Technology), 65-66

“Generation of ‘98,” 504

George II, king of Great Britain, 177 George III, king of Great Britain, 126, 178,

333, 356 George IV, king of Great Britain, 265 George, Stefan, 355 George Augustus, elector of Hanover. See

George II, king of Great Britain George Peabody School for Teachers. See Vanderbilt University George Washington University, 28

Galen, Claudius, 476, 555, 556

Georgetown Medical Center, 176

Galileo, 495-96, 594

Georgetown University, 173-76 Georgia Augustus University of Gottingen, 177-80

Gallagher, Buell, 87

Gallagher Memorial Collection, 425 Gallatin, Albert, 301, 302 Gallaudet, Edward Miner, 169-70 Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, 169, 170

Georgia Methodist Conference (1834), 156 Georgia, United States, 30-33, 156-59, 638

Georgian architecture, 482, 483

Gilman, Daniel Coit, 228-29, 437 Gilman Hall (University of California, Berkeley), 438 Gingrich, Newt, 401 Gintari Daikuhara, 238

Gipp, George, 569 Gironde, France, 429

Girton College (University of Cambridge), 449 Gisgard d’Estaing, Valery, 147, 154-55, 586 Gitanjali (Tagore), 696 Gittler, Amy, 316 Gladden, Washington, 508 Gladstone, William, 669, 670 Glaser, Donald, 542 Glasgow School of Art, 500

Glasgow, Scotland, 498-501 Glasgow University. See University of Glasgow

Gallaudet University, 169-72 Galveston, Texas, United States, 631, 632 Galway, Ireland, 288, 289, 290 Gammon School of Theology. See Atlanta University Center

Gerber, Karl Fridrich Wilhelm von, 248

Gandhi, Indira, 696

Ganga Hostel, 224-25

386, 391 German philosophy, 282 German University. See Charles University

Ganga River, 224

Germani, Gino, 433

Godrej, Bachubai Ardeshir, 560

Gannett, Frank E., 552

Germany, 7, 14-17, 75, 76, 77, 140-43, 16768, 177-80, 200-204, 217, 218, 223, 236, 237, 246-48, 253-55, 256-59, 327-29, 353~-55, 376, 377, 383-87, 391, 472-74, 512, 520, 526, 531, 597, 612, 617. See

God’s House (University of Cambridge). See Christ’s College

also Nazis Germehausen, Kenneth, 262 Geromanos, Hercules, 304-5 Gerona, Spain, 426 Gerrard Hall (University of North Carolina),

Goethe,

Gandhi, Mohandas, 20, 209, 561, 696

Gannett Hall (University of Missouri), 552 Gans, Eduoard, 201

Garcia Gudiel, Gonzalo, archbishop of Toledo, 109, 420

Garcia Labella, Joaquim, 505 Garcia Lorca, Federico, 504, 505 Garfield, James A., 720, 721

Gargantua (Rabelais), 584 Garin, Eugenio, 496

Garland, Landon C., 687, 688

German Democratic Republic. See East Germany German Enlightenment, 280

Glasgow University Athletic Club, 500

German language, 16, 77, 251, 354, 383, 385,

Glenn Memorial (Emory University), 159 Glennan, Thomas Keith, 72

565, 566

Glasgow University Union, 500 Glastonbury, Connecticut, United States, 725

Goa, 561

Géde, Henning, 258

Godwin, Gail, 514

Godwin, Parke, 34 Goerlich, Javier, 658

Johann Wolfgang, 248, 385

Goldberg, Arthur, 443 Goldberger, Marvin L., 67

Golden Bull of 1356, 353 Goldman, William, 316 Goldsborough, Key and Robert, 362 Goldsmith, Oliver, 493 Goldsmith’s College, 525

Garman, Charles Edward, 23 Garonne River, 429 Garrett, Mary, 230

Gersdorf, Emst Gottfried, 247

Gary, George, 714

Gervinus, G.G., 178

Goldstein, Israel, 46

Gary, Indiana, United States, 216

Gesner, J.M., 177, 178 Gestapo, 7, 387

Goldstein, Sydney, 393

Gettysburg, Battle of (1863), 590

Golitsyn, Prince Alexander, 281

Gaston, William, 173

Ghana, 459, 527

Golius, Jacob, 519

Gatch, Thomas M., 672 Gate of Honour (Gonville Hall, University of Cambridge), 448

Ghent, Belgium, 530 Ghibelines, 592

Gomarists, 518

Ghino di Tacco, Siena, Italy, 615

G6émez Millas, Juan, 465

Gate of Humility (Gonville Hall, University

GI Bill (United States), 44, 62, 71, 176, 184, 215, 279, 321, 547, 551, 570

Goncharov, Ivan, 282

Gary Library (Northwestern University), 311 Gasser, Herbert, 703

Gershwin, Ira, 87 Gerson, Jean, 583

Goldsmith’s Company, 525

Goleta, California, United States, 441

Gomarus, Franz (Fraciscus), 518

Gibbs, James, 448

Gonville and Caius College (University of Cambridge), 445

Gibraltar, 524

Gonville, Edmund, 445

Gates, Frederick T., 231

Gibson Hall (Tulane University), 401

Gonville Hall (University of Cambridge), 448

Gates, Merrill E., 23, 359

Gibson, Randall Lee, 399, 400

Gonzalez, Felipe, 614

Gauss, Karl Friederich, 178

Giddens, Anthony, 450 Gideonse, Harry D., 91

Goodnow, Frank, 231

Giessen, Germany, 178, 327

Goodwin, John N., 423 Gordon, Lincoln, 232

of Cambridge), 448 Gate of Virtue (Gonville Hall, University of

Cambridge), 448

Gavinet, Angel, 504 Geiger, Hans, 535 Gelhorn, Edna Fischel, 63

Gifford, E.C., 423

Goodspeed, Thomas Wakefield, 460

HARDY

INDEX

745

Goren, Arthur A., 190 Gori, Anton Francesco, 496

Great Leap Forward (China), 41 Great Riot of 1644 (Salamanca, Spain), 610

Guthrie, Tyrone, 578

Gorres, Joseph von, 354

Great St. Mary’s church, Cambridge,

Guy’s Hospital (University of London), 522

Gosse, Edmund, 477-78

Gotter, F.W., 179

Géttingen, Germany, 177-80 GGttingen Musenalmanach, 179 “Géttingen Seven,” 178-79 Géttingen University. See Georgia Augustus University of Gottingen Géttinger Hainbund, 179

Géttingisches Magazin fiir Wissenschaft und Literatur, 179 Gould, Samuel B., 381

Graduate Faculty of Political and Social Science (New School for Social Research), 297

Graduate School and University Center (City University of New York), 93

Graduate School of Management and Urban Policy (New School for Social Research),

298-99 Graf Engineering Laboratory (Oregon State

England, 445, 446

Great Schism of 1378, 222, 353, 583, 604, 607, 609

Guthro, Olaus Johannis, 681 Guzman y la Cerda, Maria Isidra de, 110-11

Gwynn, Mary, 230 gymnasium prototype, 383

Greek language, 447, 529, 556

Greek New Testament, 447

Ha’am, Ahad, 191

Greek Theatre (University of California,

Haganah, 193

Berkeley), 438, 443 Green College (University of Oxford), 578, 579 Green Hall (Wellesley College), 711

Hagen, John, 175 Hahn, L.P., 179 Hahn, Otto, 202, 329 Haidian, China, 38-42

Green Revolution, 209, 211

Haifa, Israel, 391-94, 706

Green, William Mercer, 640

Haight, H.H., 436

Greene, Graham, 577

Haldane Commission of 1916-18 (Great

Greene, John Morton, 368, 370

Britain), 670

Greener, Richard, 196

Hale, Edward Everett, 27

Greenfield, Meg, 372

Hale, George Ellery, 64-65, 66

Greensboro, North Carolina, United States,

Hale, Nathan, 726

181-84

Hale, Sarah J., 692

Greenspan, Alan, 303

Hale telescope, 66, 676

Greenwich Village, New York City, United States, 295, 297, 298, 300, 302

Halford, George, 537 Hall Auditorium (Oberlin University), 316—

Graham, Evarts, 703

Gregori, Luigi, 568

Graham, Franklin, 565

Graham, Martha, 297 Granada, Spain, 502-5

Gregorian, Vartin, 58-69 Gregory IX, pope, 445, 583 Gregory XII, pope, 221, 615

17 Hall, Charles Martin, 317 Hall, Clinton, 302

Granada the Beautiful (Gavinet), 504

Gregory, Bettina, 372

Granada University. See University of Granada

Gregory, Emily L., 36 Gregory, John Milton, 506, 508

Grand Séminaire de Québec. See Laval

Greifswald, Germany, 259

University), 325

Hall, Edwin Cutberth, 628 Hall of Graduate Students (Yale University),

726 Hall, Percival, 171

Grenoble, France, 153

Hall, R.O., 78 Hall, Robert, 197

grandes écoles systems, 152, 153-54

Gresham, Sir Thomas, 522

Halle, Hiram, 297

Granovsky, Timothy, 282

Gresham College, 522

Grant Medical College, 558, 559

Grey, Charles Grey, 2nd earl, 486

Grant, Sir Alexander, 559

Grey College (University of Durham), 489

Halle-Wittenberg. See Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg Halleck, Henry W., 406

Grant, Sir James Alexander, 267 Grant, Sir Robert, 558

Greyfriars, 578

Haller, Albrecht von, 177

Griffin, Edward Door, 720

Grant, Ulysses S., 403, 404 Grant, Zilpah Polly, 275 Grassi Museum, 248

Griffith, D.W., 621 Griggs, Clark R., 506 Grimes, James, 511 Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm, 179, 201, 327 Griqualand West, South Africa, 642

Halsted, William S., 230 Ham, Roswell Gray, 278 Hambach Castle uprising (1832), 355 Hamilton, Alexander, 105, 330, 698

Gratius, Ortwinus, 474

Griswold, A. Whitney, 727

Graves, Frank P., 674 Graves, Rufus, 21

Groningen, Netherlands, 520

Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 653 Hamilton, Thomas H., 381

Groot, Huig van (Hugo Grotius), 518, 519

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, 483

Graves, Thomas, 103

Groote Schuur, Cape Town, South Africa,

Hamlisch, Marvin, 48

University

Grantham, Sir Alexander, 78 Grassi, John Anthony, 173-74

Gray, James, 544, 546

456, 643

Hamilton, James, 2nd earl of Arran, 490 Hamilton, New York, United States, 599

Hammarskjold, Dag, 684

Great Awakening, 185, 187, 330

Groscurth, George, 202

Hammond, Indiana, United States, 335, 337

Great Books program, 107, 362, 363, 462 Great Britain, 12, 18-19, 78, 105, 126, 177, 192-93, 209, 217-18, 237, 241-43, 245, 265, 267-68, 288, 356-57, 377, 388, 393, 404, 408, 411, 429-30, 445-51, 480-84, 486-89, 518, 519, 522-28, 533-35, 537, 558, 559, 560, 561, 572, 576-79, 588-89, 640, 644, 668-71, 696-97, 722, 725-26. See also England; Scotland; Wales Great Court (Trinity College, University of

Groshong, James, 325

Hampshire College, 24

Grosseteste, Robert, 576 Grossman, Marcel, 162

Hampton, Lionel, 622

Cambridge), 447 Great Depression (1930s), 28, 44, 54, 62, 71-

72, 90-91, 146, 159, 176, 197, 215, 278, 306, 311, 321, 341, 377, 411, 425, 509, 542, 547, 550-51, 569, 675, 680 Great Eastern Railway Company, 449 Great Gate (Trinity College, University of

Grotius, Hugo (Huig van Groot), 518, 519 Gullstrand, Allvar, 683 Gumiel, Pedro, 421

Gunkel, Hermann, 179

Hand, Learned, 295 Handler, Evelyn E., 49 Hangzhou, China, 40

Hanks, Nancy, 139 Hanlin Academy, 38

Gunn, Alexander, 300 Gurukul system (India), 695-96

Hannah, John, 272, 273

Gurwin-1 Technsat (satellite), 394 Guskin, Alan, 28 Gustafson, Nancy, 279 Gustav I Vasa, king of Sweden, 684

Hanover, New Hampshire, United States,

Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus), king of Sweden, 253, 681, 684 Gustavianum (Uppsala University), 684

Hanover, Germany, 177, 179 126-30 Hansen, C. Willum, 3

Hapsburg dynasty, 142, 249, 251, 253, 385 Hapsburg, Rudolf von, 383

Harai, Haim, 706 Harbaugh, Gregory, 335

Gutenberg, Beno, 66 Gutenberg, Johann, 383

Hardenbergh, Jacob Rutsen, 356, 357

Great Hall (Cooper Union), 115

Gutenberg printing press, 257

Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, 649

Guthrie, Hunter, 176

Galway), 290 Hardy, Alpheus, 131

Cambridge), 447

Hardiman Library (University College,

746

HARE

INDEX

Hare, Nathan, 198

Hayden, Tom, 97

Harkness, Edward, 32, 188, 726

Henry, David D., 509

Haydn, Hiram Collins, 71

Henry, Horace C., 674

Harlem, New York City, United States, 108

Haydon Hall (Northeastern University), 306

Harnish, Mildred, 202

Hayes, Rutherford B., 189 Hayes Hall (Ohio State University), 321

Henry, Joseph, 333 Henry of Cologne, 617 Henry the Navigator, Prince of Portugal, 468 Henryson, Robert, 498

Harper, William Rainey, 460, 462

Hayford, John, 310

Henselmann, Hermann, 203

Harrington, Mark W., 674

Hayhoe, Ruth, 41

Hepburn, Katharine, 63

Harrington, Michael, 92

Haynesworth, George, 83

Harris, Abram, 310, 311

Haywood, Atticus Greene, 158

Herbert Hoover Federal Memorial (Stanford University), 378

Harris, Franklin Stewart, 54

Hazard, Caroline, 711

Herbert Lehman College (City University of

Harris Hall (Northwestern University), 310 Harris, J.N., 132

New York), 92 Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 385

Harrison, Benjamin, 175

Hazor, Israel, 194 Heald Committee on Higher Education (New York), 381 Heald, Henry T., 381 Healy, Patrick, 175 Healy Hall (Georgetown University), 176

Harrison, Charles, 591

Heaney, Seamus, 189

Hero of Our Time (Lermontov), 282

Harrison, Humphrey, 458 Harrison, New York, United States, 236-37

Heard, Alexander, 689

Herrman, Lilo, 202

Heard, George W., 275

Hertford College (University of Oxford), 578,

Harrison, William Henry, 335 Hart, Sophie Chantal, 712 Hart House (University of Toronto), 654

Heam, Lafcadio, 649 Hearn, W.E., 537 Hearst, George, 438 Hearst Memorial Mining Building (University

Harling, Robert, 401 Harnack, Arvid, 202

Harris Rikagakko (Doshisha University), 132 Harris, Townsend, 85, 87 Harris, William, 105

Hartford, Connecticut, United States, 724 Hartmann, Johann, 329

Hayek, Friedrich, 16, 525

of California, Berkeley), 438

Hermann Union Building Hall (Illinois

Institute of Technology), 207 Hermanns, Jakob (Jacobus Arminius), 518

Hermits of St. Augustine, 141

579 Hertfordshire, England, 449 Herzen, Alexander, 282

Herzl, Theodor, 662 Herzog, Fildp, 251

Hesburgh, Theodore, 570

Harvard Hall (Harvard University), 187

Hearst, Phoebe Apperson, 438 Hearst, William Randolph, 438 Heart Hospital (University of Minnesota), 547

Hesse. See Germany Hester, James M., 302

Harvard, John, 185, 448

Hebrew language, 391, 519, 529, 607, 725

Hevenesi Collection, 249

Harvard Medical Institution, 187

Hebrew University, 50, 190-94, 391, 705, 706

Hevesy, Georg von, 535

Harvard Observatory, 710

Heer, Oswald, 161 Hege Library (Guilford College), 183

Hewitt, Abram, 114-15, 116 Hewitt Hall (Barnard College), 37

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 141, 201,

Hewlett Foundation, 100

282 Heidegger, Martin, 328

Heydrich, Reinhard, 77

Heyne, Christian Gottlob, 177

Heidelberg Catechism (1563), 353

Heynlin, Johannes, 140

Heythrop College (University of London), $27

Harvey, William, 682

Heidelberg, Germany, 15, 16, 140, 202, 258, 259, 353-55, 472, 473 Heidelberg University. See Ruprecht Karls University Heidelberger Gesprichsbiichlein (Niavis), 247 Heimdal (Uppsala student organization), 684

Haryana, India, 211

Heinrich, Prince, 200

Hasan, Nurul, 19 Hasan, Zoya, 226

Heisenberg, Werner, 179

Harvard Annex. See Radcliffe College Harvard Business School, 188, 236

Harvard University, 21, 27, 42, 44, 101-4,

107, 300, 368, 509, Harvard

138, 185-89, 228, 260, 261, 263, 304, 332, 339-40, 341, 342, 346, 370, 373, 395, 439, 448, 480, 481, 662, 687, 721 Yard, 185, 187, 188

Harvard-Yenching Institute, 79

Harvey Mudd College. See Claremont Colleges Harvey S. Firestone Memorial Library (Princeton University), 333

H.F. Boeckmann II, Latin American

Collection (University of Southern California), 622 Hicks Undergraduate Library (Purdue University), 337

Higher Education Act of 1965 (United States), 306

Haslam, Francis William Chapman, 453

Helen Connon Hall (University of Canterbury), 453

Higher Education Amendment of 1976 (United States), 306

Hastie, William Henry, 198

Helen Hills Chapel (Smith College), 371

Hijli detention camp, Kharagpur, India, 219

Hastings College of the Law, 438

Heller, Joseph, 303

Hilarius, St., 596

Hastings, Serranus Clinton, 438

Hellman, Isaias Wolf, 619

Hatch Act of 1887 (United States), 272, 324, 508

Hellman, Lillian, 303

Hilgard, Eugene W., 438 Hill, David Jayne, 601

Hill, Nathan, 181 Hill, Thomas, 27 Hillel Foundation, 46 Hillman Block (University of the

Hatcher, Harlan, 542

Helmholtz, Hermann, 355 Helmstedt, Germany, 474

Hatfield College (University of Durham), 487

Hemenway, Mary, 711

Hatfield, Thomas, 486

Heminway, Jacob, 724

Hathaway, Starke, 547

Henares Valley, 420

Hauff, Wilhelm, 141

Henderson, Archibald, 563

Hills, Lee, 549

Hauptman, Herbert, 87

Henderson, Donald, 316 Hendrix Oceanography Laboratory (United States Naval Academy), 411

Hills, Stephen, 549

Hauszmann, Alajos, 251 Havana Harbor, 410

Havel, Vaclav, 77 Haven, Erastus, 541 Haven, Gilbert, 30 Haverford College, 60, 62 Havermann, Robert, 202, 203

Hawaii, United States, 54, 716 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 436, 720 Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul, 294

Hayashi family, 647 Hayden, Joseph, 541

Henrico, Virginia, United States, 101 Henry II, king of England, 429-30 Henry III, king of England, 445 Henry IV, king of France, 418, 584-85

Henry IV, king of Spain, 612 Henry V, king of England, 583 Henry VI, king of England, 430, 447 Henry VII, king of England, 447 Henry VIII, king of England, 447, 448, 480, 486

Witwatersrand), 645

Hilltop Campus (Washington University), 701, 703 Hilmers, David, 120 Hilpolstein, Germany, 254

Hindenburg, Paul von, 327 Hinduism, 19, 558, 560, 562, 695-97 Hinman, Clark, 308

Hinton James Dormitory (University of North Carolina), 564

Hippocrates, 556 Hirabayashi, Edward, 184 Histoire Naturelle (Buffon), 585

WIT

INDEX History Faculty Library (University of Cambridge), 450-51

Hooper, William, 565 Hoover Dam, 438

History of Dharmasastra (Kane), 562

Hoover, Herbert, 376

History of Emory University (Bullock), 158 History of Yale University (Smith), 724, 725

Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and

Hitch, Charles, 443

Hoover, Lou Henry, 376

Hitchcock, Edward, 22-23, 275, 277

Hoover Tower (Stanford University), 378

Hitchcock, Henry Lawrence, 69 Hitchcock, Orra, 23

Hope College (Brown University), 57

Hitchin, Hertfordshire, England, 449

Hopkins, Albert, 721

Hitler, Adolf, 193, 202, 259, 474, 520

Hopkins, Ann Yale, 722, 724

Hitler Youth, 202, 203

Hopkins College, 724

Hobbes, Thomas, 498

Hopkins, Edward, 722, 724, 725 Hopkins, Ernest Martin, 128

Hobbs, Grimsley, 184

Peace (Stanford University), 378

Hope, John, 31, 32

747

Human Relations Center (New School for Social Research), 298

humanism, 160, 200, 246, 247, 256, 259, 383,

384, 385, 447, 469, 517, 572, 584 Humboldt, Alexander von, 200 Humboldt University, 162, 200-204, 474 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 160, 167, 200, 201 Hume, David, 492 Humphrey, Doris, 297

Humphrey, Herman, 21 Humphrey, Hubert H., 547 Humphrey Rivas Raikes (University of the Witwatersrand), 645

Humphreys Hall (St. John’s College), 362 Humphreys, Hector, 362

Hochelaga (Iroquois settlement), 267 Hodgkin, Thomas, 488

Hopkins, Gerard, 228 Hopkins, Gilbert W., 423 Hopkins, Johns, 228

Hodgson Library (University of the South),

Hopkins, Mark (educator), 720, 721

Hundred Flowers campaign of 1957 (China),

Hopkins, Mark (real estate developer), 375 University), 374 Hopkins, Timothy, 374-75

41 Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453), 430, 583, 596 Hungarian language, 249, 251 Hungary, 249-52

Hobbs, Lewis Lyndon, 183, 184

640

Hundred Days’ Reform Movement of 1898 (China), 38

Hodgson, Telfair, 640

Hopkins, Samuel and Hannah, 228

Hoff, Jacobus van, 202 Hoffman Memorial Hall (University of the South), 640 Hoffman, Roald, 48

Hopkins Seaside Laboratory (Stanford

Hopkinson, Joseph, 126

Hunt, Nathan, 183

Hoffmann, August Wilhelm, 202

Hunter College, 34, 87-90, 90, 91

Hofmeyr, Jan, 644

Hopper, Grace M., 694 Horev, Amos, 391

Hofstadter, Robert, 87

Horn, D.B., 492

Hogness, John R., 675

Horne, Marilyn, 622

Hokkaldo, Japan, 238

Hornig, Donald F., 58

Holberg, Ludvig, 477-78

Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz, 61 Horton, Walter, 317

Holden Chapel (Harvard University), 187

Holden, Charles, 526, 527 Holden, Edward S., 437 Hélderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich, 141,

354 Holgate, Thomas, 310, 311

Horty, Nicolaus von, 251 Hospital Santa Maria della Scala (University of Siena), 618

Hostos Community College (City University

Holland, Jeffrey R., 54, 55

of New York), 92 Hotel School (Cornell University), 124-25

Holland, Netherlands, 516, 518, 520

Hough, Lynn, 310-11

Hollis Hall (Harvard University), 187

Houghton Memorial Chapel (Wellesley

Holloway, Thomas, 525

College), 711

Hunter College Playhouse. See Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse Hunter, David, 698 Hunter, Thomas, 88

Hunterian Museum (University of Glasgow), 500 Huntington, Archer M., 633 Huntington, Collis P., 373 Huntsville, Tennessee, United States, 638 Hurd, Henry Mills, 230 Hurston, Zora Neale, 37

Hus, Jan, 75, 76, 221 Husain, M.F., 390 Hussain, Zakir, 19 Hussein, king of Jordan, 45

Holloway Commission of 1951 (South

Houghton, William, 710-11

Hussites, 75, 76, 77, 246

Africa), 645 Holmes, John C., 270

House Committee on Un-American

Hutcheson, Francis, 498

Holmes, Marjorie, 120

Houssay, Bernardo, 434

Hutchins, Robert Maynard, 362, 462

Holt, Orren, 349 Holty, L.H.C., 179

Houston, Texas, United States, 349-52, 630, 634

Hutchinson, Henry, 525

Holworthy Hall (Harvard University), 187

Houston, William Vermillion, 351-52

Holy Cross order. See Congregation of the

Hovde, Bryn, 298

Holy Cross Holy Roman Empire, 74, 76, 255, 353-54,

385, 615, 660 Home, Francis, 492 Homer, Mary A.B., 277

Activities, United States, 298

Howard, Ada L., 708, 710 Howard Hall (University of Notre Dame), 569 Howard, John Galen, 438 Howard, Oliver O., 195

Howard, Ron, 621

Hutchins, Harry, 541

Hiitl, Dezs6, 251 Hutten, Ulrich von, 474 Hutton, James, 493 Huxley, Aldous, 329, 577 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 229

Hyde, Douglas, 484, 485

Hyde Park-Kenwood Community Conference (Chicago), 463

Homer, Winslow, 302

Howard University, 195-99, 666

Hyderabad, India, 18

Homerton College (University of Cambridge), 449-50

Howe, Charles Sumner, 72 Howells, Dorothy Elia, 341 Hoynes, William, 569

Hylan, John, 86-87 Hythe Bridge, Oxford, England, 576

Hradcany Castle, Prague, Czech Republic, 77

IARI. See Indian Agricultural Research

Hubbard, Jeremiah, 181

Institute ibn-Killis, 9 ibn-Numan, 9 Icelandic language, 478

Honan Chapel (University College, Cork), 290 honeste se gerrere (Coimbra student code),

468 Hong Kong, 78-80, 115

Hude, Anna, 478

Hong Kong College of Medicine, 415 Hong Kong University. See University of Hong Kong

Hudson, Ohio, United States, 69, 70, 73 Hudson Relays, 73 Hudson River, 403, 690

Ichihashi, Yamato, 377

Honnold Library (Claremont Colleges), 97

Hufeland (German professor), 200

IDA. See Institute for Defense Analysis

honor code, 103, 183, 351, 405, 468, 565, 665

Hufnagel, Charles A., 176

Igakujo (Medical Institute). See University of

Hood, Leroy, 67

Hughes Hall (University of Cambridge), 449

Hoogstraten, Jacob von, 474 Hooker, Joseph, 406

Hugo, Victor, 150, 429 Huguenots, 490, 556, 584

Ignatius of Loyola, St., 421, 609

Hooper Foundation for Medical Research,

Huizinga, Johan, 520 Hull, England, 527

(University of London) IIT. See Illinois Institute of Technology

438

Tokyo THR. See Institute of Historical Research

748

IIT APARTMENTS

IIT Apartments (Illinois Institute of Technology), 207 IITs. See Indian Institutes of Technology Tkin, Keith, 455 Tlam, New Zealand, 455 Illini Union (University of Illinois), 508, 509

Illinois Industrial University. See University of Illinois Illinois Institute of Technology, 205-8

Illinois, United States, 205-8, 214, 308-12, 460-63, 506-10 Illinois University. See University of Illinois Tllyricus, Flacius, 259 Imadegawa, Kyoto, Japan, 132, 133, 134 Immaculate Heart College, 97 Imperial Agricultural College and Central Research Institute. See Indian Agricultural Research Institute Imperial and Pontifical University of Mexico,

285 Imperial College (University of London), 526,

527, 528 Imperial College of Madrid, 110 Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890 (Japan), 648, 649 Imperial University. See Beijing University; University of Tokyo Important Cultural Properties (Japan), 132 Impressions and Landscapes (Garcia Lorca),

504 Index of Forbidden Books, 530

India, 18-20, 171, 209-12, 217-19, 224-27, 388-90, 524, 558-62, 695-97 India uprising of 1857, 18 Indian Agricultural Research Institute, 209-12 Indian Institute of Science, 388

Indian Institutes of Technology, 217-19, 524

INDEX Institut Universitaire de Technologie—IUT, 573 Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton University), 333

Institute for Defense Analysis, U.S., 108, 542 Institute for Investigating Barbarian Writings, 647 Institute for Retired Professionals (New School for Social Research), 298 Institute for Sex Research (Indiana University), 216

Institute for the History of Medicine (Leipzig University), 248 Institute for the Study of Humanities and Social Sciences (Doshisha University),

133 Institute of Advanced Legal Studies (University of London), 522

Institute of Archaeology (University of London), 526

Institute of Art History (Jagiellonian University), 220

Institute of Balneotherapeutics (Kyushu University), 238

Institute of Chemical Analysis, Applications, and Forensic Science (Northeastern University), 307

Institute of Design (Illinois Institute of Technology), 207 Institute of Free Education (Spain), 111

Institute of Historical Research (University of London), 526, 527, 528 Institute of Oriental Culture (University of

Indianapolis, 335, 337, 338 Indianapolis, Indiana, United States, 216, 335,

(University of Manchester), 535

Institute of Science and Technology (University of Wales), 671

Florence), 497

Instrumented Factory of Gears (Illinois Institute of Technology), 207 Intel, 394 Interdenominational Theological Center. See Atlanta University Center Interdenominational Theological Seminary,

Industrial Revolution, 533

32-33 Iowa State Teachers College. See University of Northern Iowa Iowa State University, 512 Iowa Testing Program, 513 Iowa, United States 117-20, 130, 215,511-15 Iowa University. See University of Iowa Iowa Writers’ Workshop, 514, 515

Infante, Blas, 504

Ipswich, Massachusetts, United States, 275

Infeld, Leopold, 333

Ipswich Seminary, 275 Iraq, 13 Ireland, 288-91, 480-85 Ireland, Northern. See Northern Ireland

337, 338 Indiresan, P.-V., 219

Indo-American Technical Cooperation Fund, 210 Industrial Education Association. See Teachers College (Columbia University)

Inghen, Marsilius von, 353 Inglis, Elsie, 493

Ingolstadt, Germany, 254, 255 Innis College (University of Toronto), 654

Innocent III, pope, 582 Innocent IV, pope, 615 Innocent XI, pope, 585 Inns of Chancery, 522 Inns of Court, 522, 525 Inoue Yasushi, 649

Inquisition, 469, 474, 609, 610, 617

Isabella I, queen of Spain, 109, 502, 609, 612 Isar River, 253

Ise Keio Hospital, 236 Isherwood, Christopher, 202

Islam, 9-13, 18-20, 191, 502, 504, 519, 553, 558, 561 Israel, 50, 190-94, 307, 391-94, 705-7 Israel Aircraft Industries, 394 Italy, 190, 232, 236, 257, 303, 353, 377, 49597, 592-95, 615-18 Ithaca, New York, United States, 121-25

ITS. See Interdenominational Theological Seminary IUT. See Institut Universitaire de Technologie—IUT Ivory, James, 621 Ivy Club (Princeton University), 332 Ivy League, 371 Iwakura, Kyoto, Japan, 133 Iwakura Mission, 131

Iwakura Tomomi, 235 J. Henry Meyer Undergraduate Library (Stanford University), 378 J. Reuben Clark Law School (Brigham Young University), 55

Jabbar, Kareem Abdul (Lew Alcindor), 441

Jackson, Andrew, 300, 301 Jackson, Blyden, 566

496 Instituto Matematico (University of

Indiana University-Purdue University

Witwatersrand), 645

Institute of Science and Technology

School), 714 Indiana Seminary. See Indiana University Indiana, United States, 213-16, 335-38, 56771

Wayne, 335, 337-38

Irving, John, 279, 514 Irwill River, 533 Irwin, Agnes, 340 Isabel Dalyrymple House (University of the

Jabotinsky, Vladimir, 191

Instituto di Studi Superiori, Florence, Italy,

Indiana University-Purdue University Fort

710

Tokyo), 649 Institute of Red Professors, 283

Indian Manual Labor School (Indian Mission

Indiana University, 213-16, 374

Irvine, Julia Josephine,

Irish Free State. See Ireland Trish Home Rule, 484

Jackson, Alice, 666

Jackson Park, Chicago, United States, 461

Jackson, Thomas “Stonewall,” 406 Jacksonville College, 506 Jacksonville, Illinois, United States, 506 Jacobaeus, Matthias, 477

Jacobi, Karl, 201 Jacobite uprisings, 414, 482, 492 Jadwiga, queen of Poland, 222 Jaensch, Erich, 329 Jagger Library (University of Cape Town), 456 Jagiellonian dynasty, 220 Jagiellonian University, 220-23

Jahan, Wahid, 19 James I (the Conqueror), king of Aragon, 555, 656 James II, king of England, 482 James II, king of Scotland, 498 James IV, king of Scotland, 412

James VI, king of Scotland and king of England as James I, 490, 492 James, Cyril, 268

James, Edmund J., 310, 508, 509 James, Henry, 189 James, Hinton, 564 James River Canal, 698

Irish language, 290, 481, 485

James, William, 189 Jamia Millia Islamia University, 20

Irish University Act of 1908, 288, 290

Jan Smuts House (University of the

Iroquis Indians, 267

Witwatersrand), 645

Irvine, California, United States, 436, 441,

Jander, Owen H., 711

442 Irvine Company, 442

Janes, Leroy Lansing, 132 Jansenists, 585

KEITH

INDEX Janss, Edwin, and Harold Janss, 439 Japan, 24, 38, 39, 40, 131-34, 233-37, 23840, 364, 411, 463, 647-51

John C. Green School of Science (Princeton University), 332

Japanese Americans, 120, 374, 377

University), 57 John Jay College (City University of New

Japanese language, 364 Javits, Jacob, 303

John Carter Brown Library (Brown

York), 92

Jawaharlal Nehru University, 217, 224-27 Jawhar (Fatimid general), 9

John Moffat Building (University of the

Jay N. Neff Hall (University of Missouri), 552

John of Luxembourg, 72 John P. Robarts Research Library (University

Jeff Davis County, Texas, United States, 632 Jefferson, Thomas, 103, 104, 130, 156, 262,

330, 403, 492, 510, 511, 549, 552, 663, 665, 666, 667, 698 Jeffries, Leonard, 87

Jehanghier, Cowasjee, 560 Jena, Germany, 259

Witwatersrand), 645

of Toronto), 655

John Paul II, pope, 110, 223 John Payson Williston Observatory (Mount Holyoke College), 278 John Rylands Library (University of Manchester), 533

749

Juan I botanical gardens (University of Alcala de Henares), 421 Judaeus, Isaac, 555

Judaism, 16, 36-37, 44, 46—S0, 77, 86, 87, 175, 179, 190-94, 202, 282, 295, 297, 355, 385, 391-94, 474, 478, 479, 496, 502, 520, 523, 553, 558, 684, 705 Judson Female Institute, 690 Juilliard School of Music, 37, 215 Julius II, pope, 612 Juncker, J., 259

Jungmann, Josef, 77

Junior Year Abroad program, 371 Justice, Donald, 514 Jutland, Denmark, 3-5, 6-8 Jutland Resistance movement, 7

Jenifer, Franklyn, 198 Jenison Fieldhouse (Michigan State

John the Baptist, 360 John the Evangelist, 360

Kafka, Franz, 77

University), 272 Jensen, Christen, 54

Kaga Province, Japan, 648

Jensen, James H., 325

John’s College. See St. John’s College (University of Cambridge) Johns Hopkins Hospital, 230, 232

Jericho, Israel, 194

Johns Hopkins University, 156, 228-32,

Jerusalem Foundation, 50 Jesse, Richard Henry, 400 Jessenius, 76

410, 437, 512 Johns Hopkins University Press, 230 Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, 230

Kaiseigakko. See University of Tokyo Kaiser-Wilhelm-Universitat Strassburg. See Strasbourg University Kamden, Pherozebi Sorabji, 560 Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, 236 Kandinsky, Wassily, 202 Kane, Pandurang Vaman, 562

Jessup, George, 513

Johns, Margaret, 228

Kane, Stephen, 307

Jesuit College Library, 249 Jesuits, 15-16, 76, 110, 173-74, 175, 176, 222, 241, 243, 249, 254, 255, 265, 285, 292-93, 353-54, 384, 418, 469, 477, 527, 578, 585, 609, 655, 660 Jesus College (University of Cambridge), 447

Johns, W. Lloyd, 171

Kane, Thomas Franklin, 674

Johns, Wendell, 513 Johnson, Alexander, 332 Johnson, Alvin, 295, 297, 298

Kang Youwei, 38

Johnson, Andrew, 565-66 Johnson, Arthur, 415

Kansas City, Missouri, United States, 549

Jesus College (University of Oxford), 578,

Johnson, John Wesley, 322

Kant, Hermann, 203

579 Jet Propulsion Laboratory (California Institute of Technology), 64-65 Jewett Arts Center (Wellesley College), 711

Johnson, Lady Bird, 632

Kant, Immanuel, 141, 327-28 Kaprinay Collection, 249

Jewett, Milo P., 690

Johnson, Samuel (American clergyman), 105 Johnson, Samuel (British writer), 578

Jerusalem, Israel, 190-94, 391, 393

Jewish Theological Seminary, 37 Jews. See Judaism

Johnson, Lyndon B., 45, 306, 442, 633

Johnson, Mordecai, 197-98 Johnson, Philip, 302

Kanomori, Hiro, 66 Kanpur, India, 217-19 Kansas, United States, 215

Kar, Surendranath, 696 Karl Eugen, duke of Wiirttemberg, 142 Karl Friedrich, grand duke of Baden, 353, 354 Karle, Jerome, 87

Karl-Marx University. See Leipzig University

Jewish Agency for Palestine, 705

Johnson, William Samuel, 105 Johnston, Albert Sidney, 400 Johnston, Amelia A. Field, 315

Jhelum River Hostel, 224

Johnston, William Preston, 400

Jiji Shinpo (newspaper), 233

Johnstone, D. Bruce, 382

Karoch, Samuel, 247 Karve, Dhondo Keshan, 562

Jiménez de Cisneros, Francisco, 109-10, 111,

Jones, Charlie, 349

Jews College (University of London), 528

Karlsruhe University, 17 Karman, Theodore von, 66

Jiménez, Juan Ramon, 111

Jones Hall (Princeton University), 333

Kasso, L.A., 282 Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven, 529, 531-32 Kato, Kin, 710

Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyusho (Doshisha

Jones, Henry, bishop of Meath, 482

Katznelson, Berl, 192

Jones, Jones, Jones, Jones,

Kaunihera Tikanga Rua (University of

420-21

University), 133

J.M. Kaplan Center for New York City Affairs (New School for Social Research), 298

JNU. See Jawaharlal Nehru University Joan of Arc, 583 Jochers, Christian Gottlieb, 247

Jodrell Bank Experimental Station (University of Manchester), 535 Joffre, Joseph-Jacques-Césaire, 154 Johann Maier of Eck. See Eck, Johann Johannesburg, South Africa, 642-46 Johannisson, Karin, 681

John I, king of Portugal, 468

Jones, Gareth Elwyn, 668

Hugh, 102 John Viriamu, 670 T.F., 301-2 Vernon, 316

Jordan, David Starr, 214, 215, 374, 375-76 Jordan, I. King, 171, 172

Technology), 207 Keble College (University of Oxford), 578, 579 Keck Observatory, 64, 67

Jordan, Michael, 566 José I, king of Portugal, 470 Joseph II, emperor of Austria, 76-77, 249,

251, 660

John V, king of Portugal, 470

Joshi, A.B., 211

John VI, king of Portugal, 470

Journal of Experimental Medicine, 231 Journal of Pharmacology, 231 Journalism Week (University of Missouri),

(Princeton University), 333

Kazan, Elia, 721

Kazan, Russia, 280

Josephine Louise House (Tulane University),

John B. Putnam Jr. Memorial Collection

Kawabata Yasunari, 649

Jong, Erica, 37 Jordan, 193 Jordan, Barbara, 44

John I, king of Portugal, 469 John IV, duke of Brabant, 529

John XII, pope, 607, 609 John XXII, pope, 446

Canterbury), 455

400

$52 Joyce, James, 161

Kearse, Amalaya L., 711

Keating Sports Center (Illinois Institute of

Kedzie, Robert C., 272

Keeler, R.W., 117 Keene, Keezar, Kehrer, Keillor,

New Hampshire, United States, 25 Dexter, 347 Johannes, 14 Garrison, 548

Keio Academy of New York, 236-37 Keio University, 233-37, 650

Keith, George, 5th earl Marischal, 412 Keith, George, 10th earl Marischal, 414 Keith, James Francis Edward, 414

750

KEIZAI SENMON GAKKO

Keizai Senmon Gakko (Doshisha University), 133

Kelheim, Germany, 255 Kelley, Florence, 462

Kellogg Center for Continuing Education (Michigan State University), 273

Kellogg Graduate School of Management (Northwestern University), 310

Kellogg Laboratory (California Institute of Technology), 67 Kellogg, Martin, 437 Kelly, Robert, 85 Kelvin, Lord, 499, 500

Kemeny, John, 128-30

INDEX King William’s School. See St. John’s College King’s College. See Columbia University; University of Newcastle upon Tyne; University of Toronto King’s College (University of Aberdeen), 412, 414, 415, 416 King’s College (University of Cambridge), 447, 448, 449, 451 King’s College (University of London), 524,

525, 526, 527, 528 King’s Hall (University of Cambridge). See

Trinity College Kingsboro Community College (City

Korean War, 366, 542 Kornberg, Arthur, 87

Koryo Dynasty (936-1392), 364

Kossel, Albrecht, 329 Kozaki Hiromichi, 132 Krakow, Poland, 220-23, 660

Krannert Center for Executive Education and Research (Purdue University), 337

Kratzenstein, Georg, 478 Kresge Art Center (Michigan State University), 273

Kresge Foundation, 542 Kress Collection, 425

Kuckreja, C.P., 224

Kendall, Amos, 169

University of New York), 92-93 Kingston, Indiana, United States, 335

Kugelkirche, Marburg, Germany, 329

Kennedy, Anthony M., 378

Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 653, 654

KUL. See Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven

Kennedy, Donald, 378

Kinley, David, 509

Kumamoto Band, 132

Kennedy House (Aligarh Muslim University), 20 Kennedy, John F., 24, 189, 566 Kennedy, Kate, 606

Kinnel, Galway, 514 Kinsey, Alfred, 216 Kinsky Palais, Prague, Czech Republic, 77

Kunming, Yunnan, China, 40, 315 Kuomintang, 40, 41 Kuwait, 13

Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, 355

Kwanak Mountain, 364

Kenney, Peter, 174

Kirk, Grayson, 79

Kwang Hsia College. See Chinese University

Kenney Quadrangle (Brown University), 58

Kirk O’Field, Edinburgh, Scotland, 490

Kent, England, 525 Kent, Raymond Asa, 120 Kent State University, 675

Kirkland, James Hampton, 687, 688

of Hong Kong Kyongsong Imperial University, 365, 366

Kirkland Hall (Vanderbilt University), 688

Kyoto American Studies Seminar, 133

Kirkpatrick, Jeane J., 37

Kyoto, Japan, 131-34, 647, 648

Kenya, 527

Kisselgoff, Anna, 63

Kyoto University. See University of Kyoto

Keohane, Nannerl Overholser, 712 Kepler, Johannes, 77, 141

Kissinger, Henry, 189 Kitasato Shibasaburo, 236

Kyushu, Japan, 238

Ker, David, 564, 565 Kerr, Clark, 441, 442, 443

Kitchen Garden Club (New York City), 107-8

Kyushu University, 238-40

Kerr, William Jasper, 325

Kitt Peak National Observatory, 425 Klapper, Paul, 92

La Bruyére, Jean de, 385 La Follette, Robert, 679

Kerry County, Ireland, 480

Klaproth, Martin, 201

La Guardia, Fiorello, 90, 91

Kervik, Francis, 569

Klingenstierna, Samuel, 683 Klober, August, 257

La Guardia Community College (City

Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, 179

La Jolla, California, United States, 438, 439 La Pietra, Florence, Italy, 303

Kettering, Charles F,, 28 Key, Francis Scott, 362

Keynes, John Maynard, 295, 450

Kloster-Lasse (Laurits Nielsen), 477

Keys, John, 448

Kluit, Adriaan, 519 KMT. See Kuomintang

Kfir C-22 fighter, 393

University of New York), 93

La Trobe, Charles, 536

La Verne College, 97 Laboratory for Astrophysics and Space

Kharagpur, India, 217-19 Kharkov, Russia, 280

Knaben Wunderhorn (anthology), 354

Kharsedi, Phiroze Sorabji, 560 Khen, Sir Syed Admed, 18, 19

Kneller, John W., 91 Knesset, Jerusalem, Israel, 393 Knoll (Stanford University), 376 Knowles, Asa S., 306-7

Laboratory for Laser Energetics (University

Knox, John (American clergyman), 358

Laboratory Schools (University of Chicago), 462

Khrushchev, Nikita, 203, 283 Kidder, Ida Evangeline, 325 Kido Takayoshi, 131 Kidwai, A.R., 19 Kidwai, Rafi Ahmed, 19, 20 Kierkegaard, Sgren, 478

Kiewiet, C.W., 458 Kilby, Jack, 510 Kilgore, Carrie, 591 Killingsworth, Connecticut, United States,

724

Knapp, A.M., 235

Knox College (University of Toronto), 653,

Research (University of Chicago), 463 of Rochester), 602

Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research (University of Arizona), 425

654, 655 Kober, George, 175

Laboremus (Uppsala student organization),

Koch, Christophe Guillaume, 385

Ladd-Franklin, Christine, 229

Koch, Ed, 303 Koch, Henrik, 251 Kohl, Helmut, 45

Lady Margaret Chair of Divinity (University

Koil. See Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India

of Cambridge), 447

Lady Margaret Hall (University of Oxford), 578, 579 Lafayette, marquis de, 335

Kim, Jongchol, 364

Kokomo, Indiana, United States, 216, 338

Kimberley, South Africa, 642

Kollataj, Hugo, 222

Kincardine, Scotland, 412

Kollwitz, Kathe, 202

Lafayette, Indiana, United States, 335 Lahn River, 327, 329

King Chapel (Cornell College), 119

K6ln, Germany. See Cologne, Germany

Laie, Hawaii, United States, 54

King, Elizabeth, 230 King, Francis, 181

K6nigliche Sozietat der Wissenshaften, 177

Lakanal, Joseph, 148

K6nigsberg, Germany, 259

Lake Cayuga, 125

King Hall (Guilford College), 181

Konrad Adenauer Foundation, 100

Lake Mendota, 677

King Hall H (Guilford College), 181

Konsistorum (University of Copenhagen),

King Hall UI (Guilford College), 181, 183 King, Henry Churchill, 316 King James College. See University of Edinburgh King, Mackenzie, 244 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 31, 44, 45, 377

476, 478 Konstanz, Germany, 15 Kookmin University, 716

Lake Michigan, 205, 313, 462 Lake Minnetonka, 545

Lake Waban, 708

Koralek, Paul, 483 Koran, 9, 10, 11-12

Lake Washington, 672 Lake Zurich, 160 Lakeside (Mount Holyoke College), 278

King Memorial Center, Atlanta, Georgia, 45

Korea. See Republic of Korea Korea University, 366

Lakewood, Ohio, United States, 321 Lamade, George and Howard, 552

King, William Fletcher, 119

Korean language, 364

Lamar, L.Q.C., 158

LONDON BUSINESS SCHOOL

INDEX Lamar, Mirabeau B., 631 Lamartine, Alphonse de, 585

Lambuth, David, 128 Lampeter, Wales, 668 Land-Grant College Act of 1862 (United States). See Morrill Act of 1862 Landes, France, 490

Landshut, Germany, 253, 254, 255 Langsdorf, Alexander, 701-2

Langston, John, 195-96 Language Research Center (Brigham Young University), 54-55 Lansing, Michigan, United States, 270 Lantern (publication), 321

Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee, Lee,

Jason, 714 Jerry C., 171 Mary, 699 Rebecca, 44 Rex E., 54

Liaquat Ali Khan, 19 Liberty Hall Academy. See Washington and Lee University “Liberty of a Christian Man” (Luther), 258 Lichtenberg, G.C., 179

Lee River, 290 Lee, Robert E., 403, 406, 698, 699-700 Lee, Spike, 31, 303

Lick, James, 438

Leeds, England, 524, 527, 535 Left Hegelians, 141

Liffey River, 483

Legge, William, earl of Dartmouth, 126 Leguia, Augusto, 293-94 Lehman College. See City University of New

Lille, France, 153

York

751

Lick Observatory, 438, 442

Liége, Belgium, 473, 530 Lijden, Netherlands. See Leiden, Netherlands Lilly Hall of Life Science (Purdue University), 337

Lima, Ohio, United States, 318, 321

Larsen, Helge, 3, 4, 5

Lehman, Herbert, 90

Lima, Peru, 285, 292-94

Lasdun, Denys, 449

Lehrer, James, 552

Limentani (Italian philosopher), 496

Laski, Harold, 525 Lathrop, John Hiram, 549, 677

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 248

Limerick County, Ireland, 480

Leicester, earl of, 518

Linacre College (University of Oxford), 579

Latimer, Hugh, 448, 577

Leicester, England, 527 Leiden, Netherlands, 516-21, 530 Leiden University. See University of Leiden Leighton, Benjamin, 197

Lincoln, Abraham, 71, 82, 115, 120, 126, 272, 324, 335, 506, 544, 600 Lincoln, bishops of, 576

Latin American Council of Social Sciences

(CLACSO), 99

Latin language, 14, 109, 246, 280, 482, 490, 498, 520, 529, 530, 588 Latini, Giovanni, 496 Latter-day Saints. See Mormonism Laud, William, archbishop of Canterbury, 482 Laudean Statutes of 1637 (England), 482 Laue, Max von, 179, 200, 202

Launingen, Germany, 254 Laur, Ermest, 162

Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, 268

Leipzig, Germany, 246-48, 258, 259

Lincoln College (University of Oxford), 578,

579

Leipzig University, 222, 246—48, 512

Lincoln, Illinois, United States, 506

Lejeune-Dirichlet, Peter Gustave, 201

Lincoln Laboratory, 263

Leland Stanford Junior Museum (Stanford

Lincoln University, 551

University), 375

Leland Stanford Junior University. See

Lincolnshire, England, 576 Lindbergh, Anne Morrow, 372

Stanford University Leland Stanford University. See Stanford

Lingnan University Foundation, 78 Linklater, Eric, 415

University

Linnaeus (Carl von Linné), 682, 683, 684

Lauring, Paulle, 478

Leloir, Federico, 434

Linnean Hall (Uppsala University), 684

Lausanne Hall (Willamette University), 715,

Lemberg Institute for the Study of Violence

Linquist, Everet, 513

716 Laval de Montigny, Francois-Xavier de Montmorency, 241, 242

Laval University, 241-45, 265, 267, 268 Law, Race and Gender Research Institute (University of Cape Town), 459

(Brandeis University), 49

Lemonnier, August, 568 Lemonnier Library (University of Notre Dame), 569 Lenin Hills, Moscow, Russia, 283

Lawn (University of Virginia), 663, 665

Lenin, V.I., 198, 282-83 Lennander, Karl Gustaf, 683

Lawn, J.S., 642

Lenz, Jakob, 385

Lawrence, Amos, 721

Leo X, pope, 111, 257, 258, 594

Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence,

Leon. See Spain

Emest O., 439, 441 Jerome, 321 Sir Thomas, 363 T.E., 578

Leon, Luis de, 609

Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor and grand duke of Tuscany, 618, 660

Linton Hall (Michigan State University), 272 Lipchitz, Jacques, 425

Lippmann, Walter, 295 Lipsius, Justus, 530 Lisbon, Portugal, 468, 469, 470 Liscome, William S., 235

Lister, Joseph, 493, 499 Lithuania, 220, 222 Little 500 bicycle race, 216 Little, Clarence, 541 Little, Lou, 176 Liverpool, England, 524, 527, 535

Leopold ITI, archduke of Austria, 660

Liverpool University. See University of Liverpool

Lermontov, Mikhail, 282

Liversidge report (1880), 626

Livingston, Edward, 301

Laws, Samuel, 551 Lawson, John, 688

Lerner, Max, 48 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 200, 248

Llandinam, Wales, 669

Letters of Famous Men (Reuchlin), 474

Lloyd George, David, 670

Lazio, Rick, 694

Letters of Obscure Men (von Hutten), 474

Lloyd, John Edward, 669, 670

LDS. See Mormonism

Leutner, Winfred George, 71

LOBUND (Labs of Bacteria at the University

LDS Business College, 54

Leuven, Belgium. See Louvain, Belgium

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (University of California, Berkeley), 439

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 66

of Notre Dame), 570

“Le X.” See Ecole Polytechnique

Levenson, Sam, 92

Locher, Jakob, 254

League of Women Voters, 63, 261

Leverett, John, 185

“Loci communes rerum theologicarum”

Leahy, Frank W., 570 Leaning Tower of Pisa, 592, 594

Levi, Sylvain, 696 Lewis, Morgan, 300, 302

Loeb, Marshall R., 552

Learned, Dwight Whitney, 132

Lewis Institute. See Illinois Institute of

Loeb Playhouse (Purdue University), 337

Leavis, F.R., 450 Lebanon, Connecticut, United States, 126

Technology Lewisohn, Ludwig, 48

Loewi, Otto, 329

Lebrun, Albert, 154

Lexington, Massachusetts, United States, 263

LeConte, John, 437

Lexington, Virginia, United States, 698-700

Lecturer’s Association (University of

Ley Moyano of 1857 (Spain), 426-27

Sydney), 627 Ledderhose, Karl, 386, 387

Leyden, Netherlands. See Leiden,

Netherlands

Lederer, Emil, 297

Leydt, Matthew, 357

Lederman, Leon, 87, 207 Lee, Charles, 330

Li Dunfen, 38

Lee, Henry (“Light Horse’’), 330

Liang Qichao, 38

Li Ji, 40

(Melanchthon), 258

Loftus, Adam, archbishop of Dublin, 481 Loi d’orientation de I’enseignement supérieur. See Orientation of Higher Education Act of 1968 (France) Loire River, 572

Loma Prieta earthquake (1989), 378 Lombard, Peter. See Peter Lombard Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilievich, 280, 329 London Business School (University of London), 528

752

LONDON CENTRE

London Centre (Antioch College), 28

INDEX Lown School of Near Eastern and Judaic Studies (Brandeis University), 49

Maeser, Karl G., 53

London Hospital for Tropical Diseases, 415

Loyola, Ignatius de. See Ignatius of Loyola

Maeser Memorial Building (Brigham Young

Loyon, Mary, 275, 277

London Mechanics’ Institute. See Birbeck

LSE. See London School of Economics Lu Dingyi, 41 Lu Ying-lin, 78

University), 53, 54 Maestre, Nicolas, 614

London, England, 522-28, 722, 725 London Hospital (University of London), 522

College (University of London) London School of Economics, 450, 525, 526,

Maeda family, 648, 649

Maestricht, Netherlands, 473

526 London University. See University of London

Luder, Peter, 247

London University Act of 1898 (Great

Ludwig, grand duke of Baden, 16

Magdalen Bridge, Oxford, 576 Magdalen College (University of Oxford), 578, 579 Magdalene College (University of Cambridge), 447 Magnes, Judah, 190, 191, 192, 193 Magnus, Heinrich, 201 Magoon, Elias Lyman, 692

Britain), 525 Long, Charles, 80

Ludwig I, crown prince of Bavaria, 253, 255

Maguire, Bernard A., 175

Ludwig der Reiche, 253-54 Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, 253-55, 474 Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (University

Maharashtra, India, 217-19, 388-90, 558-62

§27, 528 London School of Medicine for Women. See

Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine London School of Tropical Medicine, 415,

Long, Perrin, 231

Long Room (University of Dublin Trinity College), 483 Longstreet, James, 406 Lorand E6tvés University, 249-52

Lucas, George, 621

Lucca, Italy, 593 Lucerne, Switzerland, 160

Lucy Cavendish College (University of Cambridge), 450, 451

of Arizona), 425

Lunt Library (Northwestern University), 310

Lorca, Federico Garcia. See Garcia Lorca, Federico

Lupton, Kate, 687 Lustnau, Germany, 143

Lord, Nathan, 127

Lords of Discipline (Conroy), 81 Loree, Leonor F., 354 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon, 520

Luther, Martin, 15, 247, 254, 256-58, 259, 327, 353, 447, 474, 475, 529, 584 Lutheranism, 77, 141-42, 222, 259, 327, 354, 383, 385, 474-78, 516, 617

Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States,

Lutz, Jessie Gregory, 40

439, 680 Los Angeles, California, United States, 25, 436, 439-41, 443, 619-22 Los Angeles Normal School. See University

Luxembourg, Rosa, 161 Lydian String Quartet, 49

of California

Lothrop, E.H., 270 Louis II, king of Jerusalem and Sicily and count of Provence, 417

Lyman, Hannah W., 692 Lyman, Richard W., 378

Lyman Williston Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 277

Lyndon B. Johnson Library and Museum

(University of Texas at Austin), 633

Mahy, Margaret, 455

Mailer, Norman, 189 Maimonides, 553

Main. See South Building (University of North Carolina)

Main Building (Illinois Institute of Technology), 207 Main Building (New York University), 302 Main Building (University of Michigan), 539 Main Building (University of Notre Dame), 567, 568 Main Building (University of Texas System), 631 Main Hall (Aarhus University), 7 Maine (battleship), 410 Malawi, 527 Malloy, Edward A., 570

Maloff, Saul, 514 Malone, Dumas, 156, 665, 667 Malus, Etienne Louis, 152

Louis VII, king of France, 429

Lyon, France, 148, 151, 153

Mamaini, Terenzio, 618

Louis IX, king of France, 583

Lyons Hall (University of Notre Dame), 569 Lyon, Mary, 275, 277, 278, 279 Lytton, Edward George, first baron Lytton, 18

Mamluks, 10

Louis XI, king of France, 429-30, 584 Louis XII, king of France, 418, 556, 584

Louis XIII, king of France, 530

Manchester College (University of Oxford),

578 Manchester, England, 524, 527, 533~35, 705 Manchester Museum (University of

Louis XIV, king of France, 353, 385, 585

Maass, Otto, 268, 269

Louis XV, king of France, 585

MacArthur, Douglas, 403, 405-6

Louis XVI, king of France, 241

MacArthur Foundation, 100

Manchester), 535 Manchester School of Medicine. See

Louis Bonaparte, 520 Louise Terry Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 278

MacCracken, Henry Noble, 693 Macdonald College, 268

University of Manchester Manchester University. See University of

Macdonald, George, 415

Louisiana Purchase, 549

Macdonald, Sir William, 267, 268 Machinery Hall (Illinois Institute of

Manchester Manchester, William, 552

Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 703 Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and Military Academy, 398 Louisiana State University, 398, 400 Louisiana, United States, 398-402, 636

Technology), 207 Mackenzie, William Lyon, 652

Mackey Arena (Purdue University), 337

Mandela, Nelson, 458

Manhattan. See New York, New York

Manhattan Community College (City University of New York), 92

Manhattan Project, 108, 231, 262, 463, 479

Louvain, Belgium, 527, 529-32

Mackintosh, Charles Rennie, 500 Mackintosh, Sir R.J., 493 Maclaurin, Richard Cockburn, 262

Louvain Bible, 530

MacLaurin, Thomas, 415

Louvain University. See University of

MacLean, George, 512, 513

Louvain Louvain-en-Woluwe, 529, 531, 532

Maclean, John, 331 Macmillan Brown, John, 452, 453, 454, 455

Mann, Horace, 25-26, 27 Mann, Thomas, 297 Mannheim, Germany, 354 Manning Hall (Brown University), 57

Louvain-la-Neuve, 529, 531, 532

Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies

Manning, James, 56

Louisville, Kentucky, United States, 398

Lovell, Sir Alfred Charles Bernard, 535

(University of Canterbury), 455

Lovett, Edgar Odell, 349-50, 351

Macmillan Brown Library (University of

Lovett Hall (Rice University), 349-50 Low, Frederick, 436 Low, Seth, 107 Lowell, Abbot Lawrence, 188, 341 Lowell, Robert, 189, 514 Lower Canada. See Quebec, Canada

Canterbury), 455 Macmillan, Harold, 579

Lower, Elmer, 552

Lower Saxony, Germany, 180

Macpherson, James, 415 Madison, James, 330, 333, 404, 663, 677

Manhattan School of Music, 37

Mann, Bob, 263

Manning, William, 626 Manoury (French marshal), 154

Mansfield College (University of Oxford),

578 Mansfield, Jacob S., 423 Mansfield, Ohio, United States, 318, 321

Madison University. See Colgate University

Manson, Patrick, 415

Madison, Wisconsin, United States, 677, 680

Mantua, Italy, 190, 592 manual training, 107-8

Madras, India, 217-19, 524, 558 Madrid, Spain, 109-11, 421, 428, 504, 658

Mao Zedong, 41

MELVILLE

INDEX

Maori, 454, 455 Maraschi, Antonio, 175 Marburg an der Lahn, Germany, 259, 327-29

Marburg School of Philosophy, 327-28 Marburg University. See Philipps University of Marburg

Masion de Sorbonne (University of Paris),

583

Mason, John, 105, 408

McDowell, John, 362 McDowell, Mary, 462 McDowell, R.B., 480, 483

Masons, 360, 563

Marcy, Oliver, 308 Margaret Clapp Library (Wellesley College), 712 Margaret of Anjou, queen consort of England, 447 Marguerite of Navarre, 584

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 42, 44, 161, 217, 260-64, 304, 373, 692, 712

Maria Theresa, empress of Austria, 16, 76, 249, 660 Maric, Mileva, 162 Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 462

McCoy, Louise, 708

McDonald, Howard S., 54 McDowell Hall (St. John’s College), 360

March, Alden, 57 March Revolution of 1848, 16 Marcks, Gerhard, 472

Maria I, queen of Portugal, 470

McCoy, Frederick, 537

Maslow, Abraham, 48 Mason Hall (University of Michigan), 539

Mason, Lowell, 313 Massachusetts General Hospital, 50 Massachusetts Hall (Harvard University), 185

McGill, James, 265, 268 McGill University, 243, 244, 245, 265-69, 415, 654 McGraw, Ali, 712

Massachusetts, United States, 21-24, 27, 42—

McGraw, Jennie, 124

45, 46-50, 131, 185-89, 260-64, 275-79, 304-7, 339-43, 368-72, 395-97, 462, 519, 708-13, 718-21 Massachusetts Women’s Suffrage League, 278 Massey College (University of Toronto), 654 Massey Foundation (University of Toronto), 654

McGraw, John, 124

McGregor School (Antioch University), 28 McGuffey, William Holmes, 665 McKim, Charles Follen, 36

McKim, Mead, and White, 37 McKinley, Grace, 278

McKinley, J. Charney, 547

Marine Biological Station (University of

Massey, Vincent, 654, 655

McKinley, William, 278 McLaren, John, 376 McLaughlin, David, 130

Washington), 674 Marine Laboratory (Duke University), 139

Materials Technology Building (Illinois

McMaster University, 653

Marion, Alabama, United States, 690

Mathematics Research Center (University of Wisconsin), 680

Marion Convention, 25 Marion, Ohio, United States, 318, 321

Marischal College (University of Aberdeen),

412, 414, 415, 416 Marischal, Lord. See Keith, George

Massey, Hart, 654

Institute of Technology), 207

753

McNemar, Donald W., 184

McParland, E.J., 482, 483 McRae, Mary, 566 McTyeire, Holland, 686-87

Mather, Flora Stone, 71 Mather, Increase, 185 Mathews, James M., 300, 301, 302

Mead, Elwood, 438

Matteucci Law of 1862 (Italy), 618

Mead, George Herbert, 462

Mead, Elizabeth Storrs, 278

Mark I and Mark II computers, 535 Marks, Jeannette, 278

Matthew Paris, 582

Mead, Margaret, 37

Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, 249

Means, Alexander, 156

Marlborough House (University of London),

Maulana Azad Libary (Aligarh Muslim

Mechthild, archduchess of Upper Austria, 14

University), 18 Maurice G. Knoy Hall of Technology (Purdue

Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, United

University), 337 Maurice of Nassau, 518 Mauritius, 524

Medford, Massachusetts, United States, 395— 97

Maverick, Samuel, 722, 724

New York), 92 Medical and Surgical Journal (Boston), 57

$24 Marquand, Leon, 458 Marrasio, 517

Marseille, France, 417-19

Marseille University. See University of AixMarseille “Marseillaise” (Rouget de Lisle), 385

Marsh Chapel (Boston University), 44 Marsh, Dame Ngaio, 454, 455 Marsh, Leonard, 268 Marsh, Othniel, 726

Maximilian I, duke and elector of Bavaria, 254, 255 Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, 255

States, 565 Medgar Evans College (City University of Medical Building (University College, Cork), 290 Medical Center (Duke University), 138

Medical College of Louisiana, 398

Marshall, Alfred, 450

Maximilian Joseph III, elector of Bavaria, 255 Maximilian Joseph IV, elector of Bavaria, 253

Marshall, John, 103, 127

Maxwell, James Clerk, 493

Martin I, king of Sicily and prince of Aragon, 426 Martin V, pope, 475, 529, 555, 604, 607, 609

May 4 Movement of 1919 (China), 39 Mayans y Siscar, Gregoria, 657, 658 Maybeck, Bernard, 438

701 Medical Education in the U.S. and Canada, 231

Martin, Frank L., 552

Mayer, Clara, 298

Martin, H. Newell, 229, 230

Mayer Hall (Northwestern University), 311 Mayerhoffer, Andreas, 251

Martin, Luther, 330

Martin Luther University of HalleWittenberg, 140, 256-59, 475 Martin the Humanist, 426 Martinez, Joaquin, 658

Mayfield, California, United States, 373 Maynooth, Ireland, 288, 289, 290 Mayo Memorial Hospital (University of

Medical College of Washington University,

Medical University of Budapest, 252 Medici, Catherine de’. See Catherine de

Médicis Medici, Cosimo de’, 495, 592, 593, 617

Medici, Ferdinand de’, 617 Medici, Francesco de’, 617

Martini, Ferdinando, 618 Marx, Karl, 200

Minnesota), 547 Mazzoni, Francesco, 497 Mazzoni, Guido, 496

Medici, Giovanni Medici, Lorenzo Meem, John and Meigs, Comelia,

Marxism, 40, 41, 282, 298, 328

McAfee, Mildred, 711

Meiji era, 233, 235-36, 238, 648, 649

Mary I, queen of England, 447-48

McBride, Katherine Elizabeth, 62

Mary Hemenway Hall (Wellesley College), 711 Mary Lyon Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 278

McCarthy era, 91, 298 McCarthy, Joseph, 91, 298 McCarthy, Mary, 694 McCartney, Donald, 288

Meiji University, 235 Meir, Golda, 706 Meissen, Germany, 246 Melanchthon, Philipp, 140, 141, 256, 257,

Mary of Guise, regent of Scotland, 490 Maryland Constitution, 363

McCaughey, Sir Samuel, 627 McClanahan, Janet, 377

Maryland, United States, 28, 173, 228-32, 360-63, 408-11

McClellan, George, 406

Masaryk, Thomas Garrigue, 77

McCollum, Elmer V., 231 McCormick, Katherine Dexter, 261

Mascagni, Paolo, 618

McCosh, James, 331-32, 333

de’. See Leo X, pope de’, 495, 592, 593, 594 Faith, 362 60, 61

258-59, 383 Melbourne, Australia, 536-38

Melbourne University. See University of Melbourne Melilla, Morocco, 505 Mellon Hall (St. John’s College), 362 Melville, Andrew, 498, 604

754

MEMORIAL ARCH

Memorial Arch (Oberlin College), 317 Memorial Church (Harvard University), 188,

342 Memorial Church (Stanford University), 375

Memorial Court (Clare College, University of

Cambridge), 450 Memorial Hall (Guilford College), 183 Memorial Hall (Harvard University), 188

Memorial Library (University of Notre Dame), 570 Memorial Mall (Purdue University), 336

Memorial Union (Oregon State University), 325 Mencius Foundation Scholarship, 80

INDEX Michigan, United States, 27, 214, 270-74, $39-43 Michigan University. See University of Michigan Michoacan Colegio, 99-100 Microsoft, 394

Mitchell, Maria, 692 Mitterrand, Frang¢ois, 45 Mob Quandrangle (Merton College, Oxford), 577 Modern Language Association of America, 230

Middle States Association of Colleges and

Modern Language Notes, 230

Secondary Schools, 91, 171, 381

Middlesex Hospital (University of London),

Moffat, John, 645

$22 Middlesex University. See Brandeis University

Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, 18

Midwest Laser Center (Illinois Institute of

Moliére, Jean Baptiste Poquelin, 385 Mfller, C.F., 6, 7, 8

Technology), 207

Mencken, H.L., 231

Mie Prefecture, Japan, 236

Mendelssohn, Moses, 200 Mendenhall Center for the Performing Arts (Smith College), 370

Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 205-6, 207

Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, 371

Mendoza, Antonio de, 285

Menlo Park, California, United States, 373 Menorah Club (Barnard College), 37

Mercator, Geradus, 530 Mercer Hall (Tennessee), 636

Moesgaard, Jutland, Denmark, 8

Mohl, Robert von, 142 Moldau. See Vitava River

Mols Laboratory (Aarhus University), 8 Molson, Percival, 268

“Mighty Fortress Is Our Lord” (Luther), 258 Milan, Italy, 593 Mildmay, Sir Walter, 448 Milholland, Inez, 693

Molson, William, 267, 268 Momigliano, Attilio, 496, 497

Military Academy, United States. See United States Military Academy at West Point Military College of South Carolina. See

Monastery of Iona, Scotland, 482

Citadel, The

Monastery of All Hallows, Dublin, Ireland,

480 Monastery of Santa Cruz, Coimbra, Portugal,

468 Mondale, Walter, 547

Merchant, Henry, 493

Militz, Carl von, 258

Mondego River, 468

Mercy House (University of Siena), 615, 617

Millas, Jorge, 466 Millay, Edna St. Vincent, 693, 694 Milledoler, Philip, 358

Merton College (University of Oxford), 577— 78, 579

Miller, Arthur, 298

Moneo, Rafael, 712 Moniz, Antonio Egas, 468 Monleon, Sebastian, 658 Monro, Alexander II, 492

Miller, J.M., 179

Monroe County, Indiana, United States, 213

Merton, Walther de, bishop of Rochester, 577

Miller, Rosco, 311-12

Monroe, James, 103, 174, 663

Mertonian Time Ceremony (University of

Millikan, Robert A., 64-65, 67, 316, 462 Millis, John S., 71, 72 Mills, Robert, 666 Mills, William, 25 Milne, John, 648, 649 Milner, Clyde, 184

Mont Blanc, India, 390

Merrill, Edward C., Jr., 171 Merrill, Winfred, 215

Oxford), 577

Messel, Harry, 628 Metcalf, Holly, 279

Methodism, 30, 31, 42, 44, 117-20, 135, 137, 138, 139, 156, 158, 267, 308, 322-23, 619, 621, 652, 653, 686, 687, 688, 714, 716, 717 Methodist Episcopal Church. See Methodism

Milner Park, Johannesburg, South Africa,

644 Milstein, César, 434

Montaigne, 430, 584

Montanara, Battle of (1848), 618 Montecatini, Battle of (1315), 592

Monterey, California, United States, 411

Montesquieu (Charles Louis de Secordat), 430 Montgomery County, Ohio, United States, 318 Montgomery Ward Memorial Building

Methodist General Biblical Institute. See Boston University

Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, 680 Minkowski, Herman, 162

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City,

Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, 544~

Montlaur, Jean de, 555

United States, 93 Metternich, Klemens von, 223, 385, 661

Metzenbaum, Howard, 321

48 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 547

Montpellier, France, 553-57 Montreal, Canada, 241, 243-45, 265-69, 652, 654

Mexico, 99-100, 285-87, 467 Mexico City, Mexico, 99-100, 285-87

Minnesota Plan, 545 Minnesota School for the Deaf, 171

Montreal Catholic School Commission, 243 Montreal Institute of Medicine, 267

Mexico University. See National Autonomous

Minnesota, United States, 215, 54448

Montreal University. See University of

University of Mexico

Minnesota University. See University of Minnesota

(Northwestern University), 311

Montreal

Moore, Marianne, 63

Mexican-American War, 408 Meyer, Annie Nathan, 34, 35, 36, 37

Minobe Tatsukichi, 649

Moore, Stanford, 689

Mezes, Sidney Allan, 86, 90

Minor, John B., 666

Moore, Zephaniah Swift, 21, 22, 689

M.G.U. See M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State

Minto, Viceroy Lord, 19

Moors, 420, 502, 504

University Miami University (Ohio), 321

Mirror Lake, 321

Moor’s Indian Charity School, 126

Mishima Yukio, 649

Moravians, 77

Michael, A.M., 211 Michaelhouse College (University of

Missisauga, Ontario, Canada, 654

More, Henry, 448

Mississippi River, 399, 549

Morehouse, Henry Lyman, 31

Cambridge), 445 Michelson, Albert Abraham, 72, 462

Mississippi, United States, 636

Morehouse College. See Atlanta University Center

Michie, Dennis, 410

Michigan Agricultural College. See Michigan State University

Missouri Compromise of 1820 (United States), 549

Missouri Medical College. See Medical College of Washington University

Morgan, Arthur, 184 Morgan, Arthur E., 27-29

Morgan, George, 333

Michigan Agricultural Society, 270

Missouri River, 549

Morgan, Kenneth O., 669, 670

Michigan Normal College. See Eastern

Missouri, United States, 215, 549-52, 701-4 Missouri University. See University of

Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 65, 66 Morike, Eduard, 141

Michigan University Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science. See Michigan State University Michigan State University, 270-74

Missouri

Morison, Theodore, 19

MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of

Morley, Edward Williams, 69-70, 72

Technology Mitchell, Margaret, 372

Mormonism, 52-55 Morocco, 393, 505

NATIONAL YOUTH ADMINISTRATION

INDEX Morrill Act of 1862 (United States), 121-23,

213, 260, 270-73, 318, 320-21, 324-25, 335, 356, 358, 436, 506, 544, 678 Morrill,

James Lewis, 547

Morrill, Justin S., 335 Morrill Supplementary Act of 1890, 321, 508 Morris Brown College. See Atlanta University Center

Mumbai (Bombay), Maharashtra, India, 217—

19, 388-90, 524, 558-62

755

Nassau Hall (Princeton University), 330, 333 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 12

Mumford Hall (University of Illinois), 509 Mumford, Lewis, 88, 90

Nathan, Annie. See Meyer, Annie Nathan Nation, 35

Munch, Edvard, 202

National Academy of Sciences, United States, 50, 439, 443, 632, 710 National Academy, Paris, France, 386 National Aeronautics and Space

Miinchhausen, Gerlach Adolph von, 177 Muncie, Indiana, United States, 338 Mungo, Raymond, 45

Munich, Germany, 253-55

Administration, United States, 66, 463,

Munsterberg, Hugo, 188 Munsterberg, Johannes von, 246 Murcia, Spain, 658

$15

National Association of the Deaf, 171

Morris-Jones, John, 670

Murphy and Mackey (architects), 703 Murray (Rutgers professor), 358

National Autonomous University of Mexico, 99, 285-87, 467

Morrison, Donald, 129

Murrow, Edward R., 552

National Centre of the Government of India

Morrison, Sarah Parke, 213-14

Museum Building (University of Dublin

for Nuclear Science and Mathematics. See

Morrison, Toni, 48 Morrissey, Andrew, 569

Trinity College), 483 Museum of Archeology (University of

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research

Morris, Charles D., 229 Morris Island, South Carolina, United States,

83 Morris, Kate E., 339, 340, 343

Morris, Minnesota, United States, 544, 547

Morrissey Hall (University of Notre Dame), 569 Morrow, Margaret, 63 Morse, Charles H., 710

Morse, Robert Warren, 72~73 Morse, Samuel F.B., 121, 302

Mortenstelle, Germany, 143

National Audubon Society, 183

National Collegiate Athletic Association, Division III (United States), 397

Leiden), 520

Museum of Archeology and Anthropology (University of Cambridge), 450 Museum of Art (Duke University), 139 Museum of Decorative Arts. See CooperHewitt Museum

Moscherosch, Johann Michael, 385

Museum of Ethnology (University of Leiden), 520

Moscow, Russia, 280-84

Museum of Mankind (University of London),

Moscow University. See M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University Mosellanus, Petrus, 247

524 Museum of Natural History (University of Leiden), 520 Museum of Prehistory (Aarhus University), 8 Musgrave, Thea, 92

National Commission for Cooperative Education (United States), 306 National Commission to Advance American

Art, 128 National Council of Peruvian Universities, 294

National Deaf-Mute College. See Gallaudet University National Defense Academy, Pune, India, 224 National Defense Council, United States, 108

National Defense Mediation Board (United States), 680

Mosheim, J.L. von, 177 Moss, Howard, 514

Music Building (Indiana University), 215

National Ecclesiastical College of St. Patrick, Maynooth. See St. Patrick’s College, Maynooth

Music Building (Northwestern University),

National Endowment for the Humanities

Motoda Eifu, 648

310 Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt), 12, 13

National Guard, United States, 442, 443

Muslim Educational Conference. See Muslim

National Historical Landmarks (United

Moses ben Maimon. See Maimonides

Moses, Yolanda, 93

Mount Carmel, 391, 393 Mount Graham Internatioanl Observatory (University of Arizona), 425 Mount Hamilton, California, United States,

438 “Mount Holyoke Adjustable Arm Rest,” 277 Mount Holyoke College, 24, 37, 275-79,

371, 690, 693, 708 Mount Holyoke Seminary. See Mount

League Muslim League, 19

States), 510, 563

National Institute of Arts and Letters (United

Muslims. See Islam

Mutsuhito, emperor of Japan, 648 M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 280-84, 329 Nabrit, James N., Jr., 198

Mount Palomar, 66

Nagi Kafu, 649

Mount Royal, Montreal, Canada, 265, 267 Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, Israel, 50, 190, 193 Mount Vernon, Iowa, United States, 117-20

Nagyszombat, Hungary, 249 Nairne, Duncan, 490 Names of Christ (Leon), 609

Mount Wilson Observatory, 66

Nancy, France, 153, 386

Mountfort, Benjamin Woolfield, 453 Mowl\son, Lady (Ann Radcliffe), 339 Mowry, Lucretia, 711

Nanjing, China, 40

Moyers, Bill, 632

Naples, Italy, 495

MSU. See Michigan State University

Napoléon I, emperor of France, 10-11, 144,

Mubarak, Hosni, 13

149, 152, 178, 200, 281, 293, 354, 386, Napoléon III, emperor Napoleonic university.

12

National Institute of Immunology (Jawaharlal Nehru University), 226

72

Mount Hopkins, 425

Mugar Library, Twentieth Century Archives (Boston University), 45 Muhammad ‘Abduh, grand mufti of Egypt,

States), 332 National Institute of Chile, 464

National Institutes of Health (United States),

Myers, David, 192

Holyoke College

Mudd, Harvey S., 97 Mudd, Seeley W., 96, 97

(United States), 50, 571

National Muhammadan Association (India), 19 National Polytechnic Institute (Mexico City),

285 National Provisional Educational Conference

(China), 38 National Register of Historic Places (United

States), 98, 321, 358, 425

Nankai University, 40

National School Establishment Law (Japan),

Nanterre, France, 573, 574, 585

238 National Science Conference (1978; Beijing),

201, 255, 256, 280, 556, 572, 585 of France, 152, 418 See University of

France Napoleonic Wars, 111, 142, 259, 280-81,

472, 474, 478, 610, 618, 658

41 National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowships (United States), 62

National Socialist Party (Germany). See Nazis

National South-West Associated University, 40 National Student Union of China, 40

National System of Researchers (Mexico), 99

Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha, 11 Muir, John, 441

Nara, Japan, 647

Mulhouse University, 17

Naruhito, crown prince of Japan, 577

Mulledy, Thomas, 174

Miiller, Johann (Regiomontanus), 200, 660

NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Welsh Revival Movement, 669

Muller, Steven, 232

Nash, Wallis, 324

National Youth Administration (United

Mulliken, Robert S., 263

Narbonne, France, 553

Nashville, Tennessee, United States, 686-89

National University of Ireland, 288-91,

485, 524, 537 National University of San Marcos, 285,

292-94

States), 272, 547

756

NATIONALIST CHINA

Nationalist China. See China; Kuomintang Natorp, Paul, 327

Natsume Soseki, 649 Natural History Museum (Aarhus University),

INDEX New Orleans, Louisiana, United States, 398— 402 New Plan (University of Chicago), 462

Nigam, N.C., 219

New Republic, 295

Nimitz Library (United States Naval

8 natural law, 280 Naval Academy, United States. See United States Naval Academy

New School for Social Research, 295-99

Naval Center, U.S. Women’s Reserves, 90

Naval Postgraduate School (United States

Naval Academy), 411 Navy, U.S., 72, 90, 159, 408, 602, 675, 680, 716; See also United States Naval

Academy Nazis (National Socialists), 7, 16, 77, 143,

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 248 Niijima Jo. See Neesima, Joseph Hardy Academy), 411

New South Wales, Australia, 623-29

1984 (Orwell), 526

New System (Brown University), 57-58 New Territories, Hong Kong, 78-80

95 theses (Luther), 257 Nivelle, Robert-Georges, 154

New York Botanical Gardens, New York,

Nixon, Richard M., 189

United States, 93

No-Fault policy (Stanford University), 377

New York Central Railroad, 686

Nolde, Emil, 202

New York City Technical College (City

nominalists, 253

University of New York), 93

New York College for the Training of Teachers. See Teachers College (Columbia

Non-Collegiate Students Board. See Fitzwilliam College (University of

Cambridge)

University) New York, New York, United States, 34-37, 85-93, 104-8, 112~16, 295-99, 300-303

Non-Cooperation Movement (India), 20

New York Schoo! for the Deaf, 171

Normal College. See University of Missouri

States) Nebraska, United States, 215

New York School of Design, 114 New York State Board of Regents, 298

Nebrija, 609 Necessity of Atheism (Shelley), 577 Neesima, Joseph Hardy (Niijima Jo), 24, 13132, 133, 134 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 20, 209, 217, 218, 219, 224, 226, 388-89 Nehru Library (University of Mumbai), 561 Neilson Library (Smith College), 371

New York Sun, 86, 88

Normal School (New York City). See Hunter College Norman Bridge Laboratory, 64

167, 179, 193, 202, 203, 259, 355, 387, 474, 479, 520, 526, 684 NCA. See North Central Association of

Colleges and Secondary Schools (United

New York Tribune, 123 New York, United States, 21, 22, 27, 34-37,

85-93, 105-8, 112-16, 121-25, 236-37, 295-99, 300-303, 379-82, 391, 403-7, 436, 551, 599-603, 690-94, 718 New York University, 85, 105-6, 300-303,

Norfolk, England, 445 Norfolk, Virginia, United States, 104

North Africa, 505, 519 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 287 North Carolina Methodist Conference, 137 North Carolina, United States, 135-39, 181-

84, 563-66 North Carolina University. See University of

Nernst, Walther, 202

539 New Zealand, 452-55, 524, 535 Newark, New Jersey, United States, 330

Netherlands, 516-21

Newark, Ohio, United States, 318, 321

Secondary Schools (United States), 28,

New Academy (University of Leiden), 516

Newbury Biblical Institute, 42

215

New Albany, Indiana, United States, 216, 338

Newbury, Vermont, United States, 42

North China Student Union, 40

New Asia College. See Chinese University of

Newcastle College of Medicine. See University of Newcastle upon Tyne Newcastle upon Tyne, England, 486, 488-89 Newcomb College, 400

North Georgia Annual Conference (United States), 31 North Grafton, Massachusetts, United States,

New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States,

Newcomb, Harriott Sophie, 400

North Hall (University of California,

356-59 New Building. See College Building

Newcomb, Josephine Louise LeMonnier, 400

Neilson, William Alan, 371

Hong Kong New Bauhaus. See Illinois Institute of

Technology

(University of Pennsylvania)

Newell, Barbara Warne, 712 Newlin, Thomas, 183

North Carolina

North Central Association of Colleges and

395, 397 Berkeley), 437 North Jutland, Denmark, 3-5

North Jutlandic University Association

New College (University of Oxford), 578, 579

Newman Club (Barnard College), 37

New College (University of Toronto), 654

Newnham College (University of Cambridge), 449, 451

Northampton, Massachusetts, United States

Newnham Grange (Darwin College,

Northern College, Belfast, Ireland, 288 Northern Ireland, 484

New Court (St. John’s College, University of Cambridge), 449

New Culture Movement (China), 39

(Denmark), 3

Northeastern University, 304-7

New Curriculum (Brown University), 58

University of Cambridge), 450 Newnham, W.H., 536

New Deal (United States), 272

Newport, Rhode Island, United States, 410

Institutions of Higher Education

New Delhi, India, 20, 209~12, 224-27 New England Association of Colleges, 49 New England College of Pharmacy, 306 New England Conservatory of Music, 395, 397 New England Female Medical College, 43-44 New Garden Boarding School. See Guilford College

Newton, Sir Isaac, 418, 448, 492, 683, 725

Newton Theological Seminary, 692

(Denmark), 3 Northern Pacific Railroad, 547, 672

Ngata, Apirana, 454, 455

Northern Rhineland, Germany, 386

Niagara Falls, New York, United States, 404

North-Rhine Westphalia, Germany, 472

Niagara Movement, 30 Niavis (Leipzig University graduate), 247

Northrop Auditorium (University of

Niccolini, Gian Battista, 496

Northrop, Cyrus, 546

New Garden Hall (Guilford College), 183,

Nicholas I, emperor of Russia, 281-82

Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (United States),

184 New Hall (University of Cambridge), 450, 451

Nicholas II, emperor of Russia, 282

New Hampshire, United States, 25, 42, 126—

Nichols, Frederick H., 666 Nicholson, Francis, 360 Nicholson, Sir Charles, 625 Nicholson, Sir Francis, 725

77 Northwest Territory (United States), 308, 539, 544, 677 Northwestern University, 308-12, 541

30 New Haven, Connecticut, United States, 185,

722-27

Nicholas IV, pope, 468, 553, 555 Nicholas V, pope, 222, 474, 498, 574

New Jersey College for Women. See Douglass College

Nicklaus, Jack, 321 Nicolai, Friedrich, 200

New Jersey, United States, 330-34, 356-59

Nielsen, Laurits (Kloster-Lasse), 477 Nielsen, Nielsine, 478

New Mexico, United States, 360-63, 439 New Museums Site (University of

Cambridge), 449

Nielsen, Tove, 4, 5

Nier, Albert O., 547

Northern Jutlandic Commission for

Minnesota), 546

Norton, E.C., 95

Norton, Eliot, 44 Norton Geology Center (Cornell College),

119 Norton, William S., 117

Norway, 475, 477-78 Notes from the Biological Laboratory, 230 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, France, 582 Notre Dame Cathedral, Quebec, Canada, 242

INDEX Notre Dame, Indiana, United States, 567-71 Notre Dame University. See University of

PALMER Old Dominion University, 104 Old East (University of North Carolina), 563,

Noyes, Arthur A., 64-65

565 Old Harvard Hall (Harvard University), 187 Old Library (Berlin), 200

Nuclear Physics Research Unit (University of

Old Library (Keio University), 236

Notre Dame

Nottingham, England, 527

the Witwatersrand), 645

Old Library (University of Dublin Trinity

Nuffield College (University of Oxford), 579

Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories. See Jodrell Bank Experimental Station (University of Manchester)

NUI. See National University of Ireland

College), 483

Old Old Old Old

Library (Yale University), 726 Main (University of Arizona), 423, 425 Main (University of Minnesota), 544 Main (Vanderbilt University), 687

Nuremberg Laws of 1935 (Germany), 202 Nyerup, Rasmus, 478

Old Medical School (University of the

NYU. See New York University

Old Mutual Indoor Sports Center (University

Witwatersrand), 645 of the Witwatersrand), 645

Orléans, France, 572-75 Orléans University. See University of Orléans Orloj clock tower, Prague, Czech Republic, 77 Orozco, Jose Clemente, 128, 297, 298

Orr, John Boyd, 415 @rsted, Hans Christian, 478 Ortega y Gasset, Jose, 325, 328 Orthodox Churches, 281, 282

Orton, Edward, 318 Orton Hall (Ohio State University), 321

Orwell, George, 526 OSC. See Oregon State University Osem Food Industries Ltd., 394

Osler, William, 230, 231, 267 Osney Abbey, Oxford, 576, 578

Oakland, California, United States, 436

Old North (Georgetown University), 176

Oakland County, Michigan, United States,

Old Queen’s (Rutgers University), 358

273 Oakland University, 273 Oaks, Dallen H., 54 Oberlin College, 25, 34, 275, 278, 313-17, 688-89, 692, 711 Oberlin, Johann Friedrich, 313 Oberlin, Ohio, United States, 313-17

Old Schools (University of Cambridge), 446

University

Old Shire Hall (University of Durham), 489

Otero, Lépez, 111

Old South Building (Georgetown

Otey Hall (University of the South), 639

Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association, 315 Oberlin-Wellington rescue (1858), 315 Oblomov (Goncharov), 282 O’Brien, Conor Cruise, 459

O’Brien, G. Dennis, 602

Obuda, Hungary, 249, 251 OCAAT. See One Course-At-A-Time

Ochoa, Severo, 111 Ockhamism, 474 O’Connell, Daniel, 484

O’ Connor, Flannery, 514 O’Connor, Sandra Day, 378 Octagon (Amherst University), 23 Odense, Denmark, 3

University), 175

Old Well (University of North Carolina), 565 Old West (University of North Carolina), 565 Oldenbarneveldt, Jan van, 518

Olds Hall (Michigan State University), 272 O’ Leary, Arthur, 176

O'Leary, John, 484 Olin Health Center (Michigan State University), 272

Olin Library (Washington University), 703 Olin, Stephen, 156 Olmsted, Frederick Law, 138, 169, 368, 373, 436, 711 Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot (architects), 138, 702 Olof Rudbeck the Younger, 682 Olsen, Gary, 171

757

Ostwald, Wilhelm, 684 OSU. See Ohio State University; Oregon State

Otey, James Hervey, 636, 638, 640

Ottawa, Canada, 268 Ottheinrich, elector of Germany, 353 Otto, Rudolf, 328 Ottoman Empire, 10, 11, 12, 249, 391. See also Turkey

Outeniqua (University of the Witwatersrand), 645 Oviedo, Spain, 657 Owen, Isambard, 670 Owen Hall (Indiana University), 214

Owens, Sir Hugh, 668 Owens, Jesse, 321

Owens, John, 533 Owens College. See University of Manchester Oxford Cathedral. See Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, England

Olympic Games, 377, 622, 703

Oxford English Dictionary, 578

Oder River, 259

Omori, T., 238

Oxford, Georgia, 156, 158, 159

Odessa, Texas, United States, 630, 634

“On Monastic Views” (Luther), 258

Oxford Movement, 484

O’Donnell, Charles, 569

“On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church”

Oxford, Oxfordshire, England, 576-79 Oxford University. See University of Oxford Oxford University Press, 578 Oxfordshire, England, 576-79

Oetting, Germany, 254 O’Fallon, John, 701

Onassis, Jacqueline Kennedy, 694

O’Fallon Polytechnic Institute. See

One Course-At-A-Time (Cornell College),

Washington University Office of Scientific Research and Development (United States), 66

(Luther), 258

120 Onnes, Heike Kemerlingh, 520 Ontario, Canada, 652-55

Paca-Carroll House (St. John’s College), 362 Paca, William, 360

Ogham stones, 290 O’Hara, John F., 569

Onyx Society (City College of New York), 87

pacifism, 376

open admissions policy, 87, 93, 283, 585

Packard, Sophia, 31

Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College.

Open University (University of London), 527

“Padagogische Hochschule” of Halle-K6then. See Martin Luther University of HalleWittenberg Padua, Italy, 222, 592, 593, 594, 661 Page, Mary L., 510

See Ohio State University

Opera Company of Boston, 44

Ohio Stadium (Ohio State University), 321

Oporto, Portugal, 470

Ohio State University, 318-21

Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 330, 333 Oral and Dental Hospital (University of the

Ohio, United States, 25—29, 69-73, 214, 304,

313-17, 318-21 Oilly, Robert d’, 576

Witwatersrand), 645

Pagliaresi, Giovanni, 615

Pakistan, 19, 20, 561

Olavide, Pablo, 613-14

Orange dynasty, 519, 520 Oregon Agricultural College. See Oregon State University

Old Academy (University of Leiden), 518

Oregon Institute, 714

Palack, Jan, 77

Old Boys Association (Aligarh Muslim

Oregon State University, 322-26

Palacky, Fratisek, 77

Oregon, United States, 322-26, 344-48, 714— 17

Palafox y Mendoza, Juan, bishop of Puebla, 285

Oren, Moshe, 706

Palatinate, Germany, 353-54

Oriel College (University of Oxford), 579

Palazzo San Galgano, Siena, 618

Oriental Institute (University of Chicago),

Palencia, Spain, 109 Palestine. See Israel

Olah, George A., 622

University), 19, 20

Old Cadet Chapel (United States Military Academy at West Point), 403

Old Cavendish Laboratory (University of Cambridge). See Cavendish Laboratory

Old College (University of Southern California), 619 Old Court (St. Catharine’s Church, University of Cambridge), 446, 447, 448

462 Orientation of Higher Education Act of 1968 (France), 383, 418, 431, 553, 556, 574, 580, 586, 598

Palace of the Archbishops of Toledo (Spain),

421

Palestinian Arab revolt of 1936, 193 Palestinian Arab riots (1929), 192 Palmer, Alice Freeman, 710

758

PALMERSTON

INDEX

Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple), 493

Peasant Wars (1524~26), 258

Palo Alto, California, United States, 373, 375

Peasant’s Revolt of 1381 (England), 446-47

Palomar Observatory, 64

Peck, Harriet, 181 Pécs, Hungary, 249

Pan American University, 634

Panaco Romero, José, 505 Panic of 1873, 308, 320 Panormita, Antonio, 517

panty raids, 542 Papin, Denis, 329

Papini, Giovanni, 497 Paradise Pond (Smith College), 370 Parikh, G.D., 561 Paris, France, 72, 144-47, 148-51, 152-55, 247, 353, 383, 386, 405, 445, 573, S80— 87, 596, 598

Paris University. See University of Paris

Pecz, Samu, 251

Peel, Sir Robert, 288 Pei, I.M., 262 Peking Student Union, 39 Pell, Moris, 625

Pembroke College (Brown University), 58 Pembroke College (University of Cambridge), 445, 448 Pembroke College (University of Oxford), 578, 579 Pendleton, Ellen Fitz, 711 Pendleton Hall (Wellesley College), 711

Parker, Ben C., 423

Pendleton, William Nelson, 700 Pennsylvania College of Dentistry, 590-91 Pennsylvania, United States, 28, 60-63, 408, 588-91

Parks, Marion Edwards, 62

Penzias, Arno, 87

Parkside, Wisconsin, United States, 28

People’s Republic of China. See China Pepper, William, 591 Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art

Park, Edwards A., 370 Park, Maud Wood, 341

Park, Robert, 462

Parktown Campus (University of the Witwatersrand), 645 Parkville, Australia, 536-38

Parry, Joseph, 669 Parsis, 558

Parsons School of Design (New School for Social Research), 298 Parti Québegois, 245, 268 Partridge, Alden, 405

Pasadena, California, United States, 64-68

Passavant Hospital (Northwestern University), 311

Pasternak, Boris, 328, 329 Pasteur, Louis, 387 Patnaik, Prabhat and Utsa, 226

Patrick, Albert, 349

(University of London), 527

Perez Bayer, Francisco, 658 Performing Arts Center (University of Texas

Perlstein Hall (Illinois Institute of

Technology), 207

United States, 131 Phillips, Jayne Ann, 48

Philosophy Hall (University of Washington), 674 Phipps, Henry, 210

Phipps Psychiatric Clinic (Johns Hopkins University), 231 Phocea. See Marseille, France Phoenix Hall. See Archdale Hall (Guilford College) Physics Block (University of the Witwatersrand), 645

Piarist Order, 251

Permian Basin, Texas, United States, 630, 634 Perén, Juan, 433 Pershing, John J. “Black Jack,” 403, 406

Pickel, Conrad (Conrad Celtis), 222, 247,

Person Hall (University of North Carolina),

Pidd, Robert, 542

563

Pert, Candace, 63

Peru, 285, 292-94 Perugia, Italy, 615 Peruvian Federation of Students, 293, 294 Pest, Hungary, 249, 251 Pest University, 251

Peter I (the Great), emperor of Russia, 280 Peter Lombard, 582 Peter Martyr, 609

Péter Pazmany University. See Lorand Eétvés University Peterhead, Scotland, 414

Paulian (physicist), 418

Peterhouse College (University of Cambridge), 445

Pauline Order, 251

Peters Hall (Oberlin College), 316

Pauling, Linus, 66, 378

Peters, Richard, 316 Peterson, Joseph and Henry, 53

Pavilion VII (University of Virginia), 663

Philipp the Magnanimous of Hesse, 327 Philipps University of Marburg, 178, 202, 327-29 Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts,

Physics Building (University of Durham), 489 Pianciani, John Baptist, 175

Persons, Stow, 511

Pauley Pavilion (University of California, Los Angeles), 441

Philip 11 Augustus, king of France, 582 Philip V, king of Spain, 657, 658 Philip VI, king of France, 584

Perkins, Lucian, 632

University), 310 Patterson, Clair, 67 Patterson, Mary Jane, 315 Patton, Francis Landy, 332, 333 Patton, George S., 407 Patton, William, 197

Paul, Jean, 354-55 Paul V. Galvin Library (Illinois Institute of Technology), 207

408, 588-91 Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow, 282 Philip Il, king of Spain, 110, 292, 516, 530

Phoenix Project, 542

Personalism, 43, 44

Paul, B.P., 211 Paul, emperor of Russia, 280

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, 28,

at Austin), 633 Peria, Frederico, 632 Perkins, Frances, 279

Patten Gymnasium (Northwestern

Paul III, pope, 254

Phair, Liz, 316 Phelps-Stokes Fund, 30 Phi Beta Kappa, 49, 94, 103, 687 Phi Sigma Lecture Forum (Wellesley College), 710 Philadelphia Museum of Art, 138

Pazmany, Péter Cardinal, 249, 251 Peabody, George, 726

Peterson, Sir William, 268

Peabody Institute (Johns Hopkins University),

Petrarch (Petrarca), Francesco, 495, 555

Petitionary Act for Free Schools, 360

254, 660 Pickett, George, 406 Piedmont, California, United States, 94 Pierce, George Edmond, 69

Pierce, George F., 156 Pierce, John, 539 Pierpont, James, 724, 725 Pierson, William H., Jr., 663

Pietism, 140, 141, 478 Pigou, A.C., 450

Pilgrims, 519 Pillard, Basil H., 28 Pillsbury, John Sargent, 544

Pinanski, Anna and Samuel, 712 Ping Jing College. See Chinese University of Hong Kong

Pinkney Hall (St. John’s College), 362 Piquer, Andres (Jose Antonio), 657-58 Pisa, Italy, 495, 592-95 Pisa University. See University of Pisa Pisan Institutes of the National Council for Research, 594, 595

Piscataway, New Jersey, United States, 356 Piscator, Erwin, 297-98

Peabody Museum of Natural History, 726

Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, $2324

Pistoia, Cino da, 615 Pistoia, Italy, 594 Pittsfield, Massachusetts, United States, 718

Peabody, Selim H., 508

Petrie, Sir Flinders, 524

Pitzer College. See Claremont Colleges

Peace of Ryswick (1697), 385

Petronici, Ludovico, 618

Peace of Westphalia (1648), 385 Peale, Charles Willson, 333

Petrucci, Federico, 615 Pey-Berland, archbishop, 430

Pearson, E.B., 342

Pfaffenhofen, Germany, 255 Pfefferkorn, Johann, 474 Pfeiffer, C. Leonard, 425 Pforzheim, Germany, 258

Pitzer, Kenneth S., 352, 378 Pitzer, Russell K., 97 Pius IT, pope, 109, 253, 617 Pius IX, pope, 243

232

Pearson, Lester B., 655 Pearson, T. Gilbert, 183 Pearsons Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 278

Placentinus, 555 Placzek, George, 333 Plains of Abraham, Quebec, Canada, 241, 244

INDEX Plan of Studies of 1771 (University of Salamanca), 610

Plan of Studies of 1807 (University of

RADCLIFFE Prehistoric Trail (Aarhus University), 8 Presbyterian Quarterly and Princton Review,

332

759

Purcell, Edward, 336

Purdue Exponent, 337 Purdue, John, 335

Presbyterianism, 267, 330, 331, 332, 492,

Purdue Mall Fountain, 337

498, 564, 604, 653 President’s House (College of William and Mary), 103 President’s House, Philadelphia,

Purdue Memorial Union, 336, 337 Purdue Research Foundation, 337

Purdue University North Central, 335, 337

Plato, 247

Pennsylvania, 590 Presses Universitaires Laval, 245 Preston, William, 401

Platt, Charles, 510

Pretoria, South Africa, 643, 644

Platter, Felix, 556 Plaza Mayor (University of Salamanca), 610 plebes, 406 Poggendorf, Johann, 201 Pogokin, Michael, 281

Prezzolini (Italian writer), 496-97 Price, Bernard, 645

Pusey, Nathan, 188

Price, John, 315

Putney, Vermont, United States, 28

Price, Nancy, 120

Piitter, Johann Stephan, 178

Price, Sterling, 701

Puzo, Mario, 297

Poincaré, Jules, 162

Primate Center (Duke University), 139

Poinsot, Louis, 152

Primo de Rivera, Miguel, 505

Qinghua University, 40, 41

Poisson, Denis, 152 Poitiers, France, 583, 596-98

Princeton, New Jersey, United States, 330-34,

Quakers, 28, 60-63, 135, 139, 181-84, 228

399 Princeton Theological Seminary, 331, 332

Quayle, Marilyn, 335

Princeton University, 67, 86, 108, 229, 263,

Quebec, Canada, 241-45, 265-69, 652

Salamanca), 610 Planes, Luis, 658

Planning Commission for the Higher Education (Denmark), 3, 4, 5

Plasma Physics Laboratory (Princeton University), 333 Plath, Sylvia, 372

Poitiers University. See University of Poitiers Poland, 220-23, 246 Polish Academy of Science. See Jagiellonian University Polk, James K., 565 Polk, Leonidas, 636, 638, 639, 640

Polyglot Bible, 247, 421 Polytechnic Institute of Rio de Janeiro. See Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Pombal, marquis de, 470

Pomona College. See Claremont Colleges Pompidou, Georges, 431, 574 Pontifical and Royal University of San Marcos of Lima. See National University

302, 330-34, 333, 351, 352, 357, 358, 362, 371, 493, 698 Principia Mathematica (Newton), 415, 448,

725 Principles and Practice of Medicine (Osler), 231, 267 Pringle, Ella, 493 printing press, 11, 12, 110, 222, 257, 414, 519, 584, 617 PRISA (Puerto Rican group), 87

Purdue University, 213, 215, 335-38

Purdue University Calumet, 335, 337 Purgatory (Dante), 615 Puritanism, 448, 481, 490, 722. See also

Calvinism; Congregationalism

Putnam, Emily, 295

Quebec Act of 1774 (Great Britain), 242 Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, 241-45, 265,

268, 269 Queen Elizabeth College (University of London), 525, 528

Queen Margaret Hall (University of Glasgow), 500

Queen Margaret Union (University of Glasgow), 500 Queen Mary College (University of London),

525, 528

Productivity Center (Illinois Institute of Technology), 207

Queen’s College (University of Cambridge),

of San Marcos Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies (University of Toronto), 655 Pontifical University (St. Patrick’s College,

Progress of Dullness (Trumbull), 725

Queen’s College (University of London), 524

Progressive movement, 679 Prohibition Party, 679

Queen’s College (University of Oxford), 578,

Maynooth), 290, 291 Poona Sanskrit College, 558 Pope, John, 406

Protestant Episcopal Church. See Anglicanism; Episcopalianism Protestantism, 15, 16, 25, 26, 27, 36, 37, 131, 173-74, 255, 258-59, 265, 267, 327, 353, 364, 383, 385, 447, 478, 481, 490, 512, §18-19, 529, 530, 531-32, 556, 577, 604,

Popper, Karl, 525 Port Aransas, Texas, United States, 632, 634 Portales, Diego, 464 Porter, David, 410

Porter Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 278 Porter, Katherine Anne, 667 Porter, Sylvia, 90 Portland, Oregon, United States, 344-48, 716

Portugal, 468-71, 558, 597 Poteet, Dan, 183 Potomac River, 173, 174

Poughkeepsie, New York, United States, 69094 Powell, Colin, 87

Powell, Lawrence Clark, 441

Prospect House (Princeton University), 333

623, 660, 681. See also Evangelical

Protestantism; Reformation; specific denominations and sects Provence, France, 417-19 Providence, Rhode Island, United States, 56—

59 Provincial College. See University College (University of Toronto) Provincial Council Ordinance of 1873 (New Zealand), 452

Provincial University. See University of Toronto

447 579 Queen’s College, Cork. See University College, Cork Queen’s College, Dublin. See University College, Dublin Queen’s College, Dundee. See University of

Dundee

Queen’s College, Galway. See University College, Galway Queens College, New Jersey. See Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey Queens College, New York, 92 Queens, New York, United States, 92 Queen’s University, Kingston, 653, 654

Queen’s University of Ireland. See National University of Ireland Queensboro Community College (City University of New York), 93 Quental, Antero de, 470

Power, John, 628

Provo, Utah, United States, 51-55

Quinnipiac River, 722 Quintard, Charles T., 639, 640

Powers, Harry Huntington, 315—16

Prussia. See Germany

Quintard Memorial Hall (University of the

Prado, Francisco de, 110 Prague Castle, 76

Prussian Academy of Sciences, 162, 167 Public Health Service, United States, 72

Prague, Czech Republic, 74-77 Prague Spring (1968), 77 Prague University. See Charles University

Public Works Administration, United States, 197, 272, 321, 416, 425, 551

Prato, Italy, 594

Puerto Rican Alliance, 91

Rabelais, Frangois, 556, 584, 596

Pray Collection, 249

Puerto Ricans, 87, 91 Puget Sound, 672, 674

Rabi, LI., 108 Racine, Jean, 385 Rad Lab (Massachusetts Institute of

Prebends Bridge, Durham, England, 489

Pulitzer, Joseph, 107, 552 Pune, India, 224

predestination doctrine, 518, 530

Punjab, India, 211

Radcliffe, Ann (Lady Mowlson), 339

Pray, Gregory, 249 pre-romanticism, 179, 200

Publicus, Jacobus, 247

South), 641 R. Croci Britanni Acadamiae Lipsensis economium congratulatorium (Crocus),

247

Technology), 262

760

RADCLIFFE COLLEGE

Radcliffe College, 34, 35, 36, 37, 188, 339—

43, 346, 400, 693 Radcliffe Library, 340

Radcliffe Publishing Course, 341

INDEX Reformation, 15, 140-41, 160, 247, 254, 256, 258, 259, 327, 383, 445, 447, 448, 476, 482, 490, 498, 530, 584, 604, 660, 681. See also Protestantism

Radcliffe Seminars Program, 342

Rice University, 349-52 Rice, William Marsh, 349, 351, 352 Rich, Adrienne, 342 Rich, Charles A., 36

Rich, Isaac, 42, 42-43

Radegund, St., 447

Regent House (University of Cambridge), 448 Regent’s Park College (University of Oxford), 578

Radiation Chemistry Research Institute

Regiomontanus (Johann Miiller), 200, 660

Richards, Joseph Havens, 175

Regis College (University of Toronto), 655 Rehnquist, William, 378

Richards, Thomas W. (architect), 590 Richards, T.W. (chemist), 189

Raff, Diether, 353-54, 355 Raikes, Humphrey, 644 Raisin Monday (University of St. Andrews), 605-6

Rehovot, Israel, 193, 705-7

Richardson, Henry Hobson, 188

Reiche, Georg der, 254

Richardson, Ida, 400 Richardson, Texas, United States, 630

Rajabai Clock Tower (University of Mumbai),

Reid, Robert, bishop of Orkney, 490

Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald, 627 (University of Tokyo), 649

Radio-Activity (Rutherford), 268

Reiche, Ludwig der, 253

Reichel, Sir Harry, 670 Reid, William T., 437

560, 561 Raleigh, North Carolina, United States, 137,

565 Raman, C.V., 388 Ramanna, R., 390

Richards, LA., 450

Richardson, William Chase, 232 Richelieu, Cardinal, 585 Richmond, Indiana, United States, 216, 338

Reinharz, Jehuda, 50 Reinharz, Shulamit, 50

Richmond, Virginia, United States, 101, 103

Reisch, Gregor, 14 Religious and Social Organizations (Barnard

Richter, Jean Paul, 248

College), 37

Ramparts, 273

Richard II, king of England, 76

Richter, Charles, 66 Richter Scale, 66

Ricker, Nathan, 509

Ranade, Mahadev Govind, 559, 560

Religious Society of Friends. See Quakers Religious Studies Center (Brigham Young University), 55

Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden,

Remsen, Ira, 229, 230, 231

Claremont, California, United States, 97 Rancor Oil Field (Texas), 351 Randall Hall (St. John’s College), 362

Rendel, Stuart, 669 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 726 Renwick, James, 85

Riemann, Bernhard, 178

Randolph County, North Carolina, United

Representation of the People (Scotland) Act

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 16466

of 1868, 415 Republic of China. See China

Rio Grande Valley, 634

Republic of Ireland. See Ireland

Ritschl, A., 179

Republic of Korea (South Korea), 364-67, 716 Research Foundation (State University of

Ritterakademie (knight’s academy), 142

Ramsey, Alexander, 544

Ramsey, Francis, 410

States, 135

Randolph-Macon College, 156 Ranke, Leopold, 248 Rankin, Jeremiah, 197 Ransom, Harry Huntt, 633

Raoul, Eleonore, 158

Raphelengius, 519

New York), 381

Rappaport Building (Technion—Israel

Research Institute (Illinois Institute of

Technology), 207

Institute of Technology), 393 Rapp-Coudert Committee, 91

Research Institute Tower (Illinois Institute of

Raritan River, 356

Technology), 207

Reserve Officers Training Corps. See ROTC Residence Hall (University of Pennsylvania), 591 Resnick, Regina, 90 Reuchlin, Johann, 140, 259, 474

Rashdall, Hastings, 580

Rask, Rasmus Christian, 478 Ravenscroft College, 636 Raychand, Premchand, 560 Raychand, Rajabal, 560

Rickover Hall (United States Naval Academy), 411 Ridley, Nicholas, 448, 577 Ridolfi, Cosimo, 496 Ringmann, Mathias, 14

Rinteln, Germany, 474

Rios Urruti, Fernando de los, 504

Rivers, Tom, 156

Riverside, California, United States, 436, 438, 441, 443 Rivlin, Alice, 63 Robbie, Timothy John, 401

Robbins Report of 1963-64 (Great Britain), 670 Roberg, Lars, 682-83

Robert de Courcon, 582 Robert F. Carr Memorial Chapel of St. Savior (Illinois Institute of Technology),

Raymond, John H., 690, 692

Reuss, Eduard, 386 Reuter, Ernst, 167

207 Robert Frost Library (Amherst, Massachusetts), 24

Raza, Moonis, 19

Revelle, Roger, 441

Roberts, Charlotte Fitch, 710

Razumovsky, Count Alexis, 281

reverse discrimination, 443 Revolutionary War. See American Revolution Revolutions of 1848, 16, 77, 142, 150, 161, 179, 201, 251, 585, 594, 618, 661

Roberts, Cokie, 712

Robinson College (University of Cambridge),

Reagan, Ronald, 171, 443 realists, 253

Rewley House (University of Oxford), 579 Reyes, Alfonso, 99 Rhazes, 555

Reasoner, Harry, 547

Rhee, Syngman, 366

450 Robinson, Edward G., 87 Robinson, Jackie, 441

Rhees, Rush, 601, 602

Robinson, James, 295, 297

Rheims, France, 582

Robinson, Joan, 450

Rhenish Friedrich Wilhelm University, 474

Robinson, Mary, 484, 485

Rhine, Germany, 385

Robinson, Sir David, 450

Rhine River, 383, 472 Rhoads Hall (Bryn Mawr College), 62

Roble Hall. See Sequoia Hall (Stanford

Rhoads, James E., 60, 61

Rhode Island College. See Brown University

Rocard (French prime minister), 147 Rochester, New York, United States, 599-603

Rhode Island Medical Society, 57

Rochester University. See University of

Rhode Island, United States, 56-59, 410 Rhodes, Cecil, 456

Rochester Rockefeller Foundation, 65, 100, 210, 211,

Raymond, George Lansing, 332

Read, Daniel, 551 Read, William S., 423 Reading, England, 527

Reagan, Nancy, 372

Reconstruction era (United States),

315, 5S65—

66, 636 Recreational Gymnasium (Purdue University), 337 Redenbacher, Orville, 335

Redmond Barry Building (University of Melbourne), 538 Redpath Museum (McGill University), 267 Redstone, Sumner, 48 Reed, Amanda, 344

Reed College, 344—48 Reed, Daniel, 197 Reed, Lowell Jacob, 232

Reed, Simeon Gannet, 344

Rhodes Scholars, 348, 403, 566, 579, 700 Rhys, John, 670 Rice, Elizabeth, 349

Roberts, Stephen, 627, 628

Robertson, William, 492, 493 Robeson, Paul, 354

University)

236, 297, 378, 465, 514, 569, 649, 675

Rockefeller Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 278

ST. IDELFONSO’S RESIDENCE HALL

INDEX Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research, 231

Rockefeller, John D., 31, 61, 72, 231, 278, 344, 460, 693 Rockefeller,

John D., Jr., 104

Rockefeller, Laura Spelman, 31 Rockefeller, Nelson A., 381

Rockne, Knute Kenneth, 569 Rocky Mountains, 51 Rodin Sculpture Garden (Stanford University), 378

Rodrigo, Don, 420 Roger, Pierre. See Clement VI, pope Rogers, Christopher, 410

Rogers, Henry, 310 Rogers, William, 56, 184 Rogers, William Barton, 260, 262, 263-64 Roget, Peter Mark, 493

Roggenbach, Baron Franz von, 386 Roka Tokutomi, 132

Rolla, Missouri, United States, 549

Rolland, Romain, 696 Rollock, Robert, 490

Roman Catholicism. See Catholicism Roman College Astronomical Observatory, 175 Roman Empire, 417, 420, 429, 533

Royal Friedrich Wilhelm University. See Humboldt University Royal Holloway College (University of London), 525, 528

Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning. See McGill University Royal Ontario Museum (University of Toronto), 654

Royal School of Librarianship (Denmark), 5 Royal Society of Canada, 267 Royal Society of Edinburgh, 493 Royal Society of Great Britain, 522 Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 415 Royal University of Mexico, 285 Royal University of San Felipe, 464 Royal Veterinary College (University of London), 526 Royal Victoria College, Montreal, Canada,

268 Royce Hall (University of California), 439 Rubens, Peter Paul, 447

Rubrics (University of Dublin Trinity College), 482

Rudbedk, Olof, 682 Rudenstine, Neil, 189 “Rudiments of Greek Grammar”

761

Rylands, John, 533 Saale River, 256

Saarinen, Eero, 48, 262 Sabine, Annie Ware, 320 Sachar, Abram, 46, 48, 49

Sachsen, Herzog Moritz von, 247 “Sacred Fetish of Academic Freedom”

(Guthrie), 176 Sacred Heart Church (University of Notre Dame), 568 Safford Hall (Mount Holyoke College), 278

Sagan, Carl, 66 Sage, William, 599 Sage Hall (Smith College), 370

Sage Hall (Wellesley College), 712 St. Aidan’s Society (University of Durham),

489 St. Albans monastery, 582

St. Andrews Castle, St. Andrews, Scotland, 605 St. Andrew’s College, 500

St. Andrews, Scotland, 604-6 St. Andrews University. See University of St. Andrews St. Anne’s College (University of Oxford),

Romanov dynasty, 281 Rome, Italy, 257, 662 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 48, 124

(Melanchthon), 258 Rudin, Harry, 78-79 Rudolf IV, duke of Austria, 660

578, 579 St. Anthony’s College (University of Oxford), 578, 579 St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre (1572), 556

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 86, 90, 91, 108, 189

Rudolph I, emperor of Austria, 77

St. Bartholomew’s Hospital (University of

Roosevelt Hospital (New York City), 36

Rudolph, Frederick, 720

Roosevelt, Theodore, 64, 107, 137, 189, 679

Rueff, Jacques, 155

Root, John W., 205 Rosen, Harold, 401 Rosen, Nils, 683

Rukeyser, Muriel, 694 Rum, Wa’iz al-, 10 Runkle, John Daniel, 261

Rosenberg, Julius, 87 Rosenfeld, Leon, 333

Runnels, Bettie, 400

Roman law, 15, 607, 615

Ross, Charles G., 552 Ross-Ade Stadium (Purdue University), 336,

337 Rossbach, Arwed, 247

Rostock, Germany, 259 ROTC (Reserve Officers Training Corps),

Ruprecht I, elector of Germany, 353 Ruprecht Karls University, 15, 16, 140, 202, 258, 353-55, 472, 473, 660 Rush Medical College, 462 Ruskin, John, 533 Russell, Bertrand, 295, 297

Russell, John, first earl Russell, 487, 493

129, 351, 378, 397, 509, 541, 542, 675 Roth, Philip, 514

Russell, Peter Nicol, 626

Rothenstein, William, 696

(former) Russian Bible Society, 281 Russian Institute of Physics (Moscow

Rothschild, Edmund de, 190, 192 Rotteck, Karl von, 16

Rotter, Varda, 706

Russia, 280-84, 393. See also Soviet Union

University), 282

Rotunda (University of Virginia), 663, 665, 666 Rouget de Lisle, Claude-Joseph, 385

Russian language, 674

Rousse, Jean, 583-84

Russian Revolution of 1917, 282-83, 298,

Rowan, Carl, 316

Rowe, Henry, 537 Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen,

Scotland, 415 Rowland, Henry A., 229

Royal Academy of Music, London, 528 Royal and Ancient Club, St. Andrews, Scotland, 605

Royal College of Dental Surgeons (University of Toronto), 653

Royal College of Science (University of London), 525

Royal Conservatory of Music (University of Toronto), 653

Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine (University of London), 525

Russian Orthodox Church, 281, 282

Russian Revolution of 1905, 282 378 Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey, 23, 356-59

Rutgers, Henry, 358 Rutgers Medical School. See University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey— Robert Wood Johnson Medical School

London), 522

St. Bede’s College (University of Durham), 488, 489 St. Benet’s Hall (University of Oxford), 578

St. Catharine’s Church (University of

Cambridge), 448 St. Catharine’s College (University of Cambridge), 447 St. Catherine’s College (University of Oxford), 579 St. Chad’s Hall (University of Durham), 488

St. Cross College (University of Oxford), 579 St. Cuthbert’s Society (University of Durham), 489

St.o David’s College, Lampeter (University of Wales), 668, 670, 671 St. David’s University College (University of Wales), 671

St. Edmund Hall (University of Oxford), 576—

77, 579 St. Edmund’s College (University of Cambridge), 449 St. Edward’s Hall (University of Notre Dame), 569 S o. Elizabeth Church (Marburg an der Lahn),

327 St. Foy, Quebec, Canada, 244 St. Frideswide’s Priory, Oxford, England, 576

St. George’s Hospital (University of London),

522

Rutherford, Sir Ernest, 268, 269, 449, 454,

St. Hedwig’s Cathedral, Berlin, Germany, 200

535 Rutherford, William, 492

St. Hilda’s College (University of Durham),

Ruthven, Alexander G., 542 Rutkoff, Peter M., 298-99

S oo. Hilda’s College (University of Oxford),

Ruze, Hanus, 77 Ryan High Voltage Laboratory (Stanford University), 376 Ryder, Kenneth G., 307

488, 489 578, 579 St.Pt Hugh’s College (University of Oxford), 578, 579

St.o Idelfonso’s Residence Hall (University of Alcala de Henares), 421

762

ST. JOHN’S COLLEGE

St. John’s College (Annapolis, Maryland,

INDEX San Francisco, California, United States, 28, 373, 375, 376, 436, 438, 619

Scherer, James A.B., 64

San Francisco earthquake (1906), 375, 438

Schilpp, Paul, 311

447, 449 Sio. John’s College (University of Oxford), $78, 579

San Gabriel Valley, California, United States,

Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 200

St. John’s Hall (University of Durham), 488 St. John’s Hospital (Cambridge, England), 445

San Marcos University. See National University of San Marcos

“Schlosskirche,” Wittenberg, Germany, 259

St. Joseph River, 337

San Martin, Tomas de, 292

Schmiel, Otto, 329

St. Laurent, Louis, 244, 268

San Miguel de los Reyes Monastery, Valencia, Spain, 658 Sanborn English House (Dartmouth College), 128

scholasticism, 246, 293, 353, 426, 474, 584,

St. Louis Medical College. See Medical College of Washington University St. Louis, Missouri, United States, 549, 701-4

Sanborn Library Fund (Dartmouth College),

School of East European and Slavonic Studies

St. Luke’s Hall (University of the South), 640

Sanctis, Francesco de, 161

St. Marks-in-the-Bouwerie, New York City, United States, 107 St.o Mary’s College. See University of Aberdeen St. Mary’s College (University of Durham), 488, 489 St. Mary’s College (University of St. Andrew), 604, 605 St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School

Sandbjerg estate, Jutland, Denmark, 8 Sanderson Academy, 275 Sandhya-Sangeeta (Tagore), 695

United States), 360-63 Sso. John’s College (University of Cambridge),

St. Lawrence River, 265

St. Leonard’s College (University of St. Andrews), 604

(University of London), 524, 526

St. Michael’s College (University of Toronto), 654, 655 St. Patrick’s College, Maynooth, 288, 289, 290

94 San Juan Hill, California, United States, 376

128 Sancho IV, king of Castile, 109, 420

Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 360, 362 Sanshiro (Natsume), 649

Sanshiro’s Pond (University of Tokyo), 649

Sanskrit language, 558, 559, 560 Sansone, Giovanni, 497

Schickard, Wilhelm, 142

Schlesinger, Arthur M., Sr., 513 Schlesinger Libary (Radcliffe College), 341 Schlézer, August Ludwig, 178

656 Scholz, Richard F., 346-47 Schongauer, Martin, 248 (University of London), 526, 527 School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London), 525, 527

School of Pythagoras, Cambridge, England, 447 School of Remigius of Auxerre, Paris, France,

$82 School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,

Massachusetts, 397 Schrgder, Jan, 4 Schréder, Kurt, 200

Santa Barbara, California, United States, 25, 436, 441 Santa Catalina Mountains, 423, 425

Schultens, Albert, 519

Santa Cruz, California, United States, 436,

Schumann, Robert, 248

441, 442, 443

Schulze-Boysen, Harro, 202

Schuman, Robert, 387 Schumpteter, Joseph, 662

Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States, 360-63 Santa Monica, California, United States, 441

Schupf, Sara Lee, 706

St. Paul’s Church, Leipzig, Germany, 247 St. Paul’s monastery, Leipzig, Germany, 247 St. Peter College (University of Oxford), 579

Santaella, Rodrigo Fernandez de, 612

Schiirpf, Hieronymus, 258 Schuster, Arthur, 535 Schiitz, Heinrich, 328

St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome, Italy, 257

Santo Domingo, 110, 285, 292

St. Petersburg, Russia, 280

Sarabhai, Vikram, 388 Sargent, John Singer, 62

St. Paul, Minnesota, United States, 544-48

St. Petersburg University. See University of St. Petersburg St. Salvator’s College (University of St. Andrews), 604, 605

St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, Germany, 246 St. Thomas’s Hospital (University of London), 522

St.o Vitus’s Cathedral, Prague, Czech

Santiago, Chile, 464-67

Santiniketan, West Bengal, India, 695-97

Sarkar, N.R., 217-18

Schurman, Jacob Gould, 124, 355

Schuylkill, Pennsylvania, United States, 590 “Schwabische Bund,” 247

Schwager, Sally, 342 Schwartz, A.N., 282

Sasakawa Foundation, 100

Schwarz, Boris, 202 Schweitzer, Albert, 387

Saskatchewan, Canada, 268, 415

Science and Engineering Research Institute

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 150

Sassoferrato, Bartolo di, 592

(Doshisha University), 133

Sather Gate (University of California, Berkeley), 438

Science Center (Wellesley College), 712

Sather, Jane K., 438

Science Park (Aarhus University), 6, 8

St.-Germain-des-Prés church, Paris, France,

Sather, Peder, 438

Science Park (Trinity College, University of Cambridge), 451

$82 Ste. Anne de la Pocatiére, Quebec, Canada, 245 Sakmann, Bert, 48

Sather Tower (University of California,

Science Watch, 49

Savigny, Friedrich Karl von, 201, 327

Scorsese, Martin, 303 Scotland, 412~16, 445, 482, 490-94, 498— 501, 524, 604-6

Saladin, 10

Savio, Mario, 442, 443

Scott, A.J., 533

Salamanca, Spain, 109, 110, 469, 607-11,

Sawyer, Diane, 712

Scott, Robert Falcon, 450

656, 658 Salamanca University. See University of

Saxony, 246

Scott Polar Research Institute (University of Cambridge), 450 Scott, Sir George Gilbert, 499, 560

Republic, 72

Salamanca Salazar, Anténio, 468, 470 Salem, Oregon, United States, 714-17 Salerno, Italy, 555 Salk, Jonas, 87, 542

Salt Lake City, Utah, United States, 54 Salt Lake Valley, Utah, United States, 51

Salvemini (Italian historian), 496

Berkeley), 438 Saunier-Selte, Alice, 431

Saxony, Germany, 140-43, 247, 259 Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, 256-59 Saxtorph, Matthias, 478 Saybrook, Connecticut, United States, 724,

725 Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 519 Scarborough College (University of Toronto), 654

Scott, Sir Giles Gilbert, 450 Scott, Sir Walter (British writer), 493 Scott, Walter (Northwestern president), 310

Scott, Walter D. (broadcasting executive), 552

Scott, Walter Q. (Ohio State University president), 320

Scott, William B. (New School of Social

Salzburg, Austria, 474

Scarborough, Ontario, Canada, 652, 654 Schade, Peter (“Petrus Mosellanus’’), 247

Samaj, Brahmo, 695-97

Schally, Andrew V., 401

Scott, William H. (Ohio State University

Samuelson, Paul, 263

Schaper, William, 546 Scharding, Germany, 254

president), 320 Scott, Winfield, 404

Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von, 141, 248

Scottish Agricultural College, S00

Schenk, Eunice, 62

Scottish Enlightenment, 492, 493

San Antonio, Texas, United States, 630, 634—

35 San Diego, California, United States, 436,

441, 442

Research historian), 298-99

Scottish Country Dance Club, 500

INDEX

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

Scripps College. See Claremont Colleges

Seville University. See University of Seville

Silver Book (Codex Argenteus), 684

Scripps, Ellen Browning, 71, 95-96, 97, 98

Sewanee, Tennessee, United States, 636-41 Shafer, Helen A., 710

Simferopol State University, 716

Scripps Institution for Biological Research, 438

763

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 439

Shanghai, China, 40

Simla, Uttar Pradish, India, 19 Simmons, Ruth, 372 Simon, Franz, 202

Scripps-Howard newspapers, 96 SDS (Students for a Democratic Society), 91, 108, 129

Shannon, Claude Elwood, 263

Simons, Hans, 298

Shannon, Edgar F., Jr., 667

Seaborg, Glenn T., 441 Sears, Barnas, 58

Shantz, Homer L., 425

Simpson Cottage (Wellesley College), 710 Simpson, John, 415 Sinclair, Upton, 87 Sindelfingen collegiate church, Tiibingen,

Seashore, Carl, 513, 514, 515

Shapiro, Harold, 542-43

Seaton Park (University of Aberdeen), 416

Sharansky, Natan, 48 sharia, 9, 10

Seattle Repertory Theatre, 675 Seattle, Washington, United States, 25, 672—

76 Sebaly, Kim Patrick, 217 Secchi, Angelo, 175 Second Great Awakening, 599 Second Vatican Council, 245

Shakespeare House (Wellesley College), 710

Shanshi, China, 315 Shapira, Herman, 190

Sharp, Robert, 401 Shattuck, Roger, 45

Shaw College. See Chinese University of Hong Kong

Germany, 140 Sinn Fein, 288 Sino-Japanese War of 1894, 38 Sino-Japanese War of 1937, 40

Sir Cowasjee Jehanghier Hall (University of Mumbai), 560 Sir Dorab Tata Trust, 388, 389

Shaw, Leslie M., 120

Sirohi, G.S., 211 Sisters of the Holy Cross, 567

Shaw, Robert, 272

Sixtus IV, pope, 140, 475

Shaw, Sir Run Run, 80 shaykhs, 9, 10, 11, 12

Sixtus V, pope, 594 Skalnitzky, Antal, 251

Sheehan, Susan, 712

Skinner, John, 415

Sheffield, England, 527

Skinner, Quentin, 450 Skytte,

Sedwick Site (University of Cambridge), 450

Sheffield, Joseph E., 726 Shelley, James, 454

Seelye, Julius H., 23

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 577

SEESS. See School of East European and

Shepley, Allen, 703 Shepley, Rutan, and Coolidge (architects),

Second World Conference on Cooperative Education (1981), 307 Secondary School Certificate Examination Act of 1948 (India), 561 Sedgwick Museum of Geology (University of Cambridge), 450

Slavonic Studies (University of London) Seeyle, Julius H., 368

Shaw, George Bernard, 525

Seeyle, Laurenus Clark, 370

373 Sheridan, Philip, 666

Seismological Laboratory (California

Sherman, William Tecumseh, 30, 403, 565,

Institute of Technology), 66

Seiyo Jijo (Conditions in the West) (Fukuzawa), 233

Self-Government Association (Bryn Mawr College), 62 Selwyn College (University of Cambridge), 449 Selwyn, George Augustus, 449

566

Johan, 681, 684

Skytteanum (Uppsala University), 684 Slade School of Fine Art (University of London), 523

Slayter Center of Performing Arts (Purdue University), 337

Sleeper, Jacob, 42 Sloan School of Management (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 263

Sherr, Lynn, 712

Sloane, William Milligan, 331-32

Shields, Peter J., 438-39

Slocum, Jonathan, 181

Shi’ ite Islam, 9, 10 Shipherd, John Jay, 313, 315 Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan, 236

Slovakia, 249 Small, Albion, 462

Shockley, William, 263

Smart, James, 335 Smirke, Sir Robert, 524

Shoheiko Gakko. See University of Tokyo

Small, Richard and Norma, 120

Selwyn, William, 449 Séminaire de Québec, 241, 242, 243, 265

Shumway, Norman E., 378

Semitic languages, 519

Sibley Hall (University of Rochester), 601

Smith, Adam, 498, 577 Smith, Asa Dodge, 127 Smith, Ashbel, 631

Semper, Gottried, 161 Senate Hall (University of Mumbai), 560

Sibley, Henry Hastings, 544

Smith, Charles Henry, 724, 725

Sibley, Hiram, 601

Smith College, 24, 36, 37, 60, 339, 368-72,

Senate House (University of Cambridge), 445, 448

Sicily, Italy, 190 Siddons, Henry, 19

Senate House (University of London), 526,

Siddons Union Club (Aligarh Muslim

527, 528

Shuvalov, Count Ivan, 280

University), 19

Seneca, 530

Sidney, Frances, countess of Sussex, 448

Seneca Falls Convention (1848), 551, 601

Sidney Sussex College (University of

Seneca, New York, United States, 551, 601

Cambridge), 448

692, 693 Smith College Museum, 370 Smith, Daniel Cranford, 297

Smith, Edward, 197 Smith, Emily James, 36 Smith, Francis, 121

Smith, Howard K., Jr., 401 Smith, John, 625

Seoul, Republic of Korea, 364-67, 716

Sieff Institute. See Weizmann Institute of Science Sieff, Israel and Rebecca, 705

Separation of College and State (Whitehead),

Siegbaum, Kai, 683

Smith, Joseph and Lois (White), 368

725 Separate Universities Education Bill of 1957

Siegbaum, Manne, 683 Siegel Hall (Illinois Institute of Technology),

Smith, Kent, 72

Seney, George, 158

Seoul National University, 364-67

(South Africa), 456 Sequoia Hall (Stanford University), 375

207 Siemens, Werner von, 161

Smith, Jerome V.C., 57

Smith, Joseph, 51

Smith, Luther M., 157 Smith Memorial Hall (University of Illinois),

509 Smith, Nathan, 126

Servi Convent (University of Siena), 618

Siena, Italy, 592, 594, 615-18 Siena University. See University of Siena

Sestini, Benedict, 175

Siete Partidas, 607

Smith, Robert J., 148, 149

SEU. See Spanish University Union

Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and king of

Smith, Sophia, 368, 370

Serpieri, Arrigo, 496

Bohemia, 76

Seven Sisters Colleges, 37, 279, 368, 372, 693 Seven Years’ War (1756-63), 257, 718

Silber, John, 45

Sever Hall (Harvard University), 188

Silent Sam (University of North Carolina

Severeid, Eric, 547 Severn River, 408 Seville, Spain, 504, 612-14, 658

landmark), 565 Silivius, Aeneas. See Pius II, pope Silliman, Benjamin, 726

Smith, Osborn I., 157

Smith, William (clergyman), 362 Smith, William (university provost), 588, 589,

590 Smith-Lever Act of 1914 (United States), 272 Smithsonian Institution (Washington, D.C.), 115

764

SMOOT

INDEX

Smoot, Abraham O., 52

South Eastern Agricultural College. See Wye

Stanford Museum (Stanford University), 377

Smuts, Jan Christian, 604, 643-44 Sneider, Herman, 304

College South Hadley, Massachusetts, United States,

Stanford Museum of Art (Stanford University), 378

Snell, Margaret Comstock, 324-25 Snellius, Willibrord, 519 Snell’s Law, 519

275-79 South Hall (University of California, Berkeley), 437

Stanford Research Institute, 378

SNU. See Seoul National University SNU Press, 366

South Island, New Zealand, 452-55

South Korea. See Republic of Korea

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 601

Snyder, Franklin, 311

South Tranders, Aalborg, Denmark, 3

Stanton, Hervey de, 445

Snyder, Jonathan, 272

South West Engineering Building (University

Stapfer, Phillippe-Albert, 160

SOAS. See School of Oriental and African

Studies

of the Witwatersrand), 645

South Wiirttemberg, Germany, 143

Social Insurance (Beveridge 1942 report),

Southampton, England, 527

525 Social Science Project (McGill University), 268 Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education in the West, 69 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in

Southern Alps, 452 Southern California Edison Company, 65

Foreign Parts, 725

Society Houses (Wellesley College), 710 Society of Alumni (Williams College), 721

Southern California Methodist Conference,

621 Southern Pacific Railroad, 619

Southwest Center for Advanced Studies. See University of Texas, Dallas

Souzhou, China, 40 Soviet Union (former), 12, 40, 41, 77, 167,

Stanford Stadium (Stanford University), 376 Stanford University, 128, 214, 263, 346,

373-78, 436, 438

Star of the West (ship), 82-83 Starling-Ohio Medical College (Ohio State University), 321

State Agricultural College and Model Farm. See Iowa State University State Agricultural College of Oregon. See Oregon State University State Bar of California, 63 State Board of Regents (New York), 381 State Education Department (New York), 381

State Normal School (Trenton, New Jersey),

358

Society of Friends. See Quakers

203, 210, 217, 218, 223, 248, 251, 259,

State Opera (Berlin), 200

Society of Jesus. See Jesuits Soddy, Frederick, 268 Soderblom, Nathan, 684 Sogang University, 366

283, 393. See also Russia

State University Construction Fund (New York), 381 State University of New Jersey. See Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey

Soho Tokutomi, 132 Solomon’s table, 420

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 378 Some Essays and Thoughts on Korean Education (Kim), 364 Somerset House (University of London), 524,

Spain, 99, 109-11, 247, 285, 292, 393, 411, 420-22, 426-28, 469, 502-5, 516, 530, 553, 597, 604, 607-11, 612-14, 617, 656— 59 Spanish Civil War. See Civil War, Spanish Spanish Enlightenment, 293, 657, 658 Spanish Inquisition. See Inquisition Spanish Netherlands. See Netherlands

State University of New York, 379-82

Staten Bible, 518-19 States College. See University of Leiden Statewide Technology Program (Indiana), 338 Statler Hotel, 124

Spanish University Union, 427

Statutes of 1559 (England), 448

$26 Somerville College (University of Oxford), 578, 579

Spanish-American War, 120, 410-11

Staupitz,

Spano, Robert, 316

Stearns Center (Northeastern University), 307

SPARS (women’s coast guard reserves), 90

Sondheim, Stephen, 721

Speare, Frank Palmer, 304, 305, 307 Spelman College. See Atlanta University

Stearns, William A., 23 Steele, Sir Richard, 725

Sonora desert, 423, 425

Sophie Newcomb College, 400 Sophomore Hall (University of Notre Dame), 569 Sorabjee, Cornelia, 560

Center

Johan von, 256

Steensen, Niels (Nicolaus Steno), 477

Stegmann, Povl, 6

Spemann, Hans, 16

Steiger, Rod, 298

Spence, Sir Basil, 489

Stein, Gertrude, 342

Spencer, Cornelia, 563, 565, 566

Steinbrenner, George, 721

Sorbon, Robert de, 583

Spencer, Sir Stanley, 523

Steinem, Gloria, 372

Sorbonne. See University of Paris

Spencer, W. Baldwin, 537

Stenbeck, Thor, 683

Sorel, Georges, 155

Spener, Philipp Jacob, 141

Steno Museum (Aarhus, Denmark), 6, 8

Sgrensen, Carl Theodor, 6

Sperry, Roger, 67, 316

Steno, Nicolaus (Niels Steensen), 477

Sorin, Edward, 567, 568 sororities, 36, 310, 375, 377, 508

Spilman, Jane Bassett, 171, 172 Spitzer, Lyman, Jr., 333

Sterling Chemistry Laboratory (Yale

Sorosis (New York City), 34 Souls of Black Folks (DuBois), 30

Spoleto, Buccio da, 617 Springfield Baptist Church, Augusta, Georgia, 31

Sterling Divinity Quadrangle (Yale University), 726

South Africa, 443, 456-59, 642-46 South African College. See University of Cape Town

South African Mutual Life Assurance Society (University of the Witwatersrand), 645

South African School of Mines and Technology. See University of the Witwatersrand South Atlantic Quarterly (publication), 137,

139 South Bend, Indiana, United States, 216, 338,

567 South Building (University of North Carolina), 563, 565, 566

Sproul, Robert Gordon, 439, 441

Sproul Hall (University of California, Berkeley), 443

Sproull, Robert L., 602 S.R. Crown Hall (Illinois Institute of

Technology), 207 Sriniketan, West Bengal, India, 695 Staley, Cady, 72

Stalin, Joseph, 203, 283 Stanard, Mary Newton, 102-3 Stanford, California, United States, 373-78 Stanford Hospital, San Francisco, California, 376

University), 726

Sterling Hall of Medicine (Yale University),

726 Sterling, J.E. Wallace, 377, 378 Sterling, John W., 726

Sterling Law Building (Yale University), 726 Sterling Memorial Library (Yale University), 726 Sterling Power House (Yale University), 726 Sterling Quadrangle (Yale University), 726 Sterling Tower (Yale University), 726 Stevenson, Adlai, 330 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 493 Steward, Lavinia, 425

Stewart, George, 514

South Carolina Military Academy. See

Stanford, Jane, 373-74, 375, 377

Stewart, Phil Penfield, 313

Citadel, The South Carolina, United States, 81-84

Stanford, Leland, 373, 374, 375, 376

Stewart Center (Purdue University), 337

Stanford, Leland, Jr., 373

Stiles, Ezra, 725

South College (Amherst University), 21

Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (Stanford

Stilling, Heinrich, 328-29

South Deerfield, Massachusetts, United States, 275

University), 378 Stanford Medical School, 376

Stilwell, Lewis Dayton, 128 Stirling, James, 450-51

INDEX

TETZEL

Stock, Alfred, 202

Studi Senesi (periodical), 618

Tacoma, Washington, United States, 675

Stock, Anne, 336

studium generale, 72, 412, 417, 420, 468,

Taft, Loredo, 509

Stockard, Sallie Walker, 566

495, 529, 553, 555, 582, 592, 593, 594 Sturm, Johannes, 383-84

Taft, William Howard, 107 Tagore, Abanindranath, 696 Tagore, Debendranath, 695, 696 Tagore, Dwarkanath, 695-97

Stockdale,

James B., 84

765

Stockton on Tees, England, 489

Sturm und Drang movement, 179, 385

Stockwell, John Nelson, 72

Stybe, Svend Erik, 475, 479

Stoddard, George D., 509

Tagore, Gaganendranath, 696

Stoffler, Johannes, 140.

Styron, William, 297 Sudan, 527

Stoletov, A.G., 282

Sudhoff, Karl, 248

Stone, Amasa, 71

Suez Canal, 12

Tagore, Rathindranath, 696 Taisho Democracy (1912-26), 132

Stone Corridor (University College, Cork), 290

Suger, abbot of St. Denis, 429

Stone, Dewey D., 706

Sukhatme, S.P., 219

Taiwan, 80 Talleyrand, Charles Maurice, 385

Stone, Julius, 627

Sulenik, Eliezer, 193-94, 656

Tallmadge, Ohio, United States, 69

Stone, Lucy, 279

Sullivan, Dennis, 92

Talloires, France, 397

Stone, Thomas, 360 Stony Brook, New York, United States, 381

Sullivan, Louis Henri, 205 Sullivan, Richard, 347, 348

Storer, Francis H., 261

Summa (Placentinus), 555

Tanabe, Kyoto, Japan, 133-34 Tanaka Fujimaro, 131 Tanijaki Junichiro, 649

Storrs, Charles Backus, 69

Summerhart, Konrad, 140

Tanzania, 527

Stoughton Hall (Harvard University), 187 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 341 Strachan, John, 652, 653 Strachey Hall (Aligarh Muslim University), 18-19 Strachey, Sir John, 18

Sun Scholarship, 80 Sun Yat-sen, 38

Tappan, Arthur and Lewis, 315 Tappan Hall (University of Michigan), 543 Tappan, Henry, 539, 541 Tappan Square (Oberlin College), 317 Taquini, Alberto, 433 Tarkington, Booth, 335

Sunderland, Massachusetts, United States,

275 Sunni Islam, 9, 10

Straight, Dorothy, 295

SUNY. See State University of New York Surrey, England, 527

Strasbourg Academy, 386

Susan B. Anthony Center for Women’s

Strasbourg, France, 383-87 Strasbourg University, 15, 17, 383-87

Strassburg Academy. See Strasbourg University

Strassburg, Gottfried von, 383 Strassburger Kreis (Strasbourg circle), 387 Strathcona, Lord, 267, 268

Studies (University of Rochester), 602 Sussex, England, 448

Sutherland, Earl W., Jr., 689 Sutlej River Hostel, 224 Sutro, Adolph, 438

Tagore, Rabindranath, 695-97

Tata family, 388

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,

388-90 Tata, J.R.D., 388 Tata, Mithan, 562 Tau Zeta Epsilon (Wellesley College), 710 Tay River, 412

Sutton Hall (University of Texas at Austin),

Taylor, Graham, 462

632 Suwon City, Republic of Korea, 366 Suzzallo, Henry, 674 Svedberg, Theodore “The,” 684

Taylor Hall (Bryn Mawr College), 60 Taylor, James Monroe, 693 Taylor, John, 357

Svoboda, L., 77

Taylor, Louise, 175

Swain, David Lowry, 565, 566 Swain, Ellie, 565 Swain, Joseph, 214, 215

Taylor, Peter, 667 Taylor, Telford, 721

Swallow, Ellen, 261 Swaminathan, 211

Teachers College (Columbia University), 37,

Rochester), 601, 602 Stuart, Anderson, 626

Swansea Technical College (University of

Teapot Dome Scandal, 621

Stuart dynasty, 482

Swansea, Wales, 668, 671

Student Association (Rice University), 351

Swarthmore College, 62

Student Building (Indiana University), 215 student demonstrations, 19-20, 39-41, 4445,

Swearer, Howard Robert, 58 Sweatt v. Painter (1950; United States), 632

Stratton, Charles Carroll, 715-16 Strauss, David Friedrich, 141, 142

Streep, Meryl, 694

Strindberg, August, 202 Stromer-Auerbach, Heinrich, 248 Strong, Bessie Rockefeller, 693 Strong family, 601 Strong Hall (Vassar College), 693 Strong Memorial Hospital (University of

77, 87, 91, 97, 108, 129, 152, 167-68, 171-72, 188-89, 198, 201, 225-26, 268, 282, 293, 312, 351, 355, 377-78, 418, 426-27, 431, 442-43, 456, 458, 479, 492, §21, 527, 542, 556, 561, 564, 572, 573— 74, 582, 586-87, 598, 602, 617, 618, 650,

658, 665, 671, 675, 680 Student Federation (Peru), 293-94

Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, 442 student self-government, 23, 24, 28, 62

student strikes. See student demonstrations

Wales), 670

Sweden, 222, 253, 395, 475, 477, 681-85 Swift Hall (Northwestern University), 310 Swift, Henry A., 544

Swift, Jonathan, 483 Swift, Joseph, 405 Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848, 161

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. See Federal Institute of Technology Switzerland, 160-63, 516, 529, 584 Swygert, Patrick, 198-99 Sybel, Heinrich von, 386 Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, 536,

Taylor, Joseph Wright, 60

Taylor, Zachary, 634 108, 688 Technical College of Charlottenburg, 167 Technical College of Merseberg. See Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg Technion City, Haifa, Israel, 391-94, 706

Technion Energy Center (Technion—Israel

Institute of Technology), 393 Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, 391-94 Technion Research and Development Foundation, 394 Technopole de L’ Arbois, Aix-Marseille,

France, 417, 419 Teesside University, 489

Teeters, Nancy Hays, 316 Teikoku Daigaku. See University of Tokyo Teknikum (Uppsala University), 684 Tel Migne, Israel, 194 Telang, Kashinath Trimbak, 560

student unrest. See student demonstrations

623-29 Sydney University. See University of Sydney

Student’s Association (University of

Sykes, Charles, 129

Temple, Henry John (Lord Palmerston), 493

Canterbury), 455 Students for a Democratic Society, 91, 108, 129

Sylvester, J.J., 229, 230 Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse (Hunter

Students’ Representative Council (University

Synge, John Millington, 484

Temple Mount, Jerusalem, Israel, 194 Tennessee, United States, 138, 636-41, 68689 Terence, 247

Student Union of the Republic of China, 39

of Cape Town), 458

College), 90 Szilard, Leo, 333

Students’ Representative Council (University of Glasgow), 500

Tacitus, 519, 530

Telders, B.M., 520

Terman, Frederick, 377 Terrell, Robert, 197 Tetzel, John, 257, 258

766

TEVA PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES

Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, 394 Texas A&M University, 631

Texas Agriculture and Mechanical College. See Texas A&M University Texas College of Mines and Metallurgy. See University of Texas, E] Paso

Texas Eastern University. See University of Texas, Tyler

Texas School for the Blind, 632 Texas Southernmost College. See University of Texas, Brownsville-Texas Southernmost College

Texas State School of Mines and Metallurgy.

See University of Texas, El Paso Texas, United States, 349-52, 630-35

Texas University System. See University of Texas System Texas Wesleyan College, 632 Texas Western College. See University of Texas, El Paso

Thames River, 576 Thapar, Romila, 226

INDEX

Tiananmen Square protest of 1919 (Beijing University), 39 Tiananmen Square protest of 1989 (Beijing University), 41, 226

Thatcher, Margaret, 528, 579

Thayer School of Civil Engineering (Dartmouth College), 126 Thayer, Sylvanus, 126, 405, 406, 407

Theatrum Anatomicum (University of

Leiden), 519 Theologische Rundschau (publication), 179 Thier, Samuel O., 49-50

Thiers, Adolphe, 150 Third Higher Education Act of 1968-69 (East Germany), 203

Thirkell Court (Clare College, University of Cambridge), 450 Thirteenth Edict (1803), 354 Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), 76, 142, 255, 353, 385 Thomas 4 Kempis, 383

Tiffany glass windows (Tulane University), 400 Tiffany, Louis, 119 TIFR. See Tata Institute of Fundamental Research

Tippecanoe County, Indiana, United States,

489 Trinitatis Church (University of Copenhagen), 476, 478 Trinity Church (New York City), 34, 105 Trinity College of Music (University of

335 Tisch School of the Arts (New York

University), 303 Tiselius, Arne, 684

Todd, George, 601 Todd, Mabel Loomis, 23 Toepfer, Louis Adelbert, 72-73

Tokugawa shogunate, 647, 648 Tokutomi Iichiro (Soho), 132, 133 Tokutomi Kenjiro (Roka), 132, 133

Tokyo Imperial University. See University of Tokyo Tokyo International University,

716

Tokyo International University of America, 716

Tokyo, Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo

Japan, 132, 133, 233-37, 647-51 Norin Gakko. See University of Tokyo School of English, 648 University. See University of Tokyo

Toland, Hugh, 438

Toland Medical College. See University of California Toledo, Francisco de, 292

Toledo, Spain, 421

Thomas, Martha Carey, 60-62, 229, 230, 693

Tolstoy, Leo, 132 Tom Tower (Christ Church College, Oxford),

578

Thomas Welton Stanford Library (Stanford

Tomei, Michael, 175

University), 375 Thomasius, Christian, 248, 259

Tomioka, Japan, 238

Trevelyan College (University of Durham),

London), 528

Titanic (ship), 188

Tolman, Richard C., 64

Thomism. See Thomas Aquinas

Tree Day (Wellesley College), 710 Trenton, New Jersey, United States, 358 Tresidder Memorial Union (Stanford University), 377

Thomas Church, Leipzig, Germany, 247

Thomasstift foundation, 385

Treaty of Versailles (1919), 530

Tiger Inn (Princeton University), 332 Tillich, Paul, 328 Tippecanoe, Battle of (1811), 335

Tolkien, J.R.R., 578

Thomas of Villenueve, St., 421

Treaty of Luneville (1801), 472

Tresidder, Donald B., 377

Thomas Aquinas, 472, 474, 530, 583

Thomas, Michael Tilson, 622

of the Witwatersrand Traub, James, 85, 87, 93 Travis, Lee, 513

Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (Princeton University), 333

Tharp, Twyla, 37

Transvaal Technical Institute. See University

Tone, Theobald Wolfe, 484 Tongiori, Francisco and Salvatore, 175

Tongwen guan, 38 Topping, Seymour, 552

Trinity College. See Duke University; University of Dublin Trinity College Trinity College (University of Cambridge), 445, 447, 448, 451, 458, 481, 537 Trinity College (University of Oxford), 486,

579 Trinity College (University of Toronto), 654,

655 Trinity Hall (University of Cambridge), 445 Trinity, North Carolina, United States, 135 Tristan (von Strassburg), 383 Tmava, Slovakia, 249 Troeltsch, E., 179

Trombay, India, 390 Trotsky, Leon, 161 Trudeau, Pierre, 245, 268, 655

Trumbull Gallery (Yale University), 726 Trumbull, John, 725 Tsui Shu-chin, 78

Tiibingen, Germany, 15, 140-43, 258, 259 Tiibingen University. See Eberhard Karls University of Tiibingen Tuck School of Administration and Finance (Dartmouth College), 128 Tucson, Arizona, United States, 423-25

Tudor dynasty, 480

Tufts, Charles, 395 Tufts College. See Tufts University Tufts College Dental School, 398 Tufts, James H., 462

Tufts University, 395-97

Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 652-55

Tufts-New England Medical Center, 395 Tulane, Louis, 399 Tulane, Paul, 398, 399, 400

Thompson Hall (University of the South), 640

Toronto School of Theology (University of

Tulane University, 398-402

Thompson, Sir William, 644

Toronto University. See University of Toronto Torrey Pines Mesa (California), 441

Thompson Annex (Vassar College), 693 Thompson, Frederick Ferris, 693

Thompson, William Oxley, 320 Thomson, J.J., 449 Thoreau, Henry David, 189 Thorpe, George, 101 Throop, Amos G., 64

Throop, George, 703 Throop Polytechnic Institute. See California Institute of Technology

Toronto), 655

tulip bulbs, 519 Turgeneg, Ivan, 282

Turing, Alan, 450

Torricelli, Evangelista, 495 Toulouse, France, 153, 430, 582, 596

Turkey, 10, 11, 12

Tower Court (Wellesley College), 711

Tumer, Allen, 156

Town that Started the Civil War (Brandt), 315 Towne, John Henry, 590 Townes, Charles H., 263

Turner, Frederick Jackson, 229 Turner, Jonathan Baldwin, 506

Turnbull, bishop of Scotland, 498

Tuscany, Italy, 495-97, 593, 615-18

Townshend Hall (Ohio State University), 320 Tracy, Destutt de, 432 Tracy, Samuel F., 638

Twain, Mark, 692-93

Thun-Hohenstein, Count Leo, 661

Transcendentalists, 189

Thunberg, Carl Peter, 683

Transvaal College. See University of the

Tyler State College. See University of Texas, Tyler Tyler, Texas, United States, 630, 634 Tyler, W.S., 368, 370 Tyndall, John, 115

Throop University. Technology

See California Institute of

Thurber, James, 321 Thurman, Howard, 44 Thwing, Charles Franklin, 71

Witwatersrand Transvaal Consolidated Lands, 644

Transvaal, South Africa, 642-46

Tyler, John, 103 Tyler, Lyon G., 103

INDEX

UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY

typhoid fever, 375

Angeles UCT. See University of Cape Town Ueno, Battle of (1868), 235

26, 330-34, 335-38, 339-43, 344-48, 349-52, 356-59, 360-63, 364, 368-72, 373-78, 379-82, 390, 391, 395-97, 398402, 403-7, 408-11, 423-25, 436-44, 460-63, 479, 506-10, 511-15, 539-43, 544-48, 549-52, 563-66, 567-71, 58891, 599-603, 619-22, 630-35, 636-41, 649, 650, 663-67, 672-76, 677-80, 686— 89, 690-94, 698-700, 701-4, 708-13, 714-17, 718-21, 722-27 United States Military Academy at West Point, 85, 86, 126, 403-7, 700 United States Mortgage Company, 540

Uhland, Ludwig, 142

United States Naval Academy, 362, 408-11

Ukita Kazutami, 132

Universalist Church, 395 Universidad Complutense de Madrid. See Complutense University of Madrid Université de Bordeaux. See University of

UBA. UCC. UCD. UCG. UCH.

See See See See See

University University University University University

of Buenos Aires College, Cork College, Dublin College, Galway of Chile

UCL. See Université de Louvain; University College, London UCLA. See University of California, Los

Ukraine, 716 ulama, 9, 10, 12, 13

Ulbricht, Walter, 203 Ulrich, duke of Wiirttemberg, 140-41

Bordeaux

UMIST. See Institute of Science and Technology (University of Manchester) UNAM. See National Autonomous University of Mexico

Université de Cologne. See University of Cologne

Unamuro, Miguel de, 610

Université de Montréal. See University of

Unani medicine, 18 “Uncle Fred’s Nose” (Vassar College), 693 Uncommon Women and Others (Wasserstein),

279

Université de Louvain. See University of

Louvain Montreal Université de Paris. See University of Paris Université des Sciences Humanines. See

Strasbourg University

Underground Railroad, 313, 315

Université Laval. See Laval University

UNEF. See Union national de étudiants de France

Université Louis Pasteur. See Strasbourg University Université Michel de Montaigne (University

UNESCO, 218, 220 UNIDO Centre of Genetic Engineering

University Hall (Harvard University), 187,

188 University Hall (New York University), 302 University Hall (Northwestern University),

308

University Hall (Ohio State University), 318, 321

University Hall (Purdue University), 336 University Hall (University of Cambridge). See Clare College University Hall (University of Illinois), 508,

509 University Hall (University of Michigan), 541

University Hall (Washington University), 703 University Hall (Willamette University), 714, 716 University Heights, Bronx, New York, United States, 302

University in Exile (New School for Social Research), 297, 298

University Library (University of Mumbai),

560 University Missourian (newspaper), 552 University of Aalborg. See Aalborg

University University of Aarhus. See Aarhus University University University University University

of Aberdeen, 412-16 of Aix-Marseille, 417-19 of Alberta, 415 of Alcala de Henares, 247, 420—

22, 656 University of Angers, 582

(Jawaharlal Nehru University), 226 Union Club (Purdue University), 336

of Bordeaux), 429, 431 Université Robert Schuman. See Strasbourg University

University of Arezzo, 592 University of Arizona, 423-25 University of Auckland, 452, 454

Union College, 21, 22, 358

Université 2000 (France), 431

University of Barcelona, 426-28, 658

Union College of Law, 308

Universities (India) Act of 1904, 560-61

University of Basel, 15, 17, 140, 160, 161

Union Institute. See Duke University Union League Club, New York City, United States, 34

Universities (Scotland) Act of 1858, 415, 493

University of Berlin. See Humboldt

Union national de étudiants de France, 574,

585-86 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. See Soviet Union (former)

Unitarianism, 25, 26, 27, 28, 187, 235, 578, 721

University Association (Denmark), 6, 8

University Chapel (Princeton University), 333 University Church (Lorand E6étvés University), 251 University Circle (Cleveland, Ohio), 69, 71 University City, Madrid, Spain, 111

University College (University of

767

University

University of Birmingham, 527, 535 University of Bologna, 72, 109, 220, 222,

246, 253, 412, 495, 503, 555, 592, 594, 596, 617, 662 University of Bombay. See University of

Mumbai

United Church of Canada, 652 United Church of Christ, 131

Cambridge). See Wolfson College University College (University of Durham), 488

University of Bordeaux, 429-31 University of Brazil. See Federal University

United College. See Chinese University of

University College (University of Oxford),

University of Bristol, 527 University of British Columbia, 268

Hong Kong

United College (University of St. Andrews), 604 United Irishmen, 484

United Kingdom. See Great Britain; specific

577, 579 University College (University of Toronto), 653, 654 University College, Aberstwyth. See Aberstwyth University College

of Rio de Janeiro

University of Brussels, 529, 530, 531

University of Buenos Aires, 432-35, 467 University of Buffalo, 381 University of Calcutta, 19, 415, 524, 558

University College, Cork, 288, 289, 290

University of California, 228, 346, 374,

United Methodist Church. See Methodism United Mexican American Students, 97

University College, Dublin, 288, 289, 290,

436-44, 465 Berkeley, 436, 437-38, 439, 441, 442, 443

United Nations, 13, 193, 210, 364

University College, Galway, 288, 289, 290

United Nations Food and Agriculture

University College, London, 486, 523-24, $25, 526, 527, 528, 533 University College of North Wales, Bangor, 670 University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, 669-70 University College, Stockton on Tees, 489

component countries

Organization, 211

United Provinces. See Netherlands

United States, 21-24, 25-29, 30-33, 34-37, 40, 42-45, 46-50, 51-55, 56-59, 60-63, 64-68, 69-73, 81-84, 85-93, 94-98, 1014, 112-16, 117-20, 121~25, 126-30, 131, 132, 133, 135-39, 156-59, 169-72, 17376, 181-84, 185-89, 195-99, 205-8, 210, 213-16, 217, 218-19, 228-32, 236-37, 260-64, 268, 270-74, 275-79, 282, 29599, 304-7, 308-12, 313-17, 318-21, 322-

485

Davis, 436, 438, 439, 441, 443 Irvine, 436, 441, 442

Los Angeles, 216, 436, 439-41, 443 Riverside, 436, 438, 441, 443

San Diego, 436, 441, 442 Santa Barbara, 436, 441 Santa Cruz, 436, 441, 442, 443

University of Cambridge, 18, 19, 34, 36,

University Elementary School (University of

268, 360, 388, 445-51, 454, 458, 461,

Chicago), 462 University Extension (Brown University), 58

481, 483, 486, 487, 488, 489, 492, 498, $22, 523, 524, 535, 537, 576, 582, 640,

University Extension Act of 1959 (South

641, 703, 726

Africa), 458

University of Canterbury, 452-55

768

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN

University of Cape Town, 415, 456-59, 645

INDEX University of London Act of 1978 (Great

University of Chicago, 92, 119, 263, 308,

University of London Union, 527

University of Pennsylvania, 362, 415, 564, 588-91 University of Perugia, 615

310, 346, 362, 460-63 University of Chile, 464-67 University of Cincinnati, 304 University of Coimbra, 468-71, 483, 597

University of Louisiana. See Tulane University

University of Pisa, 592-95, 617 University of Poitiers, 596-98

University of Louisville, 120

University of Lyon, 153

University of Portland, 716 University of Prague. See Charles University University of Provence. See University of Aix-Marseille

University of Madras, 415, 524, 558

University of Queensland, 415

University of Madrid. See Complutense University of Madrid University of Mainz, 474 University of Manchester, 524, 527, 533~35 University of Manitoba, 415 University of Mantua, 592

University of Reading, 527

University of Catania, 426

University of Cologne, 222, 259, 472-74

University of Concepcién, 466 University of Copenhagen, 3, 6, 475-79 University of Cérdoba (Argentina), 432

University of Dorpat, 280 University of Dublin Trinity College, 480— 85, 524 University of Dundee, 604 University of Durham, 486-89, 524

University of Edinburgh, 415, 490-94, 49899 University of Erfurt, 222, 256, 472

Britain), 527

University of Louvain, 383, 516, 527, 529-

32

University of Marburg. See Philipps University of Marburg University of Marseille. See University of

University of Rheims, 582

University of Rio de Janeiro. See Federal University of Rio de Janeiro University of Rochester, 599-603 University of St. Andrews, 412, 604-6

University of St. Michael’s College, 653 University of St. Petersburg, 280, 281, 478 University of Salamanca, 110, 285, 292,

University of Exeter, 527 University of Florence, 495-97, 592, 593, 615

University of Massachusetts, 24, 45 University of McGill College. See McGill University

421, 469, 503, 607-11, 613, 656 University of Salerno, 553 University of San Marcos. See National University of San Marcos

University of France, 556, 585

University of Mechelen, 530

University of Santo Domingo, 110, 285, 292

University of Freiburg. See Albert Ludwigs

University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey—Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 359 University of Melbourne, 452, 536-38, 626,

University of Saskatchewan, 415

University of Erlangen, 177 University of Evora, 469, 470

University University of Geneva, 160, 516

University of Genoa, 592, 662

Aix-Marseille

627

University of Seoul. See Seoul National University University of Seville, 612-14 University of Sheffield, 527

University of Ghana, 459 University of Ghent, 530 University of Giessen, 178

University of Mexico. See National Autonomous University of Mexico

University of Singapore, 415

University of Glasgow, 395, 412, 415, 490,

University of Miami, 685

University of South Africa, 415

492, 498-501 University of Gottingen. See Georgia Augustus University of Gottingen

University of Michigan, 34, 228, 270, 310,

University of Southampton, 527 University of Southern California, 97, 303, 619-22

University of Granada, 502-5

University University University University

University of Grenoble, 153

University of Groningen, 520 University of Halle. See Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg University of Havana, 200 University of Hawaii, 716

University of Heidelberg. See Ruprecht Karls University University of Helmstedt, 178 University of Hong Kong, 78, 415 University of Hull, 527 University of Illinois, 67, 218, 310, 506-10 University of Ingolstadt, 140 University of Iowa, 130, 511-15

University of Ireland. See National University of Ireland University of Johnannesburg. See University

of the Witwatersrand

539-43, 546, 569, 685 University of Minas Gerais, 164

of Minnesota, 544-48 of Mississippi, 96 of Missouri, 549-52 of Montpellier, 553~57, 656

University of Mumbai (Bombay), 389, 558-

College, 630, 634

62 University of Munich. See Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich University of Nancy, 153, 386 University of Naples, 495 University of New Hampshire, 119 University of New Zealand, 452, 524

University of Newark, 354 University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 486,

488-89 University of North Carolina, 563-66 University of Northern Iowa, 512

University of Kracow, 660

University of Odense, 3

University of Kyoto, 133, 650 University of Leeds, 524, 527, 535 University of Leicester, 527

University of Oregon, 322, 325, 597, 716

University of London, 34, 267, 268, 300, 450, 486, 487, 488, 489, 522-28, 558, 560, 623, 653

University of Texas System, 45, 630-35

Brownsville-Texas Southernmost

University of Nottingham, 527

University of Liverpool, 524, 527, 535

University of Tasmania, 415

University of Moscow, 281

University of Kharkov, 280

of Leipzig. See Leipzig University of Liége, 530 of Lille, 153 of Lima. See National University Marcos

University of Sydney, 415, 536, 623~29

Arlington, 630, 634

University of Notre Dame, 567-71

University University University University of San

University of Surrey, 527

University of Montreal, 244, 245, 268, 269

University of Kazan, 280

University of Leiden, 516-21, 530

University of Siena, 592, 615-18

University of Orléans, 572-75, 582, 604

University of Otago, 415, 452 University of Oviedo, 657 University of Oxford, 18, 36, 42, 72, 94, 96,

268, 328, 348, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 461, 486, 487, 488, 489, 498, 522, 523, 524, 576-79, 582, 592, 604, 640-41, 669, 703, 726 University of Padua, 222, 592, 593, 594, 661 University of Paris, 72, 110, 148, 149, 150,

220, 222, 246, 353, 412, 445, 473, 503, 519, 574, 576, 580-87, 592, 596, 604, 660

Dallas, 630, 634 El Paso, 630, 634 Houston, 630, 634

Pan American in Edinburg, 630, 634 Permian Basin, 630, 634

San Antonio, 630, 634-35 Tyler, 630, 635

University of the Cape of Good Hope, 642 University of the City of New York. See New York University University of the Rhine, 472, 474 University of the South, 636-41, 698 University of the State of Missouri. See University of Missouri University of the State of New York. See State University of New York

University of the State of Pennsylvania. See University of Pennsylvania University of the Witwatersrand, 642—46 University of Tokyo, 235, 647-51 University of Toronto, 267, 415, 524, 652-55 University of Toronto Act of 1906 (Canada),

653-54 University of Toronto Press, 654

University of Toulouse, 153, 430, 582, 596 University of Trinity College, 653 University of Tiibingen. See Eberhard Karls University of Tiibingen

WASHINGTON COLLEGE

INDEX

769

University of Uppsala. See Uppsala University

Van Scoy, Thomas, 715, 716

von KleinSmid, Rufus, 621

Vancouver, Canada, 268

von Neumann, John, 333

University of Utrecht, 520 University of Valencia, 656-59

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 71, 686, 687, 689

Vonnegut, Kurt, 514

Vanderbilt, Cornelius II, 687

Vosper, Robert, 441

University of Valladolid, 597 University of Vienna, 222, 253, 472, 473,

Vanderbilt, Harold, 688

Voss, Johann Heinrich, 179

Vanderbilt, William Henry, 687

Vroom (New Jersey governor), 358 Vrooman Act of 1889 (California), 437

660-62 University of Virginia, 138, 262, 351, 510,

663-67, 687 University of Wales, 668-71 University of Wales Press, 670

University of Waseda. See Waseda University University of Washington, 672-76 University of Western Australia, 415 University of Wisconsin, 28, 677-80

University of Wittenberg. See Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg University of Zurich, 15, 160, 162 University Park (Aarhus University), 7, 8

University Square (Lorand Eétvés University), 251

Vanderbilt, William Kissam, 687, 688 Vanderbilt University, 137, 686-89 Varian, Russell and Sigurd, 377

V-12 naval training program (United States), 72, 159, 602

Vassar College, 34, 36, 37, 60, 368, 371, 690-94 Vassar College Art Gallery, 692 Vassar Female College. See Vassar College

Vulgate, 529

Vassar, Matthew, 690, 692

Wabash College, 336

Vatican Observatory, 175 Veblen, Thorstein, 229, 295, 297

Wabash River, 335

Velvet Revolution (1989), 77 Venezuela, 464 Venice, Italy, 592, 593 Vera List Center (New School for Social Research), 298

W. Baldwin Spencer Building (University of Melbourne), 537-38

WAC (Women’s Army Corps), 377 Wadham College (University of Oxford), 579 Wadsworth House (Harvard University), 187

Wagner, Richard, 161, 248 Wah Kiu College. See Chinese University of Hong Kong

University Statute of 1804 (Russia), 280

Verdani (Uppsala student organization), 684

University Statute of 1884 (Russia), 282

Vergara, Jose, 658 Vergenhans, Johann, 140

Walcott, Derek, 45

Vermont, United States, 28, 42, 718

Wald, George, 303

Unter den Linden, Berlin, Germany, 200

Versailles conference (1919), 39

Waldheim, Kurt, 662

Upper Canada. See Ontario, Canada

Versailles, Indiana, United States, 338 Vesalius, Andreas, 530, 609 Vespucci, Amerigo, 14-15

Waldseemuller, Martin, 14-15 Wales, 668-71 Walker, Charles, 335

Uppsala, Sweden, 681-85

Vethake (Princeton professor), 302

Walker, Francis A., 373

Uppsala University, 475, 681-85 Upshaw College (University of Durham), 489 Urban V, pope, 220, 592

via antigua, 474

Walker, Susan, 62

via moderna, 474

Wall Street Journal, 130

Viborg, archdeacon of, 6, 8

Waller Hall (Willamette University),

Urban VI, pope, 353, 472 Urban, Joseph, 297 Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, 506-10 Urquhart, Thomas, 415 Urquidi, Victor, 99

Vicente Ferrer, 656, 658

Wallis, W. Allen, 602 Walloons, 531

Uruguay, 464 USS. Civil War. See Civil War, U.S. USC. See University of Southern California

488 Victoria University. See University of Leeds; University of Liverpool; University of

University Theater, Budapest, Hungary, 251 Univerzita Karlova. See Charles University

Upper Canada Academy. See Victoria

College, Coburg

Ushaw College (University of Durham), 489

Vichy regime (France), 146

Victoria, Australia, 536-38 Victoria College, Coburg, 652 Victoria, queen of Great Britain, 243, 267,

Manchester; University of Toronto

Wainwright, J.M., 300 Wake-Forest College, 135, 137

714,716

Walsh, Diana Chapman, 712, 713

Walsh, Edmund A., 176 Walsh, Matthew J., 569

Walsh Memorial Hall (University of the South), 640

Walsh School of Foreign Service (Georgetown University), 173, 176

Ussher, James, archbishop of Armagh, 482 USSR. See Soviet Union (former)

Vienna, Austria, 472, 660-62

Walsh, Thomas, 568

Vienna University. See University of Vienna

UT System. See University of Texas System UTEP. See University of Texas, El Paso

Vietnam War, 45, 87, 108, 129, 188, 263, 273, 378, 407, 542, 602, 675 Viles, Jonas, 549

Waltham, Massachusetts, United States, 46— 50

utilitarianism, 524

Villa, Salvador, 505

Waning of the Middle Ages (Huizinga), 520

Utitz, Emil, 77

Vilnius University, 280

War Department, United States, 362

Utraquist faith, 76, 77

Vincent, Fay, 721 Vinocur, John, 316

War of American Independence. See American Revolution War of 1812, 174, 358, 698 Warburg Institute (University of London), 526, 527

Utah, United States, 51-55

Utrecht, Netherlands, 516, 520 Uttar Pradesh, India, 18-20, 210, 211 UW. See University of Wisconsin

UWIST. See Institute of Science and Technology (University of Wales)

Vinson, Robert Ermest, 71

Vinuales, Don Augustin, 504 Virginia Company of London, 101 Virginia Military Institute, 666, 698 Virginia, United States, 101-4, 360, 663-67, 698-700

Walton, Emest, 483

Wang, Arthur C., 78

Virginia University. See University of Virginia

Ward, Edward Twitchell, 30 Ward, Elizabeth, 311 Warren, Rhode Island, United States, 56 Warren, Robert Penn, 514, 689

Vischer, Friedrich Theodor, 141, 142, 161 Visconti, Luchino, 497

Warren, William Fairfield, 43 Wars of Religion (1562-98), 556, 584

Visigoths, 596

Warsaw, Poland, 223

Valentine, Alan, 602 Valentine, Catherine, 690

Visshcer, Maurice, 547 Vistula River, 220

Valladolid, Spain, 109 Van Allen, James, 514-15

Visva-Bharati University, 695-97 Vives, Juan Luis, 469, 657, 658

Wartburg Castle, 258 Wartenweiier Library (University of the Witwatersrand), 645

Van Best, Abraham, 358

Vitava River (Moldau), 72

Van Hise, Charles, 679

Voce, 496-97

Van Mildert College (University of Durham), 489 Van Mildert, William, 486, 487

Volen National Center for Complex Systems

Valence, Marie, dowager countess of Pembroke, 445 Valencia, Spain, 656-59

Valencia University. See University of Valencia

(Brandeis University), 49 Voltaire, 492

Wasatch Mountains, 52

Waseda University, 132, 235, 236, 650 Washington Academy. See Washington and Lee University Washington and Lee University, 698-700 Washington College, Maryland, 360, 362

770

INDEX

WASHINGTON COLLEGE

Washington College, Missouri, 701 Washington College, Virginia. See Washington and Lee University Washington, D.C., United States, 24, 28, 16972, 173-76, 195-99, 228, 232, 590 Washington, Fairfax and Lawrence, 362 Washington, George, 103, 173, 176, 187, 330,

333, 403, 698, 725, 726 Washington, Georgia, 156 Washington Institute of St. Louis. See Washington University Washington Square, New York City, United States, 302

Wellington, duke of, 524

White, Francis, 536

Wellington, Ohio, United States, 315

White, Katharine, 63

Wells, Herman B., 215-16

White Nuns, 516

Welsh College of Advanced Technology. See University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology Welsh language, 290 Wemding, Germany, 254 Wen Hua College. See Chinese University of Hong Kong Wen Xin Ye, 39-40

White, Ricker and James M., 509 White, Shelby, 279

White, Stanford, 302, 666 White, Thomas, 399

Whitefield, George, 187, 588 Whitehead, John, 725

Wencelas I, king of Bohemia, 75

Whitin Observatory (Wellesley College), 711 Whitman, Walt, 302 Whitney, Eli, 726

Wenceslas IV, king of Bohemia, 75, 76

Whitney, John, Sr., 67

Washington (state), United States, 25, 672-76 Washington University (St. Louis), 701-4 Wassenburg, Germany, 254

Wenceslas VI, king of Bohemia, 75

Whittier,

Wenceslas Square, Prague, Czech Republic, 77

Whitworth Art Gallery (University of

Wasserstein, Wendy, 279

Wentworth, John, 126

Watch Hill Meeting House, 187

Wentworth, William Charles, 623

Wickenden, William Elgin, 72 Widener, Harry Elkins, 188

Watergate case (1973), 189

Werd, Johannes Fabri de, 147

Widener Library (Harvard University), 138,

Waterhouse, Alfred, 449, 533

Wernher, Sir Julius, 643-44

Waterhouse, Benjamin, 56

Wertheimer, Linda, 712 Wesenbach, Matthias, 258 Wesley, John, 42

Widmann, Ambrosius, 141

Widney, Robert Maclay, 619 Wieland, Wilhelm, 179 Wiesel, Elie, 45 Wigmore, John Henry, 235, 310

Wayland, Francis, 57-58

Wesley Memorial Church, Atlanta, Georgia, 158 Wesley Memorial Hospital, Atlanta, Georgia, 158 Wesleyan Methodist Church, 652, 653 Wesleyan University, 308

Wear River, 489

Wessel, Nils Yngve, 395

Wild, Payson, 311

Webb, Alexander Stuart, 86

West Bengal, India, 695-97

Wild Rover (ship), 131-32

Webb, Beatrice and Sidney, 525

West Berlin, Germany, 167-68

Wilde, Oscar, 484

Webb, D.A., 480, 483 Weber, Amold, 312

West College (Williams College), 718

Wilder, John, 599

West Germany. See Germany

Wilhelm (brother of Prince Friedrich I of

Weber, Heinrick, 161, 162

West Lafayette, Indiana, United States, 213,

Weber, Mary, 335 Weber, Wilhelm, 179

335-38 West Point Military Academy. See United States Military Academy at West Point

Wilhelm IV, duke of Bavaria, 254-55

Webster, Daniel, 126-27

West Point, New York, United States, 403-7

Wilhelm V, duke of Bavaria, 254-55

Webster, Eleanor Rudd, 711

Western Pennsylvania Institution for Deaf

Wilhelmitana (Strasbourg fraternity), 386

Watkins, Gordon S., 441 Watson, James D., 189, 449

Watt,

James, 499

Waugh, Evelyn, 578 WAVES

(women’s naval reserves), 90, 371,

711 Wawel Hill, Krakow, Poland, 220

Weber, Max, 355

Webster, Horace, 85-86, 87

Webster, Noah, 21, 725-26 Wechsberg, Joseph, 77

Weed, Ella, 36 Wegener, Alfred, 329

Mutes, 170

John Greenleaf, 69

Manchester), 535

188 Widney House (University of Southern California), 619

Wigner, Eugene, 333 Wilbur, Ray Lyman, 376, 377

Meissen), 246

Wilhelm I, emperor of Germany, 201 Wilhelm II, king Frederick, 167

Wilkins, William, 449, 523

Western Reserve University. See Case Western Reserve University Western Union Telegraph, 121

Wilkinson, Ernest L., 54

Westfield College (University of London),

Willamette University, 714-17 Willard, Arthur C., 509

Wilkinson, Helen E., 601 Willamette River, 714

Weinberg, Jack, 442, 443

525, 528 Westminster Hospital (University of London), 522

Weinheim, Germany, 353

Westphalia, Germany, 178

Weiser, Friedrich von, 662

Westville, Indiana, United States, 335, 337

William I, king of the Netherlands, 520, 530 William I (the Silent), prince of Orange, 516, 518, 521, 530

Weisgal, Meyer W., 706

Wethersfield, Connecticut, United States, 724,

William II, king of Great Britain, 333, 492

Weismann, August, 16

725, 825 Wharton School of Business Administration (University of Pennsylvania), 591

William IV, king of Great Britain, 486, 652 William V, prince of Orange, 519

Wheaton, Illinois, United States, 205, 208

William Allan Neilson Library (Smith College), 370 William and Mary College. See College of

Weibull, Jorgen, 4

Weigle, Richard, 362

Weiss, J., 179

Weissenhorn, Germany, 254 WEIZAC computer, 706 Weizmann, Chaim, 50, 190, 191-92, 193,

705, 706, 707 Weizmann Institute of Science, 705-7 Weizsacker, C.F. von, 179 Welch, William Henry, 230, 230-31 Weld, William, 44 Welles, Gideon, 410

Wellesley College, 34, 37, 60, 278, 371, 692, 693, 708-13 Wellesley College Library, 711 Wellesley Female Seminary. See Wellesley College Wellesley, Massachusetts, United States, 708-

13 Welling, James C., 362

Wheeler, Benjamin Ide, 438, 439

Wheeler, David H., 117 Wheeler Hall (University of California, Berkeley), 438 Wheeler, John B., 126 Wheeler, Sir Mortimer, 526

Wheelock, Eleazor, 126, 130 Wheelock, John, 126 Whewell, William, 449

Whig Society (Princeton University), 330, 332 Whipple, George, 195-96 Whirlwind I computer, 263 Whistler, James McNeill, 500 White, Andrew Dickson, 121, 122-24, 125,

228, 373, 374

Willey, Samuel H., 436

William VIII, lord of Montpellier, 553

William and Mary

William Cullen Library (University of the Witwatersrand), 645

William Jasper Kerr Library (Oregon State University), 325 William Marshall Rice University. See Rice University

William of Champeau, 582-83 William of Ockham, 258 William Penn Charter School, 588 William the Silent, prince of Orange. See William I (the Silent), prince of Orange Williams College, 21, 346, 368, 718-21

YOUNG

INDEX Williams, Elisha, 725 Williams, Ephraim, 718, 719, 721 Williams, Ephraim, Sr., 718 Williams, Frances, 279

Williams, J. Scott,

510

Williams, Joseph, 272 Williams, Llewelyn, 670

Women’s Army Corps (WAC), 377 Women’s College (Duke University), 138 women’s colleges, 34-37, 58, 60-63, 71, 87-

90, 106, 131, 133, 134, 137, 138, 150-51, 275-79, 330-43, 359, 368-72, 400, 449, 450, 451, 488, 489, 524-25, 533, 578, 690-92, 708

771i

Worm, Ole, 477

Wormely (Howard University administrator),

198 Wren Building (College of William and

Mary), 102, 103, 104 Wren, Sir Christopher, 102, 448, 577 Wright, Benjamin Fletcher, 371

Williams, Raymond, 450

women’s education. See coeducation;

Wright, Frank Lloyd, 205, 297

Williams, Roger, 56 Williams, Sylvia Hill, 316

women’s colleges Women’s Education Association, 339

Wright State University, 321

Williams, Tennessee, 298

Women’s Fund for the Higher Medical

Wrighton, Mark S., 704

Williams, William, 668

Women’s Marine Corps, 90

Williamsburg, Virginia, United States, 101-4

Women’s Reserves (WAVES), 371, 711

Williamson, W.C., 533

Women’s Rights Convention (1848), 551, 601

Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States,

Wood, Bezaleel, 126

Wriston, Henry Merritt, 58 Wriston Quadrangle (Brown University), 58 Writers in Residence program (University of Virginia), 667 Writers’ Workshop. See Iowa Writers’ Workshop

718-21 Willis, Ellen, 83 Williston, A. Lyman, 277

Wood, Sir Charles (Lord Halifax), 558

Wiirttemberg, Germany, 140-43

Wood, George Arnold, 626 Wood, Harry, 66

Wyatt, James, 578 Wycliffe College, Toronto, 653, 655

Willson, Chloe Clarke, 715

Wood, Marcus, 135

Wycliffe, John, 76, 221, 578

Wilmer Institute of Ophthalmology (Johns Hopkins University), 231

Wooden, John, 441

Wye College, 525 Wylie Hall (Indiana University), 214

Wilson, Alfred and Matilda, 273

Woodridge, Alexander P., 631 Woodridge, Roy L., 306 Woodrow Wilson School of Public and

Williams, Walter, 552

Wilson, Edmund, 330 Wilson, Henry, 411 Wilson, James W., 306

Wilson, John D., 700 Wilson Library (University of North

Education of Women, 230

Woodlark, Robert, 447

International Affairs (Princeton Woodruff, Robert W., 156, 159

Wilson, Logan, 633 Wilson, Milton H., 311 Wilson, Mrs. Woodrow, 333

462 Woodstock Theological Library (Georgetown

Wilson, Prince E., 33 Wilson, Sir Daniel, 653

Wilson, Woodrow, 62, 197, 229, 330, 332-33, 334, 508, 546

Wythe, Joseph Henry, 714 Xiamen University, 716

University), 334 Woods Cabinet (Amherst University), 23 Wood’s Education Dispatch (1854), 558 Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States,

Carolina), 565 Wilson, Linda Smith, 343, 401

Wythe, George, 103

University), 176

Woodville, Elizabeth, 447 Woodward, Augustus, 539 Woodward Hall (St. John’s College), 362

Wilson, W.P., 537 Winston, James Horner, 566

Woodworth College (University of Ontario),

Winters, Shelley, 298 Wisconsin Female Academy. See University

Woolley, John, 625

653

Yale College. See Yale University Yale, David, 722, 724 Yale, Elihu, 722, 725 Yale University, 36, 42, 69, 106, 121, 126,

185, 187, 228, 230, 278, 301, 303, 313, 332, 368, 370, 371, 480, 481, 690, 722-27 Yale-In-China-Association, 78-79, 80 Yalow, Rosalyn, 90 Yamakama, Stematz, 692 Yamamoto Kakuma, 131 Yamasaki, Minoru, 316, 317

Yancy, Charles, 663 Yasuda Auditorium (University of Tokyo),

649, 650 Yasuda Zenjiro, 649

Wisconsin Idea, 669, 680

Woolley, Mary Emma, 278 Worcester College (University of Oxford), 579

Wisconsin State University. See University of

work-study programs, 28, 304-7

Yeats, W.B., 696

Worker’s Faculties (Russia), 283

Yeda Research and Development Company, 706

of Wisconsin

Wisconsin Wisconsin, United States, 215, 677-80 Wiseman, Fred, 721

Works Progress Administration (United

Yavne, Israel, 705

States), 272 World Bank, 210

Yellin, David, 191

Witherspoon, John, 330, 493

World Council on Cooperative Education, 307 World Heritage Site, 245

Yenching University, 40, 41 YMCA, Boston, Massachusetts, 304—5, 306,

Wittenberg, Germany, 256-59, 259, 475

World Peace Foundation, 376

Wittenberg University. See Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg Wittet, George, 561 Witwatersrand Council of Eduction, 642

World War I, 12, 32, 72, 143, 154, 158, 167, 176, 179, 188, 197, 268, 295, 306, 310, 351, 355, 376, 391, 406, 509, 513, 531, 541, 546, 550, 601, 632, 674, 705 World War II, 7, 12, 16, 32, 44, 66, 71, 72, 77, 90, 91, 133, 143, 146, 150, 154, 159, 167, 176, 179-80, 184, 188, 190, 197-98, 202, 223, 231, 236, 244, 247, 248, 251, 262, 263, 268, 273, 297, 302, 311, 321, 355, 371, 387, 388, 404, 406, 411, 439, 479, 488-89, 496, 497, 520, 521, 526, 531, 542, 547, 551, 594, 602, 632, 649, 675, 680, 693, 705, 711, 716; See also Nazis

YMCA, Chicago, Illinois, United States, 462

(National Socialists) World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago

Yost, Fielding, 541

Wishnick Hall (Hlinois Institute of Technology), 207

Witwatersrand, South Africa, 642

Witwatersrand University. See University of the Witwatersrand Wladyslaw Jagiello, king of Poland, 220, 222

W.M. Keck Observatory, 64, 67 Wojtyla, Karol. See John Paul I, pope Wolf, Christa, 203 Wolff, Geoffrey, 48 Wolfson College (University of Oxford), 578,

579 Woman’s College of Northwestern University,

308

(1893), 461

Yellow Springs, Ohio, United States, 25-29

307 YMCA, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States, 183

Yogakusho. See Bansho Shiribaseho Yokohama, Japan, 236, 649 Yoldi, Jesus, 505

Yolo County, California, United States, 439 Yom Kippur War (1973), 391 Yonsei University, 366

York College (City University of New York), 92 York, Emily, 714 York University, 654 Yost, Mary, 377

Young, Brigham, 51, 52

Woman’s Medical School of Chicago, 310

World’s Fair, New York (1939), 391

Young, Charles Augustus, 69-70, 332

Women’s Archives (Radcliffe College). See Schlesinger Libary

World’s Fair, St. Louis (1902), 703

Young Italy movement, 618

World’s Fair, Seville (1992), 614

Young, James Harvey, 158

7712

YOUNG LADIES’ ASSOCIATION

Young Ladies’ Association (Oberlin College), 313 Young Men’s Christian Association. See

INDEX

Zahm, Albert, 568

Zhang Baixi, 38

Zahm Hall (University of Notre Dame), 569

Ziegler, Karl, 329

Zajic, Abynek, archbishop of Prague, 76

Young, Owen D., 379 Younger Edda (Nyerup and Rask trans.), 478 Youth Against War & Fascism, 9]

Zanuck, Darryl, 621

Zincke, Theodore, 329 Zinser, Elisabeth A., 171, 172 Zionism, 190, 191-92, 391, 662, 705

Zarncke, Friedrich, 247

Zionist Council, 391

Zasius, Ulrich, 15

Zumarraga, Juan de, 285

Yrigoyen, Hipdlito, 432

Zeeland, Netherlands, 516

Zurich, Switzerland, 15, 160-63

Yuan Shikai, 38

Zeeman, Pieter, 520

Yuasa Hachiro, 133

Zeffirelli, Franco, 497

Zurich University. See University of Zurich Zwingli, Ulrich, 327

Yunnan, China, 40 Yunnan University, 315

Zemeckis, Robert, 621

Zwinglians, 383

YMCA

YWCA, 37

Zambia, 527

Zeta Alpha House (Wellesley College), 710

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

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NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Adams, Bob. Freelance Pennsylvania.

writer. Essay:

University of

775

Coyle, Bill. Staff Assistant, English Department, Salem

State College, Salem, Massachusetts. Essays: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Bachin, Robin F. Assistant Professor of History, Univerto

Devine, Mary Elizabeth. Professor of English, Salem

American Cities and Suburbs, edited by Neil Larry Shumsky (1977). Essay: University of Chicago.

State College, Salem, Massachusetts. Essays: (with Ron

Chepesiuk) Emory University; (with Frank M. Jossi)

Bernasconi,

University of Minnesota; University of Virginia; (with Diana D’India) Williams College.

sity of Miami,

Coral

Andrés.

Gables,

Florida.

Freelance

writer.

Contributor

Essay:

(with

Daniel C. Levy) University of Chile. D’India, Diana. Graduate student, Weston Jesuit School

Bonnigal, Dorothée M. Allocataire Moniteur Normalien, University of Burgundy, Dijon. Contributor to Interfaces and the edited collection of essays The South-

ernness of Eudora Welty (1995). Essay: Ecole Normale

of Theology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and teacher of basic writing skills, Boston Center for Adult Education, Massachusetts. Essays: Amherst College; (with Mary Elizabeth Devine) Williams College.

Supérieure. Bosworth, Marla G. Freelance editor and writer. Essays:

Dubovoy, Sina. Freelance writer. Essay: Al-Azhar University.

Oregon State University; University of Melbourne. Dupee, Junelle. Freelance writer, consultant, and phoBracken, Jeanne Munn. Reference Librarian, Lincoln Public Library, Lincoln, Massachusetts. Author of Children with Cancer (1986), The Shot Heard Round the

World (1994), and Iron Horses across America (1995).

tographer. Essays: University of Arizona. Ellingson, Stephen. Freelance writer. Essay: Hebrew University.

Essays: Boston University; Philipps University of MarEmery, Theodore A. Freelance writer. Essay: University of Rochester.

burg; Uppsala University. Brandano, Phyllis. Freelance writer. Essay: Northeast-

Farrow, Christine. Freelance writer and photographer.

ern University.

Author of The Coordinator’s Handbook:

School-Based

Community

A Guide for

Carson, Justine H. Partner, Carson and Associates. Edi-

High

Service

Programs

torial Director, Institute for Scientific Information (1987— 92). Essay: Barnard College.

(1991). Contributor to Friends Journal. Essays: University of Canterbury; Wellesley College.

Chapman, Richard Allen. Freelance writer. Contributor to American Political Science Review. Essays: Reed College; United States Military Academy at West Point.

Fraser, Genevieve Cora. Playwright and writer. Essay: Yale University.

Garduno, José Maria Garcia. Freelance writer. Essay: Chepesiuk, Ron Joseph. Associate Professor, Head of Special Collections, Winthrop University, Rock Hill, South Carolina. Author of The Palmetto State: Stories from the Making of South Carolina (1992) and Sixties Radicals,

Then

and Now:

Candid

Conversations

with

Those Who Moved an Era (1995). Essays: Atlanta Uni-

versity Center; Chinese University of Hong Kong; (with

(with Daniel C. Levy) National Autonomous University of Mexico. Gerber, Judith B. Business and technical writer. Con-

tributor to Global Industry Profiles (1996) and American National Biography (1998). Essays: Bryn Mawr College; University of Southern California.

Mary Elizabeth Devine) Emory University. Gladfelter,

Chowdhury, Sharmishtha Roy. Graduate student in modern French history, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Essays: Aligarh Muslim University; Jawaharlal Nehru University; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; Visa-Bharati University.

Conley, Kathleen M. Assistant Professor, Reference Librarian, Illinois State University, Normal. Essays: Cornell College; Tulane University; University of Illinois.

Sandra.

Freelance

writer.

Contributor

to

Back Home in Kentucky and Bluegrass. Essays: University of Bordeaux; (with Susan R. Stone) University of Paris. Goodin, Vera-Jane. Freelance writer. Essay: University of Missouri. Heenan, Patrick. Independent researcher and writer. Contributor to International Dictionary of Company His-

776

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

tories (1993) and International Dictionary of Historic

LaRue,

Places (1995-96). Essays: Doshisha University; Harvard

Humanities Division, University of Chicago. Contributor

University; Keio University; Laval University; University

to International Dictionary of Historic Places (1995).

of Cambridge;

Essay: University of Louvain.

University of Durham;

University of

Leiden; University of London; University of Tokyo; University of Toronto.

Sherry

Crane.

Assistant

Dean

of Students,

Lee, Joseph Edward. Professor of History, Winthrop College, Rock Hill, South Carolina. Author of An Oral

Hollister, Pam. Freelance writer. Essays: Georgetown University; Oberlin College; Princeton University.

History of Investigative Journalism in America (1996). Essay: Washington and Lee University.

Holtkamp, Wolfgang. Assistant Professor of American

Levi, A.H.T. Freelance writer and independent scholar.

Literature, University of Stuttgart. Essays: Albert Lud-

Buchanan Professor of French Language and Literature, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Author of French Moral-

wigs University; Free University of Berlin; Ruprecht Karls University. Horowitz,

Marcia

R. Editorial

Associate,

Center

for

Creative Leadership. Associate Editor, Issues and Observations. Essays: Duke University; Vanderbilt University. Hoyt, Christopher. Freelance writer. Essays: Columbia University;

Howard

Dartmouth

University;

College;

Northwestern

Gallaudet

University;

University;

United

ists: The Theory of the Passions 1585-1649 (1964), Religion in Practice (1966), and Guide to French Literature 1789 to the Present (1992). Editor of Erasmus: Satires

(1986). Essays: Prefatory Essay; Jagiellonian University;

University of Pisa. Levi, Claudia. Freelance writer. Essays: Georgia Augustus University of Géttingen; Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich; University of Cologne.

States Naval Academy; Washington University. Levy, Daniel C. Freelance writer. Essays: College of

Hudson, Christopher. Editor, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. Editor of The China Handbook (1997). Essays: Coo-

Mexico;

per Union

lis) University

for the Advancement

of Science

and Art;

(with José

Maria

Garcia

Garduno)

National

Autonomous University of Mexico; (with Marcela Molof Buenos

Aires;

(with

Andrés

Ber-

University of the South; Willamette University.

nasconi) University of Chile.

Isles, Mary Jane. Graduate student in English, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania. Contributor to Poet Magazine. Editor-in-Chief of Ginger Hill

Maciuba-Koppel, Darlene. Freelance writer and mar-

keting consultant. Author of Telemarketer’s Handbook

(1988-90). Essay: Rice University.

Jersey; State University of New York.

Jack, Sybil. Freelance writer. Essay: University of Sydney.

Margerum, Christine. Freelance writer. Essay: Univer-

(1992). Essays: Rutgers: The State University of New

sity of Granada. Jossi, Frank

M. Freelance writer. Contributor to Los

Angeles Times, Chicago Tribune, Newsday, and Minneapolis Star Tribune. Essay: (with Mary Elizabeth Devine) University of Minnesota.

Margerum, Edward S. Freelance writer. Essay: Univer-

sity of Aberdeen; University of Edinburgh. McNulty,

Mary. Freelance

Kane, Patrice M. Head of Reference and Special Collec-

American

Association

tions, Fordham University, Bronx, New York. Essays: City University of New York; Mount Holyoke College; University of Mumbai (Bombay); Vassar College.

1988-93. Essays: Johns Hopkins University; St. John’s College; University of Barcelona.

of

writer and editor. Editor, Law

Libraries

newsletter,

Mertz, Cindy. Research assistant, Wayne State Univer-

Lamontagne, Manon. Assistant Director, National Film Boardof Canada. Essays: Ecole National d’ Administra-

sity, Detroit, Michigan. Essays: Michigan State University; University of Salamanca; University of Seville.

tion; Ecole Polytechnique; Federal Institute of Technology; University of Orléans.

Mollis, Marcela. Freelance writer. Essay: (with Daniel

C. Levy) University of Buenos Aires. Lamontagne,

Monique.

Independent

researcher

and

writer. Contributor to International Dictionary of Com-

Mundt, Michael. Freelance writer and editor. Essays:

pany Histories (1991) and International Dictionary of

(with Fran Sherman) Brandeis University; Federal Uni-

Historic Places (1995-96). Essays: McGill University;

versity of Rio de Janeiro; National University of San

University of Toronto.

Marcos.

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

777

Nery, Sharon Messinger. Freelance journalist. Essays:

Sautter, Udo. Professor of History, University of Wind-

University of St. Andrews; University of Vienna; Weizmann Institute of Science.

sor, Ontario.

Newman, Robert S. Retired professor of anthropology.

Author of Three

Cheers for the Unem-

ployed: Government and Unemployment before the New Deal (1991). Essay: Eberhard Karls University of Ttibingen.

Author of Grassroots Education in India: A Challenge

for Policy Makers (1989). Contributor to Canadian and

Schoenberg, Robert P. Writing Instructor, Buffalo State

International

College, New York, and Niagara University, New York;

Education.

Essay:

Indian

Agricultural

Research Institute.

freelance translator and writer. Co-translator of Moscow Racetrack, by Anatoly Gladilin (1991). Essays: M.V.

Noble, Bette. Freelance writer. Essay: Kyushu University.

Lomonosov Moscow State University; New School for Social Research; University of Copenhagen.

Ogorek,

Cynthia

L. Historian,

Washington

and Jane

Smith Home, Chicago, Illinois. Contributor to Historical Encyclopedia of Chicago Women (forthcoming). Managing Editor, Creative Woman (1989-91). Essays: Aarhus University; Lorand Eétvés University.

Sherman, Fran Shonfeld. Freelance writer. Contributor

to Britannica Book of the Year and other general reference works. Essay: (with Michael Mundt) Brandeis Uni-

versity; Technion—Israel Institute of Technology; Tufts University; University of Glasgow.

Olson, Antonella D. Senior Lecturer, Department of French and Italian, University of Texas, Austin. Essay:

Shilakowsky,

University of Florence.

Charles University; Humboldt University; Leipzig Uni-

Oswald, April A. Freelance editor and writer. English

versity; Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg; Strasbourg University; University of Wales.

teacher, Hangzhou University, China,

Carol.

Freelance

journalist.

Essays:

1992-93. Essay:

Steffensen, Jan Bitsch. Freelance writer. Essay: Aalborg University.

Beijing University.

Paterson, Anne C. Senior Editor, Ferguson Publishing, Chicago, Illinois. Essays: Illinois Institute of Technol-

ogy; Purdue University; University of Oxford.

Stone, Susan R. Freelance writer. Essay: University of Montpellier; (with Sandy Gladfelter) University of Paris.

Phillips, Michael D. Freelance writer. Essay: University of Alcala de Henares. Picozzi,

Michele.

Principal,

MP

Creative

Services.

Strickland, Charlene. Technical Editor, Science Applications International Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Essay: Claremont Colleges.

Essays: Smith College; University of Witerwatersrand. Sullivan, James. Freelance writer. Essays: Stanford UniPittman, Ruth. Freelance writer. Author of Roadside History of California (1995). Essays: Antioch Univer-

versity; University of California.

sity; Case Western Reserve University; Ohio State Uni-

Sultan,

versity.

Essays: National University of Ireland; Radcliffe Col-

Rosemarie

Cardillicchio.

Freelance

writer.

lege; University of Cape Town. Price, Karen. Freelance editor and writer. Essays: College of William and Mary; University of Manchester. Rees, Warren D. Freelance writer. Essay: University of Michigan.

Sutliff, Laura. Managing Editor, Voice. Essay: California Institute of Technology. Taggart, Elizabeth. Writer, editor, graphic designer, and owner, Spark Communications. Essays: Seoul National

Rillema, Beth A. Freelance writer. Essays: Brigham

University; University of Texas System.

Young University; University of Notre Dame; University of Washington.

Tegge, Jeffrey M. Associate Editor, New Standard Ency-

Rogozinski, Jan. Freelance writer. Author of Pirates! Brigands, Buccaneers, and Privateers in Fact, Fiction, and Legend (1995) and A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to the Present (1992).

Essay: University of Iowa.

clopedia, Contributor to International Dictionary of Historic Places (1995), Essay: University of Coimbra.

Tew, J. Cameron. Freelance writer and journalist. Essays: Complutense University of Madrid; Guilford College; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

7718

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Urbiel, Alexander. University.

Freelance writer. Essay: Indiana

Voyer, Celeste A. Owner, M and J Marketing Services.

Whitney, Carol. Lecturer in English, Tufts University. Essay: India Institutes of Technology.

Essay: Brown University.

Wilder, Joan. Freelance journalist Essay: New York University

Watts, Tim J. Humanities Bibliographer, Kansas State

Wilson, Melanie. Freelance writer. Essays: University of

University,

Siena; University of Valencia.

Manhattan.

Essays:

University

of Aix-

and

copywriter.

Marseille; University of Poitiers. Wippel, Wendy Sowder. Research Biologist. ContribuWhite, Lawrence William. Postgraduate researcher and

tor to Lancet and Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery.

writer, University of Dublin Trinity College, School of English. Essay: University of Dublin Trinity College.

Essays: The Citadel; Cornell University; University of

Wisconsin.

PHOTOGRAPH ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Aarhus University, 7 Al-Azhar University, 11

Albert Ludwigs University, 15 Amherst College, photo Amherst College Public Affairs Office, 22

Antioch University, 26 Bamard College, photo Barnard College Office of Public Relations, 35 Beijing University, 39 Boston University, photo Boston University Photo Service, 43 Brandeis University, 47

Brigham Young University, 52 Brown University, photo John Foraste, 57

Bryn Mawr College, 61 California Institute of Technology, photo Bob Paz, 65

Case Western Reserve University, photo Daniel M. Milner, 70

Indiana University, photo Jerry Mitchell, 214 Jagiellonian University, photo Konrad K. Pollesch, 221 Jawaharlal Nehru University, 225 Johns Hopkins University, photo Office of News and Information, 229 Keio University, 234

Kyushu University, 239 Laval University, photo Renée Méthot, 242 Lorand Eétvés University, 250 Martin Luther University of HalleMassachusetts Institute of Technology, photo MIT News Office, Donna Coveney, 261

McGill University, photo University Relations Office, 266

Michigan State University, 271 Morris Brown College, Atlanta University

The Citadel: The Military College of South

M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 281 National Autonomous University of Mexico, 286

Pomona College, 95

College of William and Mary, 102 Columbia University, photo Joe Pineiro, 106 Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, photo Joel Greenberg,

United States Naval Academy, 409

University of Aberdeen, photo Sean Hudson, 413 University of Arizona, 424 University of Barcelona, 427 University of California, Berkeley, 437

University of California, Los Angeles, photo University of Cambridge, 446 University of Canterbury, 453

University University University University

of of of of

Cape Town, 457 Chicago, photo P. Kaar, 461 Coimbra, 469 Cologne, 473

University of Copenhagen, 476

Center, 31

Mount Holyoke College, photo Office of

Claremont Colleges, phgto Public Affairs,

Tulane University, 399 United States Military Academy at West Point, 404

Terry O’Donnell, 440

Wittenberg, 257

Charles University, 75 Chinese University of Hong Kong, 79 Carolina, 82

Tufts University, 396

Communications, 276

University of Dublin Trinity College, 481 University of Durham, 487 University of Edinburgh, 491 University of Glasgow, 499

University of Granada, 503 University of Illinois, 507

National University of Ireland, 289

University of Iowa, 512

New School for Social Research, photo Bob

University of Leiden, 517

Adelman, 296 New York University, 301

University of London, 523 University of Manchester, 534

Northeastern University, photo J.D. Levine, 305 Northwestern University, 309 Oberlin College, photo Rick Sherlock, 314

University of Michigan, photo Bob

Service, 127 Duke University, 136

Ohio State University, 319

University of Montpellier, 554

Oregon State University, 323

University of Mumbai (Bombay), 559

Eberhard Karls University of Tiibingen, 141

Philipps University of Marburg, 328 Princeton University, 331

University of North Carolina, 564 University of Notre Dame, 568

Purdue University, photo Vincent P. Walter, 336 Radcliffe College, 340

University of Orléans, 573 University of Oxford, 577 University of Paris, 581

Gallaudet University, 170 Georgetown University, 174

Reed College, 345

University of Pennsylvania, 589 University of Pisa, 593

Georgia Augustus University of Gottingen,

Ruprecht Karls University, 354

113

Corell College, photo Bob Campagna, 118 Cornell University, 122 Dartmouth College, photo Dartmouth News

Ecole Nationale d’ Administration, 145 Ecole Normale Supérieure, 149

Emory University, 157 Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, 165

178 Guilford College, 182

Harvard University, 186 Hebrew University, 191 Howard University, 196

Humboldt University, photo Waltraud Harre, 201 Hunter College, City University of New York, 89 Illinois Institute of Technology, 206

Rice University, 350 Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey,

357 St. John’s College, 361 Seoul National University, 365 Smith College, 369

Stanford University, 374 State University of New York, 380

Kalmbach, 540

University of Minnesota, 545 University of Missouri, 550

University of Rochester, 600 University of St. Andrews, 605 University of Salamanca, 608

University of Siena, photo Lensini Fabio, 616 University of Southern California, 620 University of Sydney, photo R. de Berquelle,

624

Strasbourg University, 384

University of Texas at Austin, 633 University of the South, 637

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 389 Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, 392

University of the Witwatersrand, 643 University of Valencia, 657

779

780

PHOTOGRAPH ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

University of Vienna, 661 University of Virginia, 664

University of Wales, 669 University of Washington, photo Davis Freeman, 673 University of Wisconsin, Madison, 678

Uppsala University, photo Hakan Lindholm, 682

Vassar College, photo George Laws, 691 Washington and Lee University, photo W. Patrick Hinely, 699 Washington University, 702

Wellesley College, 709 Willamette University, 715 Williams College, photo William Tague,

719 Yale University, photo Michael Marsland,

723